<^7' FOR THE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS 6^^oi(uZ^7^J'^2. CM MANCHESTER LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. (MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.) Volume LVl. (1911-12. MANCHESTER : 36, GEORGE STREET. 1912. /t> ; ^'l^'lcHrf^'^^^ NOTE. The authors of the several papers contained in this volume are themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings which they have offered. In these par- ticulars the Society must not be considered as in any way responsible. CONTENTS. INAUGURAL ADDRESS. Researches on Heredity in I'lants. By llie President, Trof. F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S. IViik i PL ... pp. {Issued separately , April 23nd, igiJ.) MEMOIRS. I. Mersenne's Numbers. By H. J. Woodai.i., A.R.C.Sc. (Lond.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... pp. I — 5 {Issued separately, December 12th, igii.) II. On a Collection of Arachnida and Chilopoda, made by Mr. S. A. Neave in Rhodesia, North of the Zambesi. By .S. Hirst. With 2 Text-figs pp. i — 11 {Issued separately, Deceiuher 30th. iQii) III. Intensive Study of the Scales of three Specimens of Sal/no .';alar. By Philippa C. Esdaile, M.Sc. IViih r P!., J Diags., 4 Graphs, and Tables ... ... pp. i — 22 {Issued separately, February ibth, igi2.) IV. A Geometrical Treatment ot Geodesic Torsion. By Lancelot V. Meadowcroft, B.A., M.Sc. With 4 Textfigs pp. I— 13 {Issued separately. March bill, 1QI2). V. Observations upon the Improvement of the Physique of Manchester Grammar School Boys during the last 30 years. By Alfred A. Mumford, M.D pp. i — 19 {Issued separately, February 2bth, igi2.) VI. The Synthesis of Hydrocarbons and their .Stabibty at High Temperatures and Pressures. By J. N. Pring, D.Sc, and D. M. Fairi.ie, M.Sc. With i Text-fig ... pp. i— 9 {Issued separately, Marcli 8th, 1Q12. ) \TI. The Duration of Life of the Common and the Lesser Shrew, with some notes on their Habits. By Lionel E. Adams, B.A. With i PL pp. i — lo (Issued separately, Fehxary 6th, igi2.) VI CONTENTS. VIII. A Note on the Little Owl Carine Noctua (Scop.), and its Food. By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S. pp. i — ii (Issued separately, Janvary 31st, tC)I2.) IX. On the Modes of Rupture of an Open Hemispherical Concrete Shell under Axial Pressure. By J. R. GwYTHER, M.A. With I PL pp. i— 8 (Issued separately, April zgtli, IQ12.) X. The Formal Specification of the Elements of Stress in Cartesian, and in Cylindrical and Spherical Polar Coordinates. By R. F. Gwyther, M.A. IVith Table ... ... ... ... ... ... pp. i — 13 {I ssi, not greater than 257, which make 2^—1 a prime are : — 1. 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, ^i, 67, 127, 257. He published no proof of his statement, nor any indication as to how he arrived at it. Up to the present time it has only been partly verified. Only two errors have been found, viz. : — (2"' - i) found prime ; (2"^- i) found composite. The work so far done leaves still unverified only 15 out of the 44 numbers originall)' affirmed composite (by Mer- senne), and one affirmed prime, viz. : — composite /=ior, 103, 107, 109, 137, 139, 149, 157, 167, '73' '93. '99> 227, 229, 241 ; and prime /'--^257. Table I. shows the present state of the examination of this assertion. The purpose of this paper is to put on record the method by which 2'^'— i was proved to be composite. December 12th. igii. WooJ)ALL, Mcrseniics A'nu/he/s. MERSENNE'S NUMBERS. Table I. / 2''- I. S|)ccies. prime Authorily. I 1 2 1 0 prime 1 3 7 prime 5 31 prime 7 127 prime 1 1 23x89 comp. 13 8191 prime 17 13107. prime 19 524287 prime 23 47 X I 7848 1 comp. Fermat. 29 233 X r 103 X 2089 comp. Euler. 31 2147483647 prime Euler. 37 223 X 6163181 77 comp. Fermat. 41 13367 X 16451 1353 comp. Plana. 43 431 X 9719 X 2099863 comp. Euler. 47 2351 X45I3X "3264529 comp. Landry. 53 6361 X 69431 X 20394401 comp. Landry. 59 '7995 1 X 3203431780337 comp Landry. 61 2305843009213693951 prime Seelhoff. 67 193707721 X 761838257287 comp. Prof. Cole. 71 228479 X comp. Col. Cunningham. 73 439 X comp. Euler. 79 2687 X comp. Le Lasseur. 83 167 X comp. Euler. 89 (unknown ) comp. Lucas. 97 1 1447 X comp. Le Lasseur. lOI 103 107 109 Manchcsler Metnoiys, Vol. hi. (1911), No. MERSENNE'S NUMBERS. ' 1' A B L K I. — Continued, p 113 2^- I. Species. Auiliority 3391 X 23279 X 65993 X com p. Le J^asseuf lS: Col. C.i 127 (see below *) prime Lucas. J 131 263 X comp. Euler. 137 139 149 151 181 21 X 55871 com p. Le Lasseur & Col. C. 157 163 150287 X comp. Col. Cunningham. 167 1 173 179 359 X 1433 X comp. Euler & Reuschie. 181 43441 X comp. Woodall. ' 191 383 X comp. Euler. ^93 197 7487 X comp. Col. Cunningham. 199 211 I5I93X comp. Le Lasseur. 223 18287 ^ comp. Le Lasse\ir. 227 229 233 1399 X comp. Le Lasseur. 239 479 X 1Q13 X5737 X comp. E., R. &C.t 241 251 503 X 54217 X comp. Euler & Col. C. 257 For the 15 (supposed composite) numbers still unveiified, all possible factors, not greater than 500,000, have been tried by Col. Cunningham. *2^'-' I = i70i4ii8346046923i73i6873037i5884i05727 = prinie. t E.. 1\. & C. = Euler, Keuschle and Col. (Ainningham. 4 WOODALL, Merseniies Nuvihers. The author has been engaged for some time, in conjunction with Lt.-Col. Cuimingham, R.E., in deter- mining for all primes up to 100,000, the least exponents (^,) which substituted in the expression 2?— i, give numerical results exactly divisible by those prime numbers. When he came to the prime 43441, he found that the only possible ^'s were 181, and 5 x 181. The work then proceeded thus : — 2^' divided by 43441 gave a remainder + 2480 : squaring this, he found that 2"" similarly gave a remainder + 252 19 : again, squaring and doubling, 2'''' gave a remainder of + r, which proved that 2'*'— i is exactly divisible by the prime 43441. On performing the division (directly) the quotient was found to be 70555 26073 82835 96526 70735 14491 06106379629341966511. About this quotient the only property that can be asserted is that " if it has a factor it must be of one of the two forms 1448//+1 or 1448^+ 1087." As, for the 15 supposed composite (but still unverified) numbers, all possible factors up to the comparatively high limit of 500,000 have now been examined, it is obvious that further work will be slow. The second column of Table I. shows all the prime factors of Mersenne's numbers as now known. The Table II. gives the forms of the only possible divisors of all numbers not yet completely examined. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 1), No. \. 5 Table II. Forms of the only possible divisors of u7ico77ipleted Alersenne's nmnbers. p / 71 568;?+ I 568^ + 143 163 1304 >? 4- I 1304^+ 327 73 584//+ 1 584,7 f 439 167 1336;^+ I 1336^+ 335 79 632^ 4- I 632« + 159 173 1384/2 -1- I i384«-f 1039 83 664^ +- I 664/?+ 167 179 i432« -f- I 1432;/-!- 359 89 712;/+ I 712^^ + 535 i8r 1448^ -1- I 1448^ +1087 97 776;;+ I 776A/ + 583 191 1528^ -(- I 1528;/-!- 383 lOI 8o8^; + I 8o8« + 607 193 1 544/z + I 1544^+ 1 159 103 824?/ + I 824^ + 207 197 i576«-|- 1 I576;i-Mi83 107 856^+ I 856« + 215 199 1592^ -1- I iS92ft+ 399 109 872^ + I 872;? + 655 21 1 i688«-|-i 1688// -f 423 113 904^ + I 904« + 679 223 1784^ -)- T 1784^-1- 447 127 ioi6« + I xovdn + 255 227 i8i6«-f I i8i6w+ 455 13^ 1048;/+ I 1048;^ + 263 229 i832«4- 1 i832«-f 1375 137 1096;/ + I 1096// -1-823 233 1864^ + I 1864;? + 1399 139 III2/2+ I 1 I 12/2 -i- 279 239 jgi2u+ I i9i2«-f- 479 149 1192;?+ I I 192;? -1- 895 241 i928«-i- 1 1928^ -1- 1447 151 I2o8« + I i2o8?/ + 303 251 2oo8«-H I 2oo8«-l- 503 157 1256;^ 4- I i256A/-i-943 257 2056^ + I 2056^ -1-1543 Maiiclicslcr iMoiioirs, Vol. hi. (191 1 ), No. *Z. II. On a Collection of Arachnida and Chilopoda, made by Mr. S. A. Neave in Rhodesia, North of the Zambezi. By S. Hirst. {Published by permission of the Trustees of the British Museum.)' {Comiuiiniated by Dr. 11'. Jl/. Tatteisall.) {I'leceircd and read Otiober ijth, igii.) The follovviniT short report deals with the scorpions, jiedipalps, and Solifugae, and the centipedes collected by Mr. Neave. Two new species (a scorpion and a species of SolpHgii) are represented in the material, and I have taken the opportunity to publish the descriptions of two new Rhodesian arachnids obtained by other collectors. My best thanks are due to Dr. W. M. Tattersall (Keeper of the University Museum, Manchester) for his kindness in sending me this collection for examination. CLASS ARACHNIDA. Order SCORPIONES. I. Buthus trilineatus, Ptrs. Cefttruriis trilineatus, Peters, Moi. Ak. Berlin, p. 515 (1862). Buthus trilifteat?is, Kraepelin, Das Tierreich, Scor- pions, etc., p. 21 (1899). Loc. Feira District (June ist — Aug. 15th, 1904). East bank of Loangwa, I'ortuguese East Africa. The British Museum possesses specimens from Madona, N.E. Rhodesia (D. MacDonald). December joth, igii. 2 HiKST, Collection of Ai-aclniida (uuf Chilopoda 2. Parabuthus truculentus, sp. n. Carapace granular throughout ; superciliary ridges of oculartubercle smooth, but the groove between them weakly granular. Tcrgites of abdomen very finely granular anteriorly, the granulation of the posterior part of them much coarser but not very coarse. First stcriute finely granular at the sides but smooth in the middle ; sternites 2-4 with fine granulation at the lateral margins only ; last sternite distinctly granular at the sides but only very weakly and sparsely granular in the middle ; it has four keels, the outer ones being granular but the middle ones smooth. Tail. In the central part of the stridulatory area of the first segment the granules are fused to form transverse ridges, which are especially well developed in the posterior half In the second segment the ridges occupy practically the entire breadth of the long and narrow stridulatory area, and nearly all of them are quite continuous and uninterrupted. Intercarinal sj^aces distinctly granular. Segments 1-4 each with ten granular keels, and the granules of which they are composed are not exception- ally large ; it is only in the posterior half, however, that the median ventral keels become distinctly granular, [See the comparison between this new species and the one from the Kalahari desert below.] Median lateral keel of the fourth segment fully developed ; superior keel weak in its posterior half in the third and fourth segments ; median ventral keels of the fourth coming to an end at some distance from the posterior end of the segment. Superior keel of fifth caudal segment present only in the anterior third, and consisting merely of three strong granules and a short series of weak granules ; in the posterior two-thirds of this segment there is no trace of Maiichcster Monoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 1), No. %. 3 any superior keel, and the granulation of the edge of the upper surface and sides is quite fine, none of the granules being enlarged. Hand of chela about as wide as the tibia ; the movable finger a little more than twice the length of the hand-back. Pectines with 35-36 teeth ; the ba.sal lamella of the scape does not bear an)- teeth, and is produced inwardly so as to form a wide lobe. Colour yellow, except for the dorsal surface of the trunk which is brown, the first six tergites being darker than the carapace and the last tergite. Measurements, in mm. Total length, 92 ; length of carapace, 9*5, of fifth caudal segment, 10. Loc. East bank of the Loangwa, Portuguese East Africa ; a single example of the female sex. Remarks. — This new species differs, apparently, from /'. mosavibicensis, Peters (Tete, Portuguese Zambesia and Severelela in Bechuelaland j, in that the superior keel of the fifth caudal segment is only present in the anterior third of the segment (see Prof Kraepelin's notes on P. inosambicoisis in L. Schultze, Zool. u. aiithrop. Ergeb- nisse e. F^orschungsreise iti Sudafrika, p{x 255 and 256, Fig I). In the British Museum collection there is a male specimen of a Parabuthus, collected by Mr. R. J. Cunningham in the Kalahari desert, which has the stridulatory areas of the first and second caudal segments very similar to those of the new species, but the fusion of the granules, to form transverse ridges, is not so complete. It is possible that this species is the true P. vtosambicensisy but I have not had the opportunity of comparing it with specimens from the typical locality, and therefore cannot be certain of its identity. It differs from P. triiculentus. 4 Hirst, Collection of Araclniida atul Chilopoda. sp. n., in the following details of structure. Segments of tail stouter and shorter ; granules of the keels of the posterior caudal segments much larger and more rounded, especially in the third and fourth segments ; superior keel of third and fourth segments well developed through- out the entire length of the segment ; superior keel of fifth segment well developed anteriorly, but breaking down a little before the middle so as to form a rather irregular group, or double series, of weaker granules, then continuing to the posterior end of the segment as a single series. 3. Lychas burdoi, E. Sim. hometrus burdoi, E. Simon, Bull. Soc. ent. Belgique, V. 26, p. Iviii. (1882). Ardiisonictrns burdoi, Kraepelin, Das Tierreich, Scorpiones, etc., p. 48 (1899). Loc. Petauke. 4. Lychas asper, Poc. hometrus asper, Pocock, /. Linn. Soc, v. 23, p. 445 (1890). ArcJiisometrus asper, Kraepelin, Das Jierreich, Scor- piones, etc., p. 49 (1899). Loc. N.E. Rhodesia (exact locality not given). E. bank of Loangwa, Portuguese East Africa. An example from Madona, N.E. Rhodesia, has recently been received at the British Museum. This species was hitherto only known to occur in the Congo and Angola. 5. Uroplectes planimanus, Karsch. Lepreus planimanus, Karsch, Mt, Miifich. ent. Ver., V. 3, p. 125 (1879). Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 1), No. *4. 5 Uroplectes planimaniis, Kraepelin, Das Tierreich, Scorpiones, etc., p. 56 (1899). Loc. N.E. Rhodesia, four examples without exact locaHty, labelled Aug. 4th — Aug. 20th, 1905. 6. Uroplectes xanthogrammus, Poc. Ufoplectes xanthograuinius, Pocock, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6}, 19, p. 118 (1897); op. cit. (7) ii., p. 431 (1898). Loc. South of Petauke ; one male specimen. E. bank of Loangvva ; two females. The specimens recorded above are the only ones ot this species that have been captured so far, except the typical specimens, which were obtained on the east shore of lake Nyassa by the members of the Universities mission. 7. Uroplectes chubbi, sp. n. This new species resembles U. xanthogrammus, Poc, so closely in structure that I am giving a short comparison between it and that species, instead of describing it in great detail. Tergites of abdomen rather more strongly granular than those of U. xanthogrammus. Tail polished and shining, and with the punctures of the sides and ventral surface much larger and deeper (than in U . xanthogramnms and U. fischeri) — this is especially noticeable in the posterior segments of it, all the segments are also much shorter and stouter (see the measurements given at the end of this description). Colour darker than that of U. xanthogrammus, both the yellow of the 6 Hirst, Collection of Arachnida and Chilopoda. body and appendages and the fuscous markings being deeper in tint. Fuscous markings of carapace resembling those of U- xantkograuunns in distribution ; dorsal surface of abdomen, however, much more extensively darkened, for there is no pale central stripe, all the middle part of the trunk being occupied by a very broad longitudinal band of deep black, a minute median yellowish speck is present, however, at the posterior end of tergites 4 — 6 ; on each side of the trunk a longitudinal series of yellowish patches is present. Fourth segment of tail (and also the vesicle) a deeper brown than is the case in U. xantho- gramnnis. and the fifth segment quite black. Palp similar in colour to that of U. xanthogramiuus ; femora and tibiae of legs marked with dark lines. The following details of structure may also be useful : — Hand, movable finger about twice the length of the hand- back, and with twelve rows of granules. Pcctinal teeth, seventeen in number, the basal one shorter than the others. Measurements, in mm. Total length 3 2 '5 ; length 01 carapace 375, of tail (vesicle incl.) I9'5, of fourth caudal segment 3*5, its width 275 ; length of fifth c. segment 375, its width 2-^5. [Length of fourth segment in a female example (type; of U. xaniJiogyavimus 4, its width 26 ; length of the fifth c. segment 425, its width 275]. LOC. Rhodesia (Bulawayo ?) ; a single adult female, carrying its young ones, collected b\- Mr. E. C. Chubb. Remarks. — The young are much paler in colour than the mother scori)ion, and their abdomen has a pale central stripe as in U. xantliograuinms, etc. ; the fourth segment of the tail is pale, like the anterior segments, only the last segment and the vesicle beinfj fuscous. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. ( 1 9 1 1 ), No. 2. 7 8. Uroplectes flavoviridis, Ptis. Ut'opkctcs flavoviridis, Peters, Mon. Ak. Berlin, p. 516 (1862). Ufoplectes flavoviridis, Kraepelin, Das Tierreich, Scorpiones, etc., p. 58 (1899). Loc. Petauke. E. bank of Loangwa, Portuguese East Africa. In the British Museum collection there are specimens from Tete (the type locality). The rows of granules on the movable finger of the chela are ten in number in some specimens, eleven in number in others. 9. Pandinus viatoris, Poc. Scorpio viatoris, Pocock, A)in. and Mag: Mat. Hist., p. 100, pi. I, fig. I (1890): id., Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), 2, p. 430(1898). Pandinus viatoris, Kraepelin, Das Tierreich, Scor- piones. etc., p. 122 (1899). Loc. Petauke. Several examples of this scorpion, captured near Broken Hill, Rhodesia, have been presented to the British Museum by Mr. E. C. Chubb. It is also known to occur in Nyassaland and in German E. Africa, 10. Opisthophthalmus carinatus, Ptrs. Heierometrus carinatns, Peters, Mon. Ak., Berlin, p. 515 (1862). OpisthopJithalnuis carinatus, Kraepelin, Das TicrrcicJi, Scorpiones, etc., p. 132 (1899). Loc. N.E. Rhodesia. 1 1. Hadogenes, sp. Loc. Feira District, a single immature example. 8 Hirst, Collection of Avachnida and Chilopoda. Order Pedipalpi. 12. Damon diadema, E. Sim. Davion diadema, E. Simon, Bull. Soc. Zool, France, V. I, p. 13 (1876). Nanodavion diadetna, Pocock, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) 14, p. 293 (1894). Loc. Feira district. Order SOLIFUG/E. 13. Solpuga rhodesiana, sp. n. Width of cephalic plate less than the length of the tibia or metatarsus of the third leg, and much less than the length of the metatarsus of the palp. Chelicera. Teeth of immovable finger rather weak ; two minor teeth are present between the second large tooth and the next large tooth. Free portion of flagellum Fis. I a. Fig. I. Fig. I. Solpuga rhodesiana, sp. n., O) immovable finger of chelicera from the side. Fig. la. Free part of flagellum from above. short, smooth, flattened dorso-ventrally and curved back- wards ; when viewed from above, it is seen to be broadest at the base and to become gradually narrowed ; the tip, which is slender and sharply pointed, is inclined obliquely outwards. {Fig- i.) Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 1), No. 2- 9 Coiojn . Cephalic plate brownish ; tergal plates of abdomen pale brownish, the posterior ones paler than the anterior ones, and with a narrow dark line at the posterior edge ; ventral surface of body yellowish. Appendages yellowish ; but the chelicera is brownish above at the base ; femur of the fourth leg also brown ; the distal half of the femur and the entire length of the tibia of the palp and the femora of the second and third legs and tibia of the fourth are a paler brown. Measurements, in mm. Total length 25 5 ; width of cephalic plate 675, length of second leg 27, of third 34'5, of fourth 53-5. [The legs of the first pair are incomplete, and their length cannot therefore be given.] Loc. N.E. Rhodesia (exact locality not given) ; a single example of the male sex. 14. Solpuga sericea, Poc. Solpuga sericea. Pocock, Atin. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) 20, pp. 260 and 261, Fig. 4 (1897). Loc. Petauke, a male and a female. Alala Plateau, one male. The types of this species are from the Umfuli River. 15 Solpuga celeripes, sp. n. Width of cephalic plate less than the length of the metatarsus of the palp, and about equal to the length of the tibia or metatarsus of the third leg. Fourth leg with long silky hair, as in 5. sericea, Poc. Chelicera. Immovable finger, with a short keel on the dorsal surface near the end, as in 5. sericea, but the tooth lO Hirst, Collection of Arachnida and Chilopoda. which is present on the inner side, near the dorsal surface in that species, is represented by a weak granule only ; two intermediate (minor) teeth are present. Free part of flagelluni commencing above the third tooth, and moderately long ; when looked at from above, it is seen to be of fairly uniform width for the greater part of its length, but becoming very slightly wider at some distance beyond the middle, then rather abruptly narrowed and setiform for the rest of its length ; basal lobe of flagellum rounded in outline {^Fig. 2). Fi9. 2a. Fis Fig. 2. Solpiiga le/eripes, sp. n., c? > immovable finger of chelicera from the side. Fig. 2a. Free part of flagellum from above. Colour. Dark markings and general coloration almost exactly the same as in .V. serlcea, but the narrow yellow stripe, which is present on either side of the dark central band of the dorsal surface of the abdomen in ^\ sericea seems to be absent (the somewhat shrunken state of the abdomen makes the markings difficult to make out, so perhaps this stripe has been overlooked). Measurements, in mm. Total length, 1 1 ; width of cephalic plate, 3. Manchester Jilemoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 1), No. ?i. 11 LOC. Salisbury, Rhodesia. Two males, collected by ]\Ir. G. A. K. Marshall. RcDiarks. — Allied to S. sericca, Poc. (for the localities of this species see above), and vS". ."^ebrina, Poc. (known from the Taru desert, British Piast Africa), but the flagellum is very different in shape. CLASS CHILOPODA. Order SCOLOPENDROMORPHA. I. Alipes, sp. Lcc. N.E. Rhodesia ; a single specimen lacking the anal legs. 2. Ethmostigmus trigonopodus, Leach. Log. Petauke. Portuguese East Africa. 3. Scolopendra morsitans, L. Log. Petauke. Feira District. Portuguese East Africa. 4. Cormocephalus brevicornis, Krpln. Corviocephalus brevicornis, Kraepelin, JaJirb. Hanib. IViss. A?ist. 20, p. 206 (1903). Log. N.E. Rhodesia ; a single example. The TYPE of this species was collected at Salisbury, Rhodesia, and is the only known specimen, with the exception of the one recorded above. MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. %. III. Intensive Study of the Scales of three Specimens of Sabno salar. By Philippa C. Esdaile, M.Sc, Honorary Research Fellow in Zoology, Universi/y of I\Iaiiihester. (Cotnmi/i;icakd by Professor S. J. Hickso/t, D.St:, F.R.S.) CONTENTS. PAGE 1. Introduction ... ... ... ,. ... i 2. Definition of terms ... ... ... ... 3 3. Method of selecting scales and mode of measurement and enumeration ... ... 4 4. Results and conclusions of the examination of the scales from different regions of three fish 6 General conclusions ... ... ... ... 11 Summary ... ... ... .. ... ... 13 Tables i to 4, recording the results ... ... 16 Graphs i to 4 ... ... ... ... ... 18 References .. ... ... ... ... ... 20 Plate showing the parts of the scale referred to in the definition of terms II. Diagrams i to 5, showing the positions from which scales have been taken, the peronidia, long axis, etc. ; and a comparison of scales from different regions of the fish. February i6th, igi2. ■'A I ■4 1 Manchester Memoirs, Voi. hi. (191 2), No. 3. III. Intensive Study of the Scales of three Specimens of Sahno snlar. By I'HILIPPA C. ESDAILE, M.Sc, Honoj'ary Researcli Fellow in Zoology, University ofManchester. (Co7nviii7ucated by Professor S. J. Hickson, DSc, F.R.S.) (Received and read October jist, igi i .) During the past few years the scales of salmon have been studied with a view to proving that the age and rate of growth of the fish, as well as the occasions on which the fish has spawned, can be ascertained from the periodic growth of the rings or annuli by which the scales are built up. Mr. H. W. Johnston, in the 23rd Annual Report of the Fishery Board of Scotland, explains the method of reading salmon scales. His examination of a parr of known age has shown which part of the scale is formed during the early life of the fish in the river. Fish caught in the sea between the smolt and grilse stages show the beginning of the rapid summer growth after the fish had migrated to the sea. Scales taken from grilse caught in the river show the slower winter growth, after the broad formation caused by the rapid summer feeding, and this slower growth was again followed by rapid increase formed in the sea during the summer just before the fish was caught. Small spring fish show signs of rapid feeding on entering the sea, then the slower growth of the winter ; following this, the broad formation during the second summer, and then at the periphery of the scale, a second period of slow feeding during the second winter spent in February i6th, igi2. 2 ESDAILE, Scales of three Specimens of Salvio salar. the sea. The scales of small summer or autumn fish show this same arrangement with the addition of a third period of rapid increase, varying in size according to the date of capture. The large spring fish show rapid and slow growths alternating three times. Mr. Johnston proves all these results by examining the scales of fish which had been previously marked when they were migrating to the sea as smolts. He also proves that a fish which has entered the river for spawning purposes has a very distinct and indelible mark on its scales. Almost as soon as a spring or early running summer fish reaches the river, the scales begin to disintegrate at the periphery, and by the time the fish is a kelt a very considerable portion of the surfaces and periphery of the scales has disintegrated, and in most cases the scale has the appearance of being much worn and frayed. In the case of late running summer and autumn fish, this disintegration also takes place in salt water, and before the fish has entered the river. On returning to the sea the fish begins to feed again ; the new growth of the scale is regular and is in great contrast to the irregularities caused by this disintegration, so that a very clearly defined mark is made, which Mr. Johnston has termed the " spawning mark." Herr Dahl confirms all Mr. Johnston's work, and shows that the marks on the scales of Norwegian salmon are formed in a similar manner to those on the scales of Scottish salmon. He made careful investigations as to the " spawning mark " and the extent of the degeneration of the scales while the fish are in the river before spawning. The rest of Herr Dahl's work on the salmon shows us in how many ways the knowledge of the age of the fish from its scales can help us in discovering more about the life-historv of the fish. His work is full of most Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. JJ. 3 interesting results, and great thanks are due to the Salmon and Trout Association for arranging for the immediate publication of an English translation, which will be of great assistance to the numerous workers engaged on the study of the life-history of the salmon. Before going further into previous work, it will be advisable to give names to the different parts of the scale, in order that misunderstanding may not occur. Already the terms "annual lines," " ridges," " rings," and "lines" have become confused. Although many descriptions of the scale have been given, one more is now added to that number for the purpose of introducing the names I propose to use. The scale is lamina-like, the internal side is smooth, but on the external surface there are inequalities which can be readily felt on passing a needle over the scale. On closer examination it will be found that the inequalities are caused by what have hitherto been called " lines " or " ridges," but which I shall term annuli (see photo of Scale A). These annuli are arranged in a roughly concentric manner from the centrum of the scale (C), and are formed chiefly on the anterior portion of the scale, which is enclosed in a pocket of skin, but also, to a very slight extent, on the posterior exposed portion. Examination with the low power of the microscope shows that the annuli are arranged in a definite manner, some far apart and others closer together. Those far apart are, according to Mr. Johnston, formed during the rapid growth of the fish in the summer, and those closer together during a time of slow increase in the winter. This formation of annuli far apart, together with the formation outside this of annuli more closely placed, was called by Mr. Johnston an "annual ring." For this name the word " Peronidium " is substituted, and it is used to indicate the growth which takes place in a complete summer and winter. 4 ESDAILE, Scales of three Specimens of Salmo salar. The annuli are very irregular. They branch frequently, giving off both long and short branches, and they are at very varying distances from one another. The summer and winter growths are not always clearly defined. The decrease in the rate of growth at the beginning of the winter is often very gradual, and therefore the annuli gradually become closer together, so that it is difficult to say where the summer growth ceases and the winter growth commences. Dr. Turnbull, writing in The Field, gives an account of his method of counting the annuli; he distinguishes between what he calls "main" and "duplicate" annuli, stating that the "main annuli may split or fork in the neighbourhood of the long axis to form duplicate annuli." This distinction, however, seems to be most unsatisfactory. The annuli are all so different. No two branches are alike, and there might be a score or more of cases on one scale only where a heated discussion might be held as to whether the annuli in question are to be called "main" or "duplicate." After distinguishing between these two kinds of annuli. Dr. Turnbull counts only the " main " annuli, and uses only these for the comparison of the scales from different fish. Mr. Johnston does the same thing, counting what he calls the "main stems " and not the " off-shoots." All investigators of the scales of fish state that as the fish grows, the size of the scale is increased, and annuli are formed at intervals. Each annulus then must show that growth has taken place, and growth must have taken place in a particular part where a so-called" duplicate "annulus is formed; and yet, according to some, this special kind of mark of growth is to be ignored. Surely this method renders the work almost useless when endeavours are being made to ascertain the age and rate of increase of the fish as indicated by the scales. Manclicster Memoirs, Vo/. hu'. (i()i2), No. II. 5 Hitherto tlie scales used for this study have been taken from what is known as the shoulders of the fish ; that is, from the area midway between the dorsal median line and lateral line, and between the dorsal fin and the operculum. The enumerations of the annuli were made, as Mr. Johnston tells us, " a little to one side or other of the long axis of the scale." (See Diaq: i, F/^i^ 5.) So far, no .systematic examination of scales from different parts of the same fish has been published. A systematic examination seems to be an essential preliminary to accurate work, for how can comparisons be rightly made of scales from different fish when the extent of variation on one fish is not known ? In order that this might be done, Mr. J. Arthur Mutton very kindly supplied a lolb. fish caught in the nets of the estuary of the Wye on August ist, 19 10. From this fish scales were collected from fourteen positions, seven of which are shown in Diag. i. Fig. i, the other seven being corresponding positions on the right side of the fish. The number of annuli on one scale from each of the seven positions on the left side of the fish was ascer- tained, and measurements were taken of the distances from the centre to the periphery along both the long and short axis. In order that these results might be more accurate, a specially marked eye-piece was used. (See Diag. I, Fig. 4.) The scales were cleaned in water and mounted with the internal side downwards. By this means, as all the scales are taken from the same side of the fish, comparisons can be made between the dorsal and ventral sides of the different scales. Placing the slide on the stage of the microscope so that the centrum of the scale came under the point on the marked eye-piece, which in the Fig. is called A, and the long axis (see Diag. i, Fig. 5) along AB, calculations were made along the lines AB and AC, taking into account every 6 ESDAILE, Si'n/cs of thr-ec Speciviens of Snlmo snlar. aniiulus which crossed the lines on the eye-piece and making no distinction whatever between main or dupHcate branches. By inverting the marked eye-piece, enumera- tions could be made along lines at 30^ on both sides of the long axis. This particular fish had, according to the reading of the scale put forward b}^ Mr. Johnston, spent two years and a portion of a third year in the river, and two years and a portion of a third \'ear in the sea, thus showing four peronidia and the beginning of a fifth (see Ih'ni^. 2). However, in registering the number and measurements of the annuli, the river growth has not been merged with that of the sea, but a new division has been made which is used for the portion of the third peronidium formed in the river. Conditions in the river are much more variable than those of the sea, and therefore, when considering the variations in the amount of growth which has taken place, it is advisable to carefully distinguish between the portions of the scale which have been formed in the sea or the river. By making this distinction the divisions of the scale do not correspond to the peronidia, and in the register of the enumerations and measurings the word " period " has been used. This would not be necessary if the young fish had migrated before there was any commencement of feeding during the early part of the third year in the river. The " periods " would then coincide with the peronidia and the word "period" be unnecessary. (See Diag. 3.) Table i shows the results of the examination of the scales, one from each of the seven positions on the fish, and it is evident that there is a great amount of variation in the number of annuli on the various scales. It will be noticed that no two scales are alike in any one respect, except that from whatever part of the body they Manchester Meiuous, Vol. hi. (1912), No. l\. 7 are taken they all have the same number of peroniclia. The total number of annuli varies from y6 to 121, this range of variation being due not to variation in any one particular peronidium, but to variation in each peronidium. This great variation is not due to a casual variation of the scale, but is caused, to some extent, as the figures show, by definite local differences. That is to say, speaking generally, the nuuibcr of annuli in each peronidium increases front the head to the adipose fin, on both dorsal and ventral sides of the lateral line, and then decreases again tozvards the tail. It would be of very great interest to study more scales from each of these seven positions in order to ascertain whether these differences were merely abnormalities of the particular scales which had happened to be taken for examination or whether other scales from the same positions would also show the same variations. While looking out and preparing the material for this test it was noticed that the scales from different parts of the body differed very much in size and shape. Thus it was found that scales from position (i) approximated generally to one type, while those from (2), as a whole, differed from those from (i), and could be called type 2. This was found to be the case with each set of scales from the various positions on the fish ; there were as many types as positions from which scales were examined. These t}'pes are in some cases so distinct that after a little practice one can pick out the scales from the different positions without referring to the numbers of the slides. There is always great difficulty in making up these sets of scales. About thirty scales were taken from each position on the fish, but on examination it was frequently found that twenty or more had imperfect centres, so that there might not be even three scales from any particular 8 ESDAILE, Scales of tliree Spcciuictis of Sabiio sa/ar, position, which were useful for purposes of examination. Very often three or four of the annuli at the centrum seem to be missing, and these scales were discarded as imperfect. It was most disappointing, therefore, to find that on the fish from which scales had been taken from fourteen different positions, neither set of scales from one side or the other was complete enough for careful examination, and therefore we cannot verify the results obtained from the one scale from each position. Positions (4j and (8) (See Diag. i) are the most difficult regions from which to obtain useful sets of scales. Again, through the kindness of Mr. Hutton, further work on this part of the scale problem was rendered possible. Mr. Hutton collected scales from seven positions of a i/lb, fish. (See Diag. i, Fig. 2.) This was a freshly run female fish caught on February 2nd, 191 1, at Hampton I^ishop, on the Wye; its length was 35" and its girth 18". The seven sets of scales were mounted in the manner already described, and the number of annuli per period was ascertained at the long axis and at 30'' to the left and right ; and the length in millimetres of each period was also measured along the long a.xis. Wherever possible, ten scales were examined from each position. From position (4) however, only three scales were perfect enough to use. The averages of the results obtained from so small a number are not very trustworthy evidence, but they are all that is at hand for the present. The averages of the results obtained are to be found in Table 2. The great variations in the number of annuli and in the lengths per period are at once noticed. But what is most interesting, though it cannot be shown because of lack of space, is the variation of the scales from each position. Taking, for example, the scales from MancJiestcr Memoirs, Vol. hi. (19 12), No. S. 9 position (2), the total number of annuli on the long axis varies from 96-101, at 30"^ to the left of the long axis from 97-107, and at 30" to the right of the long axis from 89-101. The extent of variation in the length of the scales on the long axis is -61 mm. Taking another example in the scales from position (3), the total number of annuli varies from 105-118 on the long axis and from 109-118 on the left of the long axis, and from 108-122 on the right of the long axis, while the maximum and minimum lengths of the scales differ as much as 103 mm. Turning again to the examination of the averages of the results, it is to be noticed that the total number of annuli on the scales, with few exceptions, increases from position (i) to (3), and decreases from (3) to (4) — that is, from the head to the adipose fin, and from the adipose fin to the tail. The Table indicates that a similar variation is found also in the total lengths of the scales and in the lengths per period. As has been previously pointed out, this variation occurs in each peronidium and not in any particular one. The scales taken from the ventral side of the fish also have an increasing number of annuli per period, from the head to a position on a level with the adipose fin ; and in the same way this increase is in each period, and the length of each period is greater from the head to the adipose fin. There are irregularities in some cases, but it can be said that there is some definite arrangement. A further comparison of the results obtained indicates that there is another method in which the scales are arranged. It will be noticed that positions (i), (2) and (3) are exactly above positions (5), (6) and (7) ; and comparing the figures obtained from positions at the same distance irom the head, it is clear that in nearly all cases the scales on the ventral side of the fish are longer and have more lO ESDAILE, Scales of three Specimens of Salvio salar. annuli per period than those from a corresponding position on the dorsal side. (See Graphs i and 2). As it was thought desirable to obtain data from another fish, Mr. Hutton obtained more scales — in this ca.se from a 261b. fish caught at Hampton Bishop, loth March, 191 1. It was a male, freshly run, measuring 41%" in length and 20^" in girth. The results from this fish do not appear to be as regular as those obtained from the 171b. fish ; but on the whole it can be said that the same general arrangement is followed in spite of the many irregularities. The records of the scales from the 261b. fish are to be found in Table 3 and Graphs 3 and 4. Endeavours have been made to ascertain whether this increase and decrease in the number of annuli per l^eriod can be expressed as a definite ratio and follow some rule. One might have imagined that some mathematical formula could have been found to express the variations, but, so far, I can find no connection between the results, and no formula which will help to make clearer what now appears to be a chaos of figures. For this purpose the averages of the three series of records, on the long axis and at 30*^ to the left and right, were obtained (see Table 4 A). From this Table it is quite easy to ascertain the rate of increase and decrease in the number of annuli which is shown in Table 4 B. On examining these figures it will be seen that there seems to be no definite rate of increase and decrease either on the dorsal or ventral side. There is no constant variation in the number of annuli in the different periods of scales from the same position ; there is no definite variation in the number of annuli in the periods of scales from different positions. And comparing the results of the two fish there seems to be no law or theory which could be applied to both. Manchester ^Teuloirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. V>. 11 Dr. Tunibull in his article in The Fiehi makes a short reference to the study of scales taken from different parts of the same fish. " The scales were found to increase in size and to become more elongated from the head towards the tail, and there is a corresponding increase in the number of the main and duplicate ridges." But beyond this there is no other reference. I have already discussed the length of the scale and the number of annuli. The relative sizes of the scales can be seen from Diagrams 4 and 5. These were drawn from the scales with a camera lucida, and the drawings were reduced with a pantograph. They give some idea of the sizes of the scales from various parts of the body. Each scale is typical of the particular position, and therefore can be used to some extent as a guide to the width of the scales and their shape. From these cases it would seem that the scales increase in breadth as well as length from the head to the adipose fin and again decrease from this point to the tail. General Conclusions. On comparing the Tables, the most remarkable fact one notices is the variation both in the number of annuli and in the measurements of the scales, which, in many cases, must have been taken from the same square inch. The measurements arc additional proof that the surface dimensions of the scales cannot be used as a criterion of the age of the fish. With regard to the annuli a question that might be asked is, Can any conclusions be drawn from the number of annuli in each pcronidium? At present it would be rash to say that any definite number of annuli are formed 12 EsDAILE, Scales of tJiree Specimens of Salnio salar, in a month or that any definite number are formed in the winter or summer or even during a year. If the number of annuh' were ascertained and then divided by a definite number, as Mr. Mallock suggests, a curious state of affairs would arise, nameh', a different age for the same fish would be shown b\' many of the scales, even when taken from the same position. There is no actual proof that a large number of annuli in each peronidium indicates that the fish has had good feeding grounds and a favourable environment. It is what would be expected, but it is not borne out by the facts. If this were the case, the difference in the number of annuli on the scales of different fish would be to some e.xtent explained, but not the variations in the scales of the same fish. Turning to the Tables, it will be seen that it is not an invariable rule that the long axis of the scale has more annuli than those lines at 30'' on each side of it. In fact, in the majority of cases, both in the total numbers and in the numbers per period, the long axis has fewer annuli than lines at 30*^ to the left and right. By comparing the results obtained from the left and right sides of the long axis, it is very astonishing to find how few cases there are where the numbers are equal. Sometimes in one set of scales one side will have, in each period, more annuli than the other ; while in some other cases in one period the left side will have more annuli, and in other periods the right side will have more. The case when one side has, in ever)' period, more annuli than in the other, can be accounted for by the fact that in certain positions on the fish one side of the scales seems to grow more than the other. The whole study of these scales has shown the great irregularity in every particular. This shows that much caution should be used in saying that the scales show this or that. Much more experimental MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. Vt. 13' work has yet to be done to ascertain what conditions influence the growth of the scales and the formation of the annuh'. It cannot only be additional food which causes increase in the number of annuli, because in the same fish there is such great variation in this respect. Another very important point which should be specially noticed in the results is that the scales to be used for the comparison of different fish should all be taken from very definite and restricted areas. If care is not taken in this respect, variations in the scales of the individual will greatly hinder true comparisons being made of the scales from different fish. Summary. The special points which are brought out in this paper are as follows : — I. A great variation in the number of annuli and in the lengths of the scales taken from different parts of the same fish is clearly indicated. This was found on each of three fi.sh, but the results obtained seem to be in no way correlated. II. It is to be noticed that in the three fish examined the number of annuli in each peronidium increases from the head to the adipose fin, and then diminishes towards the tail. A similar increase and decrease is found both on the dorsal and ventral sides of the lateral line. III. In a comparison of scales taken from positions at corresponding distances from the head on both the dorsal and ventral sides of the lateral line, it is seen that, as a general rule, the scales on the dorsal side have fewer annuli in each peronidium than the scales from the ventral side. 14 ESDAILE, Scales of three Specimens of Saliiio salar. IV. After carefully examining some hundreds of scales I can find no definite or trustworthy distinction between what have been called " main and dui)licate annuli." The annuli branch towards the head and towards the tail, near the long axis or on a level with the short axis {Line AE., Diag. i, Fig. 4). Taking all this into account, I find it impossible to recognise any distinction between different types of annuli. This is to be looked u[)on as the beginning of a long piece of work. What I should like to have done, and what I still hope to do, is to carefully examine and measure a whole line or lines of scales from the head to the tail, and also lines from the dorsal to the ventral side, taken at different distances from the head. From this it would be seen, whether the increase in size and in the number of annuli is gradual and comparisons could also be made of scales which were actually found next to one another and not merely of those which have been roughl}' scraped off from certain places. No hasty conclusions must be accepted, and it must not be thought that because this arrangement has been found in three fish it is necessarily present in all. It must be remembered that only 60 to 70 scales from each fish have been examined and measured, and the many hundreds of scales on one fish should not be judged by what is found in about sixty taken at random. It is, however, most probable that this arrangement is to be found in all salmon, though whether what now appear to be irregularities will eventually prove to be definite variations can only be shown by further research. I must point out that this paper in no way contradicts the general truth of the Scale Theory, as applied to the salmon, worked out by Mr. Johnston and others. Every Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (1912), No. JJ 15 scale with a perfect centrum, no matter from what portion of the body it be taken, will more or less clearly indicate the a^f^e and (growth of the fish. I should like to express my thanks to Mr. J. Arthur Hntton for providing me with the necessary material and for his frequent visits to the Manchester University, where the w^ork is being done, aiding me with advice, help, and information. I have also to express my indebtedness to Professor S. J. Hickson and Dr. J. Stuart Thomson, who have supervised the work, and who have always been ready to give advice, and to Miss Adamson, who translated Herr Dahl's paper for me in order that I might know about his work without waiting for the publication of the English translation. 1 6 EsDAILE, Scales of three Specimens of So lino salar. o :z; w < > m t—' o ^ Cn o '™' c^ f- fe 7; U4 ZJ (') D < W •t' H H n: o D c < ;V L) Uh „ •-ri Q W :^ 1-^ < o eq O w 0^ X H D tL^ CD O W oi; w o X f-H H rO 1^ n (J CO W o < c^ w > < V. § ? 'D o t; >o „ t^ -t O o c o c; o •1- o o ■r. -I M ro 'I- cr) n n ■^ box si VO M „ "i- y^. -== o vO n U-) >*- VO ro -1- TT U-) 'O •+ vri ro 1 1 •J-^ •j ■+ 'i- •* 1 VO t^ d < o •n 1 '^ vn 1 l^ 00 Tl- w? (IJ 1 O O VO VO r^ 1 "■D Tl- ro ro n N o "J ,^ ri lO o Cn (M r^ LO 'tr '^ n "-) •^ M ro rO N < 1 I^ o r^ r-» I~^ r^ J 1 r<-. ^ M (^ ro N o <^ r^ 00 11 t^ CO -t- a N N N ri N M N Q Z O < ^ "-) "1 r^ \r\ I^ ON M "" N ri M N N M M Ph K < >n vO VO Tj- ro UJ 'V 00 M3 ^ r^ OO VO ro < z N ^ •-' "^ '-' . < til o •CJ r^ u-l ^ •o „ li-1 N = t4 N N " '"' tJ < 00 "-) _ I^ o VO (S 33 M N >-« N ►-• fc- S J ^• LO o m Ov M VO ^ '- N ■" t-H *-.■ VD o o r"-! r^ N VO - 1-^ ~ c^ " " •^ ^; >o ^_, ^ ro n M «o t-( N t-i ►-I M »-) ^ -^ X o O O o 1 I^ td ►J M o o o 1 t^ £3 J OJ ~ c; m 'n Cn 1 00 VO O OJ 1 ON 0^ 1 o O t-~ •"■ 1 "^ *"* ■^ ^l/, o o I ON i_i 1 r^ r^ VO O X CN M *~* ^ J>»; "" *^ u 1 M ro ■^ u-l VO t^ ^' S A>OSITIONS OF THE 17LB. FISH. l.KNGTH OF EACH PERIOD IN Millimetres measured on THE Long Axis. ist. I 2nd. jrd. ■16 •17 .,1,1 I 'i'otal I 4th. 5th. 6th. length 1-26 1-97 -51 4.40 1-65 2-02 -46 4-94 •18 I 1-69 2-J5 I -481 5.06 ■'7 I "06 I -60 I -26 I 3-84 •21 1-64 2-13 ■21 i'8o 2*44 ■24 i"95 2-30 ApSlTIONS OF THE 26LB. FISH. Length of each period in^ Millimetres mkasured on 'HE Long Axis. J I ^Z~\ ! i I Total 3rd. j 4th. 5th. 6th. length in m/nis. •14 I 1-54 2 -08 1-26 5-68 ■16 I 178 1-98 i-oS 576 18 I 171 2-IO -86 5-91 20 I 1-8 2-04 -88 5-i 18 I 1-66 2-21 1-53 6-33 1-98 2-47 1-45 6-93 2"IO 2-46 I "20 6-07 17 17 1-46 173 -CO 4-6? Maiuiusler Meiitoiis. ]'ol. hi. (1912,1, No. 3. Taulk No. 2. AVERAGES OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE SCALES FROM THE SEVEN POSITIONS OF THE 17LB. FISH. Number of Total number 1 Numbkk of Annuli in each period on the Lo.ng Axis and .it 30' OF ANNULI. j TO THE LeFT AND RiGHT. Length of each period in Millimetres measured on THE Long Axls. I.o.jg Left. Right.': L.A. , L. 61 7 '5 12-8 8-5 97 15-2 L.A. 10-8 ■33 iS-i 17 14-1 17-2 jiiil L. 106 14-4 '77 I2-S .4-6 17-8 R. 10-8 '37 17-8 17 12-7 14-6 16-6 37 y<' 5' 5-3 4-5 4-5' S-8 "l R 23-0 2S-0 21-3 26-2 29-0 30-2 4tll. L. 22-5 27-4 292 260 2S-5 30-2 22-6 27-4 29-6 21-6 26-8 27-3 30-2 357 40-5 38-7 34-3 34 'O .38- r .;8-4 35-2 39-5 38 -6 36-0 33-4 37'i 38-S R. 33-6 341 41-2 34-3 31 -8 36 -8 370 LA. 9-2 9-7 97 8-6 10-8 8-5 11-4 S3 lo-s 12-1 6-6 8-5 9-1 90 9-8 11-5 11-4 •17 •23 ■37 -27 ■25 -40 !U(1. •33 ■4' ■56 ■48 -4S •52 -61 jid. -16 -17 •18 •17 ■24 4tll. 1-26 1-65 1-69 I 06 .-64 1-So 195 ;ih. 1-97 2-15 1-60 2-13 2-44 2-30 6Ch. T. -46 ■48 -26 -64 ■85 59 Ifiigth 3 4 5 6 7 8S-2 9S2 960 96-1 107-8 117-5 87-5 .■4-8 95-0 95 '5 106-0 uS-s 84-0 95 '.i 116-4 96 94 5 103-8 ■15-5 6-1 , 6-3 .2-8 .2-5 7-8 8-0 9-1 9-0 15-2 14-7 4-2 :: 47 4-6 S'2 4-0 37 4-8 50 47 5-0 50 4-40 4 94 5-O0 3 -84 5-32 6 07 6-09 TAiiLE No. 3. AVERAGES OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE SCALES FROM THE EIGHT POSITIONS OF THE 26LB. FISH. Number Total number OF Annuli. Number of Annuli in each period on the Long Axis and 30° TO the Left and Right. Length of each period Millimetres measured THR Long Axis. IN ON and. jrd. 41I1. .slh. Cth, „t. !iid jrd. .,th. 5lh. 6II1, Total length Portion. Ajsis. Left- Righl. L.A. L. R. L.A. L. R. L.A. R. L.A. L. R. L.A, L- R. L.A L. R. mim,. ■ 104 107 105-6 10-2 10-6 10-0 12-6 I3-3 '3-I 37 3 '8 4-0 26-4 270 26-4 32-2 32-2 30'9 20 9 20-3 19-5 •21 •36 ■4 ■•54 2-oS .-26 5-68 2 ■ 23-8 1 18-0 126-8 ■4-0 13-4 ■3-8 ■7'3 .6-6 iS-8 4-0 4-0 4'1 30-7 30-2 30-1 35-5 33-' 34 '9 21 7 21-5 23 ■■ ■30 -46 •16 1-78 1-98 I -08 5 '76 3 ■ 377 146-3 .38-1 20-2 21-2 19-2 21-7 22-8 21-8 y 4-8 50 31-5 323 31-2 39-0 40-6 38-6 ■9 2 24-6 22-1 ■46 -60 -18 1-71 2-10 -86 S91 4 130 131 III 20 20 18 21 21 ■9 5 6 30-0 29-0 29-0 33 -o 33-5 29-5 20 ° 22-5 ■35 ■42 ■54 -20 1-8 2-04 -88 5-88 5 112-4 III-2 115-6 11-4 11-2 12-8 14-4 ■5-4 ■ .5-6 3-6 38 3-8 28 -0 2S-4 28-8 32-3 32-8 32-1 22 0 20-8 22-6 ■28 ■47 -18 1-66 2-2. ■•53 6-ii 6 125-4 124-6 123-8 12-8 '36 14-2 18-2 19-S 18-4 4-6 4-0 4 '2 31-6 30-2 29-8 35-5 3S-I 34-0 22 5 21-7 21-7 •3> ■52 -20 1-98 2-47 ■45 693 7 140-0 143'U 150-0 22-0 20-0 25-0 225 23-0 24-0 55 50 5-0 337 3^7 32-5 40-0 39-5 40-5 ■9 5 23 24-5 •49 -6 -22 2-10 2-46 1-20 6-07 8 112-0 II9-6 1.7-6 15-6 15-6 16-0 19-0 17-6 IS -6 43 4-0 4-0 28-0 28-3 29-3 34 '0 37'3 36-3 " ° 16-6 13-3 •31 ■48 ■ 7 146 173 so 4-65 Manchester iMeinous, Vo/. ivi. (1912), No. %. 17 D „ On r^ 00 On ^ NO '^ 0 CI >-< CO -H *4 — 'O 0 ■■o M M ■^ cs M CI '"' tXD u-i ^ 0 Tf ON 0 ON HH 'I- ON rj CNI 'J- 0 'O >o ro r'^ ro m CO ri-i ON ON 0 0 NO rn •* 10 ri 0 't n "i- »1- NO 0 0 M ■^ M M -i- _• 0 ■^ " M ro •=1- iri NO r^ 00 [/■ 0 Ph „ ri „ NO 0 PJ „ ■0 CO ON 0 00 0 M " CO 0 "-1 On « rn „ •z ■+ CO C> -1- •-O I-^ O-N "' ro m '■'-) ro ro '■n '■'-> t^ NO 'O •■n "5 ro N t; Pl r^ ON ^ Nn 00 0 "*" M M Cn| PI P) c< "^ On On 00 ON NO r^ ^ u ro ro ■* "-) •<3- >* l^ •6 r^ CO On 'O I^ 1- P; ^ 0 rn l^ 0 ri -f t^ w (N) NO r^ •■o " '■'^ 0 >X) r^ M 0 CO On LO '"' '"' " ^ ^ ON On •-( H-< ro 0 M 0 a NO •+ 10 «J-> LO LO r^ ;< 0 00 On •-< On On 0 -H ►-< " " ^ 0 '^ - M '-'^ •;|- w-i NO t-^ 00 0 — o in a H pq ;z; - O JD CO O '-' « H 1° X 2 H H •^ CO 5 o C H^ 3 00 „ p| 1"! ^ JZ 10 0 CO 1 1 n t-- r^ On ■* ^r, ^ ^ '^' p< '^ P) LO Tt- r^ -:^ ^ ^ ^ „ " "^ " PI N PI rt- PI 0- •+ 0 On « 1 H- 1 •^ ■0 "-) CO t^ t CO ! "■' ^ •* rn M- ■^ ul U-I On i^ co NO 'O NO "^ ■-/C 0 0 rf 'O rn NO r- t^ c „ ON u^ M ^ 1 PI in NO PJ X) To PO " -t- -* On 0 'O 0 ON - '4- PI CO M ON „ ^ r^ r. 0 1 ^ ^ ^ NO r^ 00 - CO "i- " '-' PI ^ >-( •^ PI r^ M ■" LT) N -" "1 "rt 0 P< 0 NO rn 00 0 0 0 H -■^ PI PI " 0 >-l N •t U-I NO 1 1 1 1 M PO P^ NO t^ Ch 1 8 ESDAILE, Srn/es of tJirce Specij/iens of Sn lino salar. Graph i. Showing the averages of the total number of annuli on scales from different regions of the I7lb. tish. 90 (0 (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (S) Numbers of the positions on the fish from which scales were taken. Graph 2. Showing the averages of the total lengths of Scales from diflerent regions of the 171b. fish. 60- 1 / (U / / (U 5-5 / C d C c ^^ .M 5'o ^^^^."'^ \ .fi 1 \ ti) 1 \ c ^ I \ ■*j D 1 \ 4'5 / \ u > \ ' < 4-0 ■ \ ' Vk (0 (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Numbers of the positions on the fish from which scales were taken. Mancliestev Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. Vi. Graph 3. Averages of the tolal number of annuli on scales from different regions of the 261b. fish. f 1 1 140 A 1 1 / 1 1 1 1 I < 1 ■-= / \ / 1 c / \ , 5 / \ 1 1 •^ / \ / v. 130 / \ / 1 \J / \ 1 1 s / \ 1 1 1 i c / 1 1 I 1 1 ^ / / 1 ■Z J / 1 -r / / t I u / / \ i, w / / ^ / / / ■' <\ 110 1 (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Numbers of positions from which scales were taken. Graph 4. A\-eu "s of the total lengths of scales from different regions of the 26 lb. fish. 7-0 6-5 ■5 6-0 !> 5-5 5'o 4-5 (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Numliers of positions on the fish from which scales were taken 20 ESDAILE, Scales of three Specimens of Salmo salar. REFERENCES. Calderwood, W. L. (1907). "The Life of the Salmon." Edward Arnold, London. Dahl, K. (1910). "Alder og Vekst hos Laks og QErret belyst ved Studiet av Deres Skjael." Trykt i Centraltrykkeriet. Kristiania. Cigii). "The Age and Growth of Salmon and Trout in Norway as shown by their Scales." Translated from the Norwegian. Published by the Salmon and Trout Association, London. HuTTON, J. A. (1909). "Salmon Scales as Lidicative of the Life-History of the Fish." Sherratt & Hughes, London. (1910). "Salmon Scale Examination and its Practical Utility." Sherratt & Hughes, London. Johnston, H. W. (1904, '06, '07, '10). 2^rd Amino/ Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, Fart II. 2§th Annual Report, Fart II. 20 1 'I ,) ,, ,, • 28th „ „ „ . Mallock, p. D. (1910). "The History and Habits of the Salmon." TuRNBULL, H. ^L (1909). " The Scales of Salmon."' The Field, December nth, i8th and 25th. Manchester iVIeDioirs, Vol. L VL (No, *i). Plate. X i5i- Scale of lolb, small Spring Cock Fish, caught in the Wye, April 7th, 1909. jOin. length, I5in. girth. This fish has spent two years in the river and two years in the sea, and was four years old. {After Hii/loii.) Centrum Annulus Peronidium C. A, P. 22 ESDAiLE, Scales of three Specimcjis of Salmo salar. EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAMS. Diag. I. Fig. I. Showing the positions from which scales were taken from the lolb. fish caught August ist, 1910. Fig. 2. Showing the positions from which scales were taken from the lylb. fish caught February 2nd, 191 1. Fig. 3. Showing the positions from which scales were taken from the 261b. fish caught March loth, 191 1. Fig. 4. Diagram of the marked eye-piece which was used for the examination of the scales. Fig 5. Rough sketch of a scale showing the "long axis" = AB and the " short axis " = AE. Diag. 2. Showing the river and sea growth of the scale. The portions of the scale formed in the summer and winter and the extent of the peronidia are also indicated. Diag. 3. Showing the areas which have been used to show the variation in the number of annuli on corresponding areas of different scales. These areas, or periods, correspond to the peronidia, except the 3rd Period. This is part of the 3rd Peronidium, but having been formed in the river the number of annuli in that part has been separately recorded. Diag. 4. Camera lucida drawings of scales, each being typical of those from the particular positions on the lylb. fish. Figs. 1-7 show scales from Positions 1-7. Diag. 5. Camera lucida drawings of scales, each being typical of those from the particular positions on the fish weighing 2 61bs. Figs. 1-8 show scales from Positions 1-8. M (Vtclu'stcy Memoirs, I'ol. L [V. [Xo. 15). JUao. I. Fk. I. Fio;. 2. Fig. 4. Fig. 5- MaucJicstcr Memoirs. Vol. L VI. {No. *^). Diaz. 2. /'hiiininer. Witucr ., ,Suniiner. .•5 (winter . ~iiminer. ■C P ■] winter ... J=\ " 5'. (S\unnicr... '—I I Beginning of the ■I 5th Peronidium. (th reronidiuin. ;r M(Viclicslcr Memoirs, \^ol. L IV. (iVo. II Diag. 4. 0 c t/3 :/". ^' c C3 ,~ 'Zi 'C OS c 'r. -- ^^ '■-r' ~ c c H Tj g ^ 0 u aj ^ s "^ ^ .i Manchester Monoirs, Vol. L VI. {No. 3). Diao: 5. MancJu'sfer Miiiioir:;, ]'ol. hi. (191 2), Xo. 4. IV. A Geometrical Treatment of Geodesic Torsion, By Lancklot v. Mkadowcroi- r, B.A., M.Sc. {Comniiinicated by R. /'.' Gwyther, AA/1.) {Received October J I si, r()ir. Read NoTcmhii- i^tli, i (^' l^> ^)> (^'' ^> ^) ^^ ^^^ direction cosines of the tangent, principal normal, binormal and normal to the surface at P respectively, and let the same quantities with increments be the direction-cosines of the corre- sponding lines at Q. Now the normals at P and C^ intersect since the curve is a line of curvature. .'. X - f^ip = X + dx - {/.i + dfi)p, with two similar equations, p being the radius of curvature of the curve. du dv div I ' ' dx~ dy~ dz~ p ^ '' "^ow cos\ = up + vq-\- It' y. .'. - sin xdx = ("dp + vdq + 7C'dr) + {pdu + qdv + rdw) = u{Xdri - hid) + viiidi) - f>/ -^ cos0cosw-f sm0— (cos 0 cos w) ds ds ds dd) . . dw — cos 0-^ sin w - sin ^ cos w— > ds dd) . dii) sind)— sin w -I- cos(i)Cos(wv-' ^ds ^ ds dn ^dB ■ .. ■ dio -- = - cos B-— cos w + sin 0 sin ta -j-- ds ds ds lO MeadOWCROFT, Treatment of (Uodesic Torsion. On squaring and adding it is obvious by inspection that a large number of terms vanish or coalesce, and we easily find -Tj = COS' 6 sin w( — 1 + sin" 0 sin' w( — j + cos'w( \ds / \ds / \ds J ■ •■ 11 4 , sin*w . 2 .> .. ., ... , + sin D cos'w + — ^ + sin w cos'w cot o + cos Q cos w sin'W + 2 sin w cot y — ' + 2 siiroj cos'w (tS fdi ( — - + sin M cot 0 ) = I + «' (say). .■.-,= I -f //■ (vi). Substituting in (iv) we find -^- = — or ' - 2Zfc'X' _ z I 2^/\' — 2/zX' neglecting X'. .•. its direction-cosines are a I, 2^A', and —2hX. Those of G are i, O, O. .• . the direction cosines of 00' are M X O - 2/l\' - 2i,'X' But A : ^t : 7 : : (7 : I : (17 and . •. ,^' = 0. . • . the equation of the hyperboloid is by + CZ' + 2_y^'G + 2//.V)' + 2 7f'S = O. The tangent plane at (;-, (9, (9) is (.V - r)0^y . 2/;/-+ ■; . 2iv= O, or jl' . hr + s?£' = O. Similarly the tangent plane at (/, O, O) is V . hr + s . w= O. If these planes are inclined at an angle S we have hr . hr + w^ J/i^r- + 'cv' J h'r' + 7V' squaring we find cos S. //W' + 2tv'h'rr' + zv^ = cos"(i(//^;-v-'" + 7U' . Ji'r^ + fvr"^ + w^) . ■ . sin^o(/r/y + 7v-f = cos'?(a' - rfiirJi^ . • . (''''' + W ) tan I -\-{r' - r)j = O (x) MancJicster Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. {]g\2), No. 4. 13 This form of relation between ?- and r' proves the theorem.'* If

599 554:355 660,049 0*26 0-24 o"o4 0'02 0-03 o"oi ro8 I -07 0-48 0-50 0-26 0'20 0-19 1 c"i6 1 o'oH 0-13 O'lO 0-32 0-27 01 3 0-22 1 0-17 0 64 0-53 0-71 083 0*62 0-89 0-55 0-54 078 0*84 0-6S 0-54 o"64 f^"53 0-41 o"37 In order to compare the age incidence in two different classes of .society, I have analysed the records of a number of children attending the Northern Hospital, Manchester, and compared them with the record cards of the last batch of boys entering the Manchester Grammar .School. The following are the results in percentages : — Mixiichcstcr ]\Tcinoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 5. 1 1 Ci -T •- CO 0 9 1 1 '-' 1 1 'i- 1-. 0 n - t-i 0^ c •« 0 I- •r; M p 10 r^ V ^ . 5 i 10 •-■ ci '-■o CO ^ '^ i-( r^ a m t^ 0 1J^ ro 0 ^ h-« - s .2 5 ^ U-) t;?i C^ 0 0 u-^ h- ( \ri . ' 0 u —^ (^1 l-l "^ t. ri ^ -+ t— ' i-i -r _. . 0 1; U-) M 00 0 0 t-i n •—I t— « M -- _ • 0 t- '■0 n w " > ri 0 l^ t-1 ■- .-H CJ ^ • •2 5 C-) pj i-i 0 ■o r^ h- 1 H^ M 0 .- r^ 0 u 0 0 M ^Sl r^ KH -t r-< H- CN s c -■0 0 Ji's I^ 0 0^ • •0 5 •— ' CJ vo 5-3 5 rC (— ( o; . aj V. :n -^ 0 rr I 't: ^^ ^^ Tl ^1 -F, -c ' 1 ,0 ' 0 C3 0 gS -Q « rt j_^ ■J) '~ <-^ p t4— T H 7- 0 (/I 0 ^-> 0 0 X X 1 ^ ir> 1 ro *^ M M 0 ■"^ " n ■0 w ^ ^ CO -:)- VO « t^ ^ CO t 0 2 -n T3 0 ~ CD or ~ -a _3 rt rt rf. ^^ r/} r/l 0 in 0 0 0 0 S E <^ o ^ i^ 10 "^ M 0 CO u-i lO '"' 0 0 VO VO l__j ro VO CO VO 10 0 CO 0 CJ 0 -i- 0 -t- 0 C4 CO 0 ' r-^ m 0 ' " >o -i- 10 r» ^ 0 Cl r-^ 10 0 Cl 0 n in CO 0 CO CO CO VO CO CO rl- M f-- t^ Ov M ^ OJ . N JZ^ f^n J_ 0 wl u '-' i'rt "P "rt -^ rr' U-. c/l 0 fTT' 0 ^' 1 r> 0 1 ■^ <^ 1 2 M UMFORD, Physique of Manchester Graiin/iar School Boys. In conclusion, in assii^ning the value to each of the factors, I am inclined to the opinion that the diminution of incidence of early infectious disease during the first period of childhood {i.e., before the age of seven years) is one of the most potent factors which has produced the improvement that we have noticed. Manchester iMemoirs, Vol. hi. (1912), No. i^ <2 as o 3 cr ON p ON 0 c 0 r-~ 0 t 0 10 10 (5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ' + + + + + + + 0 00 0 CO 10 0 l^ to ON lO 00 I/-) r4 1-^ CI C/0 M 0 rO On PI r^ 0 0 "■O CO ri- P4 10 PI 0 M 0 CO ~ + + 00 + -1- p V - I-^ CO ON ON M >0 MO ^ M ro -t 10 0 r-- CO 1 0 h-1 1 1 r'o 1 1 vo 1 1 0 t-. - 3. O O - o ex 14 MUMFOKD, P/iysiqnc of Mauclicstcr Graiiimar School Bovs. Heights in Inchks. Date. Age. No. of Cases. Range. Average. Afedian. Average deviation. Probable error. From To 1881-86 9-10 38 46 58 *52-25 52-59 1-92 1-56 1905-10 9-10 17 48-5 56-0 *5i-96 52-06 119 1-25 1881-86 lO-II 124 46 59 53-2 53-25 1-97 18 1905-10 10- 1 1 85 47-5 57-0 52-94 53-31 I -88 J-73 1881-86 11-12 356 46 66 54-38 54-64 1-97 1-75 1905-10 11-12 256 49-25 64-25 54-99 55"o6 201 2-3 1881-86 12-13 353 48 67 55'94 56-12 2-11 2-4 1905-10 12-13 340 57-0 63-0 56-70 56-88 2-17 2-48 1881-86 13-14 672 48 68 57-77 57-76 2-35 2-30 1905-10 13-14 470 51-0 68 -o 58-84 58-9 2-52 2-45 1881-S6 14-15 704 48 69 59-82 59"8i 262 2-52 i 1905-10 14-15 473 51-0 70-75 61 08 61-4 2-76 2-7 1881-86 15-16 668 48 73 62"i6 62-29 3-03 2-76 1905-10 15-16 340 53-0 72-0 63-4 63-83 2-65 2-66 1881-86 16-17 347 55 72-5 63-84 64-21 2-81 2-74 1905-10 16-17 432 53-0 73-5 65-35 66-16 2-48 2-35 i88f-86 17-18 i'5 57 71 65-88 65-66 219 2-11 1905-10 17-18 187 59-0 74-5 66-47 66-75 2T3 1-77 1881-86 18-19 32 59 71 *66-98 66-92 1-52 1-42 1905-10 18-19 88 i 61 72 ^^66-39 66-66 I -80 1-70 1881-86 19-20 1 , 9 61-75 715 1*67-14 6S-00 2-19 2-48 1905-10 19-20 8 61-5 71 *66-2 65-75 3-8 2-8 Decrease. MaiicJicstcr Mciiioiis, Vol. hi (1912), A'c;. 5. 15 Weight in Lbs. Dale. Age. No. of Cases. 38 Rai I'roni ige. To Average. Median. Average devialioii. I'rohable error. 1881-86 9-10 46 79 61-24 6l-oo 6-87 7-45 [905-10 9-10 14 52 78 6 1 -93 59-8 4-36 3'o 1881-86 10-11 124 42 98 65-3 655 6-86 6-58 1905-10 lO-II 54 48 82 65-59 65-66 6-07 6-0 1881-86 1 1-12 356 40 91 69-28 69-59 6-37 5-94 1905-10 11-12 186 54 117 72-05 71-125 7-85 7-'3 1881-86 12-13 356 52 124 74-4 73-88 9-88 826 1905-10 12-13 391 59 MS 773 76-67 8-43 7-2t 1881-86 13-14 670 56 140 81-01 8o-2i 9-66 8-98 1905-10 14-14 469 61 160 85-47 84-2 11-7 10-3 1881-86 14-^5 709 54 149 89-99 89-23 12-06 10-94 1905-10 -14-15 47S 65 186 95"i5 95-5 13-3 12-55 1881-86 15-16 671 56 169 IOI-4I 101-89 14-48 13-82 1905-10 15-16 33S 70 206-5 1 05 "9 106-3 14-0 135 i88j-86 16-17 354 72 148 109-65 109-875 14-32 13-02 1905-10 16-17 433 64 186 117-9 119-92 13-39 12-6 1881-86 17-18 118 82 155 119.36 119-33 11-57 I I-I2 1905-10 17-18 186 84 190 124-84 126-45 13-08 11-65 18S1-86 18-19 32 88 160 126-16 128-5 10-97 10-33 1905-10 18-19 89 88 182 127-03 127-25 13-12 11-15 1831-86 19-20 9 107 156-25 133-42 134 14-97 16-53 19O5-10 19-20 8 99 202 *i32-6 123-5 21-2 15 * Decrease. 1 6 Mum ford, Physique of Manchester Grainiiiar School Boys. Chest Girth in Inches. Dale. 1881-86 1905-10 i88i-86 1905-10 18S1-S6 1905-10 1881-S6 1905-10 1881-S6 1905-10 18S1-S6 1905-10 1881-S6 1905-10 18S1-86 1905-10 1881-S6 1905-10 1S81-86 1905-10 i88i-86 1905-10 Age. 9-10 9-10 o-i I 0-1 1 1-12 1-12 2-13 2-13 3-14 3-14 4-15 4-15 5-16 5-16 6-17 6-17 7-, 8 7-18 8-19 8-19 9-20 9-20 No. of Cases. 17 124 85 356 256 357 340 673 470 707 478 673 338 354 432 121 187 32 89 9 8 Range. From 22 22-5 21 22-25 22 22-5 22 2275 23 24 24 25 23 25 26 26 27 28 30-625 29 To 28 27 29 3475 35 36-5 36 38 36 39 35 3875 36 38-5 35'5 39 36-625 ^8 Average. 24-30 2446 24-9 * 24-68 25-21 25-38 25-92 25'93 26-72 27-05 27-71 28-17 29-26 29-56 30-06 30-91 31-85 32-21 32-41 .Tr8i iNIedian. 24-25 24-22 24-79 24-49 25-29 25-22 25-89 25-92 26-69 27-01 27-69 28-15 29-22 29-61 30-18 31-15 31-28 32-11 32-25 32-55 33-94 31-25 Average Probable kviation. error. I-13 -98 -86 I 00 •99 72 1-02 •93 -96 ■79 1-04 ■95 1-13 1-03 112 -94 1-34 1-23 1-50 1-27 1-44 1-27 I -60 1-53 1-87 1-5 1-63 1-66 1-73 1-68 1-57 1-48 1-64 I "54 1-53 1-40 1-15 1-17 1-68 i"7 i-53 1-53 2-4 2-25 • Decrease. MaucJicster Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. 5. Upper Arm in Inches. 17 I );ite. A-e. No. of Cases. Kai ige. To Avernge. Median. Average deviation. 1 Probable error. 1881-86 9-10 38 6-375 9'5 7-67 7-594 •59 •65 1905-10 9-10 17 6-75 8-75 *7-5i5 7-535 ■44 •41 1S81-86 10-11 124 6-25 9-875 7-81 7-85 -51 ■45 1905-10 10-11 85 6-5 9.0 *7-6o4 7-483 ■45 •42 18S1-86 1 1-12 356 6 00 lO'O 7*99 8-033 -48 •52 IQ05-10 11-12 256 6-5 11 125 *7-9i 7-87 •52 ■44 1881-86 12-13 357 6-5 1 10 8-27 8-25 ■52 •47 1905-10 12-13 391 6-5 12-75 *8ii 8-085 ■53 •46 1881-86 I3-M 674 6-5 11-5 8-63 8-614 -61 •56 1905-10 13-14 470 7-0 12-5 *8-49 8-45 -68 ■59 1881-86 14-15 707 7-0 12-25 91 909 -7 •66 1905-10 M-I5 478 7-0 13-25 "■8-97 8-97 ■71 •64 1881-86 15-16 671 7-5 130 9-67 9-71 •89 •75 1905-10 15-16 33S 7-25 14-25 *9-48 9-515 •73 -66 1881-86 16-17 354 7-5 13-0 10-I9 10-3 •86 •82 1905-10 16-17 431 7-5 13-25 *io-i3 10-18 •77 •70 1881-86 17-18 121 8-50 12-75 1076 10-79 ■73 ■66 1905-10 17-18 187 8-25 13-25 * 1 0-47 10-585 •77 •72 1881-86 18-19 32 9-^25 1300 1113 11-25 •74 •70 1905-10 18-19 89 8-5 13-75 *io-5 10-375 -84 •77 1881-86 19-20 9 io"375 13-625 11-97 i2-c6 •76 1*22 1905-10 19-20 8 9-875 1375 *II-2 1 1 3 ■95 2-0 Decrease at all ages. 1 8 Mu.MFORD, Physique ofJMancJiester Graimnar School Boys. FoRE.Moi IN Inches. Date. Age. No. of Cases. Range. Average. iNIedian. Average deviation. 'robable error. •52 From To SSi-86 9-10 38 6-625 8-625 7-575 7-625 -47 1905-10 9-10 17 6875 8-62^S *7'435 7-40 -32 -37 1 1S81-86 lO-I I 124 6 9 7-63 7-613 •39 •40 1905-10 10-11 85 6-5 8625 *7-6i 7-47 ■35 •40 18S1-86 II-T2 356 6-5 9-625 779 7-8 •39 •45 1905-10 I I-I2 256 6-75 975 7 79 7-813 •37 •34 1881-S6 12-13 357 775 lO'O 7-96 8-053 •46 -40 1905-10 r2-i3 391 6-75 lO'O 7'999 8-045 •40 -43 iSSi-86 13-M 672 6-5 10-375 8-28 8-319 -48 -41 1905-10 13-14 470 7'o 10-5 8-29 8-22 ■51 •47 1881-S6 14-15 695 6-5 1075 8-63 8-65 ■51 ■49 1905-J0 14-15 478 7-0 11-25 869 8-605 •56 -52 1881-86 15-16 672 7-0 II-5 9-08 9-104 •59 •58 1905-10 15-16 338 7-5 ii'5 9-09 9-115 -55 ■53 18S1-86 16-17 354 7-5 1 10 9'4i3 9-517 -57 -50 1905-10 16-17 432 775 ii"5 9-53 9-605 -57 -59 i88r-86 17-18 121 8-25 1 i-o 9-80 994 •51 •50 1905-10 17-18 X87 8-125 ii-5 *979 9-835 -52 -50 i88r-86 18-19 32 8-5 110 9-84 9-875 i -46 -44 1905-10 iS-19 89 8-625 12-0 9'9 io'04 •46 •47 1881-86 19-20 9 9'5 11-625 10-54 10 812 •58 -60 1905-10 19-20 8 8-875 I 2*0 1*10-5 9-75 i -625 1 1-4 " Decrea se. MancJicsta' Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. 5. 19 comvarison of emrloyments of parents of nearly t,300 Manchester Grammar School Boys, in Periods 1879-1880- 1881 AND 1905-6-7. Taken conseculively from the Admission Register. Professional. Higher Government Officials, .Army, Navy, &c. jNIinisters of Religion Legal Profession Medicine Dentists Accountants Stockbrokers Teaching and allied Land Agents, Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, &c 1879-81. 91 83 15 9 23 5 29 80 >." Class Total j 286 1905-7- 42 25 41 5 18 3 59 302 Commercial. Wholesale Manufacturers, &C Merchants, Shippers, Yarn Agents, l\:c Cashiers, Managers, Secretaries, Travellers, \ Warehousemen and Inspectors / Retail Traders, Shop Assistants, Plumbers,) Pawnbrokers, &c j Licensed Victuallers, Hotel Keepers, &c. ... Printers, Publishers, Journalists, &C Builders, Contractors, l\:c Metal Workers, Ironfounders and Brass) Finishers, &c j Artizans and Mechanics Class Total 188 243 167 142 44 15 25 24 26; 874 Farmers, Agriculturalists, &c. Widows Out of Business Unclassified Class Total 109 213 282 137 35 28 15 7 27y 85; I 2 75 35 130 Total Number of Parents 1285 1285 Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. 0. VI. The Synthesis of Hydrocarbons and their Stability at High Temperatures and Pressures. By J. N. Tring, D.Sc, AND D. M. Fairlie, M.Sc. {Read November 2Slh, igii. Received fo>- publication December glh, igii.) Carbon and hydrogen, even when in a pure condition, have been found to react directly to give methane at all temperatures up to 1600 , ethylene at 1200' and above, though not in any considerable quantity below 1400 — 1500^, and acetylene at 1700° and above.* It was found that no other hydrocarbon can be formed or can exist at any temperature above 1200 . If the whole of the reaction vessel is at a uniform temperature, the formation of these h}'drocarbons will proceed until a certain equilibrium value is in each case reached, when further action ceases, and if, to begin with, any of these hydrocarbons are added in quantities in excess of this value, then decomposition takes place until the same final equilibrium is reached. The difficulty which was encountered in measuring the equilibrium value of methane is due to the fact that at 1200" and at atmospheric pressure, the reaction between h)'drogen and pure carbon is too slow to enable this * Pring & Ilutton, Trans. Chem. Soc. (1906), 89, 1591. Mayer & Altmayer, Ber. (1907), 40, 2134. Bone & Coward, l^rans. Chem. Soc. (1908), 93, 1975 ; {1910), 97, 1219. Pring, ibid {i(^lo), 97, 498. Pring & Fairlie, ibid [\()\i), 99, 1796 ; (1912), lOI, 91. March Stk, igi2, 2 Pring & Fairlie, Hydrocarbons and their Stability. determination to be made in any reasonable time, and the decomposition of methane at this temperature proceeds still more slowly, though both these reactions can be accelerated by using a catalyst such as platinum or palladium in contact with the carbon. Again, no substance can be used for the reaction vessel, which can be heated to above 1200 , and remain quite impervious to gases, so it is not practicable to have the whole of the enclosure at a uniform temperature, as was attempted by Berthelot.* The apparatus by means of which the synthesis of the various h\'drocarbons has been observed b\- the present authors consisted in heating a rod of purified carbon uniformly by means of an electric current. The rod was mounted in water-cooled electrodes supported in a tubular glass flask, which was filled with pure hydrogen. The carbon itself was thus the only part of the apparatus to be heated. As methane is exothermic, the quantity in equilibrium with carbon and hydrogen is lower the higher the temperature, so that the amount of this hydrocarbon finally formed will correspond to the equilibrium at the temperature of the heated carbon. By this means then an accurate measure could be obtained of the equilibrium value if there is no disturbance by the presence of any other hydrocarbon. The equilibrium with the endothermic compounds, acetylene and ethylene, could not be determined in this form of apparatus, as the values diminish at lower temperatures, and decomposition of the gas would take place in passing to the cooler parts of the apparatus. Using platinum as a catalyst, it was found that 0-55 per cent, of methane was finally given at 1200". and 030 per cent, at 1500°. * Ann. Chitn. Pkys. {1905) |viii.], 6, 183. Manchester Meuwirs, Vol. hi. (19 12), No. 6. 3 However, it was observed that at this temperature a trace of ethylene was produced (about i part in i,ooo,coo). As is well known, this will react with hydrogen at lower temperatures, giving methane, which in this case would raise the amount of the latter above the equilibrium value at the temperature of the rod. It was found that methane is exceedingly stable at 1200", and could not be decom- posed to the equilibrium value, in absence of a catalyst, even after a period of several days. Data obtained from the above experiments have shown that the ;^hole of the methane obtained at 1200' could not have arisen from this ethylene, but that a con- siderable part of til is tjuantit}- was probably derived in this way, and the value did not represent the true equilibrium. In the case of methane, which is found according to the equation C-f 2H., = CH4, the criterion of a true equilibrium is that the following conditions shall be satisfied : (i) At any particular temperature a constant value is given for the ratio of methane to hydrogen. (2) This same value for the ratio of these gases results when an e.xcess of methane is taken in the first place and allowed to decompose. (3) The influence of pressure on the reaction shall influence this equilibrium ratio in accordance with the law of mass action, according to which "~ = K a constant. According to this 4 t'RING & FairLIE, Hydrocarbons and tlieir Siability. or the ratio of methane to hydrogen is directly proportional to the pressure of the latter. It was found that the reaction between carbon and hydrogen is greatly accelerated by increase of pressure and the time necessary for obtaining equilibrium thereby shortened. The complication produced through the formation of ethylene will therefore be very much lessened. The apparatus emplo}'ed served, moreover, almost com- pletely as a " hot-cold " tube, so that between the range of temperature from iioo' to 1600 quantities of methane were obtained which satisfied the above three requirements of a true equilibrium. Apparatus for reactions at high pressures.^' The reaction vessel consisted of a cylinder of nickel- steel of high tensile strength. This was cooled on the outside with water. An inlet valve for the gas was fitted through the walls in the centre, together with a projecting tube provided with a thick glass conical window for sighting through and taking temperature readings with a Wanner optical pyrometer. The electrodes, consisting of steel tubes cooled by water circulation, were introduced through the two end plates of the cylinder, and passed through stuffing boxes, where insulation from the furnace walls was effected. The electrodes terminated in nickel clamps, which enabled a firm attachment to be made to the carbon rod. The windows could usually be used at 200 atmospheres pressure for a few experiments, but numerous cracks gradually developed, which finally led to complete fracture. The carbon rods used were about 14 cms. long and lomms. diameter. In some cases, the carbon was used in * cf. Tians. Chem, Soc. (1912), lOl, 91- Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (1912), No. 6. 5 the form of tubes, about 15 mms. external diameter. A current of 500 am[)s. at 22 volts, would raise this to 1600 '^, when the pressure was 150 atmospheres. Somewhat thinner rods were used for producing higher temperatures and also when graphite was used, on account of its higher conductivity. Hydrogen compressed in cyHnders and of about 995 per cent, purity was used for these experiments. When working at lower pressures (below 30 atmospheres), the furnace after evacuating was sometimes first filled with pure methane at i atmosphere, in order to approach the equilibrium from a quantity slightly in excess of this value. Results. A large number of experiments were conducted at various pressures between 20 and 200 atmospheres, and with carbon in various forms and different degrees of purity. It was found that the amount of methane obtained was always higher with the amorphous form of carbon than with graphite. As is well known, amorphous carbon is unstable above 1200°, and for this reason gives with methane a " false " or " metastable " equilibrium, which is higher than the true value with graphite. On account of the great inertness of methane, de- composition into the lower value only takes place very slowl}'. It was found that with any particular modification of carbon, a constant value within the limits of experi- mental error was always obtained for the ratio at any given temperature in the range between 1200' and 6 Pring & FairLIE, Hydrocarbons and their Stability. 1600'. Above this temperature, equilibrium v^alues could not be obtained, on account of the comparatively large quantities of ethylene and acetylene which are formed, 0-005 0'004 0-003 UP ( 1 \ . liiioi-phoits Carbon. ^ J\xrtly grapJiitiscd Carbon. (J Graphite. ^ ) \ • \ © \ \ 5> 0 © ^ ) 1 1 *^^^ . ® ■e- 1300 1400 Tempekature. Fis:. I. 1500 1600" 1800" and which react rapidh'with h)-drogen in the cooler parts of the vessel, to give methane. The results are repre- Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. 0- 7 sented io Fig. i in the form of curves, in which the ordinates denote the equilibrium constants or the vahies /•CH, and the abscissae the temperature. The values obtained with amorphous carbon are not so definite as those with graphite on account of the gradual transformation of the former into graphite, which takes place during the course of the experiment. The values in the diagram represented as amorphous carbon denote samples which were heated for the first time and had undergone a minimum of graphitisation. Couclusiois. The heat evolved in the transformation of carbon into graphite can be calculated by means of a formula deduced by Van't Hoff. In this (2) where Q,^, is the heat of reaction at the absolute temperature T. R, the gas constant (198), K,i, the equilibrium constant in the methane formula with amorphous carbon, and K,„, that with graphite. It has been shown by Kirchhoff that the heat of a chemical reaction changes with the temperature in the following manner : Q,„ = Q,„-hT(C(/)-CM) where Q{f) is the mean specific heat of the factors (in this case carbon) and C(^) that of the products of the reaction (in this case graphite). 8 Pring & Faiklie, Hydrocarbons and their Stability. According to data supplied by Berthelot,* O has the value 2840 at ordinary temperatures, and the value at high temperatures is seen from these results to be as follows ; — - Temp, (absolute). M73' 1573° 1673° 1823° 1290 2100 2960 3740 It follows from these results that the mean specific heat of carbon at these temperatures is higher than that of graphite, and the difference increases rapidly with the temperature. However, in the values given by Kunzf for carbon, and by Weber :j: for graphite, the latter has the higher value at all temperatures above 200°. This would lead to the impossible relation that amorphous carbon is at high temperatures more stable than graphite, so that these values, obtained by direct measurement, cannot apply at high temperatures. In the present work careful analysis of the gases was made as described in earlier work.§ At about 2000°, no marked influence was exerted by pressure on the amounts of ethylene and acet}'lene produced. * Comp/es retidus [l?'?>o,),lO^, l\^A- t Ann. Physik, 1904 [iv.], 14, 327. X Ber., 1872, 5, 303. § Trans. Chem. Soc. (191 1), 99, 1796. Matichestcr Memoirs^ Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 0. 9 At 1250 the ratio of ethylene to hydrogen was in- creased by pressure, but the ratio of this hydrocarbon to methane diminished as would be expected from a con- sideration of the volume changes. It was found that no saturated hydrocarbon other than methane is produced or is stable under the conditions of temperature and pressure employed. Electro-Chemical Laboratory, The University, Manchester. Manchester Memoirs, Voi. Ivl (191 2), No. 7. VII. The Duration of Life of the Common and the Lesssr Shrew, with some notes on their Habits. By Lionel E. Adams, B.A. (Communicated by Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S.) ( Received November 13th, igii. Read December 12th, igiz.) I. The Moults. Little attention has been given to the moults of our shrews, the best account being that of Barrett-Hamilton in A History of British Mammals, Part viii., p. 88, and f may say that this work, which advances our knowledge many stages further than any previous text-book and provides the student with so many points of fresh departure, has suggested the lines of observation detailed in these notes. Having paid special attention to the subject during the current year (191 1) I am able to carry the matter a little further, and I find incidentally that the details of my observations throw additional light on the duration of life of both our shrews, all confirmatory of the hypothesis which I formed some two years ago.* I will deal with the two moults separately. A. The Spring Moult. The shedding of the winter coat has been observed to extend "from I2lh April to 14th June,"t though, of course, it may and probably does * *' A Hypothesis as to the Cause of the Autumnal Epidemic of the Common and the Lesser Shrew," Manchester Me»ioiis, vol. 54, March 31st, 1910. + Barrelt-Hamilton, op. cit hebruary 6th, igi2. 2 Adams, Life of the Common and the Lesser Shrew. sometimes begin earlier and end later. The shorter summer coat first appears as a patch on the head or neck and thence extends over the back to the tail, the line of demarcation between the two coats beinc^ very marked ; also loose hairs are very noticeable. Of course, all those individuals that moult in the spring have the dark coats characteristic of maturity which were acquired during the previous autumn, and the summer coat is of the same dark colour. With the winter coat is shed all, or nearly all the hair on the ears, feet and tail, which parts are never reclothed with a summer pelage. Now those that have cast their winter coats, and are ipso facto adults, do not (so far as my observation goes) participate in the autumn moult of the juveniles. This is particularly significant, and if my theory that the parent generation dies out every autumn be correct, it is not only quite intelligible but almost in- dispensable to it ; for if the adults are not to live through the winter, why should they perform the useless operation of preparing for it ? On the other hand, if the adults do survive the winter, why should they not prepare for it like the juveniles and (?) all other furred creatures ? B. The Aututun Moult. Barrett-Hamilton gives the duration of this moult from September 14th to October 7th,* but I have seen individuals incompletely moulted up to November i ith, on which date two specimens were captured without any signs of moult. In order to ascertain the precise duration of the process I kept an unmoulted Common Shrew under observation. He was caught on September 29th. On October 2nd a darker patch appeared on the lower part of the back, and gradually extended till it reached the neck on October 7th. * op. cit Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. H. 3 On October 8th the upper part of the head and face began to darken, and by October nth the whole upper surface of the body from nose to tail was of the normal dark colour. Thus, if one may judge from the behaviour of a single captive specimen, the moult is completed in nine or ten days. In the autumn moult I have only seen a single instance where there was a line of demarcation between the two coats, the dark patch of the winter coat appearing shorter than the surrounding brown ; also loose hairs were not conspicuous, except in the case of a Lesser Shrew, the loose hairs of which called my attention to the fact that moulting was in progress. Indeed, were it not for the dark colour of the winter coat of the Common Shrew contrasting with the light brown of the juvenile pelage the autumn moult might escape notice altogether, I have examined nearly seventy specimens of the Common Shrew during August, September, October and November, about fifty of which were in the act of moulting, and in every case these were young, brown individuals, born during the current year — the significance of which I have commented upon when dealing with the spring moult. Of course, the fact that all the summer and autumn adults which have been examined show no trace of reclothing is negative evidence ; but then the whole of the evidence in favour of the theory is of necessity of a negative character, the value of it consisting in the accumulation of facts which all point in one direction, and also in the absence of a single exception to the facts, though exceptions have been most carefully watched for. Altogether more than 500 specimens have been examined. The evidence for the annual extinction of the parent generation may be summarised as follows : — 4 Adams, Life of the Common and the Lesser Shrew 1. All individuals examined during and after December are sexually immature. 2. The genitalia of neither males nor females become atrophied as winter approaches. (The contrary is the case with the Moles that have to husband their resources for the next year.) 3. The adults do not provide for the winter by reclothing. 4. The subjoined chart, based on the head-and-bod} measurements of some 500 specimens, shows that indi- viduals reach their full size in the summer, and then totally disappear. 5. A chart of a similar character, based on the weights of specimens, would show a similar result. II. Notes ON Habits. During the few days that my captive Common Shrew enjoyed my hospitality he taught me many things, which I hope may be as of much interest to other students of our mammals as they have been to myself Found alive in a box-trap on the morning of September 28th I took him home, and at noon installed him in a large o-lass jar, with half an inch of sand on the bottom, a handful of hay, and a shallow pan of water. Taking it for granted that he was hungry I dropped in beside him a freshly caught dead shrew of his own size. He immedi- ately flew upon it, attacking the belly first. Having torn this open he paid little attention to the intestines, but went for the kidneys, heart, liver and lungs. Within an hour all these parts and a part of the brain had been devoured, and then he darted about excitedly till he stumbled into the water-pan, and began to lap like a dog, with an extremely rapid movement. He then vomited Manchester Memoirs. Vol. Ivt. (igi2), No. t. 5 violently, after which he recommenced upon the dead shrew, and presently settled down for a nap. During the afternoon I gave him several bluebottles which he ate greedily. At 5 p.m. I substituted a freshly killed young Bank Vole for the remains of the shrew. This he attacked at once, first eating an ear and then the brain, after which he burrowed for the heart and lungs through the upper part of the thorax. This, I have noticed, is the usual pro- cedure when shrews devour dead mice. Usually, but not invariabl}', when they have time to finish the banquet, they leave the skin turned inside out with the paws and tail attached to it. This was the condition of the remains of the Bank Vole the next morning and of some others which I gave him, except one the skin of which I found a ragged heap of shreds. On October 4th I left him at night with a large dead Long-tailed Field Mouse weighing 33 grammes. On the morning of October 6th there was nothing left but most of the skin, paws, and leg bones picked clean. During these thirty-six hours he also ate twelve half-grown cockroaches, two small snails [Helix nifescens\ the following small slugs, s\:K.Agriolimaxagresiis, and five Avion horteiisis, also three earthworms about three inches long. As the shrew weighed 7 to 8 grammes, he had consumed nearly four times his own weight in thirty-six hours ; and it must be remembered that as nothing was left uneaten, the presumption is that he could have eaten more. On my offering him a large yellow slug {Limax flavus; he attacked it without hesitation, but the slime was too much for him, he could get hold neither with teeth nor claws, and after four attacks (from each of which he with- drew to clean the slime off face and paws by rubbing them in the dry sand) he gave it up and went to hunt for something else. 6 Adams, Life of the Common and the Lesser Shrew. I append a list of insects, etc., offered to him, and his reception of them : — Flies. Bluebottles, Greenbottles, House Flies, Hover Flies and Drone Flies {Eristalis tenax) were all greedily devoured. Spiders. A very large Epeira diadema, a " hay "' spider and others devoured at once. Cockroaches. Devoured at once. Woodlice. Devoured at once. In fact, I never found the limit of his capacity in respect to all the above ; the supply always gave out before the demand. A large Devil's Coach Horse {Ocypus olens) was seized at once, and, in spite of its violent struggles and attempts to bite, was entirely consumed except the mandibles which were bitten off and cast on the ground. Millipedes were received with only moderate enthusiasm, an hilus being absolutely ignored, while centipedes were eaten when nothing else remained. Honey Bees. One was eaten after some hesitation ; another was unmolested. Wasp. This was the only living thing absolutely rejected. Worvis of all sorts were eaten greedily. Mollusks. Besides those previously mentioned, small snails {Hyalitiia cellaria and Hy. alliaria) were refused at first, but afterwards eaten. A small example of the keeled slug, Milax Sowerbyi, was refused at first but afterwards eaten. After spending half an hour in eating, or rather ferocious gorging, the captive would leave off suddenly, retire to a particular spot amongst the hay and compose himself for a nap. He never attempted to make a nest, but merely snuggled in the hay as it lay on the floor of Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. 7. 7 his den, leaving himself well exposed to view. He would sleep crouched on his belly, tucking his snout straight down through his forelegs under his chest. His slumbers seemed terribly disturbed, and his breathing would become increasingly rapid and spasmodic until the discomfort woke him, when he would again compose himself, and the whole action would be repeated. When he finally roused himself in about half an hour, he would start off frantically in search of more food. Thus alternately eating and sleeping he passed the days and nights. I never saw him quiet when awake for an instant. When surrounded with a plethora of worms he would bite them and bury them. He deposited his copious droppings in the part of his domain most remote from his sleeping-place. When excited by the pursuit of disabled insects or other things that moved he would give forth a small shrill whistle. Being specially curious as to whether shrews excavate burrows I filled up his jar with four inches of soil tightly pressed down. He immediately began to burrow scratching out the soil behind him with his forelegs. He was out of sight in 1 2 seconds, and presently reappeared in a different spot. He seemed to enjoy burrowing ; perhaps it cleaned his paws and fur. He would keep one or two burrows open at both ends, and spent much time rushing through them. I renewed the earth daily, and no sooner was this done than he commenced to burrow in it ; and it was evident from the purposeful manner in which he burrowed that he was engaged in a habitual action. He never slept in the burrows but always in the hay on the surface, though the custom of the species in this particular during winter cold cannot be judged by the conduct of a well-sheltered captive. 8 Adams, Life of the Covimon and the Lesser Shrew. When I gave him his liberty, turning him loose in the garden, he straightway made a long burrow under the surface of a border which I could trace by the upheaval of the earth. The most interesting peculiarity, however, was the extreme short-sightedness, if not actual blindness, of this little creature. If I put my hand or a stick into the jar, causing a slight disturbance, he would at once become aware of it, and would come and sniff about a finger or stick if either happened to disturb the hay. A wriggling worm, a buzzing fly, or even a creeping spider or wood- louse would soon be located and preyed upon ; but a dead bluebottle or motionless worm dangled before him would elicit no response till within an inch of his face, when he would begin to hunt about as if he smelt some- thing, and only when the object came within three-quarters of an inch from his nose would he dart upon it and carry it off. It often happened that in his hurry he would drop the prey, and then he would have to hunt for it afresh, though, of course, it was close to him. In this respect he reminded me very strongly of the procedure of the Mole. His minute beady eyes, like those of bats, seemed to be watching me and looking about, but continual tests con- vinced me that the little creature was practically blind. If the habits of the Common Shrew were specially nocturnal it might be supposed to see better in the dark, but this is certainly not the case ; I trap them freely in the daytime, and my captive did not make any difference in his routine night or day. I never saw him wash his face with his forepaws as small rodents do, but he would often scratch his fur with exceedingly rapid movements of his feet. His conspicuous characteristic was the spasmodic nervous activity and restlessness of all his actions, in Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. T. 9 which he reminded me strongly of the Mole, as he did also by his inappeasable appetite (in which, however, he out- moled the Mole) ; in his manner of lapping water ; by the habit of thrusting his flexible trunklike snout enquiringly upwards ; his powers of burrowing ; his perfect indifference to being stroked or tickled, and lastly by his apparent blindness or extreme short-sightedness. I may mention here that during the heat and drought of this summer the coats of the Common Shrews have been much lighter in colour than usual, white ears also being v§ry common. Formerly white ears were found in, perhaps, 2 per cent, of the specimens handled ; this year they occurred in something like 25 per cent. lO Adams, Life of the Co^nnioii and the Lesser Shrew. EXPLANATION OF THE CHART. The lines indicate the growth of average-sized Common Shrews from the time they leave the nest, the numbers being the measurements of the head-and-body in millimeters. Quitting the nest from early in June to late October with head-and-body measurement of 60 mm. they quickly reach 70 mm., at which size they remain right through the winter, with an increase of, perhaps, 1 or 2 mm., and suddenly start growing again in May, attaining their maximum in June and July ; in autumn they diminish in numbers and disappear. The almost stationary state during the winter is very noteworthy, as is the sudden growth when the breeding season approaches. Of course these lines on the chart are ideal and only show a rough average ; now and then the sizes of the young and old will overlap but not often. It is always perfectly easy to determine to which generation an individual belongs — colour, state of moult and development of genitals all being sure indications. Manchi Plate. 0n "ZA h\a^ QJU. Manclusler Memoirs. fW. L VI. {Nf. 7), ■jfc-n ^iJj (HicA a^^ Hioy 7>vi^ 7k^ i>--'»^ J-t^ Ot/t k' ! G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, "A History of British Mammals," pt. ix., p. 146. London, 191 1. In progress 1* " Supplement to the Journal of the Board of Agriculture," xv., No.- 9, looS. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivz. {i()i2), Ah. H. n -entirely upon troublesome weeds, and surely no one can say that we should be indifferent to the labours of the scavengers ! The coprophagous beetle not only removes ■objectionable and dangerous substances, but buries them beneath the earth, where it gorges itself on the " filth," and, ]:)assing it through its own alimentary canal, converts it into valuable manure. Let any who doubt this read the veteran Fabre's " Life and Love of the Insect." The evidence of the few insects found in the pellets of the Stamford Little Owls would, according to the arbitrary classification, be against the bird. It had eaten four beneficial, one harmful, and one indifferent species. But some of the carnivorous beetles are vegetable feeders also ; the indifferent Geotnipes must be classed as a most useful ally, and the earwig, though destructive in a garden, does little real damage to food vegetables. Nor can we safely judge by the vertebrate remains. Shrews, which, as they are insectivorous, are usually classed as beneficial, had been eaten by both the Egyptian and European birds, and the troublesome sparrow had been -devoured by apparently the same bird which had eaten a useful insectivorous species. The humanitarian would contend, no doubt, that the Egyptian birds had eaten scorpions, and therefore must be useful, but the false scorpions are not dangerous like their tailed relatives ; indeed, they are insectivorous like their other relations, the spiders. MaucJiester Meuioirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), Ah. 0. IX. On the modes of rupture of an open hemispherical concrete shell under axial pressure. By J. R. GWYTHER, M.A. {^Comnmnicated by Mr. R. F. Gwyt/ier, M.A.) [Received and read 2jrd Janitary, igi3.) This paper is written to describe a io-w experiments undertaken tentatively in the hopes of obtaining some definite description of the circumstances and mode of rupture as the load is increased, and it is the author's intention to continue the investigation. The specimens experimented on were made of concrete in the proportion of I : i| : 2 of cement, sand and stone, the aggregate being ^-inch granite chippings, and were carefully prepared in wood moulds. After remaining in the moulds for seven days, they were removed and allowed to set under water for a month, and were finally tested four days after being removed from the water. The specimens were then sub- jected in the ordinary way to compression in a horizontal testing machine with the results to be described. It would perhaps have been preferable to have used a vertical machine for the purpose, since when the load was not removed sufficiently quickly on causing rupture, the specimens were injured by the falling parts. The author wishes to express his acknowledgments to Mr. J. H. Reynolds, the Principal of the Manchester Municipal School of Technology, to Mr. Topplewell, and to Mr. A. Herring-Shaw for permission to use the laboratories and apparatus. Six specimens were made and tested, of three sizes with two specimens of each, and at a later period three April 2gth, igi2. 2 GWYTHER, Modes of rupture of a liemispJierical sJiell. more specimens were tested. One specimen of each size was reinforced at the base (la, 2a, 3a in the Table, p. 7). The other specimens of each size were not reinforced (marked i, 2, and 3 in the Table, p. 7). The several specimens and the results of the tests are described below, but it appears best to state first the general modes of rupture as the load increases. First. At some load a longitudinal crack develops which extends gradually in the meridian plane. There are several such cracks fairly regularly distributed, but no doubt decided in position at first by some accidental weakness. When once started they doubtless affect the condition of the specimen. In the specimens not reinforced at the base, the cracks started at the base ; in those which were reinforced at the base they commenced at the top. Secondly. When the load was increased, and (except in the case of the two smaller specimens) before the longitudinal cracks had extended through the material, rupture took place quite suddenly by a fracture roughly along a parallel of latitude. This fracture was approximately conical and nearly normal to the spherical surfaces, although in all cases the vertex of the cone appeared to be in the axis slightly below the centre of the sphere. It must be understood that the fracture was irregular, and that the description is of its general character, Description of tlie sped mens and their riiptnre. The specimens were all of the same description of concrete, and the difference between the radii of the Majichcster Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. J). 3 bounding spheres was in each case one inch, so that if d is the diameter of the internal sphere in inches, the area of any section parallel to the base is -k {d-\- 1) square inches. The vertical breaking stress is found in pounds per square inch by dividing the breaking load by the area of the section. The top was plane and parallel to the base. The specimens i. and la. had the dimensions: — internal diameter, I2"5 inches, external diameter, 145 inches, height, 575 inches, and I a. was reinforced at the base with two rings of wire one-sixteenth inch diameter, a quarter of an inch from the bottom. I. The longitudinal cracks first appeared under a load of 3-35 tons, and spread up the dome as the load increased, reaching about three- quarters or four-fifths the height when the specimen broke latitudinally under the load of 4*42 tons, or a vertical breaking stress of 233"61bs. per sq. inch. Care was taken in removing the specimen from the machine, the lower portion coming away in pieces, while the top remained intact, la. The longitudinal cracks first appeared under the load of 4'Oi tons, and in this case started from ■* the top, spreading gradually downwards. When the cracks had reached about two inches from the base the specimen broke latitudinally, as in the previous case, under the load of irii tons, or a vertical breaking stress of 5867 lbs. per sq. inch. Part of the top collapsed, but the bottom remained whole. 4 GWYTHER, Modes of rupture of a lieimspJieyical shell. Specimens 2. and 2a. had the following dimensions : — internal diameter, 9 inches. external diameter, i r inches. height, 4"2 5 inches, and 2a. was reinforced at the base with two rings of one-sixteenth inch diameter wire. 2. Longitudinal cracks first appeared under a load of 2"6 tons, commencing at the base and spreading upwards, but did not reach the top, being higher on the outside than the inside. The latitudinal rupture took place under the load of 46 tons and was irregular, the vertical breaking stress in this case being 328 lbs. per sq. inch. On removing the specimen from the machine the lower portion was found to be in sections, but the top held together. 2a. Longitudinal cracks appeared under a load of 725 tons and spread from the top downwards as the load increased. At the load of iO'68 tons the specimen broke latitudinally, the top collapsed, and, falling inwards, broke a part of the base to the level of the reinforcement, the longitudinal cracks not having reached the reinforcement. The breaking stress was in this case 76r4lbs. per sq. inch. The load was not removed sufficiently quickly, and the injury to the specimen was partly due to testing it in a horizontal machine. The latitudinal crack was irregular but roughly normal to the surface. The dimensions of specimens 3. and 3a. were as follows : — internal diameter, 6 inches, external diameter, 8 inches, height, 275 inches, and 3a. was reinforced at the base. MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (19 12), No. 0. 5 3. In this case the longitudinal cracks appeared under a load of 3"36 tons. They spread upwards and the specimen parted in sections, three to four inches in width at the base, under a load of 472 tons or a vertical breaking stress of 481 lbs. per sq. inch. There was no latitudinal crack. 3a. This specimen was reinforced at the base, and longitudinal cracks first appeared under a load of 5 '2 tons, and spread from the top downwards as the load increased. At the load of I2'32 tons, giving a breaking stress of 1254*9 lbs. per sq. inch, the specimen collapsed, shearing off at the base, just above the level of the reinforcement, leaving only the inner half of the thickness of the base with the reinforcement standing. There was no latitudinal crack. Having experimented on domes of three different sizes, first without reinforcement, then with reinforcement at the base to prevent spreading, I next decided to test further specimens of the same size as before, but rein- forced with wire rings both at the top and bottom to prevent any spreading movement starting either at the top or bottom with the results and the modes of rupture described below. General mode of rupture of specimens reinforced top and bottom. Firstly. At some load cracks developed in meridian planes round the middle of the dome, spreading up and down as the load increased. Second!)'. When the load was increased and before the cracks had extended to the top or bottom, rupture took place quite suddenly by an irregular 6 GwYTHER, Modes of I'tipture of a heniisphei'ical sJiell. fracture roughly along a parallel of latitude, and, as in the case of the former experiments, was approximately conical, and nearly normal to the spherical surfaces, although in each case the vertex of the cone appeared to be in the axis and slightly below the centre of the sphere. As the rupture took place there was an extension of the meridional cracks. lb. The longitudinal cracks first appeared under the load of 603 tons at intervals averaging roughly two inches round the middle of the dome, and spread gradually up and down. When these cracks had almost reached the top and bottom, the specimen broke latitudinally under the load of 20"35 tons, giving a breaking stress of I074'8 lbs. per sq. inch, the average height being about three inches. The specimen was removed from the machine in two pieces. 2b. Longitudinal cracks appeared round the middle as in lb., in this case under the load of 7'i2 tons, spreading gradually as the load increased. At the load of 2063 tons, a breaking stress of 14707 lbs. per sq. inch, the specimen broke latitudinally, the longitudinal cracks not having reached the reinforcements at the top or base. Again the latitudinal crack was irregular and was at an approximate mean height of 2f inches from the bottom. 3b. Longitudinal cracks first appeared in meridian planes under a load of 8'5 tons and spread as in the other cases, but ultimately reached both reinforcements, the whole breaking and falling to pieces under a load of 2r2 tons, having sheared through at the level of the reinforcements. The Manchester Meuwirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 0. 7 breaking stress in this case was 21 59*4 lbs. per sq. inch. The broken pieces appeared to indicate that the specimen had fractured roughly along a parallel of latitude just as the longitudinal cracks reached the reinforcements, the whole collapsing instantaneously. Table sJioiving Vertical Breaking Loads in Tons and Breaking Stresses in Pounds per square inch. Plain. No. of Specimen. Load. Stress. I. 4'42 233-6 2. 4-6 1 328"o 3- 472 48 1 'O Reinforcicd at Base. la. IITI 586-7 2a. 10-68 761-4 33- 12-32 1254-9 Reinforced both at Base and Crown. lb. 2o'35 1074-8 2b. 20 63 14707 3b. 2 I -2 2i59"4 Summary of the results. (i) The longitudinal cracks in meridional planes only develop under considerable loads and extend slowly. As concrete is understood not to be able 8 GWYTHER, Modes of nipture of a JiemispJierical shell, to resist tension, the conclusion must be that the " ring tension " is comparatively small. The theory of the " Angle of Rupture " does not apply to cases of externally applied load, and it pro- bably is not applicable even to a concrete dome under its own weight. (2) Whatever the size of the example on which the experiments have been carried on, the fracture has occurred under the same conditions (except in the case of the smallest specimens) for practi- cally the same load, and not for the same stress. It may be concluded that the cause of the fracture is not 'shear' under which concrete is supposed to be apt to break, but it breaks in consequence of an excessive ' bending moment,' or otherwise stated, that the resultant stress on some section fails to act within the 'middle third.' (3) The section in which the fracture takes place appears to be approximately on a cone of which the centre of the sphere is the vertex. The mean height of the fracture is about 66 of the height of the shell. (4) The angle of the cone does not vary very greatly with the reinforcement given to the concrete. (5) The load which the specimen will bear without rupture is greatly increased by reinforcement at the lower rim, and is again greatly increased by reinforcement at both top and bottom. It is desirable that a greater number of experiments should be made, as it is probable that a very slight displacement of the reinforcing wires may make a very considerable difference in the load which the specimen can bear without fracture. ]\[(UicIicster Memoirs, \^ol. LVI. {No.^). Plati Specimen i and la. (Elevation. Specimen 3. (Elevation ani , r/)„, ^3, with their definition in (4), because, although we might replace each of them by (p. The single function (p is ordinarily introduced, partly for the sake of form and partly because in ordinary dynamical problems it represents a form of "energy," but in the case under consideration these arguments are void, and each of the quantities 0,, 0_, , . will have its simplest value. For an illustration, note a heavy body rotating 4 R. F. GwYTI-iER, Specification of the elements of stress. about a vertical axis, in which case the different values of 0, , 0., and \ {ax\ dx dy dz ) dydz) dyaz{ ^ J with two analogous relations . . . . (7). 8 R. F. GWYTHER, Specification of the elements of stress. Taking into consideration the three forms of solution (from (3) and (5)), we obtain as the final relations for a homogeneous isotropic elastic solid, - ^\ ^ sin 0, cs'mO}. and those of the stress {F, Q, R, S, rsinfJ, UsmO). I shall assume that this system is employed, and shall write, as is usual, x in place of cos Q. The equations of stress then become r' dr r ax (. J r af r r^ ctr r\dx i - x'-J r{i ■- x'-) a(]> r{i-x'-) nmH r'ar ' r{\-x-)dxV ' J r{\ - x') d<^ sin (J ' The Covipleinentary Function Solution. The expressions corresponding with those of (5) arc long, but this is inevitable in view of the generality of * Manchester Memoirs, vol, iv. ( 1 91 1), No. 20. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (1912), No. 10. { = ifr ^ r ,lnl.x + ?^ dx'' * r ,lr^^- "' -*'=' <-• I ,tx **' '''./.vj >J ■" ./■'I', I - .V" (^•■'l',. I 'f-'l', I rf^f, 2 r/*, t - .V- «>l', I d_ f^ _V_ I I '/"^ T__ (VQ.. I -£' £*.. I_ (V^. 2.V i/'l'i 4.V //M', I (ft), •'=° "7 '//•,/.>■">■( i-.v^ drd^~~>- dx^~)-dxd^ + ;(i - .v') ,//• "*'7^r77 "*■?(! -.\') '/■/.' ;_^^ ^ .. . , I i!^*. I in, X d I rfe, 2^v d^. 2 , , (Irdx *' r(i - x~) dnlf ~ r ,S^/v ~ '"^l^^') '¥ "^ 'li - -v') ""'■ ^"' " "'' " >■' '/.v + >^\ 1 - .v-) Incomplete Group. *(3) II ., j (4) 15 >. \ > Complete Group. (6) 10 „ j ^ ^ *(7) 12 „ j (8) 25 ,, ) \ Incomplete Group. (9) 20 „ ) Total length 123 ,, It is evident : — id) That there are present one complete group of internodes, the upper members of a second, and the lower members of a third. (/;) That i, 2, 3 and 5, 6, 7 constitute two similar sets, the lowest internode of each of which is a branch inter- node, and the other two are the shortest in the series. (r) That, whereas the shortest sections stand above the branch level, the longest in each case is beloiv it. id) That the short nodes are of uniform length. (e^ That there is an ordered sequence in the recurrence of the shortened internodes. Surface Texture. I should judge the surface to be a reproduction of the exterior of the woody cylinder, and should identify as the only trace of cortical tissue present * The branch scars lie in these sections. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. IT. 3 the carbonaceous layer which is still adherent where the fossil has not been exposed to weathering. Where this clings, the sharp outline of the markings is obscured, and a smoother surface results. Microscopic preparations of fair-sized stems rarely show the cortex as retained : it has quite naturally broken away along the zone of soft, delicate tissue, which occupies the position assigned to cambium and phloem. In the long internodes, the markings have the form of very fine longitudinal striations distributed over the entire surface, and so uniform in character throughout that they cannot be regarded as wrinkles or cracks due to shrinking or splitting bark. Ridge and furrow alternate, but neither, as a rule, extends the full length of the internode. The outstanding part is usually of a very attenuated spindle shape, broader considerably in its wider part than the furrow, dying out gradually, and sliding as it were past the tapering ends of its neighbours. The identification from structural examples is easy. The ridges represent the secondary xylem broken up into long slender sections by the furrows of the softer tissue of the secondary medullary rays. From the absence of parallel-sided ridges, extending from node to node, we may conclude that in this species the secondary xylem extended at the periphery completely across the primary medullary rays. The short internodes differ somewhat. Where the striations can be made out they are much broader than in the others ; they are parallel-sided and unbroken throughout the length of the internode : the separating depressions are very narrow. The differences may be due to uneven preservation, but it is more likely that they indicate differences in the living plant : parts quite free from distortion are clear to observation. 4 Johnstone, Calamites {Calamitind) varians, Stevjib. The Nodal Lines. In marked contrast to the nodal constrictions of pith casts, the nodal line on the exterior of this woody cylinder is a ridge, r {Plate), along the top of which lies the chain of contiguous leaf-bases. The protuberance is the highest part of a slight and gradual bulging outwards of the upper internode of the two involved. The leaf-scars are so placed on it that they face slightly downwards as well as outwards, overhanging the lower internode to the extent of about i mm. in some places. At the branching nodes, the exact position of the nodal line is obscure. Leaf-scars. Every node is furnished with its closely packed whorl of leaf-bases, and this was probably true also of the branch nodes. About twenty-five traces may be counted on the flattened face of the fossil, and its whole circumference must have produced at least fifty. Regard- ing each of these as representative of a vascular bundle of the axis, we should have in a woody cylinder, roughly computed at 4 to 5 cms. in diameter, an approximation of fifty proboxylem groups — not out of accord with the evidence of structural sections. The scars of the leaves are elongated ellipses, I {Plate), with their ends touching each other. By piecing together the evidence of the best preserved scars, the following details may be assigned to a typical trace when com- plete : — {a) The boundary is a rather sharply outlined rim which merges at the end of the oval with that of the adjacent scar. The rim has the appearance of being incomplete or broken down on its lower side. {b) A sloping internal face leading from the crest of {a) gradually to the edge of {c) which is a minute circular pit almost like a pin- prick. Manciiester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. lY. 5 One type of oval or elliptical leaf, as seen in structural preparations, corresponds very satisfactorily with these surface features. As seen in many of the beautiful examples which have been figured, there is present in the leaf a central strand of vascular tissue associated with a more or less complete surround of delicate-walled cells. This fine-celled core is marked off from the rest of the leaf by the firm and prominent ring of melasmatic tissue. Undoubtedly this boundary line corresponds to the edge of our central pit, which was the line of passage of the leaf-trace into the secondary xylem of the stem. In the pit itself would lie the xylem, phloem, and parenchyma (if any) of the leaf-trace, whilst the melasmatic ring of the leaf would be continuous with the corresponding tissue in the stem. When decay of the plant set in and the leaves and branches fell away, it would be natural that the slender vascular strand with its weak ground tissue should break off, leaving a depression to be filled in by the mud in which the whole was embedded. This in turn has been removed and the cavity has again been left exposed. Beyond the bundle tract would lie the cortical paren- chyma— against the area of the slanting surface {U). Branch Scars. The lower branching node produces nine and the upper, eight branches. These numbers refer only to what are visible on a single flat face, and the pro- bable total in each whorl would be about twenty, or rather less than half the estimated number of leaves. It is not possible to trace any regularity in the occurrence of branches relatively to leaf-traces. The scars are crowded together, the boundary rim being common to each pair at the point where they touch. 6 Johnstone, Calamiies {Calamitina) varians, Sternb. The average measurements are : — Longitudinal 6mm.s. )• , ,. ° vin lower line. Horizontal 8 ,, ) ' " [in upper line. Longitudinal 7 Horizontal n They therefore cover about half of the internode in which they emerge, whilst at the same time encroaching on that below. The general appearance of a scar is that of a deep cavity, the centre of which lies much closer to the lower edge, the upper slope long and gentle, the lower short and abrupt. Within these broader outlines more minute details can be made out. In the best examples a definite area P^ {Plate) is clearly separated from the remainder as the deepest region — its outline is nearly circular ; it is steeply funnel-shaped ; its edge is sharply cut off from the upper slope of the stem xylem and may be an upstanding ring. From this pit the slope is gradual to the top rim, which is narrow-edged and simple, projecting sharply and sloping away again into the surface of the short internode : there are no complications on this upper edge. It must be noted that the medullary ray markings of the internode curve over the rim, and are continued to the edge of/" ; they look exactly as if the branch had been resting against them and preventing their outward development. This feature is absent from the lower slope. The lower edge of the scar is less simply outlined. One particularly well-preserved example shows what may be described as a secondary ridge — very narrow — on the lower rim, with a narrow trench on either side of it ; this is also seen, but less distinctly, on other scars. The lower of the trenches is part of a wavy depression, s s, which runs, with accidental breaks, under the whole row ; it may be the counterpart of that which is overhung by Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 17. 7 the ridge of leaf-scars. The upper of the two furrows may be the elh'pse (or two elh'pses) of the leaf-scars, distorted by the pressure of the branches. This supposi- tion is strengthened by the occasional occurrence of fine punctuations, P', {Plate) in the upper furrow, very closely resembling the pits in the leaf-scars. The final history of the branches was very likely that of the leaves — decay and removal complete before fossili- sation. Dr. Scott suggests (i) that slender branches might have been branches of limited growth, comparable with the needle shoots of Pinus. The shoots belonging to these scars might reasonably have been of this description. The interpretation of the markings described above can be obtained by reference to petrified specimens. The xylem of the branch — a continuation from below of the stem xylem — makes its way outwards in an upwardly slanting direction ; tangential sections passing transversely through a branch near the cortex present a wood zone broader in the upper than in the lower border, its pith eccentric in situation. A strikingly similar appearance is seen in the eccentric scars of Bothrodendron punctatum, which Mr. Watson (2) asserted to be branch scars — an opinion which has been confirmed by the discovery of specimens in which the branches were still in attachment (3). The funnel-like pit at the base is the cavity left by the disorganised pith, which, as we know, tapered gradually to its junction with the stem pith. On the other hand, the sudden enlargement of the depression which opens out exterior to the rim of the pit must be explained by looking upon it as having been occupied not only by the pith, but by both pith and xylem of the branch. That this was so, and that the whole of the branch has been removed from this area, is clear from the exposure of the medullary ray markings on the surface of the scar. 8 Johnstone, Catamites iCatamitina) varians, Stern/7. The moulds of several of the scars have been preserved, and corroborate what the cast shows, leaving little doubt as to the nature of the organ which fitted into the scar They may be described as consisting each of two truncated, rather irregular, cones, the smaller of which is seated on the section of the larger, without quite covering it ; the strip left outside the base is hollowed out slightly. The missing apex of the small cone would be the apex of the pith left in the pit, the cone itself standing for the pith of the branch where it is embedded in the deeper xylem of the stem. On the sloping sides of three of the small cones can be distinguished arrangements of ridges and furrows like those in the common pith-casts, one of which this is considered to be. The ridges represent medullary rays, the furrows vascular bundles. The larger basal cone has replaced the complete branch, disorganised and removed from its loose connection with the outer secondary wood. The slight trench which sometimes exists at the junction of the two cones would fit over the raised rim of the pit. It may simply point to a line of breakage. Identification of Top and Bottom. It is necessary to determine with as much certainty as possible which is the top and which the bottom of the cast, as the position of the branch scars relative to that of the short internode bears directly on theories regarding the functional significance of that internode. It has been proved fairly clearly by evidence from structural examples that branches emerge from the external face of the secondary xylem at a slightly higher level than the nodal line, leaf-traces practically at the level of the nodal line. It has been shown that the line s s {Plate) is probably the line of the leaf-scars belonging to Manchester Meinoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. IT. 9 the branch node. If this were quite conclusively proved, it would be sufficient to settle the question. But apart from this possibly doubtful evidence, there is something to guide us in the shape of the scars themselves. The Manchester Museum collection includes several fine pre- parations showing the microscopic structure of branches cut in transverse section near their points of emergence. Others are figured by Williamson and Scott. Exami- nation of a series of longitudinal stem sections shows that at certain depths near the surface, the wood of the branch is developed unequally round the pith, the greater amount occurring on the upper side of the branch. The branch scars in the fossil are true to this type ; the deepest part — that which is presumably the pith centre — is markedly eccentric, and lies nearer the nodal line to which the branch belongs. Again, in several of the Calauiites figured by Stur {see below), the scar-bearing branches are still attached to their parent stems, and there can be no possible dispute about which is the basal region — in all of them the short internodes lie above the branch node, as I place them in the Bradford specimen. Accepting these three points as dependable evidence — the position of the line of leaf-scars below the branch scars, the eccentricity of the umbilicus, and the similarity to other branching stems of undoubtedly correct interpretation — I conclude that A {Plate) is the upper level of this stem. Interpretation of Variation in Length OF Internodes. That the internodes in Calamitean stems may vary in length in any one specimen, and that there may be a periodicity in that variation has been noted and figured by several writers. Except in the last of the instances lo Johnstone, Calamites i^Calaviitind) varzans, Sternb. referred to below, no generalisation as to occurrence and function has been arrived at. Williamson (4) mentions two Calamites, in one of which every 5th internode is short, and in the other every 8th. He expresses his inability to correlate these varia- tions with any known external features, but suggests the possibility of their being of specific character. Stur (5) figures several most instructive examples of Calamites, but does not enter into discussion of the grouping of internodes. Some of the figures, as placed, are inverted, but the true lower boundary is quite clearly indicated in some of them by the subtending leaf-bases, in others by the direction of growth of the younger branches. Amongst those which may be relied on as evidence to show whether short internodes lie above or below the whorl of leaf-scars, are those quoted below. PL W.^Fig. 4, is clearly inverted ; PI. W., Fig. 5, is almost certainly in the same position ; PI. II., Fig. 3, is correctly placed; PL V. and PL XI. are specially valuable. In these the branch bearing the whorls of branch scars is itself still in connection with an older axis : we can thus be quite certain about the relative positions of its parts. In all of the above, without exception, the abbreviation of internodes appears either in the internode in which the scars lie or in those above it: the internode below is always comparatively long. Reference is made to them as affording confirmation of the opinion as to which is top and which is bottom of the Bradford specimen. Incidentally the last two specimens also illustrate the fact that the same plant bore its smaller branches or twigs in whorls, whilst the larger branches were sparsely and irregularly scattered over the parent axis. That is to say, Calamitina and Styocalamites might represent different orders of branching in a single plant rather than different groups of species. Manchester Memoirs, Vol /vi. (igi2), A^o. ITf. ii Zeiller (6) in P/. LVII., Fig: i, of Calaniites Goepperti, shows a long internode below, and at least two short ones above the branch internode ; it is probable that the base is correctly indicated. Kidston (7) gives a well-preserved cast of Calaniites (Calamitina) varians, Sternb., var. inconstans, together with a table of measurements : — Internode. Measurement in mms. 8-50 .S' I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 6-50 5-50 4'5o 5" 3' 4" 3"5o 3' 3" Scar internode 12 7- 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Scar internode 24 750 25 8- 26 II' 27 12" 28 I2"50 29 12- 30 11-50 31 II" 32 10-50 Z2> 8-50 34 9"5° 35 6-50 36 5" Scar internode 37 950 - Period IV. 6- 8-50 8- 8- 7'5o 7-50 r 5" 4'5o 4' 3'5o Period III. Period II. 12 Johnstone, Calajnites (Calamilina) varitvis, Sternb. Internode. Measurement in mm 38 .9- )9 22-50 Incomplete Lowest internode 40 17-' ) P^^od I. Total 321-50 mms. From this table we see to be true of each period : — {a) That the shortest interval always succeeds the branch internode. {b) That in the 3rd and 4th periods there are four or five very short internodes just above the branch line. (^) That the scar internode itself is shorter, in two out of three cases, than the top one of the preceding period. {d) That the top internode of each period is shorter than that below it. ( particle required to excite the characteristic radiations in the atoms of radium B or C. It is of great theoretical importance to examine with the greatest care the nature of the emission of /3 rays from all the known radio-active substances, for it promises to throw a great deal of light on the interior structure of the atom. Ordinary Meeting, February 20th, 19 r 2. The President, Professor F, E. Weiss, U.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair. A vote of thanks was given to the donors of the books upon the table, which included " T//e Medical Chronicle" vol. iv. (1886)— vi. (1S87); New Series, vol. i. (1894)— x. (1899); 3rd Series, vol. i. (1899) — iv. (1901); 4th Series, vol. i. (1901) — xxii. (No. 3, Dec, 191 1), (8vo., Manchester and London); presented by Dr. A. A. Mumford. Mr. Barnes also drew attention to a few bound sets of Dr. A. N. Meldrum's seven papers on " The Development of the Afoniic Theory" which are now offered to members at 2/- per volume. Mr. T. G. B. OsBORN, M.Sc, gave a brief account of recent investigations into the nature of the moulds which attacked exported cotton goods. Several common fungi and bacteria were found infecting the goods. xxxii Proceedings. [February 20th, igi2. Professor W. H. Lang, M.B., D.Sc, F.R.S., read a paper entitled, " Branching in the Ophioglossaceae." The branching in Ophioglossaceae is of special interest for comparison with that known for the Zygopterideae and Hymeno- phyllacae. Branches occur occasionally in all three genera of the Ophioglossaceae. So far as is known those of Ophiog- lossum always spring from lateral roots. In Helminfhostachys, what appear to be dormant or vestigial axillary buds, were discovered by Gwynne Vaughan, and are constantly found. Similar dormant buds were found by Bruchmann in young plants of Botrycliium littiaria, and explain the axillary branching described by Roeper and Holle. Examination of young and old plants of Botrycliium Iiitmria has shown that a dormant bud is constantly present in each leaf- axil. In some cases a vestigial vascular supply, in the form of two slender and evanescent strands of tracheides, springs from the margins of the subtending leaf trace. Two examples in which, owing to destruction of the apex of the main axis, a lateral branch had developed, were studied in detail, and the vascular supply to the branch traced from the adaxial side of the leaf-trace. In one case the stele of the branch became con- tinuous at a higher level and for a short distance with the stele of the main axis. Two fragments of the rhizome of Helminihostachys, each bearing a developed axillary branch, were studied in detail. This examination completely confirmed the interpretation of the structures found by Gwynne Vaughan as vestigial buds. The supply to the branch came from a development of accessory xylem outside the ordinary xylem of the stele of the rhizome, and not from the leaf-trace. This vascular supply is traceable from about the level of the departure of the subtending leaf- trace to the anterior end of the leaf-gap, where the vestigial bud is normally situated. From here onwards it has assumed the structure of a small stele like that found in young plants, and shortly afterwards the brancli exhibits its own proper cortex. February 20th, igiz.] PROCEEDINGS. xxxiii The relations of the axillary bud are here with the stem and not with the subtending leaf-trace. The accessory xylem may all pass off to the branch or may be more extensive, occurring all round the main stele, and persisting after the departure of the branch. In the latter case its development suggests a com- parison with secondary thickening. Thus the branches which occur occasionally in Botrychium and Helmiiithostachys are not "adventitious," but derived from axillary buds that are constantly present. While not agreeing in detail with the branches in the Zygopterideae, those of the Ophioglossaceae are clearly comparable structures, and the study of their vascular supply strengthens the probability of a relationship between the two groups. Ordinary Meeting, March 5th, 191 2. The President, Professor F. H Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair. The President referred to the loss the Society had sustained by the death, on February 21st, of Professor Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F. R.S. Professor Osborne Reynolds had for many years taken a most active part in the work of the Society. Elected as a Member on November i6th, 1S69, he was for many years a Secretary or Vice-President ; and, in 1888 and 1889, was elected President of the Society. Professor Reynolds had contributed many important Papers to the Society's Memoirs. Mr. Francis Nicholson proposed, and Mr. Francis Jones seconded, that the President be requested to send to Mrs. Reynolds on behalf of the Society a letter of condolence on the death of her husband. This proposition was unanimously agreed to. A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon the table. These included a copy of ^'■Literary Celebrities xxxiv Proceedings. [March ^th, igi2. of the English Lake- District" by Frederick Sessions, (8vo., London, 1907), presented by the author. Mr. J. H. WoLFENDEN exhibited a specimen of hgematitic slate found near Keswick, which exhibited " cone in cone " structure such as is commonly found in the crushed car- boniferous shales of Lancashire. Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.LC, read a paper, by himself and Mr. Clifford Bostock, INLSc.Tech., entitled, "The Action of Dilute Acids on Bleaching Powder." In these investigations a method originally described by Taylor was used for distinguishing between free chlorine and hypochlorous acid, and, in a mixture of the two, determining their relative amounts. Bleaching powder was distilled with varying amounts of different acids, together with a considerable amount of water. Hydrochloric, sulphuric, and nitric acids act pretty much alike, giving off, with comparatively small amounts of acid, almost pure hypochlorous acid, but, with larger amounts of acid, mixtures of hypochlorous acid and chlorine, and finally nothing but chlorine. Acetic and phosphoric acids act in the same way with small amounts of acid, but the hypochlorous acid never entirely disappears, even with large quantities of acid. When bleaching powder is distilled with boric acid (and a sufficient amount of water) practically pure hypochlorous acid is produced even when the boric acid is used in comparatively large quantities. Although at the ordinary temperature carbon dioxide liberates nothing but chlorine from bleaching powder, as the temperature is raised hypochlorous acid begins to be evolved, mixed with chlorine, and when the liquid is actively boiling practically pure hypochlorous acid is produced. Dr. Alfred Holt gave an account, entitled " Sorption of Hydrogen by Palladium," of researches carried out by himself. Dr. Edgar, and Mr. Firth with palladium. He said that their experiments on the subject lead to the following conclusions : — March §th, ipi2.] PROCEEDINGS. xxxv (i) Palladium is not always in a condition in which it will absorb hydrogen, but it can be made to do so by heating to about 400° C. in either air or in vacuo. The power of picking up gas dies away with time, and cannot be restored unless the metal is reheated. (2) Hydrogen is first condensed on the surface of the metal (adsorbed layer) and then gradually diffuses inwards (absorption). It is possible to get the metal either saturated outside and with no gas in the interior, or saturated in the interior and not on the surface. (3) Diffusion of hydrogen through the metal begins at about 120* C. and increases in rate with rise of temperature. The same temperature does not, however, always produce the same rate, as it depends somewhat on the state of the metal. The rate does not obey any simple law of diffusion or effusion. Ordinary Meeting, March 19th, 1912. The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair. A vote of thanks was given to the donors of the books upon the table. The recent accessions included : " TAe British Tunicata." vol. iii, by J. Alder and A. Hancock, edited by J. Hopkinson (8vo., London, 1912), and "^ Alonograph oj the British Desmidiaceae," vol. iv, by W. West and G. S. West (8vo., London, 19 12), purchased from the Ray Society. Professor S. J. Hickson, F.R.S., exhibited a specimen of a recent coral, Endopachys grayi, from the Persian Gulf, and in the course of his remarks upon it pointed out that the Manchester Museum possessed until quite recently three out of the four known specimens of this species. One of these, however, had xxxvi Proceedings. {^March igth, igi2. been presented to the British Museum of Natural History. One of the specimens was reported as having been found in the China Sea, and was presented to the Manchester Museum by the late Mr. R. D. Darbishire. Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst. C.E., exhibited, and made a few remarks upon, a piece of tramway rail, showing the ridges and hollows due to the action of the wheels. A paper entitled, "The formal specification of the elements of Stress in cartesian, and in cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates," was read by Mr. R. F. GWYTHER, M.A. This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs. Ur, HiCKLiNG read a paper on the "Variation of Planorbis multiformis." It was shown that the shell exhibited every gradation from a perfectly flat type to one with a high spire. The mean type is represented by a large number of specimens, while the extreme types are scarce. The curve representing the relative numbers of the various types is a typical simple variation curve, thus proving that all the forms belong to a single species. Great variation occurs in other characters of the shells, and these variations appear to be independent of one another. April 2nd, ipi2.] PROCEEDINGS. xxxvii Extraordinary General Meeting, April 2nd, 19 12. The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair. At this Extraordinary General Meeting, summoned in accordance with the Articles of Association, the following resolution of the Council was submitted: — That Clause 25 of the Articles of Association be rescinded, and that in lieu thereof the following be one of the Clauses of the said Articles : — "25. Any ordinary member may at any time com- " pound for all his future subscriptions by a payment to "the Society of twenty guineas less one-third of the "amount of the annual subscriptions already paid, but the " fee shall in no case be less than five guineas." After some discussion it was resolved to refer the resolution back to the Council for further consideration. Ordinary Meeting, April 2nd, 19 12. The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair. A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon the table. Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., presented to the Society the letter, dated "2nd mo. 20th, 1794," and written by John Daltcn to Elihu Robinson, of Eaglesfield, the contents of which he b3d previously communicated to the Society on October 17th, 191 1. Mr. Nicholson had had the letter bound, with a number xxxviii Proceedings. April 2nd, 1Q12. of additional pages, so that further letters or manuscript could be inserted in the sarne volume if desired. A paper by Mr. Joseph Mangan, M.A., entitled, "The presence of Maxillulae in Larvae of Dytiscidae," was read by the Secretary. Professor W. H. Lang, M.B., D.Sc.j F.R.S., read a paper "On the Interpretation of the Vascular Anatomy of the Ophioglossaceae." These two papers are printed in full in the Memoirs. Annual General Meeting, April 23rd, 191 2. The President, Professor F. F,. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair. The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of Accounts were presented, and it was resolved : — " That the Annual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's Proceedings" Mr. Arthur Adamson, A.R.C.S., and Mr. F. H. Crewe were appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers. The following members were elected Officers of the Society and Members of the Council for the ensuing year : — Ptesldent: F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S. Vice-Presidents : '^\- ^^^- 1^- ^^ compared with a balance in hand of ^149. 12s. 4d. at the end of the last financial year. The receipts for the year 1911-12 were slightly more than the receipts for the year 1910-11. The Librarian reports that during the session 669 volumes have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked ; 646 of these were serials, and 23 were separate works. 248 catalogue cards were written, 184 for serials, and 64 for separate works. The total number of volumes catalogued to date is 33,751, for which 11,979 cards have been written. The library continues to be satisfactorily used for reference purposes. 274 volumes have been borrowed from the library during the past twelve months, an increase of 89 on the number borrowed during the previous year. xHv Annual Report of the Council. The number of volumes bound during the year has been 226, in 189 covers. The amount of binding for the previous session was 214 volumes bound in 167. The additions to the library for the session amounted to 856 volumes, 706 serials, and 150 separate works. The dona- tions (exclusive of the usual exchanges) were 148 volumes and 158 dissertations; 2 volumes were purchased, in addition to those regularly subscribed to. New exchanges have been arranged with the Remeis- Sternwarte ( Veroffentlichungen), Bamberg ; Rijks Herbarium {Mededeeli?ige?i), Leiden ; Teyler's Godgeleerd Genootschap {Verhandelingen), Haarlem; the Society of Chemical Industry {/ournal of), London ; The Micrologist, Manchester ; and the University Observatory {Co?itributions), Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.A. In August the new '■Catalogue of Serials in the Library,^ the progress of which was referred to in the la^t Report of the Council, was issued, and provides a well-arranged and indexed list of the Society's large collection of serial publications. Lack of the space necessary for the proper provision of the large quantity of literature which is continually being added to the Society's library greatly hampers the accessibility and satisfactory exhibition of the books. Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., has presented to the Society a letter written by John Dalton, to Elihu Robinson, of Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, soon after he had become a resident in Manchester, where, in 1793, he had been appointed Tutor in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at the " Manchester Academy," now " Manchester College," Oxford. The letter contains probably the earliest account of that peculiarity of vision known as colour-blindness. Mr. Thomas Thorp, F.R.A.S., has also added to the donations during the session by presenting to the Society a crossed transparent grating constructed by himself A}inual Report of the Council. xlv The publication of the Society's Afemoirs afid Proceedittgs has been continued under the supervision of the Editorial Committee. The Council have received with regret the resignation of Mr. A. P. Hunt, IJ.A., Assistant Secretary and Librarian to the Society, who has been appointed Librarian of the Edgar Allen Library in the University of Sheffield. Mr. R. F. Hinson has been appointed Assistant Secretary and Librarian in his place. During the summer the tomb of John Dalton, in Ardwick Cemetery, was renovated at a cost of ;^io. The Committees appointed by the Council during the year were as follows : — House and Finance. The President. Mr. F. Nicholson. Mr. C. L. Barnes. Mr. W. H. Todd. Mr. R. L. Taylor. Dr. H. G. A. Hickling. Editorial. The President. Professor E. Rutherford. Piofessor S, J. Hickson. Mr. R. L. Taylor. Dr. H. G. A. Hickling. The Assistant Secretary. Wilde Endowtnent. The President. Mr. VV. H. Todd. Mr. Francis Jones. Mr. R. L. Taylor. Dr. H. G. A. Hickling. xlvi Annual Report of the Council. The hours during which the Society's rooms are open to members have been fixed as follows : Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, 9-30 a.m. to 6-0 p.m. ; Saturday, g-30 a.m. to i-o p.m. These hours do not of course apply to the days on which the Society's rooms are officially closed. The Council have concurred with a request by Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., that the Wilde Lectures should be discon- tinued, and the amount provided therefor by the Trust Deed will fall into the Trust Fund and become general income of the Fund. The President has been nominated to represent the Society at the 250th anniversary of the foundation of the Royal Society of London. Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, O.M., G.C.S.L, F.R.S., on December loth, 191 1, passed peacefully away in his sleep at the ripe age of 94. It is impossible in the compass of a short obituary notice to do justice to the scientific work accomplished during so long a lifetime of exceptional activity, for up to the very end of it Sir Joseph Hooker was engaged in the publication of valuable contributions to Science. 'l"he distinguished son of Sir William Hooker, Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow, and subse- quently Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, Sir Joseph had special facilities for the study of that science to which he devoted his rare mental faculties with such enthusiasm through- out his long lifetime. Like his friend Charles Darwin, he was enormously influenced at the outset of his career by the stimulus so beneficial to all naturalists of extensive travel, being fortunate enough to accompany, as assistant surgeon and botanist, Sir James Ross on his Antarctic expedition in 1839. Three years before, Darwin had returned on the "Beagle," and Annual Report of the Council. xlvii Hooker, who was privileged to read the proof sheets of Darwin's Journal before he set out in the " Erebus," relates with the modesty of a truly great man how they impressed him pro- foundly, and even despairingly, with the variety of acquirements, mental and physical, required in a naturalist who should follow in Darwin's footsteps, while they inspired him to enthusiasm in the desire to travel and observe. No one could have made belter use of his opportunities, as the six volumes of his Flora Antarctica sufificiently testify. But the publication (>f this monumental work was interrupted by an eventful journey to India in 1847 to study the sub-tropical vegetation of the Himalayas. The story of this expedition, lastmg for three years, is told in the Hinialayati Journals, published in 1854. From 1855 to 1865, Joseph Hooker was Assistant Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, and after his father's death, in 1865, he held the post of Director for twenty years. But though his time was greatly engrossed by official duties, this period of his life was marked by the publication of many volumes of classic importance, such as the Genera Plantarum, compiled in conjunction with Mr. Benthara, and The Flora of British India in conjunction with Mr. Thompson, the seventh and last volume of which was not completed until 1897, so that Sir Joseph Hooker, though relinquishing the office of Director of Kew in 1883, continued his heavy labours unflinchingly in his retirement. He similarly continued to edit the Icones Plantarum until 1889, and The Botanical AFai^azi?ie until 1902. Though it was only for a short time that he held the post of Botanist to the Geological Survey, Sir Joseph Hooker con- tinued throughout his life to take an active interest in the study of fossil plants and he published many papers on palaeobotanical subjects. One of the most memorable features of Sir Joseph Hooker's life was his close and friendly intercourse, extending over forty years, with Charles Darwin, who cordially welcomed Hooker's xlviii Annual Report of the Conncil. frank criticism of his early speculations on the origin of species. Indeed, in his letters, Darwin frequently refers to the help received from Sir Joseph Hooker, and undoubtedly Hooker's espousal of the Darwinian theory of evolution afcer the publication of the Origin of Species 6\^ much to gain acceptance for it among botanists and drew these two great naturalists ever closer together. Throughout this long period of his active scientific career unsought but well-deserved honours were heaped upon Sir Joseph Hooker, one of the last, and certainly not the least, being the Order of Merit, which was conferred upon him on his ninetieth birthday. Hale and hearty still, Hooker took an active part in the following year in the Darwin-Wallace cele- brations of the Linnean Society, and similarly in 1909 at Cambridge, at the commemoration of the centenary of the birth of Charles Darwin. Twenty years ago, Sir Joseph Hooker was elected an honorary member of our Society, and in 1898 he was awarded the Wilde Medal. F. E. W. William Wright Kirkman, whose death took place at The Grange, Timperley, Cheshire, on the 29th of May, 191 1, in his 69th year, was the eldest son of the late Reverend T. P. Kirkman, F.R.S., Rector of Crofc-cum-Southworth, near War- rington, one of our honorary members, from whom we had many papers, mostly on mathematical subjects. His son, the subject of this notice, was elected a member of the Society on November 12th, 1895. He was a particularly well-read man, and by members of his profession he was con- sidered a very able and sound lawyer. Though he made no communications at any of our meetings, he wrote an excellent obituary notice of his father, which appeared in our Memoirs Vol. 9, 4th Series). F. N. Annual Report of the Council. xlix Osborne Reynolds was born at Belfast, August 23rd, 1842. He came of a clerical family. His grandfather, the Rev. Osborne S. Reynolds, had been a scholar of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, and afterwards rector of Debach with Boulge, Suffolk. His father, the Rev. Osborne Reynolds, was thirteenth wrangler in 1837 (the year of (jreen and Sylvester), subsequently Fellow of Queens' College, Principal of the Belfast Collegiate School, headmaster of Dedhain Grammar School, Essex, and finally, in his turn, rector of Debach. It was to his father that he owed his early education, first at the Dedham School, and afterwards privately. After a short period with a tutor he entered, in 1861, the workshop of Mr. E. Hayes, mechanical engineer, at Stoney Stratford, in order "to learn in the shortest time possible how work should be done, and ... to be made a working mechanic before going to Cambridge." In 1863 he went to Cambridge, to his father's College, Queens', of which he became a Fellow in 1867, after graduating as seventh wrangler. Immediately afterwards he entered the oiTfice of John Lawson, civil enjiineer, of London. In 1868 he was elected to the newly instituted professorship of engineering in the Owens College, which he held until his practical retirement in 1905. This was almost the first chair of the kind in England, although similar professorships had existed for some time in Scotland, and had been held by such men as James Thomson, Rankine, and deeming Jenkin. It is possible, indeed, that Reynolds was influenced to some extent by the tradition of these chairs. With Rankine, at any rate, for whom he professed the greatest admiration, he had strong affinities, in the wide range of his scientific interests, in the clearness of his intuitions, and in the courage and tenacity with which he attacked difificult and complicated problems. Reynolds became a member of our Society in 1869, and from that time onwards was a constant attendant at its meetings. He took an active share in its business, and contributed many important papers. He was Secretary from 1874 to 1883, ^'""d I Annua/ Report of the Conncil. President for the term 1888-9, He was the author of the Joule memorial volume, which was published by the Society in 1892, and was the leading spirit in the movement for a public monument to Joule, which resulted in the beautiful statue by Gilbert now in the Town Hall. About the year 1899 the Cambridge University Press suggested to Reynolds that a collected edition of his scientific writings would be valuable, and offered to undertake the publi- cation. This signal compliment was highly appreciated by him, and in due course two weighty volumes appeared. The range of subjects covered is so wide that possibly no two authorities would agree in selecting what they considered most important or most characteristic. The papers are all marked by great independence and originality of view, and by the clearness of insight with which essential principles are discerned and irrele- vant details left aside. Several of his memoirs on engineering subjects have taken rank as classics — e.g. the work on Lubrica- tion, on Turbulent Flow in Pipes, and in connection with the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. Among the shorter writings mention may be made of the papers on the Refraction of Sound, on Group-Velocity of Waves, and on Dilatancy, where simple and convincing explanations are given of phenomena well known indeed, but previously obscure. In the mind of Reynolds there appears to have been a connection, partly intrinsic, and partly as regards the scientific principles and methods involved, between such diverse subjects as thermal transpiration, turbulent flow, and dilatancy, on all of which he had worked at one time or other. And it was apparently through this connection that he was led to the re- markable speculation on "The Sub-Mechanics of the Universe," which marked the close of his scientific career, and which con- stitutes the final volume of his collected papers. Unfortunately, illness had begun to impair his poweis of exposition, and the memoir as it stands is afl'ected with omissions and discontinuities which render it difficult to follow. No one who has studied the Annjial Report of the Council. H work of Reynolds can doubt that it embodies ideas of value, but it is to be feared that their significance will hardly be appreciated until some future investigator, treading a parallel path, recognises them with the true sympathy of genius, and puts them in their proper light. Prof. Reynolds, owing to the failing state of his health, withdrew from the active work of his chair in 1905. His last years were spent in retirement at Watchet, Somerset, where he died on February 21st, 19 12. He had been a Fellow of the Royal Society since 1877, and received a Royal Medal in 188S. He was made an Honorary Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge, in 1881, and received the Degree of LL.D. from the University of Glasgow in 1884. An admirable portrait by Collier, presented by scientific friends and admirers from all parts of the kingdom, hangs in the hall of the Manchester University. H. L. Sir William John Crossley was the second son of Major Francis Crossley, of Glenburn, Dunmurry, County Antrim. His father, formerly of the East India Company's service, came of an old Lancashire family. Born on April 22nd, 1S44, at Dunmurry, William John Crossley was educated at the Royal School, Dungannon, and afterwards at Bonn. He then commenced, at the age of nine- teen, an apprenticeship at the engineering works of Sir William G. Armstrong, at Elswick, and there received a four years' course of training. In 1867 he commenced business in partnership with his brother Francis, who had purchased an india-rubber machinery works in Manchester, but for some years the brothers did not meet with much success. In addition, they paid some attention to improvements in flax-scutching machinery. Their doggedness, however, was rewarded. In 1876 they secured the English patent rights of the Otto gas-engine, and, setting them- selves to improve upon Dr. Otto's designs, the business prospered Hi Annual Report of the Council. to such an extent as to necessitate the provision of larger premises, which they procured at Openshaw. Sir Wilham was a man of strong views, broad-minded, adhering strictly to what he considered to be right. He married, in 1876, Miss Mabel Gordon, daughter of Dr. Francis Anderson, Inspector-General of Hospitals in India. In 1875 he was elected a member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. He was well known for the assistance and active co-operation he was always prepared to give to philanthropic and sociological work. To his munificence is due the founding of the Crossley Sanatorium, for the reception of consump'ive patients, at Delamere. Of this insti- tution he became chairman. He financed an increase in the accommodation of the Convalescent Home at Bowdon, Cheshire. He was also chairman of the Boys' and Girls' Refuges at Strangeways ; chairman of the Manchester Hospitals for Con- sumptives; President of the Young Men's Christian Association, Manchester ; and Treasurer of the United Kingdom Alliance. He was a Justice of the Peace for Manchester and for the County of Cheshire; and in 1901 he was elected a member of the Cheshire County Council. He also was one of the pro- moters of the Manchester Ship Canal, and became one of the Board of Directors of the Ship Canal Company. In 1903 the Corporation of Manchester conferred upon him the honorary freedom of the city. Despite the many demands upon his energies Sir William found time to devote himself to parliamentary duties, and he sat as Member for the Altrincham Division of Cheshire from 1906 to 1910. He was re-elected at the contest in January, 19 10, but he lost the seat in December of the same year. In 1909 King Edward conferred a baronetcy upon him. Sir William was a member of this Society from 1895 until he passed away on Thursday, October 12th, 191 1, in a IVTanchester Nursing Home, after an illness of but a few days' duration. R- F- H. Annual Report of the Council. Hii. Professor Albert Ladenburg, organic chemist, was born 2nd July, 1842, at Mannheim. He studied at Heidelberg, at Bonn and at Paris. In 1870 he became privat-docent in the University of Heidelberg, and in 1874 was elected Professor of Chemistry in the University of Kiel. For many years he was Professor of Chemistry at Breslau, where he died. All who were brought into contact with Ladenburg were attracted by the intense interest he showed in all scientific problems, and by his vitality and social qualities. He was universally popular. He became known to a wide circle of readers through his " History of the Development of Chemistry since the Time of Lavoisier," which has gone through several German editions and has been translated into English by Dr. Dobbin. This work contains a very concise account of the development of modern chemistry (with copious references to original authorities) and is eminently free from "national" bias. His " Theory of Aromatic Compounds " contains a clear account of Ladenburg's important contributions to the con- stitution of benzene and naphthalene derivatives, with a reasoned criticism of the defects of Kekule's hexagon formula for benzene. Ladenburg's " Handbook of Chemistry," in 3 \ olumes, is a well-known text-book. H. B. D. liv Treasu vers A ccou n ts . 2)c. To Balance, ist April, igii .. To Members' Subscriptions : — Half Subscriptions, igio-ii, n 1911-12, Subscriptions :— 190S-9, „ 1909-10, „ 1910-11, ,, 1911-12. ,, 1911-12, MANCHESTER LITERARY AND W. Hejvy Todd, Ireasia-er, in Account with the 2 at ^:. IS. o(l £^■2. 2S. od. I-- To Transfers from the Wilde Endowment Fund To Sale of Publications To Sale of Catalogues To Dividends : — Natural History Fund Joule Memorial Fund To Income Tax Refunded : — Natural History Fund Joule Memorial Fund Wilde Endowment Fund i. s d. '54 15 4 iS iS 0 245 14 0 2 2 2 290 17 S3 12 13 10 5 5 57 13 6 7 5 10 64 19 4 £637 10 NATURAL HISTORY £ d. To Balance, ist April, 191 1 .. To Dividends on £^,^25 Great Western Railway Company's Stock To Remission of Income Tax, 1911 . . 57 13 6 3 II 6 ;C72 9 JOULE MEMORIAL £ s. d. To Balance, 1st April, 1911 To Dividends on £25^ Loan to Manchester Corporation To Remission of Income Tax, 1911 5 >o 9 o £g^ 18 8 WILDE To Balance, 1st April, 1911 .. To Dividends on ^^7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company' To Remission of Income Tax, 1911 To Bank Interest Ordinary Stock ENDOWMENT £ s. d. 149 12 4 334 5 10 20 1 1 3 251 £5°(' '4 6 Treasurer's Accouuts. Iv PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Sociiiy, fro)ii ist April, igii, to jrsi March, igi2. Cr. By Charges on Property : — Chief Rent (Income Tax deducted) Income Tax.. Insurance against Fire By House E.xpenditure : — Coals, Gas, Electric Light, Water, &:c. Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings Cleaning, Sweeping Chimneys, &c. Replacements of mantles, crockery, dusters, etc. .. By Administrative Charges : — Housekeeper . . . . . . . . . . . Postages, and Carriage of Parcels and of " Memoirs" Stationery, Cheques, Receipts, and Engrossing Printing Circulars, Reports, &c. .. .. .. .. Extra attendance at Meetings, and during housekeeper's holidays Insurance against Liability Miscellaneous Expenses .. Fares of Candidates, Advertising, &c. By Renovating Dalton Tomb By Publishing :— Printing " Memoirs and Proceedings" Illustrations for "Memoirs" (except Nat. Hist, papers) .. By Library : — Books and Periodicals (except those charged to Natural History Fund) Periodicals formerly subscribed for by the Microscopical and Natural Histo Section .. By Natural History Fund : — (Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below) . . By Joule Memorial Fund : — ("No expenditure) .. By Wilde Endowment Fund (Income Tax refunded) By Balance at Williams Deacon's Bank, ist April, 1912 ,, ,, in Treasurer's hands 12 3 4 o 15 o 1100 31 13 10 12 10 7 4 3 10 3 9 6 128 o 3 5 10 6 50 10 7 330 136 13 3 10 o o 23 18 4 124 19 4 10 o o 53 13 7 72 6 5 000 20 II 3 146 13 3 £(>M 10 FUND, 1911— 1912. (Included in the General Account, above.) By Natural History Books and Periodicals By Illustrations for papers on Nat. Hist, in " Memoirs " By Binding Books By Balance, I St April, 1912 £ s. d. 57 16 S 680 819 033 £12. q 8 FUND, 1911 — 1912. (Included in the General Account, above.) (No expenditure). By Balance, ist April, 1912 £ s. d. 99 18 8 £99 18 8 FUND, 1911 — 1912. By Assistant Secretary's Salary, April, 1911, to September, igii Hy Assistant Secretary's Salary. September, 1911, to March, 1912 By Maintenance of Society's Library : — Binding and Repairing Books By Repairs and Improvements to Society's Premises .. By Transfers to Society's Funds By Balance at District Bank, ist April, 1912 £ s. d. 75 0 0 70 0 0 24 I 0 0 6 2 «3 12 0 253 14 7 £506 14 6 Ivi Treastiret-' s Accounts. Note. — The Treasurer's Accounts of the Session 191 1- 191 2 have been endorsed as follows : April 9th, 1912. Audited and found correct. We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the following Stocks held in the name of the Society: — £i,2.Z'^ Great Western Railway Company 5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294, and 12,323 ; ;^258 Twenty years' loan to^the Manchester Corporation, redeemable 25th March, 1914 (No. 1,564) ; ;i{^7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock (No. 6,389) ; and the deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde Endowment Fmnd, those conveying the land on which the Society's premises stand, and the Declarations of Trust. Leases and Conveyances dated as follow : — 22nd Sept., 1797. 23rd Sept., 1797. 25th Dec, 1799. 22nd Dec, 1820. 23rd Dec, 1820. Declarations of Trust : — 24th June, 1801. 23rd Dec, 1820. 30th April, 185 1. 8th Jan., 1878. We have also verified the balances of the various accounts with the bankers' pass books. (Sii^ned) {11. Y. SCHMiTZ. Gi;o. P. Varlev The CozinciL. Ivii THE COUNCIL AND MEMBERS OF TliF. MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Corrected to November 26th, igi2. F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S. FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. ERNEST RUTHERFORD, iM.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Sc.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. (Sccictavies. R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C. GEORGE HICKLING, D.Sc. W. HENRY TODD. librarian. C. L. BARNES, M.A. ©thci' Jttcmbcvs of the (Council. SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. T. A. COWARD, F.Z.S. FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S. G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc, M. Sc Tech., A.M. I.E. E. BERTRAM PREXTICE, Ph.D.. D.Sc JVesistant (Secretary aub Ijihvarian. R. F. IIINSON. Iviii Ordinary Members. ORDINARY MEMBERS. Date of Election. 1911, April 4. Adamsoii, Arlhur, M.Sc.Tech., A.R.C.S., Lecturer in Physics in the Municipal Scliool of Technology, Man- cliester. Technical .School, Sackville Street, I\Ianchester. 1901, Dec. 10. Adamson, Harold. Oaklands Cottai^c, Godley, near Man- chester. 1912, Oct. 15. Adamson, R. Stephen, M.A., B.Sc, Lecturer in Botany in the Victoria University of Manchester. The Univcrsiiy, Matichester. 1870, Dec. 13. Angell, John, F.C.S., F.LC. 6, Beacons-Field, Derby Road, Withington, Martchester. 1865, Nov. 14. Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S. Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill, S. O. , Gloucestershire. 1888, Fel.. 7. Bailey, Alderman Sir William H., M.LMech.E. Sale Hall, Sale, Cheshire. 1895, J-'in- 8. Barnes, Charles L., M.A. 151, Plymouth Grore, Manchester. 1903, Oct. 20. Barnes, Jonathan, F.G.S. South Ch[ff House, 301, Great Clozves Street, Higher Broitghton, Manchester. 1910, Oct. 18. Beattie, Robert, D.Sc, Lecturer in Electrotechnics in the University of Manchester. The University, Manchester. 1895, ^^^'^- 5- Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royde, Withington, Manchester. 1898, Nov. 29. Behrens, Walter L. 22, O.xford Street, Manchester. 1868, Dec. 15. Bickham, Spencer H., F.L.S. Underdown, Ledbury. 1875, Nov. 16. Boyd, John. Barton House, 11, Diasbury Park, Diilsbury, Manchester. 1889, Oct. 15. Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S. Sunny side, IVhalley Range, Manchester. 1^12, Oct. 15. Bricrley, ^Y.B., M.Sc, Lecturer in Economic Botany in the Victoria University of Manchester. The Unive< sity, Manchester. 1861, April 2. Brogden, Henry, F.G.S., M.LMech.E. Hale Lodge, Altrincham, Ch esh ire. J 889, April 16. Brooks, Samuel Herbert. Slade House, Levenshnl/ne, Alanchester. 1910, Nov. I. Broome, James S., Science Teacher in the Salford Secondary School. 18, Scedley Park Road, Pendleton, Manchester. 1886, April 6. Brown, Alfred, M. A., M.D. Sandycroft, Higher Brongh- ton, ^Manchester. 1889, Jan. 8. Browncll, Thomas William, F.R.A.S. 64, Upper Brook Street, Manchester. Ordinary Members, lix Date o/ Election. 1889, Oct. 15. Budenberg, C. F., .M.Sc, M.I.Mech.E. Boivdon Lane. Marple, Cheshire. 191 1, Jan. 10. Burt, Frank Playfair, D.Sc.(Loncl.), Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester. 5, Beacons- Field, Derby Road, Within^ton, jMaiichester. 1906, Feb. 27. Burton, Joseph, A.R.C.S. Dubbn. l^ik IVorl's, Clifton Junctiou, near Manchestei'. 1894, Nov. 13. Burton, WiUiam, M.A., F.C.S. The Hollies, Clifton Junction, near Manchester. I 91 1, Oct. 31. Butterworth, Charles F. Waterloo, Poyntou, Manchester. 1904, Oct. 18. Campion, George Goring, L.D.S. 264, Oxford Street, Manchester. 1907, Jan. 15. Carpenter, H. C. H., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Metal- hugy in tlie University of Manchester. 11, Oak Noad, Jl 'ithington, Manchester. 1899, Feb. 7. Chapman, D. L., M.A., P'ellow of Jesus College, Oxford. Jesus College, Oxford. 1901, Nov. 26. Chevalier, Reginald C, M.A. , Mathematical Masler at the Manchester Grammar School. 3, Fort Road, Sedgley Park, Prestwich, Manchester. 1907, Nov. 26. Clayton, Robert Henry, B.Sc, Chemist, i, Parkjeld Road, Didsbury, Manchester. 1895, April 30. Collett, Edward Pyemont. 8, St. John Street, Manchester. 1911, May 9. Cook, Gilbert, ^NI.Sc, A. M.Inst.C.t^., Vulcan Research P'ellow in Engineering in the University of Manchester. 8, Clarendon Road, Garston, Liverpool. 1903, Oct. 20. Core, William Hamilton, M.Sc. Grooiiihridge House, Withington, Manchester. 1910, Oct. 18. Cotton, Robert, M.Sc, Demonstrator in Engineering in the University of Manchester. IVestholine. Devonshire Road, Pendleton, ^Manchester. 1906, Oct. 30. Coward, H. F., D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in the University of Manchester. Municipal School of Technology, Sackville Street, Manchester. 1906, Nov. 27. Coward, Thomas Alfred, F.Z.S. Brent-wood, Boivdon, Cheshire. 1908, Nov. 3. Cramp, William, M.Sc. Tech., M.LE.E., Consulting Engineer. 20, Mount Street, Manchester. 1910, Oct. 4. Crewe, F. H., Assistant Science Master in the Municipal Secondary School, Whitworth Street. Glengarth, Woodford Road, Brainhall. 191 1, April 4. Darwin, C.G., B.A., Reader in Mathematical Physics in the University of Manchester. The University^ Manchester. Ix Ordinary Members. Date of Election. 1895, April 9. Dawkins, W. Boyd, INI. A., D.Sc, F. K.S.. Honorary Professor of Geology in the Mctoria University of Man- chester. Fallowfield House, Falloivfield, Alamhester. 1894, Mar. 6. Delepine, A. Sheridan, M.B., B.Sc, Professor of Pathology in the Victoria University of Manchester. 7 he University, Maucliester. 1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Baiiy, M.A., M.Sc, F.K.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the \'ictoria University of Manchester. Tlie Unii'ersity, Maiithester. 1906, Oct. 30. Edgar, E. C, D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the University of Manchester. The University, Manchester. 1910, Oct. 18. Evans, Evan Jenkin, B.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Manchester. 71ie University, Manchester. 1912. Oct. 15. Fairlie, D. M., M.Sc, Demonstrator in Electro-Chemistry, The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. The Municipal Sclioo! of Technology, Manchester. 1912, Feb. 6. Forder, H. G., B.A.. Mathematical Master, Hulme Grammar School. Hulme Graniniar School, Oldham. 1908, Jan. 28. Fox, Thomas William, RLScTech., Professor of Textiles in the School of Technology, Manchester Universit)'. 15, Claj-endon Crescent, Eccles. 1912, Oct. 15. Garnctt, J. C. Maxwell, M.A., Principal of the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. The Ahtnicipal School of Technology, Manchester. 1909, Mar. 23. Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.LE.E., Professor of Pure and Applied Physics in the School of Technology, Manchester University. Oak Lea, IVhalley Avenue, Sale. 1910, Nov. 29. Geiger, Hans, Ph.D., Physikalisch Technische Reichsan- stalt, Charlottenhurg, Alaixhstrasse, G: 1 many. 1907, Oct. 15. Gravely, F. PL, M.Sc. Nattiral History Dept., Indian Museum, Calcutta. 1907, Oct. 29. Gwyther, Reginald Felix, ALA., Secretary to the Joint Matriculation Board. 21, Booth Avenue, Withington, Manchester. 191 1, Oct. 3. Hasse, H. R., M.A., M.Sc, Lecturer in Mathematics in the University of Manchester. 100, Ladybarn Lane, Falloivfield, Manchester. Oidinary Members. Ixi Date o/ E tec lion. 1902, Jan. 7. Hewitt, David !'>., M.D. Gro7'e Mount, Daveuham, Cheshire. 1907, Oct. 15. Hickling, II. (Jeorge A., D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Geology in the University of Manchester. Gleiiside, Marplc Brui'gi', near Stockport 1S95, ^far. 5. Hickson, Sydney J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Mandieslei . 1884, Jan. 8. liodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. iS, St. /ohn Street, MXincliester. 1909, Jan. 12. Hoffert, Hermann I lenry, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.K.S.M., His Majesty's Inspector of Schools. Lime Grove, Brooklands, Sale. 1909, Nov. 2. Holland, Sir Thomas H.. K.C.I.E.. D.Sc, F.R.S., Profe.ssor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Manchester, late Director of the Geological Survey of India. IVestmood, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. 1905, Nov. 14. Holt, Alfred, M.A., D.Sc, Research Fellow of the Uni- versity of Manchester. Dowsefield, Allerton, Liverpool. 1895, Nov. 29. Hopkinson^ Sir Alfred, K.C.,M.A., LL.D. ,Vice-Chancellor of the Victoria University of Manchester. Fairjield. Victoria Park, Manchester. 1896, Nov. 3. Ilopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc, M.Inst.C.F. Ferns, AMerley Edqc, Cheshire. 1909, Feb. 9. Howies, Frederick, M.Sc, Analytical and Research Chemist. Glenhice, Waterpark Road, Broitghfon L^aik, Manchester. 1889, Oct. 15, Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Director of the Welsh National Museum, Cardiff. City Hall, Cardiff. 1907, Oct. 15. Hlibner, Julius, M.Sc. Tech., F.I.C., Lecturer in the Faculty of Technolog\' in the University of Manchester. Linden, Che nlle Hiilme, Cheshire. 1899, Oct. 17. Ingleby, Joseph, M.I. Mech.E. Springtidd, Holly Road, IViliusloxv. near Manchester. 1901, Nov. 26. Jackson, PVederick. 14, Cross Street, Manchester. 1870, Nov. I. Johnson, William IL, B.Sc. JVoodleigh, Altrinchain. 1911, Oct. 3. Johnstone, Mary A., B.Sc(Lond.), Headmistress of the Municipal Secondary School for Girls, Whitworth Street, Manchester. 11, Birchvale Drive, Romiley, near Man- chester. Ixii Ordinary Members. Date of Election. 1878, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Maiuhester Grammar School, and 17, Whalley Road, IVhalley Range, Manchester. 1886, Jan. 12. Kay, Thomas, J. P. Moorfield, Stockport, Cheshire. 1903, Feb. 3. Knecht, Edmund, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the School of Technology, Manchester University. Beech Mount, Marple, Cheshire. 1893, Nov. 14. Lamb, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, Sc.D., F.K.S., Pro- fessor of Mathematics in the Victoria University of Man- chester. 6, M'iibrahain Road, Falloivfiehi, Manchester. 1909, Nov. 2. Lang, William IL, M.B., CM., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S., Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany in the Uni- versity of Manchester. 2, Heaton Road, IVithington, Manchester. 1902, Jan. 7. Lange, Ernest F., M.LMech.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., M.L & S. Inst., F.C.S. Fairhobn, 3, Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Alanchesler. I9ii,jan. 10. Lankshear, Frederick Russell, B.A. (New Zeal.), Demonstrator in C^hemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester. 7'hc University, Manchester. 1910, Oct. 18. Lapworth, Arthur, D.Sc, P^R.S., F.LC, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the University of Manchester. 30, Amherst Road, IVithington, -Manchester. 1904, Mar. 15. Lea, Arnold W. W., M.D. 246, Oxford Road, Manchester. 1907, Oct. 29. Leigh, Harold Shawcross. Brentzvood, IForsley. 1908, Oct. 20. Liehert, Martin, Ph.D., Managing Director of Meister Lucius and Briining, Ltd., Manchester. i, Lancaster Road, Didsbiiry, Manchester. 1912, Nov. 12. Lindsay, Marjorie, E.Sc, Research Student in the Victoria University of Manchester, j, Demesne Road, JVhalley Range, Manchester. 19 1 2, May 7. Loewenfeld, Kurt, I^h.D. Fern Bank, Ogden Road, Bra III h a II, Ch csh ire. 1902, Jan. 7. Longridge, Michael, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Linkvretten, Ashley Road, Boivdon, Ches/iire. 1*^571 Jan. 27. Longridge, Robert Bewick, M.LMech.E. Yeiv Tree House, Tahley, Knutsfvrd, Cheshiie. 1866, Nov. 13. McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc. The Cottage, Holly Road, Bramhall, near .Stockport. Ordinary Members. Ixiii Date of Election. 1910, Oct. 18. McDougall, Robert, B.Sc. City Com Mills, German Street, Manchester. 1912, Oct. 15. McF'arlane, John, M.A. (Edin.), I'-A. (Cantab), M. Com. (Mane), Lecturer in Geography in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Manchester. 1905, Oct. 31. McNicol, Mary, M.Sc. 182, Upper Chorlton Road, Manchester. 1904, Nov. I. Makower, Walter, B,A., D.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer in Physics in the University of Manchester. May lands. Brook Road, Falloivfield, Alancliester. 1902, Mar. 4. ^Lindleberg, Goodman Charles. Redely fte, Victoria Pai h, Manchestei . 1910, Oct. iS. Mangan, Joseph, M.A., Lecturer in Economic Zoology in the University of Manchester. The University, Man- chester. 191 1, Oct. 31. ^larch, Margaret CoUey, M.Sc. The University, Man- chester. 1901, Dec. 10. ALassey, Herlierl. Ivy Lea, Bnrnage, Dtdshiiry, Manchester. 1864, Nov. I. .Mather, Sir William, P.O., !\LList.C.E., M.LMech.E. Iron Works, .Sal ford. 1912, Nov. 26. Melland, Edward. Kia Ora, Hale, Cheshire. 1873, Mar. 18. Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., D.Sc, E.L.S. Meole Brace Hall, .Shrewsbnry. 1894, Feb. 6. Mond, Robert Ludwig, M. A., F.K.S.E., F.C.S. Winning- Ion Hatl, Norlhivich, Cheshire. 1911, May 9. Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys, B.A., Lectuier in Physics in the University of Manchester. Physical Laboratories, The University, Manchester. 191 1, Oct. 3. Mumford, A. A., M.D. Medical Officer, Manchester Grammar .School. 44, Wiinislow Road, IVithington, Manchester. 1912, Nov. 26. Myeis, J. E., M.Sc, Beyer Fellow and Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Manchester. 1908, Jan. 28. Myers, William, Lecturer iu Textiles in the School of Technology, Manchester University. Acresfield, Galley, Cheshire. 1873, Mar. 4. Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. The Knoll, ]Vinderinere, Westinorlatid. 1900, April 3. Nicolson, John T., D.Sc, Professor of Engineering in the .Schocj] of Technology, Manchester University. Nant-y- Glyn, Marple, Cheshire. Ixiv Ordmary Members. Date oj Election, 1884, April 15. Okell, Samuel, F. R.A.S. Oven'ey, Laiigham Road, Bowdon, Cheshire. 1892, Nov. 15. Peikin, \V. H., Sc.D., Ph.D., M.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester. The Uitiversily, Ilfanchesfer. 1901, Oct. 29. Petavel, J. E., B.A ,D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in the Victoria University of Manchester. The Uni- versify, Mancliesler. 1885, Nov. 17. Phillips. Henry Harcourt, F.C.S. Lynwood, Ttirton, near Bolton, Lanes. 1903, Dec. 15. Prentice, Bertram, Ph.D., D.Sc, Principal, Royal Technical Institute, Salford. Isca Mount, Manchester Road, .S'U'inton. 191 1, Oct. 17. Pring, J. N., D.Sc, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electro- chemistry in the University cf Manchester. The Uni- veisily, Jlanchester. 1901, Dec. 10. Ramsden, Herbert, AI.D. (Lond.), M.B., Ch.B, (Vict.). Sunnyside, Dol'cross, near Oldham, Lanes. 1888, Feb. 21. Kee, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. 15, Manldelh Road, With- ington, Mancliester. 1910, Oct. 4. Rhead,E. L., M.Sc.Tech., F. I. C, Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Stonycroft, Polygon Avemie, Levenshulnie, Manchester. 1912, Oct. 29. Roberts, A. W. Rymer, M.A., Ellerbeck, Crook, near Kendal. 1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P. (Lond.), Ravcnsivood, Rronghton Park, Manchester. 1911, Jan. 10. Robinson, Robert, D.Sc. (Vict.), Teacher of Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester. Field House, Chesterfield. 1910, Oct. 18. Rossi, Roberto, M.Sc, Student. Physical Laboratory, The University, Manchester. 1897, Oct. 19. Rothwell, William Thomas. Heath Brewery, Ne'uton Heath, near Manchester. 1907, Oct. 15. Rutherford, Ernest, M.7\.,D.Sc., F.R.S., Langworthy Pro- fessor of Physics in the University of Manchester. 17, Wilnislow Road, ll'ithington, Manchester. Ordina)-}' Mei/iiers. Ixv Date of Election. 1911, Oct. 17. Sandifuid, Peter, M.Sc. (Mane), Ph.D. (Columbia), Lecturer and Demonstrator in Education in the Uni- versity of Manchester. The University, Manchesler. 1909, fan. 26 Schmitz, Hermann Emil, M.A., B.Sc, Physics Master at the Manchester Grammar School, 15, Briglitou Grove, Riisholiiic, JManchester. 1873, ^^«v- iS- Schuster, Arthur, Sc.D., Ph.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary Professor of Physics in the Victoria University of Manchester. Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester. 1895, Jan. 25. Schwabe, Louis. Hart Hill, Ecc/es Old Road, Pendleton, Manchester. 1890, Nov. 4. Sidebotham, Edward Jolm, M.A., M.B., M.R.C.S. Erlesdene, Bo'vdon, Cheshire. 1903, April 2S. Sidebotlom, Henry. Woodstock, Bramhall, Cheshire. 1910, Oct. 4. Smith, Grafton Elliot, M. A., M.D., F.K.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of J^Ianchester. The Uni- versity, JManchester. 1906, Nov. 27. Smith, Norman, D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Mancl'.esler. 1896, Feb. 18. Spence, David. Lowood, Hindhead, Hasleiiteie, K.S.O., Surrey. 1901, Dec. 10. Spence, Howard. Aud'ey, Broad Road, Sale, Cheshii-e. 1904,. Nov. I. Stansfield, Herbert, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.LE.E., As.sistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Manchester. The Univcisity, Manchester. 191 1, Oct. 17. Start, Laura, Lecturer in Art and Handicraft in the Uni- versity of Manchester. Moor View, Mayjield Road, Kersal, Manchester, 1897, Nov. 30. Stromeyer, C. E., !\LList.C.E. Steam Users' Association, 9, Mc2int Slice/, Albert Square, Manchester. 1910, Oct. 18. Tattersall, Waller Medley, D.Sc, Keeper of the Man- chester Museum. The Museum, University, Manchester. 1895, April'g. Tatlon, Reginald A., M.List.C.E., Engineer to the Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee. Manor House Chelford, Cheshire. 1893, Nov. 14. Taylor, R. L.,F.C.S., F.LC. Municipal Suondary School, Whituorth Street,z.\-\A\, St. Wa burgh's Road, Chorlloti- c- Hardy, Alanchest.r. Ixvi Ordinary Members. Date oj Election. 1906, April lo. Thewlis, Councillor J. H. Daisy Mount, Victotia Park, A/anchesld}-. 191 1, Oct. 17. Thoday, D., M.A., Lecturer in Plant Physiology in the University of Manchester. '/ ke University, Mar- ches tei'. 191 1, Jan. 10. Thomson, J. Stuart, Ph.D. (Bern), Senior Demonstrator in Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Manchester. 1873, April 15. Thomson. William, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. Koyal Institution, Manchester. 1896, Jan. 21. Thorburn, \\'illiani, M.D., B.Sc. 2, St. Peter s Square, Alanchester. 1896, Jan. 21. Thorp, Thomas, F. R.A.S. Moss Bank, Whitefield, near Manchester. I9ii,0ct. 3. Todd, T. Wingate, M.B., Ch.B., Demonstrator in Anatomy in the University of Manchester. The Uni- versiiy, Majichester. 1899, Oct. 17. Todd, William Henry. Kivinqton, Irlavi Road, Flixton, near Manchester. 1909, Jan. 26. ^'arley, George Percy, M.Sc. (Vic), Assistant Master in the Municipal Secondary School, Manchester. 18, Vic- toria Road, Whalley Range, Manchester. 1912. Oct. 15. Walker, Miles, M.A , M.I.E.E., Professor of Electrical Engineering, the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. The Cottage, Leicester Road, Hale, Altrinchaiii. 1873, Nov. 18. W'aters, Arthur William, F.L.S., F.G.S. A/deriey, AIcKi)iIey Road, Bournemouth. 1906, Nov. 13. Watson, D. M. S., M.Sc. bo, Lisscnden Mansions, Highgate Road, Loudon, N'. IV. 1892, Nov. 15. W^eiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Victoria University of Manchester. 30, Brunswick Road, JVithington, Manchester. 1909, Feb. 9. W^eizmann, Charles, I'li.D., D..'^c., Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the University of Manchester. The Uni- versity, Manchester. 1908, May 12. Welldon, Rt. Rev. J. K. C, D.D., Dean of Manchester The Deanery, illanchester. Ordinary Members. Ixvii Date of Election. 1911, Oct. 17. West, Tom, B.Sc, Chemist and Metallurgist. ioi,Sp>ing Bank Street, Slalybridge, near Maiichester. 1901, Oct. I. Wild, Robert B., M.D., M.Sc, F.R.C.P., Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the Victoria University of Manchester. Broome House, Falloivfield^ Manchesler. 1859, Jan. 25. Wilde, Henry, D.ScD.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Chesliire. 1907, Oct. 15. Winstanley, George H., F.G.S., M.I.M.E., Lecturer in Mining Engineering and Mine Surveying in the Uni- versity of Manchester. Wigshazv Grange, Cidcheth, near Warrington . 1909, Jan. 26. Wolfenden, John Henry, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S. (Lond.), Assistant Master in the Municipal Secondary School, Manchester. 13, Fole Lane, Failsworth. 1912, Jan. 23. Wolft^, Charles Ernest, M.Sc, A. M.Inst. C.E., Consulting Engineer. The Clongh, Hale, Cheshire. 1905, Oct. 31. Woodall, Herbert J., A.R.C.S. 12, Market Place, Stockport. i860, April 17. Wool ley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester. 1863, Nov. 17. Worthington, Samuel Barton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. I\lill Bank, Bo',vdon, and 37, Princess Street, Manchester. 1895, Jan. 8. Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Kirkstyles, Diiffield, iieai- Derby. N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their sul)Scriptions, and are therefore life members : — Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S. Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S. Brogden, Henry, F.G.S., M.I.Mech.E. Ingleby, Joseph, M. I. Mech. E. Johnson, William H., B.Sc. Wortiiington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Ixviii Honorary Members. HONORARY MEMBERS. Date cf Election. 1S92, April 26. Abney, Sir William de W., K.C.K., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S. Raihviore Lodge, BoUon Gardens South, South Kensington, London, S. IV. 1892, April 26. Amagat, E. H., For. Mem. R.S., Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Examinateur a I'Ecole Polytechnique. Avenue d''07-Uans, 19, Paris. 1894, April 17. Appell, Paul, Membredel'Institut, Professor of Theoretical Mechanics. Faculty des Sciences, Paris. 1892, April 26. Ascherson, Paul F. Aug., Professor of Botany in the Uni- versity of Berlin. Universitdt, Berlin. 1889, April 30. Avebury, Right. Hon. John Lubbock, Lord, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. Liigh Elms, Doivn, A'ent. 1892, April 26. Baeyer, Adolf von, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Munich. I, Arcissirasse, Munich. 1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S., I*". L.S. 3, Cumberland Road, Keiv. 1889, April 30. Carruthers, William, F. U.S., F.L.S. 44, Central LLill, Norwood, L^ondon, S.E. 1903, April 28. Clarke, Frank Wiggleswortb, D.Sc. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. 1866, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pro- fessor of Experimental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3, Bard-well Road, Banbury Road, Oxford. 1892, April 26. Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Kiel. Universitdt, Kiel. 1892, April 26. Darboux, J. Gaston, Membre de I'Institut, Secretaire per- petuel de I'Academie des Sciences, Doyen honoraire de la Faculte des .Sciences. 3, Rue Mazarine, Paris. Honorary j\I embers. Ixix Date of Election. 1894, April 17. Debus, II., Ph.D., F.R.S. 4. Sthlangemveg, Cassel, Hesseti, Geimaity. 1900, April 24. Dewar, Sir James, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.C.S., I^'ullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution. Royal Insliliitioii, Albeiiiarle Street^ London, IT. 1S92, April 26. Edison, Thomas Alva. Lhaiige, N./., U.S.A. 1S95, April 30. Elster, Julius, Ph.D. 6, Lesstngshasse, IVolfeubUttel. 1900, April 24. Ewing, Sir J. Alfred, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S, Director (jf Naval Education to the Admiralty. Frog- hole, Edciibridge, Kent. i8Sg, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professt)r of Botany at Harvard College. Harvard College, Candu idge, illass., U.S.A. 1900, April 24. Forsyth, Andrew Russell, ]\I,A., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., formerly Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. 1892, Aptil 26. Fiirbringer, ]\Iax, Professor of Anatomy in the University of Heidelberg. Universitdt, Heidelbeig. 1900, April 24. Geikie, James, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Murchison Pro- fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colitiion Road, Edinl'mgh. 1895, April 30. Geitel, Hans. 6, Lessingstrasse, IVolfejibiittel. 1S94, April 17. Glaisher, J. W. L., Sc.D., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. 1S94, April 17. Gouy, A., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Physics in the University of Lyons. Faeuhi des Sciences, Lyons. 1900, April 24. Haeckel, Ernst, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni versify of Jena. Zoologisches Inslitut, Jena. 1894, April 17. Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. .SV. Clare, Ryde, Lsle of Wight. 1894, April 17. Heaviside, Oliver, Ph.D., F.R.S. LLotnefield, L.ower JFar- herry, Torquay. 1892, April 26. Hill, G. \V. West Nyac.l; N. Y., U.S.A. Ixx Honorary Members. Date 0/ Election. 1888, April 17. Iliilorf, Joliann Willielui, Prufessor of I'hy.sics at Munsler Poly lech iiicti m , Mil 11 1 tk, U.S.A. 1S94, April 17. Ostwald, W., I'rofessor of Clieniistry. Gros'.bot/ieii, /\§f^ Sac/iseii. 1899, April 25. I'algrave, Sir Robert II. Inglis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Heiisifad Hall. Jl'irulham, Suffolk. i8q4, April 17. ITeffer, Wilhelm, For. Mem. K.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Leipsic. Ikh'aiiiscJies Institute I.eipsic. 1892, April 26. Quincke, G. H., For. ]Mem. K.S., Professor of Physics in the Universilj' of Heidelberg. Unwersitiit, Heidelberg. 1899, April25. Ramsay, Sir William. K.C.P., I'IlD., Sc.D., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University College, London. 19, Chester '/Vrracr. A'^qyu/'s Park, London, A'.u: [886, I'd). 9. Raylcigh, Right Hon. John William .Strutt, Lord, O.M., M.A., D.C.L. (O.xon.), Sc.D. (Cantab.), LL.D. (Univ. McGill), F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Terliitg Place, U'lthaiii, Essex. 1900, April 24. Ridgway, Robert, Curator of the Department of Birds, U.S. National Museum, /hooklatid, Dislriit of Coltimhia, U.S.A. 1S97, April 27. Roscoe, Right lion. Sir Henry Fnfield, B.A., D.C.L., IX. D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). 10, Bramha/Ji Gardens, Earl's Court, London, S. IV. 1902, May 13. Scott, Dukinfield Henry, M.A., LL.D.. Ph.D., F.R.S., F. L. S. Easl Oakley House, Oakley, Hants. 1892, April 26. Solms, FL, Grafzu, Professor of Botany in the University of .Strassburg. Univa-siidl, Strassburg. Ixxii HonoTory ]\T embers. Date 0/ EUction. 1886, Feb. 9. Sliasbiuger, Kiluaid, D.C.L., For. Mem. K.S., I'lofessor of Botany in Ihe University of Bonn. Univet silal, Bonn. 1895, April 30. Suess, F.duard, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., For. Assoc. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Geology in the University of Vienna. 9, .ifiicanergasse, Vienna. 1892, April 26. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William T., K.C.M.G., CLE., M.A., Sc.D., Ph.D., UL.D., F.R.S. Lately Director Royal Botanic Gardens, Kcw. The Ferns, Witcomhe, Gloucester. 1895, Ai>ril 30, Thomson, Sir Joseph John, O.M., ALA., Sc.D., F.R.S., Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Tiinity College^ Cambridge. 1894, April 17. Thorpe, Sir T. Edward, C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. , V.P.C.S. Whinfield. Sakomhe, S. Devon. 1894, April 17. Turner, Sir William, K.C.B., M.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6, Eton Terrace, Edinburgh. 1886, Feb. 9. Tylor, Sir Edward Burnett, D.C.L. (O.xon), LL.D. (St. And. and McGill Univs.), F.R.S., formerly Professor of Anthropology in the University of Oxford. Linden, Wellington, Somerset. 1894, April 17. Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S., Sherardian Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Heading ton Hill, Oxford. 1S94, April 17. Warburg, Emil, Professor of Physics at the Physical Institute, Berlin. Physikalisches Institut, Neiie Wilhelm- strasse, Berlin. 1894, April 17. Weismann, August, For.Mem.R.S.. Professor of Zoology in the University of Freiburg. Universitdt, Freiburg i. Br. Aivards of the Dalton Medal. 1898. Edw^ard Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S. 1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S. 1903. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S, The Wilde Lectures. Ixxiii THE WILDE LECTURES. 1897. (July 2.) " On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays." By Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart, F.R.S. {28 pp:) 1898. (Mar. 29.) "On the Physical Basis of Psychical Events." By Sir MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., F.R.S. {4.6 pp:) 1899. (Mar. 28.) "The newly discovered Elements; and their relation to the Kinetic Theory of Gases." By Prof. William Ramsav, F.R.S. {19 pp) 1900. (Feb. 13.) "The Mechanical Principles of Flight." By the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R S. {26 pp) I90L (April 22.) " Sur la Flore du Corps Humain." By Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For.Mem.R.S. {38 pp) 1902. (Feb. 25.) "On the Evolution of the Mental Faculties in relation to some Fundamental Principles of Motion." By Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S. {34 pp.. 3 pis) 1903. (May 19.) " The Atomic Theory." By Professor F. W. Clarke, D.Sc {32 pp) 1904. (Feb. 23.) " The Evolution of Matter as revealed by the Radio-active Elements." By FREDERICK SODDY, M.A. {4.2 pp) Ixxiv TJie Wilde Lectures. 1905. (Feb. 28.) "The Ear!}' History of Seed-bearing Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora." I',)- Dr. D. H. Scott, VMS. {32 pp., 3 pis.) 1906. (March 20.) "Total Solar Echpses." By Pro- fes.sor H. H. Turner, D.Sc., F.R.S. {32 pp.) 1907. (Februar)' 18.) " Tlie Structure of Metals." V>y Dr. J. A. EwiNc;, l^R.S., M.InstC.E. {20 pp., j pis., and 3 text-figs.) 1908. (March 3.) "On the J'h\sical Asj-iect of the Atomic Theory." By Professor J. LarmoI'., Sec. R.S. (57 //.) 1909. (March 9.) "On the Influence of Moisture on Chemical Change in Gases." V)y Dr. II Brereton Baker, F.R.S. (S pp.) 1910. (March 22.) " Recent Contributions to Theories regarding the Internal Structure of the Earth." By Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S. List of Presidents of the Society. Ixxv LIST OF PRESIDEXTS OF THE SOCIETY. Date of Election. I781. 1782- 1787- 1789- 1805- 1807- 1809- 1816- 1844- 1848- 1851- 1855- 1860- 1862- 1864- 1866- 1S6S- 1870- 1872- 1874- 1876- 1878- 1880- 1882- 1884- 786. 789. 804. 806. 809. 9- 816. 844- 847- 850. 854- 859- 86t. 863. 865. 867. 869. 871. 873- 875- S77. 879. 881. 8S3. 885. 1886. 1S87. Peter Mainwaring, M.U., James Massey. James Massey, TiiOiMAS Perciyal, M.D., F.R.S. James Massey. Thomas Perciyal, jNI.D., F.R.S. Rev. George AV'alker, F.R.S. Thomas Henry, F'.R.S. *JoHN Hur.r,, M.l)., F.L.S. Thomas Henry, F.R.S. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. Ed\yakd Holme, ^LI)., F.L.S. Eaion Hodgkinson, F.R.S., F.G.S. John Mooke. F.L.S. Sir William Faireairn, Part., LL.D., F.R.S. James Prescott JouLK, D.CT.., F.R.S. Ednyard William Pinney, F.R.S., F.G.S. Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S. EmYARD Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S. Ja.mks Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S. James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S. Ed\yard Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S. Ed\yard William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S. James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S. Ed\yarij William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S. Sir Henry Eniield Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. William Crawford Williamson, LLT)., F.R.S. RORKRT DUKINFIELD DaRRISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S. Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S. "Ekcted April 2ytli ; resigned office May 5th. Ixxvi List of Presidents of the Society. Date of EleciwH. 1888-1889. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S. 1890-1891. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S. 1 892-1 893. Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., F.R.S. 1894-1896. Henry Wilde, D.C.L., F.R.S. 1896. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S. 1897-1899. James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S. 1899-1901. Horace Lamb, M.A., F.R.S. 1 901-1 903. Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S. 1903-1905. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. 1905-1907. Sir William H. Bailey, i\LLMech,E. 1907-1909. Harold Baily Dixon, M.A., F.R.S. 1909-1911. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E. 191 1- F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S Vol.. 56 : Part I. MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, 1911-1912. CONTENTS. Presidential Address : Researches on Heredity in Plants. By Prof. F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S. Within. - - - - - -. - - -pp. I -12. {Issued separately, April 22ni, IQ12.) Memoirs : I. Mersenne's Numbers. By H. J. Woodall, A.R.C.Sc. (Lond.) -pp. i— 5. (Issued separately, December I2tli, IQH.) II. On a Collection of Arachnida and Chilopoda, made by Mr. S. A. Neave in Rhodesia, North of the Zambesi. By S. Hirst. With 2 Text-figs. - - - - - - - - - -pp-I -H- {Issued separately, Decetnl'er soik, iqji.) III. Intensive Study of the Scales of three Specimens of Salmo salar. By Philippa C Esdaile, M.Sc With i Ft., s Dia^s., 4 Graphs, ajtd Tables - - _._.__ pp. 1—22. {Issued separately, Febiuaiy ibth, Jgi2.) IV. A Geometrical Treatment of Geodesic Torsion. By Lancelot V. Meadowcroft, B.A., M.Sc. With 4 Text-figs. - - - - pp. i— 13. (Issued separately, Marcli btli, 1Q12.) V. Observations upon the Improvement of the Physique of Man- chester Grammar School Boys during the last 30 years. By Alfred A. Mumford, M.D. ------- - pp. i— 19. {Issued separately, February 26th, igi2.) VI. The Synthesis of Hydrocarbons and their Stability at High Temperatures and Pressures. By J. N. Pring, D.Sc, and D. M. Fairlie, M.Sc With i Text-fig. pp. i— 9. {Issued separately, MarcJi Sth, jg/2.) VII. The Duration of Life of the Common and Lesser Shrew, w^ith some notes on their Habits. By Lionel E. Adams, B.A. IJ'ith / /'/. - - -pp. I— 10. {Issued separately, Februa>y 6tli, IQ12.) VIII. A Note on the Little Owl, Carine noctua (Scop.), and its Food. By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S. --------pp. i— 11. (Issiied separately, Jainta7y jrst, igi2.) Proceedings ------------ pp. i— viii. MANCHESTER: 36, GEORGE STREET. price jfive Sbdlings anD Sljpence. April sgth, igi2. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY Presented. Green (J. A.)- A Biographical Guide to the Gaskell Collection in the Moss Side Library. Manchester, 191 1. {Reed, ijxii.lii.) London. — British Museum. (Natural History. ) Guide to the Exhibition of Animah, Plants, and Minerals mentioned in the Bible. London, 191 1. [Reed. i4lxi.lii.) Guide to Mr. Worthington Smith's Drawings of Field and Cultivated Mushrooms and Poisonous or Worthless Fungi often Mistaken for Mushrooms. London, 1910. {Reed, i^jxi./ii.) . — Patent Office. Subject List of Works on Chemistry .... in the Library of the Patent Office. (New Series, ZC— ZQ.) London, 1 9 1 1 . ( Reed. j//x. ///. ) . — Subject List of Works on Chemical Technology .... in the Library of the Patent Office. (New Series, YN — ZB.) London, 191 1. (Reed, igjxn./ii.) . — Subject List of Works on Peat, Destructive Distillation, &c., .... in the Library of the Patent Office. (New Series, YK — YM ) London, 191 1. (Reed, rgjxiz.li/.) . — Royal Society. Catalogue of a Collection of Early Printed Books in the Library of the Royal Society. By H. M. Mayhew and R. F. Sharpe. London, 1910. [Reed, ijxii.jii.) Madison — Wisconsin History Commission.— Bibliography of Wisconsin in the War. By I. S. Bradley, n.p., 1911. [Reed. iSji-lis.) Manchester and London. — The Medical Chronicle. Vol. iv. (1886) — vi. (1887); New Series, Vol. i. (1894)— x. (1899) ; 3rd Series, Vol. i. (1899) — iv. (1901) ; 4th Series, Vol. i. (1901)— xxii. (No. 3, Dec, 191 1). Manchester and London. {Reed. 2oliz.li2,) Marsden (V. E,) The Revolution in Finland under Prince John Obolensky. By V. Vladimirov. Trans, from the Russian by V. E. Marsden. London, 1911. [Reed. i/xzi./iT.) New York. — Pennsylvania Society. Report on William Penn Memorial in London : erected by the Pennsylvania Society in the City of New York, July, MCMXL By Barr Ferree, Secretary of the Society. New York, 191 1. [Reed, ^ji.jis.) Vol. 56 : Part II. MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, 1911-1912. CONTENTS Memoirs : ~" IX. On the Modes of Rupture of an Open Hemispherical Concrete Shell under Axial Pressure. By J. R. Gwyther, M.A. JVt^h I PI. - pp. I— 8. (Issued separately, Apy il 2qIJi. iqi2.) X. The Formal Specification of the Elements of Stress in Cartesian, and in Cylindrical and Spherical Polar Coordinates. By R. F. Gwyther, M.A. IVith Table pp. i— 13. (Issued separately, May isth, igi3.) XI. The Presence of Maxillulae in Larvae of Dytiscidae. By Joseph Mangan, M.A. With 2 Text-figs. pp. i— 6. (Issued separately., May 2oth, i()i2.) XII. On the Interpretation of the Vascular Anatomy of the Ophio- glossaceae. By William H. Lang, M.B., D.Sc, F.R.S. IVith 6 Text-Jigs. pp. I— 15. (Issued separately, June 4.th, IQ13.) XIII. On Search- Lights for the Mercantile Marine. By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. pp. i— 5. (Issued separately. May 20th, igi2.) XIV. The Volatility of Sulphur and its Action on Water. By Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S. E, F.C.S. JVith i Pi. - - - - pp. i— 4. (Issued separately, June istli, 1Q12.) XV. The Smelt in Rostherne Mere. By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S. - - pp. i - 2. (Issued separately, June 6.'//, 1912.) Proceedings. With Map ________ pp. ix. — xxxvi. MANCHESTER: 36, GEORGE STREET. Ipricc 3Four SbfUings anD Sijpence. July 24th, igi2. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Prese}ited. Barcelona. — Institut d' Estudis Catalans. Arxius de flnstiiut de Ciencies. Any I., No. i. Barcelona, n.d. {Reed. 2g\iv.li2.) Buchanan (J. Y.). In and Around the Morteratsch Glacier : A Study in the Natural History of Ice. The Scottish Geographical Magazine, April, 1912. [Reed. ilvii.\i3.) Marsden (V. E.). Russia's Policy in Finland. By G. Evreinov. Trans, from the Russian by V. E. Marsden. London, 1912. (Reed. 17JV.I12.) Naples — Societa Reale di Napoli. Memorie della Reale Accademia di Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti. Vol. I. Napoli, 1911. [Reed. 2Sliv.li3.) Russell (H. C). [A Collection of twenty-seven Papers, Ijy H. C. Russell.] (Reed. 2jlvi.//2.) Sarawak. — The Sarawak Museum Journal. Vol. I., No. i. Sarawak, 191 1. (Reed. ylvi.li2.) - — . The Ninth Report of the Sarawak Museum, 1910. By J. C. Moulton. Sarawak, n.d. (Reed, '/'/vi.l/2.) Sendai. — Tohoku Imperial University. The Science Reports of the Tohoku Imperial University of Sendai, Japan. Vol. I — . Sendai, 1912. (Reed. 10JV.I12.) . — The Tohoku Mathematical Journal. Vol. I — . Sendai, 1 9 1 1 . (Reed. 10I7J. J12. ) Sydney. — Results of Meteorological Observations made in New South Wales during 1887; 1888; 1889; 1890; 1898; 1899 ; and 1900, 1901, and 1902; under the direction of H. C. Russell. 7 vols. Sydney, 1889— 1904. (Reed. 2jlvi.//2.) . — Results of Rain, River, and Evaporation Observations made in New South Wales during 1888; 1889; 1890; 1891 ; 1892; 1893; 1894; 1895; 1896; 1897; 1898; 1899; 1900; 1901-1902; under the direction of H. C. Russell. 14 vols. Sydney, 1889-1904. (Reed. 2Slvi.li2.) Taihoku. — Bureau of Productive Industries, Government of Formosa. Incones Plantarum Formosanarum, nee non et Contributiones ad Floram Formosanam. Fasc. I. Taihoku, 191 1. (Reed. 24IV.//2.) Vur.. 56 : I'akt III. MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS Of THE MANCHESTER LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, 1911-1912. CONTENTS Memoirs : XVI. A Note on the Submerged Forest at Llanaber, Barmouth. By T. G. B. Osborn, M.Sc. Il'if/t 2 /'A. aW - 7kv/-//>.v. - - pp. i— m {fssm-ii se/'iiratc/y, ScJ>tci>:hcr ;ih, lot-'.) XVII. On Ca!a»n'/r's (Caiaiiii/iii.i) 7-ai-ia7ts, Sternb., var. iiisicni^. Weiss. By Mary A. Johnstone, B.Sc. H'i\'/i 1 PI. - - - - pp. i— 16. {Issued sc/i/'cr 2btli, igr^.) Proceedings ----------- pp. xxxvii. — IxxvL Annual Report of the Council, with Obituary Notices of Sir Joseph D. Hooker, O.M., G.CS.I., F.R.S., Mr. W. W. Kirkman, Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D-, F.R.S., Sir W. J. Crossley, Bart., M.LMech.E., and Prof. A. Ladenburg, Ph. D. - - - - pp. xlii.— liii. Treasurer's Accounts ---------pp. liv.— Ivi. List of the Council and Members of the Society - - - pp. Ivii.— Ixxii, List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal - - - - - p. Ixxii. List of the Wilde Lectures - - - - - - pp. Ixxtii. — Ixxiv. List of the Presidents of the Society ----- pp. Ixxv.^xxvi. Title Page and Index ------- -pp. i ~xii. MANCHESTER: 36, GEORGE -STKEl-rr. Ipricc c;biee SbflUngs anJ) Siipence. I^ecembe^- rofh, 1012. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Pnse>iied. Batavia. — Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen. Rapporten van de Commissie in Nederlandsch-Indie vo or Oudheid- kundig Onderzoek op Java en >radoera. 1909 and 1910. Batavia, &c., 191 1. {Reed, gjix.jrj.) .— Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia. Die Wind-veihiiltnisse in den oberen Luftschichten nacli Ballunvisierungen in Batavia. Von Dr. W. van Bemmelen. Batavia, 191 1. ih'eid. gjtx.li^.) . I. Draclien- and Fesselballon-beolmchtimgen. II. Wissen- scliaftliche Ergebnisse der Aiifsliege mit dem Freiballone " Batavia." Von Dr. C. Braak. Batavia. 1912. (Reed. (^Ii.v.//J.) Chicago. — Newberry Library. The Arabic and Turkish Manuscripts in the Newberry Library. I>y I). B. Macdonald. Chicago, 111., 1912. (AV(7/. 7lix.li2.) Christiania. — Observatorium. Meridian-Beobachtungen von Stemen in der Zone 65'^ — ^d' nijrdlicher Declination. II. Katalog fiir das Aequinoctiuni 1900.0. Von II. Geelmuyden und J. Fr. Schroeter. Christiania, 1912. [Reed. 2Sjviu.li2.) Delft. — Technische Hoogeschool. De Temperatuursinvloed op Physio- logische I'rocessen der .\lcoholgist ...door J. E. van Anistel. Amsterdam, 19 1 2. (Reed, j fix. 1 12.) . Hel Aethyleeren van Chloorbenzol. ...door J. G. W. Sieger. Amsterdam. 1912. (Reed, ///.r.//^.) Proevc eener Theorie van bet Roteerend Magnetisch Veld — door P. M. Vorhoeckx. "s Gravenhage, 1912. (Reed. 7lix.li2.) . Stranden en Strandverdediging. ...door L. R. Wentholt. [Text and Atlas.] Delft, 191 2. (Reed. 7Jix.li2.) La Plata.- Direccibn General de Estadisticadela Provinciade Buenos Aires. Cen.so General de la Ciudad de La Plata... By C. P. Salas and A. C. Alcorta. La Plata, 1910. (Reed. (pl/x.//2.) London.— Patent Office. Subject List of Works on Mineral Industries... in the Library of the Patent Office, Pt. 2. (New Series, XN 40— XR.) ; Pt. 3 (New Series, XS— VH.). London, 1912. (Reed. 2ilviii.li2. ) RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. —Co/rfmued. London.— Patent Office. Subject List of Works on llorolos^y... in ihe Libiiiiy of the Talent Office. (New Series, FO— FR.). (A'ecd. ////,v.//_^) . — Royal Society. The Record of the Royal Society of London... 3rd Kd. London, 1912. (A'iyi/. iylvni.!f2.) . The Signatures in the First Journal-Book and the Charter- Book of the Ivoyal Society... London, 1912. (k'eai. ijlviii.lis.) . — University College. Catalogue of the Periodical Publications, including tlie Serial Publications of Sticieties and Governments in the Library 'A the University College. London. I!y L. Xewcombe. Oxford. 1912. iA'rtd. 6jix.lr3.) Sidebottom (Henry). Lagenae of the S«nnh-West Pacific Ocean. From soundings taken by H.M.S. ]Vateyivitch, 1895. By Henry Side-' bottom. London, 1912. (Rccd. 24lvii.\i2.) Neiv Exchange. London. — Faraday Society. Transactions. A}td the usual Exchanges and Periodicals. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE UBRARY. —Conhm(ea. Washington. — United States Geological Survey. Geologic Atlas of the United States, Folios Nos. 174 — 182. Washington, D.C., 1910 — 1912. [J^ecd. iyl7>ii.l/3.) Purchased. Alder (J.) and Hancock (A.) The British Tunicata. Vol. III. Published by the Kay .Society. London, 1912. (Reed, igjth'.jis.) Thiselton-Dyer (Sir W. T.). Flora Capensis. Vol. V., sect, i, part iv. London, 1912. (Reed. 2yjvi.//2.) West (W.) and (G. S.). A Monograph of the British Desmidiaceae. Vol. IV. Published by the Ray Society. London, 1912. (Reed, igjiii. 1 12. ) Neiv Exchanges. Sendai. — Tohoku Imperial University. The Science Reports ; and The Tohoku Mathematical Journal. Taihoku. — Bureau of Productive Industries. Icones Plantarum For- mosanarum, nee non et Contributiones ad Floram Formosanam. And the ttsual Exchanges atid Periodicals. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE UBRARY. —Conitnued. Osborn (H. F.). Evolution of Mammalian Molar Teeth. New York, 1907. {Kecd. 22 1 i. 1 1 2.) . (H. F. ). [A Collection of some eighty Papers from various Journals, by H. F. Osborn,] (Reed. 22lt.l/2.) Sessions (F.). Literary Celebrities of the English Lake- District. London, 1907. {Reed. 4Jni.li2.) Stockholm.— Academic Royale Suedoise des Sciences. Les Prix Nobel en 1909. Stockholm, 1910. (Reed, iglxii.lii.) . Les Prix Nobel en 1910. Stockholm, 191 1. (Reed. iglxii.li2. ) . — Meridiangradmjitning vid Sveriges Viistra Kust. By P. G. Rosen. Uppsala and Stockholm, 191 1. (Reed. iglxii.li2.) Purchased. Thiselton-Dyer (Sir W, T. ). Flora Capensis. Vol. V., Sect, i, part iii. London, 191 1. (Reed. iTJi.li2.) And the usual Exchanges and Periodicals.