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FOR THE PEOPLE

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FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

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THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

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MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE 'S . 0(3(1+ ^ ") 'X ") A/\ 1

V
MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY

(MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.)

Volume LXVI (1921-22

MANCHESTER :

36, GEORGE STREET

1923

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this volume are
themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings
which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must
not be considered as in any way responsible.

CONTENTS.

MEMOIRS.

.The Preservation of our Fauna (Presidential Address). By

T. A. Coward. M.St.. F.Z.S.. F.E.S pp. 1—20

{Issued scpunifvhj Xoveniher 30th, 1921.)

T. — On Certain Integrals Occurring in the Kinetic Theory of Gases.

By Sydney Chapman, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. pp. 1—8

{Issued se pa lately Aqjril 7th^ 1922.)

II.— Number-Forms. By T. H. Pear, M.A., B.Sc. }Vith 2 Text- figs. pp. 1—14
{Issued separaf'hj September SOth, 1922.1

III.— The Scottish Pork Taboo. By Donald A. Mackenzie. With

1 Plate and 1 Tex- fig. ... pp. 1 — 24

(Isai/ed separately February, 1923.)

IV. — The Cultural Significance of the Use of Stone. By W. J. Perry,

M.A pp. 1—16

{Issued separately February 7th, 1923.)

PROCEEDINGS

,, of the Chemical Section

Annual Report of the Council, 1922 ...

Treasurer's Accounts

List of Council (1921-22)

List of the Wilde Lectures

List of the Special Lectures

Joule Memorial Lecture

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal
List of the Presidents of the Society ...
Title Page and Index ...

pp. 1. — XXVI.

pp. xxvii. — xix.
pp. XXX. — xxxiv.

pp. XXXV. — xl.

p. xl.

pp. xli. — xlii.

p. xlii.

p. xlii.

p. xlii.

pp. xliii. — xliv.

pp. i. — viii.

INDEX.

M. = Memoirs. P. = Proceedings.

Accessions to Library. P. i., ii., xiv., xvii.
Accounts. P. XXXV.

Allan, J. Soap Bubbles. P. xiii., xxvii.
Annual General Meeting. P. xxiii.
Chemical Section. P. xxix.

— Report. P. xxiii., xxx.
Associates, Student. P. i., iii., ix.
Auditors. P. xv.

Report. P. XXXV.

Autographs of John Dalton. By S. J. Hickson. P. iv.

Biochemical Methods. By A. Harden. P. xii.

Briquetting of Coal and other substances. By A. Grounds, xxviii

Chapman, S. On Certain Integrals Occurring in the Kinetic Theory of Gases.

M. 1. P. viii.
Chemical Section, Officers and Committee. P. xxvii., xxix.

Annual General Meeting. P. xxix.

— Proceedings. P. xxvii.

Clayton, R. H. Canadian Meeting of the Society of Chenncal Industry.

P. xxvii.

The Canadian Tour of the Society of Chemical Industry. P. xxviii.

Collins, G. E. Structure of Stannic Acids. P. xv.

Corresponding Members, Election of. See Election.
Council, Election of. P. xxiii.

List of. P. xi.

Coward, H. F. The Performance of a Centrifuge. P. xxviii.
Coward, T. A. Death of Mr. Herbert Porter. P. iv.

Death of Dr. Edward Hopkinson, M.P. P. xiv.

Infant Birds. P. xiii.

The Preservation of Our Fauna. Presidential Address. P. ii.

Smelt. Osmerus eperlamis found at Rostherne Mere. P. xxii,

Crompton, W. M. Egyptian Flax and Linen. P. xxii.

Crust of the Earth. The. W. Boyd Dawkins. P. xxiv.

Cultural Significance of the Use of Stone, The. By W. J. Perry. M. 4.

VI. INDEX.

Dawkins, W. Boyd. "The Crust of the Earth." P. xxiv.

Development atnd Design of the Domestic Grate. The. By M. Fishenden.

P. xxvii.
Distribution of Electrons in Atoms. By R. W. James. P. v.
Donations. See Accessions to Library.
Dynamics of Collision of Diatomic Molecules. By J. E. Jones. P. viii.

Election of Corresponding Members. P. iii.

Honorary Members. P. ix.

Officers. P. xxiii.

Chemical Section. P. xxix.

Ordinary Members. P. i., ii., iii.. viii.. x.. xiii.. xiv., xxii., xxvi.

President. P. i., xxiii.

Student Associates. P. i., iii.. ix.

Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Steel, The. By F. C. Thomson.

P. xxviii.
Electromagnetic Valency and the Radiation Hypothesis. By F. T. Pierce.

P. X.
Estimation of the Smoke in the Atmosphere of Manchester, and Apparatus

Used Therefor. By W. Thomson. P. xvii.

Fishenden, M. The Development and Design of the Domestic Grate.
P. xxvii.

Grounds, A. Briquetting of coal and other substances. P. xxviii.

Harden, A. Bio-Chemical Method. P. xii.

Hannay, J. R. The Steaming Process in Calico Pi-inting. P. xxviii.

Hickson, S. J. " Some Early Autographs of John Dalton. P. iv.

Industrial Welfare (Notes on). By James Smith. P. xiv
Infant Birds. Bv T. A. Coward. P. xiii.

James, R. W. Distribution of the Electrons in Atoms. P. v.

.Joint Meetings. P. vi,, xii.

Jones, J. E. The Dynamics of Collision of Diatomic Molecules. P. viii.

Journals. See Accessions.

Lamb, Horace. Elected Honorary Member. P. ix.
Langmuir, Irving. Molecular Structure. P. ii.

[NDEX.

Library. See Acessions.
List of President. P. xliii.
Lists of Lectures. P. xli., xlii.

Mackenzie, D. A. Scottish Pork Taboo. M. 3. P. xxvi.
Molecular Structure. By Irving Langmuir. P. ii.

Number Forms. By T. H. Pear. M. 2. P. iii.

On Certain Integrals Occurring in the Kinetic Theory of Gases. By S.
Chapman. M. I. P. viii.

Pear, T. H. Number Forms. M. 2. P. iii.

Performance of a Centrifuge, The. By H. F. Coward. P. xxviii

Perry, W. J. The Cultural Significance of the Use of Stone. M. 4.

Pierce, F. T. Electromagnetic Valency and the Radiation Hypothesis. P. x.

Preservation of our Fauna, The. By T. A. Coward. Presidential Address.

P. ii.
Presidents, List of. P. xliii.

Radcliffe, L. G. The Sludging of Hydrocarbon Oils. P. xxvii.

Retting, and the Production of Fibre Flax in Belgium and Elsewhere. By

E. Holmes Smith. P. xxiii.
Rome and China; the Ancient Silk Trade. By J. Oliver Thomson. P. vii.
Rutherford, Sir E. Elected Honorary Member. P. ix.

Schuster, Sir Arthur. Elected Honorary Member. P. ix.

Scottish Pork Taboo. By Donald A. Mackenzie. M. 3. P. xxvi.

Sea Dyak Fabrics and their Decoration. By L. Start. P. xi.

Sludging of Hydrocarbon Oils. The. By L. G. Radcliffe. P. xxvii.

Smith, E. Holmes. Retting, and the Production of Fibre Flax in Belgium and

Elsewhere. P. xxiii.
Smith. G. Elliott. Elected Honorary Member. P. ix.
Smith, James. Some Notes on Industrial Welfare, with Special Reference

to Apprentice Training. P. xiv.
Smith, K. M. A Study of some Little Known Sense- Organs in the Antenna^

of Flies. P. xiv.
Smoke in the Atmosphere of Manchester, Estimation of. By W. Thomson.

P. xvii.

Vin. INDEX.

Soap Bubbles. By John Allan. P. xiii., xxvii.

Sound-producing mechanisms of Crustacea. By W. M. Tattersall. P. xix.

Start, L. Sea Dyak Fabrics and their Decoration. P. xi.

Steaming Process in Calico Printing, The. By J. R. Hannay. P. xxviii.

Structure of Stannic Acids. By J. K. Wood and G. E. Collins. P. xv.

Tattersall, W. M. The sound-producing mechanisms of Crustacea. P. xix.
Taylor, R. L. Death of Professor A. Sheridan Delepine. P. viii.
Thompson. F. C. The Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Steel. P. xxviii.
Thomson. J. 0. Rome and China; the Ancient Silk Trade. P. vii.
Thomson, W. Estimation of the Smoke in the Atmosphere of Manchester,
and Apparatus Used Therefor. P. xvii.

Visiting Societies. P. xxxiii.

Wegener's Theory of the Origin of Continents and Oceans. By W. B. Wright

and F. E. Weiss. P. xx.
Weiss, F. E. Ancient stone monuments and copper mines in the Coniston

district. P. xiv.

Grafting of potato tubers. P. iii.

Wegener's Theory of the Origin of Continents and Oceans. P. xx.

Wilde Lectures. P. xli., xlii.

Wright, W. B. Wegener's Theory of the Origin of Continents and Oceans.

P. XX.

" Young People's " Meeting. P. xii.

Ma7i Chester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1921)

Presidential Address.

The Preservation of Our Fauna.

By The President,
T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

{October I^th, 1921.)

Your Society in honouring- me by electing- me as President
has given an opportunity of disseminating some of the views
which to my mind are of national importance. Nay, I go
further ; they are of international importance, and though I
can speak best about the effect of protection in our islands,
the need is as great in other countries, though the constituents
of the fauna differ, and the destructive agencies may not be
the same. The Memoirs go to all parts of the world ; perhaps
in other lands some may realise that, before it is too late, it
is a duty to posterity to preserve and protect those creatures
whose existence is so much within the power of predatory
man.

The subject of this address is the Preservation of the
Native Fauna, but exactly the same necessity applies to the
Flora ; to the botanist I leave the pleading for his branch,
though indeed in many instances the two cannot be separated.
The destruction of the food plant may mean the end of those
creatures which feed upon it ; the annihilation of one particular
insect may destroy the plant that it fertilises.

Later, I shall have something to say about the alien or
colonist fauna, but the remarks on the whole apply rather to
the native or ancient fauna, those animals which inherited this
land of their birth before we, mostly descended from alien
invaders or colonists, decided that the land was ours, not
theirs. It is a strange ethical question this proprietorship —
and Man, thinking himself Lord of Creation, demands, like
'' Cunning- Old Fury," the right of Life or Death over all the
so-called lower animals.

November 30th, ig2i.

2 T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

" ril try the whole cause, and condemn you to death," is
the usual verdict.

Maybe, Man has the right of might, whether by strength
or learning, of cultivating certain plants and animals at the
expense of others, and condemning those which are in his way
as " weeds " or " vermin," but he is apt to overlook a very
important point. Knowledge is progressive, and, as the
historian knows, the acme of knowledge is a matter of the age ;
what is wisdom to-day may be foolishness to-morrow. The
learning of the past, in some cases at any rate, is ridiculous
in our twentieth century eyes; in each era there were philoso-
phers who believed that they had reached the top of the tree.
Alas, for their folly !

Just as the scientific manufacturer, generally through the
chemist, constantly finds fresh use for his bye-products, the
rejectamenta of former years, so the economic zoologist finds
value in the condemned weed or vermin. Furthermore, there
is at the present time a growing belief in the inter-relation of
all life, and though the study of ecolog\- is in its infancv, and
so far has failed to throw strong light upon the so-called
balance of nature, it is on the right track. When it becomes
the life work of many more philosophical naturalists, and is
not merely treated as something to dabble with during years
of preparation for some more lucrative career, we shall have
discoveries which will make us very diffident about destroying
or even attempting to destroy organisms which at the present
time we think are in our way.

What is the object of protection or preservation ? Why
do we endeavour to maintain one plant or animal, or urge
that all should have consideration ? There are four main
arguments brought forward in support of Protection, and
though the first three are for specializing, or selecting
individuals or groups of individuals for care, the last applies
to creatures as a whole. The one which perhaps appeals to
the largest number, and which gets most support in that agent
of popular propaganda- -the Press — is the Economic Argu-
ment. The lay and commercial mind understands this line
of reasoning. Your animal is or may be of value — to whom
or what? — to mankind in general; of value commerciallv ; of
value as a means of checking the increase of, or even of
destroying, something else which appears detrimental to
human welfare ; of value as food for some other creature
whose body or products are a commercial or agricultural (one
and the same thing) asset for Man. It must therefore be
protected, not for its own sake but for the welfare of another.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (192 1) 3

must indeed be exploited for that other — Man. For this
reason (and, are we ashamed to say, for this reason only ?)
exists our Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, striving to
regulate the numerical proportions of certain creatures, and to
instil its doctrines into a rather slow and old-fashioned
constituency.

So far so good ; since man has a right to keep his end up,
even though we class him as but a competing animal, he must
use all his arts and sciences, the product of his superior brain,
to accomplish his ends. I do not condemn him ; indeed I
strongly uphold, the study of economic zoology and botany,
and especially advocate that sensible assistance should be
given with this end in view to our schools and universities.
Unless we treat such delicate matters in a truly scientific
manner we shall land ourselves in a more parlous state than
we are at present. It is not to the academic mind that we need
to appeal, but to the great body of electors whose duty it is to
send as representatives men who will realise that science is
the driving power in life, and that science without education
is impossible. The economic argument may not be dis-
interested, but it is important, very important indeed.

The second argument for protection is the Esthetic one,
and this, with a few exceptions, is confined to propaganda on
the subject of bird preservation. Bird protectors, both in
societies and Parliament, are largely backed bv the economic
issue, and many, who are influenced purely by esthetic
stimuli, make use of the economic argument ; for that they
know will appeal when their own desires fail to attract. The
bird protector, however, is fully alive to the value of the
aesthetic argument in certain circles, and gains much support
from the sympathy and purses of ladies and others who are
mainly concerned with " the poor, pretty little birds." From
the purely aesthetic side there is much to be said in favour of
maintaining all birds of bright plumage or pleasant voice,
and there is^ perhaps, nothing else which will combat that
depraved commercial spirit which fosters the pseudo-love of
the beautiful in the head-gear of unthinking woman — a
survival of barbarity. When it is a question of the plumage
trade use the aesthetic argument for all it is worth.

The third argument, which may be called for want of a
more descriptive title, the Humanitarian argument, appeals
most strongly against the cruelty of destruction. There is
sound good sense in it, too, but it is often marred by a strange
lack of balance. Men and women who sicken at the sight of
pain in animals thev admire, will ruthlesslv inflict it upon

4 T. A. Low ARD — Presidential Address

those they class as vermin or merely consider ugly. Here
again, where there is cruelty in destruction, it is safe and right
to use the humanitarian argument for all that it is worth, but
we must avoid faddism ; the massacre of the plume-bearing
herons for the " ospreys " of commerce entails the slow
torture and starvation of young birds as well as the cruel
death of the parents, and this gruesome fact has, when pointed
out by reasonable advocates, influenced many tender-hearted
women to deny themselves the ornaments they coveted.

The last and least popular argument is the Scientific, or,
to put it in other words, the argument for scientific reasons.
It is, apart from economic arguments, most difficult to
advocate, and yet, I must confess, it is the one which appeals
most to my mind. It is an ethical question, and it is fair to
say that its force cannot be urged without admitting an
element of all other arguments. Why should it mean any-
thing- to us if a species becomes extinct, ceases to exist?
Nature's competitive struggle has swept away untold forms
without any call upon man's influence, swept them away
before man appeared upon the earth, brushed them aside,
the '' thousand types," actually to allow the development of
the better fitted creatures, amongst which Man ranks so high.
If Man be merely looked upon as a competitor in a highly
competitive world, there is no reason why we should bemoan
the fate of such types as were an impediment to his develop-
ment. Yet, I am sure, that this Society alone contains many
who share mv feeling of regret whenever they see evidence
of depletion in numbers of any species ; probably they also
share my inabilitv to explain why, when wanton destruction
or the influence of purely natural forces is causing this
reduction, a wave of sentiment, which has in it something of
the feeling of chivalry, impels them to uphold the cause of
the oppressed. Franklv it is not the death of the individual
which matters, thus the humanitarian impulse fails to apply,
it is the threatened destruction of some existing form.

We cannot argue, at any rate with ease, that we suffer
personallv because the great auk foolishly refused to develop
wings and would persist in placing its e^g on a shelving rock
up which men with clubs could climb as easily as itself ; is it
a matter of inconvenience to us that the Greenland right-whale
possessed more blubber than sense and so allowed itself to be
outwitted by the northern whalers, who in their rapacity
destroved their own livelihood ? Does it really matter that
Ave never saw a living dodo, or that Wicken Fen was made a
preserved area too late to save the large copper? Yet these

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1921) 5

and many other creatures have passed but a few years, com-
paratively speaking, before our time, and others are passing
now. We, who look at the question with what we may term
scientific sympathy, mourn the loss. It is because we know
that within recent years species after species has vanished,
and that we know that Man's rapacity is in many casse
responsible, that we are so anxious to check his evil influences
whilst yet there is time.

There are two methods of stopping or at any rate retarding
destruction — legislation and personal influence; each has its
place, and as a rule one without the other fails. Protective
laws cannot be passed without the strong use of the economic
and humanitarian arguments, and the last has often failed to
gain a hearing. Laws, too, are useless unless the sympathy
of legislators, and the public servants whose duty it is to
enforce them, is strong and constant. Our House of Com-
mons is filled by men whose tenure of office depends too much
upon topical political issues for it to spend much time upon
questions that are only appreciated by the minority of voters.
Thus, if we get a good sympathetic naturalist in the House,
and he advocates some useful protective measure, the chances
are against his success ; his bill is crowded out by matters
which appear more imminent but yet may have transitory
importance, matters which appeal to the immediate interests,
usually pecuniary, of the majority. The struggle for the
Plumage Bill is a recent case in point. It was through the
indifference of the majority of members who nominally sup-
ported the Bill, men of all shades of Party, that for so long it
was impossible to combat the small but powerful interests of
the plumage trade. Time alone will show whether in these
days of economic struggle there is sufficient true sympathy
with the intentions of the Bill to secure its legal enforcement.

Legislation for the protection of the fauna is not viewed
with much intelligence by some of those who are sent to act
as our representatives. During the second reading of the
Expiring Laws Bill, in August last, one member made what
he considered a witty speech, in which he poured scorn on
the work of protectors. This is what he said, as quoted by
Hansard : —

"' Then we come to the Sand Grouse Protection Act,
which inflicts penalties for killing, wounding or selling
sand grouse. We are getting very near the 12th, and I
suppose there are some honourable Members who know
something about grouse. I believe that the object of this

6 T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

Act is to acclimatise a species of bird which, when this Act
was passed, was supposed to be the sand grouse but which
is now recognised by ornithologists as not being a grouse
at all, but a form of pigeon. The amusing part of this Act
is that it was passed to protect sand grouse in this country.
There has never been a sand grouse seen in this country
since the Act was passed. It is called the Sand Grouse
Protection Act and, apparently, like all protection Acts, it
had the effect of destroying the thine which it was intended
to protect. There are various forms of grouse — the red
grouse, the willow grouse, and others — but the one thing
that does not exist here is sand grouse, and why in the
name of common sense we are going on year after year
with the object of acclimatising a form of grouse which is
not a grouse at all I cannot understand."

It is perhaps unnecessary to say that every sentence uttered
is erroneous; it is true that the Act, passed in 1889, was too
late to save the birds which came in the 1888 invasion, but
there have been seven irruptions or invasions since that date.
The object, of course, was to protect a species not to accli-
matise a sporting asset, as the gentleman who appeals '' in
the name of common sense '' seemed to think. But he was
not content with that ; he continued by attacking the Grey
Seals Protection Act of 19 14, and though an Irishman, he
was absolutely ignorant of his own native fauna. '^ Its object
is to protect the species of seal known as the Halichcernus
grypus " (this is the spelling as it appears in Hansard). '' I
do not know what we are protecting when it is so described.
I am advised that there is no such thing in the waters of this
country as the Halichcernus grypus. It is a variety that is
found only in Scandinavia. It sometimes swims over as far
as Denmark. — The humour of this legislation is that there is
no such thing in this country to protect." Comment is
unnecessary.

Those who have followed since 1880 the repeated muddling
alterations, amendments, and orders of the Wild Birds'
Protection Acts must realise that the passing^ of laws alone
will accomplish nothing. The law must be backed, and
backed with determination, by public opinion. Then the
constable will feel that he is supported in his efforts, that the
Bench is behind and not against him. It is true that many of
the officers require instruction ; they are not ornithologists,
and may easily make mistakes about the identity of species ; it
is equailv true that our magistrates, supposed to be educated

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1921) 7

men, are frequently more ignorant than the constabulary.
There are of course magistrates and magistrates, and we cannot
expect that all should at sight be able to tell the difference
between a protected and unprotected bird, but that is no excuse
for doubting the word of a constable. I have in mind one
local case. A bird-catcher was summoned for trapping pro-
tected redpolls, and his defence was that the birds were not
redpolls but "jitties" ; the constable, a Cheshire man, asserted,
quite correctly, that jitty was a local name for the redpoll, but
the magistrate, somewhat sharply, demanded how he knew,
gave the accused the benefit of the doubt and dismissed the
case. Can we expect that that olificer would again expose
himself to unjustifiable ridicule ?

It is, as was shown, possible to ride roughshod through
the existing Acts, but many constables, by bluff alone, have
carried out the meaning and intention of bird protection,
though they were aware that strict adherence to the letter of
the law would have spelt failure. In other cases the law has
been upheld by public interest and agitation ; those in
authority were quick enough to feel the popular pulse, though
personally they cared nothing about birds.

Looking back at 50 years of struggle to legislate on behalf
of wild birds we see some strange examples of the futility of
human efforts, and some curious and unexpected results upon
our fauna. To no man, perhaps, does bird protection owe
more than to the late Professor Newton. He was a rare type
of philosophical ornithologist, and largely to his determination
was due the first really unselfish legislation on behalf of wild
birds — the Sea Birds' Protection Act of 1869. There were
earlier protective measures — -indeed they date back to mediaeval
days, but in every other case the Acts were tainted by personal
interests, and partook of the nature of game and forest laws ;
the bittern, heron, duck or other bird was protected in order
that some privileged few might destroy it; the peregrine,
hobby, and merlin were not to be exterminated, for they were
required by certain noble sportsmen for hawking. Other laws
were openly intended to prevent trespass ; only those in high
places might kill, might enjoy blood sports.

Newton, though no sentimentalist, was touched by the suffer-
ings of the sea fowl. To the big breeding stations, especially
those of Flamborough and Speeton, excursion trains were
run in the nesting season from London, and, to our shame,
from Manchester and other Lancashire centres; these trains
were filled not with ornithologists but with '' sportsmen,"
who shot the trusting fowl when they refused to leave their

8 T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

precious eggs or voung. It was butchery of the grossest
kind, and the drain on numbers was beyond all calculation,
for the young perished of hunger on the ledges. In many
cases no effort was made to gather the spoil ; gull feathers
were too plentiful to make the labour profitable; the excuse of
commercialism could not be given ; it was sheer brutality.

" If this is not cruelty, what is it? " was Newton's indig-
nant cry. ** Can men blaze away hour after hour at these
wretched inoffensive birds and call it ' Sport ' without being
morally the worse for it? We thank God that we are not
as Spaniards are, who gloat over the brutalities of a bull-
fight. Why, here in a dozen places around our own coasts
we have annuallv an amount of agony inflicted on thousands
of our fellow-creatures, to which the torture of a dozen horses
and bulls in a ring are as nothing."*

The railway companies advertised the opportunities for
sport, and then the subtle trader stepped in and created a
fashion in gulls' feathers; the price went up, the dealers were
able to offer one shilling per kittiwake, so Cordeaux states,
and one man alone boasted that he had slain 4,000 adult birds
in one season. Taking into consideration the number of
eggs which might have been laid and reared, the number of
young which certainly must have been starved in the nest,
and the wounded birds which escaped to slowlv perish, it is
probable that that single butcher was responsible for a reduc-
tion in one year of at least 10,000 birds. '' Fair and innocent
as the snowy plumes may appear in a lady's hat," says
Newton, '' I must tell the wearer the truth — ' She bears the
murderer's brand on her forehead.' "

But why agonize our feelings with things of the past ?
The Sea Birds' Act, though repealed, as was the later Wild-
fowl Act of 1872, was, after many struggles, replaced bv a
better and more sweeping measure, and all birds are now
protected. Are they ? It is just because what Newton fore-
saw has taken place — the substitution of a nominally better
Act with much wider scope, framed by men who were either
indifferent or not disinterested, has failed in a great measure
to preserve those species which were most in danger. It is
true to say that the Act of 1869, converted into that of 1880,
has saved the kittiwake, but it has not converted the sinners
nor roused a better spirit in the general public. Egg-
snatching on the Yorkshire cliffs is still a trade, and though
under proper regulations it would not do serious damage to

* Wollaston. " Life of .Alfred Newton," 1921.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1921) 9

the various species which still nest there in large numbers, it
has the result of delaying^ the nesting- period and turning the
young out at the end of the close season when still unable to
escape the guns of the " sportsmen." I have seen in early
autumn a boat load of immature kittiwakes and other gulls
brought in at Flamborough ; I have seen young loafers, men
with money no doubt, lounging about the jetty at Knott End
and shooting at every unfortunate young gull or other bird
which ventured within range. *' Would you stop the poor
man's sport? " is a common cry; yes, and the rich man's too
if he is endangering the existence of a national asset.

What happened with the Bill of 1872 is this : it was made
too all-embracing to be functionable. After a British Asso-
ciation Close-time Committee had carefully considered all
points, the Bill was framed and passed without consulting any
real ornithologists. Newton, wTiting to his brother, says : —
" Mr. Herbert, on the 21st of June last, laid a cuckoo's egg
in the carefully built nest of the British Association Com-
mittee, and the produce is a useless monster — the wonder alike
of the learned and the layman, and an awful warning as an
example of amateur legislation.""^

In order that the sentimentalist might be propitiated such
birds as robin and dun nock received protection, and a small
fine, which included costs, was imposed for an ofTence against
common birds and those which were threatened with extinc-
tion. The collector smiled, took the risk, and if caught cheer-
fully paid, knowing well that such fine was a minute discount
off the price which he could obtain. So, in a few vears the
Act died, and the better framed Act of 1880 was passed, but
its scheduled birds were not sufficiently protected, and in a
few years so many amended clauses were added that it became
necessarv to describe the measure as '"the Acts " ; no one but
the lawyer was any the wiser or better off, and few lawyers
found it worth while to study the complicated problem. Until
protective legislation is framed by scientific, unbiassed
students of bird life, who ignore the plea of the sentimentalist
and weigh with caution the enthusiasm of the economist, the
depletion of bird life, that is of the species we most wish to
preserve, wnll continue.

The law has failed to reach and check the depredations of
one class of criminal (it is justifiable to use the term for any
law-breaker), the greedy collector and his agents, those who
supply him. The professional collector, the man who trades

* Wollaston. Op. cit.

lo T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

in specimens, is constantly blamed for the damage he does,
for his looting is wholesale, but he would very soon turn his
attention to some other method of gaining a living were he
not patronized ; it is the hoarding private collector, the man
who pretends to be but so seldom is scientific, who is really
responsible.

It must, however, be admitted, as even Xewton was forced
to admit, that the Acts, in spite of their blundering, have
accomplished much. Public feeling was and is strong, and,
backed by indifferent legislation, it has so far checked destruc-
tion that many species have benefited. Here comes an anti-
climax ; some of the species, actively or passively protected,
have increased so enormously that they have exceeded the
natural limits, overweighted the balance, and it is questionable
whether further protection is or is not desirable. The aesthetic
and humanitarian school are shocked at any suggestion of
relaxation ; the economic and scientific are in doubt, the first
because personal interests are affected, the second because of
the uncertainty of interference with nature's balance.

The world is a big place, but it is a very varied one ; its
inhabitants, whether human or otherwise, are unevenly dis-
tributed. Vast tracts are sparsely populated, others are sadly
congested, but there is reason for the irregularity. The
unpopulated areas are unfit, at any rate during a portion of
the year, for a crowded population ; the congested areas are
the ones where food is obtainable. When we exclude from
our thoughts colonising man, who has the power to some
extent of altering the whole face of a country, we see that the
lower forms must either remain in or travel to and from the
best food-supplying districts or perish. Britain is a typically
crowded area, and is so well stocked with various forms of life
that we may treat it as a fair example of a food area. It
supplies just the necessary amount of food to make life
endurable for just that number of creatures which it can
support ; in other words, there are enough and not too many
of each form existing within its bounds, and this required
number depends entirelv upon the seasonal supply of vege-
table food, and the balanced and regular supply of animal
food which depends upon the vegetation. Any shortage, due
to climatic variation, of the vegetable food supply, is imme-
diately followed by famine, which means not onlv famine for
the phytophagous but for the carnivorous forms ; a good year,
an increased output of cultivation, the introduction of a new
or alien crop, is followed by an increase of veg^etable feeders,
an increase of their natural enemies, and of the creatures which

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1921) 11

subsist upon them. What is the result? The numbers are
raised above the normal, and when the normal food supply
returns, famine follows as surely as when the supply w^as
short ; there are too many mouths to be filled. Thus taking
an average of years the necessary average is maintained, and
this is Nature's Balance.

It is fair to say that there cannot be in any civilised, indeed
in any country populated by man, a real natural balance ; Man
is the great disturber of Nature. But in a country like
Britain, where civilisation has been working for the ends of
Man for ages, there is what we may call a human or artificial
natural balance ; a point at which, under the present artificial
system, the inter-relation of plants and animals, cultivated
and domestic as well as wild, remains more or less constant.
It is our duty to maintain that present day balance so far as
we can consistently with our actual requirements, for if we
fail mankind as well as the lower animals will suffer. It is
with this end that economic zoology and botany should be
studied.

The increase beyond the normal proportions of any species
of bird, due to protection which has not taken into considera-
tion consequences, may be a tragedy. It may, probably will,
affect our life interests ; it certainly will have influence upon
the relative numbers of other forms. Need I mention as
problems of the day the extraordinary increase since 1880 of
the black-headed gull and the starling, two species wholly
-^'rJuable in their proper proportions, but threatening other
forms, actively or passively, now that they have become so
numerous.

May I here mention that it was after I had thought out
and actually written most of this paper that I read Dr.
Ritchie's fascinating study in faunal evolution, '' The Influ-
ence of Man on Animal Life in Scotland." My line of
thought is practically the same as his, and, though we had
arrived at the same conclusions independently, I am indebted
to him for several useful suggestions. I know of no better
exposition of the need for sensible and well considered protec-
tion than is supplied by this book.

Dr. Ritchie divides his subject into two parts — deliberate
and indirect interference with animal life. In the first he
groups domestication, intentional destruction of animals for
various reasons, protection of animals for other reasons, and
the introduction of new forms. In the second he deals with
changes in natural environment and the influence on animals,
cultivation, civilisation, and the accidental or unintentional

12 T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

introduction of creatures, for the most part classed as pests.
An entirely dififerent method of ^roupino- or analysis of results
would be the dividino- of those from which Man derives
benefit, from those which are detrimental to his welfare.
Deliberately or unintentionally man has in his dealings with
animals derived profit and loss, and he has by no means
invariably succeeded in attaining the ends that he desired, or
wiiich, at first blush, seemed likely to result. Animals, con-
sciously or unconsciously, treat Man as a competing species,
and however warmly a Krapotkin may advocate mutual aid,
or a Drummond urge the harmony of Nature, the painful fact
remains, Man and the primitive protozoon alike strives and
has to strive to exist at all.

So long as the disturbance of Nature is confined to culti-
vation of land or domestication of useful animals, necessities
for man's existence, this disturbance is not only justifiable
but a duty. It may mean, it is certain to mean, destruction
of many existing forms as well as individuals, but the loss
cannot be helped; it is true, however, that in few^ cases has
the cultivation for food or the destruction of animals for the
same reason been the cause of extinction ; it is when commer-
cialism demands wholesale and usually wasteful methods that
this undesirable end is evident. The African native, who in
his pitfalls slew wholesale, for the sake of obtaining food, did
less havoc than the trading sportsman who found ivory and
other products meant wealth — in other words supplied more
than was necessary for his welfare but not for his desired
wealth. The Red Indian was not gifted with foresight in his
attacks upon the bison, but he failed to destroy it until
commercial Western civilisation took a hand ; then the vast
herds soon ceased to exist. Mr. H. J. Massingham says that
*' in many ways, our attitude to animals is still very barbarous
and very imperfectly consistent. But it must be remembered
that these barbarisms are partly vestigiary relics of an
unenlightened past and partly the consequences of the detest-
able predatory spirit directly encouraged by commercialism."*
Not only do I endorse this, but I would add my belief that the
ancient barbaric attitude, cruel, wasteful, blind though it was,
was more in harmony with Nature than the greedy, commer-
cial, Devil-take-the-hindmost spirit of the so-called intelligent
man of the present day who, for his own gain, exploits the
weaker brain power of less highly developed creatures.
Granted, however, that a certain amount of disturbance is

•Massingham, *' Some Birds of the Country Side, 1921."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1921) 13

bound to follow any effort for advance, it is all the more
necessary that we should take steps which will involve change
only after carefully considering the cost ; this cannot be
estimated until we have so studied, to the best of our ability,
the life history of all living creatures, that we may gain some
knowledge of how far one depends upon another. Further-
more, any interference with what I have called the artificial
natural balance must be watched with an open mind.

Let me illustrate this last point by a practical case. One
of the questions which has constantly puzzled those who were
framing laws for protection has been how far the taking of
eggs of the lapwing should be prohibited ; the usual conclu-
sion is that the lapwing is wholly insectivorous, using this
word in that wider sense which means invertibrate-ivorous,
and that therefore it should receive the fullest protection.
But two other interests are taken into consideration — the one
commercial, for the eggs are in demand in the market, the
other a matter of policy, the attitude towards the farmer and
his hands ; it is unwise to add restrictions which it is difificult
to enforce. Therefore, in most cases eggs may be taken up
to a certain date, but after that they are protected. But
supposing that full protection is granted to the bird, and it
increases, are we sure that increase is desirable ? The lapwing
may, when in its normal numbers, confine its attention to
certain food, say the larvae of root-eating moths, larvae of
phytophogous diptera and coleoptera, such as crane flies and
wireworms, or to the small molluscs which certainly do
damage. But does the bird confine its attention to these ?
Does it sagely examine and leave unmolested the larva of a
carnivorous beetle ? Can it, or indeed any bird which follows
the ploughman, distinguish between the grub of a cockchafer
and that of the fertilising dung beetle ? And if it could have
we any reason to suppose that it would leave the so-called
useful insect for our benefit ? And in particular, does it or
does it not eat earthworms, and if it does, is it doing us good
or harm? Darwin, the great earthworm's advocate, showed
the utility of this despised creature, but may we not have too
many earthworms ? It is an unsettled problem. Leave the
worm problem to the mole, some say ; but do we ? We
destroy the mole, yet not, if we are honest, because it devours
the worm but because it throws up unsightly and awkward
mounds, obstacles to tillage, or, in many instances, because it
has a pelt which has commercial value. But does not the
worm-devouring mole do exactly what the worm accom-
plishes, aerate and moisten the ground through its tunnels,

14 T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

and throw good top-dressing to the surface? In short we
must remember that those creatures which appear to be of
service by destroying pests do not discriminate ; they also
destroy other useful checks on these same pests. The bud-
destroying bullfinch eats also the seeds of troublesome weeds,
the tit kills the spider which itself ensnares alike the trouble-
some fly and the parasite which keeps it in check, the moth,
parent of the caterpillar, and the ichneumon which destroys
the grub. It is all very complicated, very confusing. All the
more reason for careful, unbiassed study of all animal life ;
we never know where and when we may hit on fresh light, a
new link in this complicated, tangled chain of nature.

Without entering into the ethics of war, we can look back
and review the lessons of the recent struggle, when interference
with Nature was rampant. First consider food shortage apart
from political and economic causes ; it was deemed necessary
to encourage internal resources ; we strove to increase our food
supply, especially of wheat, potatoes and vegetables. We
sowed wheat everyw'here, but we did not always reap the
harvest; in certain soils, for long unsuited to or at least unused
to this crop, the wheat-bulb fly appeared and worked its
wicked will. It was not, as our late member. Dr. A. D. Imms,
pointed out, that Hylemyia coarctata was a new comer to our
lands, but that wheat had been sown on unfavourable ground,
following in incorrect rotation ; we were, in fact, very ignorant
about the life history of this fly, and unwittingly gave it an
opportunity of increasing before its natural parasites had a
chance of reducing its numbers to the normal. With a little
more knowledge we should have avoided the catastrophe ; but
had we continued to grow wheat in spite of the set-back, we
should probablv have discovered that we had in time reached
an artificial natural balance, when Man would have got some
wheat, but neither would the bulb-fly nor its parasites have
entirely vanished. We may, in cultivation, force the pace,
we do it constantly, but ultimately natural forces assert them-
selves; a stable condition is reached.

Game preservation has wrought many changes in Nature's
balance, and these are often closely connected with the intro-
duction of alien creatures. A new and complex situation
arose during the war; its effect is still noticeable. Apart from
the previous interference with animal life caused by game
preservation methods was the fact that a large number of men
were engaged in continuous efforts to decrease the numbers
of certain creatures, called by them " vermin," and simulta-
neously to increase the head of game, a persistent effort to

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (192 1) 15

upset natural balance. Many of these men were drafted into
the army, artificial rearing was almost entirely neglected, and
much of the seasonal shooting or sport was discontinued.
Immediately a change was noticeable ; predatory animals such
as hawks, owls, crows, magpies, jays, stoats, weasels, and
foxes increased; rabbits became a nuisance in spite of con-
trolled prices, rats were a perfect plague, and small birds
decreased. Unfortunately the issue was confused by a natural
catastrophe, the abnormal winter and spring of 1916-17, when
so many birds suffered from starvation, and in direct conse-
quence insect life had a chance to increase. If, however, some
measure of the decrease in bird life was due to the abundance
of predatory creatures, which I believe it was, we can see why
the wheat bulb-fly increased, and why the forest trees for
several years have suffered defoliation by the larvae of species
of Hibernia and Cheimatohia, and other insects. Possibly
too it was a factor in the abnormal invasion of the upland
pastures by the larvae of the antler moth.

One remarkable, significant, and in some quarters at least
unexpected result is that the stock of wild pheasants, that is
to say of birds which nested and reared their young without
artificial aid, is greater than before the war. It has often been
asserted that the pheasant, an introduced bird, could not exist
without protection ; I believe that it is so firmly established as
a colonist that it has reached that position when it is fitted to
maintain its own natural balance. The wild birds not only
could exist, but actually benefited by the absence of competi-
tion with their hand-reared brethren ; there was no longer
over-stocking.

Game preservation, a very ancient source of interference,
has altered the constituents of the fauna more than most
agencies, the cultivation of land and domestication of animals
excepted ; it has too often altered it for the benefit of the
minority. Yet we must face the fact that the destruction of
predatory creatures and the provision of shelters for game —
woodlands, coverts and moors — have proved advantageous to
innumerable creatures, mammals, birds and insects for
example, which were innocuous to game or beneath the notice
of its guardians. We have no vivid faunal picture of our
land before the days of forest and game laws, but we can
imagine what it was like from analogy. A friend of mine
who served as a doctor during the East African campaign was
much struck by the apparent absence of small birds and the
visible abundance of raptorial ^ecies. He argued that there
must be a wealth of bird life to feed all these carnivorous-

l6 T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

vultures, kites, eagles, hawks and falcons, and soon arrived at
the correct solution of the problem ; small mammals and birds
sheltered in the dense jungle, the predatory birds '' waited
on," as the falconer would say. When a possible victim
ventured from its shelter it was at once hunted, driven back
or captured. Our forests and woodlands, now reduced to a
minimum, must have been similarly crowded with timorous
creatures; the open country was free to the larger and more
powerful forms. Man has altered all this, man with his axe
and hoe has let light into the jungle. What says '' The
Roadmaker " : —

" 'Mid vegetable king and priest
And stripling, I (the only beast)
Was at the beast's work, killing ; hewed
The stubborn roots across, bestrewed
The glebe with the dislustered leaves,
And bade the saplings fall in sheaves;
Bursting across the tangled math
A ruin that I called a path,
A Golgotha that, later on,
When rains had watered, and sun shone,
And seeds enriched the place, should bear
And be called garden."

When others, long before Stevenson, hacked their way
through the primeval forest, " bathed in vegetable blood,"
they let in the predatory beasts and increased the struggle.
But Man too is predatory, and from craving for food or desire
for sport he helped the lesser folk at the expense of the greater,
especially when he realised that these powerful creatures
competed with him in blood lust. How well he succeeded in
driving them from the face of the earth may be realised by the
study of history. Here in Britain the white-tailed eagle and
the osprev have gone, the golden eagle survives because it is
useful as a protector of other game or rather as an assistant
on the deer forest ; the kite, once a useful and very familiar
scavenger in our mediaeval towns, and the harriers are reduced
to a few struggiers, solely maintained by private protectors;
the pine marten, badger and otter are threatened with extinc-
tion, the polecat and wild cat have within our time followed
the wolf and bear. The raven once nested in our midst but
now only exists in the wilds ; the lesser fry have suffered too,
though in a smaller degree. It was woe to many creatures
when gunpowder came into general use, it was the end when
the lethal weapon was " improved."

When engaged in warfare against the smaller creatures,
especially those which are in reality his parasites, Man usually

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1921) 17

, fails to destroy, though he may* succeed in keeping them in
check by materially reducing numbers. But when he pits
his science and cunning against the less developed intelli-
gence of the larger forms, he can entirely wipe a species out,
and often does this in his greed to secure wealth in advance
of his human competitors. Thus the rat, sparrow, house fly
and louse defy his efforts, and until his whole moral outlook
changes, for sanitation is a moral question, his cleverest
devices will fail to utterly check their ravages. Even then it
is doubtful if he will ever destroy the fly and mosquito though
he may render their attacks innocuous. The rat, indeed,
persistently following man, has often undone his best work.
Its arrival on Lord Howe Island has resulted in the ruin of
that successful Australian bird-reserve.

With larger and less numerous animals the fight is more
one-sided, for they are not numerous because he is numerous.
How effectually he can destroy is shown by the extinction of
the vast hordes of passenger pigeons, the Esquimox curlew,
the great auk, and many of the Australian parrots. But we
need not go beyond the limits of our own land for examples.
It has often been argued that drainage of marshes or cultiva-
tion of land explain the extinction as breeding species of the
bittern, ruff, black-tailed godwit, great bustard, Savi's warbler
and crane. Yet the bittern, after long- absence, is nesting
once more in the marshes where it derives protection, private
protection be it remembered, and the ruff too has returned ;
there are many suitable places still remaining where these
birds might nest if allowed. What has happened with another
marsh species, the black-headed gull ? Driven from place to
place by the drainage of one after another of its haunts, it has
still found sites to colonise and wherein to increase. True
there may be factors which explain the increase of one species
and the decrease of another which have no connection with
the influence, at any rate direct, of Man; we can for instance
explain the increase and spread of the great crested grebe, at
one time nearly swept away by the demand for its soft breast
plumage — protection gave it the start it needed. But it is
hard to imagine that the same factor operated in the case of
the turtle dove. A change of habit and of breeding range
may have influenced the godwit and black tern. It is, how-
ever, certain that immediately these and other species were
seen to be rare their commercial value rose and they were
hunted out of the country by the collector. When Seebohm
pointed out that the St. Kilda wren differed from the main-
land form it was an evil day for the little islander; one

1 8 T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

prominent bird protector, now no more, did his utmost to help,
in extinction of this subspecies.

The Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain recently called attention in
the Times to the havoc of commercialism amongst the eiders
of Spitzbergen. The motor on the sailing sloop is the engine
of destruction, for it enables the ep-o- and down-hunters to
enter bays and inlets which were unsafe before its introduc-
tion. One sloop, at the end of last June, had on board '' no
fewer than 15,000 eggs." The remnant of the Spitzbergen
eiders may be saved when there are so few that it no longer
pays to exploit them, but, unfortunately, even this has not
saved every persecuted species.

One of the worst destructive features is the intentional
introduction of animals to a land to which they are alien.
This is usually due to sentiment, but often to a desire,
apparently harmless, of improving the fauna by the addition
of attractive animals. The result of this well-meaning but
mistaken policy is never satisfactory, at any rate for many,
very many years. There is no middle course. The intro-
duced creature either finds life so hard in the new land, and
enemies so numerous that it dies out at once, or it finds condi-
tions so favourable and natural checks so few that it increases
rapidly and some less fitted native succumbs to give it room.
Many efforts have been made to improve and increase the
variety of our game stock, but whereas the barbary partridge,
the willow grouse, the colin, bob-white, button quail, and
even tinamou have been tried and failed, the red-legged
partridge has established itself, and the various pheasants
have settled down. Amongst mammals the reindeer, wapiti,
and beaver rank amongst the failures, the rabbit is perhaps
the best instance of a successful colonist; so far has it estab-
lished itself that we now count it as native, and realise that it
has reached that stage when an artificial natural balance wath
other forms is stable. But can we not guess that awful
dislocation of the balance amongst native forms occurred
before the rabbit found its level ; how many creatures whose
absence we mourn may have owed their decline to competi-
tion with the rabbit ? What it can do when placed in an
alien land we know, for is not Australia still faced with the
problem, and have not other efforts to check it by introducing
its foes — stoat, weasel, dog, cat, and fox — all had bad results,
the destruction of the native fauna or the colonists' stock,
but not of the prolific alien.

Later enthusiasts have brought us the little owl and grey
squirrel, and we have yet to see the full results of the folly of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (192 1) 19

introducing- successful colonists. At Woburn already it has
been necessary to have a squirrel drive, and though neither
squirrel nor little owl may be guilty of all the crimes laid to
their charge, it is certain that as both are rapidly spreading
some other creatures are suffering. I have heard complaints
from Hertfordshire and Northants, where the little owl
flourishes, that the tawny and barn owl are decreasing ; there
is only a certain catchable quantity of owl food and the smart
little owl is getting the pick. The bird has now reached our
area, where during the last ten years or so the barn and tawny
owls have increased ; what will the next decade show ?

There are many introductions for which we are not inten-
tionally responsible, creatures which travel with and in our
food supplies. Many of these come merely as stowaways and
perish in an inhospitable land, but others, the hangers-on of
civilisation, follow man wherever he takes or sends his sup-
plies. The codlin moth, estimated to cost America at least
;i""2,ooo,ooo annually, we sent from Europe, and in return we
have to thank America for the American blight. Cockroaches
travel from various parts of the world, for they are great
navigators, and colonise wherever thev land. The Mediter-
ranean flower moth is everywhere, its land of origin is uncer-
tain, and that small weevil, Calandra granaria, is a similar
cosmopolitan pest. These and many others, too numerous to
mention, increase and spread as trade increases and spreads.
We must investigate their life story and take whatever course
we can to reduce them to their original status.

Having realised that Man not only has been but still is
responsible for great changes in animal life, many of which
entail the passing of species, two questions may with reason
be asked. Why should we endeavour to preserve any of
those animals which are so feeble that they cannot keep their
own ends up ? To that I would answer with other questions.
Do we desire to see any of the existing forms follow after those
which have gone ? And do we look forw^ard with joy to a
land, nay a world, peopled only bv Man, his domesticated
slaves, his animate commercial assets and his parasites? If
this is not a pleasant outlook, then what must we do ?

There are, as I have said, two ways of dealing with Protec-
tion— legislation and public opinion. If we foster the latter
the former will follow. But we want our legislation to be
wise, and to achieve this our advocacy of the cause must also
be wise. Newton, as bird protector, was sarcastic about many
methods of its advocates. '' The worst is that people will
gush and be sentimental .... the sentimentalists give far

20 T. A. Coward — Presidential Address

more trouble than anyone else." He was also down on the
extravagant assertions, over-coloured statements of letter
writers: — "Our wild animals have no great reason to be
grateful to their ordinary defenders in the newspapers." It
is true. We need moderate, cool statement of fact, based on
the study of life in field and laboratory, and the philosophical
application, after careful experiment, of what we have learnt.
Above all let us so order our behaviour towards the lower
animals that it may not be asserted by the generations to
come that the thoughtless, selfish men of the present era
destroyed or allowed to be destroyed, for their own commercial
ends or for their sporting pleasure, creatures w^hich belonged
to all time, the Men of the future as well as the Men of to-day.
In conclusion. Do these creatures belong either to us or
to those who will follow ? Have they not equal rights to a
place in the sun ? If so, we are justified only in destroying
when and where we are forced to maintain our ow^n competitive
position.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No, 1

I. On Certain Integrals Occurring in the Kinetic Theory

of Gases.

By Sydney Chapman, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.,

Beyer Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in
the Victoria University of Manchester.

(Read and received for publication November 15th, 1921.)

(i) Among the more important molecular models used in
the kinetic theory of gases are point centres of force varying
as the inverse n-th power of the distance. The expressions
for the coefficients of viscosity, diffusion, and thermal conduc-
tion for a gas composed of such molecules contain as factors
certain numbers defined in the form of definite integrals.
These integrals have been calculated by quadratures in one
case, treated of by Maxwell, i.e., the case n = 5.^ Lord Ray-
leigh 2 showed how the value of n may be deduced from the
temperature-variation of the coefficient of viscosity of a gas,
and in general it is thus found that n is greater than 5. In
order, therefore, to calculate the intensity of the fields of
repulsive force surrounding such molecules, from the observed
coefficients of viscosity and diffusion, it is necessary to deter-
mine the said integrals for values of n greater than 5. The
object of this note is to describe a method which has been
used for this purpose, and to place on record the results so
obtained.

(2) The integrals in question are defined as follows : —

(2.1) Ii(n) = 4TC I cos^^.ada,

0

(2.2) l2(n) = 4x I sm^cos^^. a d a,

" 0.
where 6 is a function of a given by the equation

0

1. Maxwell, " Collected Papers," ii, p. 42.

2. Rayleigh, " Collected Papers."

April Jth, ig22.

2 S. Chapman — Kinetic Theory of Gases

In this expression the upper Hmit y)o is the (unique) positive
real root of the equation

(2.4) 1-7)2- ~-(^y = o

n — I \ a /

When n = 5 the expression (2.3) for 6 is an elliptic function,
and its numerical value as a function of a can be obtained
from tables of elliptic functions, lysine: these values for sub-
stitution in (2.1) and (2.3), Maxwell numerically integrated the
latter, and obtained the results

(2.5) 1,(5)= 2-6595, I,(5)= 1-3682.

Another value of n which gives easily calculable results is
11 = 2; in this case it is readily found that

cos-f)= 5-

I +a^

where a^ is the upper limit in the integrals Ii and I2 ;
physically regarded this limit cannot now be taken infinite,
since then Ij and L would also become infinite. The value
of ao to be adopted depends on the maximum distance apart
of the lines of relative motion of. two molecules during a
binary encounter. The case n = 2 is of physical interest only
in relation to the extreme conditions found in the interior of
stars, when the gas-particles are highly ionised.

Another partly integrable case is that of n = 3, for which
it is easilv seen from (2.3) that

It is convenient to change the variable in (2.1) and (2.2) to Q,
using the equations

ada = ida^- = (ix)^ ( (iTu)^ - 6^ I -2 q d 6,

the limits of 6 being o and ^ %. The integrals (2.1) and (2.2)
are readily obtainable by numerical quadrature after this
substitution, the integrand being finite within the range of
integration and at Q = o, and having a finite limit at e = -|x.
The values obtained, dividing the range of integration into 20
equal intervals, and applying Weddle's rule for 11 ordinates
(repeated), are as follows :

Ii(3) = 5'099- 10(3) = 3*823.

For ordinary gases the values of n which are of interest
range from 5 to about 15.

(3) To determine I^ and L for general values of n, it is

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 1 3

necessary first to calculate 0 by quadratlire of the integral (2.3),
and subsequently to perform a second quadrature of the
integrals (2.1), (2.2), using the computed values of 6. None
of these three integrals, however, is in a form suitable for
numerical calculation, since in (2.3) the integrand is finite at
the upper limit, while in the other two the range is infinite.
It is therefore convenient to transform the variables so that
these infinities shall disappear, leaving the integrals in a form
to which Simpson's or Weddle's rule can be applied.

In the case of (2.3) it is desirable to take y]o rather than a
as known, since it is difficult to calculate y]o from a, but easy to
find a when y]o is given. Thus, if y]o satisfies (2.4), we have

while

<3-») -.■-^(j)-=.---^(jr(-:r

=(i-„2)-(i-,„^)(^Y '

Now introduce new variables ;x, Xo, defined as follows;

(3.3) ri = sinx rio = sinxo>

Xo being a function of a according to the relation (cf. 3.1)

(3.4) a^ = sin^y^ , f — ^r- F^

w

hile

(3-5) J -r]2- -^ y^ -cos\-{sinyJsinyoY-'' cos^o-

Expressed in terms of 7, (2.3) becomes

'{ i^{sinylsinx,y-^ {cosy,lcosyy)''"dx

the limits being o and -/o- Finally we transform to the variable
Zy where

(3.7) 02^ I -X, y=^^ro^

so that 2 ranges from o to i as \ varies from i to o. The
expression for 9 then becomes

(3.8) 0 - 27

;^ (i-{sin\y,lsiny^Y-^(cosyJcos\yoY^^ -' ,

0

../■

=,2x0 ct>dz = 2/^xo

4 S. Chapman — Kinetic Theory of Gases

where 9 represents the inteerrand as defined by the radical
expression in brackets | | "^ and fe denotes j cpc^^, which is a

function of y^^ and n. *'

The integral for 6 is now in a form suitable for numerical
computation, because 9 is finite throughout the range of
integration, and has a finite limit as z -^ o or A -> i. This
limit is readily found to be given by

(3.9) Lt cp-xo ((n- i)coixo + 2 ian lA= sino^'^^^ + '''' ^^0}

the second form being the more suitable for use in computa-
tion.

This gives the integrand of (3.8) when s = o. When ^=i,
or X==o, evidently 9=1. For intermediate values of z the
value of 9 must be found by direct calculation (cf. §5).
In this way, bv applying Simpson's or Weddle's rule, 0 can
be found as a numerical multiple of y^^ the factor itself depend-
ing on xo.

(4) In the integrals Ii and I2 it is convenient to change
the variable from a to y^^ which is defined as a function
of a by (3.4). This renders the range of the transformed
integral finite, since as a varies from o to (3o, y^ ranges from o
to \'K. Also

n — 3/ 2 \Ji- tan\(, /n-\-i \

(4.i)a da = \d a' = \^\^'^-' "1^(^-3 + ^^^ 2x0)^X0

{cosxqY-^
so that

(4.2) I,(n) = /00P"co.^2/.y., ^^^(^+...2X0)^X0

and 0 (-%r-

(4.3)

L(n)-/(?i) I ^'"^ sin'-2ky,.cos-^2kx, — ^/^Xo^ Cj^l ^^^-^ ^XoJ^^Jio

where

(44) / {n)=2T: ^^^^(-^^ Y"^i

The integrand in (4.2), (4.3), vanishes when Xo = 0- When
Xo = ix, in the denominator (allowing for the factor tan x^) there
is (cos^o)^'^"^^''^^'''^^ ^^'hile in the numerator the vanishing factor
is cos'^zkyoj in which k tends to i as -/o tends to 1%; hence

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 1 5

as ^iq -^|x the integrand tends to zero when ''^^5, and this is
true also when w = 5, though for a more subtle reason, i.e., on
account of the way in which fe tends to i. Thus, when n^ 5
the integrand is zero at both ends of the range.

(5) As regards the actual work of computation, in applying
Simpson's or Weddle's rule the integration in the transformed
integrals, for Ii and I2 as well as for 6, was divided into ten
equal parts. Thus the integrand in (4.1) and (4.2) was
calculated for the nine values 9°, 18°, 27°, . . ., 81° of ^^^ the
end values (for 0° and 90°) being zero, as just explained. This
rendered it necessary to calculate 6 for each of these values of
)jo ; in so doing, cp was computed for the ten values o, o'l, 0*2,
. . . , o"9 of z. AH this was done for five different values of n,
viz., 5, 7, 9, II, and 15, it being convenient to choose odd
values.

For each of these values of n and ^oj the limiting value of 9
for ^ = 0 was calculated by means of (3.9) ; the logarithm of the
last factor in {3.9), used in this calculation, was also tabulated
separately, as it occurs again in the integrands of (4.2) and

(4-3).

In computing cp for other values of z, the expression used
was (c/. ^.%, 3.7),

(5.1) cp = 2{ \-{sm\x^lsinx^Y-^{cosy^^jcosVi^Y]-h

^z (i -cos^[L)~^=2/sin\L,
where

(5.2) cos^ = { {sinXxo/sinyoY-'^ (cosxo/cos\xoY }*

These formulae are suited to logarithmic calculation ; thus
(5-3) log- cos^= ^^ (log. sinXxo - log. sinxo)

+ (log. COSXo - log. COSXy^,),

which is the more readily calculable since ^ (n-i) is a small

whole number ; a single reference to a table of logarithms of

trigonometric functions then suffices to give [l and log. sin\K,

for use in the formula

(5.4) log. 9 = log. z - log. sin^i..

Seven figure tables were used in these computations, but in

order to obtain log. cp correct to five significant figures (as

desired), only five figures were read out, except in dealing with

the smaller values of z, i.e., o'l, o'2, and o'3-

The graph of the function cp with respect to z was a smooth
curve to which it seemed legitimate to apply Simpson's or
Weddle's rule for numericalquadrature ; as an example, the
computed values of cp are given in the following table (to three

6 S. Chapman — Kinetic Theory of Gases

figures onlv) for the extreme values of n (5, 15) and of 70 (9*
81°).

z= 0.0 o.i 0.2 0.3

^•^5 >ro-^9'' 0499 0.503 0.514 0.534

5 81 .231 .246 .289 .353

15 9 .268 .277 .304 .351

15 81 .218 .233 .275 .337

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 i.o

0.564 0.604 0-^57 0*725 0.807 0.901 1.0
.430 .516 .608 .703 .801 .900 1.0

.419 .505 .601 .700 .800 .900 1.0

.415 .505 .601 .700 .800 .900 1.0

The values obtained for j 9 fi s, or fe, were as follows :

/

n= 5 7 9 II 15

Xo = 9° 1.31001 1.21432 1. 16388 1. 13269 1.09614
18 1.30676 1.21418 1. 16468 1. 13382 1.09737

27 1.30066 1. 2 1 354 1. 1 6579 1. 1 3558 1.09943

36 1.29054 1.21163 1. 16677 1.13772 1. 10227

45 1.27460 1.20705 1. 1 6666 1. 1 3966 1. 1 0566

54. 1.25022 1. 19734 1. 16358 1. 13996 1. 10889

63 I.2I394 1. 17833 1-15371 1. 13543 1. 10985

72 1.16187 1. 14374 1. 13008 1.11920 1. 10266

81 1. 0908 1 1.08599 1.08208 1.07877 1.07326

The value of fe for y^Q = \K is unity for all these values of n.

The corresponding values of the integrands of (4.2), (4.3)
w^ere next calculated, the expressions for them being suitable
for logarithmic computation. As examples of the way in
which the integrand varies between the limits of 70^ t'.e., o
and \ X, the following values are given (here to three decimal
places only) for the two extreme values of w :

Integrands of Ii and I2 (c/. 4.2 and 4.3).

Xo= 0-

9°

18°

27°

36°

Ii (5) = 0

0.607

1.094

1.373

1. 410

Ix(i5) 0

0.352

0.625

0.764

0.751

I2 (5) 0

0.025

0.174

0.454

0.741

12(15) 0

O.OIO

0.071

0.187

0.306

45°

54°

63°

72°

81°

1.234

0.922

0.570

0.267

0.068

0.614

0.413

0.216

0.076

0.012

0.875

0.787

0.539

0.263

0.068

0.358

0.309

0.191

0.074

0.012

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 1 7

After evaluating these various integrals by Simpson's rule
(the integrand being calculated to five decimal places in each
case), they were multiplied by the appropriate values of / (n),
giving as the final results the following values for Ii and I2 :
n= 5 7 9 II 16 cv)

Ii= 2.6514 24219 2.4000 2.4093 2.4698 3.1416
^1= 1-3700 I.I 203 1.0435 1.0008 0.9723 1.0472
The values in the last column were arrived at as follows :
from (3.8) it is evident that as n -> oc, fe -^ i, ^-^v 0 = 7,0.
Similarly (4.2) and (4.3) reduce to

0

while / (00)= 217.

Hence 1i(oc) = tc, l2(^) = ix.

This case corresponds phyically to rigid elastic spherical

molecules.

It is satisfactory to find that for /^ = 5 the above values of I ^ and l^
Are in good agreement with those found by Maxwell, by a
different method of quadrature. The above are respectively
o'3% less and 0*4% greater than Maxwell's values for 11(5) and

1.(5)-*

The above values enable curves to be drawn representing
Ii(n) and l2(^) — preferably with i/n as abscissae (ranging from
o to o"2) — with sufficient accuracy for purposes of interpolation
between n = 5 and -^=15.

APPENDIX.

If the force between two molecules, ^of molecular or atomic
weight N (oxygen being 16), is [jl/t*^ at distance r apart, the
expression for the viscosity of a gas isf
(A.i) K = A(NmoRT> { R T (n- i)/ti l^A^- D,

where ttIq is the mass of a molecule or atom for which N=i,

* Since this paper was written I find from a reference by Dr. D. Enskog in
Arkiv fur Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik, Bd. 16, No. 16, p. 36, 1921, that
Aichi and Tanakadate have also re-calculated 1^(5) and I„(5). Their values
are 2-6512 and 1-3704 respectively, agreeing much more closely with those here
given than with Maxwell's values. Note added Feb. 3, 1922.

tS. Chapman, Phil. Trans., 1915, A, 216, 279; Enkog, Inaugural Disserta-
tion, Upsala, 1917; Jeans' " Dynamical Theory of Gases." p. 287, 3rcl ed.. 1921.

8 S. Chapman — Kinetic Theory of Gases

T is the absolute temperature, and R is the gas constant, while
A is a numerical quantity given by

(A.2) A={5xJ2Y,}/8I,(w)r(4-^).

The sum Uy^ is a number nearly equal to i, and depending

only on the value of n, and on this only to a slight degree.

Thus the dependence of the viscosity on the temperature is
according to the law
(A.3) KocT^

where

(A4) ^ = i + _A_.

Thus n may be inferred bv observing the variation of K with
respect to temperature.

The distance (Tq) of closest approach between two molecules
moving towards one another in a direct line, each with the
mean molecular energy fRT, is given by

3(n-i)RTj

Expressed in terms of K and N, by means of (A.i), this

becomes

(A.6) To = 3-i/(n-i) A-^ (mo R T)i {WjKf = A^(Ni/K)^

The force Fo at this distance is given by

(A.7) Fo = t./r« = 3 (71- i) R T/ro ^ AJ (K/N^)^

where

(A.8) Ai=3(n-i)RT/A^

the force F at any other distance r is Fo (ro/r)^.

It is convenient to tabulate log. A^, log. AJ,, for the
temperature o°C. or 273°* i absolute, using the values of l^in)
calculated in this paper : the value of Sv^ has been estimated
for the various values of n as follows,

^= 3 5 7 9 II 15

ijv^ = 1.01737 i.ooooo 1.00170 1.00400 1.00625 1.00815

while

mo= 1-651. io-24gm., R- 1-372.10-16,

The results are

^= 3 5 7 9 II 15

log^- A ^ -= 1 1 .7068 10.2719 "10.3146 10.3292 10.3378 T0.3431
log.A^= 3.6450 3-3809 3-5144 2.6247 2.7130 2.8533

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 2.

II. Number-Forms.

By T. H. Pear, M.A., B.Sc,
Professor of Psychology in The University of Manchester.

{Read October 78fh, 19:21. Received for publication November 1st, 1921.)

An excellent illustration — and, to those unfamiliar with it,
an amazino- one — of the manifold ways in which meaning may
be carried by mental imagery is afforded by the number-form,
one of the perennial delights of the beginner in psychology.
The characteristics of this type of mental apparatus were first
described by Galton (3, 79 — 105). Since his time, how^ever,
comparatively few treatments of the subject are to be found in
psychological literature.^

To those readers who do not possess this mental gift,
Galton 's original description may be recommended. He
mentions that persons who are able to visualize a number
sometimes see it not only in some particular direction with
regard to themselves, but also at some definite distance.

" If they were looking at a ship on the horizon at the
moment that the figure 6 happened to present itself to their
minds, they could say whether the image lay to the left or
right of the ship, and whether it was above or below the line
of the horizon ; thev could always point to a definite spot
in space, and say with more or less precision that that Avas
the direction in which the image of the figure they were
thinking of first appeared.

" Now the strange psychological fact to which I desire
to draw attention is that among persons who visualize
figures clearly there are many who notice that the image of
the same figure invariably makes its first appearance in the
same direction and at the same distance. Such a person
would always see the same figure when it first appeared
to him at (we may suppose) one point of the compass

1. Professor M. W. Calkins's (1) article on the subject contains much
valuable information. Professor G. E. Miiller's (4) gives a lengthy general
account of this phenomenon, with reference to the work of others. The three
works 1, 3 and 4, together with the results of examining a series of number-
forms kindly contributed by the author's friends, form the chief basis of
this chapter.

September 20th^ ig22.

T. H. Pear, Xumber-Fo

rms

to the left of the hne between his eye and the ship, at the
level of the horizon, and at twenty feet distance. Again,
we may suppose that he would see the figure 7 invariably
half a point to the left of the ship, at an altitude equal to
the sun's diameter above the horizon, and at thirty feet
distance; similarly for all the other figures. Consequently,
when he thinks of the series of numerals i, 2, 3, 4, etc., thev
show themselves in a definite pattern that always occupies
an identical position in his field of view with respect to the
direction in which he is looking.

" The pattern or ' Form ' in which the numerals are seen
is by no means the same in different persons, but assumes
the most grotesque variety of shapes, which run in all sorts
of angles, bends, curves and zigzags, as represented in the
various illustrations to this chapter. The drawings, however,
fail in giving the idea of their apparent size to those who
see them ; they usually occupv a wider range than the mental
eye can take in at a glance, and compel it to wander.
wSometimes they are nearlv panoramic."

To the person who possesses no vestige of a number-form
such a description mav seem far-fetched. He is, however,
likely to discover on investigation that it has been fetched
from no farther than next door. Yet manv people who
possess no number-form iridubitablv show the undeveloped
foundations of one; for number-forms are by no means rare.
Of 525 persons who were questioned 35, Qr 6.7%, were found
to possess them. ^Moreover, the answers of many people who
possess no number-form imply that the undeveloped founda-
tions of one are present in their mind. Phillips (4), for example,
found that of 250 adults, who believed that they possessed no
number-form, not less than 210 had a feeling that numbers
in some way recede from them. Many reported that they
have an upward movement. For others thev appeared to go
straight in front or at an angle of 45 degrees.

It is the striking absence of such vagueness. howev<n',
which usually characterises the description of a number-form
by its possessor. He will readily assent to a suggestion
that he should make a tri-dimensional wire model of it. The
quick look of intelligence with which he answers your
questions ;— as if, writes Galton, some chord had been struck
which had not been struck before ; — and the rapidity and
preciseness of his replies impress one only a little less than
the frequent confession that up to that moment he had
supposed everyone else to possess his gift.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 2

The reader will find in Galton's book descriptions of manv
number-forms. To them may be added the following account
of a form which, while it illustrates many usual characteristics,
is of interest in that in certain other important respects it
cannot be called typical. It is that of Professor W. M.
Tattersall, of Cardiff, to whom, as well as to other friends
mentioned below, I express my thanks for their kindness in
readily supplying me with these details.

,-;r-^'^^

^'2J]29 1^ A ^\

f;..A

^..r '^

70 80 SO it

Fi(/. 1,

4 T. H. Pear, Number-Forms

'' The essential parts of my number-form are shown in
Fig. C (i). There is an incomplete circle, round which the
numbers i to 12 are placed equidistantly. This is simply a
clock face, but there is always a gap between 12 and i,
not filled in. The numbers from 12 to 20 are arranged in a
straight line sloping down from 12 and away from it.
The numbers from 20 to 100 are arranged in a series of
semi-circles ^ of 10, round a semi-circle, so that 100 is on the
same level as 20. But the number-form is not all on one
plane, and in Fig. C (2) I have attempted to show exactly
how it appears to me. The whole scheme is visible at
onoe, and I appear to be looking down on it from above,
along a line of sight indicated by the arrowed and dotted line.
Thus 20 is lower down than 12, and 36 is the lowest of all
the numbers. The numbers 36 to 100 are increasingly
higher up, the number 100 being on the same level as 20,
but much farther away. The plane of the semi-circle on
which the semi-circles of numbers from 20 to 100 lie is
inclined at an angle to the plane of the numbers 12 to 20,
so that the number 36, besides being the lowest of the
numbers is also the farthest away to the left.

*' When thinking of any number from i to 100, I
immediately visualize it in its place in this scheme. For
numbers higher than 100 the visualization varies according
to the character of the number. For instance, 400 has the
same position as 4, 900 as 9, 1200 as 12, 1700 as 17, 2000 as
20, and so on. But for numbers like 425 there is a general
tendencv to split the number-form into two parts, first
visualizing 4, then 25. For numbers sufficently near to 100,
say 337, I visualize at once three complete schemes and the
position of 37 in the fourth scheme. But as the numbers get
higher, as, for instance, 876, I visualize 8 and a diminutive
scheme between 8 and 9 in which the position of 76 is
visualized. In the higher numbers, such as 4678, the
splitting of the visualization is always complete ; I visualize
the position of 46 and 78.^

1. An important emendation of the word senii-circle, added subsequently
by Prof. Tattersall, appears on p. 5. I have thought it best to give the
original term here.

2. (Added subsequently.) " The relative scale in which one is thinking
often determines the position of a number in the number-form. For instance,
it is usual to think of salaries in tenns of hitndred'i of pounds, and so in
visualizing the 2000 in a salary of that dimension it becomes 20 hundreds
and has the position of 20. On the other hand, populations of places are
usually thought of in terms of thousands, and the 2000 in such a case would
have the position of 2."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), Ko. 2 5

" When adding or subtracting numbers like 460 and 780
the positions of 46 and 78 are the dominant ones. But if
the numbers were 468 and 784, then the positions of 68 and
84 would be the dominant ones. 10,000 has the same
position as 10, 20,000 as 20, and so on up to 100,000, which
has the same position as 100.^

" Sums of money are visualized according to their size.
Sums between i penny and £1 are usually visualized in
pence, but if even shillings then they are visualized accord-
ing to the number of shillings. Thus 15/- visualizes as
15, but 15/6 as 186. Sums between £1 and ;^5 are
invariably visualized in shillings. Above ;^5 they are
visualized in pounds, just like ordinary numbers."

One important feature of this form is that the numbers
themselves are not seen, their position onlv being visualized.
This mav be connected with the fact that the form carries
relative as well as absolute values. The same point in space
may represent, in different contexts, 17, the age of adolescence,
the XVI Ith Dvnasty or one-and-fivepence.

The negative values are represented by a mirror-image of
the number-form. This extends behind the head. When
learning algebra, the use of this form obviated any difficulties
in grasping the conception of adding to, or subtracting from,
positive numbers, numbers of negative value.

After making a wire model of his number-form, and dis-
cussing it at the meeting of a scientific society. Prof. Tattersall
requested me to add a note that closer acquaintance with and
analysis of his number-form had persuaded him that the loose
term semi-circle should be replaced by '' | circle." He writes :
*' Semi-circle is perhaps not strictly accurate. On analysis,
the part-circles, on which the groups of ten are arranged, are
obviouslv the original clock-face with the portion from 10 to i
left out, and are therefore J circles." He also points out the
interesting fact that his number-form became unconsciously
adapted to increasinglv complex fisfures as they became known
to him. But as these notes were made some time after he
became scientificallv interested in his own number-form, he
requests me to keep them separate from the original description.

This visual representation in space of the negative numbers
is an interesting aspect of the question which seems to have
been insufficiently studied. One of my correspondents, whose
form, in most respects, is quite a usual one, has " not a

1. (Added subsequently.) " 1.000.000 has the same position as 10."

6 T. H. Pear, Xumber-Forms

definite line, but a sense of division " between zero and -i»
and is then '' conscious of numbers up to - lo being- there."
The minus figures, she writes, '^ are very indistinct and in
darkness; for some reason I connect all below o with Hell."
This condensation of a numerical with an eschatological
meaning illustrates a trait rather unusual in number-forms;
the usual characteristic of this class being, to use a popular
expression, " to keep themselves to themselves." The
discovery of the reason for this exclusiveness might cast more
light on the relation between image and meaning.

The Development of Number- forms.

According to G. E. Miiller, persons have been observed in
whom a number-form existed before the knowledge of numbers,
and before its possessor could read. He suggests that the
new direction so often taken at lo, 20 or another low number,
may be due to the development of the form beginning at the
time when the child learns to count, and ending when he has
achieved the performance of counting up to 100. Yet forms
certainlv exist which, arising in early childhood, were subse-
quent! v supplemented or modified under the influence of new
needs or ways of living : Flournoy (2) mentions one which
appeared in the 17th or i8th vear of life.

The effect upon a number-form of the passage of time is
interesting in manv ways. Galton, when he described these
phenomena in 1883, had few data upon which to base any
general statement. He quotes Colonel Yule, who writes that
he found his number-form to have become sensibly weaker in
later years : "It is now faint and hard to fix " (3, 95). But
in 1919 Professor Sir Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., whose number-
form was described by Galton (3, 94-95 ; PI. I, Fig. 21) in 1883,
kindly sent me the following answers to my questions. —

(a) Has the number-form changed at all between 1883 and
1919?

'' I find no change."

(b) Has the number-form become sensibh' weaker in later
years ?

'' My impression is that the vividness simply depends
on use. When I work much with figures, and more
especially with questions that involve historical dates, as I
had to do recently, the form is as vivid as ever it was.
For centuries in historical dates I depend on associations.
I would think of Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, as the
case may be. The result is that I frequently make a

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Jxvi. (1922), No. 2 7

mistake in the century when suddenly called upon to give a
date, and also bv a year or two, as I have to work by the
diagram."

This fact, that the vividness of the diagram depends upon
the use made of it, is brought out by another of my contribu-
tors, a business man, who tells me that numbers which he
habituallv uses, e.g., 15 (for i/sd. per yard), stand out more
brightlv than the others. An absence from business through
illness caused the numbers to become dim.

Their Utility.

The supposition is erroneous that all possessors of number-
forms necessarily use them whenever they think of a number
or set of numbers. Galton's original statement (3, 82),^
" (the peculiarity) consists in the sudden and automatic appear-
ance of a vivid and invariable ' Form ' in the mental field of
view whenever a numeral is thought of, ..." would naturally
tend to deepen such a belief. But the number-form described
on pp. 3-5 is not used when the day of the month or degrees of
latitude and longitude are thought of ; in these cases there
appear visual images of a wall calendar or of a map, on
Mercator's projection. And as Flournoy has shown, a number-
form may be used by a person for one kind of operation {e.g.,
writing down a series of figures) but not for another, such as
thinking of a date. Moreover, the answers to questions
concerning the utility of these forms show that many persons
who possess them consider them to be useless. Calkins found
that of 67 persons so questioned concerning the usefulness
of number-forms both in mathematical operations and in
remembering dates, 29 were sure they were useful, while 21
were sure that they were not. Of Phillips's 211 subjects,
97 declared that their number-form was useful in reckoning,
113 that it was neither useful nor harmful, and one that he
was disturbed by it.

In this connection it is interesting to note that one of the
examples in my own collection is an algehra-iorm. It consists
of a vertical line with a horizontal line crossing it, the zero
being at the point of intersection. Positive quantities are
visualized as proceeding vertically upwards and negative ones
downwards. There are no gradations on the lines other than
those actually in use at the time. In thinking oi a - b the
subject feels that the h is pulling the a down, and the a pulling
the h up. Frequently a circle appears round the zero point ;

]. Italics mine.

8 T. H. Pear, Number- Forms

the result of his addition and subtraction must then He within
that circle. He cannot do algebra without this form, and he
possesses no number-form.

The tendency to visualize connected series of entities
spread out in space is not confined to numbers. Calkins
mentions " forms for piano-notes (squares) with lines for
violin notes : and an interesting- prayer-form, well remembered
from the time ^\ hen the progress from one part to another was
always the passage from one part to another of the form."^

One of Lemaitre's subjects (4) possessed 30 diagram-forms
of different kinds ; one of ■Nliiller's saw, in the part of his year-
diagram corresponding- to the beginning of spring, a fair
youth holding a staff decked with apple-blossom, and with,
apple-blossom in his hair.

The alleged heredity of number-forms.

, Upon this question there appears to have been not a
little confused thinking and generalization from insufficient
evidence ; even occasionally from evidence which is opposed
to some of the conclusions drawn from it. It is therefore
necessary to distinguish different senses in which number-
forms might at anv rate be conceived as transmissible bv
heredity. There might be handed down a general tendency
to visualize, a more specific tendency to visualize numbers in
space or an even more specific tendency to visualize a
particular kind of number-form.

Galton believed in transmission not onlv in the second but
also in the third sense mentioned above. He writes : —

I have the strongest evidence of its (the peculiarity's)
hereditary character after allowing, and over-allowing, for
all conceivable influences of education and family tradition
(3, 82). I give four instances in which the hereditary
tendency is found, not only in having a Form at all, but
also to some degree in the shape of the Form " (3, 100).

These tendencies which he conceives to be hereditary,
he compares to the instincts of animals. He likens the
'^ natural fancies for different lines and curves" of
different persons to the universal tendency of each species
-of animal " to pursue their work according- to certain definite
lines and shapes, which are to them instinctive, and in no

1. The writer remembers, though unfortunately he has no written record
of it, that a ' commandment-form ' of a curious kind was once mentioned by a
correspondent to the Westminster Gazette. Each of the ten Commandments
was localized at some part of the correspondent's native village, e.g., one mifrht
be thought of as localized at the bridge, another as at the school door.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1Q22), Xo. 2

way, we may presume, logical." He reminds us of the groups
and formations of flocks of gregarious animals, of the wedge-
shaped phalanx of wild ducks on the wing, and of the huge
globe of soaring storks. He records his expectation that if a
spider were to visualize numbers he would do so in some
web-shaped fashion, and a bee in hexagons (3, 88).

Exarrwlr.-; of (W HcirfUtiuy TxTvderyy (xi .loe Numba' Fviins

4'.Ij7^(n.ttreiiM-herf (/if Nrjitohertbrrmm samcfatnibr lut. ttUkc

Sis Sjtters ffutnier Fomv is
lixscnbed «.« bar,^ n^cariy thfi
samacxc^pl OliryX' die- fvrst
thofu^e- of li-rrvctujn u) (ttIO

' le>m' >>-i*h i/it

"54 II

Sbutanxxs wha'e the. Nunibcr^nnsiji same fncmihr am. UltlUcc

y

Plate III. from Sir Francis Gallon's " Inquiries into Human Faculty
reproduced by the kind permission of the University of London.

FiQ. 2.

lo T. H. Pear, Xumher-Forms

Yet. on reference to his diaorams (3, irx); PI. Ill), and to
the explanations offered with them, the most which can be
said is that while they suggest that the tendency to have a
form may run in families, they accord no evidence of an
hereditary tendencv to have an identical or even a closely
similar form. Moreover, on examining Plate III of the
'' Inquiries into Human Faculty," which is reproduced upon
page 9 of the present paper, one is immediately struck by the
unlikeness of the four forms possessed by the Henslow family
(Figs. 46 — 49), and of Figs. 57 and 58 both from each other and
from Figs. 55 and 56, though these later four all belong to the
same familv. The headino- of Plate III, '* Instances where the
Number-Forms in same family are alike," seems then to be
somewhat misleading, except in the case of the pairs 55 and 56
and 59 and 60, which we shall now consider. ^

55 and 56, those of a father and son, are undoubtedly
similar. Their chief differences are that while the general
direction of one is horizontal, that of the other is vertical, and
that one ends definitely at 100, while the other, ending at 99,
appears to begin another form at 100.

59 and 60 are those of a brother and sister, less alike than
the preceding pair, but certainly similar.

Before commenting further upon these pairs, however, we
may examine a set of three number-forms supplied by three
persons who are entirely unrelated (see page 3 of this paper).
Fig. C (i) is Professor Tattersall's ; Fig. B is the number-form
of Professor S. J. Hickson, F.R.S., of Manchester ; Fig. A,
from the American Journal of Psychology, is that of an
unknown person ( 1, 448). Neither of the first two contributorsr
when theA- communicated with me, had any idea that a similar
number-form was possessed by a colleague,- nor, at that time,
did either of them know of the existence of Fig. A, which I
found while examining the literature on this subject, after the
receipt of Fig. C (i) and before receiving Fig. B.

Most of the structural features of these three forms appear
to be almost identical. Save for the presence of a gap after
12 in Figs. B and C (i), and its absence in Fig. A, the salient
features of the forms are the same. The direction of the line
between 10 and 20 varies, and, while it is definitelv curved in

1. The likeness of 53 and 54 cannot be accepted as convincing evidence in
this connexion, since 54 is not figured, but only described as "nearly the same
(as 53) except that the first change of direction is at 10."

2. At this time. Prof. Tattersall was at the University of Manchest-er.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. l.xvi. (1922), No. 2 11

Fig. B, it is slio-htly curved in Fig. A and straio-ht in Fig. C (i).
Tlie extents of the forms are not identical.

The chief difference between the forms is that while Fig.C{i)
emphatically tri-dimensional, and for its possessor this is one
of its most important features. Fig. B is almost in one plane,
while concerning- Fig. A no relevant data on this point have
been given. Yet, having- pointed out these differences, it
seems' justifiable to hold the opinion that the degree of
resemblance betw^een these three compares very favourably
with that of most of the ' similar ' pairs adduced by Galton
in support of his belief. It might be emphasized that not
only has this trio been obtained from entirely unrelated people,
but that the coincidence is of three and not of two cases ; a
fact significant in itself. Moreover, a glance at Numbers 20^
and 2 of the forms in Plate I of the Inquiries will show that
these two latter are not very unlike the three figured above;
and that No. 37 in Plate II, though an elaborate structure,
contains the essentials of these three forms.-

The possessor of Fig. A in the above collection of three
forms definitely attributes the chief feature of his form to a
post-natal cause; the perception of a clock. He says : —

'' I cannot explain the origin of the almost straight lines
between 12 and 20, but the curves came from the fact that I
learned to tell time before I learned to count, and when I
did learn, evervthing reverted to the picture of that old
clock.'*

Pr<jf. Tattersall writes, after having read this explanation : —

*' The semi-circles in my form are, I suppose, the remains
of the clock face, and this would explain why 6 is always
the lowest figure in a semi-circle. For instance, I told you
36 was the farthest away to my left. Well, of course, 36 is
the lowest figure in its semi-circle.

'' I think my form is undoubtedly derived from the
clock-face, and I have always thought so. It is of course
a very simple number-form and might very reasonably be

1. That of Mr. George Bidder. Q.C.. the son of a famous calculator, and
himself able to multiply mentally fifteen figures by another fifteen figures.
In the present connexion the gap in his form after 12 is interesting, as it
corresponds to those of Fic/s. B^and C (1), which have just been mentioned.

2. Note, too, that it shows the gap after 12.

12 T. H. Pear, y umher-Forvis

explained on the * earliest recollection ' theory. I know I
was much fascinated by clocks and watches as a child and
I could tell the time almost as soon as I could talk."

Yet another objection to Galton's assumption arises when
the chief turns in number-forms are examined. Calkins found
that three-fourths of the turns were at numbers which are
prominent in earlv arithmetical exercises and in ordinary
usage. One of my contributors writes of her number-form,
which she calls a " fig-u re-board " : —

'* My figure-board changes at tens, except at the drst
12 where there is a rather indistinct modification of the line.
I am not English born, but French-Swiss, and all my
arithmetical calculation has been based upon the decimal
system. Do you think the duodecimal system as used here
may affect the figure-board of English people?"

Detailed evidence has now been obtained that very compli-
cated objects in a person's environment may give rise to
number-forms, which can be traced definitely and completely
to their influence. Hennig(4) shows that both his own number-
form and that of his brother were essentially determined by
the arrangement and illumination of the houses in the
Potsdamer Strasse in Berlin. The house-numbers in the
street had particularly interested them when they lived there in
earlv childhood. The number-form of another brother was
attributable to the pathways and numbers in the Berlin
Zoological Gardens, which he often visited. Phillips mentions
a child who, when five years old, could add numbers only
when he was in a room with a clock, the hour-spaces of which
he counted. At the age of 7 this child " used the clock-face
mentally." To all this evidence may be added the fact that
in some number-forms the negative values are represented ;
this renders any simple belief in their hereditary character
quite untenable.

The most, therefore, that can justifiably be believed con-
cerning the possible heredity of number-forms is that the
tendency to visualize may be handed down, transmitted, maybe,
in purely physiological terms as an inheritance of a specially
favourable neural basis in the brain. Yet in the way of even
this simple belief there lie some formidable obstacles. It is
quite clear that the power of visualization can be greatly
strengthened by practice. Galton himself lays stress upon

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 2 13

this fact (3, 73f), and Dr. J. Varendonck has recently recorded
his own prooress in this respect (5, 90).

*' I have even noticed of late that when I happen to read
poetry now I am able voluntarily to transform the poet's
words into visual imao-es, which adds a hitherto unknown
charm to the readino-."

It iseems, indeed, quite possible that any kind of imagery,
even that in which a man may consider himself to be very poor,
may be enormously developed during life, so that the facts
seem to justify little more than the belief that congenital differ-
ances in visualizing power may be significant.

The progressive complication of the functions of number-
forms.

In books upon the general theory of psychology little
attention seems to have been paid to the significance of the
number-form as an excellent ' objectifiable ' example of a
vehicle of simple or complicated meanings ; an example, more-
over, the nature of which can be made plain to other people.
An examination of these forms illustrates clearly the different
degrees of complexity which the ' image-meaning ' relation
may reach. The simplest representation of quantities by the
number-form occurs when the actual numbers are seen
arranged in fixed spatial relations. Rather more complex is
the representation when the numbers are not visualized but
only thought of, their positions in space being seen mentally.
At a third stage these positions themselves acquire a relative as
well as an absolute significance, when the actual quantity
attributed to any position mav be merelv a special instance of
some more general meaning.

Such a use of his number-form is often made bv Prof.
Tattersall. Any position on the form, though absolutely fixed
in space, may represent any one of a large number of related
quantities, or even the subject or theme of which a particular
quantity is merelv one characteristic.^ Such a form, represent-
ing almost any kind of related quantity, has reached another
stage in a line of development which, if continued, would
lead through infinite gradations to the formation of an image
which carries the unquantitative essence of mathematical
conceptions. A very high position in this scale of evolution

1. An example of this variability of meaning of a fixed point on a number-
form has been given on p. 5.

14 T. H. Pear, Number-Forms

must be occupied bv Professor Einstein's illustration of a
large sphere tenanted by exceedingly small beetles, with whidi
he has recently illustrated his conception of a finite but
unbounded space.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Calkins, M. W. Amrr. Jour, of Psi/rholor/i/, 1892-3. 5, 439—464.

2. Flournoy, T. " Des phenomenes de Synopsie." Paris. 1893.

3. Galton, F. "Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development." 1st

edition. 1883. Subsequently reprinted in EvfryviarCs Library. (The
references in this paper are to the pages of the later edition.)

4. MtJLLER, G. E. " Zur Analyse der Gedachtnistatigkeit und des Vor-

stellungsverlaufes." Leipzig, 1913. Pt. Ill, 72—131.

5. Varendonck, J. " The Psychology of Day-dreams." London, 1921.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3

III.— Scottish Pork Taboo,

By Donald A. Mackenzie.
(Communicated hy W. J. Perry, M.A.)

(Read May gth^ ig22. Received for publication October I'jth, ig22.)

Julius C^sar informs us that Ancient Britain was densely
populated ; that the coinage was of copper and gold while bar-
iron was used as a substitute for money ; that the houses were
very similar to those of Gaul, and that there were large flocks
and herds. He states, too, that the inhabitants had a religious
scruple against eating either the hare, domestic fowl or goose,
although they kept these animals for amusement or as pets.
The population on the south coast was Belgic while the inland
parts were inhabited by a race which, according to its own
traditions, was aboriginal (5, v, 12).

Cagsar's reference to the existence of food taboos is of
special interest. Apparently these varied in different districts.
Dion Cassius, writing of certain of the inhabitants of North
Britain, informs us that although fish were abundant they
refused to eat them (6, Ixxvi, 12), which reminds us of Lucian's
statement (19, chap. 14) that at Hierapolis, fish were sacred and
not eaten, and that " amongst the Egyptians there are some
who will not touch fish as food."

These ancient taboos are not yet entirely extinct. It is still
possible to find Highlanders who decline to partake of what
they call ''feathered flesh " or ''white flesh," and hare and
rabbit. Almost all modern Scots taboo eel. In 1918 the
Scottish Fresh-Water Fisheries Committee issued a pamphlet
entitled " The Common Eel and its Capture ; with suggestions
applicable to Scotland," in which it is stated, " The prejudice
which exists against the eel in Scotland is most unfortunate,
since it prevents Scotsmen taking advantage of a most nutri-
tious fish which appears to be well distributed throughout our
waters. No doubt," adds the writer of this official pamphlet,
" human beings have a natural aversion to creatures which
have a writhing motion like that of a snake, while the fact that
the eel is slimy as w^ell as wriggling adds to the aversion, till

February^ iQ2j,

2 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

it becomes horror and loathing. The serpent is a symbol of
the Devil, and all Highlanders know that the eel, being like a
serpent, is like the symbol of the Devil, and is associated with
the evil influence. People who can eat such creatures are, in
his opinion, very far from particular in their feeding. The
fact that many Continental peoples find the eel a most valuable
food only shows that such foreigners will eat anything. The
eel remains taboo."

The writer of the pamphlet then goes on to say that '' some
people in the West Highlands will not eat mackerel," and
that others on the Solway, *' till quite recently would not touch
skate." Dogfish is not eaten in Scotland. I may remark
here that this official pamphlet has not encouraged the eating
of tabooed fish in Scotland.

Mackerel is supposed to devour human flesh, gorging on
the decaying bodies of the drowned. They are reputed to be
poisonous,^ and especially so if caught in moonlight. Cat-
fish and ling are tabooed still in some districts, as well as
mackerel and dog-fish. Shell-fish and haddock must not be
eaten when there is an '' r " in the month. Haddocks should,
in fact, get '* three drinks of May water " before being caught,
that is, they should not be fished for until after three May
tides have ebbed and flowed. Eels are called ''devil-fish."
They are supposed to originate from the hairs of horses'
manes and tails that have fallen into pools or rivers. Those
who eat eel become mad and set out to fight with wild horses.
Although " fish and the flesh of the boar and the badger "
were freely eaten by the Irish Celts, some Irish and some
Highland peoples used to dislike and despise the Saxons
because they ate fish (2, 72). It may be that the Celtic
military aristocrats ate food which was taboo to their pre-Celtic
subjects. Perhaps that was why the salmon was in Ireland
'' considered food for Kings and nobles " (21, ccclxx).

Tabooed animals might, however, be eaten once a year
in connection with a festival. The association of the goose
with Michaelmas is of interest in this connection : —

'' September, when by custom, right divine,

Geese are ordain 'd to bleed at Michael's shrine."

In the Highlands until recently goose was taboo except at
Christmas. Birds are in Gaelic lore something more than
birds. They may be forms assumed either by supernatural
beings or enchanted men and women.

1, As a matter of fact, mackerel are poisonoys when kept too long.

Manfihester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 3

There were both individual and tribal taboos (the Gaelic
'^ gets'' or '■'■ geas '' — plural ^easa). It was ^ezs to Cuchullin
to eat dog-'s flesh ; the first part of his name, Cu, signifies
" dog." He was the '' dog " of Culann, the Irish Vulcan.

Among- the ancient geasa or taboos still surviving is Scot-
land none is of g-reater interest and importance than the one
which forbids pork as food. The geas, or prohibition, has
long^ since reached its final stage, surviving as a mere preju-
dice. Thousands of living Highlanders refuse either to keep
pigs or to eat pork in any form. They despise pork as keenly
as do the Hindus, the Jews, the Moslems and the modern
Greeks of Northern Arcadia. Lord Leverhulme, who has seen
or thought he has seen possibilities of development in the
Lewis, recommended pig-rearing to the crofters and introduced
swine into the island. In 1920 there were eig^ht pigs in Lewis,
which has a population of about 30,000; in 1921 there were
only two. A native of Barra informs me it was a common
saying in his boyhood that there had never been more than
two pigs on his island ; these had been washed ashore from a
wreck and were promptly committed to the deep again. In
my boyhood I heard pork referred to with aversion. Like
mackerel, it was supposed to cause disease. I have eaten pork,
but for the past few years the prejudice of my boyhood has
revived to such an extent that I cannot any longer partake of
pork in any form.

Ben Jonson had some knowledge of the Scottish pork
taboo. In his '"A Masque of the Metamorphosed Gipsies,"
a gipsy approaches the masqued King- James and says : —

'' Here's a gentleman's hand.
I'll kiss it for luck's sake : you should, by this line.
Love a horse and a hound, but no part of a swine."

One of the g-ypsies had previously barred the inclusion of
" grunters," and Gifford, the annotator, explains this as '^ a
side compliment to the King who hated pork in all its
varieties." On another page, the Gypsies having- made a
reference to " a sow's baby in a dish," the annotator states in
a footnote : —

'' Three things to which James had a great dislike, and
with which he said he would treat the Devil were he to invite
him to a dinner, were a pig, a poll of ling with mustard, and
a pipe of tobacco for digesture " (16, vol. vii, 372, 380, 420).

4 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

In Sir Walter Scott's " The Fortunes of Nigel," the Green-
wich barber says to Nigel : —

" Sir Munko cannot abide pork, no more than the King's
most Sacred Majesty, nor my Lord Duke Lennox, nor Lord
Dalgarno . . . But the Scots never eat pork — strange that !
some folks think they are a sort of Jews."

In a footnote Sir Walter writes : —

" The Scots (Lowlanders), till within the last generation,
disliked swine's flesh as an article of food as much as the
Highlanders do at present."

In his memoir on his Hebridean tour. Dr. Johnson writes
(15, 51):-

'' Of their eels I can give no account, having never tasted
them, for I believe they are not considered as wholesome
food . . . The vulgar inhabitants of Skye, I know not
whether of the other islands, have not only eels, but pork
and bacon in abhorrence ; and accordingly I never saw a
hog in the Hebrides, except one at Dunvegan. Rasay (an
island adjoining Skye) has wild fowl in abundance, but
neither deer, hares nor rabbits."

Mr. Robert Henderson, who was a farmer at Broomhill,
near Annan, during the latter part of the eighteenth and the
earlier part of the nineteenth century has written regarding
'' the prejudices so unjustly entertained against this species of
stock (pigs) " in his native land (13, 80-82). " I have only
now," he says, "to do away with the prejudices which exist
with many against swine." Referring to the Egyptian and
Jewish aversion to pigs he states with regard to the Scottish
aversion : ''Although permitted to Christians, yet there is still
some degree of prejudice exists (existing) against them in the
minds of many," including, he informs us, '' that very foolish
one concerning the devil in swine." He tells that in Ireland
'' it is a common practice for a cottager to keep a sow, which
both eats and sleeps in the house with the family," and adds :

" I observed it mentioned some time ago, in the public
papers, that a gentleman near London trained his swine to
run in his carriage, and drove four in hand through
London."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 5

He makes the significant statement (13, 62) : —

*' The Scots in general, particularly the lower classes, are
not fond of pork."

John Graham Dalyell (7, 425) writes reg-arding- the Scottish
pork taboo : —

''In the year 1691 a question was put, ' Why do Scotch-
men hate swine's flesh?' and unsatisfactorily answered.
' They might borrow it of the Jews.' The same prejudice^
though infinitely abated, still subsists. Yet it is not known
that swine have been regarded as mystical animals in Scot-
land. Earlier in the seventeenth century, the aversion to
them by the lower ranks, especially in the North, was so
great, and elsewhere, and the flesh was so much undervalued
that, except for those reared at mills, the breed would have
been extirpated."

Dalyell was evidently not aware that the pig was really what
he would call a '' mystical animal."

In Sinclair's ''Statistical Account" the minister of
Ardchattan and Muckairn, Argyllshire, writing c. 1792, says :
" The deep-rooted prejudice against swine's flesh is now
removed." The minister of Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire, is
found stating : " The people of this part of Scotland had
formerly a superstitious prejudice against swine."

Captain Burt, writing about 1730, says (4, I, 118): —

" Pork is not verv common with us but what we have is
good. I have often heard it said that the Scots will not eat
it. This may be ranked among the rest of the prejudices ;
for this kind of food is common in the Lowlands and
Aberdeen, in particular, is famous for furnishing families
with pickled pork- for winter provision as well as their
shipping."

Burt was generalising from isolated and exceptional facts.
Jamieson, his annotator, wrote in the 1818 edition : —

" The aversion of many of the Scots, both in the High-
lands and Lowlands, to eating pork had nothing supersti-
tious connected with it. They could not eat fat of any kind,
not being accustomed to it."

Jamieson was evidently quite ignorant regarding the lore
connected with the pig.

f> Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

Dean Ramsay (1793 — 1872) has provided important
evidence reo^ardin^ the Scottish prejudice against pigs (23,
chap. 2) : —

'' I am induced to mention the existence of a singular
superstition regarding swine which existed some years ago
among the lower orders of the East Coast of Fife. I can
observe, in my own experience, a great change to have taken
place amongst Scotch people generally on this subject.
The old aversion to the ' unclean animal ' still lingers in
the Highlands, but seems in the Lowland districts to have
yielded to a sense of its thrift and usefulness. I recollect,
however, an old Scottish gentleman who shared the horror
of the pig, asking very gravely : ' Were not swine forbidden
under the law, and cursed under the gospel ? '

The account given by my correspondent of the Fife
swinophobia is as follows : —

' Among the many superstitious notions and customs
prevalent among the lower orders of the fishing towns of
the East Coast of Fife, till very recently, that class enter-
tained a great horror of swine, and even at the very mention
of the word. If that animal crossed their path when about
to set out on a sea voyage, they considered it so unlucky
an omen that they would not venture off. A clergyman of
one of those fishing villages, having mentioned the super-
stition to a clerical friend, and finding that he was rather
incredulous on the subject, in order to convince him told
him he would allow him an opportunity of testing the truth
of it by allowing him to preach for him the following day.
It was arranged that his friend was to read the chapter
relating to the herd of swine into which the evil spirits were
cast. Accordingly, when the first verse was read, in w^hich
the unclean beast was mentioned, a slight commotion was
observable among the audience, each one of them putting
his or her hand on any near piece of iron — a nail on the
seat or bookboard, or to the nails on their shoes. At the
repetition of the word again and again more commotion was
visible; and the words *' cauld airn " (cold iron) — the anti-
dote to this baneful spell — were heard issuing from various
corners of the church. And, finally, on his coming over
the hated word again, w^hen the whole herd ran violently
down the bank into the sea, the alarmed parishioners,
irritated beyond bounds, rose and all left the church in a
bodv.' "

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 7

The Rev. Alexander MacGreoor, an Inverness clergvman,
tells (20, 17) of a Skyeman, named Farquhar, who had ''a
superstitious dislike to bacon or pork." He had dinner at the
Manse every Sunday.

'' It frequently happened that the servant's dinner con-
sisted of pork or bacon, the look of which Farquhar could
not bear, and yet he often dined on it. The servants, know-
ing- his prejudices, had beforehand prepared a quantitv of
the lean parts of the meat for the old man which they passed
off as mutton and which he never suspected. When par-
taking of it, however, he frequently said, to the no small
amusement and tittering- of the domestics : ' Bu tu fein an
fheoil, mhaith, cheart, agus cha b'i a' mhuc ghrannda,
shalach ' (' Thou art the good right meat, and not the filthy
unclean pig ')."

One of the oldest Scottish literary references to the Scottish
pork taboo is that of Bishop Leslie in his History (1578) in
which he says (Dalrymple's version) : —

"As swyne flesh is uset in uthir countries of quhilke our
cuntrie people has lytle plesure."

The fishermen of Cromarty, in my boyhood, refused to put
to sea if when walking- towards their boats they met a pig- or
a hare. If one happened to ask a fisherman " Where are you
^oing ? " he would exclaim : " Is that what you're saying? "
turn on his heel and make for home again.

A middle-aged native of Wick, resident in Edinburgh,
informs me that in his youth the Caithness fishermen forbade
mention of a minister or a pig when at sea. If, in the course
of conversation, a minister had to be mentioned he was
referred to as '* could-iron gentleman," while a pig was '' the
€ould-iron beastie."

The fishermen of a past generation in Newhaven (near
Edinburgh) were greatly enraged when the mischief-making
youngsters of Leith shouted after them, '' There's a soo at
the boo" (''There's a sow at the bow of the boat"). At
Oban boys were wont until recentlv to enrage men from the
island of Lismore by imitating the bleating of sheep. I have
seen in the eighties of last century a Lismore boat turned back
to the pier and its occupants coming ashore to chase the boys.
The miners of Prestonpans, East Lothian, shared the fisher-
man's prejudice against pigs. They refused to descend a
coal mine if on w^alking towards it they met a pig.

8 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

Mr. R. Blakeborough in his Wit, Character, Folk-lore and
Custofns of the North Riding of Yorkshire, writes (p. 141) :
" If whilst a fisherman was baiting his nets anyone mentioned
anything- in connection with a pig, or dakky, as it was called,
the worst of luck would be looked for."

About the time Captain Burt was writing his letters from
the North of Scotland and Aberdeen was exporting to Holland
pickled pork for victualling East India ships (24, 198), a
Dumfriess-shire village was greatly stirred bv the appearance
of a pig. The following narrative is given by Mr. Robert
Henderson (13, 15 et seq.) : —

" Within the last century (probably about ninetv years
ago) a person in the parish of Ruthwell, in Dumfriesshire,
called the * Gudeman o' the Brow,' received a young swine
as a present from some distant part ; which, from all the
information I could get, seems to have been the first ever
seen in that part of the country. 'J^his pig having strayed
across the Lochar into the adjoining parish of Carlavroc,
a woman who was herding cattle on the marsh, by the sea-
side, was very much alarmed at the sight of a living creature
that she had never seen nor heard of before, approaching
her straight from the shore as if it had come out of the sea,
and ran home to the village of Blackshaw screaming. As
she ran it ran snorking and grunting after her, seeming-
^lad it had met with a companion. She arrived at the
village so exhausted and terrified, that before she could get
her story told she fainted away. By the time she came to
herself a crowd of people had collected to see what was the
matter, when she told them that ' There was a diel (devil)
came out of the sea with two horns in his head (most likely
the swine had pricked ears) and chased her, roaring and
gaping all the wav at her heels, and she was sure it was not
far off.'

A man, called Will's Tom, an old schoolmaster, said if
he could see it he would ' cunger the diel,' and got a bible
and an old sword.

It immediately started up at his back and gave a loud
grumph, which put him into such a frioht that his hair
stood upright in his head, and he was obliged to be carried
from the field half dead.

The whole crowd ran, some one w^ay and some another ;
some reached the housetops, and others shut themselves in
barns and byres. At last one on the housetop called out
it was ' the Gudeman o' the Brow's grumphy,'' he having

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 9

seen it before. The affray was settled, and the people
mostly reconciled, although some still entertained frightful
thoughts about it, and durst not go over the door to a neigh-
bour's house after dark without one to set or cry them. One
of the crowd who had some compassion on the creature,
called out, ' Give it a tork of straw to eat ; it will be hungry.'

Next day it was conveyed over the Lochar, and it seemed
to find its way home. It being near the dusk of evening it
came grunting up to two men pulling thistles on the farm
of Cockpool. They were much alarmed at the sight, and
mounted two old horses they had tethered beside them,
intending to make their way home. In the meantime the
pig got between them and the houses, which caused them to
scamper out of the way and land in Lochar moss, where one
of their horses was drowned, and the other with difficulty
relieved. The night being dark they durst not part one
from the other to call for assistance, lest the monster should
find them out and attack them singly ; nor durst they speak
above their breath for fear of being devoured. At daybreak
next morning they took a different course, came by Cum-
longon Castle and made their way home, where they found
their families much alarmed on account of their absence.

They said they had seen a creature about the size of a
dog, with two horns in its head, and cloven feet, roaring out
like a lion, and if they had not galloped away it would have
torn them to pieces.

One of their wives said, ' Hout, man ! it has been the
Gudeman of the Brow's grumphy ; it frightened them a' at
the Blackshaws yesterday, and poor Meggie Anderson maist
lost her wits, and is ay out o' ae fit into anither sin-syne '
(since then). The pig happened to lie all night among the
corn where the men were pulling thistles, and about day-
break set forward on its journey for the Brow. One Gabriel
Gunion, mounted on a long-tailed grey colt, with a load of
white fish in a pair of creels swung over the beast, encoun-
tered the pig, which went nigh among the horse's feet and
gave a snork.

The colt, being as much frightened as Gabriel, wheeled
about and scampered off sneering, with its tail on his riggin,
at full gallop.

Gabriel cut the slings and dropt the creels, the colt soon
dismounted his rider, and, going like the wind, with his tail
up, never stopped till he came to Barnkirk point, where he
took the Solway Firth and landed at Bowness on the Cum-
berland side.

10 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

As to Gabriel, by the time he got himself gathered up,
the pig^ was within sight ; he took to his heels, as the colt
was quite gone, and reached Cumlongon wood in time to
hide himself, where he stayed all that dav and nio-ht, and
next morning got home almost exhausted. He told a
dreadful story ! The fright caused him to imagine the pig
as big as a calf, having long horns, eyes like trenchers
(plates), and a back like a hedge-hog. He lost his fish, the
colt was got back, but never did more good, and as to
Gabriel, he soon after fell into a consumption and departed
this life about a year after.

About this time a vessel came to Glencaple quay, a little
below Dumfries, that had some swine on board, most likely
for the ship's use ; one of them having got out of the vessel
in the night, was seen on the farm of Newmains next morn-
ing. The alarm was spread, and a number of people
collected. The animal got manv different names, and at
last it was concluded to be a brock (badger). Some got
pitchforks, some clubs, and others old swords, and a hot
pursuit ensued ; the chase lasted a considerable time, owing
to the pursuers losing heart when near their prey and
retreating. Rob's Geordy, having rather a little more
courage than the rest, ran ' neck or nothing ' forcibly upon
the animal, and run it through with a pitchfork, for which
he got the name of ' stout-hearted Geordy ' all his life after.
There is an old man, nearly a hundred years of age, still
alive in the neighbourhood where this happened, who
declares that he remembers of the Gudeman of the BroAv's
pig, and the circumstances mentioned ; and he says it was
the first swine ever seen in that country."

In this narrative it will be noticed (i) that the wild pig
had disappeared in Dumfriesshire, and (2) that the pig was
regarded as a devil.

The Gaelic-speaking people of Scotland have many names
for the devil, one being ''The Big Black Pig" (muc mhbr
dhubh). When the devil appeared in human form he had
'* usually," writes the Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, Tiree,
'' a horse's hoof, but also sometimes a pig's foot." He was
in the habit of visiting young people who played cards.

'^ Cards are notoriously known as the devil's books.
When boys play them the fiend has been known to come
down the chimney feet foremost, the horse's or pig's foot
appearing first. When going away he disappears in smoke
and neighs horribly in the chimney " (31, 290-2).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 n

The Highland crofters in some parts of the Hebrides
began to keep pigs after Dr. Johnson's day, but for one reason
or another, and chiefly because of the prevaihng prejudice
against the animal, pig-rearing was abandoned. In Skye the
superstitious abhorrence of the pig was revived as a result of
a tragic occurrence. A hungry pig wandered into a house
and killed and partly devoured a baby in a cradle. I heard
this tradition when in Skye a few years ago. " Who," said
a native to me, '' would eat the flesh of an animal which
devours human beings? "

Although the pig was generally associated with the devil,
there is Highland evidence which suggests that it might, as
a supernatural being, be, like the fairies, of assistance to man-
kind. An interesting story, also related by Gregorson Camp-
bell, connects the pig with the fairies (Gaelic sithchean =
supernatural beings). It relates to the belief that seed corn
might be increased by working spells and sowing in silence.
If the sower is spoken to the supply of seed corn suddenlv
goes down. Campbell's story is as follows : —

''A man in the Ross of Mull, about to sow his land, filled
a sheet with seed oats, and commenced. He went on sowing
but the sheet remained full. At last a neighbour took
notice of the strange phenomenon and said, ' The face of
your evil and iniquity be upon you, is the sheet never to be
empty ? '

When this was said a little brown bird leapt out of the
sheet, and the supply of corn ceased. The bird w^as called
Tore Sona, i.e., Happy Hog (more correctly Happy Boar),
. and when any of the man's descendants fall in with any
luck they are asked if the Tore Sona still follows the familv"
(31, 99).

The Lucky or Sacred White Boar figures in one of the
legends associated with Glasgow's patron saint, St. Kentigern
(St. Mungo). Joceline, a monk of Furness, relates that when
'' the most holy Kentigern " was in Wales he " found a place
fit for building a tabernacle (monastery) to the Lord, the God
of Jacob," by following a white boar. Followed by " a great
crowd of his disciples " Kentigern had wandered over hills
and through valleys and forests,

'' when lo and behold a single wild boar from the w^ood,
entirely white, met them, and approaching the feet of the
saint, moving his head, sometimes advancing a little, and

12 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

then returning and looking backwards, motioned to the
saint and to his companions, with such gesture as he could,
to follow him. On seeing this they wondered and glorified
God, who worked marvellous things, and things past finding
out in His creatures. Then step by step they followed their
leader, the boar, which preceded them.

When they came to the place which the Lord had pre-
destinated for them, the boar halted, and frequently striking
the ground with his foot, and making the gesture of tearing
up the soil of the little hill that was there with his long tusk,
shaking his head repeatedly and grunting, he clearly showed
to all that that was the place designed and prepared by
God " (28, 75-6).

A similar story is told regarding the Thane of Cawdor.
Before he erected Cawdor Castle he had a dream in which he
was instructed to place his treasure chest upon an ass and to
build the castle on the spot where the ass lay down. An iron
treasure chest and a hawthorn tree still preserved in the castle
dungeon are connected with the legend. Black Duncan of
Cowl, the laird of Glenorchy in Perthshire, erected Balloch
Castle (afterwards called Tavmouth Castle) on the spot where,
as he had been advised, he should first hear the blackbird sing
as he went down the strath. In the Indian Mahdhhdrata the
horse intended for the great horse sacrifice {Ashwamedha) was
set a-wandering for a year. It was followed by an army,
which conquered each state into which the animal wandered
or received the submission of the rajah. The extent of the
Maharajah's Empire was fixed by the wandering horse. The
British Queen Boadicea, it will be recalled, drew auguries from
the movements of a hare. The devil-pig and the god-pig are
met with on the sculptured stones of Scotland.

On the Ruthwell Cross, Dumfries, Christ stamps on the
pig instead of on the asp or basilisk forms of the devil.

The god-pig is represented on the '' Boar Stone " situated
at the margin of a field on the farm of Knocknagael (^^ Hill
of the Hostages"), near Inverness. A figure of a wild boar
with tusks and bristles on its back is finely incised in outline
on this stone. Above its head is the well-known sun symbol.
Evidently it was originally the '' Boar of the Sun " or the
" Boar of Heaven." The god boar was connected wnth the
Witham shield on w^hich '' coral is unmistakable and in
excellent condition " ; it originally had ^' a bronze badge of
that animal affixed to the front by rivets." Bronze boars in
the round have been found at Hounslow. '' It is possible,"

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 13

writes Sir Hercules Read, " that some, like that of Guilden
Morden, were crests of helmets. The boar frequently occurs
on British and Gaulish coins of the period and examples have
been found as far off as Gurina and Transylvania. In the
same field at Hounslow was found the bronze wheel with four
spokes and a diameter of i^ inches like another from Col-
chester. A wheel of the same character belongs to the Stan-
wick find, but has a rectangular loop at the back ; and all may
have been connected with sun-worship. It was more probably
as a religious symbol than as a survival of the chariot wheel
or a form of currency, that the wheel occurs on the coinage of
Gaul and Britain " (3, 87 et seq.+ 135-6).

CuchuUin rolls a wheel and throws an apple when crossing
the Plain of Ill-luck on his way to the dun of Scathach (14, 74).
The Gauls had a pig-god called Moccus (Scottish muc, a pig,
Irish mucc, Welsh moch). ''The wild boar, too," says Anwyl,
'' was a favourite emblem of Gaul, and there is extant a bronze
figure of a Celtic Diana riding on a boar's back " (1, 30).

Of special interest is Tacitus's reference to the pig-worship-
ping Baltic amber-traders, the ^^styans. In his work on the
Germans he writes of this people (chap, xlv.) : —

'' In their dress and manners they resemble the Suevians
(Swedes), but their language has more affinity to the dialect
of Britain. They worship the mother of the gods. The
figure of a wild boar is the symbol of their superstition ; and
he, who has that emblem about him, thinks himself secure
even in the thickest ranks of the enemy, without any need
of arms, or any other mode of defence."

Evidently the boar was the son of the Sow mother goddess
who was connected with amber as the British boar god of the
Witham shield was with coral. Freyja, the northern goddess,
gave origin to amber, gold, etc., by weeping tears that coagu-
lated. The Swedes made in February, the month sacred to
her, boars of paste which they ate.

Louis Siret has shown (17, 290) that the Easterners who
settled in Spain before the introduction of bronze working and
extracted ores from its mines imported amber from the Baltic
and jet from Britain. They worshipped the mother goddess
as did the ^styans. Among the peoples who acquired the
art of navigation from them were those known later as the
Pictones. These seafarers and traders colonized Orkney and
Shetland and passed thence to the mainland of Scotland. They
were known as the Picts. Professor W. J. Watson has shown

14 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

(33) that the Picts were divided into two clans called the Ores
(Young Boars) and the Cats. He quotes the followino-
significant statement from the Gaelic *' Book of Ballymote " :

" Cairnech was for seven years in the sovereignty of
Britons, and Cats, and Ores and Saxons."

'' Inse Catt " (Islands of the Cats) was Shetland, and " Inse
Orcc " (Islands of the Boars) was Orkney. Prof. Watson
writes : —

'' Though Ptolemy does not mention by name the tribe
who inhabited Orkney, their name mav be inferred with
fair certainty from the names Orcas, Orcades. The adjec-
tive Orcas is formed from a noun Orcos, which, as has been
pointed out by Macbain and others, is a Celtic word repre-
sented in Irish by ore, a young boar, and cognate with Latin
porcus, a pig. From this again comes Orcades, the Boar
Isles, formed like Cyclades, Sporades, Echinades and other
Greek names for island groups " (33, 23).

The '' Cats " gave their name to Caithness, and to the
inhabitants of that county and of the county of Sutherland.
The Duke of Sutherland is still referred to in Gaelic as '' Duke
of the Cats." Clan Chattan is the '' Cat clan,"

Another Scottish pig locality is Banff. This place-name
is derived from the Gaelic hanb (pig), Welsh banw. The pig-
had several Celtic names.

We have found that the pig-god might assume a bird form
and cause seed-corn to multiply. The Ore (Young boar) had
similarly a number of transformations. In old Irish Ore is a
name for the salmon, while Oircne, the diminutive form of
Ore, w^as applied to a particular kind of lap dog. Ore also
signified an egg. As Hathor was " House of Horus," the egg'
may have been regarded as the " house " of the boar god.
Another pig-name was '^ cribuis " and the "' cribus mara "
was the porpoise. The whale remains to be added to the Old
Celtic mythological museum. One of its Celtic names is ore.
It was known to Milton who has a line in '' Paradise Lost "
(Book xi, line 835) referring to

'' The haunt of seals, and ores, and sea-mews' clang."

The common people, in their everyday superstitions, and
children in their games, perpetuate beliefs and customs of
great antiquity, and even the memory of beliefs and customs

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 15

that have long lost their significance. My friend, the late
Rev. Dr. George Henderson, with whom I have discussed the
Scottish treatment of the pig, has written in a footnote : —

'' I noted a children's game in Eriskay (Hebrides) called
Mathair Mhor, ' Big Mother,' where the mother was feigned
to be a pig ! It is possibly a relic of early ritual." (12, 24-5).

In Wales the mother pig is associated with Halloween^
the festival at which the life-prolonging apples and hazel-nuts
play so prominent a part. There the Black Sow of All-
Hallows, as the late Sir John Rhys, Oxford, once wTote to me,
" is the very devil." In his '' Celtic Folklore " he shows that
the English expression, " the devil take the hindmost," is in
the Welsh of Carnarvonshire *' may the black sow without a
tail seize the hindmost." '' The cutty black sow is often
alluded to nowadays to frighten children in Arfon." The
verse " A cutty black sow on every stile, spinning and
carding every Allhallows Eve," is in Cardiganshire different.
There the sow becomes "a bogie on everv stile." (26, i^
225-6.)

The '' mystic pig " was known in Ireland. Miss Eleanor
Hull, writing in Folklore (1918) on "The Black Pig of Kil-
trustan," has shown that " the hunt of magical boars or swine
is the theme of many tales " in Ireland and Wales. She
states that " nearly all the enchanted swine were transformed
human beings," and that " they were connected with the
earliest race of deified beings, Manannan, Lugh, Lir and
Angus, and that they were usually slain in Connaught." She
notes that " in the Late Celtic period the figure of a boar was
used as a decoration, and small figures of the animal in bronze
have been found in Ireland ; one is preserved in the National
Museum, Dublin." An Irish manuscript story states that
"" pigs of magic came out of the cave of Cruachan, and that is
Ireland's gate of hell . . . Round whatever they used to go,
till the end of seven years, neither corn nor grass nor leaf
would grow through it " (25). The pork taboo appears to
have obtained at one time in certain areas in Ireland. From
enquiries which I made among livestock dealers with whom I
once travelled from Dublin to Belfast, there are still families
in Ireland whose members refuse to eat pork. The great
proportion of the Irish people, however, know nothing regard-
ing the pork taboo.

The Continental Celts, like the Achaeans who over-ran
Greece, were pig-rearers and pork eaters. Poseidonius of

i6 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

Apamea (quoted by Strabo. iv. c. 4 § 3) states that the Celts
'' have so many sheep and swine that they supply saga and
salted pork in plenty, not only to Rome, but to most parts of
Italy .... They live on milk and all kinds of flesh, that of
swine, which they eat both fresh and salted, being the most
common."

Dr. Sullivan, in his introduction to O'Curry's ^' Manners
and Customs of the Ancient Irish," shows that the Irish Celts
regarded pork as a great delicacy. They cured hams '^ in the
smoke of greenwood, such as beech, ash, and white thorn."

" The general name for bacon was Tini, but smoke-cured
hams and flitches were called Tineiccas. This is almost
identical in form with the Gallo-Roman word Taniaccce or
Tanacce, used by Varro (116-27 B.C.) for hams imported from
Transalpine Gaul into Rome and other parts of Italy.
Puddings prepared from the blood of pigs also formed an
article of export from Gaul to Italy, as we learn from Varro.
Puddings of the same kind were also made by the Irish."
(21, ccclxix, et seq.).

It no doubt comes as a shock to those who have been of
late years viewing the Celt through the coloured spectacles
supplied by Renan, and Arnold and by the exponents of the
Neo-Celtic school of poetry, to find the so-called dreamy Celt
of their imaginations appearing at the dawn of Western
European history as a greasy pork merchant.

The eastern wing of the Celts was in Asia Minor and gave
their name to Galatia. According to Hieronymus of Cardia,
(quoted by Pausanias, i, 3 § 5), " the name Galatia is of late
origin, for originallv they were called Celts, both by themselves
and bv all other peoples." Thev were eaters of pork to begin
with, but ultimately tabooed it. The explanation given for the
change of diet is contained in the following significant
passage : —

" Thereupon Attis himself and several of the Lydians
were slain by the boar, in consequence of which the Galati
who dwell in Pessinus will not eat swine " {op. cit., vii, 17).

Lucian (2nd century a.d.), writing of the GalH (19. chap.

54), says : —

'' They sacrifice bulls and cows and goats and sheep ; pigs
alone, which they abominate, are neither sacrificed nor eaten.
Others look on swine without disgust, but as holy animals."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 17

Sir Wm. Ramsay shows that the river Halys still separates
the pig-g"od people from the pig-demon people (22, 32).

The Eastern wing of the Celts had come under the
influence of the Attis cult. Attis, like Adonis, had been killed
by a boar. Now, the Western wing of the Celts was in
Scotland. Apparently those Celts who in Scotland ceased to
keep pigs and eat pork had been similarly influenced by a
non-Celtic religious cult which tabooed pork. Nothing short
of a change in religious beliefs could have accomplished so
great a revolution in the habits and beliefs of the Continental
Celts who reached Scotland. The Scottish and Irish Diarmid
who was killed by a " magic boar " is the Western representa-
tive of Attis-Adonis.

Some writers have suggested that the Scottish hatred of
swine and the fear that the eating of pork will result in
various diseases, was "'borrowed from the Jews" — that, in
fact, the taboo had origin in early Christian times, pork being
found to be tabooed in the Old Testament, while Christ caused
the demons to enter the bodies of Gadarean swine. This
hypothesis will not stand investigation. If the early
Christians tabooed pork in Scotland, why were pigs kept at
monasteries and pork eaten by the clergy, and why was pork
not tabooed in England and in Ireland ? The Scottish pork
taboo had evidently its origin in pre-Christian times. It was
a prejudice based on superstition, and, as it survives to-day,
this prejudice is still connected with superstitions. The
superstitions of our own time were formerly religious beliefs.
Those who contend that the Scottish prejudice against pork
was "borrowed from the Jews" have to explain w^hy one
tabooed animal was selected and another overlooked. In
Isaiah (Chapter Ixvi, verse 17) we read, " They that sanctify
themselves and purify themselves in the gardens behind one
tree in the midst, eating swine's flesh, and the abomination
and the mouse, shall be consumed together, saith the Lord."
The early inhabitants of Scotland observed ceremonial mouse
feasts (25), and the liver of the mouse was until recently a
folk remedy for children in extremis, while roasted mouse was
a cure for whooping cough and small-pox. This mouse cure
was of Eastern origin (29, 43) and was prevalent in England
as well as in Scotland (H, 94-96).

In Leviticus (Chapter xi, verses 6 and 7) the animals which
are tabooed include the hare and the pig :

" And the hare, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth
not the hoof ; he is unclean to you. And the swine, though

i8 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

he divided the hoof and be cloven-footed, vet he cheweth not
the cud ; he is unclean to you."

As we have seen, Julius Csesar found that the Ancient
Britons tabooed the hare (5, v, 12). No one can seriously
suggest therefore that the lingering- prejudice against hares
and rabbits in the Highlands and elsewhere is of early
Christian origin. Those who contend that the prejudice
against pigs is connected with the cloven hoof, overlook the
fact that there existed in Scotland a breed of pigs which had
undivided hoofs. '* I have lately seen," wrote Mr. Robert
Henderson, the Annan farmer, in 181 1, '^ hogs of a black
colour, at the Earl of Moray's, at Dennibirsel, that have close
feet like a horse, instead of being cloven-footed" (13,25)

The theory that the Scottish prejudice against pork arose
from a desire to observe strictly the Mosaic law in this connec-
tion is evidently of comparatively recent origin. To the
masses of the early Christians the Bible was a closed book.
Even although translations in English and Gaelic had been
available, few could read. There were illiterates, too, even
among the clergy as Scottish historians have shown. Evidently
the Biblical explanation of the Scottish pork taboo is a
secondary one, originally urged by some pious patriot who
tried to account for the persistent hatred of the pig in his
native land. The fact that one of the old Gaelic names of the
pig, in " O'Davoren's Glossary," is deil, may here be noted.
In the Lowland Scots dialect " deil " is " devil."

The Finns, like the early people of Scotland, tabooed pork.
In their case a Biblical origin for the prejudice has never been
suggested. The Skrifter (1910) of the Norwegian Society of
Sciences, contains an article on the '' Primary Source of Lapp-
landish Mythology." We are informed that " Finns do not
eat swine because these are their horses when they fare in
their spiritual troll visions to light against other Finnish
sorcerers (Ganfinnir). Those who eat or have eaten sw^ine
have then no horse, and become vanquished " (35, 15). Here
we seem to meet with the pig avatar of a deity of the ancient
folk.

The ancient pork taboo still survives in a part of Greece
among a people of non-Hellenic origin whose ancestors must
have eflFected an intellectual conquest of the pork-eating
Achaean intruders, as did the pork-hating Anatolians of the
intruding Celts who settled in Galatia and the pork-hating
people of Scotland of the earliest Celtic intruders.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 19

J. G. Lawson (18, 87-8) contributes the Greek evidence : —

"In Northern Arcadia I also learnt that the flesh of the
pig, in respect of which the ordinary Grseculus fully deserves
the epithet esuriens, is taboo ; and the result of eating it is
Believed to be leprosy. It might be supposed that this
superstition has resulted from contact with Mohammedans ;
but such an explanation would not account for the confine-
ment of it to one locality — and that a mountainous and
unprofitable district where intercourse with the Turks must
have been small ; and further the Greek would surely have
found a malicious pleasure, the most piquant of sauces, in
eating that which offended the two peoples whom he most
abhors, Turks and Jews. On the other hand, if we suppose
the fear of swine's flesh to be a piece of native tradition, its
origin may well be sought in the ritual observances of the
cult of Demeter and her daughter, to whom the pig was
sacred and in whose honour it was sacrificed once only in
each year, a^ the festival of Thesmophoria (Schol. in Ar.
Ran 441. ^lian, Hist. Anirn., v, 16). There are many
instances among different peoples of the belief that skin
-diseases, especially leprosy, are the punishment visited upon
those who eat of the sacred or unclean animal ; for the
distinction between sacred and unclean is not made until a
primitive sense of awe is inclined bv conscious reasoning in
the direction either of reverence or of abhorrence (9, 44 ei
seq.). Thus in Egypt, the land from which the Pelasgians,
if Herodotus (ii, 171) might be believed, derived the worship
of Demeter, it was held that the drinker of pig's milk
incurred leprosy (^lian, loc. cit.); and we may reasonably
suppose that the same punishment threatened those Egyp-
tians who tasted of pig's flesh, save at their one annual
festival when this was enjoined (Herod., ii, 47 ; Plutarch,
Isis et Osiris, 8; Moral, 354; ^lian, loc. cit.). Now the
Thesmophoria resembled the Egyptian festival in that it
was an annual occasion for sacrificing pigs and for partak-
ing therefore of their flesh ; if then the worshippers of
Demeter, like the Egyptians, were forbidden to use the pig
for food at other times, and if the penalty for disobedience
in Greece too was believed to be leprosy, the present case of
taboo in Arcadia — the only one known to me in modern
Greece — mav be a survival from the ancient cult."

The annual pig feast mav have been held once a year in
ancient Scotland. As much is suggested by a statement made

20 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

in the "Statistical Account of Scotland, 1793 " (xvi, 460), with
reference to the parishes of wSandwick and Stromness, Orknev :

'' In a part of the parish of Sandwick, every family that
has a herd of swine, kills a sow on the 17th day of
December, and thence it is called Sow-day. There is no
tradition as to the orii^in of this practise."

In the Whitley Stokes edition of "Three Irish Glossaries
(London, 1862, p. 1 of preface) the editor refers to " lupait,"
and says it is explained as "the name of the pig that w^as
killed on Martin's festival, and it seems to me " (added the
ancient commentator quoted by Stokes) " it was to the Lord
it was offered."

The Egyptians, according- to Herodotus, sacrificed the pig
to the moon and to Osiris. " The poorer follvs who cannot
afford live pigs, form pigs of dough, which they bake and
offer in sacrifice" (II, 47).

In ancient Egypt and elsewhere pigs were kept by those
who did not eat them except sacrificially. " The admission of
swine into the fields, mentioned by Herodotus, should rather,"
wrote Wilkinson, " have been before than after they had
sowed the land, since their habits would do little good for the
farmer, and other animals would answer as well for * treading
in the grain ' ; but they may have been used before for
clearing the fields of roots and weeds encouraged by the
inundation ; and this seems to be confirmed by the herd of
pigs with water plants represented in the tombs" (34, ii, 18).
Mr. Robert Henderson, the Galloway farmer, informs us that
pigs were used in Scotland as in Egypt. " They may like-
wise," he said, "be allowed to go upon the new sown wheat,
provided the ground is dry, as their tramping is of some
service to that grain " (13, 36-7).

It was not because the pig was a rare animal in ancient
Scotland, or because it was not domesticated, that a prejudice
arose against the use of its flesh as food. Wild swine were
numerous. As late as 1851 some remained. Mr. James
Dickson, cattle dealer and author, states : "In the north of
Scotland, and in some of the Highland districts, they have

a small and half-wild kind of breed This breed is often

seen running nearly wild" (8, 217). Mr. Robert Henderson
mentioned several breeds in the Highlands and Lowlands, and
he refers to those that "pick up seaweed and shell-fish."
" Pigs," he writes, " are a. kind of natural scavengers " and
' will feed on almost anything.' In miry and marshy ground

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 21

they devour worms, frogs, fern, rush and sedge roots," and
so on. Some Highland swine were " very small, with long-
bristles upon their backs .... flocks of swine are not now
(181 1) so numerous in the Highlands as formerly " (13, 14, 25,
4i> 67).

As has been stated, pigs were kept at monasteries. David I
of Scotland by a grant permitted the monks of Holyrood to
cut wood in the royal forests of Stirling and Clackmannan and
to pasture their swine in them. Scottish barons had " huge
herds of swine" and ate pork freely (32, i, 233-6). The monks
and barons, however, constituted a minority of the population.
Many were of alien origin. The Norman barons especially
were detested by the great majority of the inhabitants of Scot-
land. Before the Battle of the Standard two Norman barons,
who had estates in Galloway, visited David I and protested
against him leading '"these savage tribes" against the
Normans, " whose faithfulness in your defence has made them
to be hated by the Scottish race." Saxon intruders were like-
wise unpopular. After the death of Malcolm Canmore, Donald
Bane set himself " to expel from the country all the foreigners
who had intruded into his dominions " (32, I, 243-4). Belgic
and Dutch fishermen settled on the shores of the Firth of
Forth, and in the burghs trade was chiefly in the hands of
Flemings and of settlers from England. It is not surprising
therefore to find that the minorities of intruders in Scotland
kept pigs and cured and ate pork, and that Aberdeen, in which
Flemish and English traders were prominent and influential
ultimately became famous among Dutch shipowners for its
excellent bacon and salted pork. An interesting reference to
bacon is recorded in Pinkerton's History. In 1401 it was
enacted by the Scottish Parliament "' that if any unwholesome
pork or bacon, or spoilt or foul salmon, was brought to market,
it was to be seized by the bailies and sent immediately to the
' lipper folk' (lepers)." Evidently it was thought that the
lepers, having- contracted their disease from food, could not be
further infected by foul salmon and unwholesome pork.

How then are we to account for the persisting prejudice
against pork in Scotland? The Celts, the medieval clergy,
the Angles and Saxons, the Normans, the Vikings and the
Flemings who settled in Scotland, reared swine and ate their
flesh. There seems to be but one explanation. In Scotland,
as in Finland, Northern Arcadia, Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and
elsewhere, the prejudice against pork had origin before the
birth of Christ. It has been perpetuated in Scotland by the
descendants of the indigeneous peoples, the '"common folk,"

22 Donald A. Mackenzie— ^co/^i^/i Pork Taboo

who are still, as they formerly were, in the vast majority. In
certain districts, as in the Hebrides, the descendants of pork-
eating intruders have acquired the prejudice. James VI of
Scotland and some contemporary lords had likewise succumbed
to the ancient taboo.

Nothing persists like immemorial superstitions or like
food prejudices based on superstitious beliefs. It is the
common people who perpetuate old-world customs and still
observe Halloween, May-day and other pre-Christian festi-
vals, who visit '' wishing wells " and make metal offerings
and tie rags to '" washing trees." In the seventeenth century
Dingwall Presbytery, as its minutes show (1656 — 1678) had to
deal with offenders among the common people who perpetuated
'' heathenish practices " at Loch Maree, including the sacri-
ficing of bulls, the pouring of oblations of milk on the hills,
etc. Fairies, goblins, etc., are still believed in by sections of
the inhabitants of Scotland. The pork taboo is only one of
many survivals.

INVERNESS BOAR STONE.

That the pork taboo is of Eastern origin there can be little
doubt. In Egypt the black pig acquired an evil reputation
because it was a form assumed by Set, the slayer of Osiris.
Set was the prototype of the Satanic pig demon. ' As Egyptian
barley and Egyptian religious beliefs associated with the
agricultural mode of life reached this country at a very early

Manchester Memoirs. Vol, Ixvi. (1922), No. 3 23

period, so apparently did the Egyptian pig taboo. In Troy
the star-spangled sow mother took the place of the star-
spangled goddess-cow Hathor. The sow mother was also
known in Crete where it was believed by one of the cults that
Minos, or Zeus-Dionysus was suckled by a sow (the goddess),
as Romulus and Remus were by the wolf, and other heroes
were by the sheep, the deer, the cow, etc. '' Wherefore," it
has been recorded, '' all the Cretans consider this animal (the
sow) sacred, and will not taste of its flesh ; and the men of
Praesos perform sacred rites with the sow, making her the first
offering at the sacrifice." Demeter had a sow as well as a
mare form, and the pig-taboo of her cult has survived in
Northern Arcadia. Professor Elliot Smith has discussed the
connection of the pig with the Great Mother and clearly
indicated why the animal acquired because of this connection
an "unpleasant reputation" (30, 216 — 221).

It has to be recognised, however, that in Scotland, as in
England, a different treatment of the pig obtained in certain
areas. The white boar-god (in Egypt, Osiris), who was killed
by the black boar (Set), figures in the legends regarding St.
Kentigern and may be identical with the solar boar of the
Inverness sculptured stone — a stone which does not have a
single Christian symbol. This boar may have been the god
of the Pictish '' Ores " (Young boars ") who formed a mili-
tary aristocracy of the Baltic amber traders of Celtic speech
referred to by Tacitus, and of other peoples, including the
ancient tribes of pre-Roman England whose warriors wore on
their armour protective boar images (3, 87 and 135, 6), and
those Scylding warriors who fought under a '' boar's-head
banner " (10, no). The boar god was the son of the sow-
goddess. Originally the boar was eaten once a year as in
Egypt, and it may be that the prominence formerly given to
the boar's head at the Christmas festival should be regarded
as a relic of ancient sacrifice.

'' The boar's head in hand bear I,
Bedecked with bays and rosemary ;
And I pray you, my masters, be merry.

Quot estis in convivio,

Caput apri defero,

Reddens laudes Domino,'^

is from a traditional carol sung at Queen's College, Oxford
(27, 259). The cult which in Scotland has tabooed pork does
not, however, appear to have been identical with the one which

24 Donald A. Mackenzie — Scottish Pork Taboo

had its boar's head feasts, but rather to have had something in
common with that of the people regarding whom Lucian wrote
(19, chap. 54): *' Pigs alone, which they abominate, are
neither sacrificed nor eaten "; the other cult may have been
represented by those who regarded " swine without disgust
but as holy animals." As has been indicated, the pork-
detesting people of Scotland were represented both in the
Lowlands and the Highlands. They were numerous enough
and influential enough to perpetuate a very ancient taboo
which survives as a prejudice till the present day.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Anwyl, Edward. " Celtic Religion " (Religions : Ancient and Modern).

2. BoNwiCK. " The Ancient Irish."

3. " British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age."

4. Burt, Captain. " Letters from the North of Scotland." 1818 edition.

5. C^SAR. " De Bello Gallico."

6. Cassitjs, Dion. " Xiphilinus."

7. Dalyell, J. G. " The Darker Superstitions of Scotland." Edinburgh,

1834.

8. Dickson. James. " The Breeding and Economy of Live Stock." Edin-

burgh, 1851.

9. Fbazer, J. G. " The Golden Bough." Vol. ii, 2nd ed.

10. Hall, Clark. " Beowulf in Modern English Prose."

11. Harris, Rendel. " The Ascent of Olympus."

12. Henderson, G. " Survivals in Belief among the Celts."

13. Henderson, R. "A Treatise on the Breeding of Swine and Curing of

Bacon." Leith (2nd edition), 1814. Preface dated 1811.

14. Hull, E. " Cuchullin Saga."

15. Johnson, Samuel. " A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland in

1773." London and Glasgow ed., 1876.

16. JoNSON, Ben. The Works of. Edited by W. Gifford, London, 1816.

17. L'Anthropolof/ie, 1921.

18. Lawson, J. G. "Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion."

19. Lucian. " De Dea Syria." (H. A. Strong's translation, London, 1913.)

20. MacGregoe. Alex. " Highland Superstitions."

21. O'CuRRY. " Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish."

22. RAMSAY. " Historical Geography of Asia Minor.".

23. Ramsay, Dean. " Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character."

24. Ray, James. " History of the Rebellion in Scotland," by James Ray

quoted in Antiquarian Gleanings from Aberdeenshire Records, Aber
deen, 1859.

25. Revue Celtique, vol. xiii.

26. Rhys, J. " Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx."

27. RiCKERT, E. " Ancient English Carols."

28. " St. Ninian and St. Kentigern, Lives of." Edinburgh, 1874.

29. Smith. G. Elliott. " The Ancient Egyptians."

30. Smith, G. Elliot. " The Evolution of the Dragon."

31. " Superstitions of the Scottish Highlands." Glasgow. 1900.

32. Tytler, p. Eraser. " The History of Scotland." Edinburgh, 1864 ed.

33. Watson. W. J. " The Picts : their Original Position in Scotland."

Inverness. 1921.

34. Wilkinson, J. G. " A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians."

London, 1878 ed.

35. " Year Book of the Viking Society." London, 1912,

Manchester 'Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 4

IV.— The Cultural Significance of the use of Stone.
By W. J. Perry, M.A.

(Read April 2^th, ig22. Received for puhlication Dec. 12th, ig22.)

If any element of culture be selected, and if inquiry be
made throughout the world as to its presence or absence in
different communities, it will usually be found, after a short
study, that its distribution, at first seemingly capricious, is
really according- to definite rules. The formulation of these
rules is the work of that branch of study which may be termed
Human Geography, a study that lies on the borderland of
Geography, Ethnology, Economics, and History. Why does
any community possess any element of culture whatever?
Why does a tribe make pottery, build stone houses, practice
magic, or do any of the thousand and one things that are done
by man ? What is the history of any cultural element that is
possessed by any community? Did that community invent
the element independently of any other community, or did it
borrow the idea ? It is possible to conceive that, all the world
over, communities have spontaneously invented arts and
crafts, and in different ways. On the other hand it is possible
that each art and craft was invented, once and for all, in one
place, and at one time, and that every instance of the posses-
sion of that art or craft is the result of cultural transmission.
It is not necessary to emphasize the tremendous intellectual
gulf that lies between the standpoints of those who hold these
opposite opinions. The whole theory of society depends upon
the manner of origin of any particular art or crafts, or of any
other element of culture. In view of the importance of this
matter, I have chosen for discussion a cultural element that by
its very simplicity seems to be capable of off-hand treatm.ent
without any exact study ; in the hope of convincing the reader
that it is wise to pause before venturing opinions on matters
apparently so simple. I take the act of using stone for the
building of monuments, for walls, and for any purpose of
construction whatever. I shall leave on one side the use of
stone for implements, although that is capable of treatment on
exactly parallel lines.

Febntary^ iQ2j.

2 W. J. Perry — Cultural Significance of the use of Stone

The question is : — Do men use stone spontaneously in any-
country because it is convenient for them to do so, or are they,
when using- stone, simply continuing a practice that has begun
in some one place and has been propagated to other places?
To study this question it is necessary to take into account, not
merely prehistoric monuments, but also those made by exist-
ing communities. The making of megalithic monuments, for
instance, has not yet died out : it is still proceeding in
Melanesia, Assam, and elsewhere ; and the study of the motives
that lead men in these outlying places to erect these structures
should serve to throw light upon the motives in the minds of
early man in Britain and other parts of Europe. In India and
Melanesia we can compare communities of identical stock who
differ in their customs; so that one tribe has much stonework,
while other tribes only use wood. To say that evidence from
India and Melanesia is beside the point when dealing with
the motives of early man in Europe is to beg the question.
Men built megalithic monuments, and other stonework, for
some reason or other ; and it is necessary to discover that
reason wherever possible, not to dogmatize from instances
derived from one country, as is done so often. The practice
of erecting megalithic monuments is widespread over the earth,
and some cause must be assigned for the practical identity of
structure shown in Ireland, Britain, France, Spain and
Portugal, India, Syria, Melanesia, and so on. If the reason
for this identity be discovered in some places it will probably
serve to explain other instances.

The inquiry may well begin with the long barrows,
dolmens, and stone circles that were erected in England and
Wales and elsewhere, during the so-called '' neolithic " and
" bronze " ages. They constitute the first instances of the
use of stone in the countries where they occur, and thus must
play an important part in the discussion of the meaning of the
use of stone. The current explanations of the distribution of
these monuments can be divided into two parts. It is said
that they are confined to high ground, because their builders
were forced by the forests and marshes of the lowlands to
avoid the lowlands. This assertion can be put on one side for
future treatment, with the observation that the generalisation
with regard to high ground is not strictly accurate. It is said,
further, that megalithic monuments were built in places
possessing supplies of suitable stone. It is to that assertion,
made, tacitly or avowedly, by so many students, that attention
must first be paid. In order to convince the reader that I am
not wasting unnecessary time on this matter, I venture to

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi, (1922), No. 4 3

quote the words of Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, the Archaeology
Ofificer of the Ordnance Survey, whose appointment is a cause
of so much gratification to those interested in the history of
our country. Mr. Crawford, in describing, to the Royal
Geographical Society, his future work on the Ordnance
Survey, devotes a few words to Long Barrows. He says : —
''A Long Barrow is a mound of earth, generally about 150
feet long, broader at one end, and covering the remains of
bodies buried there in the Neolithic Age. In regions where
stone was available, burial-chambers were built and the whole
mound surrounded by a (generally rectangular) wall of dry
masonry (2, 252). Mr. Crawford's inference is clear. Given
a supply of stone a chamber is made : when stone is absent a
chamber is not made. This must be put to the test.

In the first place it can be shown, without difficulty, that,
in this, and every country, the available supplies of stone have
had little to do with the practice of the use of stone. In
England the megalithic monuments of the counties of Derby-
shire, Yorkshire, and Lancashire, for instance, are confined to
a few areas; in the neighbourhood of the carboniferous lime-
stone in Derbyshire, round Whitby in Yorkshire, with a few
long barrows on the Yorkshire Wolds. Hundreds of square
miles of country are devoid of them. Where is the available
stone for the purpose ? A glance at a geological map will
show that a vast area in these counties is occupied by the
millstone grit formation, which is full of stone in every way
suitable for the construction of megalithic monuments. I will
offer to erect a monument far surpassing Stonehenge from
great blocks of stone that lie within a mile or two of Pateley
Bridge in Nidderdale. There are no megalithic monuments
within dozens of miles of this place. The same can be said
of any other part of this region. The great extent of the oolite
formation in this country is but sparsely occupied by mega-
lithic monuments. Again, although the granite formations of
Dartmoor, Bodmin Moor, and the Land's End district are full
of megaliths, there are none on St. Austell Moor, which is of
granite. Why is that? If men built megaliths in the other
places because they found granite, they should, on such a
hypothesis, have built them on St. Austell Moor, but they did
not. Vast stretches of this country, full of suitable stone, are
bereft of megaliths. Again, is one to suppose that the only
suitable stone for megaliths in Europe is to be found in
Britain, France, Spain and Portugal, Denmark, Southern
Sweden, North Germany, Italy, with a few scattered spots in
Galicia and elsewhere?' Are we asked to believe that the

4 W. J. Perry — Cultural Significance of the use of Stone

whole of the rest of Europe contained no suitable stone, or that
the climatic and other conditions were not suitable ? Such an
assertion is ludicrous. How about the Alps, the Rhine Valley,
the valley of the Danube ? How about the whole of the
Balkans, which only contain a few dolmens near Adrianople ?
Obviously some selective factor in men's minds must have
caused some stone-bearing^ areas to be settled rather than
others. Certainly the presence of stone had, in itself, but little
causative effect.

It is not necessary to show that vast areas of North America
are, in like manner, entirely devoid of the use of stone, which
is confined to the valleys of the Cumberland and Tennessee
Rivers. The assertion that the use of stone was determined
by its presence is still more insufficient, therefore, in North
America. The general map of distribution of the use of stone
throughout the Avorld serves likewise to emphasize the fact that
this practice has not arisen from the presence of suitable stone.
The theory of a spontaneous origin of the practice must
therefore be abandoned.

The builders of megalithic monuments had the habit of
transporting large blocks of stone, often for great distances.
The following quotation from the late J. R. Mortimer, who
spent forty years in the excavation of mounds and barrows in
the Yorkshire Wolds, will serve as a beginning. Speaking
of the materials used in the construction of barrows, he says :

" It was more the rule than the exception for clay, foreign
to the spot, to be used in the erection of these barrows. It
occasionally occurred in large quantities, and had sometimes
been fetched from a considerable distance. I have also
noticed, not infrequently, that clay, peaty matter, and some-
times fine loamy earth, brought from a distance, had been
specially placed near the interment and the cinerary urn.
Occasionally the interment rested on a few inches of clay,
and infrequently a thin layer of the same material covered
it. In Barrow No. 12 the grave in the chalk rock had a
flooring of oolitic flagstones ; while there were ten inter-
ments on a flooring of Liassic stones in Barrow No. 275 ;
and in Nos. 61, C 38 and 281, were cists of the same foreign
rock; while under the centre of Nos. 55 and 83 was con-
cealed a broken or incomplete circle of large oolitic sand-
stone blocks (Calcareous Grit) enclosing interments.

^' The use of material from a distance in building these
barrows seems to have been practised over wide areas.
Canon Atkinson, when opening barrows on the Cleveland

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 4 5

moors, observed layers of white sand used in making the
mound, which he considered was not obtainable within
seven miles of the site of the barrows, and the greater part
of another barrow was whinstone from a dyke three miles
distant." (8, xxi-ii.)

Canon Greenwell remarks on a Barrow in Rudstone Parish
in the East Riding : —

'' The sandstone slabs, some of which showed by their
peculiarly weathered surface that they had been taken from
the sea-beach, could not have been obtained nearer than
Filey Brigg, which is about twelve miles distant from the
barrow. The transportation of these thence must have been
a work of time and labour, especially to people who could
have possessed nothing but the simplest appliances for
effecting the carriage of weighty objects."

Canon Greenwell goes on to say that : —

''.... it seems strange in this case, where a deep grave
had been sunk into the chalk, that it should have been
considered necessary to undertake all the additional toil of
constructing cists within the grave, when such constructions
seemed in no w^ay necessary for the protection of the interred
bodies. I have seen in limestone districts something which
may be considered more or less analogous ; namely, that a
hollow had been first made in the limestone rock, and then
lined with slabs of sandstone " (4, 242-3).

These quotations demonstrate that the early users of stone
in this country were not dependant upon local supplies, but
were ready to transport large slabs over several miles of
country. As Canon Greenwell says, no plausible reason can
be assigned for the practice on the score of utility. It seems
that they wished to use that particular sort of stone, and
proceeded so to do regardless of trouble. We have high
authority for concluding that some of the stones of Stonehenge
itself, the blue stones, came from a great distance, perhaps
from Brittany. That goes to show that the question of local
supplies of stone really played but little part in the calcula-
tions of the early users of stone in this country. In other
countries men have taken the trouble to transport stones, often
of vast size, to places where they needed them. This is so,
for instance in Brittany, where stones have been carried for
twenty miles from a quarrv in order to form part of a dolmen.

6 W. J. Perry — Cultural Significance of the use of Stone

In India, Colonel Meadows Taylor mentions certain stones
forming- part of a tumulus at Shahpur, 13 miles north of
Shorapur : —

" These rocks, which are granite, were evidently brought
from the Shahpur hills, a distance of three miles. There is
no granite nearer — the geological formation changing from
gneiss and laminar limestone nearly from the foot of those
hills ; and there are two deep nullas or rivulets, with scarped
banks, between, which must have proved a great obstacle
in rolling these masses, which is the only means by which
I can conceive that they were moved " (7,347, 35 1)-

The late Mr. Walhouse makes the following comments
upon transportation of stones in India and elsewhere : —

'" The Coimbatore monuments are formed from the gneiss
or granitic rock everywhere cropping out on the surface.
I observed no instances of masses having been brought from
a distance ; but in the laterite district of Malabar, the cover-
ing stones of the sepulchral vaults (invariably granite) must
frequently have been brought from lesser or greater
distances. In the Central Provinces Col. Meadows Taylor
describes masses exceeding 200 tons in weight that must
have been moved from hills three miles distant."

After mentioning transportation in England, he goes on to say
that " Smooth stones were observed by Mr. Atkinson to have
been brought from distant rivers to tumuli on the steppes "
(13, 30), and RadlofT states that many monuments on the
banks of the Abakan have been transported many miles.

The vast region running eastwards from India to the other
side of the Pacific was colonised by people from India, who
have left monuments in certain places to testify to their
presence. Ample evidence exists to show^ that these people
habitually transported stone. In fact, their path across the
Pacific can be traced in such a manner. A tale from
Minahassa, in north-east Celebes, states that the colonisers of
the country, who brought with them the use of stone and the
practice of making rock-cut tombs, carried stones about with
them. A man named Makarende took a piece of the holy
stone of a place called Kema, and planted it in the ground at
another place called Kakas. Later on he disappeared into a
tree, and while there he told his son to come and cultivate the
land at Kakas. The latter did so, but was not successful until
he obeyed the injunctions of his parent : '' You, my son, must

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 4 7

go to the east and fetch a piece of the stone that which I have
planted in the ground, a heritage of your forefathers." These
people of old have left stonework behind them in Central
Celebes, in the shape of stone images, dolmens, and so forth.
Some of these images are of a kind of stone not to be found
in the neighbourhood, which makes it probable that, like the
image in the other story, they have been transported from a
previous home. This custom is well known in the island of
Nias, west of Sumatra, noteworthy for its stonework. When
a new village is to be made sacred stones are brought from
the former site. This custom is doubtless responsible for the
presence of a large stone of igneous formation on a coral
island at Kei, just west of New Guinea (10, 46-8). It is used
in ceremonial by folk that obviously came across the sea.

The most notable ruins of the Pacific are those of Micro-
nesia. At Ponape in the Carolines, and at Kusaie and else-
where, are remains of great works. At Ponape there was
formerly an artificial Venice constructed of large blocks of
stone. People who made such ruins must have had good
reason for settling in such a place. It is said that the founders
of Ponape came across the sea from Yap, an island many
miles away to the west, floating on stones, and that they made
the settlement of Ponape where the stones stranded on the
reef. The people of Yap make much use of stone money,
which they formerly got from the Pelews, three hundred miles
away across the sea. Thus they actually had the custom of
transportation of stones, and the tradition of Ponape rests
upon some foundation of fact.

Elsewhere in the Pacific signs exist of the transportation
of stones. This is so in Tongatabu, where it is known
that large stones have been brought across the sea at some
time in the past. The great trilithon is said by some to have
been made of stones thus transported, but this is disputed.
The most notable instance of transportation of stones is
that of the region round Tahiti in the Eastern Pacific. The
great pyramidal building, or maras, at Opoa in Raiatea, an
island in the neighbourhood of Tahiti, was the great meeting-
place for the whole of the Eastern Pacific, to which came, at
regular intervals, the chiefs from island groups thousands of
miles distant, in their great canoes that carried 170 or more
people, with banners flying, to join in festivities. It is said
that, when a new marcs was made in any place, a stone was
taken from the marcB of Opoa to form, as it were, the founda-
tion stone of the new structure (9).

It is thus evident that the use of stone by people such as

8 W. J. Perry — Cultural Significance of the use of Stone

the Polynesians and their ancestors does not depend upon
local supplies of stone, but is a definite element of their culture.
If no stone is present in a place where it is needed, then it is
brought from a distance. More than that, the practice of
transportation of stones from one settlement to another shows
that religious and magical ideas were bound up with the use
of stone, and it will be interesting to see the nature of these
ideas.

The use of stone in the great region running east from
India is mainly confined to three classes of structures : tombs,
ceremonial enclosures, and stone circles. Sometimes, but
rarely, houses, or house-foundations, are made of stone, but
these can be put on one side for the present purpose. Stone
is only used for houses in definite cultural circumstances that
I have already discussed fully in another place. I wish to call
attention to the stone circles.

Stone circles are far more widely distributed throughout
India, Indonesia, and the Pacific than any other form of stone
structure. They are invariably used as council-places, and
for ceremonial purposes. The society with which they were
connected is based on the clan system. Each state was com-
posed of a number of clans, each connected with some sort of
emblem, either animal, plant or material object, and each clan
formed an autonomous unit that conducted its own affairs.
Also, in some instances, where a definite ruling class existed,
the heads of the various clans formed a council of the tribe or
the state, presided over by a member of the royal family, who
fulfilled the office corresponding to that of Vizier in ancient
Egypt. Throughout the region of which I am speaking, in
places where the custom of holding councils still persists,
council meetings are held in stone circles, the members sitting
on stones ranged in a circle. As has been said, in Nias, an
island west of Sumatra, these stones are taken to the site of a
new village, which is obviously in order that the sanctity of
the old meeting-place may be transferred to the new. The
custom of making stone circles for the purpose of council-
meetings has persisted after that of erecting dolmens and
pyramids has disappeared. That is because the clan council
persists, even when a ruling class that used dolmen graves had
disappeared. The clan council is one of the most persistent
of elements of culture, and that well accounts for the survival
of the stone circle.

Throughout this vast region, also, rulers, when engaged
in council meetings, also sit on stone seats. This is a sign of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixm. (1922), No. 4 9

royal rank. This custom ,is associated directly with that of
using stone circles for council-meetings.

In Europe it is well known that stone circles were used for
council meetings. The ancient Danes are said to have elected
their kings sitting on stones arranged in a circle. (5).

The evidence gained from places where stone circles are in
active use, together with the traditional evidence derived from
Europe, suggests that the stone circles of this and other
countries were used for council meetings and other ceremonial
purposes. That would well explain the positions of Avebury
and Stonehenge. They would be the central meeting-places
for the whole country. As I have already shown, this part of
the country must have been thickly populated in the days when
these great monuments were made (11).

In yet another way is it possible to show that the use of
stone is an element of culture. For stonework has associa-
tions, in this country, with definite periods of civilisation. No
stone was used for purposes of construction during the
paleolithic age, yet it was lying on the g^round. Those who
assert that stone is used because it is available must explain
why these early men did not use it. The obvious explanation
is that they had not learned the practice : they were not yet
civilised enough. But if it be argued that a certain level of
culture must be reached before men come to use stone for
monuments and so forth, it is evident that the real question is
being evaded, namely, how has that level of culture been
reached, and v/hat, therefore, has really directed the minds of
men towards the use of stone ?

In this country the use of stone came in suddenly. For
some reason or other men began to manipulate great blocks of
stone, to make of them tombs, and, perhaps a little later, stone
circles. No signs exist of previous attempts ; on the contrary,
the earliest monuments are usually the largest. The erection
of megalithic monuments dies out after the appearance of the
use of bronze in this country. Why was that ?

The beginning of the end of the use of stone for tombs,
stone circles, and so forth, began with the arrival in western
Europe of small triangular daggers, in some places of bronze,
in others of copper, of the use of solar symbols, of a great use
of gold for ornaments, and, in places where megalithic monu-
ments already existed, of tombs consisting of a beehive
chamber of smallish stones, approached by a gallery, and
surmounted by a tumulus of large size, usually made of earth.
This civilisation also appeared in other parts of Europe, but
the tombs were smaller. From that time onwards the use of

lo W. J. Perry — Cultural Significance of the use of Stone

stone gradually disappears. The tumulus over the graves
becomes smaller and smaller ; it turns into a small mound of
earth, and finally becomes a flat grave, the chamber having
gone altogether.

It is fashionable to say that the coming of bronze was due
to trade — that the small daggers and other bronze implements
were bartered or hawked from one end of Europe to the other
by men coming from the places of manufacture. That state-
ment, I am convinced, is, generally speaking, a profound
mistake, and it can only have been made when the evidence
from the rest of the world is ignored. It is quite possible to
imagine the bartering of the triangular bronze daggers, but it
is impossible to barter a grave of the type that appeared in
those days. It is also impossible to conceive how the solar
symbols could have appeared in w^estern Europe as the result
of trade. It is patent, from the study of the sun-cult in other
parts of the world, that any community in which the sun-cult
is practised is ruled over by men calling themselves The
Children of the Sun. When these Children of the Sun
disappear, as they have done throughout Polynesia, for
instance, usually because they were massacred or outlawed by
their nobles, the sun-cult also disappears (9, Chapters lo, ii).
The use of solar symbols is a sure sign of the existence of a
sun-cult. No signs whatever exist in western Europe of such
signs until the coming of bronze daggers. It is therefore
possible, and indeed probable, that the real event that took
place in those days was the spread, by way of Crete, of
members of the Egyptian royal family, calling themselves
Children of the Sun, who took with them the practice of
making these great graves. These graves are, we are told,
modelled on the pyramids of the Twelfth Dynasty in Egypt
(6, 78). The use of the triangular bronze dagger appears in
Crete with these new tombs. Such triangular daggers, but of
copper, are figured on steles of First Dynasty mastabas in
Egypt, the dagger being a sign for '"chief" or ''ruler."
Since, throughout European pre-history, the wearing of
swords, which developed out of the triangular dagger, was a
mark of noble birth, it follows that the hypothesis of trade in
bronze daggers at the beginning of the bronze age has nothing
whatever to support it ; all the evidence going to show that
these daggers were the exclusive possession of a small group
of men of royal birth. Traders would not have been able
to get hold of them, even if such men existed in those days,
which is doubtful.

Whatever explanation it is wished to put forward to

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), iVo. 4 11

account for the coming of bronze to Europe, it is evident that
the use of stone for purposes of construction suffers a decline,
and in some places an eclipse. This degradation was con-
tinuous, so that, in Denmark for instance, and Southern
Sweden, the use of stone for purposes of construction finally
disappeared. For the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who came
thence to this country at the beginning of our era, made no
use of stone whatever, either in their homeland or in this
country. They built entirely of wood, and made ordinary
graves in the g^round such as we still make.

The failure of the Anglo-Saxons to use stone in this
country is all the more remarkable in that they succeeded the
Romans who, as is well known, were excellent stone-masons.
But, curiously enough, the Anglo-Saxons avoided the Roman
settlements, and made their homesteads sometimes miles away
from the Roman highways. Only when missionaries came
from Italy to convert the country did the use of stone begin
again, and then only sporadically. The Normans, another
branch of the same Scandinavian people, did not work stone
when they came to this country. Their early castles were
made of wood, and were set on the tops of earthern mounds.
They were not the great structures of stone that are so well
known to us as Norman castles.

In this country, therefore, the use of stone has more than
once disappeared. It was unknown before the coming of
people from the Mediterranean bringing with them the
essentials of civilisation. After the arrival of bronze weapons
the use of stone gradually disappeared, so that the mounds of
the bronze age often have no stone in them at all. In the
later times the use of stone suffers still further eclipse, until
the arrival of the Romans, another people from the Mediter-
ranean. Then came the Normans, another group from
Scandinavia, who did not use stone. They were educated in
the use of stone later on. Thus in all cases the use of stone
in this country is associated directly with men coming from
the Mediterranean. It is therefore legitimate to claim that
this craft is really a cultural element, and that people do not
use stone just because it happens to be the most suitable
material in any particular circumstances.

Exactly the same story can be told in other parts cf ^he
earth. In" Polynesia, America and elsewhere, the use of stone
is mostly a thing of the past. In many places people who use
wood or skin for their dwellings, and who make no use of
stone, live in regions full of stone remains. It is well known
what has happened in such places. The old civilisation has

12 W. J. Perry — Cultural Significance of the use of Stone

been broken up, and the people have lost their rulers who
needed such stone monuments for their tombs, or for their
ritual performances. In Polynesia it is noteworthy that the
later peoples who do not make stone monuments, such as the
Maori of New Zealand, do not hold council meetings of the
same nature as their ancestors in eastern Polynesia. In the
old days the council was a potent force, and served to control
the rulers. But when the old order broke up, the rulers
became more autocratic, and the council became merely
advisory, if it existed at all. The disappearance of stone in
such places is thus the sign of profound social and political
transformations, and is not a matter of caprice or accident.

The disappearance of the use of stone as the result of the
appearance on the scene of more warlike communities is a
phenomenon of world-wide extent. In Siberia the gold and
copper miners of the valley of the Upper Yenesei erected
thousands of megalithic monuments, especially near Minusinsk
and in the valley of the Abakan, the stones along the Abakan
often being carted for several miles to be placed in position.
These old people practised irrigation, a noteworthy thing in
a country where the average temperature is zero for the whole
year. These people, sedentary miners, were succeeded by
horse-riding nomads coming from the south, and bearing
signs in their art of contact with the civilisations of Persia
and Assyria. In these days the graves are much smaller.
Finally, the Kirghiz, the descendants of these warriors, make
still smaller stone graves (12).

A similar story can be told in Africa. In North- West
and West Africa the first population made polished stone
implements and erected megalithic graves, which are found
from Algeria to the bend of the Niger. These were succeeded
by warlike people from the south, who never used stone at all.
In Palestine the same sequence is observable. The Israelites,
tent-dwelling nomads, settled in a country possessing many
dolmens, stone circles and other stonework.

In Europe it is evident that the solution of the problem
must be along similar lines. In the old days in Scandinavia
a council of great nobles served to check the rulers, who were
usually sacred kings. The councils were associated with
stone circles. But the Teutonic conquerors, such as the rulers
of the Angles and Saxons, and those of other branches of the
Teutonic ruling group, threw off the restraints of their home
when they set out on their conquests, and the council
disappeared. This is probably why the practice of using
stone circles disappeared. A like solution can also be applied

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. IxvL (1922), No. 4 13

in the case of the tombs. The later kings were bent on
entirely different ends from those pursued by their ancestors.
Men were being educated in the practice of war, and attention
was given to plunder and to fighting, and not to the construc-
tion of elaborate tombs for the dead. In Europe, as elsewhere,
what is known of the matter goes to show that the decay in
the use of stone was due, not to natural, but to social causes.
For some reason or other, certain communities gave up the
use of stone, which only persisted continuously in the
Mediterranean, and only appeared in Western Europe under
the influence of the Eastern Mediterranean peoples.

It is possible, in Egypt, to watch the effect of social and
political transformations on the use of stone. The Egyptian
grave developed from the simple hollow scooped out in the
sand, of early pre-dynastic days, to the massive pyramid of
stone of the Fourth Dynasty, which marks the culminating
point of the use of stone in that country. The earliest
Egyptian tombs were of brick, and thus correspond to those
of Sumer. But, in the early dynasties, the gradual deepening
of the tomb finally caused the solid rock to be reached. One
great difficulty that the Egyptian tomb-makers had to over-
come was that of forming a satisfactory roof to the grave.
But when they got down to the solid rock, in days after the
copper chisel had been invented, it seems to have struck some
bright genius that, if the tomb itself were cut out of the rock,
this would solve the problem of roofing ; so thus arose the
custom of rock-cut tombs. In the early tombs with a rock-cut
grave the superstructure was of brick. But eventually stone
was used for the superstructure, probably as a direct result of
the making of rock-cut tombs. It does not seem to have
occurred to the Egyptians to use stone for the superstructures
of their graves until they had actually begun to cut into the
rock to make tombs. Then the idea seems to have come, and
the kings thenceforth had stone worked for their tombs and
temples. But the building of stone pyramids did not last
indefinitely in Egypt. For from the Eleventh Dynasty
onwards B.C. the pyramids degenerate in size and once again
begin to be made of brick (1, 198). Thus in Egypt the con-
struction of tombs began with brick and it ended with brick,
with the exception of' rock-cut tombs, which continued to be
made during many centuries.

What is the cause of this gradual development and decline ?
It obviously has nothing to do with the supply of stone : for
the stone was there all the time. It was simply a matter of
the internal political condition of Egypt. In the times when

14 W. J. Perry — Cultural Significance of the use of Stone

stone was being used for pyramids, during the Third and
Fourth Dynasties, the kings of Egypt seem to have enjoyed
undisputed power. The king's eldest son, the heir to the
throne, acted as his vizier, and carried on the administration
of the State. The governors of the provinces were chosen
by the king. In this period the king was able to concentrate
on the making of a vast tomb in which he should lie after
death, a very ignoble aim, which shows what human beings
will do when they have the chance. But, at the beginning of
the Fifth Dynasty a change comes over the scene, and a
gradual decline sets in that is like that which followed the
arrival of the use of bronze in Western Europe. The Fifth
Dynasty marks the coming to power of a new line of kings,
calling themselves the Children of the Sun. These kings did
not have the same power as their predecessors. They were
forced, for some reason or other, to have for their viziers men
whose names suggest that they were connected with the old
regime. And from the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty till
the end of the Sixth Dynasty, the office of vizier, formerly in
the hands of the royal family, was filled by men of some other
family. At the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty the governors
of the provinces managed to secure power for themselves, and
to make hereditary the succession to their offices. The kings
of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties were therefore faced with
the necessity of keeping in order their vizier and their nobles :
their power was not so undisputed as it was in the Third and
Fourth Dynasties. Consequently the king was not able to
command the labour necessary for the construction of immense
pyramids. The nobles had to be placated and kept in order,
if possible, and this absorbed much of the energies of the king.
So the pyramids degenerated in size.

At the end of the Sixth Dynasty the ruling power collapsed,
and the country was given over to anarchy and foreign inva-
sion. So when the next dynasty that is known, the Eleventh
Dynasty, appears in the light of history, the tombs are once
again of brick. The old times when the king had complete
control of the country never returned, and immense stone
pyramids like those of the Third and Fourth Dynasties were
never again made.

In Egypt, therefore, the use of stone is definitely dependent
upon the conditions of the country. It is not a matter of
caprice or of convenience. Evidently the idea to use stone
only came when men were led, so to speak, right up to it.
The steps by which the idea germinated can be watched, and
thev form a natural sequence in the circumstances. If, there-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixvi. (1922), No. 4 15

fore, it took the most highly civilised nation of that time so
many centuries to reach the idea of using stone, if also this
practice was given up in later times, and reversion made to
the use of mud-bricks, what warrant is there for believing that
men, in other parts of the earth, have spontaneously come to
use stone ?

It may be claimed, as often happens, that the first use of
stone was of unworked stone. Such an assertion begs the
whole question at issue. It is certainly true that the pre-
dynastic Egyptians sometimes used ^labs of stone to support
the walls of their tombs in the sand. They were also using
all sorts of other substances for the same purposes. But the
pro-dynastic Egyptians never made a stone structure that I
know of. In countries such as England the first use of stone
is in the form of definite structures, that obviously are built
according to some plan. Only stone is used, and no signs
exist of experimentation, as in Egypt. It is in these circum-
stances that I claim to assert that the first use of stone wasi
that of unworked stone, is to beg the whole question, and to
reduce the study of archaeology to chaos. So long as such
statements can be made unchallenged, there is but little hope
of advance. It can be shown, in all parts of the world, that
the earliest civilisations greatly excelled their successors in
their command over the arts and crafts. It is practically
invariably found that these early civilisations were charac-
terised by the use of stone for purposes of construction, and
that stone was worked in various ways, often as carved images.
These advanced civilisations sent out influences to the
surrounding countries, and it is found that, though the
working of stone dies out, the use of stone sometimes con-
tinues, but unworked stone. I have already established this
sequence in the East Indian Archipelago. It is equally clear
in North America, in Polynesia, and in Africa. (See (7).
There is thus no warrant for the statement as regards Europe.
On the contrary, every use of unworked stone for monuments)
must be regarded as a case of culture-degradation. Now that
the realisation of the truth of Elliot Smith's theory of the
Egyptian origin of the Long Barrow and the Dolmen of
Western Europe is being widely recognised (3^ 5), it will soon
be possible to approach the study of European pre-history in
the proper manner. The Long Barrow, of unworked stone, is
a degradation product of the Egyptian mastaba, which was of
worked stone ; the sequence therefore agrees with those of
other parts of the world. Therefore it can be claimed, that
the early civilisations of Western Europe were derived from

1 6 W. J. Perry — Cultural Significance of the use of Stone

the Eastern Mediterranean, and eventually from Egypt, and
by this way came the use of stone. This is the only explana-
tion that fits the facts.

1. Breasted, J. H. " A History of Egypt." 1919.

2. Crawford, 0. G. S. "Archaeology and the Ordnance Survey." Geogr. Jour.,

59, No. 4, 1922.

3. Crawford, 0. G. S. The Long Barrows and Stone Circles in the Area

covered by Sheet 8 of the ^-inch Map (the Cotswolds and the Welsh
Marches). Ordnance Survey. Professional Papers. New Series.
No. 6. 1922.

4. Greenwell, . "British Barrows."

5. Journal of the Ethnological Society, 1869.

6. Lethaby, W. R. " Architecture." Home University Library

7. Meadows Taylor. Trans, Roij, Irish AccncL, 24, 1873.

8. Mortimer J. R. "Forty Years' Researches in British and Saxon Burial

Mounds of East Yorkshire." 1905.

9. Perry, W. J. The Children of the Sun." London, 1923.

10. " The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia." Manchester, 1918.

11. " The Problem of Megalithic Monuments and their distribution in

England and Wales." Manchester Memoirs, 65, No. 13, 1921.

12. Radloff, W. " Aus Sibirien."

13. Walhouse. . "Notes on the Megalithic Monuments of the Coimbatore

District. Madras." Jour. Boy. Asiat. Soc, 1875.

October ^th, 192 1.] Proceedings.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

- At a Meeting of the Council held on Tuesday, June 21st, 1921,,
the following were elected Student Associates of the Society : —

George Ernest Collins, B.Sc.Tech., 37, Marshall Boad, Levenshidme,
Manchester. John Stanley Herbert Davies, 58, Parkfldd Street, Whit-
worth Park, Manchester. Laurence Bamett Timmis, B.Sc. Tech., A.I.G.^
50, Claremont Road, Moss Side, Manchester. Stuart Henry John Wilson,
B.Sc, The University Union, Manchester. Alice Graham Ikin, 39,.
Kensington Avenue, Victoria Park, Manchester,

General Meeting, October 4th, 192 1.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
Mr. Coward thanked the Members of the Society for the
honour they had accorded him in electing him President.
The following were elected Ordinary Members of the Society :

John Anderson, M.A.. B Sc, Ph.D., Eesearch Chemist, The British
Alizarine Co., Ltd., Trafford Park, Manchester. 80, Bisho'p Street,
Whalley Range, Manchester. William Haywood Dawson, F.LC,
Manager, The British AHzarine Co., Ltd., Trafford Park, Manchester.
Cjo The British Alizarine Co., Ltd., Trafford Park, Manchester.
Edwin Bayley, F.C.S., Works Manager, J. E. C. Lord (Manchester),
Ltd., Borough Road, Weaste, Manchester. Cjo J. E. C. Lord {Man-
chester), Ltd., Borough Road, Weaste, Manchester. David Brownlie,
B.Sc, A.I.Mech.E., F.C.S., Technical Chemist and Engineer, Messrs.
Brownlie and Green, Ltd., Church Street, Cheetham, Manchester.
4, Grangethor-pe Drive, Burnage, Manchester. Margaret White Fishenden,
D.Sc, The College of Technology, Manchester. The College of Tech-
nology, Manchester. R. H. Albery, M.Sc, Senior Physics Master^
Oldham Grammar School, Oldham. J^6Jf, Moss Lane East, Manchester.

Ordinary Meeting, October 4th, 1921.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. (President), in the

Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table. These included : Tables of Refractive Indices, vol. ii..
Oils, Fats and Waxes, by R. Kanthack (8vo, London, 1921), pre-

ii.. Proceedings. lUctober i8th, 1921.

sented by Messrs. Adam Hilger, Ltd. ; Trayisactions and Pro-
ceedings of the New Zealand Institute, vol. lii, presented by I\Ir.
Edward Melland ; Grammar of Colloquial Tibetan, and English-
Tibetan Colloquial Dictionary, by C. A. Bell (i2mo, Calcutta,
1919 and 1920), presented by the Governor of Bengal in Council ;
CE^irres Completes de Christiaaii Huygens, T. XIII. (i. and ii.),
T. XIV. (4to, La Haye, 1916 and 1920), published and presented
by La Societe Hollandaise des Sciences ; and Terrestrial Mag-
netism {British [Terra-Nova] Antarctic Expedition, 1910 — 1913),
by C. Chree (4to, London, 1921), presented by the Captain
Scott Memorial Fund.
The Prt'Sident delivered his Inaugural Address, entitled

"The Preservation of our Fauna."

This address is printed in the Memoirs,

Special Meeting, October 14th, 1921.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
Dr. Irving Langmuir, of the General Electric Company,
Schenectady, N.Y., U.S.A., delivered an Address entitled

"Molecular Structure."

The modern conception of the atom is that of a nucleus
surrounded by electrons, and all the chemical and physical
properties of the atom are due, in a large m_easure, to the
number of these electrons and the way in which they are
arranged around the nucleus. Dr. Langmuir indicated three
postulates, and explained in a number of cases how these
postulates accorded with the simple and well-known properties
of the atoms considered. He was able to show w^herein laj^ the
fundamental difference between organic chemical compounds
and inorganic compounds ; and he explained how the electrical
conductivity of certain substances in the molten state or in
solution could be accounted for, and why some elements are
gaseous and others solid under ordinary conditions.

General Meeting, October i8th, 1921.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
The following were elected Ordinary Members of the Society :

William Anderson, B.Sc. (Glasgow), Lecturer in Physics, The College
of Technology, Manchester. Capstone^ Mellor, Derbyshire. Frederick
Thomas Peirce, B.Sc. (Sydney), Physicist, The British Cotton Industry
Research Association, Shirley Institute, East Didsbury, Manchester.

November ist, 192 1.] Proceedings. iii.

The Shirley Institute, East Didsbury^ Manchester. Samuel Williams,
Research Student in Botany. The Botanical Dejjartment, The Univer-
sity, Manchester. J. E. Jones, M.Sc, Lecturer in Mathematics in the
Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Manchester.
Harold Walkden, Research Worker on Plant Pathology, The University,
Manchester. " The liaft." Derbyshire Boad, Sale, Cheshire. Victor
Ewart Stephens, A.R.Sc. (Dub.), A. I. C, Research Chemist, The British
Alizarine Co., Ltd., Trafford Park, Manchester. 6, Willoxv Tree Fond,
Altrinrham, Cheshire. Marian E. Mitchell, B.Sc, Science Mistress, The
High School for Girls, Manchester. The High School for Girls, 'Man-
chester.

Ordinary Meeting, October i8th, 1921.

Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc., F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.

A vote of .thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.vSc, F.R.S., exhibited various potato-
tubers received from Mr. Moir, of Inverness, which illustrated
bgth the results of grafting one kind of tuber upon another and
also the results of hybridising.

Professor T. H. Pear, M.A., B.vSc, read a paper entitled

*'The Visualization of Numbers in Space: Some
Comments upon Gallon's Theory of Number-Forms."

This paper is printed in the Memoirs.

At a Meeting of the Council held on Tuesday, October i8th,
1921, the following were elected Student Associates of the
Society : —

Edith D. Johnson, M.Sc, Research Student in Botany, The Victoria
University of Manchester. 37, Cavendish Foad, Heaton Mersey.
Florence Brindley, M.Sc, Research Student in Botany, The Victoria
University of Manchester. J^83, Chester Foad, Old Trafford, Manchester.
Elsie Dickinson, B.Sc, Research Student in Botany, The Victoria
University of Manchester. Ellerslie, Glossop.

General Meeting, November ist, 1921.
Mr. T. A. Cov^ARD, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. (President), in the

Chair.
The following lady, nominated by the Council, was elected a
Corresponding Member of the Society : —

Mrs. C. W. Palmer, 27, Derby Foad, Spondon, Derbyshire.
The following w^ere elected Ordinary Members of the Society :
Frederick Challenger, B.Sc. (London), Ph.D. (Gottingen), D.Sc (Bir-
mingham), F.I.C., Senior Lecturer in Organic Chemistry. The Univer-
sity, Manchester. Olive A. Wheeler, D.Sc (London), M.Sc (Wales),
Lecturer in Education. The University, Manchester,

iv. Proceedings, [Novemher ist, 192 1.

Ordinary Meeting, November ist, 192 1.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.vS., F.E.S. (President), followed
by Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. (Vice-President), in the
Chair.

The President referred sympathetically to the death of Mr.
Herbert Porter, who had been an Ordinarj^ Member of the
Society since October 21st, 1919.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Professor Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., read a
paper entitled : —

"Some Early Autographs of John Dalton."

The first Document is the marriage certificate of John Hudson,
of Cockermouth, and Ann Fawcet, of Eaglesfield, of the people
" caled Quakers," on the 28th day of the first month " caled
Janevary " 1756. This is attested by Joseph Dalton, probably
the father of John Dalton, and by other friends.

The second Document is the marriage certificate of William
Alderson and Sarah Hudson, also of the " people called
Quakers," both of Eaglesfield, on the 4th day of the sixth
month called June 1789. This is attested by John Dalton and
Deborah Dalton. At this time John Dalton was 23 years of age,
and it is evident that he signed both for himself and for his
mother, Deborah Dalton.

In the list of other friends that have signed the document is
the name of Isaac Fearon, who was probably related to Abigail
Fearon, Dalton 's grandmother.

Professor Hickson also exhibited a veiy interesting book,
entitled " The Schoolmaster's Assistant, being a Compendium
of Arithmetic," published in 1774. This book must have been
new when it came into John Dalton 's possession, for we see
written on the blank sheets at the beginning and end of the
book, " John Dalton's Arithmetic Book, April nth, 1775."
Although John Dalton was only 9 years old at this time there
seems to be no doubt that these words are in his own hand-
writing.

Although the text of the book bears very few manuscript
notes and figures, the covers and blank sheets are covered with
what appear to be scribbles and flourishes. However, certain
interesting things can be deciphered such as : —

" Henry Dalton begun to count 27 June 1803.
A. Dalton begun to write 8th day of June 1801."

November ist, 1921.] Proceedings. v.

Heniy was probably the son of another John Dalton also of
Eaglesfield, whose relationship to the famous John Dalton
Professor Hickson was not able to trace. He was born in 1793
and was therefore 9 years of age at that time. No record of
A. Dalton was discovered.

At the end of the book there is the Lord's prayer written in
such small writing- that it can scarcely be read without a magni-
fying glass, and on the front page : —

" Jane Dain mared Deer. 30th."
" J.D. Mared Dec. 30th 1777."

Do these entries refer to an early romance in the life of John
Dalton of which we have no other record ?

Close to these two entries are the following four sums : —

1800 1841 1761 1777

1777 1777 16 1716

23 64 1777 61

39

Whatever may have been the meaning of it, this figure or year
1777 seems to have been in his mind, as he wrote ** John
Dalton's book 1777 " twice on these leaves in addition to the
inscriptions already mentioned.

A study of these autographs shows that in his boyhood he
was inclined to the use of flourishes in his writing and that
he practised the art of flourishes is shown by specimens of
them on the first page. When he was 23 years of age these
flourishes were somewhat reduced but were retained in a
modified form in the capital " D " and in the " n " at the end
of his surname.

The signature which was copied on the Conversazione Pro-
gramme of 1919 was probably written in his old age, and in this
the flourishes have disappeared.

Professor Hickson, on behalf of Mrs. S. J. Hickson and Mrs. L.
H. Fletcher, presented the two marriage certificates and the
arithmetic book to the Society.

Mr. R. W. James, M.A., B.Sc, read a paper entitled : —

" The Distribution of the Electrons in Atoms."

VI.

Proceedings. \_Novemher 4th, 1921.

When X-rays fall on an atom, it is supposed that each election
of the atom itself becomes a source of scattered X-radiation.
The waves scattered by the electrons in the direction of the
incident light will all be in phase, and the total amplitude
scattered in this direction will be proportional to the number of
scattering electrons. If the electrons in the atom lie at distances
from the nucleus comparable with the wave-lengths of the
X-rays, the waves scattered from the different electrons in any
direction making an angle with that of the incident radiation
will not be in phase, and the amplitude of the resultant wave
will be correspondingly smaller. If we could measure the
intensit}^ of the radiation scattered in different directions by an
atom, we could obtain the diffraction pattern for the atom and
thus get an idea of the distribution of the electrons throughout
its volume.

In the case of a crystal we are able to obtain some of the
points on the diffraction curve due to the average distribution
of electrons in a very large number of the atoms of which it is
composed, by measuring the intensity of reflection of X-ra3^s
from its various planes. The necessary measurements have
been made for the atoms of Chlorine and Sodium, using crystals
of rock-salt. The method of making these measurements was
described.

The results indicate that in the case of the radiation employed
(the Ka doublet of Rhodium) we are justified in assuming that
each electron in the atom scatters independently. They show
also that the atoms of sodium and chlorine have spherical
symmetry, or that if the individual atoms have different pro-
perties in different directions, they are orientated at random in
the crystal, so that the " average atom " has spherical sym-
metiy. Distributions of electrons which will account for the
observed curves are discussed. It is found for both atoms, that
no arrangement in which the eight outer electrons all lie on a
spherical shell at the same distance from the nucleus will give
a curve of the type observed. The results suggest that on the
average a few electrons, say three or four, lie in the region near
the edge of the atom, and that the main concentration of elec-
trons is much closer to the nucleus.

Joint Meeting.

Joint Meeting of the Society, the Manchester Classical Asso-
ciation and the Textile Institute, November 4th, 192 1, at the
Textile Institute.

November ^th, 1921.] Proceedings. vii.

Professor J. Oijver Thomson, M.A., read a paper entitled :
" Rome and China ; the Ancient Silk Trade."

Few articles of commerce have so romantic a record, with so
many curious bearings on history and geography, as has silk.
It is well known that the eggs of the Chinese mulberry silk-
worm were brought to Constantinople in the 6th century a.d.,
but that Chinese silk was known in the Roman world, as an
import from China, and under a name derived from the Chinese,
from the ist century B.C. onwards. Although the idea of a
spinning worm was familiar enough^{the native silkworm of
Cos was known to Aristotle, and its produce was fashionable
for a time in Rome, until ousted by the Chinese silk) — silk was
long erroneously supposed to be a vegetable product, resembling
cotton or " tree- wool," an Indian product known to Herodotus
in the 5th century B.C. The lecturer's immediate subject
was to show by what channels this silk reached the Roman
Empire. The early history of silk in China was traced. China
was generally regarded as a closed w^orld, and so it was for
long, but in the 2nd century B.C., owing to historical events
w^hich were traced, Chinese power spread westwards to the
Pamir, and silk roads were opened to the west by way of Chinese
Turkestan, on which much light has been thrown by the recent
explorations and excavations of Sir Aurel Stein. The lecturer,
after showing from the original Chinese notices this western
expansion of the Chinese horizon, went on to deal with the
eastern horizon of Greece and Rome, and to show how the two
horizons advanced, so to speak, to meet each other and finally
to overlap. Important data were given to the geographers,
mariners and Ptolemy by a land journey made before 100 a.d.
and prompted by the silk trade, by Stone Inver, a place west of
Kashgar, to Sera, the Chinese capital or Si-an-fu. The sea trade
of the Roman Empire also reached Ceylon early, and there were
isolated efforts b}^ merchants to find an outlet for silk on the sea
frontier of China, probably at Hanvi in Tongking, which is the
Gattigara of the Romans. This port, according to a remarkable
Chinese notice, was visited by merchants posing as an Embassy
from An-tun or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus in 166 a.d. Another
important overlap of the Roman and Chinese horizons was at
Ceylon, which was the usual goal of the Chinese merchants
and was certainly visited by Chinese junks in the 6th century
and probably earlier. vSections of the silk routes both by land
and sea were long at the mercy of the Parthians, and later, of the
Persians, and there were recurrent crises in the supply of silk

viii. Proceedings. [November ijth, 1921.

till in' Justinian's time the eggs were brought to Europe — the
central fact in the history of silk.

General Meeting, November 15th, 192 1.

Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. (Vice-President), in the Chair.
The following were elected Ordinary Members of the Society :

Arthur Pidd Greenhow, Merchant, Field Side, Grange Road, Bowdon,
Cheshire. F. C. Thompson, B.Sc. (London), D.Met. (Sheffield), Professor
of Metallurgy and Metallography. The University, Manchester.
D. C. Henry, B.A. (Cambridge), Lecturer in Chemistry. The Univer-
sity, Manchester.

Ordinary Meeting, November 15th, 192 1.

Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. [Vice-President), in the Chair.

Mr. Taylor referred sympathetically to the death, on Novem-
ber 13th, of Professor A. vSheridan Delepine, M.B., CM., M.Sc.
Professor Delepine had been a Member of the Society for 27
years.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Professor vSydney Chapman, M.A., D.vSc, F.R.S., read a paper
entitled : —

"On Certain Integrals occuring in the Kinetic Theory
of Gases."

This paper is printed in the Memoirs.

Mr. J. E. Jones, M.Sc, read a paper entitled : —

" The Dynamics of Collision of Diatomic Molecules."

Since Maxwell first propounded the Kinetic Theory of a Gas,
considerable evidence has accumulated in support of his
hypothesis that a gas, even in a steady state, consists of mole-
cules in a continual state of agitation. By the application of
the theory, it has been found possible to predict at least two
important physical phenomena, which have subsequently been
verified experimentally. All the work which has been done up
to now has, however, been restricted to the case of a monatomic
gas, that is, one in which the molecules possess perfect sym-

November 2gth, 1921.] Proceedings. ix.

metry. It is highly desirable that the work should be extended
to molecules of more complicated structure, but before any
progress can be made, it is necessary to investigate the dyna-
mics of collision of such molecules.

A theorem of general application to the collision of any two
bodies is first established. It is found that there is a simple
relation between the velocity with which the points of contact
approach each other and the velocity with which they separate ;
in fact, their components resolved along the common normal
are shown to be the same.

An application of this theorem to the case of diatomic mole-
cules leads to a simpler method of finding their motion after a
collision than has hitherto been used. It is found possible to
deduce a simple relation between the impulse, acting on each
body at collision, and the velocity of approach of the points of
contact. Now the latter is known, since the motion before
collision is supposed given, and hence the impulse on collision
is easily calculated. The velocities after collision are then
deduced from the ordinary dynamical equations of momentum,
without the elaborate analysis which previous writers have
indicated would be necessary.

At a Meeting of the Council held on Tuesday, November 15th,
1921, the following were elected Student Associates of the
Society : —

Dorothy Arning, M.A., Research Student in Physiology. The Univer-
sity, Manchester. Bessie Helena Edith Cadness, B.Sc, Research Student
in Physiology. The University, Manchester.

General Meeting, November 29th, 1921.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. (President), in the

Chair.
The following gentlemen, nominated by the Council, were
elected Honorary Members of the Society : —

Professor Horace Lamb, M.A., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S,. lately Professor
of Mathematics in the Victoria University of Manchester. 65, Grange
Road, Cambridge. Sir Ernest Rutherford, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics in the University of
Cambridge. Neivnham Cottage, Queen's Road, Cambridge. Sir Arthur
Schuster, Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary Professor of
Physics in the Victoria University of Manchester. Ycldall, Twyford,
Berks. Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Anatomy in University College, London. University of London,
University College, .Gower Street, London, W.C.I.

X. Proceedings. [November 2gth, 192 1..

The following gentleman wavS elected an Ordinary Member
of the Society : —

Alan Sterling Parkes, B.A. (Cambridge), Post Graduate Student in
the Victoria University of Manchester. Parkfield, Werneth, Oldham.

Ordinar3'' Meeting, November 29th, 1921.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.vS., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Mr. F. T. Peirce, B.Sc, Assoc.Inst.P., read a paper "entitled :

*' Electromagnetic Valency and the Radiation
Hypothesis."

A magnetic doublet, consisting of two electrons in small
orbits, ring or vortical electrons, furnishes a probable physical
basis for a radiation hypothesis of chemical reactivity. It had
been suggested by Dr. A. E. Oxley [Proc. Roy. Soc, A., 98,
264] as an explanation of magnetic phenomena, and accords
well with the chemistry of the elem.ents and stereo-chemistry.

Its application to the phenomena of chemical dynamics
suggests the following results for non-electrolytes : —

The bond can only be broken by radiation of definite
frequency v, the most intense impact only resulting in ionisa-
tion. It can only be formed by an increm.ent of molecular
kinetic energy, 7zv, both processes following the law

-h.. N_l
k =^ se j^. Q-

A criterion is provided for the observable effect of external
illumination. This should be large for unimolecular decompo-
sition or transformation, considerable or reversible reactions,
especially the effect due to the radiation exciting the endo-
thermic process, and inappreciable for irreversible combination.
In all cases, the corresponding- frequencies are selectively
absorbed or emitted.

The energy change is double, corresponding to the attainment
of the critical unstable equilibrium and of the normal stable
state. The energy relation holds for the complete change in
intrinsic energy U,

-U = nH(v-vi) per mol.

The system is capable of accumulating absorbed radiant
energy up to a limit of one quantum per electron. It emits in
quanta, but absorbs and scatters continuously.

The bond is intenselv rigid and local.

December rjth, 1921.] Proceedings. xi.

The frequencies and energy changes are altered by solvents
but not by intermediate compounds.

Ordinary Meeting, December 13th, 192 1.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.
Miss Laura B. Start, M.Ed., read a paper entitled : —

*'Sea Dayak Fabrics and their Decoration."

A part of the group of Iban cloths collected by Dr. A. C.
Haddon, during the Cambridge Expedition to the East Indian
Archipelago in 1899, was exhibited, and the method of pattern
production as well as the symbolism of the patterns discussed
by Miss Start.

The Iban excel in weaving, growing, preparing and dyeing
the cotton they use. The warp is stretched in a frame, the parts
of the web w^hich are to remain undyed being protected by
wrapping a bunch of the warp threads with a dried strip from
a fibrous leaf, Curciligo latifolia. The process is repeated
several times for multi-coloured designs.

The loom used for weaving is of the most primitive type.
The web is looped over a warp beam which is attached to any
two upright posts, the other end being looped over a breast
beam to which a back strap is fastened. The woman sits on
the floor with the back strap round her waist and thus manipu-
lates the tension on the web. The raising of alternate groups
of thread or threads is effected by

(a) a shed stick, and

(b) a " single " heddle.

A sword-shaped " beater-in " is generall}^ used and a spool,
often as long as the web is wide, carries the w^eft thread or
threads.

Cloth woven in these looms generally has the warps in pairs
— or threes — not doubled, and the weft is nearly always a double
one or sometimes even 3 or 4 parallel threads form' one pick.
The result is a ** poplin weave " in which the warp forms the
surface. This of course gives the dyed warp pattern full effect.

Patterns are produced in other ways to a small extent, free
spools similar to those used in Indo-China being adopted occa-
sionally. Tribal badges are sometimes used at the back of the
klambi or jacket, and are either worked in the brocade method

xii. Proceedings. \_January gth, 1922.

or a form of weft mosaic similar to that used by the Copta and
the ancient Peruvians.

The patterns are traditional, being handed down from mother
to daughter ; they are symbolical and, in some cases, designate
the rank or tribe of the wearer.

Anthropomorphs, zoomorphs and phyllomorphs form the chief
motives and of these the animal patterns predominate.

The connection between the patterns and the myths of the
Sea Dayak religion was explained, and the life-history of
patterns, in which man, the frog, crocodile, shrew and tiger
were used symbolicallj^, shown.

The designs do not appear to have any affinity with those of
the islands of Sumatra or Java or the Malay Peninsula, and
for their origin we must therefore go back to the Proto-Malay
stock from whom the Iban probably sprang, or consider the
patterns a development due entirely to the Ibans themselves.

Joint Meeting.

Joint Meeting of the Society and the Manchester Sections of
the Society of Chemical Industry, The Institute of Chemistry
and the Society of Dyers and Colourists, January 6th, 1922, at
the Textile Institute.

Dr. Edward Ardern, F.I.C. {Chairman of the Manchester
Section of the Society of Chemical Industry), in the Chair.

Professor Arthur Harden, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S., read a paper
entitled : —

" Bio-Chemical Method."

The paper dealt with the methods which had been devised
for Bio-Chemical research and the difficulties of obtaining
reliable results owing to the manufactures which entered into
experiments involving the living organisms.

The occurrence of vitamines in foodstuffs was especially men-
tioned and the differences betw^een various kinds of vitamines
was explained. The serious effects of ill-chosen diet for
children were emphasized and attention was drawn to the
destruction of vitamines by heat and especially by contact with
air, whilst freezing had apparently a much less destructive
effect.

" Young People's " Meeting, January 9th, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.vSc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. (President), in the

Chair.
The Second " Young People's " Meeting of the Society was

January loth, 1922.] Proceedings. xiii.

held at 3-15 p.m. Short Illustrated Addresses were given by
the President, on " Infant Birds "; and by Mr. John Allan, on
•' Soap Bubbles."

Mr. and Mrs. R. H. Clayton entertained the guests to tea, in
the Common Room, at 4-0 p.m.

The President, in his Address on " Infant Birds,'*^
pointed out that, as a general rule, the young of birds which
made elaborate nests hatch at an earlier stage than those which
make little or no nest. The young are therefore more dependent
upon parental care until they are able to ^y. Ground nesting
birds, as a rule, are clothed in thick down and can run and feed
themselves immediately they leave the shell. He showed the
great difference in the plumages of young birds and those of
their parents, illustrating his remarks by photographs of the
greenfinch, sparrow, lapwing, sheld-duck, herring- and black-
headed gulls, nightjar, owls and cuckoo.

Mr. John Allan explained the nature and demonstrated the
formation of " Soap Bubbles." The skins of liquids, he
said, were of different strengths : that of plain water is equiva-
lent to a weight of about 3I grains to the inch ; that of a soap
solution about one-third of this. Something like two million
thicknesses of the black portion of a bubble which he blew and
deposited on a ring would have to be placed upon each other
to make a thickness of one inch. It is this skin upon water
which enables such things as needles and pieces of tin to be
floated upon it, and the lecturer demonstrated this by floating
a flat piece of tin in a vessel of water, and propelling the tin
along with a piece of camphor.

The efiect of force upon liquids and bubbles, making them
occupy the least possible space, was described by Mr. Allan;
as also was the refraction of rays of light through a soap bubble,,
causing the various colours observed.

General Meeting, January loth, 1922.

Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. (President), in the

Chair.

The following were elected Ordinary Members of the Society :

Harold Tunley, B.Sc. (London), Scientist, The Manchester Grammar
School, Manchester. Gladys Clegg, M.Sc. (Liverpool), Research Assistant
in Botany, The Shirley Institute, East Didshury, Manchester. Kenneth
M. Smith, A.R.C.S., Senior Lecturer in Agricultural Entomology, The
University, Manchester. E. Holmes Smith, B.Sc. (Edinburgh), Senior
Lecturer in Agricultural Botany, The University, Manchester.

xiv. Proceedings. [January 2^th, 1922.

Ordinary Meeting-, January loth, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc., F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Mr. James Smith, M.A., read a paper entitled : —

'* Some Notes on Industrial Welfare, with Special
Reference to Apprentice Training."

General Meeting, January 24th, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc., F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.

The following were elected Ordinary Members of the Society :
Dorothy Armstead, M.Sc (Vic), Research Assistant in Botany. The
Shirley Institute, East Didsbury, Manchester. William Bourke Wright,
F.G.S., Mem. Roy. Irish Acad., District Geologist, Geological Survey.
Ingleivood^ Btirlington Road, Altrincham. Rufus Gaunt, M.Sc. (Leeds),
Ph.D. (Berlin), Research Chemist. Jf7, Chapel Street^ Salford.

Ordinary Meeting, January 24th, 1922.

Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.

The President referred to the loss sustained by the Society
in the death of Dr. Edward Hopkinson, M.P., on January 15th,
1922. Dr. Hopkinson had been a member since November 3rd,
1896.

A painting, on metal, representing a dray which belonged
to Benjamin Joule, the father of James Prescott Joule, was
exhibited by the President and then presented to the Society.

Mr. J. H. WOLFENDEN presented to the Society, through Mr.
R. L. Taylor, a copy of " The Hand-Book of Manchester/'
2nd ed. (i2mo., Manchester, 1842), by B. Love, a member of
this Society.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S., made a short communi-
cation on the distribution of ancient stone monuments and
copper mines in the Coniston district.

Mr. Kenneth M. Smith, A.R.C.S., D.I.C., read a paper
entitled : —

"A Study of Some Little Known Sense-Organs in
the Antennas of Flies."

This paper contains a short account of some sense-organs
situated in the antennae of Diptera (two-winged flies). These
sense-organs vary enormously in size, number and complexity,

February jth, 1922.] Proceedings. xv.

from the simplest form in the mosquito to the most highly
developed in the house-fly and that group of flies known as
"Bee-Flies " (Syrphidce). The structure of the organs is the
same in fundamental design, though differing in detail, and
consists primarily of a number of small processes or papillae,
almost protoplasmic in appearance, which are directly connected
with highly sensory cells. A typical sense-organ may be described
as follows : — A semi-circular cavity sunk below a " bottle-neck"
closely guarded at the entrance against the ingress of foreign
particles, by stiff bristles. On the floor of this cavity are
situate the delicate papillae above mentioned; up to the base
of each papilla runs a sensoiy cell and the whole organ is
embraced by a branch of the large antennary nerve.

The theories most commonly put forward in regard to the
function of these sense pits are that they are olfactory or
auditory, or are used in balancing. As regards the two
latter views many w^orkers have experimented — with a view to
determining the function of the antenna as a whole— by cutting
off, varnishing or mutilating the antenna in some way and then
observing the behaviour of the fly. So far no very striking
results have eventuated from these experiments.

It is now generally accepted by most entomologists that these
sense-pits are olfactory and may serve for the dual perception —
in the female of both food and the breeding place — ^in the male
of food and the female.

The slides illustrating the lecture were drawings and photo-
micrographs of sections of the antennae of various flies, the
magnification being six hundred diameters in some cases and
nine hundred and eighty in others.

Ordinary Meeting, February 7th, 1922.
Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C. {Vice-Presideyit], in

the Chair.

Dr. R. G. Fargher and Dr. J. K. Wood, F.I.C, were
nominated auditors of the Society's accounts for the session
1921 — 1922.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Dr. J. K. Wood, F.I.C, read a paper, by himself and Mr. G.
E. Collins, M.Sc.Tech., entitled : —

"The Structure of Stannic Acids."

Some years ago experiments were commenced by one of the
authors with the object of comparing the basic and acidic

xvi. Proceedings. \_Fehruary ^th, 1922.

strengths of various amphoteric metallic hydroxides. In con-
tinuation of this work the authors investigated the behaviour
of stannic hydroxide under various conditions, and were thus
led to make a study of the different modifications of stannic
acid. Two lines of opinion regarding the nature of these
compounds have been held by chemists. On the one hand^
Engel, Kleinschmidt, and others have regarded a- and /3-stannic
acids as compounds of definite composition, the latter compound
having a molecular weight five times that of the former.
Opposed to this view is that which has been held by Van
Bemmelen, Vignon, Biron, Mecklenburgh, and others to the
effect that the stannic acids form an uninterrupted series of
substances of gradually increasing complexity, the substances
becoming of more pronounced /3-character the greater their
degree of complexity. This difference in complexity and
behaviour was ascribed by Mecklenburgh to variations in the
size of the ultimate particles of the different modifications of
stannic acid, but no explanation has been given as to why,,
under certain conditions, the size of the particles, and therefore
the character of the acid, may suffer change. The authors,
while accepting most of the views of the latter school of chemists,
have endeavoured to explain the change of modification referred
to above. They advance the hypothesis that the change of an
a-modification of stannic acid into the jG-variety is to be traced
to the amphoteric nature of stannic hydroxide, molecules of this
substance, behaving as acid and base respectivel}^ combining
with each other to form products of graduall3^ increasing
complexity and partaking of the nature of salts. In the
presence of a strong acid or a strong base, these salt-like com-
plexes will suffer gradual decomposition, thus leading to a
reversal of the a — fS change. It was pointed out that this
hypothesis gives a satisfactory explanation of whj^ under certain
conditions of preparation, there should be a greater tendency
for the formation of /3- than of a modifications of stannic acid,
and it is also in harmony with the comparative behaviour of
the two modifications as recorded in the literature and with
that observed in the authors' own experiments. In conclusion,
attention was drawn to the fact that this hypothesis may be
applied to other substances besides stannic acid ; the existence
of different modifications of titanic acid, zirconic acid, etc., can
be explained in this manner, and the behaviour of these sub-
stances, as found in experiments at present in progress, is quite
in keeping with the requirements of the theoiy.

February 21st, 1922.] Proceedings. xvii»

Ordinary Meeting, February 21st, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E-S. {President), in the

Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table. These included Vol. 53 (1921) of the Transactions and
Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, presented by Mr.
Edward Melland ; and Power, October, 192 1—, presented by Mr.
C. E. Stromeyer.
Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C, read papers entitled :

I. "Estimation of the Smoke in the Atmosphere of
Manchester, and Apparatus Used Therefor.'*

The author found, by experimenting in the year 1913, that
if a known volume of air were filtered through white filter or
blotting paper, the smoke suspended in the atmosphere in an
almost colloidal condition could be removed from it and remain
fixed on the surface of the paper amongst the interstices of its
fibres, leaving a stain more or less dark or jet black, according
to the condition of the atmosphere at the time.

To study the conditions of the atmosphere as regards smoke
at different times of the day and night he constructed a machine
in a primitive form which answered the purpose; but as
mechanical improvements suggested themselves new machines.
were made, till finally Mr. W. Gibson Rapp, of Birmingham,
after two or three years of experiment, constructed one on more
accurate mechanical lines. This was altered to a large extent
by the author, and from the results of their combined experi-
ences the fifth and final re-construction of the machine was made
by Mr. Rapp. This now acts perfectly, and may be run night
and day without stopping, furnishing records of the smoke
every 15 minutes. It consists of three pumps submerged in
mineral oil in a cylindrical vessel worked by a spindle which
passes through a small electro-motor, the one end actuating
the pumps and the other having attached to it a fan working^
in a 3-inch galvanised iron tube which brings the air from the
outside and passes it in a continuous stream over the small box
connected with the pumps, on the top of which is a hole
Jin.Xiin., over which a ribbon of filter paper is passed and
through which the air is sucked. Every 15 minutes the paper
is drawn forwards half an inch by the action of the soft iron
core of a solenoid magnet which is drawn into the coil when the
current is switched on by a contact in the clockwork. This
current simultaneously performs five different operations— (i) it
lifts for one-sixteenth of an inch a weight of 10 lbs., which
presses on the paper around the hole for the 15 minutes, during-

xviii. Proceedings. [Febriuiry 21st, 1922.

which the air is pumped through it. (2) Another coil over the
loose paper is converted into a magnet by the same current,
when it attracts an armature which lies below the paper ; these
fix the paper between them. (3) The coil is then pushed back-
wards for half an inch, carrying the paper ribbon with it ; (4) it
pushes round a disc, which rolls up the paper with the impres-
sions, on to a cylinder. (5) It breaks a short circuit which puts
two glow lamps into the circuit to prevent the heavy sparking
when the contact is broken by the clockwork. When this takes
place the small coil ceases to be magnetic, its armature falls,
and the coil and armature are carried backwards by a spiral
spring which pulls out the core of the magnet from the coil
read}^ for the next series of evolutions.

These dail}" records show that the air of Manchester is never
absolutel}^ free from smoke. It is cleanest between midnight
and five or six o'clock in the morning, and foulest between nine
and ten o'clock in the morning. There are on the average
increased variations between one and two o'clock, between four
and five o'clock, and between six and seven o'clock in the
afternoon ; then it gradually becomes less smoky up till mid-
night. It was shown that the smoke during the Coal Stoppage
last summer was about one-tenth of what it became afterwards.

2. *' Apparatus for Estimating- the Chemical Impurities
in the Air by Washing a Large Volume with a
Small Quantity of Water."

This apparatus was designed after the Stromeyer appliance
for washing small quantities of gas which by suction passes the
gas in bubbles, together with the liquid, along a series of spirals
in a glass tube, the liquid falling back into a small glass
reservoir, to be used again and again as the gas is sucked away.
The author used a 3 ft. tube, ij in. diameter, filled with small,
pure snow-white silica pebbles. To the top of this tube was
fixed air-tight, a J in. tube, 27 in. long, which w^as bent over
dow^nwards and fixed air-tight into the top of a vertical tube
8 in. long by ij in. diameter. Into the top of this tube, but just
penetrating the cover, was filled another tube attached to a
mechanical pump worked by a djaiamo, and from the bottom
of this wide tube was fixed a narrow tube going to the bottom
of the wade tube containing the pebbles. Into the bottom of
the same cover w'as fixed the air tube, wdiich was bent sharply
round, and rose above the height of the tube containing the
pebbles. Through this tube the air passed after being filtered
through paper ; it bubbled amongst the pebbles to the top, then
washed up the narrow tube with some of the water to the top

March 'jth, 1922.] Proceedings. xix.

reservoir, into which the water fell and passed from there down
the pipe leading to the bottom of the tube containing the
pebbles, to be used again. In this apparatus he washed 1,000
cubic feet of air in 11 J da3'^s.

This apparatus was made at first in glass, but he found the
alkali in the glass prevented him from determining whether the
air contained free mineral acid, so he re-constructed the
apparatus in celluloid. The most remarkable results were that
in using glass he obtained no free mineral acid but considerable
quantities of combined chlorides and sulphates. When using
celluloid he obtained free sulphuric acid and sulphates, but no
trace of hydrochloric acid or chlorides. He left water in contact
with celluloid for some weeks, and found no free acid had been
dissolved from it ; but on treating celluloid powder with boiling
water he obtained both free sulphuric and nitric acid ; so for
further experiments the celluloid must be discarded and the
apparatus constructed on a larger scale with silica tubes and
provided with more powerful pumps. The pumps he used drew
about 10 cubic feet of air per hour.

The machine used by Mr. Thomson for smoke estimation in
the air was exhibited; also the apparatus for washing large
volumes of air with small quantities of water, and both were
shown at work.

Ordinary Meeting, March 7th, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
A vote of thanks w^as passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Dr. W. M. Tattersall read a paper entitled : —

" The sound-producing mechanisms of Crustacea."

The Manchester Museum has recently received two very
interesting collections of Crustacea, one from the shallow waters
and shores of East Africa and the other from Australia. There
are one or two species new to science and several interesting
records from the point of view of geographical distribution.
Full details will appear in the final report. A number of the
species collected exhibit mechanisms for the production of
sound. Three main types of sound-producing mechanism are
met with in Crustacea, (i) Popping Type. The sound is pro-
duced by the rapid withdrawal of a round peg from a socket
into which it fits very tightly. The mechanism may be likened
to the withdrawal of a cork from a bottle and the noise produced
is very similar to that made by the pop of a cork. (2) Fiddle

XX. Proceedings. [March 21st, 1^22,

and Bow Type. The fiddle portion generally takes the form
of a row or series of rows of regularly arranged granules or
tubercles or a file-like series of ridges. The bow portion is
either a sharp smooth ridge or a row of granules. The rapid
motion of the fiddle across the bow or vice-versa produces the
sound. (3) Plectrum Type. The sound is produced by the
friction or rubbing together of two series of stiff, modified,
thickened and hollow spines. The first type is found in the
snapping shrimps (Alpheus) so characteristic of the coral reefs
of tropical countries. Examples of the second type are met
with in the spiny lobster of our own coasts, several species of
shore crabs from tropical waters like Matuta, Platyonichus,
Pseudozius and the interesting amphibious crabs, Ocypoda and
Uca, the denizens of tropical mud flats. The third type of
sound-producing mechanism is found only in certain river crabs
in Africa.

In all cases these stridulating organs are found in both sexes
of a species. It is difficult to say what their function is, but in
those instances where they have been most carefully studied —
the crabs of the genus Ocypoda — there is evidence that the
sound is produced as a warning-note to keep would-be intruders
from entering a burrow already occupied.

Ordinary Meeting, March 21st, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
A critical account of

" Wegener's Theory of the Origin of Continents and
Oceans "

was presented by Mr. W. B. Wright, F.G.S., and Professor F.
E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S.

Mr. W. B. Wright gave an introductory address outlining
the main features of Wegener's theory. This is merely a
development of the modern theory of isostasy, which presumes
an adequate degree of plasticity in the surface layers of the earth
and the existence of a state of gravitational balance between its
various parts. The lighter continental masses are assumed to
be afloat on the heavier viscous basaltic substratum, and to be
capable of lateral movement over it. The geological reconstruc-
tions thus rendered possible can be made to explain many
geological and biological anomalies, which former theories have
only dealt with in a clumsy and disconnected manner. A fairly
successful attempt is made to show that if the reconstruction of

March 21st, ig22.'] Proceedings. xxi.

the geological past be made so as to explain one set of pheno-
mena, many others fall naturally into line. Taking as a test
case the two sides of the North Atlantic, supposed by Wegener
to have lain in close proximity until a late geological date, Mr.
Wright examined critically their geological history, and
demonstrated the very close analogy in lithological aspect, fossil
content, and tectonic movement that has obtained between these
two regions from the earliest periods until their supposed
separation in the Tertiary.

Professor F. E. Weiss said that it is a generally accepted fact
that in Tertiary times the floras of North America and Europe
were very similar and of a subtropical nature. Magnolias,
Tulip-trees, Aralias, Swamp-cypresses, Sequoias now limited to
America, were growing in Greenland and over the European
Continent, so that Heer and Engler assumed that a northern
circumpolar continent connected the Old and the New Worlds.
But such a northern connection would not adequately account
for the many American plants found in Southern Europe and
also in Africa. To explain the occurrence of closely related
species of many genera of flowering plants which occur in South
Africa and America, it is necessary to assume a connection of
these continents at all events in early Tertiary times. Wege-
ner's theory, therefore, greatly facilitates the explanation of the
presence of many American plants in the Old World in Miocene
times. The close correspondence between the floras of the Cape
and of Western Australia and the occurrence of certain allied
genera and species in Australia and South America respectively
is also easily explained by the union of these countries into an^
Antarctis up to Tertiary times.

The shifting of the poles, too, which seems to follow from the
shifting of land masses, is a great help to the understanding of
the changes in climate, which the nature of the fossil plants
seems to demand. The absence of annual rings in the wood of
the trees forming the coal measure forests indicates a climate
similar to that of existing tropical forests, while the Cycads and
their allies found in the Yorkshire Oolites and as far north as
Spitzbergen, prove that at that period a semi-tropical climate
must have reigned in those regions. A different position of the
North Pole during the Great Ice Age would also explain why
Siberia was not glaciated at that time, as it cannot have been,
for it was from Northern Asia that the new vegetation spread
into Northern and Central Europe after the last glacial period.
There is no doubt, therefore, that we can more readily explain
the facts of the present and past distribution of plants by

xxii. Proceedings. \_April ^th, 1922.

accepting Wegener's theor3^ of the origin of continents than by

an}^ other h3'pothesis.

General Meeting, April 4th, 1922.

Mr. T. A. Coward, M.vSc, F.Z.vS, F.vS.vS. (President), in the
the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary'- Members of
the Society : —

Robert Bruce Harley, B.Sc. (St. Andrews), A.I.C., Research Chemist.
The British Alizarine Co., Ltd., Trafford Park, Manchester. Rupert
William Palmer, M.C., M.Sc, F.G.S., Senior Lecturer in Geology and
Palaeontology. The University, Manchester. George Ernest Collins,
M.Sc.Tech., A.LC, F.C.S., Physical and Colloid Chemist. 37, Marshall
ffoad, Levenshulme, Manchester. Ernest Clark, B.Sc.,. Vice-Principal of
The Royal Technical College, Salf ord, and Chief Lecturer in Chemistry.
The Royal Technical College, Salford. Cecil J. T. Cronshaw, Works
Manager. The British Dyestuffs Corporation [Blackley), Ltd., Blacklty,
Manchester. William Granville Pemberton, Chemist. 60, Delamert
Avenue, Pendleton, Manchester. Francis Philip Slater, Physicist to
The Fine Cotton Spinners' & Doublers' Association, Ltd. Rock Bank,
BoUington, near Macclesfield.

Ordinary Meeting, April 4th, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), followed
by Mr. W. Henry Todd (Vice-President), in the Chair.

The President exhibited a Smelt, Osmerus eperlanus, which
he picked up at Rostherne Mere on March 31st. These anadro-
mous fish have been land-locked in the mere for at least 200
years, as described in a short paper paper on the subject read
before the Society on May 7th, 1912.

Miss Winifred M. Crompton, M.A., made the following short
communication : —

An ancient Egyptian flax bat for beating the flax stems, a
wooden flax stripper for removing the seed capsules, and some
samples of ancient Egyptian linen, all from the Manchester
Museum, were shown by Miss W. M. Crompton. She explained
that an examination of these cloths had been made b}" the late
Mr. W. W. Midgley, of Bolton, and his report published in
Petrie, " Heliopolis, Kafr Ammr and Shurafa," proved that the
fibres were in the majority of cases finer than the finest quality
of the present day, clearly showing that retting, heckling and.
carding were well understood. In one sample exhibited the
measurements were : —

Average diameter of 10 fibres in warp = 2173 to an inch.

weft=i925
Fibre of minimum diameter =5000 „

(The present finest Irish linen, — average 1818, minimum 2857).
Another sample, not in Manchester, contained fibres equalling
6666 to an inch. The samples dated to 3300 b.c.

April 2^th, 1922.] Proceedings. xxiii.

Mr. E. Holmes Smith, B.Sc, read a paper entitled : —
'* Retting, and the production of Fibre Flax in Belgium
and elsewhere."

This paper dealt with the history and origin of cultivated
flax. It was shown that the fibre flax plant cultivated to-day is
the very same as was cultivated 3,000 — 5,000 years ago by the
ancient Egyptians. It was introduced into the north of Europe
by the Finns, and afterwards into the rest of Europe by the
Western Aryans and Phoenicians about 2500 — 1200 B.C. It was
introduced into Britain by the Romans. The difficulties in the
way of successful cultivation were pointed out and the technical
processes of " retting " and ** scutching " were briefly described.

A series of slides showing the cultivation, m.ethod of "retting"
and preparing of the world's finest flax fibre in Belgium were
shown, also the methods adopted in Ireland and Russia.
Specimens of all the principal commercial flax fibres were shown
with pre-w^ar and present-day values attached.

Annual General Meeting, April 25th, 1922.

Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. [President), in the

Chair.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved :■ — " That the
Annual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be
adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's Proceedings."

A vote of thanks to the retiring officers and other members
of Council was passed unanimously. The following members
were elected ofiicers of the Society and members of the Council
for the ensuing year : —

President : T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S.
Vice-Presidents : Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. ;
W. Henry Todd; Arthur Lapw^orth, D.Sc, EL.D., F.R.S.,.
F.I.C.; C. E. Stromeyer, O.B.E., M.Inst.CE.

Secretaries : H. F. Coward, D.Sc, F.I.C. ; T. H. Pear, M.A.,.
B.Sc.

Treasurer : R. H. Clayton, B.Sc

Librarians : C. L. Barnes, M.A. ; Wilfrid Robinson, D.Sc.

Curator : W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc. Tech.

Other Members of the Council: W. M. Tattersall, D.Sc;
F. E. Weiss, D.vSc, F.R.S., F.L.S. ; Francis Jones, M.Sc,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. ; Laura Start, M.Ed.; Sydney Chapman, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.R.S.; W. L. Bragg, M.A., F.R.S.; The Rev. A. L.
CoRTiE, S.J., F.R.A.S., F.Inst.P.; R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C,;
William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. , F.I.C.

Ex Officio : The Chairman and the Secretary of the Chemical
Section.

xxiv. Proceedings. \_May 2nd, 1922.

Ordinary Meeting, April 25th, 1922.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Mr. W. J. Perry, B.A., read a paper entitled : —

"On the Cultural Significance of the Use of Stone."

This paper is printed in the Memoirs.

vSpecial Meeting, May and, 1922.

Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc., F.Z.S., F.E.S. (President), in the

Chair.

Sir William Boyd Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., read a paper
entitled :- u -p^e Crust of the Earth."

In view of the recent discussion in the Society and in the
Press relating to the crust of the earth, it is desirable to define
the current theory held by the leading geologists for the last
sixty years. The theory is founded on the researches of eminent
mathematicians, chemists and physicists such as Helmholtz,
Kelvin, Hopkins, Bishoff, and Durocher, and has been accepted
by zoologists and botanists — Huxley, Darwin, Wallace, Sclater,
as an adequate explanation of the distribution of plants and
animals, not only on the present surface of the earth, but also
in the remote past revealed in the geological record.

The crust of the earth is that portion of the solid rock that is
open to observation. It is of unknown and probably varying
thickness, and very thin as compared with the 3962.5 miles of
the earth's radius. It is continuous under both sea and land.

It is composed of rocks arranged in the following downward
order : —

(1) Igneous crj^stallene ; or which have formerly been molten
rock.

(2) Metamorphic ; or rocks altered by heat and pressure.

(3) Fragmental ; mostly accumulated under the sea.

The last consists of two well defined groups, the Acid Siliceous
such as the granite, and the Basic or Basaltic, such a3 the
Gabbros, difiering in their chemistry, and being related to one
another as oil is to water. It is therefore probable that the first
crust formed on the cooling earth belonged to the siliceous
group, and that the basic solidified at a later time. Durocher
points out that both these groups are derived from two distinct
inagmas or zones of highly heated matter, which if cooled slowly
under high pressure and in presence of water, take the largely
crystalline structure of granite and gabbro, and other Plutonic
tocks, while if, as in the volcanic rock that cool swiftly under
less pressure, they are micro-crystalline or vitreous.

May 271 d, 1922.] Proceedings. xxv.

We will now consider the evidfence of density as to the struc-
ture of the earth below the crust.

The density of the crust is 2.5

„ Siliceous rocks 2.4—2.7

Basic 2.8—3.7

The earth ... 5-5— 5-6

This high density of the earth may be accounted for by the
presence of the heavy elements, and more particularly of the
heavy metals in the central parts such as iron, gold, platinum,
iridium, etc. It may be explained by the view that the earth
consists of a metallic centre surrounded b3^ heavy bases arranged
according to their density in a series of zones ending in the
crust.

I now turn to the evidence of temperature as to structure.
The volcanoes and hot springs prove that there is great local
heat at great depths below the surface, and the experience of
miners everj^where establishes the increase of heat as the depth
increases, the variation being due to the varying conductivity
of the rock. If we follow Snell in taking the average increase
in Europe to be one degree rise for 65 feet of depth, the tempera-
ture at a depth of 34 miles will be no less than 2786 degrees
Fahr., sufficient to melt most of the elements. Hence the idea
that the crust is floating on a molten ocean. But if the heat at
great depths is enormous so is the pressure which raises the
melting point— as is well known in steel works. If the tempera-
ture once masters the pressure there will be fluidity. If the
pressure preponderates, there will be solidity. As the relation
of heat to pressure at great depths is unknown we cannot be
certain whether the crust is based on fluid or solid zones of tlie
two magmas.

According to Lord Kelvin the earth as a whole is an elastic
solid like an equal sphere of glass or steel, while Hopkins takes
it to be solid to a depth of 800 to 1,000 miles from the surface.
In my opinion it is probably a solid with fluid areas of molteu
rock where the temperature is high enough to overcome the
pressure.

The crust follows the contraction of the cooling earth, and as
it has to occupy a smaller space is subjected to enormous lateral
pressure which is indicated by the folds and the faults. The
latter divide the rocks into wedges, one series with their bases
downwards and the other with their bases upwards. The move-
ment as a whole is vertical, the greatest lateral displacement
on record being between 5 and 6 miles in the Highlands of
Scotland. The existing land is an area of elevation, and the

xxvi. Proceedings. \_May gth, 1922..

seas are areas of depression, but the fact that the stratified
rocks forming the land have been formed mainl^^ under the sea,
and that the characteristic contours of the land, due to subaerial
agents of attack — hills, ravines, valleys — occupy the floor of the
sea (down to at least 1,000 fathoms in the case of the submerged
canyon of the Congo), prove that land and sea have changed
places.

The distribution of plants and animals in the geological record
proves this to have been the case. The British Isles were a
portion of the Continent in the Pleistocene Age and have
assumed their form from depressions beneath sea-level. They
were continental also in the Pliocene Age. In the Miocene and
Eocene Ages they were linked with North America by a tract
of forest-covered land extending from the Orkneys to Iceland
and Greenland, now dividing the depths of the North Atlantic
from the Arctic Ocean.

This ihtory of the earth's crust holds the field at the present
time. It is not shaken by Dr. Wegener's speculation, because
the latter is founded upon assumptions negatived by the facts,
that the crust is discontinuous, that the existing land masses
have split oS and floated away from one another on a basaltic
magma more or less fluid, along with their fauna and flora, and
that the lands on both sides of the Atlantic fit into each other
like the pieces of a jig-saw puzzle, and originally formed parts
of a primordial continent.

General Meeting, May 9th, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. {President), in the

Chair.
The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members of
the Society : —

Percy G. Jackson, F.I.C., Analytical and Consulting Chemist.
IS, St. Clement's Road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester. GreoTge
Alfred Eea Foster, B.A. (Cambridge), Research Physicist. The Shirley
Institute, East Didsbvry, Manchester. James Peter Andrews, B.Sc.
(London), Research Physicist. The Shirley Institute, East Didshuryr
Manchester. Albert Edward Owen, B.Sc. (London), Research Physicists
The Shirley Institute, East Didsbury^ Manchester.

Ordinary Meeting, May 9th, 1922.
Mr. T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S. [President), in the

Chair.
Mr. Donald A. Mackenzie read a paper entitled : —

" The Scottish Pork Taboo."
This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

January ijth, 1922.] Proceedings. xxvii.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

CHEMICAL SECTION,

Ordinary Meeting, November nth, 1921.

Mr. J. H. Lester, M.vSc, F.I.C. (Vice-Chairman), followed by

Dr. H. F. Coward, in the Chair.

Mr. Leonard E. Vlies, F.C.S., F.I.C, having, on account of

ill-health, resigned the Chairmanship of the Section, Dr. H. F.

Coward, F.I.C, was elected Chairman for the Session 1921-22^

Mr. R. H. Clayton, B.Sc, gave a resume of the recent

Canadian Meeting of The Society of Chemical Industry.

Ordinary Meeting, November 25th, 1921.
Mr. J. H. Lester, M.Sc, F.I.C {Vice-Chairman), followed by
Dr. H. F. Coward, in the Chair.
L. Guy Radcliffe, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C, introduced a discussion
on

**The Sludging of hydrocarbon oils."

Ordinary Meeting, December 9th, 1921.
Dr. H. F. Coward, F.I.C [Chairman], in the Chair.
Dr. Margaret Fishenden opened a discussion on

*' The Development and Design of the Domestic Grate.'

Section Soiree, January 13th, 1922.
By invitation of the Chairman and Committee, a Section
Soiree was held at 7-0 p.m.
Mr. John Allan gave a demonstration of

'Soap Bubbles*"

xxviii. Chemical Section. lApril 28th^ 192a,

Mr. R. H. Clayton gave an illustrated resume of
" The Canadian Tour of the Society of Chemical
Industry."

Ordinary Meeting, January 27th, 1922.
Dr. H. F. Coward, F.I.C. {Chainnan), in the Chair.
The Chairman opened a discussion on

''The Performance of a Centifruge."

Ordinary Meeting, February 24th, 1922.
Dr. H. F. Coward, F.I.C. (Chairman), in the Chair.
Professor F. C. Thompson, B.Sc, D.Met., opened a discussion
on : —

" The Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Steel."

Ordinary Meeting, March 31st, 1922.
Dr. H. F. Coward, F.I.C. (Chairman), in the Chair.
Mr. Arthur Grounds, B.Sc, A.I.C, A.M.I.Min.E., opened a
discussion on : —

'* Briquetting of Coal and other substances."

Mr. Grounds dealt with the manufacture of coal briquettes
from small coal, including the utilisation of what had previously
been regarded as waste coal. The work of the Lignite Utilisa-
tion Board of Canada was outlined and it was shown how
Canada could, by successful treatment of the large deposits of
lignite occurring in the Western regions, become independent
of the American supplies of anthracite which have at present
to be imported. The production of smokeless fuels of the
" Carbocoal " type, and the briquetting of coals by pressiire
alone, a process in which no binding medium is added, were
described.

The briquettes are of excellent appearance and are stronger
than the large coal of the same class. The manufacture of lime-
sand bricks, and of clinker bricks from refuse destructor clinker
was dealt with, together with the utilisation of blast furnace
slag for the manufacture of building blocks.

Ordinary Meeting, April 28th, 1922.
Dr. H. F. Coward, F.I.C. (Chairman), in the Chair.
Mr. J. R. Hannay, F.I.C, introduced a discussion on

" The Steaming Process in Calico Printing."

May ^th, 1922.] Proceedings. xxix.

Annual General Meeting, May ftli, 1932.

Dr. H. F. Coward, F.I.C. {Chairman), in the Chair.

The following members were elected Ofl&cers of the Section
and members of the Committee for the ensuing year : —

Chairman : Leonard E. Vlies, F.C.S., F.I.C.

Vice-chairman : H. F. Coward, D.Sc, F.I.C.

Hon. Secretary : D. M. Paul, B.Sc, A.I.C.

Other members of the Committee : W. H. Bentley, D.Sc,
F.C.S.; R. H. Clayton, B.Sc; Harold Moore, M.ScTech.,
F.C.S., A.I.C; RONA Robinson, M.vSc, A.I.C. ; David Bain,
D.Sc; David Cardwell, M.Sc, F.I.C; J. A. R. Henderson,
D.Sc, F.C.S.; F. C Thompson, B.Sc, D.Met. ; J. C. Withers,
Ph.D., A.I.C.

The Ordinary Meeting of the Section arranged for this date
was postponed.

XXX. Annual Report.

MANCHEvSTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Annual Report of the Council, April, 1922.

Membership.

The Society had at the beginning of the Session an ordinary
membership of 343. Since then 28 new members have joined
the Society. Twenty-six members have resigned, nine have
been removed from the list, one has been elected an honorary
member, and three members (Professor A. Sheridan Delepine,
M.B., CM., M.Sc, Dr. Edward Hopkinson, M.A., M.P.,
M.Inst.C.E., and Mr. Herbert Porter) h^ve died. There are,
accordingly, at the end of the session 332 ordinary members of
the Society.

The Society has lost by death three honorary members (Mr.
J. G. Baker, F.R.S., L.L.S., Dr. Julius Elster and Professor
Leo Koenigsberger, Ph.D.), and one (Professor Max Fur-
bringer) resigned. On the nomination of the Council, four new
honorary members (Professor Horace Lamb, M.A., Sc.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., Sir Ernest Rutherford, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.,
Sir Arthur Schuster, Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., and Professor
G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., Litt.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.) have
been elected, making a total of 34 honorary members at the end
of the session. Mrs. C. W. Palmer has been elected a corres-
ponding member of the Societ}^

Student Associates.
Under the regulations governing the admission of Student
Associates, which came into force at the beginning of the Session
1921-22, the Council has admitted ten Student Associates.

Meetings, 1921-22.

Eighteen papers have been read at the vSociety's ordinary
meetings during the 3^ear ; nine shorter communications have
also been made. In addition, eight meetings and a Soiree have
been held by the Chemical Section.

The second " Young People's Meeting " was held on January
9th, the audience being even larger than that present at the
first meeting in January, 1921. Short illustrated addresses were

Annual Report. xxxi.

^iven by the President and Mr. John Allan, and Mr. and Mrs.
R. H. Clayton entertained the guests to tea in the Common
Room.

At a Special Meeting, held on October 14th, Dr. Irving
Langmuir gave an address on " Molecular Structure/' Two
Joint Meetings were also held : the first with the Manchester
Classical Association and the Textile Institution, at which
Professor J. Oliver Thomson gave an address on '' Rome and
China: the Ancient Silk Trade''; the other, with the Man-
<:hester Sections of the Society of Chemical Industry, the Insti-
tute of Chemistry, and the Societ\' of Dyers and Colourists, at
which Professor Arthur Harden read a paper entitled " Bio-
■Chemical Method." The two Joint Meetings were held at the
Textile Institute.

The times of the ordinary meetings were altered to 5-30 p.m.
•and 6-30 p.m. alternately.

The Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons, K.C.B., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
"has consented to deliver the second Joule Memorial Lecture
•early next Session.

Society's Accounts.
The cash account of the Society and a statement of assets and
liabilities are appended to this report.

The latter statement shows a small improvement in the
financial position of the Society in comparison with the previous
year.

Officers and Members of Council.

On April 12, 192 1, the following resolution of the Council was
approved by the Society : —

" That the Council be constituted as follows : a President,

four Vice-Presidents, two Secretaries, a Treasurer, two

Librarians, a Curator and nine other ordinary members."

B3^ a resolution, approved by the Society on October 28th,

1919, the Chairman and Secretary of the Chemical Section are

-members ex officio.

Society's Library.

The Librarians report that during the Session 342 volumes
liave been stamped, catalogued and press-marked; 311 of these
were serials. The total number of volumes catalogued to date
is 39,482.

The additions to the library for the Session amounted to
769 volumes : 705 serials, and 64 separate works. The donations

xxxii. Annual Report.

(exclusive of the usual exchanges) were 46 volumes ; 2 Tolumej^
were purchased in addition to those regularly subscribed for.
During the year 89 volumes have been bound in 73 covers. In
the previous Session the corresponding numbers were 87
volumes in 72 covers.

The donations to the Society's Library during the Session
included gifts of books by Messrs. Edward Bennis and Co., Ltd. ;
Mr. David Brownlie ; Mr. Edward Melland ; Mr. C. E. Stromeyer ;
Mr. J. H. Wolfenden ; Mr. H. J. Woodall ; Messrs. Adam Hilger,.
Ltd. ; the Committee for the Publication of the Scientific Results
of the Captain Scott Antarctic Fund ; the Trustees of the British
Museum (Natural History) ; the Royal Geographical Society,.
London ; the Geological Society, London ; the Patent Office
Library, London; the Director of the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich ; the Meteorological Office, London ; the Director of
the Geological Survey of India; the Governor of Bengal in
Council; the Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam ; the Academic Royale, Brussels ; the Bataviaasch
Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Batavia ; the
Soci^t6 Hollandaise des Sciences, Haarlem ; the Kongeligt Norsk
Videnskabers Selskab, Trondhjem; the Bureau of American
Ethnology, and the Smithsonian Institution, Washington; and
the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The following Journals have been added to the Society's
subscription list as from January 1922 : — The General Electric
Review, the Journal of Comparative Psychology, The Physical
Review, The Kolloid Zeitschrift and Kolloid-chemische Beihefte.
The Zeitschrift filr physikalische Chemie has been completed up
to and including Band 96 (1920).

The purchases included volume 17 of The Royal Society's
Catalogue of Scientific Papers, 1884— 1900; and a copy of the
World List of Scientific Periodicals has been ordered.

The Library continues to be satisfactorily used for reference
purposes ; and, during the year, 304 volumes have been bor-
rowed. The number of books borrowed during the previous-
year was 357, and during 1919-20, 434.

The publication of the Society's Memoirs and Proceedings has
been continued under the supervision of the Publications Com-
mittee. During the year volume 64 (1919-20), Part II (end), and
volume 65 (1920-21), Part I, of the Memoirs and Proceedings,.
have been published. The concluding part (II) of volume 65,
with a revised list of members, and Volume 66 (1921-22) are in
the printer's hand.

The exchange of bound volumes for the corresponding

Annual Report. xxxiii.

unbound parts of the Memoirs and Proceedings has been
discontinued.

The librarians have been added to the Publications Committee
for the consideration of libraiy matters.

Donations.

The Society has received the following donations, in addition
to those recorded in the previous paragraph : —

Mrs. S. J. Hickson and Mrs. h. H. Fletcher : A marriage
certificate witnessed by Joseph Dalton, probably the father of
John Dalton; another marriage certificate witnessed by John
Dalton; and a copy of " The Schoolmaster's Assistant, being a
Compendium of Arithmetic," which contains John Dalton 's
signature inscribed when he was nine years old.

The President, Mr. T. A. Coward : A painting, on metal,
representing a dray which belonged to Benjamin Joule, the
father of James Prescott Joule.

Professor W. W. Haldane Gee : Copies of the photograph
taken during the " Young People's " Meeting in January 192 1.

Chemical Section.
At the Annual General Meeting of the Section the following
Officers were elected: — Chairman, Mr. L. E. Vlies ; Vice-
Chairman, Mr. J. H. Lester; Secretary, Mr. David CardwelL
On account of ill-health, Mr, Vlies resigned the Chairmanship,,
and Dr. H. F. Coward was elected Chairman for the Session.
The Section had a membership of 172 during the year. The
following subjects were discussed at meetings held during the
year : — " Researches on Alcohol as a Motor Fuel/' " The
Canadian Meeting of The Society of Chemical Industry/' " The
Sludging of Hydrocarbon Oils/' " The Development and Design
of the Domestic Grate/' " The Performance of a Centrifuge/'
" The Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Steel " and
'* Briquetting of Coal and other substances/'

Arrangements have been made whereby the Institution of
Civil Engineers (Manchester Association) have held their meet-
ings in the Society's rooms during the year. The Institute of
Chemistry (Manchester Section) have also held a Social Evening
in our rooms. The following Societies now hold their meetings
regularly at 36, George Street :— The Manchester Astronomical
Society, The Institution of Civil Engineers (Manchester Asso-
ciation), The Manchester Microscopical Society, The Manchester
Statistical Society, and The Society of Dyers and Colourists
(Manchester Section).

^'xxiv. Annual Report.

Society's House.

The fire and other insurances on the vSociety's house have
been increased to a total of ;(^20,ooo, and the new premises have
iDeen insured for ;^5oo.

Permission has been granted to the Wellcome Historical
Research Museum to have replicas made, for that Museum, of
seven pieces of John Dalton's apparatus in the Society's
possession.

vSix new Dalton Medals, in bronze, have been struck.

The house is now open from 9.0 a.m. to lo.o p.m. every week-
day- except Saturda}^, on which day the hours are from 9.0 a.m.
to 2.0 p.m.

Building Extension and Alterations.

Since the purchase of the requisite plot of land the scheme
of building extension and alterations, with the exception of
minor interior adjustments, has remained in abeyance awaiting
more favourable circumstances. A sum of £1,378 has been
vSubscribed or promised by 113 members, and, in addition, rents
received from the tenants of the premises have been added to
the fund.

Committees.

The Committees appointed b}^ the Council during the j'-ear
^vere as follows : —

House and Finance.
The President, Mr. R. L. Taylor, Mr. W. H. Todd, Mr. R. H.
Clayton, Mr. C. -L. Barnes, Dr. Wilfrid Robinson, Mr. L. E.
Vlies, Mr. Frkncis Jones, Dr. H. F. Coward and Professor T.
H. Pear.

Wilde Endowment.

The President, Mr. R. H. Clayton, Mr. Francis Jones, Dr. H.
F. Coward and Profesor T. H. Pear.

Publications.
The President, Professor F. E. Weiss, Dr. F. W. Atack,
Professor vSydne}^ Chapman, Professor W. W. Haldane Gee,
Professor T. H. Pear, Mr. C. L. Barnes and Dr. Wilfrid Robinson
(Library matters) and the Assistant Secretarj^

Library and Apparatus.

The President, Mr. C. L. Barnes, Professor W. W. Haldane
Gee, Dr. Wilfrid Robinson and the Assistant Secretary.

Annual Report. xxxv.

XOTE. — The Treasurer's Accounts of the Session
1921-1922 have been endorsed as follows :

April 6th, 1922. Audited and found correct.

We have also seen^ at this date, the Certificates of the following
Stocks held in the name of the Society : — £1,225 Great Western Rail-
way Company 5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294
and 12,323; £7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock
(No. 8/1960); £iUO East India Railway Company 4% Annuity Stock
(No. 4032) ; and the deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde
Endowment Fund, those conveying the land on which the Society's
premises stand, and the Declarations of Trust.

Leases and Conveyances dated as follows : —

22nd

Sept.,

1797

23rd

Sept.,

1797.

25th

Dec.

1799.

25th

Dec.

1799.

23rd

Dec,

1820.

23rd

Dec.

1820.

Declarations of Trust :-

24th June. 1801.

23rd Dec. 1820.

8th Jan.. 1878.

Appointment of New Trustees : —
30th April. 1851.

We have also seen at this date Conveyance dated 7th December,
1920, relating to the recently acquired property at 21, Back George
Street, Manchester.

We have also seen Bankers' acknowledgment of the investment of
£300 in the 5% War Loan :— 2 Bonds for £100 each, Nos. 71827 and
366270 ; and 2 Bonds for £50, Nos. 131577 and 31358.

We have also verified the balances of the various accounts with
the bankers' pass books.

(Signed)

(John K. Wood.
\R. G. Fargher

XXXVl.

Dr.

MANCHESTER LITERARY
R. H. Clayton, Treasurer, i?2 Account with the

To Balance, 1st April, 1921 ... .
To Members' Subscriptions : —
Half Subscriptions, 1920-21,
1921-22

s. d.
4 4

3 at £l Is. Od. 3 3

IS .. ., 18 18

;, „ 1 ,. £l Is 3d. 1 1

„ (^yr.) 3 .. 10s. 6d. Ill

1922-23. 2 ,. £1 Is. Od. 2 2

Subscriptions :— 1918-19, 1 at £2 2s. Od. 2 2

1919-20. 5 .. .. 10 10

. ,, 1920-21, 30 .. ., 63 0

1921-22. 250 .. .. 525 0

1922-23. 2 .. ., 4 4

To Student Associates : —

Subscriptions, 1921-22. 10 at 10s. 6d

To Sale of Publications : —

Memoirs and Proceedings

. ... 22 6 11

Catalogues

. ... 0 7 0

631
5

11 9

5 0

To Sir Dugald Clerk, 1,000 copies of Joule Memorial Lecture

To Manchester Museum, 450 Memoirs, Vol. 65, No. 1

To Prof. Miles Walker, printing of Memoir, Vol. 65. No. 6 ...

To Sale of Duplicate Volumes

To Transfers from Wilde Endowment Fund

To Dividends : —

Natural History Fund 42 17 6

Joule Memorial Fund 13 0 10

Wilde Endowment Fund 1 15 0

To Bank Interest

To Expenses of Meetings : —

Institution of Civil Engineers (Manchester

Association)

Manchester Astronomical Society

„ Microscopical Society

_„ Statistical Society

Society of Dyers and Colourists (Manchester
Section)

To Refunded Income Tax : —

1918-19

1919-20

1920-21 ;."

To National Health Insurance Act deductions

To Unemployed Act deductions

To overdraft * at Williams Deacon's Bank, April 1st, 1922 ...

22

13

11

10

4

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3

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22

6

11

28

6

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82

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300
2
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87

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£1323 9 6

This Fund IS also debtor to the Wilde Endowment Fund to the
extent of £381. 19s. Od. ; to the Joule Memorial Fund, £141 lis. 2d.,
and to the National History Fund £236 16s. Id. Total, £760 6s. 3d.

xxxvu.

AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Society, from ist April, ig2i, to jist Ma7rh, ig22.

Cr.

£ s. d. £

9 0 10

3 17 4

29 2 6

By Charges on Property : —

Chief Rent

Income Tax and Inhabited House Duty
Insurance against Fire

By House Expenditure : —

Coal, Gas, Electric Light, Water, etc. .

Tea, Coffee, etc., at Meetings

Cleaning, Washing, etc,

Replacements

Repairs, etc

By Administrative Charges : —

Assistant Secretary's Salary

Caretaker and Housekeeper

Servant

Extra Attendance at Meetings

Weekly

Special Meetings' Expenses

Postages, Carriage of Parcels, " Memoirs
Stationery, Cheques, Receipts, Engrossin:

Insurance against Liability

National Health Insurance Stamps ... .

Unemployment „ „

Miscellaneous Expenses

?v Publishing : —

Printing " Memoirs and Proceedings," and Illustrations,
Circulars, etc

Library : —
Periodicals (except those charged to Natural History Fund)

\y Post Office Telephone

5y Dalton Medals

}y Typewriter

\\ Bank Interest on Overdraft

y Natural History Fund : —

(Items shown in Balance Sheet of this Fund)

Jy Joule Memorial Fund : —

(Item shown in Balance Sheet of this Fund)

5y Wilde Endowment Fund : —

Dividend Refunded (War Loan)

Refunded Income Tax

75 1

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THE COUNCIL and MEMBERS

OF THE

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

1921-22.

President.

T. A. COWARD, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

Vice-Presidents.

R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C.

WIIXIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C.

Sir HENRY A. MIERS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

W. HENRY^ TODD.

Secretaries.

H. F. COWARD, D.Sc, F.LC.

T. H. PEAR, M.A., B.Sc.

Treasurer.

R. H. CLAY^TON, B.Sc.

Librarians.

C. L. BARNES, M.A.
WILFRID ROBINSON, D.Sc.

Curator.

W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.LE.E.

Other Members of the Council.

ARTHUR LAPWORTH, D.Sc, LL-D., F.R.S., F.LC.

C. E. STROMEYER, O.B.E., M.Inst.CE., M.Inst.M.E.

W. M. TATTERSALL, D.Sc.

LEONARD E. VLIES, F.C.S., F.I.C.

F. W. ATACK, D.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C.

F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.
FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

LAURA vSTART, M.Ed.
SYDNEY CHAPMAN, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

TOGETHER WITH

The CHAIRMAN and the SECRETARY of the Chemical
Section.

Assistant Secretary and Librarian.
R. F. HINSON.

The Wilde Lectures. xli.

THE WILDE LECTURES.

1897. (July 2.) " On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays." By

vSir G. G. Stokks, Bart., F.R.S. (28 pp.)

1898. (Mar. 29.) " On the Physical Basis of Ps3^chical Events."

By Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S. (46 pp.)

1899. (Mar. 28.) " The newly discovered Elements; and their

relation to the Kinetic Theory of Gases." By Professor
William Ramsay, F.R.S. (19 pp.)

1900. (Feb. 13.) " The Mechanical Principles of Flight." By

the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. (26 pp.)

1901. (April 22.) " Sur la Flore du Corps Humain." By Dr.

Elie Metschnikoff, For.Mein.R.S. (38 pp.)

1902. (Feb. 25.) " On the Evolution of the Mental Faculties

in relation to some Fundamental Principles of Motion."
By Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S. (34 pp., 3 pis.)

1903. (May 19.) " The Atomic Theory." By Professor F. W.

Clarke, D.vSc. (32 pp.)

1904. (Feb. 23.) " The Evolution of Matter as revealed by the

Radio-active Elements." By Frederick Soddy, M.A.

(42 pp.)

1905. (Feb. 28.) " The Early History of Seed-bearing Plants,

as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora." Dr D. H.
Scott, F.R.S. (32 pp., 3 pls.)

1906. (March 20.) " Total Solar Eclipses." By Professor H.

H. Turner, D.Sc, F.R.S. (32 pp.)

1907. (Feb. 18.) " The Structure of Metals." By Dr. J. A.

EwiNG, F.R.S., M.Inst. C.E (20 pp., 5 pis., 5 text-figs.)

1908. (March 3.) " On the Physical Aspect of the. Atomic

Theory." By Professor J. Larmor, Sec.R.S. (54 pp.)

xlii. The Wilde Lectures.

1909. (March 9.) " On the Influence of Moisture on Chemical

Change in Gases." By Dr. H. Brereton Baker, F.R.S.
(8 pp.)

1910. (March 22.) " Recent Contributions to Theories regard-

ing the Internal Structure of the Earth." By Sir
Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.

SPECIAL LECTURES.

1913. (March 4.) " The Plant and the Soil." By A. D. Hall,

M.A., F.R.S.

1914. (March 18.) " Crystalline Structure as revealed by

X-rays." By Professor W. H. Bragg, M.A., F.R.S.

1915. (May 4.) " The Place of Science in History." By Pro-

fessor Julius MacLeod, D.Sc.

JOULE MEMORIAL LECTURE.

1920. (Dec. 14.) " The Work and Discoveries of Joule." By
vSir DuGALD Clerk, K.B.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.

A-ooards of the Dalton Medal.

1898. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1900. Sir Henry E. ROvScoe, F.R.S.

1903. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.

1919- Prof. Sir Ernest Rutherford, M.A., D.vSc, F.R.S.

List of Presidents of the Society. xliii.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of Election.

1781. PETER MAINWARING, M.D, JAMES MASSEY.

1782-1786. JAMES MASSEY, THOMAS PERCIVAL, M.D.
F.R.S.

1787-1789. JAMES MASSEY.

1789-1804. THOMAS PERCIVAL, M.D., F.R.S.

1805-1806. Rev. GEORGE WALKER, F.R.S.

1807-1809. THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S.

1809. *JOHN HULL, M.D., F.L.S.

1809-1816. THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S.

1S16-1844. JOHN DALTON, D.CL., F.R.S.

1844-1847. EDWARD HOLME, M.D., F.L.S.

1848-1S50. EATON HODGKINSON, F.R.S., f .G.S.

1851-1854. JOHN MOORE, F.L.S.

1S55-1859. Sir WILLL-VM FAIRBAIRN, Bart., LL-D., F.R.S.

1S60-1861. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1862-1863. EDW\\RD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1864-1865. ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1866-1867. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1868-1869. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1870-1871. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1872-1873. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.CL., F.R.S.

1874-1875. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1876-1877. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1878-1879. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.CL-, F.R.S-

1880-1881. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1S82-1883. Sir HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, D.CL., F.R.S.

1S84-1885. WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

1886. ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A..
F.G.S.

* Elected April 28th ; resigned office May 5th.

xliv. List of Presidents of the Society.

Date of Election.

1887. BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S.

1888-1889. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, LL.D., F.R.S.

1890-1891. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1892-1893. ARTHUR SCHUvSTER, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1894-1896. HENRY WILDE, D.CL., F.R.S.

1896. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1897-1899. JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.

1899-1901. HORACE LAMB, M.A., F.R.S.

1901-1903. CHARLES BAILEY, M.Sc, F.L.S.

1903-1905. W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1905-1907. Sir WILLIAM H. BAILEY, M.I.Mech.E.

1907-1909. HAROLD BAILY DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.

1909-1911. FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

1911-1913. F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S.

1913-1915. FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

'1915-1917. SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

E917-1919. WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C,

1919- G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

1919-1921. Sir HENRY A. MIERS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1921-1923. T. A. COWARD, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

Vol. 66.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

ITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1921-22.

CONTENTS,
lemoirs :

The Preservation of our Fauna (Presidential Address). By
T. A. Coward, M.Sc, F.Z.S., F.E.S

(Issued separately November 30th, 1921.)

I.— On Certain Integrals Occurring in the Kinetic Theory of
Gases. By Sydney Chapman, M. A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

(Issued separately April 7th, 1922.)

11.

II.-

-Number- Forms

Text-figs.

(Issued separately April

By T. H. Pear, M,A., B.Sc. With 2

(Issued separately Septtmher SUth, 1922.)

Pork Taboo. By Donald . A Mackenzie.

-The Scottish

With 1 Plate and 1 Text-fig

(Issued separately February, 192d.)

v.— The Cultural Significance of the Use of Stone. By W. J.
Perry, M.A.

(Issu,ed separately February 7th, 1923.)

pp. 1—20

pp.

pp. I— 14

pp.

roceedings

Proceedings of the Chemical Section
innual Report of the Council, 1922

reasurer's Accounts
.ist of Council ( 192 1 -22)
.ist of the Wilde Lectures ...

ist of the Special Lectures
oule Memorial Lecture ...
.ist of the Awards of the Dalton Medal

ist of the Presidents of the Society
Title Page and Index

-24

pp. I— 16

pp. 1 — XXVI

pp. xxvii — xxix
pp, XXX — xxxiv

pp. XXXV — xl

p. xl

pp. xli — xlii

p. xlii

p. xlii

p. xlii

pp. xliii— xliv

pp. i— viii

MANCHESTER :
36, GEORGE STREET.

Price Twelve Shillings.

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