' - 2Zfc'X' _ z
I 2^/\' — 2/zX'
neglecting X'.
.•. its direction-cosines are a I, 2^A', and —2hX.
Those of G are i, O, O.
.• . the direction cosines of 00' are
M
X
O - 2/l\' - 2i,'X'
But A : ^t : 7 : : (7 : I : (17 and . •. ,^' = 0.
. • . the equation of the hyperboloid is
by + CZ' + 2_y^'G + 2//.V)' + 2 7f'S = O.
The tangent plane at (;-, (9, (9) is
(.V - r)0^y . 2/;/-+ ■; . 2iv= O,
or
jl' . hr + s?£' = O.
Similarly the tangent plane at (/, O, O) is
V . hr + s . w= O.
If these planes are inclined at an angle S we have
hr . hr + w^
J/i^r- + 'cv' J h'r' + 7V'
squaring we find
cos S.
//W' + 2tv'h'rr' + zv^ = cos"(i(//^;-v-'" + 7U' . Ji'r^ + fvr"^ + w^)
. ■ . sin^o(/r/y + 7v-f = cos'?(a' - rfiirJi^
. • . (''''' + W ) tan I -\-{r' - r)j = O (x)
MancJicster Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. {]g\2), No. 4. 13
This form of relation between ?- and r' proves the
theorem.'*
If 599
554:355
660,049
0*26
0-24
o"o4
0'02
0-03
o"oi
ro8
I -07
0-48
0-50
0-26
0'20
0-19
1 c"i6
1
o'oH
0-13
O'lO
0-32
0-27
01 3
0-22
1
0-17
0 64
0-53
0-71
083
0*62
0-89
0-55
0-54
078
0*84
0-6S
0-54
o"64
f^"53
0-41
o"37
In order to compare the age incidence in two different
classes of .society, I have analysed the records of a number
of children attending the Northern Hospital, Manchester,
and compared them with the record cards of the last
batch of boys entering the Manchester Grammar .School.
The following are the results in percentages : —
Mixiichcstcr ]\Tcinoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 5. 1 1
Ci -T
•- CO
0 9
1
1
'-'
1
1
'i-
1-. 0
n -
t-i 0^
c •«
0 I-
•r; M
p
10
r^
V
^ .
5 i
10
•-■ ci
'-■o
CO
^ '^
i-( r^
a m
t^
0
1J^
ro
0
^
h-«
- s
.2 5
^
U-)
t;?i
C^
0
0
u-^
h- ( \ri
.
'
0 u
—^
(^1
l-l
"^ t.
ri
^
-+
t— '
i-i -r
_. .
0 1;
U-)
M
00
0
0
t-i
n
•—I
t— «
M --
_ •
0 t-
'■0
n
w
" >
ri
0
l^
t-1
■-
.-H CJ
^ •
•2 5
C-)
pj
i-i
0
■o
r^
h- 1
H^
M 0
.- r^
0 u
0
0
M
^Sl
r^
KH
-t
r-<
H-
CN
s c
-■0
0 Ji's
I^
0
0^
• •0 5
•— '
CJ
vo
5-3 5
rC
(— (
o; .
aj
V. :n
-^
0
rr I
't: ^^
^^
Tl
^1
-F, -c
' 1
,0 '
0 C3
0
gS
-Q
« rt
j_^
■J)
'~ <-^
p
t4—
T H
7- 0
(/I
0
^->
0
0
X
X
1
^
ir>
1
ro
*^
M
M
0
■"^
"
n
■0
w
^
^
CO
-:)-
VO
«
t^
^
CO
t
0
2
-n
T3
0
~
CD
or
~
-a
_3
rt
rt
rf.
^^
r/}
r/l
0
in
0
0
0
0
S
E
<^
o
^
i^
10
"^
M
0
CO
u-i
lO
'"'
0
0
VO
VO
l__j
ro
VO
CO
VO
10
0
CO
0
CJ
0
-i-
0
-t-
0
C4
CO
0
'
r-^
m
0
'
"
>o
-i-
10
r»
^
0
Cl
r-^
10
0
Cl
0
n
in
CO
0
CO
CO
CO
VO
CO
CO
rl-
M
f--
t^
Ov
M
^
OJ .
N
JZ^
f^n
J_
0
wl
u
'-'
i'rt
"P
"rt
-^
rr'
U-.
c/l
0
fTT'
0
^' 1
r>
0
1
■^
<^
1 2 M UMFORD, Physique of Manchester Graiin/iar School Boys.
In conclusion, in assii^ning the value to each of the
factors, I am inclined to the opinion that the diminution
of incidence of early infectious disease during the first
period of childhood {i.e., before the age of seven years) is
one of the most potent factors which has produced the
improvement that we have noticed.
Manchester iMemoirs, Vol. hi. (1912), No.
i^
<2
as
o
3
cr
ON
p
ON
0
c
0
r-~
0
t
0
10
10
(5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
' +
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
00
0
CO
10
0
l^
to
ON
lO
00
I/-)
r4
1-^
CI
C/0
M
0
rO
On
PI
r^
0
0
"■O
CO
ri-
P4
10
PI
0
M
0
CO
~
+ +
00
+
-1- p
V -
I-^ CO
ON
ON
M >0
MO
^
M
ro
-t
10
0
r-- CO
1
0
h-1
1
1
r'o
1
1
vo
1 1
0 t-.
- 3.
O O
- o
ex
14 MUMFOKD, P/iysiqnc of Mauclicstcr Graiiimar School Bovs.
Heights in Inchks.
Date.
Age.
No. of
Cases.
Range.
Average.
Afedian.
Average
deviation.
Probable
error.
From
To
1881-86
9-10
38
46
58
*52-25
52-59
1-92
1-56
1905-10
9-10
17
48-5
56-0
*5i-96
52-06
119
1-25
1881-86
lO-II
124
46
59
53-2
53-25
1-97
18
1905-10
10- 1 1
85
47-5
57-0
52-94
53-31
I -88
J-73
1881-86
11-12
356
46
66
54-38
54-64
1-97
1-75
1905-10
11-12
256
49-25
64-25
54-99
55"o6
201
2-3
1881-86
12-13
353
48
67
55'94
56-12
2-11
2-4
1905-10
12-13
340
57-0
63-0
56-70
56-88
2-17
2-48
1881-86
13-14
672
48
68
57-77
57-76
2-35
2-30
1905-10
13-14
470
51-0
68 -o
58-84
58-9
2-52
2-45
1881-S6
14-15
704
48
69
59-82
59"8i
262
2-52 i
1905-10
14-15
473
51-0
70-75
61 08
61-4
2-76
2-7
1881-86
15-16
668
48
73
62"i6
62-29
3-03
2-76
1905-10
15-16
340
53-0
72-0
63-4
63-83
2-65
2-66
1881-86
16-17
347
55
72-5
63-84
64-21
2-81
2-74
1905-10
16-17
432
53-0
73-5
65-35
66-16
2-48
2-35
i88f-86
17-18
i'5
57
71
65-88
65-66
219
2-11
1905-10
17-18
187
59-0
74-5
66-47
66-75
2T3
1-77
1881-86
18-19
32
59
71
*66-98
66-92
1-52
1-42
1905-10
18-19
88
i
61
72
^^66-39
66-66
I -80
1-70
1881-86
19-20
1
, 9
61-75
715
1*67-14
6S-00
2-19
2-48
1905-10
19-20
8
61-5
71
*66-2
65-75
3-8
2-8
Decrease.
MaiicJicstcr Mciiioiis, Vol. hi (1912), A'c;. 5. 15
Weight in Lbs.
Dale.
Age.
No. of
Cases.
38
Rai
I'roni
ige.
To
Average.
Median.
Average
devialioii.
I'rohable
error.
1881-86
9-10
46
79
61-24
6l-oo
6-87
7-45
[905-10
9-10
14
52
78
6 1 -93
59-8
4-36
3'o
1881-86
10-11
124
42
98
65-3
655
6-86
6-58
1905-10
lO-II
54
48
82
65-59
65-66
6-07
6-0
1881-86
1 1-12
356
40
91
69-28
69-59
6-37
5-94
1905-10
11-12
186
54
117
72-05
71-125
7-85
7-'3
1881-86
12-13
356
52
124
74-4
73-88
9-88
826
1905-10
12-13
391
59
MS
773
76-67
8-43
7-2t
1881-86
13-14
670
56
140
81-01
8o-2i
9-66
8-98
1905-10
14-14
469
61
160
85-47
84-2
11-7
10-3
1881-86
14-^5
709
54
149
89-99
89-23
12-06
10-94
1905-10
-14-15
47S
65
186
95"i5
95-5
13-3
12-55
1881-86
15-16
671
56
169
IOI-4I
101-89
14-48
13-82
1905-10
15-16
33S
70
206-5
1 05 "9
106-3
14-0
135
i88j-86
16-17
354
72
148
109-65
109-875
14-32
13-02
1905-10
16-17
433
64
186
117-9
119-92
13-39
12-6
1881-86
17-18
118
82
155
119.36
119-33
11-57
I I-I2
1905-10
17-18
186
84
190
124-84
126-45
13-08
11-65
18S1-86
18-19
32
88
160
126-16
128-5
10-97
10-33
1905-10
18-19
89
88
182
127-03
127-25
13-12
11-15
1831-86
19-20
9
107
156-25
133-42
134
14-97
16-53
19O5-10
19-20
8
99
202
*i32-6
123-5
21-2
15
* Decrease.
1 6 Mum ford, Physique of Manchester Grainiiiar School Boys.
Chest Girth in Inches.
Dale.
1881-86
1905-10
i88i-86
1905-10
18S1-S6
1905-10
1881-S6
1905-10
1881-S6
1905-10
18S1-S6
1905-10
1881-S6
1905-10
18S1-86
1905-10
1881-S6
1905-10
1S81-86
1905-10
i88i-86
1905-10
Age.
9-10
9-10
o-i I
0-1 1
1-12
1-12
2-13
2-13
3-14
3-14
4-15
4-15
5-16
5-16
6-17
6-17
7-, 8
7-18
8-19
8-19
9-20
9-20
No. of
Cases.
17
124
85
356
256
357
340
673
470
707
478
673
338
354
432
121
187
32
89
9
8
Range.
From
22
22-5
21
22-25
22
22-5
22
2275
23
24
24
25
23
25
26
26
27
28
30-625
29
To
28
27
29
3475
35
36-5
36
38
36
39
35
3875
36
38-5
35'5
39
36-625
^8
Average.
24-30
2446
24-9
* 24-68
25-21
25-38
25-92
25'93
26-72
27-05
27-71
28-17
29-26
29-56
30-06
30-91
31-85
32-21
32-41
.Tr8i
iNIedian.
24-25
24-22
24-79
24-49
25-29
25-22
25-89
25-92
26-69
27-01
27-69
28-15
29-22
29-61
30-18
31-15
31-28
32-11
32-25
32-55
33-94
31-25
Average
Probable
kviation.
error.
I-13
-98
-86
I 00
•99
72
1-02
•93
-96
■79
1-04
■95
1-13
1-03
112
-94
1-34
1-23
1-50
1-27
1-44
1-27
I -60
1-53
1-87
1-5
1-63
1-66
1-73
1-68
1-57
1-48
1-64
I "54
1-53
1-40
1-15
1-17
1-68
i"7
i-53
1-53
2-4
2-25
• Decrease.
MaucJicster Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. 5.
Upper Arm in Inches.
17
I );ite.
A-e.
No. of
Cases.
Kai
ige.
To
Avernge.
Median.
Average
deviation.
1
Probable
error.
1881-86
9-10
38
6-375
9'5
7-67
7-594
•59
•65
1905-10
9-10
17
6-75
8-75
*7-5i5
7-535
■44
•41
1S81-86
10-11
124
6-25
9-875
7-81
7-85
-51
■45
1905-10
10-11
85
6-5
9.0
*7-6o4
7-483
■45
•42
18S1-86
1 1-12
356
6 00
lO'O
7*99
8-033
-48
•52
IQ05-10
11-12
256
6-5
11 125
*7-9i
7-87
•52
■44
1881-86
12-13
357
6-5
1 10
8-27
8-25
■52
•47
1905-10
12-13
391
6-5
12-75
*8ii
8-085
■53
•46
1881-86
I3-M
674
6-5
11-5
8-63
8-614
-61
•56
1905-10
13-14
470
7-0
12-5
*8-49
8-45
-68
■59
1881-86
14-15
707
7-0
12-25
91
909
-7
•66
1905-10
M-I5
478
7-0
13-25
"■8-97
8-97
■71
•64
1881-86
15-16
671
7-5
130
9-67
9-71
•89
•75
1905-10
15-16
33S
7-25
14-25
*9-48
9-515
•73
-66
1881-86
16-17
354
7-5
13-0
10-I9
10-3
•86
•82
1905-10
16-17
431
7-5
13-25
*io-i3
10-18
•77
•70
1881-86
17-18
121
8-50
12-75
1076
10-79
■73
■66
1905-10
17-18
187
8-25
13-25
* 1 0-47
10-585
•77
•72
1881-86
18-19
32
9-^25
1300
1113
11-25
•74
•70
1905-10
18-19
89
8-5
13-75
*io-5
10-375
-84
•77
1881-86
19-20
9
io"375
13-625
11-97
i2-c6
•76
1*22
1905-10
19-20
8
9-875
1375
*II-2
1 1 3
■95
2-0
Decrease at all ages.
1 8 Mu.MFORD, Physique ofJMancJiester Graimnar School Boys.
FoRE.Moi IN Inches.
Date.
Age.
No. of
Cases.
Range.
Average.
iNIedian.
Average
deviation.
'robable
error.
•52
From
To
SSi-86
9-10
38
6-625
8-625
7-575
7-625
-47
1905-10
9-10
17
6875
8-62^S
*7'435
7-40
-32
-37
1 1S81-86
lO-I I
124
6
9
7-63
7-613
•39
•40
1905-10
10-11
85
6-5
8625
*7-6i
7-47
■35
•40
18S1-86
II-T2
356
6-5
9-625
779
7-8
•39
•45
1905-10
I I-I2
256
6-75
975
7 79
7-813
•37
•34
1881-S6
12-13
357
775
lO'O
7-96
8-053
•46
-40
1905-10
r2-i3
391
6-75
lO'O
7'999
8-045
•40
-43
iSSi-86
13-M
672
6-5
10-375
8-28
8-319
-48
-41
1905-10
13-14
470
7'o
10-5
8-29
8-22
■51
•47
1881-S6
14-15
695
6-5
1075
8-63
8-65
■51
■49
1905-J0
14-15
478
7-0
11-25
869
8-605
•56
-52
1881-86
15-16
672
7-0
II-5
9-08
9-104
•59
•58
1905-10
15-16
338
7-5
ii'5
9-09
9-115
-55
■53
18S1-86
16-17
354
7-5
1 10
9'4i3
9-517
-57
-50
1905-10
16-17
432
775
ii"5
9-53
9-605
-57
-59
i88r-86
17-18
121
8-25
1 i-o
9-80
994
•51
•50
1905-10
17-18
X87
8-125
ii-5
*979
9-835
-52
-50
i88r-86
18-19
32
8-5
110
9-84
9-875
i -46
-44
1905-10
iS-19
89
8-625
12-0
9'9
io'04
•46
•47
1881-86
19-20
9
9'5
11-625
10-54
10 812
•58
-60
1905-10
19-20
8
8-875
I 2*0
1*10-5
9-75
i -625
1
1-4
" Decrea
se.
MancJicsta' Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. 5.
19
comvarison of emrloyments of parents of nearly t,300
Manchester Grammar School Boys, in Periods 1879-1880-
1881 AND 1905-6-7.
Taken conseculively from the Admission Register.
Professional.
Higher Government Officials, .Army, Navy, &c.
jNIinisters of Religion
Legal Profession
Medicine
Dentists
Accountants
Stockbrokers
Teaching and allied
Land Agents, Architects, Surveyors,
Engineers, &c
1879-81.
91
83
15
9
23
5
29
80
>."
Class Total j 286
1905-7-
42
25
41
5
18
3
59
302
Commercial.
Wholesale Manufacturers, &C
Merchants, Shippers, Yarn Agents, l\:c
Cashiers, Managers, Secretaries, Travellers, \
Warehousemen and Inspectors /
Retail Traders, Shop Assistants, Plumbers,)
Pawnbrokers, &c j
Licensed Victuallers, Hotel Keepers, &c. ...
Printers, Publishers, Journalists, &C
Builders, Contractors, l\:c
Metal Workers, Ironfounders and Brass)
Finishers, &c j
Artizans and Mechanics
Class Total
188
243
167
142
44
15
25
24
26;
874
Farmers, Agriculturalists, &c.
Widows
Out of Business
Unclassified
Class Total
109
213
282
137
35
28
15
7
27y
85;
I 2
75
35
130
Total Number of Parents
1285
1285
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. 0.
VI. The Synthesis of Hydrocarbons and their Stability
at High Temperatures and Pressures.
By J. N. Tring, D.Sc,
AND
D. M. Fairlie, M.Sc.
{Read November 2Slh, igii. Received fo>- publication December glh, igii.)
Carbon and hydrogen, even when in a pure condition,
have been found to react directly to give methane at all
temperatures up to 1600 , ethylene at 1200' and above,
though not in any considerable quantity below 1400 —
1500^, and acetylene at 1700° and above.*
It was found that no other hydrocarbon can be formed
or can exist at any temperature above 1200 .
If the whole of the reaction vessel is at a uniform
temperature, the formation of these h}'drocarbons will
proceed until a certain equilibrium value is in each case
reached, when further action ceases, and if, to begin with,
any of these hydrocarbons are added in quantities in
excess of this value, then decomposition takes place until
the same final equilibrium is reached.
The difficulty which was encountered in measuring
the equilibrium value of methane is due to the fact that at
1200" and at atmospheric pressure, the reaction between
h)'drogen and pure carbon is too slow to enable this
* Pring & Ilutton, Trans. Chem. Soc. (1906), 89, 1591.
Mayer & Altmayer, Ber. (1907), 40, 2134.
Bone & Coward, l^rans. Chem. Soc. (1908), 93, 1975 ; {1910), 97,
1219.
Pring, ibid {i(^lo), 97, 498.
Pring & Fairlie, ibid [\()\i), 99, 1796 ; (1912), lOI, 91.
March Stk, igi2,
2 Pring & Fairlie, Hydrocarbons and their Stability.
determination to be made in any reasonable time, and the
decomposition of methane at this temperature proceeds
still more slowly, though both these reactions can be
accelerated by using a catalyst such as platinum or
palladium in contact with the carbon.
Again, no substance can be used for the reaction
vessel, which can be heated to above 1200 , and remain
quite impervious to gases, so it is not practicable to have
the whole of the enclosure at a uniform temperature, as
was attempted by Berthelot.*
The apparatus by means of which the synthesis of the
various h\'drocarbons has been observed b\- the present
authors consisted in heating a rod of purified carbon
uniformly by means of an electric current.
The rod was mounted in water-cooled electrodes
supported in a tubular glass flask, which was filled with
pure hydrogen. The carbon itself was thus the only part
of the apparatus to be heated. As methane is exothermic,
the quantity in equilibrium with carbon and hydrogen is
lower the higher the temperature, so that the amount of
this hydrocarbon finally formed will correspond to the
equilibrium at the temperature of the heated carbon. By
this means then an accurate measure could be obtained of
the equilibrium value if there is no disturbance by the
presence of any other hydrocarbon.
The equilibrium with the endothermic compounds,
acetylene and ethylene, could not be determined in this
form of apparatus, as the values diminish at lower
temperatures, and decomposition of the gas would take
place in passing to the cooler parts of the apparatus.
Using platinum as a catalyst, it was found that 0-55
per cent, of methane was finally given at 1200". and 030
per cent, at 1500°.
* Ann. Chitn. Pkys. {1905) |viii.], 6, 183.
Manchester Meuwirs, Vol. hi. (19 12), No. 6. 3
However, it was observed that at this temperature a
trace of ethylene was produced (about i part in i,ooo,coo).
As is well known, this will react with hydrogen at lower
temperatures, giving methane, which in this case would
raise the amount of the latter above the equilibrium value
at the temperature of the rod. It was found that methane
is exceedingly stable at 1200", and could not be decom-
posed to the equilibrium value, in absence of a catalyst,
even after a period of several days.
Data obtained from the above experiments have
shown that the ;^hole of the methane obtained at 1200'
could not have arisen from this ethylene, but that a con-
siderable part of til is tjuantit}- was probably derived in
this way, and the value did not represent the true
equilibrium.
In the case of methane, which is found according to
the equation C-f 2H., = CH4, the criterion of a true
equilibrium is that the following conditions shall be
satisfied :
(i) At any particular temperature a constant value
is given for the ratio of methane to hydrogen.
(2) This same value for the ratio of these gases results
when an e.xcess of methane is taken in the first place and
allowed to decompose.
(3) The influence of pressure on the reaction shall
influence this equilibrium ratio in accordance with the law
of mass action, according to which
"~ = K a constant.
According to this
4 t'RING & FairLIE, Hydrocarbons and tlieir Siability.
or the ratio of methane to hydrogen is directly proportional
to the pressure of the latter.
It was found that the reaction between carbon and
hydrogen is greatly accelerated by increase of pressure
and the time necessary for obtaining equilibrium thereby
shortened. The complication produced through the
formation of ethylene will therefore be very much lessened.
The apparatus emplo}'ed served, moreover, almost com-
pletely as a " hot-cold " tube, so that between the range
of temperature from iioo' to 1600 quantities of methane
were obtained which satisfied the above three requirements
of a true equilibrium.
Apparatus for reactions at high pressures.^'
The reaction vessel consisted of a cylinder of nickel-
steel of high tensile strength. This was cooled on the
outside with water. An inlet valve for the gas was fitted
through the walls in the centre, together with a projecting
tube provided with a thick glass conical window for
sighting through and taking temperature readings with
a Wanner optical pyrometer.
The electrodes, consisting of steel tubes cooled by
water circulation, were introduced through the two end
plates of the cylinder, and passed through stuffing boxes,
where insulation from the furnace walls was effected.
The electrodes terminated in nickel clamps, which
enabled a firm attachment to be made to the carbon rod.
The windows could usually be used at 200 atmospheres
pressure for a few experiments, but numerous cracks
gradually developed, which finally led to complete fracture.
The carbon rods used were about 14 cms. long and
lomms. diameter. In some cases, the carbon was used in
* cf. Tians. Chem, Soc. (1912), lOl, 91-
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (1912), No. 6. 5
the form of tubes, about 15 mms. external diameter. A
current of 500 am[)s. at 22 volts, would raise this to 1600 '^,
when the pressure was 150 atmospheres.
Somewhat thinner rods were used for producing
higher temperatures and also when graphite was used, on
account of its higher conductivity.
Hydrogen compressed in cyHnders and of about 995
per cent, purity was used for these experiments. When
working at lower pressures (below 30 atmospheres), the
furnace after evacuating was sometimes first filled with
pure methane at i atmosphere, in order to approach the
equilibrium from a quantity slightly in excess of this
value.
Results.
A large number of experiments were conducted at
various pressures between 20 and 200 atmospheres, and
with carbon in various forms and different degrees of
purity.
It was found that the amount of methane obtained
was always higher with the amorphous form of carbon
than with graphite. As is well known, amorphous carbon
is unstable above 1200°, and for this reason gives with
methane a " false " or " metastable " equilibrium, which is
higher than the true value with graphite.
On account of the great inertness of methane, de-
composition into the lower value only takes place very
slowl}'.
It was found that with any particular modification
of carbon, a constant value within the limits of experi-
mental error was always obtained for the ratio
at any given temperature in the range between 1200' and
6 Pring & FairLIE, Hydrocarbons and their Stability.
1600'. Above this temperature, equilibrium v^alues could
not be obtained, on account of the comparatively large
quantities of ethylene and acetylene which are formed,
0-005
0'004
0-003
UP
(
1
\
. liiioi-phoits Carbon. ^
J\xrtly grapJiitiscd Carbon. (J
Graphite. ^
)
\
•
\
©
\
\
5> 0
©
^
)
1
1
*^^^
. ®
■e-
1300 1400
Tempekature.
Fis:. I.
1500
1600"
1800"
and which react rapidh'with h)-drogen in the cooler parts
of the vessel, to give methane. The results are repre-
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. 0- 7
sented io Fig. i in the form of curves, in which the
ordinates denote the equilibrium constants or the vahies
/•CH,
and the abscissae the temperature.
The values obtained with amorphous carbon are not
so definite as those with graphite on account of the
gradual transformation of the former into graphite, which
takes place during the course of the experiment. The
values in the diagram represented as amorphous carbon
denote samples which were heated for the first time and
had undergone a minimum of graphitisation.
Couclusiois.
The heat evolved in the transformation of carbon into
graphite can be calculated by means of a formula deduced
by Van't Hoff. In this
(2)
where Q,^, is the heat of reaction at the absolute
temperature T. R, the gas constant (198), K,i, the
equilibrium constant in the methane formula with
amorphous carbon, and K,„, that with graphite.
It has been shown by Kirchhoff that the heat of a
chemical reaction changes with the temperature in the
following manner :
Q,„ = Q,„-hT(C(/)-CM)
where Q{f) is the mean specific heat of the factors (in
this case carbon) and C(^) that of the products of the
reaction (in this case graphite).
8 Pring & Faiklie, Hydrocarbons and their Stability.
According to data supplied by Berthelot,* O has the
value 2840 at ordinary temperatures, and the value at high
temperatures is seen from these results to be as follows ; — -
Temp, (absolute).
M73'
1573°
1673°
1823°
1290
2100
2960
3740
It follows from these results that the mean specific
heat of carbon at these temperatures is higher than that
of graphite, and the difference increases rapidly with the
temperature.
However, in the values given by Kunzf for carbon,
and by Weber :j: for graphite, the latter has the higher
value at all temperatures above 200°. This would lead
to the impossible relation that amorphous carbon is at
high temperatures more stable than graphite, so that
these values, obtained by direct measurement, cannot
apply at high temperatures.
In the present work careful analysis of the gases was
made as described in earlier work.§ At about 2000°, no
marked influence was exerted by pressure on the amounts
of ethylene and acet}'lene produced.
* Comp/es retidus [l?'?>o,),lO^, l\^A-
t Ann. Physik, 1904 [iv.], 14, 327.
X Ber., 1872, 5, 303.
§ Trans. Chem. Soc. (191 1), 99, 1796.
Matichestcr Memoirs^ Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 0. 9
At 1250 the ratio of ethylene to hydrogen was in-
creased by pressure, but the ratio of this hydrocarbon to
methane diminished as would be expected from a con-
sideration of the volume changes.
It was found that no saturated hydrocarbon other
than methane is produced or is stable under the conditions
of temperature and pressure employed.
Electro-Chemical Laboratory,
The University,
Manchester.
Manchester Memoirs, Voi. Ivl (191 2), No. 7.
VII. The Duration of Life of the Common and the
Lesssr Shrew, with some notes on their Habits.
By Lionel E. Adams, B.A.
(Communicated by Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S.)
( Received November 13th, igii. Read December 12th, igiz.)
I. The Moults.
Little attention has been given to the moults of our
shrews, the best account being that of Barrett-Hamilton
in A History of British Mammals, Part viii., p. 88, and f
may say that this work, which advances our knowledge
many stages further than any previous text-book and
provides the student with so many points of fresh departure,
has suggested the lines of observation detailed in these
notes.
Having paid special attention to the subject during
the current year (191 1) I am able to carry the matter a
little further, and I find incidentally that the details of my
observations throw additional light on the duration of
life of both our shrews, all confirmatory of the hypothesis
which I formed some two years ago.*
I will deal with the two moults separately.
A. The Spring Moult. The shedding of the winter coat
has been observed to extend "from I2lh April to 14th
June,"t though, of course, it may and probably does
* *' A Hypothesis as to the Cause of the Autumnal Epidemic of the
Common and the Lesser Shrew," Manchester Me»ioiis, vol. 54, March 31st,
1910.
+ Barrelt-Hamilton, op. cit
hebruary 6th, igi2.
2 Adams, Life of the Common and the Lesser Shrew.
sometimes begin earlier and end later. The shorter
summer coat first appears as a patch on the head or neck
and thence extends over the back to the tail, the line of
demarcation between the two coats beinc^ very marked ;
also loose hairs are very noticeable.
Of course, all those individuals that moult in the
spring have the dark coats characteristic of maturity
which were acquired during the previous autumn, and the
summer coat is of the same dark colour. With the winter
coat is shed all, or nearly all the hair on the ears, feet
and tail, which parts are never reclothed with a summer
pelage.
Now those that have cast their winter coats, and are
ipso facto adults, do not (so far as my observation goes)
participate in the autumn moult of the juveniles.
This is particularly significant, and if my theory
that the parent generation dies out every autumn be
correct, it is not only quite intelligible but almost in-
dispensable to it ; for if the adults are not to live through
the winter, why should they perform the useless operation
of preparing for it ? On the other hand, if the adults do
survive the winter, why should they not prepare for it
like the juveniles and (?) all other furred creatures ?
B. The Aututun Moult. Barrett-Hamilton gives the
duration of this moult from September 14th to October
7th,* but I have seen individuals incompletely moulted
up to November i ith, on which date two specimens were
captured without any signs of moult. In order to
ascertain the precise duration of the process I kept an
unmoulted Common Shrew under observation. He was
caught on September 29th. On October 2nd a darker
patch appeared on the lower part of the back, and
gradually extended till it reached the neck on October 7th.
* op. cit
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. H. 3
On October 8th the upper part of the head and face
began to darken, and by October nth the whole upper
surface of the body from nose to tail was of the normal
dark colour. Thus, if one may judge from the behaviour
of a single captive specimen, the moult is completed in
nine or ten days.
In the autumn moult I have only seen a single instance
where there was a line of demarcation between the two
coats, the dark patch of the winter coat appearing shorter
than the surrounding brown ; also loose hairs were not
conspicuous, except in the case of a Lesser Shrew, the
loose hairs of which called my attention to the fact that
moulting was in progress. Indeed, were it not for the
dark colour of the winter coat of the Common Shrew
contrasting with the light brown of the juvenile pelage
the autumn moult might escape notice altogether,
I have examined nearly seventy specimens of the
Common Shrew during August, September, October and
November, about fifty of which were in the act of moulting,
and in every case these were young, brown individuals,
born during the current year — the significance of which I
have commented upon when dealing with the spring
moult.
Of course, the fact that all the summer and autumn
adults which have been examined show no trace of
reclothing is negative evidence ; but then the whole of the
evidence in favour of the theory is of necessity of a
negative character, the value of it consisting in the
accumulation of facts which all point in one direction, and
also in the absence of a single exception to the facts,
though exceptions have been most carefully watched for.
Altogether more than 500 specimens have been examined.
The evidence for the annual extinction of the parent
generation may be summarised as follows : —
4 Adams, Life of the Common and the Lesser Shrew
1. All individuals examined during and after December
are sexually immature.
2. The genitalia of neither males nor females become
atrophied as winter approaches. (The contrary is the case
with the Moles that have to husband their resources for
the next year.)
3. The adults do not provide for the winter by
reclothing.
4. The subjoined chart, based on the head-and-bod}
measurements of some 500 specimens, shows that indi-
viduals reach their full size in the summer, and then
totally disappear.
5. A chart of a similar character, based on the weights
of specimens, would show a similar result.
II. Notes ON Habits.
During the few days that my captive Common Shrew
enjoyed my hospitality he taught me many things, which
I hope may be as of much interest to other students of
our mammals as they have been to myself
Found alive in a box-trap on the morning of September
28th I took him home, and at noon installed him in a large
o-lass jar, with half an inch of sand on the bottom, a
handful of hay, and a shallow pan of water. Taking it for
granted that he was hungry I dropped in beside him a
freshly caught dead shrew of his own size. He immedi-
ately flew upon it, attacking the belly first. Having torn
this open he paid little attention to the intestines, but
went for the kidneys, heart, liver and lungs. Within an
hour all these parts and a part of the brain had been
devoured, and then he darted about excitedly till he
stumbled into the water-pan, and began to lap like a dog,
with an extremely rapid movement. He then vomited
Manchester Memoirs. Vol. Ivt. (igi2), No. t. 5
violently, after which he recommenced upon the dead
shrew, and presently settled down for a nap. During
the afternoon I gave him several bluebottles which he ate
greedily. At 5 p.m. I substituted a freshly killed young
Bank Vole for the remains of the shrew. This he attacked
at once, first eating an ear and then the brain, after which
he burrowed for the heart and lungs through the upper
part of the thorax. This, I have noticed, is the usual pro-
cedure when shrews devour dead mice. Usually, but not
invariabl}', when they have time to finish the banquet,
they leave the skin turned inside out with the paws and
tail attached to it. This was the condition of the remains
of the Bank Vole the next morning and of some others
which I gave him, except one the skin of which I found a
ragged heap of shreds. On October 4th I left him at
night with a large dead Long-tailed Field Mouse weighing
33 grammes. On the morning of October 6th there was
nothing left but most of the skin, paws, and leg bones
picked clean. During these thirty-six hours he also
ate twelve half-grown cockroaches, two small snails [Helix
nifescens\ the following small slugs, s\:K.Agriolimaxagresiis,
and five Avion horteiisis, also three earthworms about
three inches long. As the shrew weighed 7 to 8 grammes,
he had consumed nearly four times his own weight in
thirty-six hours ; and it must be remembered that as
nothing was left uneaten, the presumption is that he could
have eaten more.
On my offering him a large yellow slug {Limax flavus;
he attacked it without hesitation, but the slime was too
much for him, he could get hold neither with teeth nor
claws, and after four attacks (from each of which he with-
drew to clean the slime off face and paws by rubbing
them in the dry sand) he gave it up and went to hunt for
something else.
6 Adams, Life of the Common and the Lesser Shrew.
I append a list of insects, etc., offered to him, and his
reception of them : —
Flies. Bluebottles, Greenbottles, House Flies, Hover Flies
and Drone Flies {Eristalis tenax) were all greedily
devoured.
Spiders. A very large Epeira diadema, a " hay "' spider
and others devoured at once.
Cockroaches. Devoured at once.
Woodlice. Devoured at once. In fact, I never found the
limit of his capacity in respect to all the above ; the
supply always gave out before the demand.
A large Devil's Coach Horse {Ocypus olens) was seized at
once, and, in spite of its violent struggles and attempts
to bite, was entirely consumed except the mandibles
which were bitten off and cast on the ground.
Millipedes were received with only moderate enthusiasm,
an hilus being absolutely ignored, while centipedes
were eaten when nothing else remained.
Honey Bees. One was eaten after some hesitation ; another
was unmolested.
Wasp. This was the only living thing absolutely rejected.
Worvis of all sorts were eaten greedily.
Mollusks. Besides those previously mentioned, small snails
{Hyalitiia cellaria and Hy. alliaria) were refused at
first, but afterwards eaten. A small example of the
keeled slug, Milax Sowerbyi, was refused at first but
afterwards eaten.
After spending half an hour in eating, or rather
ferocious gorging, the captive would leave off suddenly,
retire to a particular spot amongst the hay and compose
himself for a nap. He never attempted to make a nest,
but merely snuggled in the hay as it lay on the floor of
Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. 7. 7
his den, leaving himself well exposed to view. He would
sleep crouched on his belly, tucking his snout straight
down through his forelegs under his chest. His slumbers
seemed terribly disturbed, and his breathing would become
increasingly rapid and spasmodic until the discomfort
woke him, when he would again compose himself, and the
whole action would be repeated. When he finally roused
himself in about half an hour, he would start off frantically
in search of more food. Thus alternately eating and
sleeping he passed the days and nights.
I never saw him quiet when awake for an instant.
When surrounded with a plethora of worms he would
bite them and bury them.
He deposited his copious droppings in the part of his
domain most remote from his sleeping-place.
When excited by the pursuit of disabled insects or
other things that moved he would give forth a small
shrill whistle.
Being specially curious as to whether shrews excavate
burrows I filled up his jar with four inches of soil
tightly pressed down. He immediately began to burrow
scratching out the soil behind him with his forelegs. He
was out of sight in 1 2 seconds, and presently reappeared
in a different spot. He seemed to enjoy burrowing ;
perhaps it cleaned his paws and fur. He would keep
one or two burrows open at both ends, and spent much
time rushing through them. I renewed the earth daily,
and no sooner was this done than he commenced to
burrow in it ; and it was evident from the purposeful
manner in which he burrowed that he was engaged in a
habitual action. He never slept in the burrows but
always in the hay on the surface, though the custom of
the species in this particular during winter cold cannot be
judged by the conduct of a well-sheltered captive.
8 Adams, Life of the Covimon and the Lesser Shrew.
When I gave him his liberty, turning him loose in the
garden, he straightway made a long burrow under the
surface of a border which I could trace by the upheaval
of the earth.
The most interesting peculiarity, however, was the
extreme short-sightedness, if not actual blindness, of this
little creature. If I put my hand or a stick into the jar,
causing a slight disturbance, he would at once become
aware of it, and would come and sniff about a finger or
stick if either happened to disturb the hay. A wriggling
worm, a buzzing fly, or even a creeping spider or wood-
louse would soon be located and preyed upon ; but a
dead bluebottle or motionless worm dangled before him
would elicit no response till within an inch of his face,
when he would begin to hunt about as if he smelt some-
thing, and only when the object came within three-quarters
of an inch from his nose would he dart upon it and carry
it off. It often happened that in his hurry he would drop
the prey, and then he would have to hunt for it afresh,
though, of course, it was close to him. In this respect he
reminded me very strongly of the procedure of the Mole.
His minute beady eyes, like those of bats, seemed to be
watching me and looking about, but continual tests con-
vinced me that the little creature was practically blind.
If the habits of the Common Shrew were specially
nocturnal it might be supposed to see better in the dark,
but this is certainly not the case ; I trap them freely in
the daytime, and my captive did not make any difference
in his routine night or day.
I never saw him wash his face with his forepaws as
small rodents do, but he would often scratch his fur with
exceedingly rapid movements of his feet.
His conspicuous characteristic was the spasmodic
nervous activity and restlessness of all his actions, in
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. T. 9
which he reminded me strongly of the Mole, as he did also
by his inappeasable appetite (in which, however, he out-
moled the Mole) ; in his manner of lapping water ; by
the habit of thrusting his flexible trunklike snout
enquiringly upwards ; his powers of burrowing ; his
perfect indifference to being stroked or tickled, and lastly
by his apparent blindness or extreme short-sightedness.
I may mention here that during the heat and drought
of this summer the coats of the Common Shrews have
been much lighter in colour than usual, white ears also
being v§ry common. Formerly white ears were found in,
perhaps, 2 per cent, of the specimens handled ; this year
they occurred in something like 25 per cent.
lO Adams, Life of the Co^nnioii and the Lesser Shrew.
EXPLANATION OF THE CHART.
The lines indicate the growth of average-sized Common
Shrews from the time they leave the nest, the numbers being
the measurements of the head-and-body in millimeters.
Quitting the nest from early in June to late October with
head-and-body measurement of 60 mm. they quickly reach
70 mm., at which size they remain right through the winter, with
an increase of, perhaps, 1 or 2 mm., and suddenly start growing
again in May, attaining their maximum in June and July ; in
autumn they diminish in numbers and disappear. The almost
stationary state during the winter is very noteworthy, as is the
sudden growth when the breeding season approaches.
Of course these lines on the chart are ideal and only show
a rough average ; now and then the sizes of the young and old
will overlap but not often. It is always perfectly easy to
determine to which generation an individual belongs — colour,
state of moult and development of genitals all being sure
indications.
Manchi
Plate.
0n "ZA h\a^ QJU.
Manclusler Memoirs. fW. L VI. {Nf. 7),
■jfc-n ^iJj (HicA a^^ Hioy 7>vi^ 7k^ i>--'»^ J-t^ Ot/t k'
!■ lf\.^,a/)(. itia^ l.*?^.7«^, O^^. Wi Oi/' K»v D«
/iv« i G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, "A History of British Mammals,"
pt. ix., p. 146. London, 191 1. In progress
1* " Supplement to the Journal of the Board of Agriculture," xv., No.- 9,
looS.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivz. {i()i2), Ah. H. n
-entirely upon troublesome weeds, and surely no one can
say that we should be indifferent to the labours of the
scavengers ! The coprophagous beetle not only removes
■objectionable and dangerous substances, but buries them
beneath the earth, where it gorges itself on the " filth,"
and, ]:)assing it through its own alimentary canal, converts
it into valuable manure. Let any who doubt this read
the veteran Fabre's " Life and Love of the Insect."
The evidence of the few insects found in the pellets of
the Stamford Little Owls would, according to the arbitrary
classification, be against the bird. It had eaten four
beneficial, one harmful, and one indifferent species. But
some of the carnivorous beetles are vegetable feeders also ;
the indifferent Geotnipes must be classed as a most useful
ally, and the earwig, though destructive in a garden, does
little real damage to food vegetables.
Nor can we safely judge by the vertebrate remains.
Shrews, which, as they are insectivorous, are usually classed
as beneficial, had been eaten by both the Egyptian and
European birds, and the troublesome sparrow had been
-devoured by apparently the same bird which had eaten a
useful insectivorous species. The humanitarian would
contend, no doubt, that the Egyptian birds had eaten
scorpions, and therefore must be useful, but the false
scorpions are not dangerous like their tailed relatives ;
indeed, they are insectivorous like their other relations, the
spiders.
MaucJiester Meuioirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), Ah. 0.
IX. On the modes of rupture of an open hemispherical
concrete shell under axial pressure.
By J. R. GWYTHER, M.A.
{^Comnmnicated by Mr. R. F. Gwyt/ier, M.A.)
[Received and read 2jrd Janitary, igi3.)
This paper is written to describe a io-w experiments
undertaken tentatively in the hopes of obtaining some
definite description of the circumstances and mode of
rupture as the load is increased, and it is the author's
intention to continue the investigation. The specimens
experimented on were made of concrete in the proportion
of I : i| : 2 of cement, sand and stone, the aggregate being
^-inch granite chippings, and were carefully prepared in
wood moulds. After remaining in the moulds for seven
days, they were removed and allowed to set under water
for a month, and were finally tested four days after being
removed from the water. The specimens were then sub-
jected in the ordinary way to compression in a horizontal
testing machine with the results to be described. It
would perhaps have been preferable to have used a vertical
machine for the purpose, since when the load was not
removed sufficiently quickly on causing rupture, the
specimens were injured by the falling parts.
The author wishes to express his acknowledgments to
Mr. J. H. Reynolds, the Principal of the Manchester
Municipal School of Technology, to Mr. Topplewell, and
to Mr. A. Herring-Shaw for permission to use the
laboratories and apparatus.
Six specimens were made and tested, of three sizes
with two specimens of each, and at a later period three
April 2gth, igi2.
2 GWYTHER, Modes of rupture of a liemispJierical sJiell.
more specimens were tested. One specimen of each size
was reinforced at the base (la, 2a, 3a in the Table, p. 7).
The other specimens of each size were not reinforced
(marked i, 2, and 3 in the Table, p. 7).
The several specimens and the results of the tests are
described below, but it appears best to state first the
general modes of rupture as the load increases.
First. At some load a longitudinal crack develops
which extends gradually in the meridian plane.
There are several such cracks fairly regularly
distributed, but no doubt decided in position at
first by some accidental weakness. When once
started they doubtless affect the condition of the
specimen.
In the specimens not reinforced at the base,
the cracks started at the base ; in those which
were reinforced at the base they commenced
at the top.
Secondly. When the load was increased, and (except
in the case of the two smaller specimens) before
the longitudinal cracks had extended through the
material, rupture took place quite suddenly by a
fracture roughly along a parallel of latitude.
This fracture was approximately conical and
nearly normal to the spherical surfaces, although
in all cases the vertex of the cone appeared to
be in the axis slightly below the centre of the
sphere.
It must be understood that the fracture was irregular,
and that the description is of its general character,
Description of tlie sped mens and their riiptnre.
The specimens were all of the same description of
concrete, and the difference between the radii of the
Majichcster Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. J). 3
bounding spheres was in each case one inch, so that if
d is the diameter of the internal sphere in inches, the area
of any section parallel to the base is -k {d-\- 1) square inches.
The vertical breaking stress is found in pounds per square
inch by dividing the breaking load by the area of the
section.
The top was plane and parallel to the base.
The specimens i. and la. had the dimensions: —
internal diameter, I2"5 inches,
external diameter, 145 inches,
height, 575 inches,
and I a. was reinforced at the base with two rings of
wire one-sixteenth inch diameter, a quarter of an inch
from the bottom.
I. The longitudinal cracks first appeared under a
load of 3-35 tons, and spread up the dome
as the load increased, reaching about three-
quarters or four-fifths the height when the
specimen broke latitudinally under the load of
4*42 tons, or a vertical breaking stress of 233"61bs.
per sq. inch. Care was taken in removing the
specimen from the machine, the lower portion
coming away in pieces, while the top remained
intact,
la. The longitudinal cracks first appeared under the
load of 4'Oi tons, and in this case started from
■* the top, spreading gradually downwards. When
the cracks had reached about two inches from
the base the specimen broke latitudinally, as in
the previous case, under the load of irii tons,
or a vertical breaking stress of 5867 lbs. per
sq. inch. Part of the top collapsed, but the
bottom remained whole.
4 GWYTHER, Modes of rupture of a lieimspJieyical shell.
Specimens 2. and 2a. had the following dimensions : —
internal diameter, 9 inches.
external diameter, i r inches.
height, 4"2 5 inches,
and 2a. was reinforced at the base with two rings of
one-sixteenth inch diameter wire.
2. Longitudinal cracks first appeared under a load of
2"6 tons, commencing at the base and spreading
upwards, but did not reach the top, being higher
on the outside than the inside. The latitudinal
rupture took place under the load of 46 tons and
was irregular, the vertical breaking stress in this
case being 328 lbs. per sq. inch. On removing
the specimen from the machine the lower portion
was found to be in sections, but the top held
together.
2a. Longitudinal cracks appeared under a load of
725 tons and spread from the top downwards as
the load increased. At the load of iO'68 tons the
specimen broke latitudinally, the top collapsed,
and, falling inwards, broke a part of the base to
the level of the reinforcement, the longitudinal
cracks not having reached the reinforcement.
The breaking stress was in this case 76r4lbs. per
sq. inch. The load was not removed sufficiently
quickly, and the injury to the specimen was
partly due to testing it in a horizontal machine.
The latitudinal crack was irregular but roughly
normal to the surface.
The dimensions of specimens 3. and 3a. were as follows : —
internal diameter, 6 inches,
external diameter, 8 inches,
height, 275 inches,
and 3a. was reinforced at the base.
MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (19 12), No. 0. 5
3. In this case the longitudinal cracks appeared under
a load of 3"36 tons. They spread upwards and
the specimen parted in sections, three to four
inches in width at the base, under a load of 472
tons or a vertical breaking stress of 481 lbs. per
sq. inch. There was no latitudinal crack.
3a. This specimen was reinforced at the base, and
longitudinal cracks first appeared under a load
of 5 '2 tons, and spread from the top downwards
as the load increased. At the load of I2'32 tons,
giving a breaking stress of 1254*9 lbs. per sq.
inch, the specimen collapsed, shearing off at the
base, just above the level of the reinforcement,
leaving only the inner half of the thickness of
the base with the reinforcement standing. There
was no latitudinal crack.
Having experimented on domes of three different
sizes, first without reinforcement, then with reinforcement
at the base to prevent spreading, I next decided to test
further specimens of the same size as before, but rein-
forced with wire rings both at the top and bottom to
prevent any spreading movement starting either at the
top or bottom with the results and the modes of rupture
described below.
General mode of rupture of specimens reinforced
top and bottom.
Firstly. At some load cracks developed in meridian
planes round the middle of the dome, spreading
up and down as the load increased.
Second!)'. When the load was increased and before
the cracks had extended to the top or bottom,
rupture took place quite suddenly by an irregular
6 GwYTHER, Modes of I'tipture of a heniisphei'ical sJiell.
fracture roughly along a parallel of latitude, and,
as in the case of the former experiments, was
approximately conical, and nearly normal to the
spherical surfaces, although in each case the
vertex of the cone appeared to be in the axis
and slightly below the centre of the sphere. As
the rupture took place there was an extension of
the meridional cracks.
lb. The longitudinal cracks first appeared under the
load of 603 tons at intervals averaging roughly
two inches round the middle of the dome, and
spread gradually up and down. When these
cracks had almost reached the top and bottom,
the specimen broke latitudinally under the load
of 20"35 tons, giving a breaking stress of
I074'8 lbs. per sq. inch, the average height being
about three inches. The specimen was removed
from the machine in two pieces.
2b. Longitudinal cracks appeared round the middle
as in lb., in this case under the load of 7'i2 tons,
spreading gradually as the load increased. At
the load of 2063 tons, a breaking stress of
14707 lbs. per sq. inch, the specimen broke
latitudinally, the longitudinal cracks not having
reached the reinforcements at the top or base.
Again the latitudinal crack was irregular and was
at an approximate mean height of 2f inches from
the bottom.
3b. Longitudinal cracks first appeared in meridian
planes under a load of 8'5 tons and spread as in
the other cases, but ultimately reached both
reinforcements, the whole breaking and falling to
pieces under a load of 2r2 tons, having sheared
through at the level of the reinforcements. The
Manchester Meuwirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 0.
7
breaking stress in this case was 21 59*4 lbs. per
sq. inch. The broken pieces appeared to indicate
that the specimen had fractured roughly along a
parallel of latitude just as the longitudinal cracks
reached the reinforcements, the whole collapsing
instantaneously.
Table sJioiving Vertical Breaking Loads in Tons and
Breaking Stresses in Pounds per square inch.
Plain.
No. of Specimen. Load.
Stress.
I.
4'42 233-6
2.
4-6 1 328"o
3-
472
48 1 'O
Reinforcicd at Base.
la.
IITI
586-7
2a.
10-68
761-4
33-
12-32
1254-9
Reinforced both at Base and Crown.
lb.
2o'35
1074-8
2b.
20 63
14707
3b.
2 I -2
2i59"4
Summary of the results.
(i) The longitudinal cracks in meridional planes only
develop under considerable loads and extend
slowly. As concrete is understood not to be able
8 GWYTHER, Modes of nipture of a JiemispJierical shell,
to resist tension, the conclusion must be that
the " ring tension " is comparatively small. The
theory of the " Angle of Rupture " does not apply
to cases of externally applied load, and it pro-
bably is not applicable even to a concrete dome
under its own weight.
(2) Whatever the size of the example on which the
experiments have been carried on, the fracture
has occurred under the same conditions (except
in the case of the smallest specimens) for practi-
cally the same load, and not for the same stress.
It may be concluded that the cause of the
fracture is not 'shear' under which concrete is
supposed to be apt to break, but it breaks in
consequence of an excessive ' bending moment,'
or otherwise stated, that the resultant stress on
some section fails to act within the 'middle
third.'
(3) The section in which the fracture takes place
appears to be approximately on a cone of which
the centre of the sphere is the vertex. The mean
height of the fracture is about 66 of the height
of the shell.
(4) The angle of the cone does not vary very greatly
with the reinforcement given to the concrete.
(5) The load which the specimen will bear without
rupture is greatly increased by reinforcement at
the lower rim, and is again greatly increased by
reinforcement at both top and bottom.
It is desirable that a greater number of experiments
should be made, as it is probable that a very slight
displacement of the reinforcing wires may make a very
considerable difference in the load which the specimen
can bear without fracture.
]\[(UicIicster Memoirs, \^ol. LVI. {No.^).
Plati
Specimen i and la. (Elevation.
Specimen 3. (Elevation ani , r/)„, ^3, with their definition in (4),
because, although we might replace each of them by (p.
The single function (p is ordinarily introduced, partly for
the sake of form and partly because in ordinary dynamical
problems it represents a form of "energy," but in the
case under consideration these arguments are void, and
each of the quantities 0,, 0_, , >. will have its simplest
value. For an illustration, note a heavy body rotating
4 R. F. GwYTI-iER, Specification of the elements of stress.
about a vertical axis, in which case the different values of
0, , 0., and )3 are too obvious to require description.
If the single function should be retained, it would
be necessary to correct by terms from the complementary
function to which we now proceed.
TJie Coviplementary Function Solution.
The right hand side of equations (i) must for this
purpose be replaced by zero, and the solution should
contain six arbitrary functions.
If we replace each of the stresses by the general
linear expression of second-differential coefficients of a
function, we shall have 6 arbitrary constants in the
expression for each stress, and therefore 36 such constants
altogether.
Substituting in the stress equations, we should obtain
three linear expressions of third-differential coefficients,
each of which is to vanish, and we should therefore
obtain 30 linear equations of condition between the
arbitrary constants, leaving six independent and arbitrary
constants.
As in the ordinary theory of differential equations,
each independent arbitrary constant corresponds to an
arbitrary function. This plan therefore leads to the
complete solution or specification required.
The labour is made quite slight by the consideration
of the stress equations to be solved : for we may conclude ;
— {a) that P will contain no differential coefficient in x,
Q none in y, and R none in .c ; — {b) that .S" will contain no
second-differential coefficient in either r or .:, T none in
either z or x, U none in either x or y.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. 10. 5
The solution is
P. = ^eo_ ^fl'-^, ^9,
^'- ~ dydz dz-
^ _ d-Q.i _ d-^., de,
^'~ Zv^ ^dxdz ^^^'
^/a- «a'( y dy-
^^ _ d'^x ^'4^, ^^3 _ ^-9i
\
{ax\ dx dy dz ) dydz) dyaz{ ^ J
with two analogous relations . . . . (7).
8 R. F. GWYTHER, Specification of the elements of stress.
Taking into consideration the three forms of solution
(from (3) and (5)), we obtain as the final relations for a
homogeneous isotropic elastic solid,
- ^\ ^ sin 0, cs'mO}.
and those of the stress
{F, Q, R, S, rsinfJ, UsmO).
I shall assume that this system is employed, and
shall write, as is usual, x in place of cos Q.
The equations of stress then become
r' dr r ax (. J r af r
r^ ctr r\dx i - x'-J r{i ■- x'-) a(]> r{i-x'-) nmH
r'ar ' r{\-x-)dxV ' J r{\ - x') d<^ sin (J '
The Covipleinentary Function Solution.
The expressions corresponding with those of (5) arc
long, but this is inevitable in view of the generality of
* Manchester Memoirs, vol, iv. ( 1 91 1), No. 20.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (1912), No. 10.
{ = ifr ^ r ,lnl.x + ?^ dx'' * r ,lr^^- "' -*'=' <-• I ,tx **' '''./.vj >J ■"
./■'I', I - .V" (^•■'l',. I 'f-'l', I rf^f, 2 r/*, t - .V- «>l', I d_ f^ _V_ I
I '/"^ T__ (VQ.. I -£' £*.. I_ (V^. 2.V i/'l'i 4.V //M', I (ft),
•'=° "7 '//•,/.>■">■( i-.v^ drd^~~>- dx^~)-dxd^ + ;(i - .v') ,//• "*'7^r77 "*■?(! -.\') '/■/.'
;_^^ ^ .. . , I i!^*. I in, X d I rfe, 2^v d^. 2 , ,
(Irdx *' r(i - x~) dnlf ~ r ,S^/v ~ '"^l^^') '¥ "^ 'li - -v') ""'■ ^"' " "'' " >■' '/.v + >^\ 1 - .v-) Incomplete Group.
*(3) II ., j
(4) 15 >. \
> Complete Group.
(6) 10 „ j ^ ^
*(7) 12 „ j
(8) 25 ,, )
\ Incomplete Group.
(9) 20 „ )
Total length 123 ,,
It is evident : —
id) That there are present one complete group of
internodes, the upper members of a second, and the lower
members of a third.
(/;) That i, 2, 3 and 5, 6, 7 constitute two similar sets,
the lowest internode of each of which is a branch inter-
node, and the other two are the shortest in the series.
(r) That, whereas the shortest sections stand above
the branch level, the longest in each case is beloiv it.
id) That the short nodes are of uniform length.
(e^ That there is an ordered sequence in the recurrence
of the shortened internodes.
Surface Texture. I should judge the surface to be
a reproduction of the exterior of the woody cylinder, and
should identify as the only trace of cortical tissue present
* The branch scars lie in these sections.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. IT. 3
the carbonaceous layer which is still adherent where the
fossil has not been exposed to weathering. Where this
clings, the sharp outline of the markings is obscured, and
a smoother surface results. Microscopic preparations of
fair-sized stems rarely show the cortex as retained : it
has quite naturally broken away along the zone of soft,
delicate tissue, which occupies the position assigned to
cambium and phloem.
In the long internodes, the markings have the form of
very fine longitudinal striations distributed over the
entire surface, and so uniform in character throughout
that they cannot be regarded as wrinkles or cracks due to
shrinking or splitting bark. Ridge and furrow alternate,
but neither, as a rule, extends the full length of the
internode. The outstanding part is usually of a very
attenuated spindle shape, broader considerably in its
wider part than the furrow, dying out gradually, and
sliding as it were past the tapering ends of its neighbours.
The identification from structural examples is easy.
The ridges represent the secondary xylem broken up
into long slender sections by the furrows of the softer
tissue of the secondary medullary rays. From the
absence of parallel-sided ridges, extending from node to
node, we may conclude that in this species the secondary
xylem extended at the periphery completely across the
primary medullary rays.
The short internodes differ somewhat. Where the
striations can be made out they are much broader than
in the others ; they are parallel-sided and unbroken
throughout the length of the internode : the separating
depressions are very narrow. The differences may be
due to uneven preservation, but it is more likely that
they indicate differences in the living plant : parts quite
free from distortion are clear to observation.
4 Johnstone, Calamites {Calamitind) varians, Stevjib.
The Nodal Lines. In marked contrast to the nodal
constrictions of pith casts, the nodal line on the exterior
of this woody cylinder is a ridge, r {Plate), along the top
of which lies the chain of contiguous leaf-bases. The
protuberance is the highest part of a slight and gradual
bulging outwards of the upper internode of the two
involved. The leaf-scars are so placed on it that they
face slightly downwards as well as outwards, overhanging
the lower internode to the extent of about i mm. in some
places. At the branching nodes, the exact position of the
nodal line is obscure.
Leaf-scars. Every node is furnished with its closely
packed whorl of leaf-bases, and this was probably true
also of the branch nodes. About twenty-five traces may
be counted on the flattened face of the fossil, and its whole
circumference must have produced at least fifty. Regard-
ing each of these as representative of a vascular bundle
of the axis, we should have in a woody cylinder, roughly
computed at 4 to 5 cms. in diameter, an approximation
of fifty proboxylem groups — not out of accord with the
evidence of structural sections.
The scars of the leaves are elongated ellipses, I {Plate),
with their ends touching each other. By piecing together
the evidence of the best preserved scars, the following
details may be assigned to a typical trace when com-
plete : —
{a) The boundary is a rather sharply outlined rim
which merges at the end of the oval with that of the
adjacent scar. The rim has the appearance of being
incomplete or broken down on its lower side.
{b) A sloping internal face leading from the crest of
{a) gradually to the edge of
{c) which is a minute circular pit almost like a pin-
prick.
Manciiester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. (191 2), No. lY. 5
One type of oval or elliptical leaf, as seen in structural
preparations, corresponds very satisfactorily with these
surface features. As seen in many of the beautiful
examples which have been figured, there is present in the
leaf a central strand of vascular tissue associated with a
more or less complete surround of delicate-walled cells.
This fine-celled core is marked off from the rest of the
leaf by the firm and prominent ring of melasmatic tissue.
Undoubtedly this boundary line corresponds to the edge
of our central pit, which was the line of passage of the
leaf-trace into the secondary xylem of the stem. In the
pit itself would lie the xylem, phloem, and parenchyma
(if any) of the leaf-trace, whilst the melasmatic ring of
the leaf would be continuous with the corresponding
tissue in the stem.
When decay of the plant set in and the leaves and
branches fell away, it would be natural that the slender
vascular strand with its weak ground tissue should break
off, leaving a depression to be filled in by the mud in
which the whole was embedded. This in turn has been
removed and the cavity has again been left exposed.
Beyond the bundle tract would lie the cortical paren-
chyma— against the area of the slanting surface {U).
Branch Scars. The lower branching node produces
nine and the upper, eight branches. These numbers refer
only to what are visible on a single flat face, and the pro-
bable total in each whorl would be about twenty, or rather
less than half the estimated number of leaves. It is not
possible to trace any regularity in the occurrence of
branches relatively to leaf-traces.
The scars are crowded together, the boundary rim
being common to each pair at the point where they
touch.
6 Johnstone, Calamiies {Calamitina) varians, Sternb.
The average measurements are : —
Longitudinal 6mm.s. )• , ,.
° vin lower line.
Horizontal 8 ,, )
' " [in upper line.
Longitudinal 7
Horizontal n
They therefore cover about half of the internode in
which they emerge, whilst at the same time encroaching
on that below.
The general appearance of a scar is that of a deep
cavity, the centre of which lies much closer to the lower
edge, the upper slope long and gentle, the lower short and
abrupt. Within these broader outlines more minute details
can be made out. In the best examples a definite area
P^ {Plate) is clearly separated from the remainder as the
deepest region — its outline is nearly circular ; it is steeply
funnel-shaped ; its edge is sharply cut off from the upper
slope of the stem xylem and may be an upstanding ring.
From this pit the slope is gradual to the top rim, which is
narrow-edged and simple, projecting sharply and sloping
away again into the surface of the short internode : there
are no complications on this upper edge. It must be
noted that the medullary ray markings of the internode
curve over the rim, and are continued to the edge of/" ;
they look exactly as if the branch had been resting against
them and preventing their outward development. This
feature is absent from the lower slope.
The lower edge of the scar is less simply outlined.
One particularly well-preserved example shows what may
be described as a secondary ridge — very narrow — on the
lower rim, with a narrow trench on either side of it ; this
is also seen, but less distinctly, on other scars. The lower
of the trenches is part of a wavy depression, s s,
which runs, with accidental breaks, under the whole row ;
it may be the counterpart of that which is overhung by
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 17. 7
the ridge of leaf-scars. The upper of the two furrows
may be the elh'pse (or two elh'pses) of the leaf-scars,
distorted by the pressure of the branches. This supposi-
tion is strengthened by the occasional occurrence of fine
punctuations, P', {Plate) in the upper furrow, very closely
resembling the pits in the leaf-scars.
The final history of the branches was very likely that
of the leaves — decay and removal complete before fossili-
sation. Dr. Scott suggests (i) that slender branches
might have been branches of limited growth, comparable
with the needle shoots of Pinus. The shoots belonging to
these scars might reasonably have been of this description.
The interpretation of the markings described above
can be obtained by reference to petrified specimens. The
xylem of the branch — a continuation from below of the
stem xylem — makes its way outwards in an upwardly
slanting direction ; tangential sections passing transversely
through a branch near the cortex present a wood zone
broader in the upper than in the lower border, its pith
eccentric in situation. A strikingly similar appearance is
seen in the eccentric scars of Bothrodendron punctatum,
which Mr. Watson (2) asserted to be branch scars — an
opinion which has been confirmed by the discovery of
specimens in which the branches were still in attachment
(3). The funnel-like pit at the base is the cavity left by
the disorganised pith, which, as we know, tapered gradually
to its junction with the stem pith. On the other hand,
the sudden enlargement of the depression which opens
out exterior to the rim of the pit must be explained by
looking upon it as having been occupied not only by the
pith, but by both pith and xylem of the branch. That
this was so, and that the whole of the branch has been
removed from this area, is clear from the exposure of the
medullary ray markings on the surface of the scar.
8 Johnstone, Catamites iCatamitina) varians, Stern/7.
The moulds of several of the scars have been preserved,
and corroborate what the cast shows, leaving little doubt
as to the nature of the organ which fitted into the scar
They may be described as consisting each of two truncated,
rather irregular, cones, the smaller of which is seated on
the section of the larger, without quite covering it ; the
strip left outside the base is hollowed out slightly. The
missing apex of the small cone would be the apex of the
pith left in the pit, the cone itself standing for the pith of
the branch where it is embedded in the deeper xylem of
the stem. On the sloping sides of three of the small
cones can be distinguished arrangements of ridges and
furrows like those in the common pith-casts, one of which
this is considered to be. The ridges represent medullary
rays, the furrows vascular bundles.
The larger basal cone has replaced the complete
branch, disorganised and removed from its loose connection
with the outer secondary wood. The slight trench which
sometimes exists at the junction of the two cones would
fit over the raised rim of the pit. It may simply point to
a line of breakage.
Identification of Top and Bottom.
It is necessary to determine with as much certainty
as possible which is the top and which the bottom of the
cast, as the position of the branch scars relative to that of
the short internode bears directly on theories regarding
the functional significance of that internode.
It has been proved fairly clearly by evidence from
structural examples that branches emerge from the
external face of the secondary xylem at a slightly higher
level than the nodal line, leaf-traces practically at the level
of the nodal line. It has been shown that the line s s
{Plate) is probably the line of the leaf-scars belonging to
Manchester Meinoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. IT. 9
the branch node. If this were quite conclusively proved,
it would be sufficient to settle the question. But apart
from this possibly doubtful evidence, there is something
to guide us in the shape of the scars themselves. The
Manchester Museum collection includes several fine pre-
parations showing the microscopic structure of branches
cut in transverse section near their points of emergence.
Others are figured by Williamson and Scott. Exami-
nation of a series of longitudinal stem sections shows that
at certain depths near the surface, the wood of the branch
is developed unequally round the pith, the greater amount
occurring on the upper side of the branch. The branch
scars in the fossil are true to this type ; the deepest part —
that which is presumably the pith centre — is markedly
eccentric, and lies nearer the nodal line to which the
branch belongs. Again, in several of the Calauiites
figured by Stur {see below), the scar-bearing branches are
still attached to their parent stems, and there can be no
possible dispute about which is the basal region — in all of
them the short internodes lie above the branch node, as I
place them in the Bradford specimen. Accepting these
three points as dependable evidence — the position of the
line of leaf-scars below the branch scars, the eccentricity
of the umbilicus, and the similarity to other branching
stems of undoubtedly correct interpretation — I conclude
that A {Plate) is the upper level of this stem.
Interpretation of Variation in Length
OF Internodes.
That the internodes in Calamitean stems may vary
in length in any one specimen, and that there may be a
periodicity in that variation has been noted and figured
by several writers. Except in the last of the instances
lo Johnstone, Calamites i^Calaviitind) varzans, Sternb.
referred to below, no generalisation as to occurrence and
function has been arrived at.
Williamson (4) mentions two Calamites, in one of
which every 5th internode is short, and in the other every
8th. He expresses his inability to correlate these varia-
tions with any known external features, but suggests the
possibility of their being of specific character.
Stur (5) figures several most instructive examples of
Calamites, but does not enter into discussion of the
grouping of internodes. Some of the figures, as placed,
are inverted, but the true lower boundary is quite clearly
indicated in some of them by the subtending leaf-bases,
in others by the direction of growth of the younger
branches. Amongst those which may be relied on as
evidence to show whether short internodes lie above or
below the whorl of leaf-scars, are those quoted below.
PL W.^Fig. 4, is clearly inverted ; PI. W., Fig. 5, is almost
certainly in the same position ; PI. II., Fig. 3, is correctly
placed; PL V. and PL XI. are specially valuable. In
these the branch bearing the whorls of branch scars is
itself still in connection with an older axis : we can thus
be quite certain about the relative positions of its parts.
In all of the above, without exception, the abbreviation of
internodes appears either in the internode in which the
scars lie or in those above it: the internode below is
always comparatively long. Reference is made to them
as affording confirmation of the opinion as to which is
top and which is bottom of the Bradford specimen.
Incidentally the last two specimens also illustrate the
fact that the same plant bore its smaller branches or
twigs in whorls, whilst the larger branches were sparsely
and irregularly scattered over the parent axis. That is
to say, Calamitina and Styocalamites might represent
different orders of branching in a single plant rather than
different groups of species.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol /vi. (igi2), A^o. ITf. ii
Zeiller (6) in P/. LVII., Fig: i, of Calaniites Goepperti,
shows a long internode below, and at least two short ones
above the branch internode ; it is probable that the base
is correctly indicated.
Kidston (7) gives a well-preserved cast of Calaniites
(Calamitina) varians, Sternb., var. inconstans, together
with a table of measurements : —
Internode. Measurement in mms.
8-50
.S'
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
6-50
5-50
4'5o
5"
3'
4"
3"5o
3'
3"
Scar internode 12 7-
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Scar internode 24 750
25 8-
26 II'
27 12"
28 I2"50
29 12-
30 11-50
31 II"
32 10-50
Z2> 8-50
34 9"5°
35 6-50
36 5"
Scar internode 37 950
- Period IV.
6-
8-50
8-
8-
7'5o
7-50
r
5"
4'5o
4'
3'5o
Period III.
Period II.
12 Johnstone, Calajnites (Calamilina) varitvis, Sternb.
Internode. Measurement in mm
38 .9-
)9 22-50
Incomplete
Lowest internode 40 17-' ) P^^od I.
Total 321-50 mms.
From this table we see to be true of each period : —
{a) That the shortest interval always succeeds the
branch internode.
{b) That in the 3rd and 4th periods there are four or
five very short internodes just above the branch line.
(^) That the scar internode itself is shorter, in two
out of three cases, than the top one of the preceding
period.
{d) That the top internode of each period is shorter
than that below it.
() That there are irregularities in increase and
decrease which may be due to fluctuating conditions of
supply.
Summarising — the minimum length occurs imme-
diately above the branches ; there is a gradual increase
(usually slower at first) up to the maximum in the last
internode but one ; the internode below the row of scars
is in two out of three cases less than the maximum, but
greater than the branch node; there is an abrupt drop
from this last to the minimum.
Kidston (8) reproduces a fine stem of Catamites
SacJisei, Stur. (P/. XIII., Fig. i.) Each of its two rows
of branches is supported by a long internode, and one of
them shows plainly two short lengths placed above the
branches.
In his paper communicated to the Linnean Society of
London in 1909, Mr. Horwood (9) describes two pith
casts of Calamites i^Calauiatina) Schiitzei, Stur, and
includes for comparison the results of a series of observa-
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hi. (191 2), No. 11. 13
tions on the stem internodes and leaf sheaths in recent
Equiseta. Both casts show the periodical appearance of
a shortened member at every 5th (or 6th) interval. One
table of measurements is given below, the other is
similar. For convenience of reading and comparison
with other tables, I have inverted it.
Number. Position on Stem. Lentrth in mms. Period.
D
C
B
A
D
C
B
A
E
D
C
B
A
E
D
C
B
A
E
D
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
1.3
12
1 1
ID
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
V.
Incomplete.
IV.
Complete.
III.
Complete.
II.
Complete.
I Incomplete.
Mr. Horwood says, " There is a noticeable increase,
regular and gradual, in each period, commencing at the
smallest internode. At the end of each period branches
were borne, indications of which may be seen on the
specimen." . . . This would place the branches in D
* First internode from the base.
14 Johnstone, Calaviites {^Calaniitina)varians, Stertib.
(or E). " The most striking feature is the uniform length
{i'6 to TQcms.) diwd position of the short internode at the
commenceinent of each period. . . . Node A (the short
internode) appears to serve the purpose of imparting
additional strength to the stem owing to the weight of
the branches above," This may mean that the required
mechanical support was provided four or five internodes
lower down than the node where the branching actually
occurred. But it is also open to the interpretation that
the branch node is regarded as being situated imme-
diately above the short strengthening internode. This
last idea seems to be in Mr. Howard's mind when he
refers for comparison to Dr. Kidston's specimen (7) and
remarks of it: " In length it is 32 1-50 mm., and contains
two complete and three incomplete periods, with forty
internodes, and a short internode precedes each branch-
bearing node'' This statement does not seem to agree
with the table of measurements ; the internode below
each line of scars is certainly slightly reduced as com-
pared with that on which it rests, but the markedly short
sections lie immediately above the scar. The conclusion
arrived at by Mr. Horwood is that the shortening of the
internode precedes a new period of the plant's develop-
ment, and that " its function appears to be to add
strength to the stem by the occurrence of two con-
secutive strengthening nodes (with diaphragms) serving
the purpose of a double support within a short distance."
Inferences.
It seems justifiable to accept the following facts as
established by comparison of the Bradford specimen and
the figures of Williamson, Stur, Kidston, and Zeiller : —
{a) That in certain species of Calamites, or in certain
parts of individual Calamites, a recurrent cycle of inter-
nodes was correlated with the occurrence of whorls of
Ma)ic]iester Memoirs, Vol. Ivi. ( 1 9 1 2), No. .11. 15
branches. This phenomenon appears to be confined to
those instances in which the branches are crowded together
at one level, i.e., in those included in the subgenus Cala-
mitina. I have met with no examples, figured or in speci-
mens, amongst the Encalamites or the Stylo-calamites.
{b) That each period or cycle showed, immediately
above the node at which the branches arose, one or more
very stunted internodes, and immediately beloiv it a
comparatively long internode, which might either be the
longest, or second to the longest in the whole series.
Significance of Cycle. Mr. Horwood's opinion that
the approximation of the diaphragms strengthens the
stem against the strain of superposed branches cannot be
considered as upheld by a fact which he apparently
infers in his paper — that the branches spring from the
node immediately above the short internode.
I would suggest that the mode of growth under
discussion was not a purposive arrangement at all. It
might, with greater likelihood, be a consequence arising
from the disturbance of normal physiological conditions
at a level where important morphological changes took
place. It may very possibly have happened that the
diversion of a great amount of food material outwards
to the secondary members impoverished the supply avail-
able for the normal increase in the primary axis, and
retarded growth in the neighbourhood of the branch
whorl. The group of shortened internodes would have
to be considered as a result of, rather than as a prepara-
tion for, the appearance of the branch system.
This explanation is what I regard as the best. It is
quite consistent with the fact that the phenomenon is to
be found only in those Calamites in which the branches
are closely crowded at certain levels, and in which the
disturbance of uniform growth is at its maximum.
1 6 Johnstone, Calamites {Calaniitind) varians, Sternb.
REFERENCES.
(1) Scott, D. H. (1900). "Studies in Fossil Botany," p. 31.
(2) Watson, D. M.S. (1908). "On the Ulodendroid Scar."
Manchester Memoiis, Vol. 52, No. 4.
(3) Renier, A. (1908). "Origine rameale des cicatrices uloden-
droides du Bothrodendron pi/nctafum." Comptes Rendus,
1908, I., p. 1428.
(4) Williamson, W. C. (1871). "On the Organisation of the
Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures." F/iil. Trans., Vol.
161, p. 495, PI. 27, Fig. 30.
(5) Stur, D. (1887). " Die Carbon-flora der Schatzlarer Schich-
ten. Abt. II. Die Calamarien." Abhand. k. k. geol.
Reichsanst. JVt'en, Ed. XI., Abt. 2.
(6) Zeiller, R. (18S8). " La flore fossile du bassin houiller de
Valenciennes. Etudes Gites Min. France." Paris.
(7) KiDSTON, R. (1889). "On the Fossil Plants in the Raven-
head Collection in the Free Library and Museum, Liver-
pool." Trans. Roy. Soc. Edhib., Vol. 35, No. 10,
PI. I., Fig. I.
(8) (1908). "Les vegetaux houillers du Hainault Beige."
Mem. iMus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belg., T. IV., PI. XI II.,
Fig. I.
(9) FIORWOOD, A. R. (1910). "On Calamites Sc/iiitzei, Stur."
Joiirn. Linn. Soc, Vol. 39, p. 279.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L VI. (1912), No. IT. Phite.
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
General Meeting, October 3rd, igri.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
Mr, T. WiNGATE Todd, M.B., Ch.B., Demonstrator of
Anatomy in the University of Manchester; Miss Mary A.
Johnstone, B.Sc. (Lond.), Head Mistress of the Municipal
Secondary School for Girls, Whitworth Street ; Dr. A. A.
MuMFORD, and Mr. Henry Ronald Hasse, M.A. (Cantab.),
M.Sc. (Mane), Lecturer in Mathematics in the University of
Manchester, were elected ordinary members of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, October 3rd, 191 1.
The President Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks to the donors of the books upon the table
was passed ; and Mr. C. L. Barnes drew attention to the
' Catalogue of Serials in the Library ' which had recently been
prepared. The following were amongst the recent accessions to
the Society's Library : " Die Kunsipflege der IVtf/elsbacher," by
ii Proceedings. [Ocfobej- jj-d, igii.
S. V. Riezler (4to., Miinchen, 191 1), " Wissenscha/iliche Rich-
tungen unci philosophische Prohleine im XIII. Jahrhundert," by
G. F. V. Hertling (4to., Miinchen, 1910), and ^^ Ver/ags-Katalog'''
(8vo., Miinchen, 191 1), presented by the K. B. Akad. Wissen-
schaften, Miinchen ; '■'■Electrolytic Bleaching and the Mannfaciure
of Hypochlorites by Electricity" by E. Reuss (i2mo., Leeds,
191 1), presented by the Author; '■• Siir la Struct?i?-e et les Fro-
prietes des Rayons Magneto-cathodiques dans nn Cha?iip Jiniforme"
by M. Gouy (4to., Paris, 191 1), presented by the Author;
^^ Handbook of American Indian Languages" Pt. I., by F. Boas
(Svo., Washington, 191 1), presented by the Bureau of American
Ethnology ; "Magnetic Observations made at. ..Bombay., 1846-igos,
and their discussion" Pts. I. and II., by N. A. F. Moos (fob,
Bombay, 19 10), presented by the Government Observatory,
Bombay ; '■'Preliminary Report on a Visit to the Navaho National
Mojiujfienf, Arizojia," by J. W. Fewkes (8vo., Washington, 191 1),
and '•' Itidian Tribes of the Loiver Mississippi Valleyj" by J. R.
Swanton (8vo., Washington, 191 1), presented by the Bureau of
American Ethnology ; " Geology of an Area adjoining the East
Side of Lake Timiskaming..." by M. E. Wilson (Svo., Ottawa,
1910), presented by the Geological Survey of Canada; "Astro-
graphic Catatogue, igoo'O, Oxford section, Dec. + 24 to + J.2°,"
vol. 7, prepared under the direction of H. H. Turner (fol.,
Edinburgh, 191 1), presented by the University Observatory,
Oxford ; " The Progress of Physics during... i8jj-igo8" by A.
Schuster (8vo., Cambridge, 191 1), presented by the Author;
"Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park Cliff Palace"
by J. W. Fewkes (8vo., Washington, 191 1), and "Indian
Languages of Mexico and Central A?nerica" by C. Thomas and
J. R. Swanton (8vo., Washington, 191 1), presented by the Bureau
of American Ethnology; " Tne Chattanooga Campaign..."
by H. M. Fitch (8vo., n. pi., 191 1), and " Wisconsin Women in
the War between the Stales" by E. A. Hum (8vo., n. pi., 191 1),
presented by the Wisconsin History Commission; "Finland:
The Question of Autotiomy and Finidnniental Laivs" by N. I).
Sergeevsky, transl. by V. E. Marsden (8vo., London, 191 1),
October jrd, igi I.] PROCEEDINGS. iii
presented by the Translator; '■'■ Nordiskc Fortidsminder jidg. af
det...OIdskrifiselskab,'" Bd. II., Hfte i (fol., Kj^benhavn, 191 1),
presented by the Kgl. Nordiske Oldskriftselskab, Copenhagen ;
and '■^Investigation of the Motion of Hat ley's Comet from ijsg-
rgio" by P. H. Co\vell...and h.. C. D. CrommeUn... (fob, Edhi-
burgh, 1910), presented by the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
New exchanges have been arranged with Teyler's Godgeleerd
Genootschap ( Verhandeliiigeti), Haarlem ; the Society of Chemical
Industry {Journal of), London ; The Micrologist, Manchester ;
and the University Observatory {Contributions), Princeton, New
Jersey, U.S.A.
The President gave an address on " Researches on
Heredity in Plants."
The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs (see President's
Inaugural Address).
General Meeting, October 17th, 1911.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
Mr. W. H. Jackson, formerly Professor of Mathematics
at Haverford College, Pennsylvania, 77, Clarendon Road,
Manchester ; Miss Laura Start, Lecturer in Art and Handicraft
in the University of Manchester, Moor Vieic, Afayfield Road,
Kersal, Manchester ; Mr. Tom West, B.Sc. (Mane), Chemist and
Metallurgist, lOi, Spring Bank Street, Stalybridge ; Mr. D.
Thoday, M.A., (Cantab.), Lecturer in Plant Physiology in the
University of Manchester ; Mr. Peter Sandiford, M.Sc. (Mane),
Ph.D. (Columbia), Lecturer and Demonstrator in Education in
the University of Manchester; and Mr. J. N. Pring, D.Sc,
Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electro-Chemistry in the
University of Manchester, were elected ordinary Members of the
Society.
iv Proceedings. {^October lyth, igii.
Ordinary Meeting, October 17th, 1911.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was given to the donors of the books upon
the table.
Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., stated that he had recently
become possessed of a most interesting letter written by John
Dalton shortly after he had become a resident in Manchester,
and before he joined this Society on which he was afterwards to
shed so much lustre.
This letter appears to have been known to Dr. Lonsdale,
for it is quoted by him in his life of Dalton in "The Worthies of
Cumberland," but perhaps it has not really lessened its interest,
for Dr. Lonsdale did not print it exactly verbatim, and, moreover,
he split it up so that portions of it are in three different chapters.
It is also reproduced in Roscoe's '' Life of Dalton," but again in
separate parts.
The letter is dated in Quaker fashion, " 2nd mo. 20th 1794,"
and is closely written on three pages of foolscap, the four con-
cluding lines, the signature, and the address being on the fourth
page. Elihu Robinson, of Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth,
to whom it is addressed, is the person to whom Dalton owed
most in his early intellectual development. Like Dalton, he was
a Friend, and as he is styled " Dear Cousin " was presumably a
relation of Dalton's.
The letter opens with an account of the "Manchester
Academy," now " Manchester College," Oxford, then in Mosley
Street, where Dalton, who had been appointed in 1793, was
Tutor in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. Many of the
persons interested in the Academy were founders and early
members of this Society, and it is mostly owing to them that
Dalton was proposed and elected to be one of its members.
The first paper he read before the Society — one on colour
October lytk, r^ii.] Proceedings. v
blindness — is foreshadowed in this letter, which contains,
probably, the earliest account of that peculiarity of vision.
On October 3rd, 1794, John Dalton appeared as a memlier
of the Society, and on the 31st of the same month made his
scientific debut by reading a paper entitled " Extraordinary Facts
relating to the Vision of Colours."
Mr. Nicholson thought that this interesting relic of perhaps
the greatest man who ever belonged to this Society should be
preserved in the Society's House, and he generously presented
it to the Society.
Mr. H. J. WooDALL, A.R.C.Sc. (Lond)., read a paper on
" Mersenne's Numbers."
The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
A resume of a paper by Mr. S. Hirst (Brit. Mus. Nat.
Hist.), entitled " On a Collection of Arachnida and
Chilopoda made by Mr. S. A. Neave in Rhodesia north of the
Zambesi," was given.
The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
General Meeting, October 31st, 191 1.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair.
Mr. Charles F. Butterworth, U'aierloo, Poynton, and
Miss Margaret Colley March, M.Sc. (Mane), The University,
Manchester., were elected ordinary members of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, October 31st, 19 11.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was given to the donors of the books upon
the table.
vi Proceedings. [October jisi, igii.
Mr. Thomas Thorp, F.R.A.S., made a short communication
in which he suggested a new method for testing the curvature
of parabohc mirrors by tilting the mirror with a delicate tangent
screw so that each portion of the mirror is successively brought
into a horizontal position.
Miss P. C. EsDAiLE, M.Sc.,reada paper entitled: "Intensive
Study of the Scales of three Specimens of Salmo salarP
The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
Ordinary Meeting, November J4th, 191 1.
The President, Professor F. E. Wkiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks having been given to the donors of the
books upon the table ; and Mr. C. L. Barnes drew attention to
the ' Catalogue of Serials in the Library ' now on sale.
Mr. R. F. Gwyther, M.A., communicated an abstract of a
paper by Mr. Lancelot V. Meadowcroft, B.A., ALSc,
entitled, "A Geometrical Treatment of Geodesic
Torsion."
The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
Dr. Alfred A. Mu.mford, Medical Officer to the Governors
of the Manchester Grammar School, read a paper entitled,
" Observations upon the Improvement of the Physique
of Manchester Grammar School Boys during the last
thirty years."
The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
Ordinary Meeting, November 2Sth, 1911.
The President, Professor F. E. Wkiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was accorded to the donors of the books
upon the table.
November jSth, Kprr.] PROCEEDINGS. vii
Mr. C. L. Barnes repeated an experiment described in
Nature (igii), vol. 88, p. 42, whereby a blinding flash is pro-
duced by adding a drop of water to a mixture of magnesium
powder and solid silver nitrate.
Dr. J. N. Pking read a paper, entitled "The Synthesis
of Hydrocarbons and their Stability at high Tempera-
tures and Pressures," by himself and Mr. D. M. Fairlie,
M.Sc.
The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
Ordinary Meeting, December 12th, 1911.
The President, Professor F. E Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was given to the donors of the books upon
the table. The folhnving were amongst the recent donations to
the Society's Library : — " Subject List of Works on Chemistry
...in the Library of the Patent Office,^'' New Series, ZC- — ZQ.
(i6mo , London, igi r), presented by the Patent Office, London ;
'■ Guide to the Exhibition of Animals, Plants, and Minerals
mentioned in the Bible" (8vo., London, 191 1), '''' Guide to
Mr. IVorthini^ton Smith's Drawings of Field and Cultivated
Mushrooms and Poisonous or Worthless Fungi often mistaken jor
Mushrooms''^ (8vo., London, 1910), presented by the Trustees
of the British Museum ; " Catalogue of a Collection of Early
Printed Books in the Library of the Royal Society,'^ by H. M.
Mayhew and R. F. Sharpe (4to., London, 1910), presented by
the Royal Society of London ; " The Revolution itt Finland
upider Prifice John Obotensky,^^ by V. Vladimirov, translated
from the Russian by V. E. Marsden, (8vo., London, 191 1),
presented by the Translator ; and " A Biographical Guide to the
Gaskell Collection in the Moss Side Libraiy^' by J. A. Green
(i2mo., Manchester, 191 1), presented by the Manchester Public
Libraries Committee.
viii Proceedings. {December 12th, igii.
The President referred to the death of Sir Joseph Dalton
Hooker, O.M., G.C.S.I., F.R.S., on Sunday last, December loth,
and drew attention to the loss science had thereby sustained.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker had been an Honorary Member of the
Society since April, 1892.
Mr. T. G. B. OsBORN exhibited specimens of Bulgaria
polymorpha, Oeder, found in the neighbourhood of Altrincham ;
and also showed a series of photographs of the fungus Copriutis
comafiis, illustrating the mode of the shedding of spores, and
pointing out that the gradual disappearance of the pileus is
simply to allow the spores to fall freely to the ground.
Mr. T. A. Coward conuiiunicated a paper entitled : — "The
Duration of Life of the Common and Lesser Shrew,
with some notes on their Habits," by Mr. Lionel E.
Adams, B.A.
"A Note on the Little Owl, Carine noctua (Scopoli),
and its Food," by Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., was read by
the author.
These two papers are printed in full in the Afemoirs.
January gth, /pT2.] PROCEEDINGS. ix
Ordinary Meeting, January 9th, 19 12.
Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books
upon the table.
Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, F.E.S., Dominion Entomologist,
Ottawa, read a paper entitled "The Control of Insect
Pests in Canada,"
The author said that Canada is unsurpassed in the variety of
problems which it offers the Entomologist, Some he is permitted
to solve, others baffle him by reason of their magnitude. With
an area of more than three and three quarter million square
miles, of which one million and a quarter square miles are
forest lands, and extending from a latitude of 42 degrees to the
Arctic Ocean, with her shores washed by three oceans and her
land rising to an elevation of over nineteen thousand feet, the
variations in climate may readily be understood. The vastness
of her plains will be appreciated when it is remembered that the
three western or prairie provinces — Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
and Alberta — are larger than France, Germany, and Italy com-
bined, and include the finest grain-producing land in the world.
At the one extreme in South-Western Ontario, grapes and peaches
ripen out of doors, and a shade temperature of over 95 degrees
is a common occurrence in the summer ; at the other extremes
good wheat can be grown at Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie
river, 800 miles north of Winnipeg, and in latitude 61 '5 2 degrees,
where the thermometer drops to 50 degrees below zero
Fahrenheit in the winter. Thus, briefly, may the physical facts
be summarised.
So great an area, including as it does widely different climatic
and other conditions, implies a very considerable variety of insect
life. In addition to variety, it involves no little difference and
possibility of difference in the behaviour of the same species in
//i/y lyth^ igi2
X Proceedings. {January gth.igi 2,
different parts of the country. But the fact which to my mind
is of the greatest interest is that in Canada it is possible to
witness a gradual disturbance of the natural conditions by the
bringing under cultivation from a previously wild and virgin
state thousands of square miles every year. Insect life is
quickly responsive to a disturbance of the natural balance which
exists prior to the invasion of man into new territories. Insects
previously existing on native wild plants when provided with
large quantities of available food in the form of newly-planted
crops multiply very rapidly, and assume an economic import-
ance of a very serious nature. Further, owing to the rapid
development of the country and its colonization, large quantities
of vegetation, fruit, ornamental and other trees are imported in
annually increasing quantities, with the possibility of the intro-
duction of insect pests from other countries, which on being
introduced may prove to be more serious in their ravages than
in their native country. Instances of these phenomena will be
mentioned in the following account in which I have endeavoured
to describe briefly the means which are being adopted in Canada
to prevent the introduction of insect pests, and to control or
eradicate those pests already existing within the Dominion. It
may be of interest to refer briefly to the early work which was
carried on against insect pests.
History,
No work of an official nature had been carried on prior to
the confederation of the provinces in 1867. The Canadian
Entomological Society had encouraged the study of injurious
insects since its foundation in 1863, and in 1868 it published
the first number of " The Canadian Entomologist^' which served
to record the results of such studies. In the following year the
Society received a grant from the Council of the Agricultural
and Arts Association for the formation of a collection and the
publication of a work on "Insects Useful or Prejudicial to
Agriculture and Horticulture." Accordingly the " First Annual
Report of the Noxious Insects of the Province of Ontario" was
January gth, I gi2?\ PROCEEDINGS. xi
prepared in 1870, and published by the Provincial Government
of Ontario in 1871. It included accounts of the insects
affecting apple, grape, and plum, and an edition of three
thousand was soon exhausted. In 187 1 the Government of
the Province of Ontario passed a statute incorporating the
Canadian Entomological Society as the " Entomological Society
of Ontario," which was instituted " for the investigation of the
character and habits of insects, the improvement of entomo-
logical science and more especially its practical bearing on the
agricultural and horticultural interests of the province." A grant
was made to the Society by the Provincial Government, and the
First Annual Report of the Entomological Society of Ontario
was published. The annual publication of this report, which
contains articles chiefly of an economic and practical nature,
has been continued, and the Provincial Government at present
makes an annual grant of one thousand dollars to the Society.
No steps in a similar direction were taken by the Dominion
Government until 1884, when an inquiry was held as to the
desirability of appointing a Government Entomologist, and
the Select Committee recommended that such an oilficer be
appointed. Accordingly, in 1885, the Minister of Agriculture
appointed a Dominion Entomologist, selecting for the position
Mr. James Fletcher, who had been acting in an honorary
capacity as Entomologist to the Department of Agriculture since
1S84, and had issued his first report on injurious insects. When
the Dominion Experimental Farms were established in 1886
this officer was attached to that branch of the Department of
Agriculture in the joint capacity of Entomologist and Botanist.
This position was occupied by Dr. Fletcher until his death in
1908. Owing to the increase in entomological work, and the
necessity for its further extension, the old Division of Ento-
mology and Botany was divided, and separate Divisions of
Entomology and Botany were established in 1909. In that
year the author was appointed as Dominion Entomologist, and
entrusted with the work of organizing the new Division of
Entomology.
xii Proceedings. [Januaiy gtli,igi2.
The Invasion of Insect Pests.
Brief reference has been made to the effect which the
opening up and settlement of a new country has upon the
insect life of that country. Not only is the native insect life
affected, but the gates of a promised land are thrown open tO'
the alien hordes without, and the history of economic entomology
in Canada is a record of successive invasions of injurious
insects, or of the first discovery of their previously unnoticed
entry. Most of our seriously injurious insects are species which
have invaded Canada from without. The Hessian Fly {Mayetiola
destr7tctor '$,diy) reached Canada about 1816. A few years later
it was followed by another serious pest of Canada's staple crop,
namely, the Wheat Midge {Diplosis /nV/V/ Kirby), which crossed
the frontier in 1828, and from time to time has been responsible
for enormous losses. In 1866 the Chinch Bug {Blissns leucop-
tetus Say), which in sixty years has exacted a toll of not less
than three hundred and fifty million dollars in the United
States, was first found in Ontario. Four years later the Colorado
Potato Beetle {Leptifwtarsa decemlineata Say), in devastating,
millions, swept across the frontier, and now is the most
commonly reported pest in Eastern Canada, and in its spread
westward has reached Alberta.
All these insects confined their ravages to field and cereal
crops. In 1882, however, it was discovered that the Farch
Sawfly {Lygaeo!ie??iatus erichso?iii Hartig), which had been first
observed five years previously in the New England States, had
reached Canada. Its depredations were so serious that in a few
years the mature larches, or tamaracks, over practically the whole
of Eastern Canada, were almost completely destroyed. About
1887 the Dominion Entomologist received specimens of the
Pear-leaf Blister Mite {Eriophyes pyri Nalepa) from Nova Scotia,
which, although it is not an insect in the strict sense, for
practical purposes is regarded as such. It was undoubtedly
introduced on nursery stock from Europe, and has now spread
Jamiary gth, ipi2.'] PROCEEDINGS. xiii
throughout the whole breadth of Canada, from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, and is increasing in abundance, and the extent of
its injuries are becoming more noticeable annually. The milling
industry was the next to be seriously alarmed by the sudden
appearance in Ontario, in 1889, of the dreaded Mediterranean
Flour Moth {Ephesiia kiihniella Zeller). This European pest
received the immediate attention of the Provincial and Federal
departments of Agriculture. The Clover Root-borer {Hyksinus
trifolii Miiller), which is very destructive to clover, and is a
European insect, was first recorded in Ontario in 1891.
Passing over the next three years, during which period
several new insect pests were observed for the first time, we find
that the next serious pest which reached Canada was the Horn
Fly {Haematobia serrata Rob. Desv.). This insect was intro-
duced into the United States from Europe, and was first observed
in Canada in 1892, when its appearance in Ontario caused
considerable alarm among farmers. Cattle which are attacked
by this insect rapidly lose flesh, and the milk yield is also
seriously affected. Two new pests appeared in 1896. In British
Columbia the caterpillar of a small moth {Argyresthia conjugella
Z.) was found inflicting serious injuries to apples, on which
account it is named the Apple Fruit-miner. A new apple pest
also appeared in Ontario owing to the fact that one of the fruit-
flies, whose larva is now known as the Apple Maggot or Railroad
Worm {Rhagoleiis pomonella Walsh), ceased to confine its atten-
tion to wild fruit and haws and attacked cultivated apples, of
which it is a most serious pest at the present time in certain
parts of Eastern Canada. The insect which has been responsible
for the greatest injury to fruit trees in certain of the regions
where it became established was the San Jose Scale or Pernicious
Scale {Aspidiotns pertiiciosus Comst.). Originally introduced
into California from Asia, it spread to Canada, where it was
discovered in the Okanagan Valley in British Columbia in 1894,
and two years later in Ontario, where it became firmly established
and destroyed acres of orchards. In 1898 the San Jose Scale
xiv Proceedings. \January gth,igi2..
Act was passed, which prohibited the importation of trees,
plants, and other nursery stock from countries in which the
scale was present. Later, in 1901, this enactment was modified,
and the aforementioned vegetation was allowed to enter Canada
at certain periods of the year, and through certain ports, at
which were erected fumigating houses for the fumigation of the
plants with hydrocyanic acid gas. In 1899 other enemies of
field and garden crops invaded our territories from the "United
States. The Pea Aphis {Macrosiphiwi destructor Johnson)-
appeared in enormous numbers in Ontario and the maritime
provinces, causing considerable damage. The two Asparagus
beetles {Crioceris asparagi L., and C. 12-punctata L.) crossed
over from the State of New York into the Niagara peninsula.
The invasion or first appearance of other injurious insects might
be mentioned, but this summary of the history of insect invasions
of Canada has already reached a considerable length, and the
last insect to migrate into our territories from the United States
will alone be considered. This insect is the Brown-tail Moth
{Euproctis chrysorhoea L.), which appears to have been intro-
duced into the State of Massachusetts on nursery stock from
Europe about 1890, and together with the Gypsy Moth {Porthetria
dispar L.), which was also introduced from Europe into
Massachusetts, has spread over a large area in the New England
States, has entailed enormous losses and the expenditure of
millions of dollars in control and eradicative work. At the
present time, in the State of Massachusetts alone, over a million
dollars are annually being spent in endeavouring to control and
prevent the spread of these two species of introduced insects.
The Brown-tail Moth gradually spread in a north-easterly
direction, and in 1902 specimens of the moth were taken in New
Brunswick, but it was not until 1907 that evidences of the actual
establishment of the insect were found in Canada. In that year
thousands of the winter webs in which the young caterpillars
pass the winter were found in Nova Scotia, and the further
discovery of the insect in 19 10 in New Brunswick indicated
that it had firmly established itself in Canada.
January gth, ipr2.] PROCEEDINGS. xv
Federal Legislation in Canada against Insect Pests.
A brief reference has already been made to the San Jose
Scale Act, which was passed by the Federal Government in
1898, prohibiting the importation of trees and other nursery
stock from countries in which the San Jose Scale occurred.
In 1901, fumigation stations were established at six of the
Customs ports, through which nursery stock was allowed to
enter during certain periods of the year after fumigation with
hydrocyanic acid gas. Beyond this power to fumigate imports,
the Federal Government had no authority to take further action,
should it be necessary, to prevent the introduction of further
insect pests into Canada or the spreading of insect pests in
Canada. In 1909, winter webs of the Brown-tail Moth were
found on shipments of nursery stock imported from France into
Ontario, Quebec, and British Columbia : the same insect was
also firmly established in Nova Scotia. It was necessary, there-
fore, that we should have the necessary powers to prevent the
introduction of this pest into those parts of Canada not already
infested and its spreading in regions where it had become
established. Accordingly, the Destructive Insect and Pest
Act was passed in 19 10, under which regulations were made
providing for the prohibition of entry, fumigation on entry, or
inspection subsequent to entry, of nursery stock, or defining
other conditions under which nursery stock and other vegetation
might be introduced into Canada. The regulations, which
include all tlie provisions of the San Jose Scale Act, also provided
for the treatment of vegetation or premises to prevent the
spreading of insect pests, the destruction of any crop, tree, and
other vegetation infested, or suspected to be infested, the
granting of compensation, and such other steps as might be
considered necessary to carry out the objects of the Act.
All vegetation and nursery stock, except certain classes of
florists' stock, such as green-house grown plants, herbaceous
perennials, bedding plants, etc., is allowed to enter Canada
through certain ports only, at six of which, namely, St. John^
xvi Proceedings. [Jamiary gth, igi2.
N.B. ; St, John's, P.Q. ; Niagara Falls, Ont. ; Windsor, Ont. ;
Winnipeg, Man. ; and Vancouver. B.C., fumigation stations are
established, where stock requiring fumigation is fumigated before
being released by the Customs, and a certificate of fumigation
is given. For stock requiring inspection, a different procedure
is necessary. All vegetation and nursery stock, except the
classes already mentioned, coming from Europe, Japan, or the
States of Vermont, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
Connecticut, and Rhode Island, is inspected, and the general
method of procedure is as follows : —
Any person importing nursery stock is required to send to
the Dominion Entomologist, within five days of ordering this
stock, a notice of his order, which must give the name of the
consignee, place of origin, the quantity and nature of the stock.
When the shipment arrives, a notice of its arrival is sent by the
Customs officers to the Dominion Entomologist, and the importer
and Custom House brokers are also required by the regulations to
send a notice of its arrival. Two methods may then be followed :
Nursery stock entering through certain ports, such as Vancouver
or Winnipeg, is inspected at the port of entry, and after it bears
a certificate of inspection it is allowed to proceed to its destina-
tion. Nursery stock entering Ontario through certain ports,
however, is allowed to proceed to its destination, and on notices
of its arrival being received from the Customs officers and the
importer, an inspector is immediately instructed to visit the
consignee for the purpose of inspecting the stock. Under the
regulations, the consignee may not unpack the stock, except in
the presence of an inspector, who, after inspecting the same,
issues a certificate of inspection.
The species of insects which are scheduled under the
Destructive Insect and Pest Act are San Jose Scale, Aspi-
diotus perniciosus ; J3rown-tail Moth, Euproctis chrysorrhxa ;
Woolly Aphis, Schizoneiira lanigera ; West Indian Peach Scale,
Aulacaspis pentagona ; Gipsy Moth, Porthetria dispar. Other
insects may be scheduled should it be deemed necessary at any
January gtk, ipi2.] PROCEEDINGS. xvii
time. Over two and one-half million plants were examined in
Eastern Canada during the importation season 1909-1910, and
over three hundred of the winter webs of the Brown-tail Moth
were discovered on nursery stock from France. These nests of
the Brown-tail Moth may contain several hundreds of the
young hibernating caterpillars of this insect. During the last
importation season over four million trees and plants were
inspected. Recently, pupaj of the Gipsy Moth, fortunately
dead, were found on Azaleas imported from Belgium. These
facts indicate the importance of inspection of imported trees
and plants collectively classed as nursery stock. In the work of
inspection the Provincial Departments of Agriculture concerned
co-operate with the Federal Department. In Ontario assistance
is rendered in the inspection of shipments of nursery stock.
British Columbia, as will be mentioned later, has regulations
governing the inspection of imported nursery stock and also
fruit, and as the Federal and Provincial inspection and fumigation
work is carried on at Vancouver the two departments co-operate
to avoid, as far as possible, unnecessary duplication of the work.
Provincial Legislation against Insect Pests.
In addition to the legislation of the Dominion Government
against insect pests, several of the Provincial Governments have
enacted legislative measures relating to the prevention, control,
and eradication of insect pests in their respective provinces. In
1892, the Province of British Columbia passed a Horticultural
Board Act, creating a Board with power to pass regulations for
the purpose of preventing the introduction or spread of injurious
insects, under which are included : — Woolly Aphis, Apple-tree
Aphis, Scaly (scurfy?) Bark Louse, Red Scale, Borers, Codling
Moth, Currant Worms, Caterpillars, and other known injurious
insects.
As is evident, this wide definition of insect pests gives
the Board the greatest latitude in eradicating and preventing the
introduction of injurious insects. A careful inspection is made
xviii rROCEEDINGS. [Januaiy gtJi, igi2.
of all nursery stock and fruit entering the province, and until'
such inspection has taken place the importations are in quarantine.
Shipments may also be fumigated if it is considered necessary.
The regulations are administered by the Provincial Inspector of
Fruit Pests, who is assisted by a staff of inspectors. These
inspectors conduct the inspection and fumigation at Vancouver
and eradicative measures in the nurseries and orchards through-
out the Province. The large amount of nursery stock and fruit
which is condemned annually, and either sent back or destroyed,
testifies as to the assiduity and zeal with which the work of
preventing the introduction of insect pests into the Province is
carried on.
The Province of Ontario has a Fruit Pests Act, which is
administered by the Fruit Branch of the Department of
Agriculture. The insects which are scheduled under this Act
are : — San Jose Scale, Codling Moth, and Pear Psylla. The
work is carried on chiefly in conjunction with the municipalities,
which appoint inspectors in addition to those appointed by the
Provincial Department of Agriculture. These inspectors have
power to order the treatment or destruction of infested trees and
plants. Owners of nurseries are compelled to fumigate stock
before it leaves the nurseries, and inspectors visit the nurseries
for the purpose of destroying infested trees, and seeing that the
fumigation regulations are carried out.
The Province of Nova Scotia has recently (191 1) passed an
Injurious Insect Pest and Plant Disease Act, which enables
the provincial authorities to appoint inspectors and to take
steps to eradicate insect pests and to prevent their spread. It
is intended to introduce a measure shortly providing for the
compulsory spraying in such districts as may desire it. This
measure will be most valuable, if carried out, in compelling
indifferent persons to adopt necessary measures of control.
The Brown-tail Moth.
The invasion of the Brown-tail Moth has already been^
mentioned, and an active campaign is now being carried on
January gth, iQr2.'] PROCEEDINGS. xix
with a view to controlling the Brown-tail Moth in those counties
of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in which it has established
itself. This work chiefly consists in scouting the countryside
for the winter webs of the caterpillars, and the destruction of
these where found. Some of these webs contain enormous
numbers of caterpillars ; a single web or nest collected in Nova
Scotia was found to contain over 1800 caterpillars, which
indicates the importance of destroying even single webs. The
insects occur mostly upon the fruit trees, but also on the wild
varieties of apple, rose, and thorn, and on hardwoods such as
oak, elm, maple, &c. In places where winter webs are found in
considerable abundance, the trees are thoroughly sprayed after
the appearance of the foliage. When the pest first arrived in
Canada it was believed by many that the winters would be too
severe for the young hibernating caterpillars. Experience has
shown that this is not so, and experiments have proved that
winter webs containing live larvae will stand being frozen in a
solid block of ice for nearly two months, after which about thirty
per cent, of the larvae are still alive. The parasitic enemies of
the insect are being studied, and the Division of Entomology
will attempt to use these means in endeavouring to obtain a
natural control of the pest. In the work of scouting for and
destroying the winter webs, the Federal Department is assisted
by the Provincial Department of Agriculture.
The Division of Entomology.
In addition to the work of inspecting and fumigating trees
and plants imported into Canada carried on under the Destructive
Insect and Pest Act, and the Brown-tail Moth control work,
which activities have already been described briefly, the Division
of Entomology also carries on many other lines of work. The
problems of insect control are intimately related to agriculture,
horticulture which includes fruit-growing, forestry, public health
and other activities of man ; in proportion as these activities
increase in importance, the knowledge of the means of insect
XX Proceedings. [January c^th, igi2.
control likewise increases. On farm crops in Canada insects
levy an annual toll at the present time of at least fifty million
dollars, and a very conservative estimate would indicate that the
fruit-growers of Canada experience an annual loss of over four
million dollars owing to insect pests. These figures may appear
rather large to the uninitiated, but it should be remembered that
a loss of thirty per cent, in fruit-growing, and a loss of ten to
twenty-five per cent, in the raising of farm crops, is generally
assigned to injurious insects. Further, it is safe to say that even
with our present knowledge of the methods of insect control, a
saving of at least thirty per cent, could be effected, and with
increased knowledge this percentage will undoubtedly increase.
One of the chief objects of the work of the Division of Ento-
mology is to assist farmers and fruit-growers in the prevention
of these losses. All should realize that it is a poor policy to
advocate methods for the purpose of increasing the productivity
of the soil if, at the same time, steps are not taken to lessen the
means responsible for reducing, in so large a measure, the crops
so produced.
Enquiries and reports concerning insect injuries are received
from all parts of Canada. All correspondence to and from the
Division is carried " Free," no postage being required, thereby
enabling all who desire to have information to obtain it free
of cost.
By co-operation with other branches of the Department of
Agriculture the Division is able to increase its usefulness. The
Census and Statistics Branch has a body of correspondents of
about six thousand, who report to that Branch each month on
the conditions of the crops in the different provinces. A question
is also asked with reference to insect pests, and the replies are
referred to the Division. In this way it is possible immediately
to communicate with such correspondents as may need assistance,
or if the pest is of a serious nature, to issue a statement to the
local press of that district. Such an arrangement is also valuable
as a means of receiving information of the incipient stage of an
January Qth, rpi2.] PROCEEDINGS. xxi
outbreak of an injurious insect. The Fruit Branch has similar
correspondents reporting the conditions in regard to the fruit
crops, and they also are asked concerning insect injuries. By
these means the Division is in communication with practically
every section of the Dominion, and is kept well infromed as to
the occurrence of injurious insects affecting farm and fruit crops.
With so vast an area it is necessary to study the insects and
the methods of control in the regions where they occur ; the life
history of an insect in Quebec will probably differ from its life
history in British Columbia, and the methods of control must be
adopted according to such differences. Field Stations are being
established in different regions in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia for the study of fruit
insects, and it is hoped to establish one in the western provinces
for the study of insects injurious to cereals.
One of Canada's most valuable reserves are the forests. The
forest area is estimated at about one and a quarter million square
miles, of which about four hundred thousand square miles are
covered with merchantable timber. In 1910 over three and a
half million dollars' worth of pulpwood were produced. As
injurious insects form one of the chief foiest-destroying agencies,
the important relationship which forest entomology bears to the
question of the conservation of the forests needs no emphasis.
This study of forest insects has not received in the past the
attention its importance warrants, but an Assistant Entomologist,
who is a recognised authority on the bark beetles — the most
destructive of forest insects — has been appointed with the inten-
tion of developing this branch of entomological work. The
officers and forest rangers of the Forestry Branch of the Depart-
ment of the Interior are co-operating in the work by making field
observations and reports on forest insects.
A large number of enquiries are received concerning
apiculture, and an apiary is kept for experimental purposes.
Increasing attention is being devoted to bee-keeping throughout
Canada, and with the development of the fruit-growing industry,
xxii Proceedings. SJaimary gth, tqi2.
there should most certainly be a concomitant development in
apiculture. The most serious impediment to its development is
the spread of the disease known as European and American
Foul Brood. Both these diseases have been introduced into
Canada, and the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, and British
Columbia have enacted statutes with a view to preventing their
spread.
Insects and ticks affecting live stock are a serious problem
in many parts of Canada. The well-known Warble Fly
\Hypoderma lineata Villers) is so prevalent in certain regions,
that as much as two dollars per head is frequently deducted from
the price paid for young stock on account of the injuries of
these insects. Through the co-operation of the Veterinary
Director-General of the Department of Agriculture, reports and
specimens are received from the veterinary inspectors throughout
the Dominion, and a knowledge is being gained of the preval-
ence and distribution of these insect enemies of live stock.
In British Columbia, a few years ago, many complaints
were made by fruit-growers concerning the condition of the
orchards on the Indian Reservations, which in many sections
adjoin or are situated in fruit-growing sections. The Indians,
partly through ignorance and largely through indifference, paid
little attention to the orchards in their Reservations, with the
result that insect pests of all kinds, being unmolested, flourished
in abundance. The result was that the Indian orchards served
as breeding-grounds and sources of supply for insect pests.
Through strong representations being made to the Department
of Indian Affairs, an annual appropriation is made by that
Department " for the cleansing of Indian orchards," and this
work is administered by the Dominion Entomologist. An
officer is employed who devotes his whole time to this work.
The Indian Reservations are visited, and the Indians are
instructed in the methods of spraying, pruning, and generally
cultivating their orchards. This work has already had very
beneficial results, and many of the Indians are possessors of
Jajniary gtli, igi2.'] PROCEEDINGS. xxiii
good orchards and produce excellent fruit, and the orchards in
the Reservations are becoming less menacing to the orchards
of the neighbouring fruit-growers. A vigorous educational
campaign is carried on in reference to the relation of insects to
man. By lectures illustrated by lantern slides and cinemato-
graph, by circulars freely distributed, and by articles in the
press, the public is being impressed with the necessity of
abolishing the house fly as a means to sanitary reform and the
reduction of the death rate, especially among infants, due to
intestinal disease, such as typhoid, in the carriage of which
flies play so large a part in Canada.
So far, mention has been made chiefly of the strictly
practical aspects of the work of the Division of Entomology.
Considerable time is occupied, however, in educational work.
Agricultural and fruit-growers' associations, and meetings in the
different provinces, are addressed on injurious insects and means
of control. An increasingly large and representative collection
of Canadian insects, which it is intended shall form the basis of
a national collection, is maintained, and is largely used in
determining collections of insects sent in by individuals, schools,
and colleges for identification. Although such work involves
much time and labour, its educational value is undoubtedly
great apart from benefits which may accrue to the Division.
This account of the work of the Division of Entomology is
necessarily brief, but it may indicate the great variety of
problems with which we have to deal, and the many interests
which are affected by injurious insects to which interest our
work is accordingly related. As the development and growth
of Canada is wholly dependent upon agriculture, the basic
principle of the country's prosperity, the importance of the work
thus briefly described, and its necessary increase, will be readily
understood.
Other work assisting in the Control of Insect Pests
In addition to the work carried on by the Federal Government,
much valuable work is effected by several of the Provincial
xxiv Proceedings. \_/a?iuarj' gth, igi2.
Departments of Agriculture. Reference has already been made
to the work carried on by the Provinces of British Columbia
and Ontario under their respective statutes.
The Province of Ontario has always been in the forefront in
Canada in regard to taking steps for the control of insect pests.
This is due, to no small extent, to the fact that there exists in
the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph, which is maintained
by the Provincial Government, an excellent Entomological
Department, in which men are trained in this work, and are
available for employment either by the Provincial or by the
Dominion Departments of Agriculture. The Entomological
Department of the College also serves as a bureau of information
in the control of insect pests for the province, and the members
of the staff carry on an active educational campaign. The
Province of Nova Scotia carries on similar work, though to a
less degree, in that Province. The Macdonald Agricultural
College in Quebec, though a branch of McGill University, and
supported by the endowment of its founder, carries on entomo-
logical work in the Province of Quebec ; it is not supported,
however, by the Provincial Government.
From this account of the problem of the control of insect
pests in Canada, and the methods by which it is being attacked,
some idea will be gained of its magnitude and the many interests
with which it is concerned. The dependence of agriculture and
forestry, to name Canada's greatest national assets, on scientific
investigation, is becoming increasingly an acknowledged fact,
and the people of Canada are recognising the fact, pointed out
by the Right Hon. Earl Grey in opening the first meeting of the
Conservation Commission of Canada, " that the future prosperity
of Canada depends upon scientific research and upon the efficient
application of the results of that research to the industrial and
physical lives of the people."
January 2jrd, igi2?[ PROCEEDINGS. xxv
General Meeting, January 23rd, 191 2.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
Mr. Charles Ernest Wolff, M.Sc. (Mane), Assoc.
M.Inst.C.E., Consulting Engineer, of The Ciough, Hale, Cheshire,
was elected an ordinary member of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, January 23rd, 1912.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books
upon the table. The following were amongst the recent
accessions to the Society's Library : "Zfj- Prix Nobel en igog'"
(8vo., Stockholm, 1910), '^ Lcs Prix Nobel en igio" (8vo.,
Stockholm, 191 1), ''' Meridiaugi-admdtning vid Sveriges Vdstra
Kiist" by P. G. Rosen (4to., Uppsala and Stockholm, 191 1),
presented by the Academie Royale Suedoise des Sciences,
Stockholm ; ^^ Subject List of JVorks on Chemical Technology ...
in the Library of the Patent Office" New Series, YN-ZB (i6mo ,
London, 19 11), ^'Subject List of Jl^orks on Peat ... in the
Library of the Patent Office^' New Series, YK-YM (i6mo.,
London, 191 1), presented by the Patent Office, London;
""^ Report on William Penn Memorial in London, ... MCMXI,"
by Barr Ferree (8vo., New York, 191 1), presented by the
Pennsylvania Society, New York; '■'■Flora Cafensis" vol. 5,
sect. L, part 3, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer (Svo., London,
1 9 11), purchased; ^' A Bibliography of JFisconsin's Participa-
tion in the War betiveen the States," by L S. Bradley (8vo., n.p.,
1911), presented by the Wisconsin History Commission;
^^ Evolution of Manunalian Molar Teeth," by H. F. Osborn
xxvi Proceedings. ^January 2jrd, igi2.
(8vo., New York, 1907), and a collection of some eighty
reprints, from various journals, of papers by H. F, Osborn,
presented by the author.
Mr. T. Thorp, F.R.A.S., in presenting a crossed transparent
grating to the Society, pointed out that the secondary spectra
produced by the crossing of the gratings are quite pure and free
from all " scatter."
A hearty vote of thanks was given to Mr. Thorp for his
valuable present.
Mr. J. R. GwYTHER, M.A., read a paper entitled, " On the
modes of rupture of an open hemispherical concrete
shell under axial pressure."
The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
A note on the mechanical conditions involved in the above
question was read by Mr. R. F. Gwyther, M.A.
General Meeting, February 6th, 191 2.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
Mr. H. G. FoRDER, B.A., Mathematical Master, Hulme
Grammar School, Oldham, was elected an ordinary member of
the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, February 6th, 191 2.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
Mr. H. E. SCHMITZ, M.A., B.Sc, and Mr. G. P. Varlev,
M.Sc, were nominated auditors of the Society's accounts for the
session 1911-1912.
February 6ih, ipi2.] PROCEEDINGS. xxvii
A vote of thanks was given to the donors of the Ijooks upon
the table.
Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S , exhibited a Uving specimen of a
Wall Gecko, Tarentola iiiauriianica, captured at Broadheath,
Altrincham, on January 22nd last, and made a few remarks
regarding its food and habits.
Mr. William Burton, M.A., F.C.S., read a "Note on
the earliest Industrial use of Platinum."
He stated that his investigations into the history of the
potter's craft have, from time to time, thrown interesting side-
lights on the development of other arts and sciences. Some
years ago he was struck by the appearance of platinum as an
adjunct to English pottery at a period when the metal was only
a chemical curiosity. Unfortunately he was unable to give the
dates with the precision he would like, because the early records
of such eminent firms as Josiah Wedgwood & Sons and
Johnson, Matthey & Co. have been lost or destroyed ; but he
had been able to establish certain data which were of sufficient
general interest to warrant his bringing this note before the
Society, where it might provoke discussion and further eluci-
dation.
The general history of the introduction of i)latinum from
South America into Europe, and its recognition as a noble
metal, is carefully abstracted in many works, notably in the
latest edition of Roscoe ib Schorlemmer, so that it need not be
detailed. Small supplies of native platinum reached Europe
between 1740 and 1770. The first scientific account of it was
given by William Watson in the Fhil. Trans, of 1750, but it
was not until 1784 that Achard prepared the first rudimentary
platinum crucible, and both the foil and wire were scientific
curiosities. Even as late as 1801 it is stated that the eminent
chemists Gustav Rose and Karsten were unable to procure a
platinum crucible. The first development of the metallurgy of
platinum originated in England — at the hands of the firm of
Johnson, Matthey & Co. — but this was only in the period 1800-
1808.
xxviii Proceedings. \Febttiaiy 6th, igiz.
It is interesting to note that one reason for the scarcity of
platinum in Europe during the latter half of the i8th century is
stated to have been the action of the Spanish Government in
decreeing that platinum should be thrown into the sea as its
only known use was to adulterate gold coinage. In 1788,
however, the Spanish Government, presumably to depreciate
the gold coinage on its own account, suspended this edict and
began to buy platinum in South America at the rate of 8/-
per lb., and within twenty years the manufacture of platinum
wire, foil and apparatus was established in England.
English pottery decorated with platinum was, however, an
article of extensive manufacture from 1790 or thereabouts, so
that, I believe, this must take precedence over the other indus-
trial applications of the metal. Why this particular application
of the metal should appear so early appears to be quite simple.
The principal potters of that day in England, France and
Germany were connected with the various learned societies, and
the properties of this curious new substance, so refractory and
so resistant to solution in acids, attracted widespread attention.
Solutions of gold in aqua regia had been used for some time
as a means of producing thin films of gold on pottery ; the
earliest examples I have ever seen were prepared by Bottger, the
Alchemist, who first made true porcelain in Europe, and he
died in 1719. It seems natural, therefore, that a potter like
Josiah Wedgwood, who associated with the best scientific men
of the day and was an active member of the Royal Society,
should turn his attention to platinum. From Wedgwood's
correspondence it is clear that as early as 1775 he had been
in communication with Dr. Fothergill and others as to the
production of metallic deposits on pottery, and the only patent
he ever took out was connected with this subject. We also
know that between 1780 and 1790 he was endeavouring to
produce his famous black ware with a surface of metallic silver.
Sometime in 1790-91 he, or his youngest son Thomas Wedgwood
(the man who produced the first sun-prints on paper sensitised
Febniary 6th, ipi2.] rKOCEEDINGS. xxix
with a silver salt), finally produced the so-called English silver-
lustre pottery, which is pottery coated with a shining surface of
platinum.
The method by which this surface was obtained is exceedingly
simple. A solution of platinum in aqua regia was slowly
poured, with careful stirring, into about three times its bulk of
an oily menstruum, such as balsam of sulphur or spirits of tar.
This forms an oily pigment which can be applied to a piece of
glazed pottery so as to obtain a uniform coating. When the
oily coating has become tacky by drying, a film of finely divided
platinum, obtained by charring ammonium-platino-chloride, is
dusted upon it, and when the ware is again fired at a low
heat, say 7oo°-8oo° C., a brilliant metallic deposit of platinum is
found fixed to the glaze.
This pottery has always been known as silver-lustre^ though it
has no more right to the name " lustre " than to that of " silver."
The term "lustre" as applied to any pottery decoration should
be definitely restricted to those films of silver, copper or gold
which are so thin as to exhibit interference colours like a soap-
bubble does. Some years ago I suggested for this form of
English pottery the term " plated ware," as it was so obviously
intended to be a cheap substitute for the silver plate of the
period. The shapes of the articles manufactured were mostly
copied from the popular Sheffield plate of the day, and the new
pottery was so successful that by about 1800 the process was
being followed at ten or a dozen factories in the Staffordshire
potteries, as well as at the famous potteries at Leeds and else-
where. Gradually it lost its popularity, and by about 1850 had
almost fallen into disuse ; but within the last few years the
method has been revived, and is now extensively employed both
by English and Continental firms for pottery decoration.
Professor Ernest Rutherford, D.Sc, F.R.S., read a
paper on "The origin of the /3 rays from radio-active
substances." He said that irom a study ot radio-active
transformations it has been found that each atom of matter in
XXX Proceedings. [Febmary 6th, igi2.
disintegrating emits one a particle expelled with a definite
velocity, which is characteristic Oi the substance. In many
transformations, /3 and y rays are emitted, and from analogy it
would be expected that one /3 particle should be emitted for the
transformation of each atom. The experiments, however, of
Baeyer, Hahn and Miss Meitner, and ot Danysz, have shown
that the emission of /3 rays from the radio-active substances is,
in most cases, a very complicated phenomenon. The com-
plexity of the radiation is most simply shown by observing in a
vacuum the deflexion of a narrow pencil of /3 rays by a magnetic
field. If the rays fall normally on a photographic plate, a
number of sharply marked bands are observed, indicating that
the rays are complex and consist of a number of homogeneous
sets of rays each of which is characterised by a definite velocity.
The remarkable complexity of the /3 radiation is well instanced
by the experiments of Danysz, who found that the products of
radium B and C together emitted at least 27 sets of homo-
geneous rays. Some of these had a velocity exceedingly close
to that of light. Notwithstanding this apparent complexity,
general experiments have shown that the number of /3 particles
emitted from radium B and C is about that to be expected if
each atom in breaking up emits only one /3 particle. In order
to explain this complexity of the/3 rays, it is necessary to suppose
either that the atom breaks up in a number of distinct ways,
each of which is characterised by the emission of rays of
definite velocity, or that the energy of the /3 particle can be
reduced by certain definite amounts in its escape from the
radio-active atom. The latter view appears more probable and
more in accordance with the facts observed. It was found from
an analysis of the results given by Danysz that certain relations
existed between the energies of the individual /3 particles com-
posing some of the different sets of rays. The diff'erence in the
energies of the /? particles from radium B and from radium C
could be expressed by a relation of the form pa + qb, where a
and /'' were definite constants and / and q had integral values
o, I, 2, 3, &c.
Febniary 6ih, igi2.] PROCEEDINGS. xxxi
This result may be explained by supposing that the /3
particle initially is liberated within the atom endowed with a
certain speed, but that in escaping from the atom it may pass
through two or more regions in which the quantity of energy a
or /'' is abstracted. The number of these units of energy
abstracted will vary from atom to atom, each individual atom
probably giving rise to only a few of the types of /3 rays observed.
Evidence was given that the values a and ^ served as a measure
of the energy of the y rays emitted from radium, and were
connected with the energy of the /> particle required to excite
the characteristic radiations in the atoms of radium B or C.
It is of great theoretical importance to examine with the
greatest care the nature of the emission of /3 rays from all the
known radio-active substances, for it promises to throw a great
deal of light on the interior structure of the atom.
Ordinary Meeting, February 20th, 19 r 2.
The President, Professor F, E. Weiss, U.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was given to the donors of the books upon
the table, which included " T//e Medical Chronicle" vol. iv.
(1886)— vi. (1S87); New Series, vol. i. (1894)— x. (1899); 3rd
Series, vol. i. (1899) — iv. (1901); 4th Series, vol. i. (1901) —
xxii. (No. 3, Dec, 191 1), (8vo., Manchester and London);
presented by Dr. A. A. Mumford. Mr. Barnes also drew attention
to a few bound sets of Dr. A. N. Meldrum's seven papers on
" The Development of the Afoniic Theory" which are now offered
to members at 2/- per volume.
Mr. T. G. B. OsBORN, M.Sc, gave a brief account of recent
investigations into the nature of the moulds which attacked
exported cotton goods. Several common fungi and bacteria
were found infecting the goods.
xxxii Proceedings. [February 20th, igi2.
Professor W. H. Lang, M.B., D.Sc, F.R.S., read a paper
entitled, " Branching in the Ophioglossaceae."
The branching in Ophioglossaceae is of special interest for
comparison with that known for the Zygopterideae and Hymeno-
phyllacae. Branches occur occasionally in all three genera of
the Ophioglossaceae. So far as is known those of Ophiog-
lossum always spring from lateral roots. In Helminfhostachys,
what appear to be dormant or vestigial axillary buds, were
discovered by Gwynne Vaughan, and are constantly found.
Similar dormant buds were found by Bruchmann in young
plants of Botrycliium littiaria, and explain the axillary branching
described by Roeper and Holle.
Examination of young and old plants of Botrycliium Iiitmria
has shown that a dormant bud is constantly present in each leaf-
axil. In some cases a vestigial vascular supply, in the form of
two slender and evanescent strands of tracheides, springs from
the margins of the subtending leaf trace. Two examples in
which, owing to destruction of the apex of the main axis, a
lateral branch had developed, were studied in detail, and the
vascular supply to the branch traced from the adaxial side of the
leaf-trace. In one case the stele of the branch became con-
tinuous at a higher level and for a short distance with the stele
of the main axis.
Two fragments of the rhizome of Helminihostachys, each
bearing a developed axillary branch, were studied in detail.
This examination completely confirmed the interpretation of the
structures found by Gwynne Vaughan as vestigial buds. The
supply to the branch came from a development of accessory
xylem outside the ordinary xylem of the stele of the rhizome,
and not from the leaf-trace. This vascular supply is traceable
from about the level of the departure of the subtending leaf-
trace to the anterior end of the leaf-gap, where the vestigial bud
is normally situated. From here onwards it has assumed the
structure of a small stele like that found in young plants, and
shortly afterwards the brancli exhibits its own proper cortex.
February 20th, igiz.] PROCEEDINGS. xxxiii
The relations of the axillary bud are here with the stem and not
with the subtending leaf-trace. The accessory xylem may all
pass off to the branch or may be more extensive, occurring all
round the main stele, and persisting after the departure of the
branch. In the latter case its development suggests a com-
parison with secondary thickening.
Thus the branches which occur occasionally in Botrychium
and Helmiiithostachys are not "adventitious," but derived from
axillary buds that are constantly present. While not agreeing
in detail with the branches in the Zygopterideae, those of the
Ophioglossaceae are clearly comparable structures, and the
study of their vascular supply strengthens the probability of a
relationship between the two groups.
Ordinary Meeting, March 5th, 191 2.
The President, Professor F. H Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair.
The President referred to the loss the Society had
sustained by the death, on February 21st, of Professor Osborne
Reynolds, LL.D., F. R.S. Professor Osborne Reynolds had
for many years taken a most active part in the work of the
Society. Elected as a Member on November i6th, 1S69, he
was for many years a Secretary or Vice-President ; and, in 1888
and 1889, was elected President of the Society. Professor
Reynolds had contributed many important Papers to the
Society's Memoirs. Mr. Francis Nicholson proposed, and
Mr. Francis Jones seconded, that the President be requested
to send to Mrs. Reynolds on behalf of the Society a letter of
condolence on the death of her husband. This proposition
was unanimously agreed to.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books
upon the table. These included a copy of ^'■Literary Celebrities
xxxiv Proceedings. [March ^th, igi2.
of the English Lake- District" by Frederick Sessions, (8vo.,
London, 1907), presented by the author.
Mr. J. H. WoLFENDEN exhibited a specimen of hgematitic
slate found near Keswick, which exhibited " cone in cone "
structure such as is commonly found in the crushed car-
boniferous shales of Lancashire.
Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.LC, read a paper, by
himself and Mr. Clifford Bostock, INLSc.Tech., entitled,
"The Action of Dilute Acids on Bleaching Powder."
In these investigations a method originally described by
Taylor was used for distinguishing between free chlorine and
hypochlorous acid, and, in a mixture of the two, determining
their relative amounts.
Bleaching powder was distilled with varying amounts of
different acids, together with a considerable amount of water.
Hydrochloric, sulphuric, and nitric acids act pretty much alike,
giving off, with comparatively small amounts of acid, almost pure
hypochlorous acid, but, with larger amounts of acid, mixtures of
hypochlorous acid and chlorine, and finally nothing but chlorine.
Acetic and phosphoric acids act in the same way with small
amounts of acid, but the hypochlorous acid never entirely
disappears, even with large quantities of acid. When bleaching
powder is distilled with boric acid (and a sufficient amount of
water) practically pure hypochlorous acid is produced even when
the boric acid is used in comparatively large quantities.
Although at the ordinary temperature carbon dioxide liberates
nothing but chlorine from bleaching powder, as the temperature
is raised hypochlorous acid begins to be evolved, mixed with
chlorine, and when the liquid is actively boiling practically pure
hypochlorous acid is produced.
Dr. Alfred Holt gave an account, entitled " Sorption
of Hydrogen by Palladium," of researches carried out by
himself. Dr. Edgar, and Mr. Firth with palladium. He said
that their experiments on the subject lead to the following
conclusions : —
March §th, ipi2.] PROCEEDINGS. xxxv
(i) Palladium is not always in a condition in which it
will absorb hydrogen, but it can be made to do so by heating
to about 400° C. in either air or in vacuo. The power of
picking up gas dies away with time, and cannot be restored
unless the metal is reheated.
(2) Hydrogen is first condensed on the surface of the
metal (adsorbed layer) and then gradually diffuses inwards
(absorption). It is possible to get the metal either saturated
outside and with no gas in the interior, or saturated in the
interior and not on the surface.
(3) Diffusion of hydrogen through the metal begins at
about 120* C. and increases in rate with rise of temperature.
The same temperature does not, however, always produce
the same rate, as it depends somewhat on the state of the
metal. The rate does not obey any simple law of diffusion
or effusion.
Ordinary Meeting, March 19th, 1912.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was given to the donors of the books upon
the table. The recent accessions included : " TAe British
Tunicata." vol. iii, by J. Alder and A. Hancock, edited by
J. Hopkinson (8vo., London, 1912), and "^ Alonograph oj
the British Desmidiaceae," vol. iv, by W. West and G. S. West
(8vo., London, 19 12), purchased from the Ray Society.
Professor S. J. Hickson, F.R.S., exhibited a specimen of a
recent coral, Endopachys grayi, from the Persian Gulf, and in the
course of his remarks upon it pointed out that the Manchester
Museum possessed until quite recently three out of the four
known specimens of this species. One of these, however, had
xxxvi Proceedings. {^March igth, igi2.
been presented to the British Museum of Natural History.
One of the specimens was reported as having been found in
the China Sea, and was presented to the Manchester Museum
by the late Mr. R. D. Darbishire.
Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst. C.E., exhibited, and made a
few remarks upon, a piece of tramway rail, showing the ridges
and hollows due to the action of the wheels.
A paper entitled, "The formal specification of the
elements of Stress in cartesian, and in cylindrical and
spherical polar coordinates," was read by Mr. R. F.
GWYTHER, M.A.
This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
Ur, HiCKLiNG read a paper on the "Variation of
Planorbis multiformis." It was shown that the shell exhibited
every gradation from a perfectly flat type to one with a high
spire. The mean type is represented by a large number of
specimens, while the extreme types are scarce. The curve
representing the relative numbers of the various types is a typical
simple variation curve, thus proving that all the forms belong to
a single species. Great variation occurs in other characters of
the shells, and these variations appear to be independent of one
another.
April 2nd, ipi2.] PROCEEDINGS. xxxvii
Extraordinary General Meeting, April 2nd, 19 12.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
At this Extraordinary General Meeting, summoned in
accordance with the Articles of Association, the following
resolution of the Council was submitted: —
That Clause 25 of the Articles of Association be rescinded,
and that in lieu thereof the following be one of the Clauses of
the said Articles : —
"25. Any ordinary member may at any time com-
" pound for all his future subscriptions by a payment to
"the Society of twenty guineas less one-third of the
"amount of the annual subscriptions already paid, but the
" fee shall in no case be less than five guineas."
After some discussion it was resolved to refer the resolution
back to the Council for further consideration.
Ordinary Meeting, April 2nd, 19 12.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books
upon the table.
Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., presented to the Society
the letter, dated "2nd mo. 20th, 1794," and written by John
Daltcn to Elihu Robinson, of Eaglesfield, the contents of which
he b3d previously communicated to the Society on October 17th,
191 1. Mr. Nicholson had had the letter bound, with a number
xxxviii Proceedings. April 2nd, 1Q12.
of additional pages, so that further letters or manuscript could
be inserted in the sarne volume if desired.
A paper by Mr. Joseph Mangan, M.A., entitled, "The
presence of Maxillulae in Larvae of Dytiscidae," was
read by the Secretary.
Professor W. H. Lang, M.B., D.Sc.j F.R.S., read a paper
"On the Interpretation of the Vascular Anatomy of
the Ophioglossaceae."
These two papers are printed in full in the Memoirs.
Annual General Meeting, April 23rd, 191 2.
The President, Professor F. F,. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
in the Chair.
The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved : — " That the
Annual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be
adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's Proceedings"
Mr. Arthur Adamson, A.R.C.S., and Mr. F. H. Crewe
were appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers.
The following members were elected Officers of the Society
and Members of the Council for the ensuing year : —
Ptesldent: F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.
Vice-Presidents : '^\- ^^^- 1^- ^^
compared with a balance in hand of ^149. 12s. 4d. at the
end of the last financial year. The receipts for the year 1911-12
were slightly more than the receipts for the year 1910-11.
The Librarian reports that during the session 669 volumes
have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked ; 646 of these
were serials, and 23 were separate works. 248 catalogue cards
were written, 184 for serials, and 64 for separate works. The
total number of volumes catalogued to date is 33,751, for
which 11,979 cards have been written.
The library continues to be satisfactorily used for reference
purposes. 274 volumes have been borrowed from the library
during the past twelve months, an increase of 89 on the
number borrowed during the previous year.
xHv Annual Report of the Council.
The number of volumes bound during the year has been
226, in 189 covers. The amount of binding for the previous
session was 214 volumes bound in 167.
The additions to the library for the session amounted to
856 volumes, 706 serials, and 150 separate works. The dona-
tions (exclusive of the usual exchanges) were 148 volumes
and 158 dissertations; 2 volumes were purchased, in addition
to those regularly subscribed to.
New exchanges have been arranged with the Remeis-
Sternwarte ( Veroffentlichungen), Bamberg ; Rijks Herbarium
{Mededeeli?ige?i), Leiden ; Teyler's Godgeleerd Genootschap
{Verhandelingen), Haarlem; the Society of Chemical Industry
{/ournal of), London ; The Micrologist, Manchester ; and the
University Observatory {Co?itributions), Princeton, New Jersey,
U.S.A.
In August the new '■Catalogue of Serials in the Library,^
the progress of which was referred to in the la^t Report of the
Council, was issued, and provides a well-arranged and indexed
list of the Society's large collection of serial publications.
Lack of the space necessary for the proper provision of the
large quantity of literature which is continually being added to
the Society's library greatly hampers the accessibility and
satisfactory exhibition of the books.
Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., has presented to the
Society a letter written by John Dalton, to Elihu Robinson,
of Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, soon after he had become
a resident in Manchester, where, in 1793, he had been
appointed Tutor in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at the
" Manchester Academy," now " Manchester College," Oxford.
The letter contains probably the earliest account of that
peculiarity of vision known as colour-blindness. Mr. Thomas
Thorp, F.R.A.S., has also added to the donations during the
session by presenting to the Society a crossed transparent grating
constructed by himself
A}inual Report of the Council. xlv
The publication of the Society's Afemoirs afid Proceedittgs
has been continued under the supervision of the Editorial
Committee.
The Council have received with regret the resignation of
Mr. A. P. Hunt, IJ.A., Assistant Secretary and Librarian to the
Society, who has been appointed Librarian of the Edgar Allen
Library in the University of Sheffield. Mr. R. F. Hinson
has been appointed Assistant Secretary and Librarian in his
place.
During the summer the tomb of John Dalton, in Ardwick
Cemetery, was renovated at a cost of ;^io.
The Committees appointed by the Council during the year
were as follows : —
House and Finance.
The President. Mr. F. Nicholson.
Mr. C. L. Barnes. Mr. W. H. Todd.
Mr. R. L. Taylor. Dr. H. G. A. Hickling.
Editorial.
The President. Professor E. Rutherford.
Piofessor S, J. Hickson. Mr. R. L. Taylor.
Dr. H. G. A. Hickling. The Assistant Secretary.
Wilde Endowtnent.
The President. Mr. VV. H. Todd.
Mr. Francis Jones. Mr. R. L. Taylor.
Dr. H. G. A. Hickling.
xlvi Annual Report of the Council.
The hours during which the Society's rooms are open to
members have been fixed as follows : Monday, Tuesday,
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, 9-30 a.m. to 6-0 p.m. ;
Saturday, g-30 a.m. to i-o p.m. These hours do not of course
apply to the days on which the Society's rooms are officially
closed.
The Council have concurred with a request by Dr. Henry
Wilde, F.R.S., that the Wilde Lectures should be discon-
tinued, and the amount provided therefor by the Trust Deed
will fall into the Trust Fund and become general income of the
Fund.
The President has been nominated to represent the Society
at the 250th anniversary of the foundation of the Royal Society
of London.
Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, O.M., G.C.S.L, F.R.S., on
December loth, 191 1, passed peacefully away in his sleep at the
ripe age of 94. It is impossible in the compass of a short
obituary notice to do justice to the scientific work accomplished
during so long a lifetime of exceptional activity, for up to the
very end of it Sir Joseph Hooker was engaged in the publication
of valuable contributions to Science.
'l"he distinguished son of Sir William Hooker, Regius
Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow, and subse-
quently Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, Sir Joseph had
special facilities for the study of that science to which he
devoted his rare mental faculties with such enthusiasm through-
out his long lifetime. Like his friend Charles Darwin, he was
enormously influenced at the outset of his career by the
stimulus so beneficial to all naturalists of extensive travel,
being fortunate enough to accompany, as assistant surgeon and
botanist, Sir James Ross on his Antarctic expedition in 1839.
Three years before, Darwin had returned on the "Beagle," and
Annual Report of the Council. xlvii
Hooker, who was privileged to read the proof sheets of Darwin's
Journal before he set out in the " Erebus," relates with the
modesty of a truly great man how they impressed him pro-
foundly, and even despairingly, with the variety of acquirements,
mental and physical, required in a naturalist who should follow
in Darwin's footsteps, while they inspired him to enthusiasm in
the desire to travel and observe. No one could have made
belter use of his opportunities, as the six volumes of his Flora
Antarctica sufificiently testify. But the publication (>f this
monumental work was interrupted by an eventful journey to
India in 1847 to study the sub-tropical vegetation of the
Himalayas. The story of this expedition, lastmg for three
years, is told in the Hinialayati Journals, published in 1854.
From 1855 to 1865, Joseph Hooker was Assistant Director of
the Royal Gardens at Kew, and after his father's death, in 1865,
he held the post of Director for twenty years. But though his
time was greatly engrossed by official duties, this period of his
life was marked by the publication of many volumes of classic
importance, such as the Genera Plantarum, compiled in
conjunction with Mr. Benthara, and The Flora of British
India in conjunction with Mr. Thompson, the seventh and
last volume of which was not completed until 1897, so that
Sir Joseph Hooker, though relinquishing the office of Director
of Kew in 1883, continued his heavy labours unflinchingly in
his retirement. He similarly continued to edit the Icones
Plantarum until 1889, and The Botanical AFai^azi?ie until
1902.
Though it was only for a short time that he held the post
of Botanist to the Geological Survey, Sir Joseph Hooker con-
tinued throughout his life to take an active interest in the study
of fossil plants and he published many papers on palaeobotanical
subjects.
One of the most memorable features of Sir Joseph Hooker's
life was his close and friendly intercourse, extending over forty
years, with Charles Darwin, who cordially welcomed Hooker's
xlviii Annual Report of the Conncil.
frank criticism of his early speculations on the origin of species.
Indeed, in his letters, Darwin frequently refers to the help
received from Sir Joseph Hooker, and undoubtedly Hooker's
espousal of the Darwinian theory of evolution afcer the
publication of the Origin of Species 6\^ much to gain acceptance
for it among botanists and drew these two great naturalists ever
closer together.
Throughout this long period of his active scientific career
unsought but well-deserved honours were heaped upon Sir
Joseph Hooker, one of the last, and certainly not the least,
being the Order of Merit, which was conferred upon him on his
ninetieth birthday. Hale and hearty still, Hooker took an
active part in the following year in the Darwin-Wallace cele-
brations of the Linnean Society, and similarly in 1909 at
Cambridge, at the commemoration of the centenary of the birth
of Charles Darwin.
Twenty years ago, Sir Joseph Hooker was elected an
honorary member of our Society, and in 1898 he was awarded
the Wilde Medal. F. E. W.
William Wright Kirkman, whose death took place at The
Grange, Timperley, Cheshire, on the 29th of May, 191 1, in his
69th year, was the eldest son of the late Reverend T. P.
Kirkman, F.R.S., Rector of Crofc-cum-Southworth, near War-
rington, one of our honorary members, from whom we had
many papers, mostly on mathematical subjects.
His son, the subject of this notice, was elected a member
of the Society on November 12th, 1895. He was a particularly
well-read man, and by members of his profession he was con-
sidered a very able and sound lawyer. Though he made no
communications at any of our meetings, he wrote an excellent
obituary notice of his father, which appeared in our Memoirs
Vol. 9, 4th Series). F. N.
Annual Report of the Council. xlix
Osborne Reynolds was born at Belfast, August 23rd, 1842.
He came of a clerical family. His grandfather, the Rev. Osborne
S. Reynolds, had been a scholar of Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge, and afterwards rector of Debach with Boulge,
Suffolk. His father, the Rev. Osborne Reynolds, was thirteenth
wrangler in 1837 (the year of (jreen and Sylvester), subsequently
Fellow of Queens' College, Principal of the Belfast Collegiate
School, headmaster of Dedhain Grammar School, Essex, and
finally, in his turn, rector of Debach. It was to his father that
he owed his early education, first at the Dedham School, and
afterwards privately. After a short period with a tutor he entered,
in 1861, the workshop of Mr. E. Hayes, mechanical engineer,
at Stoney Stratford, in order "to learn in the shortest time
possible how work should be done, and ... to be made a
working mechanic before going to Cambridge." In 1863 he
went to Cambridge, to his father's College, Queens', of which
he became a Fellow in 1867, after graduating as seventh wrangler.
Immediately afterwards he entered the oiTfice of John Lawson,
civil enjiineer, of London.
In 1868 he was elected to the newly instituted professorship
of engineering in the Owens College, which he held until his
practical retirement in 1905. This was almost the first chair of
the kind in England, although similar professorships had existed
for some time in Scotland, and had been held by such men as
James Thomson, Rankine, and deeming Jenkin. It is possible,
indeed, that Reynolds was influenced to some extent by the
tradition of these chairs. With Rankine, at any rate, for whom
he professed the greatest admiration, he had strong affinities,
in the wide range of his scientific interests, in the clearness of
his intuitions, and in the courage and tenacity with which he
attacked difificult and complicated problems.
Reynolds became a member of our Society in 1869, and
from that time onwards was a constant attendant at its meetings.
He took an active share in its business, and contributed many
important papers. He was Secretary from 1874 to 1883, ^'""d
I Annua/ Report of the Conncil.
President for the term 1888-9, He was the author of the Joule
memorial volume, which was published by the Society in 1892,
and was the leading spirit in the movement for a public
monument to Joule, which resulted in the beautiful statue by
Gilbert now in the Town Hall.
About the year 1899 the Cambridge University Press
suggested to Reynolds that a collected edition of his scientific
writings would be valuable, and offered to undertake the publi-
cation. This signal compliment was highly appreciated by
him, and in due course two weighty volumes appeared. The
range of subjects covered is so wide that possibly no two
authorities would agree in selecting what they considered most
important or most characteristic. The papers are all marked by
great independence and originality of view, and by the clearness
of insight with which essential principles are discerned and irrele-
vant details left aside. Several of his memoirs on engineering
subjects have taken rank as classics — e.g. the work on Lubrica-
tion, on Turbulent Flow in Pipes, and in connection with the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. Among the shorter writings
mention may be made of the papers on the Refraction of Sound,
on Group-Velocity of Waves, and on Dilatancy, where simple
and convincing explanations are given of phenomena well
known indeed, but previously obscure.
In the mind of Reynolds there appears to have been a
connection, partly intrinsic, and partly as regards the scientific
principles and methods involved, between such diverse subjects
as thermal transpiration, turbulent flow, and dilatancy, on all
of which he had worked at one time or other. And it was
apparently through this connection that he was led to the re-
markable speculation on "The Sub-Mechanics of the Universe,"
which marked the close of his scientific career, and which con-
stitutes the final volume of his collected papers. Unfortunately,
illness had begun to impair his poweis of exposition, and the
memoir as it stands is afl'ected with omissions and discontinuities
which render it difficult to follow. No one who has studied the
Annjial Report of the Council. H
work of Reynolds can doubt that it embodies ideas of value,
but it is to be feared that their significance will hardly be
appreciated until some future investigator, treading a parallel
path, recognises them with the true sympathy of genius, and
puts them in their proper light.
Prof. Reynolds, owing to the failing state of his health,
withdrew from the active work of his chair in 1905. His last
years were spent in retirement at Watchet, Somerset, where he
died on February 21st, 19 12.
He had been a Fellow of the Royal Society since 1877, and
received a Royal Medal in 188S. He was made an Honorary
Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge, in 1881, and received
the Degree of LL.D. from the University of Glasgow in 1884.
An admirable portrait by Collier, presented by scientific friends
and admirers from all parts of the kingdom, hangs in the hall of
the Manchester University. H. L.
Sir William John Crossley was the second son of Major
Francis Crossley, of Glenburn, Dunmurry, County Antrim. His
father, formerly of the East India Company's service, came of
an old Lancashire family.
Born on April 22nd, 1S44, at Dunmurry, William John
Crossley was educated at the Royal School, Dungannon, and
afterwards at Bonn. He then commenced, at the age of nine-
teen, an apprenticeship at the engineering works of Sir William
G. Armstrong, at Elswick, and there received a four years' course
of training. In 1867 he commenced business in partnership
with his brother Francis, who had purchased an india-rubber
machinery works in Manchester, but for some years the brothers
did not meet with much success. In addition, they paid some
attention to improvements in flax-scutching machinery. Their
doggedness, however, was rewarded. In 1876 they secured the
English patent rights of the Otto gas-engine, and, setting them-
selves to improve upon Dr. Otto's designs, the business prospered
Hi Annual Report of the Council.
to such an extent as to necessitate the provision of larger
premises, which they procured at Openshaw.
Sir Wilham was a man of strong views, broad-minded,
adhering strictly to what he considered to be right. He married,
in 1876, Miss Mabel Gordon, daughter of Dr. Francis Anderson,
Inspector-General of Hospitals in India. In 1875 he was elected
a member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. He was
well known for the assistance and active co-operation he was always
prepared to give to philanthropic and sociological work. To his
munificence is due the founding of the Crossley Sanatorium, for
the reception of consump'ive patients, at Delamere. Of this insti-
tution he became chairman. He financed an increase in the
accommodation of the Convalescent Home at Bowdon, Cheshire.
He was also chairman of the Boys' and Girls' Refuges at
Strangeways ; chairman of the Manchester Hospitals for Con-
sumptives; President of the Young Men's Christian Association,
Manchester ; and Treasurer of the United Kingdom Alliance.
He was a Justice of the Peace for Manchester and for the
County of Cheshire; and in 1901 he was elected a member of
the Cheshire County Council. He also was one of the pro-
moters of the Manchester Ship Canal, and became one of the
Board of Directors of the Ship Canal Company. In 1903 the
Corporation of Manchester conferred upon him the honorary
freedom of the city.
Despite the many demands upon his energies Sir William
found time to devote himself to parliamentary duties, and he
sat as Member for the Altrincham Division of Cheshire from
1906 to 1910. He was re-elected at the contest in January,
19 10, but he lost the seat in December of the same year. In
1909 King Edward conferred a baronetcy upon him.
Sir William was a member of this Society from 1895 until
he passed away on Thursday, October 12th, 191 1, in a
IVTanchester Nursing Home, after an illness of but a few days'
duration. R- F- H.
Annual Report of the Council. Hii.
Professor Albert Ladenburg, organic chemist, was born
2nd July, 1842, at Mannheim. He studied at Heidelberg, at
Bonn and at Paris. In 1870 he became privat-docent in the
University of Heidelberg, and in 1874 was elected Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Kiel. For many years he was
Professor of Chemistry at Breslau, where he died. All who
were brought into contact with Ladenburg were attracted by
the intense interest he showed in all scientific problems, and by
his vitality and social qualities. He was universally popular.
He became known to a wide circle of readers through his
" History of the Development of Chemistry since the Time of
Lavoisier," which has gone through several German editions and
has been translated into English by Dr. Dobbin. This work
contains a very concise account of the development of modern
chemistry (with copious references to original authorities) and
is eminently free from "national" bias.
His " Theory of Aromatic Compounds " contains a clear
account of Ladenburg's important contributions to the con-
stitution of benzene and naphthalene derivatives, with a reasoned
criticism of the defects of Kekule's hexagon formula for benzene.
Ladenburg's " Handbook of Chemistry," in 3 \ olumes, is a
well-known text-book. H. B. D.
liv
Treasu vers A ccou n ts .
2)c.
To Balance, ist April, igii ..
To Members' Subscriptions : —
Half Subscriptions, igio-ii,
n 1911-12,
Subscriptions :— 190S-9,
„ 1909-10,
„ 1910-11,
,, 1911-12.
,, 1911-12,
MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
W. Hejvy Todd, Ireasia-er, in Account with the
2 at ^:. IS. o(l
£^■2. 2S. od.
I--
To Transfers from the Wilde Endowment Fund
To Sale of Publications
To Sale of Catalogues
To Dividends : —
Natural History Fund
Joule Memorial Fund
To Income Tax Refunded : —
Natural History Fund
Joule Memorial Fund
Wilde Endowment Fund
i. s d.
'54 15 4
iS iS 0
245 14 0
2 2 2
290 17
S3 12
13 10
5 5
57 13 6
7 5 10
64 19 4
£637 10
NATURAL HISTORY
£
d.
To Balance, ist April, 191 1 ..
To Dividends on £^,^25 Great Western Railway Company's Stock
To Remission of Income Tax, 1911 . .
57 13 6
3 II 6
;C72 9
JOULE MEMORIAL
£ s. d.
To Balance, 1st April, 1911
To Dividends on £25^ Loan to Manchester Corporation
To Remission of Income Tax, 1911
5 >o
9 o
£g^ 18 8
WILDE
To Balance, 1st April, 1911 ..
To Dividends on ^^7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company'
To Remission of Income Tax, 1911
To Bank Interest
Ordinary Stock
ENDOWMENT
£ s. d.
149 12 4
334 5 10
20 1 1 3
251
£5°(' '4 6
Treasurer's Accouuts.
Iv
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Sociiiy, fro)ii ist April, igii, to jrsi March, igi2.
Cr.
By Charges on Property : —
Chief Rent (Income Tax deducted)
Income Tax..
Insurance against Fire
By House E.xpenditure : —
Coals, Gas, Electric Light, Water, &:c.
Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings
Cleaning, Sweeping Chimneys, &c.
Replacements of mantles, crockery, dusters, etc. ..
By Administrative Charges : —
Housekeeper . . . . . . . . . . .
Postages, and Carriage of Parcels and of " Memoirs"
Stationery, Cheques, Receipts, and Engrossing
Printing Circulars, Reports, &c. .. .. .. ..
Extra attendance at Meetings, and during housekeeper's holidays
Insurance against Liability
Miscellaneous Expenses ..
Fares of Candidates, Advertising, &c.
By Renovating Dalton Tomb
By Publishing :—
Printing " Memoirs and Proceedings"
Illustrations for "Memoirs" (except Nat. Hist, papers) ..
By Library : —
Books and Periodicals (except those charged to Natural History Fund)
Periodicals formerly subscribed for by the Microscopical and Natural Histo
Section ..
By Natural History Fund : —
(Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below) . .
By Joule Memorial Fund : —
("No expenditure) ..
By Wilde Endowment Fund (Income Tax refunded)
By Balance at Williams Deacon's Bank, ist April, 1912
,, ,, in Treasurer's hands
12 3 4
o 15 o
1100
31 13 10
12 10 7
4 3 10
3 9 6
128 o 3
5 10 6
50 10 7
330
136 13 3
10 o o
23 18 4
124 19 4
10 o o
53 13 7
72 6 5
000
20 II 3
146 13 3
£(>M 10
FUND, 1911— 1912. (Included in the General Account, above.)
By Natural History Books and Periodicals
By Illustrations for papers on Nat. Hist, in " Memoirs "
By Binding Books
By Balance, I St April, 1912
£ s. d.
57 16 S
680
819
033
£12. q 8
FUND, 1911 — 1912. (Included in the General Account, above.)
(No expenditure).
By Balance, ist April, 1912
£ s. d.
99 18 8
£99 18 8
FUND, 1911 — 1912.
By Assistant Secretary's Salary, April, 1911, to September, igii
Hy Assistant Secretary's Salary. September, 1911, to March, 1912
By Maintenance of Society's Library : —
Binding and Repairing Books
By Repairs and Improvements to Society's Premises ..
By Transfers to Society's Funds
By Balance at District Bank, ist April, 1912
£
s.
d.
75
0
0
70
0
0
24
I
0
0
6
2
«3
12
0
253
14
7
£506 14 6
Ivi Treastiret-' s Accounts.
Note. — The Treasurer's Accounts of the Session 191 1-
191 2 have been endorsed as follows :
April 9th, 1912. Audited and found correct.
We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the following Stocks
held in the name of the Society: — £i,2.Z'^ Great Western Railway Company
5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294, and 12,323 ; ;^258
Twenty years' loan to^the Manchester Corporation, redeemable 25th March,
1914 (No. 1,564) ; ;i{^7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock
(No. 6,389) ; and the deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde
Endowment Fmnd, those conveying the land on which the Society's premises
stand, and the Declarations of Trust.
Leases and Conveyances dated as follow : —
22nd Sept., 1797.
23rd Sept., 1797.
25th Dec, 1799.
22nd Dec, 1820.
23rd Dec, 1820.
Declarations of Trust : —
24th June, 1801.
23rd Dec, 1820.
30th April, 185 1.
8th Jan., 1878.
We have also verified the balances of the various accounts with the
bankers' pass books.
(Sii^ned)
{11. Y. SCHMiTZ.
Gi;o. P. Varlev
The CozinciL. Ivii
THE COUNCIL
AND MEMBERS
OF TliF.
MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Corrected to November 26th, igi2.
F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S.
FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
ERNEST RUTHERFORD, iM.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.
ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Sc.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.
WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.
(Sccictavies.
R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C.
GEORGE HICKLING, D.Sc.
W. HENRY TODD.
librarian.
C. L. BARNES, M.A.
©thci' Jttcmbcvs of the (Council.
SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.
T. A. COWARD, F.Z.S.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.
G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.
W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc, M. Sc Tech., A.M. I.E. E.
BERTRAM PREXTICE, Ph.D.. D.Sc
JVesistant (Secretary aub Ijihvarian.
R. F. IIINSON.
Iviii Ordinary Members.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.
Date of Election.
1911, April 4. Adamsoii, Arlhur, M.Sc.Tech., A.R.C.S., Lecturer in
Physics in the Municipal Scliool of Technology, Man-
cliester. Technical .School, Sackville Street, I\Ianchester.
1901, Dec. 10. Adamson, Harold. Oaklands Cottai^c, Godley, near Man-
chester.
1912, Oct. 15. Adamson, R. Stephen, M.A., B.Sc, Lecturer in Botany in
the Victoria University of Manchester. The Univcrsiiy,
Matichester.
1870, Dec. 13. Angell, John, F.C.S., F.LC. 6, Beacons-Field, Derby
Road, Withington, Martchester.
1865, Nov. 14. Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S. Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill,
S. O. , Gloucestershire.
1888, Fel.. 7. Bailey, Alderman Sir William H., M.LMech.E. Sale
Hall, Sale, Cheshire.
1895, J-'in- 8. Barnes, Charles L., M.A. 151, Plymouth Grore,
Manchester.
1903, Oct. 20. Barnes, Jonathan, F.G.S. South Ch[ff House, 301, Great
Clozves Street, Higher Broitghton, Manchester.
1910, Oct. 18. Beattie, Robert, D.Sc, Lecturer in Electrotechnics in the
University of Manchester. The University, Manchester.
1895, ^^^'^- 5- Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royde, Withington, Manchester.
1898, Nov. 29. Behrens, Walter L. 22, O.xford Street, Manchester.
1868, Dec. 15. Bickham, Spencer H., F.L.S. Underdown, Ledbury.
1875, Nov. 16. Boyd, John. Barton House, 11, Diasbury Park, Diilsbury,
Manchester.
1889, Oct. 15. Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S. Sunny side, IVhalley Range,
Manchester.
1^12, Oct. 15. Bricrley, ^Y.B., M.Sc, Lecturer in Economic Botany in
the Victoria University of Manchester. The Unive< sity,
Manchester.
1861, April 2. Brogden, Henry, F.G.S., M.LMech.E. Hale Lodge,
Altrincham, Ch esh ire.
J 889, April 16. Brooks, Samuel Herbert. Slade House, Levenshnl/ne,
Alanchester.
1910, Nov. I. Broome, James S., Science Teacher in the Salford
Secondary School. 18, Scedley Park Road, Pendleton,
Manchester.
1886, April 6. Brown, Alfred, M. A., M.D. Sandycroft, Higher Brongh-
ton, ^Manchester.
1889, Jan. 8. Browncll, Thomas William, F.R.A.S. 64, Upper Brook
Street, Manchester.
Ordinary Members, lix
Date o/ Election.
1889, Oct. 15. Budenberg, C. F., .M.Sc, M.I.Mech.E. Boivdon Lane.
Marple, Cheshire.
191 1, Jan. 10. Burt, Frank Playfair, D.Sc.(Loncl.), Assistant Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Chemistry in the Victoria University of
Manchester. 5, Beacons- Field, Derby Road, Within^ton,
jMaiichester.
1906, Feb. 27. Burton, Joseph, A.R.C.S. Dubbn. l^ik IVorl's, Clifton
Junctiou, near Manchestei'.
1894, Nov. 13. Burton, WiUiam, M.A., F.C.S. The Hollies, Clifton
Junction, near Manchester.
I 91 1, Oct. 31. Butterworth, Charles F. Waterloo, Poyntou, Manchester.
1904, Oct. 18. Campion, George Goring, L.D.S. 264, Oxford Street,
Manchester.
1907, Jan. 15. Carpenter, H. C. H., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Metal-
hugy in tlie University of Manchester. 11, Oak Noad,
Jl 'ithington, Manchester.
1899, Feb. 7. Chapman, D. L., M.A., P'ellow of Jesus College, Oxford.
Jesus College, Oxford.
1901, Nov. 26. Chevalier, Reginald C, M.A. , Mathematical Masler at the
Manchester Grammar School. 3, Fort Road, Sedgley
Park, Prestwich, Manchester.
1907, Nov. 26. Clayton, Robert Henry, B.Sc, Chemist, i, Parkjeld
Road, Didsbury, Manchester.
1895, April 30. Collett, Edward Pyemont. 8, St. John Street, Manchester.
1911, May 9. Cook, Gilbert, ^NI.Sc, A. M.Inst.C.t^., Vulcan Research
P'ellow in Engineering in the University of Manchester.
8, Clarendon Road, Garston, Liverpool.
1903, Oct. 20. Core, William Hamilton, M.Sc. Grooiiihridge House,
Withington, Manchester.
1910, Oct. 18. Cotton, Robert, M.Sc, Demonstrator in Engineering in the
University of Manchester. IVestholine. Devonshire Road,
Pendleton, ^Manchester.
1906, Oct. 30. Coward, H. F., D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in
the University of Manchester. Municipal School of
Technology, Sackville Street, Manchester.
1906, Nov. 27. Coward, Thomas Alfred, F.Z.S. Brent-wood, Boivdon,
Cheshire.
1908, Nov. 3. Cramp, William, M.Sc. Tech., M.LE.E., Consulting
Engineer. 20, Mount Street, Manchester.
1910, Oct. 4. Crewe, F. H., Assistant Science Master in the Municipal
Secondary School, Whitworth Street. Glengarth,
Woodford Road, Brainhall.
191 1, April 4. Darwin, C.G., B.A., Reader in Mathematical Physics in the
University of Manchester. The University^ Manchester.
Ix Ordinary Members.
Date of Election.
1895, April 9. Dawkins, W. Boyd, INI. A., D.Sc, F. K.S.. Honorary
Professor of Geology in the Mctoria University of Man-
chester. Fallowfield House, Falloivfield, Alamhester.
1894, Mar. 6. Delepine, A. Sheridan, M.B., B.Sc, Professor of
Pathology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
7 he University, Maucliester.
1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Baiiy, M.A., M.Sc, F.K.S., F.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the \'ictoria University of
Manchester. Tlie Unii'ersity, Maiithester.
1906, Oct. 30. Edgar, E. C, D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Chemistry in the University of Manchester. The
University, Manchester.
1910, Oct. 18. Evans, Evan Jenkin, B.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Manchester.
71ie University, Manchester.
1912. Oct. 15. Fairlie, D. M., M.Sc, Demonstrator in Electro-Chemistry,
The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. The
Municipal Sclioo! of Technology, Manchester.
1912, Feb. 6. Forder, H. G., B.A.. Mathematical Master, Hulme
Grammar School. Hulme Graniniar School, Oldham.
1908, Jan. 28. Fox, Thomas William, RLScTech., Professor of Textiles
in the School of Technology, Manchester Universit)'.
15, Claj-endon Crescent, Eccles.
1912, Oct. 15. Garnctt, J. C. Maxwell, M.A., Principal of the Municipal
School of Technology, Manchester. The Ahtnicipal
School of Technology, Manchester.
1909, Mar. 23. Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.LE.E.,
Professor of Pure and Applied Physics in the School of
Technology, Manchester University. Oak Lea, IVhalley
Avenue, Sale.
1910, Nov. 29. Geiger, Hans, Ph.D., Physikalisch Technische Reichsan-
stalt, Charlottenhurg, Alaixhstrasse, G: 1 many.
1907, Oct. 15. Gravely, F. PL, M.Sc. Nattiral History Dept., Indian
Museum, Calcutta.
1907, Oct. 29. Gwyther, Reginald Felix, ALA., Secretary to the Joint
Matriculation Board. 21, Booth Avenue, Withington,
Manchester.
191 1, Oct. 3. Hasse, H. R., M.A., M.Sc, Lecturer in Mathematics in
the University of Manchester. 100, Ladybarn Lane,
Falloivfield, Manchester.
Oidinary Members. Ixi
Date o/ E tec lion.
1902, Jan. 7. Hewitt, David !'>., M.D. Gro7'e Mount, Daveuham,
Cheshire.
1907, Oct. 15. Hickling, II. (Jeorge A., D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Geology in the University of Manchester.
Gleiiside, Marplc Brui'gi', near Stockport
1S95, ^far. 5. Hickson, Sydney J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of
Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. The
University, Mandieslei .
1884, Jan. 8. liodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. iS, St. /ohn Street,
MXincliester.
1909, Jan. 12. Hoffert, Hermann I lenry, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.K.S.M., His
Majesty's Inspector of Schools. Lime Grove, Brooklands,
Sale.
1909, Nov. 2. Holland, Sir Thomas H.. K.C.I.E.. D.Sc, F.R.S.,
Profe.ssor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University
of Manchester, late Director of the Geological Survey
of India. IVestmood, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1905, Nov. 14. Holt, Alfred, M.A., D.Sc, Research Fellow of the Uni-
versity of Manchester. Dowsefield, Allerton, Liverpool.
1895, Nov. 29. Hopkinson^ Sir Alfred, K.C.,M.A., LL.D. ,Vice-Chancellor
of the Victoria University of Manchester. Fairjield.
Victoria Park, Manchester.
1896, Nov. 3. Ilopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc, M.Inst.C.F. Ferns,
AMerley Edqc, Cheshire.
1909, Feb. 9. Howies, Frederick, M.Sc, Analytical and Research
Chemist. Glenhice, Waterpark Road, Broitghfon L^aik,
Manchester.
1889, Oct. 15, Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Director
of the Welsh National Museum, Cardiff. City Hall,
Cardiff.
1907, Oct. 15. Hlibner, Julius, M.Sc. Tech., F.I.C., Lecturer in the
Faculty of Technolog\' in the University of Manchester.
Linden, Che nlle Hiilme, Cheshire.
1899, Oct. 17. Ingleby, Joseph, M.I. Mech.E. Springtidd, Holly Road,
IViliusloxv. near Manchester.
1901, Nov. 26. Jackson, PVederick. 14, Cross Street, Manchester.
1870, Nov. I. Johnson, William IL, B.Sc. JVoodleigh, Altrinchain.
1911, Oct. 3. Johnstone, Mary A., B.Sc(Lond.), Headmistress of the
Municipal Secondary School for Girls, Whitworth Street,
Manchester. 11, Birchvale Drive, Romiley, near Man-
chester.
Ixii Ordinary Members.
Date of Election.
1878, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Maiuhester
Grammar School, and 17, Whalley Road, IVhalley
Range, Manchester.
1886, Jan. 12. Kay, Thomas, J. P. Moorfield, Stockport, Cheshire.
1903, Feb. 3. Knecht, Edmund, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the
School of Technology, Manchester University. Beech
Mount, Marple, Cheshire.
1893, Nov. 14. Lamb, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, Sc.D., F.K.S., Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. 6, M'iibrahain Road, Falloivfiehi, Manchester.
1909, Nov. 2. Lang, William IL, M.B., CM., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.,
Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany in the Uni-
versity of Manchester. 2, Heaton Road, IVithington,
Manchester.
1902, Jan. 7. Lange, Ernest F., M.LMech.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., M.L & S.
Inst., F.C.S. Fairhobn, 3, Willow Bank, Fallowfield,
Alanchesler.
I9ii,jan. 10. Lankshear, Frederick Russell, B.A. (New Zeal.),
Demonstrator in C^hemistry in the Victoria University of
Manchester. 7'hc University, Manchester.
1910, Oct. 18. Lapworth, Arthur, D.Sc, P^R.S., F.LC, Senior Lecturer
in Chemistry in the University of Manchester. 30,
Amherst Road, IVithington, -Manchester.
1904, Mar. 15. Lea, Arnold W. W., M.D. 246, Oxford Road, Manchester.
1907, Oct. 29. Leigh, Harold Shawcross. Brentzvood, IForsley.
1908, Oct. 20. Liehert, Martin, Ph.D., Managing Director of Meister
Lucius and Briining, Ltd., Manchester. i, Lancaster
Road, Didsbiiry, Manchester.
1912, Nov. 12. Lindsay, Marjorie, E.Sc, Research Student in the
Victoria University of Manchester, j, Demesne Road,
JVhalley Range, Manchester.
19 1 2, May 7. Loewenfeld, Kurt, I^h.D. Fern Bank, Ogden Road,
Bra III h a II, Ch csh ire.
1902, Jan. 7. Longridge, Michael, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Linkvretten,
Ashley Road, Boivdon, Ches/iire.
1*^571 Jan. 27. Longridge, Robert Bewick, M.LMech.E. Yeiv Tree House,
Tahley, Knutsfvrd, Cheshiie.
1866, Nov. 13. McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc. The Cottage, Holly Road,
Bramhall, near .Stockport.
Ordinary Members. Ixiii
Date of Election.
1910, Oct. 18. McDougall, Robert, B.Sc. City Com Mills, German
Street, Manchester.
1912, Oct. 15. McF'arlane, John, M.A. (Edin.), I'-A. (Cantab), M. Com.
(Mane), Lecturer in Geography in the Victoria
University of Manchester. The University, Manchester.
1905, Oct. 31. McNicol, Mary, M.Sc. 182, Upper Chorlton Road,
Manchester.
1904, Nov. I. Makower, Walter, B,A., D.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer in Physics
in the University of Manchester. May lands. Brook
Road, Falloivfield, Alancliester.
1902, Mar. 4. ^Lindleberg, Goodman Charles. Redely fte, Victoria Pai h,
Manchestei .
1910, Oct. iS. Mangan, Joseph, M.A., Lecturer in Economic Zoology in
the University of Manchester. The University, Man-
chester.
191 1, Oct. 31. ^larch, Margaret CoUey, M.Sc. The University, Man-
chester.
1901, Dec. 10. ALassey, Herlierl. Ivy Lea, Bnrnage, Dtdshiiry,
Manchester.
1864, Nov. I. .Mather, Sir William, P.O., !\LList.C.E., M.LMech.E. Iron
Works, .Sal ford.
1912, Nov. 26. Melland, Edward. Kia Ora, Hale, Cheshire.
1873, Mar. 18. Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., D.Sc, E.L.S. Meole Brace
Hall, .Shrewsbnry.
1894, Feb. 6. Mond, Robert Ludwig, M. A., F.K.S.E., F.C.S. Winning-
Ion Hatl, Norlhivich, Cheshire.
1911, May 9. Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys, B.A., Lectuier in Physics
in the University of Manchester. Physical Laboratories,
The University, Manchester.
191 1, Oct. 3. Mumford, A. A., M.D. Medical Officer, Manchester
Grammar .School. 44, Wiinislow Road, IVithington,
Manchester.
1912, Nov. 26. Myeis, J. E., M.Sc, Beyer Fellow and Assistant Lecturer
in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester.
The University, Manchester.
1908, Jan. 28. Myers, William, Lecturer iu Textiles in the School of
Technology, Manchester University. Acresfield, Galley,
Cheshire.
1873, Mar. 4. Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. The Knoll, ]Vinderinere,
Westinorlatid.
1900, April 3. Nicolson, John T., D.Sc, Professor of Engineering in the
.Schocj] of Technology, Manchester University. Nant-y-
Glyn, Marple, Cheshire.
Ixiv Ordmary Members.
Date oj Election,
1884, April 15. Okell, Samuel, F. R.A.S. Oven'ey, Laiigham Road,
Bowdon, Cheshire.
1892, Nov. 15. Peikin, \V. H., Sc.D., Ph.D., M.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester.
The Uitiversily, Ilfanchesfer.
1901, Oct. 29. Petavel, J. E., B.A ,D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering
in the Victoria University of Manchester. The Uni-
versify, Mancliesler.
1885, Nov. 17. Phillips. Henry Harcourt, F.C.S. Lynwood, Ttirton,
near Bolton, Lanes.
1903, Dec. 15. Prentice, Bertram, Ph.D., D.Sc, Principal, Royal Technical
Institute, Salford. Isca Mount, Manchester Road,
.S'U'inton.
191 1, Oct. 17. Pring, J. N., D.Sc, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electro-
chemistry in the University cf Manchester. The Uni-
veisily, Jlanchester.
1901, Dec. 10. Ramsden, Herbert, AI.D. (Lond.), M.B., Ch.B, (Vict.).
Sunnyside, Dol'cross, near Oldham, Lanes.
1888, Feb. 21. Kee, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. 15, Manldelh Road, With-
ington, Mancliester.
1910, Oct. 4. Rhead,E. L., M.Sc.Tech., F. I. C, Lecturer on Metallurgy
at the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester.
Stonycroft, Polygon Avemie, Levenshulnie, Manchester.
1912, Oct. 29. Roberts, A. W. Rymer, M.A., Ellerbeck, Crook, near
Kendal.
1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P. (Lond.),
Ravcnsivood, Rronghton Park, Manchester.
1911, Jan. 10. Robinson, Robert, D.Sc. (Vict.), Teacher of Chemistry in
the Victoria University of Manchester. Field House,
Chesterfield.
1910, Oct. 18. Rossi, Roberto, M.Sc, Student. Physical Laboratory,
The University, Manchester.
1897, Oct. 19. Rothwell, William Thomas. Heath Brewery, Ne'uton
Heath, near Manchester.
1907, Oct. 15. Rutherford, Ernest, M.7\.,D.Sc., F.R.S., Langworthy Pro-
fessor of Physics in the University of Manchester. 17,
Wilnislow Road, ll'ithington, Manchester.
Ordina)-}' Mei/iiers. Ixv
Date of Election.
1911, Oct. 17. Sandifuid, Peter, M.Sc. (Mane), Ph.D. (Columbia),
Lecturer and Demonstrator in Education in the Uni-
versity of Manchester. The University, Manchesler.
1909, fan. 26 Schmitz, Hermann Emil, M.A., B.Sc, Physics Master at
the Manchester Grammar School, 15, Briglitou Grove,
Riisholiiic, JManchester.
1873, ^^«v- iS- Schuster, Arthur, Sc.D., Ph.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Honorary Professor of Physics in the Victoria University
of Manchester. Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1895, Jan. 25. Schwabe, Louis. Hart Hill, Ecc/es Old Road, Pendleton,
Manchester.
1890, Nov. 4. Sidebotham, Edward Jolm, M.A., M.B., M.R.C.S.
Erlesdene, Bo'vdon, Cheshire.
1903, April 2S. Sidebotlom, Henry. Woodstock, Bramhall, Cheshire.
1910, Oct. 4. Smith, Grafton Elliot, M. A., M.D., F.K.S., Professor of
Anatomy in the University of J^Ianchester. The Uni-
versity, JManchester.
1906, Nov. 27. Smith, Norman, D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in
the Victoria University of Manchester. The University,
Mancl'.esler.
1896, Feb. 18. Spence, David. Lowood, Hindhead, Hasleiiteie, K.S.O.,
Surrey.
1901, Dec. 10. Spence, Howard. Aud'ey, Broad Road, Sale, Cheshii-e.
1904,. Nov. I. Stansfield, Herbert, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.LE.E., As.sistant
Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University
of Manchester. The Univcisity, Manchester.
191 1, Oct. 17. Start, Laura, Lecturer in Art and Handicraft in the Uni-
versity of Manchester. Moor View, Mayjield Road,
Kersal, Manchester,
1897, Nov. 30. Stromeyer, C. E., !\LList.C.E. Steam Users' Association,
9, Mc2int Slice/, Albert Square, Manchester.
1910, Oct. 18. Tattersall, Waller Medley, D.Sc, Keeper of the Man-
chester Museum. The Museum, University, Manchester.
1895, April'g. Tatlon, Reginald A., M.List.C.E., Engineer to the
Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee. Manor House
Chelford, Cheshire.
1893, Nov. 14. Taylor, R. L.,F.C.S., F.LC. Municipal Suondary School,
Whituorth Street,z.\-\A\, St. Wa burgh's Road, Chorlloti-
c- Hardy, Alanchest.r.
Ixvi Ordinary Members.
Date oj Election.
1906, April lo. Thewlis, Councillor J. H. Daisy Mount, Victotia Park,
A/anchesld}-.
191 1, Oct. 17. Thoday, D., M.A., Lecturer in Plant Physiology in the
University of Manchester. '/ ke University, Mar-
ches tei'.
191 1, Jan. 10. Thomson, J. Stuart, Ph.D. (Bern), Senior Demonstrator
in Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
The University, Manchester.
1873, April 15. Thomson. William, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. Koyal
Institution, Manchester.
1896, Jan. 21. Thorburn, \\'illiani, M.D., B.Sc. 2, St. Peter s Square,
Alanchester.
1896, Jan. 21. Thorp, Thomas, F. R.A.S. Moss Bank, Whitefield, near
Manchester.
I9ii,0ct. 3. Todd, T. Wingate, M.B., Ch.B., Demonstrator in
Anatomy in the University of Manchester. The Uni-
versiiy, Majichester.
1899, Oct. 17. Todd, William Henry. Kivinqton, Irlavi Road, Flixton,
near Manchester.
1909, Jan. 26. ^'arley, George Percy, M.Sc. (Vic), Assistant Master in
the Municipal Secondary School, Manchester. 18, Vic-
toria Road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1912. Oct. 15. Walker, Miles, M.A , M.I.E.E., Professor of Electrical
Engineering, the Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester. The Cottage, Leicester Road, Hale,
Altrinchaiii.
1873, Nov. 18. W'aters, Arthur William, F.L.S., F.G.S. A/deriey,
AIcKi)iIey Road, Bournemouth.
1906, Nov. 13. Watson, D. M. S., M.Sc. bo, Lisscnden Mansions, Highgate
Road, Loudon, N'. IV.
1892, Nov. 15. W^eiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Botany
in the Victoria University of Manchester. 30, Brunswick
Road, JVithington, Manchester.
1909, Feb. 9. W^eizmann, Charles, I'li.D., D..'^c., Senior Lecturer in
Chemistry in the University of Manchester. The Uni-
versity, Manchester.
1908, May 12. Welldon, Rt. Rev. J. K. C, D.D., Dean of Manchester
The Deanery, illanchester.
Ordinary Members. Ixvii
Date of Election.
1911, Oct. 17. West, Tom, B.Sc, Chemist and Metallurgist. ioi,Sp>ing
Bank Street, Slalybridge, near Maiichester.
1901, Oct. I. Wild, Robert B., M.D., M.Sc, F.R.C.P., Professor of
Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the Victoria
University of Manchester. Broome House, Falloivfield^
Manchesler.
1859, Jan. 25. Wilde, Henry, D.ScD.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley
Edge, Chesliire.
1907, Oct. 15. Winstanley, George H., F.G.S., M.I.M.E., Lecturer in
Mining Engineering and Mine Surveying in the Uni-
versity of Manchester. Wigshazv Grange, Cidcheth,
near Warrington .
1909, Jan. 26. Wolfenden, John Henry, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S. (Lond.),
Assistant Master in the Municipal Secondary School,
Manchester. 13, Fole Lane, Failsworth.
1912, Jan. 23. Wolft^, Charles Ernest, M.Sc, A. M.Inst. C.E., Consulting
Engineer. The Clongh, Hale, Cheshire.
1905, Oct. 31. Woodall, Herbert J., A.R.C.S. 12, Market Place, Stockport.
i860, April 17. Wool ley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.
1863, Nov. 17. Worthington, Samuel Barton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.
I\lill Bank, Bo',vdon, and 37, Princess Street, Manchester.
1895, Jan. 8. Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Kirkstyles,
Diiffield, iieai- Derby.
N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their
sul)Scriptions, and are therefore life members : —
Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S.
Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S.
Brogden, Henry, F.G.S., M.I.Mech.E.
Ingleby, Joseph, M. I. Mech. E.
Johnson, William H., B.Sc.
Wortiiington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E.
Ixviii Honorary Members.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Date cf Election.
1S92, April 26. Abney, Sir William de W., K.C.K., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Raihviore Lodge, BoUon Gardens South, South Kensington,
London, S. IV.
1892, April 26. Amagat, E. H., For. Mem. R.S., Memb. Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.), Examinateur a I'Ecole Polytechnique.
Avenue d''07-Uans, 19, Paris.
1894, April 17. Appell, Paul, Membredel'Institut, Professor of Theoretical
Mechanics. Faculty des Sciences, Paris.
1892, April 26. Ascherson, Paul F. Aug., Professor of Botany in the Uni-
versity of Berlin. Universitdt, Berlin.
1889, April 30. Avebury, Right. Hon. John Lubbock, Lord, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S. Liigh Elms, Doivn, A'ent.
1892, April 26. Baeyer, Adolf von, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Munich. I, Arcissirasse, Munich.
1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S., I*". L.S. 3, Cumberland
Road, Keiv.
1889, April 30. Carruthers, William, F. U.S., F.L.S. 44, Central LLill,
Norwood, L^ondon, S.E.
1903, April 28. Clarke, Frank Wiggleswortb, D.Sc. United States
Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
1866, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Oxford. 3, Bard-well Road, Banbury Road, Oxford.
1892, April 26. Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Kiel. Universitdt, Kiel.
1892, April 26. Darboux, J. Gaston, Membre de I'Institut, Secretaire per-
petuel de I'Academie des Sciences, Doyen honoraire de
la Faculte des .Sciences. 3, Rue Mazarine, Paris.
Honorary j\I embers. Ixix
Date of Election.
1894, April 17. Debus, II., Ph.D., F.R.S. 4. Sthlangemveg, Cassel,
Hesseti, Geimaity.
1900, April 24. Dewar, Sir James, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.,
I^'ullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution.
Royal Insliliitioii, Albeiiiarle Street^ London, IT.
1S92, April 26. Edison, Thomas Alva. Lhaiige, N./., U.S.A.
1S95, April 30. Elster, Julius, Ph.D. 6, Lesstngshasse, IVolfeubUttel.
1900, April 24. Ewing, Sir J. Alfred, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S,
Director (jf Naval Education to the Admiralty. Frog-
hole, Edciibridge, Kent.
i8Sg, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professt)r of Botany at Harvard College.
Harvard College, Candu idge, illass., U.S.A.
1900, April 24. Forsyth, Andrew Russell, ]\I,A., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
formerly Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1892, Aptil 26. Fiirbringer, ]\Iax, Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Heidelberg. Universitdt, Heidelbeig.
1900, April 24. Geikie, James, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Murchison Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colitiion Road, Edinl'mgh.
1895, April 30. Geitel, Hans. 6, Lessingstrasse, IVolfejibiittel.
1S94, April 17. Glaisher, J. W. L., Sc.D., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
1S94, April 17. Gouy, A., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor
of Physics in the University of Lyons. Faeuhi des
Sciences, Lyons.
1900, April 24. Haeckel, Ernst, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni
versify of Jena. Zoologisches Inslitut, Jena.
1894, April 17. Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
.SV. Clare, Ryde, Lsle of Wight.
1894, April 17. Heaviside, Oliver, Ph.D., F.R.S. LLotnefield, L.ower JFar-
herry, Torquay.
1892, April 26. Hill, G. \V. West Nyac.l; N. Y., U.S.A.
Ixx Honorary Members.
Date 0/ Election.
1888, April 17. Iliilorf, Joliann Willielui, Prufessor of I'hy.sics at Munsler
Poly lech iiicti m , Mil 11 1 tk, U.S.A.
1S94, April 17. Ostwald, W., I'rofessor of Clieniistry. Gros'.bot/ieii, /\§f^
Sac/iseii.
1899, April 25. I'algrave, Sir Robert II. Inglis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Heiisifad
Hall. Jl'irulham, Suffolk.
i8q4, April 17. ITeffer, Wilhelm, For. Mem. K.S., Professor of Botany
in the University of Leipsic. Ikh'aiiiscJies Institute
I.eipsic.
1892, April 26. Quincke, G. H., For. ]Mem. K.S., Professor of Physics
in the Universilj' of Heidelberg. Unwersitiit, Heidelberg.
1899, April25. Ramsay, Sir William. K.C.P., I'IlD., Sc.D., M.D.,
F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University College,
London. 19, Chester '/Vrracr. A'^qyu/'s Park, London,
A'.u:
[886, I'd). 9. Raylcigh, Right Hon. John William .Strutt, Lord, O.M.,
M.A., D.C.L. (O.xon.), Sc.D. (Cantab.), LL.D. (Univ.
McGill), F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.), Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Terliitg Place, U'lthaiii, Essex.
1900, April 24. Ridgway, Robert, Curator of the Department of Birds, U.S.
National Museum, /hooklatid, Dislriit of Coltimhia,
U.S.A.
1S97, April 27. Roscoe, Right lion. Sir Henry Fnfield, B.A., D.C.L.,
IX. D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad.
Sci.). 10, Bramha/Ji Gardens, Earl's Court, London,
S. IV.
1902, May 13. Scott, Dukinfield Henry, M.A., LL.D.. Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F. L. S. Easl Oakley House, Oakley, Hants.
1892, April 26. Solms, FL, Grafzu, Professor of Botany in the University
of .Strassburg. Univa-siidl, Strassburg.
Ixxii HonoTory ]\T embers.
Date 0/ EUction.
1886, Feb. 9. Sliasbiuger, Kiluaid, D.C.L., For. Mem. K.S., I'lofessor
of Botany in Ihe University of Bonn. Univet silal,
Bonn.
1895, April 30. Suess, F.duard, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., For. Assoc. Inst.
Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Geology in the University
of Vienna. 9, .ifiicanergasse, Vienna.
1892, April 26. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William T., K.C.M.G., CLE., M.A.,
Sc.D., Ph.D., UL.D., F.R.S. Lately Director Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kcw. The Ferns, Witcomhe,
Gloucester.
1895, Ai>ril 30, Thomson, Sir Joseph John, O.M., ALA., Sc.D., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics in the
University of Cambridge. Tiinity College^ Cambridge.
1894, April 17. Thorpe, Sir T. Edward, C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D.,
F.R.S. , V.P.C.S. Whinfield. Sakomhe, S. Devon.
1894, April 17. Turner, Sir William, K.C.B., M.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
Sc.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Edinburgh. 6, Eton Terrace, Edinburgh.
1886, Feb. 9. Tylor, Sir Edward Burnett, D.C.L. (O.xon), LL.D. (St.
And. and McGill Univs.), F.R.S., formerly Professor of
Anthropology in the University of Oxford. Linden,
Wellington, Somerset.
1894, April 17. Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.,
Sherardian Professor of Botany in the University of
Oxford. Heading ton Hill, Oxford.
1S94, April 17. Warburg, Emil, Professor of Physics at the Physical
Institute, Berlin. Physikalisches Institut, Neiie Wilhelm-
strasse, Berlin.
1894, April 17. Weismann, August, For.Mem.R.S.. Professor of Zoology
in the University of Freiburg. Universitdt, Freiburg i.
Br.
Aivards of the Dalton Medal.
1898. Edw^ard Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.
1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.
1903. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S,
The Wilde Lectures. Ixxiii
THE WILDE LECTURES.
1897. (July 2.) " On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays."
By Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart, F.R.S. {28 pp:)
1898. (Mar. 29.) "On the Physical Basis of Psychical
Events." By Sir MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B.,
F.R.S. {4.6 pp:)
1899. (Mar. 28.) "The newly discovered Elements;
and their relation to the Kinetic Theory of
Gases." By Prof. William Ramsav, F.R.S.
{19 pp)
1900. (Feb. 13.) "The Mechanical Principles of Flight."
By the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R S.
{26 pp)
I90L (April 22.) " Sur la Flore du Corps Humain."
By Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For.Mem.R.S.
{38 pp)
1902. (Feb. 25.) "On the Evolution of the Mental
Faculties in relation to some Fundamental
Principles of Motion." By Dr. Henry Wilde,
F.R.S. {34 pp.. 3 pis)
1903. (May 19.) " The Atomic Theory." By Professor
F. W. Clarke, D.Sc {32 pp)
1904. (Feb. 23.) " The Evolution of Matter as revealed
by the Radio-active Elements." By FREDERICK
SODDY, M.A. {4.2 pp)
Ixxiv TJie Wilde Lectures.
1905. (Feb. 28.) "The Ear!}' History of Seed-bearing
Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora."
I',)- Dr. D. H. Scott, VMS. {32 pp., 3 pis.)
1906. (March 20.) "Total Solar Echpses." By Pro-
fes.sor H. H. Turner, D.Sc., F.R.S. {32 pp.)
1907. (Februar)' 18.) " Tlie Structure of Metals." V>y
Dr. J. A. EwiNc;, l^R.S., M.InstC.E. {20 pp.,
j pis., and 3 text-figs.)
1908. (March 3.) "On the J'h\sical Asj-iect of the
Atomic Theory." By Professor J. LarmoI'.,
Sec. R.S. (57 //.)
1909. (March 9.) "On the Influence of Moisture on
Chemical Change in Gases." V)y Dr. II
Brereton Baker, F.R.S. (S pp.)
1910. (March 22.) " Recent Contributions to Theories
regarding the Internal Structure of the Earth."
By Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc,
F.R.S.
List of Presidents of the Society.
Ixxv
LIST OF PRESIDEXTS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of Election.
I781.
1782-
1787-
1789-
1805-
1807-
1809-
1816-
1844-
1848-
1851-
1855-
1860-
1862-
1864-
1866-
1S6S-
1870-
1872-
1874-
1876-
1878-
1880-
1882-
1884-
786.
789.
804.
806.
809.
9-
816.
844-
847-
850.
854-
859-
86t.
863.
865.
867.
869.
871.
873-
875-
S77.
879.
881.
8S3.
885.
1886.
1S87.
Peter Mainwaring, M.U., James Massey.
James Massey, TiiOiMAS Perciyal, M.D., F.R.S.
James Massey.
Thomas Perciyal, jNI.D., F.R.S.
Rev. George AV'alker, F.R.S.
Thomas Henry, F'.R.S.
*JoHN Hur.r,, M.l)., F.L.S.
Thomas Henry, F.R.S.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Ed\yakd Holme, ^LI)., F.L.S.
Eaion Hodgkinson, F.R.S., F.G.S.
John Mooke. F.L.S.
Sir William Faireairn, Part., LL.D., F.R.S.
James Prescott JouLK, D.CT.., F.R.S.
Ednyard William Pinney, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S.
EmYARD Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Ja.mks Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.
James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Ed\yard Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Ed\yard William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.
James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Ed\yarij William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir Henry Eniield Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.
William Crawford Williamson, LLT)., F.R.S.
RORKRT DUKINFIELD DaRRISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.
Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S.
"Ekcted April 2ytli ; resigned office May 5th.
Ixxvi List of Presidents of the Society.
Date of EleciwH.
1888-1889. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.
1890-1891. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.
1 892-1 893. Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., F.R.S.
1894-1896. Henry Wilde, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1896. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.
1897-1899. James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.
1899-1901. Horace Lamb, M.A., F.R.S.
1 901-1 903. Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S.
1903-1905. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.
1905-1907. Sir William H. Bailey, i\LLMech,E.
1907-1909. Harold Baily Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.
1909-1911. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.
191 1- F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S
Vol.. 56 : Part I.
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY, 1911-1912.
CONTENTS.
Presidential Address :
Researches on Heredity in Plants. By Prof. F. E. Weiss, D.Sc,
F.L.S. Within. - - - - - -. - - -pp. I -12.
{Issued separately, April 22ni, IQ12.)
Memoirs :
I. Mersenne's Numbers. By H. J. Woodall, A.R.C.Sc. (Lond.) -pp. i— 5.
(Issued separately, December I2tli, IQH.)
II. On a Collection of Arachnida and Chilopoda, made by Mr. S. A.
Neave in Rhodesia, North of the Zambesi. By S. Hirst.
With 2 Text-figs. - - - - - - - - - -pp-I -H-
{Issued separately, Decetnl'er soik, iqji.)
III. Intensive Study of the Scales of three Specimens of Salmo
salar. By Philippa C Esdaile, M.Sc With i Ft., s Dia^s.,
4 Graphs, ajtd Tables - - _._.__ pp. 1—22.
{Issued separately, Febiuaiy ibth, Jgi2.)
IV. A Geometrical Treatment of Geodesic Torsion. By Lancelot V.
Meadowcroft, B.A., M.Sc. With 4 Text-figs. - - - - pp. i— 13.
(Issued separately, Marcli btli, 1Q12.)
V. Observations upon the Improvement of the Physique of Man-
chester Grammar School Boys during the last 30 years. By
Alfred A. Mumford, M.D. ------- - pp. i— 19.
{Issued separately, February 26th, igi2.)
VI. The Synthesis of Hydrocarbons and their Stability at High
Temperatures and Pressures. By J. N. Pring, D.Sc, and
D. M. Fairlie, M.Sc With i Text-fig. pp. i— 9.
{Issued separately, MarcJi Sth, jg/2.)
VII. The Duration of Life of the Common and Lesser Shrew, w^ith
some notes on their Habits. By Lionel E. Adams, B.A.
IJ'ith / /'/. - - -pp. I— 10.
{Issued separately, Februa>y 6tli, IQ12.)
VIII. A Note on the Little Owl, Carine noctua (Scop.), and its Food.
By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S. --------pp. i— 11.
(Issiied separately, Jainta7y jrst, igi2.)
Proceedings ------------ pp. i— viii.
MANCHESTER:
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Green (J. A.)- A Biographical Guide to the Gaskell Collection in the
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London. — British Museum. (Natural History. ) Guide to the Exhibition
of Animah, Plants, and Minerals mentioned in the Bible. London,
191 1. [Reed. i4lxi.lii.)
Guide to Mr. Worthington Smith's Drawings of Field and
Cultivated Mushrooms and Poisonous or Worthless Fungi often
Mistaken for Mushrooms. London, 1910. {Reed, i^jxi./ii.)
. — Patent Office. Subject List of Works on Chemistry .... in
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Madison — Wisconsin History Commission.— Bibliography of Wisconsin
in the War. By I. S. Bradley, n.p., 1911. [Reed. iSji-lis.)
Manchester and London. — The Medical Chronicle. Vol. iv. (1886) — vi.
(1887); New Series, Vol. i. (1894)— x. (1899) ; 3rd Series, Vol. i.
(1899) — iv. (1901) ; 4th Series, Vol. i. (1901)— xxii. (No. 3, Dec,
191 1). Manchester and London. {Reed. 2oliz.li2,)
Marsden (V. E,) The Revolution in Finland under Prince John Obolensky.
By V. Vladimirov. Trans, from the Russian by V. E. Marsden.
London, 1911. [Reed. i/xzi./iT.)
New York. — Pennsylvania Society. Report on William Penn
Memorial in London : erected by the Pennsylvania Society in the
City of New York, July, MCMXL By Barr Ferree, Secretary of
the Society. New York, 191 1. [Reed, ^ji.jis.)
Vol. 56 : Part II.
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY, 1911-1912.
CONTENTS
Memoirs : ~"
IX. On the Modes of Rupture of an Open Hemispherical Concrete
Shell under Axial Pressure. By J. R. Gwyther, M.A. JVt^h
I PI. - pp. I— 8.
(Issued separately, Apy il 2qIJi. iqi2.)
X. The Formal Specification of the Elements of Stress in Cartesian,
and in Cylindrical and Spherical Polar Coordinates. By R. F.
Gwyther, M.A. IVith Table pp. i— 13.
(Issued separately, May isth, igi3.)
XI. The Presence of Maxillulae in Larvae of Dytiscidae. By Joseph
Mangan, M.A. With 2 Text-figs. pp. i— 6.
(Issued separately., May 2oth, i()i2.)
XII. On the Interpretation of the Vascular Anatomy of the Ophio-
glossaceae. By William H. Lang, M.B., D.Sc, F.R.S.
IVith 6 Text-Jigs. pp. I— 15.
(Issued separately, June 4.th, IQ13.)
XIII. On Search- Lights for the Mercantile Marine. By Henry Wilde,
D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. pp. i— 5.
(Issued separately. May 20th, igi2.)
XIV. The Volatility of Sulphur and its Action on Water. By Francis
Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S. E, F.C.S. JVith i Pi. - - - - pp. i— 4.
(Issued separately, June istli, 1Q12.)
XV. The Smelt in Rostherne Mere. By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S. - - pp. i - 2.
(Issued separately, June 6.'//, 1912.)
Proceedings. With Map ________ pp. ix. — xxxvi.
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Buchanan (J. Y.). In and Around the Morteratsch Glacier : A Study in
the Natural History of Ice. The Scottish Geographical Magazine,
April, 1912. [Reed. ilvii.\i3.)
Marsden (V. E.). Russia's Policy in Finland. By G. Evreinov. Trans,
from the Russian by V. E. Marsden. London, 1912. (Reed.
17JV.I12.)
Naples — Societa Reale di Napoli. Memorie della Reale Accademia di
Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti. Vol. I. Napoli, 1911. [Reed.
2Sliv.li3.)
Russell (H. C). [A Collection of twenty-seven Papers, Ijy H. C. Russell.]
(Reed. 2jlvi.//2.)
Sarawak. — The Sarawak Museum Journal. Vol. I., No. i. Sarawak,
191 1. (Reed. ylvi.li2.)
- — . The Ninth Report of the Sarawak Museum, 1910. By J. C. Moulton.
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1912. (Reed. 10JV.I12.)
. — The Tohoku Mathematical Journal. Vol. I — . Sendai,
1 9 1 1 . (Reed. 10I7J. J12. )
Sydney. — Results of Meteorological Observations made in New South
Wales during 1887; 1888; 1889; 1890; 1898; 1899 ; and 1900,
1901, and 1902; under the direction of H. C. Russell. 7 vols.
Sydney, 1889— 1904. (Reed. 2jlvi.//2.)
. — Results of Rain, River, and Evaporation Observations made in New
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1895; 1896; 1897; 1898; 1899; 1900; 1901-1902; under the
direction of H. C. Russell. 14 vols. Sydney, 1889-1904. (Reed.
2Slvi.li2.)
Taihoku. — Bureau of Productive Industries, Government of Formosa.
Incones Plantarum Formosanarum, nee non et Contributiones ad
Floram Formosanam. Fasc. I. Taihoku, 191 1. (Reed. 24IV.//2.)
Vur.. 56 : I'akt III.
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
Of
THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY, 1911-1912.
CONTENTS
Memoirs :
XVI. A Note on the Submerged Forest at Llanaber, Barmouth. By
T. G. B. Osborn, M.Sc. Il'if/t 2 /'A. aW - 7kv/-//>.v. - - pp. i— m
{fssm-ii se/'iiratc/y, ScJ>tci>:hcr ;ih, lot-'.)
XVII. On Ca!a»n'/r's (Caiaiiii/iii.i) 7-ai-ia7ts, Sternb., var. iiisicni^. Weiss.
By Mary A. Johnstone, B.Sc. H'i\'/i 1 PI. - - - - pp. i— 16.
{Issued sc/i/'cr 2btli, igr^.)
Proceedings ----------- pp. xxxvii. — IxxvL
Annual Report of the Council, with Obituary Notices of Sir
Joseph D. Hooker, O.M., G.CS.I., F.R.S., Mr.
W. W. Kirkman, Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D-,
F.R.S., Sir W. J. Crossley, Bart., M.LMech.E.,
and Prof. A. Ladenburg, Ph. D. - - - - pp. xlii.— liii.
Treasurer's Accounts ---------pp. liv.— Ivi.
List of the Council and Members of the Society - - - pp. Ivii.— Ixxii,
List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal - - - - - p. Ixxii.
List of the Wilde Lectures - - - - - - pp. Ixxtii. — Ixxiv.
List of the Presidents of the Society ----- pp. Ixxv.^xxvi.
Title Page and Index ------- -pp. i ~xii.
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.— Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium
te Batavia. Die Wind-veihiiltnisse in den oberen Luftschichten
nacli Ballunvisierungen in Batavia. Von Dr. W. van Bemmelen.
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Christiania, 1912. [Reed. 2Sjviu.li2.)
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logische I'rocessen der .\lcoholgist ...door J. E. van Anistel.
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. Hel Aethyleeren van Chloorbenzol. ...door J. G. W. Sieger.
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[Text and Atlas.] Delft, 191 2. (Reed. 7Jix.li2.)
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Sidebottom (Henry). Lagenae of the S«nnh-West Pacific Ocean. From
soundings taken by H.M.S. ]Vateyivitch, 1895. By Henry Side-'
bottom. London, 1912. (Rccd. 24lvii.\i2.)
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. (H. F. ). [A Collection of some eighty Papers from various
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Sessions (F.). Literary Celebrities of the English Lake- District. London,
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