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FOR-THE PEOPLE
1 FOR EDVCATION
FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

THE MANCHESTER "^

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.

(MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.)

Volume XLV. (1900-1901).

MANCHESTER:

36, GEORGE STREET,

1901.

l.\^

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■«/5 j.fJtf(r,Au-.

NOTE,

The authors of the several papers contained in this
volume are themselves accountable for all the statements
and reasonings which they have offered. In these par-
ticulars the Society must not be considered as in any
way responsible.

CONTENTS,

MEMOIRS.

I. Plumbism in Pottery Workers. By William Burton,

^'C-S PP J g

II. The Solubility of certain Lead Glasses or Fritts used in the
Preparation of Pottery Glazes. By William Jack.son,
A.R.C.S., and Edmund M. Rich, B.Sc pp. i_ic

III. The Thermodynamical Properties of Superheated Steam, and

the Dryness of Saturated Steam. By 7. H. Grindley,
M-Sc ■ pp.' ,_„

IV. Note on D'Orbigny's figure of Onychotetithis dussumieri. By

W. E. IIOYLE, M.A., F.R.S.E. nn I ->

pp. 1 — J

V. Sur la Flore du Corps Humain. (The Wilde Lecture.) By

Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, For. Mem. R.S pp. i— 3S

VI. On a New Species of Sepia and other Shells collected by
Dr. R. Koettlitz in Somaliland. By W. E. Hoyle and
R. Standen. Plate I. pp_ i_5

VII. On the Phloem of Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron. By

F. E. Weiss, B.Sc, F.L.S. Plates 2 ami 3. ... pp. 1—22

VIII Selections from the Correspondence of Lieutenant-Colonel
John Leigh Philips, of Mayfield, Manchester. Part III.
By W. Barnard Faraday, LL.B pp. 1—59

IX. On the Generic Names Octopus, Eledone, and Histiopsis.

ByW.E. Hoyle. pp. ^_^

X. On the Construction of Entropy Diagrams from Steam Engine
Indicator Diagrams. By George Wilson, D.Sc, and
H. NOHLE, B.Sc pp. i_j2

XI. The Representation on a Conical Mantle of the Areas on a

Sphere. By C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.C.E. ... pp. 1—3

XII. The Macro- Lepidoptera of Sherwood Forest. By J. Ray

Hardy. ...

PP- 1—5

VI CONTENTS.

XIII. A Collection of PolychKta from the Falkland Islands.

By EniTH M. Pratt, M.Sc. Plate 4 pp. i— 18

XIV^. Some Notes on the Bipolar Theory of the Distribution of

Marine Organisms. By Edith M. Pratt, M.Sc. ... pp. i— 21

XV. The Influence of Grinding upon the Solubility of the Lead in
Lead Fritts. By T. E. Thorpe, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,
and Charles Simmonds, B.Sc pp. i — 13

PROCEEDINGS.

Allen, J. F. — On the uses and manufacture of certain metals

Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. — On Raniincitlus Bachii, Wirtgen, as
a form of A'aytufidihisJIui/ans, 'La.mk.

Exhibit of a rare mint, Meiitha gentilis, L. ,var. Hachcnhruchii,

Briq

Boyd, John. — On the anatomy of feathers

Broadbent, G. H., M.R.C.S. — On plant remains found beneath
Hanging Bridge...

Burton, W., F.C.S. — Discussion on the influence of grinding upon
the solubility of the lead in lead fritts

Cameron, Peter. — Exhibit of a collection of insects illustrating
in.sect parasitism...

Exhibit, and notes on the habits, of Sphex Jiavo-vestita and

Ch lorion lobalum

Dixon, H. B,, M.A., F.R.S.— On the reversal of the lithium line ...

On the formation of hydrogen peroxide in several cases of

combustion

Dixon, H. B., M.A., F.R.S., andRixoN, F. W., B.Sc — Results of
experiments on the specific heat of gases at high ti'mperatures

Fakaday, F. J., I'".L.S. — On the supposed relation between the
changes of the moon and the changes of the weather

Exhibit of a copy of Dibdin's " Musical Tour" 1788

On the danger attending the fall of the counterpoise of an

electric lamp

Flux, A. W., M.A. — On a recent American report on water, gas,
and electricity undertakings

CONTENTS. VU

IIoYLE, W. E., M.A., F.R.S.E.— Exhibitor John Dalton's "EngHsh

Grammar " (1801) ... ... ... ... ... ... xxi

Exhibit of an old form of dial xxiv

Exhibit of a silhouette portrait of Dr. Thomas Percival ... xxiv

HuTTON, R.S.,M.Sc.— Exhibit of a reproduction of Moissan's electric

furnace ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xx

Hyde, H. — Exhibit of a portion of sunflower in fruit... ... ... xv

Exhibit of leaves mounted for art teaching ... ... ... xxx

Exhibit oi Sao^iUa>-m /anci/oiia a.nd Gastonia palmata ... ... xxxi

Jackson, W., A. R.C.S.— Discussion on the influence of grinding

upon the solubility of the lead in lead fritts xxviii

Johnson, W. II., B.Sc— On the method of navigation employed by

the Norsemen ... .. ... ... ... ... ... Jx

Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.— Demonstration of the methods
of Marsh, Reinsch, and Gutzeit, for the detection of small
quantities of arsenic ... ... ... ... ... ... x

Lamb, Horace, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.— Numerical illustrations of the

diffraction of sound ... ... ... ... ... ... xxiv

Lees, Charles H., D.Sc. — On a formula for the circumference of an

ellipse whose semi-axes are known ... ... ... .., iv

On a compact formula for the circumference of an ellipse ... xi

Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S.— Exhibit of a rare Tasmanian

alga, Claudea elegans, Lam. ... ... ... ... ... xxxi

Morris, E. F., M. A.— Exhibition of, and notes on, some sketches of

recent excavations in the Roman forum xxii

Mullen, John.— Presentation of a second series of rock sections to

the Natural History Section xv

Reynolds, Osborne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.— On a curious solar

phenomenon ... ... ... ... .._ jj;

Rogers, Thomas.— Exhibit of Australian shells xv

Exhibit of a collection of Hymenophyllums and Trichomanes

from Jamaica ... ... ... ... ... . . xxw

Exhibit of some curious pupa-cases, belonging to the Lepidop-

terous group Psychaidte, from Natal

Exhibit of examples of the shaddock

Exhibit of fossil ferns and mosses found in the debris of Roman

Manchester

xxx
xxx

viii CONTENTS.

S riRRiM", Mark, F.G.S. — Examples of ihe genus Cerithium from the

tertiary deposits of the Paris basin xv

On the mistletoe ... ••• xvi

Exhibit of fossil insects from Commentry, France xxx

On eocene shells from Grignon, near Versailles xxx

Stkomkyer, C E., M.Inst.C.E. — On the results of a stuiiy of tidal

waves ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ■ x.<i

On the convergence of the suns rays ... xxiv

Sykes, Mark, F.R.M.S. — On the arrangement and cataloguing of
the slides of microscopic objects belonging to the Natural
History Section xxix

Taylor, R. L., F.CS. — On the occurrence of arsenic in green tapers x

TiiORP, Thomas. — On a method of producing a specirum-Iike band

from a bolometric curve ... ... ... ... ... i

On a method of silvering diffraction films ... iv

On the explosion of a bottle containing silvering solution ... vii

Exhibit of photographs of the spectrum of the new star in Perseus xxiii

Wti.soN, George, D.Sc. — On the bursting of gauge-glasses on the

experimental engines at Owens College ... vi

General Meeting i

.Special Meeting for the presentation of the Wilde Medal and the

delivery of the Wilde Lecture ... ... ... ... xxv

Annual General Meeting ... ... .. .. xxvi

Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section : —

Ordinary ... ... ... ... ... xv, xvi, xxix-xxxi

Annual ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxxii

Report of Council, 1900, with (Jbituary Notices of Lord Armstrong,
Charles Hermite, Sir William Cunliffe Brooks, Dr. Richard
Copley Christie, Dr. Daniel John Leech, and Sir John

William Maclure ... ... xxxiv-xliii

Treasurer's Accounts ... ... ... ... ... ... xliv-xlvi

List of the Council and Members of the .Society ... ... xlvii-lxi

List of the Awards of the Wilde and Dalton Medals and of the Premium l\ii
List of the Wilde Lectures ... ... ... ... ... ... Ixiii

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. 1.

I. Plumbism in Pottery Workers.

By William Burton, F.C.S.

Received November loth. Read October 2nd, igoo.

It is a truism to say that plumbism occurs among
pottery workers because lead compounds are used in the
manufacture of pottery. It becomes necessary, therefore,
to explain, how and why lead compounds are so used,
and to enquire as to the possibility of dispensing with
their use entirely, or, in the alternative, reducing by every
known means the risks run by the workers in handling

them.

Lead compounds are used, and have long been used,

in the manufacture of pottery, for three distinct purposes.

First: As a very important constituent of the glaze or

glass with which most pottery is coated.
Second : As an important constituent of the flux, or
binding material, by which on-the-glaze colours
are attached to the surface of the previously
fused glaze.
Third : As actual colouring matters in the form of
pigments such as Naples Yellow, which is a
crude antimoniate of lead.
The third group covers such a small number of
substances that it will only be necessary now to direct
attention to the use of lead compounds in glazes and in
the fluxes of on-the-glaze (enamel) colours.

In dealing with the use of lead compounds in glazes,
it would be well to mention the different kinds of glazed
pottery that are largely made. All glazed pottery is

March nth, igoi.

2 Burton, Pluvihisvi in Pottery Workers.

composed of a body or clay substance, which may
be a natural claj', of no matter what kind, mixed with
varying pro[)ortions of fusible substances such as felspar,
or witii hardening and infusible substances such as
ground sand or flint. The exact composition of this
body or paste, together with the nature of the actual
ingredients used to arrive at the required chemical
composition, determines the nature of all the manufacturing
processes through which the material passes in becoming
finished pottery. For instance, in the most highly
developed form of pottery known, i.e., Hard-paste porcelain,
familar to everyone in the form of Chinese vases and
Berlin porcelain basins and crucibles, the body or paste
is a mi.xture, principally, of china claj' and felspar, while
the glaze is, practically, pure felspar. It is evident that
the tem[:)erature required to melt a felspar so that it will
uniformly glaze a piece of pottery must be exceedingly
high, indeed it is generally estimated at about 1500*^0.
In other forms of pottery, where the firing temperature
can be carried to the point of incipient fusion of the clay-
substance without bending the pieces, a glaze is obtained
by flooding the kiln, at that high temperature, with
vapours of common salt. A reaction takes place
between the vapours of common salt, the water vapour
always present in the kiln gases, and the free silica in
the body of the ware, resulting in the formation of a thin
glassy coating on the ware, known as salt-glaze, and the
liberation of hydrochloric acid. Here again the firing
temperature must be very high, though inferior to that at
which hard-paste porcelain is produced. With wares such
as these, whether hard porcelain, such as is largely made
on the Continent, or salt-glazed stonewares (made as
largely in our own country as in any continental one), it
is perfectly possible to use glazes free from lead, so that,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. 1. 3

so far as the glaze itself is concerned, no cases of plumbism
can arise in their manufacture.

A very different set of conditions regulates the manu-
facture of the greater portion of the pottery produced in
England. English earthenware is made from clay mix-
tures possessing great plasticity. A working mass is
made containing 50 to 60 per cent, of various native clays,
with variable proportions of ground siliceous and felspathic
minerals. In English china, the materials used for hard-
paste porcelain are mixed with a large proportion of bone-
ash, so that the mixture will vitrify at a much lower
temperature. With a vessel made of either earthenware
or bone china, the highest temperature at which it can be
fired up, and yet retain its shape, is far below either the
melting point of felspar or the temperature of the salt-
glazing kiln, and in effect English potters are limited to the
use of glazes which will melt perfectly, and flow easily and
evenly over the surface of the pottery, at temperatures
ranging from 1000^ to iioo^C. In order to obtain glazes
suitable for this lower range of temperatures it is necessary
to combine the felspar, which still forms the basis of the
glaze, with silicates of the alkalies and alkaline earths, or
with their borates. Glazes can be made in this way, per-
fectly free from lead, and melting at the required
temperature, but in actual work on the commercial scale,
they are very partially successful, as they are subject to
serious defects, which render their extended use, in the
present state of our knowledge, impossible. It will be
readily understood that one of the conditions governing
the employment of any substance or process commer-
cially, is the certainty of its results. The making of
pottery is in any case attended with great risk from
many causes, of which the chief is the impossibility of
controlling the temperature of every part of the kiln to

4 Burton, Plumbism in Pottery Workers.

Avithin 50*^ to ioo*^C. Leadless glazes of the kind under
discussion are unduly sensitive in this respect, and appear to
have a very limited range of temperatures within which
they can be depended on to come clear, bright and glossy.*
Again, leadless glazes do not flow very easily, but mani-
fest a great tendency to draw back from sharp edges or
surfaces, and in extreme cases they often " ruckle " all
over or draw up into beads. They frequently exhibit a
tendency to become " opaline," especially when the}- con-
tain a considerable proportion of lime or barium. These
defects, and man}- others which are of too technical a
nature to be diccussed here, have always stood in the way
of their general adoption.

The common experience of potters for centuries has
proved that, of all glazes fired at comparatively low tem-
peratures, those containing lead compounds are by far the
simplest in use, and the most reliable in practice. Many
instances might be given, some of them dating from remote
centuries, to prove that leadless glazes have been often
abandoned for those containing lead ; so that when, in the
last century, England became a great pottery-producing
country, the use of glazes containing lead was already firmly
established in Europe. The use of lead glazes is therefore
not a question of the ignorance or obstinacy of English
manufacturers, as we are sometimes given to understand;
nor is it because we lack technical knowledge possessed
by our German or French rivals. English domestic
pottery is admittedly the best in the world. The varieties of
earthenware and china made in this country were invented
and have been perfected here, and differ fundamentally
from the indigenous products of other countries. In fact, in
discovering English earthenware and English china, the
English potter produced species of pottery more easy to
• Sample? of tiles and pottery were shewn to illustrate this point.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. 1. 5

manipulate and more perfectly fulfilling ordinary require-
ments than anything known before. The present tendency
in all foreign countries is more and more to make wares
on English lines and by English methods. In France and
Germany the manufacture of earthenware and bone china
is spreading, and in the United States no hard-paste
porcelain is manufactured at all, but plenty of earthen-
ware on English lines.

Assuming, then, that lead compounds niust be used
in the preparation of English pottery glazes, what steps
can be taken to diminish the risks attending their use at
present? In order to arrive at sound conclusions on this
point we must first consider, exactly, what the risks are
that a pottery worker runs in dealing with glazes and
colours, seeing that these are the only substances he has
to handle which contain lead at all. There has long been
an idea current among pottery workers that the lead
compounds used, which are either carbonate, oxide, or
boro-silicate, were absorbed by the skin, so that a worker
engaged, say, in dipping the articles of pottery into the
glaze mixture must inevitably contract plumbism, because
his hands were continually being immersed in glaze.
Unfortunately this idea was reiterated in the famous report
of Professors Thorpe and Oliver, issued by the Home
Office. Unfortunately ! for two reasons ; first, because it
is held by the leading medical authorities to be quite
erroneous, and also because, so long as this notion was
prevalent, it was difficult to persuade a man to avoid the
dust of lead glazes when he supposed he was inevitably
absorbing the poison through the skin of his hands.

The real source of danger has been proved conclusively
to lie in the taking in of lead-containing dust at the
mouth or nostrils. Once in contact with the mucus
membranes, white lead, or any similarly soluble compound,

6 Burton, Plumbisni in Pottery Workers.

is readily converted into soluble and assimilable com-
pounds which can be absorbed by the living tissues of the
body, and so set up a dangerous disturbance of the system.
The one point to guard against, therefore, is the creation of
dust, or, if that be impossible, the breathing or swallowing
of this dust by the workers. It will be readily understood
that the various processes in use for applying glaze or
colour to pottery will differ greatly in their liability to
create dust. In some of them, as in the dusting of colour,
for instance, the use of dust is a necessary part of the
process ; in others, the only dust created is due to the
slovenly or careless habits of the workpeople themselves.
It is possible to deal with the dust, however created, by
careful arrangements, involving, in extreme cases, the use
of fans where dust is created in some quantity. Safe-
guards such as these, whicli may be called mechanical
safeguards, together with the provision of adequate and
convenient washing appliances, and the careful and
systematic washing of the floors, benches, and walls of
workshops, will undoubtedly do much for the prevention
of plumbism.

An additional protection, which may be called " the
medical safeguard," is also of considerable value. It has
long been known to medical men that plumbism is
generally a somewhat slow form of poisoning, and that
persons of certain idiosyncrasy are more than normally
susceptible to its influence. Cleanliness, and care of the
person, of the general health, of food, &c., are also factors
of importance. It has therefore been considered advisable
that all persons whose occupation in pottery works brings
them in contact with lead, shall be examined once a
month by the certifying surgeon for the district, who has
power to suspend them from work, on the appearance of
signs of plumbism, until, after a further examination, he

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. 1. 7

finds the symptoms have disappeared. Further, if the
certifying surgeon is of opinion that any of these workers
are constitutionally unfit to follow such employment
without running grave risks, he can interdict their further
employment in the lead processes.

These two sets of safeguards, the mechanical and the
medical, have been now pretty generally adopted in all
pottery works in this country, under special rules from the
Home Office. The question of credit for the adoption of
these rules does not concern us here, though there is a
great deal more due to the manufacturers than is generally
supposed. That they have been of very great Jlsrvice is
shewn by the fact that although they have not been in
operation yet for quite two years, the number of plumbic
cases, due to the pottery industry, during the year 1900,
will be fewer by nearly one-half than they were in
1898.

Quite recently a third and most important precau-
tion has been proposed by Dr. Thorpe, as an outcome of
the investigations he has conducted on behalf of the Home
Office during the last two years. Dr. Thorpe points out
that it has been found possible by certain manufacturers,
•especially on the Continent, to reduce the lead used in
their glazes to a form in which it is far less readily
attacked by dilute hydrochloric acid (and presumably
also by the gastric juice), than the white lead or red lead
in general use in this country. This result is attained by
first of all fusing the lead oxide necessary, along with
some siliceous and aluminous substances, so as to make
a lead glass, known technically as " fritted lead." * Much
depends on the chemical composition of the fritt, and on
its perfect preparation, but it is possible, with care, to
make fritted lead compounds which yield up to dilute
• Samples were shewn of a number of these substances.

8 Burton, Pluvibism in Pottery Workers.

hydrochloric acid (of about the strength normally found
in gastric juice) only a small percentage of the lead they
contain. Dr. Thorpe argues, and I believe rightly argues,
that if these compounds are used as a means of intro-
ducing the lead into glazes, then whatever glaze is
accidentally taken into the system, must have its
poisonous effects greatly minimised, as only a small
percentage of the lead present could pass into solu-
tion in the body, whereas at present practically the
whole of the lead would be dissolved and absorbed,
under similar conditions. The preparation and the
general use of fritts of low solubility such as those
described are attended with many practical difficulties
which seem to me to have been insufficiently considered
by Dr. Thorpe and the Home Office. Speaking from
practical experience of a number of such fritts, it seems
impossible to prepare them under such constant conditions
as will ensure the same degree of insolubility. Moreover,
the fritts of lowest solubility that we have been able to
prepare on the commercial scale are more infusible, and
cover the ware less readily, than fritts of somewhat higher
solubility. It seems very doubtful if the use of fritts
possessing as low a solubility as 2 per cent , which is the
standard now proposed by the Home Office, can ever
come into practical operation ; nor am I convinced that
such a low standard is even necessary, when it is to be
combined with the safeguards previously mentioned which
are now in operation. Neither has it been shown that
such a stringent standard is necessary, or that it obtains,
in those continental works where plumbism has practically
disappeared. That a low standard of solubility should be
set up certainly appears advisable, and it is sincerely to
be hoped that, by mutual agreement between manu-
facturers and the Home Office, a standard which

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. {igoo), No. 1. 9

manufacturers can work under, and which shall be low
enough to be effective, may be adopted with as little delay
as possible. To sum up, I have claimed that, for the manu-
facture of English pottery, lead is an essential ingredient of
the glaze. To dispense with the use of lead would cause
such an alteration of the manufacturing conditions
that English pottery, as we know it, would cease to exist.
I contend, further, that, retaining the use of lead, it is still
possible to diminish the plumbism to the vanishing point
by due attention to the safeguards I have mentioned.
While the partial operation of the mechanical and medical
safeguards has done a great deal, we must adopt, in
addition, and make imperative, the general use of lead
compounds of lower solubility than those in general use at
present ; and then we may hope to turn the last page in
this painful and troublesome chapter of industrial disease.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. %.

II. The Solubility of certain Lead Glasses or Fritts
used in the Preparation of Pottery Glazes.

By William Jackson, A.R.C.S.,

AND

Edmund Milton Rich, B.Sc.

\Commiiiiicated by William Burton, F.C.S?[

Received and read October ^oth, igoo.

By the term "Lead Fritt" is usually meant the glassy

compound produced by fusing together a mixture of

various silicates, silica and bases, of which last lead oxide

is one. The following recipe is typical : —

Red lead 227 parts by weight.

Whiting 100 „ ,,

China clay 65 „ „

Soda ash 53

Flint 270 „ „

This may be expressed in chemical language thus : —

04 PbO 1

0-4 CaO \q)\ AlaOs 2 SiOa

0-2 (NaK)oOj

the coefficients referring to strict molecular weights.

In manufacturing a fritt, the constituents are carefully
weighed, thoroughly mixed, and then fused completely in
a reverberatory furnace. The glassy substance thus pro-
duced is mixed with the other constituents of the glaze,
and ground with water on a mill. When it is reduced to
a smooth cream it is ready for use.

During the past few years, as is well known, the
question of the solubility of such lead glazes in dilute acid,
of a strength approximating to that of the gastric juice,

March nth, igoi.

2 Jackson and Rich, Solubility of Lead Glasses.

has received a great amount of attention ; and much
experimental work has been carried out, with the view to
reduce the solubiHty to such a degree that the glazes
should be innocuous to the workers coming in contact
with them.

According to Zulkowski a glass which shall be capable
of resisting chemical agents must approach a trisilicate ;
and the insolubility appears to be developed by the
presence of dibasic oxides, and may be due to the coupling
of two polysilicates by a dyad metal as

^O.Si.O.O.SiO.O.Si.O.O.R'

^O.SiO.O.Si.O.O.Si.O.O.R'
RO.eSiOa.R.'O.

The use of a trisilicate for Pottery purposes is, for
practical reasons, impossible ; hence it appeared important
to determine the solubility of certain compound disilicates,
which it is proposed to employ.

It appeared to us necessary to determine whether
there exist factors, other than the chemical composition,
which may influence the solubility of lead fritts in dilute
acid, and also to examine the extent of the action of any
such factors. The following is an account of experimental
work carried out with these ends in view.

I. Tlie Effect of Fineness on the Solubility of Lead Fritts.

In the first place, solution being possible only from
the surfaces of non-porous particles, it seemed that the
solubility might be affected by the extent of surface
exposed to the solvent, or in other words, by the degree of
fineness ; for it can be readily shown that the surface of
unit mass of spherical particles varies inversely as their
mean diameter, and we may consider that the glaze
particles are, or approximate to, spheres.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. % 3

In no published work have we been able to discover
any mention of the part which fineness plays in connection
with the solubility of fritts.

Fig. I.

At the outset of the work our attention was called
to the possible influence of surface by the following
circumstance. A fritt was ground in an agate mortar

4 Jackson and Rich, Solubility of Lead Glasses.

and was then found to give up an amount of lead oxide
equal to 075 per cent, of its dry weight when shaken for
one hour with lOOO times its weight of a 0-25 per cent,
solution of HCl ; on the other hand, when ground in a
mill, as before described, the solubilitj' was found to be
7-02 per cent., that is the solubility was increased nearly
ten times.

Another fritt, when exceedingly finely ground by
hand, showed a solubility of 3 per cent. ; while when mill-
ground this was increased to 4*4 per cent.

We then proceeded to a systematic examination of
the question, using Schone's elutriation apparatus (see
Fig. i). The method adopted was the following: — The
former of the two fritts before mentioned was well ground
in an agate mortar and the lighter particles washed
out with water into the apparatus. This operation was
continually repeated on the coarse residue in the mortar
until all was removed. When water flows steadily through
the apparatus, as the water rises in the conical part, its
velocity diminishes regularly until the cylindrical portion
is reached, when it is a minimum. All particles which
have been carried into the cylindrical region will, by the
same current of water, be eventually carried out of the
apparatus. Hence, by means of definite successive increases
in the velocity of the water in this part of the apparatus,
it is possible to separate a powdered material into a
number of fractions of constantly increasing coarseness.
The velocity of the water current is determined by the
height of the water in the piezometer, each instrument
having been calibrated.

The material was thus separated into various fractions
by subjecting it to the action of currents of water of
definite velocities, these being regulated by the height of
the water column in the piezometer. The whole of the

MancJiester Memoirs, J^ol. xlv. (igoo), No. "Z.

S

material which it was possible to bring over at any par-
ticular velocity was collected in a large cylinder. On
standing, the solid matter was allowed to settle, the
accompanying water was then decanted and the residue
dried at ioo*^C.

0'2 gram of each fraction was weighed, shaken for
one hour with 200 cc. of a 0'25 per cent, solution of
hydrochloric acid, allowed to settle for one hour and then
filtered. Sulphuretted hydrogen was passed through
100 cc oi the filtrate, and the lead sulphide which
separated was filtered off, ignited with a drop of nitric
and sulphuric acids, and weighed as lead sulphate.

The results obtained with this fritt are indicated under
the heading A in the table, and are accompanied by a
second series of results obtained in the same manner from
another fritt B, supplied to us, already ground, by Mr. W.
Burton, and the solubility of which, as determined by the
Home Office, was 5 "06 per cent.

6 Jackson and Rich, Solubility of Lead Glasses.

These numbers when plotted as curves appear as in
the accompanying Figure.

\

Fig.

o

Fineness- Solubility Curves.

\

\

^

f-~.,..,_____^ lA

^-

^^^^^^^^-_

20 30 ■'O 50 60 70 80 '30

Height in Piezoineler ( cms. ).

Now since the finest material is carried over by the
slowest current of water, or when the water is at the least
height in the piezometer, it is clear from the above results
that there exists an undoubted connection between the
amount of surface exposed to the solvent, and the solu-
bility. At first sight it might appear that the solubility
should vary directly as the original surface of the particles ;
but our numbers do not support this conjecture. This
we consider can be explained by the hypothesis that the
action is more complex than a mere surface action of the
acid on the fritt, i.e., that by the friction of the particles,
during the hour's shaking, fresh surfaces are to some
extent exposed to action and so more material is dissolved
than is demanded by the simpler supposition of surface
action only.

Having found that solubility in dilute acid is greatly

MancJicstcr Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. !^. 7

influenced by the degree of fineness to which the particles
have been ground, we next enquired if there exists any
recognised standard of fineness for the grinding of glazes.
It is a matter of common knowledge that the fineness of
a glaze is intentionally varied according to the purpose
for which the glaze is required ; but even in the case
where it is desired to obtain the same degree of fineness,
when we considered the means adopted by the mill-man
to test the fineness, it seemed to us that great variations
must be expected. We therefore collected seven repre-
sentative finished glazes, and subjected them to elutriation,
by which means the fineness of each was determined.

The results obtained are set out in the following table :

Velocity of
water-current.

Percentage proportions of Glaze car

■led over.

mm. per sec.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

o-i8

42-6

42-4

44-6

8o-o

35-4

41-4

26-8

070

29-0

32-0

35-6

13-4

58-0

42*0

7-6

1-50

i8-o

17-6

9 "4

3 '4

4-0

5-6

7-2

residue

io"4

8-0

10-4

3-2

2-6

I I'O

58-4

Surface* \
Factorj'

1811

1836

1901

2814

1773

1836

1066

Highest, 2842) Meani 866.
Lowest, io66j

These figures for surface give the relative areas of
equal masses of the different glazes.

It is therefore clear that great differences exist in the
degrees of fineness to which glazes are reduced by various
manufacturers.

* In computing the relative surface of glaze-particles, it has been assumed
that the surface-area of unit mass varies inversely as the mean diameter of
the particles {cf. Pottery Gazette^ Oct., 1900.).

8 Jackson and Rich, Solubility of Lead Glasses.

Since we have shown that solubiHty in weak acid and
fineness are intimately connected, it is essential that details
of the solubility of a glaze or fritt should be accompanied
by particulars enabling a judgment to be formed as to its
fineness.

II. The Formation of an insoluble Coating on Particles of a
Lead Fritt during the action of dilute Liydrochloric
A cid.

That an apparently maximum solubility is always
reached after shaking a lead fritt with acid a short time,
points to the existence of a factor, other than fineness of
the particles, affecting the action ; and this may be the
formation of an insoluble layer of silica or other compounds
on the surface of the particles.

Dr. Thorpe states that a fritt by treatment for one
hour with dilute hydrochloric acid yields to the solvent
the whole of its soluble lead oxide, with the exception of
the merest trace, approximately o'l per cent. \^Blue Book,
" Lead Compounds in Pottery," 1899, page 32]. Again in
the lecture entitled " Pottery and Plumbism," delivered at
the Royal Institution, on May 4th, 1900, Dr. Thorpe
gave other instances to the same effect, which are in-
corporated in the accompanying table : —

No. of Fritt.

Sol. of Fritt on
isl Extraction.

Sol. of Fritt on
2nd Extraction.

2

2

0-4

3

I "5

0"2

lOI

0-6

02

IC2

0-8

0-2

103

o'7

0-2

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. % 9

Dr. Thorpe, both in the Blue Book and in the Lecture,
surmises that this circumstance is due to the existence of
at least two different lead compounds, one of which is
easily soluble in dilute acid and is easily extracted in one
hour, and the other practically insoluble.

If the latter surmise is correct it would appear that
the statement of Zulkowski,* to the effect that insolubility
only occurs in trisilicates, is incorrect.

We are of opinion that Dr. Thorpe has in his surmise
overlooked a very important fact, namely, that on the
surfaces of the solid non-porous particles an insoluble
coating of oxides or salts is left, which at once puts a stop
to further action by the solvent. Hence it is at once
evident that until this coating is removed no further
solution is possible, that is, maximum solubility has been
attained, notwithstanding that the interior portions of the
particles have never been brought under the influence of
the solvent. The existence of this coating and its nature
may be deduced from figures to be found on page 32 of
the Blue Book. Three grams of a fritt lost 3-02 per cent.
of its weight in dilute acid and the remainder on further
treatment with acid was found to be insoluble. The table
on the following page shows the nature of the material
dissolved.

From this it is seen that all the bases and the boracic
acid are dissolved in practically the same proportion, but
the quantity of silica dissolved is remarkably small,
namely, about ^V of the proportion in which the bases
and boracic acid are dissolved. We must, therefore, con-
clude that nearly all the silica separated from combina-
tion remains undissolved and will be found deposited, in
a great measure, at the place of its liberation, that is, on
the particles themselves ; tinlcss, indeed, the bases exist in

• Chem. Ind., 1S99, 22,280 ; 1900, 23,108 ; Chem. Ztg. Repert, 1900, 24,98.

10 Jackson and Rich, Solubility of Lead Glasses.

the free condition, or a glassy compound possessing the
composition of the dissolved material is present. The
formula for such a compound would contain 3 molecules
of basic oxides to I of acid oxides, whereas, according to
Benrath, a normal glass is taken to possess exactly the
reverse proportion between bases and acids.

Then again, in the case of a compound showing so high
a solubility as 8'24 per cent, (the solubility of di-silicate of
lead as mentioned later) one would expect that, if the
soluble matter is extracted from the whole mass of the

Composition
of Fiitt.

% amount
dissolved.

Fraction of each
constituent dissolved.

SiO.,

52-94

0-15

1
TTo 0

PbO

22-44

1-27

1
TT

AlA

7-62

0-4 [

1

CaO

8-82

0-54

1

T6"

MgO

0'12

trace

—

(NaK)oO

3"99

0-30

1

B,03

4-07

0-35

1
TT

1

compound, and not from its surface only, there would
occur some change in its ph}-sical condition. The par-
ticles would either become porous or they would be
disintegrated. Neither of these effects was apparent after
the action of the acid on the compound, which remained,
in these respects, unaltered.

We therefore submitted the idea of the existence of
this insoluble siliceous coating to the test of experiment.
Two lines of attack suesfested themselves to us

Manchester JMemoirs, Vol. xlv. {\<^oo), No. %, ii

{a) a chemical method in which the layer would be
removed by solution.

(/;) a mechanical method in which it would be removed
by friction.

In each case the removal of the la}'er would be
followed by treatment with hydrochloric acid.

{A) CHEMICAL IMETHOD.

Since dilute caustic soda solution readily dissolves
amorphous silica, we prepared a 5 per cent, solution with
which we treated a fritt after extraction with hydrochloric
acid. We found that an amount of silica passed into
solution and the fritt became again soluble in hydrochloric
acid. We found, however, that even the fresh fritt yielded
silica to the soda — though less in amount than after acid
extraction — and the solubility of the lead oxide in the
fritt was at the same time increased. It appeared that
the soda had a decomposing action on the fritt, and hence
a 10 per cent, solution was adopted. This we found did
not take up silica from the fresh fritt, though an amount
was extracted from the fritt after treatment with hydro-
chloric acid. But even in this case, with i per cent, solution,
there was a slight increase of the solubility of the fresh
fritt after treatment with the soda.

The results are tabulated below.

Action of 5 per cefit. NaOH Solution.

a. I gram fritt + HCl - i -8 mg. PbO extrd.

Ik Residue from «: + 5% NaOH soln. 103 mg. SiO., ,,
c. „ „ /^ + HC1 4-8 mg. PbO „

I gr. fresh fritt + 5% NaOH soln. 8-i mg. SiO, „
.*. Layer of Silica = io'3 - 8"i - 2*2 mg.

12 Jackson and Rich, Solubility of Lead Glasses.
Action of I per cent. NaOH Solution.

a. I gr. frilt + HCl 2-2 mg. PbO extrd.

/'. Residuefionirt + 1% NaOH solut'n. 1-3 mg. SiOo „
c. „ „ ^ + HC1 2-1 mg. PbO „

d. I gram fresh fritt + 1% NaOH sol'n. No SiO, „

.'. layer of silica = i"3 mg.

e. Residue from ^+HC1 3'3 mg. PbO „

Seeing that even i per cent, solution caustic soda
caused an increase in the solubility of the lead oxide in a
fresh fritt, we considered the method to be unsatisfactory
and it was abandoned in favour of

(B) MECHANICAL METHOD.

A fritt which had been shaken with hydrochloric acid
until no more lead oxide was dissolved, the amount
obtained being 7 per cent., was lightly rubbed in an agate
mortar and once more shaken with acid. Lead oxide
was found to have passed into solution. This led us to
examine the matter systematically.

Five grams of a glaze containing about 18 per cent,
lead oxide were placed in an Alsing cylinder with 2,000 cc.
dilute (0'25 per cent.) hydrochloric acid and a quantity of
clean flint pebbles. The c}'linder was rotated for various
lengths of time, after the expiration of which the dissolved
lead oxide in 50 cc. was determined.

It was thought that, by the friction of the contents of
the cylinder, the insoluble siliceous layer would be rubbed
off continuously as it was produced, and so the action of
the acid would not be interfered with, and the amount of
lead oxide dissolved should be found to continually

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. {\goo), No. % 13

increase. This was found to be the case, as is seen in the
following table : —

Hours action.

PbSO^ from

0'I25 gm. glaze

m.g.

% PbO dissolved
(calculated on
material taken).

1
4

3-8

228

\

7-8

4-68

2

ii"3

678

6

12-8

7-68

8

^5-5

9-3°

12

186

1116

16

21*0

I2'6o

22

22"2

i3"32

These numbers give the accompanying curve.

Fig. 3. Time-Solnhdity Curve.

Time (hours).

14 Jackson and Rich, Solubility of Lead Glasses.

In the foregoing experiments we have dealt with a
compound di-sihcate. It appeared to us the action of
HCI must be simpler in the case of di-silicate of lead,
Pb0.2SiO , in which the supposed insoluble pellicle must
be composed of silica. A piece of such a fritt was placed
in dilute HCI, and after a short time a white layer was
distinctly visible which was insoluble in the acid. We
also submitted a sample of commercial di-silicate to exami-
nation, by treating it with pebbles, in the manner already
described. The results are put out in the table below.

Solubility before action.

8-24 >

^ on material taken.

,, after \ hour's action.

8-58

', M

T) )1 2 "

9"36

5) )) ^ ))

i2'96

,. ?>

i5"9o

,• „ 6 „

22-56

,-. „ 12

28-8

„ 17

31-68

These are quite in accordance with our previous
results.

It had, however, repeatedly occurred to us that the
increase in solubility in all the before-mentioned experi-
ments migJit be entirely due to the increased fineness
caused by the grinding, as we have shewn in Part I. of
this paper that increase in fineness and of solubility go
hand in hand.

With the apparatus at our disposal it was impossible
to directly test this, but it seemed most unlikely, considering

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1900), No. 3. I 5

that we were dealing with 5 grms. only of soHd in 2,000 of
Hquid, that any great grinding efficiency could be obtained,
and hence the very large increase in solubility observed
could not be due entirely to increased fineness. On the
other hand any insoluble pellicle formed would be soft
and easily removed even in a suspension of such small
solid contents. We intend to pursue this point further,
but the results of our experiments tend to show that the
apparent insolubility of a fritt after extraction with
hydrochloric acid is not due to its actual insolubility as a
whole, but rather to the formation of a protective insoluble
layer of silica on the surface of the particles.

Our thanks are due to the Technical Instruction
Committee of the Staffordshire County Council in whose
Pottery Laboratory the work has been conducted.

Victoria Institute, Tunstall, Staffs.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xIzk (igoi) No. ^.

III. The Thermodynamical Properties of Superheated
Steam, and the Dryness of Saturated Steam.

By J. H. Grindley, M.Sc.

Received January Slh, igoi. Read December iith, igoo.

I. TJie total heat of formation of SuperJieated Steam.

In a previous paper* by the author on the subject of
superheated steam, a description is given of some
experiments on the coohng effects produced by the free
expansion of steam obtained by the evaporation of water
in an ordinary Lancashire or locomotive boiler. As
regards its dryness, the condition of the steam used in
the experiments was, as far as could be arranged, the
same as that on which Regnault made his experiments
on the latent and total heats of evaporation of saturated
steam, as it was intended to use his results in the deduction
of the properties of superheated steam.

Since writing this paper, the author has been consider-
ing his experimental results, and, in the light of further
evidence by other experimenters, he has been led to
calculations the results of which may be of use and
interest.

In the first place, the author's own experimental
results enable a table, of the total heats of formation of
superheated steam at various temperatures and pressures,
to be made, which will be of use. This table is compiled
by calculations of a nature described in the above paper,
and it contains values of the total heat of formation of
superheated steam from water at 32"F. in B.T.U.'s, for
every 5 lbs. pressure per square inch, and every 5°F., over
*Phil. Trans., Vol. 194(1900), pp. i — 36.

March nth, igoi.

2 Grindley, Thermodynamics of Superheated Steam.

the same range of pressure and temperature as that
covered in the actual experiments.

It must, however, be understood that this table is to be
considered as a useful auxiliary to the usual tables of the
properties of saturated steam compiled from Regnault's
experimental data, as the figures in it are deduced by a
previous knowledge of the properties of saturated steam,
and are therefore subject to the same errors, though it is
not likely these will be very appreciable.

In the following section I propose to shew the kind of
results to which we are led when we rigidly adhere to the
data given by Regnault and the laws deduced by him for
the saturated condition of steam.

II. On the specific heat at constant pressure (K^) z«
Stiperheatcd Steam.

The most popular method, up to the present, of
deducing the value of Kp for superheated steam is that of
wiredrawing by free expansion saturated steam in a
known initial condition, the total heat of formation of the
steam in that condition being assumed to be that given by
steam tables founded on Regnault's experiments.

What is really required, however, for the purpose of
determining the value of K,. by this method, is a know-
ledge, not of the actual total heat of the steam in any dry
saturated condition, but of the rate of variation of this

quantity with temperature.

The law of variation given by Regnault, for the total

heat of formation of dry saturated steam, is the linear one

^= 10917 + -3o5(«- 32) B.T.U's.

the variation being assumed to be linear and to have the

constant value '305. Now, from the data obtained b}' the

author in his paper already mentioned, determinations of

/

different pressures.

'

IIO

120

130

140

150

160

—

3

7
1
6

2

iiSyi
1 190-5
1 194-0
II97-6

1 1 91 -6
II95-2

1192-8

—

O

1201-4

1 199-0
1202-9

1 196-6
1200-5
1204-5

1194-2
1 198-1
1202-1
1206-2

11957
1199-7
1203-8

ii9y3

I20I 4

T/ic Mill Ileal of formation of Supcrht

Table ..
ted Steam from water

at 32^

in B.T.U.'s at

lifferent

pressures.

»'!•■

Slbs.

■ 0

15

20

25

30

35

40

so

60

70

80

90

■ 00

no

120

■30

■ 40

■ 50

160

2'5

220

22s

11496
n5>'5
■'53'5
■1S5-S

1 150-1
II52-I
1154-!

1.48-7
ii5°7
1152-7

^

230

235
240

245
2 so

>'57-5
I '59-5
ii6r6
1163-8
ii66-i

1168-5
1170-9
"73 4
11760

I'll
1181-5
■ 184-4
■■87-3
1190-3

_i_i93;4
1196-5
1199-7
1 203-0

1156'!

..581

1160-2

1162-4

1164-7

.167-.

1 169-5
11720
1174-6

11773
1180-1

1183-0
1185-9

1 188 9
1 192-0

II54-7
1156-7
1158-8
1161-0
I ■63-3

1165-7
ii68-i
.170-6
1.73-2
'■75'9

..78-7
1181-6
11845

■■87-5
1190-6

H53'3
II55'3
11574
1159-6

■ 16^-9

1164-3

■ .66-7
1169-2

■ 171-8
i'74-5

"7V3
1180 I

■ .83-0
..860
..89-.

1156-0

..58-2

■ 160-5

■ ■62-9

■ ■65-3

■ 167-8
1.70-4
1.73-0

"75-8
.178-7
ii8i-6

■ ■84-6

■ ■87-7

-

255

260

265

270

»75

2»0

285
290
295
300

1161-5
1163-9

■ ■66-4
1169-0
U7'6
1174-4
1177-3

■ 1802
..83-2
.186-3

■ 162-5

■ ■650

■ ■67-6
1170-2

■>73'°
ii75'9
1178-8
1.8. -8
1.84-9
. ."87-9
..9.-1
■■94-3
1. 976
1200-9

1166-2

■ ■69-!

■7777(

■ '74';
1177-4
1 1S0-4

■ ■83;

..7.-6
'■74-5
"77-5
..806

778^7

II86-9
..90-.
■■93'4
..96-7

z

■174-6

inri

..80-8
1.84-0
..87-2
1.90-5
1193-8

■ ■97-2
1200 6

■ 204-0

iijrg

■ ■8i-i

1 184-3

■ ■87-6

■ 190-9

1I94-3

J 197-7

■ 20I-^
1204-6

118.-5

■ ■84-8

■ ■88-I

■ ■9^-5
1194-9
II 98-3

■ 201-8

1205-4

ii85'5
1188-9

■ 192-3
11957

■ ■99-2
12028

■ 189-7

■ ■93-1
1 196 6

■ 200-2

1204-0

ii87-^
I ■90-5
■ ■94-0
1197-6

305
3"o
3'5
320

325

1195-1
1 198-4
1201-6
1205-0

■I93-7
1197-0

.200-2
■203-5

■ 192-2

■195-5
11987

■ 202-0

■ ■90-7

■ ■94-0
1197-2

■ 200-5
1203-8

1 189-3
■192-5
'i95'7

■ ■99.0

■ 202-3

II86-.

■ IS9-7

■ ■92-(
H^6-:
i»99-;

■ ■gi-6

■ 195-2

330
335
340
345

350

.204-3

1202-i

1200-0
■2034-

■ 192-8

I20O'5

■ 204-5

1 194-2
1 198-1

1202-1
■ 206-2

"957
1199-7

■ 203-8

355
360

36s
370

1

'

■ 201-4

■ 199-0
1202-9

'■97-3

120^ 4

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 3. 3

the value of Kp were made for superheated steam at
various pressures and temperatures, and it was essayed to
express the results in a formula which would represent the
variation of K^ with the temperature, there being no
variation of Kp with pressure shewn. The formula best
representing the results of the calculations was the foUow-
simple one,

Kp-A--, (i)

T

where A= ro69, ^= 151 x lo'-" and r is absolute tempera-
iture Fahrenheit, the range of temperature represented by
the expression being from 220*^ to 320°F. This formula
is very interesting, as it would appear that at the tempera-
ture 1 52^., which occurs when

~V ^'

the specific heat Kp vanishes. It may be that the formula
does not actually represent what would be the results
given by wiredrawing experiments below the range of
temperature mentioned, but the rate of variation of Kp
actually shewn between the experimental limits of
temperature leads to the conclusion that, if Regnault's
linear law is true, then Kp will vanish at a temperature
not far removed from I52°F.

That Kp does actually vanish for any temperature so
high as 152° F. is very improbable, and the only conclusion
which can be arrived at is that the value "305 of the

variation ~- is not sufficiently accurate to enable the value

oi Kp to be deduced from it, and it may be pointed out

that Griffiths' value for the variation below atmospheric

pressure is nearly 30 per cent, higher than the value '305.
It does not appear probable, however, that the value

4 Grindlev, Therviodynamics of Superheated Steam.

•305 is far removed from the mean value of —r- between

the range of temperatures given in Table I., and a small
alteration in its value would make no appreciable difference
to the figures in the table.

For further evidence on the value of A',,, the author
has taken the results of Ramsey and Young's experiments*
on the densities of superheated steam, and from them has

obtained values of [^) in superheated steam at various

pressures. This, however, was only possible when dealing
with steam not near the saturated condition, as near that
condition the results were interfered with by surface
condensation.

Assuming that the values of (-7-) , obtained for

superheated steam, could be taken with very little variation
to hold near the saturated condition, various values of

( — ) were obtained and used in the formulaf

---^^<aciL ■ • • <^'

to determine the values of Kp in superheated steam near
the saturated condition. The number 1438 in the formula

presumes an accurate knowledge of — , and is obtained

by assuming Regnault's linear law ; it is therefore liable
to the same source of error as in the previous determina-
tions of Kp.

The values so obtained are given in the following
table, along with values obtained from the equation (i).

*0n the properties of Water and Steam. Phil. Trans. (1S92), p. 117.
t For proof, see Perry's " Steam Engine," p. 580.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), ^o. 3. 5

Table II.
Table of Specific Heats Kp in Superheated Steam.

Temp.
Fahrenheit.

fromeq. (2)fromeq. (i

Temp.
Fahrenheit.

Kr

from eq. (2)!fromeq. (l)

290-3

309'5
325"i
338-5

35o*i
36o'6

370-1
378-8

•560
•573
•531
■594
-641

■734
•744
•710

•595
-641
-674
-699
•720
•737
•753
•766

386-8-

394-3
401-4
407-9
414-2
420-4
4265

-694
-694
-706
■711
-700
-686
•756

-777
•787
•796
•804
-812
-819
•826

It will be noticed that the variation of K^ given by
equation (2) is of the same nature as, but slightly less in
amount than, that given by equation (i). This difference
would have been reduced if a slight variation had been
allowed in the value of (f )/s we approach saturation.

Recently, however, determinations have been made of
the value ofV.by an absolute method,* and, from the
few figures published, it appears that the results confirm
the statement made above, viz., that Regnault's linear law
of variation of total heat with temperature is incorrect.

III. On the equation of adiabatic expansion in Superheated

Steam.
From the knowledge of the total heats of formation
of superheated steam, given in the first part of this paper,
it is possible to utilise the results of Ramsey and Young's
experiments on the densities of superheated steam to
determine whether the adiabatic law of expansion in
superheated steam could be expressed in the form

pij" = constant,

the data in the superheated condition being given by the

* Callendar, Proc. Koy Soc, Vol. 67 (1900), P- 279-

6 Grindlev, TJicrviodynaviics of Superheated Steam.

entropy determined from the author's experiments, the
density being given by Ramsey and Young's results, and
that for the saturated condition by Regnault's results
solely.

The calculations already made shew that, from i to 5
atmospheres pressure and between temperatures 2io°F.
and 330^F., which is as far as the}- have been carried, the
mean value of the index Jt was 1-286, a value not far
removed from the theoretical ratio of the specific heats in
a gas composed of triatomic molecules.

IV. On the value of the product CKp.
In the remarks on the specific heat Kp, it was stated
that the values of Kp thus deduced from Regnault's results
did not vary with the pressure, and from this circumstance
the author was led to make further calculations on the
values of the product CKp, where C is the cooling effect,

— , produced, by free expansion, in superheated steam.

dp

Thus it was found* that a particular relation existed

between the variations oi Kp. C, and (-j:)^ namely

4(A-.)=-rp)=-i(CA',) ... (3)

Cp^ ' \CT-j CT

and, assuming Regnault's law, the first and last of these
three expressions was found to be zero.

For independent evidence as to the value of —^
the author examined the results of Ramsey and
Young's experiments on the densities of superheated
steam. The results have been rather surprising, as
Messrs. Ramsey and Young had already announced as
one of the results of their researches that f4^j vanishes.
Carl Barusf, however, found that this relation did not

* P/u7. Trans., 1900, \'ol. 194, p. 31.
t P/it7. Mag., Vol. 30, 1890, p. 358.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 3. 7

hold for steam, and an examination of Ramsey and
Young's results showed that the relation was only an
approximate one.

When, however, various values of the specific volume
V are taken, at different temperatures but under constant
pressure, from the curves obtained by Ramsey and Young,
and plotted on a volume-temperature diagram as curves
of constant pressure, these curves are found to be almost
exactly straight lines when considering superheated steam
not near the saturated condition. It is impossible from
the diagram to distinguish any marked deviation of the
results from the linear relation v = b.r-a at constant
pressure.

The values of {'^ obtained from this diagram have

already been used on p. 4 to obtain the values of the

specific heat K p.

In the author's experiments the product CK^ at a
pressure of 2olbs. per square inch was found to be rS25
and within a short range of pressure practically uniform
(the units being lbs., feet and degrees Fah.). As Ramsey
and Young's results related to a wide range of pressures,
they were examined to see if any great variation of CK^
existed, with results given in Table III., the units of CK^

being as above.

It will be seen that the values of CK, above three
metres pressure are practically continuous with those
obtained by the author at roi4 metres or 2olbs. per square
inch pressure, and, on plotting these results, the variation
of CKp with pressure is expressed by a formula of type

CA'.= |- (4)

where D and a are constants. If / is in lbs. per square
foot D=r62 5 and log rt = -ooooioi.

8 Grindle\', TJiermodynamus of Superheated Steam.

Table III.
Values of the product CKp.

CA'

I'

Pressures

CK

p

Pressures

From

Prom

in metres

Ramsey and

From

in metres

Ramsey and

From

of Hg.

Young's
experiments.

formula (4).

of Hg.

Young's
experiments.

formula (4).

(1-014)

(I 525)

1-523

10

0806

0857

3

i"426

i'34i

11

0-769

0-805

4

1186

1-258

12

0-718

0754

5

i'i6i

i-i8o

13

0-697

0-707

6

0-864

1-107

14

0-622

0-663

7

O'QOS

I 038

15

0614

0 622

8

I -088

0-974

16

0-559

0-582

9

I 01 r

0-913

17

0-654

0-546

Formula (4) is really a very important one, as it
represents the value of the product of the cooling effect
and the specific heat in superheated steam not near satura-
tion point, and cannot, from the mode of its deduction, be
much in error, the only equation required in the process
being the thermodynamically correct one

CK,.

[dr],

(5)

and hence equation (4) will undoubtedly prove useful in
checking any values of the cooling effects (7 and specific
heats Kp found for superheated steam not near saturation.

V. On the densities of Saturated Steam.

It appears, from the data already existing on the
density of dry saturated steam at any pressure, that we
must either rely for the determination of these densities
on Regnault's latent heats, to which the densities are
inversely proportional, or obtain them by deduction from
the properties of superheated steam.

The first method is the one usually adopted, and, if it
can be shewn that the latent heats determined by Reg-

Ma7icJiester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 3. 9

nault are not in appreciable error, no objection can be
taken to its continued use. Now, for that condition of
saturated steam obtained by the evaporation of water in a
closed boiler, the steam being relieved of suspended
moisture as far as possible by gravitational methods only,
if we accept the values of the latent heat given by
Regnault as correct, the author's own experiments shew
that such steam requires very slight heating to become
superheated, an addition of 005 per cent, of the latent
heat of steam at atmospheric pressure being sufficient to
superheat it.

Suppose, however, that, instead of using Regnault's
latent heats, we take Ramsey and Young's experimental
results on the densities of superheated steam, and, taking
the law of expansion in the steam under constant pressure
given by these results, and assuming this law to hold to
the saturation temperature, make u.se of equation (5) to
determine the specific volume of steam at the saturation

temperature. As \-f] ^'^ practically constant and has
been already found for various pressures,

-m.

will give the specific volume v at saturation.

Now the value of the specific volume at saturation so
obtained is in every case greater than that obtained from
Regnault's latent heats, the percentage difference increas-
ing as the pressure rises, and the only feasible explanation
of the difference, if we do not admit serious error in
Regnault's latent heats, appears to be that, near the
saturated condition, the law of expansion in the super-
heated steam differs considerably from that in highly
superheated steam, the alteration being probably due to
a change in the ultimate homogeneity in the superheated
steam as saturation is approached.

lo Grindlkv, Thermodynamics of SuperJiented Steam.

The results recently published by Callendar, and briefly
referred to previously, appear to be of similar character
to those obtained by the above process from Ramsey and
Young's experiments, and in his paper it appears that
his results on the specific volumes of saturated steam have
been obtained by a deduction from some of the properties
of superheated steam, and, therefore, by a process similar to
that just adopted with the results of Ramsey and Young's
experiments. The main difference is that in Callendar's
paper the deduction was made from a knowledge of the
cooling effects and specific heats Kp'xw superheated steam,
while in the other case the deduction was made from a
knowledge of the densities of superheated steam.

To see whether there was any agreement between

the results so obtained by these two processes a few values

found for the specific volumes of saturated steam deduced

from Ramsey and Young's results, have been placed in

the following table with a few of Callendar's results, and

with the specific volumes determined from Regnault's

latent heats.

Table IV.

Specific volumes of d^y saturated steam.

Sp

. volumes in c

.0.

Percentage

Fressure

Deduced from

Deduced from

excess of

lbs. per sq.
inch.

R. & Y.'s
experiments.

(I)

Given by
Callendar.

(2)

Regnault's
L. Hs.

(3)

(I) or (2)
over (3).

I4'7

1672-5

1650-5

I 33

28-83

8906

876-3

i-6i

52-52

—

508-4

499-4

I 80

58-03

461-13

—

454-0

I 60

77-37

354-48

—

346-0

2-30

88-35

—

307-1

300-7

2-IO

225-9

—

129*6

126-8

2'lO

290-13

103-67

—

100-4

3-30

309-47

97-29

—

94-2

3'2o

Manchester Memoirs, Vol xlv. (1901), AT'tf- 3. 1 1

An examination of this table shews that both
Calendar's results and those deduced from Ramsey and
Young's experiments, give practically identical differences
with the results of calculations from Regnault's latent
heats, the percentage difference of either from Regnault
being given in the last column. Now we have seen that
the kind of steam used by Regnault requires but little
addition of heat in order to superheat it, and hence we
are forced to the conclusion that, if we accept the deduc-
tions from the superheated conditions as correct, Regnault's
latent heats must be too small by amounts varying from
1-33 to 3-4 per cent. It should be observed, however,
that the difference,between the specificvolumes of saturated
steam given by Callendar, or those obtained by deduction
from Ramsey and Young's experiments, and those given
by Regnault's latent heats, may be due entirely to the
method of deduction adopted in the determination of
these volumes in the first two instances, viz., by assuming
the data in the superheated condition to hold down to the
saturated condition.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 4. :

IV. Note on d'Orbigny's figure of Onychoteuthis dtissumieri.
By Wm. E. Hoyle.

Received and read fanuary Sth, jgoi.

In the year 1895 Professor Joubin (05, p- 1172)
described a remarkable cephalopod taken from the
stomach of a sperm-whale, taken in the neighbourhood of
the Azores by His Serene Highness the Prince of Monaco,
the most striking characteristic of which was that it
appeared to be covered with scales of a subquadrangular
form and arranged with great regularity. Such an
arrangement was, of course, quite novel in the order,
and excited no little interest, but as the specimen was
unique and only consisted of the partially digested trunk,
without head, arms or suckers, no opinion as to its system-
atic position could be offered. A few years later Dr. Einar
Lonnberg (98, p. 55) noticed a similar appearance in a
specimen of Onychoteuthis ingens obtained by the Swedish
Expedition to Magellans Straits. This he found to be
due not to the presence of scales, but to the raising of the
skin by numerous subcutaneous papillae in consequence
of the maceration it had undergone.

During a visit to Hamburg last summer, my friend.
Dr. Pfeffer, of the Natural History Museum in that city,
showed me a squid, which had similarly been obtained
from the stomach of a cetacean, and was covered over the
greater part of the mantle with small shining convex
bodies, about half a millimetre across, and presenting an
appearance like fine-grained shagreen.

March nth, igoi.

2 HOYLE, (T Orbigny s figure of OnycJioteutJiis dussuniieri.

Dr. PfeflTer had been struck with the idea that this
specimen might probably throw h'ght on the true nature
of LcpidoteutJiis, and I pointed out to him the similarity
of his conclusion to that reached by Lonnberg. In fact,
as Dr. Pfeffer observed — it seemed as though it might be
possible by partial digestion to convert genera of various
families into LepidoteutJiis.

Not long afterwards, on looking over the atlas to
Ferussac and d'Orbigiiy's great work (35), I was struck
by the figure of OnycJiotejithis diissumieri {PI. 13), the
mantle of which is studded over with small tubercles, to
all appearance of a precisely similar character. In fact,
it would be difficult to describe Dr. Pfeffer's squid more
appropriately than in the words used by the French
writers regarding their species — " corps finement chagrine
par de tres-petits tubercules egaux, tres-rapproches les
uns des autres."

Gray (49, p. 56) placed this species in his genus
Ancistroteuthis, on account of the form of the pen, but it
does not appear that he had any specimen for examination,
basing his conclusion merely on the published figures.
No example other than this type has ever, to my know-
ledge, been recorded.

D'Orbigny's statement (155, p. 335) that the drawing
is " d'apres nature sur un individu decolore," and his
description of the tentacular clubs as " paraissant avoir ^t^
couverts d'au moins trente crochets sur deux lignes
alternes " show that post-mortem changes had taken place
in his specimen. Hence it seems to me extremely likely
that the tubercular ai^pearance is an artificial, not a natural
character, and if this be the case it adds a little to the
presumption in favour of the accuracy of Dr. Lonnberg's
explanation of the constitution of Lcpidotcuthis.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 4. 3

Postscript. — Since the above paper was in type I have
received a letter from Dr. Pfeffer, in which he tells me that since my
visit to Hamburg he has dissected out and examined the gladius
of the squid in question. He finds it to agree exactly with the
figure given by d'Orbigny, and has, therefore, no doubt that its
resemblance to O. dusstanieri is to be explained by its being a
second example of the same species ! The type specimen of
the Onychotenthis ingens in the British Museum unfortunately
has no body, so that I have been unable to see how far it agreed
with Lonnberg's description. The exact nature of Lepidoteuthis
is still a matter of uncertainty, and we look with interest to
Professor Joubin's further account of it in the memoir on the
cephalopods collected by the Prince of Monaco.

WORKS REFERRED TO.

«J5- Ferussac & d'Orbigny. " Histoire naturelle generale
et particuliere des cephalopodes acetabuliferes, vivants
et fossiles." Paris, 1835-48.

40. Gray, J. E. "Catalogue of the MoUusca in the British
Museum. — I. Cephalopoda Antepedia." London,
1849.

05. JouBiN, L. " Cephalopodes recueillis dans I'estomac d'un
Cachalot, capture aux iles Ac^ores." Comptes rendus,
vol. 121, p. 1172-1174, 1895.

08. LuNNBERG, E. "On the Cephalopods collected by the
Swedish Expedition to Tierra del Fuego, 1895-96.
Wiss. Beobachtimgen d. schivedischen Exptd. Alagellans-
Icindern, 1895-97. Stockholm, 1898.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5.

The Wilde Lecture.
Sur la Flore du Corps Humain.

Par M. Elie Metchnikoff, For. Mem. R.S.

Delivered April 22nd, igoi.

En m'annoncant que vous m'aviez decerne la medaille
de Wilde, votre President a exprime le desir que je fasse
une conference devant vous. Je me suis empresse de
saisir cette occasion de vous dire de vive voix toute ma
reconnaissance pour le grand honneur que vous m'avez
fait.

Je voudrais bien vous prouver que je merite une si haute
distinction, en vous apportant quelque chose de nouveau,
mais en science le neuf est tres rare et je n'ai pas
d'autre pretention que de vous montrer toute la sincerite
de ma gratitude. La lettre de votre estime President m'a
trouve absorbe par des etudes entreprises dans le but de
dresser une sorte de programme de recherches nouvelles.
Les savants, comme vous le savez bien, sont hantes
par des idees fixes et il leur est impossible de parler
d'autre chose que du sujet qui les preoccupe pour le
moment.

Je me suis done decide, au lieu de vous exposer des
resultats definitifs, a vous presenter un simple programme
de recherches deja commencees dans mon laboratoire de
rinstitut Pasteur de Paris. Je desire vous entretenir des
microbes qui vivent dans le corps humain, dans le but de
vous demontrer que les deux grandes theories biologiques
du XIX'""- siecle, celle de revolution des especes de votre
illustre compatriote Darwin, et la theorie microbienne des
fermentations et des maladies, formulee par Pasteur, sont

May 281/1, jgoi.

2 Metchnikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Hntnain.

comme des phares lumineux dans la recherche des pro-
blemes compHques et difficiles dont la solution incombe
au siecle qui vient de commencer.

II y a dcja plus de 200 ans, aussitot apres I'invention
du microscope, qu'on a trouv6 dc petits etres pullulant en
grande quantite dans le corps humain. Leeuwcnhoek
exprime son dtonnement en constatant que la bouche et
I'intestin de Thomme sent peuples d'une quantite
d'organismes microscopiques, dont beaucoup manifestent
des mouvements trcs actifsetse presentent comme de tout
petits animalcules.

Cette decouverte a ete confirmde a maintes reprises
dans les deux derniers sieclcs, mais vous serez dtonnes de
constater le peu de precision de nos connaissances sur la
flore de notre corps.

Les animalcules de Leeuwenhoek, les microbes, comme
on dit aujourd'hui, qui pour la plupart sont des plantes
inferieures et microscopiques, existent en tres grand
nombre sur la surface et dans I'intcrieur du corps humain.

L'homme nait sans microbes. II n'a aucune flore
microbienne ni a la surface ni a I'interieur de son corps.
Quelquefois, en sortant du sein de la mere, alors meme
que celle-ci ct I'enfant sont tous deux bien portants,
la conjonctive du nouveau-nc est contamince par un petit
bacille, tres semblable a celui de la diphterie. Cependant,
comme il est a peu pres inoffensif pour l'homme, on I'a
range dans le groupe des bacilles pseudodiphteriques. Ce
microbe est le premier qui s'installe pour vcgcter sur le
corps humain.'

Aussitot apres la naissance, la surface de la peau et

^ V. Halle. Recherches sur la hacU'rioIogie du caual gc'iiital de lafemme,
Paris, 1898, p. 22, Note 3. Le developpement precoce du bacille
pseudo-diphterique sur la conjonctive du nouveau-ne a ete observe par
M. Morax, dont je tiens le fait.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 3

des muqueuses se peuple de microbes ; au bout de quel-
ques jours, ils sont nombreux et varies. La semence de
ces microbes provient de I'air ou de I'eau qui sert a laver
I'enfant. En ete, la flore se developpe plus vite qu'en
hiver et quelquefois, deja 4 heures apres la naissance, on
trouve dans le contenu de I'intestin, le meconium, plu-
sieures especes de bacteries. Le plus souvent I'apparition
de la flore dans ce milieu a ete observee entre la dixieme
et la dix-septieme heure apres la naissance.^

II n'entre pas dans mon plan de vous ennuyer par la
description minutieuse et detaillee de tous les microbes
qui s'etablissent ainsi dans le corps de I'homme sain. Du
reste il serait impossible de bien differencier ces especes
microbiennes, car les caracteres specifiques des bacteries
sont extremement variables et difficiles a preciser. On
peut dire que la bacteriologie a presque toujours affaire a
des " mauvaises especes," d'apres la langage des taxono-
mistes.

La flore microbienne du corps humain a 1 etat normal
est constituee en grande partie par des bacteries ; les
champignons inferieurs, comme les levures, ou blasto-
mycetes, n'y figurent qu'en tres faible minorite. Parmi les
bacteries, ce sont surtout des formes rondes, des micro-
coques, qui peuplent notre peau. On en distingue
plusieures especes, ou varietes, parmi lesquelles une est
surtout remarquable par une coloration orange qu'elle
prend dans les cultures sur les differents milieux. Ce
microbe, connu sous le nom de staphylocoque dore, est
moins repandu sur la peau de I'homme sain que deux
varietes incolores ; et cependant il est encore assez frequent
et se retrouve, de meme que ses congeneres, dans beau-
coup d'autres regions du corps humain. Les microcoques

1 V. Schild. Das Auftreten von Bakterien im Darminhalte Neuge-
borener. Zeitschrif I filr Hygiene, Bd. 19, 1895, P' II3-

4 Metchnikoff, Sur la Flore dii Corps Huviain.

en forme de chapelets dc grains sont plus rares que les
staph)'locoques.

Les formes bacillaires sont moins nombreuscs sur la
peau normale que les cocci. On en trouve une toute
petite, dccrite sous le nom de microbacille de la seborrhee
et une bacterie tres bizarre, designee par Unna, un derma-
tologiste allcmand bien connu, sous le nom de Bacille-
bouteille (Flaschenbacillus). Ce microbe si particulier se
rencontre constamment dans les pellicules qui se detachent
si facilement du cuir chevelu. Mais le lieu de pre-
dilection de nos microbes cutanes est incontestablement
le follicule pileux. II constitue une sorte d'etui profond
qui s'enfonce dans la peau et sert a la formation du poll.
Son canal presente des conditions tres favorables pour le
developpement des etres microscopiques et aussi, le plus
souvent, il est envahi par les staph)'locoques qui y forment
des amas solidement et profondcment ctablis.'

Les muqueuses, avec leurs surfaces toujours humides
et recouvertes de substances qui alimentent facilement
les microbes, accusent une flore generalement plus riche
que celle de la peau. Cependant, la conjonctive de I'oeil,
gr^ce au lavage continuel par les larmes, se debarrasse de
la plupart des microbes qui y penetrent soit avec les fines
poussieres de I'air, soit par le contact avec les doigts ou les
autres parties du corps.

La flore de la conjonctive, comme celle de la peau, est
plus riche en cocci qu'en bacilles. Ouelques auteurs ont
signale la presence de staphylocoques, dores et incolores,
pareils a ceux de la peau. Les bacilles pseudo-diphteriques
ont etc trouvcs par plusieurs observateurs."

La muqueuse du nez est egalement peuplee de mi-

^ Sabouraud, La pratique derniatologiqm. T. I., p. 701.
-Axenfcld, Berliner kliuische IVochenschriJt^ 1898. Bach, Archiv fur
Ophthalmologie, Bd. 40, p. 130.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 5

crobes, parmi lesquels on a souvent reconnu les staphy-
]ocoques, les streptocoques et quelques bacilles.

II est incontestable que les microbes penetrent dans
les voies respiratoires de I'homme, meme les plus pro-
fondes. Seulement il est tres difficile de se rendre compte
d'une facon precise de la flore microbienne de la trachee,
des bronches et du poumon de rhomme a I'etat normal. La
constatation des bacteries dans ces organes sur le cadavre
ne pent etre consideree comme une preuve suffisante de
leur presence chez le vivant, et pourrait s'expliquer par la
penetration post-mortem des microbes des organes voisins.
Dans tons les cas, la flore des voies respiratoires profondes
ne doit jamais etre riche chez I'homme sain.

Ce sont les organes de la digestion qui presentent la
plus grande richesse en fait de flore microbienne. Le
Docteur Miller de Berlin^ a reuni en un volume une
grande quantite d'observations et decrit plus de trente
especes qui habitent la cavite buccale de I'homme. Parmi
ces microbes, il y en a qui se trouvent egalement sur la
peau humaine ; mais en outre il existe autour des dents
plusieurs formes bacteriennes bien distinctes qui sont
caracteristiques de la flore buccale et ne se rencontrent
nulle part ailleurs, comme les leptothrix et les spirochaetae
de la bouche. La flore de la cavite buccale est au
moins aussi riche en bacilles qu'en microcoques, parmi les-
quels se trouvent tres frequemment les staphylocoques,
dores et incolores, les streptocoques et les pneumocoques.

Plusieurs representants de la flore de la bouche de-
scendent dans les voies digestives profondes et se retrou-
vent dans I'estomac et les intestins. Le premier de ces
organes, caracterise par I'acidite de son contenu, presente
des conditions tout-a-fait particulieres pour le develop-
pement des plantes microscopiques. Beaucoup de bacteries

'^ Die Mikrooi-gatiismen der Mundhbhle. 2« Auflage. 1892.

6 Metcmnikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Huviain.

en effet ne supportent pas un milieu acide, tandis que
quelques levures et leurs congciicres de la classe des
champignons tolerent beaucoup mieux I'aciditc du sue
gastrique. Eh bien, malgre ces conditions dcfavorables,
la flore bactcrienne stomacale de I'homme est encore assez
riche. M. Coyon,' qui n'a ctudic que les microbes de
I'estomac qui croissent en cultures aerobics, mentionne 30
especes differcntes, parmi lesquelles la plupart ne se
rencontrent pas dans Ics autres parties du tube digestif.

Depuis longtemps, on a trouve des microbes tout-a-
fait caracteristiques dans le contenu stomacal de I'homme.
Ce sont des cocci, reunis en gros paquets et dccrits sous
le nom de sarcines. lis sont aussi ty piques pour la flore
stomacale que le spirochaete pour la flore de la bouche.
Mais en dehors de ces sarcines, il n'y a que peu de cocci
dans I'estomac humain, et ce sont surtout les bacilles et
aussi les levures qui constituent la majorite des microbes
gastriques.

Cette predominance des bacilles est encore plus mar-
quee dans la flore de I'intestin grele. La principale
source de nos connaissances sur cette flore est un memoire
de MM. Macfadycn, Nencki, et Madame Sieber- qui ont
eu la chance d'ctudier pendant plusieurs mois le contenu
intestinal qui s'ecoulait d'une fistule, consecutive a une
operation d'hernie etranglee. lis ont isolc de ce liquide,
provenant de I'intestin grele, quatorzc formes microbiennes,
parmi lesquelles les levures et les moisissures etaient rares ;
les bacteries rondes, entre autres deux formes de strep-
tocoques, etaient plus frequentes. Mais la grande majorite
de la flore dc I'intestin grele etait representee par les
diffcrents bacilles, parmi lesquels les plus constants
etaient le colibacille, hote commun du tube digestif de

' Flore 7Kicrol>icnne de resloinac. Paris, 1900.
'^Archiv fiir experimentelle rathologie. Bd. 28, 1S90, p. 31 1

Matichcster Memoirs, Vol. xlv. ( 1 90 1 ), No. 5- 7

rhomme et d'une quantite d'animaux, et le bacille du lait
aigri.

Les auteurs que je viens de citer ont constate que la
flora de I'intestin grele changeait avec la nourriture que
prenait leur malade. Le regime carne et I'alimentation
vegetarienne provoquaient le developpement de formes
bacteriennes particulieres. Meme avec un regime con-
stant, ils ont pu observer des variations notables dans la
population microbienne.

De I'intestin grele, les microbes passent dans le gros
intestin, ou s'associent a eux un grand nombre de formes
nouvelles. De toutes les parties du corps humain, c'est
sans doute le gros intestin qui renferme la vegetation
microbienne la plus riche. Cette flore a deja toute une
litterature. Celle-ci nous apprend que le contenu du gros
intestin de I'homme est peuple d'environ 45 especes micro-
biennes. Les levures y sont plus rares que dans I'estomac
et meme dans I'intestin grele. La flore du gros intestin
renferme principalement des bacteries, parmi lesquelles
les bacilles sont de beaucoup les plus nombreux. Nous
retrouvons dans le contenu de cette partie du tube digestif
beaucoup de microbes qui ont ete mentionnes comme
habitant la cavite buccale, I'estomac et I'intestin grele.
Parmi les formes propres au gros intestin, un grand
nombre n'ont jamais pu etre cultivees en dehors de
I'organisme, ce qui explique la grande imperfection de nos
connaissances sur ce chapitre.

Le gros intestin commence a se peupler presque aussi-
tot apres la naissance. Deja dans la premiere journee, c'est
a direavant que I'enfant ait pris une nourriture quelconque,
dans le meconium, ou contenu du gros intestin, on trouve
une flore microbienne assez variee. A cote de plusieures
bacteries spheriques, ou microcoques, apparaissent des
formes allongees, parmi lesquelles on reconnait surtout le

8 Metchxikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Huinnin.

colibacille, deja mentionnc comme bote de rintestin grcle.
L'alimentatioii par le lait matcrnel change bientot la
fiore du gros intestin. Elle devient plus uniforme et
renferme surtout, quelquefois presque exclusivement, un
petit bacille mince qui ne se dcveloppe en dehors de I'or-
ganisme que difficilement ct seulemcnt a Tabri de I'air.
M. Tissier/ qui a dccouvert cette espcce, I'a designee sous
le nom de Bacillus bifidus.

Chez les enfants, nourris au biberon avec du lait de
vache, ce meme bacille se retrouve aussi, mais en moindre
quantite. La flore du gros intestin de ces enfants est
beaucoup plus riche en formes microbicnnes, parmi
lesquelles on retrouve les colibacilles, les streptocoques,
les staphylocoques, les bacilles du lait aigri, les sarcines et
encore une serie d'autres bacteries. Les bacilles sont
predominants, mais les formes rondes et les spirilles sont
aussi largement representcs.

Les enfants, soumis au regime lacte, nourris avec du
lait de vache cru ou sterilise, renferment, comme vous
voyez, deja unc flore du gros intestin assez riche. Mais, a
partir du moment ou la nourriture est plus variee, apres
le sevrage, cette flore devient encore beaucoup plus abon-
dante. Ce caractere persiste chez I'adulte. D'apres les
donnees reunies par Vignal et Suckdorf ^ on peut evaluer
qu'un homme rejette de 30 a 50 milliards de microbes
par jour. Beaucoup d'entre eux n'ont jamais jju etre
cultives en dehors de I'organisme et sont encore fort peu
connus.

Dans I'etat actuel de la science, il est impossible
d'evalucr le nombre d'especes microbiennes qui constituent
la flore de Ihomme sain. Ce n'est qu' a titre provisoire
et purement approximatif que nous pouvons I'estimer

' Kecherches stir la flore inteslinale des uoiirrissons, Paris, 1900,
" Archivfiir Hygiene, Bd. 4, 1SS6.

Manchester Mevioirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 9

comme se trouvant entre 60 et 70. Ces microbes, comme
vous I'avez deja vu, sont repartis d'une fagon tres inegale.
La peau en renferme le moins, le gros intestin en contient
le plus.

Que peut-on dire du role de cette Acre si variee?
L'homme n'est pas le seul etre qui soit contamine par une
multitude de plantes inferieures. La peau et les cavites
de beaucoup d'animaux renfcrment aussi des Acres plus
ou moins riches. Parmi les Invertebres, il y en a qui
sont recouverts d'une vegetation beaucoup plus abondante
que celle qui se trouve sur la peau humaine. Parmi les
crabes, il y a une espece, tres abondante sur les cotes
meridionales et occidentales de I'Angleterre, connue sous
le nom d'araignee de mer, ou la Maya {Maia squinadd).
Sa carapace epineuse est le plus souvent recouverte d'une
quantite d'algues qui s'elevent a une hauteur considerable
et poussent de tons cotes. L'utilite de cette flore est
incontestable et evidente. Les algues dissimulent le crabe
sur les fonds herbeux et le cachent aux regards de ses
ennemis et des animaux qu'il poursuit pour en faire sa
nourriture. La flore de la peau humaine n'a aucun but
semblable a remplir et son utilite ne peut etre aucune-
ment demontree.

Par contre, la flore de la cavite buccale peut rendre
des services a l'homme. Tout le monde a remarque que
les plaies de la bouche guerissent beaucoup plus vite que
celles de la peau. Humectees par la salive, les plaies
restent au contact des microbes et de leurs produits
solubles qui stimulent notablement la reaction de
I'organisme. Les secretions microbiennes attirent une
grande quantite de globules blancs, ou leucocytes, et ces
cellules nettoient la plaie, la debarassent des microbes et
des parties mortifiees, favorisant ainsi la reparation
definitive.

10 Metchnikoff, Sid- la Flore du Corps Hmnain.

Dans les parties plus profondcs du tube digestif, ce
role des microbes est moins important, car les lesions de la
muqueuse y sont beaucoup plus rares. Mais il est tres
probable que les acides, que beaucoup de bacteries
secretent dans I'intestin grcle, rendent un service reel en
empechant le developpement de certains autres microbes
qui pourraient gener la digestion normale. Cette action
empechante se manifeste meme dans la lutte de I'organismo
contre des microbes tres dangereux. On a observe
souvent que des hommes peuvent impuncment ingcrer une
grande quantitc de vibrions qui, chez d'autres individus,
occasionnent levrai cholera asiatique. On est en droit de
supposer que cette immunite est due a la presence des
microbes intestinaux qui genent le vibrion cholerique dans
son action pathogene. Un argument en faveur de cette
hypothese nous est fourni par les experiences sur les tres
jeunes lapins. Tant que ces animaux se nourrissent
exclusivement de lait maternel, lorsque leur flore intestinale
est encore peu variee, I'ingestion du vibrion cholerique leur
donne le cholera mortel. Mais a partir du moment ou ils
commencent a =e nourrir de vegetaux et ou leur flore
intestinale devient beaucoup plus riche, meme de grandes
quantites de vibrions choleriques ingeres ne provoquent
plus aucun trouble.

M. Bienstock' suppose que certains microbes de notre
flore intestinale normale, notamment le colibacille et le
bacille du lait aigri, empechent I'invasion du tube digestif
par des microbes de la putrefaction, s'appuyant sur ce fait
que le lait cru, qui renfermeles deux especes mcntionnees,
n'entre pas en putrefaction.

Bien que ce role empechant des microbes intestinaux
n'ait jamais pu etre bien prouve, il est neanmoins tres
probable. Mais on a suppose encore une autre action

'^Archiv fiir Hyqieiic, Bel. 39, 1901, .

Manchester Aleinoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 11

utile de notre flore intestinale. A propos d'une communi-
cation de M. Duclaux a I'Academie des Sciences de Paris^
Pasteur a enonce cette hypothese que les microbes du
tube digestif jouent un role important dans la digestion
des aliments et que, sans leur concours, I'utilisation de la
nourriture par I'organisme animal serait impossible. En
raison des grandes difficultes pratiques pour la realisation
des experiences, tendant a resoudre ce probleme, ce n'est
que dans ces dernieres annees que Ton s'est mis a les
executer d'une facon precise. Nuttall et Thierfelder^ ont
essaye delever de jeunes cobayes a I'abri des microbes et
Schottelius- a tente de faire vivre de jeunes poussins dans
des conditions d'asepsie complete.

Les deux premiers observateurs ont rcussi a elever
des cobayes, extraits par operation cesarienne, jusqu' a
13 jours. lis les ont, pendant tout ce temps, gardes dans
un espace rigoureusement privc de microbes et les ont
nourris avec du lait de vache et des cakes sterilises. Les
cobayes ont bien supporte ce regime, ont augmente de
poids pendant leur captivitc (quoique a un degre moindre
que les cobayes temoins, cleves dans des conditions
normales) et, a I'autopsie, se sont montres totalement
depourvus de microbes. Nuttall et Thierfelder concluent
done a la possibilite pour un jeune mammifere de vivre et
d'utiliser les matieres alimentaires sans aucun concours de
microbes, uniquement grace a ses propres sues digestifs.

Schottelius est arrive a un resultat diametralement
oppose. Les petits poussins qu'il faisait eclore dans un
espace prive de germes et specialement approprie pour
I'elevage de ces oiseaux, nourris avec des aliments steriles,.
ont vecu pendant 17 jours. Seulement, au lieu d'augmenter
de poids, comme leurs temoins, gardes en liberte, ils ont

'^Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Cheinie, Bd. 21, 1S95, P- 109-
■Archiv fiir Hygiene, Bd. 34, 1S99, p. 210.

12 Metchnikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Huinain.

tellement maigri et leur faiblesse est devenue si grande que
Schottelius a du interrompre ses experiences. Les poussins
sacrifies se sont montres complctement prives de microbes
et c'est justement a leur absence dans le tube digestif qu'il
attribue 1 ctat lamentable dans lequel se sont trouvcs les
jeunes oiscaux, abandonncs uniquement a leurs propres
ressources digestives.

Comme vous voyez, malheureusemcnt, les deux scries
d'expcriences ont donne des rcsultats si contradictoires
qu'il devient impossible d'en tirer une conclusion definitive.
II est done indispensable de continuer les recherches dans
le but d'aplanir ces contradictions. Du reste, Schottelius
lui meme ne considere ses tentatives que comme un premier
pas vers la solution du probleme. On peut lui reprocher
que, dans son appareil pour I'elevage des poussins, il a
introduit trop de matieres anti.septiques qui pouvaient
nuire au developpement normal des jeunes oiseaux. II
commencait par laver les ceufs pondus avec une solution
de sublime assez forte (5 pour looo) et ceci a deux
reprises. Cetraitement, sans etre mortel pour les embryons,
pouvait diminuer leur resistance vitale.

En dehors des faits observes, Schottelius invoque en
faveur de la necessite absolue du concours microbien pour
la digestion chez les animaux, des considerations generales,
basees sur la grande theorie Darvvinienne. Comme, d'
apres lui, " il n'existe pas d'animal sans qu'il renferme
constamment dans son canal intestinal des quantites
enormes de bacteries," il lui semble impossible que la
selection naturelle n'eut pas elimine depuis longtemps
•cette flore si elle ne remplissait quelque role utile. D'abord
cette these que tous les animaux renferment une flore
intestinale a I'etat normal ne peut pas etre soutenue. II
■existe un nombre considerable d'especes animales, chez
lesquelles le tube digestif ne contient pas du tout ou

Manchester Memoirs, Vol x/v. {igoi), No. 5. 15

presque pas de microbes. Comme exemple, je peux citer
le scorpion, dont I'intestin se montre toujours complete-
ment sterile. Mais, m'objectera-t-on, il s'agit ici d'un
etre qui se nourrit du sang des petits animaux. Or
le sang est un aliment qui se digere tres facilement
et qui dans la plupart des cas ne renferme pas de
microbes. Le scorpion pourrait etre considere comme
une sorte de "parasite libre." Eh bien, lesexemples neman-
quent pas ou les animaux, destines a se nourrir avec des
aliments tres difficiles a digerer, sont cependant complete-
ment depourvus de flore intestinale. On en trouve
beaucoup parmi les larves d'insectes. A cote du ver a soie
ou des vers blancs qui renferment beaucoup de bacteries
dans leurs intestins,nous pouvons citer les larves de diverses
mites. Ces insectes vivent dans des tissus poussiereux,.
dans des amas de graines, ou la pcussiere et les microbes
ne manquent pas, et cependant leur tube intestinal,,
examine a maintes reprises, s'est montre le plus souvent
completement prive de microbes. Quelquefois on trouve
de rares bacteries, disseminees dans i'intestin de ces larves,
qui evidemment ne peuvent jouer aucun role important.
Dans ces exemples, que je pourrais multiplier a volonte, les
sues digestifs des insectes suffisent non seulement a eux
seuls pour digerer des aliments aussi difficiles a solubiliser
que la laine et les graines, mais peuvent meme tuer et
digerer les microbes. La larve de la mite de la cire qui vit
en parasite dans les ruches des abeilles, possede une force
digestive tellement puissante qu'elle est capable d'attaquer
avec ses ferments intestinaux les bacteries les plus resis-
tantes, comme le bacille de la tuberculose. On cssaie
meme d'utiliser cette propriete remarquable dans la lutte
contre ce bacille.

Parmi les vers intestinaux, on en rencontre quelques
uns, comme les ascarides, qui vivent dans un milieu rempli

14 Metchnikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Huviain.

de microbes. Lorsqu'on compare la richesse en bacteries
<Iu tube digestif de I'ascaris du cheval et de I'intestin
grele du cheval meme, habite par ce parasite, on est
surpris de la grande difference. Tandis que le premier ne
renferme que quelques rares microbes, le second en
contient une veritable puree.

II n'y a pas de doute. L'organisme animal pent se
passer du concours des microbes pour digerer la nourri-
ture qui est necessaire a son entreticn. Seulement, les
animaux presentent une si grande difference sous tous
les rapports, qu'il est impossible d'appliquer les rcsultats,
■obtenus avec les scorpions, les insectes, ou les vers intesti-
naux, a I'homme, I'espece qui nous interesse surtout. En
nous placant sur ce terrain, il faut bien dire que le cobaye
■qui, d'apres les recherches de Nuttall et Thierfeldcr peut
se suffire avec ses sues digestifs, meme aussitot apres sa
naissance, est plus rapproche de I'homme que le poussin
nouveau-ne ou age de quelques jours. Si Ton acceptesan?
critique les resultats de Schottelius, on ne peut que
formuler cette conclusion que des oiseaux en bas age ne
peuvent pas se passer, pour digerer leurs aliments, de
Taide des infiniment petits, comme le peuvent certains
mammiferes.

L'examen du pouvoir digestif des ferments intestinaux
de I'homme et des mammiferes demontre qu'il est tres
puissant et capable de digerer la plupart des substances
alimentaires. Autrefois, on ne tenait pas compte de
I'intervention microbienne dans les experiences sur la
digestion par des sues digestifs, extraits a des animaux.
Mais, depuis que le role des microbes dans les fermenta-
tions a ete bien etabli, on a eu soin d'ajouter des anti-
septiques aux ballons, dans lesquels on mettait des
substances alimentaires en contact avec les sues digestifs.
Eh bien, malgre relimination des microbes, la digestion se

Manchester Mcjiioirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 15

faisait tres bien par Paction seule des ferments contenus
dans ces sues. Les substances albumino'ides, beaucoup
de substances hydrocarbonces et de graisses, sont facile-
ment digerees par les ferments du tube digestif des
animaux. II n'y a que la cellulose pour laquelle on n'ait
pas trouve de ferment animal correspondant. M. Duclaux
en conclut que si I'intervention des microbes pour la
•digestion est reellement necessaire, cette collaboration
serait utile surtout pour les especes herbivores. Pour
I'homme, elle ne doit pas jouer un role tant soit peu
•considerable.

Depuis longtemps deja, Nencki soutient cette these,
que les microbes intestinaux chez I'homme sont loin
d'etre necessaires pour la digestion normale. Dans son
travail, fait en collaboration avec Macfadyen et M'"e Sieber,
il a etudie la flora intestinale de la femme, operee d'une
hernie etranglee, et a cherche a determiner par des re-
cherches precises le role des microbes. Ces observateurs ont
pu constater que les substances albumino'ides ctaient
■digerees, chez la malade operee, par ses propres ferments,
sans aucun concours appreciable de la part des bacteries
assez nombreuses qu'ils avaient isolees. Ces microbes ont
■ete incapables de decomposer les substances albumino'ides,
mais agissaient energiquement sur les matieres hydro-
carbonces. Seulement, les produits de leur activite,
notamment i'alcool et les acides lactique et acetique, se
sont montres inutiles pour la nutrition de I'homme.

Beaucoup de donnees conduisent done a ce rcsultat
general que la flore intestinale de I'homme n'est nullement
necessaire pour sa digestion normale.

Essayons maintenant d'etablir si les microbes du
corps humain peuvent etre nuisibles a sa sante. Nous
avons vu que la peau de I'homme et surtout les canaux des
follicules pileux renferment une flore bacterienne assez

i6 Metciinikoff, Snr in Flore du Corps Huiiiain.

abondante, parmi laquelle figurent surtout des formes
rondes, comme des staphylocoques et des streptocoques. II
est incontestable que ces microbes saisissent chaque con-
dition favorable pour se reproduire en grande quantite.
Lorsque les forces defensives de I'organisme flechissent
pour une raison quelconque, les microbes de la peau
commencent a pulluler et a deverser dans les tissus et le
sang leurs produits nuisibles.

Les chirurgiens et les accoucheurs qui se lavent les
mains avec des antiseptiques voient souvent se developper
des eruptions dans lesquelles on trouve des quantites de
microbes. Ceux-ci n'ont pas certainement penetre du
dehors, justement a cause de I'antisepsie, mais ils sont venus
de la peau meme, dont les cellules defensives ont etc
beaucoup plus touchees que les microbes par les substances
antiseptiques.

Chez des diabetiques ou d'autres personnes atteintes de
maladies gcncrales, se developpent souvent des furoncles
et des anthrax, quelquefois tres graves. Mais leur cause
ne reside pas, comme dans I'anthrax charbonneux, dans
I'importation du dehors du germe morbide. Ce sont les
staphylocoques de la peau normale de I'homme qui,
profitant de I'affaiblissement des cellules defensives, se
multiplient abondamment et provoquent les anthrax et
les furoncles. Tres souvent ceux-ci se succedent pendant
un temps tres long, ce qui amene un affaiblissement encore
plus considerable des malades.

Non seulement les staphylocoques, jaunes et incolores,
de la peau normale peuvent devenir tres nuisibles, mais
encore d'autres microbes de la flore cutanee peuvent
egalement provoquer des maladies plus ou moins serieuses.

Les antiseptiques avales ou employes pour gargariser
la bouche peuvent reveiller aussi I'activitc des microbes de
la flore buccale et provoquer des ulceres.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 17

Mais ce sont surtout les microbes de Testomac et des
intestins dont le role nuisible est tres considerable. Depuis
tres longtemps, on avait la conviction que beaucoup de
maladies humaines viennent du tube digestif, mais on
n'avait a ce sujet que des notions tres peu precises. On
savait bien que la perforation de I'intestin amenait des
consequences tres graves qui le plus souvent aboutissaient
a la mort. Plus tard, on a reconnu que ce sont les
microbes de la flore intestinale qui, apres leur passage
dans le peritoine, y provoquent une inflammation tres
dangereuse. On a souvent retrouve dans ces peritonites
des quantites de colibacilles, ou bien des staphylocoques
dores ; dans d'autres cas, on a reconnu plusieurs bacteries
de la flore intestinale (aerobies et anaerobies), associees
dans leur ceuvre nefaste. Meme sans perforation preal-
able, les microbes peuvent penetrer de I'intestin dans la
cavite peritoneale, comme dans les cas de hernies
etranglees ou dans I'occlusion intestinale.

Chez certains animaux (chien, cheval) on a constate
meme la penetration des microbes de la flore normale des
organes digestifs dans le sang d'une facon assez reguliere
(Porchet et Desoubry^). II est probable que I'homme est
egalement sujet a cette penetration. Seulement les
conditions precises de son accomplissement ne sont pas
encore suffisamment connues.

L'effet nuisible des microbes de la flore humaine ne se
borne pas seulement au cas ou ces organismes penetrant
directement dans les organes et le sang de I'homme. Les
microbes produisent des substances solubles qui peuvent
etre resorbees par la parol intestinale et penetrer dans la
circulation. Or, parmi ces excretions, il en existe de tres
nuisibles pour la sante.

^ Porchet et Desoubry. Comptes rendits de la Sociiti de Biologic, 1895.

1 8 Metchnikoff, Stir la Flore du Corps Huniain.

Le fait que les produits microbiens sont rcellement
absorbes dans le sang ne peut etre mis en doute. Depuis
assez longtemps on a trouve dans I'urine de I'homme et des
animaux toute une scrie de substances, comme les derives
du phenol, cresol, indol, skatol, pyrrhokatechine, etc.
dont on soupconnait I'origine microbienne. Baumann, qui
s'est beaucoup occupe de la question, a fourni un grand
nombre d'arguments, appuyes sur des experiences qui
plaident en faveur de cette hypothese. Ewald I'a confirmee
par des faits d'un autre genre et tres dcmonstratifs. II
a trouve occasion d'ctudier une personne chez laquelle,
a la suite d'une hernie etranglee, on a du etablir
une fistule intestinale. Pendant tout le temps ou le
gros intestin ne fonctionna plus, le liquide intestinal et
Purine ne renfermaient ni phenol, ni indol. Mais aussitot
que la fistule fut fermee et la communication avec le gros
intestin retablie, le phenol et I'indican apparurent dans les
excreta. Ewald en conclut que ces deux substances ont
leur source dans le gros intestin. Nencki a egalement
soutenu cette these, et le cas de la fistule de I'ileon, dont
nous avons deja parle, lui en a fourni une nouvelle preuve.
II a en outre demontre que I'hydrogene sulfure et le
mercaptan sont egalement des produits des microbes de
la flore du gros intestin.

Les experiences si interessantes de Nuttall et Thier-
felder, que nous avons relatees, renferment aussi des
donnees importantes sur ce sujet. Leurs cobayes, eleves
sans I'intervention des microbes, ne produisaient ni de
I'indol, ni du skatol, ni aucun des autres corps analogues
(phenol, cresol, pyrrhocatcchine), de sorte que leur origine
microbienne pcut ctre considcree comme dcfinitivcment
prouvee.

Les microbes de notre flore intestinale secretent done
rcellement toute une serie de substances qui sont rcsorbces

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5- 19

dans le sang et de la eliminees par les emonctoires.
Plusieurs de ces substances ont une action plus ou moins
toxique, comrne les acides gras, le phenol, les combinaisons
ammoniacales, etc. On a meme trouve quelquefois des
ptomaines, dont Taction nuisible ne pent etre mise en doute.
II est tres probable que beaucoup de ces produits toxiques
de notre flore intestinale sont encore inconnus et parmi eux
la plupart des toxines proprement dites.

Malgre cet etat imparfait de nos connaissances, on a
le droit d'affirmer avec la plus grande conviction que les
poisons des microbes intestinaux jouent un role consider-
able comme cause de maladies nombreuses et varices.
M. Bouchard^ a depuis plus de quinze ans developpe sa
theorie des auto-intoxications, dans laquelle I'empoisonne-
ment par les produits de la flore intestinale occupe une
place preponderante. Avec plusieurs de ses eleves, il a
cherche a reunir a I'appui de sa maniere de voir des
arguments probants. Dans ces dernieres annees, cette
question des auto-intoxications a passe a I'ordre du jour
et on s'en occupe beaucoup dans les reunions des clini-
ciens. En 1898 notamment, elle a fait le sujet de dis-
cussions tres interessantes au Congres de Medecine Interne,
tenu a Wiesbaden,^ auquel ont pris part les savants alle-
mands les plus competents. Malgre une critique tres
severe, a laquelle on avait soumis les auto-intoxica-
tions intestinales, tout le monde a du reconnaitre leur
realitc et leur grande importance. Un des rapporteurs,
Muller, qui avait manifeste le plus de reserve et de
scepticisme a ce sujet, est cependant arrive a cette
conclusion " que dans une serie de maladies le lien causal
avec les phenomenes de decomposition anormale dans les
intestins pourrait difficilement etre nie." II cite les maux de

'^Le^ons sur les aulo-intoxkations. Paris, 1886.

2 Verhandliinqen des XVI. Congresses fiir innere Medicin, 1S98.

20 Metciinikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Hiunain.

tcte, la fatigue, I'ctat neurasthcnique et autres. Meme dans
certaines formes d'epilepsie, il attribue un role considerable
aux produits toxiques, venant du tube digestif Le second
rapporteur, Brieger, y ajoute encore I'asthme dyspepsique et
plusieurs maladies de la peau, comme le prurit, I'erytheme
toxique,racnc, etc. Les dermatologistes ont reconnu depuis
longtemps que, dans certaines maladies de la peau, le
traitement doit etre dirige plutot vers le tube intestinal
que contre I'affection locale meme. La recherche des
poisons elaborcs par les microbes intestinaux leur fournit
des renseignements prccieux,'et lorsqu'un malade, atteint
de seborrhee ou d'acne, excrete une quantite exageree
d'indican, on le soumet a un regime approprie et on tache
de debarrasser ses intestins autant que possible de leur
flore. II est de toute evidence que dans I'acnc ce sont les
staphylocoques de la flore normale de la peau qui com-
mencent a pulluler et a produire leur effet nuisible sous
I'influence des poisons secretes par les microbes intesti-
naux. Ces secretions empoisonnent les cellules defensives
de I'organisme et renforcent ainsi les representants de la
flore cutanee. Nous voyons ici un exemple, oil les
microbes, eloignes entre eux et dont les uns habitent la
peau et les autres les intestins, unissent leurs actions
pour nuire a I'organisme humain.

Le role des poisons de la flore intestinale dans la
neurasthenic, cette maladie si importante et si repandue,
devient de plus en plus evident et tout recemment encore,
dans la discussion qui a etc soulevee a la Socictc de Thera-
peutique de Paris, MM. Robin et Huchard ont avec
beaucoup de succes soutenu cette these. Meme dans les
maladies mentales, I'importance de I'auto-intoxication
intestinale ne pent plus etre nice, quoiqu'on soit encore

* Saalfeld, Allgenieine Therapie der Hautkrankheiten, Berliner
klinische Wochenschrift, Nn. I, 2, 1 90 1.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xiv. (1901), No. 5. 21

loin d'etre d'accord sur son role.fondamental ou secondaire,
dans ces affections. Dans les maladies atrophiques des
organes nobles, comma le cerveau, le coeur, les reins, le
foie, les poisons de la flore intestinale occupent une place
notable. Chez les animaux, on a pu produire une veritable
cirrhose du foie a I'aide des acides butyrique et acetique,
ces produits constants de nos microbes intestinaux.

Meme dans la sclerose des arteres, qui joue un role
si considerable pour abreger notre existence, on a le droit
d'incriminer la flore intestinale. On sait d'une facon
precise que des maladies infectieuses d'origine microbienne
averee, con.ime I'influenza, le paludisme, la diphterie, la
fievre typhoide et autres peuvent amener I'arteriosclerose.
Parmi les maladies infectieuses chroniques, il y en a une
(syphilis) qui est la cause la plus frequente de cette
alteration des arteres. Et cependant il est encore
un grand nombre de cas ou cette affection vasculaire
ne peut etre expliquee par aucune des causes que je viens de
citcr. Les poisons des microbes intestinaux qui provoquent
la sclerose du foie ou des reins doivent etre capables
de produire la sclerose dans d'autres organes et aussi dans
les arteres. II est difficile d'appuyer pour le moment cette
these par des arguments directs. Mais il y a des faits
bien etablis qui plaident en sa faveur. II existe dans la
Republique Argentine une maladie des veaux qui est
accompagnee d'une inflammation aigue des intestins.
Lignieres, qui a etudie cette epizootie avec beaucoup de
soin et de science, en a etabli comme cause un tout petit
microbe, un coccobacille qu'il dcsigne sous le nom de
Pasteurelle bovine.' Cette bacterie se developpe surtout
dans I'intestin et provoque une enterite des veaux,
assez souvent mortelle. La grande majorite (4/5) de ces

^ Contrilnition aVetiide de la diarrhee des Jeunes bovidt's, Buenos Aires, 1898.

22 Metciinikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Huniain.

animaux guerissent cependant. Seulement, au bout d'un
temps plus ou moins long, apres des mois et meme des
annees, les boeufs tombent dans un ctat de faiblesse extra-
ordinaire et meurent d'unc maladie bizarre, connue dans le
pays sous le nom d' " enteke." A I'autopsie, on constate
une arteriosclerose tres intense des grosses arteres et une
calcification du parenchyme pulmonaire. Ces lesions
definitives sont prcccdees d'inflammation chronique des
arteres qui a pu ctre reproduite artificiellement a I'aide
d'injections du microbe du cholera des veaux. Nocard,^
vet^rinaire et bacteriologiste, dont la grande competence
est reconnue universellement, confirme de tous points
cette importante dccouverte de Lignieres.

Dans I'exemple de cette arteriosclerose infectieuse, il
s'agit d'un microbe pathogene qui n'estpas connu jusqu' a
present comme habitant normalement I'intestin des veaux.
II ne pent done pas etre cite comme argument en faveur
de ce que I'arteriosclerose chronique humaine soit due a
la flore normale du tube digestif de I'homme. Cet
exemple a pour nous une grande importance seulement
comme le premier cas d'arteriosclerose chronique
d'origine microbienne, demontre par la mcthode expcri-
mentale.

Quant a la question de la flore microbienne normale
et pathologique, elle est beaucoup plus compliquce qu'eile
ne parait de prime abord. Nous avons deja cite plusieurs
exemples de bactcries qui vivent normalement a la surface
ou dans I'intcrieur du corps humain et qui, sous I'influence
de certaines circonstances, peuvent devenir pathogenes.
Nous avons egalement mentionnc comme tres probable que
certains microbes peuvent penetrer et vivre dans I'intestin
de I'homme, sans produire de maladie, parce qu'ils sont
genesdans leur action pathogene par leurs voisins de la flore

' Les fnaladies itifectieitses du bilail argetitin. Paris, I S99.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 23

normale. Pendant les epidemies de cholera, on a a maintes
reprises retrouve le vibrion cholerique dans le contenu
intestinal normal de personnes bien portantes. Ces
exemples nous ont fourni meme une indication de Taction
utile de certains representants de notre flore. Seulement,
a cote de ces microbes bienfaisants et avec une proba-
bilite encore plus grande, il faut admettre I'existence
d'autres microbes du tube digestif qui, sans etre nuisibles
par eux memes, peuvent faciliter le role nefaste des bac-
teries pathogenes. Ainsi ce meme vibrion cholerique qui
est empeche dans certains cas, est favorise dans d'autres
par le voisinage des blastomycetes ou des sarcines qui
appartiennent a la flore normale de notre canal gastro-
intestinal. Cette action favorisante des microbes a pu
meme etre demontree par voie experimentale sur des
petits lapins. Ainsi des vibrions choleriques, trop faibles
pour provoquer seuls la maladie chez ces animaux, leur
donnent le cholera intestinal mortel, si on les associe avec
des torulas et des sarcines, provenant de I'estomac humain.

Malgre toute I'imperfection de nos connaissances,
il faut bien reconnaitre que la flore de notre corps
renferme des representants qui, a chaque moment, peuvent
devenir infectieux ou bien qui sont nuisibles en favorisant
Taction pathogene de microbes accidentels et en secretant
des poisons plus ou moins dangereux.

Lors de la discussion au Congres de Wiesbaden, que
nous avons mentionnee, Miiller a enonce cette idee que
notre corps doit etre deja suflisamment immunise contre
les microbes de notre flore, ainsi que contre leurs poisons.
C'est pour cela, pense-t-il, que leur effet est si souvent sans
gravite pour notre sante. L'examen plus detaille de cette
question doit conduire a un resultat tout oppose.
L'organisme humain reste tout le temps tres sensible au
staphylocoque pyogene qui cependant constitue une espece

24 Metchnikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Hiunain.

des plus banales de notre florc. Sous I'influence de facteurs
favorisants, ces bactcries produisent des acnes, des furoncles,
des anthrax et des suppurations encore plus graves. La
furonculose peut rccidiver pendant une periode de temps
tres longue, et la pyemie devient facilement chronique.
L'homme n'est done pas immunise contre son staphy-
locoque et cependant la vaccination artificielle des ani-
maux vis-a-vis du meme microbe est chose realisable. La
pratique des vaccinations preventives, etablie par Pasteur
et ses collaborateurs Chamberland et Roux, nous montre
sufifisamment que, pour aboutir a un resultat efficace,il faut
suivre une methode delicate et compliquee. On prepare
des virus attenues a des degres determines, on les adapte
a des especes ou a des races animales et on les introduit
dans des conditions particulieres. Tout ceci ne peut etre
facilement atteint par les moyens naturels seuls. Voila
pourquoi notre organisme n'est immunise ni contre les
staphylocoques, ni contre beaucoup d'autres microbes de
notre flore (streptocoques, colibacilles, etc.).

Sans compter sur cette vaccination spontanee et natu-
relle, I'art medical a mis beaucoup de soins pour eviter
Taction nuisible des microbes de notre flore. Dans ce but,
il a largement applique la desinfection de la peau pour
empecher leur penetration dans I'organisme. En chirurgie,
on cherche a desinfecter la peau du malade et celle de
Toperateur. Les ophtalmologistes essaient de desinfecter
la conjonctive. On tente la desinfection de la cavite
buccale et meme celle de I'estomac et des intestins.
Au debut de cette periode d'antisepsie, on avait les plus
grandes esperances dans son efficacite ; mais plus on
etudiait et approfondissait la question, plus il devenait
clair que la destruction des microbes si nombreux de
notre flore est chose tres difficile, sinon impossible.
Meme pour desinfecter la peau de nos mains qui est si

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 25

accessible a I'influencc des antiseptiques, on a rencontre
des difficultes extraordinaires. Les microbes adherents a
la surface peuvent etre elimines sans difficulte ; mais
ceux qui se sont accroches aux canaux des follicules
pileux ne se laissent pas facilement atteindre. Les
chirurgiens ont beaucoup discute dans ces dernieres
annees la question dela desinfection de notre peau et sont
pour la plupart arrives a la conclusion que ce but ne peut
etre atteint que d'une facon imparfaite.^

Bien plus difficile encore est la destruction des
microbes sur les muqueuses qui sont elles memes beau-
coup plus sensibles a Taction nuisible des antiseptiques
que la peau et les microbes. Beaucoup de medecins ont
reconnu toute I'inutilite de I'emploi des antiseptiques
intestinaux et y ont renonce plus ou moins completement.
MUller resume une opinion sur I'antisepsie intestinale,
partagee par un grand nombre de ses confreres, lorsqu'il
dit que " les antiseptiques ont souvent ete non seulement
d'utilite nulle, mais ont meme ete nuisibles, en diminuant
par leurs proprietes toxiques la reaction salutaire des
cellules vivantes." Stern-, a Breslau, a beaucoup etudie
cette question, en se servant des methodes bacteriologiques.
II a trouve, entre autres faits negatifs, que de fortes doses
de j3-Naphtol, considere comme le meilleur antiseptique
intestinal, administrees pendant 12 jours, n'ont pas ete en
etat de diminuer la quantite des microbes du tube digestif.
II exprime a la fin de son rapport I'esperance que peut-
etre plus tard on trouvera quelque moyen meilleur pour
arriver au but.

Renoncant plus ou moins completement a I'emploi
des antiseptiques, on recourt de plus en plus aux procedes

^ Quenu, Bulletin et /Wmoires de la SocUl^ de Chirurgie de Paris, 1900.
'^Verhandhtngen d. XVI. Congresses far innere Medicin, 1898,
p. 198.

26 Metcunikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Htimain.

mecaniques pour eloigner les microbes de notre corps.
Le lavage prolongc des mains par les liquides qui
n'abiment pas les cellules vivantes de notre peau, les
irrigations de la conjonctive des yeux et d'autres muqueuses
avec des liquides indifferents, comme la solution physio-
logique du sel marinou I'eau bouillie, sont entres generale-
ment dans la pratique. Le meilleur moyen d'antisepsie
intestinale, quoique relative, est reconnu dans Temploi des
medicaments qui produisent une evacuation frequente et
abondante de I'intestin. On obtient encore un certain
resultat en modifiant I'alimentation et en prescrivant le
regime lacte qui, d'apres les recherches de MM. Gilbert et
Dominici,^ diminue le nombre des microbes intestinaux.

Les tentatives si nombreuses, dirigees centre la flore
de notre corps, indiquent bien le danger dont nous
menacent beaucoup de microbes qui la constituent. S'il
est possible d'accepter quelque action utile de certains de
ses representants, il est encore plus certain qu'un grand
nombre de microbes de cette flore ont une influence
nuisible sur la sante. Mais comment concilier ce resultat
avec I'opinion, citee plus haut, que si notre flore est
reellement dangereuse, elle devrait depuis longtemps deja
etre eliminee par le fonctionnement unique de la selection
naturelle ? Cette selection, qui n'est autre chose que la
survivance des organismes adaptes au.x conditions de leur
existence et la disparition de ceu.x qui ne leur sont pas
adaptes, doit se manifester chez I'homme et chez les etres
superieurs tout aussi bien que chez n'importe quel animal
ou plante. Or, nous observons constamment que, non
seuiement les proprietes nuisibles pour la vie, mais meme
les organes, devcnus simplement inutiles, disparaissent
plus ou moins totalement. Sous la terre, dans les cavernes

^ Coinptes rendus de la SociJtJ de Biologie de Paris, 1S94.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 27

et les souterrains, ou la lumiere ne penetre pas, les yeux
ne peuvent servir a rien et nous les voyons reguliercment
s'atrophier chez des animaux tres divers, comme la taupe,
les poissons, les crustaces, vers et autres.

Pour faire ressortir encore davantage ce cote paradoxal
de la conservation de notre flore, dont la majorite des
representants est, non seulement inutile, mais incontesta-
blement nuisible, je vous signalerai ce fait que memc les
organes du corps humain qui nourrissent cette flore, sont
pour la plupart, eux aussi, inutiles ou nuisibles pour notre
sante et notre existence.

Vous vous rappelez que les canaux des follicules pileux
sont le siege d'une vegetation microbienne, dans laquelle se
trouvent quantite de staphylocoques capables de produire
beaucoup de maladies, plus ou moins graves. Eh bien,
ces follicules pileux sont des organes inutiles et ne repre-
sentent que des restes des polls qui recouvraient la peau
des animaux — nos ancetres. Autrefois ils etaient tres
utiles pour proteger la peau de ces anthropoides contre le
froid ; pour I'homme, ils ne sont rien moins que necessaires.

Dans le tube digestif de I'homme qui renferme la
flore la plus riche, nous rencontrons aussi des parties au
moins inutiles. Les conditions de I'alimentation de
I'homme, surtout de I'homme civilise, sont tout autres que
celles des animaux. Mais, meme avant d'etre arrive a ce
degre de perfection, I'homme a accuse deja une tendance
vers la disparition de certaines parties de son intestin.
Ainsi I'appendice vermiforme du caecum constitue le reste
d'un organe qui etait plus developpe chez ses ancetres-
animaux. Chez les singes anthropoides, on trouve deja
cette meme reduction du caecum sous forme d'appendice,
tres semblable a celui de I'homme.

Mais meme I'estomac, cet organe qui peut paraitre si
indispensable pour la digestion et la vie normale de

28 Metcmnikoff, Siir la Flore du Corps Humain.

rhomme, n'est en rcalitc qu'un grand reservoir d'aliments,
dont on peut se passer sans grands inconvcnients. On a
commence par I'enlever a des chiens et comme ces
animaux supporterent bien I'operation, on s'est decide a
la pratiquer chez I'hommc, atteint de tumeurs cancereuses.
Le premier cas de resection totale de I'estomac a ete
execute en 1897 par Schlatter a Zurich. Le resultat
favorable de cette operation a encourage d'autres chirur-
giens a suivre cette voie et actuellement il y a deja 4
personnes qui vivent sans estomac^ et fournissent ainsi un
argument important en faveur de I'inutilite de cet
organe. Avec I'estomac, a ete eloignee aussi sa flore, dont
I'absence n'a ete nullement ressentie par les operes.

De toutes les parties de notre tube digestif, c'est
certainement I'intestin grele qui est le seul organe in-
dispensable a la vie. Et encore chez I'homme qui peut
se nourrir avec des aliments facilement digestibles, I'intestin
grele est demesurement developpe. Au lieu d'avoir d'une
longueur de 5^ a 6^ metres, I'homme pourrait se con-
tenter d'un tiers. Roux, le chirurgien suisse bien connu, a
declare, lors de la discussion de la chirurgie intestinale
au dernier Congres international a Paris, que I'homme
peut tres bien vivre avec un metre et demi de jejunum.^
Aussi Kukula^ rapporte un cas, ou il a supprime a peu
pres deux tiers d'intestin grele avec le plus grand profit
pour son malade. Ce chirurgien ajoute a sa communication
cette reflexion que le gros intestin peut etre supprime meme
dans toute sa longueur. Et en effet, depuis que la chirurgie
intestinale s'est si largement developpee pendant ces
dernieres annees, on a obtenu des resultats remarquables
sur r elimination du gros intestin. Ainsi dans un cas,

* Bulletin de PAcadc'mie de Medecine de Paris, 1 90 1, N"- I, p. 17.
" Berliner klinische Wcchenschrift, 1900, N"- 38, p. 855.
^ Archiv fiir klinische Chirurgie, Bd. 60, 1900, N"* 4.

MancJiester Alenioirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 29

Korte^ a enleve, avec une partie de I'intestin grele, la plus
grande portion du gros intestin, dont il n'est reste que le
segment terminal. Le malade qui a subi huit operations
intestinales consecutives, a fini par guerir completement.
Chez un autre malade, opere par Wiesinger,'- il a ete
elimine a peu pres deux tiers du gros intestin ulcere. Le
c^cum et le colon ascendant ont ete sondes avec le
rectum, tandis que les colons transverse et descendant
ont ete separes et ouverts du cote droit du ventre.

Je pourrais citerd'autres exemples d'operations chirur-
gicales, couronnees de succes, pour prouver I'inutilite du
gros intestin pour I'homme. Mais, sans vouloir abuser de
votre patience, je ne peux me dispenser de vous mentionner
un fait qui confirme mieux que n'importe quelle operation
chirurgicale la these que je defends. II s'agit^ d'une
vieille femme qui, depuis 37 ans, a une fistule intestinale,
par laquelle s'evacuent les dechets de sa digestion. La
fistule s'est ouverte spontanement a la suite d'un abces au
cote droit du ventre. Cette infirmite ne I'a pas empechee
cependant de se marier,d'avoir trois enfants et de gagner sa
vie par un travail penible. 35 ans apres la formation de la
fistule la personne en question fut examinee par un
chirurgien qui lui proposa de lui faire une operation, afin
de la remettre a I'etat normal. La femme consentit. Mais,
apres I'ouverture du ventre, on constata que le gros intestin
etait atrophic dans toute sa longueur, depuis le caecum
jusqu'a son bout terminal ; I'ouverture de la fistule se
trouvait au dessus du caecum et conduisait directement dans
I'intestin grele. Dans ces conditions, il etait impossible de
fermer la fistule, de sorte que le chirurgien, M. Ciechomski,
a du renfermer le ventre et abandonner la patiente a son

'^ Archiv fur Idinische Chirurgie, Bd. 48, 1894, p. 715.

* Munchener medicinische Wochenschrift , 1898.

' Archivfiir klinische Chirurgie, Bd. 48, 1894, p. 136.

30 Metchnikoff, Sur la Flore du Corps Humain.

sort. Celle-ci gucrit promptement et continua a vivre
comme avant I'operation. Voila done un cas ou I'absence
complete de tout le gros intestin a pu etre tres bien
supportee par une personne qui vivait dans des conditions
assez difficiles.

II resulte de tout ceci que nous possedons un organe
volumineux et tres developpe, le gros intestin, qui, ne
remplissant aucune fonction utile, heberge une flore tres
abondante et varice, toute une masse de microbes, capables
de nous nuire par leurs poisons.

En presence de ce fait il y a lieu de se demander ce
que c'est que le gros intestin, quelle est son origine et sa
raison d'etre ? Les follicules pileux qui servent de refuge
aux microbes de la peau sont egalement des organes
inutiles ; mais leur histoire est plus simple, car ce sont
des restes de polls qui protegeaient les mammiferes, dont
descend I'homme, contre le froid. Le gros intestin au con-
traire, loin de se presenter comme un simple reste, est un
organe largement developpe.

Eh bien, malgre cela il faut le considerer aussi comme
un heritage inutile de nos ancetres zoologiques qui, il n'y a
pas a en douter, tiraient quelque benefice de sa possession.
L'anatomie comparee nous enssigne que, de tous les
vertebres, il n'y a que les mammiferes qui soient munis
d'un gros intestin proprement dit. Les oiseaux, les
reptiles et les autres vertebres inferieurs n'en possedent
point. II y a bien des appendices chez certains poissons et
des ca^cums chez beaucoup d'oiseaux, mais ces organes
ne correspondent pas au colon de I'homme et des
mammiferes. Ces derniers sont des animaux, pour la
plupart terrestres, qui trouvent leur nourriture, animale ou
vegetale, a la surface du sol. II est possible que quelques
mammiferes herbivores aient besoin du ca;cum et
du gros intestin pour I'utilisation de leur nourriture

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 31

peu digestible. Dans ces cas, la presence d'une quantite
de microbes pourrait aussi leur etre utile, notamment
pour la digestion de la cellulose. D'un autre cote, il
est probable que le developpement du gros intestin
servait comme reservoir pour les dechets de la digestion.
Les mammiferes qui devaient courir tres vite, soit pour
echapper a leurs ennemis, soit pour attraper leur proie,
etaient genes pour vider leurs intestins. Un gros intestin
devait dans ces conditions etre d'une grande utilite. Aussi
nous voyons que les mammiferes qui courent le plus
rapidement, comme le cheval et le lievre, ont le gros
intestin et le caecum le plus developpes. II est remarquable
que, parmi les oiseaux, les coureurs, comme les autruches et
les casoars, ont acquis egalement un gros intestin assez long
et que leurs ca;cums sont les plus developpes de toute la
serie des etres a plumes. Ce sont done les exigences de la
lutte pour la vie qui ont amene la formation du gros intestin
chez les vertebres. Le developpement de cet organe, qui
servait comme reservoir pour les residus de la nourriture,
a determine a son tour le developpement d'une flore
microbienne tres riche. Pour la plupart des mammiferes,
les avantages de cette acquisition devaient compenser les
inconvenients qu'elle entrainait. Les mammiferes ont
une vie plus courte que les oiseaux et les vertebres
inferieurs en general. Les amateurs de betes savent bien
que, des animaux que Ton pent garder dans les apparte-
ments, comme souris, petits oiseaux, tortues et poissons
dores, ce sont les souris qui meurent les premieres.
Elles ne vivent qu'un petit nombre d'annees, 3, 4 tout
au plus. Les petits oiseaux, comme les canaris, vivent
en moyenne 16 ans et peuvent dans de bonnes conditions
atteindre 20 ans et meme davantage. Les poissons dores
ont a peu pres la meme longevite que les petits oiseaux,
tandis que les tortues ont une vie encore plus longue. Eh

32 Metchnikoff, Siir la Flore du Corps Hiimain.

bien, dans cette petite collection de betes vivantes, il n'y a
que la souris qui possede un gros intestin veritable. La
meme regie se confirme d'une facon gencrale. II y a bien
quelques mammiferes qui vivent longtemps, comme
I'elephant qui peut atteindre Page de 120 ans. Mais ce
cas est plutot exceptionnel. Les grands mammiferes, le
cheval par exemple, vivent difificilement plus de vingt ans.
Des chevaux, ages de plus de 30 ans, sont tres rares, et
des exemples, comme le poney de Shetland qui a
vccu 42 ans ou un poney du pays de Galles qui a atteint
soixante ans, sont tout-a-fait exceptionnels. Les mammi-
feres de taille moyenne ou petite vivent encore moins
longtemps, tandis que, dans le monde des oi.seaux, les cas
de longevite sont frequents. II y a meme des oiseaux de
taille moyenne ou petite, comme les perroquets, les grands-
ducs {Bilbo maxiinus), les corbeaux, qui peuvent vivre 60
a 100 ans. Chez les reptiles, la longevite est quelquefois
encore plus grande et on cite des tortues ayant vccu plus
de 250 ans.

On peut dire en general que la vie des vertebres qui
nont pas de gros intestin et qui ne possedent qu'une flore
intestinal^ pauvre est plus longue que celle des mammi-
feres avec leur gros intestin fortement developpe et leur
flore intcstinale tres abondante. On est presque tente
d'eriger en loi que plus le gros intestin est long, plus la
vie est courte. II y a certainment quelques exceptions a
cette regie. Mais aussi il y a beaucoup de cas qui la
confirment. Parmi les oiseaux, ce ne sont pas du tout
les plus grands, comme les autruches ou les casoars, qui
vivent le plus longtemps. M. Riviere qui s'occupe de
I'elevage des autruches en Algerie, estime la vie de cet
oiseau a 35 ans, ainsi qu'il resulte d'une lettre qu'il a bien
voulu m'envoyer. On a signalc un casoar Emu d'Australie

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 33

qui a vecu au Jarclin des Plantes de Paris pendant 23 ans/
mais on ne connait pas chez ces oiseaux de longevite aussi
grande que ciiez les perroquets, les oies, les cygnes et
autres de taille beaucoup plus petite. Eh bien, les
autruches et les casoars se distinguent par un grand
developpement de leur gros intestin et des caecums, tandis
que les oiseaux a longue vie n'ont le plus souvent aucun
de ces organes ou bien n'ont que des caecums peu
developpes.

Lorsqu'on compare la flore microbienne de I'intestin
terminal chez des oiseaux, chez des mammiferes et chez
rhomme,on est frappe de la faible quantite de microbes chez
les premiers. Les oiseaux, ne possedant pas de gros intestin,
ne peuvent pas accumuler de grandes quantites de dechets
qui se peuplent de myriades de bactcries. lis doivent pour
cette raison cvacuer trcs souvent leur tube digestif, ce qui
est, comme vous vous rappelez, le meilleur proccdc d'anti-
sepsie intestinale. D'une facon naturelle et inconsciante,
les oiseaux sont arrives sous ce rapport au meme resultat
que celui qui avait etc si nettement formule au Congres de
Medecine Interne a Wiesbaden.

N'ayant besoin du gros intestin et de sa flore ni
pour digercr la cellulose, ni pour garder pendant longtemps
les residus de la digestion, I'homme ne tire aucun profit
de cet organe. Par contre, il en eprouve tous les incon-
venients. II est soumis a I'influence des secretions
continues des nombreux microbes abritcs par le gros
intestin. A cote des poisons, qui favorisent Taction
nuisible de la flore cutanee, il en existe bien d'autres qui
empoison nent a la longue les elements les plus precieux
et les plus nobles de notre organisme, amenant ainsi un
vieillissement precoce de nos organes et tissus II faut
ajouter encore les maladies nombreuses du gros intestin et

1 Ouslalet, La Nature, Paris, 1900.

34 MeTCIINIKOFF, Siir la Flore du Corps Humain.

de ses annexes, comme les appendicites, les colites, la
dysenteric et surtout le cancer, dont Icgros intestin est un
des sieges favoris.'

On conceit comment un organe, devenu inutile, con-
tribue a abreger notre existence. Et cependant, I'instinct
de I'homme lui dit d'une facon cloquente que sa vie n'est
pas assez longuc, qu'elle s'arrete avant d' aboutir a son
terme normal. Depuis longtemps, les poctes et les
philosophes ont eu le sentiment de quelque chose de
contradictoire dans notre nature, ce qui les a amencs a
voir notre existence d'une facon trcs pessimiste. Votre
grand poete, Lord B}'ron, a exprimc dcja cette pensce.

Ah ! Ce nionde visible, en lui meme et ses lois,

Comme il est beau! mais nous, qui nous nommons ses rois,

Moitie dieux, moitie boue, a descendre indociles,

Impuissants a monter, creatures mobiles,

Notre nature mixte et d'elcments divers,

Trouble, de ses combats, la paix de I'univers. —

{Manfred, Chap. II.)

Mais pourquoi done la selection naturelle n'a-t-elle pas
regie cette absence d'harmonie entre nos instincts et les
defauts de notre organisme qui entravent leur realisation?
Ou bicn cette selection, qui a amenc tant de belles
adaptations dans le monde animal et vegetal, serait-elle
impuissante, lorsqu'il s'agit de I'appliquer a I'homme ?

On compare souvent les organismes, au sujet desquels
la selection naturelle a dit presque son dernier mot, avec
I'homme oil cette selection est encore en pleine activite.
Lorsqu'on songe qu'un quart des enfants qui naissent

' Ainsi de 343 cancers intestinaux, releves a I'autopsie a I'hopital de V'ienne
pendant 24 annees, 164 se sont produits sur le colon, tandis que 17 seule-
ment se sont de%'cloppes dans rintcstin grcle. Nolhnagel, Die Erkranktnigen
des Darms, 1898, p. 220.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), A^^. 5. 35

n'atteignent pas leur deuxieme annce^ ; que sur 100
hommes, 57 meurent avant I'age de 50 ans ; que sur 1,000
individus, Gy seulement arrivent a 1 age de 90 ans, qui ne
doit pas encore etre considcrc comme le terme final de la
vie normale de I'homme, on verra bien que la selection
naturelle climine un trop grand nombre de victimes.

La selection naturelle agit continuellement sur
I'homme ; seulement ses resultats ne s'acquierent qu'au
bout d'un temps tres long. Pour se rendre compte de
cette lenteur de la selection naturelle, il n'y a qu' a jeter un
coup d'oeil sur son activitc dans la serie animale. On
voit bien que, chez la plupart des oiseaux, les appendices
ca^caux sont des organes inutiles, comme notre gros
intestin. Chez certaines especes ils ont completement
disparu ; chez d'autres, ils se trouvent sous forme de petits
rudiments, incapablcs de servir a la digestion ou comme
receptacles de dechets; mais chez un grand nombre
d'oiseaux, on rencontre encore des csecums plus ou moins
bien developpes.

En dehors de sa grande lenteur, la selection naturelle
chez I'homme eprouve encore des perturbations a la suite
de I'ingerence de Part humain. Voici par exemple I'appen-
dice vermiforme de I'intestin qui est nuisible a I'homme.
La selection naturelle amene la survivance des individus
chez qui cet appendice est le plus atrophic. Les personnes
au contraire qui possedent un gros appendice avec un
canal qui peut s'infecter, grace a la penetration des para-
sites et des corps etrangers, devraient etre eliminees par
la selection naturelle. Mais ici intervient I'art medical.
II guerit I'appendicite ou enleve cet organe par voie
chirurgicale. Les descendants de la personne guerie ont
la plus grande chance d'heriter d'elle I'appendice aussi pen
atrophic et aussi defectueux.

' Wappaeus. Allgemehie Bevolkertings-statistik, 1859.

$6 Metchnikoff, S7(r la Flore du Corps Humain.

II est de toute evidence que rhomme ne peut pas
abandonner son sort a la selection naturelle. Pour
I'elevage des animaux domestiques ou la culture des
plantes, il a invente la selection artificielle, de meme, pour
sa propre espece, il doit par des moyens artificiels arriver
a mettre en harmonic ses instincts avec les proprietes de
son organisme.

Pour la question qui nous interesse d'une facon
particuliere, c'esta-dire la flore denotre corps, I'art humain
a un champ d'activite tres vaste. Comme les elements
nobles sont ceux qui souffrent le plus des poisons micro-
biens de cette flore, il y a lieu de les renforccr dans leur
resistance. Dans ce but, peuvent etre d'une grande utilite
les substances specifiques, capables d'augmenter I'activite
de la plupart des cellules de nos organes. Par une serie
de recherches, poursuivies durant ces trois dernieres
annees, on a etabli qu'il est facile de preparer des poisons
particuliers qui, a fortes doses, detruisent les elements
divers. Ces memes poisons, ou cytotoxines, appliques en
faible dose, agissent au contraire d'une facon stimulante
sur les cellules specifiques. On a deja obtenu des poisons
vis-a-vis des globules rouges et blancs, des cellules renales,
hepatiques, nerveuses, etc. Chacun de ces poisons pourrait
etre employe pour augmenter I'activite des elements
correspondants.

Mais on peut lutter non seulement contre I'affaibHsse-
ment des cellules nobles, indispensables pour notre vie
normale, mais encore contre les microbes de notre flore
meme. L'antisepsie en general et I'antisepsie intestinale
en particulier n'ont pas donne de resultats satisfaisants.
Mais cette voie ne doit pas pour cela etre abandonnee. II y
a lieu de chercher des antiseptiques speciaux qui peut-etre
pourront etre utilises pour la destruction des microbes.
Nous avons vu plus haut des larves de mites qui digerent

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 5. 37

des bacteries. Les ferments digestifs de ces insectes
pourraient etre employes pour nous debarrasser des
microbes nuisibles de notre flore. J'ai cru un moment
que les insectes qui se nourrissent avec des matieres
putrefiees, comme les larves des mouches et les staphylins,
devraient produire dans leur tube digestif beaucoup de ces
ferments bactericides. Je dois avouer que jusqu' a present
mes tentatives n'ont pas etc couronnees de succes, ce qui
n'empeche nullement de continuer des recherches dans
cette voie.

II existe aussi des ferments qui detruisent les microbes,
ferments qu'on obtient avec des serums d'animaux immu-
nises centre des bacteries donnees. Ainsi, on prepare
des serums qui detruisent le vibrion cholcrique, d'autres qui
attaquent les bacilles typhiques et ainsi de suite. On ne
connait pas encore d'une facon suffisante tous les represen-
tants de notre flore, mais on est deja en bonne voie pour
resoudre cette question. On pourra des lors preparer des
serums microbicides contre les especes nuisibles qui
habitent dans notre corps. On peut egalement obtenir
des serums contre certains poisons microbiens, notamment
contre les toxines.

Les methodes microbiologiques peuvent done etre
largement appliquees par I'art humain pour arriver au
resultat qui n'a pas ete realise par la selection naturelle.
II faut esperer que ces methodes sufifiront pour arriver au
but et qu'il ne faudra point recourir, comme "ultima
ratio," -a I'intervention chirurgicale Tout le monde
est temoin des progres extraordinaires, realises par
la chirurgie, depuis que Lord Lister, inspire par les de-
couvertes de Pasteur, a completement revolutionne cet
art. Qui pouvait soupconner, il y a encore peu d'annees,
qu'on arriverait a enlever I'estomac et a eliminer presque
tout le gros intestin et une grande partie de I'intestin

38 Metchnikoi F, S7ir la Flore dn Corps Ihanam.

grele ? La chirurgie n'a pas encore dit son dernier mot ;
la chirurgie abdominale notamment doit encore rcaliser
bien des perfectionncments. On pourra preparer le peri-
toine avant I'operation par des injections de liquides
steriles, capables d'amener toute une armce de cellules
defensives, pretes a entrer en lutte. On pourra se servir
aussi de scrums microbicidcs et antitoxiques, comme
mo\'ens prcventifs contre Ics microbes en cas de leur
immixtion dans I'organisme opcre.

Nous payons par nos souffranccs les avantages que
donnaient a nos ancetres les entrailles peuplees d'une
flore microbienne tres riche. Cette flore est la cause
principale de la trop courte durce de notre vie qui s'eteint
avant davoir atteint son but. La conscience humaine est
arrivee a bien preciser cette injustice. II faut que la
science se mette avec energie a I'ceuvre pour la reparer.
Elle y parviendra et il faut esperer que le siecle qui vient
de naitre assistera a la solution de ce grand probleme.

Manchester Me^noirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 6.

VI. On a New Species of Sepia and other Shells
collected by Dr. R. Koettlitz in Somaliland.

By W. E. HOYLE and R. Standen.

Received and read December nth, igoo.

In the year 189S, Dr. Reginald Koettlitz joined an
expedition which passed through Somaliland from Ber-
bera to the Blue Nile. He gave an account of the journey
to the Geographical Society of this city, which has
appeared in its Proceedings {Jouni. Manch. Geogr. Soc^Yol.
16, Nos. I — 3, 1900). The collecting of mollusca was not
one of the definite aims of the expedition, but a good
many were obtained, partly on the shore before the party
left for the interior and partly during the trip. All the
marine forms are from Zeila, nearly opposite Aden, and
were gathered on the beach, and hence many of them are
not in good condition. The material was handed over to
the staff of the Manchester Museum for examination and
description, and the results seemed worthy of being laid
before this Society. We have thought it well to indicate
by our initials those portions of the paper for which we
are severally responsible.

CEPHALOPODA.

Sepia koettliizi, n. sp. (Plate I.)

The soft parts are unknown.

The Shell* {PL I., Figs, i, 3) has a narrow elongated
oval outline, narrowing to a blunt termination in front,
tapering at first gradually, then more rapidly backwards,

• The terminology is that adopted in the " Report on the Cephalopoda
collected by the ' Challenger'' Expedition (1886), p. 123.

July joth, igoi.

2 HOVLE AND Standen, New Species of Sepia.

and ending in a point. The cJiitinons margin is narrow
on the ventral surface, broader on the dorsal, being about
one-twelfth of the breadth of the shell in the middle,
broader in front and narrower behind.

The dorsal surface {Fig. 3) is rugose, finely in front,
more coarsely behind ; along the middle line there passes a
slightly elevated longitudinal rib, narrow behind, gradually
widening as it passes forwards ; on either side of it is a
shallow groove, the remainder of the surface being evenly
convex.

The ventral surface is but little elevated, the thickness
of the shell being greatest about one-fourth back from the
anterior extremity ; the last lociilns has an index of about
24; it has a shallow depression along the centre, and its
posterior boundary is deeply emarginate, the two limbs
being inclined to each other at an average angle of about
60° ; the two limbs start from a sharp curve in the middle,
diverge at first rather rapidly, then more gradually until,
where they reach the margin, they become slightly con-
vergent. The striated area is deeply grooved along the
centre, with a prominent rounded elevation on either side.
The inner cone is a broad flattened horny callus, coming
to a point behind, excavated in front, the two limbs
extending as narrow fillets along the sides of the striated
area for about half the length of the shell. The spine is
of medium size and curves slightly upwards.

Dimensions.

Koettlitz

Brit. Mus.

Specimen.

i-pecimcD.

Length (of the broken shell) ...

.. 105

113

„ (restored)

.. 115

117

„ of last loculus (restored)

.. 25

30

Breadth

•■ 17

42

Length of inner cone

10

10

spine

4

mm.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 6. 3

The above description is taken from the example col-
lected by Dr. Koettlitz. There is a shell in the British
Museum (Natural History), [Reg. No., 69. 6. 14. i] in the
McAndrevv collection from the Red Sea, which clearly
belongs to the same species i^Pl. I, Fig. 2).

It differs from the shell just described in the following
points : —

1. The shell is more elliptical and not so oblong in

outline.

2. The striated area is not so deeply channelled in the

middle line, and the rounded swellings on either
side are not so prominent. This may perhaps be
due to the specimen having been much rubbed.

3. The hinder portion of the shell in front of the inn er

cone is more deeply concaved.
These characters do not seem to me of specific value but
rather to indicate that Dr. Koettlitz's specimen is a male,
the other a female.

This species apparently comes nearest to Sepia singa-
lensis Goodrich {Trans. Linn. Sac. (2), Vol. 7, p. 3, 1896),
but differs in that (i) the chitinous margin on the dorsal
surface is much narrower, and (2), the inner cone is
flattened, and, if anything, rather concave and not convex
as indicated in Goodrich's figure ; it also approaches
Sepia acnlcata van Hasselt, which, however, also has the
inner cone strongly convex, and the outline of the shell
broader and more evenly oval. Sepia zanzibarica Pfeffer
is another allied form, but here again the inner cone is
elevated instead of flat.

W. E. H.

4 HOYLF. AND Standen, New species of Sepia.

GASTROPODA.

PULMONATA.

Buliminus {Zebrina) albatus Fer.

Lake Hanamaga.
Bulimimis {Zcbrina) revoili Brgt.

Dabus and Arabayo.
Btirtoa iii/otica Pfr.

Mendi.
Limicolaria caillmidi Pfr.

Mendi, and Beni Spongul country 'on west side
of Dabus River.
Limicolaria flaminea Miill.

West side of River Dabus, and east of Lapa
Martin Camp.

OPISTHOBRANCHIATA.

Bulla ampulla L.
Atys nauc2im L.

PROSOBRANCHIATA.

Terebra {Subtila) duplicata Lam.

Conus betulinus L.

Pyrula {Melotigena) pai'adisiaca Mart.

Fasciolaria trapezium L.

Oliva {Strephofia) inflata L.

Nassa arc2ilaria L.

Nassa coronata Lam.

Murex tribulus L.

Murex {Phyllouotus) anguliferus Lam.

Murex {Cliicoreus) ramosus L.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 0.

Purpura {Stramonita^ hceniastoma L.

„ „ var. bicostalis Lam.

Aquilliis pilearis L.
Aqiiillus {Gutternuuii) gallinago Rve.
Cassis {Semicassis) bisulcata Schub.
Cyprcea erosa L., var. neb rites Melv.
Cyprcea arabica L.
CyprcBa turdns Lam.
Stronibiis {Canariuni) floridus Lam.
S trombus {Canariuni) gibberidus L.
Strombus tricornis Lam.
Cerithiuin coiuntna Sow.
CeritJiiuni cceruleum Sow.
CeritJiiuni erythrceense Lam.
Cerithiuni petrosum Wood.
Modulus tectum Gmel.
Turritella bzcingulata Lam.
Melania tuberculata Mlill.
Cleopatra bulimoides Oliv.

Blue Nile, Khartoum.
Amptdlaria cf. revoili Bill.

Blue Nile, Khartoum.
Otoponia poirieri Brgt.

Dabus and Arabayo.
Natica {Mamma) mamilla L.
Nerita ( Thelicostyla) albicilla L.
Phasianella {Eutropia) nivosa Rve.
Turbo {Sennectus) radiatus Gmel.
Turbo {Marmorostoma) coronatus Gmel.
Pyramidea dentata Forsk.
Euchelus tricarinatiis L.

PELECYPODA.
Spondylus gcederopus L.

6 HOVLE AND Standen, Neiv species of Sepia.

Anomalocardia uropyginclana Bory.
Cardiiun {Trachycardiiiui) rubicundtim Rve.
Cardiiivi {Bitcardi?an) lima Gmel.
Chavia rueppelli Rve.
Crista pectinata L.
Tapes {Hentitapes) pitigiiis Ch.
Paphia glabrata Desh.
Venempis derelict a Desh.
Corbicula fliuninalis Mlill.
Blue Nile, Khartoum.
A sapJiis deflorata L.
Mactra olorina Phil.
Tellina ( Tellinelld) riigosa Born.

R. S.

Explanation of Plate I.

SEPIA KOETTLITZI.

Fig. I. Dorsal view of the specimen collected by Dr. Koettlitz.

,, 2. Ventral view of the specimen in the McAndrew col-
lection, British Museum (Natural History).

,, 3. Ventral view of ihe specimen collected by Dr. Koettlitz.

(The figures are about one-tenth less than the actual specimens.)

Manchester Memoirs, lb/. XLV.

Plate 1.

SEPIA KOETTLITZI.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 7.

VII. On the Phloem of Lepidophloios and Lepido-
dendron.

By Professor F. E. Weiss, B.Sc, F.L.S.

Received aitd read October 30th, igoo.

The structure of the phloem in the genus Lepidophloios
and in the nearly allied genus Lepidodendron has been
the subject of much discussion and of considerable differ-
ence of opinion. This is mainly due to the fact that its
delicate tissues are rarely found in a good state of pre-
servation. For, while the dead and Hgnified elements of
the wood are not liable to much injury, the phloem,
composed as it is, in all plants, largely of delicate living
cells, is much more subject to speedy decay on the death
of the plant, and is therefore less commonly met with in
the fossil condition in a good state of preservation. In
the two genera referred to above it is often not preserved
at all.

Examining, as I have done, a very large number of
specimens of LepidopJdoios and of Lepidodendron in the
Cash, Hick, and Wild Collections of Coal Measure fossils
in the Manchester Museum, I have found only a very few
specimens in which the tissues of the phloem region were
moderately well preserved, even when such delicate cells
as those of the mid-cortex and of the cambium were fairly
perfect.

The sections of LepidopJdoios fidiginosus figured by

Williamson under the name of Lepidodendron Harcourtii

in his Xlth Memoir on the Organisation of the Fossil

Plants of the Coal-Measures^ show the details of most

1 Williamson W. C, Phil. Trans., Part II., 1881.

July lotli, igoi.

2 Weiss, PJiloem of Lepidophloios and Lepidodendton.

of the tissues very clearly, but are defective with regard to
a portion of the phloem.

In Fig. 1 1 V){ Plate 49 it can be seen to consist of small-
celled parenchyma with "large isolated cells." Even in
the excellent preparations in the Hinney Collection of
Coal Measure Plants now at Cambridge, which have
recently been described by Seward (I.)' the phloem region
is only partially preserved. From an examination
of these preparations Seward concludes that the large
clear spaces which form so prominent a feature of Lepido-
phloios " cannot be satisfactorily explained as the result
of decay previous to mineralisation." He considers that their
appearance is suggestive of sacs or spaces formed, for the
most part during the life of the plant, by the separation
and partial disorganisation of thin-walled cells. " The
constant occurrence of patches of dark brown substance in
this zone " seems to him to point to a secretory nature of
the tissue, and hence he terms the phloem region the
secretory zone. This explanation is also advanced by
Seward (11.)^ for the appearance of similar large spaces in a
"Lepidodendroid stem from the calciferous sandstone of
Dalmeny, possibly identical with Lepidophloios Harcourtii
(Witham)."

Among the specimens of Lepidophloios fuliginosits
in the Manchester Museum I have come across three
preparations, in the Cash Collection of Coal Measure
Plants, which throw a little further light upon the structure
of the phloem, by the excellent state of preservation of its
tissues. The three preparations (No. 409, 645 A, 645 B)
are all transverse sections cut from the same stem,

> Seward, A. C. (I.). Proc. Cavth. Phil. Soc, Vol. X., Part III.,
1900.

•■^Seward, A. C. (II.). Tratis. Roy. Soi. Edinl:, Vol. XXXIX.,
Part IX., No. 31, 1900.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. Tf. 3

which was about three inches in diameter, and very finely
ground by Mr. James Binns. The original block was
from the Halifax Hard Bed, and Mr. Cash is under the
impression that he collected it at the Cinder Hill Pit, near
Halifax.

A cursory examination of the preparations would not
lead one to expect a very good state of preservation, as
only a portion of the stem is preserved. But, as will be
seen on closer examination, all its tissues are most wonder-
fully intact. The presence in the mid-cortex of innumerable
well-preserved fungal filaments might seem hardly in
accord with the undamaged condition of the tissues, but
the fact that the delicate cells of this cortical region are
practically uninjured leads me to suppose that the fungus
was a parasitic and not a saprophytic form.

Fz£: I {Plate i) shows a portion of section No. 645 A,
which, being very thinly ground at this point, shows
very clearly the excellent preservation of the tissues. In
the bottom left hand corner is seen a portion of the
primary wood, with the smaller protoxylem elements near
the periphery. Separated from this by a crack is the
secondary tissue, consisting of more or less regular rows
of apparently parenchymatous cells, an appearance very
typical of Lepidophloios fuliginosus. The presence of this
secondary tissue shows that the stem had arrived at some
state of maturity. A number of leaftrace bundles pass
through the secondary tissue, which is bounded on the
outside by a very clear and sharply defined layer of cells
which have generally been indentified as a secondary
meristem, though differing in many respects from the
cambium of recent plants and also from the cambium
of other fossil cryptogams. This clearly defined layer
of cells is not infrequently well preserved in this species,
and gives us very distinctly the inner boundary of the

4 Weiss, Phloem of LepidopJilcios and Lepidodendron.

phloem region which stretches from here to the some-
what dark band forming the boundary between the central
vascular cylinder and the cortical region. The phloem
which, as stated above, is usually very defective in Lcpido-
phloioSy sometimes indeed entirely disorganised, is here,
as can be readily seen from Fig. i, completely preserved,
though its tissues are somewhat confused in the thicker
portions of the section. It will be noticed at once that
it is not characterised by those large spaces figured by
Williamson' and which Seward regards as secretory
sacs. The largest cells in the phloem are not as large as
the cells of the cortex, while the so-called secretory sacs of
the less well-preserved specimens are far larger than the
cortical cells, as large indeed as the larger vessels of the
primary wood. We can therefore only conclude that when
such large spaces occur they are due to the decay,
previous to mineralisation, of whole groups of cells. The
only other alternative, namely, that the tissue was not yet
fully mature, seems precluded by the presence of so large
an amount of secondary tissue.

On closer examination of the phloem it will be
observed, as is perhaps better seen in a more enlarged
view {Fig. 2) of the thinnest portion of Fig. i, that the
largest cells of this tissue are generally surrounded by a
somewhat regular and star- shaped group of cells. Two
such groups are well seen towards the right-hand side
of the phloem in Fig. i and on a larger scale in Fig. 2.
Separating such groups are cells of various sizes some-
what irregularly placed.

Another enlarged view of the phloem from a very

thin portion not included in Fig. i is represented in

Fig. 3. Though the tissues in this portion of the phloem

region seem somewhat confused, one or two groups

1 Williamson, W. C, ioc. cit. Plate 49, Fig. 11.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. K. 5

stand out clearly and are of special interest. They lie
near the middle of the section and show a more definite
arrangement of cells than is shown by the rest of the
tissue. One of these groups is still further enlarged in
Fzg-. 4 (P/aU J I.) This group has a clear-cut oval out-
line, formed by a darker cell-wall surrounding a group
of six or seven cells. One can clearly distinguish a
central cell surrounded by five or six peripheral cells.
There seems to me little doubt that such a group of cells
corresponds to one of the large spaces usually met with
in the phloem region of this fossil, and this identification
is rendered all the more probable from Mr. Seward's
observation in Binney's slides of "The occurrence of a
few smaller elements enclosed by the thin membranes
which mark the outlines of the sacs." ^ These he figures
in Fig. 3 and they are also seen in the oblique section
of a leaf-trace in Fig. 5 on Plate HI. The very
definite oval outline of the group of cells before us in
Fig. 4 of the present communication would lead us to
suppose that it had arisen from the sub-division of a
single cell, in which a central and a number of peripheral
cells had been cut off, very much as the nodal cell of
Chara divides into a central and peripheral cells. Another
and perhaps a more useful comparison might be made
with the separation of a number of companion cells from
a central sieve tube. I have examined the sections
under consideration very carefully, to obtain, if
possible, earlier stages of division than that shown
in Figs. 3 and 4, and have been able to find a
number of phloem cells divided by delicate walls
into two, three, or more cells, but it was impossible to
decide definitely whether these stages were preparatory to
further division as illustrated in the special group referred

1 Vide Seward, loc. cit. (I.), p. 147-

6 Weiss, Phloem of LepidopJiloios and Lepidodendron.

to. It would, of course, be quite possible for the divisions
to stop at this stage so that we should not obtain a
definite central cell. There were, however, other groups
of cells showing the same state of things as in the group
in Fig. 4, but a little less clearly. The number of cells
was not alwa}\s the same. Sometimes as few as four
were noted, and then, usually, no central cell occurred.
Generally, however, they were more numerous, and in a
specimen of LepidopJdoios I have just received from my
friend, Mr. William Cash, in which there are a great
number of these divided large cells, the number of
divisions is often very great, both the central and the
peripheral cells having divided up into smaller cells.
Indeed, the whole of the phloem region seems to have an
active meristematic condition and to be undergoing con-
siderable change, and the tissues have thereby become so
irregular that they differ a good deal from the prepara-
tions figured in this paper. As the secondary thickening
is only just commencing in the preparation lent me by
Mr. Cash, it must be considered as younger in age than
in the specimens from the Manchester Museum in which
such division stages are much less numerous and the
star-shaped arrangement more common. The increased
number of groups of cells of this latter category in the
older specimen suggests that after the subdivision of the
cells the star-shaped appearance has been produced by an
enlargement of the central cell and by further growth of
the peripheral cells of a subdivided phloem cell, such as is
figured in Fig. 4.

These star-shaped groups resemble very closely the
sieve tubes, surrounded by small parenchymatous cells, as
described and figured by Hovelacque' for Lepidodendron

^ Hovelacque. " Recherches sur le Lepidodendron selaginoides."
Mem. Soc. Linn. Normandie, .\vii'"« Vol., i"fas., 1892, pp. 49—5° and
Fig. II.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), A^^. T. 7

selaginoides. Whether such star-shaped groups can be
derived from the divided phloem cells cannot, of course,
be determined in the case of a plant known to us only in
the fossil condition ; but there seems a considerable degree
of probability of such a development in the numbers of
groups of cells showing an intermediate condition between
the two groups of cells. The preponderance of the divided
phloem cells in the younger, and of the star-shaped groups
in the older specimen, as stated above, also favours
this hypothesis. But whatever be the relationship of
these different groups of cells, they both make up part of
the phloem region of Lepidophloios, and the excellent state
of preservation of these preparations shows us that, in the
living condition, this phloem region was not occupied by
large lysigenous secretory sacs, as seemed possible from
less well-preserved specimens, but consisted of a definite
tissue, which has much of the appearance of a true
phloem, as indeed Seward' admits in his description
of Binney's specimens. It bears a very marked re-
semblance to the phloem, consisting of sieve tubes
and companion cells, in some aquatic stems such as
Potamogeton or Elodect, and is very similar to the
phloem figured by Bower^ around the central stem of
Psilohivi with which member of the living LycopodiacecB
he considers the Lepidodendnt have the greatest anatomical
resemblance. There is no evidence of the partial
disorganisation of the cell walls during the life of the
plant, the probability of which has been suggested by
Seward, and we must therefore consider such appearances
as he describes in the case of the specimens in the Binney

1 Seward, A. C. (II.), p. 155-

* c.p. Schenck, H. Vergkichende Anatomie der submersen Gewdchse.
Bibliotheca Boianica. No. i, 1886.

» Bower, F. O. Annals of Bot, Vol. vii., 1893.

8 Weiss, PJdoem of Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron.

Collection, and as occur in most other preparations of
Lepidophloios, as due to decay after the death of the plant
and previous to its mineralisation. It might be argued
that even if we have not in our specimens any evidence
of a lysigenous formation of glandular tissue as has been
suggested, yet some of the star-shaped groups of cells
may be of the nature of schizogenous ducts or passages.
To this it ma}' be answered that the central space in such
star-shaped groups is cellular, and not intercellular, as can
be seen from the occurrence in man}- groups of transverse
walls in all respects like those of other cells {see Fig. 2).
Nor is there in most cases any appearance of an accumula-
tion of secretion such as one would expect to find in a
tissue with a secretory function.

It is a pity that we have no longitudinal sections
taken from this well-preserved block, for it would be most
interesting to ascertain the length and the course of the
larger sub-divided cells described above or of the central
cell of the star shaped groups. In less well preserved
specimens of LepidopJdoios the large lacunas in the
phloem region run for some considerable distance, as
figured by Seward, and certainly have there the appearance
of secretory sacs. But in all probability a number of
transverse walls have become absorbed away, and in
a specimen of LepidopJdoios in my possession septa are
seen at intervals either transverse or slightly oblique, and
indicating probably the boundary of the elements which,
in the imperfectly preserved specimens, have formed large
spaces by absorption of their walls. These septa are seen
in Fig. 5, where they are indicated by an asterisk.

The breadth of these septa indicates that they ran
across the whole of one of the large lacuncX, and as these
lacunar arc not represented in size b)' an}- single elements,
we must assume that they corresponded, as I have in-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. T. 9

dicated before, and as is seen from the preparations in the
Binney Collection, described by Seward,^ to a group of
cells. Now since these large spaces are very numerous,
and since the large subdivided cells are infrequent, it
seems to me that both these latter and other groups of
cells, probably the star-shaped groups, have become dis-
organised to form the large lacunar region. Moreover,
as the septa indicate, these groups of more elongated cells
would follow each other in vertical series for some distance,
and thus afford a tissue well adapted for conducting
purposes. These groups of cells were closely set together,
as can be seen both in the perfectly preserved specimens
under consideration and also from those in which the
lacunae take the place of these groups of cells {see Plate
III., Fig. 3, in Seward's paper on Lepidophloios). Thus,
though we do not get a complete vertical continuity, yet,
by lateral passage of adjoining groups of conducting cells,
continuous conduction would be possible. It seems to
me, therefore, that the tissue occupying the phloem area
of Lepidophloios would satisfy all the conditions of a
conducting tissue and might be dignified by the name of
phloem. It would consist of groups of more elongated
cells, arranged for certain distances in vertical series.
These groups consisted, as far as we can see from transverse
sections, of a larger central and smaller peripheral cells,
each group either oval or star-shaped m outline, and would
seem by their mode of origin to correspond to the sieve
tubes and companion cells of the higher plants. Besides
these there were numerous short parenchymatous cells
which surrounded the groups of conducting cells (the
lacuna in the defective specimens) and these short
parenchymatous cells seem to have been more resistant,

1 Seward, loc. cit. Fig. 5, p. 151-

lO Weiss, Phloein of Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron.

and are generall}' better preserved, than the conducting
elements.

We have, of course, no proof that the conducting cells
were actually sieve tubes, but we must remember that
sieve tubes are not demonstrated to exist in all living
LycopodiacecE. According to De Bary^ " In the larger
indigenous Lycopodia {L. clavaUnn and annotiniunt) there
occur in the vascular bundles of the stem, organs which, in
their position and width, have great similarity to members
of the sieve tubes." But the sieve plates are, usually, so
faint that neither he nor Hegelmaier- could find the sieve
plates which had been described b}' DippeP. Campbell*,
too, describes the sieve plates as poorly developed and
difficult to demonstrate.

This absence of the sieve plates in some forms and
their want of distinctness in other cases must, I think, be
considered in connection with the chemical and physical
constitution of the cell wall, of the phloem elements in the
Lycopodia. As is known, the cell wall of the phloem
elements is, in these plants, not composed of cellulose but
of amyloid. This substance is described by Cross and
Bevan^ as a semi-hydrate of cellulose with the formula
^(CizHaaOn) and as allied to mucilage. It is, therefore, in
all probability, more readily permeable than cellulose, for
though it has been asserted by some botanists that a
mucilaginous layer impedes the passage of dissolved food
material, Pringsheim^ states definitely that the result of

^ De Bary. Comparative Anatomy^ p. iSl.

* Hegelmaier. Bot. Zeitung, 1872.

' Dippel. Ber.der-y^. Versammhtng deulscher Nalur/orscherzu Giessen,
1864.

* Campbell. Mosses and Ferns, 1895, p. 473.

^ Cross and Bevan. Cellulose, an Outline of the Chemistry of the
Structural Elements of Plants, 1895, p. 53 and p. 224.

* Pringsheim. Jahrbuch fiir wiss. Bot., 1895, Bd, 28, p. H-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 1. 11

experimental researches has established that the diffusion
of salts takes place as rapidly in gelatinous masses as in
water. A more readily permeable cell wall might very
easily account for the greater simplicity of the phloem
cells and for the reduction of the sieve plates.

Now, in view of the relationship of the Lepidodendracece
with the existing Lycopodiacca;, it seems not unlikely that
the fossil ancestors or allies of this group of plants
had phloem elements with walls of the same amyloid
substance, and this must, I think, be taken as the cause
of the great difficulty of preservation of this tissue and
the frequent absence of all structure from the phloem
region even when such delicate tissues as the cambium
and the mid cortex were preserved.

For amyloid, such as it exists in the seeds of some
leguminous plants, is of so mucilaginous a nature that it
dissolves in boiling water and is partly soluble in cold.
In the case of the Lycopodia though 1 could not get any
solution of the cell walls in hot water, yet they swelled
up considerably, so that we are dealing probably with a
more resistant variety of this substance though one which
is much more readily acted upon than cellulose.^

Gilson,2 in his memoir on the chemical composition of
the vegetable cell wall shows that probably there are two
such varieties of amyloid, one more easily soluble in water
and the other not readily soluble. Probably amyloid stored
as food material is of the former category, while amyloid
forming the cell walls of conducting cells is of the second
category. Still even this more resistant variety would be
more yielding than a cellulose wall, and if in breaking
down it formed mucilage, as seems likely, it would swell
up with water, and this might account for the fact that the

^ Cross and Bevan. Celhdose, p. 224.

2 Gilson E. La Cellule IX. 2« fascicule, 1893.

12 Weiss, Phloem of LepidopJdoios and Lepidodendron.

groups of phloem cells in LepidopJdoios which become
disorganised are not generally compressed by the firmer
tissues or by pressure during mineralization, but form wide
and rounded passages, often compressing the surrounding
tissues and showing that a force has been exerted from
within the lacunae A similar phenomenon may be noted
where the phloem groups have become partially or entirely
disorganised in Lepidodendron selaginoides, as can be seen
from Hovelacque's Figs, i and 2 on Plate IL of his memoir
on this plant.

One further point arises in connection with the phloem
of the stem, and that is, the question whether any part of
it is of a secondary origin. The cell divisions seen in
the cambial layer tend to show that it does add a little
to the phloem. Fig. 2 seems to show in the case
of some cells towards the left hand side that they have
been derived from the cambium. While some of the
phloem elements near the outside seem to be compressed
very much in the same way as in dicotyledonous plants
with secondary thickening, where they ultimate!}- form
hardened masses of tissue described as keratenchynia by
Tschirch.^ It seems to me very likely that it is elements
of this kind which have been described in the Lepidodendra
sometimes as bast fibres, sometimes as by Bertrand^ and
Hovelacque^ as latex cells. They may be readily seen on
the outside of the phloem in Psilot?iin, and one would
expect them even more naturally in a stem in which
.secondary thickening has taken place. Should they be
cells of this nature it would be more easy to explain their
absence, or the uncertainty of their presence, in certain

' Tschirch A. Angewatidte PJlanzenanatomie, 1889.
^ Bertrand. " Remarques surle Lepidodendron Harcourlii dc \Vitham."
Trav. et Metn. des Facultis de Lille, 1891.
' Hovelacque M., loc. cit.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv (1901), No. 1. 13

specimens, for such obliterated cells are very irregular in
their appearance^

So far I have been dealing with the phloem as seen in
the central vascular cylinder or stele of the stem. I pass
now to a consideration of the phloem of the leaf trace
bundles. These, as is well known, in passing outward
through the phloem region, retain on the outer surface a
certain amount of the tissues belonging to this region.
The best preserved specimen of these cells accompanying
the leaf trace are figured by Seward from the specimens
in the Binney Collection. YV\sFig. i on Plate WV? shows
the tissues not only well preserved but extremely thinly
ground. In this figure the tissue has an appearance not
unlike that just described for the stem of Lepidophloios
from Cash's specimens, and the appearance is not to
my mind very suggestive of a secretory tissue, but much
more of phloem cells. The cell walls are very distinct,
and there is no appearance of lysigenous degeneration
nor of any large amount of substance which could be
looked upon as secretion. The account of these cells as
seen in longitudinal section, and the figure he gives of
them Fig. 2, Plate IV., is not against their being true
phloem elements and concerned in conduction rather than
in secretion. They are at any rate very different from
the less well preserved tissue of the main axis, and
approach more closely well preserved cells of the Cash
specimens.

In Cash's specimens, however, the phloem of the leaf
trace bundles does not present so clear an appearance as

1 A good account of these cells (cellules nacrees) in both Phanerogams
and Cryptogams will be found in Perrot's Tissue crible, 1899, based chiefly
on the work of Jules Leger's ' Recherches sur I'origine et les transformations
des elements liberiens.' (ylA'w. .S"^.:. Linn. Normandie.)

" Seward, loc. cit. Plate. 3, Fig. I. See also Binney. Trans.
Palaoniograph. Soc, 1872.

14 Weiss, Phloem of LepidopJiloios and Lepidodendron.

in the Binney preparations. This is due partly to the
bundles being cut somewhat obliquely, and partly to the
greater thickness of the section at those points where the
leaf traces are cut as nearly transversely as possible, i.e.,
in the region of the inner cortex. In the mid-cortex
the leaf trace bundles run almost horizontally in typical
specimens of this species, but in the inner cortex they are
sufficiently nearl}' vertical to be approximately transversely
cut in a transverse section. Two such sections across the
leaf trace bundles are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, and they
both show the same features as regards the structure of
the phloem, and this is shown in the case of other bundles
not figured. It will be seen that the phloem consists of
some three rows of large-spaced elements somewhat
irregular in outline though with some regularity in their
arrangement. These large cells are apparently not
separated by smaller elements but adjoin each other, and
in this respect the phloem resembles the arrangement of
the tissue in the stems of many of the living Lycopods,
where single rows of large sieve tubes adjoining each other,
and with only a row of small elements at the top and
bottom, run in between the xylem groups.

Whether this appearance was the actual condition of
the living tissue is difficult to say in view of the difference
between our figures and those of Binney and of Seward, and
though the appearance does not seem to warrant it, a disor-
ganisation of the tissue may alread)' have set in in the leaf
trace bundles. If, however, that is not the case, we have an
interesting feature in the absence of the numerous small
cells which separated the larger elements of the stem. If the
smaller elements have the same function ■as the companion
cells or of the phloem parenchyma of Angiosperms their
absence or reduction in the leaf trace bundles should not
surprise us ; for they have been looked upon as collecting

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901J, No. 7. 15

from the sieve tubes and storing for the use of the cambium
or of the developing wood cells, the food material which
passes down the sieve tubes. Frank^ and Blass^ indeed
consider the function of the phloem as a whole is more
nutritive than conducting, but at any rate we should
expect to find in the leaf trace bundles the conducting
function outweighing the storage or nutritive function.

The difference in the aspect of the phloem in the
figures of Binney and Seward as compared with those
given in this paper, if not due to differences in the
preservation, may be due to the fact that the bundles
represented in the two cases are from different parts of
their course.

The bundle figured by Seward and Binney is at the
level of its passage through the mid-cortex, while the
figures in the present paper are of bundles passing through
the closer cells of the inner cortex. This may very possibly
account for the difference in structure, for Bertrand has
stated* that in the case of the nearly related Lepidodendron
the so-called laticiferous cells increase greatly as the leaf
trace bundle passes outwards from the central cylinder.
Such an increased complexity might therefore also occur
in Lepidopldoios.

I will now discuss briefly the phloem of Lepidodendron,
basing my remarks chiefly on the examination of a very
perfect specimen o{ Lepidodendron selaginoides, the species
so admirably described by Hovelacque.* As mentioned
above, the phloem region in Lepidodendron appears
generally even more defective than in LepidopJdoios, and
in most cases the phloem region is represented by large

^ Frank A. B. Lehrlnuh de>- Botanik, 1892, p. 184.
- Blass Dr. " Die Physiologische Bedeutung des Siebteils der Gefassbandel. •
Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. xxii., 1891.
^Bertrand, loc. cit., p. 142.
* Hovelacque, M., loc. cit.

1 6 Weiss, Phloem of Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron.

and extensive lacunns reaching from one leaf trace bundle
to the next, these latter forming more solid bridges of
tissue uniting the woody tissues with the hard inner cortex
which is generally well preserved. Where the phloem
tissues are present as in the case of some of the prepara-
tions examined by Hovelacque, its appearance as figured
by him is not unlike that shown for Lepidophloios in
Plate I. of this paper, and Hovelacque identifies the
alternating larger and smaller elements as sieve tubes and
companion cells. This interpretation is, I think, perfectly
correct.

The specimen of this Lepidodendron in the Manchester
Museum which shows the best preserved phloem, is a
preparation in the cabinet of the late Thomas Hick
(No. 6"]^ It was labelled by him " standard," and a
comparison of this slide with the figures of a specimen of
Lepidodejidron selaginoides reproduced by Williamson in
his Xlth Memoir,^ shows that it is a section from the same
stem which Williamson, and no doubt Hick, too, obtained
from their mutual friend, Mr. William Cash, of Halifax.

A portion of this tran.sverse section is reproduced in
Fig. 8, and represents one bay of the phloem region with the
adjoining tissues. Here too, as in the previous preparations
described, a crack separates the primary wood from the
remainder of the tissues, and it will be noted in this speci-
men there has not yet been any secondary wood formed.
Thus the phloem region begins here a few cells from the
crack, and can be seen to consist of a very definite group
of larger elements, with only a few smaller ones, stretching
out to the tangentially elongated cells forming probably the
pericycle and endodermis. The smaller elements are often
arranged around, or partially around, the larger elements of
the phloem, but as these former are much fewer in number

1 Williamson, W. C, rhil. Trans., i88i, Plate 51, Fig. 2.

Manchester Mevioirs, Fo/. x/v. (igoi), No. t. 17

than in LepidopJiloios, the large elements are often con-
tiguous, an appearance suggestive of the arrangement of
the sieve tubes in living Lycopods. Within the outer and
distinct band of phloem elements, and separated by a dark
band of tissue, are seen some smaller groups of soft bast
cells, similar in structure to those nearer the outside, but
less regular in arrangement. Besides these there are also
two groups of smaller and harder elements which appear
to be the commencement of leaf traces, one already partly
imbedded in the phloem region. In other parts of the
section can be seen the early stages of disorganisation of
the phloem elements by a breaking away of the cell walls
separating adjoining sieve tubes. This process, as has
been stated above, results in this species of Lepidodcndroii
in the complete disappearance of the phloem elements.

The phloem of the leaf traces is not sufficiently
preserved in this specimen to enable me to ascertain the
presence of what Hovelacque^ described as laticiferous
cells which occur more particularly in the phloem of the
leaf trace bundles. They appear according to this author
to be very variable in their number, and sometimes, as he
says in his note on page 51. "II faut meme etre prevenu
qu'il peut y en avoir pour les decouvrir." J have mentioned
in a previous part of the paper what I consider to be the
possible nature of such cells as seem to occur in the stem
and leaf traces of various Lepidodendra.

Summary.

Having now examined the cells making up the phloem
region of LepidopJiloios and Lepidodendron respectively in
two of the best preserved specimens, I think we cannot
but conclude that the arrangement of its cells, as seen at

^ Hovelacque, loc cit.

1 8 Weiss, Phloem of Lcpidophloios and Lepidodendron.

least in transverse section, does not onl\' not preclude
them from being of the nature of true phloem elements,
but makes it very probable that the function of this tissue
was that of a normal phloem. In both cases we have the
larger and smaller elements so characteristic of phloem
and similarly arranged, the proportion of the two kinds
of cells varying in the two genera, Lepidophloios having a
greater number of the smaller elements.

It would be highly desirable to examine longitudinal
sections of equally well-preserved specimens, so as to
determine the suitability of the phloem elements for
purposes of conduction of organic material ; but we can
see from the less well-preserved specimens [Fig- 5) that
they occur in considerable vertical series, and as they are
often contiguous, the vertical passage might be helped on
by lateral diffusion. Phloem appearing in longitudinal
section of the normal type has been shown by Maslen^ to
exist in the sporophylls of Leptdostrobiis, and the trans-
verse sections of similar leaf traces in the excellently
preserved Lcpidostrobns Broivnii'- shows that in this
species the cells had the same arrangement as has been
figured by Hovelacque for Lepidodendron selagzjioides, so
that here, too, we might suppose that a good longitudinal
section might show the same arrangement as described by
Maslen for Lepidostrobns.

In the vegetative axis showing secondary thickening
we should expect a phloem of even greater complexity, as
the requirements of organic food material would here be
greater, and, as has been often pointed out, the phloem of
DicotyledoJis generally develops phloem-parenchyma " for

' Maslen, A. J. "The .Structure of Lepidostrobus. Trans. Linn. Soc.
Loud., Vol. v.. Pi. II., 1899.

2 Bower, F. O., loc. cit.. Fig. 4A, PI. XVI.
' c.p. Vines, S. Text-book of Botany, i8l.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xiv. (1901), No. 1. 19

the purpose of storing food material to meet the require-
ments of cambial activity. Such elements we have seen
occur in considerable numbers in the specimen of Lepido-
phloios in which secondary thickening was taking place,
and might be more numerous in a specimen of Lepido-
dendron provided with an active cambial layer. This view
is also supported by the great meristematic activity
displayed by the phloem in the specimen of Lepidophloios
recently sent me by Mr. Cash, in which secondary growth
is just commencing.

Until it is disproved that the cells of this phloem
region are of such a nature as not to be able to effectively
conduct and store organic material for the use of the
secondary meristem we must look upon it as functionally
representing the phloem, though it may differ from it in
construction. But as a matter of fact it does not seem to
differ materially from the phloem of recent LycopodiacecB
except in such particulars as are probably connected with
the absence of secondary thickening in recent Lycopods
and the consequent diminished need of storing organic
material within the stele.

That some of the elements of the phloem region may
have been of the nature of laticiferous cells or may have
united to form mucilage ducts is, of course, quite con-
ceivable, even when the bulk of the elements made up a
true phloem. There seems to me, however, to be no
evidence of such secretory tissue in this region in well
preserved specimens of Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron.
In the outer cortical tissue, however, in both genera just
inside the periderm there can always be seen true
lysigenous glandular patches. These have been figured
by Seward for Lepidophloios, by Bertrand in Lepidodendron
Harcourtii, and they are also clearly visible in the section
of Lepidodendron selaginoides, from which the phloem

20 Weiss, Phloem of LepidopIUoios and Lepidodendron.

has been described in this communication. (Hick Collec-
tion No. 67). The character of this outer secretory zone is
very distinct and different from the tissues I have described
as phloem. These latter are much more in agreement
with the tissues of a normal phloem, so that we can, I
think, agree with the statement made by Dr. Scott^ in his
recently published Shidies in Fossil Botany, that we are
not justified in supposing that there was any fundamental
difference in the structure of the phloem between the
Lepidodendra and their recent allies.

Scott, D. H. Studies in Fossil Botany. 1900. p. 142 and 143.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), .V^. T 21

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PLATE IL

LepidopJUoios fuliginosus (Williamson).

Slide No. 645 A of Cash Collection in the Manchester Museum.

Fig. I. A portion of the transverse section of the stem to
illustrate the general arrangement of the tissues.
//^ = phloem region. (:(^ = cambium, aj^ = secondary
tissue mostly parenchymatous. xy^ - primary
xylem.

Fig. 2. A portion of section enlarged 60 diameters to show the
phloem region in detail.

Fig. 3. Another portion of section showing the divided phloem
cells. Two groups near the centre are particularly
noticeable.

PLATE IIL

Figs. 4, 6, and 7 from same slide as Figs, i, 2, and 3.

Fig. 4. Showing very much enlarged the peculiar dividing of the
phloem cells.

Fig. 5. A longitudinal section from a less well-preserved specimen
of Lepidophloios fuligitiosus, showing the remains of
transverse and oblique septa across the large spaces
so frequently found in the phloem region of this
fossil. The septa are indicated by an asterisk (*).

Fig, 6. Transverse section of a leaf-trace when passing through
the inner cortex, showing the arrangement of the

22 Weiss, Phloem of Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron.

large cells of phloem at this point of leaf trace.
This is an enlarged view of the leaf trace near the
left-hand edge of Fig. i. //i = ploem, ^_y = xylem.

Fig. 7. A similar leaf trace bundle as the one shown in Fig. 6,
with a similar arrangement of the phloem cells {ph.).

Fig 8. Portion of transverse section oi Lepidodendron selaginoides
(Hick Collection No. 67) showing one of the bays
of phloem and the adjacent tissues. The smaller
elements on the inside of the phloem are leaf
traces, ph - phloem, xy = xylem.

Manchester Memoirs. Vol. XL V.

Plate 2.

i

MancJiester Memoirs. Vol. XLV.
4

Plate 3.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No H

VIII. Selections from the Correspondence of
Lieutenant-Colonel John Leigh Philips, of
Mayfield, Manchester. Part III.

By VV. Barnard Faraday, LL.B.,

Ban-ister-at-Laiu.

Read November Bjth, tgoo. Received i)i its present form [amtary i^th, rgor.

The letters comprised in the present series, which are
those written by Captain Samuel Cable, R.N., to Lieut-
Colonel Leigh Philips, while they can scarcely be claimed
to possess the definite historic importance which attached
to those of Mr. Thos. Taylor, are nevertheless interesting
and , valuable, as showing, in the minutest detail, the
conditions of life prevailing in the Isle of Man, and the
relations between that island and the other parts of the
British realm at the end of the eighteenth century.
Apart from this, it may be claimed for the following
letters that, being the composition of a humorous and
well-informed man, they are in many cases intrinsically
amusing and graphic in their account of current events,
and that, being in large measure the life story of a
character whose personality and situation were alike
interesting, they form a " human document " of con-
siderable attractiveness and some pathos.

The Isle of Man, at the period when these letters were
written, was a place very different from that with which
the holiday-makers of the present time are so familiar.
It was, over its greater extent, very thinl}' peopled, the
total population being only about thirty thousand, and

July lolh, igoi.

2 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut.-Col. PJiilips.

the manners of the inhabitants were extremel\- primitive.
A considerable proportion of the people used the
Manx language, a Celtic tongue strongly engrafted with
Norse ; and they were purely an agricultural and fishing
population, with hardly any amusements but sport, and
no literature. The better educated classes, who were few
in number, were centred in and about Douglas, at that
time a town with about 3,000 inhabitants, which possessed a
weekly newspaper — the Manx Weekly Mercury.

The Isle of Man was originally a feudatory kingdom,
granted by Henry IV. to the Stanley famil}-, which
retained many proofs of regality until 1726. In that }'ear
an Act was passed prohibiting the import of goods into
Great Britain from the Island. In the meantime, the
Lordship of Man passed by descent to Lady Mary
Sophia, youngest daughter of the seventh Earl of Derby,
and wife of Johnj Marquis of Atholl. Her grandson, the
second Duke of Atholl, died in 1764. During his reign
as Lord of Man, the Island was made a base for the
smuggling trade, and the British Government, alarmed at
the progress of this illicit commerce, made attempts to
purchase the rights of Lordship, but were evaded. His
daughter. Lady Charlotte, married her cousin John, who
became third Duke of Atholl, and, in 1765, arrangements
were made by the British Government for the purchase
of the Lordship of the Island, by which "John, Duke of
Atholl, and Charlotte his wife, Baroness Strange," and
their Trustees agree to surrender for the sum of ;^70,ooo
all their rights in the " Island, Castle, Pele, and Lordship of
Man, and all the Islands and Lordships to the said Island
of Man appertaining," comprised and granted in the
letters patent of Henry IV. and James I. The same "to be
vested inalienably in His Majesty, his heirs and successors."
It may be said that the Act of Parliament (called the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 3

Revesting Act) which brought about this result, only-
deprived the Dukes of Atholl of their political dominion
over the Island, and left them their manorial rights.
It has often been said that for many years this measure
did more harm than good to the people of the Island,
at all events there was much dissatisfaction. In 1793
this was to some degree alleviated, when the then Duke
was made Governor, for, in spite of several tiffs with the
House of Keys, he was very popular throughout the
Island. Much of the trouble arose through the question
of the Customs. The Royal Commission appointed to
enquire into the matter before the passing of the " Revesting
Act," reported that " vast quantities of foreign goods were
continually imported into the Isle of Man, and from
thence clandestinely brought into Great Britain." These
goods included brandy, wine, East India goods, cambrics
and lawns, tobacco, wool, rum, and coffee. It will be seen,
then, that the Island was a very real thorn in the side of
the Government, and its purchase was a necessity. Most
readers of Scott will recall Dirck Hatteraick, whose name
in real life was Captain Yaw^kins, and who was a typical
Manx smuggler, with his headquarters at Ramsey. It
goes without saying, that this curtailment of their privileges
of " fair-trading," as they called it, was a great grievance
to the Manx. Customs regulations, extending to the
Isle of Man, were passed shortly after the purchase of
the Island, and, after numerous experiments, a fairly
satisfactory arrangement was made. In 1792 a com-
mission was appointed to enquire into grievances alleged
by the Duke, and in 1825 the remaining property, and
the manorial and ecclesiastical rights of the Atholl family
in the Isle of Man, were sold to the Crown by the fourth
Duke for £41 2,144.

One of our main sources of information respecting

4 Faraday, Corrcspotdence of Lietct.-Col. Philips.

the social life in the Isle of Man is found in Colonel
Richard Townley's Journal in the Isle of Man.
Colonel Townley, who was a member of the well-known
Lancashire family of that name, lived at Belfield Hall,
and was in 1752 High Sheriff of the county. He married,
first, Miss Ann Weston, of Liverpool, second, Mary, the
daughter of Mr. James Penny, of Penny Bridge. He says
that in the Isle of Man the people o'i the higher classes
were, in the main, civil and attentive to strangers, while
the ladies were "exceedingly affable, civil, and polite;
very sprightly in conversation, and uncommonly neat and
smart in their dress." He adds that many of the Manx
women were very pretty and some very accomplished.
The middle class people, " when they are sober and cool,
are decentl}' civil." The lowest class, however, were
"rude, ungovernable, and uncivilized, far beyond the
common people in any country " he had had occasion to
visit. This, however, applied only to Douglas, the
country people being " as civil and obsequious as could be
wished." That Manxmen at this time suffered from a
confirmed laziness and were grossly intemperate, is an
opinion echoed by nearly every contemporary writer on
the Island. The houses in which the majority of the
people lived were of the most wretched description, being
one-roomed hovels constructed of sods, the walls six or
seven feet high, the one window only about a foot square,
the chimney a clay-daubed barrel, and the roof rudely
thatched. The clergy, though in the main they seem to
have been well-educated men, were almost equally poor,
the usual yearly income among them being only some
fifty or sixty pounds.

Much of the interest in the following letters arises
from the curious relations then existing between the Isle
of Man and the countries surrounding it. As a place

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 5

somewhat difficult of access, and existing under a distinct
government, it seems to have been regarded as a harbour
of refuge for suspicious characters from the four points of
the compass. Scotch adventurers, English defaulters,
and Irish bankrupts thronged the place from year's end
to year's end, and contributed an unrest to the local
society which was much disliked by the more permanent
residents. The state of war, in which the kingdom then
existed, and the general turbulence of the times, made the
Isle of Man in reality a kind of No-man's Land, a scene
of periodical turmoil and constant hostility.

It must be remembered, in reading these letters, that
we are dealing with a place of not much more than
parochial importance, and that, as is the case to-day in small
country towns of the same population, both quarrels and
scandal were magnified to an absurd extent. Local society
had not that wise guidance which made Manchester, Liver-
pool, and Norwich at the same period such notable examples
of public spirit and elegant culture. The consequence
was that the Manx people and their " foreign " residents
concentrated most of their attention in quarrelling, and in
making each other's weak points the targets for shafts of
slander. The author* of the Itinerant describes the Manx
character as unamiable, " they are unfriendly, cunning, and
avaricious ; yet with all this very devout in their way ;
before they go to sea on the most trifling excursion, you
see them laid upon their oars, with their hats off, making
a long prayer. To finish their character, they are deplor-
ably ignorant, ridiculously superstitious, and believers in
fairies and second sight." He continues : " The inhabi-
tants of Mona are very backward in noticing strangers,
yet this can scarcely be called a fault, when we consider
the number of unprincipled refugees who fly to the island
* S. W. Ryley, the Actor, see Part I. of these Selections.

6 Faraday, Correspondeitce of Licut.-Col. Philips.

as a place of sanctuar}-. Of this description were several
of the most dashing inhabitants at this period, who Hved
in stile upon the means that ought in justice to have been
appropriated to their creditors." Indeed, the state of the
Island, socially and otherwise, was just what might have
been expected ; the long wars waged against England
ended in the retardation of the development of the more
remote parts of the United Kingdom, and the Manx
people, indolent in themselves, and deprived of that incen-
tive to improvement which we possessed in Lancashire,
seem to have drifted into a condition of apathetic poverty
and vulgar self-conceit. The advantage which Lancashire
possessed was, that her population, by nature energetic,
found an outlet for their talents in laying the foundations
of the vast cotton industr\', and, in truth, footing the war-
bill for the rest of England. A passage from Mr. Rolt
might be added to this ; " the Manxmen had a natural
respect for the people of Lancashire, in which county the
Earls of Derby had their usual residence, and from thence
were principally supplied with their principal officers of
government."

Still, the foreign element was very undesirable, and,
in 1814, the Manx Legislature passed a law providing
that debtors of this class, who had fled to the Island for
Sanctuary, who took up their abode in the Island during
and after that year, might be prosecuted for the liabilities
they had incurred elsewhere. Of course this had a great
effect upon the influx, and for several years there was a
decline in the population. The end of the Napoleonic
wars, however, threw a large number of naval and military
officers out of employment, and many of these, finding the
Island a cheap and tolerably pleasant abode, took up their
residence there.

Very little information respecting Captain Cable him-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 7

self remains extant. We first hear of him as one of the
Burgesses of CUtheroe in 1790. Mr. Eastham, the present
Town Clerk of CHtheroe, has very kindly provided me
with particulars of Cable's connection with that town. He
finds that in the year 1790 Samuel Cable, described as an
Esquire, was admitted a burgess under a conveyance from
Assheton Curzon of the free Borough Croft called Major
Parrock. Then in 1791 he was elected the Out Bailiff.
" This," says Mr. Eastham, " may be taken to mean that
he was a supporter of the Curzons, and held a sort of
faggot vote at their command. The Out Bailiff was
elected from outside burgesses, and it may, therefore, be
inferred that Cable did not reside in Clitheroe at all, and
possibly lived in Preston, where the agent for the Curzons
then resided." Following these dates there is a long gap
in Cable's history, and then his name appears in a list
of a meeting of the leading inhabitants of Liverpool on
February 9th, 1795, so he appears to have had some con-
nection with that town. It is possible, indeed, that Cable
Street is called after some member of his family, though
in that case the connection with the town must date back a
long way, as Cable Street was known by that name at all
events as early as 1700. On May i8th, 1795, the Liverpool
Advertiser has the following notice : " Mr. Samuel Cable,
lieutenant in the Navy, to be master and commander." I
can find no account of Cable in the Naval Chronicle.
On receipt of his promotion he repaired to Douglas,
Isle of Man, where he was in charge of the Naval
Station maintained there during the War. He seems
to have had many friends in North Lancashire, and
to have had good family connections. Unfortunately,
however, he never alludes to the latter by name, so
that it is well nigh impossible to trace him, as he
does not appear to have borne arms. A Mr. C. P. Cable

8 Faraday, Correspondence of Lient.-Col. PJiilips.

midshipman on board the Orion, was wounded at

Trafalgar; it is possible he was connected with the Captain.

Captain Cable was apparently a friend of Mr. John Philips,

of Bank (the Colonel's father), and from this, and other

evidence in the letters themselves, we should infer that

he was considerably older than Colonel Leigh Philips.

Captain Cable lived on the Island during the whole of the

period covered by the letters (1795 — 1803). The last few

letters record the progress of the disease which at last

terminated fatally. He was married, and had one

daughter, Miss Sarah Cable, a young girl some twelve

years of age at the time the letters begin. Captain Cable

seems to have seen some active service before going to

the Island. The meeting of Liverpool citizens alluded to

above is rather interesting. Towards the end of 1794, the

disastrous condition of the French Army was patent to

all the enemies of that country, and there was a strong

movement in France in favour of peace.* The British

Government, however, resolved to continue hostilities,

deeming it better to seize the opportunity, and annihilate

the traditional enemy. Accordingly in several places

what may be termed a " Stop the War " movement was

inaugurated. In Manchester, several persons petitioned

the Borough-reeve and Constables, and in Liverpool

others petitioned the Mayor and Corporation, to call

a Town's Meeting to protest against the continuance

of the War. In each case the town authorities

refused. Counter-petitions were published, of a very much

more influential nature, urging the continuance of the war

and promising support to the Government. Among the

* A statement, published in the press at the time, of the French Army
during the period Jan. 2, 1792— Jan. i, 1795, is : — " Slain and Prisoners,
610,000; Died in Military Hospitals, 177,000; Requisition Men, did not
join, 119,000; Deserted, 53,000; Remaining Force, 841,000; Total,
1,800,000."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 9

War-party in Manchester we find John Leigh Philips,
Francis Philips, Charles Lawson, the Rev. John Radcliffe,
and the Rev. John Clowes ; while, in Liverpool, we find
Samuel Cable, Samuel Newton (Philips' agent), James
Penny (Philips' father-in-law ?), Clayton Tarleton, and
many other well-known names. Messrs. Wakefield and
Okell* were in favour of peace.

Although our knowledge of Cable is very meagre, yet
in his own letters he gives us such a graphic picture of his
life and habits, and lays bare his character so completely,
that it is almost possible to say that no further details are
necessary. His chief amusements appear to have been
fishing, shooting and riding, varied by whist and reading.
He was undoubtedly a man of very active mind and much
originality, and he must have been a most interesting and
entertaining friend.

The first letter is dated October 9th, 1795, ^'"'d begins
with some references to the visit made by Col. Philips to
the Isle of Man that summer : —

Douglas, Ocf 9'h 1795
My dear Sir,

I reed your Letter yesterday by the Duke of Atholl, together with a
Shrimp Net, Rose Tree and Burton. A curious Cargo. I began to be
uneasy at not hearing from you sooner, as several Vessels had arrived from
Liverpool in the course of the preceding Week ; but I imagine your letter
was put on board Brew the day after it was wrote of course it was not likely
to find its way hither untill he arrived. He came in eight hours from the
N.W. Buoy. I was disappointed in finding you did not get in the Night you
sail'd ; though I was rather apprehensive that the wind wou'd fail you in
the Offing. However, upon the v/hole, you wound up the excursion very well ;
and I feel much flattered that your stay in the Island proved pleasant to the
whole party. If we live to put our Scheme to the Hebrides in execution I
make no doubt but we shall find it equally pleasant. I assure you I look
forward to it with great pleasure. You know you are to form the party ; I
am to take care of the Navigation, Provisions, etc.

The Monday after you left the Island Riley again exhibited his Brooms,
which produced him about seven pounds more. He pleased the People of
Douglas greatly by making Gobbock rhime to Havock, and introducing their

* Vide Part II.

10 Faraday, Correspondence of Lient.-Col. Philips.

other favourite, Herring. He talks of making anotlier Sweep at Christmas,
which, I hope, will prove as productive as the last. He, X- his Rib, spent
the evening with us the day we lost you. Indeed I know no other company
that I cou'd liave put up with on that day ; but his knowledge of, and his
respect for, you render'd him (]uite agreeable. He was, as usual, quite
pleasant & quite unaffected.

I have not yet been able to procure such a Poney as I cou'd wish. I
have seen several, but none of them answer'd : they have either been too
large, or not handsome. In the course of the Winter I dure say I shall
get one.

The Weather has been so very bad since the Shrimp Net arrived that
we have not been able to try it ; but you may be sure I shall take the earliest
opportunity of doing it. Owing to the same cause (bad Weather) I have not
been able to get any Rock Cod : the first I propose, if an opportunity offers,
I shall send to Wakefield, whom I seem to look upon as an old friend
although I never saw him in my life.

Mrs. Cable and Sarah unite with me in most friendly and sincere wishes
for the health and happiness of yourself, Mrs Philips, and every branch of
your family. Accept my best thanks for your kind presents, & believe me to
be, with great esteem, your sincere A' faithful frien-1

SAM CABLE

The " Riley " mentioned in this letter is S. W. Ryley,*
the Actor. In his Itinerant Ryley describes at some
length his adventures in the Isle of Man, and throws some
light upon the doings of some of the people mentioned in
these letters. His mother was a schoolfellow of Lady
Jane Stanley, who was for many years his patroness, and
who seems to have been distantly related to his wife, with
whom, by the way, he eloped when she was a schoolgirl
of sixteen, and married at Gretna Green. Ryley was well
acquainted with Leigh Philips, and from him received
many introductions to well-known people in the Isle of
Man, and the appearance of whom on the quay to
welcome him on his landing at Douglas in September,
1795, he records with gratitude. Ryley had a " lecture
or entertainment " entitled, " New Brooms, Narrative,
History, Satire, and Sentiment, occasionally interspersed
with songs." It is mentioned in the letter, and the

* Vide Itinerant, \'ol. HI.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 1 1

Liverpool papers of the time speak of it in terms of
praise. " Gobbock " was the dog-fish, which Manx people,
with somewhat singular taste, at this time preferred to
any other form of food. The theatre at Douglas is said
to have been a pretty little building, and was originally
intended for private amusement. The proprietor was Mrs.
T n, "a charming lively widow."

The trip to the Hebrides, of which mention is made in
the letter, was never made. It was the intention of Philips
and his friend to take a prolonged excursion among the
islands, to study the Natural History of them. Circum-
stances, however, prevented the execution of the proposal.

On December 23rd, Cable writes : —

Douglas.
My dear Sir,

Yours of the 23rd ult. I reed last week by Mr. Brew, together with
the specimens of swivels etc. for which I thank you. I think, with you, that
the Iron wire will be good enough to fit up a Long line and I shall be much
obliged to you if you will promise me ten dozen of them. If our intended
excursion takes place we shall find plenty of use for it, as well as for Nets,
and other fishing gear, which Major Taubman promises to furnish. He
seems very desirous to be of the party, & I think he will be a proper subject ;
for he is very fond of fishing, is very civil, and plays a tolerable game at
Whist. From the present appearance of things in the political horizon, I
really believe that a very few months will determine whether our excursion
will take place or not. I am inclined to think that we shall certainly have
peace before Summer. If this is the case we may turn our broad Swords
into Ploughshares, .t our Small Swords into fishing hooks. Can they be
applied to a better purpose do you think ?

I was yesterday favoured with the company of Mr. and Mrs. Riley ;
they are going to England, as soon as the weather will permit, to buy
furniture to fit up a large house at Peel in which they are to enact the parts
of Landlord and Hostess. In other words they are going to open an Hotel.
It is one of her wild schemes, and she is as sanguine about the success of it
as if she was endowed with Prophetic knowledge. As for poor Riley he
seems to be quite passive, and rather desponding. He has lived so long at
Peel, without Society, that the Blue Devils have got compleat hold of him.
I hope they will meet with some friends in England to persuade them off
this project. I shall return your Burton by him. I assure you I have been
much entertained by it. It is not a book that one cou'd sit down to read
quite through, but there are such gleams of wit scatter'd up & down the
work that it is impossible to avoid being pleas'd and diverted by it.

12 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut.-Col. Philips.

The duel with which we were to have been treated began in drunken-
ness, and has ended by my breaking off all society with L. Indeed it was
not possible for me to have continued intimate with him for he has got
so close interwoven with the junto of Irish adventurers who are here that
unless I was willing to associate with them, I cou'd not do it with him. At
present I have very little society out of my own house. The parson dines
with me sometimes, but I cannot say that my esteem for him is much
increas'd : he seems to me to have no bottom — is very selfish, and seldom
speaks well of the people with whom he appears to be very intimate. These
are not good traits in any one's character, much less in the character of a
clergyman.

I rejoice sincerely that any cause whatever has contributed to the health
and .satisfaction of Mrs Potter. That she may king continue to enjoy the
blessings of healtti and happiness is my most ardent wish.

I am very glad to hear that your little one has got over that terrible
complaint of the smallpox, especially as he does not come within the meaning
of the act for throttling and drowning. Say everything for us that is friendly
to Mrs. Philips, Mrs. Potter and the family at the Bank, etc. And believe
me to be, with great truth and esteem most sincerely yours.

SAM. CARLE

Captain John Brew, of the Isle of Man packet " Duke

of Atholl," was a well-known Manx character. His vessel

plied from Liverpool to Douglas, and was admittedly the

best of the packets ; it was 'professedly for passengers, a

handsome vessel, sloop rigged, about 50 feet keel, 11 feet

hold, 17 feet beam, makes up 18 beds." The fare for the

voyage was 7s. 6d. and 8s., and passengers took their own

provisions. Major John Taubman* of the Nunnery,

Douglas, was one of the principal residents of the Island,

he was Major of the "Second Royal Manks Fencibles,"

and was, in 1816, Speaker of the House of Keys, of which

he had been elected a member in 1798. His daughter

married Lieut.-Col J. C. Goldie, of the 6th Dragoons, in

1804. His house, The Nunnery, is supposed to have been

anciently inhabited by Druidcsses. His father, Mr. John

Taubman of the Bowling Green, Castletown, and one of

* In 1805, the Duke of Rutland, in his "Journal," recorded the fact that
he lunched with iMajor Taubman, "who is the head of a party which affords
great trouble to the Duke of Atholl in the House of Keys."

MayicJiesier Mevioirs, Vol. xlv. {\.go\), No.^. 13

the founders of the Isle of Man Bank at that place, bought
the house from the He}'\vood family. The hotel scheme,
alluded to in the letter, did not come off, and after a stay
of three months the Ryleys went back to England con-
siderably poorer in pocket. That the hotel business was
not likely to be very flourishing in the Island at that time
may be imagined when it is learned that the Ryleys pro-
cured a four-roomed furnished cottage at Peel for three
shillings a week.

Mrs. Potter was Colonel Leigh Philips' sister Ann,
who married Mr. John Potter, Jun., of Manchester, and, on
his death, married, at the Collegiate Church, in this city,
the Rev. George Hulme, A.M., of Ardley, near Stourport,
and Rector of Arley, Worcestershire.

A full account of Captain Cable's duel is contained in
the following letter : —

Dear Sir,

I ought to make many apologies for troubling you with one of my
scrawls but from your polite attention to me in the Isle of Man, I could not
deny myself intruding on your time for a few moments. The subject is very
disagreeable to me as it is relative to a quarrel I had some time since with
Capt'n Cable much against my inclination (as at this distance I must repeat
I had not the least intention of giving oftence) but which I cou'd not possibly
avoid. I understand it has been very unfairly and improperly represented,
on your side the water, & much to my prejudice. I therefore take the liberty
of handing you the subjoined representation (sign'd by my second Col.
Dawson) which I flatter myself will be satisfactory to you & exculpate me
from any improper behaviour. If you have, or shd hear the circumstances
mentioned you will greatly oblige me by showing the subjoined to anyone
you please, as it will be a means of vindicating a very unfortunate m.an from
a false misrepresentation. I hope Mrs. Philips yourself and family are well,
lit that Mrs. Potter enjoys a better stateof health than she did in the island
I hear she is going to change her name, shd that be the case I sincerely wish
her happy, my respects when you see her. Wishing you all the compliments
of the season and many happy returns I am very respectfully, Dr. Sir, your
most obliged and humble servant

JNO. LIVESEY
My Compliments to Mrs Haigreave.
Douglas, 5. Janry- 1796.

14 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut.-Col. Philips.

[AppenJeiL]
Mr. Livesey was invited to dine with Col. Dawson at .Strangford, where
he met Ld. Henry Murray, Mr. Stuart, Capt. Cable, & Mr. Jno. Backhouse,
we pass'd a very pleasant day, in the course of which a song was proposed,
Capt. Cible was ask'd to sing, & I among the rest solicited him, but he
declin'd, Col. Dawson & Ld. II. Murray each sung a song as an example,
and then Capt. Cable began a song but did not finish it, I press'd him much
to continue, -V said to him in joke (as I solemnly declare I had no intention
of giving him offence) now don't be conceited, but sing, or something to the
same purpose. — We continued at our wine some time after, and a little
before we parted, Cap" Cable said I had used him very ill, in which he was
join'd by Mr. Backhouse, (both Cap" Cable & Mr Backhouse were very much
in Liquor) I immediately applied to Col. Dawson (as Master of the House)
Lord H. Murray, Sz Mr. Stuart, to know in what I cou'd have given offence
to Cap" Cable ; they all agreed that I had not said anything that he cou'd
possibly be offended at. — some words afterwards passed between Mr
Backhouse & myself during which he said as much as amounted to a
challenge, which I immediately accepted ; Lord H. Murray told him he had
behaved very ill, & that if he expected him (Ld. H. INI.) to go out with him
he shou'd not ; Mr Backhouse replied he did not want him, or Words to that
purpose— Cap" Cable & Mr Backhouse left the room, in their absence, I
said I was a stranger in the island, A' had no one, that I cou'd ask to attend
me ; Col. Dawson very politely & friendly said I shou'd not want a second,
for he would go out with me. Some time after Mr Backhouse return'd to
the Dining Parlour, & put a Note into my hands, which I put into my
Pocket without opening, & soon after took my leave of Col. D.
etc. when Mr. Stuart & I return'd to Douglas. — on opening Mr. B.'s
note, I found it an appointment to meet at 6. o'clock the Morn^
followg behind the Church ; as I was uncertain which Church it
was (after having settled a few affairs) I return'd to Col. Dawson's
to show him the Note, & consult with him. — I then left the Col' to
retire to rest ; I awoke at half past 4 o'clock, .t at 5 o'clock I call'd up Col.
Dawson &. ordered the Chaise to take us to the ground ; we arrived there a
few minutes before 6 o'clock & found Cap" Cable & Mr Backhouse ; after
the salutation of Good Morrow Col. Dawson showed Mr Backhouse the note
he had given me, & ask'd him if it was his writing, & what commands he had
with me, to which Mr Backhouse replied, it was. — A conversation then
ensued, in which Mr Backhouse left the Business entirely to my Second
CoU Dawson to settle, who said that whatever had happen'd, cou'd only
have originated from a great deal of Wine bemg drank, & that we shou'd say
we were sorry for what had pass'd & shake hands ; to which neither Mr.
Backhouse nor myself objected ; Mr Backhouse said as he was the younger
man he shou'd first say he was sorry, & step'd forward to shake me by the
hand, I met him, we shook Hands ; and here the matter ended, returning to

Douglas & breakfasting together.

Signed
Douglas Deer 20th 1795. THOS. DAWSON

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 15

Mr. John Livesey, of the well-known Blackburn family of
that name, was living in Douglas at this time. He is
somewhat ill-naturedly alluded to by Colonel Townley : — *

" I saw that very extraordinary personage Mr. John Livesey, of Black-
burn, on the opposite side of the harbour, near the Douglas head coffee-house,
where he resides ; (& has resided for a considerable time) under the name of
Warren ; but I find most people here know his real name, as well as his real
character. He gave a dinner, yesterday, to a party of gentlemen."

There were tvv^o main factions in Isle of Man society at
this time, and as the Island was a favourite subject for
" book-makers," it was the object of each side to capture
one of these peripatetic critics as he arrived, and so lead
him to endorse their views and actions. Speaking
candidly, Colonel Townley seems to have fallen into the
hands of the Philistines, at least as viewed by Captain
Cable and his friends ; consequently, they make extremely
different estimates of the same people. It is gratifying
to find that the statements of our hero, Captain Cable,
have been endorsed by a subsequent and authorita-
tive writer, who says of Townley 's Journal (the chronicle
of the opposite faction), that it is a " trivial record
of little things," and that " it is difficult to make
out why it was ever v/ritten." The friendship between
Cable and Philips and Livesey endured for many years,
as will subsequently be seen. Livesey belonged to the
family ot Liveseys who took such a notable part in the
history of calico printing in Lancashire. I learn from
Abram's History of Blackburn that they were a collateral
branch of the Liveseys, of Livesey, a territorial family
known in Lancashire in the thirteenth century, who held
land by grant of Henry III. Mr. John Livesey, like his
brother Thomas, began trading at Blackburn, and in 1780,
founded the firm of Livese}-, Hargreaves, Anstie, Smith,
and Hall, and started a print works at Mosney. The

* Tour in the Isle of Man,

i6 Faradav, Correspondence of Licut.-Col. Philips.

manager was Mr. Thomas Bell, a Scotchman, the original
inventor and patentee of the cylinder calico printing
process, the patent being dated November 17th, 1783.
Mr. Livesey, therefore, whose capital was instrumental in
founding this great industry in Lancashire, is entitled to
the regard of posterity, the more so as his venture, in the
end, turned out badly for himself. At first the Mosney
firm rapidly extended their works, and for some years
they did a flourishing trade, but a series of pecuniary
losses shook their credit, and in 1788 they became
bankrupt. John Livesey married Mary, the daughter of
Samuel Clowes, of Broughton Hall, Manchester, in 1772,
and had three sons and three daughters. Thomas Livesey
married, first, Miss Elizabeth Livesey, of Manchester, a
kinswoman, second, Miss Lydia Bancroft of the same
place. His sister, Alice, married in 1763, Mr. Henry
Sudell, of Blackburn.

The Mosney Works was purchased by William
Assheton, of Cuerdale Hall, in 1792, and he sold it
to Richard Colrow, who built his house at Walton Lodge
from the bricks of the old building. The Liveseys had
bleach works at Bamber Bridge and a cotton mill at
Higher Walton. As a trader, it should be noted that
Mr. John Livesey had benefit of even the imperfect
bankruptcy law of that time, and his residence in the Isle
of Man should not be attributed, as Colonel Townley
said it must, to inability to pay his debts. Mr. Livesey
probably lived at Douglas for the same reason that Captain
Cable did — lack of sufficient means to live elsewhere.
There is little doubt that the aspersions upon his character
are foundationless, and viewed from this distance of time
he seems an attractive and simple-minded man. It should
not be forgotten that his venture at Mosney gained him
many enemies, especially among the more unprogressive

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 17

part of the population, and that upon his failure the
chorus of " I told you so's " was very loud. His son,
Lieutenant Thomas Livesey, R.N., died of yellow fever, in
the West Indies, in September, 1803.

Richard Dawson was Lieutenant Governor of the Isle
of Man in 1776. His son. Colonel Thomas Dawson, of
Strangford, is the gentleman alluded to in the letter.

Lord Henry Murray, the fourth son of the third Duke of
Atholl, at this time lived in the Isle of Man as his brother's
agent. He died when quite a young man, as Ryley says
in his Itinerant, "a martyr to dissipation" early in 1805.
He was born in 1767. In 1786 he married Elizabeth,
the daughter of Mr. Richard Kent, of Liverpool, by whom
he had one son and five daughters. About the time of
these letters, Lord Henry Murray was Colonel of the
Second Royal Manx Fencibles, who were sent to Ireland
during the disturbances which culminated in Vinegar Hill.
Lord Henry Murray was the acknowledged leader of Manx
society, and failed to injure his popularity even by a
confirmed love of practical joking.

Mr. John Backhouse was Lord Henry's brother-in-
law, and his companion in the escapades he perpetrated
at the expense of friend and stranger alike. Apart from
this he was a kindly and well-meaning man, and like his
intimate he died sooner than he should have done.
Ryley's first performance at Douglas was interrupted by
Mr. Backhouse in what we should consider a somewhat
strongly flavoured manner.

The Mr. Stuart mentioned is in all probability Captain
Robert Stuart of the Second Royal Manks Fencibles.

The next letter is dated February 2nd, 1796 : —

It has been entirely owing to the late very heavy Gales of Wind, which
has greatly interrupted the correspondence of this Island, that I have not
before this acknowledged the receipt of your Letter which accompanied the

1 8 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut. -Col. Philips.

Swivells for fishing. Give me leave to thank you once for all for the Cheese,
fishing Tackle, and the rest of your very friendly remembrances Sarah
likewise begs I will return her best thanks to Mrs. Philips for a very elegant
little Memorandum Book which she says she shall always set a high value
on.

I shall send this to Liverpool by Brew, who will sail the first fair wind,
and I shall send you Burton by the same conveyance, directed to the care of
your Agent, Sam. Newton who, I dare say, will take care to forward it to
you. 1 wish I cou'd accompany it myself: but I fancy it wou'd not be right
nor fitting for us to have everything we wish for, so I will endeavour to be a
little bit of a Philosopher.

Whitehurst has entirely lost my good opinion. For some time back he
has evinced a disposition not at all consistent with my Ideas of a true Clerical
Character, but of late there has happen'd a circumstance which has proved
him to possess the most vindictive temper. A poor wretch of a Parson
happened to say something about W. being a Republican, which according
to the rule of Tittle Tattle was brought round to him. Our friend, thinking
that this might possibly prevent his being invited to some houses, employed
a Manx Lawyer to threaten him with a prosecution for Scandal, »S: talked of
carrying it into the Consistory Court at York which, as most other Religious
Courts do, abounds in terrible consequences to any unfortunate Wight
who happens to fall into their Clutches. This language, together with
a most ferocious deportment, and the words Base, Vilianous, Malicious,
Infamous, &c, &c, &c, so terrified the poor wretch that, under the
impression of terror, he was induced to sign a most ample recantation of
his Errors, drawn up by Mr. \V. on the spot, acknowledging himself Base,
False, t.^- Malicious. This paper has, according to the true spirit of forgive-
ness which the Ministers of the Gospel preach, been most industriously
circulated by his Revd Brother ; and I am glad to find that it has the effect
which it deserves. People begin to enquire who Mr. W. is ? What brought
him here? and a number of other awkward questions, which nobody can
answer except W. himself, who does not seem inclin'd to satisfy their
enquiries.

As to yEneas Anderson I have seen him often, Sc have been in his com-
pany once. He is a very poor creature. Take my word for it he never
wrote the Book in question. He is not capable. Perhaps he may have
furnished the Matter, which has been worked up into its present appearance
by some able Book-wright, a trade which flourishes greatly in London. This
aforesaid .Eneas has lately cut a conspicuous figure in the annals of Manx
Scandal.

I am sorry to add, by way of Postscript, that the Nunnery Mill was
entirely destroyed by fire in one Night between last Thursday and Friday.
It is not known how it happen'd, but, because Blundell was insured about
;i^2000 some people, very charitably, suppose that it must have been done by
design, although there is not the least probability of its being more than half
the value.

Manchester Afeiiioirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 19

In another part of the letter there is a long story that
yEneas Anderson had sold his wife for ^50 to Caesar
Tobin. This was a canard circulated by Lord Henry
Murray, and it seems strange that it should have been
believed, and that the victim should not have been liked
by Captain Cable. /Eneas Anderson, to whom Cable
alludes as the Chinese Traveller, belonged to a well-known
Manx family, and may be considered a clever and expe-
rienced man. In the years 1792-4, he accompanied Earl
Macartney, British Ambassador to China, and published
a most interesting account of the Embassy, which, it may
be noted, went to Pekin by way of the Pacific, and
returned round the Cape of Good Hope, so that they
completed the circuit of the globe. Anderson afterwards
served under Sir Ralph Abercromby in the Mediterranean,
at which time he was a lieutenant in the 40th Regiment.
In 1802 he published an excellent "Journal of the Forces
in Egypt under Sir Ralph Abercromby." Mr. Anderson
afterwards resided in London, where it is to be hoped he
found more congenial societ}'. Caesar Tobin and Lord
Henry Murray were respectively Captain and Colonel in
the same Manx Regiment in which Anderson, at the date
of these letters, also had a commission. The whole story,
therefore, favours the idea of a messroom jest. It is suffi-
ciently interesting as showing the boisterous mood of the
period. The belief that the sale of a wife is a valid
contract surviv-es even to this day in certain remote
quarters of the North of England, though, of course, there
has never been any justification for the idea.

On March 13th, Cable writes : —

After a number of fruitless enquiries I have at last met with a little
Poney, which I think will suit my friend John : and as Brew means to sail
this day I shall put it on board his vessel, and consign it to the care of Mr

20 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut -Col. Philips.

Wakefield. It is a small Bay Mare, three years old next May, with a full Tail
and Mane, & I believe (for I have not measured her) that she is ten hands
in height. In short it is such a one as I have never before seen on this
Island, and I flatter myself she will please both my young friend and his
father.

As there is at Present no signs of Peace I had almost given up all hopes
of seeing you this year, but your last letter has renewed them again ; and I
have, in consequence of it, enlarged my Boat considerably. I have added
six feet to her keel <fc rais'd her near a foot, so that she is now a compleat
four-oared Boat, & has good accommodation for five or six people. If the
same party who accompanied you last year should repeat their visit this
summer I flatter myself that I shall be able to make their Water Parties
much pleasanter than I cou'd do before. If you come I must beg you will
give me a little previous notice that I may have time to look out for
Lodgings for you, in order to prevent your being turn'd out of doors as you
was before. I have frequently indulged Twentyman by telling him how
much money you paid Clague ; and, in order to please him more, nearly
doubled the sum. He always seems devilish sore to think that he suffered
so much to go by him ; &, by way of excuse, he says it was a mistake. That
he expected the Man in Black and his party wou'd have spent more money
than you I't- your pirty cou'd do ; and I really believe was you to try him
again he wou'd take you in.

" Friend John " was, of course, Colonel Leigh Philips'
son, afterwards Lieut. John Philips. R.N. Messrs. Clague
and Twentyman were Manx houseowners, who were in
the habit of letting their premises to visitors.

On Jul}' 3rd, Cable writes : —

I own I ought to be ashamed for not writing long e'er this, to thank
you for the books that you was so good as to send me ; and likewise for the
attention that you showed to M"" Farrill, my Midshipman, who call'd upon
you sometime since at Manchester. He is a very worthy fellow, and I shou'd
most certainly have given him a Letter of introduction to you had I known of
his intention, to visit your town, sooner. He is now in England again, and
perhaps may again call upon you ; and you possibly may think it strange that
you have never heard his name mention'd by me. I know but little of his
History ; what I do know has given me good impressions in his favour, k
his behaviour in the station which he holds under my command has ever
been perfectly correct. So much for Farrill.

Do you know that I have a very great longing to see you again in
Manxland ? I am become a ver)- great Fisherman. Five or six days in the
Week I am upon the Water. My Boat turns out to be a fine sea boat and
my men are very fond of her, because they catch an amazing quantity of Fish

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. r/v. (igoi), No. S. 21

in her. For this Month past Skate has been the order of the day. We have
caught from twenty to thirty each day on the long line ; besides Cod,
Whiting, Pollock, and other Fish. The Whiting here are far superior to any
that I have met with elsewhere. I have had several that weighed upwards
of four pounds each and one that was near five pounds : and as these fish
bite extremely free, the sport, of course, has been excellent. If you can
possibly break loose, do let me see you this summer. I had hopes of seeing
you in England before this time. A very excellent friend of mine had
applied lo Lord Spencer, in my behalf, for promotion ; and his Lordship had
promised him that I should have a Ship and another step ; but the business
is now over, and I am like to stay here during the War ; so, if we are to
meet, you must come & see me, for I cannot leave my Station.

For the last three months we have been greatly alive in Mona. The
Duke and Duchess of AthoU & family have been here since the beginning
of April ; the consequence has been that we have danced like Devils, &
drank like Fish ; Not to mention that we have been craming ourselves with
eating. Noon & Night. I am heartily tired with the business, and am glad
to hear that they take their departure from hence in about a fortnight.

The second Earl Spencer, on his return from his
embassy to Vienna in 1794, was made First Lord of the
Admiralty, an office he held for six years, in some respects
the most remarkable period in our Naval history. At this
time all promotion in the Navy was based upon influence
at headquarters, hence Cable's anxiety to get a word or
two privately into his Lordship's ear.

Apparently Philips was unable to accept his friend's
invitation, as will be gathered from the next letter : —

Douglas, Septr i8th, 1796.

I reed Mrs Philips' kind present of Fruit by Brew. Except being rather
too long on their Passage they arrived in good order : the Melons, only, had
suffered damage ; and from what I could judge of them, even in that state,
the Crimean Melon promises to be a valuable acquisition in Gardening. The
Seeds were very fine, and I gave them to the Major's gardener who seemed
extremely well pleased with them. They were enough to plant an Acre of
Ground, of Course he will not w'ant any more this Season.

I hope you will have no great occasion to regret the loss of the
Sisyntbriiuii Alonanx, for I think I have got you an entire Plant, Root,
Leaves, Seeds, & Flowers. I will send it by the first opportunity. By the
bye, Farrill is going to England soon, and as he talks of seeing Manchester I
believe I shall send it by him. He seems extremely anxious to get forward
in the World, & wants to borrow money upon his annuity. I have lent him

22 Faradav, Correspondence of Lieut.-Col. Philips.

Thirty Pouuds on his own Note, which even if I lose I shall not care much
about, but I have no Idea of advancing him more. It is very probable that
he may consult you on the subject, but I beg you will not let your friendship
for me induce you to do anything in the business. I do not know him suffi-
ciently to rely on him ; nor do I know how he has contrived to get rid of his
fortune, which, I am told, was once very ample. All I know of him is that
has behaved very well in his present situation, and that his manners are those
of a Gentleman ; but as I have never had occasion to try his bottom I do not
know whether it is good or bad.

Mrs Cable & Sarah have been in the Country about ten days. I got
them comfortable accommodations at Banks, with whom I am become very
well acquainted. Vou ha\e seen him, and must remember him to be a great
oddity. Mrs C. continues extremely ill. I shall be much obliged to you if
you will consult Ferriar in the Case, and give him a guinea if you think
it enough. Be so good as to let me hear from you as soon as possible.

The Sisymbriiivi Monanx is, Mr. Charles Bailey tells
me, the Brassica Monencis, or " Isle of Man Cabbage." It
is now fairly common on the West Coast of Lancashire.

On October 7th, 1796, Cable writes: —

Your letters and kind presents have all arriv'd safe, except the Turtle,
which stunk abominably. I sent it, by way of a Genteel Present to Major
Taubman, the instant I got it on shore, without examining it, and the
moment it was open'd they were obliged to throw it to the Dung-Hill.
Grten Fat and all. I hope you will not attempt, in future to send any
perishable commodities to this Place. The Passage, you know, is very
uncertain ; and the close hold of a Vessel has a great tendency to bring on
putrefaction. I shall, however, be much obliged to you if you will execute,
or cause to be executed, for me a small commission ; which is to send me a
piece of Handkerchiefs, of the PuUicat kind, for the Pockett, tolerably
coarse — a Bottle of James' Powder, and if you can spare me a piece of
printed Callicoe for a Camp bed it will add to the obligation. The price
about from 2/- to 2/4^. Sarah wishes it may have Men & Women on it.
The Colour either Blue & White, or Purple & White, whichever is the
most likely to Wash best.

The suggested design for the calico was a very familiar
one in times past.

On November nth, Cable writes: —

The Conjuror arrived in due time, and his abilities were tried the day
he arrived. He performs to a miracle. I hope to give you various
specimens of his talents the next Summer ; for I lake it for granted you will
repeat your visit to Mona, & that you will come in force. Indeed, unless
you come in Person yon are not likely to get the small plant from Douglas
head. There is such a multiplicity of these small leaved plants that I cannot

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 23

distinguish one from anotiier. The Sisynibrium Monanx was of a different
description and I could not well mistake it.

The Flying Squirrel is perfectly alive, & a very great favourite with
Sarah & the rest of us. She & I amuse ourselves most evenings with a
Squirrel hunt which the little Animal seems to enjoy much, although he
does not wag his little Tail.

The Conjuror is a reference to a box of chemical and
physical apparatus which Colonel Philips had sent to
Cable, who was very fond of such scientific recreations.

The next letter is dated December 4th : —

Since I wrote to you last I have reed seven silk pocket handkerchiefs
together with some strawberry plants for Major Taubman, and a most
glorious Cheese for Messrs. Arthur Brew and Co., which has been divided
among them to their entire satisfaction and astonishment. Poor Arthur
was almost overcome with gratitude. Lewthwaite " grinned horribly a
gastly smile." Corlett seem'd ready to guillotine anyone who seemed
inclin'd to ravish the prize from him ; and Cantanhasons himself was much
moved. In short they all entered into a Covenant to fish for you, and with
you, as often as you desired. You know a Manx Man has not a single Idea
void of Fish ; and of all Fish, Herring & Gobbock seem to have occupied
most of their minds, so you may be assured they wish you plenty of both.

We have had some very capital quarrelling lately between Mr Whaley's
Vassall, and mine Ancient. It shou'd have terminated in a Duel, but
Whaley & his slave made so much Noise about it, that Fleming was put
under an arrest ; and I gave him orders not to leave the Island ; which by
the bye, I do not believe he meant to do ; after which, the other party, very
consistently, posted him for a Coward and a Scoundrel. In short it has been
a true Irish business from first to last. An heap of Blunders, Noise, and
inconsistence. Fleming has since published a state of facts between himself
ife Vassall. This is done in somewhat better a manner, it having been
revised by a person of the name of Carr, whom you saw here under the name
of Cooper. Besides this business there has been one or two bye battles.
Midford versus the Bishop : & Midford & Whitehurst versus the same.
An Anonymous Letter has been written to the Archbishop of York
against our Right Reverend, & Midford & Whitehurst are grievously
suspected to be the Authors. Lastly there has been a Copy of
Verses handed about accusing Speed of Atheism ; and Livesey of
Gluttony. If I can procure a Copy of them I will send them to
you. You will find by the above that this Island is not entirely a scene of
still life. Indeed it is far from being so. We have had a large importation
of strangers since you left us, it: they have introduced dissipation, >t whatever
else has a tendency to make the place unpleasant. As for my part I am only
an indifferent Spectator ; and I have hitherto kept myself clear of their
Society. I sometimes, though not often, see the [J/i^/br]. He is by far tlie

24 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut. -Col. Philips.

best acquaintance I have. He is obliged to you for the Plants, & hopes
to treat you with some of the fruit at some future period, I hope next Summer.
The James's powder and Callicoe are not yet arrived.

The Powder which your brother sent is most excellent. Pray to tell him
that I am greatly obliged to him for it. It has kept my larder constantly
furnished with Game. I have likewise enlarged my establishment by the
addition of 12 Lobster pots, which perform to a miracle.

Messrs. Arthur Brew, Levvthwaite, and Catitanhasons
were connected with the Naval Service, and were serving
under Captain Cable. Mr. Whaley, an Irishman, was a
neighbouring landowner. Fleming seems to have been a
kind of mixture — half clerk, half boatswain. Mr. Carr
w^as, apparently, a schoolmaster at Peel, a " tall spare
figure, dressed in a rusty black coat, and a woollen night-
cap." Ryley, whose own favourite study at Peel was
" Zimmerman on Solitude," further says that Carr was
one of the most profound moralists and philosophers of
the day. Carr used to instruct all the children in the
neighbourhood for nothing, though his house is said to
have been little better than a pigsty. Mr. Carr's strong
denial of the Athanasian Creed struck the Manxmen
dumb with alarm, and till the day of his death they
expected to see him carried off bodily by the powers of
darkness. He was a vegetarian, at that time a great
rarity, and among other accomplishments had considerable
medical skill, wherewith he doctored the country people
for nothing. The identity of this worthy with Philips'
acquaintance is not clearly established, but for many
reasons it is very probable. The Bishop at this time was
Dr. Claudius Crigan, appointed in 1784.

On January 7th, 1797, Cable writes an extremely

pressing invitation, and continues: —

We have been very busy here, for this Week past, in putting on our
fighting face. I am entrusted vsith the direction of the Batteries, and have
got the old Furt, and the two guns in it, quite serviceable. I have likewise
constructed a [ir tty liltle Battery of two iS pounders just beyond Whaley's

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8- 25

Garden. If I had but a Corporal Trim I could almost fancy myself an
Uncle Toby. As it is I must content myself with an Arthur and a Luther.

"Luther" is Martin Luther, a man attached to Captain
Cable's estabHshment. The next letter explains the
purpose of the batteries : —

Douglas, March 9th, 1797.
My dear Sir,

Yours of the 14th Ult. found its way hither on the 28th. Pretty quick
travelling, you will say : but as it had remain'd a week or more in Liverpool
it may, in some measure, be accounted for.

From the repeated visits of the French in this Neighbourhood I am not
surprised at your account of the Arming, or armament, which appears in the
Manufacturing parts of the Kingdom. Indeed it behoves every Man. at
this time, to set his hand to the Plough ; or rather to change his Ploughshare
into a Sword. From the knowledge which you have of the Apathy of Manx
Men you will not expect great things from us. For my own part I expect
nothing. To be sure I am not greatly apprehensive of a visit from the Goths
& Vandals ; but shou'd such an event take place, I think our only defence
wou'd be our long eighteen pounders, of which we have now six ready for
use ; although I must confess there is one thing which prevents me from
having any great reliance on them. The reason is trifling, to be sure ; but it
is a reason. We have little or no powder here : and I have never heard
that even a long eighteen pounder cou'd do any great damage without
powder. It is true we have shot enough, & wads, but still a long eighteen
pounder, even with the help of shot & wads, cannot do what it ought to
do, without powder. However, as this is a Land of Genius's, some of them,
perhaps, may strike out something new in that way, and shew us that Powder
is absolutely needless. Great things, you know, have been found out by
Great Genius's. I own my greatest reliance is in our own insignificance,
& the situation of this Island ; I mean its Geographical situation which
seems to be in the very bosom of the British Empire. You will give me
credit, I daresay, when I tell you we have been sufficiently alarmed already.
I have been in rather an awkward situation since I wrote to you last. The
business is this. Somebody had written a letter in Joe Bacon's name, desiring
to be employed ; an answer was reed from the Secretary to the Duke of York
saying that his request shou'd be complied with. Bacon, knowing that he
had not written himself, was, of course, very angry, and wrote to Colonel
Browning stating the forgery, and requesting to have the Letter sent to him,
which was done, & being shewn to everyone who wish'd to see it, was among
others, seen by Livesey, who produced a Letter of mine which bore a strong
resemblance to the one in question. This, you may think, rais'd a loud
Clamour against me, though I am sure you will acquit me of any such imper-
tinence. This clamour continued until it was superseded by matters of as
great consequence. But enough of this.

26 Faraday, Coj'respojidence of Lictit.-Col. Philips.

Pray do you know, or have you heard, of a Person of the name of
Limburgh ? My reason for asking is this : A Woman came to Farril's house
last Night who says her name is L. that she & her husband liv'd a little
while since in, or near, Manchester, & that they have been unfortunate.
She showed a letter to Farrill's Wife (for Farril himself has been in England
7 or 8 weeks, God knows what about) directing her to come to Mr. Farril
in the Isle of Man, & there wait the arrival of her Husband. This appears
so very mysterious that Mrs. F. does not know What to do, having never
heard her husband mention any person of the name. In short, she is at a
loss how to act, her husband not having written to her these three weeks.
If he shou'd chance to call upon you, pray endeavour to come at the bottom
of it.

Mrs. Cable & Sarah unite with me in every friendly wish for yourself, Mrs.
Philips, Mrs. Potter (who we heartily wish may meet with pleasure in her
London excursion) and every other part' of your family to whom we are
known. I am, my dear Sir, ever yours

SAM. CABLE.

I have hardly room left to acquaint you with the Melancholy account of
the Death of our poor little Squirrel, which set out on a visit to its father about
six weeks since. Sarah did not quite loose her senses on this occasion,
although she was very near it.

What do you think of Sir John Jervis's affairs ; Is he not a noble
fellow ? We were terribly alarmed last night by two of our Frigates, & a
Sloop, which were off the Calf and Castletown. We all put on our fierce
looks, but as the night was very cold it is not to be wonder'd at that some
of the terrible ones shou'd shake a little. As for my own part, I have been
contin'd this fortnight, I contented myself with giving orders from my Fire-
side like a great commander. Adieu.

The last attack made by the French upon the Island

had been in the year 1755.

Banks's, May 12th, 1797.
After being detained eight days at Liverpool by contrary winds, and
two whole days and nights on my passage, I arrived here on Monday
morning, :nuch fatigued both in body & mind. ; In Mind I say : for I cou'd
not divest myself of the Idea of falling in with some of those Privateers which
infest this Channel, One of which had taken, only two days before we left
Liverpool, a Smack belonging to Peel on her Passage from Ireland to that
place : and as our tract lay nearly across the place where the Privateer was
left, there was, at least, a possibility of our sharing the same fate. For you
know very well that the Nelly and Betty falls somewhat short of a line of
Battle Ship in her appointments ; and she is not quite so fleet as Achilles in
her going. Added to which, I was off my Station without leave, and had I
been taken I do not know what the consequences might have been. These
Ideas, added to my bodily Infirmity, had a prodigious effect on my whole
frame, and I wou'd not again undergo what I suffered during those two day

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 27

for more than I dare mention. I am happy to say that I found my two dear
friends here as well as I could wish. To say, barely, that we were all glad
to meet each other, wou'd very poorly express what we felt. The meeting
was such as might naturally be expected between People who Love each
other as we do. I believe we shall, neither of us, wish to leave the Island
again until we can all do so together The truly friendly atten-
tion I received from you both while I was under your Roof will be ever
remembei'd by me with the greatest pleasure and the warmest gratitude.

From the above we gather that Captain Cable had
made a stolen visit to his friends at Mayfield, and that he
returned to the Island by the " Nelly and Betty," a cargo
boat plying between Liverpool and Douglas, under the
command of Captain Ouayle. During the summer Cable
was in the habit of leaving his house in Douglas and
retiring into the country, a fact which accounts for the
change of address. The next letter is a spirited account
of various trivialities : —

Balla-na-How, June 9th 1797.
I hasten to mention a business which we all have much at heart : I
mean your Visit, this Summer, to Mona. The Town of Douglas is so full of
Irish, & other Strangers that I believe there is scarce a Bed to be procured
there. However I have made a sort of Conditional agreement with your old
Landlord, Twentyman, who now lives at the Hague : he has three decent
Bedrooms and a pretty Parlour, together with tolerable Garretts for Servants.
He asks a guinea a week for these, & will either find you in Provisions, or you
may find yourselves as you like best. He says the Cook which he has at
present is not so good a one as he cou'd wish ; but in every other respect he
will accommodate you on the same terms he did last year. Now as you
do not want to come from home to see the beauties of Douglas ; and as the
Hague has the advantage of good air, is in the neighbourhood of the Sea,
and not more than three hundred yards from this said place of Balla-na-How
(is it not a most unchristian-like, beastly name ?) I say for all these good reasons
you will be infinitely better accommodated there, and much more in your own
way, than you cou'd possibly be in Douglas. Besides, my Boat, the famous Mona
of Douglas, comes uj) to Banks's Harbour every morning, and Messrs. Arthur,
Luther & Co. will be happy to lend you all the services in their power to
make a few weeks pass away agreeably. I have promised Twentyman to
give him an answer as soon as possible, and in the meantime have agreed to
pay him a Guinea for waiting until I have your Letter, as there are people
continually coming here and, of course, wanting Lodgings. You will,
therefore let me hear from you by return of Post. And if you shou'd agree
to come soon, which, by the bye, I wou'd recommend, John Brew is now

28 Faraday, Correspondence of Lie7it.-Col. Philips.

in Liverpool and will waft you over, as you very well know, in the best stile.
As for the French Privateer that took the Teel Smack, I find she was never
within a hundred miles of this place. It was off Voughall bay, which is only
about thirty miles to the northward of Cork. And in order to avoid the
impossibility of any inconvenience on that head you may easily procure a
Passport from Mr. INIassey, certifying that you are a Citizen of America.
But you may be assured that there has never been an enemy's vessel within
a hundred miles of this place during the War.

Sporting Intelligence.

I hooked a monster of a Red Cod the day before yesterday, & after a
a very severe battle my hook broke. N.B. it was one of the largest of those
you gave me at Manchester. Mem, Gymp is an excellent Snood.

The Hague is in Oncan parish, a mile or two north of
Douglas, on the shore. Feltham mentions a Mr. James
Bancks living at Houstrake, which is close by. A Captain
Cook, who is mentioned also by the Duke of Rutland,
would seem to have been living at the Hague at this
time.

Colonel Philips accepted this invitation, and took his

family for a stay of some weeks at the Island, as we see

by the next letter : —

Balla-na-How, Augst. 19th, 1797.
My dear Sir,

The Surrey arrived here last Monday, and brought me abundance of
things from you, none of them more valuable than your Letter which gave
me an account of your safe arrival at Liverpool. I rejoyce, most sincerely, my
dear friend, to find that your excursion has terminated so favourably ;
especially as I have, myself, experienced so many bad passages : and, I hope,
both yourself, Mrs. Philips, and the Children, have laid in a sufficient store
of health to carry you through the Winter. By this time, I suppose, you are
comfortably fix'd in your own habitation ; and I flatter myself that you
sometimes think of your friends in Mona. I am sure you have none in any
other part of the World who are more sincerely so, or who are more interested
in your welfare. Indeed, since you left us I feel as if I had lost a principal
Limb ; and a Loss of that sort, you know, is not easily supplied. In this
place, I need not say, there is no substitute. The Grapes you sent were
excellent. I wish I had anything to send Wakefield in return ; but, unluckily,
even the Herrings seeem to have forsaken us, there not having been even
one tolerable Night this Season ; and, at present, the best Fishers say there is
no Sign. If they (that is the Herrings) do not pay us another visit, you
know, we must, of course, be all ruin'd. The Congers, however, are on this
Coast in force. I took one, on the Long line, the day before yesterday,
that weighed thirty two pounds ; and upwards of a dozen others oi a smaller

Manchester Memoirs Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 29

size. It is the only time I could get bait since you left the Island. The
Congers were, in general, Duplicates ; all the large ones having swallowed
one of a less size. So much for Fishing.

I want to know a great number of things. Is your Sister Potter
married ! And. if she is, are they gone to Arley ? Is Bessy more kind to
G. L. ? Is Rattclifte got fix'd at Oxford ? And do you think that the Election
for a Secretary to the Infirmary will terminate according to your wishes ? I
must own I was pleas'd with the respect the Trustees paid you, in adjourning
the Board. It was a proper compliment, but it will subject you to some incon-
venience. But you know how to manage these matters as well as most
folks ; and, I trust, you will see your way through.

Mrs. Cable and Sarah unite with me in every kind, every friendly wish
for the health & happiness of you all. That we may, at some future
period, be settled somewhere in your Neighbourhood is the sincere wish of
my heart. Adieu. Believe me most truly your friend

S. CABLE.

I forgot to say that the Money, Basketts etc, arrived safe and that I
drew upon you in favour of 20 Man for 50 Guineas the day after you left us.
Do let me hear from you soon.

Colonel Leigh Philips' connection with the Manchester
Infirmary was fully explained in Part I. of these
" Selections." " Bessy," alluded to in the letter, was his
younger sister Elizabeth, who in 1798 married her cousin,
the Rev. George Leigh, A.M.

There are a number of letters from Mr. John Radclifife^
of Brasenose College, Oxford, preserved with Philips'
other correspondence. From these it appears he was on
very intimate terms with Cable, and thought highly of
him. From a letter from Radcliffe to Philips, dated July
26th, we gather that he had been spending the summer at
Douglas in 1797. The following letter, dated Aug. 24th,
1797, tells of some characteristics of the Manx popula-
tion : —

Last Monday being the finest day we have had this Season, and Banks not
having above six Acres of Hay cut, thought he cou'd not do better than
go upon the Fish, he being, as he told me, as tired as a Dog with staying on
shore ; he accordingly went out in the Cat. His sons being, I suppose, as
tired as their father with doing nothing, and having nothing at all to do with
the Hay, very properly took to the Mountains, the natural situation of Savages,
and in the Evening return'd with four brace and a half of Moor Game, three

30 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut. -Col. Philips.

brace of which I got from them, and Mrs. Cable & Sarah have coiUriv'd to
stuff them into two Pots along with Spices, Butter Ac kc. Yesterday
Lewthwaite had a whole day of Shooting. He brought home two Brace of
Golden Plover, a Partridge, a Snipe, & a fine Rail. These I wou'd have
ventured in their feathers along with the Moor Game but the Wind is come
to the Southward this morning, and I am afraid Quayle will have a long
Pa'Jsage. However, upon second thoughts, I will send a Brace of Plover
and the Land-Rail ; these, if pack'd in Straw, cannot harm the INIoor and
their feathers may be of use in fishing.

And now to return to friend Banks's day's work. He return'd in the
Evening, with a small Rock-Cod which I gave him sixpence for, and a few
Bollans ; these were the joint produce of himself & one of his best Playmakers.
He is, indeed, a choice fellow. I asked him the other day what he was
going to do that day ? " Indeed, says he, " there is no day lost here." If
they are not lost I wonder what the devil he does with them. I fancy your
friend Wakefield wou'd think his days lost were he to spend them like
my Landlord.

The next lettei" (dated Sept. nth) refers to the death
of Wright, the painter, of Derby : —

The weather has been miserable ever since you left us. No Fish on
the Coast, but most enormous long faces on shore. We certainly shall all
be ruin'd, but that, you'll say, is a trifle, for if the whole Island was sunk it
would be so much clear gain to England.

With regard to Banks, I must inform you that he finish'd his Hay
Harvest last Saturday ; having begun it three Weeks before you left the
Hague. He told me, the other day, " Indeed everything is trouble." He
meant about a farm ; for he certainly delights to go upon the Crab, and the
Coa.

Alas ! poor Wright ! I have just been reading in Gore's Liverpool
paper, the account of his death, drawn up, I believe, by you. I can say ail
impartinl people will think the account perfectly fair. That he was the first
of English Painters I mo.et sincerely believe. Apropos! did not you say
you wou'd send a print of his Dead Soldier to Taubman ? You cou'd not
send him a handsomer, or more proper, present.

I have always suspected that I was not cut out for a conjuror. In my
last essays I have had very bad luck. I have spoiled a whole Well of water
opposite our door with that damn'd vile liquid Phosphorous ; and almost
blinded myself with those rascally Prince Ruperts Drops, and what is worse
I have frightened Noljody but myself.

The Herring is, of course, in most minds, inevitably
associated with the Isle of Man, and even so long ago as
the end of the last century, was a favourite subject for
jesting ; the Manx, however, found in the fishery the

M and tester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 31

source of their greatest profit, and they treated it
with a solemnity quite as laughable as the jeers of their
foreign visitors.

The next letter is very quaint and gossipy : —

Douglas, Ocf- 13th, 1797.

We have had a very bad Herring fishing indeed. Not a Fish cured for
sale in the whole Island : but Gobbock have been, and still continue to lie,
in great force. Some of them are from six to seven feet long. They play
the very Devil with the Herring Nets, generally making three very large
holes, each of them.

I have reed all your favours, the Lines included : they appear to be
very good ; but the Weather has been so cold, and the Fish so very scarce,
that I have not yet wetted them. My present amusement is riding. I have
bought a very ugly, black, Irish Horse, with a bald Face. He carries me
my pace (which is a Walk) very well, and, as he does not appear to have
any of his countrymen's bad Tricks, I believe we shill agree very well.

I have spoken to 20 about some Potatoes. He offers to lay them at
Liverpool at 2/2d a Bushel of 90 pounds weight. I told him it was too dear,
but as I promised to write to you on the Subject, I could not avoid mention-
ing it. I will make farther inquiries, and let you know if I hear anything
worth your notice. At present it is too early to dig them for winter store, so
that there will be time enough to make enquiries.

The person that 20 wrote to you about has, at length, made his appear-
ance. He brought a Note from our friend G. Hulme, who I shall be
extremely happy to oblige by showing Mr. Gatliff what little attentions I
can. It seems he has brought his wife along with him. Her I have not yet
seen. He appears to be rather eccentrick. I wish you wou'd take the
trouble of letting me know something about him. I dare say that Mr.
Hulme would not have given him an introduction without knowing him ;
but as he does not say a word about a wife I don't know what to make of it ;
especially as we have such a number of ripps and scamps here. This is
only to yourself.

Mons"" Huquier has been making duplicates of myself, Mrs Cable, &
Sarah. He intends being in Manchester e'er long, & will, I dare say, give
you an early call. He appears to be an intelligent, facetious, old man. He
has been very happy in his likenessess of Mrs. C. & Sarah ; and they say of
me also. They wou'd not sit without I wou'd, & so they have persuaded
me to be a fool once more.

I shou'd have told you that I have broke up my Summer camp and am
now in my Cottage in Town. We have been removed something more than
a Week. You, I suppose, are taking the wiser measure of leaving the Town
for the Country. I wish you every enjoyment in your new purchase. I only
wish it had been somewhere in this Island. I wou'd most certainly have been
your Neighbour. Here is a nice estate upon sale at present. I believe

32 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut.-Col. Philips.

about 500 acres, it is called Balla-Fletcher. Kirk-Braddon is almost in the
centre of it. It is to be sold either altogether or separately. I am told the
whole has been offer'd for six thousand pounds. Unfortunately, like all
other estates in this Island, there is no house on it.

Heatli's Engraving is arrived safe. The Major is very much obliged and
I am llie same. IVright^s Dead Soldier is Alive.

" Mr. Gatliff " is the renowned Parson John Gatliffe.
of the Collegiate Church, Manchester. Mrs. Linnaeus Banks
says he was "a fine man, a polished gentleman, an
eloquent preacher, but a hon vivant of whom many odd
stories are told." He was appointed a Fellow of the
Collegiate Church, March 13th, 1798, in place of Dr.
Maurice Griffiths, D.D., the rector of St. Mary's, and rural
dean, who died on February J 5th.

Jacques Gabriel Huquier, the son of Gabriel Huquier,
was born in Paris, in 1725, and received his art education
in his father's studio. He afterwards came to England,
and exhibited several times in the Royal Academy during
the years 1771-86. He took portraits in crayons, and
engraved large numbers of plates, some of them in
conjunction with his father. He lived in London and
Cambridge, and died at Shrewsbury in 1805.

On November 3rd, Cable writes : —

I shall send along some seeds of the Ornithopus & some Roots of that bold
Purple flower which grew in my Garden, I don't know its name, but it is
something bke a Fox glove. You must find out yourself what it is good for.

Yesterday I was honor'd with my quondam Landlord's Company at
Dinner who, I thank God, had not lost his appetite, for I really believe he
eat more than all my Family could eat in a Week, but he seems to differ in
some respects from most other Savages for he is by no means so fond of
Liquor as he is of meat. The Beef, the Fish, the Pudding, & the Tater
seem to be more to his taste, and I think he had them all upon his plate at
once. I told him that I had lately heard from you, & that you desired
to be remembered to him. " He is welcome," was his answer. He is
indeed a most curious Savage, and if you had him in Manchester I think you
might make money of him. I am sure none of your Neighbours ever saw
such a one.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 33

Mons. Huquier leaves this place to-morrow morning in the Duke of
AthoU. He has taken three extreme good likenesses of Self & Co which
were very near visiting Manchester, he not having any frames here ; but I
talked of non payment until Delivery of Goods, so he contriv'd to procure
Frames & Glasses. By the Bye, he turns out upon acquaintance to be a
mere Frenchman. He is very forward ; and, I think, sometimes very rude.
You will do well to keep him at Arm's length for he will intrude if you will
let him.

I am glad to find things stand so well at Arley. Indeed I never
doubted but the Church wou'd gain a complete victory over the Presby-
terians. To be sure our friend, George, is quite another sort of a Subject
to what Mrs. H. has been used to. He has bottom. Potter was rather
washy. I am heartily glad she has escaped the whole tribe. If we live to
see the end of the War, we must certainly contrive to pay them a visit. I
think it may be as amusing as our long talked of voyage to the Hebrides ;
and as there is a Canal so near Arley we may possibly contrive to make our
journey by Water.

I have not seen Mr. Gatliff since I wrote to you ; he has taken Lodgings
at Castletown, & has not been in Douglas since. I fancy retirement is his
plan ; if so he may live as retired as he please there.

You have never once mentioned whether Mr. Jervis has been with you.
If he came I dare say you amused him much, either by a Tour of the Gardens,
or by some other means. I was much diverted by the papers making Lord
St. Vincent an Irishman, when all the world knows he was born in

Staffordshire.

* if-. * * *

Huquier has certainly very Vagabond principles.

I wonder whether little Natty was born when Wright painted his Dead
Soldier. The Child is extremely like him.

Mr. J. Jervis, of Darlaston, Staffordshire, was an old
friend of Colonel Leigh Philips ; they had probably
become acquainted through the fact that the latter was
himself a member^of an old Staffordshire family. There
are two letters from him in the present collection, the first
of which, dated February i8th, 1783, is chiefly concerned
with matters relating to the writer's garden. The other,
dated May 23rd, 1785, relates to the subject of fruit
culture.

The next letter is dated December loth.

Yours of the 14 Ultmo arrived here in about 17 days after it was wrote ;
and it was a great chance whether it ever arrived or not ; for our worthy friend,
John Brew, had very nearly gone to Davys Locker. He was out two days

34 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut. -Col. Philips.

in the very worst weather we have had this Winter, and at last was driven
on Shore in Derby Haven. Luckily his Vessel was a stout one <fe no lives
were lost, and very little damage done the Duke. Farril was in her
at the time, and arrived two days after I had got my orders to strike my
Flag, & shut up my Rendezvous ; so he found himself out of Pay, after a
very long absence from home. I fancy it is very low water with him. How
we shall manage about our Money, I can't tell, but fear it will be long
before he can make it convenient to pay

In my last I told you I was in Treaty for the purchase of a House :
luckily I miss'd buying ; for as I am now quite out of employ, I possibly
shou'd not have liked my bargain. I offer'd 350. The High Bailiff
ask'd me 5CX) guineas. The price was exhorbitant. My ofter was some-
thing more than it is worth. Since then, Taubman has offer'd me a little
estate of his, about a mile from Town ; and has promised to build a decent
House upon it. If he is sincere I perhaps may take it : but I cannot depend
upon him. How many times do you think we have been invited to his
house since you left the Island ? not once. Upon our coming to town we
took a very early opportunity of calling upon him, and inviting the Family
to dine. They came and appear'd very cheerful, but we were never invited
again from that time to this. What a fine specimen of the Major's sincere
Friendship !

As I have the house I at present live in until May next I shall not be in
a hurry to come to any determination. It certainly will require much
deliberation, and I shall not, in haste, resolve to come to England. Mr.
Pitt has quite alarmed me with his Imdgett.

It was in Pitt's Budget of 1797, that the famous Triple
Assessment was introduced. On Dec. i6th Cable writes: —

I tell you, as a piece of News, that I have sold my Horse. I gave twelve
Guineas for him, have kept him about a quarter of a year, rode him about
twelve or fourteen times, & have sold him for ten, not guineas, but ten
gallons of Rum, three gallons of Whiskey, and four dozen of White Wine.
Have not I done well ? My Infantry being discharged it would have been
wrong to have kept up my establishment of Cavalry. Besides, he had such
a Devilish great Appetite. If he wou'd have liv'd without Hay indeed !
Good Night. The Packett will come in some of these days, and then we
shall say something more. John Brew will sail when he is ready, and when
he thinks the weather is settled good, and not a day before. Your Potatoes
are with him.

2ist. The Packett has come in, and has brought yours of the 14th, but
as my arrangements were previously made I shall not alter them. Your
Potatoes will leave this place in a day or two.

I have forgot to tell you that poor Whitehurst is dead. He died about
3 Week's ago. As he left no money and was in debt, we buried him by
subscription. I hope his obligations are buried with him.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 35

24th. The Surrey is just come in. I have got your Pine Apple, which is
very handsome, & which I thank you for. I shall astonish some of the
Natives with it to-morrow. Sherman, Grice and his Wife (for he is married
to a Miss Cribbin since you was here) dine with me to-morrow. I love to
astonish People, and who does not. I believe there is another Parcel!, or
Package, for me on board the Surry, but the first being the most perishable
my anxiety has been greatest to get the Apple.

The "Surrey" was a trading vessel of the island
belonging to Captain Clegg. Mr. T. Sherman was the
naval storekeeper at Douglas. On January 12th, 1798,
Cable writes recommending " a sort of Clerk," who was
among the other parts of his late establishment, and who
wants employment in England ; and on March 29th,
he says : —

I hope you are by this time perfectly settled in your new habitation,
where I wish you may enjoy every comfort and happiness. The removal of
your Garden has, no doubt, been attended with great trouble ; but I must
own I do not pity you, for I know you take great pleasure in such sort of
trouble. Besides it will do you a great deal of good : you have plenty
of confinement, and this must necessarily bring you much into the air, and
give exercise both to the body and spirits. That is what it is good for,
let George Ilulme say what he will

It was only the other day that I was informed of Martin Luther being
with you. If you can make him useful to you, well. But he has shewn himself
an ungrateful Vagabond to me since our party has been broke up ; and I am
told has been very negligent of his family. He has killed a great deal of Game
this Winter with my Gun, but I have never had the offer of more than one
Hare, the rest have been taken to Farrer. I mention this only to shew you how
much he is to be depended on ; and to shew you that he had not the sanction
of my name when he applied to you, though it is possible he might have used
It. The fellow, however, you know, can make himself useful on many
occasions : only don't depend upon him.

The reason why I have not written to you of late has been because I
have alter'd my Nature. I have open'd a correspondence with no less than
three Peers of the Realm, One Duke, one Earl, and one Baron. My Part,
like that of the Lord High Treasurer in the Critick has been to Think. It
is, however, a great Secret. Nobody has the least Idea of the Matter. I
do not know whether I shall think to any purpose, but the business is simply
this. I want to turn the Calf of Man into a place of confinement for Prisoners
of War, and am at this time actually corresponding with the Duke of Atholl,
the Earl Spencer, and Lord Curzon on this Subject. There is not, there
■cannot be, any difficulty but one ; and that is a want of buildings to shelter

36 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieiit.-Col. Philips.

them from the Weather. Put twenty thousand on Shore there & I wou'd be
bound to keep them there with a small, a very small force, indeed. I expect
an Aye, or a No, by the next Packett. At present I need say no more than
that it is a Real Secrett. You shall know the result a few days after I do.

In a former letter you mentioned a list of Wright's works, which, by the
bye, never arrived ; and a business of Colonel Drinkwater. If he is in your
neighbourhood do the polite thing for me. I have got a most shining frame for
the poor Soldier which cutts a great dash.

The Lord Curzon mentioned in the letter was the first
Viscount, father of the well-known traveller. He was the
third son of Sir Nathaniel Curzon, M.P. for Derby (said
to have been the only member of Parliament who dis-
proved Sir Robert Walpole's theory that " every man has
his price") and Mary, daughter of Sir Ralph Assheton, of
Middleton, Lancashire. His elder brother John was
created Lord Scarsdale in 1761, while Assheton Curzon,
who was born in 1729, was Baron in 1794, and Viscount
Curzon, in 1802. His son received the Howe peerage
through his mother.

The Colonel Drinkwater alluded to is apparently
General Drinkwater (at the time of this letter Lieut.-
Colonel) the hero of Gibraltar, and author of the famous
" History of the Siege." He afterwards assumed the
name of Bethune. He was the eldest son of John
Drinkwater, M.D., of Sal ford, and Elizabeth Andrews, his
wife. It was he who erected the monument in Trinit)'
Church, Salford, " to the memory of his brother Thomas
Drinkwater, Major of His Majesty's 62nd Regiment of
Foot, who perished at sea, on his return from the West
Indies, the 23rd of April, 1797, aged 32 years." Dr. John
Drinkwater, himself, who was one of the founders of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, died in
March, 1797.

On June 28th, Cable writes : —

In my last I think I told you of my scheme for securing the French
Prisoners. In consequence of my representation an Enquirer was sent

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. ^jj

hither by the Admiralty who approved of the Place, but objected to it on
account of the Expense of building Barracks for their Accommodation. This
was what I had mentioned to Lord Spencer, who, I dare say was not
displeas'd at me for the trouble I had given him, for, by the last Packett but
one I reed orders again to procure Men. I have accordingly recommission'd
the Mona of Douglas, and she now makes her appearance in the dress of a
Dutch Scout ; commanded as before, and mann'd with her usual Crew, save
& excepting Martin Luther who has betaken himself to a seafaring life,
having entered on board an Irish Revenue Cutter where he receives the
enormous sum of twenty six shillings per month. We have been much
pester'd with a number of very suspicious looking Irish-folks, who have
attempted to land on this Island, many of whom have been prevented
coming on Shore, others have been reship'd & sent back again ; some how-
ever have evaded the vigilance of the Guards and got nestled into the
country. It is to be hoped that they will be discover'd & routed, means
being used to find them out by mustering the different Parishes, and taking
an account of all strangers

I am, at present, in treaty for Balla Broie, but I am afraid the Landlord
will not put the premises into so good repair as I wish, & without which I
will not go to it. I have a man there to-day surveying the wants & distresses
of the House, which are manifold.

I have, along with this, returned your Bewick's Book of Birds. It has
given me much amusement. It is the most beautiful thing of the sort I ever
saw. The Tail pieces, in particular, are charmingly grouped ; and there is
an appearance of a very sporting fancy throughout the whole. I mean to
send along with it a book of a different description, being entirely Manx
Manufacture. You will do me the favour to enrich your Library with it. It
will, at least, be a curiosity to have a book that grew in the Isle of Man ;
and if you study hard you may in time become an excellent Manx Lawyer.
I heartily wish that our English Statute Book could be compressed to such a
size, we shou'd much better understand what we were about. But this is no
time for experiments. We have had a dreadful example of the consequences
of it ; and when it will terminate fills one with awful suspense.

I congratulate you on your Military promotion, and think that if you &
your Battalion escape the Press Gangs, you may do well enough

The Manx Statutes, at the time of these Letters, were
easily contained in a single octavo volume of 500 pages.
On September i6th, Cable writes : —

In the first place I have to inform you that I am alive, which is what I
cou'd not have promis'd you at this time a week ago, for at that time my life
was threatened by more than one. In order that you may the better under-
stand this business you are to know that some time since, my very good
masters, the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, sent a Vessel here for
the purpose of Impressing a number of Men out of the Manx Herring Boats,

38 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut. -Col. Philips.

they having been inform'd by somebody, that several thousands were em-
ployed in that Trade, and that there was no apparent reason why a Manx
Fisherman shou'd not be as liable to the Impress as an English one. I
suppose their Lordships were convinced by these arguments, for they ordered
the Spider, Schooner, commanded by a Lieut. Harrison to proceed on this
Station for the above purpose, and last Friday Night, but one (dreadful to
relate) he carried their orders into effect by impressing about fifty of those
sacred persons. Had an Earthquake happen'd or any other Convulsion of
Nature, it cou'd not have had a more terrible effect on the Inhabitants of
this Isle. That they were entirely ruin'd was past a doubt, and that this
ruinous business was occasioned by Captain Cable was another truth which
no one cou'd pretend to deny. His throat, of course, ought to be cut at
least, and his House pulled about his ears. In the meantime he, honest
man, showed no concern nor took any precautions about the matter. The
bustle is now, I believe a little subsided, & there has been no throats cutt,
nor any houses puU'd down. The Keys have, however, had a meeting
about the business, and they have memorialised the Admiralty representing
I suppose that the persons of their fishermen ought to be held sacred, and
demanding that this terrible business shou'd be no more repeated. And
now you have got a history of the most eventful circumstance that ever
happened to the Isle of Man.

The Press Gang was a grievance of long standing
in the Isle of Man. In 1795, the Duke of Atholl, as
Governor, added greatly to his popularity there by
writing to the British Government, and inducing them to
promise protection in the matter to the Manx fishermen.
The result of this is seen in the letter.

The next letter tells of the death of Mrs. Cable : —

Douglas, Dec. 5th 1798.
My dear friend,

This will be the shortest, and the most melanclioly Letter I ever wrote
to you — Mrs. Cable is no more, she died last Wednesday after about three
weeks illness, of a low Putrid Fever, from which I am but just recover'd.
This Event will cause me to leave the Isle of Man : for as neither my dear
Sarah nor myself have anyone to lean to except each other, the Survivor of
us wou'd be in a dreadful situation upon the Death of either : an event
which must necessarily happen some time or other. I mean to come tt>
England in a very short time to consult yourself, and those few friends I have,
about a Situation. As I hope to see you e'er long I shall say no more than
that I am and shall ever remain, your, & Mrs. Philips's, most sincere &
affectionate friend.

Sam. Cable.

Manchester Meinoii's, Vol. xlv. {igoi), No. ^. 39

Sarah begs I will make her most affectionate regards to you both.
Farril is broke all to pieces. I am afraid your ^^50 and my ^40 is
entirely lost. He does not appear to me in a very favourable light.

The postscript contains a very natural conclusion.
The next letter is dated January ist, 1799: —

I this day reed your very friendly letter of the 28th Ult.m-, and have
taken the earliest opportunity of thanking you for it. When we are in
trouble the P'riendly Offices and expressions of those whom we Love &
Esteem are doubly acceptable, and make the deepest impression ; and such
an effect has your kind letter had both upon Sarah and myself. She looks
up to you & Mrs. Philips as to the two dearest friends she has in the World
after me ; and begs that I will offer her sincere thanks to you both for your
very friendly invitation, which, I hope, we shall be enabled to expect in the
course of Next Summer ; when we flatter ourselves that we shall be lucky
enough to persuade you both to accompany us back to the Island, where we
can accommodate you perfectly well for a few weeks. I have got another
Bed Chamber added to my House, and I can procure a Bed for any Servant
you bring along with you close by. This is a measure that we have set our
hearts upon, and shall be much disappointed if it is not carried into effect.
I mean to put off my Voyage to England until May, when I purpose to bring
Sarah along with me and to spend about a month or six weeks with my
friends at Liverpool, Manchester, & Blackburn : at the end of that time I
think it will be about your vacation, and you can return with us. The
Season then will be at the best for your favourite amusement, & it will give
us the greatest pleasure to have you and Mrs. Philips for our Guests. I
assure you it has afforded us great pleasure in talking of this scheme. Pray
God nothing may happen to prevent its being carried into effect.

I thank you for your advice about remaining in the island during the
War. It is exactly what Sarah & I thought wou'd be proper, and I am quite
confirm'd in my opinion by your letter. Ten pr cent upon a small Income
makes a very sensible difference, and must at least curtail some enjoyment
or other. Besides it is possible that the Rendezvous may again be open'd
this next Summer as it was the last and it is better to be upon the spot than
to have the trouble and expense of removing.

As you are among people of Letters I wish you wou'd get me a few
lines compos'd, to be inscrib'd on Mrs. Cable's Tomb, stating her Conjugal
affection, her Sincerity as a Friend, her Indulgent kindness as a Mistress —
Charity to the Poor, and above all as being a truly good Woman & a Real
Christian. All which you know she was. I think Ferriar is an Elegant
Poet & cou'd do it properly if he wou'd have the goodness to undertake it.

After the failure of the Triple Assessment the Income
Tax was introduced, and at the outset the rate was ten
per cent, as referred to in the letter. Cable continues to

40 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut. -Col. Philips.

hope for a visit from his friend, and on March 15th, he

writes : —

As I have not lately been in the highest spirits, I have had the more
time to think, the result of those Cogitations has confirmed me in my former
opinions that England is not the place for a man of small Fortune, out of
Trade, and of genteel Ideas. My Connexions and Friendships are, all of
them. People of Large Fortunes, and I shou'd not perhaps be quite comfort-
able always to feel my own insignificance. Here I am upon a quite different
footing. I can live as I like, see either much company or none at all. Taxes
we have none, or next to none, & living is certainly much cheaper than in any
genteel town in England. If I was to come to England now I shou'd be
almost starved ; for I have been so long used to Wine that I shou'd not be
comfortable without it, and I cou'd hardly afford myself a Pint a day.
Besides I am so fixed that a voyage to see my friends wou'd not be attended
with much expense ; and I can afford to entertain any who will come &
see me without any expense at all. Do once more let me beg you will come
over if you possibly can. I will promise to return with you if that will be
any inducement. You will please to understand that when I say you I mean
the whole of you, that is yourself & Mrs. Philips ; without her I shou'd
think I onl}' saw half of you.

On March 28th, Cable writes : —

Since I wrote to you last we have had a week of dissipation. The
Strangers here have got a touch of the Benevolent INIania. Two of them, a
Mr. May (cher ami to the Bird of Paradise) and a Mr. Gooch (son of the
celebrated Mr. Gooch) have been performing the parts of Lothario, &
Horatio for the benefit of some distressed Actors & Actresses who have
been left here in Pawn by their Party. The House was full, & the profits
enabled the distressed wretches to have a Good Supper and leave the Island
with Flying Colours. To-morrow there is to be two Theatrical Performances
performed entirely by Gentlemen & Ladies for the benefit of a poor
deserving English woman who has been deserted by a worthless Husband.
High Life below Stairs, & the Prize, are got up, (Sc I am told, will be
presented in High Stile. The whole house is already taken. Sarah has made
me promise to accompany her there. She is gone this Evening to an
Assembly at my earnest request, for she is as great a Mope as myself, «&
wou'd continually stay at Home if I was not to invite her out. As for my
own part, although that great Alleviator Time has much softened my Grief
for the Loss of one of the best of women, yet I feel not the least inclination
to partake of any Publick amusements.

On May 7th, he writes : —

As the Season is approaching for our intended excursion to England, I
think it necessary to apprise you of it, and to enquire whether you can make
it perfectly convenient to give Sarah & myself board & lodging for a short

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8- 41

time ; my reason for making these enquiries is owing to what you mention'd
in a former Letter about Enlarging your Habitation, which if it is rather too
confin'd for your own family, must of course be more so when you are
encumber'd with additional Guests. As for Sarah, she will be happy to take
Part of Miss Caroline's Bed if she can make it convenient to spare part of it,
so that if I can find a Cabbin & Cot for myself I hope we may continue to
do pretty well. It remains for you to say whether your avocations will
answer to receive us sometime about the beginning, or middle, of June, at
which time we think of being with you. Do let me hear from you on this
Subject shortly.

I am highly delighted with the account you give of the pleasing prospect
your American Estate affords. I most sincerely wish these prospects may be
realised. If your Masts are the Dimension you mention, and if you get
them ship'd without too much expense, they will be invaluable, both to
yourselves & to the Country. At all events your Brother James sets out
well — may it continue.

What do you think of Miss Jacobs having brought an action of breach
of promise of marriage ? who do you think is the defendant ? as it is impossible
you shou'd ever guess I must acquaint you : it is old Sherman, who has been
extremely foolish on the occasion, & now is going to be held up to ridicule,
as well as Miss »& her Father.

" Miss Caroline," mentioned in the letter, was Colonel
Philips' only daughter. Strange to say, no account is
given of her in Foster's Pedigrees. From a letter written
by Sir Hungerford Hoskyns in 18 10, we gather that she
had long been in failing health, while Meadows Taylor*
leads one to understand the same by his phrase, "a happy
release, but a sad life." She could not have been more than
twenty when she died, towards the end of 181 2. In the
summer of 1799, Captain Cable and his daughter take
their long intended trip to see their friends in Lancashire.

Blackburn, July 22nd 1799,
I have been expecting an answer from Mr. Parker, the Bowbearer of
Bowland forest, for some days past which has hitherto prevented me from
writing to you. Yesterday I reed the enclosed from Mr. Wilson of Clitheroe,
which I apprehend will answer your purpose. I have to add for your
information that minnows abound both in the Hodder and in all the
adjacent Brooks, so that you need not fear getting Bait. Mr. Cottam of
Whalley informs me that he has had many days of good sport this Season,

*Part II., p. 49,

42 Faraday, Correspondence of Lient.-Col. Philips.

and that he has seldom, or never missed taking fish, let the water be ever
so fine & small, with a scour'd Brandling. He saj's, likewise, that he
shall be glad to attend you whenever you go to Whitewell if you will do him
the favour of calling upon him as you go through Whalley. Mr. Wilson also
requested I wou'd make his compliments to you & hop'd to see you if you
cou'd make it convenient to call upon him at Clitheroe. He has just
returned from Liverpool, where he has been introduced to Roscoe, of whom
he speaks in very high terms.

The family of Parker, of Browsholme, in the Forest
of Bowland, has been known in Lancashire since the
beginning of the 15th century, and the office of Bovvbearer
of the Forest seems to have been hereditary in the family
for many generations. Mr. John Parker, Cable's friend,
was born in 1755. He was a Fellow Commoner of
Christ's College, Cambridge, and sat as M.P. for the
borough of Clitheroe, though his return as member was
the subject of Parliamentary inquiry in 1780. He was
married at Giggleswick, in 1778, to Beatrix, the daughter
of Thomas Lister, of Gisburne Park, Yorkshire, and sister
of the first Lord Ribblesdale. His father, Edw^ard Parker,
married Barbara, the daughter of Sir William Fleming,
of Rydal Hall, Westmoreland.

As to Mr. Wilson, we learn from the Liverpool
Advertiser of January 6th, 1795, that the "Marine Society
held their Anniversary, when the members went in
procession, honoured by his Worshipful the Mayor, and
his officers with the Regalia, to St. George's Church,
where an excellent sermon was preached by the Rev.
Mr. Wilson, of Clitheroe. The Society afterwards dined
at the Exchange with great unanimity and happiness."
Thomas Wilson (who must be distinguished from
Senhouse Wilson, the Isle of Man and Liverpool
merchant), was born at Hutton in 1741, his father
being a highly respected yeoman. Educated at Sed-
bergh Grammar School, Wilson acted as Reader in

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 43

several neighbouring parishes, but never proceeded to
the University. He was generally accounted a profound
scholar. In 1771, he was ordained, and two years
later was elected headmaster of Slaidburn Grammar
School. In 1775, he became headmaster of Clitheroe
Grammar School, a position he held for nearly forty years.
Late in life he was presented to the living of Claughton.
Wilson married Susannah Tetlow, the daughter of the
Rector of Bolton-by-Bowland, and he died in 1813. One
fact of interest in his life is that in 1 791, he was presented
with a silver snuff-box by the Corporation of Clitheroe.
The inscription on the lid is signed by Samuel Cable and
Henry Hayhurst, Bailiffs. Wilson wrote several poems.
Mr. Cottam, of Whalley, I have had difficulty in tracing.
The Cottams or Cothames, though never very numerous,
appear at intervals throughout Lancashire history, and
the Cottams of Cottam, near Preston, though longe.xtinct,
were a well-known family. At different times we find
Cottams at Dilworth, Bilsborrow, Clitheroe, and Whalley.
Thus, in 1642, William Cottam warned the borough of
Clitheroe against an attack by Sir William Hoghton : this
William seems to have been connected with Thomas
Cottam, a Jesuit, who suffered for his religion in 1 542.
Mr. Wm. Cottam, of Burnley, died at Hardshaw Hall in
1798. He was probably the father of Cable's friend, who
was still living at Whalley in 1821.
In the next letter Cable says : —

Liverpool, July 25th 1799.
We arrived here last night safe, & tolerably sound, though the roads
were in many places extremely rough and uneasy. I find, upon enquiry this
morning, that a Vessel will sail for our Island to-morrow or next day ; I
write therefore to request you will have the goodness to order your Servant
to forward Sarah's Box, which she left at Mayfield, as soon as he can make
it convenient, as it contains all her Sea Wardrobe, & she will, of course, be
rather incommoded without it. If Mrs. Philips will, at the same time,
forward the other trifles Sarah will feel herself much obliged to her, as well

44 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieiit.-Col. Philips.

as for the polite attention she experienced while under your roof. As for
myself, I shall say but little about it, being a Man of Few Words. When
you will give me an opportunity I will endeavour to settle the account as
well as I can, but I am afraid it will be a running account with the Balance
always against me.

I forgot to mention, in my Note from Blackburn, that I had been at
Mr. Sudell's place at Woodfold, I walked through his Garden & Hot-
Houses. The quantity of fruits he has, in various stages, is really astonish-
ing ; to give you an Idea of quantity respecting the Peaches Nectarines &
Grapes I ought to make use of the terms Tons or Waggon Loads : and he
has them in all their various stages from the first setting, to their being quite
ready for the Table. In short it was a Glorious sight. There is, however,
a much more glorious sight from this place at present — the homeward bound
Jamaica fleet just coming up the River ; and I have just heard, as Glorious
News, that there is a Gazette account of Buonaparte's Army, together with
himself, being all sent to the Devil, where let him rest in peace if he can. May
all the foes of Britain join him there !

The " Gazette " mentioned recorded the defeat
sustained by the French under Buonaparte at the hands
of Sir Sydney Smith, at St. Jean d'Acre, in June, 1799.

The family of Sudell has been known for something
Hke three centuries in the neighbourhood of Blackburn,
where they have held considerable landed estates and also
engaged in trade. Mr. Henry Sudell of Blackburn
married Miss Alice Livesey. He died in 1764. His
posthumous son Henry, who is the one mentioned in
the letter, became a great merchant at Blackburn,
married Maria, the daughter of Thomas Livesey, and
purchased large estates in Mellor, Salmesbury, and
Pleasington. In 1799 he enclosed Woodfold Park at
Mellor and built the Hall, a large building in the
architecture of the period. His affairs continued to
prosper, and in 1820 he was accounted a millionaire.
Then came his downfall. He lost heavily in German
and American Speculations, and in 1827 (losses in
American Speculations were the proximate cause of the
panic of 1825) suspended payment ; his large Lancashire
estates were sold, and he went back to Blackburn, and,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 45

after getting the remnants of his fortune together, retired
to Wiltshire. He survived until 1856, when he died, at
the advanced age of 92, at Ashley House, Bath. He left
several children. Thomas Livesey was eventually heir to
a considerable estate and, unlike his kinsman and partner
John, died fairly wealthy. Hermann Boaz, referred to in
a short postscript to the letter, was also at times one of
Philips' correspondents ; he was an actor.

The next letter tells the result of the Breach of
Promise " Tryal " : —

Douglas, Oct. 19th 1799.

The continued Rains Hz Wind have almost spoil'd the whole of the
Corn in this Island, and will cause everything eatable to be extremely dear.
It has made me feel very comfortable that my situation has not been in the
Country, which is nothing but a heap of Mud & Dirt ; and although you
find Charms in the Country, that is in you7- Country, yet I fancy, was you
obliged to live in this Island all the year round, you wou'd choose a Villa
situated somewhere in the middle of Douglas. And even in your own
country I do suppose you find an abundant quantity of the above mention'd
articles Mud & Dirt. I will answer for it your fish pond has had regular
supplies of water, without your being under the necessity of stopping up the
Brook. For my own part I am so well satisfied with Douglas that I am
upon the point of purchasing a House here and I believe I shall actually
agree for it. The purchase money will be about four hundred pounds, Can
you make it convenient to let me have that sum about next May? Perhaps
it may not be quite so much : I am sure it will not be more. Pray let me
here from you soon on this subject.

The important Tryal between Miss Jacobs and Sherman is at length
terminated, and has ended in a complete victory on the side of the Fair
Lady: she has come off with Flying Colours, and Two Hundred pounds
Brit. He attempted to set up a very ungallant defence, which, for the
honour of Manx Land, wou'd not be admitted. It is said that a Mr. Archdale,
formerly a lieutenant of mine had before paid his addresses to her. This the
jury thought irrelevant & therefore refused to hear it. He now wanders
about, generally alone, and looks like a hunted Devill. It touches him to
the quick to part with his money.

The Whaleys, the Daleys, & the rest of the vagabonds are continually
quarrelling & Brawling, & afford constant subjects for conversation ; and
which, as we have no matters of greater consequence to discuss, serve to
pass away time. The rest of the people and places remain in much the same
situation as when you left us, save & except that I have an elegant Villa
building in the heart of Duke Street where I hope to see you & your Fair

4-6 Faraday, Correspividence of Licut.-CoL Philips.

Dame next Summer. I shall just have one spare room which I assure you
shall be comfortable.

One cannot help feeling some sympathy with old
Mr. Sherman, whose pay was only ;^I00 a year. It is
somewhat difficult to understand the Captain's rather
obscure hints about his new residence ; they appear to be
contradictory. On January 27th, 1800, Cable writes : —

I reed- a Letter by the last Packett from our friend Radcliffe, announcing
the approach of a piece of Oxford Brawn, which is since arrived in great
perfection, and which enabled me to send a handsome treat to his Grace of
Atholl ; who, by the bye, has spent his Christmas here, and I understand
does not leave the Island until March. While he has been here the
Inhabitants of the Town have given him & his Family a Ball & Supper at
which were assembled about 120 persons. The whole went off very well
while their Graces & their Suite stayed, but after they were gone a parcel of
vagabond Irish, who had contriv'd to be of the party, kick'd up a Row, in
the manner of their Country, which has given some business to the Deemster.
Luckily I was come home before the Uproar began. This, as you will easily
imagine has afforded great scope for conversation & scandal. Indeed, I
don't know what we shou'd do for conversation in the alxsence of the Packett
were it not for these Irish Emigrants. They are a precious Gang, that's for
certain.

As a piece of news I tell you that your unfortunate Townsman and I
have made matters up. He din'd with me on New Year's Day, &, we
began the New Year by drinking a Glass to Oblivion. As we shall never
be upon so intimate a footing again as we have been, there is reason to hope
we shall continue upon decent terms in future.

On May 5th Cable writes : —

We are just on the point of removing into a neat, snug, comfortable
Box where I have a very good spare Bed Chamber, and where I can
accomodate you and Mrs. Philips more conveniently than you have ever
been lodged in this country, and where it will give me the greatest pleasure
to see you whenever you can make it pleasant to take a trip to Douglas.
My House I assure you, is finished in a manner far superior to any you have
seen in this Island ; it being Stiled and Lath'd (as the workmen call it) from
top to bottom throughout the whole House, which no other House that I
know of in this Island has. Sarah begs me to say that if you can bring
Miss Philips along with you she shall be extremely glad to see her, and will
accomodate her with half of her Bed, & will endeavour to make the
excursion as agreeable as possible. Therefore, if you can spare time from your
more serious avocations of Trade & War, do, for God's sake, come
see us this Summer.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 47
The next letter treats of several interesting matters : —

Douglas, July 25th 1800.

I shou'd have written to you long e'er this, but have put it off from time
to time in expectation of seeing you, for about a month ago I reed a Letter
from the Transport Office saying thar Lord Spencer had nam'd me for an
Agent of Transport, it requesting to know whether I had any objection to
serve in that Capacity. I answer'd that I certainly cou'd have no objection
to serve in any capacity his Lordship thought proper to appoint me to ; and
I, of course, expected to be immediately called upon ; but last post brou"ht
me a very polite letter from Commissioner George, of the Transport Office
saying that my remote situation prevented me from getting to London in
time, as the emergency was very pressing ; and the troops at that time
already embarked ; & that the vacancy was obliged to be immediately
filled up ; but that if any other appointment under that board offi;red he
wou'd take care to give me timely notice. And thus has ended the bustle
which this Letter caused in our household. I don't know whether I am most
pleased or displeased by this disappointment for there is much to be said on
both sides. However, I am well pleased with one part of the business, »&
that is knowing that it originated with my good friend Lord Curzon, who has
recommended me to Lord Spencer so that it is not improbable that I may
yet be called once more into actual service. My way upon these occasions
is to make myself perfectly easy, & say "whatever is right is right, the Devil
a bit further will I submit to.

I wonder whether there is any chance of seeing you on this side the
Herring Pond this year? Your old friend Banks will add to your stock
of information by reciting the adventures he has lately gone through in an
enchanted Castle where he was convey'd by certain Magicians, in the Shape
of Parsons. The truth is Mr Banks has a settled aversion to the Clergy as
well as to every other of the Liberal professions, & he was indulging himself
by giving vent to some of the bile which overloaded his stomach, in one of
the Clergy Courts here, when the Vicar-General »& his brethren caused him
to be placed in Castle Rushen for a fortnight, & a penalty of Ten Pounds
Brit : to be levied on his goods & chattel. I have not seen him since he
came from Colledge, but I hear he is very amusing, & it is not impossible but
he may get another journey thither if he is not a little more cautious in his
expressions. There are various other scenes and stories for your recreation
if you will but be at the pains of taking a trip to Mona to collect them.

The fanciful way in which the arrest and imprisonment
of Banks is described is due to the former Manx su]jer-
stition that Castle Rushen, which was the general prison
of the Island, was originally built and inhabited by fairies.
The Clergy in the Isle of Man had an even greater civil

48 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut. -Col. PJiilips.

jurisdiction than they had in England, and Mr. Banks
paid the penalty of his boldness in combining slander of
the Church with Contempt of Court. An Act of
Tynwald of 1647, provides " Whosoev^er shall accuse or
speak any scandalous speeches against any Chief Officer
of this Isle, Spiritual or Temporal, .... and be not
able to prove it, shall be fined for every time so offending
Tenn Pounds, and their Ears to be cut off for punishment
besides."

In addition to the ordinary ecclesiastical jurisdiction
in Probate and Divorce, the Manx Religious Courts, for
various offences, had the power, not only of inflicting
Church censures, but also of detaining the offenders in the
ecclesiastical prison, which, says Mr. Moore, " was a
subterraneous vault in the Castle of Peel, in order, after
an examination of a jury of six (whom they were
authorised to impanel), to be delivered, if judged
necessary, for further trial and punishment to the temporal
power ; and not only did they commit to their dungeon
for the purpose of such detention, but confinement there
was sometimes ordered, by their definitive sentence, in
affairs merely spiritual." The greater part of the Manx
spiritual jurisdiction was swept away in 1884, and Castle
Rushen was condemned as a prison in 1886. There were,
it should be said, three classes of Manx Ecclesiastical
Courts, Summary, Chapter, and Consistory. Appeals lay
to York.

Evidently Colonel Philips was too busy to take a
holiday, for on August 14th, Cable says : —

I assure you I rejoyce sincerely in the prospecl which n.ppears opening
upon you on the other side the Atlantic. I hope & trust you will in a
short time draw a very fine Revenue from your estate at I'hilipsburg. The
account you have reed from your brother James is very flattering & I have no
doubt but the Navy Board will be glad to treat with you for all the Mast
Timber you can supply them with. The means I wou'd advise you to use is

Manchester Mevwzrs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 49

to go to London yourself and get introduced to Lord Spencer, which you
may easily do either through the medium of your friend Mellish or by the
introduction of Lord Grey or by either of the members for Lancashire. You
might show Lord Spencer as much of your Brother James's Letter as you
think proper, and I doubt not but his Lordship will be much pleased with
the prospect of such a supply of Masts, especially as the prospect of a supply
from the North of Europe, at present, does not seem very flattering. The
only difficulty that appears is the mode of conveying them to Europe ; for
your brother says there are no ships large enough in America to take them
on board. The main mast of one of our first rates is about no feet
long, and there are few merchant ships, except East India Men, of
that length. If some of our old 50 gun ships were fitted up for
that purpose they might answer very well ; and by having their upper deck
Guns on board they wou'd be able to fight a good battle if they were
attacked, and this wou'd preclude the necessity of Convoys, especially if
they had King's Officers put on board them. You might hint this mode of
conveyance to Lord Spencer, who wou'd, in all probability, take it into
consideration. And, if you possibly can, agree to deliver the Masts at
Baltimore and let Government take what measures they think proper to get
them from thence. In short, this seems a most favourable time to push the
business, and one half hour's conversation with Lord Spencer may do more
than half a year's writing cou'd. Before you wait upon Lord Spencer I
would have you wait upon some principal ship builder & get information
from them respecting the present value of masts, timbers, &c. I know very
well, that previous to the present War the price of a 74 Gun Ship's Main
Mast was upwards of ^^500, that is the whole expense of Timber, iron, work-
manship, &c. But this you will be enabled to learn by being on the spot,
much better than I can tell you. If, when you are in London, you do not
agree with Government, I should recommend, as the next best market, the
East India Company, and there I dare say your friend Mellish may be able
to assist you greatly. At all events I think a trip to London may be of
essential service, & I sincerely hope you will find it so

Although I have only mentioned Lord Spencer above, yet I know very
well that he will do nothing in this business by himself ; he will probably get
some of the Commissioners of the Navy to treat with you ; or at least to be
present at your conference, and I wou'd advise you to get introduced to that
board previous to your seeing his Lordship.

On December 6th Cable writes : —

I am much obliged to you for your information about the best means of
preserving eggs, which I dare say may be useful to those people who live in
a country where they are to be had ; but that country is by no means the
Isle of Man. An Egg, for sale, is here a natural curiosity. I have been
told, by Old People, that such things were formerly to be bought ; but since
the prodigious Influx of Strangers they have vanished and they are no more
to be met with in the Markets. Indeed, the prospect of Starvation stares us

50 Faraday, Correspondence of Lie2it.-Col. PJiilips.

full in the face, and if I cou'd procure a sleeping dose that would last until
next Summer, I think it wou'd be the best mode of passing the ensuing
months. I detest Salt Meat, & yet I have this day bought a Quarter of Beef,
to salt down for food after Christmas, without which I know not, seriously,
how we shou'd live for I dare say we shall not be able to procure either
Beef or Mutton after that season. You see that scarcity is not confin'd to
your Neighbourhood ; we have plenty of it here.

What you say about W. is, I believe, partly true. I mean that he is
dead ; but I fancy the mode was not as you have been inform'd. He was
very ill when he left this place, cfe was going to Bath, or Bristol, attended
by his Wife for the recovery of his health, but was arrested by the Grim
Tyrant in his passage at Knutsford. Still there are many people here who
will not believe that he is dead. They say that he has played this trick
several times before in order to elude his creditors, and that he is playing
the same game over again. At the worst, if he is gone, the world will con-
tinue to do special well without him.

I have had the Devil to do since I wrote to you last. No less than
Bullets, Powder, & Pistols. A Scoundrel was instigated by another greater
Scoundrel to attack me one Night, on my returning home, with a large
Bludgeon, & used me like a Ruffian. As there is no chance of Justice or
Satisfaction in this Country, I had no other course but to call him out. He
came attended by his second, but such was their eagerness for fighting I
.suppose that they loaded their Pistols with the Bullets which I lent them,
for they had forgot to bring any along with them, and in their hurry forgot to
put Powder into the Barrils ; or at least put the Bullets in before the Powder.
The consequence was they burnt priming. T. M. was my antagonist & he
was urged on Vjy Speed who is too thoroughpaced a Coward to meet any
Man in this way.

In a letter dated July 20th, 1801, Cable says : —

The Herrings have made their appearance this Year much earlier than
usual, & the energies of the Manx men have been called forth and exercised
in a most surprising manner. For this week or ten days past my senses have
been constantly assailed by Herrings, and even at this present moment while
I am writing the smell of them is rather too strong to be pleasant. It is
really surprising to see the immense quantities of them that have been taken.
Eighty, ninety, & even an hundred stones in a Boat ; Sz those, by far,
the finest fish I ever saw. They have been sold at Peel, where the chief
Fishing is at present, so low as eightpence a hundred ; this, together with an
abundant supply of Potatoes, has caus'd an appearance, & indeed it is more
than an appearance, it is in reality Plenty. I wish you cou'd contrive to
come over k, see a land of Plenty again. It is long since you saw such a
sight. Quite a novel thing. As soon as the Red Herrings are cured I will
take care to send you half a dozen kitts of them, and if you will let me know
what quantity you shall want I will endeavour to engage them on the
best terms I can.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. {igoi), No 8. 51

And now we are upon business let me request you will have the
goodness to procure me a piece of Cambrick muslin, a yard and a half wide,
of about four shillings, or four & sixpence, a yard. I don't know what the
length of the piece is but I suppose it to be from twelve to twenty yards,
either will do.

Since I wrote the above I have seen Mr. Leece, who is very deep in
the Herring Line, he says that it will be a difficult thing to find an Honest
Man in that department, but he will endeavour to act like one. I will send
you some Herrings in Kitts for a sample as soon as they are fit to be pack'd,
which will be in about lo days or a fortnight.

This was Mr. William Leece, of Douglas, nephew of
the senior partner of the firm of Leece and Drinkwater,
of Liverpool. He married a Miss Callow, and died at
Douglas, March ist, 1807. Mr. Drinkwater owned a
pottery in Liverpool, and married Miss Leece, the daughter
of Captain Leece, after whom Leece Street is called.

On August 5th, Cable writes : —

I think I forgot to mention in my last that I have again had a prospect
of being employ'd, and have again been disappointed. My very good friend
Lord Curzon applied to the Admiralty for me, and had as flattering an
answer from Lord Spencer as I cou'd wish ; which Letter he transmitted to
me, & I expected to have a call every post. This was so long ago as last
Christmas ; but after waiting many months in vain, I found, at last, his
veracious Lordship had resigned his office. So there is an end to all my
hopes. I thought Lords had not told lies to Lords, however they might
indulge in that laudable propensity to Commoners. I believe your friend
Mr. Jervis is not upon terms with his relation. Lord St. Vincent, otherwise
I might request your friendly offices with him, especially as I have something
to offer to his Lordship's notice. An Improvement in Night Signals & one
which I think may be of great consequence. But this, as I said before, can't
be, as I know they are not upon friendly terms.

Our Great Man has been in this Island lately. He left this place last
Wednesday. Yesterday week we had a grand Drunken-party upon account
of his laying the Foundation Stone of a new house for himself at the Lough
House. It is very large, & is estimated by Stuart to cost ten thousand
pounds, but if that estimate is like other estimates it will cost a great deal
more ; and this is the opinion of all the Wise Men of Mona.

Mr. Stewart, spelt by Cable ' Stuart' above, was also
the architect of Douglas Pier.

On January 25th, 1802, Cable writes : —

52 FAkADAV, Correspondence of Lieut. -Col. Philips.

Livesey got back again to his Cottage the last week, after an absence of
more than four months : he brought the Cambrick muslin with him, which
Mrs. Philips was so obliging as to procure for Sarah, & for which she is
much obliged to her. It is really very beautiful, & we think, very cheap.
While our Manufacturers can work cotton so fine as this, & afford to sell
it so cheap, there is no fear of the French rivalling them in this branch of
trade ; whatever they may do in others. And now we are on this topic
let us settle our accounts.

£. s.

I think you say the Muslin Cost 5 • 15 5-15

Paid Leece & Bell for Red Herrings 2 . 5 2 . 10

Do. for One Kitt white do. o . 5 £t, . 5 Dr to

2 . lo Mrs Philips.

Here you have an account settled in a manner which you may not probably
match in your Counting flouse. To go on by deducting the aforesaid
£2)- 5^. from £^2, the interest due to me, I find you are indebted to me
£2,^. 15. for which sum I shall draw upon you to-morrow the 26th, at
Messrs. Mellish's in favour of Capl. Sam. Caljlc al a month's date. And so
there's an end of business.

And now pray how goes on your Mast Project } Have you any arrivals
yet ? Or do you expect any etc i-c ^c. \ am afraid you started too late.
The freight & other expences must eat all your profits ; added to which,
the Russian Trade being thrown open again, ife the Peace following so close
upon it altogether seems to be against the scheme ; but as I know you are not
very sanguine in your expectations of any thing which is only possible, I hope
you will not feel any very great disappointment should it turn out a blank.
Livesey told me likewise that there was a report about one Mr. Philips of
Manchester, who was just returned from America and who found his affairs
in very great disorder when he arrived in England. My anxiety for what
concerns your family leads me to fear that it may be your brother James who
is implicated, as I know he was in America. Surely the American Air has
something in it infectious to your family. In your next have the goodness to
tell me if my suspicions are right or wrong. I should be most heartily glad
to hear it was the latter.

The Peace has not as yet had any effect on the Settlers in this Island,
although many of them threatened to leave us whenever it took place. I
fancy the one thing needful will be found wanting among them all ; which I
wish they had, & that the whole of the new comers were on the move, for
there has not one family settled here since I came that has in the least
contributed to the improvement of society — at least not of mine.

On Thursday last we had a most tempestuous day, the Wind I iliink
was louder & stronger than I ever knew it on shore. Many houses were
entirely unroofed & few escaped without some damage. A homeward bound

Manchester Memoirs, Vo/. x/v. (igoi), No. H. 53

West Indiaman Ijtlonging to Greenock was slranded at Kirk Michael, Ov a
sloop with corn near Peel. As I have not been out of the house these ten
days, I have not heard of any other damage done on this Island. I am afraid
we shall hear of much damage on the Coast of England.

If you have any quantity of Segars, I shall be much obliged to you for a
few — via Sam Newton.

Mention has already been made of one notable improve-
ment in the Lancashire manufacture, and Cable's admira-
tion of the muslin calls to mind the statement of Mr.
Thomas Ellison, that the period with which we are dealing
was the era of invention, and that improvements in every
department of the cotton trade were being made almost
every year. The " Segars " are worthy of notice.

Colonel Philips had several bi others. Francis was
dealt with in Part I. Of the rest, Henry Philips, born in
1767, lived at Philadelphia. He married Sophia, the
daughter of Judge Chew, of the Court of Errors and
Appeals in that city. He died in iSoo, and his only
daughter aud heiress, Sophia Philips, was married in New
York. Another brother, Nathaniel George, was born in
1770, and died at New York in 1793. James Philips was
born in 1777, and died unmarried in 18 10. Thomas
Philips was born in 1781, and died unmarried in 1806.
Hardman Philips, of Philipsburg, Pennsylvania, was born
in 1784, and in 1821 married a daughter of the Rev. Ed.
Lloyd, of Fairfield. He died in 1854. The sisters,
Elizabeth and Sarah, are mentioned elsewhere.

On March 29th, 1802, Cable writes: —

It gave me great concern to find that my suspicions about your brother
James were but too true for I know that such a business could not fail to
give you all a great deal of concern & trouble, & nobody wou'd feel more
than yourself. It is a great comfort however to find that he has come
through with honour, iX: without having his character the least injured.

About the middle of last month I recJ your kind present of a cheese,
part of which I hope you will eat in Mona in the course of the Summer. A
little Sea Bathing will do Mrs Philips much good, & we have now two very
decent bathing machines which makes bathing infinitely more commodious
than it has ever yet been in this Island. Tell her this for her comfort.

54 Faraday, Corrcspojidencc of Licut.-Col. Philips.

I don't recollect whether I ever mentioned that my old friend, <S: landlord
at Whalley Mr. Cotlam, spent a few days with me the last Summer. lie
came in the course of the very fine weather in August, & returned in time to
take the field the first of September. I le promised to send you some game
in the course of the Winter, l)Ut as you did not say anything about it, he
possibly may have forgot, although he is not a man used to have forgot what
he has promised. If you can spare a few days this Spring for fishing, I am
sure he will accompany you with pleasure to Whitewell, where. I dmibl not,
you wou'd meet with excellent sport. And it is not impossible but I might
be of the party in that case ; for you must know that I have been very
unwell for more than two months, and the Doctor advises me to take a trip
across the Channel when the weather is a little warmer. Which is as much
as to say I am ill but he does not know what is to do with me. If I do go
to England it will be about the latter end of April, and I shall spend a few
days with my friend Cottam while there, so you see we may make Whalley
the place of rendezvous. This is at present only in speculation. If I get
better I will try to do without the journey.

Poor Livcsey too, has been extremely ill for near five weeks; he was
attacked with a violent inflamation of the lungs & has ccjnlinued in a
frightful condition. Appearances began lo alter yesterday for the better &
upon the whole he is much better to day, but he will require much attention
still. If you cou'd, with any convenience to yourself, contrive to let his
sister, Mrs. Clowes of Hunt's Bank, know how he is to-day, I make no
doubt but it would give her great pleasure for this is the very latest account
she can hear of him.

The subsequent letters become far less interesting
than those already given. Cable, to judge by the change
in his handwriting, was evidently ageing rapidly, and his
letters are, besides, querulous and trifling. He was
undoubtedly extremely ill during the years 1802 — 1804,
and, as has already been said, died in the latter year. A
letter written on June 26th, 1802, tells of his return to
Douglas, and contains a reference to Dr. Krandrcth,* of

• Dr. Joseph Brandreth was born at Ormskirk in 1746, and graduated
M.D., Edinburgh, in 1770. He succeeded to the practice of Dr. Mathew
Dobson, at Liverpool, and became eminently successful and popular. He
established the Liverpool Dispensary in 1778, and paid great attention to the
Infirmary. Like his neighbour. Dr. Currie, he was greatly interested in
fevers, and was the author of a work "On the Advantages arising from a
Topical Application of Cold Water and Vinegar in Typhus, and on the U.se
of Opium in Large Doses in Certain Cases." lie lived in School Lane, and
died at Liverpool on April loth, 1815.

MancJicster Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 55

LiverpooL On July 22nd he writes again, in reference to
some commercial misfortune which Philips has suffered
in his American enterprise ; and Cable, by way of comfort,
gives Tim Bobbin's famous dictum — " Nowt that's owt con
cum out when a mon has to do wie rascally Fowk." On
August 1 6th he writes to ask if Mrs. Philips will get two
white ostrich feathers for Sarah, who is going to a dance;
they are to be a surprise for the yonng lady ; the price, he
believes, will be from ten to fifteen shillings. The subse-
quent letter, written on October 27th, is rather amusing.
Mrs. Philips was evidently horrified at the idea of feathers
at that price, for Cable says : —

Sarah is much pleased with the feathers and both she and I are much
obliged to Mrs Philips for the pains & trouble she has been about them. I
have been perplexed, sometimes, since I first wrote about them for fear I
should have tied Mrs Philips down by mentioning the price I did, which was
entirely through mistake. I thought the price of these articles were like a
sixpenny loaf, and I was sadly disappointed one day when I learnt by some-
thing that Sarah said that there were Ostrich feathers as high as two Guineas
or more. It is very fortunate that Mrs Philips knew what was proper for
I look upon shabby finery as one of the most ridiculous things in the world.

On October 14th, 1802, Cable writes: —

Upon the whole I think I am rather better than I have been, but am
still far, very far, from being well, and the approach of winter affords me
but a dreary prospect. If I cou'd continue to get a few degrees further to
the southward I fancy I .shou'd find benefit from it, but this cannot be, the
season is too far advanc'd to think of a removal, and there are many other
obstacles in the way. I continue to use exercise on Horseback, which with
small doses of calomel & moderate good diet, I hope will enable me to
weather the Winter.

From your long silence I am pretty certain you have been from home,
and I am afraid you have found out some watering Place which you like
better than the Isle of Man. If that is the case I shall not remain long here,
for independent of the pleasure I received from seeing you here a few times,
and the constant expectation of seeing you oftener, I do not know that I
have one inducement to stay here. The society is of the ver}- worst kind,
and every necessary of life is almost as dear as it is with you, ^v Ijy no means
to compare with your provisions in goodness. But was I to leave the Isle of
Man I certainly shou'd not think of fixing in a country so overrun with
Cotton Manufactory as yours is — I would endeavour to find some pleasant

56 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut.-Col. Philips.

village in the south of England, where no manufactures were carried on, and
surely many such are to be found, where the soil and climate are infinitely
better than what we have to boast of. The inundation of vagab(jnds which
overspread the face of this Island is really astonishing, and adds greatly to
the price of every necessary of life, for as they generally bring a little ready
money with them, they spend it most wantonly while it lasts, and give
extravagant prices to whatever they buy : the consequence of this is that the
natives make the more sober sort of us pay as extravagantly for what we
have had as the strangers have paid. Upon the whole, I am heartily tired
of this Country, and I as heartily despise its inhabitants. You know I had
a wretched Garden, for which I paid an extravagant price, but as it was near
my house it was very convenient. A scoundrel Red Herring curer took this
Garden over my head the other day and nobody thinks he has acted other-
wise than they would have done themselves. My house was taken in the
same manner a few years ago, and my servants are tamper'd with, every
year, in order to induce them to leave me. In such a country, and among
such a rascally set of inhabitants, who would live unless he was absolutely
obliged to it? But I will trouble you with no more of my complaints.

On January 8th in the followuig year he writes : —

1 have been within an ace of breaking up my Camp here and removing
to Whalley ; it was but yesterday that we came to the resolution of remaining
where we are. You know that for the last year my health has been very
bad & I have long thought this Climate does not agree with me. It is
certainly too damp, ifc if I thought that I was to remove to a drier situation
I should be better. The House which I formerly lived in becoming vacant
ife having had an offer of it, together with as nuich land as will keep a
Horse & too Cows for Thirty guineas pr Ann. I was almost induced
to accept it, but reflecting that it was in the heart of a manufacturing country,
in the neighbourhood of Pendle Hill which in the winter generally furnishes
plenty of Cold, added to which the dread of fellows with Ink bottles in their
button holes, all these things consider'd frightened me, & made me resolve
rather to bear the ills that I know, than fly to others that I know not of. It
is true that if I had fix'd at Whalley I shou'd have been within thirty miles
of you, & I shou'd probably have seen you sometimes, which I can hardly
hope for while I remain here, and I shou'd likewise have been in a country
I like, & among people that have always been friendly to me. But, on
the other hand, the trouble fatigue & expense of removing, & the certainty
of increase of expense of Living, & the mortification I shou'd feel on
giving up my snug comfortable house to a Vagabond fclk^w, lor such is my
Landlord, altogether made us resolve to tarry here a little longer, A- if we
ever do remove, to go to the southward after a warmer i\L' more genial climate.

Writing from Douglas on May 4th Cable says : —

If I had been well enough to have left home, a thing has offer'd that
wou'd have suited me very well ; it was the offer of one of the Block Ships

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 57

that are to be stationed at the mouth of the Tlianies. It was ofiered through
Lord Curzon but I found myself so very unfit to leave home that I declin'd it,
& now I have given up all hopes of evermore applying; for employ.

On June 3rd, Cable writes again. He is a little better,
he says, possibly " owing to the shift of my Doctor,
which he is very ready to believe."

On June 26th, he writes that he is worse in health than
ever, and that he wishes to consult the surgeons at the
Manchester Infirmary, " and particularly Symmons." He
attributes his bad health to the effects of the typhus fever,
which he had shortly after the death of Mrs. Cable.
In the postscript Cable asks, " whether Philips' sister has
yet become Lady Hungerford." Miss Sarah Philips, it
may be mentioned, married Sir Hungerford Hoskyns,
Bart., of Harewood, Herefordshire. She died in i860.

Another letter is written on July i6th. It contains
nothing of interest, and in the last letter, dated September
8th, 1803. Cable announces that he is going to buy an
annuity for Sarah, " I think if I sink about five hundred
pounds it will leave her more independance." In this
letter, too, he tells of the desperate condition of health
he is in, and adds, " was it not for Sarah I should be
quite adrift. She is my surgeon, my nurse, and my all."
There is a touch, too, of the ruling spirit : " You know the
Manxmen are not too fond of work, nor of anything that
savours of enterprise. They are a set of lazy, idle, dogs
enough." In the last paragraph he gives a list of recent
deaths in the Island : Old Dr. Scott (the I'Janx regimental
doctor). Captain Jacobs and his daughter, and Mr.
Sherman (thus the hero and heroine of the Breach of
Promise case died within a few days of each other).
" Major Taubman, too, has lost his father and his mother,
and his only son is following fast. He is in the last stage
of consumption,"

58 Faraday, Correspondence of Lieut.- Col. PJiilips.

The last letter I give in the present scries is one
written by Livesey to Philips, telling of the death of their
mutual friend. It shows very plainly the real characters
of Livesey and Cable, and tells very clearly the relations
between them. Both of them middle-aged, disappointed
men, they had their quarrels, but were friends at heart ; —

[Endorsed ^^ Account of Poor Cable's Death.''''^
My clear Sir

It is with real concern it falls to my lot to announce to you the

melancholy intelligence of the death of our late mutual and very worthy
friend Capt" Cable who died last night between nine and ten o'clock, after a
confinement of near six months to the house, a very great part of which time
was passed in excruciating pain, increasing as the close of life drew nearer.
If I had not been a witness of it I could not have thought human nature
could have supported itself under such very severe sufferings, with such

heroic patience & resignation, as our worthy did

Our friend must naturally have had a very strong con-
stitution as for the last sixteen or seventeen days he never put anything solid
into his mouth and life was supported by opium and liquids. My dear
young friend his amiable daughter desires me to make her very best regards
to you, Mrs Philips and Family, wishing you and yours every good, she only
received your last kind letter to her father the day he died, if she is able she
will answer it by the next packet ; our packet was so long detained on your
side the water that we had three mails due which makes an insular situation
disagreeable, particularly at this very momentous crisis. I shall feel a very
severe loss by the death of my valuable friend, as will everyone who had the
pleasure of his acquaintance, nor will it ever be obliterated from my memory
the very kind attention he showed me two years past. I then thought he
would have had to have performed for me the last sad melancholy office I
shall have to execute for him on Monday morning. I am with regard

Dear Sir
Yours very sincerely etc.
Douglas, 28 Janry 1804. JNO. LIVESEY.

On the 1 6th of October, 1809, Livesey again writes to
Philips and invites him to the Island, saying that though
he is not nearly so rich as he once was, he is yet able to
entertain a friend. He then says : " If my dear friend
Miss Cable is with you, I beg you will make my kindest
regards to her." Captain Cable's daughter, then, after the
death of her father, would appear to have crossed to Eng-
land, and made her home, at all events for part of the time,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 8. 59

with Colonel and Mrs. Philips. We may also infer that
she was living, and unmarried, at the end of 1809.
Livesey himself died Feb. 14th, 18 10, aged 64. He is
buried in St. George's Churchyard, Douglas.

No excuse is needed for rescuing the foregoing record
from oblivion ; the letters from which it is made up are in
themselves pleasant reading, and would have been of
interest had they been penned from any locality, admittedly
domestic and prolix though they may be. But the Isle of
Man — before the days of steamships, lost in the fogs of
the Irish Sea, cut off from all sources of external develop-
ment, and, until very recent years, the scene of barbarism
and ignorance — has few sources extant from which history,
even so recent as that of the eighteenth century, can be
gathered. Cable's letters throw a brilliant sidelight upon
local society, and help to fill up the gaps in the other
existing records. We may thus fairly claim that they are
of value to the historian as well as to the student of human
nature. Many characters appear and disappear in his
pages, depicted writh realism, and stamped with life.

The Captain has drawn his own picture, and any
comment is superfluous. An intelligent, irascible man,
constantly quarrelling and making friends again, loyally
tender and affectionate to wife and daughter, open-hearted
as a correspondent. He bore his frequent disappointments
manfully, and to the last proved his contentment and his
courage. Perhaps the keynote of his nature is his
loyalty — especially to his native county of Lancaster.
And so at the end he passed away, with his daughter and
his oldest friend at his bedside. He was buried on
January 30th, 1804, in St. George's Churchyard, Douglas.

Note. — I must express my thanks to Tom Garnett, Esq., of
Radecliffe, Clitheroe, and John Eastham, Esq., of Clitheroe,
for their kind assistance to me in unravelling the story of
Captain Cable. \V. B. F.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. t).

IX. On the Generic Names Octopus, Eiedone, and
Histiopsis.

By William E. Hoyle.

Received and read March Jt/i, igoi.

I. Octopus and Eledone.

The replacement of these time-honoured names in a
recent Hst of British Marine Mollusca (:0l) by the less
familiar Polypus and Mosc/iites, demands a few words of
explanation.

In the Report on the " Challenger " Cephalopoda

('86, p. 152), I called attention to the fact that by

Jeffreys ('CD, p. 130) the genus Loligo was attributed to

Schneider and not, as usual, to Lamarck. No reference,

nor even date, was given, and the only paper by that

author then accessible to me contained nothing that could

fairly be called a definition of the genus. Happening to

mention this circumstance to my friend, Mr. C. Davies

Sherborn, he very kindly offered to look up the question

in the MS. of his forthcoming " Index Animalium," and a

few days later sent me the proper title of the paper and

an abstract of its contents. I have since been successful

in procuring a copy of the work. The result to which it

leads being subversive of two old-established names, it

seems, therefore, worth while to place the facts before my

fellow-naturalists. The full title of Schneider's paper will

be found in the Bibliography at the end of this article

(1184), and as it is somewhat rare I extract here the more

important passages. After criticising the definitions of

the group of Cephalopoda, ior which he adopts the name

July loth, igoi.

2 HOVLE, Generic Names Octopus, Elcdone, and Histiopsis.

OCTOPODIA, he characterises it as follows [p. loS] : —
" Caput ciun ocnlis viter pedes et ventrent. Os in niediis
pcdibns eminet rostro accipitrijio. Pedes octoni vel deni os
circmndantes, acetabnlis interius asperi \J aspersi\ Venter
vesica atramentifera instnictns, iitfra scissnra transversa
ad basin apertus, supra guam fistula excretoria eminet !'

The subdivisions proposed by him are as follows : —

" CLASSIS I. Pedes octoni breves, promuscidcs binae;
venter pinnatus, ossiculum dorsi [p. loS].
Sepia I. Ventre latissimo rotundato undique pinna

cincto esse dorsali inaximo [p. 109].
LOLIGO II. Ventre stricto siibulato, pinita angulaii

media, osse dorsali penniformi [p. 1 10].
Teuthis 1 1 1. Ventre dtpresso caudato ancipiti\^. 1 1 3].
Sepiola IV. Ventre parvo rotundo, pinnula rotunda
ad latera, dor so ex osse [p. 1 1 6].

CLASSIS II. Pedes octoni longi basi palinati, absque
promuscidibus, pinnis et osse dorsali [p. 108].
Polypus V. Acetabulorum in interna pedum superficie
ordine duplici, in basi singulis acetabulis, paullatim
increscentibus [p. 1 1 6].
MOSCHITES VI. Pcdibns longissimis, unico acetabu-
lorum ordine [p. 1 1 8].
Nautilus VII. Singula}'i acetabulorum, ordine, testa

inclusus [p. 120].
POMPILUS VIII. Pedibus lobatis sen digitatis absque

acetabulis'^ [p. 128].
With the diagnosis of the genus Polypus just quoted,
it is interesting to compare that given by Lamarck (1 100)
of the genus Octopus, which is as follows : —

" Corps charnu, obtus inferieurement, contcnu dans un
sac depourvu d'ailes, et n'ayant dans son intcrieur ni os
spongieux, ni lame cornee. Bouche terminalc, cntouree

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. t). 3

de huit bras egaux, munis de ventouses sessiles et sans
grimpes."

It is abundantly clear that Schneider's genera Polypus
and Moschites are equivalent to Lamarck's Octopus : it is
true the former author does not enumerate any species,
but his references to I-inne and older authors leave no
doubt as to what he had in view.

It is noteworthy also that the genus Loligo Lamarck-
includes no less than three genera of Schneider, namely—
LoUgo, Tcuthis and Sepiola. Of these the second is almost
invariably regarded by modern writers as included in the
first, and in any case the name would be invalid, having
been previously used by Linne for a fish. The first and
last genera, however, are quite clearly characterised by
Schneider and should be attributed to him.

Of Schneider's two remaining genera, the first Nautilus
is equivalent to Argonauta, and the second Pompilus to
Nautilus, but as these had been previously named and
characterised by Linne, the commonly accepted nomen-
clature will not be disturbed as regards them.

It is very difficult to account for the neglect with
which Schneider's contribution to knowledge has been
treated. Partly it is due no doubt to its being included in
a volume whose title gives no clear idea of its subject, and
which has neither table of contents nor index ; it is, how-
ever, included in the Bibliography given by Keferstein
in his edition of Bronn's "Thierreich" ('««). Jeffrey's
attribution of the genus Loligo to Schneider might seem to
indicate that he was acquainted with it, but on that
hypothesis it is difficult to explain why he quotes Sepiola
as of Leach and is quite silent as to the prior names for
Octopus and Eledone.

Leach's treatment of the matter ('11) is rather
strange. He adopts the generic name Polypus, but quotes

4 HOYLE, Generic Names Octopus, Eledone, and Histiopsis.

it as " nOAY'nOYS antiquoruvi " and " POLYPUS
Rondeletii" In a later work ('5'^) the word '' antiquomni "
appears as a specific name, chiving colour to the supposi-
tion that he looked back to Aristotle as the creator
of the genus, which is rendered still more likely by his
quoting Eledone as " 'EAEA^'NH Aristotclis." There is
no evidence that he was acquainted with Schneider's
work.

Gray ('40), curiously enough, adopts the genus
Teuihis, and gives a correct reference to Schneider's work
(except that the page should be 113 not 112); in the
s}-nonymy of the genus Sepiola, however, is an entry
" Octopodia sp. ScJuieid. Saminl. Venn. Abli. 116, 1784" :
under Eledone we have " Moschites Schneider, Sannnl.
Venn. Abhandl. 1835" and under Eledone nioschatus we
find " Moschites Schneider, Collect de div. Dissert.',' which
suggests very strongly the idea that Gray was quoting at
second hand. This is confirmed by finding a precisely
similar form of reference in Ferussac and d'Orbigny's
monumental work ('^5). We may therefore fairly con-
clude that Gray knew nothing of Schneider's memoir, but
merely filled up his pages with unverified references.

In any case the fact remains that a serious contribu-
tion to our knowledge of these animals has been most
unaccountably neglected. In answer to the question
" Why rake it up again ? " I can only say that there
appears to me to be only one hope for deliverance from the
Babel which now reigns in zoological nomenclature and
that is a rigid application of the law of priority as far
back as the tenth edition of Linnc's " Systema natur.-t"
(1758). There is only a limited amount of literature to
be examined ; much of the work has been already done,
and what remains will be greatly facilitated by the issue
of Mr. Sherborn's invaluable index. Then we may hope

Ma?tchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 9- 5

to have leisure from barren discussion of names to
devote to more profitable investigation.

II. HiSTiOPSiS.

The name Histiopsis which I proposed in 1885 ('85,
p. 201) has recently (:00) been criticised by M. Maurice
Cossmann in an article entitled " Rectifications de nomen-
clature," in the following terms : — " M. W. Hoyle a d^crit,
en 1885, parmi les Cephalopodes des dragages du
" Challenger," un genre Histiopsis, qui fait double emploi
avec Histiops {Pet. Maimn., 1869); je propose pour le
Cephalopode, la denomination Hoylia nobis."

M. Cossmann is so polite that it seems almost discour-
teous in me to criticise his procedure ; but I trust he will
forgive me if I point out that he has himself been guilty
of just that sort of changing of names without adequate
enquiry which causes such needless complication. When
I proposed the name Histiopsis, I was quite aware of the
existence of Histiops : it is given in Scudder's " Nomen-
clator" ("8'^) and no zoologist who wishes his generic
names to have a chance of vitality will neglect to see
whether they may not be already contained in that useful
index. I was then (and am still) of opinion that the
existence of Histiops does not invalidate Histiopsis. It is
quite true that they are etymologically similar, but both
forms are admissible, and they are not so much alike that
there is any danger of confusion, particularly as one is
a Mammal and the other a Mollusc.

In any case M. Cossman's procedure does not mend
matters, and greatly as I appreciate the compliment paid
by his proposing to rename it after myself, I am con-
strained to point out that, if he had looked in the indexes
to the Zoological Record, he would have found in the
volume for 1885 the name Hoylea de Rochebrune, and

6 HoVLE, Generic Nanus Octopus, Eledojic, and Histiopsis.

certainly, whether or no Histiops invalidates Histiopsis,
there can be no doubt that Hoylia " fait double emploi
avec " Hoylea.

There is, however, another reason why M. Cossmann
would have done well to make further enquiries before
burdening our lists with another name. It is probably
not needed at all. The impression has been gradually
growing in my mind that Histiopsis is merely a young
form of Histioteuthis. The chief difference between the
two forms is the varying extent of the web between the
arms, and there seems reason to believe that this is a
character which undergoes change as development pro-
ceeds. From a conversation with m}^ friend Dr. Pfeffer,
I learn that he has independently come to the same
conclusion. At present there is not sufficient published
evidence to prove the identity of the two forms, though
I notice that Dr. Pfeffer has reduced Histiopsis to the
rank of a synonym in his recent revision of the CEgopsida
(:00).

WORKS REFERRED TO.

1184. ScHNKiDER, J. G. " Charateristik des ganzen Gesch-
lechts und der einzelnen Arten von Blakfischen."
Samml. vermischt. Abhandl. z. Aiipkldrung d. Zool.
p. 105-144. Berlin, 1784.

17!HK L.\MARCK, J. B. P. A. de. " Sur les genres de la Seche,
du Calmar et du Poulpe." Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat.
Paris. Vol. I. An I. [1799]. p. i — 25, 2 pi.

'17. Leach, W. E. "Synopsis of the orders, fanfiilies and
genera of the Class Cephalopoda^ Zool. MiscelL, vol.
III., p. 137-141, 1817.

'35. Fkrussac, A. de & A. D'Orbigny. " Histoire naturelle
geneiale et particuliere des Cephalopodes acetabuli-
fbres, vivants et fossiles." Paris, 1835-48.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. IK 7

'40. Gray, J. E. " Catalogue of the Mollusca in the collection
of the British Museum. Part I. Cephalopoda
antepedia." London, 1849.

'53- Leach, W. E. " Molluscorum Britannise Synopsis. A
synopsis of the Mollusca of Great Britain." London,
1852.

'60. Keferstein, W. " Dr. H. G. Bronn's Klassen und
OrdnungendesThierreichs; Weichthiere(Malacozoa)."
Leipzig & Heidelberg, 1862-66.

'69. Jeffreys, J. G. "British Conchology ; or, an account of
the Mollusca which now inhabit the British Isles and
the surrounding seas." Vol. 5. London, 1S69.

'8^. ScuDDER, S. H. " Nomenclator Zoologicus. An alpha-
betical list of all generic names that have been
employed by naturalists for recent and fossil animals
from the earliest times to the close of the year 1879."
Bull. U.S.Nat. Mus. No. 19, 1882.

'85 HoYLE, W. E. " Diagnoses of new Species of Cephalopoda
collected during the Cruise of H.M.S. 'Challenger.'
II. The Decapoda." Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5).
Vol. 16, pp. 181-203, 1885.

'8(5 HoYLE, W. E. " Report on the Cephalopoda collected by
H.M.S. 'Challenger' during the years 1873-76.
246 pp., 33 pis. Zool. Clialt. Exp. Vol. 16, Part
44, 1886.

:00. CossMANN, M. " Rectifications de nomenclature." Rev.
crit. paleozool. Vol. 4, No. i, Jan. 1900, pp. 42-46.

:00, Pfeffer, G. " Synopsis der oegopsiden Cephalopoden."
2 Beiheft z. [ahrb. Hamb. Wissensch. Anstalten, Vol.
17. PP- 147-198, 1900.

:01. "List of British Marine Mollusca and Brachiopoda."
y. Conch., Vol. 10, No. i, January, 1901, pp. 9-26.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 10.

X. On the Construction of Entropy Diagrams from
Steam Engine Indicator Diagrams.

By George Wilson, D.Sc,

Demonstrator in the Whitivorth Engineering Laboratory, Owens College,
Manchester,

AND

H. Noble, B.Sc,

IVhitzoorth Scholar, Owens College, Manchester.
Received and read February jlh, igoi .

The examples of steam engine entropy diagrams which
have appeared from time to time in the Proceedings of
Engineering Institutions, and in the professional journals,
are constructed, in each case, to represent the heat changes
which take place, for the total amount of steam and water
in the cylinder. This quantity usually varies for each
cylinder in Compound, Triple or Quadruple Expansion
Engines. It is therefore necessary, under this system, to use
different scales of entropy for each diagram, if the same
water and steam lines are to be utilised throughout. From
this it follows that the relation of the combined area of
the indicator diagrams, when converted in this manner
into entropy diagrams, to the area which represents, in
the same diagram, the total heat received, does not repre-
sent the efficiency of the steam. In this respect also,
therefore, the entropy diagram, as at present constructed,
is at a disadvantage when compared with the reduced and
combined /.7/. diagrams for the same engines.

That it would be an advantage to deal with the same

Septe7nber loth, igoi.

2 Wilson and Noble, Entropy Diagrams.

quantity of mixture throughout the combined diagrams,
instead of an amount which varies in different parts of the
figure, will be generally admitted ; and, with respect to
indicator diagrams, methods of eliminating the effect of
clearance have been proposed and used for many years
by different engineers. In this connection, the construc-
tions advocated by A. C. Kirk\ W. Schonheyder^, Professor
Unwin'', and Prof Osborne Reynolds^ may all be men-
tioned. In the case of entropy diagrams, the hypothetical
diagram for one pound of steam was discussed by Willans,
but the authors have been unable to find any actual dia-
grams in which any method of reduction was given, or in
which any reductions of this nature have been made.
Without laying down any opinion as to the practical
utility of entropy diagrams, founded, as they are, upon
assumptions which are regarded by many as questionable,
it may, nevertheless, serve a useful purpose to call atten-
tion to the above point, and to indicate a method whereby,
without any serious amount of labour, this required
reduction can be performed. The pro. and entropy dia-
grams will then represent the changes which take place
in one pound of mixture passing through the engine, and
hence admit of direct comparison with the diagrams
obtained from any other engine in a manner which is not
possible under the present system.

It may here be recalled that, if the indicator card is to
disclose anything relating to the quality of the mixture,
it is necessary that its expansion line shall be placed in
the correct position, with respect to the corresponding
saturated steam curve for that quantity of steam and

' Trans. Inst. Naval Architects. . Vol. xxiii. (1S82), p. 33.

2 Proc. Inst. C.E. Vol. xciii., p. 230.
' „ „ ,, p. 208.

* ,, ,, Vol. xc, p. 31.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 10. 3

water in the cylinder. To do this, the dryness of the
mixture must be known at some point during expansion
or compression. In the absence of definite information,
the usual practice seems to be that of assuming a certain
value for the dryness fraction at the point of compression.
From this assumption, the weight of clearance mixture
shut in at compression can be obtained, and the indicator
card then placed in its true position with respect to the
saturation curve for the steam and water present in the
cylinder.

The method adopted by Professor Reynolds, which is
fully explained in the paper to which reference has
already been made, can be found in standard text-
books on the steam engine. Shortly stated it is as follows.
Through the compression-point in the diagram an ideal
compression-curve is drawn for the clearance steam.
The volumes obtained in this manner for the clearance
steam are then deducted from the total volume of clearance
and cylinder steam as shewn by the diagram, that is to
say, the diagram is " set back " by these quantities.

It would seem that the question is one of the relative
conditions of clearance steam and cylinder steam during
expansion. The experiments of Callendar and Nicolson*
show that steam in holes and crannies of the cylinder
may be superheated during most parts of the stroke.
This would apply in particular to the ports, but how far
it would affect the total clearance steam is doubtful. In
the same experiments, temperature measurements made
in the main body of the steam did not show this to nearly
such a marked extent. At first sight it might appear
that discussion of the point is immaterial, but quite
appreciable differences in the dryness fraction will result
according to the law of expansion assumed for the
* Proc. Inst. C.E. Vol. cxxxi., p. i68.

4 Wilson and Noble, Entropy Diagrams.

clearance steam. Considering in general the proportion
that the clearance steam bears to the total quantity in the
cylinder, it seems not unnatural to suppose it to follow
the same law of expansion as the main body of the steam.
The authors, therefore, have made this assumption, viz.,
that during expansion the clearance steam follows the
same law as the rest of the steam in the cylinder, and
hence its expansion curve will have its volumes propor-
tional to those shown by the diagram for the total
mixture.* This assumption has the advantage of giving
dryness fractions which agree with those calculated by the
method of weights, being, in fact, a graphical translation of
the same, and in general will show the steam drier than if
the saturation curve is adopted, whilst the net work done
upon the clearance steam will be increased. Of course,
the curve thus assumed cannot be continued below a
pressure corresponding to release with any certainty, and
must between that point and compression be filled in by
conjecture, but this uncertainty will not affect those parts
of the diagram which are important, and applies in an
equal degree to any other curve which may be assumed
for expansion. It remains, therefore, to indicate the
method of reduction of the indicator diagrams and their
transference into entropy diagrams.

In Fig. I, ABCDKA is an indicator diagram drawn
on a volume scale such that the area represents the net
work done per pound of cylinder feed, i.e., per pound of
mixture passing through the engines. EF represents the
volume swept through by the piston per pound of mixture,
OE represents the clearance volume per pound of mixture,
ST is a portion of the saturation curve for one pound of
steam, and is set out with respect to OX and OY as axes

* The method of constructing the entropy diagram will apply whatever
assumption is made as to the expansion of the clearance steam.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 10, 5

6 Wilson and Noble, Entropy Diagrams.

of volume and pressure respectively. K is the point of
compression, and C that of release. R is the point where
^K, which is drawn parallel to OX, meets ST. The
dotted curve represents a saturation curve through K. It
is then necessary to assume the quality of the steam at K,
the customary procedure being to assume it dry at this
point, i.e., at the beginning of compression.*

Then the weight of mixture shut in at compression is

„ pounds, and the total weight in the cylinder will be

( I + ^) pounds.

The volume occupied by the clearance steam at any
pressure PN during expansion will be

r^
rR

rR

X Pw cubic feet.

Yn being the total volume occupied by the mixture at
the pressure PN.

Hence, in order to obtain the clearance steam expan-
sion curve GHJ, it is only necessary to determine this

* The error in assuming the steam dry at compression may be seen as
follows : —

Let the fraction of the clearance steam which is water at K be a.
Then the percentage correction to be applied to the dryness fraction as
formed above will be very approximately

- looa— % of the dryness fraction.

rR + rK

On the figure, if the error in assuming the dryness at K was io% , this

would be

- loox — X -15= - 1-5%
10 ^ ^'°

shewing how the error is reduced. Thus in Fig. 3, on this assumption, the

dryness would be 57'5%, instead of s8"4%, which still leaves a difference of

5% between the two methods.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 10. 7

fraction -^ — 77- once. The volume occupied by the clear-
ance steam at any pressure during expansion will then be
the total volume given by the card multiplied by ^^^^^^-

In this manner the expansion curve GHJ has been
constructed down to J, at the pressure corresponding to
release pressure.

Between J and K the expansion line must be put in
by guesswork. It may be somewhat as shewn by the thick
line JK, or may proceed by expansion to I and evapora-
tion at approximately constant pressure to K, or it may
follow the expansion curve CD, thus necessitating com-
pression back to the pressure of K before the re-evapora-
tion at constant pressure takes place. In the diagram,
the simplest line JK has been assumed to avoid compli-
cating the figure, especially since, as previously explained,
it does not affect those parts of the diagram from which
information is required. Thus the clearance steam diagram
is GHJ K AG, and its area gives the net work done on
the clearance steam per pound of cylinder feed, together
with the loss due to partially resisted expansion of admis-
sion steam if compression is not complete.

If the compression is complete up to admission
pressure, this latter loss is eliminated, but there is still a
resultant transference of heat to the cylinder walls by
means of the work done on the clearance steam, and this
could only be zero if the dryness of the clearance steam
during expansion and compression were the same at each
stage ; that is to say, if the curves coincide.

The elimination of the clearance steam is obtained by
setting back each point P and / in Fig. i by the volume
«H occupied by the clearance mixture at that pressure.
The area of the indicator diagram is unaltered, and the

8 Wilson and Noble, E7itropy Diagrams.

result is a diagram for one pound of mixture as in Fig. 2.

> O

Manchester Memoirs, Vol x/v. (igoi), No. 10. g
Here the shaded portion represents the net effect of the
clearance steam, whilst the dryness fraction is

/H

The

dotted curve represents the result of using a saturation
curve for the expansion of the clearance steam.

The cycle of changes may be considered as follows :
heating of water from K to G ; evaporation from G to B,
expansion from B to D, and condensation from D to K.
The total amount of work obtained in that case is repre-

sented by the area KGABCDK, whilst of this the work^
represented by KGA/K has to be deducted, as done upon
clearance steam, and, although apparently lost, must
finally partially reappear in its influence on the form of
the expansion curve.

In the case of two or more cylinders, if the variations
of pressure and volume in the receiver are known, the
complete cycle for the passage of the steam through the

lo Wilson and Noble, Entropy Diagrams.

engines could be traced, and the various losses definitely
analysed.

Fig. 3 is an example of the mean diagrams from a
Triple Expansion Engine trial compounded in this
manner, the low-pressure diagram being uncompleted for
reasons of economy of space. The dotted line shews the
diagrams before setting back with the clearance expansion
lines in position. Diagrams such as Fig. III. can be con-
verted into entropy diagrams by the graphical method
introduced by Professor Boulvin.*

Fig. 4 is such a diagram from the mean cards of a
set of diagrams taken from the engines of the steamship
" Tartar," the trials of which were described in the Pro-
ceedings of the Institution of Mechanical E?tgineers for
1890 and 1894. It will be noticed that the expansion
lines of the diagrams by this method are roughly in coin-
cidence with the adiabatic expansion line, thus shewing
that the jackets were doing little more than preventing
the conduction of heat away from the cylinders. Con-
sidering the small ratio the jacket water bore to the
cylinder feed (3"94%), this is only what might have been
expected.

The position of the expansion line with regard to the
adiabatic line also seems to corroborate the assumption,
which was generally made, in the discussion of this trial,
to explain the magnitude of the missing steam, viz., that
there had been a large amount of priming. For, had
initial condensation been the only factor, the expansion
line ought to have left the adiabatic as the temperature
fell, on account of the heat regained from the walls of the
cylinder.

Constant volume curves have been drawn in for the
5team during expansion after release. In the low pressure

* Engineering, 1 896.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xh'. (igoi), No. 10- n

engine this corresponds with the actual hne very fairly.
In the intermediate and high-pressure diagrams this cor-

, \9^ ^ntrvpies

respondence is absent. This is due to the point of release
for these cards being unknown, and, as the diagrams show

12 Wilson and Noble, Entropy Diagrams.

the point which was assumed has turned out to be too late
in the stroke. The dotted curves shew the result oi
taking an earlier release, with its corresponding alteration
in the clearance work.

The dryness fractions, as obtained from these dia-
grams, agree very fairly with those calculated by Mr.
Longridge. They do not, however, agree with those
calculated by Captain Riall Sankey, probably because the
latter gentleman assumed a quality for the steam at cut-off
rather than at compression. On measurement, the area
of the diagrams as drawn was found to agree with that
given by the indicator cards within reasonable limits.

Analysis of the heat losses has not been attempted,
partly because of the uncertainty in the amount of the
priming water, and the lack of information regarding the
points of compression and release, but chiefly because it
has been the intention of the authors to indicate the
method of reduction rather than to investigate the per-
formance of any particular set of engines.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. \\.

XI. The Representation on a Conical Mantle of
the Areas on a Sphere.

By C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.C.E.

Received and read February ^th, igoi.

This problem is solved as soon as it is shewn how to
project zones of latitude from a sphere on to a cone, so
that the areas of the two zones are equal.

Solution. — Place the conical mantle over the sphere
so that the two touch each other tangentially : then the
areas of two zones on the sphere and on the cone, produced
by their intersection with two spherical surfaces whose
common centre is at the apex of the cone, are equal.

This can be proved when the difference of length of
radii of the two intersecting spherical surfaces is infini-
tesimally small, and by summation can be shewn to be
true for wider zones.

Let C be the centre of the sphere, while A is the apex
of the conical mantle, which touches the sphere tangen-
tially along the latitude BK. Let LiF be the radius of
a zone whose width is LjN, being infinitesimally small.
With A as centre, draw the arcs L1L2 and NP, prolonging
the latter to M, on AL produced. Also draw LjF and L.H
normal to AC, then it is required to prove that

LiN.LiF = LoP.LoH.

To prove this, prolong ALj through M to D ; draw
CD normal to ALD, and join LjC.

Comparing the triangles LiMN and CDLi, we have
the angle LiMN = LiDC, being right angles. LjN is normal

September lot/i, igoi.

2 Stromeyer, Projection on a Conical Mantle.

A

to LiC and MN is normal to LiD, therefore the angle
LiNM = CLiD, and therefore the two triangles are similar.

Li M ^ CD
•'• LiN~CL,'

From the pairs of similar triangles CAD, LiAF and
CAB, LjAH, we find

CD AC
LiF'AL,'

^ CB AC

and -, — ^ = XT —
I.2H A 1-0

But CB = CLi being radii of a sphere, and ALi = AL2
being radii of a sphere. Substituting the values for CD
and CLi, we have

LiM AC.L,F AL, _ L,F
L,N~ AL, ■ UH.AC L,H

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), iV^. 11. 3

but LiM = LgP, therefore

LiN.LiF = L2P.L2H.

Q.E.D.

The above is the geometrical construction, giving a
projection which has been long known in its analytical
aspect. Professor Lamb has pointed out to me that the
analytical solution is to be found in Craig's " Treatise on
Projections," p. 112. The particular case when the vertical
angle of the cone is a right angle has been called by
Germain, " Lambert's isospherical stenoteric projection."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. \%.

XII. The Macro-Lepidoptera of Sherwood Forest.
By J. Ray Hardy.

(Communicated by W. E. Hoyle, Af.A., F.R.S.E.)
Received and read March igth, igoi.

The following list of Macro-Lepidoptera (made out to
the end of the Geometrina) does not profess to be any-
thing like a complete summary of the species to be
found in Sherwood Forest. It only contains my own
captures, but is, nevertheless, a fairly satisfactory record
of the results of many journeys from Manchester, and
many days of keen and systematic collecting in each year
from March, 1879, up to September, 1900. As the species
have been collected they have all been placed in the
British cabinet at the Manchester Museum, Owens
College.

The district worked forms a triangle between Worksop,
Edwinstowe, and Checkerhouse, and I invariably made
Edwinstowe my headquarters. The fine old timber of
the district, with its abundant cover, makes it an ideal
collecting ground, and, as might be expected, some rare
and local forms occur, e.g., Apatura iris and Triphcsna
subsequa.

Rhopalocera.

Pieris brassiccB, L. Gonopteryx rJiavini, L.

Pieris rapes, L. A rgynnis papJiia, L.

Pieris napi, L. Argynnis euphrosyne, L.

AntJiocharis cardamines, L. Vanessa atalanta, L.

Colias edusa, Fb. Vanessa io, L.

September roth, igoi.

Hardy, Macro- Lepidoplcra of Sherivood Forest.

Vanessa polycJiloros, L.
Vanessa zirtica;, L.
Apatura iris, L.
Pararge egeria, L.
Pararge niegara, L.
Epinephde ianira, L.
CcBnonynipha painphilus, L.

Tliecla be til 1(5, L.
Thecla que reus, L.
Thecla rubi, L.
Polyomuiatus phlce-as, L.
Thanaos tages, L.
Hesperia than mas, Hufn.
Hesperia sylvanus, Esp.

Heterocera.
Acheroiitia atropos, L. Gnophria mbricollis, L.

ChcBrocanipa porcelliis, L.
Chcerocauipa elpenor, L.
Snierinthus occllatus, L.
Smerinthus populi, L.
Macroglossa stellatarnin, L.

Nudaria mundana, L.
Niidaria senex, Hb.
Arctia caj'a, L.
Phragjuatobia fuliginosa, L.
Spilosojna nienthastri, Esp.

Trochiliitni apiforniis, Clerck. Spilosoina lubricipeda, Esp.
Sesia tipuliforuiis, Clerck. Calliinorpha JacobcEce, L.

Sesia ciiliciforuiis, L.
/«^ statices, L.
Zygcena filipendulcB, L.
Centra fiircula, L.
Cernra bifida, Hb.
Cerura vinula, L.
Notodonta droinedarius, L.
Notodonta aicsac, L.
Pterostoiiia palpina, L.
Leiocampa dictcea, L.
Leiocanipa camelina, L.
Pygcera bucepJiala, L.
Orgyia antiqiia, L.
Orgyia gonostigma, Fb.
Porthesia chrysorrhcea, L.
Lithosia contplana, L.
LitJiosia couiplamila, Bdv.

Lasiocanipa rubi, L.
Lasiocanipa quercns, L.
Eriogaster lajiestris, L.
Odenestris. potatoria, L.
Saturnia pavonia-ininor, L.
Cz7z!r spinula, Schifif.
Drepana falcataria, L.
Psyche nigricans, Stt.
Thyatira derasa, L.
TJiyatira batis, L.
CymatopJiora diluta, Fb.
Cyniatophora flavicornis, L.
Bryophila per la, Fb.
Acronycta tridens, Schifif.
Acronycta psiy L.
Acronycta leporina, L.
Acronycta megacephala, Fb.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. \%.

A crony da ligustri, Fb.
A crony eta rujnzcis, L.
Acronycta menyanthidis, View.
Lencania tiirca, L.
Leucania lithargyria, Esp.
Leucania comma, L.
Leucania impura, Hb.
Leucania pallens, L.
Nonagriafulva, Hb.
Nonagria typhcB, Esp.
Gortyna flavago, Esp.
HydrcBcia nictitans, Bork.
HydrcBcia micacea, Esp.
XylopJiasia rtirea, Fb.
XylopJiasia polyodon, L.
Xylophasia hepatica, L.
Neiiria saponarice, Bork.
HeliopJiobiis popiilaris, Fb.
Mamestra brassiccv, L.
Mamestra persicarice, L.
Apamea basilinea, Fb.
Apamea connexa, Bork.
Apamea gemina, Hb.
Apamea oculea, Gn.
Miana strigilis, Clerck.
Miana fasciiincida, H aw.
Caradrina morpheus, Hufn.
Caradrina ciibicularis, Bork.
Rjisiiia tenebrosa, Hb.
A o rot is suffiisa, Hb.
A grot is segetum, Schiff.
Agrotis exclamationis L.
TripJicena ianthina, Esp.
Tfiphczna fimbria, L.

Triph<2na interject a, Hb.
Triphcena subsegua, Hb.
Trip/us iia orbona, Hufn.
TripJicena promiba, L.
Noctiia augur, Fb.
Noctua plecta, L.
Noctua c. nigrum, L.
Noctua brunnea, F'b.
Noctua festiva, Hb.
Noctua baj'a, Fb.
Noctua xanthographa, Fb.
Panolis piniperda, Panz.
Tceniocampa gotJiica, L.
TcBiiiocampa instibilis, Esp.
Tceniocamta gracilis, Fb.
Tceniocampa munda, Esp.
J ceniocampa cruda, Tr.
OrtJiosia lota, Clerck.
Orthosia macilenta, Hb.
AncJiocelis rufina, L.
AncJiocelis pistacina, Fb.
Anchocelis litura, L.
Cerastis vaccinii, L.
Cerastis spadacca, Hb.
Scopclosoma satellitia, L.
Hoporina croceago. Fb.
Xanthia cerago, Fb.
XantJiia gilvago. Haw.
Xanthia ferruginea, Esp.
TetJiea subtusa, Fb.
Tethea retusa, L.
Cosmia trapezina, L.
Cosmia afiinis, L.
Dianthcscia carpopJiaga, Bork.

Hardy, Macro- Lepidoptera of Sherwood Forest.

Dianthmcia ciicubali, Fues.
Folia chi, L.
Miselia oxyacantJice, L.
Agriopis aprilina, L.
Fhlogophora meticulosa, L.
Euplexia liicipara, L.
Aplecta herbida, Hb.
Aplecta occulta, L.
Aplecta nebulosa, Hufn.
Aplecta tincta, Brahm.
Aplecta advena, Fb.
Hadena adusta, Esp.
Hadena protea, Bork.
Hadena dentina, Esp.
Hadena suasa, Bork.
Hadena oleracea, L.
Hadena pisi, L.

Hadena thalassina, Rott.
Calflcauipa solidaginis, Hb.
Xylina petrificata, Fb.
Cucnlha chamomillcE, Schifif.
Cucullia timbratica, L.
Anarta myrtilli, L.
Brephos parthenias, L.
Flusia chrysitls, L.
Flusia festiiccs, L.
Flusia iota, L.
Flusia gamma, L.
Gonoptera libntrix, L.
Amphipyra tragopogonis, L.
Mania typica, L.
Mania maura, L.
liuclidia mi, Clerck.

Geomctrina.
Uropteryx sambucaria, L. Ainphidasys betularia, L.

Epione apicaria, Schiff.
Rumia crataigata, L.
Venilia macula ta, Schiff.
Angerona prunaria, L.
Selenia illunaria, Hb.
Selenia lunaria, Schiff.

Boarmia repandata, L.
Boarmia rhomboidaria, Hb.
Boarmia roboraria, Schiff.
Tephrosia crepiiscularia, Hb.
Geometra papilonaria, L.
Hemithea thymiaria, Gn.

Odontopera bidentata, Clerck. Ephyra porata, Fb.

Crocallis elitiguaria, L.
Ennomos tiliaria, Bork.
Ennomos angular la, Bork.
Hiinera pennaria, L.
P// igalia pilosa ria. H b.
y^ viphidasys prodropmria,
Schiff.

Ephyra trilinearia, Bork.
Ephyra orbicularia, Hb.
Venusia cambrica, Curt.
Aiidalia scutulata, Bork.
Acidalia bisctata, Hufn.
Acidalia imitaria, Hb.
Acidalia r emu t aria, Hb.

Mmichester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. \%. 5

Acidalia aver sat a, L.
Acidalia eniargivuita, L.
Cabera pusaria, L.
Cab era rotundana, Haw.
Cabera exantJmnata, Scop.
Macaria altertiata, Curt.
Macaria notata, L.
Halia wavaria, Fb.
Fidonia atomaria, L.
Bupalis piniaria, L.
Abraxas ulinata, Fb.
^ braxas g rossiilariata, L.
Abraxas aduslata, Schiff.
^(^r^^ti^j- marginata, L.
Hybcrnia . rupicapraria, Hb.
Hybernia leucopliearia, Schiff.
Hybernia progeinviarta, Hb.
Hybernia de/oliaria, Clerck.
Anisopteryx cesadaria, Schiff.
Cheiinatobia brumata, L.
Oporabia dilutata, Bork.
Larentia didyviata, L.
Larentia viiaria, Bork.
Eupithecia venosata, Fab.
Eupitlieaa centaureata, Fb.
Eupithecia castigata, Hb.
Eupithecia nanata, Hb.
Eupithecia vulgata, Haw.

Eupithecia dodoiieata, Gn.
Eupitliecia rectangidata, L.
TJiera variata, Schiff.
Hypsipctcs elutata, Hb.
Melantliia occllata, L.
Melanthia albicillata, L.
Melanippe hastata, L.
Melanippe rivata, Hb.
Melanippe vioutanata, Bork.
Melanippe fluciuata, L.
Anticlea rubidata, Fb.
Ant idea badiata, Hb.
Coreniia propugnata, Fb.
Coreinia ferrugata, Clerck.
Caniptograuinia bilineata, L.
Cidaria iniata, L.
Cidaria corylata, Thnb.
Cidaria rjissata, Bork.
Cidaria inivianata. Haw.
Cidaria siiffumata, Hb.
Cidaria prunata, L.
Cidaria testata, L.
Cidaria fulvata, Forst.
Cidaria pyraliata, Fb.
Eubolia uiensuraria, Schiff.
Eubolia bipunctaria, Schiff.
Anaitis plagiata, L.
Tanaora atrata, L.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 13.

XIII. A Collection of Polychaeta from the Falkland

Islands.

By Edith M. Pratt, M.Sc (Vict),

Honorary Research Fellow, Oweits College, Manchester.

(Communicated by Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., F.R.S.)

/deceived and read April 2j) d, igoi.

For this collection of Polychaeta, from the Falkland
Islands, I am indebted to Mr. R. Vallentin,of New Quay,
formerly of Falmouth, who made the collection towards
the end of the year 1898 and in the beginning of 1899.
It includes specimens of the following genera and species:

APHRODITID^.

Hermadion viagallicensis. Kin berg ('55)-
= H. kerguelensis. M'Intosh ('85).
= //", longicirratum. Kinberg, Baird.
= H. longicirratus. Kinberg, M'Intosh.
Three specimens found living in a hollow root ot
Macrocystis from 3^ fathoms.

Distribution. — Sts. Magellan, Kerguelen (numerous at
60 fath.), Falkland Islands (3- 10 fath.). The genus appears
to be restricted to the southern hemisphere.

Phyllodocid^.

Eteone spatJiocepJiala. Ehlers ('96), p. 32.

One specimen, bright green in colour when alive,
without anal cirri, found under a stone at low water.

Distribution. — Sts. Magellan. Newto Falkland Islands.

Genus. Occurs in northern and southern temperate
and cold waters, but up to the present has not been taken
within the tropics.

September loth, igoi.

2 Pratt, PolycJusta from the Falkland Islands.

Syllid^.

Autolytus simplex. Ehlers (:00).

Taken in tow-net at the surface and at a depth of
3 1 fathoms, also common on fronds of Macrocystis from
2 fathoms.

Distribution. — Sts. of Magellan. New to Falkland
Islands.

Gemcs. 1 1 species have been taken in temperate and
cold waters of the northern and southern hemisphere, and
one doubtful species has been taken in the Red Sea, so
that the genus is almost exclusively extra-tropical. The
occurrence of a doubtful species of this otherwise extra-
tropical genus in the Red Sea leads one to believe that
it is an escape from the Mediterranean, where the genus
is well represented. Keller and Brandt have shown that
many Mediterranean forms have increased their range of
distribution in that direction since the formation of the
Suez Canal.

NEREIDiE.

Platynereis magalhcsnsis. Kinberg ('65).

= Platynereis antarctica. Kinberg ('65), p. 177.
= „ patagonica. „ „ „

= Nereis antarctica. Verrill ('76).
= „ eatoni. M'Intosh ('76), p. 320.
= „ magaUtcEnsis. Ehlers ('96), p. G^.
Two specimens found living in a hollow root of
Macrocystis from 3^ fathoms, and two, with egg masses
containing developing embryos, within folded fronds of
Macrocystis from 2 fathoms in Stanley Harbour.

Distribution. — Sts. Magellan, Kerguelen, Falkland
Islands, Fernando Noronha, Marion Island.
The genus is cosmopolitan.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901) No. 13. 3

GONIAD.^:.

Goniada norvcgica Orsted, var. falklandica. Arvvidsson
('99), p. 38. (New variety).

A single mature specimen, with ova, consisting of
about 182 segments, found living in a hollow root of
Macrocystts taken at a depth of 3 fathoms. The tail end
missing in the preserved state.

Length about 180 mm.; without proboscis, 140 mm.
Breadth at the widest part, including parapodia, lo-ii
mm. The breadth is greatest in the middle of the body,
mainly due to the increase in size and development of the
parapodia in this part of the body.

Colour. The specimen was well preserved in formalin ;
dorsal surface, greenish-brown ; ventral surface, brownish.
The whole surface of the body, including proboscis,
covered with a thin transparent cuticle having an
iridescent metallic lustre. In these respects it closely
resembles the Norwegian species.

As this affords a good example of the same species
occurring in the north and south temperate regions but not
in the tropics, I have given a detailed examination of the
form. Through the kindness of Dr. Appellof, of Bergen,
I have been able to examine specimens of the species
from Norway, and to compare them with the specimen
from the Falkland Islands. It was important that an
actual comparison of these forms should be made, for, in
the discussions on the Bipolar Theory, there has been an
uncertainty (due to the vagueness of the published accounts
of species) as to the degree of resemblance between extra-
tropical forms, and it was doubtful whether some should
be classed as varieties or as individual species.

Prostomiuin. Conical, nearly twice as long as broad,
with 9 segments, the basal one being the largest ; at the
tip are 4 small tentacles. In form the prostomium closely

4 Pratt, PolycJiceta fi-o))i tJie Falkland Islands.

resembles that of the Norwegian specimens, but it is rather
more broadly conical.

Proboscis. Cylindrical, about 40 mm. in length,
everted portion about 20 mm. The surface of the
proboscis covered with an iridescent cuticle, is almost
universally studded with small papilla;, not quite so
numerous near the base of the proboscis, and each of
which appears to have a chitinous tip.

Teeth. Four pairs of small, laterally placed, V-shaped
teeth (see Fig. 2). At the tip of the proboscis there is a
ring of 17 papillae, and below this, the multicusped teeth,
characteristic of the genus, are arranged more or less in a
circle. There are: — 15 dorsal micrognatha, 2 large mac-
rognatha and 17 ventral micrognatha. Total = 34 (see
Fig. 6). The everted proboscis is not so broad as
that of a Norwegian specimen, from which it also differs
in the arrangement of papillae. In the latter they are
more numerous on the dorsal than on the ventral surface,
while in the specimen from the Falkland Islands they
are almost universally scattered over the surface of the
proboscis. The ring of papillae at the tip of the proboscis,
and the circle of multicusped teeth below this ring, are
similar in arrangement to those of the Norwegian
specimens (see Figs. 5 and 6).

Ehlers records a new species, Goniada exiniia, from
the Sts. of Magellan, which is like the Falkland Islands
specimen in the possession of 4 pairs of V-shaped teeth,
but differs from it in the number of multicusped teeth.
The description of the species is not sufficiently definite to
determine whether these two forms are identical in other
respects. The most important point of difference between
the specimen from the Falkland Islands and those from
Norway is in the number of V-shaped teeth on the
proboscis. The following table will show that it differs
also from the tropical forms in this respect.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 13. 5

Number of V-shaped Teeth.

Falkland
Islands.

Norway.

Tropical.

G. Norvegica,

var.
falklandica.

G.

norvegica.

G.
congoensis.

G.

hupferi.

G.

multi-

dentata.

G.

pausidens.

4

17—18

13

14

90

13

The Parapodia are large, well-marked structures,
which, in the middle of the body, take up at least two-
thirds of the breadth of the animal. In the anterior
parapodia the notopodium is represented only by a
■curved dorsal cirrus ; the neuropodium is here a well-
marked triramous structure with a lancet-shaped ventral
cirrus. About the 56th segment a small finger-shaped pro-
cess grows out below the dorsal cirrus ; on this segment the
process is devoid of bristles, but on the following segment
this portion of the notopodium bears a single capillary
bristle. The parapodia continue to grow larger towards
the middle of the body ; the notopodium becomes a well
marked structure ; the dorsal cirrus becoming smaller in
comparison with the increased size of the notopodium.
The capillary bristles of the notopodium are quite distinct
from the jointed bristles on the neuropodium, which also
increase in size in this part of the body.

Posteriorly the parapodia diminish in size, and there
is a corresponding reduction in the number of bristles
borne by the notopodia and neuropodia respectively.
Throughout the whole length of the body the triramous
neuropodium is a larger and more important structure
than the notopodium.

The most important feature of the parapodia is their

6 Pratt, Polychcetafroin the Falkland Ts/ands.

striking likeness in general form and structure to those of
the Norwegian form, this likeness being further emphasised
upon a detailed microscopic examination. The capillary
bristles of the notopodium are alike in size and structure.
The jointed bristles of the neuropodia are also curiously
alike in minute detail in the two forms so widely separated
in their distribution. This will be seen from Figs. 3 and 4,
which show the insertion of the free distal portion of the
bristle into the socket of the proximal portion in the two
forms.

The genus Goniada is cosmopolitan. It does not
appear to have been taken in very deep water. The
tropical species are : —

f I. G felicissima. Kbg. ('65)- Habitat. St. Helena
(about \6° S. lat).
! f 2. G. virginii. Kbg. ('65). Habitat. Rio Janeiro
(about 22'' S. lat.).

3. G. einerita. Aud. and M. Ed. Habitat. Florida,

321 fathoms; West Indies; Mediterranean on
coralline fronds to 30 metres.

4. G. pausidens. Grube. Habitat. Philippine (lo'^

N. lat).

5. G. Jiupferi. Arwidsson ('98). Habitat. W. Africa.

6. G. congoensis. Grube. Habitat. \V. Africa.

7. G. multidoitata. Arwidsson ('98). Habitat. W.

Africa; Liberia (10'' N. lat.); Fernando Po
(about 6° N. lat.) ; Sette Cama — Congo.

* 8. ? G. lo7igicirrata. Ardwidsson ('98). Habitat.
W. Africa — Terand Vaso.

f 9. G. ecJiinulata. Grube ('70). Habitat. Desterro, Brazil.

* Doubtfully referred to genus Goniada.

t Insufficiently described for comparative purposes.
! Kinberg states that the prostomium of G. virginii has 12 annuli.
According to Arwidsson's classification all the members of the family
Goniada have 9 prostomial annuli.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 13. 7

Anterior Parapodia. The transverse lines represent
the lengths from top of dorsal to bottom of ventral cirrus,
in each case magnified ten times. The lengths of these
lines, in mm., are given by the figures in brackets.
G. norvegica v.falk-

landica, 29th segment. (19)

G. norvegica. 29th segment. (13)

G. imiltidentata. 17th segment. — (4)

G. hupferi. 8th segment. (5)

G. hupferi 28th segment. (5 '6)

G. congoensis. 28th segment. (ii)

Median Parapodia. Lengths from top of dorsal to
bottom of ventral cirrus, magnified ten times.

G. norvegica v. falklandica.

about looth segment. (35)

G. norvegica. 122nd segment. (35)

G. hupferi. 71st segment. (lO'S)

G. imiltidentata. 80th segment. (13)

Posterior Parapodia. Lengths magnified ten times.

G. norvegica v. falklandica. (25)

G. norvegica. (20)

The accompanying table (pp. 8—9) and diagrams show
that, while the anterior parapodia closely resemble the
specimens from Norway in size and structure, they differ
from those of the tropical species in these respects. It is
noteworthy that the lower limb of the notopodium is
developed nearer the anterior end of the body in the
tropical species, G. hupferi and G. congoensis, than in the
species from the Falkland Islands and from Norway.
The parapodia of the 28th segment of the two latter
correspond with those of the 8th segment in G. Jiupferi,
and with the 17th segment in G. imiltidentata, in that the
lower limb of the notopodium is absent.

8 Pratt, PolycJicsta from the Falkland Islands.

Comparison of Falkland Island form with G. norvegica and

(1898), and G. paiisidens Grube.

~

G. norvegica, v.
falklandica.

G. norvegica. G. Impferi.

Distribution.

Falkland
Islands.

Norway.

Tropical
W. Africa.

Length of Animal

(incomplete)
180 mm.

290 mm.

30 mm.

Greatest breadth

in middle of body
lo'5 mm.

in middle of body
9 mm.

breadth almost same

throughout, slightly

reduced in front

2 mm.

Greatest breadth

without

Parapodia

3 mm.

5 mm.

No. of body
Segments

182 segts.

266 segts.

175 segts.

Parapodia.

Length from top
of Dorsal to bottom
of Ventral Cirrus.

Anterior.

9th segt. 1-5 mm.
57tli ,. 2 „
Median.

looth ,, 35 ,,
Posterior.
l8ist ,, 2-5 ,,

(i.) Anterior.*
29th segt. 1-3 mm.

Median.*
122nd ,, 3-5 ,,

Anterior.*

8th segt. '5 mm.

28th „ -56 „
Median*

71st ,, 1-05 „

(ii.) Ant. segt. I mm.
Median ,, 3-5 ,,
Posterior ,, 2 ,,

Ring of Teeth
on Proboscis

15 Dorsal
2 six-cusped

macrognatha
17 Ventral

34 total

1 1- 1 5 Dorsal
2 six-cusped
macrognatha
16-19 Ventral

29-36 total

16 Dorsal
2 three- cusped

macrognatha
8 Ventral

26 total

Prostomium

9 annuli

9 annuli

9 annuli

" From Arwidsson's figures.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 13. 9

the tropical species of the genus described by Arwidsson
All Arwidsson's forms were mature.

G. congoensis.

G. niuUideiitata.

G. paiiside.ns.

+?(?. longicirrata.

Tropical
W. Africa.

Tropical
W. Africa.

Philippine
Islands.

Tropical
W. Africa.

61 mm.

47 mm.

33 mm.

34 mm.

almost same through-
out, slightly reduced

in front

3 '5 mm.

reduced in front
2 mm.

reduced in front
2 mm.

I '5 mm.

I -25 mm.

(i.) 206 segts.

175 segts.

165 segts.

(ii.) 210 segts.

Anterior.*

28th segt. I -I mm.

Anterior.*

17th segt. '4 mm.

Median*

80th ,, 1-3 ,,

25-29 Dorsal
2 four-cusped
macrognatha
15 Ventral

42-46 total

30 Dorsal
2 two-cusped

macrognatha
12 Ventral

44

0 Dorsal

2 two-cusped

macrognatha
6 Ventral

8 total

9 annuli

9 annuli

6 annuli

9 annuli

t Doubtfully referred to genus.

lu Pratt, Polydicuta froui the Falkland Islands.

The parapodia of the 28th segment of G. congoensis,
and G. Juipfcri correspond with the median parapodia
(about lOOth segment) in the species from the Falkland
Islands and Norway, in that the notopodium is a well
developed structure.

The lower limb of the notopodium of this species differs
markedly from that of the tropical G. congocnsts, in that in
the latter the notopodium bears no capillary bristles, their
place being taken by two fairly stout acicula which just
appear above the surface. This form is like another tropical
form, ? G. longicirrata, in the presence of multi-acicula and
the absence of capillar)' bristles in the notopodium.

In the Falkland Islands specimen the lower limb of
the notopodium does not appear until the 56th segment,
when it has the form of a small finger-shaped process,
devoid of bristles, which, however, as previously stated,
are present on the succeeding segments. In a specimen
of G. norvegica which I have examined, the lower limb of
the notopodium appears on the 35th segment.

Throughout the Polychaeta, a typical parapodium
consists of a notopodium and a neuropodium, each bearing,
in addition to the ordinary bristles, a single aciculum.
The extra-tropical species of GoTiiada have typical para-
podia, but in two tropical forms (one of which, owing to
the absence of characteristic features, Arwidsson doubt-
fully places in this genus) the parapodia are modified, in
that the notopodium is multi-aciculate and the ordinary
bristles are absent. Therefore we may assume that the
form of parapodium possessed b)- extra-tropical forms is
the primitive one, and that from it the modified form
seen in some tropical species has been derived ; that is
tosay,the parapodium of extra-tropical forms has remained
true, while that of tropical forms shows a tendency to
variation.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 13. n

The specimen from the Falkland Islands agrees with
those from Norway in size, colour, and general confor-
mation of the body, in the form and arrangement of the
parapodia, and in the minute anatomy of the bristles.
The proboscis, with surface papillae, ring of larger papillae
at the tip, and the arrangement of the multi-cusped teeth
are similar in both cases.

The two points of difference — the number of teeth,
and arrangement of papills on the proboscis — between
the Norwegian and Falkland Islands specimens, are not
sufficient to necessitate the separation of the latter into a
distinct species, for Darwin {Origin of Species, p. 169), on
the authority of Bronn, states that " distinct species never
differ from each other in single characters, but in many
parts." Therefore we may assume that the two forms
belong to one species, and that the variation has been
brought about by a difference in the conditions of life,
probably in the character of the food material.

But even if we do not regard the two forms as
belonging to one species, the fact still remains that the
two extra-tropical forms are more closely related to each
other than to any known intervening tropical form.

SpIONID/E.

Polydora polybranchia. Haswell ('85), p. 273. Carazzi
('93), p. 1 5. Ehlers ('96), p. 87.

Found in a hollow root of Macrocystis from 3 fathoms,
also removed from the bottom of a lighter beached for
cleaning (the vessel had not left the harbour for many
years) ; also from a small piece of water-logged timber
at low water spring tides.

Distribution.— Sts. of Magellan, Sydney, Naples.
New to Falkland Islands, not taken within the tropics.

12 Pratt, PolycluEtafrom the Falkland Islands.

Genus. Pacific (Double Island), Madeira, Eastern
coast of United States, Australia (Sydney), Britain,
Mediterranean, English Channel. The genus has been
taken in fairly cool and warm waters of both northern and
southern hemispheres, but not in tropical waters.

As this species has been found in water-logged timber,
it is possible that its wide distribution has been brought
about by the agency of man. This, however, cannot
account for the fact of the genus, which contains many
sand-dwelling species, being extra-tropical.

ARENICOLID.-E.

Arenicola claparedii. Levinsen, Gamble, and Ash-
worth (:oo).

A few postlarval forms found swimming on the surface
of the sea. Not taken in tow-net gatherings in Stanley
Harbour.

This species has been identified by Dr. J. H. Ashworth,
of Edinburgh.

Distribution. — Naples, California (Crescent City, 41°
44' N.). New to Falkland Islands, and to Southern Hemi-
sphere. The distribution of this form is interesting in
that it has been taken in fairly warm water of both
northern and southern hemispheres, but not in the tropics.

The genus appears to be cosmopolitan.

CiRRATULID/E.

Promenia jucunda. Kinberg ('65), p. 254, Ehlers
('g6), p. 113.

One specimen taken on the shore at low water.

Distribution.— Sts. Magellan. New to Falkland
Islands.

The genus appears to be exclusively e.xtra-tropical.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), A^o. 13. 13

HERMELLID/E.

Sabellaria viacropalea. Schmarda ('61), p. 23.
= Hervtella viacropalea. Schmarda ('61).
= Pallasia sexungiila. Ehlers ('96).

Two specimens with sandy tubes were found on the
shore under a stone.

After comparing these specimens with Schmarda's
(description of Herviella viacropalea, and Ehlers' excellent
description of Pallasia sexungula, I am convinced that
the two species are identical, the chief point of difference
being in the number of cephalic hooks. Schmarda's
specimen having 2, Ehlers' 6 hooks. M' In tosh (5. j'olm-
stoni ('85), p. 418) and Haswell {S. australiensis) point
out that the number of hooks is not a character of much
moment, for several reserve hooks may be present. The
specimens from the Falkland Islands have one pair of
large powerful hooks, and two pairs of smaller, more
pointed, reserve hooks.

The form and character of inner and outer cephalic
bristles are alike in all three cases. The uncini, oar-
shaped bristles and set^e on the remaining portion of the
body are also similar.

Colour. Schmarda's specimens were pale-red in colour,
with violet head and gills ; Ehlers' were of a smutty
brownish-grey, buccal portion reddish-brown, younger
animals of a darker shade. The remaining portion of the
body occasionally light-coloured. The specimens from
the Falkland Islands (preserved in spirit) are greyish-
brown in colour, the buccal portion of a darker shade.
The gills have a violet tinge. The cephalic setae have
the golden lustre which Ehlers remarks to be characteristic
of Pallasia sexungula. The Tube is composed of sand
grains cemented together and lined by a thin layer of
chitinous substance.

14 Pratt, PolycJitzta from the Falkland Islands.
Dimensions.

J-'alkland I.s].-\nds.
2 specimens.

I 2

Sahcllaria
(Pallasia)
sexutii^iila
(Ehlers).

Saheilaria
[Heriiiella)
iiiaci-opalea
(Schmarda).

No. of bristle-
bearing segts.

\ -

42

46

31

Length

6o mm. 1 64 mm.

42 mm.

25 mm.

Cephalic region

5 mm. 5-5 mm.

4 mm.

2 mm.

Bristle bearing
reofion

> 35 mm. 1 40 mm.

31 mm.

18 mm.

Bristleless por-
tion

, 20 mm. 14 mm.

7 mm.

5 mm.

Greatest breadth

3 5 "im-

4 mm.

about 2 mm.

It would appear from this table that the length of the
bristleless portion in different individuals is not equally
proportional to the size of the body. This, to a great
extent, may be due to the amount of food material
present in the alimentary canal.

Distribution. — Coast of Chili (Schmarda), Sts. of
Magellan to 13 fathoms (Ehlers). New to Falklands.

I find this form to be extremely like the tropical
species 6". joJinstoni, M'Intosh (C. Verde Island). It is
very probable that, on further investigation, it may prove
to be a variety of this species.

Gemis. Cosmopolitan.

TEREBELLID/E.

Thelepus spectabilis. Verrill.

— Neottis spectabilis. Verrill ('76), Feb.

= „ aiitarctica. M'Intosh ('76), p. 321, April.

= TJiclcpns vi^intosJii. Grube ('77o P- 544-

= „ spectabilis. Ehlers ('96), p. 133.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 13. 15

Three specimens taken on the shore at low water.

Distribution. — Sts. of Magellan. Shallow water, among
weeds, during storms; Kerguelen, 12-120 faths.; between
Kerguelen and Heard Island, 150 faths. ; off Marion Island,
69 faths. ; off Heard Island, 75 faths. ; South Georgia.

Genus. Cosmopolitan.

Sabellid.^.

Sabella ceratodaiila. Schmarda ('61), p. 33.

Two specimens from the bottom of a beached lighter
which had not left the harbour for many years. One
specimen taken on the shore at low water.

Distribution. — New Zealand. New to Falkland Islands.

The genus appears to be cosmopolitan.

Bispira inarim (?). Lo Bianco ('93).

Two large specimens found living amid a large bunch
of simple Ascidians taken from the side of a hulk put in
shore for repairs.

Distribution. — Mediterranean. New to Falklands and
to Southern Hemisphere.

This form appears to be very like the Mediterranean
B. marice, but Lo Bianco in his description does not
mention certain " pick-axe " bristles (" soies en pioche ")
which accompany the thoracic uncini, and which are
characteristic of the genus. I have not had an opportunity
of examining specimens of the Mediterranean form, but
if these structures are not present, then, according to
St. Joseph ('94), B. marice should be placed in another
genus.

The genus has hitherto only been taken in the northern
temperate zone.

SERPULID/E.

Spirorbis borealis. Daudin.

1 6 Pratt, PolycJiccta from the Falkland Islands.

Several specimens embedded in a sponge encrusting
a stone.

The species is cosmopolitan.

The collection includes four genera, which are
restricted in their distribution to north and south extra-
tropical waters : — Eteone, Polydora, Provienia, Bispira.
There are seven cosmopolitan genera : — Platynereis,
Goniada, A renicola, Snbellaria, Thclepus, Sabella, Spirorbis.

Autclytus has only once been taken in the tropics, viz.,
in the Red Sea (probably an escape from the Mediterranean),
and, therefore, is almost exclusively extra-tropical.

There are four extra-tropical species : Goniada nor-
vegica, Polydora polybranchia^ Arenicola claparedii, Bispira
maricB.

Only one species in the collection {^Spirorbis borealis^
is cosmopolitan.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

'55. KiNBERG. " Nya slagten och arter af Annelider." Ofvrs.
K. Vetensk. Akad. Porh., Arg. 12.

'59. ScHMARDA. " Neue Wirbellose Thiere." I.

01. ,, }) ,, J, -ii-

'65. KiNBERG. "Annulata nova." Ofvers. K. Vetensk. Akad.
Fork., Arg. 22.

'76. Verrill. "Annelids and Echinoderms of Kerguelen
Island." Bull. U.S. Nat. Mtis., Vol. 1, No. 3,
p. 66.

'76. iM'Intosh. "Descriptions of some new species of
Annelida from Kerguelen's Island." Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, Vol. XVII.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. {\go\), No. V^. ly

'77. Grube. "Anneliden-Ausbeute S. M.S. Gazelle." J/t'/m/j-^^^r.
K. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1877.

'79. M'Intosh. " Marine Annelida of Kerguelen Island."
Phil. Trans., Vol. 168.

'85. Haswell. [" Polydora polybranchia."] Proc. Linn. Soc.
N. S. Wales, Vol. X., p. 273.

'85. M'Intosh. " Report on the Annelida Polychaeta."
Challenger Reports (Zoology), Vol. XII.

'85. Darwin, C. "Origin of Species." 6th edition (cor-
rected down to 1872).

'93-5. Carazzi. D. "Revisione del genere Polydora." Mitt.
Zool. Stat. Neapel. Bd. XI.

'93. Lo Bianco, S. "Gli annelidi tubicoli trovati nel golfo
di Napoli." Atti R. Accad. Sci. Fis. e Mat. Napoli.
Sen 2, Vol. V.

'94. St. Joseph, De. " Les Annelides Polychetes des
cotes de Dinard." 3'"^- partie. Ann. Sci. Nat.
(Zool.) Ser. 7, Tome XVII.

'96. Ehlers, E. "Polychffiten." Hamburger Magalhaenische
Safnmelreise.

'98. Arwidsson, J. "Studien liber die Familien Gly-
ceridce und Goniadcz." Bergens Museum Aarbog,
1898.

'98. Pratt, E. M. "Contributions to our knowledge of the
Marine Fauna of the Falkland Islands." Manchester
Memoirs, Vol. XLII.

:00. Ehlers, E, " Magellanische Anneliden gesammelt
wahrend der schwedischen Expedition nach den
Magellanslandern." Nachr. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen,
Math.-Phys. Klasse, 1900, Heft 2.

:00. Gamble, F. W., and Ashworth, J. H. " The Anatomy
and Classification of the Arenicolidae." Quart.
Journ. Micro. Sci., Vol. 43, Part 3.

1 8 I'RATT, Polydu2ta from the Falkland Islands.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4.
Figures showing comparison of Goniada fiorvegica with the
form from the Falkland Islands.

Fi<^. I. G. norvegica, showing lateral V-shaped teeth in proboscis.
Cam. luc, magnified 15 times.

Fi«^. 2. G. norvegica x^r./alklaiidicn, do. do.

Cam. luc, mag. 65 times.

Fig. 3. G. norvegica, jointed neuropodial bristle, showing inser-
tion of anterior portion into socket. Cam. luc, mag.
300 times.

Fig. 4. G. norvegica var. falklandica, do. do.

Cam. luc, mag. 300 times.

Fig. 5. G. norvegica, showing disposition of ring of teeth (opened
out to show dorsal and ventral surfaces) at the tip
of proboscis. Cam. luc, mag. i8| times. M =
Macrognatha.

Fig. 6. G. norvegica \2a. falklandica, do. do.

Cam. luc, mag. iS^ times.

Comparison of Parapodia of Goniada norvegica with those
of tropical species from West Africa.

Anterior parapodia.

Goniada norvegica var. falklandica. About 29th segt.

mag. 14 times.
G. norvegica (from Arwidsson). 29th segt. mag. 13^

times.
G. hupferi (from Arwidsson). 8th segt. mag. 33^ times.
G. hup/eri {^xom Arwidsson). 2Sth segt. mag. 33^ times.
G. co?igoensis (from Arwidsson). 28th segt. mag. 24

times.
Fig. 12. G. midtidentata (from Arwidsson). 17th segt. mag.

3ii times.

Median parapodia.

Fig. 13. G. norvegica ydiX. falklatidica. About looth segt. mag,
7 times.

Fig. 14. G. norvegica (from Arwidsson). 122nd segt. mag.
7 times.

Fig. 15. G. hipferi [{xon\ Arwidsson). 71st segt. mag. 23 times.

Fig. 16. O. multidentata (from Arwidsson). 80th segt. mag.
2\\ times.

Fig.

7-

Fig.

8,

Fig.

9'

Fig.

10.

Fig.

II.

Maiuiicshr Memoirs. I 'ol. XLV.

Plate I\

GO N I AD A

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 14.

XIV. Some Notes on the Bipolar Theory of the Distri-
bution of Marine Organisms,

By Edith M. Pratt, M.Sc. (Vict),

Honorary Research Fellotu, Owens College, Manchester.

( Comuiunicated by Professor S.J. Hickson, M.A., F.R.S.)

Received and read April 2^rd, igoi.

Theel is supposed by many to be the first zoologist to
notice the resemblance between the north and south polar
faunas, but as early as 1847 Sir James Ross noted that
several species which inhabit the Arctic occur also in
Antarctic waters. Many years later Selenka ('83) and
De Guerne ('88) observed that certain Gephyrea inhabiting
the north polar seas are very nearly related to those in
the south polar seas. In 1886 Theel compared actual
specimens of Holothurids from Arctic and Antarctic
waters, and of them he says (p. 260) " It is a fact that,
" with regard to Holothurids, several forms occur in the
" Arctic sea which are most closely allied to those of the
" Antarctic."

In explanation of the curious similarity between the
north and south polar faunas Pfeffer ('91) proposed the
" Bipolar Theory," which maintains that the many points
of resemblance existing between Arctic and Antarctic
faunas are sufficient to indicate a nearer relationship of
these faunas to one another than to the intervening
tropical fauna. He also states that the littoral marine
fauna is the primitive one, and from it the deep sea,
brackish and fresh-water faunas are derived.

In 1896 Sir J. Murray* investigated the distribution

• A short abstract of Murray's paper is contained in my previous paper on
the marine fauna of the Falkland Islands (Pratt, '98).

September zofh, igor.

2 Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

of forms obtained by the Challenger expedition, and, by-
drawing up a long list of bipolar forms, supported Pfcffer's
theory. Furthermore, by a consideration of former different
climatic conditions affecting the nature of the surface of
the earth, he shows how this relationship may have been
brought about. He maintains that if there were once a
nearly universal climate over the whole of the ocean, then
it is possible that there was a universal littoral marine
fauna. The cooling of the earth at the poles would cause
vast migrations of forms towards the tropics, where the
struggle for existence would be extremely severe, and
metabolism would be great. This would result in modi-
fication of old, and rapid formation of new, species in the
warmer waters. Many forms with free-swimming pelagic
larvae, by limiting their reproductive process to the summer
season, would be able to live on in the temperate regions,
where metabolism would be less than in the warmer waters,
and would remain more or less true. Thus the likeness
of many littoral, temperate, extra-tropical forms to each
other would be explained.

With the migration of forms from the poles, their
place would be taken by organisms from the deeper
mud-line, few of which have pelagic larvae. This would
explain the likeness between Arctic and Antarctic forms.

The theory put forward by Pfeffer and strongly
supported by Murray, met with considerable opposition
from Ortmann, Professor D'Arcy Thompson, and others.
In the following pages I have attempted to discuss briefly
the evidence for and against the theory.

Ortmann ('96-'99) contends that the cooling of the
waters at the poles did not arrest metabolism, and main-
tains that the tropical fauna has remained more or less
true, while the temperate and polar forms are derivatives
from ancestral forms. He maintains that the likeness

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (iQor). No. 14. 3

between extra-tropical forms does not indicate a common
descent, but is in many cases a "secondary reappearance."
He holds that an interchange of polar forms may take
place through the deep sea, on the ground that among
the Crustacea the cosmo)Jolitan genus PontopJiilus shows a
tendency to retire into deep water, and only occurs in the
tropics in the deep sea. He suggests that many bipolar
forms may occur in the tropics in deep water and have
thus escaped extermination.

This point, however, is by no means proved, for in the
case of many littoral bipolar forms we have no evidence
that they ever retire into deep water.

In explanation of the distribution of such forms, he
maintains that an interchange of supposed bipolar forms
may take place through the tropics along the western
shores of America, where, owing to cold ocean currents,
etc., the temperature of the tropical waters is lowered.
This would explain the occurrence of some, but not all,
similar forms in the north and south temperate Pacific.

On the ground that a variety of the European Mata
squinado {M. squinado capenszs) has been taken at the
Cape of Good Hope, Ortmann further maintains that
a similar interpassage of forms takes place along the
western shores of Africa. This, however, is by no means
proved, and it is within the province of this paper to show
that a variety of a northern European species {Goniada
norvegzca)* may occur in the south Atlantic (Falkland
Islands), while the genus is represented in the tropics, i.e.,
along the western shores of Africa, by several distinct and
modified species.

That an interchange of extra-tropical forms takes
place along the western shores of America and Africa is
only proved for such forms as have actually been taken in

* Manchester Memoirs, Vol. 45, No. 13, p. 3.

4 Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

the warm waters of the Panama region and in the Gulf of
Guinea, where the Httoral fauna is of a distinctly tropical
character.

In a second paper ('99) in opposition to the theory,
Ortmann gives a short extract from Buerger's paper on
the Nemertines on the subject of bipolarity, with the
following comments : —

" As regards the genera, all Antarctic genera are also
" found in the Arctic ; Buerger says that ' a general
''similarity of both Polar faunas is thus indicated'^ but the
"lack of 12 Arctic genera in the Antarctic does not
" support this view, and since he says further that neither
" of the faunas seems to possess very characteristic types,
" as do {sic) the tropics, it is evident that these 9 genera,
"common to both polar faunas, are also represented in the
"tropics. There is one genus that seems to be bipolar:
" Cari?tovia, which has been found on the west coast of
"England {C. armandi), and in the Straits of Magellan
" (C. patagonicay

We have no evidence in support of Ortmann's state-
ment that " it is evident that these 9 genera, common to
both polar faunas, are also represented in the tropics."
When we consider how little is known of the Antarctic
fauna, the fact that 12 Arctic genera have not )'ct been
taken in Antarctic waters must not be regarded as an
important piece of evidence against the bipolar theory.

If there were once a universal fauna, modification and
specialization, after the lapse of ages, would lead to the
formation of species which would be more or less limited
in their range of distribution ; some forms would survive
and be prolific in species in the north, which in the south
would become extinct or form only {q\^ species, or vice
versa ; and, as a fact, at the present time, we have many
species which are peculiar to the northern or to the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 14. 5

southern hemisphere. Yet, notwithstanding the changes
through which species have passed, we should expect to
find some forms, not very numerous perhaps, but still
some forms, which have remained more or less true to
their ancestral structure. Therefore, points of similarity
in extra-tropical forms, which are not shared with tropical
forms, have a m.ost important bearing upon the " Bipolar
Theory." It is but natural that the similarity would be
more marked in some groups than in others.

It is to be greatly deplored that, owing to a want of
uniformity in the recognition of specific and even of
generic characters on the part of authors, many forms
have been regarded as new and distinct species or genera
which further investigation has shown should have been
included with previously described forms. Murray and
other writers have shown this to be a great obstacle in
the identification of many Challenger species. Therefore,
in order that the relationship between extra tropical forms
may be ascertained, it is imperative that, wherever possible,
an actual examination and comparison of these forms
with tropical representatives — -where they do occur —
should be made.

In a paper supporting Ortmann's view in opposing
the theory, Professor D'Arcy Thompson ('97) states that
many of the forms included in Sir John Murray's list of
bipolar forms are recorded, not as identical, but as distinct
varieties, and maintains that this fact weakens the evidence
in support of that theory.

It is admitted that the "Bipolar Theory" does not
necessarily depend upon tJie specific identity of bipolar
forms, but upon the relationship of these forms to each
other. Therefore, the fact that Arctic and Antarctic
specimens of the same species do show some constant
variation from one another strengthens the evidence in

6 Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

support of the theory, for it shews that a species which is
absent or modified beyond recognition in the tro[Hcs has
remained ahnost true in extra-tropical waters.

In an account of the Holothurians of the Straits of
Magellan, Ludwig ('98) says " there are no bipolar species
in the group." He calls attention to a certain general
likeness of the faunas expressed by the mutual prevalence
of certain genera and the mutual lack of others as com-
pared with the tropical faunas. Ortmann does not regard
this as being of any consequence, and states that it has no
connection with the question under discussion.

The similarity in character between the Arctic and
Antarctic plankton, noted by Sir John Murray, is also
commented upon by I. C. Thompson ('98) who records
the following northern species of Copepoda from Antarctic
waters: (i) Metridia lo)iga ; (2) OitJiona spifiifrons ; 3.ud
(3) Ectmosovia atlanticuvi.

In the same paper he says : —

" The well-known Calanus finuiarcliiais so commonly
"distributed through our northern latitudes, appears to be
"equally common about the Antarctic, and occurred in 16
" of the gatherings."

Prof D'Arcy W. Thompson states that Calanus liyper-
" boreus \s closely allied to, if not merely a large variety
"of, C. finuiarchicus, which is known to occur off the
" Canaries in 30° N. lat., as well as off Australia in 37° S.
" lat., and which, according to I. C. Thompson, is also
" present in the Antarctic together with the species
" hyperborcus ; it is therefore not ' bipolar ' but ' cosmo-
" politan.'"

Of this I. C. Thompson says: — "Associated with
" C.jimnarchicus, and fairly plentiful in some of the bottles,
" was the large red Arctic species C. hyperboreus, formerly
"passed over as a mere Arctic variety of C. finniarchicus^

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 14. 7

" but now separated by Giesbrecht as a distinct species.
" Besides being of a uniformly larger size than C.
''fininafchiais, it differs from the latter in having lateral
"nipple-shaped projections at the terminations to the
" cephalothorax, in the large square-shaped first joint of
"the abdomen, and in the form of the basal serratures of
"the 5th pair of feet."

Even if this form be classed as a variety of C. fin-
viarchiais, the species cannot be called " cosmopolitan,"
for it has not been taken within the tropical belt. The
close relationship between the two forms gives strong
evidence in favour of Murray's bipolar hypothesis, for we
have a single distinct species occurring in Arctic and
Antarctic waters, which in the warmer waters approaching
the tropics becomes so far modified as to form — on the
authority of Giesbrecht — another species. We cannot
consider the form inhabiting warmer waters to be the one
from which the form occurring in Arctic and Antarctic
waters has been derived, for, although modification might
proceed on parallel lines in a form so widely separated,
when subjected to similar conditions of temperature, etc.,
yet we could not expect it to lead to an identical result
in the two cases.

' " In a paper on the mutual relations of Arctic and
Antarctic faunas, Pfeffer, ('99 and :oi) maintains that the
relationship between extra-tropical forms is confirmed by
palaeontological evidence.

Of the fauna of the deep sea he says : " The peopling
" of the deep sea from the polar zone has been an un-
" interrupted process from the Mesozoic age until now."
He holds that the migration of bipolar forms into the deep
waters of the temperate zone is not recent, for at the
present time, owing to sub-oceanic upheavals, " the polar
" zone in the Pacific is absolutely, and in the Atlantic

8 Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

"almost entirely, shut off from the deep water of the
"temperate zone." On p. 317 he says :" It would seem
" that the time which has elapsed since the present surface-
" water species of the higher north and south descended
" to the depths has not sufficed for a migration beyond
" the equator to the opposite hemisphere."

For the littoral fauna he maintains that, although the
connection of northern and southern faunas was con-
tinuous through the tropics in mid-tertiary times, actual
observations at the present time show that " littoral "
species occurring in north and south higher latitudes have,
in general, in the tropics, an interrupted discontinuous
distribution.

The fauna of the West Coast of America, from the
temperate southern to the temperate northern zone, he
states to be " of a nearly homogeneous character, inter-
" rupted only in the narrow province of Panama, where
" the littoral fauna is of a tropical character. In general
" character it may be described as a cool water fauna, but
" it has undergone quite remarkable local differentiation.
"... This fauna springs apparently from the southern
" hemisphere . . . and has crowded out, more or less,
" the members of the universal fauna." The narrowness
of the continental slope and the presence of the mouths of
subterranean rivers would readily afford an opportunity
for an interruption of faunal continuity.

In conclusion he says (p. 322) : " P'aunas of higher
" latitudes represent the coeval relics of the almost uniformly
" developed and almost universally distributed early-
" tertiary faunas, as they have been evolved under the
" influence of the cooling of the climate by a process of
"separating out and selection. The similarity of the
" operating causes secured that the same components of the
" old fauna remained behind in both north and south, and

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 14.

" thus has arisen the great, and still well-marked, similarity
" of the two faunas." --

In his revision of the EchiiiridcB, Shipley ('99. p. 355)
gives a list of the species belonging to the genus Echiurus,
showing their geographical distribution. In all, there are
four species : —

Punta Arenas.
Straits of Magellan.
Off the coast of Greenland.
North Sea, N. Atlantic, and
English Channel (in soft sand,
mud, or clay).
Japanese waters (in the mud
near the shore).
Shipley says " It is thus evident that this genus is a
" denizen of the colder seas, and reaches from the Arctic
"to the cooler waters of the temperate regions of both
" hemispheres."

Fischer (^'96, p. 7) has drawn up a table showing a
comparison of sub-antarctic American Gephyrea with allied
arctic forms, from which the following is derived:

Echmriis chilensis.

„ forcipatiis.
„ pallasii.

unicinctiis.

Antarctic.
Phascolosoma tnargariiaceuni,
Sars.
var. antarcticmn, Mich.

South Georgia.
,, ficscu/ii, Mich.

South Georgia.
,, georgianum, Mich.

South Georgia.
,, capsi/orine, Baird.

Falkland Islands, Sts.
of Magellan, Tierra
del Fuego, Picton
Isl.

Arctic.
I . * Phascolosoma margarita
ceiim, Sars.

Greenland (?) North
America, Spitz-
bergen, Norway,
North Sea.
var. papillosum., Thomps.
Ireland.

lO

Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

Antarctic.

Arctic.

2.

Phascolion sp. ?

Smyth Channel.

2.

?

3-

Echiurus chiiensis, Miill.
Sts. of Magellan.

3-

Echiurus utiicinctus^ von
Drasche.

Japan, Amurland.

4-

Priapuliis cai/dafus, Lam.
var. antarctica, Mich.

South Georgia, Tierra
del Fuego, Sts. of
Magellan, Falkland
Isl.

4-

Priapulus caudatus. Lam.
Arctic seas of North
America, Green-
land, Iceland,
Norway, Baltic,

5- Priapuioides austral is, De ^. Priapuloides typicus, Kor.

Guerne. & Ij)^n,

Tierra del Fuego. Greenland, Iceland,

Spitzbergen, Nor-
way.

Of five species of Gephyrea taken in southern waters,
two {Phascolosouia inargaritaceum* and Priapulus
caudatus) occur also in northern seas ; two {^Echiurus
chiiensis and Priapuloides australis) are represented in
northern waters by the closely allied species Echitirus
unicinctus and Priapuloides typicus ; whilst one southern
form has not been taken in the northern hemisphere.

In the distribution of these species of Gephyrea and
the ^enus Echiuj-us, which have not been taken in the
tropics, we have no evidence of an interpassage of species
along the western shores of America or Africa.

An interesting list of nine extra-tropical species of
Polychaeta from the Straits of Magellan is given by Ehlers
('96, p. 11). Of them, three occur also in Arctic waters:

• Pkascolosoiiia ntargaritaceum was taken by Sars, presumably oft"
Norway, at a depth of 300 fathoms, but it has not been taken at any depths
at intermediate stations between Ireland and the Straits of Magellan, so we
must regard it as extra-tropical.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), A^^. 14. n

Nephthys longisetosa, Orsted ; Notoviastus latertceus, Sars ;
Scolecolepis vulgaris, Johnst. One, Glycera americana,
Leidy.occurs on the east coast of North and South America.
Five are common to north and south extra-tropical
Atlantic, but have not been taken in the Pacific : Syllides
longocirratiis, Orsted ; ChcBtopterns variopedatus, Ren. ;
Capitella capitata, Fabr. ; Terebellides strbinii, S. ; Scrpula
vennicidaris, L. (to 175 faths.). In addition to these
species, there are three southern species which are very
closely related to three northern species: (i) A new
species of Arenicola {A. assiviilis) from the Straits of
Magellan, which Ehlers believes to be identical with a
form taken on the Californian coast. It is very probable
that A. assimilis will prove to be a variety of ^. marina
or A. claparcdii, both of which are European forms. The
remarks on the distribution of .4. claparedii (p. 15) would
then also apply to this form. (2) Travisia kerguelensis,
M'lntosh. This form closely resembles, if it is not entirely
identical with, the European T. forbesi. (3) Scoloplos
kerguelensis, M'lntosh. Ehlers states that this is clearly
very nearly related to 5. arnnger.

In describing a collection of forms from the Falkland
Islands, Pratt ('98) notes four extra-tropical species :—

(Polyzoa) Beania magellanica ; Cellepora pustulata.
(Porifera) Sycon ciliata. (Crustacea) Orchestia chilensis.

(Gephyrea) Phascolosoma capsi/onne has since been
shown to be a variety of the northern P. inargaritaceum,
var. capsiforme.

(Polycha^ta) Lagisca magellanica has been shown to
be a synonym of Harmothoe spinosa, which appears to
differ from the northern H. imhricata ox\\\ in the position
of the eyes.

I have shown that, in addition to Pfeffer and Murray,
the following writers have noted the similarity between

12 Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

nortli and south extra-tropical forms: — Selenka,DeGuerne,
r^ischcr, and Shipley, for the Gephyrea, Th^el for the
Holothurids, Ehlers for the Polycha:tes, I. C. Thompson
for the Plankton, and Pratt for certain littoral forms.
Giesbrecht has shown the bipolar Calarms Jiyperboreus to
be distinct from the species inhabiting warmer seas
{C. finmardiiais). Therefore, we cannot accept Ortmann's
statement that "(^r//thc results of investigations in special
" groups of animals tend to show that the theory held by
" Pfeffer and Murray, that both polar faunas are more
" closely related to each other than to any of the inter-
" mediate ones, is without support."

This appears to bring to an end the published evidence
bearing upon the " bipolar " controversy.

For the following account of the distribution of
Scalibregma inflahcvi I am indebted to Dr. J. H. Ashworth,
of Edinburgh. Further information on the subject will
be found in his memoir on the " Anatomy of Scalibregma
inflatiim" Quart. Joitrn. Micro. Science (in the press).

Dr. Ashworth examined 40 specimens of Scalibregma
inflaUivi, 26 of which were from the United States
National Museum, the remainder from the museums of
Bergen and Stockholm. Those obtained from Scandinavia
were collected chiefly on the Atlantic coast of that
jjcninsula, the U.S. specimens along the east coast of the
American continent, the most southerly station at which
these were obtained being 40^ N. and the most northerly
44^ 23' N.

Distribution. Scalibregma occurs eastward as far as
Cape Grebeni (the most southern point of Waigatsch
Island), western shores of Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla,
western coast of Norway, and western coast of Sweden (in

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. {\(^o\), No. 14. 13

Christiania and neighbouring fjords), N.E. and W. coasts
of Scotland, the most southerly limit being Millport on
the Clyde. It has also been taken on the other side of
and the Atlantic, viz., on the western shores of Greenland,
and along the eastern coast of the United States
(previously mentioned).

M'Intosh, in the Challenger Reports ('85, p. 359),
states that his specimens are much smaller than the
European examples, the largest measuring only 18 mm.
Size is not a character of much importance in this con-
nection, for 12 specimens from Norway and Sweden have
the following approximate lengths : (i) 56 mm. (this is
almost the largest recorded specimen) ; (2) 35 mm. ; (3)
26 mm.; (4) 22 mm.; (5) 16 mm. ; (6-12) 7 specimens
all of which are between 13 and I4'3 mm. long. 1 hus of
12 European specimens, 8 are less than M'Intosh's
Challenger specimens. M'Intosh states that the southern
specimens have a more fusiform outline and are less
inflated. This, again, is not a character of any constancy,
for the shape varies enormously in a series of specimens
from the same locality.

He also states that there is a prominent and con-
tinuous fold behind the head in British and Norwegian
forms, but in the Challenger specimens the head has a
greater antero-posterior diameter and there are two
papillae.

In Dr. Ashworth's opinion, this is due to the fact
that, in the southern specimens, the musculature was
comparatively relaxed at the time the animals died, and
the head is therefore more completely expanded in those
specimens. As far as he is able to judge without seeing
the actual specimens, M'Intosh's southern forms agree
with the northern forms in the sculpturing of body wall,
peculiar furcate sitae (M'Intosh r85), pi. xxii.A, fig. 21)
head, parapodia, cirri, etc.

14 Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

Scaltbregvia has not been taken in tropical waters
Off New Zealand it has been taken at a depth of 7CK)
fathoms, and may therefore be classed as a member ol
the subsurface fauna. It is possible that it may pass
through the tropics by means of the deep sea, but as it
has not been taken at intermediate stations between the
north and south extra-tropical waters, we must regard it
as a " bipolar" form.

The controversy on the " Bipolar Theory " has been
limited, more or less, to a discussion of the distribution of
forms known to occur in deep water. As the littoral
marine fauna is supposed to be the most primitive, and
therefore the one from which all other faunas are derived,
it was thought that an investigation of the distribution
of littoral forms would be interesting, in that it would
increase the evidence for or against this theory. With
this object I have studied the distribution of the Pol)xhaeta
from the shores of the Falkland Islands.

The collection of Polychreta from the Falkland Islands
numbered 13 species ; of these :

One is cosmopolitan : Spirorbis borealis, Daud.

Fight have been taken in the southern hemisphere :
( Hcrmadion) inagallusnsis, Thclepus spcctabilis, Autolytns
simplex, Eteone spathocephala, Sabella ceratodaula, Promenia
jucuiida, Platynereis magathcBusis, Sabellaria fnacropalea.

Four are represented in temperate waters of the
northern hemisphere but have not up to the present been
taken within the tropics :

[\.) Goniada norvegica, var. falklandica.
Common to Norway and the Falkland Islands. The
genus is cosmopolitan in temperate and tropical waters,
but has not been taken in very deep water.

Manchester Meviot'rs, Vol. xlv. {igoi), No. \4- 15

The similarity in general structure between the
northern and southern specimens of Gomada,z.nd especially
the remarkable resemblance in detail of the parapodia,
proves that they had a common origin. The absence of
a species showing the same details in the tropics makes it
difficult to believe that a migration is taking place or can
have taken place since the restriction of the tropical belt,
either from north to south or from south to north.

As the genus Goniada has not been taken in the deep
sea, we have no evidence that a passage has been made
through the tropics by this means.

The evidence, with regard to the distribution of this
genus, therefore, supports the Bipolar Theory for littoral
temperate waters.

(ii.) Arenicola daparedii.

Distribution: Naples, California (Crescent City, 41°
44' N. lat., marks its northern limit), Straits of Magellan (?).
New to the Falkland Islands. The genus is cosmopolitan
in shallow waters.

The distribution of this shore-dwelling form is
interesting. Its occurrence on the Californian coast and
at the Falkland Islands seems to support Ortmann's view
that the existence of a passage of cool water along the
western shores of America enables an interchange of
northern and southern temperate forms to take place, but,
as this form has not \'et been taken in an intermediate
locality, we have no proof of its transmission. Its
occurrence at the Falkland Islands and in the
Mediterranean cannot be explained by Ortmann's view
that a similar interchange of forms takes place along the
western shores of Africa, for it has not been taken on the
west African shores.

It is worthy of note that this species in the adult
stage is a burrowing shore-dwelling form, therefore its

1 6 Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

range of distribution is dependent to a great extent upon
the length of the larval free -swimming stage, which we
have reason to believe lasts only for a very short period ;
it is, therefore, hardly possible that this form could cross
the Atlantic.

A tropical species of this genus, A. cristata, has been
recorded from Jamaica, but is quite distinct from the
species under discussion. Thus it would appear that A.
claparedii is extra-tropical in its range of distribution,
(iii.) Polydora polybrancJiia.

Distribution. Shallow water. Straits of Magellan,
Sydne}', Naples, English Channel, Falkland Islands. The
genus has been taken in fairly cool and warm waters of
the northern and southern temperate zone, but up to the
present has not been taken in the tropics.

The species appears to be strictly extra-tropical in its
distribution, but as it has been found in water-logged
timber, we must regard it as doubtfully a " bipolar form.''

The genus contains many sand-dwelling species, which
are confined to extra-tropical waters, and therefore may
be regarded as truly " extra-tropical."
(iv.) Bispira niarice?

It is not certain that this form is identical with the
Mediterranean form.'* New to Falkland Islands.

The genus has been taken in the English Channel and
in the Mediterranean, but this appears to be the first
record of the genus from the southern hemisphere, .so that
the genus and species appear to be both extra-tropical.

Ortmann ('99, p. 590) says : — " Two cases of bipolarity
of species and one of genera have been discovered, and
when wc add to these the single case previously established
{Crangoii) we have altogether four cases of true bipolarity
which are to be explained by a theory."

* Cf. Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. 45, No. 13, p. 15.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), A^f. I4. 17

The four cases are : —

Two genera: (Crustacea) Crangon. (Nemertinea)

Carinonia.
Two species : (Annelida) Terebellides strdmii
(Mollusca) JantJiina rotu7idata.
From the references given in this paper, it is clear that
there must be added to these the following : —

(Crustacea) Calamis Jiyperboreus, shown by Gies-
brecht to be distinct from the tropical
C. finmarcJiicus.
Maia squinado.

(Gephyrea.) Genus EcJimms. (Shipley).
Phascolosoma viargaritaceuin. (Fischer).
Priapuhis caudatiis.
The following species recorded by I. C. Thompson : —
Metridia loiiga.
Oitliona spinifrojis.
Ectinosoma a tla 11 tiat in.
Polychaeta recorded by Ehlers.
Ncplithys longisctosa.
Notoviastiis latericeus.
Scolecolepis vulgaris.
Glycera americana.
Syllid&s longicirratus.
CJicztopteriis variopedatus.
Capitella capitata.
Serpiila verDiicularis.
Arenicola assimilis (probably A. marina); together

with
Scalibregma inflatum. (Ashworth.)
(Polyzoa) Beania magellanica. (Pratt.)

Cellepora pnstiilata. „

(Porifera) Sycou ciliatitm. „

(Crustacea) O relies tia chilensis. „

1 8 Pratt, Bipolar TJteory.

Further, Polychajta, described in the preceding paper:
Species : —

Gom'ada norvegica.
A renicola daparcdii.
Bispira maricE, and,

doubtfully, Polydora polybrancJiia.

Genera : —
Eteone.
Promenia.

Polydora (species also extra-tropical).
Bis pit a „ „ „

? Atitolytns almost exclusively extra-tropical, but
has been taken in the Red Sea — probably an
escape from Mediterranean.
The following northern species of Polychseta are very
nearly related to southern species.

Southern. Northern.

1. Travisia kerguelensis related to T. forbesi.

2. Scoloplos kerguelensis „ „ ^". armiger.
The following northern species of Gephyrea are very

nearly related to southern species.

Northern. Southern.

3. Echiuriis tuiicinctus related to E. chilensis.

4. Priapulus typicus. ,, „ P. atistralis.
To the "four littoral cases of bipolarity " acknowledged

by Ortmann we must, then, add 28 cases — 22 of species,
and 6 of genera — making a total of 32 littoral bipolar
forms, or 19 of species and a total of 29 cases if we exclude
the three species Polydora polybranchia, Scalibregma in-
flatum and Phascolosoma viargaritaceuni. The two latter are
typically littoral forms, but each has been once taken in
sub-surface waters, Scalibregma off New Zealand in 700
fathoms, and Phascolosoma off Norway in 300 fathoms.

Manchester Memoirs, Vo/. x/v. (igoi), No. 14. 19

None of the species has been taken in the tropics in
deep or shallow water.

I have mentioned four cases in which southern species
are very nearly related to northern species.

In only two cases ( Arenicola assimilis (?) and A.
claparedii) have we any evidence whatever of an inter-
passage of forms along the western shores of America,
and, as these forms have not been taken at intermediate
stations along the Pacific coast between California and the
Straits of Magellan, the generality of such transference is
by no means proved.

On the other hand, both these species occur on
European shores, and, as I have previously stated, their
free-swimming larval stage is limited to so short a period
that it is impossible that they could cross the Atlantic.
Moreover, as 41° N. appears to be the northern limit of
the genus, it is impossible that these forms could find
their way into the Atlantic along the northern shores of
North America.

In no case have we any evidence of an interchange
of species along the western shores of Africa, and I have
shown that, in the genus Goniada, the same species may
be present in the temperate north and south Atlantic, but
along the tropical western shores of Africa the genus is
represented by several distinct and modified species.

These results, to my mind, increase the evidence in
favour of the Pfeffer and Murray " Bipolar Theory " for
the littoral fauna.

The work in connection with these papers has been
done in the zoological laboratories of the Owens College
with the help of a grant from the Government Grant
Committee of the Royal Society. My research has been
supervised by Professor Hickson, to whom I am greatly
indebted for much valuable assistance and advice. My

20 Pratt, Bipolar Theory.

thanks are also due to Dr. Gamble and Dr. Ashvvorth
for information on Arenicola, and to the latter also
for notes on the distribution of Scalibregma, to Dr.
Appellof, of Bergen, for the loan of specimens of Goniada
norvegica, and to Dr. Willey, who drew my attention to
certain " bipolar " Polych^eta which I had overlooked.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

'47. Ross, Sir James. " Voyage of the Erebus and rerror."

'83. Selenka. " Die Sipunculiden, eine systen~atische Mono-
graphie." Wiesbaden.

'85. M'Intosh. " Polych?eta." Chailengc'r Reports {Zoology-),
Vol. xii.

'86. Thkel. " Holothuroidea." ChaUen':,er Reports (Zoology),
Vol. xiv.

'88. GuERNE, J. DE. " Priapulides." Alission Scientifique du
Cap Horn, 1882-3. Tome vi.

'91. Pfeffer. " Versuch iiber die erdgeschichtliche Ent-
wickelung der jetzigen Verbreitungsverhaltnisse
unserer Tierwelt." 1891. Hamburg.

'96. Ortmann, a, E. " Bipolaritat " in der verbreitung
Mariner Thiere. Zool. /ahfl>., Bd. 9.

'96-9. Ehlers, E. " Polychoeten." Hamburger Magal-
h(B7tische Savimelreise. 1896.

Fischer, W. " Gephyreen." „ 1896.

LuDwiG, H. " Holothurien." „ 1898.

Buerger, O. " Nemertinen." „ 1899.

'97. Pfeffer, G. " A. Ortmann uiid die arctisch-antarctische
Fauna." Zool. Anz., Bd. xx, p. 323,

'98. Pratt, E. M. " Contributions to our knowledge of the
Marine Fauna of the Falkland Islands." Mancheshr
Memoirs. Vol. xlii.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xh. (1901), No. 14. 21

'98 Thompson, I. C, "Report on a collection of Antarctic
plankton," Tratts. Liverpool Biol. Soc, Vol. xii.,
p. 291,

'98. Thompson, D'Arcy W, " On a supposed Resemblance
between the Marine Faunas of the Arctic and
Antarctic Regions." Froc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., Vol. xxii.

'99 Ortmann, " On some new facts lately presented in
opposition to the hypothesis of Bipolarity of Marine
Faunas." Amer. Nat., Vol. xxxiii.

'99. OKTMi^NN. "(j. Pfefier und die ' Bipolaritat.' " Zool.
Anc, Bd. xxii.

'99. Shipley, A. E. " On a collection of Echiurids from the
Loyalty Islands, New Britain and China Straits, with
an attempt to revise the group and to determine its
geographical range." IFil/ty's Zool. Results, Part III.

'99. Pfeffer, G. " Ueber die gegenseitigen Beziehungen der
arktischen und antarktischen Fauna." Verh. Deutsch.
Zool. Ges., Bd. ix., pp. 266-287.

:0I. Pfeffer G. [English translation of the above]. Ann.
afid Mag. Nat. Hist., Sen 7, Vol. vii.

:0I. Ohlin. " On a new ' Bipolar ' Schizopod." Attn, and
Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 7, Vol. vii. .

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 15.

XV. The Influence of Grinding upon the Solubility* of
the Lead in Lead Fritts.

By T. E. Thorpe, C.B, LL.D., F.R.S.,

AND

Charles Simmonds, B.Sc.

Received May i^^', 1 901. Read May 2?>lh, 1901.

A paper dealing with this subject was communicated
to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on
October 30th last, by Messrs. Jackson and Rich, of the
Victoria Institute, Tunstall.

The main purport of the paper was to show that, in
the case of lead fritts, " solubility in dilute acid is
"greatly influenced by the degree of fineness to which
" the particles have been ground." {Manchester Memoirs,
vol. 45, part I., No. 2, pp. 6-"/). Starting with the
assumption that solution is possible only from the
surface of the particles, the authors contend that, since the
extent of surface of any given weight of fritt is increased
by decreasing the size of the particles, the action of the
solvent is also increased. They adduce certain experi-
mental results which are considered to support this
contention.

In connection with the matter under discussion it
should be pointed out that the Home Office has recently
suggested a criterion whereby the comparative harmless-

* Throughout this paper the term " solubility " denotes the weight of lead,
calculated as monoxide, dissolved from a powdered fritt or glaze when the
fritt or glaze is shaken for an hour with looo times its weight of 0*25 per
cent, hydrochloric acid and allowed to settle for a further hour before being
filtered.

Septet7iber loth, igor.

2 Thorpe and Simmonds, Lead Fritts.

ness of the lead glazes used by potters may be judged.
The standard proposed is that the " solubility " of the
glaze as regards lead, determined under the conditions
described in the foot-note (p. i), shall not be greater than
two per cent. This limit is based upon a study of the
quantity of lead yielded to dilute acid under the specified
conditions by a number of lead fritts used in pottery
manufacture both at home and abroad.

Practical Bearing. — So far as the practical aspect of
this question is concerned, the reply to Messrs. Jackson
and Rich's contention is obvious. Suppose that workable
glazes can be obtained, which, when ground to the degree
of fineness necessary in practice, are within the selected
limit of solubility. Then it is of no consequence that
their solubility is smaller when the glazes are more
coarsely ground. This is all that is involved in the point
under discussion.

Now, as a matter of fact, such glazes are in use. This
is shown by the list given in certain Reports to the Home
Secretary on the " Use of Lead in the Manufacture of
Pottery" (Parliamentary paper No. Cd. 527, p. 10), which
shows the solubility of the lead in a number of glazes
together with the statements of the manufacturers regard-
ing the degree of fineness in each case.

It is true that this list may possibly not include
examples of the most finely ground glazes ever employed
by the potter, though it may do so. But it certainly
includes some which are in at least an average condition
of fineness ; and the difference between these and the
most finely ground glazes can be but small.

Influence oj fineness a subot-dinate matter only. — As
regards the more theoretical aspect of the matter, it is in
the first place quite easy to show that the solubility of the
lead in fritts does not depend merely, or even largely,

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 15. 3

upon the extent of surface exposed— that is, upon the
fineness of the particles.

The following specimens of fritts were all reduced to
nearly impalpable powder in an agate mortar before being
submitted to the action of the solvent. They were there-
fore in closely similar, if not identical, conditions of
fineness. Hence, if the solubility were merely a function
of the extent of surface, the solubilities should all approxi-
mate to the same value. If subdivision were even a
considerable factor, there should be some approach to
similarity in the results— they should be quantities of
much the same order of magnitude. It will be seen that
there is no suggestion of any such uniformity : —

Fritt.

Solubility of Lead.
Percentage on Fritt.

I
2

3

4

5
6

7

07

1-2

21

28-0

40-1

67-3

JO'O

Thus the fineness alone of a fritt is not the chief
factor in determining the solubility of the lead. The last
three specimens belong, in fact, to a class of silicates
which, whether ground moderately fine or extremely so,
readily give up practically the whole of their lead to
dilute acids. The first three belong to a class which,

Thorpe and Simmonds, Lead Fritts.

under closely similar conditions of fineness to that shown
by the last three, yield to acids a relatively small propor-
tion only of lead. These classes are sharply distinguished
by differences of chemical composition, and it is this latter
circumstance which is the primary factor determining the
solubility. The effect of fineness is a matter apart from
this, and altogether subordinate to it.

Action not that of a solvent on a single substance. — It is
tacitly assumed by the writers in question that the process
of solution involved is one in which a single substance,
one chemical individual, is attacked by a solvent acting at
the surface only of the particles [loc. cit., pp. 9, 10).

If this were so, then, after a first treatment of a fritt
with dilute acid, if the solvent be removed and the residue
again treated with a fre.sh quantity of the solvent, the
amount of lead dissolved should be practically the same as
at first.

Experiment shows that this is not the case. The
quantity of lead extracted on the second treatment is only
a fraction of that first yielded : —

Silicate.

Lead oxide
present.

Lead oxide dissolved.

1st treatment.

2nd treatment.

No. I

0/

07%

Traces

2

190,,

1-2 „

»)

3

53"2 „

2-0 „

0-4%

4

49"3 „

1-5 ..

0-2 „

5

24'5 M

0-6 „

0-2 „

6

41-4 »

o-8„

0-2 „

7

41 '3 »

07 »

0-2 „

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 15. 5

^^ Protective Layer" Hypothesis. — Messrs. Jackson and
Rich endeavour to explain this behaviour by supposing
that an insoluble coating of silica is deposited upon the
particles, and that this protects them from further action
of the solvent {Joe. cit., pp. 9-15).

Silica does 710 1 form a "-protective layer" — Now, it is
demonstrable that in many cases no such " protective "
layer is formed. In these cases the lead is not " protected "
by the silica or any other compound : it is wholly, or
almost wholly, removed on treatment with dilute acid.
The following experiments prove this point :

Fritt.

Lead oxide
present.

Lead oxide dis-
solved by -25%
HCl.

No. I

2

3

4
5

7^-2%
7o'4 ,.
7o"3 n
46-8 „

487 »

7o'o%

67-3 »

70-3 ..

39'5 »
40- r „

It is beyond question that in such cases as the above
the silica does not form an effective protecting layer. It
is difficult to see what reason can be adduced to show why
silica should act differently in other cases.

If it be said that the quantity of silica in the above
fritts is too small to act as a protective layer, the reply is
that some of them contain more silica than other fritts
which have much smaller solubility. For instance : —

SiO^

PbO

PbO

preseul.

present.

dissolved

No. 5... 33-4 ..

... 487 ..

... 40-1

6... 29-8 ..

■•• 59'3 ••

... 5-0

Other examples are : —

7--- 357 •■

... 45-8 ••

... IO-8

8... 349 ..

•■•• 57-3 ••

2-6

6 Thorpe and Simmonds, Lead Fritts.

And with nearly equal percentages of silica : —

9-- 37-6 37"9 28-0

lO" 379 53"2 20

Thus two fritts, A and B, may have the same quantity
of silica, yet A is largely attacked and B but slightly
(Nos. 9 and 10). Or A may have more silica than B, and
still be unprotected (Nos. 5 and 6 ; also 7 and 8). Finally
A may have less silica than B, and nevertheless be the
more largely attacked (Nos. 5 and 10). It is difficult to
give much credence to a theory of protective action which
is certainly not exercised at all in many cases, and in
others exhibits so much caprice as to render impossible a
reliable forecast of its probable effect.

Fritt not a single compound. — Underlying the whole
of Messrs. Jackson and Rich's argument is the assumption
that a fritt is a single chemical entity. There is evidence
to show that this is probably an erroneous assumption. A
fritt would appear, in fact, to be usually a mixture of at least
two lead compounds. The proportion of one of these, how-
ever, may be small compared with the main bulk of the fritt.

The considerations which suggest this are as follows : —

I. Chemical. — In so far as a fritt is attacked by a
solvent, its soluble constituents, if the fritt is a single com-
pound, will be found to bear the same proportion to one
another in the solution as in the original fritt. Whether
the silicic acid be dissolved or not, this relation will hold
for the base-oxides. If, however, the bases in the
dissolved portion be found to have a different proportion
from one another than exists in the original fritt, then the
result is evidence that the fritt was not a single compound.
Applying this deduction to the case of seven specimens
ot fritts whose composition had been ascertained, together
with that of the dissolved portion given on treating the
fritts with excess of dilute hydrochloric acid, the following
comparisons were obtained : —

M3

^^

o

H
a!,
o
&<
O

d

^ ^-

«
fe

2;

o

^0

Q

hJ

<:

<:

;-)

2;

►J

v-^

■— '

o

!<

fv;

Crt

^

o

o

^

?^

z

^ '

"^

rn

o

•iii

g

-5

<

<

o

Ah
O

o

<

I

;?_:

6

12;^

9-9

CI. < U

i^

8 Thorpe and Simmonds, Lead Fritts.

These results show that in the soluble portion the
constituents do not bear the same proportion to one
another as obtained in the original fritt. The lime and
alkalis are as a rule higher ; the lead oxide and alumina
somewhat lower. Hence it would appear that some process
of selective solution has occurred, and that the fritt was
therefore not originally a single chemical body.

II. Physical. — If a fritt consisted of only one chemical
compound it could not by any process of grinding and
levigation be separated into fractions having different
densities. But there is experimental evidence to show
that such fractions do result when some fritts are ground
and elutriated. Thus determinations were made of the
specific gravity of three elutriated fractions, a, /3, and y, of
the same fritt, the results being : —

Specific Gravity (-^— 5|ofo 3'683

» » >. ft 3742

.. .. 5, 7 3'6o6

Had the fritt been a single compound the three results
should have been the same, within the limits of experi-
mental error.

Thus the facts adduced, both chemical and physical,
tend to show that, at least in some kinds of fritt, there is
present a certain proportion — which, however, may be but
small — of a readily-soluble lead compound in a state of
admixture with the bulk of the fritt.

Explanation of Messrs. Jackson and Ric/is elutriation
experiments. — This consideration suggests the explanation
of some results obtained by Messrs. Jackson and Rich,
and displa}'ed on the table on p. 5 {Joe. cit.). That table
purports to show that a fritt "A" has a solubility of i ^
per cent, when in the condition of fineness corresponding

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 15. 9

to a pressure of 100 cm,, and that when reduced to the
state of subdivision denoted by i cm. pressure the
sohibiHty is increased to 17-5 per cent.

But this conclusion is fallacious if the specimen is a
mixture of two or more substances. The argument of the
authors is based upon the assumption that they are dealing
throughout with the same compound in different states of
subdivision. It has no validity if more than one compound
is present, since the solubilities found do not all relate to
the same substance.

Now, it is well known that the more soluble kinds of
lead silicate are of softer texture than the more insoluble.
In the process of grinding a fritt which contains a small
admixture of such soluble silicate, this more soluble
portion will on account of its softness be ground to finer
dimensions than the bulk of the fritt. Consequently, when
the powder is separated into finer and coarser fractions by
elutriation, a great part of the soluble compound will be
found concentrated in the finer portions. These finer
portions will therefore show a solubility greater than the
average for the whole fritt, while the coarser fractions will
have a solubility less than the average ; which is precisely
what is shown by the experiments adduced by Messrs.
Jackson and Rich.

Thus the experiments in question do not prove that
the differences of solubility obtained are due to mere
differences of dimensions of the particles. They can only
do this if the various fractions are shown to have the
same chemical composition, and on this point the authors
offer no evidence whatever.

In the concluding section of their paper {loc. cit., pp.
12-13) the writers describe an experiment in which a
specimen of glaze was found to be continuously acted upon
by acid when mixed with pebbles and rotated for 22 hours

lo Thorpe and Simmonds, Lead Fritts.

in a cylinder. The quantity of lead oxide dissolved was 2"28
per cent, of the weight of the glaze after a quarter of an
hour's action, I ri6 after twelve hours, and \y^2 at the end
of the twenty-two hours. This is considered to support the
hypothesis that silica forms a protective layer ; since the
friction with the pebbles, it is argued, would continuously
remove this layer and allow the acid to act without
cessation upon the particles of fritt.

The experiment as described is, however, of very doubt-
ful value. No information is given as to the behaviour of the
glaze under the same conditions but without the pebbles.
Nor are details furnished of the composition of the glaze.
Only two-fifths of the usual volume of acid was employed,
and the strength of this small volume would be very con-
siderably reduced by the acid-neutralising constituents of
the glaze. It is quite possible that the acid thus weakened
would act only slowly on certain kinds of fritts, altogether
irrespective of any supposed layer of silica and its removal
by pebbles. Moreover, if, as is commonly the case, the
glaze contained calcium carbonate, the effect of this when
the acid was very weak would be to render the action
still slower by the tendency to form insoluble lead
carbonate. Thus the gradual action of the acid described
by the authors is explicable on quite other grounds than
those alleged by them ; and in the absence of further data
the experiment must be looked upon as inconclusive.
Very similar objections may be urged also against the
second experiment, with " commercial di-silicate," des-
cribed on p. 14.

Unsatisfactory fritts and glazes used in fackson and
Rich's experiments. — Finally, it is to be especially noted
that the glaze experimented with was one which, from
the figures given, would evidently if tested by the
standard method have furnished a solubility-figure of at

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 15. 11

least 5 to 6 per cent., or about one-third of the whole
quantity of lead present. Any argument legitimately
derived from the behaviour of this glaze is thus an
argument against the employment of glazes yielding a
solubility-figure of so high a value as 5 or 6 per cent. But
this argument has no necessary validity against glazes
whose solubilities are less than 2 per cent., since the lead
fritts used in the two cases must be of different chemical
composition if the glazes have the same lead-content. It
is useless to base a contention against the 2 per cent,
limit upon the behaviour of a glaze which is obviously
outside that limit.

In this connection it may be pointed out that the chief
experiments upon which Messrs. Jackson and Rich rely
are made with fritts having somewhat considerable initial
solubilities. Thus the fritts A and B on p. 5, and the
di-silicate of p. 14, have solubility-figures of 70 (mill-
ground), 5'0, and 8'2 respectively. It would have been
more to the point if the experiments had been carried out
on fritts of low solubility — say i or 2 per cent. Even if
it be admitted for a moment that the experiments are
satisfactory, they only show that it is possible to select
fritts of a certain character which shall behave in the
manner indicated. They prove nothing, and they can
prove nothing, with respect to the behaviour of fritts
having lower solubility, and therefore different chemical
composition.

Effect of grinding of no importance. — Turning again to
the practical side of the matter ; it has never been con-
tended that fineness of sub-division is absolutely without
effect upon the quantity of lead dissolved. It is a mere
commonplace to admit that when solvent action occurs,
it is exerted more readily upon an impalpable powder
than upon the same substance in the form of coarse
granules.

12 Thorpe and Simmonds, Lead Fritts.

What is maintained is, that within the limits of fine-
ness occurring in actual practice the variation of solubility
is too small to be of serious moment. This may be shown
by reference to the following experiments, described on
p. 9 of the Parliamentary Paper (Cd 527) " On the Use of
Lead in the Manufacture of Pottery."

Equal weights of six specimens of fritt, having solu-
bilities ranging from ri to 3*2 per cent., were ground
together for 24 hours in a hand-mill. The powder was
then of fully an average working degree of fineness, and
its solubility was 2*8 per cent. After being reduced to
what must be regarded as a somewhat extreme state of
sub-division, by further grinding for 12 hours, the solu-
bility was 3'6 per cent.

Now the percentage of lead oxide contained in the
mixed fritts was 46 "O. If, therefore, the mixture in the
first state of division were used to supply the lead in a
glaze containing 15 per cent, of lead oxide, the solubility
of this glaze would be O'QI per cent. If it were used in
the second or extremely fine state of sub-division, the solu-
bility would be v\y per cent. The difference is by no
means an inappreciable one, but it is certainly not a
matter of importance. Both figures, it will be seen, are
much below the suggested limit of 2 per cent.

Summary. — It has been shown : —

(i) That a fallacy underlies Messrs. Jackson and Rich's
conclusions, inasmuch as a fritt does not, as they assume,
necessarily consist of a single chemical compound.

(2) That the hypothesis of a protective la)cr of silica,
essential for the authors' explanation of the observed
behaviour of fritts, is not in accordance with certain
easily-demonstrated facts.

(3) That some of the authors' experiments are in-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlv. (1901), No. 15. 13

conclusive, and do not necessarily bear the interpretation
placed upon^them.

(4) That, even if Messrs. Jackson and Rich's con-
clusions were established for the specimens dealt with,
these specimens are mainly of somewhat high solubility,
and arguments based on them would not of necessity, and
do not as a fact, apply to fritts of lower solubility, since
these have a different chemical composition.

(5) That, granting a very fine powder to be somewhat
more soluble than a very coarse one, the variations of
solubility of slightly-soluble glazes, between the limits of
fineness occurring in actual practice, are of inconsiderable
magnitude and of only theoretical importance.

(6) That, whether or not the solubility varies to some
extent with the fineness, the matter is of no practical
consequence, since glazes can be obtained, and are in use,
which are of the fineness required in working, and which
conform to the suggested limit of solubility.

October 2nd, ipoo.] Proceedings.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 2nd, 1900.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Cliair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

The nominations of the following gentlemen for membership in
the Society were read: — Mr. J. H. Grindley and Mr. R. S. Hutton.

Mr. Thomas Thorp described a method of producing a
spectrum-like band from a bolometric curve by the use of a
photographic camera with cylindrical lens, and also gave a brief
account of the solar eclipse of May last, as seen in Algiers.

Mr. William Burton, F.C.S., read a paper entitled
" Plumbism in Pottery Workers."

The paper is prmted in full in the Memoirs.

The paper was illustrated by a number of articles of pottery
and by specimens of lead fritts, and was followed by a discussion,
in which the President, Dr. Dixon Mann, and others participated.

General Meeting, October i6th, 1900.

Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Mr. J. H. Grindley, M.Sc, Owens College, and Mr. R. S.
Hutton, M.Sc, Owens College, were elected ordinary members
of the Society.

ii Proceedings. \October i6th, igoo.

Ordinary Meeting, October i6th, 1900.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., communicated a summary of
the results of experiments, conducted in conjunction with
Mr. F. W. Rixon, B.Sc. on the specific heat of gases at high
temperatures.

As part of a larger investigation, the authors have determined
directly the specific heat of carbonic acid, up to 4oo^C., at
constant volume. The gas is screwed up in a mild steel cylinder,
which is heated in a gas oven running on rails. The oven and
cylinder can thus be brought quickly over the calorimeter, into
which the cylinder falls through trap doors forming the bottom
of the oven. The transference is thus effected with a minimum
loss of heat. The difficulties arising from splashing and from
escape of steam, are overcome by dropping the cylinder into a
glass tube dipping some distance below the water. The glass
tube breaks at a crack made in the neck, and thus ensures a
complete immersion of the hot cylinder at a good depth in the
water, which closes over the cylinder in a cataract.

A similar experiment being performed with the empty
cylinder, the difference gives the heating effect of the gas.

The results given below for CO., shew that the method, which
it is hoped may still be improved, is a workable one.

Initial Temp.

of Gas. F'"^' Temp.

Mean Temp.

Spec. Heat.

115 16
192 16
298 21
398 21

65-5
104

'59"5
209-5

•200
•211
•288
•356

The authors are now measuring the specific heat of nitrogen
in the same way.

October joth, ipoo.] PROCEEDINGS. iii

Ordinary Meeting, October 30th, 1900.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

A paper on " The Solubility of certain Lead Glasses
or Fritts used in the Preparation of Pottery Glazes,"

by William Jackson, A.R.C.S., and Edmond M. Rich, B.Sc,
was read by the latter.

This paper is printed in full in the Afemoirs.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides, and was followed
by a discussion, in which the Prtoident, Mr. William Burton,
and Mr. T. Turner (organising secretary to the Technical
Committee of the Staffordshire County Council) participated.
The last-named stated that the paper represented the first-
fruits of researches carried out at the laboratory at Stoke,
recently established by the County Council.

Professor F. E. Weiss, B.Sc, read a paper on "The
Phloem of Lepidophlobs and Lepidodendron^^ which was also
illustrated by a series of lantern slides.

The paper will be printed in full in the Memoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, November 13th, 1900.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Professor Osborne Reynolds mentioned a curious appear-
ance which he had noticed on one occasion during the past
summer, in the form of a narrow beam of light, proceeding vertically
to a height of about 30 degrees from the setting sun. The beam
remained visible for about half-an-hour after the sun had set.
In the discussion as to the cause of the phenomenon, it was
mentioned by Mr. Thorp that a similar appearance was seen by
him when crossing the Mediterranean on returning from the
observation of the solar eclipse in Algeria, on May 29th.

There being no paper before the Society, Dr. C. H. Lees

iv Proceedings. [Novemtcr ijth, igoo.

called attention to the following formula, due, apparently, to
Schlfimilch, which provides a useful and rapidly converging
expression for the circumference of an ellipse whose semi-axes
are known —

permieter ^ .{a + /»y+ -(^^ -^j + e^lTT/.) + ' " " /'

where a and /-' are the semi-axes of the ellipse. No engineering
text book used in this country has included this formula, which
is superior to those ordinarily employed for the purpose. The
error of the first three terms of the series as above stated is
found

when /^ - '211 to be less than '05 per cent.
)) " = I" ,, ,, ,, ,, 2 ,, ,,
>j 0 = 0 ,, ,, ., ,, "4 '1 ))
Mr. Thorp described a method by which he has succeeded
in silvering his diffraction films, the crucial point of which was
the device adopted to agitate the silvering fluid in a closed and
completely full vessel. The celluloid films having been obtained
from plane gratings, were naturally not optically perfect when
applied, as in the specimens exhibited, to curved surfaces.
Mr. Thorp explained a device by which he expects to remedy
this defect and to secure even films from concave surfaces, the
surface from which the copies are taken being rotated while the
celluloid is in process of solidification. He mentioned that he
proposed to apply the designation prismatic to the gratings
known as echelon gratings, as he considers that name more
accurately descriptive of these gratings.

Professor Dixon referred to the reversal of the lithium line
observed by Professors Liveing and Dewar {Proc. Roy. Sac,
Vol. 36 (1884), p. 472) when spectroscopically examining the
light produced as an explosion-wave travelled towards the
observer along a tube in which salts of lithium had been spread.
The reversal of the line was taken by Professors Liveing and
Dewar as showing that the front of the advancing wave was
cooler than the following part. By photographing the explosion-

November ijth, igoo.] PROCEEDINGS. v

wave on a very rapidly moving film, Professor Dixon has shown
that the wave is reflected back from the end of the tube, this
reflected wave being of great luminosity. The phenomenon
observed by Professors Liveing and Dt A^ar may therefore be due
to the light of the retreating wave passing through (and suffering
absorption in) the cooler gas in the rear of that wave. This is
made probable by the fact that photographs of the advancing
wave do not show any reversals of the calcium and other lines,
zvhen the end of the tube next the slit is open, and when therefore
no reflected wave is sent back. All the photographs of the
explosion-wave show that the front of the wave is exceedingly
sharp, and that the maximum brightness is '•cached immediately.
Professor Dixon further referred to the formation of hydrogen
peroxide in several cases of combustion, and discussed the
bearing of the facts on Mendeleefs theory as to the nature of
the action which takes place when hydrogen and oxygen combine.
Mendeleefs idea is that gases combine primarily in equal
volumes, so that in the case of hydrogen and oxygen the reaction
first gives rise to HoO.,, thus : —

H2+Oo=H20o

and subsequently the hydrogen and oxygen peroxide interact : —

Ho+n20, = 2HoO.
If the gaseous products are quickly cooled by making the
hydrogen flame play on to water or ice, then some of the peroxide
escapes reduction and is found in the water. A second view is
that the hydrogen molecules break up the oxygen molecules,
liberating atoms of oxygen, some of which may combine with
the steam forming hydrogen peroxide : —

H. +02 = H2O + O

HoO + O = HP2.
Professor Dixon made some suggestions for an experimental
investigation of the question, and stated that he had begun some
experiments with a view of deciding, if possible, between the two
hypotheses.

vi Proceedings. \Novcinbcr 2-jth, igoo.

Ordinary Meeting, November 27th, 1900.
J. J- AsHWORTH, Treasurer, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to tlie donors of the
books upon the table.

Mr. F. J. Faraday referred to the poj)ular belief of a relation
between the changes of the moon and the changes of the
weather. As illustrating the continued prevalence of the belief
in question, he quoted a passage from the cotton circular
of Messrs. Hubbard Bros. & Co., of New York, dated
October 30th, 1900, in which they say : '' The trade watches
for the time of full moon as the period most likely to bring
colder weather, and therefore feels that we are apt to have
a cold wave by November 6 to 8." It was a curious fact that
November 8 was the date on which the first really cold weather
was experienced on both sides of the Atlantic, and on which the
first " killing " frost in the cotton belt of the Southern States of
the Union occurred.

Some discussion followed.

Reference was made by Mr. W. H. Johnson to the recent
occurrence of numerous cases of arsenical poisoning among beer-
drinkers in this neighbourhood, and some discussion took i)lace
as to the source of the poison. Mr. Taylor stated that though
"commercial" sulphuric acid, manufactured from pyrites, is
certainly cheaper than that prepared from Sicilian sulphur, the
difference of price is quite trifling when considered in relation to
the whole cost of brewing, since the amount used is small.

Dr. G. Wilson mentioned a remarkable feature in connection
with the bursting of gauge-glasses on the experimental engines
in the laboratory of the Owens College. He had not personally
verified it, but had been informed by one of the firemen that the
final collapse of the tube is preceded by the appearance of a crack
of two or three inches in length down the side of the tube.
Steam may be seen to issue from this crack sufficiently long
before the tube finally bursts to allow of turning off" steam in the
interval, and thus reducing the danger and inconvenience arising

Deceinberiith,igoo^ PROCEEDINGS. vii

from the burst. Dr. Wilson inquired if this interval had been
observed by others. It was suggested that the subject might be
brought up again when some members possessing wide special
experience might be present. No satisfactory explanation of the
delay in the bursting was suggested.

Mr. W, Barnard Faraday read a paper on " Selections
from the Correspondence of Lieutenant-Colonel John
Leigh Philips, of Mayfield, Manchester. Part IH."

The paper will be printed in the Memoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, December nth, 1900.

Osborne Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-President, in

the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

Mr. Thomas Thorp mentioned a somewhat unpleasant
experience he had had the previous day. Having prepared a
quantity of silvering solution (nitrate of silver, potassa and
ammonia) about a week before, but finding it not so good as
usual, he had poured a small portion into a measuring glass with
the intention of testing it to find out, if possible, the reason of
its poor quality. The bottle was lightly corked and laid down
on the bench, when, after about a couple of minutes, the
contents exploded. On examining the glass of the bottle in
question, a considerable portion was found to be pulverised,
the rest being in more or less small pieces having a shattered
appearance. No flash was seen, but apparently a misty aureola,
whilst the glass and liquid were projected several yards away.
Taken by itself the explosion was a puzzling one, but a similar
event happened some months ago, only in this case the bottle
containing the solution was in a cupboard, and the fact of an
explosion having occurred was only discovered when the solu-
tion was required ; in this case, also, the glass was pulverised.
Mr. Thorp considered them to be instances of spontaneous
explosion.

viii Proceedings. {December nth, igoo.

Professor Dixon suggested that more precise information as
to the conditions of the explosion was needed before the desired
explanation could be given with certainty.

Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., having taken the Chair,

Mr. J. H. Grindlev, M.Sc, read a paper entitled "The
Thermodynamical Properties of Superheated Steam
and the Dryness of Saturated Steam."

The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Several members contributed to the discussion which
followed the reading of the paper.

A paper on " A new species of Sepia and other shells
collected by Dr. R. Koettlitz in Somaliland," l^y W. E.
HovLE, M.A., and R. Standen, was communicated by the
former.

This paper will be printed in full in the Memoirs.

January St/i, igoi.'\ PROCEEDINGS. ix

Ordinary Meeting, January 8th, 1901.

Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The th?nks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upcn the table.

The President announced that the Council had made the
following awards: the Wilde medal for 1901 to Dr. Elie
Metchnikoff, of Paris, for his researches in comparative embryo-
logy, comparative anatomy, and the study of inflammation and
phagocytosis ; the Wilde premium to Mr. Thomas Thorp for his
paper on " Grating films and their application to colour photo-
graphy " and other communications made to the Society. The
Dalton medal for 1901 had not been awarded. The presentation
ofthe Wilde medal and premium will take place on February 5th,
when Dr. Metchnikoff will deliver the Wilde lecture on "La flore
microbienne du corps humain."

The President also mentioned that it was proposed that
the members of the Society should entertain the Wilde lecturer
at dinner after the lecture.

Reference was made to the loss the Society had sustained in
tl e death of Lord Armstrong, one of its honorary members.

Two portraits of former members, the Rev. William Johns
ai.d the Rev. William Gaskell, which had been presented to the
Society by Dr. Schunck, were exhibited.

With reference to the explosion of silvering solution
mentioned by Mr. T. Thorp at the previous meeting, Mr. R. L.
Taylor stated that both Berthollet and Faraday had prepared
an explosive compound of silver from a mixture similar to that
employed by Mr. Thorp for photographic purposes.

A discussion was introduced by Mr. W. H. Johnson upon
the method of navigation employed by the Norsemen on their
voyages between Northern Europe and Greenland and Iceland
before the mariner's compass was known.

Mr. W. E. HoYLE communicated a paper entitled " Note
on D'Orbig'ny's figure of Onychoteuthis dussumierir

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

X Proceedings. \ January 22nd, igor.

Ordinary Meeting, January 22nd, 1901.

Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

The President referred to the loss sustained by the Society
through the death of Professor Ch. Hermite, one of its honorary
members since 1892.

There being no paper before the Society, Mr. Fhancis Jones
showed the mode of delecting small quantities of arsenic by
Marsh's, Reinsch's, and Gutzeit's methods. He also showed
the results obtained by the action of light on the hydrides of
arsenic and antimony in contact with sulphur, constituting a
further test of the presence of these metals. The mirror of
arsenic obtained recently from a glass of beer by Marsh's test
was also exhibited, together with a sample of invert sugar
containing arsenic.

Mr. R. L. Taylor referred to a subject to which, about the
year 1882, he called attention by letters to the Manchester
newspapers, namely, the occurrence of arsenic in large quantities
in green tapers. The garlic-like odour of the tapers when
burning or smouldering attracted his notice. Out of seven
samples obtained from different shops, four contained arsenic.
The amount in one taper he had found to be two-thirds of a
grain of white arsenic, equal to 9 grains in one ounce of tapers.

Mr. Taylor further said that in the course of the last week he
obtained six samples of green tapers from Manchester and the
immediate neighbourhood, and two of these were found to
contain arsenic. The green tapers which are free from arsenic
are bluish-green in colour and semi-transparent, while those
containing arsenic are bright green and quite opaque. The
amount of arsenic is quite as great as in those examined
previously, and is probably present in the form of Scheele's
green. When the tapers are burned the arsenic passes into the
air in the form of the white oxide and would be inhaled by persons

January 22nd, ipoi.] PROCEEDINGS. xi

in the room. The danger from the use of such tapers might not
be great, but opinions as to the effect of continued small doses
of arsenic have lately been profoundly modified.

The tapers were shewn and the presence of arsenic in them
demonstrated, a piece not more than an inch long sufficing
to give marked characteristic reactions.

Dr. C. H. Lees mentioned a very compact formula for the
circumference of an ellipse, viz. : —

3 2

perimeter = 27

where a and b are the semi-axes of the ellipse. Dr. Lees stated
that he had found the error of this formula to be as follows : —
when d='4.a less than 'i per cent.

^ = '3«

))

)»

•2

b= ■2a

51

))

•3

b='\a

,,

»)

•7

/;= 0

51

I'O

the formula giving a result less than the true perimeter in each
case. The formula, which was established in a communication
to the Messenger of Alathematics in Feb. 1883, by Mr. Thomas
Muir, is readily calculated with the aid of Barlow's tables.

Proceedings. [ February ^th, igoi.

Ordinary Meeting, February 5th, 1901.
Horace Lami;, M.A., LL.I)., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Before proceeding to the ordinary business of the meeting.

The President said : " It would, I think, hardly be conso-
nant with the feelings of those present if some reference were not
made to the matter which has occupied all our minds for the last
fortnight. The death of Her late Majesty Queen Victoria occurred
almost simultaneously with the last meeting of the Society. The
days that have intervened have been marked by many striking
tributes to her memory ; 1 will not attempt, therefore, to say
anythirig as to the personal qualities 'of the late Sovereign, or
even as to the wider political aspects of her life which have
nowhere, to my mind, found more eloquent appreciation than in
the address of the Bishop at the Memorial Service in our
Cathedral. But in a Society like this, which claims some
antiquity among provincial learned societies, it may be
excusable to dwell for a moment on the fact that the period
of the late Queen's reign has been a period also of great
scientific discoveries, and (a matter in which we are no less
interested) of remarkable developments in the application
of science to practical uses. If we look at the records of the
Society, we find that the Queen's accession took place during
the long presidency of Dalton, whilst among his successors we
note such names as those of Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Joule,
as well as of Schunck and of others who happily are still active
amongst us. It might perhaps be debated whether a period of
profound internal peace, or one of revolutionary excitement, is
more favourable to the birth of great scientific ideas ; history
would doubtless furnish instances on both sides. But there can
be no question as to wh ch conditions are more favourable to the

February stJi, iQOi.] PROCEEDINGS. xiii

practical applications of science ; and from this point of view
we must gratefully acknowledge that the immense progress of this
kind which has marked the late Queen's reign would have been
impossible except for the tranquil conditions which have obtained
amongst us, largely in consequence of her own character and
influence."

The President referred also to the loss sustained by the
Society in the deaths of two of its ordinary members. Mr.
Richard Copley Christie had been a member since 1854 ; his
munificent gifts for the encouragement of learning in this city
were too recent and too well-known for further remark, but it
was pleasant to the Society to recall that he had at one time
held office as their Secretary. Sir John William Maclure was
elected a member in 1859.

The President nominated Mr. Thomas Thorp and Dr. C.
H. Lees to be Auditors of the Society's accounts for the session
1900-igoi.

Professor Flux referred to the records of a recent American
report on water, gas, and electricity undertakings, so far as they
showed the rate of return on the capital invested in each case.
The rates were grouped most thickly about 3 to 3^ per cent, for
each class of enterprise, more closely in the case of water and
(in a less degree) of gas than in the case of electricity. The
total number of undertakings contributing to the result named
was 1,351, and the lowness of the figure representing the most
frequent rate seemed rather striking.

Mr. Thomas Thorp mentioned that he had made further
progress with an instrument designed to yield a pure mono-
chromatic image of the sun, and had been able to obtain results of
an encouraging nature. He hoped to be able to perfect the
instrument in a short time and to exhibit it to the Society.

Dr. George Wilson read a paper, prepared by liimself and
Mr. H. Noble, B.Sc, entitled " Note on the Construction
of Entropy Diagrams from Steam-engine Indicator
Diagrams."

The paper will be printed in full in the MeJiioirs,

xiv Proceedings. {February ^th, igoi.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer read a paper on "The Repre-
sentation on a Conical Mantle of the Areas on a
Sphere."

The paper will be printed in the Memoirs.

The President announced at the close of the meeting that
the date of the Wilde Lecture and presentation of the medal
had, owing to the death of the Queen, been postponed until
after Easter, and that April 22 had been provisionally fixed for
the lecture. The dinner which had been arranged to follow the
delivery of the lecture would be held on the same date.

October 22Hd, IQOO.'] PROCEEDINGS. XV

\Microscopical and Natural History Sectioni\

Ordinary Meeting, October 22nd, 1900.

Charles Bailey, F.L.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. H. Hyde exhibited a portion of a sunflower in fruit, and
drew attention to the extreme symmetry and regularity of the
seeds. Mr. MelviU mentioned the probability of the sunflower
becoming of great economic value, owing to the seeds containing
an oil, which may be used in the manufacture of soap, so that
the cultivation of the sunflower on a large scale, for industrial
purposes, may be one of the possibilities of the future.

Mr. Rogers exhibited a collection of shells recently received
from Australia.

Mr. Stirrup read a paper endtled " Examples of the genus
Cerithiuvi from the tertiary deposits of the Paris basin."
Specimens of the genus, collected on a visit to Grignon
arranged by the International Congress of Geology in the past
summer, were shown, together with examples from numerous
localities lent by Mr. Melvill.

\Microscopical and Natural History Section.']

Ordinary Meeting, November 19th, 1900.

Charles Bailey, F.L.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. John Mullen presented the Section with a second
series of rock sections for the cabinets, illustrating igneous rocks,
hmestones, and coal-measure plants.

Mr. John Boyd contributed a paper on the anatomy of
feathers, illustrated by diagrams and microscopic specimens.

xvi Proceedings. December lyth, igoo.

[^Microscopical and Natural History Section.']
Ordinary Meeting, December 17th, 1900.

Charles Bailey, F.L.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.

A collection of insects illustrating insect parasitism, sent by
Mr. Peter Cameron, was exhibited, and an explanatory note
relating to the specimens was read.

Mr. M. Stirrup read a paper on the mistletoe, mainly
describing the experience and opinions of French botanists.

Mr. Broadbent, M.R.C.S., drew attention to plant remains,
found in the deep excavation below Hanging Bridge, which
included several mosses, elderberry, gorse, birch, and numerous
specimens of a perforated seed, oblong and pointed at each end.

February igth, igoi.] PROCEEDINGS.

Ordinary Meeting, February rgth, 1901.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

Mr. Charles Bailey made the following communication
"On Ranunculus Bachii, Wirtgen, as a form of
Ranunculus fluitans, Lamk."

Ranunculus fluitans, Lamk., like all the members of the
Batrachium section of the genus, is a very polymorphic aquatic
plant, as is plainly to be seen from the series of British examples
now exhibited. In the south of England, as in the Avon at
Christchurch, the stout stems are several feet in length ; the
leaves and peduncles are from six inches to a foot long ; and the
flowers are as large as a shilling or a fiorin. It is a frequent
plant in the Herefordshire Wye, and in the Severn ; but in our
immediate neighbourhood I have gathered it in but one station,
namely, in the Derbyshire Derwent, at WhatstandwelL The
plant of the Derbyshire Wye, at Buxton, Miller's Dale, Lathkill
Dale, &c., is another species — Ranunculus psendo fluitans,
"Bab.," Hiern. ThQ R. fluitans also occurs in canals and in
swift running brooks, but its most congenial station is a well-
filled river. It becomes less frequent in Great Britain as we
ascend northwards, and it just manages to occupy a few of the
southern counties of Scotland.

In many of its stations there occur smaller examples to
which the name of Ranunculus Bachii has been given ; in this
state, as in some of the examples from the Severn and the Tweed,
it occasionally produces small tripartite floating leaves. During
a holiday in Berwickshire last July, I had a good opportunity of
studying this small-flowered form, as the water-courses of that

xviii Proceedings. {^February igth, igoi.

county produce it in abundance. In many places the streams in
the flowering season are white over with its abundant flowers, as at
the junction of the Blackadder Water with the Whiteadder Water,
at Allanton. I also found it in plenty in the Eye Water,
especially between East Renton and Ayton. From the com-
paratively small size of its flowers (not exceeding half an inch in
diameter) the plant looked as if it might have been R. circinatus,
Sibth., or R. Drouelii, Godron, rather than the robust plant of
the south of England. The late Dr. George Johnston, in the
Terra Ltfidisfarnensis : the Natural History of the Eastern
Borders^ Vol. I., Botany, page 26 (London, 1853), refers to this
plant under the name of R. fluitatis^ for this reduced form had
not been recognised as British at the time he wrote ; he says
that it is frequent in rapid streams in that district, " flowering
throughout summer very frequently in some years, while in other
seasons the plant is mostly barren." My visit to Berwickshire
occurred, therefore, in one of these favourable seasons ; I saw,
however, no heads of mature fruits, although they were specially
looked for.

Dr. Ph. Wirtgen separated this small form from the type, as

a species, under the name of Ranunculus Bachii, in Verhandl.

des natur. Vereins der preussischen Rheinlande und IFest-

p/ia/ens, Jahrg. II., p. 22 (Bonn 1845); but in his Flora der

preussischen Rheinprovinz (Bonn 1857), pp. 15, 16, he

reduced it to a variety, giving the type the name of R. Lamarckii,

Wtgn., and this smaller form, ft, the name of R. Bachi, Wtgn ;

but he printed the name with one "i," not two as printed when he

first described the plant, and as in the " London Catalogue,"

edition vi. (1867) and subsequent issues. It would appear to

have been first recorded as a British plant in the third edition

of English Botany, Vol. I., p. 18 (London, 1863), by Boswell

Syme, but the reference vvhich he cites " F. Schultz, Archives de

FL, Vol. I., p. 292," is incorrect, as the plant is neither described

nor named on the page stated. There is a casual reference to

the plant on page 199 of the Archives, but no description. Syme

knew the Berwickshire plant, as he gives "the Whitadder in

February igtJi,igoi?[ PROCEEDINGS. xix

Berwickshire," as the northern limit for this diminutive form of
the type. Wirtgen describes it as occurring in the valley of the
Sayn, and in the ditches which run into it, between Sayn and
Isenberg, and also as not being scarce in the valley of the Alf.
In the third edition of "W. D, J, Koch's Synopsis der deutschen
und schweizer Flora" Vol. I., p. 27 (Leipzig, 1890) it is reported
as growing in the Rhine at Schaffhausen, Coblenz, Ladenburg,
&c.

My conclusions respecting this plant accord with Wirtgen's
later view of it, namely, that the differences between it and the
type are merely comparative. In the Eye Water at Ayton many
of the stems of freely-flowering examples were from six to eighteen
inches long, varying with the depth of the water in which they
grew. At a point above the weir at Ayton Law, a water sluice
runs from the river to feed the paper mill at Ayton, and in this
sluice of swiftly-running water the plant, while still retaining its
slender habit and small-sized flowers, produced leaves three to
four inches, and stems five or six feet, in length. I gathered the
same form, 17th July, 1900, but slightly more robust, in the
River Tweed on the Northumberland side of the river, at Wark,
opposite Coldstream ; and the range of examples now exhibited
shews that there are all intermediates between the diminutive
form collected at Ayton in the north, and the nine or ten feet
plant of the New Forest in the south.

The plants which Wirtgen distributed many years ago from
the Rhine Provinces included examples of this plant, but in my
set it was missing. By the kindness of Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill
I am able to exhibit some sheets of Wirtgen's collecting, which
were in Syme's herbarium of continental plants, now in Mr.
Melvill's possession.

It may be as well to put on record that Minmlus Itiietis, Linn.,
is established along the course of the Eye Water, and, although
it is a poor bramble district, I added two species to the county
during my visit, viz. : Rubus Rogersii, Linton, and Riibus radula,
Weihe.

XX Proceedings. [February jgth, igoi

A discussion followed, in which Messrs. Melvill, Weiss, and
Nicholson took part.

Mr. R. S. HuTTON exhibited an almost exact reproduction
of Moissan's electric furnace, which has been set up at the
Owens College. There it is possible, with a 50 h.p. engine, to
produce a current of 700 amperes at 50 volts, and by that means
it is anticipated that researches at the high temperatures thus
available — viz., 3,500 deg. Centigrade or higher — will shortly be
able to be carried out. Graphite prepared in electric furnaces
was also shown, as well as specimens of various carbides, carbo-
rundum, &c., from the Niagara works. Specimens of chromium
and manganese were shown, illustrating the facility with which
some of the rarer metals now become available. A modern
form of the Lippmann electrometer was also exhibited by
Mr. Hutton.

March 5th, ipoi.] PROCEEDINGS. xxi

Ordinary Meeting, March 5th, 1901.
Horace Lamb, M.A., I.L.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

Mention was made of the fact that the Society completed
120 years of its existence on February 28th, and the first minute-
book of the Society was handed round for inspection.

Mr. F. J. Faraday exhibited a rare volume (from the Henry
Watson musical library) printed at Sheffield in 1788. The work
consists of a description by Dibdin of a musical tour in 1787-8,
and extracts were read relating to the composer's experiences in
Manchester, contrasting the people of Manchester very unfavour-
ably with those of Liverpool. Messrs. Barnes, Nicholson, and
W. B. Faraday joined in a discussion of the matters raised.

Mr. W. E. HovLE called the attention of the members to an
English Grammar published in 1801 by John Dalton, then
Secretary to the Society, and presented by him to the Society.
Mr. Hartog mentioned that Priestley also published an English
Grammar before devoting himself to science.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer referred to the results of a study of
tidal waves which he had published in " Nature " in 1895, and
which indicated that, in the majority of cases of which records
were available, the tidal waves appeared to proceed from the
Faraday Reef. Particulars of the tidal wave which recently
struck the " Teutonic " were not yet to hand for comparison with
foimer records.

Mr. W. E. HoYLE read a paper entitled "On the Generic
Names Octopus, Eledone, and Histiopsis,"

The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

xxii Proceedings. [March igtJi, igoi.

Ordinary Meeting, March 19th, 1901.
Charles Bailey, F.L.S., Vice-President, in the Chair,

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

Mr. E. F. Morris exhibited some sketches of recent excava-
tions in the Roman forum, and gave the following explanations
and information in reference to them. One of them represented
the rostra discovered in October, 1900, by Signor Boni, which
belong to the last period of the Republic, and are stated to be
those from which Antony delivered his famous speech. The
monument hitherto believed to be the only rostra erected under
Julius Caesar may now, probably, be assigned to about
the period of the Flavians and Trajan. The newly-discovered
rostra consist of five little vaulted rooms, exactly as seen on the
w^ell-known medal of Palikanus, built, in opus reticulattim, of tufa
and concrete.

Other sketches represented the shrine and fountain of
Juturna. The former is an redicula in brickwork, running in a
North and South direction, its front decorated with two marble
columns supporting an architrave on which is carved the name
of the deity to which it was consecrated. In front of the shrine
is a circular well with an elegant marble head, ornamented with
a carved cornice on which is an inscription stating that the
well was consecrated to Juturna by Marcus Barbatius PoUio.
Professor Vaglieri affirms that this Pollio is the personage men-
tioned by Cicero, who was quaestor of Lucius Antonius in 41 i5.c.
Before the well is a marble altar with a sculptured front on
which are figures of Mars and of a female deity, Juno or Venus.
Signor Boni is of opinion that the scene is taken from Virgil,
and represents Juturna taking her final leave of her brother
Turnus.

The skill of Signor Boni in directing the excavations has also

March igth, ipoi.] PROCEEDINGS. xxiii

brought to light the celebrated Fountain of Juturna, so highly
appreciated by the Romans for the salubrity of its waters. A
spacious rectangular construction in tufa work (opus reticulatiwi)
of the Republican epoch encloses the spring. The construction
is internally covered with marble slabs. A short flight of steps,
which leads to the spring, has been rebuilt at a much later date.
The water gushes out abundantly at the present time, fresh and
clear. The following interesting monuments were found in the
room which encloses the spring : — (i) A marble altar the four
faces of which bear sculptures of the Dioscuri, of Jupiter holding
the sceptre and thunderbolts, of Leda with the swan, and
of a feminine figure, probably Vesta or Diana Lucina, holding
a long torch. The association of the fountain of Juturna
with the sanctuary of the Vestals is a well-known fact. (2) A
life-sized statue of .^sculapius in white marble (now standing at
his shrine) ; this statue was placed there on account of the
health-giving qualities of the waters of the fountain. (3) A white
marble bust of Jupiter, very well preserved. (4) A splendid
head and body of a horse in Pentelic marble, conjectured to be
the work of a Greek artist of the fifth century B.C., and to have
belonged to a group representing Castor and Pollux and their
horses. (5) A torso of Apollo in Greek marble, archaic in style,
but clearly a Roman imitation, perhaps of the time of Hadrian.

Mr. Thomas Thorp exhibited photographs of the spectrum
of the new star in Perseus, showing the bright lines very clearly,
and he mentioned that the star has now faded to about the fifth
magnitude.

Mr. Thorp also described a variation in the ordinary arrange-
ment of a star spectroscope, which he has devised.

Mr. J. R. Hardy read a paper on " The Macro-Lepi-
doptera of Sherwood Forest," which was communicated
through Mr. Hoyle.

The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

xxiv Proceedings. [April 2nd, igoi.

Ordinary Meeting, April 2nd, 1901.
HoKACE Lamb, M.A., LL. D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

Mr. W. E. HoYLE exhibited an old form of dial, bearing the
name " Nathaniell Jeynes," and the date " 1678," which had on
one side a small circular rotating plate inscribed with the circum-
polar constellations.

Mr. HoYLE also showed a silhouette portrait of Dr. Thomas
Percival, one of the founders of the Society.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer mentioned that on several occasions
he had seen the sun's rays converging to a point directly opposite
to the sun. In one case, when the sun was very low on the
western horizon, some very marked rays, caused by a low bank
of clouds, converged towards a point above the eastern horizon.

Mr. J. J. AsHWORTH (Treasurer) having taken the Chair,

The President communicated some numerical illustrations
of the Diffraction of Sound. These were intended to show the
extreme facility with which sounds of relatively large wave-length
can make their way round obstacles or through apertures. Thus,
with a wave-length of 4 feet, a wire -^is of an inch in diameter
dissipates only the fraction 6"6 x lo"** of the energy which falls
upon it ; a spherule of water t^tV^ °^ ^" ^"'^^'^ ^" diameter scatters
only i"3xio~"'. Again, a perforated screen or grating may
present hardly any obstacle to the transmission of sound,
although the apertures occupy only a small proportion of the
total area. Reference was made to the bearing of such results
on the attempts made to improve the acoustic properties of
buildings by hanging wires, and on current notions as to the
possibility of the reflection of sound from clouds.

A discussion ensued, in which Messrs. Barnes, Lees,
Stromeyer, and others participated.

April 22nd, I go I ?\ PROCEEDINGS. XXV

Special Meeting, April 22nd, 1901.
Horace Lamb, M,A., LL.D., F.R.S., President in the Chair.

The President, in making the presentation of the Wilde
Medal and the Wilde Premium, said : —

"The Wilde Medal for 1901 is awarded to Dr. Elie
Metchnikoff, of the Pasteur Institut, Paris, for his services to
zoological science (i.) in the field of comparative embryology, in
which he was a distinguished pioneer; (ii.) in the department
of comparative anatomy; (iii) in the study of inflammation
and phagocytosis and of the pathology of infectious diseases
generally.

To him we are indebted for our first accurate knowledge of
emljryology in the case of many animal forms, such as sponges,
various jelly fishes, marine worms, the scorpion and the book
scorpions, various insects, crustaceans, starfishes, and ascidians,
in fact, there is no important group of Invertebrata whose
embryology has not been elucidated by his investigations.

He has paid special attention to certain small forms of
doubtful affinity which have been much neglected by other
writers. One of the most important instances of the alternation
of generations, a characteristic phenomenon of parasitic life, was
first demonstrated by him, namely, the metamorphosis of the
Ascaris of the frog's lung into a free-living worm of the genus
Rhabditis.

The importance of the results announced in his paper on the
" Ancestral History of Inflammation," results both theoretical
and practical, ranks it as one of the most brilliant contributions
to science of modern days. It gave rise to the theory of phago-
cytosis, which furnishes an explanation of many of the phenomena
of inflammation, and of the immunity from bacterial diseases
conferred by inoculation, and established a link between
Virchow's cell theory of disease and the Darwinian principle of

xxvi Proceedings. [April 2jrd, rgoi.

natural selection. This theory has been the source of important
controversies, which have led to the discovery of certain pro-
tective properties of the blood which are now extensively used
for the diagnosis and prevention of disease."

"The Wilde Premium for 1901 is awarded to Mr. Thomas
Thorj:) for his paper on ' Grating Films and their Application to
Colour Photography,' and other communications to the Society."

The presentations were suitably acknowledged by Dr.
Metchnikoff and Mr. Thorp.

Dr. Metchnikoff then delivered the Wilde Lecture, " Sur
la Flore du Corps Humain."

The lecture is printed in full in the Me?notrs.

The lecturer was afterwards entertained at dinner by the
members and friends.

Annual General Meeting, April 23RU, 1901.

Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, For. Mem. R.S., of the Pasteur
Institute, Paris, was elected an honorary member.

The Secretary announced, in accordance with Rule 22 of
the Articles of Association, that the name of Samuel Joyce had
been erased by the Council from the register in consequence of
non-payment of his subscription.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was moved by Professor S. J.
HicKSON, seconded by Mr. R. F. Gwvther, and resolved: —
"That the Annual Report, together with the Statement of
Accounts, be adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's
Proceedings."

It was moved by Mr. Charles Bailey, seconded by Professor
S.J. HicKSON, and resolved: — ^"That the system of electing
Associates of the Sections be continued during the ensuing
session."

April 23rd, ipoi.] Proceedings. xxvii

The following members were elected officers of the Society
and members of the Council for the ensuing year : —

President : Charles Bailey, F.L.S.

Vice-Presidents : Osborne Reynolds, M.A,, LL,D., F.R.S. ;
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. ; J. E. King, M.A. ;
C. E. Stromeyek, M.Inst.C.E.

Secretaries: Francis Jones, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.; A. W. Flux,
M.A.

Treasurer: J. J. Ashworth.

Librarian: W. E. Hoyle, M.A., M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

Other Members of Council: J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S
H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.; Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.
R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. ; F. J. Faraday, F.L.S., F.S.S.
Charles H. Lees, D.Sc.

Ordinary Meeting, April 23rd, 1901.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

The President referred to the loss sustained by the Society
through the death of Professor F, M. Raoult, of Grenoble, and
of Professor H. A. Rowland, of Baltimore, U.S.A., two of the
Society's honorary members.

Mr. F. J. Faraday called attention to the danger which may
arise from the fall of the counterpoise of an ordinary electric
lamp, owing to the fusing of the conducting (and supporting)
wires, due to a short circuit at the point of attachment to the
lamp. The probable cause of the short circuiting, and the
means of preventing such an accident, were discussed.

Professor S, J. Hickson communicated two papers by
Miss E. M. Pratt, M.Sc, on "A Collection of Polychaeta
from the Falkland Islands," and "Some notes on
the Bipolar Theory of the Distribution of Marine
Organisms."

Both papers are printed in full in the Memoirs.

xxviii Proceedings. [May 28th, igor.

Ordinary Meeting. May 28th, 1901.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

A paper on "The Influence of Grinding upon the
Solubility of the Lead in Lead Fritts," by T. E. Thoupe,
C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., and Charles Simmonds, B.Sc, was, in
in the absence of the authors, read by the Secretary.

The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

.After the reading of the paper,

Mr. Burton pointed out that, even if grinding be pro-
ductive of variations in solubility of only about 50 per cent,
of its amount, a fritt not far within any fixed standard
limit would be dangerous or safe according to the fineness
of its grinding. He denied that the more soluble fritts are
the softer, stating that the contrary is the fact. He further
referred to the danger of lead-poisoning from inhaled lead dust,
a matter in which the imposition of a standard of solubility
of the substance affords no safeguard.

Mr. Jackson stated that the finer portions of the fritts dealt
with by himself and Mr. Rich contained not more, but less, lead
oxide than the coarser portions. He liad himself determined the
solubility of different grindings of the same fritt, a fritt which was
passed as within the Home Office standard, at amounts varying
from below 2 per cent, to about 5 per cent. He exhibited some
photographs showing the result of the action of hydrofluoric acid
on glasses, which displayed crystalline forms suggestive of
distinct heterogeneity, even in the clearest glass. He protested
that he had not treated the fritts as single chemical substances.

Professor DixoN and others joined in the discussion.

January i^t/i, igoi^ PROCEEDINGS. xxix

[Microscopical and Natural History Section.']

Ordinary Meeting, January 14th, 1901.

Charles Bailey, F.L.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. John R. Ragdale, C.C., was elected Treasurer in the
place of Mr. Mark Sykes. A vote of thanks and regret was
unanimously accorded to Mr. Sykes.

Mr. SvKES described the work done by himself, in conjunc-
tion with the Hon. Secretary, during the past eighteen months,
in systematically arranging, labelling and cataloguing the slides
of microscopical objects in the Section's two cabinets, which
have been acquired since the formation of the Section in 1858.
All the slides, numbering about 1,400, have now been arranged
for reference and study. Every name has, as far as possible,
been verified, and a MS. catalogue has been prepared and
presented to the Section. Each slide bears an official label
marked " A " or " B " for the cabinet, together with the number
of the tray and a consecutive number for each tray. It will now
ba possible to keep the slides in order, and to replace in their
proper position any that may be removed.

The thanks of the Section were voted to Mr. Sykes and the
Hon. Secretary for their joint labours, and it was resolved that
the MS. catalogue be bound for ease of reference.

Mr. Thomas Rogers exhibited a collection of Hymeno-
l)hyllums and Trichomanes from the Blue Mountains, Jamaica.

XXX Proceedings. [February nth, igoi.

[Microscopical afid Natural History Sectioii.'\

Ordinary Meeting, February nth, 1901.

Charlks Bailey, F.L.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. Henry Hyde submitted some examples of leaves,
mounted under glass, for the purposes of art teaching.

Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S., exhibited a series of fossil
insects from France, which he had obtained last year from the
coal measures of Commentry, in the department of the Allier.

Some curious pupa-cases from Natal, belonging to the
Lepidopterous group Psychaidse, were shown by Mr. Thomas
Rogers.

Mr. Charles Bailey made a communication on Ratmnctdus
Bac/iit\ Wirtgen, as a form of Ramaiciilus fluitans, Lamk., and
illustrated his remarks by a series of British examples linking
the extreme forms of both plants.

[Microscopical and Natural History Section^

Ordinary Meeting, March nth, 1901.

Charles Bailey, F.LS., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S., made some remarks upon a
large series of eocene shells from the well-known deposit at
Grignon, near Versailles, which he had collected in that locality
during the visit of the members of the International Geological
Congress at Paris, in 1900.

Some examples of the shaddock were exhibited by Mr.
Thomas Rogers.

March nth, igo/.] PROCEEDINGS. xxxi

Mr. Henry Hyde submitted specimens of Sagittaria
lancifolia from the West Indies, and of Gasionia palniata from
the East Indies.

Mr. J. Fenwick Allen explained the uses and manufacture
of the following metals, illustrating the same by examples, viz. : —
silicon, metallic manganese, chromium, ferrotitan, and silicon
copper containing 25 % of silicon.

Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., exhibited Tasmanian
examples of the rare and beautiful alga, Claudea elegans, Lam.

Mr. Charles Bailey brought a series of examples of a
somewhat rare mint, which he had had in cultivation for many
years in his garden at Ashfield, Whalley Range, and which Dr.
John Briquet, of Geneva, had recently identified as Meiitha
genii! is, L., var. HacJienbrruhii, Briq.

Mr. Peter Cameron sent specimens oi Sphex flavovestita,
from Borneo, illustrating its habits. He considered this insect
to be but a form of the common Indian species Sphex aurulentiis.
All the species of Sphex have the same habits ; they feed their
young with grasshoppers, which they store in their cell-shaped
nests. The peculiarity of their method of providing food for
their young consists in the fact that the grasshoppers are not
killed, but merely benumbed and rendered motionless by three
pricks of the ovipositor — one in the neck, one in the joint
between the meso- and metathorax, and one in the base of the
abdomen, the seat of the nerve ganglions. The consequence is
that the grasshopper does not die and decay, but remains fresh
for weeks until its time comes to be devoured by the larva of
the Sphex. Three or four grasshoppers are put in each cell for
one larva, and some species store up as many as too for their
entire brood, the whole process taking about one month.

Chlorion lobatum, of which specimens were also sent, has
similar habits.

xxxii Proceedings. [April 15th, i go i.

[Microscopical and Natural History Section^
Annual Meeting, April 15th, 1901.

Charlks Bailey, F.L.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.

The Council presented the following report of the Section
for the session 1900- 1901 :

" Your Council, in presenting a report for the past session,
has to record a slight reduction in the membership of the section,
its numbers now amounting to 1 7 members and 1 1 associates,
as against 17 and 13 respectively, at the corresponding period of
the previous session.

"The following is a list of the existing membership : —

Members: — J. J. Ashworth, Charles Bailey, F.L.S.,
John Boyd, G. H. Broadbent, M.R.C.S., Henry Brogden,
Dr. A. Brovi'n, Edward Coward, R. E. Cunliffe, Hastings
C. Dent, F.L.S., Dr. A. Hodgkinson, C. J. Heywood, W. E.
Hoyle, M.A., F.R.S.E., J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.,
Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., J. R. Ragdale, C. H. Schill,
Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.

Associates: — J. F. Allen, Dr. Booth, Peter Cameron,
Peter Cunliffe, L. W. Hunt, Henry Hyde, John Mullen,
Thomas Rogers, Theodore Sington, William Stanley,
John Watson.

" The cash in the bank at the credit of the section at this
date amounts to ^^24. 5s. 5d., as will be seen from the Treasurer's
account, as against the sum of ^24. 12s. 3d, at the beginning of
the session.

" The usual meetings have been held regularly each month,
and their interest has been fully maintained by the papers read
and the objects exhibited. But your Council regrets to record
that the attendance continues to slowly decline ; this must be
attributed to the specialisation which has taken place in natural
history and microscopical studies, each branch of science forming
a separate organisation to foster its special pursuits.

April 15th, igo/.] PROCEEDINGS.

XXXlll

"Your Council is sorry to report the resignation of Mr.
Theodore Sington as Honorary Secretary, an office which he
has held for the last nine years, and the duties of which he has
discharged with considerable zeal and efficiency,"

Treasurer's Statement of Accounts.

Skssiox 1 900- 1 901. Cr.

Dr.

£ s. d.
To Balance at Bankers and Cash

in hand 24 12 3

,, Subscriptions and Arrears.. .. 10 5 o

„ Bank Interest o 9 6

J&35 6 9

£ s.

By Books and Periodicals 4

., Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings 213 10^

,, Printing and Stationery .... 2 11 9

,, Postages, &c i 13 2

,, Balance, April 15th, 1901 .... 24 5 5J

^^35 6 9

Audited, April 15th, 1901.

Signed,/J°«^ ^°^°-

(.J. FENWICK ALLEN.

The Annual Report and Statement of Accounts were duly
approved and passed,

The following Members and Associates were appointed the
Council for the ensuing year : —

President - - - - Charles Bailey, F.L.S.
Vice-Presidents - - John Boyd ;

Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. ; and
Thomas Rogers,
Treasurer - - - - John R. Ragdale, C.C.
Honorary Secretary: J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

Council J. Fenwick Allen ;

R, E. Cunliffe;
W. E. HoYLE, M.A., F.R.S.E. ;
Henry Hyde;

Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.; and
C. H. Schill.
Mr. Thomas Rogers exhibited a number of fossil ferns and
mosses which had been found in the debris of Roman Manchester
during the excavations of recent years, and he described the
localities where they were found and the conditions under which
the plants must be assumed to have grown.

Annual Report of the Council.

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETV.

A nnual Report of the Council, April, igoi.

The Society began the session with an ordinary membership
of 154. During the present session 3 new members have jomed
the Society; 10 resignations have been received, and the deaths
have been 4, viz.: Sir William Cunliffe Brooks, Bart., Mr.
Richard Copley Christie, Professor Daniel John Leech, and
Sir John Willi.^m Maclure, Bart., whilst 4 members have
been removed from the list lor non-payment of their subscrifh
tions. This leaves on the roll 139 ordinary members. The
Society has also lost 2 honorary members by death, viz. :
Lord Armstrong, C.B., F.R.S., and Professor Ch. Hermite,
For. Mem. R.S. Memorial notices of these gentlemen appear
at the end of this report.

The TreaLuirer commenced the year with a balance in
favour of the Society of ^153. is. 2d. (including £,i2\. 5s. iid.
balance of the Wilde Endowment Fund), and reports that the
total balance, exclusive of the amount still owing by the
Natural History Fund, but including the Wilde and Joule
Funds, at the bankers and in hand, at the close of the year, is
£\\^. 6s. 9d.

The Council has to thank Dr. Wilde for proposing certain
alterations in the Trust Deed of the Wilde Endowment Fund.
These alterations, which give additional discretionary powers to
the Council in the award of the Wilde Medal and Premium, and
in the disposal of the balance of the Fund, have been embodied

A nnual Report of the Council. xxxv

in a supplementary Deed which has been unanimously approved
by the Council.

The Council has also to record its thanks to Dr. Schunck
for presenting to the Society portraits in water-colour of the
Rev. William Johns, formerly Secretary of the Society, and the
Rev. William Gaskell, formerly Vice-President. These have
been framed and placed in the Council Room.

The Lihrarian is pleased to report that the re-cataloguing
of the Society's library is now practically completed. There yet
remain a few volumes of tracts and the collection of dissertations,
and these will be catalogued as opportunity offers. During the
session, 1,594 volumes have been catalogued, stamped, and
pressmarked, 792 of these being serials, and 802 separate works.
There have been written 1,326 catalogue cards, 306 for serials,
and 1,020 for separate works. The total number of volumes
catalogued to date is 25,448 for which 8,381 cards have been
written.

Satisfactory use is made of the library for reference purposes,
but the number of volumes consulted is not recorded. During
the session, [95 volumes have been borrowed from the library,
as compared with 205 volumes in the previous session ; it is
hoped that, as the card catalogue now affords every facility for
quickly finding any work required, members will make further
use of the valuable collection of books possessed by the Society.

Attention has continued to be paid to the completion of sets,
with the result that 49 volumes or parts have been obtained
which render 17 sets complete, whilst 51 volumes have been
acquired which partly complete 13 sets. These 100 volumes,
with the exception of 6 purchased, were presented by the
respective societies publishing them. Since the commencement
of the re-cataloguing of the library, a total of 7 88 missing volumes
has been obtained, resulting in the completion of 94 sets.

Considerably more binding has been done than in the
previous year, 612 volumes having been bound in 446, whilst
several volumes have undergone repair.

XXX vi Animal Report of tJic Council.

A record of the accessions to the library shows that, from
April, 1900, to March, 1901, 625 serials and 80 separate works
were received, a total of 705 volumes. The donations during the
session (exclusive of the usual exchanges) amount to 17 volumes
and 127 dissertations ; 2 books have been purchased (in addition
to the periodicals on the regular subscription list).

During the past session the Society has arranged to exchange
publications with the following : Western Society of Engineers,
Chicago ; Lloyd Library of Botany, Pharmacy and Materia
Medica, Cincinnati ; Naturhistorisk Forening, Copenhagen ;
University of Durham Philosophical Society, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

The University of Glasgow having requested the Society to
appoint delegates to be present at the celebration of the Ninth
Jubilee of the University, from June 12th to 14th, 1901, the
Council has nominated Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., and Professor
Horace Lamb, LL.D., F.R.S., to represent the Society on the
occasion.

At the request of the Council, Professor A. Sheridan
Delepine, M.B., B.Sc, and Mr. Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B.,
B.Sc, have agreed to act as delegates of the Society to the
British Congress on Tuberculosis, to be held in London from
July 22nd to 26th, 1901.

The Council has awarded : —

The Wilde Medal for 1901 to Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, for his
researches in comparative embryology, comparative anatomy,
and the study of inflammation and phagocytosis.

The Wilde Premium for 1901 to Mr. Thomas Thorp, for his
paper on " Grating Films and their application to colour
photography," and other communications made to the Society.

Dr. Metchnikoff was appointed to deliver the Wilde Lecture.

The Council arranged for the Medal and Premium to be
presented and the Wilde Lecture to be delivered on Monday,
April 22nd, 1901.

Anmial Report of tJie Council. xxxvii

William George Armstrong was born in Newcastle on
November 26th, 1810, where his father was a well-to-do corn
merchant. He was trained for the legal profession, and until
1847 was partner with a firm of solicitors. Through his marriage
with Margaret Ramshaw, he was brought into contact with
engineers like her father, and he soon grew to be much interested
in their many experiences and new problems, until at last, seeing
sufficient prospect of success, he, in company with Potter, Donkin,
Cruddas, and Lambert, founded what has grown to be the
Elswick Works. His first attention was directed to hydraulic
machinery, which he greatly improved, and to this day his firm
has retained its early lead in the manufacture of these appliances.
Shortly afterwards everybody's attention was riveted on our short-
comings in the Crimean war, and Armstrong set about improving
our artillery, which then consisted of bronze or cast-iron smooth-
bore guns. He copied the sporting guns of the day, both as
regards rifling and coiled construction, and added his well-known
breech-loading device. His claims to the invention of this type
of gun were strongly attacked at the time, until he made a
present of it to the nation, for which act he was rewarded with a
knighthood and appointed Director of Rifled Ordnance, with
permission to remain partner in his own firm. This arrangement
was also violently attacked, and in 1862 he voluntarily retired
from the official position and devoted his time and energy to his
own works and to scientific researches. He was a firm believer
in the superiority of guns over armour, and increased their
weight up to 110 tons. By that time, however, our naval and
military departments had given up the Armstrong breech block,
reverting to muzzleloaders, and about the same time mild steel
had been invented, so that the coiling of wrought iron bars for
gun barrels has now been quite given up, and thus two of the
principal inventions with which Armstrong's name will always be
associated are things of the past.

The varied successes of Lord Armstrong were not due
entirely to qualities which go to make a good business man, but
partly also to a power which he possessed, in a marked degree,

xxxviii Annual Report of the Council.

of making himself acquainted with mechanical principles and
details. In fact, he seems to have prepared himself for each
invention by a careful study of the suriject, both theoretically and
experimentally ; it is therefore not surprising to find that, in spite
of his busy life, he devoted much time to scientific researches.
Even as far back as 1840, he experimented on the production of
electricity by means of jets of steam, and made some interesting
discoveries, which have, however, led to no commercial develop-
ments. He received many honours, not only from our own
learned societies, but also from foreign countries.

In 1887 he was created Baron Armstrong of Cragside. He
died 27th December, 1900. Lord Armstrong had been an

lionorary member of our Society since 1887.

C. E. S.

Charles Hermite was born in 1821. Already, whilst a
student at the Ecole Polytechnique, he entered into a mathe-
matical correspondence with the veteran Jacobi, and received
from the latter the most flattering encouragement. His earlier
researches had reference to the theory of algebraic forms, and he
took part with Cayley and Sylvester in the development of the
theory of invariants ; he also occupied himself with the theory
of elliptic and other cognate functions. He became a member
of the Institut de France in 1856, and in 1862 was appointed
Professor in the Ecole Normale. He subsequently occupied
posts in the Ecole Polytechnique and in the Sorbonne ; and
greatly developed and modernised the teaching of advanced
mathematics in these institutions. Among his later achieve-
ments may be mentioned the proof that the number e is
transcendental. That e is irrational had long been known ; but
the definite proof that it is not an algebraical number at all, i.e.,
that it cannot be the root of any algebraic equation with integral
co-efficients, was reserved for Hermite. This paved the way for
Lindemann's demonstration of the transcendental nature ot tp,
which appears to be the last word of mathematics on the secular
problem of " squaring the circle." Hermite's scientific activity

Annual Report of the Conna'l. xxxix

continued even in advanced age, and his personality and his
example were held in peculiar veneration by the present brilliant
school of French mathematicians. He was a foreign member of
the Royal Society, and had been an honorary member of our
own Society since 1892.

H. L.

Sir William Cunliffe Brooks was born on September
30th, 18 1 9. He was educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and
at St. John's College, Cambridge. He read for the Bar, and
was called in 1847. Later in life he entered Parliament, repre-
senting East Cheshire from 1869 till 1885, and North Cheshire
from 1886 till 1890. In 1886 he was created a baronet, and, in
addition, was a magistrate and deputy-lieutenant for Lancashire,
and a magistrate for Cheshire and for the city of Manchester.
He became the first president of the Manchester Bankers'
Institute on its foundation in 1895. The bank of which he was
the head was then the only private bank surviving in Manchester,
and, as is known, after three generations in private hands, it has
since ceased to be privately owned. Sir William had been a
member of the Literary and Philosophical Society since January
23rd, 1844; and at the time of his death, on June 9th, 1900,
shared with only two other ordinary members the distinction of a
membership in the Society of over half a century.

Richard Copley Christie, M.A.Oxon. (1855), Hon. LL.D.
Vict. (1895), was a member of this Society from 1854 until his
death, which occurred on January 9th, 1901. He was born at
Lenton, near Nottingham, in 1830, was educated at Lincoln
College, Oxford, where Mark Pattison was at the time tutor, a small
college which has supplied Manchester with a Bishop, a Chan-
cellor of the Diocese, a Principal of Owens College, and a
Professor of Philosophy, and more than one High Master of the
Grammar School. In 1853 Mr. Christie obtained a first class in
Law and History, and the next year was appointed Professor of
History in Owens College, to the duties of which post he shortly

xl Annual Report of the Council.

added those of Professor of Political Economy. His academic
work was naturally much hindered hy the claims of a rapidly
growing practice at the Chancery Bar ; and it would be
impossible to speak of his teaching as founding a school in
either of his subjects, in the sense in which this might be said
of his immediate successors, Dr. Ward and Professor Jevons, or
of those who have followed them. But his lectures w^ere
thoroughly scholarly both in form and substance ; he held up
before his pupils a high standard of clearness, accuracy, and
stimulating force. In 1886 he resigned the Professorship of
History and Political Economy, and accepted that of Juris-
prudence, in which he was, before long, succeeded by Professor
Bryce. In his career as a Chancery barrister he was distinguished
for his sensitive personal and professional honour, and was
recognised for many years as one of the leaders ot the local bar.
For twenty-one years, from 1872 onwards, Mr. Christie was
Chancellor of the Diocese of Manchester, and was by common
repute quite exceptionally fitted to discharge the delicate duties
of the office. Much time was also devoted to the service of
Owens College on its Council, and the institution of the
body of associates was due to Mr. Christie's suggestion.
After his removal to London he took an active interest in
the Royal Holloway College. As one of the three residuary
legatees of the late Sir Joseph Whitworth, he took very great
pains to expend the large sums placed at their disposal for the
good of the community, and it would be difficult to draw up a
complete list of their benefactions. In the same capacity he
acted for ten years as the Chairman of Sir Joseph Whitworth
and Co., Limited. But, apart from his professional work, Mr.
Christie's taste turned mainly to bibliography. It was the
accomplished printer as much as the religious reformer whom
he honoured in his admirable work on Etienne Dolet, the Martyr
of the Renaissance ; though not a few passages show that passion
for freedom and justice breaking out, which was usually strictly
repressed. The work, published in 1880, was translated into
French, and re-edited with many additions in 1899.

Annual Report of the Council. xli

Mr. Christie was President of the Chetham Society from
1884 till his death, of the Record Society of Lancashire and
Cheshire from 1883 to 1895, and of the Library Association in
1889.

Mr. Christie's own library was remarkably choice, containing
many rarities, especially of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. By the generosity of Mrs. Christie this library, though
left to her for her lifetime, will shortly be handed over to the
Owens College, where it will be housed in the beautiful buildings
due to Mr. Christie's munificence, and where it will be accessible
to all serious students. A. S. W.

Daniel John Leech, J. P., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.C.P., was the
second son of the late Mr. Thomas Leech, of Manchester, and
was born at Urmston in 1840.

His early scientific tastes led him to choose medicine as a
profession, and after the usual period of apprenticeship, and a
distinguished career at the Chatham Street Medical School, he
became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1861,
when only 2 1 years of age. Further periods of clinical study were
passed in Paris and London, and in 1862 he was appointed
Demonstrator of Anatomy at the Manchester Medical School,
then removed to Pine Street.

After two years' work at anatomy. Dr. Leech settled down
in general practice in Stretford Road, Manchester, first as
partner, then as successor, to the late Mr. Richmond. In 1869
he married the eldest daughter of the late Mr. James Maclaren,
of Whalley Range. While immersed in the cares of a large
general practice Dr. Leech found time and energy to engage
successfully in further study, and in 1868 he obtained the
degree of M.B. of the London University, with first-class honours.
In 1876 he took the degree of M.D. ; in 1875 ^^ ^^s admitted
a member, and in 18S2 elected a Fellow, of the Royal College of
Physicians of London.

Dr. Leech was an active worker in connection with local
medical institutions, and took a leading part in such societies as

xlii Animal Report of the Cou7icil.

the Manchester and Salford Sanitary Association. He produced
several very able and valuable reports u[)on the health of
Manchester and Salford, more especially in relation to the
pollution of the rivers, the contamination of the air by smoke,
the adulteration of food, and the housing of the working classes.

In medical societies Dr. Leech took an active part, and
especially in the British Medical Association and its Lancashire
and Cheshire Branch. In 1877 he was one of the general
secretaries for the annual meeting of the Association in
Manchester, and was afterwards President of the Lancashire
and Cheshire Branch. In later years his interest was chiefly in
the Pharmacological and Therapeutical Section, of which lie was
Vice-President in 1887, and President in 1897 at the annual
meeting in Montreal, and for some years he was Chairman of
the Therapeutic Committee.

In 1884 he became a member of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society ; he was also a member of the Royal
Medical and Chirurgical Society, of the London and Manchester
Pathological Societies, and an Honorary Member of the
Pharmaceutical Society.

In 1897 Dr. Leech was appointed a justice of the peace
for the city of Manchester.

Much of Dr. Leech's time and energy was devoted to the
Owens College and the Victoria University. Appointed at first
Joint Lecturer in the Owens College in 1876, he became the
first Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in 1881,
and rapidly organised one of the finest Museums of Materia
Medica in this country, and introduced experimental Pharma-
cology into his teaching at a time when the importance of that
subject was but luile recognised in our English Medical Schools.
In the development of all departments of the Owens College
he took a deep and often generous interest, as a member of the
Senate, Council, or Court of Governors.

In the formation of the Victoria University he bore a leading
part, and especially in the organisation of the Medical Faculty.
For many years a member of the Council and the Court, a

Ammal Report of the Council. xHii

chairman of Convocation, Pro-Vice-Chancellor and the repre-
sentative of the University on the General Medical Council,
he has had an influential voice in guiding the policy of the
growing University and instituting a high standard for its degrees.
In recognition of his services he received, in 1895, the degree of
D.Sc. of the Victoria University, honoris causa.

As a member of the General Medical Council, his special
knowledge was of the greatest value upon the Pharmacopoeia
Committee, and he devoted much time and work to the revision
of the " British Pharmacopoeia," the new edition of which, issued
in 1.898, owes much of its excellence to his care and judgment.
The value of his work was soon recognised by his colleagues, by
his appointment to the chairmanship of the Committee in
succession to the late Sir Richard Quain.

Dr. Leech contributed a large number of papers to medical
literature, the most important being a series of papers upon the
medicinal action and uses of the various Nitrites , upon this
subject he delivered the Croonian Lectures, in 1893, before the
Royal College of Physicians of London.

His death took place on July 2nd, 1900. R.B.W.

Sir John William Maclure was born on April 22nd,
1835. From an early age he took part in the public life of
Manchester, being a sidesman of the Cathedral at eighteen, and
a member of the governing body of the Royal Infirmary at
twenty-two. He acted as Secretary to the Relief Committee at
the time of the Cotton Famine in Lancashire, due to the American
Civil War, and, as is well-known, displayed conspicuous ability in
that position. In later years he was concerned with numerous
important business undertakings at home and abroad. He repre-
sented the Stretford division of Lancashire in the House of
Commons from 1886 till his death, which occurred on January
28th, 1 90 1. He assisted in the formation of the Manchester
Natural History Society, since dissolved, and had been a member
of the Literary and Philosophical Society from January 25th,
1859. The distinction of a baronetcy was conferred upon him
in 1897.

xliv

2)r.

Treasurer's Accoiints.

MANCHESTER LITERARY AND

J.J. Ashworth, Treasurer, in Account with the

To Cash in hand, April ist, igoo

1 o Members'. Subscriptions :—

Half Subscriptions, 1899-1900, 4 at £1. is. od.
e", . . >' 1900-01, 6 „ „

Subscriptions :— 1894-95, i at £2. 2s. od.

>i 1895-96, I

II 1896-97, 1

I) 1897-98, 2

„ iSg8-99, 4

II 1899-1900, 10

>> 1900-01, 1 13

II 1901-02, 1

To Transfers from the Wilde Endowment Fund

i o Sale of Publications

To Sale of Fields Card Catalogue of Zoological' Literature, i

10 Dividends : — '

Natural History Fund

Joule Memorial Fund
To Income Tax Refunded :—

Natural History Fund

Joule Memorial Fund

£ s. d.

237 6 o

58 8 lo
772

£ s. d.
28 15 3

289 16 o

78 7 o

IS i6 8

5 I 3

65 16 o

1901.— April 1. To Cash in Williams Deacon's Bank, and in hand

^^486 4 5
.£34 5 I

WILDE

To Balance from 1899-1900 ..

To Dividends on ^7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company's Ordinary Stock' "

lo Remission of Income Tax, 1900

To Bank Interest

ENDOWMENT

£ s. d.

124 5 II

3'4 17 6
13 o o
1 19 II

1901.— April I. To Cash in Manchester and Liverpool District Bank

;<^454

£&5

NATURAL HISTORY

To Dividends on £1,2^^ Great Western Railway Company's Stock

To Remission of Income 'lax, 1900. .

To Balance against this Fund, April ist, igoi

£

To Balance, April 1st, 1900

To Dividends on ;^2s8 Loan to Manchester Corporation
To Remissioir of Income lax, 1900 ..

To Balance, April 1st, 1 joo . .
To Donations
To Bank Interest

58

S 10

2

5 "

58

■2 9

£i,S

.7 6

JOULE MEMORIAL

£

s. d.

3'

2 8

7

7 2

0

6 4

£?ii>

16 2

D ALTON TOMB

£

S, (J.

30

0 0

I

2 1

0

6 5

£31

8 6

Treasurer s Accomits. xlv

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Society, from ist April, igoo, to 31st March, igoi. Qx.

;£ S. d. £ S. d.

By Charges on Property :—

Chieif Rent (Income Tax deducted)

Income Tax on Chief Rent

Insurance against Fire

Repairs to Building, &c

By House Expenditure :—

Coals, Gas, Electric Light, Water, Wood, &c.

Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings

Cleaning, Sweeping Chimneys, &c

By Administrative Charges : —

Housekeeper .. •■ ■• .■"_i<iV

Postages, and Carriage of Parcels and of Memon-

Stationery, Cheques, Receipts, and Engrossing

Printing Circulars, Reports, &c.

Miscellaneous Expenses

By Publishing ;-

JJubhshing ;— . „, , • c o ^

Honorarium for Editing the "Memoirs (2nd moiety for 1899-1900)
Printing " Memoirs and Proceedings" (less amount charged to Joule bundj
111, , ^f, o.innc fr,r " Mpmnirs and Proceedines"

1265

0 12 II

13 17 6

4 -8 7

31

15

S

24 10 3

14 10 3

3 18 8i

42

IQ

2i

53 6 °

35 15 2

6 14 9i

18 3 9

2 0 10

116

0

6;t

25 0 0

142 0 0

II 19 0

Illustrations for " Memoirs and Proceedings'

Binding "Memoirs" _LJ^_!_ ,80,9 o

By Library " —

jjiorary . — t 1 tt-

Books and Periodicals (except on Natural History)..
Library Appliances (Catalogue Cards)

36 5 7

By Natural History Fund :— . „ jv ^fi = ^

(Item shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund)

By Joule Memorial Fund :— r^ ,,

(Item shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund)

By Balance at Bank ^n n

in Treasurer's hands

34 5 I
;£4S6 4 5

FUND, 1900— 1901.

By Assistant Secretary's Salary, April, 1900, to March, 1901
By Maintenance of Society's Library:—

Binding and Repairing Books

Periodicals to complete sets

By Decorating and Repairs to Society's Premises

By Gold Medal and Engraving same

By Wilde Premium for Selected Memoir

By Honorarium to Lecturer . .

By Transfers to Society's Funds

By B.alance at Bank, April ist, 1901

£ s. d,

£ s. d.

138 0 0

71 17 0
076

72 4 6

30 I 2
18 19 0
15 15 0
15 15 °
78 7 0

/454 3 4

s. d.
II 1 1

FUND, 1900— 1901. ^

By Balance against, April 1st, 1900 :i6 % '?

By Natural History Books and Periodicals ^ ^

^118 17 6

FUND, 1900— 1901. ^ ^ J

By Printing J. H. Grindley's paper on " The Thermodynamical Properties of Superheated

Steam, and the Dryness of Saturated Steam " 33 17 2

By Balance, April ist, 1901

;£38 16 2

FUND, 1900-1901. ^ 3 d

By Printing and Postages 31 3 8

By Balance at Bank

£->,x 8 6

xlvi Treasurer'' s Aceounts.

Note. — The Treasurer's Accounts of the Session 1900-
1901 of which the foregoing pages are summaries,
have been endorsed as follows :

April 17th, 1901. Audited and found correct.

We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the following
Stocks held in the name of the Society : — ;^i,225 Great Western Railway
Company 5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294, and 12,323 ;
;^258 Twenty years' loan to the Manchester Corporation, redeemahle 25th
March, 1914 (No. 1564) ; ;C7,5oo Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary
Stock (No. 6389) ; and the deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde
Endowment Fund, those conveying the land on which the Society's premises
stand, and the Declaration of Trust.

rCHARLES H. LE
(Signed) \

(.THOMAS THORf

LEES.
P.

Tlie Council. xlvii

THE COUNCIL
AND MEMBERS

OF THE

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

( Correcled to July jrst, igor,)

PrcGibeut.

CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S.

OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

J. E. KING, M.A.

C. E. STROMEYKR, M.Inst.C.E.

<Sc£r£tartc0.

FRANCIS JONES, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
A. W. FLUX, M.A.

*^rcasurer.

J. J. ASHWORTH.

librarian.

W. E. HOYLE, M.A., M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

m th£ Council.

J. COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.

HAROLD B. DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

K. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S.

F. J. FARADAY, F.L.S.

CHARLES H. LEES, D.Sc.

xlviii Ordinary Members.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Election.

1870, Dec. 13. Angell, John, F.C.S., F.I.C. 6, Beaconsjleld, Derby Roaa,

IVithington, Manchester.
1896, Jan. 31. Armstrong, Frank. The Koivans, Harboro' Grove,
HarborS Road, A shton-oii- Mersey, Cheshire.
Armstrong, George B. Clarendon, Sale, Cheshire.
Ashworth, J. J. 47, Faulkner Street, Manchester.

Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College Road, Whalley

Range, Manchester.
Bailey, Alderman Sir W. H. Sale Hall, Sale, Cheshire.
Barnes, Charles L. , M.A. lO, Nelson Street, Chorlton-on-

Medlock, Manchester.
Beckett, J. Hampden, B.Sc, F.C.S. Corbar Hall, Buxton.
Behrens, George B. The Acorns, 4, Oak Drive, Fallow-
field, Manchester.
Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royde, Withinglon, Manchester.
Behrens, Walter L. 22, Oxford Street, Manchester.
Bickham, Spencer H., F.L.S. Underdown, Ledbury,
Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles. Lanes.
Bolton, Herbert, F.R.S.E. The Museum. Bristol.
Botlomley, James, D.Sc, B.A., F.C.S. 220, Lower

Brotighton Road. Maruhester.
1896, Oct. 6. Bowman, F. H., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. Mayfield, Knutsford,

Cheshire.
1896, Feb. 18. Bowman, George, M.D. ^^i,. Stretford Road, Old Trafford^

Manchester.
1875. Nov. 16. Boyd, John. Barton House, Didsbury Park, Didsbury,

Manchester.
1889, Oct. 15. Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S. Sunnyside, Whalley Range,

Manchester.
Broadbent, G. H. , M. R. C.S. 8, Ardiuick Green, Manchester.
Broderick, Lonsdale, F. C. .\. Somerby, Wilmslow,

Cheshire.
Brogden, Henry, F.G.S., M.I.Mech.E. Hale Lodge,

Altrincham, Cheshire.
Brooks, Samuel Herbert. Slade House, Levenshulme,

Manchester.
Brothers, Alfred. 1 1 7, Sununerfield Crescent, Edgbctston^

Birtnins'ham.

1895, Jan.

8.

1887, Nov.

16.

1865, Nov.

14.

1888, Feb.

7-

1895, Jan.

8.

1894, Jan.

9-

1896, April

14.

1895, Mar.

5-

1898, Nov.

29.

1868, Dec.

15-

1896, April

14.

1896, April

28.

1861, Jan.

22.

1894,

Mar. 6.

1896,

Nov. 17.

1861,

April 2.

1889,

April 16.

i860,

Jan. 24.

Ordinary Members. xlix

Date of Election.

1886, April 6. Brown, Alfred, M. A., M.D. Sandycroft, Higher Broitgh-

ton, Manchester.
1846, Jan. 27. Browne, Henry, M.A. (Glas.), M.D. (Lend.), M.R.C.S.

(Lond. ), The Gables, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1889, Jan. 8. Brownell, T. W., F.R.A.S. 64, Upper Brook Street,

Manchester.
1889, Oct. 15. Budenberg, C. F., M.Sc, M.I.Mech.E. Bowdon Lane,

Marple, Cheshire.
1872, Nov. 12. Burghardt, Charles Anthony, Ph.D. 35, Fountain Street,

Manchester.
1894, Nov. 13. Burton, William, F.C.S. The Hollies, Clifton Junction.

near IManchester.

1899, Feb. 7. Chapman, D. L., B.A. Otoens College, Manchester.

1895, April 30. Collett, Edward Pyemont. 7, Wilbraham Road, Chorlton-
cum-Hardy, Manchester.

1884, Nov. 4. Corbett. Joseph. 7b2vn Hall, Salford.

1895, April 30. Cornish, James Edward. Stone House, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire.

1S59, Jan. 25. Coward, Edward, Assoc.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. Heather-
lea, Bowdon, Chcshii-e.

1899, Mar. 7. Crombie, Charles H., B.A. West Gate, Bnrford Road,
IVhalley Range, Manchester.

1895, Nov. 12. Crossley, W. J., M.I.Mech.E. Openshaw, Manchester.

1876, April 18. Cunliffe, Robert Ellis. Croft, Ambleside.

1853, April 19. Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.S.A., 1, St James'
Square, Manchester.

1895, April 9. Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of
Geology. Owens College, Manchester,

1894. Mar. 6. Delepine, A. Sheridan, M.B., B.Sc, Professor of Pathology.
Owens College. Manchester.

1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Bailey, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Che-
mistry. Oivens College, Manchester.

1898, Oct. 18. Donovan, E. W., M.I.Mech.E. Hilton House, Prest-cuich,
Lanes.

1899, April II. Earle, Hardman A. 40, Onghton Road, Birkdale, Lanes.

1883, Oct. 2. Faraday, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.S. Ramsay Lodge, Slade
Lane, Levenshulme, Manchester.

I Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.

19CX), April 24. Faiaday, Miss Lucy Winifred, M.A. Ramsay Lodt^e,

Slade Lane, Levenshu/me, Manchester.
1897, Oct. 19. Faraday, W. Barnard, LL.B. Ramsay Lodge, Slade Lane,

Levenshiihite, Manchester.
1900, Feb. 20. Flintoff, R. J. ffaxhy, Crtimpsall Lane, Crumpsall,

Manchester.
1895, April 30. Flux, A. W., M.A., Professor of Political Economy.

Owens College, Manchester.
1897, Nov. 30. Freston, H. W. 6, St, PaiiFs Lioad, Kersal, Manchester.

1898, Nov. 29. Gamble, F. W., D.Sc. Owe)is College, Manchester.
1900, Feb. 6. Goldthorpe, William. Brook House, Biiruage Latu,
Levensh uh/ie, ^Manchester.

1896, Nov. 17. Gordon, Rev. Alexander, M.A. Alemorial Hall, Albert

Square, Manchester.
1900, Oct. 16. Grindley, J. H., M.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

1897, Jan. 26. Grossmann, J., Ph.D. L^arpiirhey Chemical Works,

Harpurhey, Mafichester.
1875, Feb. 9. Gwyther, Reginald F., M.A., Fielden Lecturer in Mathe-
matics. Owens College, Manchester.

1890, Feb. 18. Ilarker, Thomas. Brook House. Fallowfield, Manchester.
1895, Nov. 12. Hartog, Philippe Joseph, B.Sc, F.C.S., Demonstrator in

Chemistry. Owens College, Manchester.
1890, Mar. 4. Henderson, II. A. Eastbourne House, Charlton Rocul,
Alanchester.
Ileywood, Charles J. Chaseley, Pendleton, Manchester.
Hickson, Sydney J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of

Zoology. Owens College, Alanchester.
Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B. , B.Sc. iS, St. John Street,

Alanchester.
Hopkinson, Alfred, K.C., M.A., LL.D., Principal of

Owens College. Fairfield, Vi:toria Park. Manchester.
Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Oakleigh,

Timperley, Cheshire.
Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., F.R.S.E., Director of the

Manchester Museum. Owens College, Manchester.
Hutton, R. S., M.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.
Huxley, George, M.I.Mech. E. 20, Mount Street, Man-
chester.

1899, Oct. 17. Ingleby, Joseph, M.I.Mech. E. Lngleside, Marple Bridge,
near Stockport.

1889, Jan.
1895, Mar.

8.
5

1884, Jan.

8.

1898, Nov.

29.

1896, Nov.

3-

1889, Oct.

IS-

1900, Oct.
1899, Oct.

16.
17-

Ordinary Members. li

Date of Election.

1870, Nov. I. Johnson, William H., B.Sc. 26, Lever Street, Manchester.
1896, Oct. 20. Jones, A. Emrys, M.D. 10, St. John Street, Manchester.
1878, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Manchester Gra/nmar
School.

1886, Jan. 12. Kay, Thomas. Moorfield, Stockpoi-l, Cheshire.

1891, Dec. I. King, John Edward, M.A., High Master, Manchester

Grammar School.
1S95, Nov. 12. Kirkman, W. W. The Grange, Timperley, Cheshire.

1893, Nov. 14. Lamb, Horace, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mathe-
matics. 6, Wilhraham Road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1899, Feb. 7. Lawrence, W. T., B. A., Ph.D. Ovens College, Manchester.

1895, Nov. 12. Lees, Charles Herbert, D.Sc. Demonstrator in Physics.
Owens College, Manchester.

1895, Mar. 5. Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Wilbrahant Road, Fallow-

field, Manchester.
1857, Jan. 27. Longridge, Robert Bewick, M.I. Mech.E. Yew Tree House,
TabUy, Kiiutsford, Cheshire.

1896, Nov. 3. Lynda, James Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Buckland, Ashtonon-

Mersey, Cheshire.

1898, Nov. 29. McConnel, J. W., RLA. Wellhaitk, Preslwich, Lanes.
1866, Nov. 13. McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc, Fallowfield House, Fallowfield,

Manchester.
1875, Jan. 26. Mann, J. Dixon, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Lond.), Professor of

Medical Jurisprudence at Owens College. \6, St. John

Street, Manchester.
1896, Oct. 20. Massey, Leonard F. Openshaiv, Manchester.
1864, Nov. I. Mather, William, M. P., M.Inst.C.E., M.I. Mech.E. Lron

Works, Saljord.
1873, Mar. 18. Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S. Brook House,

Prestwich, Lanes.
1896, Nov. 3. Milligan, William, M.D. IVestbourne, Wilvislow Road,

Rusholme, Manchester.
1881, Oct. 18. Mond, Ludwig, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Winnington Hall,

Northwich, Cheshire.
1894, Feb. 6. Mond, Robert Ludwig, M. A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Winning-
ton Hall, Northwich, Cheshire.

1899, Mar. 7. Morris, Edgar F., M.A. , F.C.S. Grey House, Bar7itigton

Road, Altrincham, Cheshire.

lii Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.

1873, Mar. 4- Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. %i„ Major Street, Manchester.
1900, April 3. Nicolson, John T., D.Sc. T, Athol Road, Alexandra Park,

Manchester.
1889, April 16. Norbury, George. Hillside, Prestwich Park, Prestwich,

Lanes.

1884, April 15. Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S, Cverley, Langham Road,

Borvdon, Cheshire.

1895, Nov. 12. Pennington, James Dixon, B.A., M.Sc, 254, Oxford Road,

Ma7ichester.

1892, Nov. 15. Perkin, W. H., jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic

Chemistry. Owens College, Manchester.

1885, Nov. 17. Phillips, Henry Harcourt, F.CS. 9, Cra-wford Avenue,

Bolton, Lanes.

1900, Feb. 20. Ragdale, J. R. The Beeches, Whitefield, near Manchester.
1888, Feb. 21. Ree, Alfred, Ph.D., F.CS. 15, Mauldeth Road, Withing-

t07i, Manchester.
1869, Nov. 16. Reynolds, Osborne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.,

Professor of Engineering, Owens College. 19, Lady/mm

Road, Failo-vficld, Manchester.
1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P. (Lond.)

Ravenswood, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1864, Dec. 27. Robin.son, John, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. IVestwood

Hall, Leek, Staffs.

1897, Oct. 19. Rothwell, William Thomas. Lleath Brewery, Newton

Heathy near Manchester.

1893, Mar. 21. Schill C. H. 117, Portland Street, Manchester.

1896, Nov. 17. Schmitz, Hermann Emil, B.A., B.Sc. Manchester Gram-

r/iar School.
1842, Jan. 25. Schunck, Edward, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.CS. Kersal,

Manchester.
1873, Nov. 18. Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of

Physics. Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1898, Jan. 25. Schwabe, Louis. Hart Hill, Eccles Old Road, Peualeion,

Manchester.

1895, Nov. 12. Shearer, Arthur. 36, Demesne Road, Alexandra Park,
Alanchester.

1890, Nov. 4. Sidcbotham, Edward John, M.A., M.B., M.R.CS. Erles-
dene, Boiudon, Cheshire.

1890, Jan. 21. Sidebotham, James Nasmyth, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. Park-
field, Groby Place, Allrincham, Cheshire.

Ordinary Members. liii

Date of Election.

1895, Nov. 12. Southern, Frank, B.Sc. 6, Park Avenue, Tirnperky,

Cheshire.

1896, Feb. 18. Spence, David Pine Ridge, Buxton.

1896, April 14. Stanton, Thomas E., M.Sc, Professor of Engineering.

University College, Bristol.
1894, Jan. 9. Stevens, Marshall, F.S.S. li. Exchange Street, Manchester.
1894, Nov. 13. Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. J^igh 'J horn, Stamford . Road,

Bowdon, Cheshire.

1897, Nov. 30. Stromeyer, C. E., M.Inst.C.E. Steam Users' Association,

9, Mount Street, Albert Square, Manchester.

1895, April 9. Tatton, Reginald A., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer to the

Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee. 44, Mosley Street,

Manchester.
1893, Nov. 14. Taylor, R. L., F.C.S., F.I.C. Central School. Whitworth

Street, Manchester.
1873, April 15. Thomson, William, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. Royal

Institution, Manchester.
1S96, Jan. 21. Thorburn, William, M.D., B.Sc. 2, St. Peter's Square,

Manchester.

1896, Jan. 21. Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, near Manchester.
1899, Oct. 31. Thorpe, Jocelyn F., Ph.D., Demonstrator in Organic

Chemistry. Owens College, Manchester.
1899, Oct. 17. Todd, W. H. Greenfield, Flixton, near Manchester.

1873, Nov. 18. Waters, Arthur William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Sunny Lea,
Davos Dor/, Sivitzerland.

1892, Nov. 15. Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
Owens College. 4, Clijton Avenue, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.

1895, April 9, Whitehead, James. Lindfield, Fulshaw Park, VVilmslow,

Cheshire.
1859, Jan. 25. Wilde, Henry, D.Sc, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge,

Cheshire.
1859, April 19. Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford,

Cheshire.

1888, April 17. Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.,

Spring Gardens, Manchester.

1896, Dec. I. Wilson, George, D.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

1889, April 16. Wilson, Thomas B. Holly Vale House, Mellor, near

Marple, Cheshire.
i860, April 17. WooUey, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Salford.

liv Ordinary Members.

Date 0/ Election.

1863, Nov. 17. Worthington, Samuel Barton, M.Inst..C.E., M.I.Mech.E.

Alt II Hatik, Bowdon, arni 37, Princess Street, Jllaiic /teste?.
1865, Feb. 21. Worthington, Thomas, F.R.I.B.A., 46, Brown Street,

iMaiichester.
189s, Jan. 8. Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc. M.Inst. C.E. 2, Wilton

Polygon, Chectham Hill, Manchester.
1897, Oct. 19. Wyatt, Charles JJ. Chetford, Cheshire.

N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their
subscriptions, and are therefore life members : —

Bailey, Charles, F.L.S.
Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S.
Brogden, Heury, F.G.S.
Johnson, William H., B.Sc.
Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc.

Honorary Members. Iv

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Date 0/ Election.

1892, April 26. Abney, Sir W. de W., K.C.B., D.Sc, F.R.S. Rathvtore

Lodge, Bolton Gardens South, South KensingtOTi, London,

S.VV.
1892, April 26. Amagat, E. H., For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.), Honorary Professor, Faculte des Sciences,

Lyon. 34, Rue St. Lambert, Paris.
1894, April 17. Appell, Paul, Membre de Tlnstitut, Professor of Theoretical

Mechanics. Faculte des Sciences, Paris,
1892, April 26. Ascherson, Paul F. Aug., Professor of Botany. Universildt,

Berlin.
1889, April 30. Avebury, John Lubbock, Lord, D.C.L. LL.D. F.K.S.

High Elms, Down, Kent.

1892, April 26. Baeyer, Adolf von, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Chemistry.

I, Arcisstrasse, Munich.
1896, Feb. 9. Baker, Sir Benjamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S. 2, Queen

Square Place, Westminster, London, S. W.
1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S., F.L.S. 3, Cumberland

Road, Kew.
189s, April 30. Beilstein, F., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry. Slh Line,

N. 17, St. Peter sbitrg, W.O.
1886, Feb. 9. Berthelot, Marcellin, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de I'lnstitut,

Professor of Chemistry,Secretaire perpetual del'Academie

des Sciences. Paris.
1892, April 26. Boltzmann, Ludwig, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics.

K. K. Uiiiversitdt, Vienna.
1886, Feb. 9. Buchan, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

42, Heriot Ro-iV, Edinburgh.

1888, April 17. Cannizzaro, Stanislao, For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb.

Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Chemistry. Reale
University, Rome.

1889, April 30. Carruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.S. \^, Vermont Road,

Norwood, London, S.E.

Ivi Honorary Members.

Date of Election,

1866, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy. 3, Bardwell Road,
Banbury Road, Oxford.

1887, April 19. Cornu, Marie Alfred, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de
rinstitut, Professor of Physics. £,cole Poly technique,
Paris.

1892, April 26. Curtius,Theorlor, Professor of Chemistry. Universitdt, Kiel.

1892, April 26. Darboux, Gaston, Membre de I'lnstitut, Professor of
Geometry, Faculte des Sciences, Secretaire perpetual de
I'Academie des Sciences. 36, Rue Gay Lussac, Paris.

1894, April 17. Debus, II., Ph.D., F.R.S. 4, Schlangenweg, Cassel,

Hessen, Germany.

1888, April 17. Dewalque, Gustave, Professor of Geology. Universite,

Liege.
1900, April 24. Dewar James, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. , Fullerian

Professor of Chemistry. Royal Iiistiljition, Albemarle

Street, London, IV.
1892, April 26. Dohrn, Dr. Anton, For. Mem. R.S. Zoologische Station,

Naples.
1892, April 26. Dyer, Sir W. T. Thistelton, K.C.M.G., CLE,, M.A.,

F.R.S., Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew,

1892, April 26. Edison, Thomas Alva. Orange, N.J., U.S.A.

1895, April 30. Elster, Julius, Ph.D. 6, Lessingstrasse, IVolfenbilllel.
1900, April 24. Ewing, James Alfred, M.A., F. R.S. , Professor of Mechanism

and Applied Mechanics. L^angdale Lodge, Cambridge.

1889, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany. Harvaj-d College,

Cambridge, Mass., U.S A.

1900, April 24. Forsyth, Andrew Russell, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Sadlerian
Professor of Pure Mathematics. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

1889, April 30. Foster, Sir Michael, K.C.B., M.P., M.A , M.D., LL.D.,
Sec. R.S., Professor of Physiology Trinity College,
Cambridge.

1892, April 26. Fiirbringer, Max, Professor of Anatomy. \Grosskerz.
Universitdt, Jena.

1892, April 26. Gegenbaur, Carl, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Anatomy.
57, Leofoldstrasse, Heidelberg.

1900, Ai)ril 24. Geikie, James, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Murchison Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy. Kilmorie, Colinton
Pood, Edinburgh.

Honorary Members. Ivii

Date of Election.

1895, April 30. Geitel, Hans. 6, Lessingstrasse, Wolfeitbiiltel.

1892, April 26. Gibbs, J. Willard, For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.), Professor of Mathematical Physics. Yale

University, New Haven, U.S.A.
1894, April 17. Glaisher, J. W. L., Sc.D., F. R.S., Lecturer in Mathematics.

Trinity College, Cambridge.
1894, April 17. Gouy, A., Professor of Physics. Facttlt^ des Sciences, Lyons.
1894, April 17. Guldberg, Cato M., Professor of Applied Mathematics.

Christiania, Norjuay.

1900, April 24. Haeckel, Ernst, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology. Zoologisches

Instititt, Jena.
1894, April 17. Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., U.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.,

Lee's Reader in Chemistry, Christ Church. Cowley

Graitge, Oxjord.
1894, April 17. Heaviside, Ohver, F.R.S. Bradley View, Newton Abbot,

Devon.
1892, April 26. Hill, G. W. IVestNyack, N. V., U.S.A.
1888, April 17. Hittorf, Johann Wilhehn, Professor of Physics. Polytech-

nicum, IMiinster.
1892, April 26. Hoff, J. van't, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of

Chemistry. 2, Uklandstrasse, Charlottenburg, Berlin.
1892, April 26. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, G.C.S.L, C.B., D.C.L.,

F.R.S.. Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). The Camp,

Sunningdale, Berks.
1869, Jan. 12. Huggins, Sir William, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

F.R.A.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). 90,

Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S. IV.
i85i,April29 Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord, G.C.V.O., M.A.,

D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., For. Assoc. Inst.

Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire.
1892, April 26. Klein, Feli.x, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst.

Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Mathematics. 3, Wilheim

Weber Strasse, Gottingen.
1894, April 17. Konigsberger, Leo, Professor of Mathematics. Universitdt,

Heidelbers^.

1895, .A.pril 30. Lacaze-Duthiers, F. J. Henri de. For. Mem. R.S., Membra
de rinstitut. Professor of Zoology and Comparative
Anatomy. 7, Rue de I Estrapade, Paris.

1892, April 26. Ladenburg, A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry. 3, Kaiser
Wilhehn Strasse, Bteslau.

Iviii Honorary Members.

Date of Election.
1887, April 19. Langley, S. P., For. Mem. R.S. Smithsonian Institution,

IVaihinglon, U.S.A.
1892, April 26. Liebermann, C, Professor of Chemistry. 29, Matthdi-

Kirch Strasse. Berlin.
1887, April 19. Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, KC.B., F.R.S., Corr. Memb.

Inst. Fr. (Acad. ."^ci.). Science School, Kensington,

I.ondott, S. IV.
1900, April 24. Lorentz, Henrik Anton, Professor of Physics. Hooi^'ackt,

48, Leydeii.

1892, April 26. Marshall, Alfred, M.A., Professor of Political Economy.

Balliol C'oft, Madingley Road, Cambridge.
1892, April 26. Mascart, E. E. N., For. Mem. R.S., Membre de I'lnstitut,

Professor at the College de France. 176, Rue de

r University, Paris.
1889, April 30. Mendeleefif, D. , Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Universite, St.

Petersburg.
1895, April 30. Mittag-Leffler, Gosta, D.C.L. (Oxon.), For. Mem. R.S.,

Professor of Mathematics. Djursholm, Stockholm.
1892, April 26. Moissan, H., Membre de I'lnstitut, Professor of the Faculte

des Sciences a la Sorbonne. T, Rue Vauquelin, Paris.
1894, April 17. Murray, Sir John, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

1894, April 17. Neumayer, Professor G., For. Mem. R.S., Director of the

Seewarte. Hamburg.
1887, April 19. Newcomb, Simon, For. Mem. R.S., For. Assoc. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.), Profepsor of Mathematics and Astronomy.

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

1894, April 17. Ostwald, W., Professor of Chemistry. 2/3, Lintiestras.'e,
Leipsic.

1899, April 25. Palgrave, R. II. Inglis, P'.R.S-, F.S.S. Belton, Great

Yarmouth.
1892, ..\pril 26. Perkin, \V. II., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. The

Chestnuts, Sudbury, Harrow.
1894, April 17. Pfeffer, Wilhelm, For. Mem. K.S., Professor of Botany.

Botanisches Institut, Leipsic.
1892, April 26. Poincare, IP, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de I'lnstitut,

Professor of Astronomy. 63, Rue Claude Bernard, Paris.

Honorary Members. lix

Date of EUciioH.

1892, April 26. Quincke, G. H., For. Mem. R.S., Professpr of Ph\-sics.
Untvcrsiiiit, Heiddbtro.

1899, April 25. Ramsay, William, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistr)-.

12, Arundel Gardens, lioCtng Hill, London, IV.
1S49, Jan. 23. Rawson, Robert, F. R.A.S. Hazant, Hants.
1886, Feb. o. Rayleigh, JohnWilUam Strutt, Lord, M.A., D.CL. (Oson.),

LL.D. (Univ. McGill), F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Corr. Memb.

Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Teriing Place, IViikain, Esse.v.

1900, April 24. Ricigway, Robert, Curator of the Department of Birds, U.S.

2sauonal Museum. Brockland, District of Columbia,

U.S.A.
1S97, April 27. Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

V.P.C.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). 10,

Bratnham Gardens, EarPs Court, London, S. W.
1SS9, April 30. Routh, Edward John, D.Sc, F.R.S. Neicnham Cottage,

Queen s Road, Cambrictge.

1889, April 30. Salmon, Rev. George, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Provcst's House,
Trinity CoLege, Dublin.

1894, April 17. Sanderson, Sir J. S. Burdon, Bart., M A., M.D., F.R.S.,

Corr. Memh. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Regius Professor of

Medicine. University, Cxford.
1S92, April 26. Sharpe, R. Bowdler, LL.D., F.L.S., F.Z.S. British

Museum (Natural History;, Cromwell Road, London,

S. W.
1S92, April 26. Solms, H. Graf zu. Professor of Botany. Untversitdi,

Strassburg.
1S69, Dec. 14. Sorby, Henr)- Clifton, LL.D., F.R.S. , F.L.S., F.G.S.,

Broomfield, Sheffield.
1S51, April 29. Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, Bart., M.A., LL.D.,

D.C.L., F.R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (.Acad. Sci.),

Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. LensfieU Cottage,

Cambridge.
18S6, Feb. 9. Strasburger, Eduard, D.C.L., For. Mem. R.S., Professor

of Botany. Universitdt, Bonn.

1895, April 30. Suess, Eduard, Ph.D., For. Mem. U.S., For. Assoc. Inst.

Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Geolog)-. 9, A/ricanergasse,
Vienna.

1S95, April 30. Thomson, Joseph John, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Experimental Physics. 6, Set ope Terrace, Canii>ridge.

Ix Honorary Members.

Date of Election,

1894, April 17. Thorpe, T. E., C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D , F.R.S., P.C.S.,

Government Laboratory, Ckmeuts Inn Passage, Strand,

London, IV. C.
1900, April 24. Tower, Beauchamp, M.Inst.C.E. IVarley Mount, Brent-
wood, Essex.
1894, April 17. Turner, Sir William, K.C.B., M.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

F. R.S. E., Professor of Anatomy. 6, Eton Terrace,

Edinburgh.
1886, Feb. 9. Tylor, Edward Burnett, D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D. (.St. And.

and McGill Colls.), F.R.S., Professor of Anthropology,

Museicin House, Oxford.

1894, April 17. Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc. P'.R.S., Sherardian
Professor of Botany. LJeadington Hill, Oxford.

April 17. Warburg, Emil, Professor of Physics. Physikalisches

Lnstittit, Neue Wilhelmstrasse, Berlin.
April 17. Ward, H. Marshall, D.Sc, F.R. 3., Professor of Botany.

Botanical Laboratory, New Museums, Cambridge.
April 17. Weismann, August, Professor of Zoology. Universitdt,

Freibttrg i. Br.
April 30. Williamson, Ale.\ander William, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,

V.P.C.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). High

Pitfold, Shottermill, Haslemere, Surrey.

1886, Feb. 9. Young, Charles Augustus, Professor of Astronomy,
Princeton College, N./., U.S.A.

1888, April 17. Zirkel, Ferdinand, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Mineralogy.

1 hralstrasse, 33, Leipsic.
1895, April 20. Zittel, Carl Alfred von. Professor of Palaeontology and

Geology. Universtdt, Munich.

Corresponding Members. Ixi

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,

Date of Election
1850, April 30. Harley, Rev. Robert, Hon.M.A. (Oxon),F.R.S.,F.R.A.S.,

Hon. Alemb. R.S., Queensland. Kosslyn, Westbouriie

Road, Forest Hill, London, S.E., and The Atheucewn

Club, London, S. W.
1882, Nov. 14. Ilerford, Rev. Brooke, D.D. 91, Fitzjohn's Avenue^

Hampstead, London, N. IF.

1859, Jan. 25. Le Jolis, Auguste Fran9ois, Ph.D., Archiviste-perpetuel,
of the Soc. Nat. Sci. Cherbourg. Cherbourg.

Award of Medals and Premium,

Axvards of the Wilde Medal tinder the conditions of the
Wilde Efidozvincnt Fund.

1896. Sir George G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S.

1897. Sir William Huggins, K.C.B., F.R.S.

1898. Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, G.C.S.I., C.B.,

F.R.S.

1899. Sir Edward Frankland, K.C.B., F.R.S.

1900. Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.

1901. Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, For. Mem. R.S.

Azvards of the Dalton Medal.

1898. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.
1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.

Awards of the Premium imder the conditions of the
Wilde E?idowment Fund.

1897
1898
1899,
1900.
1901

Peter Cameron.
John Butterworth, F.R.M.S.
Charles H. Lees, D.Sc.
Prof. A. W. Flux, M.A.
Thomas Thorp.

The Wilde Lectures. Ixiii

THE WILDE LECTURES.

1897. (July 2.) " On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays."

By Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart, F.R.S. {28 pp.)

1898. (Mar. 29.) "On the Physical Basis of Psychical

Events." By Sir MiCHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B.,
F.R.S. {46 pp.)

1899. (Mar. 28.) "The newly discovered Elements;

and their relation to the Kinetic Theory of
Gases." By Prof WiLLlAM Ramsay, F.R.S.
{19pp.)

1900. (Feb. 13.) ''"The Mechanical Principles of Flight."

By the Rt. Hon. LoRD Rayleigh, F.R.S.
{26 pp.)

1901. (April 22.) " Sur la Flore du Corps Humain."

By Dr. Elif Metciinikoff, For. Mem. R.S.
{38 pp.)