REYNOLDS HISTORICAL1 GENEALOGY COLLECTION

lltA,fM,S9WMT.Y PUBLIC LIBRARY

3 1833 01736 0048

GENEALOGY 929.102 M56MMB 1869

METHODIST

Quarterly Keview.

r

18 6 9.

VOLUME LI -FOURTH SERIES, VOLUME XXI.

D. D. WHEDON, D.D., EDITOR.

OAELfON & L A N A H A 1ST.

SAN FRANCISCO: E. THOMAS. CINCINNATI: HITCHCOCK & WALDEN.

7°VZ03

CONTENTS OF VOLUME LI

JANUARY NUMBER.

Page NEW AMERICAN HISTOEIES— PECK AND DRAPER 5

J. T. C&ane, D.D., Newark, N. J.

INDIA AS A MISSION FIELD 80

Rzv. T. J. Scott, Badaon, India.

JOHN TATTLER AND HIS THEOLOGY 45

Prof. Charles W. Bekkett, Berlin, Prussia. THE METROPOLIS OF THE PACIFIC 63

E. Tiioxas. D.D., San Francisco, CaL THE NEGRO IN ANCIENT HISTORY 71

Bev. Edward "W. Bltden, Professor in Liberia College, West Africa. GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN '.. 94

J. S. Jiwzll, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in Chicago Medical College.

Foreign Religious Intelligence 120

Foreign Literary Intelligence . 125

srnopsls of the quarterlies 127

Qcarteklt Book-Table 135

Notb from Db. Schaff 163

Plan of Episcopal Visitation " 154

APRIL NUMBER.

THE RELIGION OF THE ATHENIANS 165

B. F. Cocker, D.D., Ann Arbor, Mich. THE CHURCH SCHOOL 191

Ect. J. n. Vincent, A.M., New York. SCHLEIEEMACHER; HIS THEOLOGY AND INFLUENCE 211

Prof. J. A Rei-belt, Indiana Asbnry University, Greencastle, Lad. GROWTH LN LANGUAGE 228

Prot D. B. Wheeler, Northwestern University, Evanstcn, IU. METHODISM: ITS METHOD AND MISSION 242

J. T. Pick, D.D., Albany, N. Y.

THEODICY

270

C K. True, D.D., Upper Newton, Mass.

Foreign Religious Intelligence 292

Synopsis of the Quarterlies ... 298

QcAKTEiar Book-Table :..."...... "801

4 CONTENTS.

JULY NUMBER.

Pack

TESTS OF A VALID MINISTRY AND A TRUE CHURCH. 825

E. S. Jajtes, D.D., Bishop of M. E. Church, New York.

LATERALITY OF THE ACCOUNT OF THE GARDEN OF EDEN 83S

Luther Lee, D.D., Flint, Mich.

WHEDON ON MATTHEW 346

A C. Geobgf, D.D., St. Louis, Ma

WHITE'S MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW $65

Kev. Hejtry M. Bated, Ph.D., University of the City of New York.

THE APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY TO ASTRONOMY 892

Prof Geoege B. Mebeimax, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

THE PROPHECY OF JACOB RESPECTING THE MESSIAH 411

Hexby M. Hakhan, D.D., West Virginia University, Morgantown, "W. Ya.

BIBLICAL MONOGRAPHS 422

SAUL AND PAUL, Philip Schatf, D.D.

THE BOOK OF ENOCH, Kev. M. J. Cbamek, A.M., Leipzig, Germany.

ST. PAUL'S CLOSING P^EAN, Editor.

Foreign Religious Intelligence 436

Foreign LrrERAEr Intelligence 441

Synopsis of the Quarterlies 442

Quarterly Book-Table .* 44?

OCTOBER NUMBER.

MEMORABILIA OF JOHN GOODWIN 485

Kev. D. A. Whedox, D.D., Bristol, K. I.

WUTTKE ON PRE-PLATONIC ETHICS 505

Translated by Prof. J. P. Laceoix, Ohio Wesleyan University.

8AUL'S INTERVIEW WITH THE WITCH OF ENDOR 528

Kev. MiLTOX S. Terry, FeekskiU, N. Y.

WHITE'S MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. [Second Article] 544

Kev. He-vkt M. Baied, Ph. L\, University of the City of New York.

RELIGION AND THE REIGN OF TERROR 569

Rev. J. A M'Acley, A.M., Georgetown, D. C.

YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS '. 5S9

Kev. "W. H. WrrnROw, A.M., Toronto, Ontario.

Foreign Religious Intelligence 601

Foreign Literary Intelligence 605

Synopsis of the Quarterlies 605

Quarterly Boar-Table 612

M

to twC

ETHODIST /J:rr

Quarterly Kevie~w.

JANUAET, 1869.

Art. L— NEW AMERICAN HISTORIES— PECK AND DRAPER.

JV History of the Great Republic, Considered from a Chri3tian Stand-point. By JtssE T. Peck, D.D. 870., pp. 710. New York: Broughton & Wyman. 1868.

ThmghU on the Future Civil Policy of America. By John William Draper, MIX, LLD., Professor of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of New- York.- 8vo., pp. 317. New York: Harper ft Brothers. 1865.

The two volumes whose titles we have given are in sharpest contrast with each other. Both authors generalize, and aim at the reasons of things. They both seek the laws by which na- tions grow, and civilization advances; but here the parallel *nds. The one, imbued with fullest faith in the spiritual and the invisible, studies the interior life of the people, sees the Mvinc hand every-where laid upon human affairs, and regard- ing nlUUe as secondary and incidental, recognizes mind alone, UW unite and the Infinite, as the great builder of nations and of liMury. The other analyzes the soil, watches the barometer and the thermometer, notices the topography, and assumes that the darkest problems in human history are to be solved by iso- thermal lines and the use of the globes. His axioms are, that all mundane events are the results of the operation of law," and all over the world, physical circumstances control the human nice. Now and then he favors us with some more specific dec aration in regard to cause and effect, as when he informs u* that u the instinctive propensity to drunkenness is a function Of the latitude," and that Milton's "Paradise Lost" would * ourtii Series, Vol. XXI.— 1 i

6 American Histories — Peck and Draper. [January,

never have been written had it not been for the Gulf Stream. As a rule, much learning is not likely to make a man mad ; nevertheless, there are minds so peculiarly constituted that they can hardly pursue intently any branch cf scientific research with- out falling victims to some theoretical crotchet, which gives rea- son a twist and renders it wholly unreliable within the circle of the delusion. TVe do not question Professor Draper's proficiency in the natural sciences, nor do we fail to recognize the value, as well as the extent, of his acquisitions ; but when he proceeds to construct weak materialistic theories out of his multitudinous and rich but abused facts, we confess that we regard the raw material as of much more value than the manufactured article, and are reminded of the mouse's nest that was made of bank bills.

It is not wise, indeed, to forget natural laws, or deny the part which they play in shaping the destiny of men and of nations. But for the Nile, whose annual overflow clothes with fruitful harvests a valley six hundred miles long, the Egypt of history would have been impossible. But the Nile still flows ; and the annual tribute which the swelling floods bring, from the southern mountains are as rich as when hundred-gated Thebes stood in her grandeur. And yet the greatness of Egypt is seen only in the massive relics of dead centuries. The old Eoman, stern, patriotic, law abiding, was not the mere crea- ture of the zone which he inhabited ; else the modern Italian would show more of the iron strength of his ancestors. Empires wax and wane, not as climate and soil change, but in obedience to subtler influences and less material laws. The materialistic fancies of certain pretentious writers, the " oppositions of science falsely so called," are as shallow as they are impious. Both men and nations are doubtless shaped in some degree by the peculiarities of their material surroundings ; but the most potent of all formative influences cannot be measured by the geometer, not tested in the alembic of the chemist. The unseen is stronger than the visible. As a man " thinketh in his heart, so is he."

A sound reasoner, even if lacking in religious knowledge, will not mistake materialistic fatalism for true philosophy ; but if he believes in the God of the Bible, he will see the Divine hand guiding the current of events, and feel that the great Sovereign has neither abdicated nor been dethroned. As the power of

1869.] American Histories — Peck and Draper. 1

gravitation, silent, but ever present and ever potent, guides the descent of the falling leaf, holds the hills upon their founda- tions, and the stars in their orbits, and yet allows the human will its area of true freedom of action, so underneath all human agencies, and through all material forms and forces, and more powerful than all, the Divine purpose rules, winning all things into harmony with itself, and moving steadily onward to its grand results. The pen of the historian needs to give this fact a fuller recognition. There is a class of mind which seems to exult in the rejection of every truth of Revelation, and yet is weakly credulous of every thing besides ; that works with in- sidious zeal to make us forget all except the things which are seen, and reject as unworthy of consideration every thing that is allied to what Atheism delights to call the supernatural. Yielding to none in regard for scientific research and its fruits, and holding as firmly as any the existence of definite material law, the Christian finds no ultimate basis but Divine wisdom and Divine agency. If the wildest Darwinian theory of de- velopment could be absolutely demonstrated, still the great question would remain, Who set in motion this complicated enginery of cause and effect? True wisdom will trace with profoundest interest the action of natural law, and mark the skill with which the golden links are joined, each with its fel- low, and yet feel at all times, that however long the chain, the hand of God holds the end which is out of sight. Herein ap- pear the folly and the effrontery of a pretentious and yet feeble, unbelieving philosophy, which to-day traces the chain one link further back than yesterday, and straightway rushes to the con- clusion that nothing exists save material law and its effects. fin . °

J he rustic who believes that the world is a vast plain which

rents upon a rock, and that rock upon another, and " so all the way down," is just as wise and worthy of respect as he who, with sage face and infinitude of learned phrases, assures us that there is no God, but only one cause growing out of an- other, and so all the way up. "Vain man would be wise, though man be born like a wild ass's colt."

This infidel abuse of science ought to be rebuked. We owe it to science and reason, as well as to religion, to "witness a good confession " of a wiser faith. This Dr. Peck has done, and well done, in his recent work. The plan and purpose of the

8 American Histories — Peck and Draper. [January,

volume are clearly stated in the title-page. The author does not propose to write a new history of the Republic, that shall be more accurate or complete in its narration of events, or in its estimate of historic characters, than those which have pre- ceded it. As the title of the book declares, Dr. Peck's work is not so much a new history as a reconsideration of history, rehearsing the main facts, as briefly as is consistent with their use in illustration, to show the hand of Providence in the found- ing and the building of the Great Republic, and its true place in the history of human progress. The author thus states the underlying principle upon which he has built his edifice :

The theory of this book is, that*God is the rightful, actual Sov- ereign of all nations ; that a purpose to advance the human race beyond all its precedents in intelligence, goodness, and power, formed this great Republic ; and that religion is the only lite-force and organizing power of liberty. Incapable, as he trusts, of the absurdity of any pretensions to originality in discovering either prin- ciples or methods of the Divine government, or of having in any sense superseded the labors of other men, he simply claims to have made, with perfect candor and some thoroughness, his humble contribution to what must be admitted to be a very important, if not in some sense a newly-defined, method of American history. — Preface, page viii.

These antecedent convictions are in the highest degree con- sistent with both reason and revelation. If God does not superintend the affairs of men, then are they adrift upon the fitful currents of chance, or, at the best, at the mercy of merely human aims and agencies, narrow, feeble, and short lived. It is evident that God is giving the American people boundless material wealth, and every other element of national power ; and seeing that much is required of those to whom much is given, he must demand of us a purer national life, and a greater advancement in personal virtue, corresponding with our supe- rior advantages. The bestowal cannot be aimless ; the aim must be at least inclusive of this. And if liberty be a good thing, and, at the same time, a perilous gift to men except where virtue and intelligence prepare them to use it wisely, then is religion the only solid rock on which to found it, so that it may stand when the winds of stormy passion blow, and the waves of corruption beat. We not only agree heartily with Dr. Peck's methods of considering American history, but

1SG9.1 American Histories — Peck and Draper. 9

believe that this is the only true method of writing the history of any nation ; and that on any other plan the work of the historian, however minute and accurate within its circle, fails to go into the real depths of the theme, and above all, fails totally to teach the lessons which history ought to give, and without which it is superficial and well-nigh valueless. The moral and religious life of a man is his real life, the chief source of his present joys and sorrows, and the arbiter of his destiny in the life beyond. In regard to a nation, the true in- quiry is, not what cities were founded, what battles were fought, •what tyrants lived and died, but, "What were the people ? What did they know of God, nature, and themselves? What value did they set upon truth, honesty, honor, purity, piety ? What did they most of all seek for in life ? What did they most of all hope for in death ? These things are not fixed by the soil, the climate, the natural scenery, and yet they afiect more than all else, for weal or woe, the national welfare. Wouid" that the history t>f the whole world were rewritten, "considered from a Christian stand-point !"

The task which our author proposed to himself was not an easy one.

Assuming that there will be no captious reader, anxious to discover and reject all that savors of the "supernatural," the work includes so wide a field, involves interests of such vast proportions, the nice weighing of so many influences, the measuring of so many forces, material, intellectual, and moral, and the interpretation of so many and so diversified events, that the labor of the mere historian is light in comparison with it. Our author has done his work thoroughly, and with skill and judgment In the selection of representative events, and the estimate of their value, as well as in his general plan and method, he has been singularly happy. The history is divided into five periods. The Period of Preparation extends from the Discovery of America to the time of the agitations which ushered in the war of the Revolution. The Period of Independence includes the Revolutionary War, and reaches on- ward to the inauguration of George Washington, the first President under the present Constitution. The Period of De- velopment extends to the beginning of the Great Rebellion. The Period of Emancipation treats of the contest through

10 American Histories — Peck and Draper. [January,

which the nation has just passed in the defense of the national life.* The Fifth Period glances at the Future of America, as foreshadowed in the wondrous past, and the present hopeful state of our country. The whole is a body " fitly joined to- gether and compacted by that which every joint supplieth." All the sections find unity in the chapters, all the chapters in the periods, and all the periods in the theme announced in the title of the volume ; so that the discussion is not irregular and fragmentary, but exhaustive, neither omitting any thing essential to the argument, nor inserting any thing that does not tend to the conclusion. The author does not indeed trace these periods with the pen of the minute historian, attempting to enter the field where Bancroft, Hildreth, and others have won their fame. Nor does he select, here and there, the single facts which seem to favor his theory, while others are designedly kept out of sight, lest they undermine the logic of the work. On the contrary he comes before us, as the spies returned to Kadesh-barnea, not indeed with the vintage of every hill, nor bearing the whole harvest of' any field in the land of promise, but bringing enough to show the character of what has been left behind. The materials thus gathered are wrought into a compact argument ; and yet the descriptions are so vivid, the narrative so clear, the whole so full of vigor and enthusiasm, with so much of pathos and power, that not only the slow and patient reasoner, but even " he that occupieth the room of the unlearned," will read on to the end with unabated interest. In fact, it is curious to observe how Dr. Peck now and then loses the author in the preacher, and breaks forth in a fervid strain like an exhortation at a camp-meeting. This is no detriment to the book. A bloodless historical essay, the hide of history stripped off and dried, might please a few who have themselves grown dry and shriveled in recondite studies ; but " the more excellent way" of the enthusiastic author has a charm for readers of every sort, and therefore a larger area of influence and usefulness. The possessor of many books will find here no tedious repetitions of common-place knowledge, and yet he that has no other book upon the subject, but masters this, will not be ignorant in regard to the history of his country.

The hand of God appears at the very beginning of American history. Professor Rain, a noted Danish antiquarian, claims

***

1869.] American Histories — Peck and Draper. 11

to have discovered proof, in certain ancient Icelandic manu- scripts, that the old ^Northmen visited this continent eight or nine centuries ago. This may be true ; but if so, it is evident that the visit effected nothing, and the world in general knew not that it had been made. The sea that lies westward of Europe and Africa was believed by the multitude to extend to the edge of the world's wide plain. Unexplored, unknown, mysterious, it was called Mare Tenebrosum, the Dark Sea, and regarded with superstitious awe. A Spanish writer before Columbus declared that the coasts of Spain and the East Indies were not far distant from each other ; and Aristotle, long be- fore him, avowed the same idea. An Arabian scholar, too, as early as the twelfth century, conjectured that there must be a westward route to China and the East. These opinions were entertained by at least a few. Commerce was the great source of wealth to the "Western nations, and yet the boldest navigators of the times dreaded the Dark Sea. Even Columbus might not have had courage for the enterprise which he undertook had he not been misled by the erroneous geography of his day. From Spain eastward to China is only about one third of the circumference of the earth. Columbus believed that it was three fourths of the distance, and that the westward route was therefore the short as well as the straight path to the East. Consequently he set forth upon his voyage, not seeking a new continent, but a new way to the old. Was it by acci- dent that the American continent lay so long silent and un- known among the shadows of the Dark Sea ? If the Northmen visited it in the year 983, why was the record of their achieve- ment never found till it had become useless? Discovered again in 1492, why did a whole century pass before the people who were above all others to shape the destiny of America, set foot upon its shores? We can only interpret the facts on the assumption that God has his plans, as well as men, and that his time to lay the foundation of the Great Republic had not yet come.

' And why not? The times give the answer. The art of printing was yet a recent discovery, and its work of instructing and elevating the popular mind had hardly been begun. The Romish Church swayed the souls and bodies of men. That famous morning when the astonished people of Wittenberg

12 American Histories — Peck and Draper. (January,

read the theses which Luther had nailed by night on the church door, was twenty -five years after that other famous morning when Columbus and his joyous sailors, beginning their watch before the dawn, caught the first sight of the New World. The age of superstition and ghostly despotism had not closed, but the darkness began to lift, and there was light on the hori- zon. The day came not suddenly. Souls thirsting for the water of life, and turning away from the broken cistern to the original fountain, felt the stern power of Rome. Imprison- ment, torture, death, awaited them. Centuries passed away in bloody . conflict before liberty of conscience, among even the most enlightened nations, was seen to be the most sacred of human rights. During the worst period of this conflict America was settled. In the interval between the voyage of Columbus and that of the Mayflower, Luther and Melanehthon preached and wrote, and the Reformation began ; the Inqnisition toiled at its bloody work ; Latimer, Hooper, Ridley, Cranmer, and thousands of others, were burnt in England ; the massacre of St. Bartholomew's day occured in France ; the heroic Xether- landers, under the wise leadership of "William the Silent, suf- fered untold horrors in the cause of religious liberty, and finally overcame the ferocious enemy ; and the Protestants of Bohemia began their thirty years' war against Roman despotism.

How curiously are human events, apparently the most re- mote from each other, often found welded together like the links of a chain. The newly invented printing-press roused the slumbering mind of Europe, brought active minds in closer communion, disseminated knowledge, and prepared the way for progress in all the departments of learning and improve- ment. "While the German reformers were searching the word of God, and sending the truth abroad on the wings of every wind, Columbus, Yasco di Gama, and Americus Yespucius explored the seas for new lands, and new paths to the old. So when the religious conflict began, and God's true worshipers were seek- ing a refuge from murderous hands, the needed asylum opened its bosom to all wjio were ready to leave their native land for the sake of liberty of conscience. The love of liberty was the strong magnet which drew across the stormy ocean the English Puritan, the French Huguenot, and the Dutch Remonstrant. Had this country been colonized at an earlier date, it would

1SG9.1 American Histories — Peek and Draper. 13

have been peopled by those who were capable only of planting on these shores the superstitions and the institutions of the Dark Ages. Ilad the settlement been postponed till the conflict was ended, no controlling religious motive would have gathered the emigrants and driven them forth into voluntary exile. Surely the Divine Hand was in this ; not, indeed, urging men to deeds of cruelty and violence, but opening the sea for the feet of his suffering people, and causing even the wrath of man to praise Him, and aid in the founding of a nation destined to be, above all others, the powerful advocate of human rights, civil and religious ; whose mission it shall be to spread the truth, and war against oppression and wrong, world without end.

If the hand of the Lord was in these things, we might expect to bee a further revelation of his plans in the process of coloniz- ing the new territories, and especially in the choosing of those to whom he is about to give the goodly heritage. It is inter- esting to observe how the nations who had been foremost in the relentless persecution of God's people were thwarted in their plans. The Pope, in solemn decree, divided the new world between two of his most unscrupulous vassals, Spain and Portugal, but a power greater than Rome decreed otherwise. Spain had crushed out the truth by her murderous Inquisition ; and Portugal had been equally zealous to banish the Bible, and those who read it, from her shores. France, fresh from the slaughter of the Huguenots, sought to gain a foothold upon the soil of the future Republic, but its destinies were not to be given into her gory hands. Protestant Holland planted her- self at the mouth of the Hudson, and laid the foundations of the commercial metropolis of the new world ; but her narrow home territory and scanty population uniitted her to occupy the broad spaces waiting to be peopled. And so England, al- ready the land of an open Bible, populous, industrious, enter- prising, brave, tenacious of purpose, ardent in her love of liberty, became the custodian of the future home of freedom. It is true that the principles of religious liberty had not yet been fully recognized even in Protestant England ; neverthe- less she was in advance of other nations, and was still advancing. In estimating the past we are not always just. Constitutional freedom is the slow growth of ages ; and if we would measure the work done by any given age, we must compare it with the

14 American Histories — Peck and Draper. [January,

times which preceded it, not with the aggregate results of a thousand years of conflict and Buffering.

The author traces with care the leading events of the Period of Preparation, showing how largely the idea of liberty, espe- cially of religious liberty, inspired the hopes and entered tinto the plans of the colonists. Good men are sometimes narrow in their views; strong men are sometimes inconsistent. They who battled stoutly for their own rights were not always ready to concede the same rights to others who differed from them in doctrine and modes of worship ; and the contest between the remains of the old despotic principle and the new spirit of freedom went on with steady progress on the side of the right. Among the men prominent in these strifes there is no nobler name than that of Roger Williams, the founder of Rhode Island. " He was," as Bancroft tells us, " the first person in modern Christendom to assert, in its plenitude, the doctrine of the liberty of conscience, the equality of opinions before the law ; and in its defense he was the harbinger of Milton, and the precursor and the superior of Jeremy Taylor." All along the line of the colonies, from Massachusetts to Georgia, one of the most pro- lific sources of internal agitation and dissension, and one of the problems most difficult of solution, was to determine how far the civil authorities were under obligation to interest themselves in behalf of religion, and in what degree they might seek to shape the opinions of the people. Roger Williams advanced at once to the position, now an axiom in the American mind, that the Church and the State should be completely separated, and soul-liberty be recognized as the right of every man. The strength put forth in these conflicts was not lost/ The principle of religious liberty is the germ of universal freedom ; and in their long and vexatious strife for its attainment the people were trained to a clear perception, and a sturdy maintenance, of their rights, and were thus prepared for the stern ordeal through which they were to pass in after years in resisting oppression at the hands of the mother country.

The Second Period is that of Independence, and includes the agitations which preceded the Revolution. The colonies were in constant collision with their governors, the proprietaries, or the Crown. The chartered companies were eager to make money out of the settlements within their several territories;

1809.] American Histories — Peck and Draper. 15

the governors whom they sent over looked after the interests of the proprietors rather than those of the colonists ; the King was jealous of his prerogatives, and determined to extend them if possible ; the Parliament often legislated with sole reference to the interests of English manufacturers and shipowners.

The colonists meanwhile, engaged chiefly in agriculture, were scattered over a broad and fertile land, where each tilled the fields which his own strong arm had won from the primeval forest, and lived a simple, but free, self-reliant, independent life, feeling no instinctive sense of allegiance to any sovereign save Him who gives to men seed-time and harvest, sunshine and rain. In regard to the ownership of the soil, the right to manufacture and to traffic, the rights of the ballot, of the press, and of colonial legislation, there were strifes and controversy, and tin ally war, which brought into full play every manly attribute, and taxed every element of power. The length of the disputes which terminated in war, and the severity of the war itself, were, in the end, not disadvantageous. While by stout remon- fttrance, and eloquent appeal, and labored argument, in which the great truths of human equality and human rights were boldly enunciated, they were contending against tyranny, every mind was trained to recognize the value of liberty, and every heart was fired with hatred of oppression in all its forms. It is only when truth is assailed that its real strength is displayed ; and it is only when freedom is in danger that its true bounds are shown and its sacred character vindicated. The Declaration of Independence is not "a mere strino- of o;litterino- o-eneralities," but a clear and strong statement of the conclusions to which the people had come in their researches into the nature of govern- ment, and the obligations which it involves. Thus prolonged discussion taught the people correct theories in regard to human rights, and cultivated an intense patriotism ; while the war it- self invested freedom with the double luster which comes of heroic suffering and heroic achievement. That the Divine Hand was in the conflict, guiding the current of events, and bringing out the grand result, does not require great faith to believe, especially when we see to what an extent the religious element was present and active in the life of the nation. Let any great truth be fixed in the soul of a man or of a community, and it becomes a factor in all future reasoning

16 American Histories — Peck and Draper. [January,

and action. The great mass of the colonists, especially those of the [Northern States, were thoroughly imbued with the prin- ciples of religious liberty. They claimed it as their birthright, given of God ; and to men thoroughly convinced of the exist- ence of this one inherent right it was natural, perhaps inevi- table, that they should be restive under despotism of any kind. Thus among the fathers of the Republic, the political was intimately connected with the religious life of the people ; nor will it ever cease to be so, except where the schemes of corrupt .and guilty men are at war with common justice and humanity, as well as with the word of God.

Of American freedom, the resultant of these varied forces, and the reward of this long struggle, our author thus expresses his appreciation :

American liberty — what language can express the glow of rap ture with which we contemplate it ! "We feel the thrill of its life, and the throb of its joy, as it courses through our veins. Liberty to think and to utter our thoughts ; liberty to write, and print, and read, and no fear of servile police, or loathsome cells, or murderous injustice; liberty to study and proclaim God's holy word, kneel at his sacred altar and claim for ourselves the blood of atonement, with no intervening priest, and no artificial terrors from the thunders of the Vatican : with what gratitude ought we to recognize privi- leges so exalted as the gift of Providence alone. — Page 333.

'. The Third Period is that of Development, comprising the seventy-two years that elapsed between the inauguration of "Washington as President of the United States and the break- ing out of the rebellion. One third of the volume is devoted to this account of our progress in population, liberty, govern- ment, internal resources, commerce, war power, learning and the arts, manhood and humanity, depravity and religion.

In the year 1775 the population of the colonies was esti- mated to be 3,017,678. At the present time our people must number 3S,000,000, at the lowest estimate. Of this number about 6,000,000 are of foreign birth and 4,500,000 are colored. Among, the immigrants national peculiarities are short lived. The parents may be English, Irish, or German, but their chil- dren are Americans, and none but the closest observers are able to detect the lineage. Nor do we look upon this influx of pop- ulation from other lands as endangering our institutions. Other causes may be regarded with distrust, but we have no fear that

1SC9.3 American Histories — Peck and Draper. 17

the Republic ^vill fail because the people, whether native or foreign born, will cease to love a free representative Govern- ment. Our adopted citizens, as our suave politicians have learned to call them, have not always used their newly acquired privileges wisely. As a class their influence has too often tended to make reforms more difficult, and to keep the legisla- tion of the country at a lower moral level than it would other- wise have attained. On the great questions of slavery, the ob- servance of the Sabbath, and the restriction of the liquor traffic — the vital questions which the present generation of Americans must meet — their weight, has been on the wrong side ; and yet, even on these points, there has always been a minority for the right, intelligent, earnest and steadily growing in numbers. If any of our readers are apprehensive that Home will destroy the liberties of the Republic, we point them to recent events in Europe. As a political power Romanism is steadily declin- ing. When Austria has broken the chains that bound her, and Spain is marching on to freedom, religious as well as civil, lhe« would seem to be little probability that America will bow down to receive the yoke which they have found intolera- ble. With the right settlement of the great political questions which now agitate us, we anticipate an improvement in all de- partments of our national life. Only by justice and order can liberty be preserved. Intelligence and religion must guide the people, or patriotism will never rise to the level of a true virtue, and the whole national structure will lack solid strength. These latent principles are doing their work. We believe that we are building on the rock. Our progress seems slow; we trust thai it is sure. It took almost a century to settle the question whether a man whose religious belief commands the suffrages of a minority 'only ought to possess all the rights of citizenship, and still another century to determine whether freedom belongs to all men, irrespective of race and color. These questions the piety and intelligence of our people have settled, we trust, for all time. Whatever may be the state of parties in civil affairs, whatever the relative strength of our various ecclesiastical or- ganizations, none need fear that the conclusions to which we have come will ever be disputed by Americans.

With the growth of the population there has been a corre- sponding development of material resources. In the decade

18 American Histories — Peck and Draper. LJanuary,

ending in 1S60 the farms of the nation doubled in aggregate value, and yet at that date only one fifth of the entire area had been inclosed, and only one third of the inclosed lands were cultivated ; in other words, only one acre of every fifteen throughout the national domain has yet been turned with the plow. The industry of the people in other directions has been crowned with success, increasing with equal ratio. Manufac- tures, gold, silver, iron, coal, petroleum, are sources of wealth whose streams constantly deepen and widen. In climate, in soil, in river systems, in breadth of area, in advantages of location, in wealth — agricultural, mineral, and of the forest — in industry, enterprise, and ability to wTill and to do, no nation ever had so goodly a heritage, or was better prepared to enjoy it. Commerce, too, binds us to other lands, and produces its abundant fruits for us and them. On the sea as well as on the land, and in ships of the navy as well as the mercantile ma- rine, the skill, enterprise, and courage of the Americans are conspicuous, and the sea, as well as the land, pays tribute to our greatness.

The military strength of the nation has been developed in an equal degree. In colonial times conflicts with the savages kept alive the courage of the people, and trained them to the use of arms. This stern experience prepared them for the lono- and weary struggle for independence, and cultivated the soldierlv qualities which achieve success. Since that time we have fought the Barbary States for the free navigation of the Medi- terranean ; we have fought England for the free navigation of the ocean ; we have fought Mexico for territory ; and last and fiercest, sternest strife of all, fought the southern rebels for the national unity and the national existence, and succeeded in every case. A celebrated British statesman declares that from the last contest we come forth "the most formidable war power of the world." May the justice and humanity of the American people be equally developed, that this colossal strength may never be exerted among the nations save in the cause of peace, humanity, liberty, and the rights of man !

Learning and the arts are not neglected among us. The idea of common schools, which shall provide at least an elementarv education for all our children, belongs originally to New England, but is becoming national. In the southern States

1S69.J American Histories — Peck and Draper. 19

the principle of universal education has not yet been incorpo- rated in the local law every-where. The Romish Church every- where seeks to fence in her people from others, 'and keep every thing in the hands of the clergy. Still, the principle of nniversal education in the public schools is essentially Ameri- can, and must prevail. In the cities and larger towns the free schools are constantly enlarging in area of study, and improv- ing in their general management. In addition to their religious teaching the Sunday-school gives incidental secular instruction to those otherwise destitute of educational privileges; and the pure morals of the Gospel are inculcated every-where in con- nection with the great truths of Eevelation. "In 1786 Bishop Afibnrr, of the Methodist Episcopal Church, established the fir<t Sunday-school proper on the Western Continent.'' — Repub- lic, page 445. "We have at this time probably five millions of children in the Sunday-schools of the various Churches, the Methodist Episcopal schools alone containing a million and a half.

The next grade of our educational institutions above the common schools is what is commonly called the academy or Mamillary. Of these, hundreds have been established throughout the land ; some by individual liberality and enterprise, others by local municipal authorities, and many by the various Church or- ganizations. They contain tens of thousands of students, who receive an education which includes facilities for the study of natural and mental science, the higher mathematics, and an- cient and modern languages. Our colleges are numerous, and are eteadily rising in character and in completeness of equip- ment for their work.

The periodical press comes forward to aid in the dissemina- tion of knowledge, and to prepare the American people to be- come intelligent citizens. In 1860 there were 4,051 periodicals of various kinds published in the United States.

It is of little avail to attempt to estimate the value of the press in this Republic. It has its vicious elements; is seized by infidels, Romanists, spiritists, and demagogues, to mislead the people for selfish ends, or to promote a perverted class interest. But this ex- ceptional use of the great power of the nineteenth century does by no means render its freedom questionable, or its influence, as a whole, pernicious. Its teachings, good and bad, illustrate the free- dom of true republicanism; while its collisions of mind and prin

20 American Histories— Peck and Draper. [January,

ciple reveal the safety of free discussion, and bring out with en- hanced power all the great doctrines of liberty. Licentiousness in the press, as well in as every thing else, must, of course, be sup- pressed ; but the Americans are sensitive in regard to any other limitations. The purest and noblest in our nation say, "Let the battle go on ; let error and fiction war with truth ; let the selfish passions of leaders and parties dash against the fortress of liberty ; let infidelity and superstition assault the pure principles of the Gospel and the true Church of God ; there is no danger."

Nor are the fine arts neglected among ns. In painting. Allston, West, Jams, Inman, and Peale, of an earlier day, and more lately Elliott, Fraser, Trumbull, Stuart, Durand, Church, and others, show that crossing the ocean has not quenched the fires of genius, and that in a republic, and not in the shadow of a throne only, it finds appreciation and reward. In sculp- ture, Greenough, Powers, Palmer, and others, have attained a success which honors them, and prepares the way for still greater efforts.

While our civilization shows the impress of true religion, the millennium has not yet come. "We have among ns a danger- ous class increasing with the growth of population. Intem- perance, which is the shame and the curse of civilized states, is eating into our national life like an ulcer. Neither religion, nor patriotism, nor humanity, nor all three combined, can devise weapons potent enough to cope with this hideous enemy. For a whole century the Methodist Episcopal Church has borne unwavering testimony against it. Sixty years ago the Old Temperance Society began its career. Thirty years since the Total Abstinence pledge was adopted as the basis of reform. Since then the Sons of Temperance, and other kin- dred organizations, have been toiling in the field, and have clone nobly. And still these agencies are only like so many arks floating above a drowning world. The flood of death is not abated, nor even abating. For a period which stretches into the future beyond the limits of human vision, alcohol seems destined to be the banc of the so-called Christian nations, wasting their substance, fostering every vice and crime known to fallen humanity, filling earth with tears and blood, and peopling hell with the damned. Socialism, Mormomsm, and that compound of imposture and folly which we call spiritism, show that our people are not so enlightened but that victims

I SCO J American Histories — Peck and Draper. 21

may be found to the grossest superstitions; nor so moral as to prevent their sinking into the worst forms of vice. Of Mor- monism, however, we ought to say, in justice to ourselves, that its apostles have been far more successful in other countries than at home. Nevertheless, it is humiliating to know that the institutions of the heathen find even temporary legal sanc- tion in any recognized territory of the United States. Roman- ism, too, is growing rapidly by immigration ; and recent Popish allocutions, as well as utterances nearer home, assure us that it lias lost none of its arrogance. Home still claims that it has a right to use the secular arm to coerce men to submit to its demands, and a priest resident in ISTew Jersey has had the har- dihood to publish a pamphlet defending the principle. This latter publication, however, we construe as a significant proof that while Eomanism is spreading more widely on the surface, it is losing its power over the minds of men. It is contrary to Popish strategy to avow such views, and designs, and thus throw down a challenge, not only to Protestantism, but to mod- ern civilization itself. We suspect that the rank and file of tho Catholic community are becoming insubordinate, and therefore it is necessary to threaten them with dungeons and tortures. Moreover, it is the fixed policy of the priesthood to keep alive bitter feelings between their people and the Protest- ants, that the ignorant Romanist may regard every Protestant ** his enemy, and shut his ears against him.

In the political world, also, wide spread depravity and cor- ruption are developed. Money is freely used for electioneering purposes, including the direct purchase of votes, and thus the very fountain of our legislation is poisoned. It is hardly reasonable: to suppose that they who have secured office by britary will themselves be found beyond the reach of bribes in discharging their official duties. The political press is venal and unscrupulous, and too often the deceiver, instead of the instruct- or, of the citizen. Only the coolest and most intelligent of the people really arrive at an understanding of the matters at issue in our political contests; and even they are sometimes at a loss for the means of judging, because every alleged fact and mooted question is so deeply buried in an avalanche of op- posing lies, that certainly no ordinary eye can reach the depth. On this general subject our author discourses thus:

Fourth Series, Vol. XXL— 2

22 American Histories — Peck and Draper. [January,

The freedom granted to the citizen by the government of the people may be greatly abused. Demagogues may use it for selfish ends ; party spirit may rise above national claims ; bad men may aspire to office and succeed ; bribery and misrepresentation may deter- mine at elections, pass laws, and corrupt the seat of justice. All this has occurred here, and it is no relief to us to show that it is so every-where ; that bribery and corruption in elections are re- duced to a system in England, and so utterly shameless as to allow of no attempt to deny them, or obviate their damaging power. If it be true in theory that all this is easier and more likely to occur in a republic than under a constitutional monarchy, it is not true in fact. These are vices which do not inhere in systems of gov- ernment. They are back of all governments. They arise from a common depravity, indicate a common danger, and require a com- mon remedy. The race is coming to feel the imperative demand for a divine regeneration of society, the grand model of which is found in every true Christian in "whose heart, purposes, motives, and acts old things have passed away, and all things become new. Until this grand consummation is reached in the common human- ity of our nation we must battle with political dishonesty.— Page 510.

But there has been a development of genuine piety as well as of depravity. The chapter devoted to this part of the dis- cussion consists of a series of papers prepared by clergymen of the various leading denominations, showing the part which each has had in the building up of the nation. It is claimed in behalf of the Cougregational Churches of ISTew England, that at the very foundation of the American State they culti- vated the most ardent love of civil liberty. The Presbyterian Churches have been foremost in the establishment of institu- tions of learning, and in inculcating reverence for the Sabbath, and the whole moral code of the Scripture. The entire course and spirit of the Baptist Church have been in full sympathy with American institutions, and the battle for lib- erty of conscience was fought by them both in New England and Virginia. The Methodist Churches, by their doctrines, their evangelical spirit, and their methods of labor, more than any other, reached the people, keeping pace with the advancing lines of settlement and the spread of population, and thus fur- nishing evangelical agencies suited to the wants of a new and growing country. The Protestant Episcopal Church trained the people to recognize authority and value law and order. Other miuor bodies have been busy, each doing in its own way its part of the great work.

1869.] American Histories — Peek and Draper. 23

Nor has the complete separation of Church and State which characterizes us worked in any degree to the detriment of religion. Every department of Christian activity is culti- vated among us with a liberality in the use of money, a zeal and a success not below the rest of the Christian world. In England the churches of all kinds are capable of accommo- dating with seats at one and the same time fifty-seven percent, of the entire population. In the United States sixty per cent, can be thus accommodated. Fifty-four thousand churches have been erected, and their Pastors are supported without a dime from tithes or State treasury. At this very time no other nation on the face of the globe is so multiplying its houses of worship as are the Americans. And notwithstanding the inflow of foreign immigrants, the membership of the evangel- ical Churches has more than kept pace with the population. Leaving children under ten years of age out of the calculation, there were, in the year 1800, about nine Church members in every hundred of the people; in 1832 there were fourteen ; in 18G0 there were twenty-four. We are persuaded that our poor are at Feast as well cared for as in any other land. Ee- funnatory institutions of various kinds, asylums for the deaf and dumb, for the blind and the insane, for idiots and ine- briates, have sprung tip every-where among us, and have gath- ered about them the appliances needed to render them efficient in their good work. The American Bible Society, the Sea- men's Friend Society, the Young Men's Christian Associations, iho various Sunday-School Unions, Tract and Missionary boctetiee, with other kindred agencies, show that the American Churches are progressive in their spirit, generous in their benefaction*, active in their labors, and courageous to assault the strongholds of sin and error.

The author's Fourth Period is that of Emancipation. Sla- very was planted on the American shores at a very early day. The Spaniards began the nefarious work by enslaving the hapless natives of the West Indies, who were exterminated by the cruel bondage to which they were reduced. African'sla- very was introduced into Cuba on the plea of humanity, it being urged as the only mode of preserving the remnant of a race which was fast disappearing. In 1620 it made its way from the islands to the continent. A Dutch vessel brought

24 Albican Histories— Peck and Draper. [January,

twenty negroes to Jamestown, in Virginia, and sold them to the planters. Thus began a traffic which transferred, as it is estimated, four hundred thousand Africans from their native laud to the New World. And slavery is a gigantic crime that contains within it all forms of wrong. The " patriarchal " idea of it as a diviue institution, involving lofty responsibili- ties on the side of the master, and a wholesome subordination on the part of the slave, and blessing both, may be made to show well on paper, but it has never been successfully embod- ied in actual life. Slaves may despair of deliverance ; thev may sink down helpless, hopeless, crushed ; but they are never content, nor is the master ever at ease. Slavery can be kept in existence only by the steady application of a stern, relent- less force, which neither fears God nor regards man. In our own land it has wrought its due results. It first corrupted the North by the gains of the slave-trade, and then debased and brutalized the South by the inevitable effect of the institution itself. The nation has never been at rest in regard to the evil. The great statesmen of the earlier day, Washington, Jefferson, and their compeers, were unanimous in condemning the insti- tution; sometimes hopeful that it would gradually disappear without conflict or disaster, sometimes fearful that some great calamity would grow out of it.

But the invention of various machines made the cultivation of cotton exceedingly profitable, and slaves rose in value. The financial interests of the South became involved with slaverv and it became a great power in the land. Under its shadow there grew up a school of politicians, self-seeking, unscrupu- lous, and adroit, who subordinated all national obligations and interests to those of their own section, and cared less for the interests of their section than for their own personal exaltation. These crafty plotters rallied their people for the support of slavery, and thus made the South a political unit. They went into the national conventions called by the great parties, and by compactness, audacity, and skill controlled wherever they went. Their cunning projects were for a lon» time so successful that they began to consider themselves om- nipotent Northern politicians bowed down to them with an abject and eager obsequiousness which was scarce exceeded by the poor negro wincing under the lash, and which created, and

1609.] American Histories— Peck and Draper. 25

\vc must confess in some degree justified, the contempt which the South professed to feel for the North. The South, as time passed on, became still more exacting and imperious. First demanding, in 1820, the repeal of the resolution passed in 179S, limiting slavery to the territory then occupied by it, it obtained what was called the Missouri Compromise, by which the institution was permitted to overspread the new Territories of the United States as far north as 36° 30'. It next demanded the repeal of the Compromise of 1820, on the plea that it was unconstitutional, neither Congress nor the territorial legisla- tures having any legal right to exclude it. Northern meanness and sycophancy yielded, southern arrogance triumphed, and from that moment war, though then below the horizon, was inevitable. The northern politicians, who had sold justice, honor, and humanity for office, could not drag their constitu- ents down into the depths of the infamy into which they had themselves plunged. A new political party arose, not to assail southern institutions on their own soil, but to resist the aggres- sions of slavery. The strife which began on the plains of Kansas became finally the greatest, bloodiest struggle of mod- ern times. The contest, which first employed argument and then tiie ballot, was fought at last with steel. War flamed ■Jong a hundred battle fields. Year after year of fearful daughter followed and left the contest still undecided. Mean- while the nation was passing through a moral regeneration — coming out of darkness to the light. By a comparatively slow, mm| yet steady process, the intelligence and moral power of the

<*tli fathered in solid strength, not merely on the side of law •M the Union, but of universal freedom. President Lincoln's proclamation of " liberty throughout all the land, to all the in- habitants thereof," was doubtless demanded as a war measure; but it was no less demanded by the moral sense of the North «.« a measure without which the logic of loyalty was incomplete, and its great purpose lacked its crowning glory. God gave vic- tory to the right ; and from the chaos of bloody war the natfon emerged regenerated, disenthralled, freed from the infinite crime and the crashing incubus. The victory of the North- was the triumph of intelligence, patriotism, humanity, and reli- gion, over treason, ambition, barbarism, and wrung.

The volume closes with a glance into the future history of

26 American Histories — Peck and Draper. [January,

America, as foreshadowed in the past and the present. This constitutes the author's Fifth Period. It need not be said that he is hopeful, and even sanguine. If this nation is true to lib- erty, humanity, and to God, it has before it a grander history than ever shone in the records of the past. No other people combines the elements of strength now given into American hands. England is rich and brave, and loves law and order and liberty. France possesses intelligence and enterprise. Italy possesses sunny skies and a fertile soil. Prussia has the true Protestant love of schools and learning. Eussia has broad realms and a vast population. But America has all these — intelligence, enterprise, courage, liberty, numbers, wealth, a genial climate, and a broad and fertile domain, where her teem- ing millions find an ample home, and where, we trust, in the coming ages the lofty destiny of a truly Christian people awaits her.

The dying rebellion bequeathed us a burden and a problem — all it had to give. It is not an easy thing so to manage the national debt as to deal justly and honorably with the national creditors, and yet impose no oppressive taxation. It is not easy to say what measures will soonest heal the wounds of war, and restore the southern States to the Union in spirit and in truth, and at the same time secure effectually the civil rights of south- ern loyal men of both races. Still the burden is not intolerable, nor is the problem incapable of solution. The debt can not only be borne, but paid to the uttermost dollar. The interest amounts to about one cent a day to each of our people ; and a burden of that size is not intolerable, especially when our shoulders are made strong by the conviction that it is the price of national existence. A single fact ought to relieve the appre- hensions of the faint-hearted, if we have faint hearts among us; though the enormous expenses of actual war have scarcely ceased, we have already paid not only the interest falling due, but one tenth of the principal of the debt. Another fact will give increasing courage and confidence. The Preliminary Report of the Eighth Census shows, that at the close of the ten years preceding the war the real and personal property of the nation was increasing at the rate of one thousand millions of dollars annually. Surely a people of such resources will be able to manage an indebtedness of twentv-fivc hundred millions.

1660.1 American Histories — Peck and Draper. 27

We do not doubt that the increase of the value of real estate biuce the war is more than equal to the entire debt of the United States.

The problem of reconstruction is not yet settled, but we trust soon will be. The leaders of the two great parties are Antagonistic in their plans and platforms, because both their views and their interests are in conflict. On the principle of impartial suffrage, the political power in the reconstructed States will remain, at least for a time, in the hands of the Republicans. If the colored citizen South is disfranchised, the men who led the rebellion will control their respective States. The Democratic leaders have little hope of getting control of the General Government without the help of the States recently in rebellion. The plan of the Kepublicans is, there- fore, to reorganize the late rebel States as speedily as possible, the leading rebels beiug disfranchised, and the freedmen ele- vated to the rank of voters. The policy of the Democrats is to prevent acquiescence in this mode of adjustment, and secretly encouraging all possible resistance and confusion in the South- ern States, to point to the anarchy thus created as proof that the Republican .plan of reconstruction is unwise and impracti- cable. It is trne that no genuine patriot and statesman will seek to manage so vital a national question on so sordid a principle as the one indicated ; but unfortunately there are in the ranks of both the parties politicians who are neither patriots nor statesmen. Still, a solid principle underlies the whole question. "We believe that it is wrong, dangerous, and in every way unwise to declare by law that five millions of the American people, natives of the soil, shall have no voice in the government, bear no responsibility in regard to it, but remain forever foreigners, aliens, pariahs, a degraded class, deprived of the incitements to honorable effort which others feel, and branded as lower in the scale of humanity than other men. We do not demand universal suffrage in behalf of the colored man, but so far as race is concerned let suffrage be impartial Establish a definite standard of moral and intellect- ual qualification, if you will, and place it as hi"h as you will, but give the negro an equal chance with the rest. lie asks n<» more. True statesmanship, to say nothing of humanity and religion, will bestow no less.

28 American Histories — Peck and Draper. [January,

But we are persuaded that tins question will in time be settled, as other difficult questions have been settled before it. Not many years ago the Jews were disfranchised, and despised and persecuted in almost every country of Europe. Two hun- dred years ago, in New England, if a man's religious opinions were not esteemed orthodox, his right to vote was denied as 6toutly as is the Georgia negro's to-day. The progress already made is a pledge of an increasing measure of justice and hu- manity in the laws of civilized States in the years to come, and we believe that the period is not far distant when color will not deprive any man of the reward to which his intelligence, his moral worth, or his labor of any kind, may justly entitle him. When the question of " negro equality " becomes useless as a party instrument both to opposers and advocates, it will cease to be agitated by politicians ; and when legal barriers are removed from his path, the law will have done for the black man all that it can do, and he, like others, must be con- tent with what he fairly earns by work or worth.

We have faith in the future of this nation. We believe in freedom, in equal rights, in liberty of conscience, in the vol- untary system of sustaining religious institutions. Xo mode of government does its work perfectly. Under any form — monarchical, aristocratic, or republican — justice will be incom- plete, and property and person in a degree unsafe : there will be thieves in the public treasury, and corrupt men in high places; there will be vice, and pauperism, and crime, and suf- fering, and agitation, and a thousand proofs that the race is fallen. Under no form of government will virtue and vice, industry and idleness, truth and falsehood, goodness and wick- edness, find at once their exact reward, and every man, good and bad, go to his own place. Still we believe in the Ameri- can idea, and in the success of the institutions based upon it. As the divine principle in dealing with man is to place his welfare in his own hands, and hold him responsible, visiting him with good or evil as his own conduct determines : so dem- ocratic institutions lay upon the people the responsibility of securing their own welfare, and shaping their own destiny, promising them only that degree of freedom, safety, and pros- perity which their intelligence, virtue, and piety deserve. Be- cause we believe in God, and liberty, and religion, and not

18C9.1 'American Histories — Peck and Draper. 29

that we trust in mere human wisdom and strength, and schemes and theories of men, we share the high hopes of our author, with the glowing expression of which he closes his volume :

Our example must shine in uninterrupted light. Our litera- ture— volume and periodical — will pass into other languages, and it will be the calm expression of liberty. Our representative cit- izenship will assume the dignity, and command the consideration, throughout the world, due to great organic, living truth. Our missionaries of religion, with the most scrupulous obedience to all governments in which they are found, will be perpetual represent- atives of progress in the true American spirit. Our foreigu min- isters and consuls, with influence ever increasing, will be the calm, dear, manly expositors of the doctrine of liberty for princes, courts, and people. Our ships abroad will be laden with the word of God, and messages of salvation to the perishing. " Liberty to the cap- tives" will move over the world by our grand steam navies, and flash through the air by our telegraphs; and the power of our growing prosperity, under the genius of Christianity, will be the silent, pervading influence which will blend harmoniously with all freedom every-where as the grandest missionary of progress ever known among men.

Dr. Peck has made to American literature a contribution of great and permanent value. The general plan of the work is good, and the execution in all respects admirable. The author is broad in his views, accurate in the statement, and wise in the interpretation of facts, candid and generous in his spirit, clear and eloquent in his style, and above all, has full faith in God and the right. Leaving the beaten path, he goes below the surface, and digs for the treasures hidden in the field. He points out the moral springs of human action, and confesses a Divine government in human affairs, and thus writes in full view of principles, without a recognition of which the story of war and heroes, and the rise and fall of empires, is but the chaff and not the grain of history. For this very reason the work will not be popular with men of a low moral grade. Its reasonings will be to the materialist a stumbling-block, and to the demagogue fool- ishness ; but to the intelligent Christian patriot it is a book to be loved, and read again and again. It ought especially to be studied by every young American.

It may be added that the publishers have given the vol- ume an outward seeming worthy of its contents; and that

30 American Histories — Peck and Draper. ■ [January,

the valuable portraits of distinguished men, the paper, the type, and the whole mechanical execution, set it before the reader as " apples of gold in pictures of silver." We are glad to know that, as a literary venture, it is abundantly successful, and remunerative to all concerned.

Art. IL— INDIA AS A MISSION FIELD.

There are many questions profoundly interesting connected with the past, present, and future of India / but we desire simply to present its merits as a mission field. Has this mag- nificent country, grand in its wonderful history, stretching far back into the hoary past, and no less grand in its resources, capabilities, and the new life that after a slumber of ages begins to thrill its countless population, special present claims on the attention and evangelistic enterprise of the Christian Church ? On the one hand is Christendom, as the conquest of Christ, wrested from the power of darkness, ready to push the conflict ? on the other, is the heathen and non-Christian world now assailable at any point the Church may select ? The forces numerically considered stand thus : professional Christendom, three hundred and thirty-five millions ; the nominal Christian world, nine hundred and fifty-three millions. The field to be conquered is yet great in extent, and the enemy to be engaged of vast number. Is India a specially hopeful point of attack for any Christian denomination wishing to make the most of its resources in this conquest of the world ? And, India gained, what is the probable result on future efibrts for the complete evangelization of the race ?

In reply to this query, let us look at the claims of this field in this point of view. In the pursuit of truth, or in the van- quishment of error and the spread of light, whether in physics or metaphysics, the establishment of civil liberty and the rights of man or the progress of true religion in the earth, there are certain vital points which, mastered, aid inightily in the eradi- cation of error, and contribute greatly to future success. A thoughtful survey of the whole subject leads to the conclu- sion that India, as a mission field, is one of these vital points in the evangelization of the world ; and Churches which are

1SC9.1 India as a Mission Field. 31

lending forth missionaries, and are expending large sums of money in the maintenance of missionary operations in this field, ihould be greatly reassured in their efforts by this survey.

The past is full of grand and important lessons for the gen- eration now on the stage of the world's busy theater. " God in History." has rightly become one of the studies of the age. Allusions to the wonderful providence of God in locating his covenant people, the prospective religious instructors of the race, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, have become commonplace. The Sunday-school scholar has been made to admire the divine wisdom of Him who " declareth the end from the beginning," in placing the chosen race in the eastern end of that vast basin around which the world's activities- were BO largely to stir, so that, secluded as it was during the period of its growth and early tuition, it eventually became the highway of the surging nations as they rolled back and forth, diffusing leavening light and truth far and wide in the surrounding dark- ness. And when the Gospel dispensation, the world's perfect and complete great lesson in religion, was ushered in, do we not see the Divine Wisdom still manifest in the direction taken by the Gospel? Why did it not go eastward instead of west- ward ? The nations spreading away to the Pacific in the East were no more hostile to it than the proud, idolatrous Romans, and the peoples swallowed up in their vast empire ; while they had not the combination and political engineering to crush out the new faith that so boldly, in apparent helplessness, struck ft deadly, an uncompromising issue with ancient idolatry and pride, of worldly wisdom. In the Macedonian cry, " Come over and help us," and the prohibition of the Holy Ghost from preaching the word in Asia, we have more than a faint hint ol God's providence touching the direction in which the Gospel was spread. It was He who knows all the future, and whose sleepless care and divine wisdom never fail in the work of re- demption which he has undertaken for our lapsed race, that directed the movement of Christianity to the westward. He knew the capabilities of nations, and foresaw their future development; and was present with the Apostles and brethren in the councils of Jerusalem and Antioch. Westward around the great basin of the Mediterranean rolled the Gospel wave, through Egypt and Carthage— through Asia Minor, Greece, and

32 India as a Mission Field. [January,

Italy. The ocean of Pagan Europe was to break in devasta- tion over Rome, and a new social and political continent wa3 "in time to emerge, retaining in its landscape all that, was really valuable in the old. with new virtues and new capabili- ties, and by and by rule the world as it is doing to-day. It is no disparagement of Christianity in its blessed work of pro- moting man's highest good morally, socially, and politically, to say that Europe does not owe all its social and intellectual development to the Gospel alone. Doubtless it would be difficult in the extreme to estimate the great benefit that Europe has reaped from the presence of Christianity. At the same time, it has had circumstances of climate and country, and the conflict and blending of peoples, that have rendered it capable of a progress for which other parts of the globe have not been prepared. Divine Providence guided Christianity where it could co-operate with these capabilities. Its asso- ciations and affinities, in a human point of view, so to speak, would have turned it rather toward the East ; but there was a Divinity that, by visions of the night, and impulses of the Holy Ghost, shaped its end.

This lesson is of easy application. It is the highest wisdom in the Church, in working her evangelizing organizations, to trust prayerfully and implicitly to the guidance of the Holy Ghost in selecting points for missionary operations. With this reliance on the promised direction of the Holy Spirit, there should be a careful and thoughtful study of God's providence among the nations and peoples now being thrown open to the Gospel. These two, the Divine Spirit and the well-read " signs of the times," will surely lead the hosts of the Lord to the best points of attack in reclaiming the world to him. India . is now receiving a larger share of missionary effort than any other part of the Christian world. This, doubtless, is the result of more than earthly wisdom. All missionaries and missionary societies experience periods of depression on account of the apparent 6mallness of visible results, and the difficulty of keeping up supplies. If there is any element of success — any moral power in being reassured, a survey like the present is far from being useless. It will lead us to thank the Lord and take courage. We are pressing on in the surest path to a glorious victory.

IS .;-.).] India as a Mission Field. 33

Xature marked out India for a great country. Geograph- ically considered it is completely a unit, consisting of a broad tongue of land projecting into the Indian Ocean, and walled off from the rest of Asia by the vast Himalayan chain, and flanked on the east and west by immense river systems, the approach to which is defended again by lofty, rugged mount- ains. Thus fitted by nature as the common home of a great nation, India has, from a period of great antiquity, been occupied by a remarkable people, who entered it at a very early date in the world's history. A tropical or mild climate through oil its latitudes renders the question of clothing less difficult than in colder countries, while a soil of great fertility yields with moderate labor an abundance' to clothe and sustain a popula- tion difficult to be borne by many portions of the globe. These doses have made India from a very early period the seat of an intelligent and prosperous people, and the coveted prize of ambitious conquerors, and destine it to occupy an important leading position in renovated Asia. This point should not be overlooked in an economical productive expenditure of mis- tionary resources.

The availability, so to speak, of a race or people is a proper consideration in the planting of missions. ~W"hat is the appar- ent capability or promise of the people for whom it is proposed to e.-^tablish a mission, becomes an important question. In the lapse of ages, through diverse conditions and circumstances, a marked difference has developed among the races and peoples of the earth. Decided diversities are appareut in their intel- livtual, social, political, and moral capabilities. Eaces and peoples have a hereditary character, just as individual men. riso peri>etuated and accumulated impress of surroundings has grown into marked and distinguishing traits and peculiarities. Hence the capabilities and hopefulness, even in a missionary ]>oint of view, of different peoples greatly vary. A striking illustration of this point is found in the American Indians, whose wild and reluctaut nature renders them unapt pupils in the school of Christianity and civilization. Large tracts of Africa are peopled by degraded savage tribes, so dwarfed, physically and mentally, and perhaps morally, that it is a question with learned and thoughtful Christian men whether, as tribes, they can be reclaimed.

84 India as a Mission Field. [January,

Viewed from this stand-point of thought, India, in regard to its inhabitants also, is a land of promise. Here we find a teeming population of one hundred and eighty millions, nearly one seventh of the entire human race, crowded into this broad arable peninsula, and distinctly shut off by mountain and sea from the rest of the world, and as one great people associated in a grand common theater of action. The population of India consists of the remains of aboriginal tribes, of Hindoos, who are settlers of a later date, and of Mahommedans, who are either the descendants of the original Moslem invaders or converts from Hindooism. The aboriginal tribes seem to be of Scythian origin, and some of them bear relationship to the Lapps and Finns of Northern Europe. They are generally docile, and are proving hopeful to missionary effort. About one tenth of the population of India is Mohammedan, and much of this relative- ly small portion is but little removed from Hindooism. Thus Hindoos form the large body of the population. The infusion of Saracenic blood doubtless has tended to give energy and en- thusiasm to the too apathetic Hindoo. AVe speak more at length of the Hindoo population, because it is the predomi- nant, the really national population of the country. As before remarked, a large part of what is counted as Mohammedan population is substantially Hindoo.

The race that now really rules the world and bids fair to gain much greater supremacy is the European or Caucasian. To this race the Hindoos belong. Aryan is another name for this great family, the original seat of which was Central Asia, from which, at a period of high antiquity, two lead- in «• streams of emigration flowed out : one to the "West, which seems to have divided, one branch flowing through Southern, the other through Northern Europe : the other great Aryan stream flowing southward, has given to India its Hindoo population. There is reason to believe that before the time of David and Solomon the Hindoos had firmly established themselves in Northern India, and were an energetic, intel- lectual people. The great branch that had flowed westward met, in after ages, with the mighty leaven of Christianity ; and after more than thirty centuries these great streams of the ancient Aryan race have mingled, by a singular and perhaps significant providence, on the plains of Hindostan, the one

1SC0.] India as a Mission Field. 35

bringing the precious life-giving lessons of the Sacred Scripture to supplant the subtle and profound philosophy and wisdom of the other, by which it has so long failed to know God.

But this historical allusion has grown almost to a digression. We wish particularly here to call attention to the mental, relig- ious, and social substratum that underlies the character of the present Hindoo race, indicative of its capability and hopeful- ness in an evangelistic point of view. Simultaneously with their settlement in India the Hindoos seem to have begun to develop into a wonderfully intellectual people. Probably they brought some of their earliest religious writings *with them, as the hymns of the Rig Veda. But it seems cer- tain that, after their invasion of Northwestern India, the Hindoo philosophers began their labored and profound spec- ulations. When their brethren who had pushed far to the west were wandering, warlike savages, in the forests of ancient Europe, they were dealing in really masterly speculations, and were discoursing profoundly on philosophical and the- ological questions that only a highly-cultivated mind could suggest ; some of which, with no greater success, have engaged the attention of enlightened Europe in recent times. Their speculations on the origin and history of the universe of matter, the mode of the Divine existence, the origin aud destiny of the human spirit, reveal the subtle and profound intellectualism of the Hindoo people in that early age. In illustration of this statement, we have the singular fact that the genesis of the mate- rial universe, as presented in the modern nebular hypothesis, in nearly all its transitions is substantially the same as that thought out and expounded by Hindoo thinkers centuries be- fore Greece had a philosopher. It should not be very nattering ' to the refined pantheists and idealists of the enlightened West, to know that they are but treading with feeble steps where oriental giants walked perhaps thirty centuries ago. The limits of this article do not allow an elucidation of the fact that India has been one of the early centers of the world's intellect. These early grapplings of mind with profound questions of nature and existence grew in time into a voluminous litera- ture, which, unlocked by the study of Sanscrit, has in more recent times become the wonder of Europe.

Now this early intellectual superiority of the Hindoo race

36 India as a Mission Field. [January,

undoubtedly remains as a substratum among the Hindoos of modern India. Circumstances in more recent ages have not been so favorable for its manifestation ; but intercourse with the people, especially as an educator, discovers clearly that modern Hindoos are the lineal descendants of those ancient sages. One is surprised at the precocity of boys whose oppor- tunities have been limited. India is capable of yet becoming the intellectual teacher of Asia.

There is a remarkable religious substratum underlying the character of this people. Most of the ancient systems of phil- osophy revolved chiefly about the material universe, or man himself. Anaximander, a representative of the Ionic school, set aside the notion of God as useless in an explanation of the universe. Confucius said that filial piety is the root of all the virtues. But one is struck with the exhaustive speculations and teachings of Hindoo philosophy touching the Divine Being. As the beginning of all things he is the eternal Brahm — the infinite pure unity ; and again all things are resolved into God, so that he is literally " all and in all." To ignore the idea of self completely, and become wrapped and lost in the contem- plation of Deity, is the highest piety. This abnormal religious tendency has made India far more populous of gods than Athens of old, and has sent forth to lives of extremest asceticism tens of thousands who profess to think hourly and momenta- rily of God alone. It has laden the Hindoos with a multifarious burden of religious rites and ceremonies, which neither they nor their fathers have ever been able to bear. Had the Apostle passed through the cities of Hindostan, more than once he would have had occasion to remark : " I perceive that in all thing8 ye are too superstitious'''' — (deioidai^ovearegovg — wor- shipers of gods.) With the Greek, patriotism was the ruling motive; with the Boinan, law ; but with the Hindoo, it was religion. This theocentric tendency of the Hindoo mind is still present as a substratum, and perhaps, when thoroughly reached by the Divine light and leaven of the Gospel, India may present to the world its brightest example of a " people whose God is the Lord." The thoughtful missionary finds one of the most hopeful sources of encouragement for the future of this land here.

There is a social substratum anions: the condition of the

IS09J India as a Mission Field. 37

Hindoos which, baneful as it has been, as developed in the very ancient caste system of the country, nevertheless has in it ele- ments of future prosperity. Where there is no uniting mech- anism in society, no unification and subordination, there can be no large and powerful growth of a common people. There need not be homogeneousness of all parts of society, but there must be union, subordination. Wandering predatory tribes, with every advantage of climate and material resource, never grow in civilization and develop into a State. The law and so- cial order of Borne, infused into the lawless semi-civilized hordes of Europe, laid the foundation of its present greatness. The spirit and legislation of the Koran united the independent ma- rauding tribes of Arabia, and they grew into a power that shook the world for centuries. The absence of an}' uniting principle or organism has left the vast and fertile continent of Africa, with its teeming millions, an undeveloped waste to the present day. But from the remotest antiquity the Ilindoos seem to have been united in a common social organization of the strict- est discipline and subordination. Priest, and warrior, and mer- chant, and manual laborer, have all acknowledged their places, fro that for ages the mechanism of the great social clock moved harmoniously. All classes have accepted their places as of Divine allotment. A too great rigidity has precluded growth beyond a certain point, most certainly ; but the ideas of or- ganic compact and division of labor, and of due subordination in the " social fabric," acquired and ingrained by a growth of (x-nturies, are invaluable to the future development of this people. National characteristics like these are not the growth of a day.

i>uch, then, is the intellectual, religious, and social ground- work of the leading race of India. Here is something encour- aging on which to build. Keligion, intelligence, and proper •ocial habits and tendencies in regard to dependence and sub- ordination are the three fundamental elements of true national greatness and prosperity. It may be safely affirmed that in the history of modern evangelical efforts the Gospel has not been carried to a nation or people who promise so much for the future. From a careful study of antiquity it appears that India was the fertile center from which philoso- phy, science, religion, and ancient civilization spread into the surrounding nations. Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, logic,

Nkw Sbeies. Vol. XXI.— 3

38 India as a Mission Field. [January,

and other sciences, with various philosophical systems, can be traced in their earliest development to India. In after ages Bhe fell into a moral and mental apathy all the more remark- able from her former religious and intellectual activity. But now we behold the sublime spectacle of this ancient Aryan race, from the confluence of a kindred stream that waudered away to the Occident ages ago, awaking to new life with an energy and rapidity that betoken a glorious future. It is a marked providence of God that has given this great people to the tuition of enlightened Protestant England. France and Portugal were before in occupancy.

The largest missionary force in any foreign field has been gathered into this wide harvest, all ready for the laborer. Over six hundred European and American missionaries are distributed through the country from the Punjaub to Ceylon.

Having thus glanced at some of the advantages of country and people, rendering this a peculiarly promising field, atten- tion is asked to what may be called providential aids in the prosecution of the missionary enterprise in India. First note the presence of the British government. The jealousy of other nations have caused them, at times, to reflect on British rule, and the aggressions of British power in India. It would not be a human government that never committed a blunder or was chargeable with a fault. But any one thoroughly acquainted with the history and results of English rule in India can hardly fail to see that it has been an untold blessing and mercy to the land. Is it a small thing to rescue a mild, intelligent, reflective, and religiously inclined people from the heartless ravages of fanatical Moslem power, and give them stability, security, and justice? Is it a small thing to deliver a vast people, by the strong arm of law, from the cruel, crush- ing customs of their own religious folly — to quench fiame8 that consigned annually to an untimely and most shocking death hundreds of unoffending widows— to paralyze uncounted thousands of brutal arms, and save multitudes of wailing infants from an inhuman, barbarous death, unknown to the very beasts of the field i In a word, is it a small thing to take hold of a vnst country all in anarchy, and full of ignorance, lawlessness, and rapacity, and give it wholesome law, and order, and im- provement in art, and enlightenment in science? All this

38C9J India as a Mission Field. 39

British power and rule have done for India. But the point that we wish to present is, that the presence of this government affords to the people of India every facility and advantage that this enlightened age possesses for development in all that belongs to human well-being. By so much is it an aid to the missionary. Besides this, it gives security to the missionary in this work. No one acquainted with the spirit and practice of Islamism can doubt how missionaries and their work would fare in India were the segis of British power removed. Conti- guity to Europe, and the restraint of Christian governments, secure some toleration to evangelistic efforts throughout most Of the Turkish empire : but it would hardly be so in India under Moslem rule. Moreover, even the Hindoos, compar- atively mild, and free from violent bigotry as they seem, would present a different attitude in the absence of British dominion. Missionaries can readily see that they would be much restricted in their efforts, and often cut off from promising openings. Ik-sides all this, government gives liberal monetary aid in the maintenance of mission schools and medical missions. All this is direct aid to evangelistic work.

We mark another providential aid to the spread of Christi- anity in India in the independent educational effort of the government. To the enlightened Christian it must be grat- ifying and encouraging to know that Yictoria's government spends annually one million four hundred thousand dollars for the education of her Indian subjects, and that hundreds '•t thousands of boys and girls are receiving enlightened instruction; and that the dark cloud of superstition and idolatry is being lifted away by the mental light that comes Mealing through the darkness, softly as the approach of morn- ing twilight. Government is doing a noble work for the enlightenment of India. Calcutta can boast its University, which is no mere name. Connected with this, on a regular plan of education, are more than a score of colleges, scattered through all parts of India. Besides the University and its affiliated colleges, there are thousands of smaller schools of all grades throughout the land, the number of which is rapidly increasing. Education is conducted both in English and the vernacular, and is substantially that of the most approved European and American system. Intellectual education and

40 India as a Mission Field. [January,

enlightenment being the friend of Christianity, the English government is accomplishing an immense work for the final triumph of the Gospel in India. "Where in any other part of the world do we find such an aid extended to one hundred and thirty millions of non-Christian people ?

Another providential aid in the evangelization of India is found in the English language itself. This aid has special phases whicli are now to be brought under consideration. We do not indulge the speculation that the English language is to become the vernacular of India. There are many conclusive reasons why such a result is improbable. Nevertheless it is destined to exert a most powerful influence on the races of India in aid of civilization and Christianity. The English language, spoken and written, is now a settled fact in India. No human power can eradicate it. Were India, freed from the English, to continue henceforth forever isolated from the "West, the English linguistic element would remain a power in it, shaping and shading the mental and moral life of the people. Such is the extent to which it has already incor- porated itself in the language and literature of the country. We are dealing here with a subtle, puissant agent. No human mind can follow up and estimate the all-pervading, potent influence of the language and literature of Greece on the moral and mental life of conquering Rome, .and in turn, of conquered Rome on the moral and intellectual life of the con- quering hordes of the North. In both these striking illus- trations of this subject the influence was palpable and un- bounded, and still rolls on in an ever-widening wave. A lan- guage, with its literature, is not the growth of a day. Count- less social and political vicissitudes, with centuries of thinking and writing, wrought out the language and built up the liter- ature of classic Greece and Rome.

No less numerous have been the changes while the mental travail of many added centuries have been exhausted in making the English language and literature what they are at the present time. This power, with all its capability of shading and fash- ioning the life and destiny of the people, is present in India. It lias always been a question with the English government just how far to make an effort for the spread and establishment of English in the country. A desire on the part of the natives

I6C0-] India as a Mission Field. 41

to learn the language, and a growing conviction of its conven- ience and importance in the government and enlightenment of the people, have led to increased efforts to introduce English extensively throughout India. The education imparted in the University and numerous colleges of the country is chiefly in English. Much of the work of the government in various departments require more or less knowledge of English. This has established a demand for an acquaintance with it which is increasing. In illustration of the extent to which English is being studied, it may be stated, that in the Northwest Provinces alone, a division of one of the three British Pres- idencies, more than forty thousand pupils were studying En- glish in the schools and colleges in 1S67. It is true that the government, in its neutral policy, has excluded text-books of a directly religious character, but yet the book's studied rapidly undermine the faith of the natives. An incident among thousands illustrates this. A pupil entered Bareilly College a bigoted Hindoo, but at the end of two years, so much had English affected his mind, that he used, as he passed from the college, to spit with contempt on a sacred tree that stood near by. This effect must be much lightened where missionaries use, as they do, religious text-books. Suffice it to say on this point, that thousands of natives can speak and write English some- what readily, and intelligently read English books. Several native presses are issuing English papers, and printing books fur natives. Here there is a mighty influence present in India, the aid of which, in the cause of evangelization, must be great beyond calculation. The reader can dwell at leisure on the ramifications of this influence as it finds its way through translations of English books, and the intercourse of the student ol English with less favored relatives and associates. ^ The suggestion has some ground that the influence of English literature may not always be good. And it is to be regretted that already, in India, English deistical books are consulted by a ecrtain cla>>s of educated natives. Nevertheless, there is a greatly preponderating weight of influence brought to bear through the English language and literature in favor of Christianity, so that missionaries recognize here one of their most hopeful evangelizing aids.

Somewhat kindred to the help just presented is that of the

42 India as a Misswn Field. [January,

Indian vernacular languages themselves, in which the mission- ary finds providential facilities for imparting Christian truth to the native mind. We are dealing here with no mere fancy. Those who have gone with the Gospel of salvation to people of other tongues, and who have labored for the establishment of Christianity in their midst by translating the Word of God and building up a Christian literature, can testify to the formi- dable difficulties that are often to be overcome. It is a matter of special gratulation when a language is met which, by its affinities or capabilities, or both these, presents a convenient and expressive medium for the ready impartation of divine truth. Our China mission recently furnished an illustration of missionary perplexity from this source in a spirited discus- sion as to the most suitable word for the Divine Being, couch- ing the Christian conception. Sometimes the work of years must be undone, and sometimes years are required to build up a theological language for the people. "We can here only state the fact briefly, that the vernaculars of India are singularly adapted as media for the communication of every shade and form of religious thought and truth. Enriched from three of the most wonderful developments of human speech, they are expressive, flexible, and fertile for every possible pur- pose. They have drawn from the theological terminology of Arabic, the graceful phraseology of Persian, and from the profoundly metaphysical capabilities of Sanscrit. The language of no country on the globe has a combination of more felicitous factors. Words for the one God, trinity, regeneration, atonement, repentance, incarnation, hell, heaven, etc., are at hand for the use of the missionary. Great facility has been thus afforded for making the numerous versions of the Sacred Scripture and the hundreds of books and tracts that already are circulating in this country.

We have thus presented some of the points which constitute India pre-eminently the grandest and most hopeful foreign mission field now open to the evangelistic efforts of Christen- dom. We have glanced at the physical geography and natural history of India, which mark it as a great country. The ethnographic relations of the inhabitants, and their intel- lectual and religious characteristics, have been presented a^ a most hopeful basis for missionary effort, and as auguring the

1809.3 India as a Mission Field. 43

future greatness of this people. Some marked providential helps in the work of evangelism have been presented — as the presence of a powerful, enlightened, and liberal Christian government — its special efforts for the education of its heathen and non-Christian subjects — the spread of the English language and literature among the people, and the remarkable aptitude and availability of the vernacular languages and dialects of the country as media for the communication of the Gospel aud Christian truth. No other country presents such a favor- able combination of facilities for missionary work. "We may lift up our eyes and see a vast field " all white to harvest." A great door and effectual is wide open — we may hear the voice of not one, but millions, saying, " Come over and help us."

The success so far achieved clearly indicates that the opening here is a real one. All things seem now ready — the Holy Ghost no longer forbids; and "the fullness"' of these East- ern " Gentiles " seems ready to " come in." Figures will give a more lively appreciation of what has been done. Let it he home in mind that about a half century covers the period of free aud active missionary effort in India. Fourteen en- tire versions of the "Word of God have been made in various languages and dialects, and in whole or in part in twenty- five different languages and dialects. . In the last ten years alone upward of two million copies of the Sacred Scriptures, in whole or in part, have been distributed. Within the same period about one thousand distinct works, books, and tracts have been issued in the vernaculars, and a circulation of at least ten million copies of these has been effected. In the ii<-<'<'tnplishinent of this, thirty mission presses are at work, some of them very large. Already a Protestant native Church of but little short of two hundred and fifty thousand members has been raised up; and at the present ratio of increase the entire population of India would become Christian in something more than one century. This calculation does not include the Romanist missions, whose converts double those of Protestant missions, which, however, have entered the field much later. Bnch is the promising foundation laid for Christianity in India, the grandest country of Asia. We can hardly mistake her destiny. She is to the great oceans stretching south and east,

4Jt India as a Mission Field. [January,

and to the eastern countries whose shores are laved by them what Palestine was to the Mediterranean and the Levant. India has now extended through all her mighty frame electric machinery, political and evangelistic, which must very rapidly vitalize her myriad population with a better, nobler life. She seems destined, as from antiquity, still to lead the van of Asiatic countries. She has given to this vast continent science, philosophy, false religion, and idolatry: to her it may be reserved to give these countries the Gospel of the Son of God. This is a worthy field of conflict for the six hundred mission- aries engaged here to-day, who should be soon joined by twice 6ix hundred more. It would seem that the final great battle of idolatry, and perhaps of Mohammedanism, doctrinally, must be fought here. Politically this great people has been given to the Son ; and the time may not be distant when from the peninsula of Hindostan, radiant with the light of Him who "lighteneth every man that cometh into the world," and washed by the blood that flowed from Calvary, floods of light and truth will pour over all the populous East. A glance at a map of Asia will recall the peculiar position in the continent that India occupies. Russian swords are fast cutting a highway down to Cabul in the northwest ; while Great Britain, by an exploring expedition, is at this hour peacefully opening a highway in the northeast, up through Burinah, to the head waters of the great rivers of China. Soon the electric current will be established, and over these two highways Christianity and Christian civilization will be spreading north through the vast, populous area of Central Asia. The great weight of the world's population still lies in Asia. In pushing far to the West, Christianity fled to the wilder- ness, where, nurtured and developed into a mighty power, and divinely fitted to elevate and bless these countless millions, it moves back upon the East, "traveling in the greatness of its strength, and mighty to "save." In Persia, Tartary, India, Burmah, and China, the great body of the human race is massed. What a conquest there is for Cluis- tiauity yet to make ! but the key position is already securer in India.

i£Cft.l John Tauter and hu Theology. 45

Art. Ul.— JOHN TAULER AND. HIS THEOLOGY.

The statement of a modern writer * that " mysticism has no point of contact with the scientific- spirit of our times, but has a simple historic interest," ^ must be accepted with wide quali- fications. Rather, may it not have a direct and powerful influence on every age? since the principles from which it springs lie deeply planted in the human mind, and will unfold ind develop themselves just so surely as seeds will germinate and reproduce their kind whenever the proper conditions of growth are fulfilled.

Just as the same plants by neglect or unwise husbandry, by excess of heat or cold, may yield imperfect, gnarled, and acrid results, — or, again, by careful pruning, by skillful adjustment of light and shade and moisture, may gladden the heart of the toiler with a luxuriance of melting, luscious fruits — so may rny.-tieism, unrestrained, degenerate into the abominations of the Indian system, a deification of self, an indifference to the rights and wants of our fellows, and a destruction of all moral distinctions; or, regulated and controlled by reason, instructed by the Scriptures of divine truth, and sanctified by the Spirit, the soul may be led to God, the Center of all light, all knowl- edge, all blessing, only to be sent forth again, an angel of love and mercy, to minister to the great family of sorrow.

Of all moral darkness that has settled down upon the Chris- tum world, none was more dense than that experienced during t!.- thirteenth century. The historic student is compelled to trmvel no more arid waste. .

I lie Papacy, never more really sunken and despicable in itself, was never more arrogant in pretension. As has so fre- quently happened in her subsequent history, spiritual fulrai- nations supplied tho-lack of temporal power and personal worth. The deeper was the moral degradation, the loftier was the Papal claim. In Italy the implacable war between the rival factions, Guelph and Ghibcrline, had reached even to the chair of St. Peter's. The powerful family of Colonna, now numbering among its members two cardinals, was in open

° Koack, "Die Chriatlicho Mystik," 1853.

46 John Tauter and his Theology. [January

rebellion against Boniface VIII.* Rome being unsafe, Clem- ent V. had, in 1305, taken refuge under the shadow of the French throne at Avignon, thus placing St. Peter's keys in the hands of the French King. During the disgraceful struggle of John XXII. with Louis of Bavaria, by an edict of excom- munication thousands and tens of thousands of innocent people were deprived for many years of all means of grace. The clergy being absorbed in thoughts of temporal aggran- dizement, all concern for the spiritual welfare of the Church had well-nigh died out. " Nothing was left but the sanctuary of the human heart." f

Though the schoolmen reckoned among their number the most acute and powerful thinkers of both the great religions orders, (Dominican and Franciscan,) still in vain could the earnest, burdened soul betake itself for consolation to this ruling philosophy. In other centuries, and under the influence of a more generous system, great minds, as Origen and Bce- thius, had found at least a temporary satisfaction in ponderino- the momentous subjects of the Platonic speculation. But now almost the last spark of this divine philosophy . had been quenched by the cold, ban-en scholasticism every-wherc pre- vailing. The truly sharpened intellect was busy with dead logical formulas from which had been pressed all savin g truth. Soulless dialectics brought no food to the hungry mind. Its intellectual brilliancy was accompanied by no life-giving prin- ciple. Sin-burdened hearts especially found here no peace. Bather was. its splendor like that of northern icebergs, in whose presence dwells perpetual death.

The art of this period that still survives -is confirmatory of the written record, and tells of the same sad story of a world from which had been banished the tender, loving Saviour. The stiff, heartless Byzantine art had represented Christ with the relentless sternness of a judge ; even the face of the child Jesus wore more of a repulsive frown than a gracious invita- tion. Mary herself was now too severe for sympathy with

c Dante speaks of Eouiface, Inferno, xxvii, S5-S3 :

" The leader of the modern Pharisees, Having a war near unto the Lnteran, And not with Saracens nor with the Jews." — Longfellow's Trans.

f Bohringer, "Kirche Christi u. ihre Zeugen. Vol. i, p. 8.

] SCO.] John Tauter and his Theology. 47

human woes and weakness. The human mind must have K/nu mediator. Hence the frequent canonization of saints, urn! the reliance upon the intercessions of those who had truly fell human sorrows, aud would certainly be touched with the feeling of our infirmities. No wonder, then, that when Cima- bue 60 broke away from the stiffness and severity of this school as to throw over the face of his Madonna and child a my of sunshine and holy benevolence, the Florentines in joy- ful procession conducted the artist and his work to its future resting-place in San Maria Novella.

From this sketch the state of public morals could be easily foretold. The masses must not be expected to surpass their leaders. If Pope and Sacred College cherish the most infernal spirit of jealousy and ambition, we may not look for disinter- estedness in the inferior clergy. If lust and debauch have done their sad work on orders devoted to chastity by most folemn vows, into what depths of impurity may not the com- mon people plunge ? If oaths, ratified under the most awful solemnities, vanished before temptation as flax before the flame, what guaranty for probity in every-day commercial life ? More than realized are our worst deductions. At this time Chris- tianity had little to do with ethics; it was not a power for daily restraint and guidance. The state of business morals was sad indeed ; usury, over-reaching, and all manner of dis- honesty being openly and shamelessly practiced. Even the clergy allowed all to be done for money.* Adultery was com- monly practiced; the assignation of children was frequent. In' fine, it was an age of cruelty, lust, slavery, and wrong of every kind. Oppression stalked abroad unchecked, manners vera harsh, language gross. " Might made right;" chastity ami innocence could scarcely find a home even in the cloister. Specially in the Rhine country and along the Elbe was the e-odnl condition terribly deplorable. Commerce upon these rivers was constantly interrupted by bands of lawless men, urged on by necessity or sheer love of booty. In the absence «'f legal restraint and protection industry languished ; faith in man was well-nigh extinct ; society seemed hastening to speedy dissolution. As is ever the case in an absence of genuine piety, afflictions drove men to terrible excesses; natural affections

• Soo "Nicholas von Basel,'' in Gic.-ebreclit's " Damans" for 1SG5, p. 194.

"48 John, Tauler and his Theology. [January,

died ; love and sympathy were supplanted by the most intense and heartless selfishness. " In many hundred years there has not been such need that the people should hear the truth from the lips of the Preacher." * " The universal love is quenched in every quarter of the globe."

"We have already remarked that the germs of peculiar forms of political and religious life ever lie hidden in the soil of society, and that they only await favorable influences to develop into a harvest of blessing or of woe. The foregoing sketch will reveal the influences at work, during the thirteenth and four- teenth centuries, that awakened to a more powerful life than ever before the tendencies to mysticism ever lying latent in the human mind.

The mysticism then developed may be regarded as a power- ful protest chiefly against the terrible corruptions of the Pornish Church, and the cold, barren speculations of scholasticism. The wide-reaching distractions in the State — the dissolution of social relations, caused partially by the terrible natural phe- nomena of earthquakes, famine, and pestilence, so far spread- ing in this period — the unbridled passions of Pope and Prel- ates— the decay of purity of life in the cloisters — all tended to drive thinking men who were longing for a better life, to seek direct communion with God — to obtain a vision of the Almighty, immediate, undimmed by any interposing vail of form or sym- bol, unchanged by any distorting medium, f

Remarks the pious Spener : " God's grace is abundantly ■manifested in the fact, that in every time of deepest gloom in human history a few have been found in whose hearts truth has found a home, and who have been stout witnesses of this truth to others." X These few have ever been the conserva- tors of truth ; and no more true is it that God, for the ten's sake, would have spared the cities of the plain, than that the prayers and faith and labors of the faithful few in every subse- quent age have been the " salt," saving the world from utter putridity. Such a man was John Tauler, the profound phil- osophical mystic — the bold, earnest, practical preacher, the warm-hearted philanthropist and friend.

He was probably born at Strasburg in 1290. § Of honor-

* " Nicholas von Basel,'' p. 179. f Schmidt, " Johan. Tauler, von Strasburg," p. 90. X Preface to Tauler's Works. § Authorities greatly difl'er as to time and place.

iSOO.] John Tauter and his Theology. 49

able family, he was early devoted to the priestly office, con- necting himself with the Dominican order. Soon after we find him studying theology in Paris, where were teaching wrnie of the most eminent schoolmen of the age. The popu- lar philosophy seems to have had little attraction for young Tuulcr ; for his attention was rather directed to the mystical and speculative writers of the Church, such as Pseudo-Diony- fius, the Victors, St. Bernard, and before all others, to Augus- tine. Strasburg had long been a center of mystical thought. On his return from Paris Tauler was powerfully influenced by the celebrated Master Eckart, Nicholas of Strasburg, and ether earnest thinkers and practical workers, who seem to have made Strasburg the center of their consultation and etfurt. Among the many societies that were called into being by the interdict of John XXII., and by the consequent forsak- ing of the churches and people by the clergy, was the " Friends of God.1' This society was composed of persons from all classes of society, and from all the religious orders, bound together for purposes of religious edification and for keeping alive the truth in the community. It extended throughout *nd even beyond the Rhine country, and included among its members some of the most deeply religious men of this cen- tury, nearly all of whom were of a strongly mystical tendency. With this society Tauler connected himself, and in it labored all his life. He soon began to arrest attention by the vigor and eloquence of his sermons at Strasburg, Basel, and Cologne. Delivered mostly in the German language, the character of bis discourses charmed the common mind. While Master bckartwas wondered at as a prodigy, and venerated by a people unable to comprehend the subtleties of his speculations, or tii wander into the region of obscure twilight where he delighted to linger, Tauler's sermons came home to the popu- lar andereUnding, and touched the popular heart. The admiring crowds found in him a real shepherd of souls, who led them from the dreary, arid wastes into green pastures and beside the still waters. Few men had had the boldness to protect against the ruling fashion of thought, fewer still had •neceeded in finding that true, abiding peace which man's »ul k> much covets. Even Tauler himself, up to this time, ■•ems to have preached to the people truths which he him-

50 John Tauler and his Theology. [January,

Belf embraced with the intellect rather than experienced in the heart.

In 1346, when his fame as a preacher had become wide- reaching, and when he had already aroused the jealousy and hatred of the Church authorities by the plainness of his charges and the severity of his rebukes, occurred a visit that was des- tined to play a most important part in Tauler's future history.

Nicholas of Basel had heard of the fame of the great Stras- burg preacher. That Nicholas had heard Tauler's sermons on occasion of the latter's visit to Easel is not certain ; certain it is, however, that the substance of these discourses had been reported to him. In the fourteenth century, to make a journey on foot from Basel to Strasburg to hear a preacher must have been regarded as no small evidence of interest and devotion. To Strasburg came this pilgrim to find the truth. It would seem that this Nicholas was one of those few, chosen men among the laity whom God blesses with a humble mind, with a clear revelation of the plan of salvation, and honors as the instrumentality of leading others to the fountains of living waters. Belonging to the heretical sect of the Waldenses, he also stood at the head of the society of the " Friends of God " in Basel. Gifted, it would seem, with rare practical sense. with a keen insight into the springs of human conduct, and, more than all, blessed with a quickened spiritual instinct to distinguish between the spurious and genuine in religious teaching and experience, this layman took his place in the congregation at Strasburg, to be fed by the manna that God would give the people by the hands of the preacher whoso fame had spread so far and wide. After listening to Tauler five times, Nicholas's judgment of the preacher is remarkable, namely, that he was a sweet-tempered, kind-hearted, excellent man, powerful in the Scriptures, but ignorant of the light of grace in the soul. After enunciating in a carefully-prepared discourse twenty-four characteristics of a truly divine life in the soul, and preaching yet again on a perfect life, he is plainly told by this layman, (who in the mean time had made Tauler his confessor,) that although a great priest, his preaching amounted to absolutely nothing, because the preacher did not practice his own precepts ; that God can teach the soul more of truth in one hour than this learned priest, should he preach

J SCO.] John Tauter and his Theology. 51

until the judgment day. His doctrines were scriptural ; but how could truth flow through such muddy and impure chan- nels nnd not itself become contaminated. Nicholas declares Tauler a perfect Pharisee, laying grievous burdens upon men's shoulders, while he would, not touch one with his fingers ; he charges him with seeking the honors of men more than the glory of God ; he declares that Tauler is yet in the darkness of his sins, as is manifest from the few who are iurned from wickedness to God. With a humility almost unheard-of in that age of ecclesiastical superiority and assumption, the con- fessor desires to become the pupil. Nicholas then relates to Tauler some of his own experience ; he speaks of the mistakes he had committed in his own efforts to come to God ; what tortures he had endured to make himself humble and accept- able in God's sight. A voice told him this was all of the devil, for God alone could teach him. Then the reason was u*ed to find God. This, too, was a grand error and a sin ; for, "Had we such a God as our reason could grasp and com- prehend, I would not give a fig for him." Tauler's sense of ecclesiastical dignity was still a stumbling-block in the way of his conversion, and he plainly confesses to Nicholas : u It greatly troubles me that you are only a layman, while I am a noted master of the Scriptures, and yet you are my teacher." Nicholas refers to instances in the history of the Church where holy men and women bad been taught by the Spirit through children as an instrumentality, "and why may not this same Spirit use me as your teacher?" The study of the love of « brut in the agonies he had endured for our salvation, consti- tuted the substance of the discipline that Tauler was to prac- tice. Keen and penetrating were the pangs he felt in view of Christ's love. The awful depths of depravity of a man who had professed to be a leader of the people, a shepherd of God's flock, a teacher of purity, were discovered in all their ugliness and hatcfuluess to God. His whole nature was stirred^ unut- teruble agonies were suffered. To add to his sorrows, his fel- low-monks made him the object of special taunt and ridicule. 1 beif la/.y souls could not comprehend the terrible earnestness «'f their comrade. In the absence of a teacher to tell him of the simplicity of faith, this great man struggled on in his cell for two long years, searching for God in the deep darkness of

52 John Tauter and his Theology. [January,

his own depravity, yet resolved to find him or perish in the attempt. Finally, after suffering sorest trials even from his friends, being reduced to the merest skeleton by long-contin- ued fasting and sickness, on the night of St.-Panl's, (January 25,) as he tells us, he was visited by the sorest temptation yet experienced. But while sitting in his cell, suddenly recur- red to him the thought how much Christ Jesus had suffered for him, and how light his own trials in comparison with those of his suffering Lord. A prayer for mercy followed; then came an answering voice, speaking peace and pardon ; a new power streamed through every avenue of his soul ; a new light was cast upon his pathway ; trust, and calm, and joy were his. His friend Nicholas tells him he is now first truly converted ; now is he truly enlightened ; now can he begin to preach and instruct the people, since he himself has been instructed by the Holy Ghost. Now will a hundred-fold more good be done by every single sermon, since the truth, before theoretically cor- rect, will flow through pure channels, and be listened to a hundred-fold more gladly by the people.

We have dwelt upon this event thus long because it was a great epoch in the life of Tauler. To this visit of Nicholas may, indeed, partially be attributed the rescue of Tauler from the vortex of speculation, and his salvation from the gross excesses into which many of the mystical thinkers of his own and subsequent times so unhappily plunged.

After a disgraceful failure in an attempt to preach, and a still further discipline of soul, the man comes forth clad in the power of the Holy Ghost. His first sermon after his conver- sion (from Matt, xxv, 6) is no less remarkable for the truths it enunciated than the results that followed it. The subject of the discourse is a " community of suffering with Christ, and a perfect oneness of will with the will of Christ." " God," says he, "will suffer his Church to remain in the furnace of affliction until all sin is purged away. Then will God unite tins Bride to the Bridegroom in everlasting bonds, and the Holy Spirit will so fill the Bride with love that she will for- get and lose herself in the will of the Bridegroom." During the progress of the discourse a man cries out, " It is true ! It is true I " and falls down as dead. Numbers are slain by the power of the truth, a dozen lying like dead men upon the

ISoDj John Tauter and his Theology. 53

floor of tbe church, or having been borne away by their friends. He is besought to discontinue his sermon lest the ixople die. .The reader of this history is reminded of Wesley alter Ids instructions from the Moravians ; of Chalmers, when his congregation was impressed with the vast change that had passed over the man in his conversion ; and of those marvelous j na infestations of power that accompanied the utterances of many of the early Methodist itinerants.

Still Tauler remained true to the Church. The Waldenses, with whom he had much intercourse through Nicholas von Basel and others, outwardly did the same, in order to save themselves from persecution. It would not, perhaps, be justifi- able to conclude that Tauler actually belonged to this sect, yet certain it is, however, that they exerted upon him a most marked influence. It is not a little remarkable, that in this way the Waldenses themselves found opportunity to work so powerfully upon the most noted doctors of the Church, espe- i sally the Dominicans, whose business it was to combat heresy.*

The stanch adherence of the citizens of Strasburg to the cuusc of Louis of Bavaria had iuvolved them especially in the consequences of the Bull of Excommunication issued by John XXII. in 1324. By this interdict the churches were closed, tliu clergy were forbidden to celebrate masses, the dying were denied the consolations of religion, and the dead refused the rites of Christian burial. The ban was continued by Clement VM wince the stubborn Strasburgers would not recognize his krorite Charles V., though this prince visited their city in prnon. To add to the horrors that Strasburg had previously tattered, in 134S there appeared in the city the " black death," » pestilence that had already raged for a whole year in other K-ctioiiiJ of Germany. This terrible scourge is estimated to bare swept away twenty-five millions of the population of Kurope.f Strasburg alone furnished sixteen thousand vic- tims. By this plague untold woes were multiplied upon society. 11>o ehock of mind during its prevalence was beyond all pre- cedent or belief. Citizen fled from citizen, neighbor from i" igkbor. At last (so far had terror stifled all feeling) brother G :>ook brother, sister sister, the wife her husband, the parent

0 Schmidt, pp. 36, 37.

\ Hfcker, "Der Schwarze Tod " im 14ten Jahrhundert," p. 40.

Potters Series, Vol. XXI.— 4

54: John Tauter and his Theology. [January

his own children, and, leaving them unassisted and uncared for, betook himself to his own fate.*

Influenced by the edict, still more by fear, the priests for- sook their congregations, leaving them to die unshrived, or to fall victims to the fatal delusions that were every-where mul- tiplied. The course pursued by Tauler in the midst of these scenes was firm and uniform. For many years before his interview with Nicholas of Basel he had boldly set at naught the commands of the Pope, and had continued his ministra- tions to the people. After conversion his sense of the holy duties of the priesthood were too keen to allow of any com- promise. Associated with such men as Thomas of Strasburo-, and Ludolph from Saxony, (the former General Prior of the Dominicans at Strasburg, the latter Prior of the Carthusians.) he not only persisted in preaching in his native city, but extended his labors into the surrounding country and into the neighboring villages and cities. Not only by the continuance of their practical religious labors among the people did these men disregard the edicts of excommunication, but already, long before the appearance of the plague, in vigorous writings had they boldly denied the right of the Pope to refuse the benefits and consolations of religion to a multitude of ignorant and innocent people on account of a personal quarrel between him- self and the temporal princes. They assumed the position that Christ had died for all men, and that whosoever truly repented and believed on him should be saved ; against such a one, though he die excommunicate, had even the Pope no power to close the kingdom of heaven. f In such an age it was not to be hoped that such views would pass unnoticed. The writings were seized and burned ; the writers were expelled from the city. The cloisters over which Kudolph was Prior received the refugees. In this retreat nearly two years were passed in writing. At length, in 134S, on the occa- sion of the visit of Charles IV. to Strasburg, they were sum- moned before that ruler to give an account of the doctrines for which they had been expelled. It is probable that the people for whom Tauler had so tenderly cared, and who naturally cherished for him the warmest affection, were instrumental in bringing about this interview. Be this as it may, Charles is * Boccaccio, as quoted by Hecker, p. 63. \ ScJonidt, p. 52.

1S09.1 John Tauter and his Theology. . 55

constrained to declare his perfect agreement with the prin- ciples they had taught, and issued his request that these preach- ers' should not be further molested. Nevertheless, the assem- bled bishops condemned their teachings as heretical, and for- bade them, under pain of personal excommunication, to publish them further.* Thus shackled in his native city, Tauler betook himself to Cologne. Here the state of morals was scarcely better than in Strasburg. Life in the cloister, among both monks and nuns, was, if possible, even more scandalous. In spite of all anathemas and martyrdoms, the enthusiastic Beghards had greatly multiplied in Cologne. This sect of invstics, not always directed by sound judgment in their loaders, scarcely restrained by a healthy religious experience, bad, in connection with many benevolent and truly Christian ftets, too often pushed the doctrines of their order to their legit- imate results, and landed in the wildest fanaticism. Against the dangerous excesses of this sect, especially, did Tauler direct his efforts. But to his great honor be it said, during all the unwise attempts to suppress this and other heretical parties, M well as during the horrible cruelties visited upon the Jews during the prevalence of the pestilence, Tauler, though a Dominican, from which Order had come the fiercest inquisi- tors and the most heartless persecutors, had never by word or deed been implicated in these wrongs. His natural mildness of character— probably also his close connection with " The rrienda of God " — had taught him other and more liberal prin- ciple*. Thus, in this age of darkness do we find, in the sug- gestions of this clear thinker, this devoted Christian, germs of that doctrino of "liberty of conscience" which only a later and more genial period could unfold and mature. Tauler Could distinguish between strenuously opposing a principle and persecuting a sect.

Owing to lack of records a partial obscurity rests upon the few last years of Tauler's history. In 1361 we again find him in his native city, being slowly brought down to death by a painfully lingering disease of twenty weeks' continuance. during this sickness once more met the man and the master. Nicholas of Basle obeyed Tauler's summons, and hastened to nil sick-bed. To him who had been chiefly instrumental in

* Schmidt, p. 58.

56 John Tauter and his Theology. [January,

leading him to a higher life, Tauler now commits those writings which he wishes the world to see, yet it is done with the injunction of strictly withholding his own name. The motive is expressed in his own words : " You know well that the life, the words, and the works which God has spoken and wrought through me, a poor, unworthy, sinful man, are not mine, but those of the Almighty God, whose they will ever be."

He died June 16, 1361, and was buried in his cloister at Strasburg, being followed to his grave with true sorrow by multitudes of his own Order, and lamented by tens of thou- sands of the people to whom he had been so true a friend, so faithful a spiritual adviser.

It is now time to turn from the man to a more careful study of his teachings.* The limits of this article will confine us to a brief examination of the following topics :

I. His Theology — including the doctrine of God, the Trinity, and the creation.

II. His Anthropology — including the nature of man and *the doctrine of sin.

III. His Soteriology — or the mutual relation of God and man in the work of salvation.

IV. His Ethical System.

We have before said that Tauler had been largely influenced by the Platonic views of Augustine and the Pseudo-Dionysius, modified by the ascetic notions of St. Bernard. It was, how- ever, his teacher, Master Eckhart, that had exerted upon him the deepest immediate influence. This earnest, vigorous thinker, though deriving the substance of his system from ear- lier writers — especially Augustine, the Pseudo-Dionysius, and Thomas Aquinas — had, nevertheless, by his daring originality infused into these doctrines a new spirit, influencing the thought of his contemporaries, and laying the foundation for much of the bold speculation of the future. In judging of Eckhart's and Tauler's systems, however, we must not forget that they labored more as promulgators of Christian truth than as mere servants of the Church ; that they regarded the Christian people more than the schools / that in their scientific discussions they

*Dr. Carl Schmidt — "Johannes Taulor von Strasburg" part iii — has given a fair summary of Tauler's System. To this are we much iudobted.

]s.»*»<0 John Tauler and his Theology. 57

bad respect chiefly to their adaptation to awaken and quicken the tuornl consciousness. \

I. a. Tauler, in common with his masters, makes the idea of Substance the point of departure in his entire theological and rjluVal system. Substance is that from which all names, jY.rni*, modes, and relations have been abstracted. It is the ahi-tracted predicate, the uncreated, simple, modeless unity, which no created intelligence, whether man or angel, can com- j.rvhend. There is but one Substance, or Essence, and this is God. lie is the purest Substance, in which all manifoldness unites, all distinction is lost. He is, therefore, above all form ..f expression, above all names, (since names only express God's hnmunly-conceived relations;) he is all that which man cannot represent in conception, in word, or in picture ; he is, in one *vrd, the pnre, uncreated, Nothing. God, so far as expression i# concerned, is a Nothing — a ISTot-God, a ISTot-Spirit, a Not-Per- *>nality, a Not-Image — and yet, as the "Negation of all nega- tions," he is at once the illimitable Self-Existence, the Possi- bility, in which the All becomes not One, but absolute Oneness. Tauler calls him the " Divine Darkness," which is at the same Uv.n) the "Essential Light."

I: While Tauler represents the Trinity as a profound mystery ^ to be received by faith alone, he is, nevertheless, often found attempting to explain the relations of the Persons of the God-

The Godhead, as such, is inactive, is unrevealed. But he will Dot and cannot so remain ; it is in his nature to reveal himself, to communicate himself, to work. But this work is r*t>u»jii^ more than a begetting, a generation; and in so far as ha that vrork?, is he called the Father. The Father, then, return* into himself, and with his understanding apprehends and recognizes himself. This apprehension he expresses with » word ; this Word, this Logos, is the Son ; and this utterance, this expre^ion of himself, constitutes the eternal begetting of the Sou. In the Sou the Father recognizes his own likeness ; »» this [mage he loves himself. So also the Son loves the lather, in whom he discovers his own image; and this mu- UiaJ Delight which each finds in the other, this reciprocal Love, i* the Holy Ghost, which proceeds from the Father and the Son.

Bee, among other*, liis second sermon on Trinity, sermon eta Christmas.

58 John Tauler and his Theology. [January,

The Father, then, is the active, effective Omnipotent ; the Son is the Omniscience or the Eternal Wisdom ; the Holy Spirit is the Eternal Love.

Though Tauler sees in this view a difference of Persons in a unity of Nature or Substance, yet these personalities seem really to indicate different relations or modes of the Godhead, rather than difference of Person in the true, orthodox sense.

c. Tauler again and again insists that the world was made by God ; that God is absolutely independent of all creatures ; that these are only a semblance, an accident, a non-substance. Such is his characterization of these created things in opposition to the one, indivisible, real Essence.

Expressions in his writings in regard to the creation and the nature of the created seem perfectly to agree with the ideas of God before enunciated. The created can exist only in so far as it is in God and God is in it, and works in it. Creatures, therefore, have good in themselves, but are nothing ; what of good is in them is God ; and so is God in all things, and yet at the same time, highly exalted above all. What, therefore, in the creature is not good, what is finite, created, (that is, what constitutes it a creature,) is absolutely nothing, has no reality ; so that in the last instance God alone remains : all out of him vanishes.*

II. a. The nature of man is twofold, an inner and an outer man, soul and body. This nature is a sort of mean between two extremes, time and eternity. The inner man pertains to eternity and aspires Godward ; the outer man belongs to time and tends toward the finite. The soul, the inner man, has originated in the very essence and ground of the Godhead ; it was eternally in God in its uncreatedness, a real substance with him. It was, and is, everlastingly with God, not as an idea, hut actually and truly, in just so far as it is spirit. Therefore it is that Tauler regards the soul just as incapable of definition, just as destitute of modes, as Gud himself; here, also, names express relations, not the reality. Yet Tauler, in common with others, must use a term to express this essence of the soul. He calls it the " inmost spark," etc. Then, in common with Au- gustine and others, regarding this "center of the soul" as an image of the Trinity, manifesting itself in the threefold manner * Schmidt, page 93.

1SC9J John Tauler and his Theology. 59

of the memory, which connects with hope ; the understanding n*>ociated with faith ; and the free-will, whose final goal is love lie, with others who build upon Plotinus,* places over all the 44 gynteresis " the faculty or power of immediate knowledge and reception of God.

b. His doctrine of sin is an immediate sequence of his an thro- pology. We find his opinions most freely and fully stated in his " Imitation," etc. The possibility of sin Tauler finds in the duality of man's nature ; the cause of sin in man's free will ; the essence of sin itself in forsaking God and turning to created things in order to seek in them satisfaction for self-love and sen- suous desires. Or, to adhere to his own language, " Sin is even this, that man forgets the nothing which he is in God, and will ho something in himself, will endow himself with qualities. In the first man the two parts of the nature were in harmony, the lower was subject to the higher, and hence the goal of the resultant action was God alone. But by the power of free choice man turned toward the outer, the sensuous, and fell, Miice the original harmony of his nature was thereby destroyed. Thus through Adam's fall is original righteousness lost ; there- utter was the race filled with evil inclinations and tendencies. But it has not been radically changed; is not essentially ra- ined." His view of the nature of man would not permit him to regard the soul, in its essence, as contaminated by the fall ; it must ever remain, in its inmost substance, as pure as at the beginning. ^ Adam has simply transmitted to the race an incli- nation to sin ; but as with Adam so with every man, real sin c^m* not from necessity but from free choice. Just herein connate the difference between inherited and actual sin— the former h only an inclination, the latter is a deliberate choice. } it, »uioe through Adam's transgression the inclination to evil U transmitted to the entire race, all are in so far sinners, and Would be lost but for the gracious aid that God vouchsafes.

IIL Ihc return of man from this severance, from this mani- ioldnesa, to union, to oneness, to peace, and to God, is the great burden of Taulcr's preaching and writing. He says, " The Whole creation of God lias no other object or end than to call Uek the boul of man to hi. Maker, to heal the breach that sin IIM made." Hence he still finds in all souls a longing after

* to fvtftS olov kLvtoov. Enuoad, VI, 9, 10.

60 John Tauler and his Theology. Uanrr;:rr,

God. The heathen world is a standing proof of this. But so long as the race is unassisted, and seeks after God by its own nnaided powers, so long will it fail to find him. Man may, and does, while unassisted, come to the knowledge that God is\ (the very feeling after him implies this,) but he must ever fail to discover what he is. This will be revealed only to the man enlightened by grace. Tauler never despises the reason ; in- deed, no writer more exalts its powers and capabilities; but he would turn it from seeking God by its own unaided powers in merely outward things into the innermost spirit of the man, where the Divine is nearer to the soul than its very self. Here alone can God be found in his essential nature. Since the man by his nnaided powers cannot return to God, God must work in him ; indeed, all is truly his work. This direct and imme- diate working of God upon the human soul Tauler calls orace. The man, it is true, cannot of himself do any thing acceptable ; nevertheless there belongs to him a work, namely, a rising up to meet God in his approach to save him. If the man does this, if his will responds to God's invitation, so comes savins grace to such a man. On the part of the sinner nothing more is demanded than a readiness to receive God. Tauler uniformly teaches that the revelation of this saving grace is through Christ; the made of return to union with God is by imitating Christ, by following Him who is the way, since he is one with God. Thus it will be seen that Tauler is somewhat widely re- moved from the rigid Augustinianism that for the most part ruled in his Order.

IV. In Tauler's system ethics hold the first rank in impor- tance. His mysticism being by far more practical than specu- ' lative, the duties of man to God and to his fellow are, 'discoursed upon on nearly every page of his works. " By -combinino- the teachings of Paul and Augustine with the neo-Platonic ele- ments of the pseudo-Areopagite, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas, had Master Kckhart already laid in his doctrine of God a deeper foundation for Christian ethics."* x .

Tauler agrees with Eckhart in developing his entire ethicaj

system from the stand-point of pure love. Only from the nnioh

of the soul with God in love can originate virtuous action.

While he divides virtues int.; three classes, namely, 1, Natural,

* Ubcrweg, •• Geaehichto dcr Philosophies part ii, p. 207.

18G9.3 John Tauter and his Theology. 61

as meekness, tenderness, mercy ; 2, Moral, as wisdom, justice, and emperance ; 3, Supernatural, as faith, hope, and love ; the foundation principle of his ethics is, nevertheless, the unity of all virtu-e, that is, that all virtues are only different outgrowths or manifestations of one common, central, indivisible, energizing principle, an unselfish, holy love. Virtuous action has no ref- erence to ends to be secured. Happiness, the kingdom of heaven, eternal life, are not justifiable ends of a moral purpose. Work for the work's sake ; love for the sake of loving ; and if there were no heaven, no hell, love God for his own sake. Virtue is a condition. Morality consists not in action, but is a state of the soul. The work does not sanctify us, we sanctify the work.

From principles such as these can be readily inferred what would be his views of a Christian life. Herein, especially, ap- pears the grand superiority of Tauler's system to the fanaticism of some of the mystical sects of his own time, as well as the dangerous, perplexing casuistry of Scholasticism. To him were equally offensive the lazy retirement of orders into cell and cloister, the self-inflicted torture of the ascetic, and the arrogant pretensions of the " Brethren of the Free Spirit." To each and nil would this sturdy worker say : " If you wish to come into union with God, or if you are already divine, (as you pretend,) prove it by imitating this Father in scattering blessings among the sorrowing, by healing the broken-hearted, and by instru- mentally bringing to life dead souls."

Conclusion.

^ 1. 'While the defenders of Master Eckhart, by pressing his distinction between the world of ideas and the world of created t&ingst have endeavored to save his system from the charges of Pantheism, Tauler, by declaring that all was absolutely in (iod in essencv, seems to have left no open door of escape. His speculative views of God, the creation, and the nature of man, when pressed legitimately to their last results, appear to land us in the blankest Pantheism.

2. But it must be remembered that his system was more practical than speculative. By repeatedly, asserting the real creation of all things by God — by his earnest appeals and exhortations to an active religious life, by his scathing rebukes

62 John Tauler and his Theology. [January,

of the hypocrisy and fanatical excesses of his times, and, most of all, by the deeply-grounded and eminently practical system of ethics that he developed, he largely prevented the evils that might otherwise have flowed from his speculations.

The perfect union in his mysticism of the practical and con- templative, its inner harmony and symmetry, which raised a front equally against the speculative and practically antino- miau Freethinking and Quietism of his time ; in one word, against all that would theoretically or practically blot out the consciousness of simple dependence on God,* gives to Tauler's system its immense importance, and entitles Tauler himself to the first place among the deep thinkers of his school.

3. He was one of the founders of a German theological and philosophical language, a language now developed into such rich results. His writings contain the seed-thoughts of future theories and systems. His zeal and earnestness did much to keep alive the flame of Christian truth in his own age. Great and grievous errors he undoubtedly made ; " but his faults were those of his age, his virtues were his own." " Even as there is sculptured upon his tombstone at Strasburg a figure, with finger pointing to a lamb, so would he thereby signify, that in all his doctrines he referred directly to the Lamb of God who taketh away the sin of the world." f u A heart that has laid Christ at the foundation of his hopes will find in Tauler such a light for improvement, for worship, for purity, for sanctification to God, for God's fear, for spiritual wisdom, that he will rejoice in the fruitful and precious results to his soul." } His stout and persistent protest against the Iiomish doctrine of works, against the utility of asceticism, and the efficiency of the confessional ; against the mediatorial charac- ter of any man, be he Bishop, Cardinal, or Pope ; and against the right of the Pope to interfere in the temporal affairs of government, made him the efficient forerunner of that great Reformation that was to follow two centuries later.

In any view, will a study of Tauler's writings richly repay the historic student who seeks the hidden springs and causes of subsequent revolutions in Church and State.

* Bohringer, " Die Kirche Christi u. ihre Zeugon," Tol. ii, p. 295. f Melanchthon. X Joha Aradi 1G2L

1SC9.] The Metropolis of the Pacific. 63

Art. IV.— THE METROPOLIS OF THE PACIFIC.

The city of San Francisco is situated on the bay of the same name, latitude 37° 41' north, and longitude 122° 30' west from Greenwich. The Golden Gate opens from the Pacific Ocean into the bay about seven miles northwest from the center of the business front of the city, which faces the east. The city, as it now lies, is built on a group of hills, the general slope of which is south and east. The Gate is one and one half miles ' in width at the narrowest point. There are three small islands in the bay, Angel's, Alcatraz, and Yerba Buena.. These islands, and the bold bluffs which guard the entrance of the bay, afford the completest natural means for defense.

The Bay of San Francisco was discovered in 1769 by Father Junipero Serra, a Franciscan missionary. "With several com- panions Serra left San Diego for the purpose of establishing a mission at Monterey ; but bearing too far eastward, they passed the point of destination, and at length the eye of the good father fell upon the waters of a beautiful bay. Until then no mission on the Pacific had been named after the patron saint of the order. The visidator, or superintendent of the missions, had baid : " If St. Francis wishes a mission let him show you a good port, and then it will bear his name." On the discovery of this magnificent harbor Serra said, " This, then, is the port to which the visidator referred, and to which the saint has led as, blessed be his name." The mission was planted in 1776, 6<>me twojniles from the embarcedaro, or landing, on a beauti- ful *lope"f land watered by several streams, and commauding a fine view of the bay and the range of hills beyond. The old church, built of adobe or unburned brick, is still standing, and now, as for nearly one hundred years, its bells call to matins ami vespers.

It is 6ome eight miles from the ocean beach to the shore of the bay on which the city fronts. The waters of the bay ex tend some forty miles south from the city, making a peninsula between it and the ocean ranging from eight to sixteen miles in breadth. This southern portion of the bay receives several streams, which drain a large area of country, mountains and valleys, the principal of which is the Gaudaloupe. Twenty

"64 The Metropolis of the Pacific. [January,

miles north of the city San Francisco connects with San Pablo Bay, and this, eight miles further north, with the Bay of Sui- eun. Together these bays make a splendid harbor, measuring 6ome eight miles in length by an average of ten wide, com- pletely land-locked, except the narrow entrance from the ocean, and affording anchorage and roadstead for the merchant and war marine of the world. The Bay of Suisun receives the waters of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers and their tributaries. These drain a district of country eight hundred by one hundred miles in extent — rugged, towering mountains, rich foothills, and fruitful valleys. These rivers are navigable for steamers of light draught an aggregate of some seven hun- dred miles. Besides these there are innumerable smaller streams and sloughs, into which vessels pass bearing passengers and merchandise, and return with the produce of the lands. The carrying trade of many millions of people may be done on these bays and rivers.

Our coast- line now extends to the Arctic Sea, with the slight exception of British Columbia, which will soon be ours by pur- chase or annexation, and which is commercially dependent upon San Francisco in any event — a distance of nearly two thousand miles. There are several harbors on this coast, but none of considerable capacity except Puget Sound ; and in no possible contingency can these serve any other purpose than to augment the commercial importance of San Francisco. On the southern coast are Monterey, Santa Barbara, San Pedro, San Diego, Guymas, Mazatlan, Manzanillo, Acapulco, Fonseca, San Juan del Sur, and Panama harbors, measuring a coast-line of three thousand miles ; ports of more or less capacity, connect- ing with a country of vast extent and fabulous wealth, whose immense products will yet be poured into the lap of the queen Bitting at the Golden Gate.

Westward, twelve days by steam connects us with the Ha- waiian Islands, at Honolulu ; eight more with the Empire of Japan, at Yokohama ; and six more with the Celestial Empire, at Hong Kong; and so steam communication with Australia, India, and Europe is completed, and the circuit of tho globe is made in eighty days sailing time. All these lines of communi- cation are now open, and magnificent steamships, sustained by adequate subsidies, and freighted with men and merchandise,

1 1 369J The Metropolis of the Pacific. 65

are making this circuit, thus marking an epoch in the commer- cial history of the world. All the year round the friendly •• trades," six months from the northwest, and six from the south- west, fill the sails of splendid clippers pointing to the Golden Gate as the passage to the city whose opulent mart will soon dictate the exchange of all nations.

Our climate, removed as we are from extremes of heat and cvld, is bracing, balmy, healthful. Ordinary sanitary police, with the breeze that brings health every day from the waters of the Pacific, will guarantee our population against the inva- sion and ravages of epidemic diseases. Substantially, this boon is the heritage of all the dwellers on the Pacific slope, an,d it will yet tempt multitudes here from other lands.

The territory depending upon and contributing to the growth of San Francisco as its chief commercial center is immense, within our own national domain measuring, in round numbers, scarcely less than two million square miles — more than all the Atlantic, Middle, and Western States, and capable of support- ing a population of five hundred millions. "Western Mexico, and Central and South America, are already ours; Polynesia, Australia, Japan, China, so soon as the continental railroad is completed, will concentrate their trade here. English, French, and other European merchants doing business with the East will find it for then- interest to transact it through San Fran- cisco. The most opulent cities of history have drawn their wealth from the Orient.

The resources and productive capabilities of our own and Other countries bordering on the Pacific are beyond all ability to estimate. The precious metals, deposits of gold and veins of silver, in the ranges of mountains extending from Panama to the Arctic Ocean, will not be exhausted in ages, though myriad hands, with aid of science and art, are employed in extracting them. Cinnebar, copper, tin, are found in abundance. Coal veins are opened in British Columbia, Washington Territory, and California already, and scientific tests warrant the belief that the supply will be found adequate to the demands of our rapidly-increasing population. The forests of the Sierra and Coast Ranges of Mountains, particularly in Northern California, Oregon, and Washington Territory, are vast, and will become a source of industry and wealth, more particularly as they

66 The Metropolis of the Pacific. [January,

abound in varieties of timber suitable for ship-building. Meas- ures are now under consideration that promise to transfer the building of our merchant marine from the North Atlantic to the North Pacific. The furs of the North Pacific coast are renowned the world over, and the supply will increase with the growing demand. The North Sea and the rivers adjacent abound with the best varieties of fish known to the markets of the world. Our whalers return from the Otchkotch every sea- son freighted with treasures drawn from her waters. All fruits known in tropical and semi-tropical regions are produced, in finest qualities, in our valleys and on our hill-sides, and every month in the year are found in our market, fresh from the orchard and the garden. California had in 1S66 fifteen million four hundred thousand and seventy-seven vines in vineyard, and probably that number has been more than doubled since. All the solid grains, as corn, wheat, barley, oats, with proper culture are grown in great abundance, the average yield per acre being more than double that of the best grain-producing sections of the Atlantic. Silk, cotton, hemp, flax, are already among the staples of this coast. Granted an adequate popula- tion, intelligent, enterprising, led by men of broad views and generous plans, and tke-«developed resources of the Pacific slope will amaze the world. This population, these men, are here and are coining. Two lines of steamships are running be- tween San Francisco and New York, connecting with other lines to Europe. The continental railroad approaches comple- tion ; the north Pacific railroad, from St. Paul's, Minnesota, to Puget Sound, and a southern line from San Francisco to Galveston, Texas, or some more eligible terminus, will soon be constructed, with numerous branches and cross lines ; and all these lines of communication will so facilitate and cheapen travel and the cost of transportation as to secure the advent of multitudes from other states and other lands to our golden Bhore, to share our opportunities and participate in the grandeur of our destiny. Cities and towns will spring up over all this side of the continent; the hand of intelligent industry will be laid upon our productive soil; arts and manufactures will flourish, and all will contribute to the wealth and magnificence of the commercial metropolis.

The first tenement was erected in Yerba Buena, now San

1S69.1 The Metropolis of the Pacific. 67

Francisco, in 1835 ; and up to 1846 not more than twenty or ihirtv houses were built In March, 1848, the treaty ceding California to the United States was ratified in Washington, and in the following May it was approved by the Mexican Congress. In 1848, when the rush of incoming population commenced, there were some two hundred dwellings of all de- scriptions, finished and unfinished, in the city, and a population of four hundred and fifty souls. From that period the growth of the city has been rapid ; and though twice nearly destroyed bv tire, and suffering severely from vicious government for a time, and passing through serious commercial revulsions, it has advanced in wealth. and population until it has about one hun- dred and thirty thousand inhabitants, and is only a little less than the second city on the continent in commercial impor- tance ; and1 this astonishing expansion is distinguished by evi- dences of healthful vigor, indicating that a future of increasing marvel is before it.

The annual export of gold has averaged fifty million dollars, or nine hundred and fifty millions in nineteen years; and a discriminating estimate suggests that as much more has been taken away by private hands and consumed in permanent improvements among us. Two hundred and twenty-two •vessels have been employed in exporting wheat from this city during the past year, including one hundred and sixty full cargoes to Europe, the estimated value of which is sixteen million dollars; and yet it is ascertained, upon carefully pre- pared data, that riot more than three per cent, of the agricul- tural land of California is under cultivation. People in the Atlantic States and in Europe who have supposed that ours *" only a mineral producing region, and that the mines would soon be exhausted, can appreciate the fact that our land will average thirty bushels of wheat to the acre, and that ita quality is 6uch as to command the highest price in every market.

Of wool, the produce of two million one hundred and sixty- six thousand three hundred sheep the past year was twelve million pounds. These are given as indices of the character and amount of our exports, and as intimating what they must be in the future.

There are sixty periodicals published in the city, ten of

68 The Metropolis of the Pacific. [January,

which are religious. The public schools of San Francisco are her honor and pride. ' There are forty-one buildings belonging to the department, which have cost $458,378. The teachers were paid the last year $209,136 92. The whole cost of the department for the same period was $320,058 88. The number of pupils enrolled is thirteen thousand eight hundred and thirty-two ; number in the city under fifteen years of age, twenty thousand four hundred and thirty-two. Personal and denominational enterprise and munificence have established several schools of high grade, some of which are handsomely tndowe3. The educational advantages of the city are excellent.

There are ten Roman Catholic churches in San Francisco. Besides these, the Papists have two colleges, provided with substantial and commodious buildings, and well endowed ; one orphan asylum, a convent, a Magdalen asylum, and other institutions, giving Popery a strong central position among the agencies that are shaping the sentiments of the people, and determining the future of the city. Protestantism, too, is powerful here. In the city there are five Baptist churches, (one colored,) five Congregational, six Protestant Episcopa- lian, twelve Methodist, (including two German, two colored, one Southern, and one Wesleyan,) seven Presbyterian, one Swedenborgian, one Unitarian, four German Lutheran, one Swedish, >and one Campbellite, making an aggregate of forty-three Protestant congregations, besides several small congregations not in the above enumeration. The Hebrews have four congregations ; two of their houses of worship being among the most costly and commodious in the city. Benevolent and reformatory associations are numerous, and many of them are operating effectively. Among the oldest and most cher- ished charities of the city aro the Ladies' Protection and Relief Society, and the Protestant Orphan Asylum. Mutual protection and relief associations flourish here as they do not in older communities. Men came here as adventurers ; they were strangers to each other ; and it became necessary to establish relations of mutual confidence for the common good, and for the protection of persons and property. Hence these associations.

With such natural advantages, 6uch resources, and such a

1860.1 The Metropolis of the Pacific. 69

genesis, ordinary sagacity will anticipate the future of the Metropolis of the Pacific. It was not until two hundred and ten years after its settlement that New York took rank as the first city of the continent ; and its growth and opulence com- menced with the opening of the Erie Canal, which made New York merchants the factors of the Atlantic sea-board. Ninety- one years from the date of the commencement of that city, long after it had ceased to be a Dutch colony, its population was but seven thousand souls. In nineteen years San Fran- cisco has acquired a population of one hundred and thirty thousand. In 1800 New York contained only sixty thousand four hundred and eighty people ; and in 1820 its population was not as large as that of San Francisco to-day. The home territory on which its growth depends is much larger; the climate of this territory is immeasurably more healthful and delightful ; its products are more diversified and valuable ; and in natural wealth it is incomparably richer than its great Atlantic rival. The opening of the Erie Canal and the subse- quent construction of railroads, webbing the East and the North, and stretching away into the distant West and North- west, indicate the historic era of the rapid growth of New York. Add multiplied and speedy modes of ocean communication, and the data on which that growth has been maintained are given.

In 1840 Chicago contained about four thousand eight hundred inhabitants. The conditions indicated in respect of New York are largely applicable to that city. Previous to the building of railroads, that lie like net-work over all the Northwest, it was only a trading-post among the wigwams of the Indians. The era of railroad building on the Pacific slope in now fairly opened. The Central Pacific, spanning the con- tinent, and putting us in connection with the commercial metropolis of the Atlantic in six days' time, will be completed In less than two years ; the lines on the north and south sur- veys will be constructed in ten years ; in the mean time a line «"»U thread the mountain valleys and passes to the chief com- mercial city of Oregon, and forks and branches will connect th<*e grand trunks with San Pedro, San Diego, Guy mas, and oilier ports on the lower coast, and so open to settlement and enterprise our vast national domain from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the two oceans to the Queen's dominions and

K«w Semes, Vol. XXI.— 5

7(X The Metropolis of the Pacific. [January,

the Arctic Sea on the North ; and all must contribute directly and certainly to the growth and opulence of San Francisco. Besides, the multiplied facilities of speedy and safe communi- cation with Polynesia and Asia are sure to swell the population of the coast, and hasten the development of its various re- sources. In less than forty-seven years New York increased her population from one hundred and twenty thousand to nearly nine hundred thousand. This astonishing growth was realized under the circumstances before named. New York has more, and more powerful, rivals on the Atlantic sea-board than San Francisco has, or can have, on the Pacific. The concentration of capital and trade here is beyond peradven- ture. The soberest view of our future is, that thirty years will give this city one million inhabitants, and the opposite shore of the bay one hundred thousand, and that its expansion will then only have fairly commenced ; while the shore of the beautiful Pacific, its valleys, foot hills, and mountains, fanned by the breezes and wet by the dews that rise from its bosom, will swarm with ten millions of people, and ring with the notes of intelligent industry and enterprise. Solid blocks of brick or granite will cover an area of eight miles square ; suburban towns will mark the lines of the chief thoroughfares ; and the evidences of thrift aud growth will multiply on every hand. " Kome is Italy," " Paris is France," San Francisco is California and the Pacific Slope, and more ; for all the Orient is destined to yield her tribute.

The Church must fix her faith and expend her liberalities here. Mindful of her mission to the world ; occupying regions beyond ; threading the valleys and scaling the mountains by her messengers, and filling the whole land with the joyful sound ; yet the highest wisdom, the best culture, the purest devotion, the loftiest heroism, and the most enlarged benev- olence of the Church are demanded in San Francisco. Church extension movements must keep pace with the rapidly extend- ing area of the city. An efficient organization for this purpose is the demand of the hour. Sunday-schools and mission stations are to be planted. Sites for church and 6chool purposes are to be secured. Altar fires, lighted by the Church, must blaze on every hill-top and encircle the city. Perpetual oblations of living sacrifices must send their incense to the

1*09.1 The Metropolis of the Pacific. 71

A\c*. The pulpits of the Church must ring with notes of law and Gospel, sin and salvation. Her book and publishing interests are to be kept abreast with the wants of this field, and tbo demands of the times. Her educational interests must liud development in the founding of schools of law, and medicine, and theology; for here our great public libraries are lacing gathered ; world-renowned lecturers will sojourn here , and here are gathering throngs of peoples from every shore, end destined to every land, to be reached and saved by the young evangelists while in course of training for the pastoral office or the mission field. If this city is filled with the light and power of Gospel truth, the nations cannot long tit in darkness.

Art. V.— THE NEGRO IX ANCIENT HISTORY.*

Presuming that no believer in the Bible will admit that the negro had his origin at the head waters of the Nile, on the hanks of the Gambia, or in the neighborhood of the Zaire, we fhonld like to inquire by what chasm is he separated from other descendants of Noah, who originated the great works of antiquity, so that with any truth it can be said that " if all that negroes of all generations have ever done were to be obliterated from recollection forever the world would lose no great truth, no profitable art, no exemplary form of life. The loss of all that is African would offer no memorable deduction from any thing but the earth's black catalogue of crimes." f In singular contrast with the disparaging statements of the naval officer, Volney, the great French Oriental traveler and distinguished linguist, after visiting the wonders of Egypt and Ethiopia, exclaims, as if in mournful indignation, " How are wo astonished when we reflect that to the race of negroes, at present our slaves, and the objects of our extreme contempt, we owe oui arts and sciences, and even the very use of

• This is, so far as we know, the first article in any Quarterly written by a hand claiming a pure Ethiopic lineage. f Commander Foote, " Africa and the American Flag," p. 207.

72 The Negro in Ancient History. [January,

speech!" And we do not see how,. with the records of the past accessible to us, it is possible to escape from the con- clusions of Volney. If it cannot be shown that the negro race was separated by a wide and unapproachable interval from the founders of Babylon and Nineveh, the builders of Babel and the Pyramids, then we claim for them a partici- pation in those ancient works of science and art, and that not merely on the indefinite ground of a common humanity, but on the ground of close and direct relationship.

Let us turn to the tenth chapter of Genesis, and con- sider the ethnographic allusions therein contained, receiving them in their own grand and catholic spirit. And we the more readily make our appeal to this remarkable portion of Holy Writ because it has "extorted the admiration of modern ethnologists, who continually find in it anticipations of their greatest discoveries." Sir Henry Bawlinson says of this chapter : " The Toldoth Beni Noah (the Hebrew title of the chapter) is undoubtedly the most authentic record we pos- sess for the affiliation of those branches of the human race which sprang from the triple stock of the Noachidae." And again : " "We must be cautious in drawing direct^ ethnological infer- ences from the linguistic indications of a very early age. It would be far safer, at any rate, in these early times, to follow the general scheme of ethnic affiliation which is given in the tenth chapter of Genesis." *

From the second to the fifth verse of this chapter we have the account of the descendants of Japheth and their places of residence, but we are told nothing of their doings or their productions. From the twenty-first verse to the end of the chapter we have the account of the descendants of Shem aud of their " dwelling." Nothing is said of their works. But how different the account of the descendants of Cush, ihe eldest son of Ham, contained from the seventh to the twelfth verse. "We read: '"And Cush begat Nimrod : he began to be a mighty one in the earth. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord. . . . And the berrinnin^ of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that land he went forth into Asshur, (marginal reading.) and builded Nineveh, and the city Beho- * Quoted by G. Rawlinson in Notes to " Bamptoa Lectures," 1859.

1SG9.3 The Negro in Ancient History. ' 73

both, and Calab, and Resen between Nineveh and Calah : the same is a great city."

We have adopted the marginal reading in our English Bible, which represents Nimrod as having founded Nineveh, in addition to the other great works which he executed. This reading is supported by authorities, both Jewish and Christian, which cannot be set aside. The author of " Foundations of History," without, perhaps, a due consideration of the original, affirms that Asshur was " one of the sons of Shem ! " thus de- spoiling the descendants of Ham of the glory of having "builded" Nineveh. And to confirm this view he tells us that "Micah speaks of the land of Asshur and the land of Nimrod as two distinct countries." We have searched in vain for the passage in which the Prophet makes such a representa- tion. The verse to which this author directs us (Micah v, 6) is un- fortunate for this theory. It is plain from the closing of the verse that the conjunction " and" in the first clause, is not the simple copulative and or also, but is employed, according to a well known Hebrew usage, in the sense of even or namely, to in- troduce the words " land of Nimrod " as an explanatory or qualifying addition in apposition to the preceding "land of Assyria." *

AVe must take Asshur in Gen. x, 11, not as the subject of the verb " went," but as the name of the place whither — the terminus ad quern. So Drs. Smith and Yan Dyck, eminent Oriental scholars, understand the passage, and so they have rendered it in their admirable Arabic translation of the Bible, recently adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society, namely, " Out of that land he (Nimrod) went forth unto Asshur— Assyria— and builded Nineveh." De Sola, Linden- thul, and Eaphall, learned Jews, so translate the passage in their "New Translation of the Book of Genesis." f Dr. Kalisch, another Hebrew of the Hebrews, so renders the verse in his "Historical and Critical Commentary on Genesis." :{: All these authorities, and others we might mention, agree that

•See Conant's Geseniu3*3 Hebrew Grammar, (17th edition,) section 155, (a); *aA for additional examples of this usage see Judges vii, 22; 1 S..m. xvii, 10; Jtr. xv, ]3, where even represents tho conjunction van (and) in the original.

f Loudon, 1S44.

\ London, 1S5S. See Dr. Robinson's view in Gesenius 8 Hebrew Lexicon, »d«r the word Cuab.

74 The Negro in Ancient History. [January,

to make the passage descriptive of the Shemite Asshur is to do violence to the passage itself and its context. Asshur, more- over, is mentioned in his proper place in verse 22, and without the least indication of an intention of describing him as the founder of a rival empire to Nimrod.* Says Nachmanides, (quoted by De Sola, etc.) : " It would be strange if Asshur, a son of Shem, were mentioned among the descendants of Ham, of whom Ximrod was one. It would be equally strange if the deeds of Asshur were spoken of before his birth and descent had been mentioned."

The grammatical objection to our view is satisfactorily dis- posed of by Kalisch.f On the absence of the n (he) locale he remarks: "The n locale, after verbs of motion, though fre- quently, is by no means uniformly, applied. (1 Kings xi, 17; 2 Kings xv, 14 ; etc.) Gesenius, whose authority no one will dispute, also admits the probability of the view we have taken, without raising any objection of grammatical structure."

But enough on this point. We may reasonably suppose that the building of the tower of Babel was also the work, principally, of Cushites. For we read in the tenth verse that Nimrod's kingdom was in the land of Shinar; and in the second verse of the eleventh chapter we are told that the people who undertook the building of the tower, "found a plain in the laud of Shinar" which they considered suitable for the ambitious structure. And, no doubt, in the " scatter- ing " which resulted, these sons of Ham found their way into Egypt,:}; where their descendants — inheriting the skill of their fathers, and guided by tradition — erected the pyramids in imitation of the celebrated tower. Herodotus says that the tower was six hundred and sixty feet high, or one hundred and seventy feet higher than the great pyramid of Cheops. It consisted of eight square towers, one above another. The ■winding path is said to have been four miles in length. Strabo calls it a pyramid.-

But it may be said, The enterprising people who founded Babylon and Nineveh, settled Egypt, and built the Pyramids,

* See Kitto's Biblical Cyclopedia, article, Ham. London, 1866.

f Historical and Critical Commentary on Genesis. Heb. and Eug. P. 2C3.

\ It is certain that Mizraim, with his descendants, settled Egypt, giving his name to the country/ which it still retains. The Arabic name for Egypt is Misr. In Psalm cv, 23, Egypt i? called " the land of Ham."

ISCi).] The Negro in Ancient History. 75

though descendants of Ham, were not black — were not negroes ; for, granted that the negro race have descended from Ham, yet, when these great civilizing works were going on the descend- ants of Ham had not yet reached that portion of Africa, had not come in contact with those conditions of climate and atmos- phere which have produced that peculiar development of humanity known as the J^egro.

Well, let us see. It is not to be doubted that from the earliest ages the black complexion of some of the descendants of Xoah was known. Ham, it would seem, was of a com- plexion darker than that of his brothers. The root of the name Ham, in Hebrew B»n, (Hamam,) conveys the idea of not or swarthy. So the Greeks called the descendants of Ham, from their black complexion, Ethiopians, a word signifying burnt or black face. The Hebrews called them Cushites, a word probably of kindred meaning. Moses is said to have married a Cushite or Ethiopian woman, that is, a black woman descended from Cush. The query, "Can the Ethi- opian change his skin ? " seems to be decisive as to a differ- ence of complexion between the Ethiopian and the Shemite, and the etymology of the word itself determines that the com- plexion of the former was black. The idea has been thrown out that the' three principal colors now in the world — white, brown, and black — were represented in the ark in Japheth, Shcin, and Ham.

But were these enterprising descendants of Ham woolly- haired? — a peculiarity which, in these days, seems to be considered a characteristic mark of degradation and ser- vility.* On this point let us consult Herodotus, called " the father of history." He lived nearly three thousand years ago. Having traveled extensively in Egypt and the neighboring countries, he wrote from personal observation. His testimony

* While Rev. Elias Sehrenk, a German missionary laboring on the Gold Coast. in giving evidence on the condition of West Africa before a committee of the House of Commons in May, 18C5, was making a statement of the proficiency of sorao of the natives in his school in Greek and other branches of literature, he was interrupted by Mr. Cheetham, a member of the committee, with the Inquiry: *' Were those young men of pure African blood?" '"Yes," replied Mr. Sehrenk, " decidedly; thick lips and black skin." " And woolly hair? " added Mr. Cheet- ham. " And woolly hair," subjoined Mr. Sehrenk. (See " Parliamentary Report on Western Africa for 1360;" p. 145.)

76 The Negro in Ancient History. [January,

is that of an eye-witness. He tells us that there were two divisions of Ethiopians, who did not differ at all from each other in appearance, except in their language and hair; " for the eastern Ethiopians," he says, u are straight-haired, but those of Libya (or Africa) have hair more curly than that of any other people."* He records also the following passage, which fixes the physical characteristics of the Egyptians and some of their mighty neighbors : f

The Colchians were evidently Egyptians, and I say this homing myself observed it before I heard it from others ; and as it was a matter of interest to me, I inquired of both people, and the Colchians had more recollection of the Egyptians than the Egyp- tians had of the Colchians ; yet the Egyptians said that they thought the Colchians had descended from the army of Sesostris ; and I formed my conjecture, not only because they are black in complexion and.icoolly-haired, for this amounts to nothing, because others are so likewise, etc., etc. J

Eawlinson^ has clearly shown § that these statements of Herodotus have been too strongly confirmed by all recent researches (among the cuneiform inscriptions] in comparative philology to be set aside by the tottering criticism of such superficial inquirers as the Notts and Gliddous, et id omne ge?ius, who base their assertions on ingenious conjectures. Pindar and i&schyhts corroborate the assertions of Herodotus. Homer, who liyed still earlier than Herodotus, and who had also traveled in Egypt, makes frequent mention of the Ethiopians. He bears the same testimony as Herodotus as to their division into two sections:

Aldiarrac, rot <Jfp9d dedatarai, tox^TOt dvdp&v, lOl fiev 6vao\iivov 'Tirepiovoq, ol 6' dvtovroc — |

which Pope freely renders :

" A race divided, whom with sloping rays The rising and descending sun surveys."

* Herodotus, hi, 94; vii, 70.

f It is not necessary, however, to consider all Egyptians as negroes, black in complexion and woolly-haired; this is contradicted by th,eir mummies and portraits. Bluinenbach discovered three varieties of physiognomy on the Egyptian paintings and sculptures ; but ho describes the general or national type as exhibiting a certain approximation to the Xegro.

\ Herodotus, ii, 101. § Five Great Monarchies, vol. i, chap. 3.

| Odyssey, i, 23, 24.'

IS GO J The Negro in Ancient Histwy. 77

And Homer seems to have entertained the very highest cninion of these Ethiopians. It would appear that he was so Btruck with the wonderful works of these people, which he B&w in Es;ypt and the surrounding country, that he raises their authors above mortals, and makes them associates of the gods. Jupiter, and sometimes the whole Olympian family with him, 18 often made to betake himself to Ethiopia to hold converse with and partake of the hospitality of the Ethiopians.*

.But it may be asked, Are we to suppose that the Guinea ncro, with all his peculiarities, is descended from these people 1 We answer, Yes. The descendants of Ham, in those early ages, like the European nations of the present day, made extensive migrations and conquests. They occupied a portion of two continents. While the Shemites had but little connection with Africa, the descendants of Ham, on the contrary, beginning then- operations in Asia, spread westward and southward, so that as early as the time of Homer they had not only occupied the northern portions of Africa, but had crossed the great desert, penetrated into Soudan, and made their way to the west coast. "As far as we know," says that distinguished Homeric scholar, Mr. Gladstone, "Homer re- cognized the African coast by placing the Lotophagi upon it, and the Ethiopians inland from ths East all the way to the extreme West." f

Some time ago Professor Owen, of the New York Free Academy, well known for his remarkable accuracy in editing the ancient classics, solicited the opinion of Professor Lewis of the Xew York University, another eminent scholar, as to the hfalities to which Homer's Ethiopians ought to be assigned. Professor Lewis gave a reply which so pleased Professor Owen that he gives it entire in his notes on the Odyssey, as " the most rational and veritable comment of any he had met with." It is as follows:

I have always, in commenting on the passage to which you uiVr, explained it to my classes as denoting the black race, (or Ktldopians, as they were called in Homer's time,) living on the eastern and western coast of Africa — the one class inhabiting the <'"<mtry now called Abyssinia, and the other that part of Africa called Guinea or the Slave Coast. The common explanation that

* Iliad, i, 423 ; xxiii, 206.

f "Homer and the Homeric Ago," vol. iii, p. 305.

78 The Negro in Ancient History. [January,

it refers to two divisions of Upper Egypt separated by the Nile, besides, as I believe, being geographically incorrect, (the Nile really making no such division,) does not seem to be of sufficient importance to warrant the strong expressions of the text. (Odyssey i, 22-24.) If it be said the view I have taken supposes too great a knowledge of geography in Homer, we need only bear in mind that he had undoubtedly visited Tyre, -where the existence of the black race on the West of Africa had been known from the earliest times. The Tyrians, in their long voyages, having discovered a race on the West, in almost every respect similar to those better known in the East, would, from their remote distance from each other, and not knowing of any intervening nations in Africa, naturally style them the two extremities of the earth. (Homer's eaxaroi avdpuv.) Homer elsewhere speaks of the Pigmies, who are described by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus as residing in the interior of Africa, (on a river which I think corresponds to what is now called the Niger.) It seems to me too extravagant language, even for poetry, to represent two nations, separated only by a river, as living, one at the rising, the other at the setting sun, although these terms may sometimes be used for East and West. Besides, if I am not mistaken, no such division is recognized in subsequent geog- raphy.*

Professor Lewis says nothing of the Asiatic division of the Ethiopians. But since his letter was penned — more than twenty years ago — floods of light have been thrown upon the subject of Oriental antiquities by the labors of M. Botta, Layard, Bawlinson, Hinks, and others. Even Bunsen, not very long ago, declared that "the idea of an 'Asiatic Ciisk'' was an imagination of interpreters, the child of despair." But in 185S, Sir Henry Rawlinson having obtained a number of Babylonian documents more ancient than any previously discovered, was able to declare authoritatively that the early inhabitants of South Babylonia were of a cognate race with the pi^imitive colonists both of Arabia and of the African Ethiopia.^ He found their vocabulary to be undoubtedly Cushite or Ethiopian, belonging to that stock of tongues which in the sequel were every-where more or less mixed up with the Semitic languages, but of which we have the purest modern specimens in the "Mahra of Southern Arabia," and the " Galla of Abyssinia." He also produced evidence of the widely-spread settlements of the children of Ham in Asia as

* Owen's Homer'.? Odyssey, (Fifth Edition.) p. 306. f Rawliusou's Herodotus. Vol. i, p. 442.

ImiOJ The Negro in Ancient History. "79

uxll 09 Africa, and (what is more especially valuable in our pm-ent inquiry) of the truth of the tenth chapter of Genesis n« nn ethnographical document of the highest importance.*

Xow we should like to ask, If the negroes found at this moment along the West and East coast, and throughout Central Africa, are not descended from the ancient Ethiopians, from whom are they descended ? And if they are the children of the Ethiopians, what is the force of the assertions continu- nllv repeated, by even professed friends of the negro, that the enterprising and good-looking tribes of the continent, such as Lalofs, Mandingoes, and Foulahs, are mixed with the blood of Caucasians \ f With the records of ancient history before us, where is the necessity for supposing such an admixture? May not the intelligence, the activity, the elegant features and limbs of these tribes have been directly transmitted from their ancestors ?

The Foulahs have a tradition that they are the descendants <>f Phut, the son of Ham. Whether this tradition be true or not, it is a singular fact that they have prefixed this name to almost every district of any extent which they have ever occupied. They have Futa-Torro, near Senegal ; Futa-Bondu and Futa- lallou to the north-east of Sierra Leoue.J

Lenormant was of the opinion that Phut peopled Libya.

We gather from the ancient writers already quoted that the Ethiopians were celebrated for their beauty. Herodotus f peaks of them as " men of large stature, very handsome and 1« 'tig-lived." And he uses these epithets in connection with the Ethiopians of West Africa, as the context shows. The whole passage is as follows :

Where the meridian declines toward the setting sun (that is, southwest from Greece) the Ethiopian territory reaches, being the extreme part of the habitable world. It produces much guld, huge elephants, wild trees of all kinds, ebony, and men of large, Ftature, very handsome, and long-lived.§

Homer frequently tells us of the " handsome Ethiopians," although he and Herodotus do not employ the same Greek word. In Herodotus the word that describes the Ethiopians

* See Article Hunt, in Kitto's Cyclopedia. Last Edition.

f Bowcn's " Central' Africa," chap xxiii. % "Wilson's "Western Africa, p. 79.

§ Herodotus, iii, 114.

80 The Negro in Ancient History. [January,

is KaTjoq — a word denoting both beauty of outward form and moral beauty or virtue.* The epithet (ajuv/zwv) employed by Homer -to describe the sairre people is by some commentators rendered "blameless," but by the generality "handsome." Anthon says : " It is an epithet given to all men and women distinguished by rank, exploits, or beauty." f Mr. Hayman, one of the latest and most industrious editors of Homer, has in one of his notes the following explanation : " Afivpuv was at first an epithet of distinctive excellence, but had become a purely conventional style, as applied to a class, like our 4 honorable and gallant gentleman.' " % Most scholars, how- ever, agree with Mr. Paley, another recent Homeric com- mentator, that the original signification of the word was " handsome," and that it nearly represented the acoAoc Kayadog of the Greeks ; § so that the words which Homer puts into the mouth of Thetis when addressing her disconsolate son (Iliad, i, 423) would be, " Yesterday Jupiter went to Oceanus, to the handsome Ethiopians, to a banquet, and with him went all the gods." It is remarkable that the Chaldee, according to Bush has the following translation of Numbers xii, 1: "And Miriam and Aaron spake against Moses because of the beauti- ful woman whom he had married ; for he had married a beautiful woman." | Compare with this Solomon's declara- tion, " I am Hack but comely? or, more exactly, " I am black and comely." We see the wise man in his spiritual epithalamium selecting a black woman as a proper representa- tive of the Church and of the highest purity. The word "WO, translated in our version hlach, is a correct rendering. So Luther, schwarz. It cannot mean brown, as rendered by Ostervald (Irune) and Diodati (bruna.) In Lev. xiii, 31, 37, it is applied to hair. The verb from which the adjective comes is used (Job xxx, 30) of the countenance blackened by ■ disease. In Solomon's Song v, 11, it is applied to the plumage of a raven. ■[ In the days of Solomon, therefore, black, as a physical attribute, was comely.

* Lidtlell ft Scott. f Anthon's Homer, p. 491.

X Hayniau's Odyssey, i, 29. § Paley's Iliad, p. 215. Note. | Bush, in loco.

*i A correspondent of the New York Tribune, residing in Syri.V, describing the appearance of a negro whom he met there in 1SGC, says: "lie was as Hack as a Mount Lebanon raven." (N\ Y. Tribune, October 16, 1SGG.) Had he been writing in Hebrew he would have employed the descriptive word "in'O-

\

1*01'.] The Negro in Ancient History. 81

But wheD, in the course of ages, the Ethiopians had wandered into the central and southern regions of Africa, mcuuntering a change of climate and altered character of f.KHl and modes of living, they fell into intellectual and physical degradation. This degradation did not consist, however, in a change of color, as some suppose, for they were Mack, as we have seen, before they left their original seat. Nor did it consist in the stiffening and shortening of the hair ; for Herodotus tells us that the Ethiopians in Asia were i'.raijht-haired, while their relatives in Africa, from the same Itock and in no lower stage of progress, were woolly- haired. The hair, then, is not a fundamental characteristic, nor a mark of degradation. Some suppose that the hair of the' vx^ro is affected by some peculiarity in the African climate • and atmosphere — perhaps the influence of the Sahara entering a? an important element. "We do not profess to know the fvns et origo, nor have we seen any satisfactory cause for it aligned. We have no consciousness of any inconvenience from it, except that in foreign countries, as a jovial fellow- passenger on an English steamer once reminded us, " it is unpopular."

" Vuolsi cosi cola, dove si puote Cid che si vuole : e pill non dimandare."*

Nor should it be thought strange that the Ethiopians who j<netrated into the heart of the African continent should have •generated, when we consider their distance and isolation from the quickening influence of the arts and sciences in the East ; their belief, brought with them, in the most abominable idolatry, " changing the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like unto corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things" Rom. i, 23 ; the ease with which, in the prolific regions to which they had come, tht-v could secure the means of subsistence ; and the constant and enervating heat of the climate, indisposing to continuous txcrtion. Students in natural history tell us that animals of the Paine species and family, if dispersed and domesticated, fh'.»\v striking modifications of the original type, in their color, 1'fcir. integument, structure of limbs, and even in their instincts, habits, and powers. Similar changes are witnessed * Dante.

The Negro in Ancient HUcory, CJanuai

j i

among mankind. An intelligent writer in No. 48 of the " Dublin University Magazine " says :

There are certain districts in Leitrim, Sligo, and Mayo chiefly inhabited by the descendants of the native Irish, driven by the British from Armagh and the South of Down about two centuries ago. These people, whose ancestors were well-grown, able-bodied, and comely, are now reduced to an average stature of five feet two inches, are pot-bellied, bow-legged, and abortively featured ; and they are especially remarkable for open projecting mouths, and prominent teeth, and exposed gums, their advancing cheek- bones and depressed noses bearing barbarism in their very front. In • other words, within so short a period, they seem to have acquired a prognathous type of skull, like the Australian savages.

But these retrogressive changes are taking place in other countries besides Ireland. Acute observers tell us that, in England, the abode of the highest civilization of modern times, " a process of de-civilization, a relapse toward barbarism, is seen in the debased and degraded classes, with a coincident deterioration of physical type." Mr. Henry Mayhew, in his " London Labor and London Poor," has remarked that

Among them, according as they partake more or less of the pure vagabond nature, doing nothing whatever for their living, but moving from place to place, preying on the earnings of the more industrious portion of the community, so will the attributes of the nomadic races be found more or less marked in them ; and they are all more or less distinguished by their high cheek-bones and protruding jaws ; thus showing that kind of mixture of the pyramidal with the prognathous type which is to be seen among the most degraded of the Malayo-Polynesian races.

In contrast with this retrogressive process, it may be observed that in proportion as the degraded races are intellect- ually and morally elevated, their physical appearance im- proves. Mr. C. S. Roundell, secretary to the late Royal Commission in Jamaica, tells us that

The Maroons who fell under my (his) own observation in Jamaica, exhibited a marked superiority in respect of comport- ment, mental capacity, and physical type — a superiority to be referred to the saving effects of long-enjoyed freedom. The Maroons are descendants of runaway Spanish slaves, who at the time of the British conquest established themselves in the mount- ain fastnesses.*

* "England and her Subject Races, with special reference to Jamaica," By Charles Saville Roundell, M. A.

J $09.] TJie Negro in Ancient History. 83

In visiting the native towns interior to Liberia, we have leeo striking illustrations of these principles.. Among the inhabitants of those towns we could invariably distinguish the free man from the slave. There was about the former a dignity of appearance, an openness of countenance, an inde- pendence of air, a firmness of step, which indicated the absence of oppression ; while in the latter there was a de- pression of countenance, a general deformity of appearance, an awkwardness of gait, which seemed to say, " That man is a slave."

Now, with these well-known principles before us, why ihonld it be considered strange that, with their fall into barbarism, the " handsome " Ethiopians of Homer and Herod- otus should have deteriorated in physical type — and that this degradation of type should continue reproducing itself in the wilds of Africa and in the Western Hemisphere, where they have been subjected to slavery and various other forms of debasing proscription %

*Hj[«ffv yag r' dperfjg dtroaivvrai evpvorra Zeiig 'Avepoc, evr3 dv yuv Kara dovXiov Tjfiap Skffffiv,*

The Xegro is often taunted by superficial investigators with proofs, as is alleged, taken from the monuments of Egypt, of the servitude of Xegroes in very remote ages. But is there any thing singular in the fact that in very early times Xegroes *fre held in bondage ? Was it not the practice among all the early nations to enslave each other 2 Why should it be pointed to as an exceptional thing that Ethiopians were represented M slaves? It was very natural that the more powerful Ethi- opians should seize upon the weaker, as is done to this day in retain portions of Africa, and reduce them to slavery. And Were it not for the abounding light of Christianity now enjoyed hi Kurope the same thing would be done at this moment in Koine, Paris, and London. For the sites of those cities in ancient times witnessed all the horrors of a cruel and mer- •■••Tiary slave-trade, not in Negroes, but Caucasian selling ^uueasian.f

* Oijtttf, xvii. 322, 323.

t Cicoro in one of his letters, speaking of the success of an expedition against I'^iain, gava the only plunder to be found consisted "Ex emancipiis; ex V bw titiUos puto te liteiis aut musicis eruditos expectare;" thus proving, in the ■mm Mutence, the existence of the slave-trade, and intimating that it was impoa

84 The Negro in Ancient History. [January

But were there no Caucasian slaves in Egypt ? If it be true that no such slaves are represented on the monumental re- mains, are we, therefore, to infer that they did not exist in that country? Are we to disbelieve that the Jews were in the most rigorous bondage in that land for four hundred years :

Not every thing which is not represented on the monuments was therefore necessarily unknown to the Egyptians. The monuments are neither intended to furnish, nor can" they furnish, a complete delineation of all the branches of public and private life, of all the products and phenomena of the whole animal, vegetable, and min- eral creation of the country. They cannot be viewed as a complete cyclopaedia of Egyptian customs and civilization. Thus we find no representation of fowls and pigeons, although the country abounded in them; of the wild ass and wild boar, although frequently met with in Egypt ; none of the process relating to the casting of statues and other objects in bronze, although many similar subjects connected with the arts are represented"; none of the marriage ceremony, and of numerous other subjects.*

But we are told that the Negroes of Central and West Africa have proved themselves essentially inferior from the fact, that in the long period of three thousand years they have shown no signs of progress. In their country, it is alleged, are to be found no indications of architectural taste or skill, or of any susceptibility of aesthetic or artistic improvement ; that they have no monuments of past exploits; no paintings or sculptures ; and that, therefore, tlie foreign or American slave- trade was an indispensable agency in the civilization of Africa ; that nothing could have been done for the Negro while he remained in his own land bound to the practices of ages; that he needed the sudden and violent severance from home to deliver him from the quiescent degradation and stagnant bar- barism of his ancestors; that otherwise the civilization of Europe could never have impressed him.

In reply to all this we remark: 1st, That it remains to be

sible that any Briton should be intelligent enough to be worthy to serve the accomplished Atticus. (Ad. Att., lib. iv, 16.) Henry, in his History of England, gives us also the- authority of Strabo for the prevalence of tho slave-trade among the Britons, and tells us that slaves were once an established article of export. " Great numbers," says he, " wer.e exported from Britain, and were to be soen exposed for sale, like cattle, in tho Roman market." — Henry, vol. ii, p. 225. Also, Sir T. Fowell Buxton's "Slave Trade and Remedy "—Introduction. * Dr Kalisch: "Commentary on Exodus," p. H7. London, 1S55.

l^OOj The Negro in Ancient History. 85

proved, by a fuller explanation of the interior, that there are DO architectural remains, no works of artistic skill ; 2dly, If it ibould be demonstrated that nothing of the kind exists, this would not necessarily prove essential inferiority on the part of the African. What did the Jews produce in all the long period of their history before and after their bondage to the Egyptians, among whom, it might be supposed, they would hive made some progress in science and art? Their forefathers dwelt in tents before their Egyptian residence, and they dwelt in tents after their emancipation. And in all their long national history they produced no remarkable architectural monument but the Temple, which was designed and executed by a man miraculously endowed for the purpose. A high anti- quarian authority tells us that "pure Shemites had no art."* The lack of architectural and artistic skill is no mark of the absence of the higher elements of character, f 3rdly, With re- gard to the necessity of the slave trade, we remark, without attempting to enter into the secret counsels of the Most High, that without the foreign slave-trade Africa would' have been a £reat deal more accessible to civilization, and would now, bad peaceful and legitimate intercourse been kept up with her frum the middle of the fifteenth century, be taking her stand next to Europe in civilization, science, and religion. When, four hundred years ago, the Portuguese discovered this coast, '.hey found the natives living in considerable peace and quiet- ^e**, and with a certain degree of prosperity. Internal feuds, of course, the tribes sometimes had, but by no means so serious U they afterward became under the stimulating influence of Uie slave-trade. From all we can gather, the tribes in this

• Iicv. Stuart Poole, of the British Museum, before the British Association. 1864.

T I-ov. Dr. Goulburn; in his reply to Dr. Temple's celebrated Essay on the

Mucation of the World," has the following suggestive remark: "We commend

-1 I»r. Temple's notice the pregnant fact, that in the earliest extant history of man-

' M it is stated that arts, both ornamental and useful, (and arts are the great

• un of civilization,) took their rise in the family of Cain. In the lino of Seth

..:ul none of this mental and social development." — Replies to Essays and

•"••'tf-j, p. 3-t. When the various causes now co-operatiug shall have produced

- ■• gMT religious sense among the nations, and a corresponding revolution shall

' -v<-- taken place in the estimation now put upon material objects, tho effort

1 -• to show, to his disparagement — if wo could imagino such an unaraiable

■ta-Ukiag as compatible with the high state of progress theu attained— that the

i ►ro was at the foundation of all niatorial development.

rouirni Seiues, Vol. XXI.— 6

86 The Negro in Ancient History. [January,

part of Africa lived in a condition not very different from that of the greater portion of Europe in the Middle Ages. There was the same oppression of the weak by the strong ; the same resistance by the weak, often taking the form of general rebel- lion ; the same private and hereditary wars; the same strong- holds in every prominent position; the same dependence of the people upon the chief who happened to be in power ; the same contentedness of the masses with the tyrannical rnle. But there was industry and activity, and in every town there were manufactures, and they seut across the continent to Egypt and the Barbary States other articles besides slaves.

The permanence for centuries of the social and political states of the Africans at home must be attributed, first, to the isolation of the people from the progressive portion of man- kind ; and, secondly, to the blighting influence of the traffic introduced among them by Europeans. Had not the demand arisen in America for African laborers, and had European nations inaugurated regular traffic with the coast, the natives would have shown themselves as impressible for change, as susceptible of improvement, as capable of acquiring knowledge and accumulating wealth, as the natives of Europe. Combi- nation of capital and co-operation of energies would have done for this land what they have done for others. Private enter- prise, (which has been entirely destroyed by the nefarious traffic,) encouraged by humane intercourse with foreign lands, would have developed agriculture, manufactures, and com- merce; would have cleared, drained, and fertilized the country, and built towns ; would have improved the looms, brought in plows, steam-engines, printing presses, machines, and the thousand processes and appliances by which the com- fort, progress, and usefulness of mankind are secured. But, alas! D is aliter visum.

" Freighted with curse3 was the bark that bore

The spoilers of the West to Guinea's shore ;

Heavy with groans of anguish blew the gales

That swelled that fatal bark's returning sails :

Loud and perpetual o'er the Atlantic's waves,

For guilty ages, rolled the tide of slaves ;

A tide that knew no fall, no turn, no rest —

Constant as day and night from East to West,

Still widening, deepening, swelling in its course

With boundless ruin and resistless force." — Mostgoitert.

ISO?.] The Negro in Ancient History. 87

15ut although, amid the violent shocks of those changes and d:.-a-ters to which the natives of this outraged land have been subject, their knowledge of the elegant arts, brought from the East, declined, they never entirely lost the necessary arts of life. They still understand the workmanship of iron, and, in ■orae sections of the country, of gold. The loom and the forge arc in constant use among them. In remote regions, where they have no intercourse with Europeans, they raise large herds of cattle and innumerable sheep and goats ; capture and train horses, build well-laid-out towns, cultivate extensive fields, and manufacture earthenware and woolen and cotton cloths. Commander Foote says : " The Xegro arts are respect- able, and would have been more so had not disturbance and waste come with the slave-trade."*

And in our own times, on the "West Coast of Africa, a native development of literature has been brought to light of penuine home-growth. The Yey people, residing half way between Sierra Leone and Cape Mesurado, have within the last thirty years invented a syllabic alphabet, with which they are now writing their own language, and by which they are maintaining among themselves an extensive epistolary correspondence In 1S49 the Church Missionary Society in Lon- don, having heard of this invention, authorized their mission- ary, Rev. S. AY. Koelle, to investigate the subject. Mr. Koelle traveled into the interior, and brought away three manuscripts, with translations. The symbols are phonetic, and constitute a *yllabarium, not an alphabet; they are nearly two hundred in number. They have been learned so generally that Vey boys in Monrovia frequently receive communications from their friends in the Yey country to which they readily re- *l>ond. The Church Missionary Society have had a font of type cast in this new character, and several little tracts have been printed and circulated among the tribe. The principal inventor of this alphabet is now dead; but it is supposed that he died in the Christian faith, having ac- quired 6ome knowledge of the way of salvation through the medium of this character of his own invention.! Dr. Wilson *ays :

* Africa and the American Flag," p. 52.

\ Wilson's "Western Africa," p. 95, and " Princeton Review for July 1858,"p.4SS. 3

88 The Negro in Ancient History. [January,

This invention is one of the most remarkable achievements of this or auy other age, and is itself enough to silence forever the cavils and sneers of those who think so contemptuously of the intellectual endowments of the African race.

Though " the idea of commun dating thoughts in -writing was probably suggested by the use of Arabic among the Mandingoes," yet the invention was properly original, showing the existence of genius in the native African who has never been in foreign slavery, and proves that he carries in his bosocu germs of intellectual development and self-elevation, which would have enabled him to advance regularly in the path of progress had it not been for the blighting influence of the 6lave-trade.

]STow are we to believe that such a people have been doomed, by the terms of any curse, to be the "servant of servants," as some upholders of Xegro slavery have taught? 'SYould it not have been a very singular theory that a people destined to serv- itude should begin, the very first thing, as we have endeavored to show, to found " great cities," organize kingdoms, and establish rule — putting up structures which have come down to this day as a witness to their superiority over all their con- temporaries— and that, by a Providential decree, the people whom they had been fated to serve should be held in bondage by them four hundred years ?

The remarkable enterprise of the Cushite hero, Nimrod ; his establishment of imperial power, as an advance on patriarchal government ; the strength of the Egypt of Mizraim, and its long domination over the house of Israel ; and the evidence which now and then appears, that even Phut (who is the obscurest in his fortunes of all the Hamite race) maintained a relation to the de- scendants of Shem which was far from servile or subject; do all clearly tend to limit the application of Xoah's maledictory prophecy to the precise terms in which it was indited : " Cursed be Canaan ; a servant of servants shall he" (not Cush, not Mizraim, not Phut, but he) " be to his brethren." If we then confine the imprecation to Canaan, we can without difficulty trace its accomplishment in the subjugation of the tribes which issued from him to the children of Israel from the time of Joshua to that of David. Here would be verified Canaan's servile relation to Shem ; and when imperial Home finally wrested the scepter from Judah, and, " dwelling in the tents of Shem," occupied the East and whatever remnants of Canaan were left in it, would not this accomplish that further prediction that Japheth, too, should be lord of Canaan, and that (as it would

1809.] The Negro in Ancient History. 89

aerm to be tacitly implied) mediately, through his occupancy of Uio touts of Shem ? *

A vigorous writer in the " Princeton Review " has the fol- lowing :

The Ethiopian race, from whom the modern Negro or African <ock are undoubtedly descended, can claim as early a history, with the exception of the Jews,f as any living people on the face of the earth. History, as well as the monumental discoveries, gives them h place in ancient history as far back as Egypt herself, if not far- ther. But what has become of the conremporaneous nations of antiquity, as well as others of much later origin ? Where are the Numidians, Mauritaniaus, and other powerful names, who once held sway over all Northern Africa ! They have been swept away from the earth, or dwindled down to a handful of modern Copts tod Berbers of doubtful descent.

The Ethiopian, or African race, on the other hand, though they have long since lost all the civilization which once existed on the Upper Nile, have, nevertheless, continued to increase and multiply, until they are now, with the exception of the Chinese, the largest tingle family of men on the face of the earth. They have extended themselves in every direction over that great continent, from the southern borders of the Great Sahara to the Cape of Good Hope, and trom the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, and are thus constituted mas- ters of at least three fourths of the habitable portions of this great v"iitinent. And this progress has been made, be it remembered, in despite of the prevalence of the foreign slave-trade, which has carried oft* so many of their people ; of the ceaseless internal lends and wars that have been waged among themselves ; and of a con- »wracy, as it were, among all surrounding nations, to trample out their national existence. Surely their history is a remarkable one ; but sot more so, perhaps, than is foreshadowed in the prophecies v\ the Old Testament Scriptures. God has watched over and pre- served these people through all the vicissitudes of their unwritten history, and no doubt for some great purpose of mercy. toward theiu, as well as for the display of the glory of his own grace and providence ; and we may expect to have a full revelation of this purpose and glory as soon as the everlasting Gospel is made known

10 these benighted millions.^

One palpable reason may be assigned why the Ethiopian race has continued to exist under the most adverse circumstances, while other races and tribes have perished from the earth ;

11 is this: they have never been a blood-Hardy or avaricious }*o]dc. From the beginning of their history to the present lutie their work has been constructive, except when they have

* Dr. Peter Ilolmcs, Oxford, England.

\ The Jews not excepted. Where were they when the Pyramids were built ?

J "Princeton Kevicw, Ju'y 1858," pp. 448, 4-19.

90 The Negro in Ancient History. [January,

been stimulated to wasting wars by the covetous foreigner. They have built up in Asia, Africa, and America. They have not delighted in despoiling and oppressing others. The nations enumerated by the reviewer just quoted, and others besides them — all warlike and fighting nations — have passed away or dwindled into utter insignificance. They seem to have been con- sumed by their own fierce internal passions. The Ethiopians, though brave and powerful, were not a fighting people, that is, were not fond of fighting for the sake of humbling and im- poverishing other people. Every reader of history will remem- ber the straightforward, brave, and truly Christian answer returned by the Kiug of the Ethiopians to Cambyses, who was contemplating an invasion of Ethiopia, as recorded by Herod- otus. For the sake of those who may not have access to that work we reproduce the narrative here. About five hundred years before Christ, Cambyses, the great Persian warrior, while invading Egypt, planned an expedition against the Ethiopians ; but before proceeding upon the belligerent enter- prises he sent

" Spies in the first instance, who were to see the table of the sun, which was said to exist among the Ethiopians, and besides, to explore other things, and, to cover their design, they were to carry presents to the King. . . . When the messengers of Cambyses arrived among the Ethiopians they gave the preseuts to the King, and addressed him as follows: "Cambyses, King of the Persians, desirous of becoming your friend and ally, has sent us, bidding us confer with you, and he presents you with these gifts, which are such as he himself most delights in."

But the Ethiopian knowing that they came as spies, spoke thus to them :

"Neither lias the King of Persia sent you with these presents to me because he valued my alliance, nor do you speak the truth, for you are come as spies of my kingdom. Nor is he a just man : for If he were just he would not desire any other territory than his own ; nor would he reduce people into servitude who have done him no injury. However, give him this bow, and say these words to him: 'The King of the Ethiopians advises the Kim; of the Persians, when the Persians can thus easily draw a bow of this size, then to make war on the Maerobian Ethiopians with more numerous forces; but until that time let him thank the gods, who have not inspired the sons of the Ethiopiaus witli the desire of adding another land to their own.'"*

* Herodotus, iii, 17-22.

18G9.I The Negro in Ancient Histoid : 91

Arc these a people, with such remarkable antecedents, and iu the whole of whose history the hand of God is so plainly mtii, to be treated with the contempt which they usually gaffer in the lands of their' bondage ? When we notice the loornfal indifference with which the Xegro is spoken of by certain politicians in America, we fancy that the attitude of I'liaraoh and the aristocratic Egyptians must have been pre- cisely similar toward the Jews. We fancy we see one of the magicians in council, after the first Visit of Moses demanding the release of the Israelites, rising up with indignation and pouring out a torrent of scornful invective such as any rabid anti-Negro politician might now indulge in.

"What privileges are those that these degraded llebrews are craving? What, are they? Are they not slaves and the de- scendants of slaves? What have they or their ancestors ever done ? What can they do ? They did not come hither of their own accord. The first of them was brought to this country a slave, sold to us by his own brethren. Others followed him, refugees from the famine of an impoverished country. What d'» they know about managing liberty or controlling themselves? They are idle ; they are idle. Divert their attention from their idle dreams by additional labor and more exacting tasks.

But what have the ancestors of Xegroes ever done ? Let Professor Eawlinson answer, as a summing up of our discus- sion. Says the learned Professor:

For the last three thousand years the world has been mainly indebted for its advancement to the Semitic and Indo-European races ; but it teas otherwise in the first ages. Egypt and Babylon, Mizraim and Nimrod — both descendants of Ham — led the way, and acted as the pioneers of mankind in the various untrodden fields of art, literature, and science. Alpha- betic writing,. astronomy, history, chronology, architecture, plastic art, sculpture, navigation, agriculture, textile industry, seem all of them to have had their origin in one or other of these two countries. The beginnings may have been often humble enough. We may laugh at the rude picture-writing, the uncouth brick pyramid, the coarse fabric, the homely and Ul-shapen instru- ments, as they present themselves to our notice in the remains of these ancient nations ; but they are really worthier of our admira- tion than of our ridicule. The inventors" of any art are among the greatest benefactors of their race, and mankind" at the present day his under infinite obligations to the genius of these early ages *

* "Five Great Monarchies," vol. i, pp. lb, 76.

92 The Negro in Ancient History. [Januarv,

There are now, probably, few thoughtful and cultivated men in the United States who are prepared to advocate the appli- cation of the curse of Noah to all the descendants of Hani. The experience of the last eight years must have convinced the most ardent theorizer on the subject. Facts have not borne out their theory and predictions concerning the race. The Lord by his outstretched arm has dashed their syllogisms to atoms, scattered their dogmas to the winds, detected the partiality and exaggerating tendency of their method, and shown the injustice of that heartless philosophy and that un- relenting theology which consigned a whole race of men to hopeless and interminable servitude.

It is difficult, nevertheless, to understand how, with the history of the past accessible, the facts of the present before their eyes, and the prospect of a clouded future, or uu vailed only to disclose the indefinite numerical increase of Europians in the land, the blacks of the United States can hope for any distinct, appreciable influence in the country. We cannot perceive on what grounds the most sanguine among their friends can suppose that there will be so decisive a revolution of popular feeling in favor of their proteges as to make them at once the political and social equals of their former masters. Legislation cannot secure them this equality in the United States any more than it has secured it for the blacks in the "West Indies. During the time of slavery every thing in the laws, in the customs, in the education of the people was con- trived with the single view of degrading the Negro in his own estimation and that of others. Now is it possible to change in a day the habits and character which centuries of oppression have entailed? We think not. More than one generation, it appears to us, must pass away before the full effect of education, enlightenment, and social improvement will be visible among the blacks. Meanwhile they are being gradually absorbed by the Caucasian; and before their social equality comes to be conceded they will have lost their identity altogether, a result, in our opinion, extremely undesirable, as we believe that, as Negroes, they might accomplish a great work which others cannot perform. But even if they should not puss away in the mighty embrace of their numerous white neighbors; grant that they could continue to live in the land,

1869 J The Ntgro in Ancient History. 93

.» distinct people, with the marked peculiarities they possess, having the same color and hair, badges of a former thraldom —is it to be supposed that they can ever overtake a people who t-o largely outnumber them, and a large proportion of whom are endowed with wealth, leisure, and the habits and means of study and self-improvement? If they improve in culture and training, as in time they no doubt will, and become intelligent and educated, there may rise up individuals among them, here and there, who will be respected and honored by the whites ; but it is plain that, as a class, their inferiority will never cease until they cease to be a distinct people, possessing jK-euliarities which suggest antecedents of servility and degra- dation.

"We pen these lines with the most solemn feelings — grieved that so many strong, intelligent, and energetic black men ihonld be wasting time and labor in a fruitless contest, which, expended in the primitive land of their fathers — a land that so much needs them — would produce in a comparatively short time results of incalculable importance. But what can we do! Occupying this distant stand-point — an area of ]S~egro freedom and a scene for untrammeled growth and development, hut a wide and ever-expanding field for benevolent effort ; an outlying or surrounding wilderness to be reclaimed ; barbarism «f ages to be brought over to Christian life — we can only repeat with undiminished earnestness the wish we have frequently expressed elsewhere, that the eyes of the blacks may U opened to discern their true mission and d-estiny ; that, making their escape from the house of bondage, they may 9dalce themselves to their ancestral home, and assist in con- liructing a Christian African empire. For we believe that ** descendants of Ham had a share, as the most prominent actora on the scene, in the founding of cities and in the organ- ization of government, so members of the same family, devel- oped under different circumstances, will have an important I'^rt in the closing of the great drama.

"Time's noblest offspring is the last."

94: Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

Akt. VI.— GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

Kotkes Preliminaires sur les Fouilles, Executer sous les Auspices du Gouvernement Beige, dans hs Cavernes, de la Belgigue. Par M. Edouard Dcfoxt. Tomes I and II. Bruielies. 1S67.

Bulb tin de la Societe des Sciences Katurelles de Neuchatel. From 1858 to 1863. NeuchateL

Bulletin de V Academic Royah, des Sciences, etc., de Belgique. 1866.

Zoologie et Paleontologie Generates. Xouvelles Recherches, sur les Animaux, Vertebrates, dont o-u trouve, les ossements Enfonis, dan le sol, et sur leur Comparison avec les espies actuellement Existants. 4to., pp. 600. Plates. Paris. 186S.

Habitations Lacustres des Temps Anciens et Mod ernes. Par Fredeic Troyox. Lausanne. 1860.

M. BoucntR de Perthes: 1. Des Outils de Pierre. Pp.48. Paris. 1S65. 2. De la Machoire Humaine de Moulin Quignon. Pp.172. Paris. 1864.

Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River, etc., etc. By Capt. A. A. Humphreys and Lieut. H. L. Abbott, Corps of Topographical Euginee'rs, TJ. S. A. Philadelphia. 1861.

NlLSOX. The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia. Third Edition. "With an In- troduction by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. London: Longmans, Green, & Co. 1868.

Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, etc. By Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S. Philadelphia. 1S63.

Slnce the mistakes of Spallanzairi in relation to the bones found in the osseous breccias of Cerigo, and since the homo diluvii testis of Scheuzer was announced and subsequently proved, by Cuvier, to be only part of a salamander, there has been a proneness to identify, as those of man, the frag- mentary remains of animals so often found in the upper stratified rocks. One after another of such discoveries were proclaimed, and in turn discredited; but in the past few years the tide has been turned, and now the evidences of '•prehistoric man" have so multiplied, as to constitute a new and interest- ing chapter alike in Geology and Archaeology.

Tiius far relics of man have been confined to those super- ficial formations on the earth's surface in or above the newest tertiary or pleistocene, more particularly in the post-pliocene, or quaternary. These from below upward consist of:

1. Upper tertiary or pleistocene, composed of the boulder and glacial drift, overspreading parts of the continents, in- cluding, probably, some cave deposits. By the drift is meant the gravel, sand, clay, and loose stones, covering, like a mantle, many parts of the earth's surface, especially in the

1 *69.) Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 95

leiuiKM-ate zones. Wherever found it is not stratified, as a rule, h*\ U mixed confusedly. In transporting it rivers had no agency.

8. Quaternary, post-pliocene, or Champlain formations. These consist of ancient sea and lake beaches, composed of grovel, sand, and clay stratified, and the terraces, which at different levels flank the sides of our valleys, and which also extend frequently into the caverns that penetrate their slopes. Tlii.s formation contains the shells of living species,— sometimes of Buch as exist now, only in other localities, — and also the re- mains of various extinct land animals.

3. Recent {diluvium.) This is composed of the immediate clay*, peat beds, and soils on the surface, including the alluvium along the banks of rivers, and the existing shores of our lakes and seas, which contain normally none but the remains of liv- ing species, whether aquatic or terrestrial.

Such are the three formations which claim our attention, since they alone are held to have yielded vestiges of the human race.

We now proceed to enumerate, and subsequently to examine, the most striking and authentic facts brought to light by the recent labors of geologists touching the antiquity of man. They may, for convenience, be grouped in the following man ner, as relating to :

1. Lacustrine habitations of Central and Southern Europe.

2. "Kjoekenmiddings," or "kitchen refuse heaps" of the coasts of Denmark and Norway in Europe, and the Atlantic coast of North America.

3. Deltas, as those of the Nile, Po, Ganges, and Mississippi.

4. Cave deposits, in various parts of Europe.

5. Remains found in the peat, clay, and gravel-beds, and ter- races of various parts of the world.

1. Lacustrine habitations. It has been long known to the l-eople of the Swiss lakes, that there existed in many of them at.cient posts or piles, which, while they never reached up to the surface of the water, often rose some distance above the Wtom, so as to be visible while passing over them in a boat. They were especially obnoxious to fishermen, who often in- jured their nets on them. The most ancient local history did »»"t mention them; and except in a traditional belief,* which lingers among the people, that they were once inhabited by a

* Troyon, Habitations Lacustres, p. 123.

96 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

race of men who built on the water to protect themselves from wild beasts, nothing was known of them. Occasionally from the bottom of some lake, especially in the vicinity of the piles, the large horns of deer, and sometimes certain strange utensils, would be recovered, as from Lake Zurich in 1829, and still later, from Lake Bienne.* But little was thought of these matters until, in 1853-54, during the execution of certain works at Meilen, on Lake Zurich, some piles in a half decom- posed state were extracted from the mud, and with them some rude, black pottery, moulded simply with the hand, without the aid of the wheel, and certain rude utensils; all of which atfracted the attention of a Mr. Ferdinand Keller, who com- municated his observations' to the Antiquarian Society of Zurich.

This excited similar observations elsewhere, until, in the last few years, nearly all the lakes in Switzerland and Central Europe, in Italy and the British Isles, have been explored, with results which, whatever may be said of them, in relation to the question more immediately before us, are such as must surprise and gratify every lover of science. After Keller's discovery, as already remarked, others -followed, as by MM. Troyon at Nenchatel, Portalez-Sandoz at Lance, Dr. Clement at St. Aubin, Rochat at Y verdon, Rey and de Vevey at Estavayer, Col. Schwab at Bienne, Uhlman at Moosseedorf, Forel at Lake Geneva, Uhlberg at Zug, Baron Despine at Lake Bourget, Re von at Lake Annecy, Strobel and Pigorini in the Grand Duchy of Parma, and de Silber at Peschiera, Lake Garda, Italy, not to mention a host of other persons and places, until, up to this date, enough lake habitations have been discovered to accommodate a population, perhaps, of more "than 100,000 inhabitants. At the station of Unteruhldingen, in one of the Swiss lakes, more than 10,000 piles have been found, and later still, M. Lohle has discovered, at the Station of Wangen, Lake Constance, 40,000.f

They occur in general at short distances from the shore, and are called by the Germans "Pfahlbaukn" by the French "Tejwvriercs" in Ireland "Crannogcs" by the Italians hiPala-

* M. Desor, Smithsonian Report. 18G7.

| A most excellent paper on " Pile-buildings," especially as they occur in Bavaria, is that of M. Wagnor, entitled, "Pfahllauttn in Bayeru,'' in " SituwjsbrrichU der l~jni>jl. Bajftra. Akadcmie der Wisswchoft zu iliinchen. 1BGG. II, Htfl -L

1 500.1 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 97

JU*,n and by the English "Pile-buildings." The Italian name "Palafite" has found most favor. They consist in a nninber of wooden piles, or trunks, (sometimes split,) of the fir, birch, or oak, varying much in size, and were originally cither sharpened at one end and driven into the mud at the bottom of the lake, or if this was not possible, they were set op jukI stones cast into the water about them in heaps, until a wffieient number were secured on which to build. The latter kind of a palafite the Germans call a " Steinberg P The stones were brought in a canoe, consisting of the trunk of a tree hol- lowed out, called a "pirogue." Several have been recovered from the Swiss lakes in a tolerable state of preservation, as at Robenhansen. One, fifty feet long and three or four feet wide, was discovered in Lake Bienne, near St. Pierre, still loaded with stones, where it had been sunk. The piles are often a foot in diameter, and in many cases still bear the marks of the Bint or other implements by which they were prepared. In the majority of cases they have rotted off to the level of the bottom ; but where they have not, the upper end occasionally bears the marks of the ax. These latter are generally at a oniform depth below the surface of the water, which fact sug- gests important general changes in the water level of the lakes where the piles exist since they were placed in position. The palafites were connected with the shore by means of light bridges, as the remains testify.

On examining the deposits which exist amid the piles, and which vary in thickness from one to six feet, there have been dis- covered flint chips, hatchets, hammers, spear-heads, and knives W ^tone ; knives, hatchets, needles, hair-pins, fish-hooks, etc., in }*>nc and horn; pottery of many kinds, chisels, {Av.vernier,) knives, hatchets, reaping-hooks, arms of various kinds, and orna- ments, as bracelets, amulets, and ear-rings, in bronze and iron. ( Occasionally other metals have been found, as, for example, a bar of tin at Estavayer. Also beads of glass and of amber. The same deposits contain bones of various animals, wild and domestic, both living and extinct, in Middle and Southern Europe. Hearth-stones, baked clay from their fire-places, beds of reeds, straw and bark from the roofs of their dwell- ings, heaps of moss and leaves once employed as beds; objects '■» domestic industry, as spindles, skeins of thread, webs,

I

98 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

tissues, nets, small baskets like those figured on Egyptian tombs, cloth, (as at Wangen, Lake Constance ;) remains of fruits, as of apples, cherries, beech-nuts, seeds of strawberry, raspberry, charred wheat, and millet;* and even bread in a charred state, as at Kobenhausen, in Lake Pfeifkon, and many other objects, have been obtained. Besides these, manufac- tories of stone implements have been discovered, as at Moossee- dorf, Obermeilen, and Concise; and foundries for articles in bronze, as at Echallen, Canton ofVaud, and Dovaine, near Thonon. At Morges a mould for bronze hatchets was found. Rutemeyer recognized among the bones recovered sixty-six different species of vertebrate animals, but no cats nor chickens. Human skeletons, or portions of them, have been found, as at Auvernier. Meilen, and Tene. The skulls resemble those of the Laplanders and Fins of to-day. t

Not only have the means been thus accumulated for recon- structing, in some measure, the civil and domestic life of a people nearly lost to history, but certain stages in the progress of their civilization have been made out from the characters of the remains discovered. The principal stages, or periods, as they* are called, are three in number. The earliest has been named the stone period, from the predominance of stone implements ; the second has been called the bronze, and the late&t the iron, period. Beyond this certain facts have come to light which enable us, it is believed, to estimate, at least approximately, the time which has elapsed since the oldest of the pile buildings were constructed. In the valley of the Orbe, south of the town of Yvcrdon, eight hundred meters (2,500 feet) from the shore of the lake, are found the remains of the ancient Gallo-Roman city of Eburodunum. Through- out this whole extent (2,500 feet) no ruins are found. It is supposed the waves washed the Castrum Eburodunense about eighteen hundred or two thousand years ago. Since then the two thousand live hundred feet has been filled in between the ruins and the present shore. One thousand meters (more

* If. Lohle has discovered in Lake Constance a grain store-house, containing about one hundred measures of wheat nnd barley, both shelled aud in the ear.

\ Some of these pile stations bare been naturally recovered from the lakes, fl3 at Zurich, Geneva, and near Yverdon, and at the bridgo of Thielle, where the riv«.-r enters Lake Biennc. The cities of Zurich and Gonova stand on the sites of ancient " palafites."

IS69J Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 99

than 3000 feet) beyond the "ruins, at the foot of the hill Chimbkra, piles have been discovered. According to this, the lake has receded from the original shore at the foot >.•( the hill more than six thousand feet, and if always at the rate it has receded from the ruins, it would give to the buried j.alatite more than two thousand years before the Christian era.

M. Gillieron, from a study of the stone station at the bridge of Thielle, near the entrance of that river into Lake Bienne, by a similar process makes out seven thousand five hundred years as its probable age. M. Morlot,* from certain observa- tions made on the gravel cones at Villeneuve, near the mouth <•:* the Tiniere, in which human remains were discovered, calculates they must be from seven thousand to ten thousand \cars of age.

2. "Kitchen middens" or " Kitchen refuse-heaps" These consist of mounds near the shore of the sea, varying in dimensions, but seldom exceeding one thousand feet in length, one hundred and fifty to two hundred in breadth, and three to ten feet in depth. They occur on the coasts of Den- mark and Norway, and the Atlantic Coast of North America. They are composed principally of shells of the oyster, cockle, and other edible mollusks, mixed with the bones of different animals employed as food. In the heaps are found hammers, hatchets, spear-heads, and knives in stone, horn, bone, and *'»xl, and fragments of pottery, charcoal, cinders, etc., but no bronze nor iron. Many of the hatchets are polished or brought to an edge by grinding. There are no human bones »a them, but the peat mosses and stone mounds in the same '■■ealities in Europe, which are believed to have the same age, contain them.

'lhe size and distance from the shore of some of the mounds, *"<! the characters of the shells they contain, furnish the •neans, as 6ome think, of reckoning the shell-mound men back to the age of the palafites — seven thousand to ten thousand years.

3. Another class of evidences of a high antiquity for man, is obtained from certain limestone caverns in various parts of Kurope. Attention was first pointedly directed to these by

• Etudes Geohguiues, archcuologiques en Danemark el en Suisse. Par A. Morlot.

As

100 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Mem. [January

Schmerling, of Liege, in 1833 and 1834, who studied some of the caverns along the valley of the Meuse, in Belgium. The researches of Dr. Falconer, Mr. Pengelly, Mr. Prestwick, and Sir Charles Lyell, of England, of MM. Tournal, Christol, Lartet, Gervais, and others in France, and the recent ad- mirable researches of M. Dupont, under the auspices of the Belgian Government, in the valleys of the Meuse and Lesse, have been the means of collecting much highly interesting information, some of it bearing on the question under con- sideration. These caverns seldom have much depth, usually have wide mouths, and open in the sides of the river valleys, and in the majority of cases are partially or wholly filled with layers of gravel, sand, and clay, and occasionally layers of stalagmite, formed by the dropping from the roof of water, holding in solution the carbonate of lime of which the stalag- mite consists.

Imbedded in these deposits, at various depths, sometimes beneath several unbroken layers of stalagmite, are found flint chips, arrow and spear heads, hatchets, knives, bones of various animals, frequently of extinct species, which bear in many cases the marks of man, as when long bones are found split open, evidently to procure the marrow they contained, or worked into various implements for peaceful or warlike purposes. Shells of many kinds, fresh water and marine, of both extinct and living species, often pierced by holes, that they might be strung for collars or other ornaments. Among the bones found, of animals now extinct, we may mention the cave bear, (ursus sjielcvus,) cave lion, (fclis spelea,) cave hyena, {hyena spelea) rhinoceros, {tichorinus,) and mammoth, (or clejria-s primogenius) In connection with them, besides the remains of human industry already mentioned, portions of the human skeleton have been found in several caverns, as at Engis, eight miles southwest of Liege, on the left bank of the Meuse ; at Engihoul, on the opposite side of the same river ; at Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf, in the valley of the Dnssel, (memoir by Professor Schaff hausen ;) at Aurignac, foot of the Pyrenees, by Lartet; at " Trou du Frontal," " Trou dc Rosette," and elsewhere, by M. Dupont and others. These, as well as the flint and bone implements, occur in connection with the remains of the above-mentioned extinct animals

1809.) Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 101

under such circumstances as to warrant us in giving them the Ntme a,re. In some of the sepulchral caverns these objects have evidently been mixed, so as to destroy the signs on which reliance could be placed for determining their relative age. But in others, occupied as dwellings, the case seems to be different Besides the relics of man already noticed, various drawings on horn, ivory, etc., have been discovered, as of reindeer, oxen, horses, boars, bears, fish, etc., all quite rude. The figure, on the contrary, of a reindeer, found by M. Vibraye in Augerie, (Commune de Tayac,) which is copied by Gcrvais in his great work, is very good.

But the most singular example is that of a piece of ivory found at Madeline in one of these deposits, in the presence of MM. Lartet, Falconer, and de Verneuil, on which was neatly engraved a mammoth's head clothed with very long hair, which is now known to have been characteristic of the ele- j.hant of the glacial period, since specimens of these animals have been found in frozen gravel in Siberia in a perfectly {'reserved state, having long hair, suitable to a cold climate. M. Vibraye has found a similar specimen at Augerie, except that the drawing was on horn instead of ivory. Until quite recently, it was the universal custom among geologists to place the mammoth in a period anterior to man. But the evidence of the cave deposits, a mere outline of which has been given, shows beyond dispute that man and the mammoth were contemporaneous. This being true, two alternatives pre- K'tit themselves : either the mammoth did not have so high an antiquity as was formerly supposed, or the period of man must be carried further baek than has been the custom. Persons have not been wanting, and are not wanting now, who have accepted the latter.

■i- Deltas. The most remarkable which have been even cursorily examined are those of the Nile, Ganges, and Missis- sippi. They are formed in such manner as to inspire the hope ihey may be made the means of constructing a time scale. Given their extent and present rate of growth, it has been wK>nght an easy task to determine their age. By such a method Sir Charles Lyell makes the delta of the Mississippi one hundred thousand years old.

Estimated jn the same way, the delta of the Xilc would be

Fourth Rebus, Vol. XXL— 7

'■

102 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

still older. The same author considers the alluvial deposits on either side of these rivers above the deltas more ancient still. In the delta of the Mississippi, near the city of New Orleans, Dr. Bennett Dowler says some workmen, in digging for the foundation of a gas- work, found, sixteen feet below the surface, some charcoal and ashes, and what proved to be the skeleton of an Indian. Above the skeleton the remains of no less than four successive cypress forests were discovered, which had been extinguished in the progress of time. Dr. Dowler estimated the skeleton had been in situ fifty thousand years.

Then again, at the foot of a steep embankment of " loess " or alluvium, near Natchez, not many years since, certain bones of the mastodon, and of a species of horse and ox, were picked up, and among them some human bones, supposed to have come from the same formation, and to have been of the same age as the mastodon, which was traced to a point up the side of the embankment, about thirty feet below the surface. The formation supposed to have yielded the human bones some geologists believe to be older than the delta proper ; and if so, the bones must have been from one hundred thousand years old to an indefinite period. In the valley and delta of the Nile some highly interesting researches have been made. by a Mr. Horner, in behalf of the Royal Society of Great Britain, and by a learned Oriental, Hekekyan Bey, the latter, singularly enough, at the expense of the Viceroy of Egypt. No less than fifty-one pits and borings were made on a line from East to West, eight miles above the delta, where the valley or flat is sixteen miles wide between the Arabian and Lybian hills. Another line of twenty-seven pits and borings was made still higher up, about the level of Memphis, where the valley is five miles wide. Invariably they passed through the ordinary Nile mud unstratified, according to the above- mentioned observers. But Captain Ncwbold, on the contrary, found alternating layers of sand and mud some distance, even, from the adjacent deserts.

All the remains of organic bodies belonged, without excep- tion, to living species. The shells were all fresh water.

M. Girard" taking the basis of certain observations made between Assouan and Cairo, believes the Nile mud to have been deposited at the rate of about five inches in a century.

1809.1 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 103

It is proper to remark that Mr. Horner did not place any reli- ance on this estimate. In the excavations, which wene carried down in some places to the depth of twenty-four feet, jars, rases, pots, human figures in clay, etc., were found. Still I.uvcr down, every- where, to the depth of sixty feet or more, t<> which the borings reached, pieces of pottery and bricks were obtained. These facts, with the assumed rate of deposit, would place the lowest brick about thirteen to fifteen thousand years back of 1S6S. Or, if we take another boring of seventy- two feet, at the bottom of which burnt bricks were found, and proceed at the rate M. Kosiere assigns, their age would be about thirty thousand years.

5. lUver Terraces, etc. Stretching along the sides of many river valleys, both in this country and Europe, are certain deposits of sand, clay, and gravel, sometimes more than one hundred, seldom less than forty feet above the level of existing dreams. These terraces have been long known to contain remains of extinct mammals, and various fresh water shells, mostly of species now living. But it is only in comparatively recent times they have yielded relics of man. In the gravels of the Ouse and Waveney in England, of the Seine in France, but more particularly the Somme in Picardy, have flint chips, arrow heads, hatchets, etc., been discovered in,the same layers with bones of the mammoth and other extinct animals. To the latter valley we would more particularly call attention. It is excavated in the chalk-like limestone which abounds in that part of France, especially in the Jura. On the slopes of the valley, resting on the chalk, are, first and deepest, alternating layers of gravel, marl, and sand, altogether about twelve feet thick, containing fresh water and occasionally marine shells, bones of the elephant and rhinoceros, with flint implements.

Next above this a sandy, buff-colored loam, with doubtful traces of stratification, about fifteen feet in thickness, containing Bimilar remains. Above this, brown, unstratified clay, with angular flints and angular pieces of chalk covering the slopes of the hills, and varying in thickness from three to five feet. &-ast of all, a layer of peat, near the level of the existing ftreatn, in many places thirty feet in depth. This, unlike the other layers, only occupies the bottoih of the valley. It

104 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January.

includes remains of various animals, such as the beaver and arctic bear, flint implements in abundance, and portions of the human skeleton.

M. Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, Mr. Evans, Mr. Prest- wich, Dr. Falconer, Sir Charles Lyell, and others in England. and MM. Lartet, Eavin, Eigollot, and others in France, have pursued their examinations of the gravels and peats of this valley, and others, until what was once disputed is now generally admitted, namely, human remains are met with deep in the gravels, as well as the overlying peats, under such circumstances as to show, first, a probable high antiquity; second, that man and the mammoth were contemporaneous, at least in Europe.

For more than a quarter of a century has M. Boucher de Perthes been examining the peats and gravels of the Somme for remains of man and extinct mammals. But it was not un- til quite recently that he succeeded in attracting the attention of scientific men. In the last few years, however, no single locality, perhaps, has filled a larger place in the eyes of geologists. The flint implements and skeletons were discov- ered at various depths in the peats and gravels, almost down to the underlying chalk.

Besides these, Mr. H. T. Gosse, of Geneva, found at La Motte, in the left bank of the Seine, near Paris, flint imple- ments twenty feet below the surface in the " gray diluvium. ;T M. P. Delacourt, at Precy, in the valley of the Oise, found implements in its gravel beds, and also M. Lartet, at Clicliy. In England they have been obtained in the gravels of the Ouse, near Bedford, by Mr. Wyat ; at Hoxnc, in Suffolk, by Mr. John Frere, beneath twelve feet of brick clay, and at Icklingham, in the valley of the Lark ; as well as in many other places. The only question of much importance here relates to the age of the deposits. From certain observations made on the peat, M. Boucher de Perthes, and other geolo- gists, concluded it is formed at the rate of one or two inches in a century. This being true, it would require, to lay down thirty feet in thickness of peat, at least twenty thousand years. The gravels were supposed to have been laid very slowly, and are, of course, older than the peats. The lowest remains they have yielded may therefore be reckoned at, say

1569.1 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 105

fifty thousand to one hundred thousand years of age. Then «uiito similar peat formations occur in the depressions in the boulder drift in Denmark, where pine trunks several feet in thickness are entombed, and of a species (jpimts sylvcstns) not found in Denmark for centuries past. Beneath one of these j.inc trunks, deeply buried in the peat, Steenstrup, a Swedish archaeologist, took out with his own hands one of the in- evitable stone hatchets.

•». Lastly, at the meeting of the American Association tor the Advancement of Science, at Chicago, in August last, this whole subject of the antiquity of man was discussed, but every thing said paled away before the case presented by the State Geologist of California, who exhibited a skull from Calaveras County, in that State, from one hundred and thirty feet below the surface. It was covered by seven or eight layers each, alternating, of gravel and volcanic ash. But, most remarkable of all, there is now in the museum of the Boston Society of Natural History a portion of a skull the label on which bears the following : " Fossil human skull from s shaft in Table Mountain, California ; found one hundred and eighty feet below the surface, in gold drift, among rolled atones, and near mastodon debris. Overlying strata of basaltic compactness and hardness. Found July, 1S57. From C. F. Winslow, M. D., September 10, 1857." *

The age of these specimens, if they are genuine, has not been determined, thus leaving the enthusiastic believer in a high antiquity for man to go as far back into past duration as bis imagination may carry him.

Such' is a summary of the most striking facts which have recently come to light bearing on the antiquity of man. In making this statement we have not overlooked the fossil man of Denise, nor the relics found at Santos, in South America, M described by Dr. Meigs, {Trams. Am. Phil. Soc, 1828,) :">r the human bones found by Count Fortales in the Florida coral reefs, as well as other instances. None of them, we are prepared to say, are more favorable to the antiquity of man than the cases already cited.

J-et us now turn, and, in the order in which they have been given, examine them in the presence of collateral facts, that we * Am. Nat., Oct. 18C8, p. 4-16. Note.

106 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

may, if possible, determine alike their scientific aud their logical value.

I. Evidence from Swiss lake dwellings and other similar sources.

That a people once had their habitations on the lakes of Central Europe there can be no question. It is also certain, that written history gives us but little, if any, information re- garding them. Early historical material relating to Central Europe, scanty as it is, goes no further back than when the Romans began their inroads among the Iberians, Helvetians. and Gauls, or to the time of Julius Cesar, two thousand years ago. We thus have, according to the ordinary count, a period of four thousand years in which the lake dwellers could build their huts, have their day, and perish. People more numerous, with dwellings more substantial, have been utterly destroyed within a much briefer period. This country, only a few years ago, was in the sole possession of a numerous and powerful people, of the stone age, too, of whom only the traces remain to-day, except in the fastnesses of the wild West. What has happened to so many other peoples may have happened to the palafites men. Why not?

The thickness of the deposits on the site of the " palafites," from beneath which relics have been taken, has been thought in some cases to indicate a high antiquity. They seldom ex- ceed six or seven feet. An old fisherman told M. Desor that when a child he used to amuse himself by poking at the old vessels of pottery, of which " great heaps " were then exposed at certain of the " Tenevrieres," where, nevertheless, they are now obliged, it seems, to dredge for them. There are many facts which show that such deposits of mud as in most cases cover the palafites may take place with comparative rapidity. Three miles oil' the city of Cleveland a British vessel was sunk in sixty feet water, which is below the line of erosive action from the waves, which cannot be said in behalf of the palafite de- posits. This happened during the war of 1S12, in a naval fight, and the report being circulated that the vessel had carried down considerable treasure, it was visited recently by some divers, and found covered up in a layer of clay twelve feet in thickness, all of which has been deposited in less than sixty years.

In many even of the stone stations the piles stand not only

\w9.] Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Mem. 107

*„uo distance above the bottom, but in a few cases, if we read Might, bear the marks of the implement by means of which ibey were prepared. Now we know wood covered up in r»tcr, more especially in mud, will be preserved a very long lime But that the piles could have endured six thousand years, subject to the action of waves and light, and yet retain ihe marks of the ax, lacks the confirmation of, if it is not con- trary to, all experience. But beyond this, at certain of the u palafites," as at Tene, Gallic coins of bronze, one of them a Tiberius the other a Claudius, have been ,obtained, which re- temble exactly certain coins now met with quite frequently in France and Switzerland. Others from Tiefuau, near Berne, bear the effigies of Diana and Apollo. Coins of silver and g ild have also been discovered, all of them Roman. Besides these, Ptoman vases, and tiles of terra sigillaria, have been found at several stations, all of which shows that they were inhabited during the Roman period, however completely written history may have ignored them. M. Keller says, that on the river Limnat, near Zurich, several huts were constructed on piles and inhabited by fishermen so late as the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They have been by no means uncom- mon in the past. Herodotus describes the Peonians of Lake Prasias, in Thrace, as dwelling on pile buildings. A like fact U mentioned by Hippocrates. Mr. Layard notices certain representations of such dwellings among the Assyrian inscrip- tions, and also the singular island habitations of the Afaij Arabs on the marshes of the Euphrates. When the Spaniards first entered the lagoon of Maracaybo, on the Caribbean, they Were astonished to see the people with their dwellings on piles, and gave the land the name it bears to this day in com- memoration of the feet— Venezuela. The Papuans of New Guinea, the negroes on Lake Tchad, according to Dr. Laikie, the Malays and Chinese established at Bankok, and !,'i the coasts of Borneo, and the fishermen on the Bosphoros, not to mention other examples, live in the same manner to-day.

The "palafitc" men cultivated not only the same species, but the same variety of barley, as was cultivated in ancient Italy, and is figured, according to Pekring, on the Egyptian monuments, and found with Egyptian mummies. The same

108 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

kind of flax was cultivated alike by the ancient Egyptians and the Lacustrine people of Central Europe.

So far, then, as the " palafites " are concerned, there seems to be no valid reason for extending the time beyond six thou- sand years. AYe may add that, ethnologic-ally, Gervais, a most competent judge, assimilates the Lake-dwellers with the Fins and Laplanders who to-day inhabit the north of Europe, and who have with them now the reindeer, which was employed by the " prehistoric men " of Central and Southern Europe, where at present, in common with the race of men it served, it is extinct.

2. "Kitchen Refuse Heaps" One of the circumstance? supposed to favor their high antiquity is,' that they are often found some distance from the shore, occasionally several miles. But in the older shell heaps this should excite no surprise, since no fact is better established than that the whole north- west coast of Europe and the British Isles are undergoing slow elevation from the sea. "Within the last two thousand years the whole of Scotland has been raised not less than twenty feet, and in some places more than thirty.

The ancient beach line is as easily traced for miles twenty or thirty feet above high tide as the present one. In the gravels near the mouth of the Clyde no less than eighteen, canoes have been recovered from a level fully twenty-two feet above high-water mark. One was on end, as if sunk and partly buried in a storm. One contained a fine polished stone hatchet, and one a piece of cork, which latter could only have come from South Europe. (Geikie.)

In the Carse of Gowrie, which borders on the north side of the Tay, various works of art have been exhumed, such as iron boat-hooks and several iron anchors, from a height above the sea of between twenty and thirty feet. A piece of Roman pottery has been found in the same beach at Leith. A rude ornament of Cannel coal has been discovered in the parish of Dundonald, lying fifty feet above the sea level, among shells.

Along the Scottish shores, it is well known, the old Roman harbors in some cases are several mile's inland. At an eleva- tion of more than two hundred feet, on .the coasts of Norway and Sweden, raised beaches are found containing shells ot recent species. Count Albert de la Marmora, in his Geology

1*<V;K] Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 109

t ( Sardinia, describes an ancient beach, containing shells and puttcry, three hundred feet above the sea. The island of Crete, or Candia, one hundred and thirty-five miles in length, !.-i. been raised at the west end twenty-five feet, so that the ancient ports are high and dry, while the east end has sunk, so «,: »t the ruins of old towns are under water.

The remarkable case of the old temple of Jupiter Serapis at I'ozzuoli is well known. The changes in level of the west coast of South America within the past two hundred years rill be remembered. On the island of San Lorenzo, near this c<-a-t, Mr. Charles Darwin found pieces of cotton thread, plaited rushes, and the head of a stalk of corn, imbedded with ■hells, in a raised beach eighty-five feet above the sea. The bland of Santa Maria, in the same vicinity, was raised in 1S>7 eight to ten feet in a few hours. In 1819 Fort Sindree, and a considerable tract of country about it, near the mouth of the Indus, was suddenly sunk down, so that only the' tops of the houses projected above the waters of the lake which formed on its site. The same spot, by 1S45, was converted into a salt marsh. In Cashmere, where, earthquakes are frequent, shells of species now inhabiting the lakes of the country, and with Ihem pieces of pottery, are found in some cases fifty feet below ♦lie surface. In this same region a beautiful Hindoo temple baa lately been discovered and exposed to view, which for fovcral centuries has been covered up in lacustrine silt.

J lie recent fearful elevations and depressions of the Pacific coast of South America will testify how speedily both the level »fi«l the immediate surface of parts of the earth's crust may be changed by volcanic agency. If, then, we should find a few ^ Kitchen middens" even several miles inland, it would be far from proving of necessity a high antiquity for man.

Another supposed proof of their great age depends on the character of the shells in the heaps. These consist entirely of hiring species. The common oyster is among them, not ex- cepting even the heaps on the shores of the Baltic, in whose haters, however, the oyster is not now found. The water of that sea (as in the case of most inland seas) has become brack- **«. The oyster can only flourish in fresh sea water. The remains of other mollusks are found in the Baltic heaps, as of 'he mussel, cockle, and periwinkle, and also in its water; but

110 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

the specimens now living in the sea, though of the same spe- cies, are much smaller than the remains in the heaps would indicate. To produce that change in the water of the sea which would result in driving out the oyster, and in dimin- ishing in size the cockle and mussel, it is supposed would consume a long period of time ; but the gradual elevation of the land, and with it the change in relative level of the Baltic and the ocean, will enable us to explain such a change as is con- templated without necessitating a long period. "Within the past few weeks, indeed, it is reported, certain remarkable changes in the level of this sea have occurred. One evening recentlv its waters began to subside, and by ten o'clock had sunk down one foot, and so continued until two o'clock the following afternoon, when the greatest depression was reached, of three feet and two inches. From this time the water began to rise rapidly, and during the succeeding night reached a foot above the or- dinary level. Most of the steamers plying between Cronstadt and St. Petersburg are said to have been aground during the period of depression. In view of all the facts pertinent to a judgment on this case there is nothing which may not have transpired in far less time than six thousand years.

3. Deltas. The only delta which has been submitted to any thing like a careful examination is that of the Mississippi. Tin's has been thoroughly explored by Messrs. Humphreys and Abbott, of the Government Survey. Without attempting to state all the facts accumulated, it may be remarked they find the delta, from apex to base, to be two hundred and twenty miles in length, and that at present, it advances into the Gulf at the mean annual rate of two hundred and sixty -two feet. In this manner it would require at most about four thousand four hundred years for its formation. Readers will not fail to notice the difference between this result, and those of Drs. Bowler and Eiddell, and Sir Charles Lyell, namely, about ninety-four thousand years. But certain facts render it uncer- tain if even so much time as four thousand and four hundred years lias been consumed.

1) The apex of the delta would form more rapidly, all cir- cumstances being equal, than the base, or more rapidly than two hundred and sixty-two feet per annum. 2) Singular eleva- tions of the bottom of the gulf near the delta, and perhaps the

1 E G&J Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. Ill

uVhn itself, known as "mud lumps." occur with frequency, by means of which acres in extent are in some cases raised, often above the surface of the water, and from the " lump " inflammable . escapes, and occasionally salt springs break out. After the <«<-:i|>e of the gas, the ''lump" partially subsides, but in some instances remains near the level of the surface of the water.

These elevations have sometimes appeared in a few days, or even a few hours' time. How much they may have aided in the elevation of the delta from the waters of the gulf we can only conjecture, but it is safe to say they must have had no in- considerable share. The Northeast Lighthouse at one of the mouths of the river is to-day one quarter of a mile farther fr<>:n the bar than it was four or five years ago. An island has termed in the Northeast Pass, three quarters of a mile in length, within the memory of man ; nevertheless, trees are now growing near its edge, though it is marshy in its interior. It M constantly and rapidly increasing at this time. The alluvium, along the banks of the river, above the delta, has been described is of great depth. But recent borings show a depth of only twenty-five feet near Cairo, thirty-five feet in the Yazoo swamp and down to Baton Rouge, at New Orleans, about forty feet below the level of the gulf, and in the Atchafalaya basin, not more than thirty feet in thickness. Such are a few of the re- cent facts relating to the delta and alluvium of the Mississippi. Tlicy are very far from requiring of necessity even six thousand years in which for the delta to form.

In relation to the delta and valley of the Nile, no one is en- titled to speak until it has been more carefully explored. There is no reason, meanwhile, to suppose its evidence any U-tter than that of the Mississippi. At any rate, until we have Wore definite information it must be held sub judice, with a strong presumption against it.

4. Cave Deposits. The main interest attaching to these •nses from the fact that they appear to show conclusively the Contemporaneity of man and certain extinct animals, as the f ■t'liiiiiioth and tichorine rhinoceros. The evidence for the an- ucjoity of these deposits depends partly on the character of their Wganic remains, and partly on their geological character and relations in other respects. But the geological evidence which •PpHes here is identical with that of similar cases out of the

112 • Geological Evidences of Antiquity of 2fan. [January,

caverns. In view of this fact we will adjourn its discussion until the next paragraph. There are, however, some special facts which should be" mentioned before passing. They are generally held to be more ancient than the " palafites," though some are believed to belong to the palafite period, as the cav- erns Roca Blanca, Gauges, Laroque, etc., in France.

In the cavern de Pondres, much relied on to show a high antiquity for man, especially by Emilien Dumas, further ex- aminatious have revealed a polished stone hatchet and the tooth of a sheep. The hatchet belongs to the neolithic period, (close of the stone age,) which would bring the contents of the cavern down to a point in time this side of most of the palafites of the stone age. As regards the tooth of a sheep, it may be remarked that Rutemeyer and His did not find re- mains of this animal among the bones taken from the palafites, at least of the stone age, because, as it was decided, the sheep came in after the palafite period. The inference is easy to be Been.

The remains of the cock have not been found in the stone palafites, since, as in the case of the sheep, the domestic fowl ap- peared at a later date. But they have been found in some of the caverns, as the cavern de Duret. Many of the relics found in the caverns, once believed to belong to extinct animals, have more recently been ascertained or suspected to be otherwise, fur example : The cave lion (felis spelceus) cannot be clearly distinguished from the common lion (fdis Ico). The cave hj-ena {hyena sjpclca) cannot be distinguished by specific marks from hyena crocuta, intermedia, or vulgaris. The felis antiqua is probably the same as the panther {felis parda). It is by no means clear that the hippopotamus major is different from that of the Xile and Senegal. But many of the remains belong certainly to extinct species ;' as the cave bear, (ursus sjjelaius,) taraudnus martialis, (a kind of deer,) Irish elk, (megaceros Hibe miens,) rhinoceros tichoi'inus, etc.*

Many of the relics belong to animals extinct in Southern Europe, but living in adjacent parts. For example, the bones of the marmot, the hamster, of several spermophiles, the bison, the reindeer, etc., are found in the caves. But the marmot is known to live now, in Europe, only in Savoy, the hamster near * Gervais, p. 70, et seq.

1869.] Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 113

Strasbourg, the spermophiles in Poland, the bison in the forests . f Lithuania) and the reindeer in North Europe. Aside from vltat the cave deposits present in common with the outer qua-. ;<rnary deposits, there seems to be no fact which demands a longer period of time than six thousand years. Let us then turn, in the next place, to the

6. Terraces, peat-beds, and gravels of the Somme and else- v.«here. Here the question is not whether remains of man have been discovered buried in peats and gravels, in connec- tion with the remains of extinct animals, but as to the time in which such changes as are exhibite'd could occur, and as to r,„'L'iicies and attending circumstances.

It is the vexed question among geologists to-day, and will bo for years to come, as to the rapidity with which the super- ficial changes in the earth's crust have been wrought, especially during the upper tertiary and quaternary periods. More than thirty years ago, Sir Charles Lyell set forth what has been called the " Uniformitarian Theory." It not only declares that all the changes which the earth's crust has undergone in the past were produced by the same agencies as produce similar changes Bow, but that, on a moderate average, they occurred at the •Amu rate as at present. By this rule, if you can ascertain how rapidly a given change happens now, you have, to say the least, •mi approximate measure by which to construe, as to past dura- tion, the record of the rocks. This being by many accepted, /^•logists have very naturally been endeavoring to construct I :iic bcales, but thus far on an insufficient basis.

There are facts which point to a fundamental modification of the rule. It is, that as we approach the period of man, geological changes, on an average, take place with a rapidity •Uich tinds its maximum in the lowest sedimentary rocks, and m minimum in the historic period. The age of man is the '■'■"M tranquil of all. Our beds of peat, sand, clay, and gravel ***-' laid down now in much the same manner ; our earthquakes ■:-'l continental elevations, it is true, are accomplished by the '*me agencies; but the rate of action is, of necessity, by no fcteana the same as formerly.

" e are only now beginning to witness at least a more Funeral, if only a partial, acceptance of the contrary view, "Inch admits of sudden changes in the rapidity with which

114: Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

the same agency operates in various periods in geological history.

The opinion seems to be growing, that a much more ex- tended study of the superficial formations is necessary before definite chronological scales can be constructed on a geological basis, if indeed they ever can be.

Out of many facts which may be cited to show the newer formations to have been laid down with more rapidity than it has been customary to assume, we present the following :

1. During the progress of the Chicago tunnel the writer of the present article was appointed a committee from the Chi- cago Academy of Sciences to watch for any facts of scientific interest which might come to light. The horizontal shaft of the tunnel passed, in its whole extent of two miles, through a fine, compact, drift clay. In the midst of the clay, at intervals, masses of clean gravel were found. These were frequently of large size, and quite irregular in form and disposition, and often had a perpendicular height of two feet or more. The question arose as to how such isolated masses of gravel could occur in the midst of fine clay without mingling 2 The only probable way in which it could occur was by the masses in a frozen state being dropped from floating icebergs on the bot- tom of the glacial sea, and covered up in the clay before melt- ing could take place. Many of the masses were elongated, and stood in a perpendicular position, several feet in height. Either the melting must have been unnaturally slow, or they must have been very suddenly covered up — in a few hours or days at most. If not the latter, then they must have melted down, and the gravel and clay mingled, as they are not. That there was a current in the waters of this lake there can be no doubt ; but unless the masses of gravel were suddenly overwhelmed, why were they not thrown over into a horizontal posture, where the current would tend to place them \ The facts connected with the "gravel pockets" seemed to indicate that clay had been laid down with a rapidity seldom suspected.

2. With this fact in his mind our colleague, Professor An- drews, while in Europe recently visited the valley of the Sonmie, and while there discovered certain corresponding facts in relation to its peats and gravels.

In the latter he found evidence that instead of masses ol

1669.1 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 115

frozen "ravel, blocks of ice, several feet perhaps in thickness, \.n>\ been incarcerated so suddenly as to give no time for melt- ii," until afterward. Moreover the gravel, though of chalk, was 6eldom waterworn, while in many cases the broken edges were sharp, as if fractured yesterday. Both of these facts, if Jalv considered, will necessitate the conclusion, that the gravels of the Somme must have be'en laid down with extreme rapid- itv. It is incredible that masses of ice several feet in thick- oeee should have been covered up, subsequently to melt, if the gravel had been deposited so slowly as M. Boucher de Perthes an«i others have supposed. It would have required several hundred years, to say the least, to form a stratum equal in thickness to the imbedded ice-blocks. The angular pieces of chalk which compose so largely the gravels of the Somme, and the singular foldings or contortions of the layers of gravel, to- gether with other facts, point to agencies at work in the past unlike in degree, perhaps in kind, to any known in the same lo- cality at present.

In relation to the peat, which was said to form at the rate of one or two inches in a century, the same gentleman found in it rtuuipe of considerable height standing erect, so that the upper end must have been exposed before it could finally be covered leveral hundred years. It is contrary to all experience for even the least perishable of woods to last so long, unless deeply covered up in water or mud.

Singularly enough, Sir Charles Lyell, almost on the very page in which he approvingly mentions the extreme results of M. Boucher de Perthes and others, relates that near the bottom "** peat thirty feet in thickness the upright stalks of the alder •nd hazel, of considerable altitude, are fouud, and their roots kl''l in the original soil in which they grew. If the alder ♦talks had been only two inches high they would require at least one hundred years in which to be covered up ; but as it *as they must have stood several hundred. It is needless to »a.v such a view is totally contradictory to the commonest <-'*WTience.

As to the human remains found in the peats and gravels of ti>c Soinme, they present in the main the same characters as those of the Fins and Laplanders of North Europe of the present day. The jaw found at Moulin Quignon, over which

116 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

so much has been said on account of its obliquity, Gervais and Brinckrnan, highly competent ethnologists and anatomists, pronounce to have no unusual characteristic not met with among living men to-day.

From the cave de Bethenas (Isere) a case of similar kind was produced, with the difference that most of the cranium was found, and in connection with it a polished stone hatchet, under such circumstances as to induce the belief they were of the same age. Besides this M. Julien found a jaw still more oblique in the grotte d'Aldene in the department of Aude, (France.) There was no reason to demand for this last case a higher antiquity than for the crania found, for example, at M?alet, Baillargues, etc., in which latter caverns the shape of the skulls was good, judged even by a modern standard. What may be said of the deposits out of the caverns may be said of those in them. So far as appears in the light of recent facts, all such as have been found to contain human remains may be easily accounted for in six thousand years.*

3. In relation to the gravel cones at Yilleneuve, Switzerland, near the mouth of the Tiniere, examined by M. Morlot, Pro- fessor Andrews, after a careful investigation, ascertained that

* In the " American Journal of Sciences and Arts " for November of the present year will be found an article, accompanied by a map and sections, on the Amicus gravel of the Valley of the Somme, by Alfrf.d Tylok, Esq., F.R.S.

The observations referred to were more extended and careful, perhaps, than any ever before made in that valley. The sections of the gravel, upon which the paper is mainly based, were extremely accurate and elaborate, and very numerous, and were famished Mr. Tylor by M. Guillom, chief engineer of the railway at Amiens. They furnish an exact picture of the surface of the chalk of the valley prior to the "deposition of the valley-gravel and '-loess." It is impossible within the limits of a note to give all the results, much less the facts, of this able investiga- tion. To use the language of the author, "the conclusions that I arrive at arc- extremely dissimilar to those of Mr. Prestwich and Sir C. Lyell." They may be briefly stated as follows :

1. The surface of the chalk in the Valley of the Somme assumed its present Bhapo previous to the deposition of any of the gravel or "loess," now found there. 2. Tho gravels do not occupy two distinct levels, separated by an intervening escarpment of chalk, parallel to the river. 3. The gravels were transported by immense river-floods, which, as the facts show, filled the valley at least eighty feet above the level of the existing stream. 4. That these valley formations indi- cate a " pluvial " as clearly as the northern drift a glacial period. This " pluvial period was characterized by immense rain-falls, and may be recorded as imnuh- aUbj preceding the historical jicriod at the farthest.

(Who knows but wo have here fallen on the traces of XoaKsfloodt)

>.:.».] Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man 117

Morlot had left one highly important element out of his calcu- .:•. it. Professor Andrews was not able to get back into the part more than "about four thousand years, instead of seven thousand to ten thousand, as Horlot had done.

<;. Professor Whitney's skull. This, if admitted to be a into case, is one of the most remarkable on record so far as depth beneath the surface is concerned. But it will be remem- bered the overlying strata were composed of alternating layers ,-f ' vulcanic ash and gravel. There is every reason for suppos- ing both may have been laid down with great rapidity, espe- cially the ash, the whole thickness of which, in a period of rotcanic activity, might have been thrown out in a few years at : tost The region is well known to have been the theater of .-' at volcanic disturbance. The same may be said, even more > mphatically, of the skull in the Boston Society Museum, if it ii t true fbd. The overlying mass is said to be basaltic in eharactei. How speedily a mass of basalt, even one hundred a&d eighty feet in depth, may have been ejected, let any one rawer for himself who has studied the history of volcanic eruptions, and remembers, among other examples, Hercula- 1 1 um and Pompeii. But we are not even called on seriously ' discuss this latter case until we have more substantial proof • f hi genuineness. As to Professor "Whitney's skull, the re-

tfka of Professor Blake when it was exhibited, but more ; uticularly those of Professor Silliman, of New Haven, who u personally explored the region where the skull was found, •ere calculated to throw discredit on it. But beyond this, the *ritcr of this article has evidence from a seemingly trust- *"rthy source which points to the whole matter as a hoax, of which Professor Whitney is the victim.

Sncli are the principal special cases bearing on the antiquity

1 man which have recently come to light. Here we might

'• rminate our survey; but as the decision turns on the rapidity

*ilh which geological changes have occurred, we next offer

'•<' facts which tend to throw further light on this general yotion.

to 3S37 and 1840 six fossil trees were found in the coal Wdj of Lancashire, England, where they are divided by the ' ••■ of the Bolton railway. They were all vertical to the strata, *&d their roots imbedded in a soft argillaceous shale. One tree

locirrii Series, Vol. XXI.— 8

118 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. [January,

was fifteen and a half feet in diameter at the base, seven and a half feet at the top, and eleven feet high. In 183S four upright aig Marias were found piercing the coal measures near Capcl Ccelbron, in Wales. One was thirteen and a half feet high, and terminated in a layer of coal. In the Newcastle colliery not less than thirty sigillarise were found on a space fifty yards square. Some were four or five feet in diameter, and the roots of one was imbedded naturally in shale. For some distance it maintained a position vertical to the strata, and then was sud- denly bent at right angles and flattened out in a horizontal position parallel to the strata. In a remarkable case at Wol- verhampton, England, seventy-three. trees were found on a quarter of an acre imbedded in the shales and sandstones of the coal measures. Most of the trunks were prostrate, and though several feet in diameter, were flattened to less than two inches in thickness. Some, however, stood upright, and in most cases the roots were attached, and formed part of a bed of coal which rested on a thin layer of clay. Below this another forest, on a seam of coal two feet thick, and then five feet lower, another forest. M. Alex. Brogniart gives an ac- count of the remains of certain bamboo-like trees {equiseta) at St. Etienne, near Lyons, France, which stand upright in solid sandstone, and are many feet in height.

At a place called " South Jogging," near the Bay of Fu-ndy, in Nova Scotia, a vast formation, four thousand five hundred and fifteen feet in thickness, of alternating layers of shales, sandstones, and coal seams, is found. Sir W. E. Logan dis- covered trees there at no less than seventeen different levels; some stood with a vertical height of twenty-five feet, piercing the layers of shale and sandstone, but never passed through coal seams. In a thickness of one thousand four hundred feet evidence of root-bearing soils was found at sixty-eight different levels.

At Craigleith quarry, near Edinburgh, Scotland, the trunk of a tree seventy feet long was found in a somewhat inclined position embedded in solid silicious sandstone. In the same vicinity, and in the same kind of stone, Hugh Miller found four trees standing in an inclined position, one of them sixty <itid another seventy feet in length. Finally, if we read Sir Charles Lyell aright, (from whose writings most of the facta *""

1 S69J Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. 119

tht'f paragraph are taken,) in 1829, at Gosforth, near New-

;!,■, a tree was discovered piercing through the strata of *.':;.( shales and sandstones to the altitude of seventy-two feet, i'.. these very many other facts of like kind, and equally strik- |np, could be added.

I'.ut enough has been given to show, what has usually been overlooked, that geological changes, even in the formation of the sedimentary rocks, have often taken place with startling rapidity. The imbedded trees to which we have referred had but little durability, many of them not more than the palms U to-day. To cover up such a tree to the depth of seventy- two feet, and yet leave the top as free from evidences of decay u the lower end, it is manifest but little time could be given —at most only a few years.

What then, in brief, are the conclusions we seem permitted lo draw in the light of recent facts ? They are :

). That man and the mammoth in some parts of the globe *«cre contemporaneous.

2. That instead of carrying man back to the period in time formerly assigned to the mammoth and other great extinct ; kcbyderms, we are required, rather, to bring the mammoth down to the period of man.

3. While we feel by no means necessitated to stand up for lira six thousand years of the accepted chronology, yet we are permitted to conclude that those deposits in which remains of

• '! have been found, may in all fairness have been formed within that period. We may safely go beyond this, and say, ihe Tacts not only show such may have been, but in all proba- bility such was, the case.

•*• That the knowledge we have of the dynamical geology • I the various superficial formations from the pleistocene ■pward, is not such as to enable us to reach reliable conclu- ' »M as to past time. This is a work of the future. Much been done. But it may become evident to any one who -v* even a moderate acquaintance with geology, that our knowledge of much that pertains to the tertiary and qua- ternary groups has only seen a respectable beginning.

5. That geological changes have taken place with a rapidity lf: the past seldom, if ever witnessed at the present.

There1 is every reason to expect that this question of the

120 Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man. (January,

" Antiquity of Man," which has unfortunately been pressed into the service of unbelief, will share the fate of hundreds of others, which were once the occasions of conflict, but have only served to correct mutually the too hasty interpretations which men have endeavored to fasten alike on the "word" and " works " of God.

It will only help to show that, however deeply science and religion may differ in aim, method,' and results, yet when fairly construed they will never contradict, because correlates from the same Divine hand.

Aet. VII.— FOREIGN RELIGIOUS INTELLIGENCE.

PROTESTANTISM.

SPAIN. An Opening for Protestantism — Preparations for Building Protest- ant Churches— Efforts of English and American Societies. — One of the greatest among the many victories which the cause of religious toleration has of late gained in Europe is the over- throw of religious fanaticism in Spain by the revolution of September, 18CS. Spain, until the outbreak of the recent revolution, was by far the most intoler- ant country in Europe. Even in Rome and the Papal States Protestants were not so severely dealt with as in Spain. The holding of Protestant meetings, the circulation and possession of Protestant books, and even of unauthorized versions of the Bible, subjected every Spaniard to the heaviest punishment, and the history of Matamoras and other martyrs of re- cent date is ample proof that the Spanish laws with regard to this subject did not remain a dead-letter. All this has now ceased. All the leaders of the revolu- tionary movement have very emphati- cally declared themselves in favor of re- ligious freedom, and wherever the people Lave made any public demonstration with regard to" the subject they have approved the opinions of their leaders. Porn four cities — Madrid, Seville, Bar- celona, and Gerona — it is already re- ported that permission has been asked and gruJted to erect Protestant churches, and many others are expected soon to follow. All tho liberal partios — the Lib- eral Union, tho Progressistas, and the

Democrats — have so emphatically de- clared themselves in favor of establish- ing religious toleration that the coming Constituent Assembly may confidently be expected to throw the gates of tho country wide open to peaceable citizens of every religious creed.

Protestantism is not an entire stranger to the Spanish people.

The Spaniards who are familiar with the history of their country know that in the sixteenth century the Reforma- tion was as gladly welcomed by their ancestors as in any of the other Euro- pean countries. So rapid, indeed, was its progress that it would have required but a short period of freedom to root itself in the country forever. Large numbers of Protestant Spanish books were printed at Antwerp at the expense of Spanish merchants, and imported into Spain. Alfonso Yaldez, Secretary of the Emperor Charles V. ; Alfonso de Virves, who subsequently became Bishop of the Canary Islands; Juan Valdez, the Secretary of the Viceroy of Naples, professed reformatory sentimeuts soon after the public appearance of Luther, lu 1543 a translation of the New Testa- ment was published by Francisco Enzi- nas, better known under the name ut Dryander; in 15G9 a translation of the whole Bible was published by Cassio- doro do Reyr.a. Protestant congrega- tions were established in Seville, Vallo- dolid, and a number of other cities; but soon tho further progress of the Bel or- mation was arrested by tho cruelties ol the Inquisition. Tho worst kinv ■ that have lived in Europe during tl - h'*1

1SC9.1

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

121

\\ i i ^hundred rears worked together with Iho most bloodthirsty fanatics that have ever disgraced the Dame of Christianity

Id eradicate Protestantism. In no coun- try of Europe were so many heretics burned as in Spain. Thus the Reforma- tion in 1570 was entirely suppressed. Only in a Cow foreign cities, as Antwerp, Geneva, and London, small colonies of refugees kept up the history of Spanish Protestantism. In Spain itself, for more than two hundred years, no serious ef- forts could be made to re-establish the reformed faith.

In the present century the liberal ad- ministrations which Spain enjoyed at intervals encouraged English and Amer- ican missionaries to circulate the Bible. The Bishops showed to all these at- tempts the most determined opposition ; and Queen Isabella did her best to bring back the worst days of the Inquisition. By means of reading the Bible a number of Spaniards had secretly embraced the principles of Protestantism, and became in turn active in the propagation of Bible truth. Against them the govern- ment proceeded with consummate cruel- ty, and years of imprisonment and exile awaited every one who was found to- possess or to read the Bible or a Prot- estant book, or to take part in a Prot- estant meeting. Even foreign Protest- ant residents were not allowed the free exercise of their religion. Notwith- standing all this persecution there are to-day large numbers of secret Protest- ants in Spain.

GERMANY. The General Lutheran Conference AT Hanover.— On the first of July a! General Conference of delegates from all I Hio Lutheran Churches of Germany was J oponed at Hanover. This is the first J meetings of the kind that has yet been '■ "eld, and is likely to organize a move- ment which must effect a radical trans- formation in the Protestant State Church- es of Germany. At present Germany has three different Protestant State ! Churches, namely: 1. The Lutheran, -•The Reformed, 3. The United Evan- gelical. The latter consists of a union j Lutherans and Reformed, and was established in 1811 by a decree of the'

k'Bg Of Prussia. Nearly the whole jrotestant population of Prussia, of JKwen, and of a number of the North i»miqwi States, and. altogether, a large majority of the Protestant population

! of Germany, belong to it. The Reformed State Church of Germany has been j almost absorbed by it. Among the j Lutheran Churches which opposed the union of the two Churches are those of Bavaria, (except in the Province of the Palatinate, where the Union is intro- duced,) Wvrrtemberg, Saxony, Hanove:, Schleswig-Holstein, and Mecklenburg. In Prussia a small number of Lutherans, who protested against the Union, have established a Lutheran Pree Church. Within the United Evangelical Church of Prussia, and other countries, there is a considerable Lutheran party which views the United Evangelical Church only as an outward confederation of two independent Protestant Churches, under the authority of one Protestant govern- ment, and which wishes to be regarded as a real Lutheran Church within the Union. When, in 1866, Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein were annexed to Prussia, it was feared by Lutherans of all parties that the Prussian govern- ment, would make efforts to force this union upon the Lutheran Church of these provinces. This fear suggested the plan of a conference of men of all Lutheran Churches. The idea met with general approval, and accordingly, the first General Lutheran Conference at Hanover was largely attended. Three classes of Churches were represented : 1. The avowedly Lutheran State Church- es of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, and other States. 2. The Free Lutheran Churches of Prussia and of other State3, which recognize the United Evangelical Church as the only State Church. 3. The Lutheran party in the United Evan- gelical Church. Dr. von Harless, well- known as one of the promiuent theo- logians of the Lutheran Church, and now president of the Supreme Ecclesi- astical Council of Bavaria, and m of the First Chaluber of Bavaria, was chosen president. A number of theo- logians known to the entire Protestant world by their writings were pn Among them were, Dr. Kliefoth, Dr. Luthardt, Dr. von rlofmann, Dr. K Dr. Uhlhorn, Dr. Thomasius. The following resolutions, which defini relation of the German Lutl eran Church* es to the other Protestant State Church*

es and t<> the Protestatlt .Slate govern ments, were unanimously adopted:

1. Sufficient, but at (lie same time indispensable for the true idea of liio Church, is an agreement in the trim

122

Foreign, Religions Intelligence.

[Jann

arv.

doctrine and in the administration of the sacraments as -we find them expressed in the Confessions of the Lutheran Church.

2. The Church government, being an important member of the Church, is also included in the demand of an agree- ment in true doctrine and in the admin- istration of sacraments with the Church which it is to govern.

3. It is therefore inadmissible to unite Churches by means of one Church government, without agreement in doe- trine and the administration of sacra- ments.

4. For the same reason, the right can- not be conceded to the ruler of a country to dissolve ecclesiastical terri- tories "which may fall to him, without regard to their doctrine and administra- tion of sacraments, into the whole of the State Churches, in such a manner that such Churches would only continue to exist within the State Church as in- dividual congregations with their private doctrine and administration of sacra- ments."

The German Lutherans arc nearly unanimous in regarding a Lutheran State Church as the best form of Church government; but, rather than consent to tho establishment of a union with the Reformed Church, they would generally prefer the establishment of independent Lutheran Churches.

S\YEDEX. The First General Synod of the Swedish State Chl'kch. — Among the notable events in the history of the Protestant Churches of the year 18G8 we must mention the meeting of the first General Svnod of the Lutheran State Church of Sweden. This Church, almost more than any of the Protestant Churches originating in the sixteenth century, has suffered, from an undue influence upon its affairs by tho State government. The bishops and repre- sentatives of the clergy constituted, according to the former Swedish Con- stitution, one of the four estates of the kingdom. The new Swedish constitu- tion, which was adopted in 1867, sub- stituted fur the four estates two cham- bers: and in article 88, while leaving the ecclesiastical legislation in the hand-; of the Diet and the King, made the validity of all resolutions passed with regard to ecclesiastical affairs de- pendent upon the consent of the Gen-

eral Synod. The King shall possess the right of interpretinir the Church laws, until the adoption of a different inter- pretation by the General Synod. The establishment of the General Synod dates from the royal decree of November 16, 1SG3. It shall consist of the Arch- bishop of Upsala, the eleven Bishops of the kingdom, four Professors of the Theological Faculty, the Pastor Prima- rius of Stockholm, of thirty clergymen, to be elected severally by the clergy of the thirty ecclesiastical districts, and of thirty laymen, to be elected in as many electoral districts. The Synod shall" meet every fifth year. The Min- ister of Public "\Yorsbip has a right to be present at the meetings, but has no vote. The opening took place with great pomp on September 5. The gov- ernment laid ten different propositions before tho Synod.

EOMAN CATHOLICISM.

TrtE (Ecumenical Council — Letters from the Pope to the Oriental Bisu- ors and the Protestants — Replus from the Oriental and Protestant Churches. — In the Church history of the current year the preparations for and the discussion of this (Ecumenical Coun- cil, which has been convoked by the Pope to meet at Rome on the 8th of De- cember, 18G9, will occupy a prominent place. By addressing letters to all the Christian bodies which are not in union with Rome the Pope has awakened a general interest in the subject, and elic- ited several replies. In the preceding number of the " Methodist Quarterly Re- view " we have given the substance of the Pope's circular letter to the Roman Cath- olic Bishops convoking the Council.

The invitation in the Papal letter to the Oriental Bishops is thus expressed :

Now, as lately, with the advice of our venerable brothers, the Cardinals of the holv Roman Church, we have indicated and" convoked an (Ecumenical Council, to be opened in Rome on December s of next year, the Feast of the Immacu- late Conception of the Blessed Virgin, i Mother of God, we address our word* to I you again, and we conjure, warn, au I entreat you, with all the earnestness we ! are capable of, to come to this -''' 1 general assembly, as did your ancestors to the Council of Lyons, held under U ■■' ; blessed Gregory X.. our predecessor u venerable memory, and to the Counc ■ of Floreuce, celebrated by Eugeuius 1^ •- [also our predecessor of happy memorji

1S09J

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

123

t.» ihc cml that renewing the laws of an-

. ...,t love, and restoring to its vigor the t. *.v of our fathers, that celestial and Military (rift of Jesus Christ, of which in timr we have lost the fruits, we may see

in 1S48, his Holiness had sent a similar invitation, and the Eastern Church had met it with an encyclical explaining how widely its principles differed from those of Rome; and this explanation bad

,: .,-!, after a long period of grief, in greatly afflicted his Holiness, as his reply

■I rti darkuess and division prevailed sufficiently indicated. " As, moreover,

— we may see arise the brilliaut and pure his Holiness does not seem to have de-

Boruiug which we so long have prayed i viated from his principles," added the

i r. ; Patriarch, "and as we on our side,

Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, Septem- thanks be to God! have not deviated

u r 8, IS68, in the twenty-third year of from ours, we have as little desire to

oar Pontificate. j vainly cause him fresh sorruwas to open

I old sores." A discussion then followed,

I| was from the beginning expected by | in which the Patriarch maintained that

B »man Catholic writers that no Bishop j it was not the Greek Church, but the

• f Russia would be permitted bv the Em- ' Roman Church, which had departed

i*ror to altend the Council. It was also from apostolical doctrine, and denied

the right of the Pope even to summon an (Ecumenical Council on his own au- thority. At the conclusion of the inter- view the invitation was handed back to the. Papal envoys, who thereupon took their leave.

idered as probable that Russian in fliience would be strong enough in Gallah l • prevent the attendance of the Greek- Bishops. But very sanguine hopes were ralertained with regard to the Eastern Churches of Turkey. Leading Roman Catholic papers gave it as their opinion '. it as many as one hundred Bishops of ■• e Eastern Churches might appear in Rome and take part in the Council, and U» most extravagant hopes were in- d rtged in in regard to a union between the Eastern and the Roman Catholic Churches. But the official accounts from I • heads of the Greek and Armenian '.lurches have by this time- thoroughly i 'posed of these extravagant hopes. • : •• letter from the Pope was officially presented to the Greek Patriarch of I '• ••-t.mtinople by four envoys, at the I tad of whom was the Roman Catholic an bbtshop of Constantinople. The fol- 1 »wing account of the interview is given br ihc "Turquie," a semi-official paper rf the Turkish Government published 1 Constantinople, and the "Xord," a Mini-official organ of the Russian Gov-

• rument, published in Brussels, declares •** ■'■ able to vouch for the correctness w the report. The " Turquie " says :

The envoys were very cordially re- ■'■»'l, and one of them at once" pro- *-;"' '1 the letter, richly bound in pam- ' '■ ' I form, and Stated its purport in a j«* brief words. The Patriarch did not Uke the letter, but motioned the speaker "J put it down. He then explained at

• nie length the reasons whv be could ^•ccept the invitation. He had al- ba said, been made acquainted

with the principl

'•'• l*be newspa] e*I»rfaaed in thi " in aa they were diametrically opposed ,

>• Uioae of the Orthodox Eastern Church, | ^>ld' ith sincere borrow that he WHS

The presentation of the letter to the Armenian Patriarch was not more effect- ive. The "Patriarch, it is said, was less decided in his rejection of- the invitation, but he referred the envoys to the chief head of the Armenians, the Catholicos of Etchmiadsin. As the latter is a sub- ject of Russia, it must, on that account alone, be expected that, as far as his in- fluence extends, the Armenian Church will not be represented at the Roman Catholic Council. There may be a dis- position on the part of a few Oriental Bishops to accept the Pope's invitation, but it is highly probable that the Epis- copal representatives of the Eastern Churches at Rome, if there will be any, will be very few.

Outside of the communion of Rome there is only one Church which has a numerous party desiring participation in the Roman Catholic Council, with the avowed hope that such a step may re- move all barriers that now delay their full union with Rome. We refer to the extreme party among the Ritualists of the Anglican Church. This party, in 1S57, established an "Association fur Promot- ing the Unity of Christendom," the mem- bers of which pledge themselves to recite a daily prayer for the union of Christen- dom, meaning, in particular, the union of the Roman Catholic, the Eastern, and the Anglican Churches. From 1SJ7 to I September 1868, 12,684 members have

L?L^™oc"i|been enrolled, of whom 1,831, wo ar belong to the Roman Catholic Church in various countries, 033 aro

unable lo subscribe to them. Already, j Orientals, 92 are attached to miscella-

124

Foreign Religious Intelligence. [Jan nary

Deems communities, and 10.02G belong] to the Church of England, anrl other | Churches in communion with the same, j It is quite common among the clergy- men of this school to recognize an hon- j orary primacy of the Bishop of Rome j over the whole Church, and a virtual J conformity between the doctrine of Home and the doctrine of the Anglican Church, as they understand them. They j hoped that the Bishops of the Anglican | Churches would be invited, with the j Oriental Bishops, to take part in the pro- 1 ceedings of the Council, and that some of the Anglican Bishops might be pre- j vailed upon to attend. This hone has i not been realized, as the Anglicans in Rome are viewed not as schismatics, j but as heretics ; but nevertheless the clergymen of the party have been urging their faithful followers to pray for the | success of the (Ecumenical Council, espe- cially in regard to the union of the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches. The following are extracts* from the letter addressed by the Pope to all the Protestant and non-Catholic bodies:

Instigated and encouraged by the char- ity of our Lord Jesus Christ, who laid down bis life for the salvation of the world, we cannot forbear, on the occasion of the meeting of the next Council, addressing our apostolic and paternal word to aii those who, while recognizing that same Jesus Christ as our Saviour, and rejoicing in the name of Christians, yet still do not profess the veritable faith of Christ, nor follow the communion of the Catholic Church. And if we do so, it is before all to warn, exhort, and supplicate them with all our zeal ami all our charity to consider and seriously examine if they in truth follow the path prescribed by our Lord Jesus Christ, and which leads to eternal happiness. In fact, no one can deny our dnnbt that Jesus Christ himself, in order that all future human pent-rations should enjoy the fruit of his redemption, !>nilt up here below his Church ia the person of Peter, that is to say, the Church, one, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic,

Now, wbos lever wishes well to con- sider and examine with attention the dif- ferent religious societies divided among themselves and separated from the Cath- olic Church which, Bince the time, of the Lord Jesus Christ and his Apostles, has always uninterruptedly exercised, and r-till exercise*, by means of its legitimate Pastors, the power intrusted to her by our Lord himself -whoever, we say, shall thus examine \\ L* I easily convince himself that nol one of those religious societies, nor all the religious societies

together, constitutes, or in any way can be considered as, the one and only Cat ii- olic Church which our Lord Jesus Christ founded, constituted, and desired; sbordd wish that they cannot in auy way be re- garded as a member or as a part of t:: ; same Church, because they are visibly separated from all Catholic unity. As in fact those societies are deprived of that living authority established by God, who pointed out to mankind before all things the matter of faith and the rule of morality, who directed and presided over them in all things affecting their eternal welfare, therefore those societies them- selves constantly varied in their doc- trine, and this mobility, this instability, is unceasing. Every one can easily com- prehend that this state of things is alto- gether opposed to the Church established by Christ our Lord, a Church in which the truth must always rest unaltered, without being the subject of any change, as a charge intrusted to that same Church in-order that she may preserve it in all its integrity, a charge for the care of which the presence of the Holy Ghost, and its aid, has been granted for- ever to this Church.

Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, Septem- ber 13, 1^'JS, in the twenty-third year of our Pontificate.

As was to be expected, the letter had not produced any effect. It has gener- ally been recognized that the toue of this letter is much less arrogant and insult- ing with regard to Protestantism than the great majority of the documents em- anating from the Pone. It deserves, in particular, recognition that the Pop? re- members that Protestants " rcc . the same Jesus Chris: as Saviour.'' Bui as the Pope does not moderate the matical claims of his Church, all the no- tice Protestants could take of his letter was a reassertion of their own position. V few Protestant bodies have made a formal reply, as the Protestant S Church of Prussia. The members of the Tate Triennial Episcopal Convention have signed a letter to the Poi-e i:i reply to his invitation. The General Council of the Lutheran Church, at its i meeting at Pittsburgh, lias like pointed a con. . . ■ r it.

The weightiest response to the Pope's letter will be issued from the next Gen- eral Assembly of the World's Evangeli- cal Alliance. " Through it the Pi world will reply to the Roman Cat At the fifth assembly of the Alliance. 'held at Amsterdam, it was intimated that the sixth assembly might be hold in New York. Consequently soma

I SCO.]

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

125

go the Committee of the Amer- .-. branch extended an invitation to -. • European branches to hold (heir ting in America, and this invi- was cordially accepted. Subse- bweotlr, a letter was received from the < ■ uncil of the English branch inquiring i . iher the autumn of next year might i t bo looked to. on the supposition that instances in the United States and . . Europe favor it. as the probable time . ng the Conference. At a meeting of the prominent men of *.!* American branch, held in New York . October, the Rev. Dr. M'Cosh, for- merly one of the most distinguished : embers of the Irish Presbyterian • burch, and of the English branch of i'.o Alliance, and recently installed as

President of Princeton College, spoke of the enthusiasm with which the Ameri- can invitation had been received at Am- sterdam, aud of the strong desire on the part of the most eminent men of learn- ing and piety on the Continent aud in Britain to hold the next General Council in this country. Other speakers stated that the leading German and French evangelical scholars and divines, aud distinguished statesmen and clergymen from England, would attend. In consid- eration of all these facts the meeting unanimously adopted a resolution ap- proving the plan of holding the next General Conference in Xew York in October of 1869, and pledging its co- operation to the American branch of the Alliance in this work.

Art. VIII.— FOREIGN LITERARY IXTELLIGEXCE.

GERMANY.

The great Protestant Cyclopedia of i:*. Hvrzog. by far the largest and most

■rned work which Protestant theology » -« yet produced, is now complete by 1 a publication of the twenty-second * ••••inie, containing the register, [Thdo- 9* >« Encyldopadie, 22 vols. Gotha.) '••■<: original work contains eighteen vol- • - : to these Lave been added three

• ' ; tementary volumes, and one vol-

oontainiog the register. For theo-

• •■ v!:s who can read German this is an ^exhaustible mine of valuable informa-

'• :i <>n all branches of theology. A

■ rable amount of the material cou- '-' ■•! in it is, however, of but little in-

for any except Germans. A con-

• ' ■•■ 1 translation of it, which was be- r :i s/.ine years ago in this country, has

• '• discontinued from want of support.

s i ' » ll n the Cyclopaedia of Dr. M'Clin-

- • '• ;: i Dr. Strong has appeared, which,

* ' ■■•• immense majority of all who con-

•-t theological Cyclopedias, supersedes

'■ • W'.rW of Dr. Herzog, both the orig-

'•• at.'l the translation.

I - greatest geographical publishing • ■■■' the world, Justus Perthes', of]

■ to which the theological world is

lebted for tho excellent mis-

"!" Dr. Grundeman, has recently

■ ■' ■ new Bible atlas, bv Dr. Theo-

dor Reake. The atlas consists of the following eight maps: 1. The ethno- graphic map of Genesis; 2. The North- ern Semites and the eastern half of the Mediterranean; 3. The territories of the twelve tribes of Israel before the exile ; 4. Syria and Fboenicia at the time of the Persian empire ; 5. Judea and the neighboring countries at the time of Christ and the Apostles ; 6. Pal- estine according to the Onomasticon of Eusebius and Jerome; 1. The Holy Land at the time of the Crusaders. 8. Palestine at the present time. Every map is accompanied by a number of side maps.

Thus there are side maps to the first map representing the ethnographic table of Genesis according to Joseph US, ex- planations from Ptolemy, the map of the world given by Cosmos InJiaopleustes, two maps of the world published in tho fourteenth century, the parts of the world which were known to the Iliad and the Odyssey.

Professor Lipsius, of Kiel, to whom we arc already indebted for several valuable works on the early history of the Christian Church, has published new critical researches on the Lists of the early Popes as they are found in the Chronicles of Eusebius, and of the chronists who have adopted the text of

126

Foreign Literary Intelligence.

[January,

Eusebius. (Die Papstserzeichnisse d*s Eusebius. Kiel, 1SGS.) The author shows, that in consequence of several revisions of, and additions to, our original ' lists, which extended to the beginning of the second century, there were in the fourth century as many as five lists in circulation.

Professor Heinichen. who. as long as forty-one years ago, published an edition of the Church Ilistory of Eusebius, has now begun the publication of a complete edition of the historical works of Eu- sebius. The first volume (Eusebii I'am- ph ilii ffistmice Ecclesiastics, libri X. Leip- zig. 1863,) is a thoroughly revised new edition of the Church History. The second volume contains the life of Con- stantine. (Vita Constantine et Pancgyri- cus atque Coasiantini ad Sanctorum coetum oratio.)

A special essay on the clause "Descend- ed into hell," in the Apostolic creed, has been published by Professor Alex- ander Schweizer, well-known as one of the foremost writers on the doctrines of the Reformed Church. (Hinabgefahren zur Holle. Zurich. 18C8.) The author undertakes to prove that tnose words do not mean a descent of Christ into hell after his death; but, in accordance with the doctrine of the old Reformed Church, wnich has of late been re- adopted by Dr. Hoffmann, of the influ- ence of the pre-existent Spirit of Christ at the time of the deluge.

A work on me policy of the Popes from Gregory I. to Gregory VII. has been begun by Professor R. Eaxmann. {Die PoKtik der Papik von Gregor I. bis auf Gregor VII. Klhp-ftjld, 1868.) The work will be eomjuen in two volumes. The same author has published a bio- graphical sketch of Schleiermacher. (Fri-jbich SchUiermacher. Elberfckl, 1868.) ,

T. Xoldeke, the author of an extensive work on the Koran, has published a work on " The Old Testament Literature. in a series of Essays." (Die Alttesta- mentlicke Literatw in Auhatsen. Leip- zig, 1SS8.)

A new manual of the Biblical The- ology of the Xcw Testament has been published bv B. Weiss. (Lehrbuch tier biU Ttieoiogie. Berlin, 18G8.)

A new work by Karl Zimmcrmann (the founder of the Gustavus Adolphus

j Society) treats of the progress of the J Evangelical Church in Roman .Catholic countries.- (Die evangel. Diaspera. Darmstadt, 18C3.) The first number treats of Protestantism in Austria.

A new " Introduction into the Xew Testament " (Einleitung in das Neve Tes- tament, Freiburg. 1S68) has been pub- lished by Dr. Langen, (Roman Catholic.) Professor of Theology at the University of Bonn. The author, like some other Roman Catholic theologians, has an elastic view of inspiration; so much so, that the episcopal placet was given to his book only on the condition that be leave out some sentences setting forth his reasous for rejecting the verbal in- spirations.

HOLLAND.

Among the Syriac works which some years ago were discovered in the Ni- trian Desert, and acquired by the Brit- ish Museum of London, few were so important as the third part of the Church ff story of Bishop Johannes of Ephesus, which has been published by Cureton. The importance of this work created among the friends of Church history a desire for the publication of all other works of this Bishop that are still extant in manuscript. This wish bag recently been fulfilled by J. P. X. Land, who in Anecdota Si/riaca. vol. ii. (a!-o under the special title Joannis Episcopi Monophysitae Scripta Historica, Leyden, 1SG3.) has published all the ine works of Bishop Joannes. . The volume contains a few more fragments of the history, and. in particular, biographies of Oriental saints, which present a very pitiful exhibition of asceticism as it pre- vailed in the East at the time of this author.

GREECE.

The theologians of the Greek Church begin to discuss the question of an inter- communion between the Eastern and the Anglican Churches. Two works on the subject have recently been publ by Xicholas Damalas, who during tl e present year has been appointed Pn of Theology at the University ofAl The one is entitled. ■• Ou the Rei of the English Church to the Ort!. (~cpl lift axioms ~'i<: uyy\uii)s iiu trpbc, 7;,; London, 1867,)

the other "An Inaugural Address," ( Ei apuTTjptoc ?.o-,oc, Athens, 186S.) Tho

1869.]

Foreign Literary Intelligence.

127

tuthor, aftor explaining' the points of diflfrreuce between his Church and the Auirliean, argues that only the doctrine I he I ireek Church is conformable to the ii.:-, Scriptures, and that only on the I 9«i*H of her doctrine a real and lasting union of the two Churches is possible. Pm author has great confidence in the possibility of a union of the two (": urclies which have so many points in common. He thinks that it may only rciuire some external impulse to con- i innate the union, and he claims for i.;s Church the right to convoke a " j.'tueral " (Ecumenical Council as a genuine successor of the seven (Ecu- menical Councils of the ancient Catholic e.iA Apostolical Church.

ITALY.

The Jesuit Perrone, whose work on the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church is a favorite text-book of the Ultramontane school in the Church of Rome, has completed and will soon pub- lish a work in three volumes " on the Divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ." (De Divinitate Domini Nbstri Jem Christi.)

Of the celebrated work of De Rossi on Subterraneau Rome, [Roma Sotieranea,) the second volume has been published in Rome. It is chiefly devoted to the monuments of the "large catacomb of St. Callixrus. With the aid of the mon- uments examined by him the author institutes new investigations on the history of the early Popes.

Art. IX.— SYNOPSIS OF THE QUARTERLIES, AND OTHERS OF THE HIGHER PERIODICALS.

American Quarterly Reviews.

P^rriST Quarterly, October, 1S6S. (Philadelphia.)— 1. Philosophy and Relig- ion. 2. Translation and the Future Life. 3. Comparative Religion. 4. The Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost. 5. The Office of the Divine Law.

BreuoTHECA Sacra, October, 1S6S. (Andover.)— 1. The Exesretieal Punctua- tion of the New Testament. 2. The Natural Theology of Social Science. 3. Mr. Grate's Theory of Democracy. 4. The Death of Christ in its Outward Appear- ance and its Historical Influence. 5. The Land of Moriah. G. Biblical Notes.

OOSCUEGATION-AI. REVIEW, November. 1S6S. (Boston.)— 1. The Divine Order aud l'!:>n concerning Prayer. 2. Modern Infidelity and the Bible. 3. Recent Catholic Tracts." 4. The Arabian Desert. 5. Paul's Troas Parchments Found. t The House of God a Business House.

>'•• av.fxical Quarterly Review, October, 1868. (Gettysburg.)— 1. The Incar- nation, the Christology and Soteriology. 2. Regeneration. 3. The Third Com- mandment 4. Scriptural Argument (or Sudden Conversions. 5. Thellomiletieal Value of Cicero de Oratore. 6. Novels. 7. Full Fidelity to God's Gifts. S. Re- miniscences of Lutheran Ministers.

Fsttmu, Baptist Quarterly, October, 1SG3. (Dover, N. H.)— 1. Christ's Vital Relations to Men. 2. Roman's Work in India. 3. The First Chapter of Kphesians, or Personal Predestination. 4. The Book of Job and its Lessons. '•>■ Pulpit Eloquence. 6. The Resurrection. 7. Personal Christian Develop- : <>t 8. Doctrine and Polity of the Freewill Baptists. 9. Art in lu- • '•ruction.

Hekcebsburoh Review, October, 1SG8. (Philadelphia.)— 1. The State as an : • -nt in Civilization. 2. An Inquiry into the Validity of Lay-Baptism. 3. An- swer to Professor Dorner.

*»'»'*' Es-glan-der, October, 1SG8. (New Haven.)— 1. Pampresbyterianism. 2. Life

"» <ho Argentine Republic in the Davs of the Tyrants. 3. The Positive Philos-

I'y since 1848. 4. The True Conception of the Christian Ministry. 5. Our

Nuances. 6. Dr. N. W. Taylor's Theology: A Rejoinder to the "Frincctou

Bwiew." 7. Divorce. 8. The Women of the Northwest during the War.

128 Synapsis of the Quarterlies, and [January,

North British Review, September, 18G8. (New York : Reprint.)— 1. Bartolo- meo de Las Casus. 2. The Greek Gnomic Poets. 3. On the Education of the Imbecile. 4. Zwingli, the Reformer. 5. France in Europe and in Africa. 6. The Four Ancient Books of Wales. 7. Nathaniel Hawthorne. 8 Positivism.

Untversalist Quarterly, October, 1868. (Boston.)— 1. Freidrich Schleier- macher. 2. Christ's Work with all Souls. 3. The Process of God in Nature. 4. Africa: Physical, Historical, and Ethnological. 5. John Murray. 6. Vale- rius the Great.

North American Review, October, 1868. (Boston.)— 1. Philosophical Biology. 2. Massimo DAze^lio. 3. The New York Convention. 4 The Principles "of Geology. 5. Epic Philosophy. 6. Tho Political Situation in England. 1. Har- vard College Library. 8. The Siege of Delhi. 9. The Spanish Gypsy.

The first article, by Mr. Francis Ellingwood Abbot, is a piece of very elaborate writing* and very laborious reading. It is an at- tempt to test the validity of Herbert Spencer's accounting for the origin of life on his principle of " evolution." Mr. Spencer's evo- lution consists simply of the regular process of unintelligent cause and effect, with merely material elements, extended through end- less time and boundless space ; and his effort is to show that this process would necessarily evolve all the cosmical phenomena we know, including the highest manifestations of life and thought. Apparently, Mr. Abbot condemns the attempt of Mr. Spencer as a failure. He holds that the phenomena of life cannot be ex- plained by merely cheniico-mechanical elements aud forces. Vital phenomena, he avers, as exhibited in living beings, are of a nature so diverse from mere mechanical phenomena that it is perfectly unphilosophical to deny a diversity of causations. There are facts of life in abundance for which chemical and mechanical powers cannot account.

But while thus rejecting Mr. Spencer's tracing all the phenom- ena of the cosmos to mechanical forces, Mr. Abbot still indorses the explanation of the (/real whole by evolution. He rejects, with all Mr. Spencer's vehemence and contempt, all " special creation ;" and believes that the universe, with all its phenomena, comes forth into successional existence by natural development. All things come, he affirms with Mr. Spencer, by a series of causations ; but, unlike Mr. Spencer, he believes that the causations arc not one, namely, mechanical, but two, namely, mechanical and vital. But how does Mr. Abbot theorize that living beings, life, come into existence without special creation? He adopts the exploded theory, rejected alike by Darwin and Spencer with apparent con- tempt, of spontaneous generation/ And thus he .attains, what he denies Herbert Spencer to have attained, the solution of the entire existence of the cosmos in space and time by the one law of development. Yet he does not, like Mr. Spencer, snjmose that

w

ISfiO.] ' Others of the higher Periodicals. 129

the universal and eternal process can be grounded in an unintel- ligent " Unknown Absolute," (as genuine a big word for noihing- ulali as any pseudo-philosopby ever engendered,) but in an Infi- nite Intelligence. His remarks on this point are forcible :

T:.o more completely the process of organic evolution can be traced in detail, its • iritiea dispelled, aud its perfect unity brought to view — the more widely its r : itions to the general course of inorganic phenomena can be detected in their « .'vile ramification? — the more plainly the universe is shown to be permeated by unvarying, harmonious, and all-inclusive law — so much the more does the entire irsietn of Nature become admirably intelligible, and so much the greater becomes l .- probability of its origination in intelligence. If we grant to Mr. Spencer the miration of his thesis, that the "law of evolution" regulates all phenomena, he must grant in return that this is the best conceivable proof of Infinite Intelli- gence; for the cosmos becomes at once the embodiment of an omnipresent idea. IC a* science advance?, it continually discovers new adaptations and uniformities :a Nature, then, although it may not be able to render a reason for every thing, so : any things are perpetually coming to light for which it can render a reason, that it becomes a fair induction to conclude that every-where a reason exists. The itronger the evidence, therefore, that law is universal, and that universal law is Intelligible, so much the stronger is the presumption that intelligence is Nature's r '.. When teleology is made to mean the direct and confident assignment of Ihu or that motive for this or that natural adaptation, it may well be ridiculed as ibe bastard offspring of ignorance and conceit; but if it means only the supposi- tion of omnipresent reason as the probable secret of omnipresent order, ignorance ■ i conceit alone will ridicule it. The rational Theist, far from imposing on Nature ■ own ways, is quite content to study reverently the ways of Nature; and, '-.-•tad of "figuring to himself the production of the world and its inhabitants by

* 'Great Artificer,' " as Mr. Spencer unintentionally caricatures Theism, neither ;---!nits his imagination to deceive him with gross analogies, nor hesitates to accept

• '•: docility whatever science shall prove as the true character of natural laws. cut lie is assuredly not so entangieTt tn purely mechanical conceptions as to be •' i] .icitated for rising to any higher idea of Infinite Intelligence than that of a

M Mechanic. Perceiving that mind is the noblest outcome of Nature, he sees i ' Nature itself the expression of that which is not less, but more, than mind; 1 •• Hlf-utterance of that which is not below him, but eternally and infinitely above ; J- I in this supreme conviction he finds the open secret of the universe.

On this whole article we may note :

I. Mr. Abbot recognizes Christianity only by supercilious allu- sions to Christian theology, and sullen references to the theologi- ""n odium. But the phrase theologicum odium can be read both **y>; as a theological hatred of irreligion, and an irreligious hatred of theology. Our impression is, that the latter is more I r' m riptive, and far more excuseless, than the former.

'-'• The highly dogmatic and peremptory exclusion of "special creation" from the possible consideration of science, ruling it out "i rourt as incapable of all claim of notice, is a vicious circle pre- •*nbed by a narrow school of pseudo-philosophers. For Comte 4,1,i lu\s followers to construct a scheme of sciences in accordance v 'tn their own dogmas, which excludes from science all truths they ir<" pleased to reject, and then tun. round and denounce those Httha as without the pale of science, and consequently false, aud

130 Synojms of the Quarterlies, and [January

unworthy of scientific consideration, is simply making one assump- tion prove another; and both assumptions being baseless, fall by their own weight.

Either these classifications are assumed to include all truth, or thev are not. If they are so assumed, then these gentlemen must hare beforehand tested and settled all truth by proper evidence. But, if so, they have done a very large work ; and they would act more wisely by referring us to the evidence that bases their classifica- tion rather than to the classification itself. For if the evidence be sufficient, then we are foreclosed by that, but not by the classi- fication. But if these classifications do not include all truth, and there are outside truths which science, by her own laws, must not know, and must not consider even in modifying her own system, then such science is in great danger of being blind and false, and is unworthy of entire reliance. Science may run into false con- clusions from want of outside truths rightly to shape her conclu- sions. When, therefore, men like Maudesly blatantly proclaim " psychology is no science ;" or men like J. P. Lesley asseverate "theology is no science;" or men like Mr. Abbot enounce (as in fact Huxley did before him) that " special creations cannot come before the notice of science," we hold all such blatancies as not worth the breath expended in uttering or the ink in writing them.

3. The claim that absolute creation is a "pseud-idea," an incon- ceivability, is without validity. Viewed in its passive phase, as a being brought into existence, creation is not only conceivable by the reason but picturable to the phantasy. The girl who, in X. P. Willis's beautiful poemette, seeing a star suddenly appear in the firmament, exclaimed, "O, mother, God has made a star!" beheld all that needs to be beheld in the passive process. So far as the active side of the process is considered, namely, God in the act of absolute creation, that is just as conceivable or inconceivable as God himself, or as the "Infinite Intelligence" of Mr. Abbot's "en- lightened Theism;" and far more so than Spencer's stupendous hobgoblin of an "unknown Absolute." We submit that Mr. Abbot makes no case.

4. We have repeatedly maintained in our Quarterly that Mr. Darwin's theory, whether sustainable in science or not, involves not Atheism. We" are gratified to add that Mr. Abbot quotes from Mr. Darwin himself several passages which had escaped our

* notice, in which that writer very quietly affirms the doctrine of the special creation of life at start; thus evincing, without any definite purpose of the kind, that he is an unequivocal Theist. The Duke

I i.: Others of the higher Periodicals. 131

<Y Argyll quotes a very positive repudiation of Atheism as "an »1.-ur.lity greater than Polytheism," from Prof. Huxley.

The article on "Principles of Geology" is unfortunate at this time n eulogizing Sir Charles Lyell's " conservatism " in resisting the belief of the stupendous "antiquity of man," until forced by com- pulsory demonstration! No man is more responsible for giving authority and wide-spread currency to that conclusion, without a basis in well-ascertained facts, than Sir Charles Lyell. A sudden tad terrible break-down seems to have occurred to all his proofs, *t.<l his whole structure is tumbling about his head. Lyell has lost his " fossil man," and Darwin finds a chasm between man and the lower animals which he cannot bridge. To all appearance the scientific world is compulsorily returning to the conclusion an- nounced by Cuvier some fifty years ago, that the Mosaic history it strongly confirmed by the geological demonstration that the human race is but six or seven thousand years old.

AvnucAN Presbyterian* and Theological Review, October, 1SG8. (New Y-»rk.) ]. Linguistic Science aud Biblical Chronology. 2. The Primitive Eld- ership. 3. Humanity Progressing to Perfection. 4. Examination of the Tenth Article. 5. Aspects" of Positivism in Relation to Christianity. 6. Early Pres- tyterianism of the East Side of the Hudson.

Use first article is a valuable showing of the entire consistency of linguistic science with the Mosaic history. Professor Day col- lects from Max Mailer a number of facts indicating the very rapid changes languages without a written literature may undergo, and thence shows that the Biblical chronology provides ample time for 'he complete development Of the languages of antiquity. Hence ill the current theories which require ages for linguistic develop- Cs«.nt are baseless. We give some of the facts :

Auong the illiterate tribes of Siberia, Africa, and Siam, according to Prof. Mul- ■». it has been found that " two or three generations are sufficient to change tho *l ■-• aspect of their dialects." In Central America, a vocabulary prepared with ('■■'■ cart by some Christian missionaries became useless ten years alter, so '■ ; i Waa the change. In like manuer we tind districts of limited extent, and pop- '- -'• d by the descendants of the same ancestry, covered over by a great multt- I - ')' <>f local dialects. In Colchis, that " mountain of languages," Pliny Bays j ' were more than three hundred tribes speaking different dialects. Even a •/' Ijr cultivated, an inflected language, the Friesian. possessing literary documents at age, "is broken up into endless local dialects," each of which J'isunintel-

* I i le except to the peasants of each narrow district in which it prevails."

A work of Mr. H. W. Bates, entitled The Naturalist on the Amazon, as quoted by

J'm'. -s0r Jiiiller, gavs: "When Indians, men or women, are conversing among

Ivea, they seem to take pleasure in inventing new modes of pronunciation,

:/ •" distorting words. It is amusing to notice how tho whole party will laugh

* • • the wit of the circle perpetrates a new slang term ; and these new words k'- ri ry often retained. When such alterations occur among a family or horde,

* ■• ii often live many years without communication with tho rest of their tribe, -•= I'Xul corruption of language becomes perpetuated."

132 Synopsis of the Quarterlies, and [January,

Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review, October, 1868. (Philadelphia.)— 1. Studies in the Gospels : Matthew the Gospel for the Jew. 2. Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament. 3. Christian Work in Egypt. 4. Antiquity of Man. 5. Dr. Gillett and Liberal Presbyterianism.

Article fourth is a comprehensive and valuable discussion of the arguments for the great antiquity of man, drawn from Lan- guage, Ethnology, Geology, Archaeology, Sociology, and Egypt- ology.

English Reviews.

British and Foreign Evangelical Review, October, 1868. (London.) — 1. The Swedish Reformation. 2. Analytical Commentary on the Romans. 3. The Norwegian Church. 4. Philo Judams. 5. Assyria and her Monuments. 6. The Christian Doctrine of Sin. 7. Science and Civilization. 8. Irony iu History; or, was Gibbon an Intidel? 9. Unpublished Letters of Melanchthon.

British Quarterly Revirw, October, 186S. (London.) — 1. Neander. 2. British India under Three Administrations. 3. Chrysostora. 4. Parish Law. 5. Edu- cation in the United States. 6. Bunsen's Memoirs. 7. George Eliot's Spanish Gipsy.

Christian Remembrancer, October, 1868. (London.) — 1. The Talmud in its Origin and Results. 2. Greg's Creed of Christendom. 3. Mediaeval Religious Satire. 4. The Early Bishops of Iceland. S.Richardson. 6. Essays on Church Policy. 7. Dr. Pusey and the Wesleyan Methodists. 8. Lives of the Engli=': Cardinals. 9. The Church's Counselors.

Edixllrgh Review, October, 1868. (New York: Reprint.) — 1. Sybel's History of the French Revolution. 2. Senior on Ireland. 3. Hindoo Fair? Legends. 4. Kinglake's Invasion of the Crimea. 5. Darwin on Variation of Animals and Plants. 6. The Papacy and the French Empire. 7. The Agricultural Laborers of England. 8. The Spanish Gipsey. 9. The Expiring Parliament.

■Westminster Review, October, 1S68. (New York: Reprint.) — 1. Landed Tenure in the Highlands. 2. Poems by William Morris. 3. Reform of our Civil Procedure. 4. Spielhagen's Novels. 5. The Property of Married Women. 6. China. 7. The Suppressed Sex. 8. Sea-sickness. 9. Middle Clas3 Schools.

London Quarterly Review, October, 1S68. (New York: Reprint.) — 1. The Great Railway Monopoly. 2. Lady Minto's Memoirs of the Right Hou. Hugh Elliot. 3. Deer and Deer Parks. 4. The Archbishops of Canterbury of the Reformation. 5. Lake Dwellings. 6. Tho Homeric Question. 7. Mr. Matthew Arnold's Report on French Education. 8. Yorkshire. 9. The Public Questions at Issue.

The article on Lake Dwellings, •written by an authoritative examiner of those phenomena, negatives their stupendous antiquity in his closing paragraph in the following very decisive style:

If we look at the lake remains themselves, and guess how long it mu*t hare taken for such large and numerous settlements to have grown up in t Age, before the new series of towns belonging to the ages of bronze and iron, il teems necessary to date their first foundation in Switzerland several centuries before the Christian era. But this general impression of length of time do«.-s no« readily shape itself into a distinct chronology. It wo are to make a stand ai.y- where, we will make it in a protest against such point-blank assertions the Swiss lake villages belong to " ages ascending far beyond the Pharaohs.'' ^ 8

1* •*!».] Others of the higher Periodicals. 133

•smhm few chronolog-e^ would give to the pyramids of Egypt an antiquity - t!mn two thousand years B. C. The Swiss lake dwellings, for all we can j -.r. to t!ie contrary, may be as old as this, or even older ; but mere possibilities i-. :' r little in such matters, and as yet we have met with nothing like an absolute toeing proof that the first lake-man drove his first ruddy -pointed fir stem in tlit ...;.<• '.raters fifteen hundred, or even a thousand years, before the Christian era.

So Hills one of Sir Charles Lyell's props to the theory of the geologic man.

German Reviews.

.-'tvmen* 0KB Krittken. (Essays and Reviews.) 1869. First Number. Eitayt: 1. Weiss, Apocalyptic Studies. 2. "Weiss, Outlines of Christ's Doc- trine of Salvation in the Synoptical Gospels. 3. Baxman.v, Hermann von Bcicbenfln, as a Historian and Writer on Ethics. Thoughts and Remarks: 1. Tholuck, The Doctrine of the Lord's Supper in the Modern Lutheran The- ology. 2. Krchmel, Johannes Drandorf. Reviews: 1. Zahn, Alarcellus of Aucrra, reviewed by Moller. 2. Kritzler, Civilization and Christianity r< riewed by Kichter. 3. Kxaake, Johannis Staupitii, Opera Omnia, reviewed ly Bixuseil.

The object of the first article is to examine again what the

talhor, in common with the recent German theology in general,

-!s the "Apocalyptic ideas " of the New Testament. The term

M explained as designating the doctrines of the New Testament

concerning the second advent, the close of the " present world-

■.'' and the beginning of "the next seon." According to the

»eory of inspiration which the author (and the Studie?i und

Kritiken generally) holds, the assumption of a divine inspiration

* f ilio Bible does not exclude the co-operation of a human agency. ta accordance with this view, the apocalyptic ideas of the New testament writers are explaiued as divine visions which bring before the minds of the writers the great pictures of the future ' : U»e kingdom of God, but in the description of these pictures ■■•nan combination and meditations must be taken into account, ''♦us the author regards it as settled, that the Apostles really *«eved that the seGond advent of Christ, which they had beheld • * 'mous, would occur soon, even during their lifettime. From

* point of view Professor Weiss treats, 1. Of the Nero Legend ;

> "»« expectation in the first century of a return of Nero to life.

■ 0»e Apocalyptic Ideas of St. Paul. 3. The Time of the Book

' Kevelation. 4. "The Deadly Wound that was Healed."

' !:" v. xiii, 3.) 5. The Eighth Emperor. G. The last Conflict and

* tctory.

Johannes Drandorf, who is the subject of a brief notice by •Jjjmmel, was an adherent of the doctrines of Huss, and was 1 ^nrrn Series, Vol. XXI.— 9

134 Synopsis of the Quarterlies, and [January,

burned as a heretic at "Worms. Little has thus far been known of him. The author of this brief notice publishes some new aud interesting documents concerning him.

The three works which are extensively reviewed in the last de- partment of the Review have already beeu ' mentioned in former numbers of the Methodist Quarterly Review.

Zeitsciirift fur die Histokische Theologie. (Journal for Historical The- ology.) First Number, 1SG9. — 1. Prof. Preger. (Professor in Munich.) Preparatory Essays for a History of German Mysticism in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries.

Professor Preger, in Munich, has for many years been engaged in the preparation of a history of German Mysticism of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The entire present number of the Journal for Historical Theology is taken up with a* number of essays treating of a few prominent incidents in this history, but more fully than will be the case in the history itself. The mystic writers and theologians of the Middle Ages represent by far the soundest element in the theology of the Church of Rome, for, while they did not externally separate from the Church, their aspirations and speculations were built much more on a general religious and Christian basis than on that of scholastic dog- maticism. Thus there is much in their works which Protestants can accept as sound Christian theology and philosophy, and not a fcwr of the prominent men of the school were denounced in their own Church as heretics, and are claimed as forerunners of the Reformation of the sixteenth century by Protestants.

The essays contained in this number of the Review are seven, namely: 1. The Monastic Regulations of the Dominicans in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. 2. The Dominican Pro- fessors of Theology {magistri theologiai) at Paris in the Thir- teenth Century. 3. The Provincial Friars of the Dominican Order in the Monastic Province "Germany" in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. 4. Theodoric of Freiburg. 5. Master Eckhard. G. Henry of Nordlingen. 7. John Tauler. 8. Henry Suso. 9. The " Goltesfreund" ("Friend of God") in the Obcr- land.

Some of these subjects, especially the lives and writings of Tauler and Suso, have been often treated of before, but the author furnishes some new material. Altogether the essays raise a high opinion of the larger work on Mysticism, of which they are the harbinger.

jkOD.] .Quarterly Book -Table. 135

Akt. X.— QUARTERLY BOOK-TABLE.

Religion, Theology, and Biblical Literature.

P* Revelation of Law in Scripture; considered with respect both to its own Nature rind to its Relative Place in successive Dispensations. The Third Series of the Cunningham Lectures. By Patrick Fairbairx, D.D. 8vo., pp. 4S4. Neu- York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 1S69.

la the present volume, as iu his works ou Typology and on Proph- ecy, Dr. Fairbairn furnishes a rich body of exposition both of the OKI Testament Scriptures and of their relation to the New. The present volume is, perhaps, scarcely equal to the other two, but is itill obviously pervaded by the same penetrative mind. Dr. Fair- burn is amply familiar with the most modern researches in the field he cultivates; he possesses, himself, the most modern spirit aud style of thought; yet he maintains the firmest, clearest hold upon the old evangelical theology, knowing full well how to be progressive without being destructive. His Calvinism appears to [•ossess a hue hardly blue enough for the optics of the magnates of the old Kirk; it is scarce perceptible, and never repulsive to the most clear-eyed and sensitive Arminian. We are able to rec- ommend the work to our readers with scarce a single abatement.

In the Old Testameut Dr. Fairbairn recognizes the Decalogue to l>c centrally The Law ; to which the ceremonial system is a sub- HTvient accompaniment, designed to impress it deeply in the soul of the Representative Race, the Jews. Of this Law the Psalms and the Prophets are not the progressive advancement and im- provement, but the means of breathing the true spirit of the old announcement into the popular heart. Coming into the New i< lament, we find in the living Christ a living realization of the perfection of the Law, and iu his death, Dr. Fairbairn finds, with- out shrinking from the announcement, a satisfaction of divine justice f°r the sins of men. He expounds with much fullness and great clearness the relations of the Law to the Gospel, and from ih.jse relations he shows how the modern revival of Ritualism is °l'posed to the true Gospel. The volume is closed with an appen- dix containing exegeses of a number of important texts, as deduced 'r,)m the views in the body of the work. These expositions are •resh and fundamental, exhibiting the usual traits of the author's Hear intellect and sound methods of theological discussion.

♦\ c cannot, however, indorse Dr. Fairbairn's indorsement of the •"'lowing language of A. A. Hodge, touching the transferability "• guilt: "The sinful act and the sinful nature are inalienable. *''« guilty or just liability to punishment, is alienable, otherwise

136 Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

no sinner can be saved." We hold it axiomatically certain that the guilt, or strict punishment of an act, is no more " alienable," that is, transferable, from the actor to another being, than the act itself, or the very personality of the actor. To say that a person is guilty of or for a -wicked act is but another form of saying that he wickedly performed the act;' and as the guilt is intransferable from the wicked act, and the act is intransferable from the personality of the actor, so the guilt is intransferable from him.

Suppose Pythias to have been a genuine criminal, and Damon to have died in his stead. Then supposiug that this rare fact had been wrought into a system of thought, of oratory, and emotional literature, what would have been the natural phraseology in which the grand transaction would have been depicted ? It would have been said that Damon suffered JPythias's p>unishynent, took his crime 2q)on himself, hecame the criminal in his place, bore his crime in his own body, assumed his guilt, became crime that he might become innocence. Yet literally and strictly Damon did not one of these things. He was innocent, guiltless, without crime and with- out punishment from beginning to end. He endured not punish- ment, but only suffering in lieu of another man's punishment. The simple fact would be that an innocent man endured an infliction of the objective forms of penalty that a guilty man might escape its reality. And, stripped of conceptual language, nothing more was done or demanded in the case of Jesus and the sinner. Trans- ferred guilt is just as palpable an absurdity in ethics as a circular triangle is in mathematics.

In Pythias's case absolute punitive justice was not executed, for a guilty man escaped. What was done? A governmental or judicial expedient was substituted in the place of absolute vindic- tive justice. By the death of Damon a visible- proclamation was made to the eyes of men that the crime was heinous, and never safe to be repeated. And were Damon like Earl Strafford or Charles First, the greatest man of the realm or of its whole his- tory, the proclamation would have exerted perhaps even a more impressive effect than absolute justice itself. It would declare that though the guilty is released, yet guilt is none the less guilty, sin none the less sinful.

Manual of Methodism; or, tho Doctrines, General Rules, and Usages of the Methodist Episcopal Church. With Scripture Proofs and Explanations. Br Bostwick Hawi.ey, D.D. New York: Carlton <fc Lanahan. 18G8.

Dr. Hawley's little Manual is calculated to fill a blank place in the literature of the Church. Strange that we have never had a

jg09.] Quarterly Book-Table. 137

primer fit to be placed in the hands of our catechumens on probation, which with a few days' attention will enable them in- telligently to answer the question whether they approve the doctrines and institutions of .our Church! Very properly, the Manual begins with a succinct explanation, exhibition, and proofs of our Articles of Faith. To outside readers that would seem to W sufficient for the full understanding of our denominational doctrines. But Dr. Hawley, of course, very properly passes from this our inheritance from the English Church, first to an analysis, historical and biblical, of our General Rules.' Then come our Prominent Doctrines, which, though embraced in no Articles, really constitute our doctrinal peculiarities among the modern orthodox Protestant Churches. Then follows a chapter upon the Sacraments, in which the baptismal question is rather extensively treated. Last come our Peculiar Usages, namely, Class Meet- ings, Love Feasts, Itinerancy, and Episcopacy.

The work, though small, is essentially complete, and the sym- metry tolerably well preserved. Ministers would do well to take note of this work and circulate it among our membership, and especially our catechumens. The result will be a better under- handing of our system and a truer self-consciousness of the Church. ,

the Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Eight Lectures preached be- fore the University of Oxford in the year 1S60, on the foundation of the late Hev. John Bampton, M.A., Prebendary of Salisbury. By Henry Parry Uddoh. Second Edition, P2mo., pp. 535. Rivicgtous, London and Cambnugc. Sold by Carlton & Lanahan. 1S6S. One of the ablest volumes in theology published in our day. It takes the central subject of Christianity, the Person of Jesus the Me**iah, and demonstrates his true divine sonship as entitled to o«r worship, with a conclusive force against the schemes equally of Deism and Socinianism. It maintains with eminent impressive- »ett both that the Scriptures delineate Christ as divine, and that Ae Scriptures which so delineate him are themselves divine. It meets the question in all the aspects of modern thought. In so 'l^ing it touches a vast variety of subsidiary topics, which interest '•''inkers in this field of thought, in the present crisis of opinions, with a master hand. It meets the assaults of llenan and Schenkel '•<'t so much by negatively invalidating their positions, as by building up a positive and impregnable fortress in opposition and ' delusion. It is a structure of positive theology, in comparison *Uu whiel, the opposing systems, to a true heart, are seen to bo freble and false. The study of such a work, written in a style

13S Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

of high-toned biblical and catholic faith, is bracing to the spirit. The flimsy speculations of the current Rationalism, that hardly knows what it believes or disbelieves, which is enervating the religious and moral tone of a large class of thinkers, cannot stand •in comparison with the firm, bold, compact Christianity expounded in volumes like this of Mr. Liddon's. For those ministers among us, if any there be, whose faith in the long-established doctrines of the Holy Catholic Church is thin and dim, we recommend a few days' inhalation of the healthy and invigorating atmosphere of these pages. And as for laymen who study such topics, and whose loyalty to the Son of God is shaken by the perusal of the rationalistic literature of the day, this is one of the choice works we should be glad to put into their hands.

Mr. Liddon's style is remarkable for condensation of argument, terseness of expression, perpetual unfaultering life in every seutence from end to end of the volume, rare poetic liveliness of imagina- tion, and rich rhetorical music. In compact, glowing, scholarly eloquence, it is a model.

There are a few subordinate points in which Mr. Liddon appears to us so extra-orthodox ns to be heterodox. He is, incidentally, sacramentarian and High-Church. He asserts the doctrine of the "impersonality" of the human Jesus. The will of the Lord's humanity is by him organically fixed in all its volitions by the divine will. Our view is, that Jesus was a perfect human person, whose free human will concurred in most perfect obedience to the will of the Divinity. " Scripture," says Gregory of Nyssa, " ascribes to Jesus all the attributes of our nature, save only the bias that leads us to sin." Without such bias, as was the original Adam, Jesus, though able to vary, did yet, without variance, maintain most freely an absolute coincidence with the divine law.

A Garden of Spkes. Extracts from the Religious Letters of Rev. Samuel Ruther- ford. By Rev. Lewis R. Dux.v. With an Historical and Biographical Essav by Rev. A. C. George, and an Introduction by Rev. T. L. Cityler, D.D. 12tr.o.. tinted paper, green and pilt, pp. 288. Cincinnati: Hitchcock A Walden, Now York: Carlton <fc Lanahan. 1SG9.

Rutherford was a saint whom the heart of the universal Church would canonize. His religious and devotional writings, as dis- tinguished from his controversial, are to be classed with those of Kempis, Jeremy Taylor, and Fletcher. He dwells in the very empyrean of Christian experience, and his vivid fancy and exquisite language insinuate his pure and holy thought^into the heart of the reader whose blessed lot it is to possess a spirit

ibuj,

] Quarterly Book-Table. 139

capable of sympathizing with his spirit. In an age of sensualism, like the present, it is a sign of hope, a proof that there is a goodly remnant according to the election of grace, if such -works find compilers, publishers, and readers.

By a curious coincidence, Mr. Dunn in the East and Dr. George in the West, unkuown to each other, were eugaged iu making selections from Rutherford. Each offered his MS. respectively to our Eastern and Western Book Concerns, and both were editorially sanctioned- and about to be published. When this simultaneity was discovered, it was agreed that Mr. Dunn's ■elections' should be adopted, and Dr. George's biographical sketch of the author be retained. It is issued in the beautiful ityle of our Western house, and will be an acceptable boon to the Church.

Rutherford was born in Scotland in the year 1600, and became .Master of Arts at the University of Edinburgh in 1621. His letters were written during a period extending from 1628 to 1661, the year of his death. His letters entire have been published by the Carters. The biographical essay by Dr. George is in his best style. We commend the volume to our readers as one of the most delightful aids to personal piety.

Tki Romance of M. Renan and the Christ of the Gospels. Three Essays by Rev. l>r. Schaff and M. Xapolf.o.v Roussel. Green and gilt, 16mo., pp. 239. New York: Carlton & Lanahan. Cincinnati: Hitchcock &, AValdeu. Tract ^ <iety of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 1SGS.

In accordance with a now established custom, this beautiful little tolume is called a tract. Our belief is that a tract is wisely made to he externally attractive. The leaves that are for the healing of Ihe nations should not look dry and shriveled. Colors and forms a'i.l esthetic symbols should recommend them to the receiver's Welcome, and make them seem too fair to be flung into the gutter.

1" the first of these two monograms, Dr. SchafT so draws the Jx-rtrait of the Jesus of the Gospels as to make apparent his true divinity. This prepares us for the second piece, iu which the fancy Je-uis of Uenan is shown to be an impossible being. The style f,{ both articles is fresh and popular, and the combined argument " let forth with admirable oiVect for the extensive class of readers •'•> whom it is addressed.

Hie argument drawn U >m the person of our Lord, for higher tatters, was first set fo-th in modern times, with unsurpassed

140 Methodist Quarterly Review. [Janitor*-

effect, by Ullmann in his " Sinlessness of Jesus," published in this country by Gould & Lincoln. Second, by the side of this, as a new argument, with all its faults, we must place Ecce Homo. Read in this light, as an unconscious refutation of Kenan, bv the presentation of a positive counter view, we consider Ecce Homo as eminently a destructive of the destructive. Finish this ele- vated course of reading with Liddon's Bampton Lectures, and it must generally be an erratic will, we think, that prevents the mind from taking a true and firm position.

Sermons. By Rev. Henbt "Ward Beecher, Plymouth Church. Brooklyn. Se- lected from Published and Unpublished Discourses, and Revised by their Author. In two volumes, large 12mo., pp. 4S6 and 484. Xew York: Harper & Brothers. 186S.

Booked up for posterity ! These stately volumes are monumental, bearing inscriptions that are to tell a coming age what were the verba ipsissima with which the Plymouth preacher thrilled and quickened his generation. Do they bear the crystalizing process? "Will the coming reader feel the fixed and permanent lightning as the present hearer and contemporary reader felt its first flash ? We do not know. We fail to identify our own soul with the coining age. But somehow the once glowing words that kindled and inflamed as they flew, look cold and stereotype in these stately catacombs. We will not judge by our own feelings ; for if we did we should say that our graudsons will wonder, from this printed page, what was the power by which Henry Ward Beecher seemed to his contemporaries to almost rob Jeremy Taylor of his title of u The Shakspeare of Divines."

A Defense of Jesus Christ. By Menard Saint Martin-. Translated from the French by Paul Cobdeu. 12mo., pp. 182. Cincinnati : Hitchcock k Walden.

The marvelous transparency and glow of style characteristic of the true French preacher appear to fine advantage in the clear type, upon tinted paper, furnished by our Western publishers. We could wish a fuller biography of the eloquent author, who departed before the fullness of his age on earth. The sermons brought many unbelievers to a confession of Christ. The argument for the divine mission of Christ is of course not new, but it is clothed with a beauty that may attract readers who would pass unnoticed a more solid and bulky volume. It may be well recommended to the preacher as an inspirer and model, and to the ordinary reader as a qnickeuer. of faith.

». ,; • Quarterly Book-Table. 141

, and Via Rei'jn of Terror; or, the Church during the French Revolution. - .1 from the French of De Pressense. By JOHN P. Lackoix, A.M. . ,, pp. 41G. New York: Carlton <fc Lnnalian. Cincinnati : Hitchcock &, i.'n. 1869.

T>.:* elegant volume, translated and modified from the French i ; the eloquent Pressense, comes, by permission of the original wthor, through the hands of the Western professor, with peculiar 1 1 »j»riety, being himself a descendant of a French Protestant Mticstry. It is full of monitory lessons. How illiberal is Liberalism ! How irrational is Rationalism! How credulous is Skepticism! How intense the theologicum odium of the haters of Christian ibeoiogy! How fierce a persecutor is the infidel Antichrist! Itut Uie lessons of the work will, we trust, be more fully expanded b a forthcoming Quarterly article.

IV Garden of Sorrows; or, the Ministry of Tears. By Rev. Joun Atkixsox. I too, pp. 203. Tinted paper, and gilt. New York: Carlton & Lanahan. Cin- atuutti : Hitchcock k Walden.

( I ristianity does not prevent sorrows on earth, as the sun does '- A prevent clouds ; but it knows how to give them luster and

ry, and render them fertilizers of the soil of the soul. From • man, of sorrows we learn how to sorrow. The lessons his

*t example furnishes to his Church and his followers are beau- I illy developed in the little gem before us. Mr. Atkinson writes in a fresh and flowing diction, and has selected a topic •hich his style of mind is eminently qualified to unfold. It is : :.'• up by the publishers in beautiful style, and forms a choice - '• ')v>ok for this or any other season.

' !«t of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Prepared bv Rev. •«' M'Cuntock:, D.D., and James Strong, S.T.D. Vol. 2, C— D. 8vo., pp. «* New York : Harper & Brothers. 1863.

■•f rvadcrs will receive with pleasure the announcement that this

v ror* IS, in the hands of its authors, in such a state of forwardness

i% 'la- volumes will be issued as rapidly as the work of publica-

:i can be accomplished. The purchasers of these first volumes

■•*>' therefore reasonably hope that the whole work may in due

•woe be ia their hands. It will then be in itself a very complete

"r"»ry. The works of Kitto and of Smith, the latter now in pub-

■ 'U<m in this country, are valuable, but not greatly needed by

. PO»8eB80r8 of the present work, being essentially embodied,

*n!' much additional matter, in it-

142 Methodisi Quarterly Review: [January,

The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah and that of the Lamentations. Translated from the Original Hebrew. With a Commentary, Critical, Philological, and Ex- egetical. By E. Henderson, D.D. 12mo., pp. 192. Andover: Warren P. Draper. Boston: W. H. Halliday & Co. Philadelphia: Smith, English, & Co. 1868.

A translation, by an eminent English biblical scholar, in poetic form, giving to the English reader a far clearer appreciation botli of the meaning and the poetic beauty of the original than he will derive from an English Bible. The notes are scholarly and illustrative, drawn largely from such early authorities as Calvin and Zwingle; and such German scholars as Michaelis, Eichhorn, Rosenmiiller, De Wette, Dathe, Hitsig, Ewald, and Umbrcit.

Reconciliation; or, How to be Saved. By Rev. William Taylor, of the California Conference. Small 12mo., pp. 208. London : S. W. Partridge. 1867.

Infancy and Manhood of Christian Life. By Rev. William Taylor, of the California Conference. Small 12mo., pp. 160. London: S. W. Partridge. Ne^- York : Carlton k Porter. 1867.

The glowing yet practical style of thought in which our noble evangelist excels, is here brought out in effective use. Recon- ciliation to God and growth of Christian life are the great topics of religious thought. Seldom are they presented with greater clearness and force than in these little books.

Foreign Theological Publications.

David, der Konig von- Israel [David, King of Israel.'] A Biblical Life- Portrait, with constant reference to the Davidic Psalm?. By Dr. FRIEDRICH Wiliielm ELrcm- maciier. Pp. i, 428. Berlin : Wiegandt und Grieben. 1S67.

Every thing from Krummacher is always sure of a hearty welcome by a large circle of readers. The character of the present volume is very similar to Elijah the Tishbite, long familiar to Americans by the translation issued by the American Tract Society. David is not behind Elijah or Elisha as an exhibition of that re- markable facility with which Krummacher is known to clothe the historical truths of Scripture in such attractive and edifying style. The topics are: David's Call; the Harp-player; David and Goli- ath; David an Inmate of the King's House; a New Storm; David at Kama; Sanctified Friendship; Errors; David in the Wilder- ness; New Help from God; Abigail; the Last Meeting of Saul and David; David among the PbJJisUucs; a Deaiii Celebration; David, King in Judah ; David, King over Israel ; the King in the

|$69.]' * Quarterly Book-Tahle. 143

| Id; the Bringing of the Ark of the Covenant; a Gleaning ; the «;-■. at Promise; Mephibosbeib ; David at the Zenith of his Power ; iHvid's Fall; David's Penitence; the Beginning of Misfortune;

• »• Rebellion ; Near Deliverance ; the Decision; New Necessities ; S imbering the People; the Imperial Assembly; the Last Days; v. 1 David's Death and Testimony. It is not necessary that lengthy extracts be made in order to prove the author's continued ortho- ,\ ,xx — for some of the Germans are evangelical at the outset and become heterodox in their older and weaker years — sinco the rholebook "gives no uncertain sound " that Krummacher is to- day what he was when he wrote "Elijah" and "Christ and his IVo|ile.M He regards the Old Testament as fully inspired, he tells ?.*, :md that he is not at liberty to make his own selections and say of the rest that they are not of divine origin. He lays down the n&xim that if a preacher will acquire a hermeneutical knowledge

• f the Old Testament he must share "the faith of Christ and his Apostles in it as the revealed truth of God, given directly by his •• I'irution, and free from all mythical elements. Further, he must 1 ive a clear view of God's plan, beginning in the Old Testament toil terminating in the New, to redeem man from the curse of a

■■ ken law. Last of all, he is not compelled to leave his New Tes- tament position in order to study the truths of the Old, for the bright glory of the New Testament can be seen all through the ' rioas history of God's chosen people." Krummacher's tribute lo ihe poetic features of the Old Testament is earnest and evangel- '. and reminds us of the glow of some of Herder's expressions, though far excelling them in recognition of their inspired charac- ""• "The poetic features of the Old Testament," says the author I '"David," "especially of the Psalms, the Song of Solomon, and \- niohs of the Prophecies, furnish our sermons with their noblest -! rnraenL We draw from its circle of historical personages the '- effective illustrations of the truths we preach. The holy ' ' rv have mixed for us the colors for the picture of the Church as ■ ;• once foresaw it in its perfection."

tfaf*g9€ ft"" das Evangclium Johannis. [The Testimonies for the Gospel of ! By Chkistopii j'oH.vNwrs Kiggkkbach, Dr. Theol., Professor. Svo- *V- J'-'G. Basel : C. Detloff. 18C6.

A good defense of the authenticity of the Gospel of John against

"* *keptica in general, and Volkmar's Urspnmg Unsercr Uvan-

•'*"« in particular. Bretschncider (1S20) made a formal attack

■■ Ihe authenticity of this Gospel, Strauss endeavored to demolish

144 Methodist Quarterly Rcvicu. [January,

what he supposed was left, and Baur (1844) and his school have striven to prevent the ruins from ever being put into shape again. Vol k mar' s work proves, however, that the Rationalists are afraid that the work of destruction has not been well done after all. Professor Riggenbach, one of the best champions of the truth on the continent, takes a critical view of the sceue of conflict, and in making his report says: "jSTot a stone in the great 'edifice has been touched.' It is as strong this hour as before all the assail- ants came in sight of it." Those who wish a minute, scholarly, and apologetic discussion of the Gospel of John, one, too, in which the best fruits of all the latest investigations in exegetical science are used to excellent advantage, will find just what they wish in the present volume. It is not a commentary, but rather an intro- duction, the plan embracing first a " Survey of the Characteristics of the Gospel of John," and then an " Account of the Witnesses for the origin of his Gospel." The evidence is indisputably posi- tive against Baur's view that this Gospel was written about A. D. ICO by some unknown individual, who drew a picture correspond- ing to the spirit of his time. Dr. Riggenbach establishes the fol- lowing points : That at the middle of the second century the Gospel of John was recognized every-where in the Christian Church as one of the inspired writings; that it was regarded by both Christians and their enemies as the writing of an Apostle ; that it had no sectarian bearing whatever ; and that its inspired and supernatural character is sustained, not only by the universal faith of the Church, but by the internal character of the Gospel itself. |

Ijlirlnirh der Dogmengeachichte. {Manual of History of Doctrines.'] By Dr. K. " Hagexbach, Professor of Theologie at Basel. Fifth edition. Pp. xx, 7G1?. Leipzig: S. HirzeL 1867.

All of Hagenbach's works are again passing through his hand-, this time, no doubt, for a final polish. The present edition of the Dogmengcschichtc is in many chapters worked over anew. The later theology is so abundant that the fifth period (from the year 1 7 '20 to our day) has required considerable enlargement. We regret that the author takes so little cognizance of the theological move- ments in the United States and Great Britain. He acknowledges the excellence of the American edition of his history, but excuses himself from incorporating here those portions which have been add<;d by the American editor by saying, that each should kecj> his own property, and that he (Professor Hagenbach) would not enrich himself with other people's wealth ; but this is a small

i$69,] Quarterly Book -Table. 145

Niter and the book in its present shape is undoubtedly the best ItWiory of Doctrines ever published. Many objections which

•i.t lie well put against all others cannot be presented against • .. The first edition appeared in 1840, and the present (the -.;'.!>) is, therefore, the maturity of a childhood and youtli of ivenly-seven years. After the introduction the work proper is '..-. ided into five periods, as follows: Period first — the Age of tbologetics ; period second — the Age of Polemics; period third — ■:-.<■ Age of Systematic Theology; period fourth — the Age of Po-

..>■«>• Ecclesiastical Symbolism, the Conflict of Confessions of \ -.'ih; period fifth — the Age of Criticism or Speculation, and of '. • Antagonism between Faith and Knowledge, Philosophy and I rivtianity, Reason and Revelation, and attempts to reconcile <• antagonisms. One of the excellences of the present above pervious editions is a large increase of the literature relating to I > subject. The index at the close is in every respect a model.

Philosophy, Metaphysics, and General Science.

tit Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. By Charles Darwin,

W A., F.R.S., etc. Authorized Edition, with a Preface, by Prof. Asa Gray. With

[rations. In two volumes, pp. 494, 56S. New York: Orange Judd & Co.

W ben Mr. Darwin several years since published his " Origin of '"ics," he stated that he should at a subsequent day present the - U on which the conclusions there given were founded. The ' ■"•■lit volumes are prepared in fulfillment of that promise. A *" '"«<! work will discuss the variability of organic beings in a state • « mture ; and a third will apply the principle of "Natural Selec- '•- *> M to the facts thus evolved.

rbese volumes are chiefly devoted to facts relative to domes-

• Hea animals and plants, in procuring which Mr. Darwin was "* 'ly aided by zoologists, botanists, geologists, breeders of 1 '■', r'K horticulturists, foreigners, merchants, and government

' rs, all of Avhom he found courteous and prompt in their assist-

- On the subjects of which they treat, this is probably the

k'^*t and best arranged collection of facts that has ever been

'• '••■and must be of great value to the student. The first volume

'" -voted to the history of our most important domestic animals

' I'1 mis ; and the second to such questions as inheritance, rever-

B lo earlier forms, hybridism, the causes of sterility and of vari-

*>'. and the laws of variation. The work may therefore be

• }' concluded to possess a great attractiveness for various

146 Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

classes of practical men, as well as the professional naturalist or physiologist. The facts which are so faithfully collected and so candidly presented will stand, whatever becomes of the theories which are attempted to be built upon them.

To the philosopher and theologian the work possesses an interest of another kind. The author tells us that it was his observation of birds, reptiles, and plants in the Galapagos arehipelago, five hundred miles from the South American coast, which first led him to those investigations which resulted in the theory which is now- called by his name. We must, of course, wait for the publication of the other works before we shall be fully in possession of the facts and reasonings which have influenced his own mind ; and, indeed, it is only in the final one of the series that we shall find an explanation of those " singular and complex affinities " that group together all organic beings of the past and present, and show ♦heir descent from a single root. We can easily believe that all \orses have descended from one ancestor, and that the numerous varieties of pigeons might, if we only had their genealogical tables, be traced to the same nest ; and we shall wait patiently for the simple explication of " the hand of a man, the foot of a dog, the wing of a bat, the flipper of a seal, on the principle of the natural selection of successive slight variations in the diverging descent from a single progenitor."

Meanwhile, it is certainly fair that the successive steps of the argument as it is developed be closely examined. The reader cannot fail to observe how much of it turns upon likelihood and probability. Inferences and guesses, however correct they may often prove, must not be taken for demonstrated propositions upon which to rear another course of inferences, the final end of which will be claimed to be the overthrow of the most firmly settled thing in the world, the truth of God's word. Conceding the facts. the significance given them by Mr. Darwin has in it so much of hypothesis and confessed ignorance that his " rational explana- tion " seems to us most irrational.

Mental Science. A Compendium of Pscholo;ry and the History of Pliilo?opbv. Designed as a Text-Book fur High Schools and Colleges. By ALEXAKDEB Bain, M.A. 12rao., pp. 99. New York: I>. Appleton ACo. ISO?.

The Human Intellect. With an Introduction upon Psychology and the Soul. By Noaii Porter, D.D. Svo., pp. 673. New York: Charles Scribncr Jt Co. l^OS.

Mr. Bain is the author of several stately volumes on Psychology, written from a quasi-materialistic stand-point. With him mind i-' animated matter, pervaded by a sensitiveness which can be devcl

}-<;•,».) Quarterly Booh -Table. 14.-7

oped into thought, and enlivened with impulses that can he shaped !»iu» volitions. All the mauifestations of so-called mind are de- .imvd not from above but from below. From sensation originate til <>ur capacities for knowledge. Intuitions, thoughts that have no material type or origin, have no existence. , Thisis a philoso- phy which usually springs from a sensual age, and reactively it t. miualizes the age from which it springs. It is congenial with lhat school which, taking its stand in physical science and ma- •.. ri.il nature, bastardizes all the holiest sentiments of the soul and •J.<- highest realities of the universe. It is far from the truth to i ij that all who hold the views of mind presented in this volume *rv Atheists ; but it would be very near the truth to say that all Atheists, Fatalists, awd Materialists would accept the philosophy of this volume. That the book is an acknowledged standard for

- school is evinced by its being published under the auspices of lYofcssor Youmans, by the indorsement of it from Professor Masson iv M the richest natural history of the mind in the language," and by ike patent ability with which the views are exhibited in its pages.

A most timely and effective antidote to the sensualistic philoso- j hy presents itself in the volume by Professor Porter. The pub- lication of this work is a marked event in the history of mental

• ■■■ nee, not only in our country, but in the English language. It ■ n«.t only standard, but in its fullness, symmetry, and complete- I *m it is standard without a competitor. The size of the work, devoted to the intellect alone, exclusive of the sensibilities and

• ill, may prevent its extensive adoption in our literary institu-

te ; but, in spite of the clamors of the physiologists, we think if the classical course is to be diminished the study of our higher r.itiire is quite as worthy to fill the blank as the analysis of

• clea and intestines. Let every student who would master the Mysteries of intellectual science master the contents of this work.

' rofcssor Porter writes in a clear, manly, solid style, not very ••like that of John Stuart Mill. There is no high-flown, transcen- dental nebulosity, after the fashion of Coleridge or Ralph Waldo uacrsoo. The subject of our intuitive faculties is treated with

• rigid scientific analysis. Of course, as the title indicates, the Mellect alone is discussed, and the volume is not a complete

" n*ntal philosophy."

■ i and Drinkinq. By James Parton. Paper covers, 12mo., pp. 151. 1 »ton: Ticknyri Fields. 1868.

r- 1 arton's essays seem to be written with a set purpose to Va"oo physical morality and depreciate spiritual Christianity.

14S Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

lie shows bow tobacco creates a distaste for refined female society, and sneers at tbose who "'get' religion." He declares tbat all past effort in behalf of temperance is a failure, and the first hope for the cause is the abandonment of the moral and relig- ious effort, and commencement anew under Parton and science. The whole performance is luminous with self-conceit.

History, Biography, and Topography.

The Invasion of the Crimea. Its Origin, and an Account of its Progress down to tho Death of Lord Raglan. By Alexander "William Kixglake. Vol. ii, pp. G32. New York : Harper & Brothers.

In this volume Mr. Kinglake resumes the thread of his narrative where it was broken off by the close of his first- volume, namely, at the close of the battle of the Alma. He gives a graphic picture of the situation at that moment, and shows most conclusively that had the allies attacked Sebastopol immediately on its north side they would have taken it with little loss of life. This golden op- portunity they missed, because the French commander, St. Ar- naud, being sick, was unwilling to unite in the attack. Then fol- lows a fine description of the famous flank march to the south side of the doomed city, a march which, as our author shows, would have proved the destruction of the allies if the Russians had not been so badly demoralized by their late defeat. But being too badly whipped to be led into battle immediately, they permitted the allies to inarch unmolested to the south. There another op- portunity was lost, Sebastopol not being so defended on that side as to be prepared for effective resistance to a vigorous attack front such an army. Again the unwillingness of the French, now led by Canrobert, prevented an attack, and again the city passed a point of peril. A partial investment of the place was then made, by which time was given to Todleben to prepare and perfect those famous earthworks which so long resisted the efforts of the allies. As soon as the siege batteries were ready the attack was made. The English engineers demolished the defenses opposite their bat- teries, and the city was open to assault. Again the French, dis- couraged by explosions of their magazines, declined to join in an assault, and another golden opportunity was thrown away. Fol- lowing this failure came the battle of Balaclava, at which tin- Russians, taking the initiative, surprised the British forces, and ought to have gained possession of the post of Balaclava ; but En- glish pluck prevailed, and the post was saved. During this battle there occurred two of the most remarkable cavalrv charges in tin?

>/i#] Q uarterly Boole - Table. 149

I )'..ry of war, namely, the charge of the British Heavy Dragoons a ! the charge of the Light Brigade. These charges are de- i ribed with a minuteness which enables the reader to understand

• .. ir appalling details, and with a graphic power which thrills him ta the quick. We know of no pen-picture in the literature of war vi impressive as Mr. Kinglake's portraiture of the " Charge of the Li'jht Brigade.'1'' The stoiy of this celebrated charge, and Mr. Kinglake's masterly analysis of its causes, closes this interesting i v! lime.

Mr. Kiuglake evidently intends to deal honestly with the facts

I t!io Crimean war. His sources of information are full and re-

I il.'o, heiug derived from personal observation, and from English,

r.'xueh, and Russian authorities. His criticism is candid and

utterly. If he wrongly estimates his facts he appears to do it eaconscionsiy. His style is strong, clear, and charming. We '•■»•.<• read his book with profound interest, and have closed its ptges with a sharp appetite for its successor.

nWt Country Homes, and how to Save Money to buy a Home; how to build neat lad cheap Cottages, and how to gain an Independent Fortune before Old Age ■ raes on. "With a Description of the Wonderful Agricultural and Horticultural A (vantages of New Jersey, including, also, a Business Directory. By Serexo Edwards Todd, of the "New York Times." author of "Todd's Young Farmer's H loual," and "Todd's American "Wheat Culturist." New York: Published by ' •• Author. 1S68. Sold by N. Tibbals, Nassau-street.

v')u Todd's book is written for young people "just beginning in

'•■ e world" on small means, especially about New York. Its first

I »rl {rives hints and models for building cheap houses for small

• I'nilies; its second furnishes a large variety of entertaiuiug and

raltuble lessons touching the economies and virtues that pay best

B We; the third unfolds the excellence of South Jersey as a field

; { the most advantageous agricultural enterprise. Science has

:'vt:ilcd and the railroads have newly laid open this section as a

''"ii of productive soil, salubrious climate, and accessible markets ;

J '! '""t, a better than the West, without going west to reach it.

••'• "odd is apparently a gentleman of exuberant spirits and excel-

»t intentions; his work is eminently calculated to do good —

-ially to South Jersey.

• • ■-■;

■J Works of tfie Rev. John Howe, M.A. With Memoir of his Life by EDMTTSD "*my, D.D. Completo in two volumes, 8vo., pp. 623 and CIS. Robort Urt« £ Brothers. 1369.

*«en we say that Howe is not one of the authors that take hold ! °'>r individual soul, that he seems prolix, and preliminary, and Poubtb Series, Vol. XXI.— 10

150 Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

preambulatory, ever about to say something without ever saying any wonderful thing, perhaps we utter our own condemnation and not Ids. But we never undertook a serious study of his works without tiring of the attempt. Yet there are men of thought and wisdom who say that he is a giant, and who tell the young preacher that he had better buy John Howe than a new coat, if his purse cannot afford both. We may say, then, that here is an old publication of Howe with a new and substantial coat on. If our readers wish either to test our critical feeling, or to make a right estimate of Howe, or to profit by his treasures of thought, the Carters have put him, in solid form, within their reach.

The Apostle of Kerry; or, the Life of the Rev. Charles Graham, who had for many- Years as his Associate on the Irish General Missions the celebrated Gideon Ousc-ley. Also four Appendices, containing one of Mr. Graham's Sermons, an Irish Hymn, etc. By Rev. "W. Graham Campbell, General Missionary. 12mo., pp. 323. Dublin: Moffat & Co.

The three wonderful missionaries of early Methodism in Ireland were Gideon Ouseley, Thomas Walsh, and Charles Graham. They founded a Methodism there from which American Method- ism has largely drawn. Dr. Alexander, of Princeton, said, that the early history of Methodism reads like a spiritual romance. One of its most striking passages of most truthful romauce is its Irish passage, which Mr. Campbell has vividly presented in this little work. Lovers of Methodist history the world over will thank him for the gift.

A true apostle was this man of Kerry, in the regular line from Paul, and whatever the catalogues of successional prelacy may pretend, endowed with credentials better than most Archbishops can show. »

General Literature.

The Reign of Law. By the Duke of Akotll. Fifth and cheaper edition. Small 12mo., pp. 462. Loudon: Stratum & Co. 18G3.

The object of this work is to sIioav that it is in perfect consistency with universally reigning law that miracles exist, that creation takes place, that purpose is supreme in the arrangements of the world, and that man is free both as a member of the divine government and as a constituent of civil society. It is written in refutation of tho seviews of the absoluteness and invariability of natural law by which the supernatural, the divine, and the ethical are ex- cluded from existence.

\%0.) Quarterly Book -Table. 151

That view of miracle is taken and illustrated which holds it to bo not a suspension or violation of law, but an interposition of a iupcrior power interrupting, indeed, what would be the regular course of events, yet which, as being simply the incoming of a new intecedent, would be strictly in accordance with both the laws of causation and the laws of nature, taken in the largest sense of the term nature. In regard to the creation of man the Duke niain- i. litis that the Hebrew record requires no interpretation which < i eludes that event from the domain of law. Nor do the devel- opment theories of Darwin and others, unproved as they yet are in science, exclude the existence of an all-pervading _p*/r/>ose which demonstrates an all-controlling Mind. The prevalence of that purpose he shows to be as clear as many other relations whose existence even atheistic scientists admit. Contrivance, dealing v,ith law, he shows to exist by a variety of striking illustrations; . specially from the beautiful adaptation of the forms of birds for the various modes of flight required by their nature, to all which, u an amateur ornithologist, the Duke has given special study. In the realm of mind he adopts that view of the freedom of the will which rejects " compulsion," but maintains that if all the antece- dents to the volition were fully known the volition itself could be predicted. Contrary to his own view of himself, we hold that this view makes him a strict necessitarian, for (leaving the Divine Fore- knowledge out of the question) man can predict a future event - nly through a causation or a logical necessity. There must be an invariable action of the will, that is, a strictly invariable cou- b< '--lion between the antecedent, or sum of antecedents, and the consequent volition, in order to insure the invariable accuracy of the prediction of human foreknowledge. The absoluteness 1 1 the knowledge in the knowing mind would require an abso- roteness of result in the will. This would be fatalism; and !" ' we behove that the spirit of the Duke is not intentionally Statistic.

1 he work is an admirable antidote to the prevalent Pantheism "1 IVsitivisin of the present day. It is written in a clear and B«ent style. The whole train of thought is relieved by a trans- I kfent simplicity of expression and an amplitude of illustration •Inch a familiarity with science enables him to throw around the ' •',j"«,t. The work will probably be reviewed in a full article in

' ir Quarterly. 'n Hie author of this book, titularly disguised as the eighth Duke

l'i k'.vle or Argyll, is by personal name George Douglas Camp-

» Secretary for India in Mr. Gladstone's administration, for-

152 Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

merly Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and Postmastor General under Lord Palmerston.

We may note, by the way, that the Duke lately published iD the Good Words a series of articles written intentionally in the interests of Christianity, in -which he firmly maintains the immense antiquity of the human race. One of his main proofs is the exist- ence of the unmistakable features of the negro on the Egyptian monuments of highest antiquity. Our readers may see on page seventy-five of our present Quarterly what a negro would say to that argument.

Scotia's Bards. The Choice Productions of the Scottish Poets. With Brief Biographical Sketches. Green and gold. Large 12mo., pp. 558. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 1869.

Of course old Scotia can furnish you poetic gems of unsurpassed splendor. Her roll, as here exhibited, extends from Thomson, the author of the Seasons, to Alexander Smith, the man whose fault was too restless a brilliancy. First we have the simple old-time bards, as Allan Ramsay, Robert Blair, author of The Grave, Fal- coner, of the Shipwreck, Beattie, of the Hermit, Macpherson with his Ossian, Bruce, and Logan. Then comes the miraculous peasant-poet, Robert Burns, his life an era in British poetic literature. That era is followed by the full blaze of the age when Scott in Scotland, Moore in Ireland, and Byron in England, with countless minor stars, formed the most illustrious age of English poetry.

The editor announces on page G4 the solution of one of the curious problems of literature — the reality of a Celtic Ossian, and the genuineness, at least in great part, of Macpherson's work as a translation of actual Celtic remains.

The work is done up by the Carters in standard style, and is one of the gems of the season and for any season.

Passages from the American Note Boc>ks. In two volumes. 12ino., pp. 228, 222. Boston : Ticknor & Fields. 18C8.

Hawthorne wrote few paragraphs that did not attest the man of inborn genius. His writings never, indeed, attained a broadcast popularity in his own country. In fact, save with the few who were able to feel the occult touches of a rare mind, his name was but dimly known ; and frankly as he handled England, his reputation was perhaps broader, if not higher, abroad than at home. These notes are republished from the Atlantic Monthly, and are chip5

|$69l] ' Quarterly Book-Table. 153

::->:« ihc hatchet of a unique spirit. Sad to say, that upon the mott inspiring and holiest of all subjects his heart was Cold as the rocks on Tornea's frost brow.

l±sv£*ratum of James M'CosTi, D.D., LL.B., as President of The College of New Jersey, Princeton, October 27, 1868. 870., pp. 96. New York: Robert Carter t Brothers.

Tbe pages of our Quarterly, both editorial and contributed, have .•■.-ted our exalted estimate of Dr. M'Cosh's abilities. lie has mtasnred a victorious sword with the mightiest anti-Christian thinker of the age, John Stuart Mill. And we avail ourselves of •.Lis Inaugural to say, that such a man would be an accession to lay country. We trust that his success in his new office will add lo his great and well-merited reputation. The address itself bears on its every page the tokens of a master mind.

."• X-w England Tragedies. By Hejcry W. Loxgfellow. 1. John Endicott. 3, Gile3 Corey, of the Salem Farms. 12 mo., pp. 179. Boston : Ticknor & Fields.

The persecution of the Quakers and Salem Witchcraft — shall we never hear the last of them ? — furnish Longfellow the instigation y»\ excuse for these two performances. Poems we can hardly <ru\ them, but rlueut prose in measured lines, with initial capitals. They add no value to literature, no needed lesson of toleration to • '•• Protestantism of our free age, no increase to the great and Merited reputation of Longfellow.

Periodicals.

The " Christian Advocate " at Nashville is edited by Dr. T. O. SuannswB, a brief acquaintance with whom, in our young man-

""1, left upon our memory the impress of a Christian gentleman, * -:-"- confirmed by all our slight interchanges, public and private. "' a late Advocate Dr. Summers favors our Quarterly with an ex- tended and free, yet courteous notice, one point of which, as in- '"Iviiifr both a person and a principle, justilics a brief response on

;ir part. He considers our notice of Dr. Pearne's pamphlet as ■creditable to our Quarterly, assuring us that Dr. Pearne is a "•honorable "carpet-bagger," adding that he has no doubt that «• word of the editor of the Advocate would be believed by us uI*>n any other subject. We assure the Editor that we believe

154: Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

him upon this point ; that is, we believe that from his stand-point, and with his prepossessions, he speaks intentional truth. But, then, intentional truth is not always actual accuracy. We too have our stand-point. We knew Dr. Pearne in his boyhood. He is now in the full prime of manhood, and during his extended ministerial career no imputation has ever reached us on the purity of his character, save this, borne on the breeze from the South. He too is known to us as a Christian gentleman, in no way inferior in our view, as such, to Dr. Summers himself. The very epithet " carpet-bagger," with which Dr. Summers compromises himself more than he does Dr. Pearne, indicates his stand-point. Dr. P. has gone to Nashville as an accredited minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church to preach the Gospel, to establish Churches of that denomination, to promote the cause of education, of free and liberal Christian and loyal sentiment in that sec- tion. Dr. S., if we rightly understand him, holds that Dr. Pearne has no right to do all this work. There is a sectional boundary line which a northerner has not a right to pass, with such a mission, without the consent of the " southerners." They are the right- ful proprietors of that section, and are entitled to exclude all out- siders from entering without their permission. That right of ex- clusion we deny to exist, either in the North or South. We are one nation, one country. We are a common family in that one home. The citizens of each section have a perfect equal right in every other section. Dr. Summers has just as much right here in New York as the editor of the Methodist Quarterly, to preach, publish, establish southern Churches, or prosecute any other Chris- tian occupation. And Dr. Pearne has just as good a right for all such purposes in Nashville as Dr. Summers. Dr. Deems is now in New York, "a carpet-bagger " from the South. He testified in the last southern General Conference to the courtesy with which lie had here been treated. And now we must say that the prepossession from which Dr. Summers speaks seems to us a remnant of the old spirit established by the institution of slavery, which for long years would have made it unsafe to the life of the editor of this Quar- terly, as an antislavery man, to have visited the interior of the South ; and which enabled that bold demagogue, Stephen A. Doug- las, to stand up and utter the infamous boast that there were fif- teen States in which none but a friend of slavery could exist alive. Until Dr. Summers can exorcise Ids soul of the last remnant of that spirit, and can concede to every American citizen his just rights upon every part of the American soil, let him not complain if the citizens of other sections, who have been for past long years

|$fl>,J Quarterly Book -Table. 155

y aracbed from the South, entertain a slight distrust in the accu- , j of his views when the character of an incomer from the S'orth is the point in question.

Than this policy for the South uothing can be more suicidal. It -, . kiiied her in the political balance until her power was depart- ed when she sought to restore it by war, it laid her at the ■ • of the more liberalized section. Let her pursue it still, by .. mnciog immigrants, by fomenting internal strife and insecurity, x-. i the census of 1SY0 will reduce the once proud and dominant South to a mere South-eastern margin of the Great Republic, an irely insignificant element in the national whole. Every day ko<] every hour of persistence in this policy is hastening that > it able destiny. Agaiust that result what is the remedy? A ", united, peaceful population. The faster the South, the : lure South-eastern margin, can travel to that result, the securer -ill he her future. Let her, with all her soul, make a Northern

• 1 European immigration, of whatever creed, political or relig- i, heartily and hospitally welcome, into her broad, inviting

s. Let her renounce her oppressions of her own sable sons, '; i give them the fullest and noblest enfranchisement. Let her t >'i her soil with agricultural appliances, set her rail-cars rolling, **• 1 Iter spindles whirling. Thus, and thus alone, she will secure 1 1 r own prosperity, and promote the well-being of the nation : w liich she forms a part. She can mount the car of destiny and rule within it to fortune, or she can lay herself across the track ''\ be crushed beneath its wheel. Dr. Summers and his co- litors can do their share in pandering to and cherishing the Barrow sectionalisms by which the North is provoked and the South is ruined, or in throwing oft* the shackles and putting her forward in her new career. But we here assure him that it is the N tith-eastern, and not the Northern, or rather the National, destiny U»ai is at stake. We are to be (whatever our South-eastern margin I leases) a continent-wide republic, before whom the governments ' : '■!:<-• earth must bow in reverence, and to whom the peoples of the

• •r;'i will look with admiration and gladness. Our own noble

• l-vh, (would that she included in harmony and unity with her- '•h every American religious body that calls itself Methodist !) 'JTnpathizing with the best spirit of the age, loyal alike to the

M of Christ and the national greatness, will spread abroad her ' k"*ngeUzing power, covering the entire national area, and knowing ,,,J limits to her missionary enterprise.

*'r. Summers expresses the wish that our "otherwise mag- •wcent Quarterly " would avoid those topics on which we are so

156 Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

deeply divided. It would be pleasant, we assure him, to have no truths to utter and no questions existing upon which all sections could not coincide. On those questions we endeavor to speak, frankly, indeed, yet free from every partisan animosity or desire for mere sectional triumph. But we purpose to edit a live periodical ; and for our Quarterly to doze and snore while" the greatest of civil wars, the emancipation of four millions, and the rehabilitation of a new and magnificent nation are passing under its nose, would prove it " dead while it liveth." No reconciliation, no reunion, can arise from silence, or the sacrifice of any principle for which the blood of a half million has been spilt. The only possible platform of union for the future is the acceptance by all parties of those grand conclusions which the logic of humanity, the logic of Christianity, and the logic of events have alike demonstrated forever. From his eminent talents and commanding position in his Church, there is much that Dr. Summers can do for that consummation, and we would welcome him as a co- laborer in that field.

Tiie " Ladies' Repository," under the editorial care of Dr. "Wiley, paying us its regular monthly visits, sustains its aucient honors, and we trust its old subscription list, undiminished, aud improved by time aud talent. The satisfaction of the Church with her official editorial corps is strikingly evinced by the fact that so fow changes were made by our late General Conference. Our quondam editorial brother, Dr. Eddy, is promoted — we use the word in sober seriousness — to the regular pastorate; and Dr. Mekril has already given good proof of his efficiency in the Western. To all our Methodist Editors, official and unofficial, the Quarterly tenders her New Year good wishes.

"Harper's Magazine" is the monthly for the million. Its opening pages, selected from the most valuable standard publica- tions of that house, illustrated with pictures, insinuate an unsus- pected amount of "solid reading" into the heads of the popular readers. Its central interior furnishes a varied miscellany of original matter. "The beginning of the end" exhibits the Edi- torial wisdom, and the end of the end gives you a sharp Punch. The pen of Curtis and the pencil of Nast sustain the high title of the Journal of Civilization ; the demands of the most ultra- civilization are amply supplied in the pictorial pages of the Bazar.

"Every Month " is the title of the monthly bulletin issued in behalf of Dr. Deems's Church, "The Church of the Strangers," at the New York University. The sermons of Dr. Deems, one in

I . . ] • Quarterly Boole -Table. 157

(l !, number, are eloquent, practical, and pointed. Several of \\ riii, though no imitations, might be insei-ted in a volume of llmry Ward Beeehcr's sermons -without any detection by the fr;, |.-r of different authorship or inferior quality.

Pk /■':''< Repository: a Monthly Magazine chiefly devoted to the Advocacy and Diffusion of the Yiew of a Future Life and Immortality, as the Gift of God, through Jesus Christ, to the Righteous alone, by a Resurrection from the Dead. Kiris Wexdell, Editor. Salem, Mass.: Published by the Editor.

Mc Wendell is a candid and Christian-like advocate of the doc- trine of the complete cessation from existence of the wicked. His theory has a materialistic basis, affirming soul or thought to be but a manifestation from the bodily organism. " Thought is the motion ' f the brain." How this denial of the separate existence of pure ipirit is saved from materializing God, and so producing either Atheism or Pantheism, we are not sufficiently read in the system to understand. The theory is, in fact, the counterpart in theology to Mr. Darwin's "natural selection" in science. As living bodily beings attain permanent existence by meeting the physical condi- tions of existence, so spiritual beings attain eternal existence by ■keeling the moral conditions. The attainment of eternal life by the blessed is simply "the survival of the fittest;" the loss of eter- tii lite is simply failure to exhibit its conditions, a blasting in the bed of the living flower, a ceasing to exist of all that fail. Hence the preacher in his address to sinners dwells not on pictures of the Hernal agonies of the lost, but rather upon the positive duty and ;' ry of avoiding disastrous failure, and attaining to " glory, honor, *• 1 eternal life."

Mr. Wendell quotes one of our editorial brethren as saying: *' Annihilation [-ism?] has invaded the Church. Its advocates are

"ily men of faith and prayer, and of Churches that are built on rt and are honored with the presence of the Spirit. It has

• "io seeming support in some texts of Scripture. Yet it is an •*ror which, if clung to too obstinately and exclusively, will strip

4 advocates of power with God and man. It is adopted usually *•* » refuge from the doctrine of eternal fire. But the refuge is •owe than that which it seeks to escape. Who would not prefer •' ' dungeon to the cord, the rack to the guillotine? Death is the "• Ui.st punishment man or God can inflict. Eternal life in death ■ preferable to eternal annihilation." *ow did we believe this, that annihilation is more terrible than

* 'n>:d misery, we should consider the greatest difficulty in Chris- "*■ theodicy to have attained a solution. The most terrible of all

158 Methodist Quarterly Review. • [January,

punishments for sin is attained without the slightest pretext fur a charge of injustice upon the divine Inflictor. No one can claim a moment of future existence as a right, or its withdrawal as a wrong. God can justly, at. his pleasure, drop anj- being into in- stant nothingness. And now, if this be the most terrible of dooms, then God can inflict it, or permit it, for sin great or small, and the most captious caviller can utter no complaint. Uuiversalism could not charge this theory with injustice, nor orthodoxy charge it with immoral tendency in lightening the penalty of sin. But for our individual part we would infinitely prefer the brief "guillotine" to the eternal " rack."

Universalism has been condemned by the Church in all ages. Yet the general Church, through a large part of its history, softened the terms of hell by the doctrine of purgatory. The Reformation removed that mitigation, and hence, especially at the present day, individual minds and large classes of Christian thinkers take relief in some softening view. Tertullian could exult at the prospect of beholding the writhings of the wicked in eternal physical fire, and Edwards held that the righteous would glorify God in view of the justice of that retribution. Milder theologians have removed the physical lire and transformed it into a spiritual element. Among peculiar yet evangelical thinkers at the present day, Dr. Stier holds that none but those who commit the sin against the Holy Ghost suffer eternal misery ; Dr. Bushnell holds to the eternally diminish- ing yet never-ending amount of the sinner's being, and so of his suf- fering ; our respected Dr. True (if we rightly understand) favors the doctrine of a perpetual cessation of consciousness rather than of ex- istence— deconsciousizatio?i rather than annihilation — which, we suppose, leaves the insensate spiritual substance a burnt-out nature, a monumental cinder, attesting the accursedness of sin once exist- ing ; the late amiable and scholarly Professor Hudson taught in his able work, "Debt and Grace," that the spirits of the wicked survive until their resurrection, and then, being plunged into the lake of fire, sink to nothingness; aud Mr. Wendell maintains that their existence penally terminates at death without a spiritual re- viviscencc or a bodily resurrection. All these have exhibited, both in their writings aud characters, the evidences of the purest Chris- tian and evangelical spirit. The generic agreement between them and the ordinary belief in the Church is in holding to the remedi- less ruin of the finally impenitent, the eternity of punishment either positive or of loss — endless woe. Betweeu this entire body and the Universalists, or Kestorationists, there is a broad separation in that the former unanimously affirm the eternity of the ruin wrought

i^,f)J Quarterly Book-Table. 159

| , .in on Hie unrepentant. The whole are able to stand on one

J*tform, however different their minor shades of orthodoxy or

.doxy, against the prevalent Socinianism, Pelagianism, Uni-

ir'.nlism, Rationalism, and Infidelity. And if we concede that the

illy they maintain is as deterring from sin as the high orthodox

■.v. we have no great reason to assail them, as we may Univer-

»x!i-im, for the dangerous nature of their heterodoxy. We are

bound, as Christian brethren, without excluding them from the

Kritisrelic Church, to discuss their peculiarities, salvafide et salva

'.■-in, in their own conceded Christian spirits.

Our "Christian Advocate" is quoted by Mr. Wendell as saying,

•J.st so little is the doctrine of eternal misery preached in our pul-

ptU that Universalists might sit under our ministrations without

being often disturbed. Dr. Todd, of Pittsfield, not long since

tfatcd and lamented the same fact as generally prevalent, and ad-

v.'.-l a return to the former style. Our impression is, that less

: liance on the constant preaching of hell-fire has, with exceptions,

lUays been one of the differences of Methodism from Calvinism.

l>r. Clarke on 2 Cor. v, 11, reprobates the "constant declamation

I <11 and perdition." Rev. Thomas Yasey, of the British Con- ■ ence, speaking of the conversion at Newcastle of "some of the *<• r-t specimens of humanity," says : "Now, with him it was a I ivim not to preach hell and damnation to such people, but always I* take the most encouraging subject, such as the love of God, the power of the Holy Ghost, the possibility of their getting saved and tJetated.M We heard a leading Methodist revivalist, a few years

• ••"•, remark, that a few evenings previous he had put a check upon - Bow of penitent feeling by preaching " too much of a terror ser-

: •'* In this respect, as in a great many others, we suspect that

Methodism has anticipated the age. It has held forth the loftiest

»«n«of religious happiness and holiness, and has had a boundless

»»riety of cheering and aspiring views, which have led the souls

f men joyously upward, yet ever retaining in view, without special

' "1*, the dark back-ground of remediless woe to be escaped,

goua to that bottomless gulf of destruction which even the

•*• rationalistic physicist is obliged to recognize as underlying

feet of the great body of the sensual world. So far as we

; * >t is in this channel that the groat current of our most

al and most glorious revivals has triumphantly flowed.

Having made this subject a specialty, Mr. Wendell is an acute and

• "ridable debater. Those who propose to deal with him would io well first to understand his whole system and way of man-

i a body of well-known texts, otherwise they may find them-

160 MetJiodkt Quarterly Review. [January,

selves unwarily entrapped, escaping, if at all, only by the loss of some logical member of their argument. His fault seems to be the interpreting every expression on the part of leading theologians acknowledging some favorable phase of his views, as a commencing or covert, agreement with him. This is very unnecessary, though a far more amiable error than the opposite habit of making the widest possible distances, and the most numerous possible oppo- nents and foes. ,

The Herald of Health and Journal of Physical Culture, Svo. New York : Miller. Wood, &, Co.

This journal is well calculated to furnish that prevention which is worth a thousand pounds of cure. It teaches how to preserve health, how to avoid disease, and how to establish and maintain the bodily strength, while it inculcates an invaluable amount of practical ethics. Such a periodical is indispensable for circulat- ing those principles which are of the highest importance in our highly artificial state of society. Many of its articles are from our best writers, and in the higher style of literature. The little subscription price may save a big doctor's bill.

Sund-ay-Sdiool Journal for Teachers and Young People. Rev. J. H. Yixcext,

Editor. Svo. New York: Carlton & Lanahan. Under Mr. Vincent's hand the Journal shows a new outside and a new inside. The wise division of labor in our great Sunday-school departments is very apparent in the beautified appearance and rich contents of the work. A versatile invention, calling now methods and contrivances into existence, appears on every page. It is a live issue, and will aid to make alive Sunday-school department.

Tfte Home Monthly. Devoted to Literature and Religion. A. B. Stark, Editor. Svo., pp. 1G0. Nashville: Southern Methodist Publishing Houso. 1S63.

The Southern Methodist Quarterly is not yet resumed, and this periodical supplies the higher reading for the Southern Church. It is a handsome publication. It embraces in its scope not only theology and religion, but poetry and prose fiction. The No- vember number contains a brief article on " Woman Suffrage," treating the subject in a spirit of candor and reflective thought.

Plymouth Pulpit. A "Weekly Publication of Sermons Preached by Henry WabD

Bekcuer. New York: J. 13. lord & Co. 18G8. We need only announce that this unique periodical appeal's in handsome form, and will be doubtless welcomed by thousands of readers.

|$69j Quarterly Book -Table. 161

Juvenile.

>.; Base; or, What Edward Learned at School. By William Everett. Ktrated. Tinted paper, red and gold. 12mo., pp. 282. Boston: Lee & ; ird. 1368.

" .if Stage. A. Series of Dramas. Comedies, Burlesques, and Farces, for . »blic Exhibitions and Private Theatricals. By George M. Baker. Tinted .. r. red and gold. 12mo., pp. 290. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 13C8. ;. i of Elm Island, By Rev. Elijah Kellogg. 12mo., pp. 265. Boston: Jxv i Shepard. 1869.

of Fortune; or, Half Bound the World. By Oliver Optic, Author of foung America Abroad," '-The Army and Navy Stories," etc. 12mo., pp. 303. Bornon: Lee & Shepard. 1S6S. :>'■■! Dimple Out West. By Sophia Mat, Author of "Little Prudy Stories."

; lustrated. 16mo., pp. 171. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1869. X-A* or Break; or, the Rich Man's Daughter. By Oliver Optic, Author of • Yonng America Abroad," "Army and Navy Stories," etc. 12mo., pp. 328. ton: Lee & Shepard. 1869. • and Fairies. Stories for Little Children. By Lucy Randall Comfort. With Engravings. 12mo., pp. 259. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1S68.

Hearer Boy who became a Missionary, being the Life and Labors of David LMngston. By H. G. Adams. 12mo., pp. 319. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 1868.

Carlton & Lanahan have issued the following juveniles : •', Lane and other Stories in Rhyme. Illustrated. Square 8vo., pp. 140. K'sf York: Carlton & Lanahan. ' • Seventeen to Thirty. The Town Life of a Youth from the Country; its Trials. I -.^.aiious, and Advantages. Lessons from the History of Joseph. By T. toxET. 12mo., pp. 184. ^New York: Carlton & Lanahan. 1868.

I » Reason; or, the Little Cripple. By Mrs. S. C. Hall. With illustrations. •'• quarto, colored paper, pp. 62. New York: Carlton & Lanahan. ' Parables of our Lord Explained and Applied. By Rev. Francis Bourdellon, K A. 12mo., pp. 327. New York: Carlton & Lanahan.

Pamphlets.

■■ '■•■-; n Separation from the World. Its Philosophy, Obligation, and Extent. '':*.. Jcred, with Especial Reference to Popular Amusements. By Rev. H. S. !'Un M.A., Author of " Gift of Power," etc. Second Edition. 12mo., pp. 52.

' - Uyn, iscs.

» Were led in a former Quarterly to put the question : Which,

lively, are the amusements that a Christian may indulge, and

*wch must he condemn ? We were answered in the Advocate,

*• alone may be practiced which are conducive to the glory

("K1; and by Zion's Herald, Those which can be taken in the

•::'<-' of the Lord Jesus. Neither of these replies touched our

"tlf,ii, which still remained in another form: Which amusements

162 Methodist Quarterly Review. [January,

are consistent with the glory of God, and which may be taken in the name of the Lord Jesus?

Mr. Piatt here undertakes this answer, and it must be at lea<t conceded that he realizes the question he is to meet. He names the specific allowable amusements, and ably gives the reason. II,- tells us the which and the why. Those who desire to know his answer will do well to study his sermon. It is prefaced with an introduction by Dr. Cuyler.

Miscellaneous.

Tibbals & Co., Nassau-street, New York, have issued a hand- some edition, at a reasonable price, of Stier's Words of Jesus. We have so- frequently and so strongly commended this work that •we need only express our pleasure at its appearance.

Dr. IIowelTs Family. By Mrs. H. B. Goodwix. 12roo., pp. 30!. Boston: Lee k

Shepard. 1809. through the Dork to the Day. A Story of Discipline. By Mrs. Jexxtk F. Will- ing. Tinted paper, red and gold. 12mo., pp. 339. Cincinnati : Hitchcock .;-

Walden. 1809. Constance Aylmer. A Story of the Seventeenth Century. By H. F. P. 12mo.,

pp. 347. New York: Scribner k Co. The Opium Habit. With Suggestions as to the Remedy. 12mo., pp. 335. New

York; narper k Brothers. " 1808. Jf Yes. and Perhaps. Four Possibilities and Six Exaggerations, with some bit* of

Fact. By Edward E. Hale. 12mo., pp. 290. Boston : Ticknor & Fields. ]v,;v Genoa's Shield. A Story of the Reformation. Bv Rev. "W. M Blackburn.

IGnio., pp. 325. New York: M. W. Dodd. 1868." Madam Therese; or the Volunteers of '92. By Mm. Erckmaxx-Ctiartrain.

Translated from the thirteenth edition. "With ten full page Illustration?.

Green and gilt. 12mo., pp. 289. New York: Scribner & Co. 1869. Margaret A Story of Life in a Prairio Home. By Lixdox. 12mo., pp. 300.

New York : Scribner k Co. Light and Trvth ; or. Bible Thoughts and Themes of the Old Testament. By Ho-

katius Boxar, D.D. 12mo., pp. 381. New York: Robert Carter k Brothers.

186S. Claudia. By Amanda M. Douglass, Author of "In Trust," etc, 12mo., pp. Ml.

Boston : Lee & Shepard. 1868. Gulden Truths. 12mo., pp. 243. Boston : Lee k Shepard. 1808. Studies of Character from the Old T^tament. By Thomas Guthrie, D.D., Editor

of the "Sunday Magazine." 12mo., pp. 329. New York: Robert Carter i

Brothers. 1809. The Pearl of the Parables. Notes on Luke xv, 11-32. By the late James Hamil- ton. D.D. 12mo., pp. 274. New York: Robert Carter k Brothers. 1S09. The Little Spaniard; or, Old Jose's Grandson. By May Manxerino. 12mo., pp. 221.

Boston: Leo k Shepard. 1809. Wind- Wafted Seed. Kdited by Normax Mact.eod and Thomas Guthrie. 12mo.,

pp. 413. New York : Robert Carter k Brothers. 1809. Camera from English History, from Rollo to Edward II. By the Author of "The

Heir of Redclyffe." 12mo., pp. 475. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1809.

If 09.J Quarterly Book -Table. 163

.".- I •'' of George Stephenson, and of his son, Rtbcrt Stephenson. Comprising: a His- • r of the Invention arid Introduction of the Railway and Locomotive. By the \ ilhor of " Self-Help," " The Huguenots," etc. With Portraits and Numerous 1 i-'.r:i'.ioos. 12mo., pp. 501. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1SGS. 4 T -ilve on Physiology and Hygiene. For Schools, Families, and Colleges. By J C IULTOS, ML D., Frofessor in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, N. T. v. th Illustrations. 12mo., pp. 399. New York: Harpers Brothers. London: -..n Low, Son, & Maston. 1868. • Alphabet of Geology; or, First Lessons in Geology and Mineralogy, with - rcestiona on the Relations of Rocks to Soil. By S. R. Hall, LL.L\ With ations. 12mo., pp. 196. Boston: Gould & Lincoln. / • .\:ul Public Services of General Ulysses S. Grant from his Boyhood to the Present . and a Biographical Sketch of Hon. Schuyler Colfax. By Charles A. J'uflps. Blustrated. 12 mo., pp. 344. Boston: Lee & Shepard. X Practical IiJroduction to Latin Composition; for Schools and Colleges. By Ai.ukrt Harkxess, Ph. P., Professor in Brown University, Author of a ''Latin Grammar," "An Introductory Latin Book," etc. 12mo., pp. 306. New York: D AppletoB & Co. London:" 16 Little Britain. 1369. T ■ .:-i-:al Management in the West and South for Thirty Years. Interspersed with Aneodotica] Sketches autobiographical!}' given. By Sol. Smith, retired Actor. With fifteen Illustrations and a Portrait of the Author. 12mo., pp. 275. New V. rk: Harper & Brothers. 1868. I . aand Miles' Walk across South America. By Nathaniel H. Bishop. With ti Introduction, by Edward A. Samuels, Esq., Author of "Ornithology and ' ' vy of New Eng'land," etc. 12mo., pp. 310. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1869. fl* Works of Charles Dickens. With Illustrations, by George Cruikshank, John Leech, and H. K. Browne. Dombey & Son, ''-Id Curiosity Shop, Hard Times. '-:i.o., pp. 202. New York: D. Appleton &U>. 1868.

NOTE FROM DR. SCHAFF.

1!> the April number of the Methodist Quarterly Review, PP. 207 and 208, I find an extract from a popular " History of «'• ligions," so called, compiled several years ago by an obscure k-'l">r, in which certaiu theological views are attributed to me *oich I never held, or which I expressly disowned. It is not my Wtil to correct personal misrepresentations of the press, and I *•*•'• vr look notice of the book referred to; but I have so much Ct for the "Methodist Quarterly Review," and for Dr. Kidder, who, in a kind notice of my " Church History," makes •• extracts with apparent sanction, at least without express

'•'i>t, that I must request you to give publicity to this protest.

:- lha subject of the Eucharist, I never believed or taught either tririvubstantiation or consubstantiation, or any kind of material or c' H^rcal presence, but always held (in essential agreement with

v*'» on that point) to a spiritual real presence and a spiritual tuition of Christ's life by faith, and faith only. I know of no • **« medium of communing with Christ except through faith.

.. PUILIP SCHAFF.

■«• York, Sept. 7, 1868.

164:

Methodist Quarterly Review.

[January,

PLAN OF EPISCOPAL VISITATION FOR 1869.

Conference*.

Mississippi

Louisiana

North Carolina

Texas

India Mission

South Carolina .

Liberia Mission

Kentucky

Baltimore

Virginia ,

St. Louis ,

Central Pennsylvanif

West Virginia

Wilmington ,

Philadelphia

New Jersey

Missouri

Newark

Providence

Pittsburgh ...

Kansas

New England

Washington ,

Nebraska

New Hampshire

New York

New York East

Ka-it German

Troy

Vermont

Wyoming

Central New York . North Indiana

rinee.

Time.

Maine

East Maine

Germany and Switzerland.

Colorado

Delaware

Oregon

Cincinnati

East Genesee

Des Moines

Detroit

Iowa

Nevada

Central German

North Oliio

North-west Indiana

Southern Illinois

Central Ohio

Michigan

Indiana

South-eastern Indiana

California

North-west German

Canton, Miss jan.

Wesley Chapel, New Orleans Jan. 13

Union Chapel, Alexander County Jan. 14

Austin Jan. 21

Lucknow, India Feb. 10

Camden, S. C Feb. 11

Not given Feb. IT

Harrodsburgh Feb. 25

Foundry Church, 'Washington City March 3

Alexandria March 3

Bedalia March 10

Danville March 10

Clarksburgh March 11

Wilmington, Del March IT

Philadelphia March IT

Millville March IT

Chillicothe March 17

Central Church, Newark March IT

First Church. Fall River March 24

New Philadelphia, Ohio March 24

Leavenworth March 24

Webster, Mass March 24

Winchester. Vs March 25

Nebraska City March 81

Lisbon April T

Sine Sing April T

Mhldletown, Conn April T

Philadelphia April 8

Washington-street Church, West Troy.. April 14

Notfixed April 15

Honesdale, Pa April 15

Auburn April 15

Pearl-street Church, Richmond April 15

Watertown April 15

Saccarappa May 5

Tine-street Church, Bangor Mav 20

Bremen June IT

Central City, Col June 24

Milford, Del July 22

Eocene City Aug. 12

Hillsborough Aug. 25

Phelps, Ontario County Aug. 25

Indianola Aug. 26

Central Church, Detroit Sept. 1

Muscatine Sept. 1

Washoe City Sept. 2

Newport, Kentucky Sept 2

Norwalk Sept. 8

Lafayette Sept. 8

Vandalia.

isept.

Upper Iowa.

Illinois

Wisconsin

Erie- .

Tennessee

Central Illinois '.

West Wisconsin

Ohio

Lock River '.'.'.

Genesee

Hols ton

Minnesota

Bonth- west German.

Gee .-a

Alabama

Findley , Sept.

Grand Paplds Sept.

Evansville Sept, 15

Trinity Church, Indianapolis SepL 19

Napa City Sept. 15

Second Church, Milwaukee Sept. 16

Independence Sept. 22

Lincoln, Logan County Sept. 22

Appleton Sept 23

Franklin, Venango County Sept. 29

Huntingdon, Carroll County Sept. 20

Canton, Fulton County Sept 20

Portage City Sept. 30

Centenary Church, Marietta Oct 6

Embury Church, Freeport Oct. 6

Lyndonvllle Oct 6

Jonesborougb Oct. T

Minneapolis Oct. 7

Darlington, Iowa Oct 7

Atlanta Oct 14

Mount Hermoa, Connecuh County Oct. 21

i:m..,;.»

Simpson

Simpson.

Ames.

Simpson.

Ames.

Roberts.

Scott.

Clark.

Ames.

Janes.

Scott

Ames.

Simpson.

Thomson.

Ciark.

Janes.

Scott

Clark.

Ames.

Janes,

Thomson.

Simpson.

Janes.

Clark.

Scott.

Thomson.

Simpson.

Kingsley.

Thomson.

Ames.

Scott

Janes.

Clark.

Clark.

Clark.

Kingsley.

Janes.

Kingsley.

Ames.

Janes,

Clark.

Scott

Thomson.

Kingsley.

Ames,

Janes.

Clark.

Thomson.

Janes.

Scott

Ames.

Simpson.

Kinsley.

Ciark.

Clark.

Thomson.

Scott.

Ames.

Simpson.

Thomson.

Scott

Janes.

Clark.

Ami.

Simpson.

Scott

Thomson.

Simpson.

Simpson.

M.ETH

ODIST

Quarterly Keview.

APRIL, 1869.

Act. I.— THE RELIGION OF THE ATHENIANS.

In hough one of those remarkable counter-strokes of Divine

Providence by which the evil designs of men are overruled,

■ad made to subserve the purposes of God, the Apostle Paul

m brought to Athens. He walked beneath its- stately

p rticoes, he entered its solemn temples, he stood before its

.• ■ -Huiis statuary, he viewed its beautiful altars — all devoted to

; van worship. And "his spirit was stirred within him;" he

*w moved with indignation "when he saw the city full of

wagea of the gods."* At the very entrance of the city he

' the evidence of this peculiar tendency of the Athenians to

Bmltiply the objects of their devotion ; for here at the gateway

*M»da an image of Neptune, seated on horseback, and brandish-

" -' the trident. Passing through the gate, his attention would

* immediately arrested by the sculptured forms of Minerva,

'"•t'iUir, Apollo, Mercury, and the Muses, standing near a sanc-

' ***7 of Bacchus. A long street is now before him, with

■*::-i''W, statues, and altars crowded on either hand. Walking

:--o end of this street, and turning to the right, he entered

-^'ora, a public square surrounded with porticoes and

n|>lea, which were adorned with statuary and paintings in

Bor of the gods of Grecian mythology. Amid the plane-

' ' planted by the hand of Cimon are the statues of the

"»od heroes of Athens, Hercules and Theseus, and the whole

* Laage's Commentary, Acta xvii, 16. 1 "<>mi Shkies, Vol. XXL— 11

166 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

series of the Epomymi, together with the memorials of the older divinities ; Mercuries which gave the name to the streets on which they were placed ; statues dedicated to Apollo as patron of the city and her deliverer from the plague; and in the center of all the altar of the Twelve Gods.

Standing in the Marketplace, and looking up to the Areop- agus, Pauf would see the temple of Mars, from whom the hill derived its name. And turning toward the Acropolis, he would behold, closing the long perspective, a series of little sanctuaries on the very ledges of the rocks, shrines of Bacchus and ^Esculapius, Venus, Earth, and Ceres, ending with the lovely form of the Temple of Unwinged Yictory, which glittered in front of the Propyleea.

° If the Apostle entered the "fivefold gates," and ascended the flight of stone steps to the platform of the Acropolis, he would find the whole area one grand composition of architecture and statuary dedicated to the worship of the gods. Here stood the Parthenon, the Virgin House, the glorious temple which was erected during the proudest days of Athenian glory, an entire offering to Minerva, the tutelary divinity of Athens.^ Within was the colossal statue of the goddess wrought in ivory and gold. Outside the temple there stood another statue of Minerva, cast from the brazen spoils of Marathon ; and near by yet another brazen Pallas, which was called by pre-emi- nence " the Beautiful."

Indeed, to whatever part of Athens the Apostle wandered, he would meet the evidences of their " carefulness in religion,' for every public place and every public building was a sanctu- ary of some god. The Metroum, or Record House, was a temple to the mother of the gods. The Council House held statues of Apollo and Jupiter, with an altar to Yesta. The Theater at the base of the Acropolis was consecrated to Bacchus. The Pnyx was dedicated to Jupiter on high. And as if, in this direction, the Attic imagination knew no bounds, abstractions were deified ; altars were erected to Fame, to Energy, to Modesty, and even to Pity, and these abstractions were honored and worshiped as gods.

The impression made upon the mind of Paul was, that the city was literally "full of idols," or images of the gods. This impression is sustained by the testimony of numerous Greek

\h •■■)_) Religion of the Athenians. lo7

,. J Roman writers. Pausanius declares that Athens "had

mun images than all the rest of Greece ; " and Petronius, the

m satirist, says, ''It was easier to find a god in Athens

■ man."*

No wonder, then, that as Paul wandered amid these scenes

-pint was stirred in him." He burned with holy

: tl to maintain the honor of the true and only God, whom

he saw dishonored on every side. He was filled with

. u passion for those Athenians who, notwithstanding their

.-.• Ilectnal greatness, had changed the glory of God into an

■_'<• made in the likeness of corruptible man, and who

.v worshiped the creature more than the Creator. The im-

• intended to symbolize the invisible perfections of God

usurping the place of God, and receiving the worship due

t one to him. 'We may presume the Apostle was not insensible

I '.i.o beauties of Grecian art. The sublime architecture of

I'ropylaea and the Parthenon, the magnificent sculpture of

ftudias and Praxiteles, could not fail to excite his wonder.

• U bo remembered that those superb temples and this glori-

• itataary were the creation of the pagan spirit, and devoted ' • |-'!yiheistic worship. The glory of the supreme God was

••• rured by all this symbolism. The creatures formed by

'» •!. the symbols of his power and presence in nature, the

tfera of his providence and moral government, were

• mng the honor due to him. Over all this scene of mate- ! • beauty and esthetic perfection there rose in dark and hideous

[•ortions the errors and delusions and sins against the living ** which Polytheism nurtured, and unable any longer to re-

• '■ ■■' himself, he commenced to "reason" with the crowds of

emails who stood beneath the shadows of the plane-trees, or • °god beneath the porticoes that surrounded the Agora. •"':i£ these groups of idlers were mingled the disciples of

l» and Epicurus, who M encountered " Paul. The nature

Uksq "disputations" may be easily conjectured. The I ' -'"Us ot these philosophers are even now familiarly known ;

•' :it,~, m one form or another, current in the literature ot^ wn times. Materialism and Pantheism still " encounter "

^uybeare and Howson's "Life and Epistles of St. Paul;" also, art. I H in Kticyclopa-diaBrittanica, whence our account of tho "sacred cbjocta" *** is chiefly gathered.

168 Religion of the Athenians. [April

Christianity. The Apostle asserted the personal being and spirituality of one supreme and only God, who has in diver- ways revealed himself to man, and therefore may be "known.'' lie proclaimed that Jesus is the fullest and most perfect rev- elation of God — the only " manifestation of God in the flesh." lie pointed to his " resurrection " as the proof of his super- human character and mission to the world. Some of his hearers were disposed to treat him with contempt ; they repre- sented him as an ignorant " babbler," who had picked up a few scraps of learning, and who now sought to palm them off as a " new " philosophy. But most of them regarded him with that peculiar Attic curiosity which was always anxious to be bearing some " new thing." So they lead him away from the tumult of the Market-place to the top of Mars' Hill, where, in its serene atmosphere, they might hear him more carefullv, and said, " May we hear what this new doctrine is whereof thou speakest ? "

Surrounded by these men of thoughtful philosophic mind- men who had deeply pondered the great problem of existence, who had earnestly inquired after the "first principles oi things;" men who had reasoned high of creation, fate, and providence; of right and wrong; of conscience, law, and retribution ; and had formed strong and decided opinions on all these questions — he delivered his discourse on the leing, the j/r&vide?ice, the spirituality, and the moral government of God.

This grand theme was suggested by an inscription he had observed on one of the altars of the city, which was dedicated " To the Unknown God." " Ye men of Athens ! every thing which I behold bears witness to your carefulness in relhjh'H. For as I passed by and beheld your sacred objects I found an altar with this inscription, 'to the Unknown God;' whom, therefore, ye worship, though ye know him not, [adequate ly.j Him declare I unto you." Starting from this point, the mani- fest carefulness of the Athenians in religion, and accepting this inscription as the evidence that they had some presenti- ment, some native intuition, some dim conception of the One True and Living God, he strives to lead them to a deeper knowl- edge of Him. It is here conceded by the Apostle that the Athenians were a religious people. The observations he had

.; Religion of the Athenians. 169

during his short stay in Athens enabled him to bear ■ritno* that the Athenians were " a God-fearing people,"* and ,t that fairness and candor demanded that this trait should rcccive from him an ample recognition and a fall acknowl- ..• nt. Accordingly he commences by saying in gentle -, well fitted to conciliate his audience, " All things which 1 behold bear witness to your carefulness in religion." I re- , iiize you as most devout ; ye appear to me to be a God-fear- people,! for as I passed by and beheld your sacred objects 1 found an altar with this inscription, " To the Unknown God," ■OS therefore ye worship.

The assertion that the Athenians were " a religious people "

«i!i, to many of our readers, appear a strange and startling

iterance, which has in it more of novelty than truth. Kay,

'. will be shocked to hear the Apostle Paul described

v complimenting these Athenians — these pagan worshipers* —

0 their " carefulness in religion." We have been so long ^customed to use the word '; heathen" as an opprobrious ■ ; .'Jut— expressing, indeed, the utmost extremes of ignorance,

'! barbarism, and cruelty, that it has become difficult for us '•• believe that in a heathen there can be any good.

i'rom our childhood we have read in our English Bibles,

" ^ e men of Athens, I perceive in all things ye are too super-

'■-V and we can scarcely tolerate another version, even if

1 ' *n be shown that it approaches nearer to the actual lan-

• employed by Paul. We must, therefore, ask the patience <?'i candor of the reader, while we endeavor to show, on the

•rity of Paul's words, that the Athenians were & " religious

: ''''," and that all our notions to the contrary are founded

"' prejudice and misapprehension.

' irtf, then, let us commence even with our English version :

1 < men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too

'".''■*fU<ous." And what now is the meaning of the word

^perstition ? " It is true, we now use it only in an evil

• to express a belief in the agency of invisible, capricious, >n*nt powers, which tills the mind with fear and terror,

in every unexplained phenomenon of nature an omen, prognostic, of some future evil. But this is not its proper

■ l,f>rnmcntary, in loco. ^f Uforc ieirjii.— so imports. I recognize you as such." — Lange's Commentary.

170 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

and original meaning. Superstition is from the Latin super- stitio, which means a superabundance of religion,* an extreme exactitude in religious observance. And this is precisely the sense in which the corresponding Greek term is used by the Apostle Paul. b.eioi6a'movia properly means " reverence for the gods." "It is used." says Barnes, "in the classic writers, in a good sense, to denote piety towards the gods, or suitable fear and reverence for them." " The word," says Lechler, " is, with- out doubt, to be understood here in a good sense ; although it seems to have been intentionally chosen, in order to indicate the conception of fear, (Mdco,) which predominated in the religion of the Apostle's hearers." f This reading is sustained by the ablest critics and scholars of modern times. Bengel reads the sentence, " I perceive that ye are very religious. n\ Cudworth translates it thus: " Te are every way more than ordinarily religious.'1'' § Conybeare and Howson read the text as we have already given it, " All things which I behold bear witness to your carefulness in religion.11 jj Lechler reads " very devout ;" c Alford, "carrying your religious reverence very far;** and Albert Barnes, ft " I perceive ye are greatly devoted to rever- ence for religion" %% "Whoever, therefore, will give attention to the actual words of the Apostle, and search for their real meaning, must be convinced he opens his address by compli- menting the Athenians on their being more than ordinarily religious.

Nor are we for a moment to suppose the Apostle is here dealing in hollow compliments, or having recourse to a "pious fraud." Snch a course would have been altogether out «.'l character with Paul, and to suppose him capable of pursuing such a course is to do him great injustice. If " to the Jewa he became as a. Jew," it was because he recognized in Judaism the same fundamental truths which underlie the Christian system. And if here he seems to become, in any sense, as one with " heathenism," that he might gain the heathen to the faith of Christ, it was because he found in heathenism some elements of truth akin to Christianity, and a state of feeling

* Nitzsch, " System of Christ. Doctriuo," p. 33. f Lange's Commentary, in loco. (u Guomon of the New Testament." § Intellectual System, vol. i, 626.

| "Life aud Epistles of St. Paul," vol. i, 378. % Lange's Commentary. ** Greek Test. ff Notes on. Acts. J} Also Clarke's Comment

IS69J Religion of the Athenians. 171

i v.. ruble to an inquiry into the truths he had to present. !!<• beheld in Athens an altar reared to the God he worshiped, and it afforded him some pleasure to find that God was not totally forgotten, and his worship totally neglected, by the Athenians. The God whom they knew imperfectly, ''Him," •aid In:, " I declare unto you ;" I now desire to make him more fully known. The worship of "the Unknown God" was a ;■ cognition of the being of a God whose nature transcends all i tunas thought, a God who is ineffable ; who, as Plato said, " i* hard to be discovered, and having discovered him, to make him known to all, impossible." * It is the confession of a want of knowledge, the expression of a desire to know, the acknowledgment of the duty of worshiping him. Under- lying nil the forms of idol-worship the eye of Paul recognized »:i influential Theism. Deep down in the pagan heart he dis- covered a "feeling after God "--a yearning for a deeper knowledge of the " unknown," the invisible, the incompre- !.•■ liable, which he could not despise or disregard. The mys-

* ri.>us s(nti?nents of fear, of reverence, of conscious dependence

• -i a supernatural power and presence overshadowing man, which were expressed in the symbolism of the " sacred ob- jects" which Paul saw every-where in Athens, commanded his respect. And he alludes to their ''devotions," not in the language of reproach or censure, but as famishing to his own mind the evidence of the strength of their religious instincts, *i'd the proof of the existence in their hearts of that native

hension of the supernatural, the divine, which dwells -:-ke in all human souls.

1 he case of the Athenians has, therefore, a peculiar interest

I • fvrry thoughtful mind. It confirms the belief that religion

u a necessity to every human mind, a want of every human

••irt.f Without religion, the nature of man can never be

properly developed ; the noblest part of man — the divine, the

tnal element which dwells in man, as "the offspring of

iut] — must remain utterly dwarfed. The spirit, the personal

,,ngi the rational nature, is religious, and Atheism is the vain

* Timscua, c. ix.

••■' '"ilispensablc necessity for a religion of some kind to satisfy tho emotional ir* of man is tacitly confessed by the Atheist Cointe in the publication of "• "Catechism of Positive Religion."'

172 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

and the wicked attempt to be something less than man. If the spiritual nature of man has its normal and healthy develop- ment, he must become a worshiper. This is attested by the universal history of man. We look down the long-drawn aisles of antiquity, and every-where we behold the smoking altar, the ascending incense, the prostrate form, the attitude of devotion. Athens, with her four thousand deities— Rome, with her crowded Pantheon of gods — Egypt, with her degrading superstitions — Hindostan, with her horrid and revolting rites- all attest that the religious principle is deeply seated in the nature of man. And we are sure religion can never be robbed of her supremacy, she can never be dethroned in the hearts of men. It were easier to satisfy the cravings of hunger bv logical syllogisms, than to satisfy the yearnings of the human heart without religion. The attempt of Xerxes to bind the rushing floods of the Hellespont in chains was not more futile nor more impotent than the attempt of skepticism to repress the universal tendency to worship, so peculiar and so natural to man in every age and clime.

The unwillingness of many to recognize a religious element in the Athenian mind is further accounted for by their mis- conception of the meaning of the word " religion." We are all too much accustomed to regard religion as a mere system of dogmatic teaching. We use the terms " Christian religion," "Jewish religion," " Mohammedan religion," as comprehend- ing simply the characteristic doctrines by which each is distin- guished ; whereas religion is a mode of thought, and feeling, and action, determined by the consciousness of our relation to and our dependence upon God. It docs not appropriate to itself any specific department of our mental powers and sus- ceptibilities, but it conditions the entire functions and circle of our spiritual life. It is not simply a mode of conceiving God in thought, nor simply a mode of venerating God in the affections, nor yet simply a mode of worshiping God in out- ward and formal acts, but it comprehends the whole. Religion (religere, respect, awe, reverence) regulates our thoughts, feel- ings, and acts toward God. "It is a reference and a relation- ship of our finite consciousness to the Creator and Snstainer and Governor of the universe." It is such a consciousness of the Divine as shall awaken in the. heart of man the sentiments

\>.,Vt),] Religion of the Athenians. 173

, f reverence, fear, and gratitude toward God ; such a sense of dependence as shall prompt man to pray, and lead him to per- •' rm external acts of worship.

lleligion does not, therefore, consist exclusively in knowl- ..L-e, however correct; and yet it must be preceded and accompanied by some intuitive cognition of a Supreme Being, an<! some conception of him as a free moral Personality. But the religious sentiments which belong rather to the heart than \u tlie understanding of man — the consciousness of dependence, the sense of obligation, the feeling of reverence, the instinct to ; ray, the appetency to worship — these may all exist and be largely developed in a human mind even when, as in the case of the Athenians, there is a very imperfect knowledge of the real character of God.

Regarding this, then, as the generic conception of religion, namely, that it is a mode of thought and feeling and action d< .'< nnined ly our consciousness of dependence on a Supreme />■ ing, we claim that the Apostle was perfectly right in com- |>limenting the Athenians on their "more than ordinary relig- iousness," for,

1. They had, in some degree at least, that faith in the being and providence of God which precedes and accompanies all religion.

They had erected an altar to the unseen, the unsearchable, ike incomprehensible, the unknown God. And tins " un- known God" whom the Athenians "worshiped" was the true God, the God whom Paul worshiped, and whom he desired fiorc fully to reveal to them; uBzm declare I unto you." I he Athenians had, therefore, some knowledge of the true God, some dim recognition, at least, of his being, and some ' !1,-q>tion, however imperfect, of his character. The Deity w whom the Athenians reared this altar is called "the un- known God," because he is unseen by all human eyes and in- comprehensible to human thought. There is a sense in which

Paul, as well as to the Athenians — to the Christian as well

to the pagan — to the philosopher as well as to the peasant— "-'u js " the unknown" and in which he must for ever remain J) " incomprehensible. This has been confessed by all thought- '■J ni'nds in every age. It was confessed by Plato. To his ■Bind God is " the ineffable," the unspeakable. Zophar, the

174 Religion of the Athenians. [Aprils

friend of Job, asks, " Canst thou by searching find out God \ Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection ? This knowl- edge is " high as heaven ; what canst thou do ? deeper than hell : •what canst thou know \ " Does not Wesley teach us to sing,

Hail, Father, whose creating call

Unnumbered -worlds attend ; Jehovah, comprehending all,

Whom none can comprehend.

To his mind, as well as to the mind of the Athenian, God was " the great unseen, unknown." " Beyond the universe and man," says Cousin, " there remains in God something un- known, impenetrable, incomprehensible. Hence, in the im- measurable spaces of the universe, and beneath all the pro- fundities of the human soul, God escapes us in this inexhausti- ble infinitude, whence he is able to draw without limit new worlds, new beings, new manifestations. God is therefore to us incomprehensible.'''' * And without making ourselves in the least responsible for Hamilton's " negative " doctrine of the Infinite, or even responsible for the full import of his words, we may quote his remarkable utterances on this subject : " The Divinity is in part concealed and in part revealed. He is at once known and unknown. But the last and highest conse- cration of all true religion must be an altar ' to the unknown God.' In this consummation nature and religion, Paganism and Christianity, are at one." f

When, therefore, the Apostle affirms that while the Athenians worshiped the God whom he proclaimed they " knew him not," we cannot understand him as saying they were destitute of all faith in the being of God, and of all ideas of his real char- acter. Because for him to have asserted they had no knowl- edge of God would not only have been contrary to all the facts of the case, but also an utter contradiction of all his settled convictions and his recorded opinions. There is not in modem times a more earnest assertor of the doctrine that the human mind has an intuitive cognition of God, and that the external world reveals God to man. There is a passage in his letter to the Romans which is justly entitled to stand at the head of all discourses on ''natural theology." Rom. i, 19-21. Speaking of "Lectures, vol i, p. 104. \ "Discussions on Philosophy," p. 23.

] $60j Religion of the Athenians. 175

:!...• heathen world, who had not been favored, as the Jews, v iili a verbal revelation, he says, " That which may be known of God is manifest in them," that is, in the con- ititution and laws of their spiritual nature, "for God hath ihowed it unto them " in the voice of reason and of con- nee, so that in the instincts of our hearts, in the elements • our moral nature, in the ideas and laws of our reason, we ht\* taught the being of a God. These are the subjective teachings of the human soul.

Not only is the being of God revealed to man in the consti- tution and laws of his rational and moral nature, but God is ftiso manifested to us objectively in the realm of things around \i- ; therefore Paul adds, "The invisible things of him, even 1* i r* eternal power and Godhead, from the creation are clearly leen, being understood by the things that are made." The world of sense, therefore, discloses the being and perfections of God. The invisible attributes of God are made apparent by the things that are visible. Forth out of nature, as the prod- uct of the Divine Mind, the supernatural shines. The forces, laws, and harmonies of the universe are indices of the pres- < nee of a presiding and informing Intelligence. The creation it»elf is an example of God's coining forth out of the mys- terious depths of his own eternal and invisible being, and making himself apparent to man. There, on the pages of the ' lame of nature, we may read, in the marvelous language of tymbol, the grand conceptions, the glorious thoughts, the ideals of beauty, which dwell in the uncreated Mind. These Iwo sources of knowledge, the subjective teachings of God in l«c human soul, and the objective manifestations of God in '•■•■ visible universe harmonize, and, together, fill up the com- |>'cment of bur natural idea of God. They are two hemispheres ol thought, which together form one full-orbed fountain of "ght, and ought never to be separated in our philosophy. And, inasmuch as this divine light shines on all human minds, M»d these works of God are seen by all human eyes, the Apostle Wgues that the heathen world " is without excuse, because Knowing God (yvovreg TovQeov) they did not glorify him as God, neither were thankful ; but in their reasonings they went astray h::' -r vanities, and their hearts, being void of wisdom, were "•led with darkness. Calling themselves wise, they were

176 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

turned into fools, and changed the glory of the imperishable God for idols graven in the likeness of perishable man, or of birds, and beasts, and creeping things, . . . and they bartered the truth of God for lies, and reverenced and worshiped the things made rather than the Maker, who is blessed for ever. Amen." *

The brief and elliptical report of Paul's address on Mars' Hill must therefore, in all fairness, be interpreted in the light of his more carefully elaborated statements in the Epistle to the Romans. And when Paul intimates that the Athenians " knew not God," we cannot understand him as saving they had no knowledge, but that their knowledge was imperfect. They did not know God as Creator, Father, and Ruler; above all, they did not know him as a pardoning God, and a sancti- fying Spirit. They had not that knowledge of God which purifies the heart, and changes the character, and gives its possessor eternal life.

The Apostle clearly and unequivocally recognizes this truth, that the idea of God is connatural to the human mind ; that in fact there is not to be found a race of men upon the face of the globe utterly destitute of some idea of a Supreme Being. Wherever human reason has had its normal and healthful development it has spontaneously and necessarily led the human mind to the recognition of a God. The Athe- nians were no exception to this general law. They believed in the existeucc of one supreme and eternal Mind, invisible, in- comprehensible, ineffable — " the unknown God."

2. The Athenians had also that consciousness of dependence upon God which is the foundation of all the primary religious emotions.

"When the Apostle affirmed that " in God we live, and move, and have our being," he uttered the sentiments of many, it* not all, of his hearers, and in support of that affirmation he could quote the words of their own poets, " for we are also his offspring ;" f and as his offspring we have a derived and a

♦Rom. i, 21-25. Couybcare and Howsou's translation. f "Jove's presence fills all space, upholds this ball; All need his aid ; his power sustains us all,

Foi- we his offspring are." — Aratus: "The Phenomena," Book V, 5. Aratus was a poet of Cilicia, Paul's native province. He flourished B. C. 277.

;-.;•».] Religion of the Athenians. 177

ndent being. Indeed, this consciousness of dependence is a;.:;!ugous to the feeling which is awakened in the heart of a child when its parent is first manifested to its opening mind as lb« giver of those tilings which it immediately needs, as its rontinual protector, and as the preserver of its life. The : .»;ncnt a man becomes conscious of his own personality, •."..: moment he becomes conscious of some relation to an- other personality, to which he is subject, and on which he depends, f

A little reflection will convince us that this is the necessary rder in which human consciousness is developed.

There are at least two fundamental and radical tendencies in human personality, namely, to know and to act. If we would conceive of them as they exist in the innermost sphere i f self-hood, we must distinguish the first as self -consciousness, fc-:j<l the second as self-determination. These are unquestion- ably the two factors of human personality.

If we consider the first of these factors more closely, we

" Great and divine Father, whose names are many, But who art one and the same unchangeable, almighty power; 0 thou supreme Author of nature I That goveruest by a single unerring law I Hail King I For mou art able to enforce obedience from all frail mortals, Because we arc all thine offspring, The image and the echo only of thy eternal voice."

Cleanthes: "Hymn to Jupiter."

(Vtottafl was the pupil of Zeno, and his successor as chief of the Stoic phi- >w- i-iiors.

' As soon as a man becomes conscious of himself, as soon as he perceives him-

m h* distinct from other persons and things, ho at the same moment becomes

•"'•*» of a higher Self, a higher power, without which ho feels that neither he

" " 1:'V thing else would have any life or reality. We are so fashioned that as

■ hi wo awake we feel on all sides our dependence on something else; and all

•> j^in in Eome way or another in the words of the Psalmist,, 'It is He that

•" us, not we ourselves.' Thi3 is the first sense of the Godhead, tho sensv-s nu-

"■ fts it has well been called; for it is a sensus, an immediate perception, not

'' Wit of reasoning or generalization, but an iutuition as irresistible as the im-

"**1 of our senses. . . . This sensus numinis, or, as wo may call it in more

■>' "ngunge, faith, is the source of all religion; it is that without which no

Poo, whether truo or false, is possible."— Max Mullcr: "Science of Lan-

r -**<•," Socoud Series, p. 455.

178 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

shall discover that self-consciousness exists under limitations and conditions. Man cannot become clearly conscious of self without distinguishing himself from the outer world of sensation, nor without distinguishing self and the world from another being upon whom they depend as the ultimate sub- stance and cause. Mere sensus communis is not consciousness Common feeling is unquestionably found among the lowest forms of animal life, the protozoa, but it can never rise to a clear consciousness of personality until it can distinguish itself from sensation, and acquire a presentiment of a divine power, on which self and the outer world depend. The Ego does not exist for itself, cannot perceive itself, but by distinguishing itself from the ceaseless flow and change of sensation, and by this act of distinguishing, the Ego takes place in consciousness. And the Ego cannot perceive itself, nor cognize sensation as a state or affection of the Ego except by the intervention of the reason, which supplies the two great fundamental laws of causality and substance. The facts of consciousness thus com- prehend three elements — self, nature, and God. The deter- minate being, the Ego, is never an absolutely independent being, but is always in someway or other codetermined, by another ; it cannot, therefore, be an absolutely original and independent, but must in some way or another be a derived and conditioned existence.

Now that which limits and conditions human self-conscious- ness cannot be mere nature, because nature cannot give what it does not possess ; it cannot produce what is toto genere dif- ferent from itself. Self-consciousness cannot arise out of un- consciousness. This new beginning is beyond the power of nature. Personal power, the creative principle of all new beginnings, is alone adequate to its production. If, then, self- consciousness exists in man it necessarily presupposes an abso- lutely original, therefore unconditioned, self-conscious m %9. Human self-consciousness, in its temporal actualization, of course presupposes a nature-basis upon which it elevates itself; but it is only possible on the ground that an eternal self-con- scious Mind ordained and rules over all the processes of nature, and implants the divine spark of the personal spirit with the corporeal frame, to realize itself in the light-flame of human self-consciousness. The original light of the divine self-cun-

1S09.1 Religion of the Athenians. 179

Fciousness is eternally and absolutely first and before all. " Thus in the depths of our own self-consciousness, as its con- cealed background, the God-consciousness reveals itself to us. This descent into our inmost being is at the same time an ascent to God. Every deep reflection on ourselves breaks through the mere crust of world-consciousness, which separates us from the inmost, truth of our existence, and leads us up to Ilirn in whom we live and move and are." *

Self-determination, equally with self-consciousness, exists in us under manifold limitations. Self-determination is limited by physical, corporeal, and mental conditions, so that there is "an impassable boundary line drawn around the area of voli- tional freedom." But the most fundamental and original limitation is that of duty. The self-determining power of man is not only circumscribed by necessary conditions, but also by the moral law in the consciousness of man. Self-de- termination alone does not suffice for the full conception of responsible freedom ; it only becomes properly will by its being an intelligent and conscious determination ; that is, the rational subject is able previously to recognize "the right," and present before his mind that which he ought to do, that which he is morally bound to realize and actualize by his own self-determination and choice. Accordingly we find in our inmost being a sense of obligation to obey the moral law as revealed in the conscience. As we cannot become conscious of self without also becoming conscious of God, so we cannot become properly conscious of self-determination until we have recognized in the conscience a law for the movements of the will.

Now this moral law, as revealed in the conscience, is not a niere autonomy — a simple subjective law having no relation to a personal lawgiver out of and above man. Every admonition of conscience directly excites the consciousness of a God to whom man is accountable. The universal consciousness of our race, as revealed in history, has always associated the phe- nomena of conscience with the idea of a personal Power above man, to whom he is subject and upon whom he depends. In every age, the voice of conscience has been regarded as the voice of God, so that when it has filled man with guilty appre-

* Muller, "Christian Doctrine of Sin," vol. i, p. 81.

180 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

hensions lie has had recourse to sacrifices, and penances, arid prayers to expiate his wrath.

It is clear, then, that if man has duties there must be a self- conscious Will by whom these duties are imposed, for only a real will can be legislative. If man has a sense of obligation, there must be a supreme authority by which he is obiiged. If he is responsible, there must be a being to whom he is account- able.* It cannot be said that he is accountable to himself, for by that supposition the idea of duty is obliterated, and "right" becomes identical with mere interest or pleasure. It cannot be said that he is simply responsible to society — to mere con- ventions of human opinions and human governments — for then "right" becomes a mere creature of human legislation, and "justice" is nothing but the arbitrary will of the strong who tyrannize over the weak. Might constitutes right. Against such hypotheses the human mind, however, instinctively revolts. Mankind feel, universally, that there is an authority beyond all human governments, and a higher law above all human laws, from whence all their powers are derived. That higher law is the Law of God, that supreme authority is the God of Justice. To this eternally just God, innocence, under oppression and wrong, has made its proud appeal, like that of Prometheus to the elements, to the witnessing clouds, to coming ages, and has been sustained and comforted. And to that higher law the weak have confidently appealed against the unrighteous enactments of the strong, and have finally conquered. The last and inmost ground of all obligation is thus the conscious relation of the moral creature to God. The sense of absolute dependence upon a Supreme Being compels man, even while conscious of subjective freedom, to recognize at the same time his obligation to determine himself in harmony with the will of Him " in whom we live, and move, and are."

This feeling of dependence, and this consequent sense of obli- gation, lie at the very foundation of all religion. They lead the mind toward God, and anchor it in the Divine. They prompt man to pray, and inspire him with an instinctive con- fidence in the eificacy of prayer. So that prayer is natural to man, and necessary to man. Kever yet has the traveler found

* "The thought of God will wake up a terrible monitor whose name is Judge." — Kant.

1869.3 Religion of the Athenians. 181

a people on earth without prayer. Eaces of men have been found without houses, without raiment, without arts and sci- ences, but never without prayer any more than without speech. Plutarch wrote, eighteen centuries ago, "If you go through all the world, you may find cities without walls, without letters, without rulers, without money, without theaters, but never without temples and gods, or without prayers, oaths, prophe- cies, and sacrifices, used to obtain blessings and benefits, or to avert curses and calamities.* The naturalness of prayer is ad- mitted even by the modern unbeliever. Gerrit Smith says, " Let us who believe that the religion of reason calls for the religion of nature, remember that the flow of prayer is just as natural as the flow of water ; the prayerless man has become an unnatural man."t Is man in sorrow or in danger, his most natural and spontaneous refuge is 'in prayer. The suffering, bewildered, terror-stricken soul turns toward God. " Nature in an a°-ony is no atheist; the soul that knows not where to fly, flies to God." And in the hour of deliverance and joy, a feel- ing of gratitude pervades the soul— and gratitude, too, not to some blind nature-force, to some unconscious and impersonal power, but gratitude to God. The soul's natural and appro- priate language in the hour of deliverance is thanksgiving and praise.

This universal tendency to recognize a superior Power upon whom we are dependent, and by whose hand our well-being and our destinies are absolutely controlled, has revealed itself even amid the most complicated forms of poly theistic worship. Amid the even and undisturbed flow of every-day life they might be satisfied with the worship of subordinate deities, but in the midst of sudden and unexpected calamities, and of ter- rible catastrophes, then they cried to the Supreme God.^ " When alarmed by an earthquake," says Aulus Gellins, " the ancient Romans were accustomed to pray, not to some one of the gods individually, but to God in general, as to the Unknown." '§ * " Against Kalotes," c. xxxl t " legion of Reason."

\ " At critical moments, when the deepest feelings of the human heart are stirred, the old Greeks and Romans seem suddenly to have dropped all mythological ideas, and to have fallen back on the universal languago of truo roligioa."— Mai Muller, "Science of Language," p. 436. § Tholuck, " Nature and Influence of Ileathenism," p. 23.

Fourth Sekies, Vol. XXI.— 12

182 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

" Thus also Minutius Felix says, 'When they stretch out their hands to heaven they mention only God ; and these forms of speech, He is great, and God is true, and If God grant, (which are the natural language of the vulgar,) are a plain confession of the truth of Christianity.' And also Lactantius testifies, ' When they swear, and when they wish, and when they give thanks, they name not many gods, but God only; the truth, by a secret force of nature, thus breaking forth from them whether they will or no;' and again he says, 'They fly to God ; aid is desired of God ; they pray that God would help them ; and when one is reduced to extreme necessity, he begs for God's sake, and by his divine power alone implores the mercy of men.' " * The account which is given by Diogenes Laertiusf of the erection of altars bearing the inscription "to the unknown God," clearly shows that they had their origin in this general sentiment of dependence on a higher Power. " The Athenians being afflicted with pestilence invited Epi- menides to lustrate their city. The method adopted by him was to carry several sheep to the Areopagus, whence they were left to wander as they pleased, under the observation of per- sons sent to attend them. As each sheep lay down it was sac- rificed to the 2^ropitious God. By this ceremony it is said the city was relieved ; but as it was still unknown what deity was propitious, an altar was erected to the unknown God on every spot where a sheep had been sacrificed." \

" The unknown God " was their deliverer from the plague. And the erection of an altar to him was a confession of their absolute dependence upon him, of their obligation to worship him, as well as of their need of a deeper knowledge of him. The gods who were known and named were not able to deliver them in times of calamity, and they were compelled to look beyond the existing forms of Grecian mythology for relief. Beyond all the gods of the Olympus there was " one God over all," the Father of gods and men, the Creator of all the sub- ordinate local deities, upon whom even these created gods were dependent, upon whom man was absolutely dependent, and .therefore in times of deepest need, of severest suffering, of

* Cudworth, vol. i, p. 300. f "Lives of Philosophers," Book I, Epimenides. J See Townseud's "Chronological Arrangement of Now Testament," note 19, part xii; Doddridgo's " Exposition;" and Barnes's "Notes on Acts."

1S6W JMi.jwn of the Athenians. 183

extivnu-:-! pwU, thou they cried to the living, supreme, eternal God. *

3, I ho Athenian* developed in a high degree those religious emotions \\ hioh alwayti accompany the consciousness of depend- ency on i\ Sup\xMuo Ncmg.

The ttr»1 Miuttumnl clement of all religion is /ear. This is ' muniestfonal^v (,uo whether religion be considered from a Christian or * heathen stand-point. " The fear of the Lord is tho beginning ot' wisdom." Associated with, perhaps preced- ing, all definite ideas of God, there exists in the human mind certain toolm^-* of ,?j,v, and reverence, and fear which arise spontaneous (« tnvscnec of the vastness, and grandeur, and niaguUuvnoo of tho universe, and of the power and glory of which tfw evvatod universe is but the symbol and shadow. There is the &\\ ^>p,vhension that, beyond and back of the visible and tho tangible, there is ^.personal, living Power, which ifi the ftMuuUttai of nil, and which fashions all, and fills all with its ti-ht >;Uv> j;.;o, t|mt u t^Q universe is the living vesture "J w^Wl \h.o ln\U\Mo has robed his mysterious loveliness." lliere is iho iVeUn^ of an overshadowing Presence which " eom- passetH man Ivouul and before, and lays its hand upon him."'

-Men vo,av eonteve,\\Ute nature from different points of view. bomo u>;i\ »v vovewvvsod with one aspect of nature, some with another, Uui uev,e will fail to recognize a mysterious pres- m& and inw^Ve jvtfty beneath all the fleeting and changeful phenomena ot' »s0 nniverse. "And sometimes there are mo- ments ot toudew.osss^ of sorrow, and of vague mystery which bring the teeatyj ef iho, Infinite Presence close to the human hearth I

-Now we heM &at >•)«?,« feeling and sentiment of the Divine 7" *tty***MW»J sexists in every mind. It maybe, it un- doubuv.A ■>. *e^vw^; modified in its manifestations by the

r ( v '''v"v *** *V*i *» <VN th«? Iliad and Odyssey are habitually religious. The

8 Wg* c. >v .-. ... w ^ ^ ^ Q^fa t0DgueSi as it is ever on the lips of even'

( ;V l" ' ' : ' ' ■ ' * - • •.• TN» thought of the gods, aud of their providence and

uufcftK -v -v %v<&& ,x * familiar thought. They seem to have an abiding

th »«*"*' * ' N': "-^^•'■''•v on the gods. The results of all actions depend on

oftn * <J ■ "S VS * ~"v ,1*' ***** knees (Oeuv ev yavvaat kcItoi, Od-, i, 2G7) is the

"Tk *'***** v* ~^' ■ expression of their fueling of dependence." — Tyler,

1S4- Religion of the Athenians. [April,

circumstances in which men are placed, and the degree of culture they have enjoyed. The African Fetischist, in his moral and intellectual debasement, conceives a supernatural power enshrined in every object of nature. The rude Fijian regards with dread, and even terror, the Being who darts the lightnings and wields the thunderbolts. The Indian " sees God in clouds and hears him in the wind." The Scottish "herdsman" on the lonely mountain-top "feels the presence and the power of greatness," and " in its fixed and steady lineaments he sees an ebbing and a flowing mind." The philosopher * lifts his eyes to " the starry heavens " in all the depth of their concave, and with all their constellations of glory moving on in solemn grandeur, and, to his mind, these immeasurable regions seem " filled with the splendors of the Deity, and crowded with the monuments of his power ; " or he turns his eye to " the Moral Law within," and he hears the voice of an intelligent and a righteous God. In all these cases we have a revelation of the sentiment of the Divine, which dwells alike in all human minds. In the Athenians this sentiment was developed in a high degree. The serene heaven which Greece enjoyed, and which was the best-loved roof of its inhabitants, the brilliant sun, the mountain scenery of unsurpassed grandeur, the deep blue sea, an image of the infinite, these poured all their full- ness on the Athenian mind, and furnished the most favorable conditions for the development of the religious sentiments. The people of Athens spent most of their time in the open air in communion with nature, and in the cheerful and temperate enjoyment of existence. To recognize the Deity in the living powers of nature, and especially in man, as the highest sensible manifestation of the Divine, was the peculiar prerogative of the Grecian mind. And here in Athens, art also vied with nature to deepen the religious sentiments. It raised the mind to ideal conceptions of a beauty and a sublimity which tran- scended all mere nature-forms, and by images of supernatural grandeur and loveliness presented to the Athenians symbolic representations of the separate attributes aud operations of the invisible God. The plastic art of Greece was designed to ex- press religious ideas, and was consecrated by religious feeling. Thus the facts of the case are strikingly in hannony with the ♦Kant in "Critiquo of Practical Reason."

1SC9J Religion of the Athenians. 185

words of the Apostle : "All things which I behold bear witness to jour carefulness in religion," your "reverence for the Deity," your " fear of God." * " The sacred objects " in Athens, and especially " the altar to the unknown God," were all regarded by Paul as evidences of their instinctive faith in the invisible, the supernatural, the divine.

Along with this sentiment of the Divine there is also associ- ated, in all human minds, an imtinctive yearning after the Invisible ; not a mere feeling of curiosity to pierce the mystery of being and of life, but what Paul designates " a feeling after God," which prompts man to seek after a deeper knowledge, and a more immediate consciousness. To attain this deeper knowledge, this more conscious realization of the being and the presence of God, has been the effort of all philosophy and all religion in all ages. The Hindoo Yogis proposes to with- draw into his inmost self, and by a complete suspension of all his active powers to become absorbed and swallowed up in the Infinite, f Plato and his followers sought by an immediate ab- straction to apprehend " the unchangeable and permanent Being," and, by a loving contemplation, to become " assimilated to the Deity," and in this way to attain the immediate consciousness of God. The Xeo-Platonic mystic sought by asceticism and self-mortification to prepare himself for divine communings. He would contemplate the divine perfections in himself; and in an ecstatic state, wherein all individuality vanishes, he would realize a union, or identity, with the Divine Essence.:}: While the universal Church of God, indeed, has in her purest days always taught that man may, by inward purity and a believing love, be rendered capable of spiritually apprehending," and consciously feeling, the presence of God. Some may be disposed to pro- nounce this as all mere mysticism. "We answer, The living internal energy of religion is always mystical, it is grounded in feeling — a " sennas numinis " common to humanity. It is the mysterious sentiment of the Divine ; it is the prolepsis of the human spirit reaching out toward the Infinite; the living

* See Parkhurst's Lexicon, under Aecmdai/tovia, which Snidas explains by ti?.u3eia -epi rb Qtiov — reverence far the Divine, and Hesychius by 6ot3o6ei.n—f-:or of God. Also, Josephus, Antui.,Book X, c. 3, § 2 : " Ifanasscb, cfter his rcf>ontauco and reformation, strove to behave himself (rp detaidatftoi -/p xP'/oOil) in the most religious manner toward God." Also see, A. Clarke on Acts xvii.

f Vaughan's "Houra with the Mystics," vol. i, p. 44. J Ibid., voL i, p. 65.

1S6 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

susceptibility of our spiritual nature stretching after the powers aud influences of the higher world. " It is upon this inner in- stinct of the supernatural that all religion rests. I do not say every religious idea, but whatever is positive, practical, power- ful, durable, and popular. Every-where, in all climates, in all epochs of history, and in all degrees of civilization, man is animated by the sentiment — I would rather say, the presenti- ment— that the world in which he lives, the order of things in the midst of which he moves, the facts which regularly and constantly succeed each other, are not all. In vain he daily makes discoveries and conquests in this vast universe ; in vain he observes and learnedly verifies the general laws which govern it; his thought is not inclosed in the icorld surrendered to his science ; the spectacle of it does not suffice his soul, it is raised beyond it ; it searches after and catches glimpses of something beyond it ; it aspires higher both for the universe and itself; it aims at another destiny, another master.

" ' Par dela tous ces cieux le Dieu des cieux reside.' " * "

So Yoltaire has said, and the God who is beyond the skies is not nature personified, but a supernatural Personality. It is to this highest Personality that all religions address them- selves. It is to bring man into communion with Him that they exist. "f

4. The Athenians had that deep consciousness of sin and guilt, and of consequent liability to punishment., which confesses the need of expiation by piacular sacrifices.

Every man feels himself to be an accountable being, and he is conscious that in wrong doing he is deserving of blame and of punishment. Deep within the soul of the transgressor is the consciousness that he is a guilty man, and he is haunted with the perpetual apprehension of a retribution which, like the specter of evil omen, crosses his every path, and meets him at every turn.

" 'Tis guilt alone, Like brain-sick frenzy in its feverish mode, Fills the light air with visionary terrors, And shapeless forms of fear.''

* " Beyond all theso heaven3 the God of the heavens resides." f Guizot, "L'Eglise et lo Society Chretiennes " en 1861.

1869.] Religion of the Athenians. 187

Man does not possess this consciousness of guilt so much as it holds possession of him. It pursues the fugitive from justice, and it lays hold on the man who has resisted or escaped the hand of the executioner. The sense of guilt is a power over and above man ; a power so wonderful that it often compels the most reckless criminal to deliver himself up, with the confession of his deed, to the sword of justice, when a falsehood would have easily protected him. Man is only able by persevering, ever-repeated efforts at self-induration, against the remon- strances of conscience, to withdraw himself from its power. His success is, however, but very partial ; for sometimes, in the moments of his greatest security, the reproaches of conscience break in upon him like a flood, and sweep away all his refuge of lies. " The evil conscience is the divine bond which binds the created spirit, even in deep apostasy, to its Original. In the consciousness of guilt there is revealed the essential relation of our spirit to God, although misunderstood by man until he has something higher than his evil conscience. The trouble and anguish which the remonstrances of this consciousness excite — the inward unrest which sometimes seizes the slave of sin — are proofs that he has not quite broken away from God." *

In Grecian mythology there was a very distinct recognition of the power of conscience, and a reference of its authority to the Divinity, together with the idea of retribution. Nemesis was regarded as the impersonation of the 'upbraidings of con- science, of the natural dr^ad of punishment that springs up in the human heart after the commission of sin. And as the feeling of remorse may be considered as the consequence of the displeasure and vengeance of an offended God, Nemesis came to be regarded as the goddess of retribution, relentlessly pur- suing the guilty until she has driven them into irretrievable woe and ruin. The Erinnyes or Eumcnides are the deities whose business it is to punish, in hades, the crimes committed upon earth. "When an aggravated crime has excited their dis- pleasure they manifest their greatest power in the disquietude of conscience.

Along with this deep consciousness of guilt, and this fear of retribution which haunts the guilty mind, there has also rested upon the heart of universal humanity a deep and abiding cou- ♦Muller, "Christian Doctrino of Sin," voL i, pp. 225, 226.-

1S8 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

viction that something must l>e done to expiate the gnUt of sin — some restitution must be made, some Buffering must be endured,* some sacrifice offered to atone for past misdeeds. Hence it is that men in all ages have had recourse to penances and prayers, to self-inflicted tortures and costly sacrifices to appease a righteous anger which their sins had excited, and avert an impending punishment. That sacrifice to atone for sin has prevailed universally — that it has been practiced " semper, uliqite, et ah omnibus" always, in all places, and by all men — will not be denied by the candid and competent inquirer. The evidence which has been collected from ancient history by Grotius and Magee, and the additional evidence from contemporaneous history, which is being now furnished by the researches of ethnologists and Christian missionaries, is conclusive. No in- telligent man can doubt the fact. Sacrificial offerings have prevailed in every nation and in every age. u Almost the en- tire worship of the pagan nations consisted in rites of depreca- tion. Fear of the Divine displeasure seems to have been the leading feature of their religious impressions ; and in the diversity, the costliness, the cruelty of their sacrifices they sought to appease gods to whose wrath they felt themselves exposed, from a consciousness of sin, unrelieved by any in- formation as to the means of escaping its effects." f

It must be known to every one at all acquainted with Greek mythology that the idea of expiation — atonement — was a funda- mental idea of their religion. Independent of any historical research, a very slight glance at the Greek and Roman classics, especially the poets, who were the theologians of that age, can leave little doubt upon this head.}:. Their language cvery-

* " Punishment is the penalty due to sin ; or, to use the favorite expression of Homer, not unusual in the Scriptures also, it is the payment of a debt incurred by sin. When he is punished, the criminal is said to pay off or pay back (u-oriveiv) his crimes; in other words, to expiate or atone for them. {Iliad, iv, 161, 162.)

" ' cvv re firyuXu a^ertcav aiv cQijOiv KtQaXijot yvvax^i re nai rzKitomv.'

that is, they shall pay ofT, pay back, atone, etc.. for their treachery with a great price, with their lives, and their wives and children." — Tyler, "Theology of Greek Poets," p. 19-1.

\ Magee, "On the Atonement," No. 5, p. 30.

X In Homer the doctrine is expressly taught that the gods may, and sometimes do, remit the penalty, when duly propitiated by prayers and sacrifices accompanied

1869J Religion of the Athenians. 1S9

where announces the notion of propitiation, and, particularly

the Latin, furnishes the terms which are still employed in the- ology. We need only mention the words i?,ao[i6g, IXdo- K-ofiai, Xvrpov, tt e p i ip n \i a, as examples from the Greek, and placare, proj?itiare, expiare, piacvlum, from the Latin. All these indicate that the notion of expiation was interwoven into the very modes of thought and framework of the language of the ancient Greeks.

AYe do not deem it needful to discuss at length the question which has been so earnestly debated among theologians, as to whether the idea of expiation be a primitive and necessary idea of the human mind, or whether the practice of piacular sacrifices came into the postdiluvian world with Noah, as a posi- tive institution of a primitive religion then first directly insti- tuted by God. . On either hypothesis the practice of expiatory rites derives its authority from God ; in the latter case, by an outward and verbal revelation, in the former by an inward and intuitive revelation.

This much, however, must be conceded on all hands, that there are certain fundamental intuitions, universal and neces- sary, which underlie the almost universal practice of expiatory sacrifice, namely, the universal consciousness of guilt, and the universal conviction that something must he done to expiate guilt, to compensate for wrong, and to atone for past misdeeds. But how that expiation can be effected, how that atonement can be made, is a question which reason does not seem com- petent to answer. That personal sin can be atoned for by vicarious suffering, that national guilt can be expiated and

by suitable reparations. (''Iliad," Lr, 497, sqq.) " Wc have a practical illustration of this doctriue in the first book of the Iliad, where Apollo averts the pestilence from the army, when the daughter of his priest is returned without ransom, and a sacrifice (^/caro^J?;) is sent to the altar of the god at sacred Chrysa. . . . Apollo hearkens to the intercession of his priest, accepts the sacred hecatomb, is de- lighted with the accompanying songs and libations, and sends back the embassy with a favoring breeze, and a favorable answer to the army, who meanwhile had been purifying (u-c/.vfxai va vro) themselves, and offering unblemished hecatombs of bulls and goats on the shore of the sea which washes the place of their encampment." "The object of the propitiatory embassy to Apollo is thus stated bjrUlysses: Agamemnon, king of men, has sent me to bring back thy daughter Chryses, and to offer a sacred hecatomb for (v-cp) the Greeks, that we may propitiate (ri.aoofieada) the king, who now sends woes and many groans upon the Argives." (442, sqq.) Tyler, "Theology of Greek Poets," pp. 196, 197.

190 Religion of the Athenians. [April,

national punishment averted by animal sacrifices, or even by human sacrifices, is repugnant to rather than conformable with natural reason. There exists no discernible connection be- tween the one and the other. We may suppose that eucha- ristic, penitential, and even deprecatory sacrifices may have originated in the light of nature and reason, but we are unable to account for the practice of piacular sacrifices for substitu- tional atonement, on the same principle. The ethical prin- ciple, that one's own sins are not transferable either in their guilt or punishment, is so obvioushv just that we feel it must have been as clear to the mind of the Greek who brought his victim to be offered to Zeus, as it is to the philosophic mind of to-day." The knowledge that the Divine displeasure can be averted by sacrifice is not, by Plato, grounded upon any intui- tion of reason, as is the existence of God, the idea of the true, the just, and good, but on "tradition,"f and the " interpretations" of Apollo. " To the Delphian Apollo there remains the great- est, noblest, and most important of legal institutions — the erec- tion of temples, sacrifices, and other services to the gods, . . . and what other services should be gone through with a view to their propitiation. Such things as these, indeed, we neither know ourselves, nor in founding the State would ice intrust them to others, if we be wise . . . the god of the country is the natural interpreter to all men about such matters." \

The origin of expiatory sacrifices cannot, we think, be ex- plained except on the principle of a primitive revelation and a positive appointment of God. They cannot be understood except as a Divinely-appointed symbolism, in which there is exhibited a confession of personal guilt and desert of punish- ment; an intimation and a hope that God will be propitious and merciful ; and a typical promise and prophecy of a future Redeemer from sin, who shall "put away sin by the sacrifice of himself." This sacred rite was instituted in connection with the protevangdium given to our first parents, it was diffused among the nations by tradition, and has been kept alive as a general, and, indeed, almost universal observance, by that deep sense of sin, and consciousness of guilt, and personal urgency

* " He that Lath doue the deed, to suffer for it — thus cries a proverb thrice-hal- lowed by age." — yEschylus, Choeph, 311.

f Laws, Book VI, c. 15. \ Republic, Book IV, c. 5.

18G9.] Religion of the Athenians. 191

of the need of a reconciliation, which are so clearly displayed in Grecian mythology.

The legitimate inference we find ourselves entitled to draw from the words of Paul, when fairly interpreted in the light of the past religious history of the world, is, that the Athenians were a religious people ; that is, they were, however unknowing, believers in and worshipers of the One Supreme God.

Art. II.— THE CHURCH SCHOOL.

The modern Sunday-school has outgrown the fondest hopes of its founders. Devised as a temporary expedient for the edu- cation of neglected children on the Sabbath, it developed a form of Christian activity which, in its essential features, was employed in the primitive Church, had also a place in the Jewish economy, and which is, in fact, a legitimate outgrowth of the plan of redemption. The good philanthropists of the last century, in digging that they might build a human fabric, laid bare an ancient and divine foundation. Let us rear our superstructure upon this, rather than upon their narrower bases and after their scantier measurements. TVe propose in the present paper to examine the relations of the Sunday-school to the Christian scheme, ascertain its distinctive mission, and draw from the subject some practical lessons.

Let us begin with first principles. Man's pupilage as a pro- bationer on earth contemplates his perfection as a saint in heaven. From the moment of his regeneration, the processes of spiritual culture should go on. This twofold -work of quick- ening and culture is effected by the Holy Spirit, through the truth as revealed in and by the Lord Jesus Christ. In the ap- plication of this truth no violence is done to either man's freedom or the laws of his mental action. Light, whether from the sun or the planets, is conveyed to the eye through the same medium, and under the operation of the same laws. The constitution of the soul is not changed by the supernatural interventions of re- demption. After the visitation of grace, the eye sees, the ear hears, memory goes backward, hope goes forward, and all the intellectual powers act just as before. The Divine Deliverer

192 The Church School. [April,

and Educator of the race has respected man's constitution in determining the methods of his redemption. Were a street- waif to be taken from the Five Points in our city, and taught under the most competent instructors of the age, we affirm that not a just principle would he recognized, nor a correct method adopted in his training, not already anticipated and applied in the management of the waif Israel taken from the land of Goshen, and instructed in the school of God at Mount Sinai. The same principles appear again, in a higher form, in the methods of the Great Teacher. They are also present in his Church whenever she is under his direction, for they inhere in the very constitution of the human mind and of the Christian society.

In the instruction of a human soul there are three important steps to be taken : 1, Truth must be apprehended by the in- tellect; 2, accepted by the affections; 3, incorporated in the character. This threefold work is indispensable. One want- ing, the culture is incomplete. In the Divine scheme all are recognized, and for each an appropriate form of Church instru- mentalities is arranged. We have referred to Israel in Egypt and the Wilderness. Let us trace the divine processes in the education of this people to illustrate the position assumed. Israel was, first of all, removed from the physical, intellectual, and moral bondage of Egypt, just as the child of the Five Points would be separated for his reform and education from his former associations. Israel did not go into Canaan by the way of el-Arish and Philistia, but by the more circuitous route of the sea, Sinai, and the Jordan. The bondmen of Egypt were not at once prepared for the Babe of Bethlehem. They dwelt in the sphere of the material, and were ignorant of spir- itual truth. The manifestation of physical force was requisite in order to the recognition of their Deliverer. God must needs appear as a Power, breaking into fragments and tramp- ling under foot their old opinions and dominions. The new wonder-worker must distance, with unmistakable miracle, all competition from the old magician. For the cup of blood in the sorcerer's hand a river of blood must roll to the sea. The new staff-serpent must swallow the conjurers' rods, and become a wand in the Prophet's grasp again. As the rap of the teacher's hand on the school desk reminds the pupil

LSC9.] The Church School. 193

of a present authority, so " the thunderings and the light- nings, and the noise of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking," caused the people tremblingly to await, and then revere, the revelation. The fixed attention was rewarded. Truth was given. It came in every legal and ceremonial enactment, in every miraculous interposition, in every address of God's Prophet. In the communication of this new truth to Israel, how beautifully we find illustrated the now popular method of " object teaching." Spiritual truth entered the Hebrew soul through the gateways of the senses. The theology of the Kew Testament was embodied in the arrangements and ceremonies of the Tabernacle.

Thus we find, that for the communication of truth to a race, the All-wise God prescribed the very methods which wise teachers now employ in developing the intellect of a child. Jesus did likewise. He laid hold of the visible, using similes, parables, and objects, as when he placed a child before the disciples to teach them humility, or called for a penny, and made its superscription his text. In the department of re- ligious truth the same method is still employed. What is the Christian family but the object-school of theological truth, in which the authority, attributes, and laws of God are illus- trated, and the child taught, through the visible relations and real experiences of daily life, the invisible and eternal verities of the kingdom of God ? The Christian family is the taber- nacle for the communication of religious ideas to its children, separated as they there are, from the demoralizing tendencies of worldly society, and under the influences of parental love and authority. Thus God provides for the first essential thing in the application to man of his grace in redemption — the apprehension of truth by the intellect.

The truth grasped by the intellect must next be accepted by the will and affections, for truth is never a force in life until the heart is moved and molded by it. The pupil in the secu- lar school must be excited, by personal interest iu his work, to Pelf-activity. Israel in the wilderness learned the same lesson. With every revelation of truth God made new requisitions upon their love and obedience. By the strongest man- dates of authority, by the most terrible sanctions of penalty, hy the fairest attractions of promise, God commended the

194 The Church School. [April,

new truth to the heart as well as to the eye and intellect of his people.

As contributing to this result, the people were assembled in great multitudes, from time to time, to hear the law of God and the appeals of his servants. The Scriptures, which the services of the tabernacle and the providential interpositions of God had made clear to their understanding, were publicly read. On every such occasion the heart of the people was stirred. The blessings and the cursings rang out in the valley of Shechem, and the elders, officers, and judges, " the women and the little ones, and the strangers- that were conversant among them," listened attentively. The outspokeu response of " all the people " elicited at that time was a virtual consecration of themselves to God. "When Joshua addressed all the tribes before his death, after his fervent appeal to them to " fear the Lord and serve him in sincerity and in truth," he bids them make their choice between the God of Israel and the gods of the Chaldeans and the Amorites. Under the pressure of this public review of God's dealings with them, and this impas- sioned appeal of the venerable leader, the people cry out, u God forbid that we should forsake the Lord, to serve other gods." How was the heart of the people moved by the public services performed in Jerusalem, when the corner-stone of the new temple was laid in the time of Ezra. And when the people gathered themselves together as one man to hear Ezra read from the book of the law of Moses, it is recorded that "all the people wept when they heard the words of the law."

There was a profound reason in the command to " gather the people together, men, and women, and children, and thy stranger that is within thy gates, that they may hear, and that they may learn, and fear the Lord your God; nnd observe to do all the words of this law." Deut. xxxi, 12. The public assembly is favorable to the development of strong emotion. The truth which may be more distinctly outliued to the thought in private, may be more easily impressed upon the heart in public. To the tabernacle system for the convey- ance of the religious idea, God added the public assembly for the awakening of the sensibilities and the persuasion of the people to accept and obey the truth. So to-day we have the family tabernacle, and then the pulpit. The first and dis-

18C9.] The Church School 195

tinctive work of the pulpit is to convict the conscience and convert tbe soul. " "We persuade men," said Paul. " We pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God." Addressing those whose conscious needs respond to its announcements, the pulpit does not so much depend upon processes of argu- mentation. It brings available remedies for actual distresses, a message of reprieve to the condemned, vision to blindness, purity to sin. It informs the intellect, quickens the conscience, warms the emotions, and impels to decision ; not so much starting the intellectual forces into activity, as bringing the will up to the well-established affirmations of the judgment. The pulpit disseminates the truth rapidly. One utterance may reach ten thousand souls at the same moment. The invisible bond of sympathy that unites an audience, renders each hearer more accessible and susceptible to the truth. The universal silence, the fixed attention, the tacit assent of all to the truth declared, tend to inspire the speaker. The whole argument is in his own hands. ISTo voice can enter its protest. Then the dramatic elements of countenance, gesture, and intonation in- crease the effect of every sentence. These are some of the natural advantages possessed by the pulpit. And when we re- call the Divine promise to accompany the truth by the energy of his Spirit, we do not wonder at the power of this instrumen- tality. To the Jew, lost in the mummeries of a dead ritualism — to the Greek, deluded by the charms of a merely speculative philosophy — we are not. surprised that the public proclamation of salvation through a crucified Jew should be "foolishness;" but seeing now the bearings of the truth preached, and the effectiveness of the method, and having enjoyed the fulfill- ment of the promise, "Lo, I am with you," we acknowledge the preaching of the Gospel to be " the power of God."

After the truth has found a place in the understanding through the early teachings and clear illustrations of the Family, and in the affections through the appeals and persuasions of the Pulpit, the convert enters the inner courts of the Church as a disciple. He has now commenced a life of study, struggle, and service. lie is a 6ort of soldier- student, It is his duty to build up the temple of God within him. And he must build as they did in J^ehemiah's day, when " every one with one of bis bands wrought in the work,

196 The Church School. [April,

and with the other hand held a weapon." Here begins the School of Christ. Having made '; disciples," the Church must instruct them. An eminent commentator, in his notes upon Acts xiv, 22, says : " The word disciple signifies literally a scholar. The Church of Christ was a school, in which Christ himself was chief master, and his Apostles subordinate teach- ers. All the converts were disciples or scholars who came to this school to be instructed in the knowledge of themselves and of their God ; of their duty to him, to the Church, to society, and to themselves. After having been initiated in the principles of the heavenly doctrine, they needed line upon line, and precept upon precept, in order that they might be con- firmed and established in the truth."*

Thus, for the threefold work committed to her, we find the Church assuming a threefold form. 1. To present the truth illustratively and clearly to the understanding, we have the Family • 2. To secure a personal allegiance, we have the Pulpit; 3. To mold and perfect character, after the standard and by the operation of the truth, we have the School. "We certainly do not assume that in every case this series of agencies is formally employed, for the family has, alas! too often re- fused to be part of Christ's Church. It has not taught the truth to its members. Aud the family having failed to give its children to the pulpit, there are too few disciples of Christ in this world.

But the Church, from the divine, reconstructive force within

♦ The -wording of the Master's commission (Matthew xxviii, 19, 20,) deserves our consideration : il Go ye therefore and teach (fiaQnTEvoare, that is, disciple, or make disciples of ) all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, TEACHING, (dtdaoKovrec, that is, instructing.) them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you." " This teaching is nothing kis than the building up of the whole man into the obedience of Christ. In these words, inasmuch as the then living disciples could not teach all nations, does the Lord found the office of preaclvirs in his Church — with all that belongs to it — the duties of the minister, the school-teacher, the Scripture reader. This 'teach- ing' is not merely the Kijpvyfia of the Gospel, not mere proclamation of the good news, but the whole catechetical office of the Church upon and in the bap- tized " — Alford.

" When through baptism the believer had become a member of the community of the saints, theu, as such, he participated in the progressive courses of instruc- tion which prevailed in the Church." — Obhausen.

" The teaching is a continuous process — a thorough indoctrinatiou in tho Chris- tian truth, and the building up of tho whole man into the full manhood of Christ, the author and finisher of our faith." — Dr. Schaff.

I860.] The Church School. 197

lier, proceeds to perforin the part of the Christian family by the organization of her mission Sunday-schools. These be- come the substitute for home to millions of neglected children. They become the temporary substitute for the pulpit. For a time, they took the' place of the secular school. How blessed the mission, and how abundant the successes of this compar- atively modern expedient for saving and instructing " the stranger within our gates!" It is John the Baptist pointing the untaught multitudes to the " Lamb of God." It is the true god-mother of the Church, folding to her bosom the orphaned ones, and giving them up in holy consecration to God.

But our Church school is quite another institution. It is composed largely of the children of Church members. It is not intended to be a substitute for the family, the pulpit, the pastorate, or the secular school. Nor is it designed to be ex- clusively a children's institution.

% The theory underlying a moral instrumentality has more to do with its efficiency than might at first be supposed. The prestige of ecclesiastical recognition, and much more of divine authority, gives great advantage to any method of Christian effort. The fact that it has a philosophical fitness, at once en- nobles it in the esteem of men who judge of a method by its antecedent principles, and accept what is logically true, even without reference to its efficiency in practice. If we can show that the Church school has its place in the system of divine methods, a virtual divine authority, a rational basis, and the indorsement of early example, Ave may enlist valuable talent in its support, and, on the other hand, guard with greater cer- tainty against the lamentable neglect of other means of grace which a one-sided view of the Sunday-school has occasioned. If the institution is regarded as a substitute for the Christian family, we need not be surprised if parents accept its service, and neglect responsibilities at home from which nothing can justly relieve them. If we make it a substitute for the pulpit, we may expect its members to neglect the ministry of the Word, and thus foster the unpleasant antagonisms between " Church and Sunday-school." between "pastor and superintendent," over which so many faithful hearts have already mourned. If it is for children only, since children in these days so soon pass into maturity, becoming adults ten years earlier than

Fourth Seriks, Vol. XXI. — 13

193 The Church School. [April,

was the wont a century ago, we need not be surprised if our youth, as soon as parental restraint is relaxed, drop out of the school, and not having been trained to attend " public service," find it convenient to neglect that also. If only for children, since it is commonly supposed that labor in their behalf requires " peculiar gifts," and these not always in highest repute among the "theologians," we need not be surprised that large num- bers of ministers look down with a lofty condescension upon the institution, patronizingly commend it, and then neglect it. What, then, is the Church Sunday-school ? "We answer : It is that department of the Church which promotes the life, growth, and activity of believers through the study of the Holy Scriptures. It is the training department of the Church. It is not merely for conversion. If that work has been neg- lected in any case, then conversion is the first thing to be sought. But the main thing in the Church school is the de- velopment, training, and growth of the disciples, old and young. It is not merely a biblical school for intellectual fur- nishing in divine truth. It is for spiritual edification. It is not merely for children, but for Christians of all ages. As preaching and the accompanying services of the sanctuary are for children as well as adults, the school is for adults as well as children. Here the instructions of the family, the secular school, and the pulpit are supplemented by class recitation, discussion, and conversation. Here take place the activity and attrition of brain and heart by which truth is made clearer to the understanding, and gains a firm hold upon the affections. And this is indispensable to the highest form of Christian life. The pulpit persuades. It also fosters the divine life by the frequent reiteration of the prominent doctrines of Scripture by its expositions, arguments, and illustrations. But the Church has something to do beyond the persuasion and lecture-teach- ing of the pulpit. This additional work has been admirably stated by the Rev. Augustus William Hare of England, one of the authors of " Guesses at Truth." In a sermon on " Grace and peace be multiplied unto you through the knowledge of God and of Jesua our Lord," lie saya, "Our forefathers carried on the education of the poor by frequent and diligent catechis- ing ; that is, by questioning them over and over about the great truths and facta and doctrines of Christianity. But now that

18G9 J The Church School. 199

preaching is looked upon as the great thing in every Church, this catechising or questioning lias in many places fallen into disuse. To profit by a sermon, a man must attend to it: he must hear it thoroughly ; he must understand it ; he must think it over with himself when he gets home. How few in any congregation will go to all this trouble ! You come, and sit, and hear, and I hope are able in some degree to follow the meaning of what I say to you from the pulpit ; yet how far is this from the understanding and the knowledge by which grace and peace are to be multiplied ! But when a person is catechised, when he is asked questions, and called on to answer them, he must think, he must brace up his mind ; unless he is determined not to learn, he can scarce help being taught some- thing. And those who want to learn, those who feel a wish to improve, and to grow in a knowledge of their Lord and Master, what progress must they make under such instruc- tion ! "When I speak thus of catechising, do not think I mean to decry preaching. Both are useful in their turns. Unless the mind be prepared by catechising, preaching loses half its use."

If the principles we have announced be correct, we may ex- pect to find in the primitive Church something corresponding to the institution we have described. That it should be in ex- act resemblance to the school of our times is not necessary to establish their identity. In many respects, the other religious services of the first and nineteenth centuries widely differ. No divinely authorized mode of government or worship is laid down in the New Testament. The early Christians probably followed the forms of the Jewish synagogue, to which they had always been accustomed, with such modifications as the example of Jesus and the conditions and social characteristics of their community demanded. Love for the Master, famil- iarity with his simple ways, fellowship in his sorrow, and an eager looking for his second comiug, must have given to the religious worship of these Christians a beautiful simplicity and spontaneity. Their remembrance of " the words of the Lord Jesus," daily recalled by the oral testimony of those who were eye-witnesses of his life and inspired reporters of his teachings; the new significance of the Old Testament Scriptures ; their faith in the Word as an instrument of salvation — all these

200 The Church School. [April.

combined to give a deep interest to the constant study and practical application of the truth. It is simply impossible to suppose that in those days of vivid experience and intense ac- tivity, the services of Christians were limited to the formal modes of our modern Churches. We learn that " they con- tinued steadfastly in the Apostles' doctrine," the " word of Christ dwelt in them richly," and in all wisdom they taught and admonished one another. Several facts aid us in answer- ing the question, How did the primitive Christians thus teach and edify each other?

1. They were undoubtedly guided by the Master's example, for they remained in the world to fulfill his commission: " Make disciples, baptize, instruct." Jesus was pre-eminently the " Great Teacher." His methods were rather those of the modern school than of the modern pulpit. By questions, con- versations, and illustrations, he excited the minds of his dis- ciples to self-activity. His longest addresses were frequently in reply to some inquiry which his own teachings had awak- ened. His "What is written in the law?" "How readest thou ?" " Understandest thou this?" " What reason ye in your hearts?" "Have ye not read what David did?" "'Is it lawful on the Sabbath days to do good ?" all these are after the man- ner of the teacher, who awakens and dravjs out the mind of the pupil. And even after his public addresses or sermons, in which he spake the Word to the people "as they were able to hear it," " when they were alone, he expounded all things to his disciples." Familiar with his words and modes, the early disciples went forth to " preach and teach in his name."

2. The early Church undoubtedly followed very closely the methods, of the synagogue* There the Word of God was not only read, but expounded, and this in addition to the regular discourse or sermon. Vitringa, in referring to this point, says,

* "Very few particulars are given of the regulations established, of the appoint- ment of the several orders of ministers, of the Divine service celebrated, or, in short, of any of the details of matters pertaining to a Christian Church. One reason for this, probably, was, that a Jewish synagogue, or a collection of syna- gogues in the same neighborhood, became at once a Christian Church, as soon as the worshipers, or a considerable portion of them, had embraced the Gospel, and had separated themselves from uubelievers. They had only to make such additions to their public service, and such alterations as were required by their reception of the Gospel, leaving every thing else as it was." — Archbishop WhaUly.

1809.] The Church School. 201

" There was first read a portion of the law, which was explained bjT a running commentary ; so that the discourses in the ancient synagogue were not at all similar to the sermons of the present day, but were rather exegeses and paraphrases of what was either remarkable or obscure in the portion read. But besides the running commentary or paraphrase, there was frequently a discourse (analogous to our sermon) after the usual service of the synagogue." But this was not all, for either in the synagogue proper, or in an adjoining room, after the regular service, discussions and more thorough investiga- tions of the truth were carried on. To these "disputations" reference is frequently made in the New Testament. (Acts vi, 9, 10 ; ix, 22, 29 ; xix, S, 9 ; xxii, 3 ; 2 Tim. ii, 2.) All Jews were admitted, and all allowed to ask questions. There, the reading and preaching of the synagogue were followed by teaching and searching the Word.* In the light of this fact we understand the allusions of the Apostle to the customs of the early Christians. They met to sing and pray and hear the truth. But they also "spake together," as in the days of

* "In the Jerusalem Talmud, a tradition is alleged that there had been at Jeru- salem four hundred and sixty synagogues, each of which contained an apartment for the reading of the law, and another for the meeting of men for inquiry, dicp r& searc\ and instruction. Such a meeting-ball is called by the Talmudists BY1H fa that is, an apartment where lectures were given or conversations held on various subjects of inquiry. There were three of these meeting-places in the temple, and in all of them it was the custom for the 6tudents to sit on the floor, while the teachers occupied raised seats ; hence Paul describes himself as having, when a student, " sat at the feet of Gamaliel." Acts xxii, 3. There are many hints in the Talmud which throw light upon the manner of proceeding in these assemblies. Thus a student asked Gamaliel whether the evening prayer was obligatory by the law or not. He answered in the affirmative; on which the student informed him that R. Joshua had told him that it was not obligatory. 'Well,' said Gamaliel, ' when he appears to-morrow in the assembly, step forward and ask him "the ques- tion again.' He did so, and the expected answer raised a discussion, a full account of which is given. The meeting-places of the wise stood mostly in connection with the synagogues; and the wise or learned men usually met soon after divine worship and reading were over in the upper apartment of the synagogues, in order to discuss those matters which required more research aud inquiry. The pupils or students in those assemblies were not mere boys coming to bo instructed in the rudiments of knowledge, but men or youths of more or less advanced education, who came thither either to profit by listening to the learned discussions, or to participate in them themselves. These meetings were public, admitting any one, though not a member, and even allowing him to propose questions. These assemblies and meetings were still in existeuco in the time of Christ and his Apostles."— Kilto.

202 The Church School. [April,

Malachi, (iii, 16,) and edified one another. This explains also the counsels of the Apostle in 1 Cor. xiv, 26-33, where he guards this liberty of the Church against abuse. The prophecy of Joel had been fulfilled, (ii, 28, 29,) and even upon "'serv- ants" and " handmaids " the Spirit had been poured out. Paul warned against extravagance, and condemned the noisy, un- edifying, unsatisfactory rhapsodizing of some Corinthian Chris- tians. There were in the first century (as there are in the nineteenth) disciples who had "a zeal of God, but not accord- ing to knowledge."

3. The high estimate placed upon the study of the Word by Christ, the Apostles, and the Christian Fathers, must have pro- duced its effect upon the early Church. In the days of Moses the instruction of youth by their parents in the law of God had been commanded. (Deut. vi, 6-9.) This practice is beauti- fully illustrated in the case of Timothy, to whom Paul refers in his second Epistle, i, 5 ; iii, Jo. In the Mishna it is written, " At five years of age let children begin the Scripture ; at ten the Mishna, and at thirteen let them be subjects of the law." Schools were also organized for the purpose of training Jewish youth. Even the day-schools of Judaism were Bible schools. This precedent was not forgotten by the early disciples. Dr. Mosheim, in his Ecclesiastical History, (first century,) says that " Christians took all possible care to accustom their children to the study of the Scriptures, and to instruct them in the doctrines of their holy religion ; and schools were every- where erected for this purpose, even from the very commence- ment of the Christian Church."

This high appreciation of the "Word, its use in the family, the school, the synagogue, and the " assembly of the wise," accounts for the perfect familiarity with it which the Apostles evince in their recorded discourses. One is struck with this in Peter's sermon on the day of Pentecost, in Stephen's final address, and in Paul's speech at Antioch. In view of all these facts we cannot suppose that the early Christians were satisfied with merely listening to discourses on the truths of Christianity. The new meanings of the Old Testament which the life and teachings of Christ, opened to their understanding, their remembrance of the Lord's precious words, the abundant outpouring of the Spirit, their familiarity with the exegetical

1869.] The Church School 203

and conversational methods of the schools and " assemblies," warrant us in concluding that they, as " disciples," met not only to pray, and commemorate in the " supper " the passion of our Lord, but by prophesyings and teachings to insure "steadfastness in the Apostles' doctrine."

This is further apparent from the emphasis placed upon the Holy Scriptures by Luke and the Apostles. The Bereans were especially commended as " noble," inasmuch as " they received the AYord with all readiness of mind, and searched the Scrip- tures daily, whether these things were so." Acts xvii, 11. Paul advises the Christian warrior to be girt about the loins with truth, and to take the "sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God." Eph. vi, 11, 17. To the Elders of the. Ephesian Church whom he met at Aliletus the Apostle says, " And now, brethren, I commend you to God, and to the Word of his grace, which is able to build you up, and to give you an •inheritance among all them which are sanctified."' Acts xx, 32. Had not Paul heard of the Master's prayer : " Sanctify them through thy truth ; thy word is truth ? " To Timothy he writes : ;; All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteous- ness : that the man of God may he perfect, thoroughly fur- nished unto all good works." 2 Tim. iii, 16, 17. The direction given to the Church at Colosse is very explicit. Xo modern Church school can desire a more perfect charter. On this passage the Rev. Dr. Adam Clarke says, " I believe the Apostle means that the Colossians should be well instructed in the doctrine of Christ ; that it should be their constant study ; that it should be frequently preached, explained, and enforced among them ; and that all the wisdoui comprised in it should be well understood. . . . Through bad pointing this verse is not very intelligible ; the several members of it should be dis- tinguished thus : ' Let the doctrine of Christ dwell richly amoii" you; teaching and admonishing each other in all wisdom; singing with grace in your hearts unto the Lord, in psalms and hymn and spiritual songs.' This arrangement the original "will not only bear, but it absolutely requires it, and is not sense without it." What a description of a thinking, grow- ing, spiritual Church! Did they only hear preaching once oi" twice a week I In the social meetings was there no

204 The Church School. LAprfl,

study and teaching of the " doctrine," " wisdom," WORD of God ?

4. The appointment of teachers, referred to in the Epistles, recognizes the school element of the Church. (Horn, xii, 6, 7 ; 1 Cor. xii, 28 ; Eph. iv, 11.) All these officers are given " for the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ: till we all come in the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the full- ness of Christ." Paul, in the verses succeeding, (14-16,) con- templates the growth of the believers through the truth, every joint supplying somewhat, every part working effectually, making " increase of the body unto the edifying of itself in love." He says, " The body is not one member but many. Xow ye are the body of Christ and members in particular. And God hath set some in the Church, first apostles, secondarily prophets, thirdly teachers, after that miracles, then gifts of healing, helps, governments, diversities of tongues." These "prophets" spake unto men "to edification and exhortation and comfort." The " evangelists," according to Olshausen, "journeying about, labored for the wider extension of the Gospel." So the " teachers," according to Clarke, (Horn, xii, 7,) " were persons whose office it was to instruct others, whether by catechising, or simply explaining the grand truths of Chris- tianity."

The early Church was a school. It was designed, like the synagogues and "assemblies" of the Jews, for worship and for the thorough investigation of the Holy Scriptures; with what increase of opportunity and illumination we have already seen. Its members were to " teach " and " edify " each other. The " word of Christ was to dwell richly " among them. They were to grow in " knowledge " as well as in " grace," (2 Pet. iii, IS ;) to " add to faith, virtue, and to virtue, knowledge" (2 Pet. i, 5;) to he "strong" and ''overcome the wicked one," through the " word of God abiding in them." 1 John ii, 14. In order to this there were " diversities of gifts," and "differences of •administrations,*' but the same Lord; and in the Church "the manifestation of the Spirit is given to every man to profit withal." "All these worketh that one and the self-same Spirit, dividing to every man *ev-

1869.] The Church School. 205

erally as he will. For as the body is one, and hath many members, and all. the members of that one body, being many, are one body: so also • is Christ." The excellent William Arthur, in speaking of the divers gifts of the Spirit, says, "Spiritual office and spiritual gifts vary greatly in degree, honor, and authority, and he who has the less ought to rev- erence him who has the greater, remembering who it is that dispenses them; but the greater should never attempt to ex- tinguish the less, and to reduce the exercise of spiritual gifts within the limits of the public and ordained ministry. To do so is to depart from spiritual Christianity." We have little doubt that the "teachers" referred to by the Apostle were a class of persons who gave special attention to this department of instruction, and aided the regular ministry in the edification of the Church.*

The work thus contemplated and performed by the early Church — the work of edification through the truth, taught in the most thorough and effective way by persons appointed for that purpose — remains to be carried on, and by similar modes,

* A pastor was a teacher, although every teacher might not be a pastor ; but, in many cases, be confined to the office of subordinate instruction, whether as an expounder of doctrine, a catechi.st, or even a more private instructor of those who as yet were unacquainted with the first principles of the Gospel of Christ." — Dr. A. Stevens.

" No system can be made to accord with this passage, [Eph. iv, 16,] any more than with the general spirit of the 2sTew Testament, wherein the pulpit is the sole provision for instruction, admonition, and exhortation; the great bulk of the members of the Cliurch being merely recipients, each living a stranger to the spiritual concerns of the others, and no ' effectual working ' of every joint and every part for mutual strengthening being looked for. It is not enough that arrangements to promote mutual edification be permitted, at the discretion of indi- vidual pa&tora or officers; means of grace wherein fellow-Cliristians shall on set purpose have 'fellowship' one with another, 'speak often one to another, exhort one another, confess their faults one to another,' and ' pray one for another,' shall teach and 'admonish one another in psalms, and hymns, and spiritual songs,' are not dispensable appendages, but of the essenco of a Church of Christ." — Iicv. William Arthur.

Benson on Rom. xii, 8 : " ' He that teacheth ' the ignorant; who is appointed to instruct the catechumens and to fit them for the communion of the Church." On Eph. iv, 11, the same writer says: "It id probable the peculiar offico of those here termed teachers, as distinguished from those called pastors, was to instruct the- young and ignorant in the first principles of the Christian religion. And they likewise were doubtless fitted for their work by such gifts as were necessary to the right discharging thereof."

206 The Church School. [April,

in the Church to-day. TVe regard the Sunday-school in its highest form as the divine method for reaching this end.

1. The first and main want of the modern Sunday-school is the Master's presence. The spiritual mission of the institu- tion has been forgotten, less by the talkers at conventions, than by the great majority of teachers who never attend conven- tions. The theory of the few outreaches the practice of the many. We have reason to fear that there are many teachers who make no personal religious appeals to their pupils, who never pray with them, in whose classes young persons have remained for years without a knowledge of Christ, without any deep-wrought convictions, and even without one zealous effort on the teacher's part for their conversion. Such classes and such schools seem to lack only one thing, but it is the one thing needful. Enthusiasm, numbers, attractiveness, and a score of other charms they may possess, but O ! where is the Master ? AYe trace this lamentable lack to the indefinite, if not incorrect theories which underlie the Sunday-school. If what we build be a breakwater instead of a light-house, why be surprised that no rays fall upon the black night from its summit? If the Sunday-school is a human, subordinate, tem- porary substitute, independent of the Church, and without divine authority, who can wonder that the divine co-operation has not been sought or secured ! If it is organized merely to hold childhood until the Church itself should come with di- viner powers, we need not measure its worth by any spiritual result ; and may expect that in the zeal to perfect its organiza- tion, display its drill in music, martial movement, and Biblical scholarship, it will too often forget to pass its pupils over to the Church, and not infrequently alienate them from it. But the school is more than this theory allows, and it needs first and always the Divine co-operation. No degree of conven- ience and elegance in architectural arrangements, no com- pleteness in appointments, no precision and harmony of move- ment in discipline, no thoroughness in intellectual training, no impressive proprieties in devotional service, no ingenious illustrations from the superintendent's desk or blackboard, no eloquence in occasional addresses, — none of theso things can compensate for the absence of the "power" which the Holy Ghost alone imparts. The Master's presence is indispensable,

1869J The Church School. 207

for ours is the school of Christ. We certainly need the Spirit in the school of the Word, because the Word is " the sword of the Spirit."

2. Xext to the Master's presence the modern Sunday-school craves ecclesiastical recognition as a mea7is of grace. The Methodist Church owes more than she can estimate to her system of class meetings. By this she has maintained a per- manent pastorate in connection with the itinerancy. The Class Leaders are the Pastor's assistants — Subpastors. We have often asked, Why may not the groupings or classes of the Sunday-school be incorporated iu the arrangements of the Church ? Thus we should secure unity of plan, and at the same time increase the number of the Pastor's authorized helpers. Are the objects and appropriate methods of the Church and school classes so diverse as to render this impracticable ? The Church class seeks the advancement of each believer in the divine life; it encourages the free expression of his convictions, needs, and attainments ; it rebukes, exhorts, admonishes, and instructs, building him up in Christian knowledge and purity. To the inquirer it is the Interpreter's house, where many great truths are for the first time explained to him. ISTow precisely what the Church-class scholar needs our Sunday- school scholar needs — frank conversation about the way of life, admonition, exhortation, instruction, and encouragement — all tending to growth iu grace. We claim that this is the true object of the Church school. It is a spiritual, not an intellectual gymnasium. It strikes at the heart. Alas ! that we have so few such schools. Our most approved teachers have inquired more after method than after power. To recite well every Sabbath, and not so much to live near to Christ, and work for Christ every day, has been the great aim of many of our most celebrated schools. We would fain impress pastors, teachers, superintendents, and scholars with the fact that the Sunday-school is designed to strengthen religious character and experience; and that what the faithful class leader would do for his class member, the faithful Sunday- school teacher should do for his scholar. u But all Sunday scholars are not Church members." Full members by faith and baptism, alas ! no ; perhaps not even probationers or seekers. We have not been working for this. We have not

208 TJie Church School. [April,

informed our pupils upon their admission to the school that we could not do our best work for them until they had given themselves to Christ And we fear that a large majority of the Sunday-school scholars are unconverted. Though not " full members," " probationers," or "seekers," do these scholars sustain no relation to the Church ? " Baptized members from infancy, perhaps." But for them we organize Church classes. Are all other scholars outside of the Church, in such a sense as to render the class arrangement inappropriate and unprofit- able ? We hold them by parental authority, and generally by their own consent, and we claim, that as candidates for bap- tism— " catechumens " like those of old — they are in some sense connected with the Church. They walk at least in the outer courts, and we may more easily than we think (because Christ is with us) lead them up through the gate Beautiful into the higher courts of the Lord's house. These catechumens need the pastoral and subpastoral care. By virtue of their relation to the Church through the families to which they belong, we are directed in the Discipline to visit and instruct them. Shall their voluntary relation to the school of the Church grant us no similar or superior advantages? We think that such interest in them, and such ecclesiastical relations guar- anteed them, would exalt their view of the Church, and make them eager to enter her higher fellowships.

"But would you turn the exercises of a Sunday-school class into those of a Church class?" We should unquestionably correct the one-sided methods of each by a blending of their respect- ive characteristics. To the study of Scripture truth (the chief thing in the best Sunday-school classes as now conducted) we should add the element of personal experience, (the main thing in the Church class.) The ever-present aim of the Sun- day-school teacher should be the spiritual profit of his scholars. The frankest expression of their religious doubts and desires should be encouraged. Every lesson should be examined with a view to the edification of each pupil. And if the Church class leader should follow the Sunday-school teacher's example and introduce more of the divine Word into the exercises of his weekly meeting, we are confident that an element of in- terest and strength would be imparted to the service. Truth is the sword of the Spirit ; truth is the wire through which

1869J The Church School. 209

the celestial currents sweep. Father Keeves, the matchless Class Leader of Lambeth, knew the value of the Bible, and was never satisfied "until each member could for himself prove from Scripture every doctrine he professed, and quote from Scripture the warrant for each promise, on the fulfillment of which he relied." He used occasionally to devote an entire session of his class to the study of a Scripture lesson, as a Bible class would. When men of middle age, and old men who did not know how to read, were brought into his class he taught them. "And," said he, "we set apart a Sunday for them to read a portion of Holy Scripture to us, to hear how they im- prove, and to stimulate others to learn." * Can we forget the " Holy Club " at Oxford, with their week evening meet- ings for reading the Greek Testament and the ancient classics, and on Sunday evenings their studies in divinity % " They built me up daily," says George Whitefield, " in the knowl- edge and fear of God, and taught me to endure^ hardness as a good soldier of Jesus Christ." We say, then, let us make the Church-class a Bible school for spiritual growth, and its Leader a teacher, and let the Sunday-school class become a Bible school for spiritual growth, and its teacher a leader. This arrangement will not interfere with, but rather benefit the love-feasts and general classes of the Church, increase the thoughtfulness and stability of Christians, render the preach- ing of God's word a greater delight, and enable us to retain in the Church the multitudes of young people who now every year drop out of our schools through the lack of Church sympathy, adult attendance, intellectual food, and spiritual influence.

3. The next most urgent demand of the Sunday-school is, to be met by earnest, trained, Christian teachers. We would not raise an impracticable standard here. First the teacher should have a general knowledge of the plan of salvation ; then, that

* The biographer of Father Reeves, after reporting his method of conducting class, says, " Rather novel this! some may be disposed to exclaim. Yes; hut let them that say so think again, aud they will acknowledge it undeniahly good. This excellent Leader would uot havo his members satisfied ualil they could prove from Scripture the soundness of their faith, and until, to the joy of their souls, they could read for themselves in their own tongue the wonderful works of God. May 6uch Leaders and members be multiplied."

210 The Church School. f April,

experience of God's grace which, makes the plan precious and real. These will be accompanied by a love for the " word of his grace." Then lie needs the will to wrest time enough from the world's grasp every week for a careful preparation of the lesson ; love enough for the scholars and the truth to make the teacher simple, conversational, and straightforward in bis manner; tact to draw out the scholars' own thought, and concentrate their attention upon the one central truth of the lesson. These will give the teacher, under the divine bless- ing, abundant success. After this, the more Biblical and scientific knowledge the teacher has the better. Mere in- tellectual brilliancy and force, without heart or Christ — away with them ! and away with all lifeless systems of teaching ! "We love system, and believe in thorough analysis in order to exhaustive exegesis, but let this be attended to in the study at home. In the class, let our method be that of free and wisely-directed conversation, arresting the attention of all, eliciting the opinions and experiences of each, and leadiug to profitable self-application.

The personal character of the teacher is of paramount importance. Piety is as indispensable here as in the Class Leader and Pastor. The teacher's character is a perpetual presence with the scholar, so that it is itself a constant teacher. Through his influence the sown seed of the Sabbath is growing seven days in productive soil, though the teacher " knoweth not how." Frivolity, love of dress and pleasure, care- lessness, indifference, unkindness, superficiality and vagueness in teaching — these, too, are seed, and they drop in the soil and grow, and what wonder if they choke the seed of the kingdom in the pupil's soul ? .

We had intended to offer some further suggestions upon several phases of the modern Sunday-school work. The leno-th to which we have carried our discussion already, prohibits this, and we close with the prayer that our Pastors may be impressed more profoundly with the importance of the Church school as a pastoral agency, as a means of edifying adult Christians, and of establishing our people, old and youn"-, in the grace and knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ.

1869.] Schleiermacher • his Theology and Influence. 211

Art. m.— SCHLEIERMACHER ; HIS THEOLOGY AND INFLUENCE.

A CENTURY ago the twenty-first of November last was born in Breslau, Prussia, Frederick Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher ; perhaps, with a single exception, the greatest theological genius of the Protestant world.

• Schleiermacher was the son of a German Reformed minister, then chaplain of a Prussian regiment in Silesia ; his mother was the daughter of Rev. Mr. Stubenrauch, likewise Reformed. As his father was often absent from home on official duties, his early training devolved almost entirely upon his mother, who used her great influence very skillfully and successfully, so as to secure her son's lasting gratitude. His father removed afterward to the country, and young Schleiermacher stayed under the paternal roof up to Ins fourteenth year, being in- structed by his parents and by a private teacher, who inspired him with enthusiasm for classical literature. At this early period he was assailed by a " strange skepticism," which made him doubt the genuineness of all the ancient authors. In 17S3 he was sent to Niesky, where the Moravians had an excellent school, and two years later, to the Moravian college at Barby. A spirit of child-like piety pervaded these schools, instruction and amusement were happily blended, and these influences impressed him most happily and lastingly. Even at this early period he had painful doubts as to the nature of the atonement and the eternity of the punishment of the wicked ; and he went to work so independently, that a rupture, not only with his be- loved teachers, but also, temporarily, with his father, was the consequence. In 1TS7 he entered the University at Halle, where he attended the lectures of Semler and of "Wolf, the great philologist, mastered the modern languages and mathematics, and read the works of Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, and Jacobi. Although his mind was very impressible, yet he was too inde- pendent to follow any one master. After two years he left the university without any iixed system of religious opinions, yet with the hope of " attaining by earnest research and a patient examination of all the witnesses, to a reasonable degree of

212 SchleiermacJier ; his Theology and Influence. [April,

certainty, and to a knowledge of the boundaries of human science and learning." In 1790 he passed his examination for licensure, and became private tutor in the family of Count Dohna, where he stayed three years, and received his first polish in intercourse with refined and noble-minded women. In 1791 he took holy orders, and became assistant of his uncle at Landsberg ; in 1796 he was appointed chaplain of a hospital in Berlin, where he stayed till 1802. During these six years he moved mostly in cultivated and literary circles, and identi- fied himself with the so-called romantic school of poetry, as represented by Frederick and August Willi. Schlegel, Ticck, and Xovalis. This connection tended to elevate his taste and to stimulate his mind, but was rather unfavorable to a hiph- toned spirituality and moral earnestness. In 1S02 he went as court preacher to Stolpe in Pomerania. Here he commenced his translation of Plato, completed in six volumes from 1S01 to -1S26. In 1S01 he was elected extraordinary professor of the- ology and philosophy in Halle. AVhen this university was suspended in 1S06 by Xapoleon he went first to Eiigen, and then to Berlin as minister of Trinity Church. In 1809 he married the widow of his friend Willich, and, although he was much older than she, yet it proved a union of lasting happi- ness. He took a great part in the establishment of the Berlin University in 1S10, became its first professor of theology, and spent the remainder of his life there as academical teacher and pastor of Trinity Church. He lectured two hours daily on almost every branch of theology and philosophy, and was, with his former pupil, Ncander, fur over twentv years the great theological luminary and point of attraction of Berlin. As a preacher he gathered around him every Sunday, in Trinity Church, the most intelligent audiences, students,' pro- fessors, officers, and persona of the higher ranks of society. Wilhelra von Humboldt says, that Schleiermacher's speaking far exceeded his power in writing, and that his strength con- sisted in the "deeply primitive character of his words, which were five from art, and the i^rsuasive effusion of feeling, mov- ing in perfect unison with one of the rarest of intellects?" He never wrote hi* Bcnnon*, except the text, theme, and ' a few heads, but th.-y were taken down by friends, reviewed by him and published. Bo*idci Ins regular duties as preacher pro-

1869.1 Schleiermacher ; his Theology and Influence. 213

fessor, and member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, lie took an active part in the most important movements of his country and age. During the most critical and depressed period in the history of Prussia he exerted a powerful influ- ence in the pulpit, in the chair, and through the press, to stir up in all classes that pride of nationality and love of independ- ence which resulted in the war of liberation and the final emancipation of Germany from French usurpation. He ad- hered to the end of his life to his liberal principles, and exposed himself to the danger of being exiled, like his friends De Wette and E. M. Arndt. He retained, however, his position, received even the order of the Red Eagle, which, however, he never wore, and never enjoyed nor Bought the personal friendship of Frederick William III. He assisted in the work of the union of the Lutheran and Reformed Confes- sions in 1817, and strongly favored the introduction of the Presbyterian and synodieal form of government. He assisted in compiling the Berlin hymn book in 1820, which, with all its defects, opened the way for a hymnological reform, which has since been going on in all parts of Germany.

Notwithstanding this extraordinary activity, he mingled freely in society and was the center of attraction in a large circle of friends at his fireside. He was small of stature, and somewhat humpbacked: but his face was noble, earnest, sharply defined, and highly expressive of intellect and kindly sympathy ; his eye was piercing, keen, and full of fire ; all his movements were quick and animated. He had a perfect command over his temper, and never lost his even composure. In the beginning of February 1S31 he contracted a cold, which settled on his lungs and terminated his life in a few days. His death filled all Germany with gloom ; it was uni- versally felt that a representative man, and a great luminary of the age, had fallen. A complete collection of his works has been in the course of publication ever since 1S35. His pro- ductions embrace classical philology, philosophical ethics, dia- lectics, psychology, politics, pedagogics, Church history, hermc- ncutics, Christian ethics, dogmatics, practical theology, sermons, and a large number of philosophical, exegetica), and critical essays. These are a few meager outlines as to the man Schleiermacher. We must next review Schleiermacher the

Fouktu Sekies, Vol. XXI.— 14

214 Schleiermacher ; Ms Theology and Influence. [April,

theologian, the regenerator of German theology, of German religious thinking, the father of modern orthodox theology. In sketching him in this capacity we shall mainly follow Dorner in his admirable recent work, History of Protestant Theology, not yet translated into English, and noticed in a rather unsatisfactory manner in several of our Reviews.

In order to understand Schleiermacher himself, the develop- ment of his theological consciousness, and the unbounded influence which he has heretofore, exerted, it is necessary to take into account not only the state of religious thinking in Germany in the days of Schleiermacher's first appearance in public, but also that feature of the German mind which is so reluctant to receive any thing on mere authority, but which prefers rather to investigate it fundamentally, to study both its nature and beginning, before forming a lasting opinion ; a peculiarity which, of course, is liable to abuse, and exposes the German mind to the charge of skepticism by other na- tions, but which we, notwithstanding, look upon as the con- ditio sin? qua non of all thoroughness and real science. Hence the attempts at Ontology, the very being and nature of God' of the Spirit, and Theogonies, etc. ; subjects which many good people take on trust, but on which they have, perhaps, for this very reason, no idea whatever — God, Spirit, being to them mere terms or abstractions.

In theology Supernaturalism had, after a protracted struggle, yielded to Rationalism, as it had partially yielded in England to Deism. A cold, lifeless preaching of morality had emptied the churches, Kant's stern imperative, Thou shalt, had, after a temporary effect, been superseded by Schelling's physical. and Hegel's logical Pantheism, and the people had lost all interest not only in Christianity, but in all religion as such. In this 6tate of things Schleiermacher appeared on the stage himself, as a matter of course, affected and shaped by the spirit of the times. In 1799 he published his "Discourses on Peligion, addressed to the Educated Men among its Dcspisers." In these discourses he does not appear as a specifically Christian preacher, but as an eloquent priest of Natural Iveligiou in the outer courts of Christian Kevelation, to convince educated unbelievers that religion, so far from being incompatible with intellectual cult- ure, as they thought, is the deepest and most universal want of

1869.] Schleicrmachcr ; his Theology and Influence. 215

man, being different from knowledge and from practice, a sacred feeling of relation to the Infinite, which purities and ennobles all the faculties. Beyond this he did not go at that time. But, says Dorner, in order to understand the man, we must examine his theological stand-point. Here his principal merit and his real importance for the history of theology lie. Schleier- macher overcame the antagonism between Supematuralism and Rationalism, which prevailed up to 1820, in principle; a deed of science, which was performed, not by uniting elecii- cally the elements of truth peculiar to each of the two systems, but by uniting the truths contained in both by a principle higher than both systems into a new system.

This principle is Schleicrmacher's idea of religion as a quick- ening principle ; whereas religion is, as is well known, accord- ing to the two systems, merely a function of the \oill and the intellect, a modus cognoscendi et eolendi Deum, (the manner of knowing and worshiping God,) an essentially Deistical notion of God prevailing. In Rationalism inheres a longing for personal persuasion and mental appropriation of truth instead of a blind submission to mere outward authority, for which reason it keeps its look steadily fixed upon an indissolu- ble connection between the natural and the ethical world. This is the truth in Rationalism. Supematuralism takes it for granted that man is insufficient to himself, in his highest rela tions, and in want of divine assistance ; or, that Christianity is not a product of nature, Christ not the natural offspring of the race, but a supernatural phenomenon. This is the truth in Supematuralism. These two elemeuts of partial truth inhering in the two systems — liberty and authority, personal appropria- tion and tradition, the ideal and the historical — Schleiermacher unites by falling back upon the fundamental idea of the Ref- ormation— upon religion or faith in the evangelical sense of the term. Of this faith, the quickening material principle of the evangelical Church, he vindicates the rights — its independ- ence and inward certainty — in distinction from a mere historical belief, as from mere convictions resting on thinking and conclu- sions. This faith is to Schleiermacher what it was to the divines of the Reformation — a fides divina, something essen- tially divine; a restoration of a common life between God and man, produced by the spiritual contemplation of the historical

216 Schlezermacher / his Theology and Influence. [April,

image of Christ and its power of attraction. This faith, giving itself up to the Redeemer, partakes thereby of his spirit and life, and secures to its possessor both the consciousness of being redeemed and of the power inhering in Jesus to redeem. This process, viewed from the stand-point of natural and redeemable life, is supernatural, a miracle ; but viewed from the stand-point of the Church, which was founded by Christ and necessarily partakes of his spirit, it is merely a continuation of that, which has become normal in history, has been intended for mankind from all eternity, and belongs to the idea of humanity, since it completes its creation. As to the beginning of the Church and of the person of Christ, therefore, the superrational or supernatural is at the same time rational and natural when viewed from the stand-point of God and his eternal decree, which comprehends all tilings and pre-arranged man's redemp- tion according to his wants. For the spiritual element in man, the vovg, (in Scripture language it is the heart,) although it forms, as the koyticov, his center — of which every thing else is the periphery — is in his natural state so powerless, and by the sen- sual element, the ifoxfl and the ow/ja, so completely controlled, that the Scripture, correctly calls the vovg, in this condition, flesh. But on the other hand it is, nevertheless, the vovg with which the divine spirit, irvevfia3 unites, in order to bring from this center the whole psychical and bodily organism under its influence a-nd control. It must, therefore, be taught that the appropriation of Christianity presupposes an antecedent relation to Christ ; that is, an inward longing of human nature for Christ, which is developed into a live reciprocity, and satisfied by the actual presentation of Christ's image. On the one hand, the human vovg is not the Christian -rrvevfia, being unable, without Christ, to raise its reciprocity to spontaneity, and the Christian spirit is not even potentially included in the human spirit. This is the truth in Supematuralism over against Pelagianism. But on the other hand we must say, because of the world's unity and the continuity of the ethical process, the unity of the human and of the Christian spirit is involved in the longing of the first for the second, which longing can, indeed, not be satisfied by its own strength, but only through the appearance of Christ. Rationalism is wrong in saying that the spirit of Christ was nothing but the human spirit in a higher state of

1SG0.1 Schl-eiermacher ; his Theology and Influence. 217

development, since the human spirit could by no process be developed into that of Christ, with which it was, however, in so far one as it had an everlasting longing for it.

What we call the spirit of Christ or the Christian spirit, and the human spirit, are complements of each other, and we must allow a certain original identity of both. Reason is intel- ligible only as a transition from the other intellectual functions of man to the divine principle manifested in Christ, while the •nvevfta is only a higher development of what we call reason, which development is, however, not the outgrowth of reason. Christianity, however different from limited human reason, is supremely rational ; a manifestation of divine wisdom, which is reason, and it is, therefore, no contradiction to say that Chris- tianity is superrational, since it can absolutely not be the pro- duct of human reason, and that it is, at the same time, for the reason which it raises from the condition of longing to that of possession.

As the antagonism of the rational and supernatural, so is also that of nature and grace.

By nature is meant what the human spirit can be developed into, considered both by itself and in connection with the other functions of the mind ; the appearance of Christ, and the com- munication of the T:vev[m bused on it, is grace. If this is so, there is no absolute antagonism between nature and grace, since both are adapted to and exist for each other. Naturalism says, indeed, the development of man through grace and his natural development are one and the same process ; Super- naturalism says, man's natural development through his reason is essentially different from his development through grace. But this contradiction appears only as a relative one when viewed from a higher stand-point. Supernaturalism is right in its position when the subject is considered from the stand-point of what a man can do and actually does; for considered in this light, that which is contained in Christianity goes far beyond nature, and is suj/ernatural ; and by no development of reason could that which is in Christ and is imparted to human nature through faith, have been produced without the workings of the divine principle manifested in Christ. But Super- naturalism is wrong in saying that Christ's appearance is absolutely supernatural, that is, in relation to God and God's

218 SchMermacher ; his Theology and Influence. [April,

idea of man ; and Rationalism is right in saying that, con- sidered from the unity of the divine decree, the supernatural- ness of the appearance of Christ becomes natural, since thin<rs that appear to our final conception as different are necessarily one in the divine mind. Viewed in this light, the decree of creation cannot be separated from that of redemption and final completion. Both decrees are for the Divine Being equally natural and coexistent, and there can be no decree of redemp- tion and final completion apart from that of creation, which can be completed only by the decree that includes Christ, and must, therefore, be considered as susceptible of Christ's redeem- ing and completing power from the beginning.

Sehleiermacher's view is, indeed, not free from determinism, including, as it does, also moral evil in God's decree; but the point under consideration here cannot be affected thereby, be- cause the absolute oneness of the divine decree, the indissolu- bility of these two elements — creation and redemption — cannot be annulled by the fact that the fall is the free act of man, be- cause the idea that God had not. foreseen sin, that sin had, as it were, taken him by surprise, is simply absurd. Schleier- macher is correct in saying that nature is merely the accom- plishment or realization of the divine decrees in time and space ; but by this very position a higher view of nature is absolutely demanded than that held by Pelagian ism and Rationalism— that is, a view in which there is involved the appearance of Christ itself in such a manner that it cannot be traced from 'human reason nor from the intrinsic power of the race, but must be ascribed to an extraordinary interference of God to a divine act, which act, however, becomes a unity with" the decree of creation in the divine decree, whose expression is the universe.

By faith in Jesus Clni.-t wc partake of his sinlessness and blessedness, are saved from our condition of sin and guilt, and that in such a manner that we are conscious of it. "We are reconciled unto God, who beholds us in him as animated by his spirit, and as parts of liim ; lie having implanted, at least, the principle of divine lit*.- into the Church, the portion of mankind in union with him, which in turn, by means of the true image of Christ impressed into itself, propagates this life until the Church ami mankind shall have become coextensive and iden- tical. All religious, that is, forms of religion, must finally be

18C9.3 Schleierrnacher ; his Theology and Influence. 219

merged in Christianity. The essence of the Christian religion, however, consists in the redemption through Jesus of Nazareth, which is destined to be the all-pervading power of the Chris- tian's life, and is the highest and purest form of attainable God-consciousness. In this definition of Christianity, con- taining two ideas, namely, that of human redemption and that of the person of Christ, the Church is carefully distinguished from every thing not Christian. The idea of human redemp- tion would be nothing if humanity could save itself without Christ; or if, on the other hand, humanity was irredeemable. The first would be Pelagian, the second Manichean, heresy, and redemption would either be superfluous or impossible. The Christian idea of the person of the Redeemer absolutely re- quires the recognition of the presence of full redeeming powers in him. But if even his unique character is recognized, but his humanity proper denied, as is done by Doketism, it is im- possible for him to affect humanity organically, and he cannot be its Redeemer. Again, if his humanity proper is recognized, but that absolutely perfect indwelling of God in him denied, from which his all-sufficient power to redeem proceeds, — if he is taken to be an extraordinary man without a specific dignity, as is done by Ebionitism, — he cannot be the Redeemer. But all Christological views that keep within these two extremes are, according to Schleierrnacher, Christian ; and if they need any correction, the very recognition of these limits furnishes it. In the Redeemer, who is to Schleierrnacher the center of every thing Christian, he sees the idea of humanity realized, the ideal man actualized ; the God-consciousness has acquired in him ab- solute^ strength, has become a personal indwelling of God in him, as far as human nature is capable of such an indwelling. In Jesus God has revealed himself not only as the Omnipotent, Holy, and Just, but also as Love and Wisdom, and a higher revelation is not necessary nor to be looked for ; because the be- liever in Jesus knows that he partakes of a principle that is sufficient fur his final completion, because every thing that hin- ders or disturbs this process is not based on this principle, but is opposed to it. If it be said that the realization of ideal perfec- tion in Christ must be problematical, or that it is impossible that the idea of perfection, even if apprehended, should be a guar- antee of its realization, or, on the other hand, that the actual-

220 Schleiermacher ; his Theology and Influence. [April,

ized idea as beheld in Christ docs not prove total purity and perfection, Schleiermachcr answers : The impossibility of real- izing absolute perfection is the impossibility of realizing our moral destination, and would be a combination of Manieheism and Ebionitism. If it must be admitted, therefore, that the ideal humanity has been realized in Christ, the reply to the assertion that the actual realization of the ideal cannot be known to a certainty is this : Whoever surrenders himself in a feeling of his need of redemption wholly to the influence of Christ, becomes infallibly certain of his redeeming character and specific dignity.

A real appreciation of Christ's image is possible only through true faith, which secures also a participation in his supreme blessedness and sinless perfection. Christ secures these bless- ings to us in his threefold office of King, Prophet, and High Priest. Schleiermacher lays special stress on Christ's high priestly office, on his active and passive obedience, and repre- sents him as full of high priestly sympathy, taking our place in order to raise us to himself and to make us his own. God looks upon those that are in this life-communion with the Saviour in and through Christ as redeemed, and as parts of Christ himself, since they are partakers of his spirit. From this stand-point the snpernaturalistic evidences of the divinitv of Christ, miracles, prophecies, and inspiration appear to him as weak, and the fear of criticism as -weakly and nn evangeli- cal, proceeding, as it does, from a want of confidence in the peculiar power of Christianity to prove its divinity to the hu- man spirit by its own essence, and relying, as it docs, on intel- lectual proof which can never afford perfect certainty. From this central position, which Schleiermacher assigns to faith, standing on the real basis of the Reformation, he is obliged to, and does, distinguish betvreenfaith and dogma, which are so often taken for each other, especially by the intellectnalism, even the supernatural one, according to which faith is the receivino- of the supernaturally revealed doctrine, that'is, of the mvsteries of Christianity. But doctrine is neither redemption nor power of redemption; we arc destined to a real communion with God through Christ, and only where this life-eommunion is, there is real piety; tins involves more than a change of views or max- ims of life. Doctrine, as evangelical preaching, without which

1SG9J Schleiermacher • his Theology and Influence. 221

there can originate no faith, is, according to Schleiermacher, indeed also independent of faith ; but this doctrine is different from the dogma, is very simple, and has its power in the preaching of Christ, in the truthful and quickening presenta- tion of his image. Genetically considered, the dogma is the result of faith, is the scientific expression of the kind of appro- priation of the Gospel story by the Church for the time being, and has its origin in the reflection upon the conditions of the Christian mind. Being dependent upon these it is not un- changeable, like the preaching of the Gospel ; has not the con- sistency and uniformity of the writings of the New Testament, which possess normative authority 'as the depository of the pure primitive Christian tradition, or as the authentic record of revelation. From this it appears that Schleiermacher as- signs to the Church and to tradition a higher place than was done before him in the evangelical Church. He draws, indeed, this distinction between the Roman Catholic and the Protest- ant Church, namely : In the Catholic Church the relation of the individual believer to Christ is dependent upon his relation to the Church, while in the Protestant Church the individual believer's relation to the Church is dependent upon his rela- tion to Christ. But it is not his intention to deny, by this dis- tinction, that the individual attains to faith only through the Church and her offices ; yea, he even says that the Church com- municates the Holy Spirit to the individual, denying every op- eration of the Spirit not. mediated by the Church. Necessary ingredients and constituent elements of the Church, however, are, according to Schleiermacher, the Holy Scriptures, which she preserves, and the sacraments, which she administers, and the Holy Spirit, attending her efforts. That the Holy Spirit is confined to the Church, or even to certain institutions, that what the actual Church does, is also the work of the Holy Spirit, Schleiermacher unqualifiedly denies. But in order to conceive of Christianity as a historic power he has assigned an important place to tradition ; not to tradition, however, in its common acceptation, as the summary of a well-defined number of views and doctrines, but as a living power, proceed- ing from Christ and ever present in the Church from her very origin; and his ideas have not failed to impress the Catholic Church and some of her most eminent theologians, as Drey,

222 Schleicrmacher ; his Theology and Influence. [April,

Mohler, Klee, Staudenmaier, and others, powerfully. The Church, as the work of Christ upon earth, was to Schleier- macher, in her laws of life, sufferings, and failings a unity ; and for this reason he worked incessantly for the healing of schisms in the evangelical Church, for the union of the Lutherans and Reformed, and especially also in his Dogmatics, published in 1821, three centuries after the publication of Melancthon's "Loci Communes," which he intended to be the statement of the common faith of Protestants, as "Melanchthon's Loci" had been for the as-yet-undivided Protestant Church. Also, toward the Roman Catholic Church his position is very irenical ; although he was fully satisfied that the antagonism between the two Churches had not yet reached its acme. This, his irenical po- sition, had its basis in his conviction that the Catholic Church was divided from the Protestant Church not only through un- evangelical elements, but also through a peculiar Christian individuality, namely, her strong leaning toward symbolism.

Through his whole architectonic method, especially through his definition of Christianity and its limits, Schleiermacher introduced a more correct estimate of the individual doctrines in theology. Every doctrine must now be estimated by its nearer or more distant relation to the central point ; and the distill ction between the foundation, upon which every thing in the Church rests, and between what is built thereon, (1 Cor. iii, 10-15,) which had, indeed, never been entirely forgotten, but greatly obscured, has become prominent again. Here is the basis of Schleiermacher's stand-point over against the different theological schools, and of his position in the Church. His love of union is not based upon a desire to shake off the symbolical books of the Church, nor on dogmatical indifferent- ism, since he devoted most of his time and strength to dog- matics, and saw a vital function of the Church in her progress in developing dogmas; and still less did he work for the union from personal considerations. jS*o, his love of union was based upon his firm conviction that there is no radical differ- ence in the doctrine of the two Churches ; that, therefore, the differences of individual doctrines growing out of the common basis are not of vital importance, from which it follows that the split of the two Churches cannot be morally justified. By this act of uniting, the Evangelical Church harmonizes her

18GD.1 Schleiermacher / his Theology and Influence. 223

conduct with her theological knowledge of the necessity of distinguishing between the foundation and between what is built thereon ; between religion and dogma ; and she throws- out those sickly elements that have been at all times a necessary outgrowth from the confounding of tliese differences; namely, the intellectualism of a negative and positive, of a churchly or subjective character, that derives its strength from its mistaking dogma for religion, and the darkening of the prin- ciple whereby its healthful development is not only impeded, but of which it is also a very natural consequence, that upon one or another of the doctrines of the Church undue stress is laid. The result of such a decomposition of evangelical doctrine, through the weakening of the influence of its central principle, is, for example, the peculiar stress laid for the Evan- gelical Church upon her tradition, as her sacraments, or the clerical office, or upon the authority of the canon without any regard to criticism or the settling of the material principle. If the principle of the Reformation, justification by faith, is obscured in its central position, the other doctrines assume, to eay the least, a co-ordinate position ; but the necessary conse- quence of the loss of its hegemonical position is, that the king becomes a subject. • For as there must necessarily be a power confirming all dogmas, this power, after it has been taken away from the evangelical principle, is transferred to some- thing else, be it the authority of the Church, or of the canon, or of human reason; and the whole evangelical basis is jeopar- dized by obscuring this principle or abandoning its central position. Here it appears, at the same time, that the higher importance which Schleiermacher attaches to tradition, cor- rectly understood, for the Evangelical Church, is of essential service in preserving her pure character and principle. For tradition is, according to Schleiermacher, the power of the Christian testimony constantly renewed by the Holy Ghost; which testimony has, through the Holy Spirit, its absolute certainty in itself, and is produced through the preaching of the Gospel, and has the Scriptures for its basis and norm. The evangelical Christian draws thus his proofs fur the divinity of the Scriptures, not from rational and historical arguments, nor from the authority of the Church, but from the testimony of the Spirit as to his actual redemption through Christ ; be-

22i Schleiermacher; his Theology and Influence. [April,

lieving, indeed, in Christ, not through the mediation of the Scrip- tures or the preaching based upon it, but in the Divine author- ity of the Scriptures through and for the sake of Christ ; from which it appears that tradition, correctly understood, consists in the progressive production of real believers by the opera- tions of the Holy Ghost through the preached word ; which believers occupy a relatively independent position toward the sacred Scriptures, which owe their highest confirmation, and the recognition of their authority, to the authority of Christ, who reveals himself to faith through the Holy Ghost as the Redeem er.

While Schleiermacher has clearly drawn the line between Christianity and fundamental errors, it may be a cause of regret that he has pointed out only anthropological and Christolo gical, and not also theological errors, as the antagonism of Theism and Pantheism. But Schleiermacher looked upon both Theism and Pantheism as philosophical views of God, and he wished by all means to keep Christian theology strictly distinct from all merely philosophical views of God, such as a so-called natural theology holds. Moreover, it must be admitted that his theology was not free from great errors, which only his sincere love of the Eedeemer prevented from exerting their legitimate pernicious influence. By this love he was con- strained to admit self-consciousness, personality in God, how- ever inadequate to his philosophical nature this idea appeared for a designation of the Infinite.

Moreover, one peculiarity of Schleiermacher must not be overlooked ; it was his constant endeavor and great object to show religion to be independent of philosophical systems, and in order to do this effectually he went so far as to recognize in the Christian self-consciousness, primarily and peculiarly, only a personal feeling in motion, but not a concrete, objective knowledge of God. Certain forms of Theism are, indeed, in- consistent with, and, therefore, excluded by, the consciousness of absolute dependence; which is perennial, as taught by Schleiermacher; as well as a false independence of the world over against God. making God a limited being. By the same absolute dependence, the pantheistic view is also excluded, according to which the world is God, and man possesses abso- lute knowledge and is absolutely free.

1369.1 ScJdeiermacher / his Theology and Influence. 225

But in his dogmatics he is not sufficiently guarded against determinism; by which every thing happens by virtue of eternal determinations, whether these are deistically so received, as if every thing was from eternity fixed by the connection of nature ; or pantheistically, so that every thing is referred to the universal world-power in such a manner that the spiritual world is neither the relatively independent cause of its form- ative activity, nor appears as an independent life.

This determinism of Schleiermacher, which lays the main stress upon the absolute causality or omnipotence of God, leads him also to assign to those divine attributes, by which man's moral nature, his liberty and accountability, his imputation and guilt, are conditioned, only a subordinate position ; so es- pecially, too, the Divine holiness and justice; whence it is that he does not properly appreciate the Old Testament in its true and lasting value, although he views omnipotence as spiritual, and in Christianity, as absolute love and wisdom.

Schleiermacher denies the possibility of knowing God ; and the pious feeling is to him the only form into which the Absolute can spiritually be received. From this source his de- terminism flows. The existence of God is philosophically thus proved by him : As certainly as there is knowledge, and the necessary duplicity between thinking and being finds in- this knowledge its unity ; as certainly as the necessary differ- ence between the willing agent and the object of his will dis- appears in the act, where the two become a unit : so certainly an absolute transcendental cause as God must be assumed, in whom all the dualisms of the world can find their final union. Without their absolute union in God, even their partial union in the world would be impossible, and there would be no possibility of either knowing or acting. God's existence is, therefore, as certainly to be admitted by the reason, as there is a possibility of knowing and acting. But what God is, his being and constituent parts, we cannot know, according to Schleiermacher ; to whom philosophy is merely a knowledge of the world, taking, of corn-so, a transcendental God for granted. But theology, to which he denies likewise a knowl- edge of God, is, accordiug to him, only a knowledge of the Christian consciousness, or of Christian piety; consequently only self-consciousness — taking God as the absolute causality

226 Schlekrm acker ; his Theology and Influence. [April,

and supreme unity for granted, — indeed, knowledge also, but such a knowledge as stands primarily in the service of the religious community, the Church, that is animated by no interest in the theory in itself or objective knowledge, but which refers every thing to the Church, and must, therefore, be kept distinct from philosophy and its fluctuating systems, and can as certainly be kept distinct from it as religious life, — is something independent of thinking or willing. But, how- ever unsatisfactoiy Schleiermacher's philosophical ideas of God, or his philosophical theology, may be, his deep piety and genuinely Christian feeling lead him back to the truth when he says, in keeping with the teachings of the Scriptures, that God alone can know himself; when lie calls God the unity, that which is not identical with the totality of knowledge and being, but is their absolute basis ; when he calls God not only the spiritual Omnipotence, but also Love and Wisdom.

Schleiermacher has founded no school, neither a philosophical nor a theological one. lie appreciated independence of thought too highly for himself and for others to entertain even such an idea. But as we have said before, he has exerted an influence upon the religious world and upon religious thought as cer- tainly no one after the Information period ; and there is scarcely one of the living theologians of Germany that has not been powerfully affected by Schleiermacher, and that does not owe a large share of gratitude to him. Schleiermacher was, in the strict sense of the word, not orthodox ; but the path he opened was in the right direction, as appears from the fact that nearly all his followers are more orthodox than he himself. We mention only the following as expounders of the Xew Testa- ment : Liicke, Bleek, Usteri, Neandcr, Schmid, Olshausen, Tholuck, Osiander, Messner, Riehm, Weiss, Lechler, Holzmann. As writers on historical theology : Neander, Hagenbach, Jacobi, Piper, Erbkam, Uhlhorn, Renter, Dorner. In dogmatical theology have been influenced by Schleiermacher, notwith- standing their individual independence and their differences from each other, Nitzsch, Twesten, Julius Midler, Rothe, Tholuck, Sack, Yogt, Hagenbach, Martensen, Licbner, Hoff- mann, Auberlen, Ehrenfeuchtcr, Langc, Ebrard, Gess, and many others. Schleiermacher's determinism has been retained only by Schweitzer, Romang, and Schotten, the two former

1869.] ScMeiermacher ; his Theology and Influence. 227

being Swiss, the last Dutch. All these construct dogmatics, not merely from the formal principle of the Scriptures, as Bibli- lical Supernaturalism did, nor from natural reason, as the Rationalists did, but from the material principle of the Ref- ormation, faith in unison with the holy Scriptures. Scarcely any less has his influence been on the field of ethics, as we see from the speculative ethics of Werth and Rothe, and the Chris- tian ethics of Schmid. Practical theology owes its scientific form to Schleiermacher's influence altogether, as we see from the original works of Xitsch, Palmer, Liebner, Schoeberlein, etc.

The great Catholic theologians, that were more or less affected by Schleiermacher's spirit, have been named already; of English divines we mention only Maurice and Trench.

One remark more. It cannot have escaped the thoughtful reader how great a similarity, if not full identity, there exists between Methodistic Christianity and Schleiermacher's Chris- tianity in its highest scientific form. To Methodism Christianity is primarily a new life in God, mediated to the believer by the Church through the preaching of the word and prayer ; so to Schleiermacher. Both Methodism and Schleiermacher's the- ology deny that the natural man, the unchanged and un- sanctified intellect, has any insight into the mysteries of religion ; but this identity is only partial. "When we go to a revival meeting, to a* class meeting, or love-feast, we cannot be mistaken as to the completeness of the identity ; but when we go to the recitation-room in our higher institutions of learning, and our theological seminaries, if we examine the course of study prescribed for our young preachers, then this identity is greatly marred ; not only the identity of Methodism and Schlei- ermacher's theology, but also the identity of Methodist life and Methodist theology. This is the case with nearly all our apologetical literature. Here we meet as highest authority Paley, Butler, (Analogy,) and other writers from the deistical period. iXone of these men viewed Christianity as a new life from and in God, none referred to the testimony of the Sjnrit, none makes a change of heart the conditio sine qua non of understanding the Bible; but all endeavor, as Supernaturalism did, to construe from miracles and prophecies an argument amounting, if it could have been completed, to a demonstra- tion, thus making the unsanctified vovg, which St. Paul calls

22S Schleiermacher ; his Theology and Influence. (April,

flesh, the infallible umpire on the subject of religion, of which, from the nature of the case, it can understand but little. In the face of such facts we may well exclaim, " O consistency, thou art a jewel ! " If this article should call the attention of the Church to this self-apparent inconsistency, the writer would feel more than repaid for the labor of writing it.

Art. IV.— GKOWTH IX LANGUAGE.

Lectures on the English Language.. By George P. Marsh. First Series. Fourth

edition. New York and London. 1SG1. The Origin and History of the English language, and of the early Literature ichich ii

Embodies. By George P. Marsh. London. 1S62.* Lectures on the Science of Language. Delivered at the Pioval Institution of Great

Britain. By Max Muller, M.A. First and Second Series. New York. 1866

and 1S67. Language and the Study of Language. Twelve Lectures on tbe Principles of

Linguistic Science. By William D wight Whit.vey, of Yale College. New

York. 1SG7.

I. Max Muller, Marsh, and Whitney, may be ranked to- gether as the leading writers in English upon the principles of linguistic science. Mr. Marsh might disclaim having attempted a scientific treatment of language ; the professed scope of his works is limited to one of the nine hundred languages f spoken among men ; but he has illustrated that one with a wealth of learning derived from the study of the facts and principles of human speech. His opinions upon generalization in this science have the rare value that they are pronounced with the exemplification in hand, and then always with an extreme guardedness. He can scarcely contain his wrath against speculative inquirers who "guess out hidden meanings and analogies," and " build the whole fabric of a national history, extending through ten centuries, on the Roman orthography of a single proper name belonging to a tongue wholly unknown to the Eoinans themselves." %

* For convenience' sake this work will bo referred to in this article as Second Series.

f Muller, First Series, p. 35.

X Marsh, Second Series, p. 30. Loudon edition.

1S69.1 ' Growth in Language. 229

Notwithstanding the considerable advance in the science, probably he would not now withdraw this, which he said in 1SG2 :

Comparative philology is in its infancy — a strong and vigorous infancy, indeed — but still, in its tendencies and habits, too pre- cocious. It is the youngest of the sciences. Modern inquirers have collected a very great number of apparently isolated phil- ological facts ; they have collected multitudes of seeming, as well as numerous well-established, linguistic analogies ; and they have found harmony and resemblance where, until lately, nothing had been discovered but confusion and diversity. But still here, as evcry-xchere else, speculation is much in advance of knowledge, and many of the hypotheses which are sprouting like mushrooms to-day, are destined, like mushrooms, to pass away to-morrow.*

Professor Max Miiller is the antipodes of Mr. Marsh. The former is the extreme of scientific courage as the latter is the extreme of scientific caution. But Miiller brings so much learning to his aid, has at command such large resources in the results of German research, and announces his broadest generalizations with such limitations, that even Mr. Marsh must admire the flight he would not himself dare. Still, paradoxical as it may seem, and much as it runs against the popular opinion in this country, Max Midler's chief merit is, that he has popularized the theories of his German brother scholars for our large English-eared audience. We hail Pro- fessor Whitney as a new star rising in the American quarter of our Anglican sky. His little book marks an epoch in the science of language in this country; as a contribution to exact study in this department of human knowledge, it will give American scholarship an honorable place in that of the world.

Professor Whitney has set himself a more exact task than Max Miiller had taken up ; this appears in the very titles of their respective works,f and still more in the points of de- parture which they select. The Oxford professor begins with claiming for his science a place among physical studies, and

* Second Scries, p. 2S. Three words arc italicized liero to call attention, not to a novel opinion, but to the predominant quality in Mr. Mareh'a studies. Compare Whitney, p. 324.

f "Lectures on the "Science of Language " leaves the writer to wander at will; ' Language and the Study of Language " imposes an obligation to method. Fourth Series, Vol. XXI. — 15

230 Growth in Language. , [April,

this assumption determines to some extent the method which he pursues. The Yale professor tells us, in his first chapter, that " the whole subject of linguistic inquiry may be con- veniently summed up in the single inquiry, ' Why do we speak as we do ? ' " (page 10,) and this question is the key-note of his book. Miiller's method has an unpleasant flavor of the didactic and dogmatic ; Whitney's is prevailingly inquiring and inductive. We have been so much accused, not altogether unjustly, of being a nation of theorizers and dogmatists, that it is a pleasure to be vindicated by such an example and con- trast in a field where, until recently, there have been about as many theories as facts.

II. What is meant by growth in language, and what is the scientific import of the fact of such growth ? Whitney crosses swords, if so martial a figure be allowable, with Muller on the second of these questions, and makes good his position by an answer to the first question. The Oxford professor makes language a natural growth on three grounds : first, that it is not in the power of man to produce or prevent the changes that occur in language ; * second, that language must be classed among the works of God, rather than among those of man;f third, that the method of its study is the same, and that the science has passed through the same stages as the physical sciences. £

Miiller everywhere treats the subject so discursively — so im- plicitly admits all the facts which make against his theory, and adorns his pages with such a profusion of illustration — that it is as difficult as it seems uncandid to put definition into his mouth. What seems to be his best reason for calling the science of language a physical science is found in a passage which is designed only to show the importance of the study :

If you consider that whatever view we take of the origin and dispersion of language nothing new has ever been added to the substance of language, that all its changes have been changes of form, that no new root or radical lias ever been invented by later generations, any more than one single element has ever been added to the material world in which we live — if you bear in mind that in

* See First Scries, pngc 47, et passim. f Wd, p. 32.

X Empirical, classificatory, and theoretical. See first and second lecturos of tho First Series.

1SG9.] Growth in Language. 231

one sense, and in a very just sense, we may be said to handle the very words which issued from the mouth of the Son of God when he gave names to c' all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field " — you will see, I believe, that the science of language lias claims upon your attention such as few sciences can rival or excel.*

Not less important to his theory is an assumption much, dwelt upon in his pages, that the individual man cannot, by his conscious action, out of deliberative purpose, change the words of a people.

It is doubtful whether, if both these assumptions were admitted, language could properly be classed among the physical sciences. If man has not made language he has at least changed it, and his intelligence has been active in this process ; if an individual cannot alone, by conscious effort, modify the words of a people, the whole people do in some way by .their choice, however unconsciously exercised, alter their words. Perhaps it is not out of place to ask, Of what value is the eternal barrier between us and the brutes -which is found in language, if our vocal mark is only a physical one? If speech lies outside the domain of man's intelligent action and voluntary powers, is not the discovery a step toward breaking down the line of demarkation between man and the inarticulate world below him ? Miiller insists with so much emphasis upon this barrier, he thrusts it in the faces of the Darwins with so much confidence, that one must believe that he has not perceived the drift of his own theory. f

We ask a more pertinent question when we demand whether these generalizations of Miiller lie at- the base, or are the cap-stones of the science ? From a careful induction, were it possible, it might result that man has not within the held of history added to the radical part of language, but such a discovery would be the last step in the analysis. It involves the unity of human speech, the revelation or development by the first man of all that is essential to language, and leaves nothing to be studied but the modifications of that language, the ebb and flow of these waves of sound upon the tongue of man. But these theories are disputed on all sides, and even

* First Series, p. 37.

f First Series, p. 351: "LaDguago is our Rubicou, aud uo brute will ever dare to cross it"

232 Growth in Language. [April,

Midler himself admits that our present knowledge only renders probable the original unity of human language. But on what safe principle of scientific inquiry are we authorized to assign a science its place on the merits or significance of its last possible car probable generalization? Still further, the growth we are to consider is one which is intimately associated with human intelligence, which expands its volume with the expansion of man's intellectual and moral nature ; puts on luxuriance in the highest civilization, and dwarfs and dwindles in declining empires ; which is so closely related to the spiritual activities of man that some cannot distinguish between the soul and the word. How does Max Miiller separate man from his language?

If we understand him, he relies much upon the fact that linguistic and political classifications are not identical. " The science of language may declare itself independent of history," because it is not coterminous with political history.* The • history of the Celtic language is not that of the British Isles ; but it is none the less true that the history of the Celtic language is inextricably bound up with the history of the Celtic race. He further declares that we may study languages by themselves, apart from the people who spoke them, and we must, in fact, do this . with regard to all the oldest forms of human speech. They belong to peoples whose records have perished, whose history we must, in part, spell out from the debris of their language scattered over the theater of human action. Two things suggest themselves here : Could we pro- ceed at all in the analysis of these oldest fragments of speech — could we ever discover their elder brothership to our later tongues — but for the light which history sheds on more recent languages? History enables us to determine the character- istics of languages spoken in its ear, and, negatively, to excerpt and set apart those which it cannot interpret. Further: our earliest inductions, which furnish us the materials for all later researches, are made upon facts of personal consciousness and observation. Who could construct a science of language with- out his experience with words? But if it is possible to treat languages apart from man and his history — to analyze them as we do flowers, to classify them as we do. animals — if the * First Series, pp. 18, 19.

1869.] Growth in Language. 233

play of human fancy and the struggles of human thought in expression are no necessary part of the science of language, why has not Miiller himself given us an example of such a 6ystem ? The ever-present charm of his pages is man's facile intelligence at work upon words. Had he treated his subject as a physical science, he might have established his position ; he would certainly have spoiled a rarely charming booh. He constantly betrays his cause,* and he cannot set in motion the machinery of human utterance withont putting the muscles of the face under the control of the human will. AYere this speaking-machine altogether an instrument in the haiids of constant forces it would always yield the same results ; the shorn syllable, the cramped and dying sound, the word worn smooth as a pebble on the ocean beach, owe their elisions and attritions to the purpose or caprice of human will.

III. Professor Whitney does not directly criticise the book of Professor Miiller, but he makes a masterly refutation of the doctrine that linguistics can be classed among the physical sciences. He denies the doctrine that language has a life and growth independent of its speakers, with which men cannot interfere, and revindicates the maxim usus norma loquendi as of "supreme and uncontrolled validity." Page -iO.H' The changes which now occur in language are matters of common consent. Telegram is discussed in the newspapers ; reliahle is shut out of the best society, but gradually wins its way among the less fastidious. A by-stander, seeing the first schooner launched into Massachusetts waters, exclaims, " How she scoons ! " and the owner responds, "A scooner let her be, then ! " and adds a word tu our language. Individual agency is inoperative, except as it is ratified by the com- munity, but the community acts through individual initiative. There was a first man who made a given change in pro- nunciation or spelling, or attached a new meaning to an old word. (Page 44.)

* "The growth of language and tho growth of the mind are only two aspects of the same process." Second Series, p. 9G. On the next page he speaks of "that wild spirit of etymology which would handle words as if they had no past, no history, no origin." »

f It is not intended to teach that Miiller is tho author, or chief advocate even, of any theory attributed to him in this article; ho is taken as the popular rep- resentative of particular views.

234 Growth in Language. [April,

Our Yankee professor points out the spot where his German predecessor stumbled in the following paragraph :

What makes a physical science is, that it deals with material substances acted on by material forces. Iu the formation of geological strata, the ultimate cognizable agencies are the laws of matter; the substance affected is tangible matter ; the product is inert, insensible matter. ... In language, on the other hand, the ultimate agencies are intelligent beings ; the material is not articulated sound alone, which might in a certain sense be regarded as a physical product, but sound made significant of thought ; and the product is of the same kind, a system of sounds iciili in- telligible content, expressive of the slowly accumulated wealth of the human race in wisdom, experience, comprehension of itself and of the rest of the creation. What but an analogical resemblance can there possibly be between the studies of things so essentially dissimilar ? — P. 49.

In the two phrases which we have italicized, Professor Whitney has happily expressed the subject of linguistic growth — what it is that grows; and the statement that "intelligent beings are the ultimate agencies " of that growth, gives the direction, and defines the boundaries, of these studies. We cannot hope to pursue these investigations to advantage if we do not clearly comprehend the nature of the forces which produce linguistic change. These forces are human, social, intelligent, volitional. Language is, therefore, according to our author,

An institution — the word may seem an awkward one, but we can find none better or more truly descriptive — the work of those whose wants it subserves ; it is in their sole keeping and control, it has been by them adapted to their circumstances and wants, and is still every-where undergoing at their hands such adaptation.

This science is historical and moral ; a branch of the history of the human race and of human institutions.

The human mind, seeking and choosing expression for human thought, stands as a middle term between all determining causes and their results in the development of language. It is Only as they affect man himself in his desires and tendencies, or in his capacities, that they van aileet speech; the immediate agent is the will of men, working under the joint direction of impelling wants, governing circumstances, and established habits. — P. 48.

IV. The field opened by this difference between Muller and

18G9.] Growth in Language. 235

Whitney is large and fascinating; only some small portions of it can be surveyed in this article.*

1. The limits of individual action in modifying that which belongs to society — the power of man over the institutions of men — constitute one of the points of divergence. Nor are political theorists and social philosophers more harmonious on the same question. The associated action of men so far transcends the power, and so outruns the purpose, of individ- uals, that the unit seems lost in the multiplications. "What is true of language as an institution is equally true of every other institution — one man cannot build alone. We may say Cesar made the Roman empire ; but we know, so soon as we reflect, that the Romans must be reckoned as the true factors of the empire, and it is a more accurate statement that the Romans made Cesar. The Cesars, wherever they work or rule, must work out the tendencies of their times, must rule in sympathy with the conscious wants of preponderating classes of men. Individuals seem to have vast power when they move in the drift of society, but it is the drift that carries them forward. No man can change a word against the wants and tendencies of a language ; but let the change be in the drift of the move- ment in his speech — let it be born in due time — and it will pass unnoticed, unrecorded, into the common tongue.

How much is to be ascribed to the individual in the work of linguistic change is not of very great importance ; but it is difficult to believe that these changes are in any sense, or at any stage of a language, properly instinctive and spontaneous. They begin in the individual life, and spread with greater or less rapidity, but always progressively, through the community or nation.

The wisest individual is commonly incapable of determining the results of forces operating in nations. They are not the wisest who now tell us that they saw the Reconstruction con- flict before the Rebellion, nor those who tell us that thev saw one million soldiers marshaled when the anti-slavery struggle began. Wise men in political science have forecast our national future with quite opposite results. The rule seems to be,

* The relations of thought to language, for example, especially tho question of the identity of the two, aro not touched upon. Professor Whitney discusses the buhject at length in Jvccture XI, pp. 405-421.

236 Growth in Language. [April,

that the wishes and sympathies of the astrologer are the controlling factors in his calculations. And so it happens that the moderately wise, or even the ignorant, spell out the future about as well as the Champollions of prophetic sociology. This impotence of discernment limits individual action ; de- prived of prescience, deprived even of full knowledge of social forces already at work, the wise man seldom perceives the social want, the strong man rarely catches the social opportunity- Institutions — language as well as others — are left to grow out of the bosom of society much as trees grow out of the soil;* but this bosom of society vindicates its intelligent and volitional characteristics in the very fact of defying the prescience or steadfast control of the wise and strong. One man can do nothing against his age ; but when a great man is cast by instinct, or moral sympathies, or Providence, into a great human movement, he seems godlike in power, because he expresses, embodies, a whole people. Xo one can demonstrate that great, movements, in language have not illustrated the rule. The historical growth of language affords scope for such individual action. " The tradition of generations is broken by political or ethenic earthquakes, and the work Las frequently had to be done over again from the beginning, when a new surface had been formed for the growth of a new civilization." f

2. The unconsciousness of linguistic growth is another debatable land of the science of human speech. We sadly need a nomenclature for the latencies of the mind, especially for the unconscious activities of man's intellect and will. The want of lit terms probably explains why Professor Whitney describes the same thing as conscious and unconscious, though not without an effort to distinguish it as twofold.

* Like a tree, unobserved through the solitude of a thousand years, up grows the mighty stem, and the mighty brunches of a magnificent speech. No man saw the seed planted ; no eye noticed the infant sprouts ; no register was kept of the gradual widening of its girth, or of the growing circumference of its shade, till the deciduous dialects of surrounding barbarians dying out, the unexpected bole stands forth in all its magnitude, carrying aloft in its foliage the poetry, the history, and philosophy of a heroic people." — Ferrier, quoted by Farrar, Orig. of Lang., p. 201. London, 1SC0.

\ Mullor, First Scries, p. 30.

18G9J Growth in Language. 237

The passage in which this distinction is made is so important to the theory of our author, and is so good a specimen of his style, that we quote at length :

While, however, we are thus forced to the acknowledgment that every thing in human speech is a product of the conscious action of human beings, we should be leaving out of sight a matter of essential consequence in linguistic investigation if we failed to notice that what the linguistic student seeks in language is not what men have voluntarily or intentionally placed there. As we have already seen, each separate item in the production or modification of language is a satisfaction of the need of the moment ; it is prompted by the exigencies of the particular case; it is brought forth for the practical end of convenient communica- tion, and with no ulterior aim or object whatsoever ; it is accepted by the community only because it supplies a perceived want, and answers an acknowledged purpo.se in the uses of social intercourse. The language-makers are quite heedless of its position and value as part of a system, or as a record with historical content; nor do they analyze and set before their consciousness the mental tendencies which it gratifies. A language is, in very truth, a grand system of a highly complicated and symmetrical structure; it is fitly comparable with an organi/.ed body ; but this is not because any human mind has planned such a structure and skill- fully worked it out. Each single part is conscious and inten- tional; the whole is instinctive and natural. The unity and sym- metry of the system is the unconscious product of tire eflbrts of the human mind, grappling with the facts of the world without and the world within itself, and recording each separate result in speech. Herein is a real language, fundamentally different from the elaborate and philosophical structures with which ingenious men have sometimes thought to replace them. There are, indeed, artful devices in which the character and bearing of each part is painfully weighed and determined in advance; compared with them, language is a real growth ; and human thought will as readily exchange its natural covering for one of them as the growing crustacean will give up its shell for a casiug of silver wrought by the most skillful hands. Their symmetry is that of a mathematical figure, carefully laid out, and drawn to rule and line; in language the human mind, tethered by its limited capacities in the midst of creation, reaches out as far as it can in every direction and makes its mark, and is surprised at the end to find the result a circle. — P. 50.

The distinction that, while " each single part is conscious and intentional," "the unity and symmetry of the system is an unconscious product" of human eJ^ortt is well taken, though the deficiencies of language leave room for captiotis criticism.

23S Groxoili in Language. [April,

But there is a distinction lower down, which seems to us to explain Professor Whitney's. Each single part of a language is conscious and intentional — or the product of a conscious and intentional effort ; not in the extreme import of these words — not, for example, in the sense in which we choose, after delib- eration, to say import, rather than significance, in this place. Indeed, it may be doubted whether the rule of our author does not seem to be reversed. The word its was not probably used at first with deliberation. It slid into a place in the language through human carelessness, just as most changes in the pronunciation of words begin, but a certain amount of deliberation, and that a considerable amount, attended its assignment to a permanent place and office in our literature.*

The truth is, that the greater part of our conscious and intentional action is non-deliberative. Each drop of our volitional life falls into the unbroken stream of our spiritual activities, and is lost to our inward sight in the constant flow of our habits and tendencies. Conscious choosing, or deliberate choosing, occurs only upon the arrest of some small part of the moving mass of our intellectual life. Hence the paradox — existing only in the words, however — that our conscious volitional life is for the most part unconscious, or not written out in the large type of deliberative consciousness.

A new inflection in a language is first used by some one to supply a momentary need ; it is caught from his lips by others, it passes into the language by continued repetition, it is never debated, or if debated the discussion occurs after it is a real constituent of the spoken language of the people. But it was used at first, and repeated afterward, through' a volitional activity.

But in what sense is the whole system of a language instinct- ively constructed? In this, that the linguistic instinct, or aesthetic sense of consistency, or the tendencies of intellectual habits, or the genius of the language, presides over the out- reaching hand which marks out the circle of any one human speech. This attempt to render more clear the action of the will in language, and to set in better light the workings and

* Professor Whitney probably refers this later stago, or the discussion, to his "single part" class; but such discussion usually involves its fitness to the ex- isting whole.

18G0.] Growth in Language. 239

passivities of consciousness in the choice of what is encom- passed and conceded by habits, may fail ; but the failure can- not carry down with it the doctrine that the growth of language is a product of the travail- of -the human mind. We must concede that man has filled his sound-systems with sense, whether or not we agree upon, or can understand, the manner in which his volition acts upon the single parts or unites the parts into the magnificent whole.

3. The doctrine that language can be studied independently of history must break down when applied to any particular speech; but how can the science dispense with the results of the closest and most thorough study of the best-known tongues? We have not a fact to spare from the clothing of any of our theories, and many of them are sadly in need of at least aprons of fig-leaves to cover their nakedness. Max Midler tells us that when "language itself becomes the sole object of inquiry" — that is, when we are not pursuing the study of a tongue as a means, as, for example, to serve " as letters of introduction to the best society or to the best litera- ture of the leading nations of Europe " — "dialects which have no literature, the jargons of savage tribes, the clicks of the Hottentots, and the vocal modulations of the Indo-Chinese are as important, nay, for the solution of some of our problems, more important, than the poetry of Homer or the prose of Cicero." * With proper limitation, perhaps, this is true ; but it is misleading. The history of the growth of any one language spoken by a people who have risen up into civiliza- tion must be of incomparably more value to those who propose to study, the science of language in the spirit of scientific inquiry than the whole mass of languages which have no history and can scarcely be morphologically classified. "We shall understand dialects and jargons and clicks only when we bring to the study of them all the knowledge of linguistic change which can be obtained from careful research into the earliest forms, successive variations of forms, losses and gains of words in such a language as our own, coupled with a thorough search after the causes of growth aud decay. If it be suspected that the one speech is dcllected from normal lines

* First Sorios, p. 33. Compare Marsh, Second Series, pp. 25-28, especially note to page 27 ; and Muller, Second Series, pp. 2G0, 2G2.

240 Growth in Language. [April,

of progress by special forces, political or moral, and such de- flection is inevitable,~our resource is to follow another language through its history. We shall by this time begin- to discover what is constant, and a wider study will enrich us with the fundamental inductions of the science.

1n"o one has succeeded in this branch of human inquiry upon any other system. Miiller pursues no other. Here, as every- where else, his theory of method is contradicted by his own practice. It is no chance that the Latin, Greek, French, C4erman, and English tongues furnish the best illustrations of his leading laws of growth. The laws were learned from the study of these languages which come to the student clothed with a history.* The Latin language — spread out over the face of Em-ope — identified with all the written history of a continent — colliding against and mixing with barbarian dialects of diverse character — dying, and yet embalmed in a literature and living in tongues — less majestic, perhaps, but not less beautiful or copious — this Latin language, and those which are commonly derived from it, have given us the larger and better part of our principles of linguistic growth. Sanscrit would have been useless without the Latin which was whipped into us at school, and all our explorations on the barbarian frontiers may not yield as much scientific result as would historical studies into the early growth of the French and Spanish languages.

This is not written to disparage the study of the languages spoken by uncivilized tribes. The hut of the savage has its place in a science of architecture, but let us not dream that it can teach us more than the Parthenon.

The value of historical evidence collected from the best known languages appears whenever a principle of classification is to be adopted. For instance : it is a favorite maxim of Miiller that there can be no mixing of grammars ; hence grammar is one of the most important family marks by which languages can be genetically classified. f If the principle be true, no better proof can be had than is afforded in the history of our own tongue. Our vocabulary is more than half of

* Seo First Series, p. 55, for an illustration of what is meant. \ First Series, p. 82. Of course it is not meant that the maxim is peculiar to Mullcr.

1S69.D Growth in Language. 241

Latin derivation, direct or indirect; our language was for oenturies subordinated to the literary lordship of Latin and Xonnan-French — a Letter test could not be desired. If En- glish syntax is, and always has been, Teutonic, the rule starts with a striking example. But suppose it were proved that at Borne period in its history English has possessed a mixed syntax, and further, that this mixture is now discoverable in our grammar; the rule would lie under suspicion, because dis- credited by the growth of our own language.*

Language grows into its highest development only under or along with, as a constituent of, a complex -civilization. Shepherds and fishermen, roaming the hills or grouped in huts by the sea-side, have no use for an elaborate speech. They could not be endowed with one ; they must be some- thing more than fishermen and shepherds before their language can expand into the luxuriousness of full-grown speech. Events which were long probable, but which happily did not occur, might have arrested the growth of our language and consigned it to the catalogue of rustic dialects of Teutonic ftock. The failure of the Plantagenets to unite all France under their government saved the English nation, and rendered possible the wonderful and complex growth of our mother tongue. Mr. Marsh suggests that the failure of the Reformers to emancipate England from her allegiance to the Papal See would have been followed by results analogous to those which must have accompanied the reduction of Britain to a prin- cipality of France. f We are entitled to believe that political convulsions have often hastened, retarded, or arrested the growth of other tongues.

The limits assigned to this article arrest us here. "We dis- miss the theme for the present with one reflection. The motives which impel linguistic students to seek recognition

* This is a question of fact which canuot bo considered to be settled. See Marsh, First Series, Lee. XVII. On the principle itself Mr. Marsh writes in his &K.'ond Series, p. 45, "This theory is carried too far, I think, when it is insisted •hat no amalgamation of the grammatical characteristics of different speeches w possible;" and Whitney, page 323, says, "Penetrating study often brings to 1 -'hi resemblances between two languages which escape a superficial examina- "*n, ami . . . shows the illusiveness of others which at first sight appeared to be valid evidences of relationship."

t First Scries, p. 110.

242 Growth in Language. [April,

among physicists afford a very good illustration of unconscious tendencies. The "school of modern philosophers who are trying to materialize all science, to eliminate the distinction between the physical and the intellectual and moral, to declare for naught the free action of the human will, and to resolve the whole story of the fates of mankind into a series of purely material effects, produced by assignable physical causes, and explainable in the past, or determinable for the future, by an intimate knowledge of those causes, by a recognition of the action of compulsory motives upon the passively obedient nature of man ; " * have obtained the ear of the world, and fascinated all who cultivate any department of knowledge. Psychology itself seems ambitious of the popular livery. f To get a place among men whose words are taken as the ever- lasting gospel of science, is the scarcely-concealed object of Max Miiller's theory ; and yet no one will suspect him of a deliberate surrender of man's part in language to the control of material laws.

Aet. V.— METHODISM: ITS METHOD AXD MISSION.

THSdmethod of an ecclesiastical system is as important to its proper interpretation as the method of a school of philosophy. Let the question be, then, How has Methodism reached its present status in doctrine, Church polity, as an experimental missionary system, a civilizing force, and an administrative power ? What has been and ought to be its method of obtain- ing truth, wisdom, and efficiency?

To answer safely, a few leading facts must be carefully con- sidered. We first ask attention to the fact that the religious faith of mankind is not, first and chiefly, a logical couviction ; and the method of Methodism accepts this fact. Our people do not reach the doctrine of depravity, for instance, first by argumentation. They have felt the presence of a searching, revealing Spirit. Startling revelations have been made to the

* Whitney, p. 49.

f See Prof. Jewell's article in the April Quarterly. Psychologists have invented pomo of the plagues that threaten their domains with devastation.

1860.1 Methodism: its Method and Mission. 2i3

individual consciousness, and each sinner has found himself cry- ing, uO -wretched man that I am," My heart "is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked." In like manner, and not by Bcholastic processes, justification by faith takes its place in our theological system. There is first a painful conviction for sin, then a view of Christ — not the Christ of the books but the Christ of inspiration — Christ rising, extending, stronger every mo- ment, at length almighty to deliver; and confidence in him triumphs over timidity and conscious guilt, and thus faith in a divine-human Christ brings justification and peace with God. Henceforth adoption is matter of illuminated consciousness. Its evidence is not the dictum of a priest, but " the witness of the Spirit." Now come the keen convictions of indwelling depravity, the yearnings for purity, the manifestation of un- limited merit in the blood of Jesus, and the faith which brings the cleansing power into the soul, and the witness of perfect love. Like their great founder, Methodists accept the doctrine of holiness, not first as a part of systematic divinity, but as a great experimental fact.

So, also, the doctrines of the possibility of final apostasy, of the duty of perpetual progress, of the great truths of the un- interrupted consciousness and immortality of the soul, of the resurrection of the body, of the general judgment,* of the end- less happiness of the righteous, and of the eternal punishment of the finally impenitent, came to their places in the faith of Methodism not first as elements of a dogmatical system, but, like all other Bible truths, as great religious convictions, to be thoroughly examined and tested by logical appeal to the only inspired standard.

Thus by what may be termed, in some strong sense, inspira- tion, scrutinized by the severest logic, the Methodist Church has received the clearest, best defined, and least mutable system of the- ology known in the history of doctrines. This is our first indi- cation of the general law of method for which we arc searching.

In further pursuing this inquiry, let us come again to facts. In the light which God poured into the mind of ^Vesley he saw the fallen state of the Church and the peril of souls. He felt " inwardly moved " to go out and try to save them. When with his brethren he found himself in a flame of revival, and was called upon to explain, his answer was

244 Methodism : its Method and Mission. [April,

" God thrust us out to raise up a holy people." In the mean time certain laymen appeared among the people, like John the Baptist in the wilderness, announcing a message from heaveu, and with tears and overwhelming power beseeching men to "flee from the wrath to come." Wesley was startled. But if the " preaching " of these plain, unordaincd men was not "with enticing words of man's wisdom," it was surely "in demonstration of the Spirit and of power." Promptly the inspired logic of his lofty-souled mother came to the help of his own, and he said, " Go and preach, for the Holy Spirit com- mands you. What am I that I should withstand God ? " Be- lief in the essential priesthood of the laity, and the paramount authority of a divine call to preach the Gospel, is, therefore, very primitive Methodism. If, then, it be demanded why so many plain laymen have become powerful Methodist preachers, the answer is, With us preaching is not a profession, but a vocation. As in the early apostolic Church, "not many wise men after the flesh, not many mighty, not many noble, are called : but God hath chosen the foolish things of the world to confound the wise; and God hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound the things which are mighty ; that no flesh should glory in his presence." From the very first divine utterance to the soul which brings up the strange " woe is me if I preach not the Gospel," on through all the grades of the sacred office, " moved by the Holy Ghost," gives expression to the profoundest truth in the constitution of our holy ministry. This alone fully explains a remarkable fact in the history of the Methodist pulpit. The logical method evidently would be, first to learn to preach, and then preach. We preach first and learn to preach afterward. It explains also our grand itinerancy. In the logical method, ministers should be called by a congregation at a stipulated salary. But we have heard, sounding through our souls to their very depths, the call of the Master,." Go ye into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature. He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved ; but he that believeth not shall be damned : " and we have gone, " thrust out," regardless of salaries, church calls, parish lines, and prescriptive forms, to save, if possible, some of these millions rushing down to hell. Under such inspira- tions our ministry arose, and hence every true Methodist

1SC9.] Methodism : its Method and Mission. 245

preacher is a heaven-appointed missionary, and the apostolic announcement of the great- sonled Wesley, " The world is my parish," becomes at once luminous and prophetic.

Questions of logical Church order follow inspiration promptly, and reason supernaturally illuminated has extraordinary clear- ness and power. It was felt that authority came from Wesley; men were moved to submit to it, and argument declared it reasonable. Carefully scrutinizing and rationally accepting the indications of Providence, logic in its proper place gave position, which proved to be historical, to the " Conference," the "Minutes," and the " Deed of Settlement," and ordained a reliable succession. The class meeting was an inspiration, and logic came in to help sustain, extend, and perpetuate it. The love-feast was an historical recognition. So also were an episcopal form of Church government and presbyterial ordina- tion. General Superintendents, Presiding Elders, Quarterly, Annual, and General Conferences, came in due time to their re- spective positions, the Conference "Minutes" grew and changed into the form of a compact and comprehensive " Dis- cipline," all pervaded by a vigorous life, and including a scope and perfection of organic practical power which could under no circumstances be the product of mere human reason, and yet answering promptly to the severest logical tests.

Thus a system of Church polity rises up before us most evi- dently vitalized by insjriration, and sustained by logic ; and precisely in this ivay the Methodists have become the grandest organisers in the world. This is a further indication of a general law.

We are now prepared to examine the unprecedented successes of Methodism. Large numbers, of themselves, prove nothing good or valuable. But it should be considered that the vast m altitudes of Methodism have been gathered, not by any re- cognized natural laws. Proselytes have not been made by any proffered pleasures, affluence, or honor. No covert corruption baa appealed to the lower passions, or promised "indulgence" for money. We have dropped, into no strong popular worldly current to float with the masses. Upon the contrary, from the very first, with holiness for our great central idea, we have *onght t0 arrest the cherished sins of the people, thrown every possible obstacle in the way of their carnal gratifications', and Fourth Skkies, Vol. XXL— 16

216 Methodism : its Method and Mission. [April,

denounced, in language of scathing rebuke, all forms of private and popular wrongs, whether in high places or low. By the plainness of most unwelcome truths, and the thoroughness of fearless exposures, we have provoked the bitterest opposition. "We were a handful of the poor and despised amid countless numbers of enemies, rich and powerful as well as unscrupu- lous and vulgar. By all laws of human forces, we should have been overwhelmed and annihilated. But instead, we grew rapidly. We made converts of our enemies, high and low, in astonishing numbers ; converts, be it observed, from trust in "things that are seen" to faith in the invisible ; from a moral condition most natural and universal to one most dreaded and restricted in its natural gratifications. We demanded that men and women should leave the " broad " and enter " the narrow way " — from license to law. We made no pretensions to a "liberal" Gospel. We resisted all temptations to popularize the message. True, it did contain much that was tender and compassionate, but it was solemn, awful, severe ! How strange, how contrary to nature ! And yet multitudes were won by it. It was again the marvel of apostolic times. Under the teach- ing of a few despised men, these multitudes came to love the things they once hated and to hate the things they once loved. Thus has arisen a large, powerful organization for the promotion of holiness ; and the movement increases in momentum beyond all precedent, the Methodist Episcopal Church alone rolling up its hundred thousand and more net increase a year.

To explain these extraordinary results is the problem. The reasons assigned must not be those which would apply equally to the other excellent Churches, much older in organization than ours, which we have left far in the rear.

Let it be first observed that the grand power which is to convert the world is not logic, but inspiration. This is a divine adjustment of the Gospel of salvation to the Gospel of creation. The minds of men are not first and chiefly logical, but sensitive. They have reason in various degrees, but in development the logical consciousness is much later than the sensitive. This is true of all classes of mind, but most conspicuous in the masses. It follows that an emotional Christianity arrests and impresses more promptly

1809.1 Methodism: its Method and Mission. 247

and successfully than a form in which the intellectual pre- dominates. This would be an easy and rational explanation of llie popular influence of Methodism. We are warm, energetic, and nearly ubiquitous. We are subdued, melted, moved. Our whole svstem of worship and action is instinct with a joyous contagious life. The people, therefore, like us. 'We sprang from them, and remain in intimate sympathy with them. Our Gospel of freedom strikes them at once as being true. Our ministers, coming from the people, have generally had the good sense to remain among them. "The Church of the people" is, therefore, our most naturally suggested designation.

The apparent limitations of this reasoning arc not, however, reliable; for true religious convictions in all classes of mind, and all true regenerations, are from the Holy Spirit. This agency in the efficient work of saving men must not be assigned a subordinate or mediate, but a primary and independ- ent office — as independent when acting through instrumen- talities as without them. Let it therefore be considered settled that there is absolutely no conversion without inspiration, and that this work of the Holy Spirit must antedate all other in- fluences, and prepare the soul for them. iSTow this period of conviction for sin is no time to settle theologies, no time for an appeal to the logical consciousness. The soul must see, not argue. All other things being equal, therefore, the services most spiritual, conveying with the greatest certainty and the least delay the purest inspirations, will be most successful in pro- ducing true faith and true conversion. "Warm, fervent, powerful prayers, which call down the Spirit's baptism ; clear, earnest in- struction, coming from sound beliefs and souls dissolved in love, and singing full of melting pathos and glowing inspirations, move thousands into the arms of Jesus, while the cool, intel- lectual processes of cautious logic, in the same period of time, bring comparatively small numbers into the light.

The connection between true Methodist fervor and spiritual efficiency is not therefore accidental nor temporary, but real »nd necessary ; as clearly a necessity to such minds as those of Patrick Henry and Andrew J acksbn, who were powerfully con- verted under its influence, and became Methodists late in life, and the late Judge M'Lean, early, and to the moment of death, a glowing Methodist, as to the general masses of men. We

248 Methodism : its Method and Mission. [April,

insist that spiritual earnestness — receiving and imparting divine inspirations — is the legitimate method of evangelical power. Scholars, therefore, who have conceded to us a high degree of spirituality, and assigned us an important pioneer mission, but predicted our decline after this work is done, are in this unscholarlv. They have based their judgment on the assumed temporary character of demonstrative religious fervor, and not upon the great law of spiritual adjustments. Under this law people of all grades of mind become Methodists in spirit, first .by conversion, and not by indoctrination ; and as inspiration from God is the efficient force employed in conversion, we see here at once the grand secret of our power and the method of our progress. This has been tested in action upon souls in a great variety of circumstances. Dead scholastic formalists, haughty infidels, and vulgar persecutors, who have resisted all logic, have been melted down and brought into " the kingdom of Christ" by the inspirations received through the most humble teaching and simple pleadings of faith in prayer. In our great missionary work we have not depended, first and chiefly, upon education, or any other secular civilizing agencies, but upon the power of the Spirit, accompanying a spiritual Gospel, and exalting to supernatural force our humble spiritual serv- ices. Chinamen high in scholarship as well as those lowest in caste, Mohammedans and Pagans of different grades in India, dark degraded minds and princes in Africa, as well as polished Europeans and Americans, have been born again by the power of the Spirit ; and whole conferences of minis- ters, missionary and native, have risen up in each quarter of the globe. Methodist songs and prayers, exhortations and sermons, and shouts of joy are ringing in the ears of the people, and rising up to heaven in the most splendid languages and barbarous dialects of earth. Now, these stupendous results are not given in any philosophical development, by any logical method, however scientific or perfect. They are absolute re- creations upon a vast scale, and hence of God alone. Human power could be instrumental in their production only as energized by inspiration truly divine. We are, therefore, pre- pared for the statement that

Inspiration is the primary vitalizing force of the great experimental missionary system of Metlwdism. It is hence

16C9.] Methodism : ite Method and Mission. 249

thoroughly alive, sovereignly aggressive, tending rapidly to universality. This is the third indication of our general law.

We may now direct attention to the stimulating, expanding effect of tins method of power upon mind and its activities. The great work of spiritual re-creation and illumination must, from the unity of mind, produce marked intellectual effects. The desire to know, under this quickening impulse, advances promptly to earnest longings after truth of all kinds. For the purposes of study the first great necessity of mind is, to he thoroughly aroused. This certainly occurs in the inspirations of the new life; and the yearnings for spiritual science natu- rally produce yearnings for all science. Scholars, therefore, who profess to be amazed at the powerful and really unprece- dented growth of educational ideas and institutions in the Methodist Church are in this also unscholarly. It is in our system, as all discerning men ought to see. The grand inspira- tions upon which Methodists depend for prompt regeneration and aggressive missionary power quicken the whole man and the whole mass, and give rapid development and vigorous movement to every thing.

One of the first results ought to have been, and was, an unusual degree of self-help, and the production of a large number of self-taught men, who would be powerfully felt in every community where Methodism appeared. This explains the result of the rudeness and rashness with which they were attacked. Men of books and schools, in large numbers, turned to look with astonishment at the rough granite-men they had dashed against; and tried, with noticeable confusion, to com- prehend the power by which they had been vanquished.

But this self-developing force would naturally lead to scho- lastic training, and bring back to itself a large infusion ot science from common sources. Hence appeared the pushing influence of Methodists as citizens in organizing and carrying forward the great common school system, especially in the newly-settled portiuns of the republic. Hence the promptness With which our Conference academies arose and moved to the front in numbers and popular power. Hence the enthusiasm in multiplying "colleges and universities," too frequently indicating inspiration in defiance of logic. But foou stern reason would sit in judgment on these impromptu

250 Methodism : its Method and Mission. [April,

creations; and, in numbers, location, and resources, they would come to order so promptly that invidious criticism would wonder where the thing was which it was about to ridicule.

This whole argument applies equally to the kindred develop- ment of literature. The forces which have produced our periodical and volume press, our immense publishing houses and literary commerce, are to a good degree occult, and especially unknown to our rivals and envious critics. It is safe to say, that no adequate explanations can be found in any argument which would show their necessity or attempt to estimate their importance. No great master-mind has ever contrived these schemes, produced their constituent elements, or adjusted them to each other, in their present completeness and reach of organized power. Like our general intelligence and enterprise, our seminaries of learning, and our great societies for the propagation of the Christian faith, they are the growth of the Church. All our presses, periodicals, and volumes, with our millions of money invested, and our hands, and brains, and hearts employed, are the direct product of the life-power of the Church. They arc of the Church, in the Church, and for the Church. They feed the life which pro- duced them, and every day increase its power to produce other larger, mightier outgoings for the conquest of the world to Jesus, " the life, the truth, and the way." We will now candidly say that these vast publishing interests are not merely Christian in the ordinary sense. No common Christian enter- prise could have produced them. They are Methodist institu- tions, born of the very providence and potent with the very energy which has produced Methodism. Methodism could not have existed without producing them. They could not have existed without Methodism. Their potentiality and dependence are organic and inseparable. Neither the spirit of thought, nor the pathos of style, nor the business energy of this heart-earnest aggressive Christian literature, can be ex- plained without the inspirations which have cvery-where taken the lead in the constitution of Methodism.

We now advance to say, that so far from being a suppression or degradation of logic, the spiritual philosophy of this move- ment has been most favorable to its development. It may be

1S00.] Methodism: its Method and Mission. 251

safely affirmed tliat from Wesley and Fletcher down to Bangs unci Fisk, no more trenchant logicians or masterly disputants have ever appeared in the field of dialectics than the Meth- odist Preachers. They were regarded at first as innovators upon established Church order, and at length as invaders of Calvinistic orthodoxy, to be met and repelled, first by authority and denunciation, and then to be overwhelmed with logic. The former failed, as must always man against God; and as to the latter the challenge was promptly accepted. Our spiritual warriors, plain and polished, battled over the whole field of theological and moral truth with a " cleverness" and success which have amazed both antagonists and friends, demonstrating the fact that " logic on fire " arises directly from inspiration, honored in the advance.

We here come to a most noticeable fact. It is, that wherever these warm controversialists began, they went straight to the point of personal liberty and responsibility. Three grand impediments to the providential mission of this free republic rose before them, and their masterly power in dealing with each of them is slowly advancing to historical recognition.

They first encountered the limitations of the will, which in every form firmly antagonized human freedom, and by a strict logical necessity released man from responsibility. They, there- fore, attacked and drove this grand usurpation from its impe- rious dogmatic position into biblical exegesis and philosophical criticism, whence, after, successive defeats on its own chosen ground, it at length seems nearly content to make its last retreat iiito old books, and defunct formulas, henceforth not to be depended upon to furnish a practical Gospel for any class of people, nor allowed to interfere with its development of pov/er. In this the citizens of the Great Republic generally coiucide, for, with characteristic common sense, they say if the will is not free there is no freedom any where. This battle the Arminian Methodists fought nearly alone.

The next grand impediment to American liberty appeared hi the limitations of conscience. In the first period of this contest the Methodists joined the Baptists, who were by many years their heroic pioneers. As the result, puritanic and prc- latical bigotry gradually lost their dominant power in the East

252 MctJiodism: its Method and Mission. [April,

and South, and their last hope of becoming national on this continent passed away. Both went down under the crashing blows of inspired logic. Religious toleration first, and at length pure religious liberty, became the grandest, most poten- tial fact of national life in America.

. From despotic governments abroad a religious despotism has been imported to this country, and with this form of the attempt to limit and virtually destroy the rights of conscience the battle continues. But the progress of freedom, under the guidance of true inspirations, firing and strengthening the logical consciousness and power, has accumulated from all de- nominations able defenders of the soul's most sacred rights ; and the will, emancipated from the thraldom of prescriptive dogma, is combining one grand Protestant phalanx against this menacing usurpation; while from its relative numbers, organic compactness, and vigorous life, in its own character- istic method, Methodism moves in the van of this noble army of religious liberty, and the decisive victory is already histori- cally indicated.

The final form in which personal rights were antagonized here was African, and at length American, slavery. The fiery logic of Methodism rushed upon this monster despotism with really reckless energy. Profound, however, in- its reach, and formidable in its resources, its assailants were staggered, and the victory awaited successive assaults, and the gathering of providential forces, bringing on the grandest crisis of modern history, and then it was overwhelming. Recognizing as we do the noble heroism of our brother warriors of every Church in which throbbed the great heart of liberty, it is }"et most agreeable to know that the Methodist spirit, true to its early inspirations, rallied again and again to the battle, and had its just position at the front in the last great conflict, when the monster fell to rise no more.

In the sweeping away of these three formidable limitations of liberty in this country one great question is, Ave believe, set- tled forever. Let it be asked, What will be the religion of the people which will inspire and control the civil life and des- tiny of the Republic I The answer, given in clear historic revelations, is, It will not be necessarian Calvinism, it will not be Roman Catholicism, it will not be slave despotism ; it

1 S09J Methodism : its Method and Mission. 253

will be, in whatsoever form and by whomsoever represented, " Christianity in earnest."

We are now entitled to claim that inspirations from God, wielded by severe logic, have imparted to Methodism as a grand civilizing farce the broadest, loftiest spirit of enlightened jus- tice. In this it has availed itself of a power absolutely inde- structible, and destined to become universal. We have here, then, the fourth indication of a general law.

We come next to consider the adaptation and adjustability of administrative to missionary Methodism. Let us refer again to the announcements of Mr. Wesley, " to spread scrip- tural holiness over" all lands, " the world is my parish." The claim of universality included in these commanding proposi- tions embodies the words of Jesus, and " they are spirit, and they are life ;" " Sanctify them through thy truth ; thy word is truth ;" " Go ye into all the world and preach my Gospel to every creature." Now the Church which in its fullest sense obeys this high behest will be " the Church of the fu- ture." The problem, therefore, is, Channels every-where for the outflow of the spirit of Christianity, provisions for the certain delivery of Christ's "Gospel to every creature."

To be thoroughly prepared to meet her proportion of these responsibilities it is evident that the Methodist Church must not only receive frequent and powerful Spirit-baptisms, but must realize the unobstructed action of the Holy Ghost.

Her logic must be spiritual in its life, wide in its grasp, and practical in its tendencies.

Thus under direction of both rational inspiration and in- spired logic she must advance rapidly to the completion of her unity, the first fact of which will be to render available to the largest practicable extent her spirituality, wisdom, wealth, and business ability. This she is candidly attempting. To succeed she needs to see distinctly that a thoroughly practical division of labor docs not imply, nor admit of, organic separa- tion, either nominal or real. Whatever is essential to Church Vitality is common to all, and must never in any part of it be excluded from an}* vitalizing work. We take the word spirituality to represent the first and largest indivisible cle- ment of aggressive vitalizing Church power. This soul-life of the Church is from the Holy Spirit, and is self-propagating ;

254 Methodism : its Method and Missioyi. [April,

it must, therefore, live, pray, sing, give, speak, and vote for the salvation of souls. It follows that to bring us to the high- est unity, all the spirituality of the Church must be brought to bear upon all her deliberations and work for the extension of the Christian life. Any practical measure from which the spiritual power of any portion of the Church is excluded is just so much the less potential. Now to combine the spiritual power of the Methodist Episcopal Church in, her great acts of legislation under the Master, she must bring forward that vast amount of it included in the laity, and avail herself of its renovating influence and inspiring love, its spiritual insight and missionary zeal, in all the "rules and regulations" made to render free and rapid the outflow of the life of Christ into this dead world. It is evident that the first great want of our law-making deliberations is spiritualization ; and -we record it as our profound conviction that a vast accession of this vital force is available, and is moving up from the laity to take its. place in the highest, most responsible working body -of the Church. Further, in all deliberations which affect the status of Church members, and the propagation of the faith, (and we have no other,) wisdom, next to spirituality, is the great de- mand. But the line which distinguishes the ministry from the laity does not indicate in the slightest degree any boundaries or limitations of this high requisite for safe or aggressive legis- lation. It lies largely upon both sides. It is one of the per- vasive forces of the Church. To dispense with it as it exists in either the ministry or laity is so tar to diminish the power of this indispensable agent of Church development.

Kow the grand material agent which is available to spirit- ualized wisdom in carrying out its plans may be represented by the term wealth. This, from the largest to the smallest sums, is scattered throughout the laity and the ministry. It is required in every enterprise for the extension of the Re- deemer's kingdom. It gets its position of power not by force or authority, but by Christian beneficence. To call out in largest amounts the immense treasures which God has in- trusted to individual Christians for the evangelization of the world, the influences which inspire confidence must reach to the extremities of the Church, and the combinations which produce unity of purpose in the appropriations of these funds,

1SC9.] Methodism: its Method and Mission. 255

and the highest, broadest responsibility in their administration, rausi comprehend the givers. Wealth is one of the universals of the Church. It is neither of the ministry nor membership us such, so neither will its use be in completed unity.

One other great practical force which we must mention may be termed business ability. The Church has become a vast business organization. She must not, however, secularize her Christianity, but Christianize her secularity. The busi- ness talent of the Church is not restricted nor indicated by classes. jSTow let this power in the ministry and the laity be spiritualized, and meeting at all points, blend in the largest, most energetic unity. The ecclesiastical business functions of the ministry received, from necessity, an earlier development than that of the laity, and it may be admitted that the inspi- rations of the ministry have in this field carried them beyond the supports of their logic, while the Church business inspira- tions of the people are behind their logic. The retiring of the former to their logical supports, and the corresponding advance of the latter to their logical demands, are necessary to the realization of the most commanding business unit}' ; and as both these are the conspicuous and inevitable tendencies of the age, the party-form of our problem is rapidly dissolving. Our outward differences are being thrown off by the healthy growth of onr inward vital unity.

Now it is evidently the design of Providence in its control of Bfl to send out the laborers every- where, thoroughly imbued with all the vitalizing power, and in command of all the practical forces, common to the whole Church. "We are, therefore, acting in harmony with Providence when we are seeking to combine into one grand working unity all the spirituality, wisdom, wealth, and business ability of Methodism. But as this cannot be done by aggregation it must be by completed representation. Men coming up from the people to our eccle- siastical bodies must bring into them for use there, and render available for missionary power, all the great moral forces which have developed in our growth. Plans for the realization of this grand result have been submitted with great unanimity by the ministerial representatives of these four unifying forces to the laity of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Let them be promptly accepted in June next, and our representative unity

256 Methodism; its Method and Mission. [April,

in spirituality, wisdom, wealth, aixl business ability will be ' thus completed.

The next form of the question of unity is one of administra- tion. Methodism was expected to prove itself unsound in doctrine because it did not formally, at first, announce a creed ; erratic in movement, because it would not be governed by tra- ditions from the dead past; and temporary, because it was not robed in apostolic vestments. But in its receptive and demon- strative liberty were the hidings of its power. So far from becoming latitudinarian in its faith, by allowing the truths it would grasp to move freely among themselves, claim their affinities, and record their own definitions, it was in this way only that it received the clearest, best defined, and most un- changeable system of doctrines known in ecclesiastical history. While, therefore, it is true that Wesleyan Methodism as an organized spiritual movement in the Church of England de- manded no subscription to an inflexible creed as a condition of membership in its societies, it is unhistorical to say that the Methodist Episcopal Church has no binding definitions of faith in which her members ought to agree. For the very reason that our doctrines have been received and identified by the method of inspiration, and tested, compiled, and published by the severest logic, they are fit to be the acknowledged standards of all Christians, however spiritual or intellectual. Method- ism is " Christianity in earnest " for the defense and propaga- tion of all forms of fundamental truth, dogmatical as well as experimental. This is historically settled as included in our providential mission ; and for this very purpose our system of doctrine has been produced by our providential method. We dictate no faith, but we teach and recognize faith. We repu- diate hereditary visible Church membership because it would be involuntary, and reject contentious heterodoxy because it is disturbing to Church order and ruinous to souls. We guard the soundness of our ministry by test examinations from probation to ordination, solemnly pledging them to "banish and drive away all erroneous and strange doctrines," because they are indoctrinating teachers of responsible disciples. We have an undoubted right to question all candidates for Church membership as to their belief in our doctrines because suc- cessful organization must be of homogeneous elements.

1S09.1 Methodism ; its Method and Mission. 257

It must, however, be admitted that we have been unfortunate in one of our questions.* Our "Articles" are chiefly an expres- sion of our Protestant and free-will faith against Popery and Cal- vinism. They make no pretensions to be an exhaustive state- ment of "the doctrines of Holy Scripture," as taught by '"the Methodist Episcopal Church." They are alone neither historic- ally, legally, nor popularly the standard of Methodist doctrine. Candidates are confused, rather than relieved, by the restricted form of the question, many of them showing that they have never mastered the phrase " Articles of Religion." Ask them directly and simply, "Do you believe in the doctrines of the Methodist Episcopal Church?" and they will all answer promptly and heartily, "Yes;" for they do. Let, this more appropriate, comprehensive question take the place, as soon as practicable, of the niueh too technical and scholastic question we now have.

This, however, by the way. The truth is to be firmly seized that the providential growth and informal exposition of the fundamental faith of Methodism the more (not the less, as has been claimed) entitle us to ascertain the essential correctness in belief of those whom we admit to full fellowship in the con- stitution of our Church unity, and iu the great work of extend- ing the truth as it is in Jesus; to remove disturbing innovators and opposers from our membership ; and especially to depose ministers who insist upon the right of misleading our people by teaching "erroneous and strange doctrines," which they have solemnly covenanted to "banish and drive away:" let those men join other branches of the Christian Church if any are willing to receive them, with the understanding that they intend to take in with them the right of being " carried about hy every wind of doctrine," the right of irresponsible agitation and revolution, which they have been calmly and religiously denied in the Methodist Episcopal Church. This claim rises directly out of the method of our faith. If it were to be settled first and chiefly by logic, then "debates" would have much "lure plausible ground for the right to be endless.

We go further, and affirm that the great system of ethics Mid practical Christianity known as " the General Pules," is,

* " I>o you believe iu the doctrines of Holy Scripture, ns set forth in tlio Articles °f Religion of the Methodist Episcopal Church ? "—Discipline, 1SG3, p. 155.

25S Methodism ; its Method and Mission. [April,

seen from the same stand-point, to be of binding force, and to furnish a proper basis of Church discipline. They are not speculative or optional. They come of inspiration, and our members must observe them or forfeit their standing among us. "These are the General Rules of our societies; all which we are taught of God to observe, even in his written word, which is the only rule, and the sufficient rule, both of our faith and practice. And all these we know his Spirit writes on truly awakened hearts. If there be any among us who observe them not, who habitually break any of them, let it be known unto them who watch over that soul as they who must give an account. We will admonish him of the error of his ways. "We will bear with him for a season. But if then he repent not, he hath no more place among us. We have delivered our owu souls."

It is, in the same light, seen to be an error to presume that because our Church polity and government became not in form matters of direct revelation, they are therefore not of bindiug force. God has made us responsible for the use of illuminated reason in the settlement of discretionary Church order, and oar "Kules and Regulations" when made, or as amended or constitutionally changed, are of the nature of a sacred covenant between members and the Church, and are all binding as the legitimate results of responsible liberty. The Church has therefore authority in its high discretion to require its members to meet in class, not because this particular form of religious conference and worship is named in the Scriptures, but because to her is committed the watch-care of souls, and because the special mode of doing this effectual^ is left in some respects to her discretion. If this were otherwise, then nothing in prudential church order is binding. But the apos- tolic command is, " Obey them that have the rule over you, and submit yourselves : for they watch for your souls, as they that must give account, that they may do it with joy, and not with grief." Let this law become a nullity, and schism and disorder are inevitable and without remedy. Let our Twenty- second Article define the duty of loyalty and the highest wis- dom in church prerogatives. "It is not necessary that rites and ceremonies should in all places be the same, or exactly alike, for they have been always different, and may be changed

1869.] Methodism: its Method and Mission. 259

according to the diversity of countries, times, and men's man- ners, so that nothing be ordained against God's word. Who- soever, through his private judgment, ■willingly and purposely doth openly break the rites and ceremonies of the Church to which he belongs, which are not repugnant to the word of God, and are ordered and approved by common authority, ought to be rebuked openly, that others ma}r fear to do the like, as one that offendeth against the common order of the Church, and woundeth the consciences of weak brethren." They argue erroneously, therefore, who claim discretionary license for Church members in regard to Church order in prudential matters. A wise paternal discipline, based upon the principle here distinctly brought out, has been for years the accumulating want of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Let the fact that class meetings were instituted by Providence, and have been sustained by broad and invigorating historical power, 'indicate the wrong and danger of negligence in regard to them, either by members or administrators. They are the result and means of our most distinguishing inspirations. If it bo assumed that we have grown to such immense propor- tions as to render our former administrative unity imprac- ticable, I allege exactly the contrary. Xever in our history could we with so much strength and safety as now, in this and all other respects, prudently, but firmly, return to the Disci- pline. By no other standard, in no other way, can we be one in administration or marked in efficiency.

Let the question of completed unity be now much further extended. The equilibrium between the aggressive power and receptive capacity of the Church is of the highest moment. For iustance, when the missionary force brought to the last General Conference Annual Conferences from the four quar- ters of the globe, the representative Church looked amazed at her trophies, asked where to put them, hesitated, debated, de- cided, and they moved to their organic position, to be instant- ly felt not as a burden, but as an augmentation of aggressive power. The grandest fact of that great assembly was the clear demonstration of the exact equilibrium, up to that period, of the conservative and progressive forces of the Church.

This brings us naturally to the great qucstioii which, from our large increase and extension must soon force a solution,

260 Methodism : its Method and Mission. [April,

How can one General Conference be composed of delegates from all parts of the world, and one administration reach and keep in order ten millions — twenty millions — of members, and seventy-five thousand — a hundred and fifty thousand — traveling ministers, of peoples so diverse and remote? There is un- doubtedly a strong historical relief in the statement, that fifty years ago, the question, Can one administration manage sev- enty-two Conferences and a million of members in America, Europe, Asia, and Africa? would have been scarcely less start- ling. We venture the additional statement, that if the unob- structed movement of the Gospel requires one universal Church, bringing to the highest available power at any given point all general spiritual agencies, then our historical equilibrium of discipleship and government may be extended to this result as easily as it has been perfectly preserved in a rapid progress of a hundred years directly toward it.

But to grapple with this great question in its most formi- dable aspect, let it be stated that all our ecclesiastical bodies are adjustable in number, constitution, periodicity, and juris- diction. Let us now suppose a Quarterly Church Conference, an Annual District Conference, a Biennial State Conference, a Quadrennial National Conference, a Sexennial Judicial Con- ference, and an Octennial General (Ecumenical) Conference.

As this plan is intended only to show that the grave ques- tion before us admits of a practical solution, I do not' propose to encumber it with details. The following suggestions, how- ever, may assist those who arc inclined to give it a candid and thorough examination :

1. This would concede the now tolerably well settled fact that our Annual Conferences must be composed of districts not strictly conformable to State lines, their limits being de- termined by business and religious associations and unalterable physical geography, while it would give' us all the advantages of complete adjustment to all the civil divisions of the earth.

2. The General Conference would of course observe strict fidelity to the Discipline in constituting these several bodies and defining their powers. It would, therefore, be not revolu- tion, but simple development.

3. I would retain the present disciplinary membership in the Quarterly and Annual Conferences, and also make the

I ki',;>.) Methodism : its Method and Mission. 2G1

Bitfhops ex-officio members of the General Conference. The Judicial Conference would of course be composed only of the jurors of the parties going up to it for justice ; but, with the i [whops, it should be made our Constitutional Judiciary. Then the delegated membership in all the other bodies should be a lull impartial representation, with adjustable pro rata numbers.

•i. The functions of our ecclesiastical bodies might be very much simplified by admitting suggestions in regard to each, coming from territorial limitations, and by a natural distinc- tion between legislative, judicial, deliberative, and executive assemblies. The General Conference would be relieved of appeals and constitutional questions, of all corrupting elections, and of much detaining local business, and become, as it ought to be, the depository of ultimate power for the conservation of doctrine, the enactment of laws, the unification and efficiency of administration, and the spread of the Gospel. The State and National Conferences would be deliberative, and could conveniently take charge of such business matters, in connec- tion with our great educational, publishing, and other interests, as should be referred to them. The Annual Conferences, re- lieved of anniversaries and many inconvenient business details, could become more efficiently executive, and more deeply spiritual.

5. Let the idea of a ubiquitous " general itinerant superin- tendency" be fully realized. This does not require a large increase of the number of Bishops, which for economical and connectional reasons will generally be admitted to be inexpe- dient ; nor diocesan episcopacy, which would destroy our itin- erancy. Let our Episcopacy remain in jurisdictional authority entirely indivisible, as though it were in one universal Bishop. The genius of our Church polity requires it, and there is abso- lutely no other way of realizing administrative unity in un- limited extension.

There is, however, a power for good, partly personal and partly of office, which appertains to the Episcopal presence and labors which ought to be fairly distributed, and which, nkc all other pastoral functions, absolutely demands assignable limits for its most effective application. This is inevitably localized, and its area largely determined by the residence of the Bishop. Let, then, the General Conference divide our

l^ouimi Sekiks, Vol. XXL— 17

2G2 Methodism: its Method and Mission. [April,

whole territory into as many districts as there are effective Bishops, and direct that one shall reside in each district, to ex- change within a prescribed period, leaving jurisdiction and the distribution of administrative labor precisely as they now are. This, with a pro rata increase of numbers, and a provision for honorably relieving from the office all who, for any reason, are incompetent to perform its duties, that they may return to the body of the eldership to which they belong, in such Conference as they may choose, will raise the Methodist. Episcopacy to its highest practicable efficiency, and preserve intact the prin- ciples on which it rests.

Then let the Presiding Eldership be extended in its scope and exalted in its personnel so as to be, in the "general itin- erant superintendency," the exact complement of the Epis- copacy. Thus that completeness of official supervision will be secured, which is attempted by the Protestant Episcopal Church by the multiplication of Diocesan Bishops — officers in practical rank, more analogous to the Presiding Elders than to the Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church, a fact which will be more evident when their status is further defined by the ordination of Metropolitans above them.

This completes one attempt to show that our capacity for homogeneous assimilation and governmental unity may be kept exactly equal to our extension, in fulfillment of our great commission to go into all the world and disciple all nations. Let us now advance to another.

The spiritual is the vital, indestructible element of the Church. So far as it is material, secular, or economical, it is adjustable ; but in its divine life it is like God, and can neither be destroyed nor changed. Precisely here appears the grand mistake of many religious propagandists. They seek to ren- der forms immutable and universal. In these attempts the moral exhausts itself and tails, and prerogative, vainly endeav- oring to supply its place and accomplish the impossible, pushes itself into force, and fails also. There is no infallibility nor uni- versality informs, and yet in forms large portions of even the Christian world are still struggling to realize them. The Latin and the Greek Churches are notable examples of this stupen- dous folly. Protestantism, so far as it attempts to follow them is, like them, " a failure." Of this the Ritualists of the Epis-

1SG0.] Methodism : its Method and Mission. 263

copal Church in England and America are just now the most conspicuous and mournful instances.

Here let us gratefully acknowledge the maimer in which God hath made us to differ from all other Churches. The Roman Church, by setting aside the illimitable, and devoting its para- mount energies to the necessarily limited, has proved histori- cally that it can never become catholic. The Methodists at the very first firmly grasped the illimitable, and hold on to it, assigning the limited and the variable to its adjustable position. Successional Episcopalianism, substituting tradition for history, undertook to realize universality in an illiterate mistake. Methodism rejected the inevitably limitating error, and accepted an adjustable, and therefore an effective Episcopacy. Presby- terianism grasped the true apostolic ordination, but rejected all Episcopacy, and thus missed an indispensable unifying direction. Methodism accepted presbyterial ordination, and thus became hi.-torical and flexible, while it received Episcopacy without its fictions, and is hence commanded, in a unified spiritual effi- ciency, unparalleled in the history of the world. Congrega- tionalism made a center of the localizing idea. Methodism seized the connectional idea, and adopted the itinerancy, and thus became the fullest and most vitalized embodiment among men of the grand apostolic commission. The Baptists, guided by an exegesis, nnsustained by the criticisms and historical reading of a large majority of the Christian world, made adult modal baptism a controlling idea; restricted communion fol- lowed, and all rational hope of universality was sacrificed. The Methodists took the water emblem to symbolize the bap- tism of the Holy Ghost, the "one baptism," and thus reached catholicity in both the sacraments.

Finally, while nearly all other evangelical denominations, adopting limiting principles of exegesis, became Necessarians in theology, -and were logically driven either to a limited atonement and a partial salvation or the irreconcilable contra- dictions of responsible freedom and absolute foreordination, thus compelling the extensive rejection of their scheme by the common sense of the people, the Methodists were conducted by broad general principles of interpretation to personal lib- erty, and a " free and full salvation," all of which the common judgment of mankind declares ought to be true — is true.

264 Methodism : its Method and Mission. [April,

In view of the whole we are compelled to admit, and we should do.it with trembling, that Methodism alone has become capable of practically demonstrating the universal preroga- tives and destination of the visible Church in one organic body.

Advancing from her present position in the honest endeavor to fulfill her great mission, Methodism will find her larger uni- ties. Her inspirations must proceed with their organization. Her forms separate her activities — her spirit must combine them. This spirit is not wholly the divine, nor wholly the human, but the resultant of both. The Infinite Vitality acts upon the finite in regeneration, and develops a mixed life — a very live thing called Methodism. jSTow as the human pre- dominates we divide, as the Divine predominates we unite. We do not, therefore, direct attention first to logical efforts, but to the inner spiritual force, to effect larger organic combina- tions. Hence we say our inspirations must go on with their organizations. The truly Methodistic soul of Methodism, giving fuller, freer scope to the Divine, must work out the human — namely, ignorance, selfishness, and prejudice — and realize its external from its internal unity. This is not specu- lation, but providence, history, and prophecy. The identity of the Methodist spirit throughout the world is moving her numerous bodies cautiously but evidently toward each other, and at no very distant day this vital progressive power will inevitably master geography and caste, and we shall reach organic unity for our mission to " all nations " in one grand representative council, and a practically unified administration. The discovery (uncovering) of one broad potential fact here- tofore hardly known to exist, will hasten this grand consum- mation : we mean the real identity of Methodist executive authority, in all its forms, throughout the world. That iden- tity consists in the complete responsibility of personal liberty to connectional authority. This, in some of its various ways, commands the ministry, and gives the Gospel to the people ; and it is the only form of executive authority on the globe which reaches this result with absolute certainty. Now whether this administrative authority is ostensibly in a bench of Bish- ops, distributed and surrounded by a council of Presiding Elders, or in an Annual Presidency and Stationing Committee,

(869.1 Methodism : its Method and Mission. 265

—whether preparatory representation and measures are from the people through Quarterly Conferences or District Meetings, the great facts are every-where the same, a willing people, a loyal ministry to obey, and somebody to command them. The result is a ubiquitous, live itinerancy. In this all Methodist executive authority culminates. Its forms are equally adjustable to local civil institutions and to connectional demands, and this is all that organic unity requires. The best of its forms must be that which, under discipline, is most effective in molding, concen- trating, and using the intelligence and will of the people, antic- ipating their wants, and promptly overcoming all the obstacles which human sin and folly have thrown in the way of their full supply. This will probably be found to be full represen- tation, and a powerful responsible Episcopacy. But we do most confidently submit that whatever may be its form, the fact that it is even now essentially one in principle and result greatly simplifies all our problems of organic unity.

Let us now step out a little further. Passing beyond exter- nal organisms into the Christian life, and losing our denomina- tional egotism in the soul of our common Christianity, we find our brethren of the catholic faith every-where advancing to meet us in one holy mission of " peace on earth and good-will to men." Here we have a unity, vitally organic, of immense working power; and it is charming to see how grandly this inward unity is, in our day, developing in outward harmony and aggressive labor. In the fires of the Spirit how rapidly sectarian bigotries are dissolving, theologies simplifying, and great souls combining to grapple with giant iniquities, and spread every-where the power of a free and a full salvation ! It is not necessary for us to identify and claim the Methodist spirit in the warm, joyous outgoing freedom of the live Churches of to-day. Our brethren and history will accord us all that our humility will bear. It is only necessary here to say, that if God shall make us in any sense u the Church of the future," it will be through and by all other Churches. Let us, there- fore, draw them more closely to us, and with loving justice acknowledge and honor their evangelical power.

Looking carefully over the whole field we may clearly see, and without reservation say, that whether in one organization or several, by attracting other ecclesiastical bodies to herself or

266 Methodism : its Method and Mission. [April,

pouring her life current through them, the mission of Method- ism is to demonstrate the universal prerogatives and destina- tion of the spiritual element in religion. But we have found administrative Methodism perfectly adjustable to this grand and glorious mission, and therefore capable of embodying this vital element, and rendering it objective and sovereign in every form of life, in every place, over the globe. This is its pre- rogative, this its destination.

We -now venture 'nothing in asserting that this really super- natural adaptation is the result of inspirations from the All-vi- talizing Infinite Power. It could never have ueen 'produced ly human reason, though the severest logic vindicates it.

We thus conclude our search for the method of Methodism. "We have found that, in some high and important sense, inspira- tion has been first in order of time, and alone as a vitalizing force, in giving to Methodism a pure system of doctrines, a wise Church polity, an experimental missionary energy, a broadly- just civilizing power, and an administrative ability capable of indefinite expansion and indissoluble organic unity. We are therefore entitled to our conclusion :

The method of Methodism is inspieation, in distinc- tion FEOM LOGIC.

Let us here, in a few words, fix our sense of the term inspira- tion. The inspiration of authoritative revelation for the race was pure truth, accompanied by a miraculous suspension or con- trol of the imperfect human, while the inspiration available to all good men is pure truth, without miraculous suspension or control. It follows that the one is subjectively infallible and objectively true, while the other remains subjectively fallible and may be objectively untrue. Hence the clearness of Divine wisdom in holding the fallible judgment subject to the infalli- ble revelation. Here also appears the value of one of our most sacred precedents. Our venerated founder, though a man of the broadest scholarship and the purest inspirations, became at length, in submissiveness and docility, " homo unius libri" a man of one book.

Concerning the future our method and our history teach us soundly. Recognizing inspiration as first in time and rank, we must have the Holy Ghost in renovating, sanctifying, directing power always, every-where. Without this we shall be worldly,

1SG9.] Methodism : its Method and Missicn. 2G7

vain, dead. We must also give ample scope to the power of logic. Without this our zeal will become fanaticism. Illumi- nated rcasoy must sit in judgment ou the promptings of our funis, deeply moved by the Spirit of God. It must be hence- fur ward more thorough in its scrutinies aud impartial in its judgments. It must retrace our history, to remind us con- Btantly aud forcibly that not numbers, or wealth, or popular influence, but spirituality, humility, holiness has been the measure of our power. If we dare to lay aside our humble (rust in the Redeemer alone, for self-seeking and worldly glory, it should thunder in our ears the rebuke of Paul to the Gala- tians: "Are ye so foolish? Having begun in the Spirit are ye now made perfect by the flesh '?" We know that our inspira- tions, directed by logic, have' built schools aud colleges, driven the press, founded missions, erected churches, and organized Conferences ; but our spirituality lost, no amount of wealth, numbers, or popular influence could restore it. We therefore know absolutely that we cannot reverse the method by which we have risen to greatness as a Christian power. We are com- manded by the voice of Providence to pass on into the future with it unchanged.

We are a large and rapidly-increasing number of the most prosperous citizens of this Republic, and marked increase in wealth and cultivation must be inevitable. How strong, there- fore, the temptation to extravagance in every thing, and espe- cially in church building. There is certainly no sin in the beauty of form or color. It is not even human, but evidently divine in its creation, and in the refined sensitiveness which renders us susceptible of esthetic enjoyment and expression. But there are limits to the proper use of money in the adorn- ments of our persons and houses, the expensiveness of enter- tainments, and the splendor of church architecture. We must check our extravagance, or in our oncoming future exchange a spiritual for a material Christianity. All Christian culture and social accomplishments belong as legitimately to Method- Wb as to other people, but our method and history forbid us to advance a step in the direction of balls, theaters, operas, Cards, the cup, or any of their kindred " pleasures." In them- lelves or .associations they are. historically shown to be of the nature of sin, the chosen indulgences of unpardoned sinners,

268 Methodism: its Method and Mission. [April,

including the vilest of men and the most degraded of women. We cannot use them "in the name of the Lord Jesus;" we therefore cannot use them and be Methodists. We are to tcacli a joyous, but self-denying, heavenly-minded Christianity. We were raised up " to spread scriptural holiness over all lands." We must prudently, but firmly, arrest our tendencies to worldly conformity, or fail to accomplish this mission. We shall con- tinue to build magnificent churches, endow institutions of learn- ing, and pass up into positions of high trust and responsibility ; but from our method of development we can see clearly that our only safety in all this will be in taking with us our original power, to inspire the worship offered in our most splendid as well as humblest church edifices, to give purity to our motives, breadth to our principles, and elevation to our leadership in Church and State. Migration is not progress. We could be- come neither great nor strong-by leaving the frontier for the city, the poor to take care of the wealthy, or our primitive sim- plicity for learning. But to retain all our humility, and reach, with the power of resurrection, the very lowest and poorest of men, while we rise to the highest heights in scholarly wisdom and esthetic culture, advance with the foremost in business en- ergy and success, and gather in the highest in social position, is progress. We must therefore go on as we began, to preach the Gospel to sinners wherever we can find them, in private rooms, in barns and school-houses, in the streets and in the groves, as well as in more convenient and superb edifices. We should give due attention to the call of the Church and the order of discipline in the appointment and ordination of men to the sacred office, but we must not wait for this before we try to save sinners. We should recognize, and hail with tears of grati- tude and joy, the Gospel entreaties of the young convert when in broken accents he begs his companions to come to Jesus. We must multiply our Exhorters, Local Preachers, and itiner- ant Ministers by thousands, pushing them into every open door to proclaim to the vilest and poorest as well as to the highest and richest of men the " unsearchable riches of Christ ;" and we must include a meaning deeper and higher every yenr when we ask our candidates for holy orders, "Do you trust that you are moved by the Holy Ghost to take upon you" this sacred office? With this we should urge forward our ministers, young

1SC9.] Methodism : its Method and Mission. 269

and old, in all scholarly attainments. Our theological schools — few, let us trust, but strong and very spiritual — will perform a high function in preparing men for the whole field. If, how- ever, we make them supersede our historical method of inspi- ration they will not be addition or progress but change, in the direction of narrowness and not of breadth. "While our popu- lation is rushing up and outward in such bewildering numbers, and sinners in countless thousands are sinking to hell, we can- not, will not wait for conventional training nor the reaching of high scholastic standards before permitting our young men to cry, " Behold the Lamb ! :' In other acts of holy worship \vc must go on to do as we began. We must pray first and then learn to pray. We must sing first and then learn to sing. We must teach our young converts by no means to wait for study of speech or forms of prayer, but with glowing love and con- quering faith to begin at once to plead with God for the con- version of souls. Our singing must not be limited to science nor restrained by instruments, but our joyous melodies and ringing choruses must roll out from warm, gushing hearts, sending the inspirations of spiritual life and power thrilling deep down into the hearts of common sinners, moralists, formalists, and infidels alike. Then let the highest culture increase the breadth and discrimination of importunate prayer, and give accuracy and taste in musical science and art. This is the method of inspi- ration, and it is, we insist, as exact Methodism as apostolic Christianity to say truthfully, " I will pray with the spirit and I will pray with the understanding also ; I will sing with the spirit and I will sing with the understanding also."

Let us then move forward in our own method to the accom- plishment of our mission, thus rendering illustrious and true for his apostolic successors, scattered abroad every-where, hut one and inseparable, the heroic announcement of Wesley, " The world is my parish."

270 Theodicy. [April,

Aet. VI.— THEODICY.

Redeemer and Redeemed: An Investigation of the Atonement and of Eternal Judgment. By Charles Beechek, Georgetown, Massachusetts. Boston : Lee & Shepard. 1864.

The key to this remarkable book is to be found in the au- thor's experience, in early life, of the severities of the Calvinistic creed, as described in the preface:. " I -can remember grave homilies on total depravity, and other abstruse doctrines, when I could not have been above six or seven years old. ' Henry,* do you know that every breath you draw is sin ? Well, it is, every breath ! ' There was a profound satisfaction in being thorough, even in those early days, that I have not yet entirely outgrown. The severity of the conception did not appall me in the least, while its terrible radicalism was irresistibly fas- cinating." . . . "The origin of evil, the freedom of the will, and similar subjects, absorbed me, and I abandoned myself to them. They brought me to grief, but I cared not ; they threw me into collision with my father, but I could not ignore them. For a time they wrecked, temporarily, and threatened ship- wreck eternal, but I could not forego them." ..." That man was a fallen, ruined race, born under a just wrath of God aud curse of a holy law, I was equally certain. That Christ's death was necessary to man's salvation was to me self-evident. But why the blood of Christ should be necessary, or what connec- tion it had with forgiveness, or how it operated to secure it, I knew not." ..." On that problem my mind has worked and struggled and agonized, day and night, for twenty years almost incessantly, and has found rest in the views presented in this volume."

The scheme to which the author's investigations conducted him is the following ; it is derived from the Holy Scriptures by blending literal and allegorical interpretations of numerous passages :

1. That sin, though theologically unaccountable as to its origin, had historically its beginning in the mind of Lucifer. The king of Tyre, in E/.ekicl xxviii, was but an emblem of Satan, whose exaltation, temptation, and fall is the principal object of the prophetic vision. "Such," he says, "was the * The Author's brother, Henry Ward Bcechcr.

1869J Theodicy. 271

view of Augustine, Jerome, Tertullian, Ambrose, and other earlv fathers. Indeed, Fairbairn remarks, 'Most of the early commentators have supposed that, verses 12-14 were not prop- erly used of the king of Tyre, but mystically of Satan.' At the same time Fairbairn characterizes this as an arbitrary mode of interpretation. Arbitrary or not, however, it is a mode that has commended itself to the mind of the Church for ages as well-nigh self-evident. As an illustration, let. it be remem- bered that the title Lucifer, now universally current as a proper appellation of Satan, owes its application to him wholly to this method applied to Isaiah xiv, 12, ' How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning!'"

The primary sin, according to our author, was pride. This was followed by unholy ambition to be independent of Divine control ; then came corruption and malfeasance in his office as prime minister of heaven ; then the seduction of inferior and subordinate angels ; then, after all, when man was created in heaven to supersede in due time the revolting angelic hosts, the seduction of mankind and their destruction, which Satan believed and proclaimed to be irremediable, because God had no prerogative of pardon for such rebels.

2. The pre-existence of man he assumes as already proved by the learned and able work of his brother, Dr. Edward Beecher ; but he exonerates him from all responsibility for the peculiar views maintained in the present book. He disposes of St. Paul's observation on the fall of man, Romans v, 12-19, as follows: "Instead of saying, 'By one man righteousness entered into the world, and was forfeited and lust,' he says, ' By one man sin entered into the world ;' tjiat is, when he entered sin entered." ..." The only expression which could be thought to favor the common view is, ' By one man's disobedience many were made sinners.5 But how made ? Not by the fall of a righteous man, but by the test appliedUo an unrighteous man taken as an average sample. Out of a thousand bushels of wheat one bushel being taken, as a fair sample or specimen, and found to be damaged, makes the whole damaged." lie refers to the ;; Conflict of Ages " for a full exegesis of this pas- sage, which, in his opinion, no one has yet refuted or can re- fute. Hi3 doctrine is, that the human race was created in heaven, to supersede in due time the Satanic race; and that

272 Theodicy. [April,

Lucifer, discovering this, set about seducing the human race, and succeeded in Ins fell purpose, with the solitary exception of one, Jesus Christ, who, like Abdiel, in Milton's fall of the angels in heaven, remained faithful.

" Faithful found Among the faithless, faithful only he."

Him the second Person in the Trinity took into personal union with himself, and he became the Son of God, and inter- posed in behalf of the seduced race. Special compassion was felt for fallen man on account of his temptation by Lucifer, and he was granted another probation. For this purpose the earth was prepared, and these sinful beings have been, and will still be, one after another, sent down into material bodies to have an opportunity, under very favorable circumstances, to recover their original righteousness.

3. He argues that God did not immediately cast Lucifer down from heaven, because he is a God of infinite love and mercy. He had a special love for Lucifer as the first and highest of all created beings, and he sought by forbearance and kindness to reclaim him. Having the absolute prerogative of pardoning the penitent, as was proclaimed on Mount Sinai at the time of the giving of the law to man, "The Lord God, merciful and gracious, slow to anger, forgiving iniquity, trans- gression, and sin ;" he hoped to see him become penitent and obedient. Moreover, holding empire over intelligent moral beings, it behooved him to proceed in disposing of Satan in a way to satisfy all that his decrees were just and right. This is the course which an earthly parent or a wise and benevo- lent monarch would take in such a case. A mistaken theol- ogy seeks to make the heavenly Father too absolute in his ad- ministration of justice, not considering that he must have respect to the laws and habits of mind when he rules in the realm of mind and not 6f matter.

Mr. Beecher carries out these principles in his explanation of the atonement and of eternal punishment. Christ died to illustrate the malignity of Satan, and morally to overthrow his ascendency in heaven over the confidence and affections of the heavenly hosts. God offers forgiveness yet to lost men and devils on condition of repentance, and he will always do so. They only are to blame for the perpetuation of their misery

HJ09J Theodicy. 273

because they will not repent. In this be differs from the Uni- rerealifits only in supposing that after the present probationary life uo condemned person will ever choose to forsake his evil ways; while they hold, that God cannot fail in finally securing the submission and repentance of every apostate soul.

-1. In due time Adam appears in Eden, and his posterity fol- low, born of him only as it respects the flesh, and with such depraved traits of mind as the Bible ascribes to mankind. Alter four thousand years Christ too is born of a woman, and commences his redeeming work. Satan and his angels are al- lowed to assault and tempt man in his new probation, and all his malignity of cunning is exerted to seduce the Son of God. Failing to seduce or terrify the Redeemer, he tempts wicked men to put him to death. But Christ rises and appears in heaven, and confronts Lucifer, and by his exposure of his char- acter and malicious works he sets all heaven against him. All created minds being thus prepared, God rises and casts down Satan and all his host. He falls upon this world and redoubles iiis exertions for the destruction of man, and for the thwarting of the Divine purpose and plan of human redemption. The New Testament history and prophecy reveal the conflict and the fatal result.

Such is a synopsis of Mr. Beecher's scheme, but no synopsis can give an adequate idea of the amazing web of Scripture, tradition, and analogy in which it is woven together, nor of the purity of style, the lucidity of the reasoning, the extensive eru- dition, the noble candor, and elevated piety which make the book not only a study for the theologian, but a charm for the poet and the scholar. The effect of the whole upon one who should receive it (and, strange as it is, there are those who, relying on the allegorical mode of interpretation, will receive h) is to dissipate the painful mystery of man's congenital de- pravity, of the atonement by the vicarious sacrifice of Christ, and ot the unceasing, eternal misery of the incorrigible. On the winds of those who do not receive it, it leaves the conviction that some great mistake has been made by theology, orthodox R$ well as heterodox, and that a satisfactory theodicy is yet a thing in the future ; a desideratum to which every soul that hjves God and desires the well-being of mankind should ear- nestly aspire.

274: Theodicy. [April,

The points on which light is needed are, 1. The origin of sin. 2. The native depravity of the human race. 3. The atonement. 4. The eternal doom of the wicked. These points are so related to each other that fundamental error on one will throw a shadow over all the rest. If you exaggerate, for in- stance, the doom of the wicked, making it unceasing and ever increasing torment in actual fire or its equivalent, then no vin- dication can be made' of the justice of the Almighty in creating beings capable of sinning and liable to sorrow infinite in dura- tion and immeasurable in intensity. If you intensify the de- pravity of the heart, and make it dominant over the will from the beginning, then you cannot justify any punishment, how- ever light, for sin is thus made inevitable, and you make the atonement a farce. Let us, therefore, find some point which, by itself, can be made clear in the light of reason and religion, and then admit of no view which conflicts with this, and so proceed to the end.

1. Let us take, then, the point which is naturally first in order, namely, the origin of sin. Mr. Beecher regards it as an impenetrable mystery in a universe originally holy and happy.

If such was the original condition of the universe, the question arises, How sin could possibly enter? Some minds have felt the difficulty so strongly upon this point that they have rejected the Bible account of the matter, and denied the existence of any sinless state of the universe. But the answer to the question is simple. Sin is in its own nature anomalous, and, therefore, mysterious ; it is in its own nature an unaccountable thing. For, the" moment we admit that it is properly accounted for, — that is, the moment we assign a good aud sufficient cause for it, — that moment it ceases to be sin. A good and sufficient cause is a good and sufficient excuse, and that which has a good and sufficient excuse is not sin. To account for sin, therefore, is to defend it ; and to defend it, is to certify that it is not sin.

We quote this passage, not as a specimen of Mr. Beecher's logic, but as expressing his opinion, in which he agrees -with. so many able writers. A recent work on " Eternal Life and Eternal Death," by Professor Bartlett, of Chicago, published by the American Tract Society, considers the origin of sin a mystery as great as its eternal continuance and perpetual

jcf,9.] Theodicy. 275

punishment. He quotes, also, and indorses the remarks of Archbishop Whately :

The existence of any evil at all in the creation is a mystery we cannot explain. It is a difficulty which may perhaps be cleared up

in a future state, but the Scriptures give us no revelation concern- ing it. And those Avho set at defiance the plain and obvious sense of°the Scripture by contending, as some do, for the final admission to eternal happiness of all men, in order, as they themselves pro- fess, to get over the difficulty by this means, and to reconcile the existence of evil with the benevolence of God, do not in tact after all, when they have put the most forced interpretation on the words of the sacred writers, advance one single step toward their point. For the main difficulty is not the amount of the evil which exists, but the existence of any at all. Any, even the smallest portion of evil, is quite unaccountable, supposing the same amount of good could be attained without that evil. And why it is not so attainable is more than we are able to explain. And if there be some reason we cannot understand why a small amount of evil is un- avoidable ; there may be, for aught we know, the same reason for a greater amount, I will undertake to explain to any one the final condemnation of the wicked if he will explain to me the existence of the wicked ; if he will explain why God does not cause all those to die iu the cradle of whom he foresees that when grown up they will lead a sinful life. The thing cannot be explained. — Page 133.

A man with the brightest eyes cannot see any thing to Avhich his attention is not directed ; so, without disparaging the ability of any of these able writers, it seems to us that there is no more mystery in the origin of sin, if you will look at it aside from its supposed future consecpenees, than there is in the existence of virtue. God could have made a material universe full of beauty and sublimity, and he could have cre- ated minds capable of beholding and admiring it, without pos- sessing any ideas of right and wrong, or any freedom of choice or action in respect to it ; but in such a creation there would have been wanting all moral beauty and grandeur, and no one would reflect his Maker's moral image. Xow if God would have a moral world, and emblazon it with the gems of various virtues, he must make creatures with the capacity of distin- guishing right and wrong, and of choosing between them. Xow it is impossible for a moral agent to choose the right without being made also free not to choose it, or to choose the wrong. It is true, such a being could be put in a position where his happiness would be so clearly and constantly on the

27G Theodicy. [April,

side of right that he would feel no temptation to choose the' opposite. Such a place is heaven, and there may be beings created in such a condition. Why, then, did not God place all moral creatures in such a condition, and keep them there ? The answer is, that to intensify virtue, as well as to produce certain species of virtues most glorious and desirable, moral agents must be put under some trial ; that is, they must be put where appeals may be made to their natural feelings and pas- sions which it would be difficult to resist. Then, if they suc- cessfully endure the ordeal, as in the case of Job, their right- eousness shines out with resplendent luster, brighter than the sun, and rare virtues of patience, resignation, courage, hero- ism, trust, appear as the brightest constellations of night. To have an opportunity of yielding such fruitage moral beings must be free to choose differently, and so they are made liable to sin. Xow, if those who fail to undergo the trial success- fully, as God designed, should be instantly put out of being, no one could see any injustice in the economy of God, but the greatest goodness in giving finite creatures an opportunity of excelling in holiness and deserving eternal life. The mystery, then, is not in sin any more than in virtue, but in its supposed consequences of depravity and suffering. But these do not now come into consideration. When we come to them we may find that as they ought to be in harmony with the true origin of sin, so they may be regarded in the clearest light of revelation and of reason.

If this plain and obvious view of the origin of sin be ac- cepted, it furnishes ground for the overthrow of the entire foundation of Mr. Beecher's theory of sin by the revolt of Lu- cifer, for he makes Lucifer to sin in heaven, in the very pres- ence of God, and surrounded by the glory of his power ; a con- dition in which, however free his moral choice, he would be under no liability to sin whatever ; for if to choose wrong in such circumstances might not be pronounced absolutely im- possible, it may be declared impracticable. We know that we are free this moment to rise up and go and throw ourselves off some precipice or into the lire, but. in the absence of any influential motive to such a mad procedure we are safe enough. A condition of such liability of sinning, as Mr. Bcecher sup- poses, is not practicable in heaven. Were his theory true,

L889J Theodicy. 277

there would be no heaven for men or angels. Heaven is a place of rest, of security, of freedom from fear and care and peril. If Satan tell in heaven, as Milton imagined, and half the religious world takes thoughtlessly from him and the theo- logians, and as Mr. Beecher thinks is proved from Scripture on the allegorical mode of interpretation and otherwise, then the redeemed will be liable to fall. But this is made imprac- ticable, not by destroying free agency, or abolishing the law, but by their being separated from all inducements and tempta- tion to do wrong. Mere freedom under the law does not argue danger without special motives to a wrong choice, for then no beings, however exalted, would be safe a moment. Christ him- self might fall at the head of his Church, and God, the Judge of all, cease to do right.

It is time the tradition of Satan falling in heaven were ex- ploded. Satan never was and never will be in heaven, nor any other sinner, nor any sin. The four texts which are usually made to support the popular tradition are easily dis- posed of: " How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning," (Isa. xiv, 12,) is a typical expression, addressed in the style of the East to Xebuchadnezzar, the king of Baby- lon, as is evident from the whole context ; as, for example, (verse 16,) " Is this the man that made the earth to tremble ?" " I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven." (Luke x, 18.) Literally, this reads, " I beheld Satan, as lightning from heaven, fall." It means simply, Suddenly, as a flash of lightning from the clouds I saw the power of the devil broken by the preaching of the Gospel. The seventy had just returned, re- porting, " Lord, even the devils are subject unto us through thy name." It had no reference whatever to the past before the day of Christ, but to what was then going ou, and to the future. " And there was war in heaven : Michael and his Mgels fought against the dragon ; and the dragon fought and his angels, and prevailed not ; neither was their place found any more in heaven." Rev. xii, 7, 8. This, like every thing else in Revelation, has reference to future events. It is a typical prophecy of the overthrow of the moral and spiritual power of the devil in the ages to come before the day of judg- ment. "And the angels which kept not their first estate, but left their own habitation, he hath reserved in everlasting chains

Fourth Skiues, Vol. XXI. — 18

278 Theodicy. [April,

under darkness unto the judgment of the great day." Jude G. The term " angel " does not mean a celestial spirit, but de- scribes usually a spiritual being who is not of this world, but may be in hell or elsewhere as well as in heaven. Kor does the passage otherwise indicate their original locality. " They left their own habitation," it says; but where was that \ ]Sot heaven, if heaven is a place of rest and happiness, and not of trial and probation.

Thus all the foundations of Mr. Beecher's system disappear as frost-work in the dawn of a spring morning.

But if Satan never was in heaven, where did he have his origin and fall ? Doubtless in some paradisaical state, where he was placed under probation, as man was in Eden. The nearest approach to an explanation of it is the passage already quoted from St. Jude's Epistle. From this we learn that the test of his obedience was to abide within the limits of his estate. As God forbade to our first parents the fruit of the tree in the midst of the garden, so it would seem that he said to the angels, Pass not beyond the bounds of your habitation. This, then, was their trial, and they failed under it. But how could beings, made pure and holy, be moved to transgress when no tempter as yet existed? Why, just as good men go astray now. They possessed a variety of natural passions, all tending to their appropriate objects, among which was the disposition to rove ; but God saw lit to limit its exercise for good and sufficient reasons. This made an inevitable antag- onism between the passions and the conscience, and gave occa- sion for the trial of their obedience. They yielded to their passions, and were condemned. In this world Adam fell at the solicitation of Eve, and Eve at the solicitation of Satan ; but the only difference was in the extra excitement of their natural passions by the suggestions of the tempter. It is clear enough that without a tempter the very interdiction of what was naturally attractive to the passions made a suffi- cient occasion for a trial more or less severe, and such as might have resulted in their fall. But the presence and fatal influence of the tempter was made the occasion for making a difference in God's feelings toward them, and a reason for showing them mercy, which he did not extend to Satan and his angels, who fell without solicitation. Iu this light we see

1869.3 Theodicy. 279

no more mystery in original sin, either that of man or angels, than in any sin now committed ; any disobedience to the law of the family, of the school, or the state. That sinners are permitted to live and tempt others lias no more difficulty in it. than the placing of moral beings in a state of trial. If the trial is intensified it gives the tempted opportunity of devel- oping sublimer virtues and securing a brighter crown of right- eousness. Were the trial greater than the creature could bear it would be no probation, but a subjugation; for as man is not responsible if not free, so he is not free if the pressure of motive is too great to resist. In such a condition of mind we consider a person insane, and pity him. It is not a con- dition in which either virtue or vice can originate. JSTo axiom or postulate in mathematics is clearer than that responsibility and ability are commensurate.

DErRAVITY.

These remarks explain the mystery of inherent depravity. We are not responsible for its existence, nor for its instinctive operations, but only for our voluntary obedience to its dic- tates. A child who inherits a drunkard's thirst for liquor is not to be blamed for it, but his special trial is to watch it and resist it. Nevertheless, it is a depravity and an evil ; but while he resists it and maintains temperate habits he acquires extra- ordinary merit. The Eible accounts such defects, and all de- fects of our nature, "sin," simply in the sense of being con- trary to the original law made for a perfect humanity ; but it declares to all who will believe in Christ that they are not ♦under the law, but under grace ; that is, the law, while it is not abolished as a rule of life, no longer stands as a condi- tion of acceptance with God and of final salvation. What complaint, then, can be made against the honor and justice of God in permitting our human race to be propagated from a depraved stock? As well might you complain of a proba- tionary state of any kind wherein one is tempted to sin. But W it a " disgrace to us " to be born so depraved ? No ; no "lore disgrace than to be born of intemperate or diseased or feeble-minded parents.

" Act well your part, There all tho honor lies."

280 Theodicy. [April,

And all the greater honor, yea, greater than horn angels may acquire who have no extreme inducements to do wrong.

Our author does not explain his view of the nature of our depravity ; but it is a very gloomy view, if we may judge by its supposed origin in a celestial state, or by the reference made to it in the family of the Beeehers, us related in the preface as already quoted. " Every breath you draw is sin," said the venerable patriarch to his nosv famous son Henry. Is there any sense, we would inquire, in which such an ex- pression can be considered true of human beings in this life ? Yes, four or five.

1. In the sense of imperfection attached to all finite moral agents. " Behold," said Eliphaz to Job, " he put no trust in his servants ; and his angels he charged with folly." Job iv, 18. But there is no turpitude, no shame to be ascribed to such imperfectness, for Eliphaz adds in another place, (xv, 15,) " Yea, the heavens are not clean in his sight ;" and Bildad responds to Job in a similar vein : " How then can man be justified with God ? or how can he be clean that is born of a woman ? Behold even to the moon, and it shineth not ; yea, the stars are not pure in his sight. How much less man, that is a worm ? and the son of man, which is a worm ? " Job xxv, 4-6. And he who was " born of a woman," and delighted to call himself the "Son of man," said to the young ruler, doubt- less in reference to his human nature, which was yet suscepti- ble of further knowledge and grace, " Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is, God." (Matt, xix, 17.) But how absurd to apply such an ambiguous word as " sin " to such a want of absolute and infinite perfection ! And yet many make the same mistake as Job's counselors did.

2. In the sense in which we fall short of our moral ideals. The most gifted and perfect minds have the brightest ideals, and they are the most deeply pained by their failure to realize them. As they advance their ideals advance too, so that they are destined to a deeper and deeper chagrin blended with their more exquisite satisfactions. This is true of artists ; it is true of angels doubtless. There is but one Being who realizes his own ideal. " God is light, and in him there is no darkness at all." 1 John i, S. How preposterous, then, for good and

ISO 9.3 Theodicy. 281

holy men to fret themselves because they have not yet reached the perfection they conceive of as possible.

3. We are " sinners," as falling short of the law originally given for a perfect humanity. What that law was we know not, if it were any thing different from the ten command- ments and the law of love : (though many good men talk about it as if they knew all about it, and blame themselves because they are not as perfect as Adam was before the fall ;) but our blame is to be measured by our ability, for we are bound only to do what we can to approach the original pattern.

4. There is a sense in which we may be justly called sin- ners— when we find ourselves incapacitated from duty by previous neglects or abuses of our nature. But if we are penitent for these defects our guilt is forgiven, and our im- perfection is thenceforth of no more concern to us than if it were born in us, or than the defects of another person. " Though your sins be as scarlet they shall be white as snow." If now " we walk in the light, as He is in the light, we have fellowship one with another, and the blood of Jesus Christ liis Son cleanseth us from all sin. If we say that we have no Bin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness." 1 John i, 7-9.

5. Finally, if we continue impenitent and unbelieving, then, do what we will, we sin all the time. A boy who is playing truant and forsaking his father's house is doing wrong all the time in every thing, even if he be enlisted in the service of his country, and fighting for her rights. If we are disloyal to God it qualifies our whole life, and makes every thing disloyal which we do. A man may commit robbery, and then apply his stolen money to a religious or charitable purpose ; but even this disposition of it is wicked. True, it would be greater wickedness to gamble it away, and thereby involve another's virtue ; but it is still wicked to spend one cent of it to feed the poor or to build a synagogue. In this sense only the vir- tues of unconverted men are sins ; but there is no reflection on God in all this, and no mystery to stumble us.

So much for this question. But here comes the diffi- culty. How can we vindicate the government of God for bringing human beings into the world with such a moral ca-

282 Theodicy. [April,

pacity and under such temptation as actually results in man- kind up to tin's day being generally impenitent and habitual sinners ? Mr. Beecher's theory of the projection of beings al- ready depraved into this life has the same difficulty, for they do not seem to have very good luck so far in the new proba- tion. Nor is there in either case so much. to perplex us, and to seem to reflect on God, seeing these men are free in their rebellion, as there is in their future doom. If they have but a poor chance for virtue and acceptance with God, that chance is a gracious gift, provided there be no liability to too severe punishment, or if some ulterior arrangement should be pro- vided to bring about their reformation in another state of being. This is to be hereafter considered. In a general view we may no more complain of the world's depravity than of its physical disorders, and so we understand our great poet :

" If plagues or earthquakes break not Heaven's design,

Why then a Borgia or a Cataline?

"Who knows but lie, whose hand the lightning forms,

Who heaves old ocean, and who brings the storms,

Pours fierce ambition iu a Cesar's mind,

Or turns young Amnion loose to scourge mankind? . . .

Better for us, perhaps, it might appear

Were there all harmony, all virtue here ;

That never air or ocean felt the wind,

That never passion discomposed the mind:

But all subsists by elemental strife,

And passions are the elements of life."

Essay on Man.

ATONEMENT.

Leaving the subject of depravity, which has been abun- dantly discussed in previous articles of this Review,* we pass to that of the atonemeut. The author's theory has al- ready been mentioned. It is distinguished from and defended against three different theories which have largely obtained, and for a long time, in the Christian world : the Patristic theory, the Scholastic, and the Modern. The latter he styles the New England theory, but it is substantially that of several non-Calvinistic and transatlantic writers. • On this subject Mr. Beec.her lays out his greatest strength, and though we may not adopt his theory, we concede his unrivaled ability in maintain- * See Harmony of Moral Philosophy and Theology, Mdh. Quart, 1855.

1869.1 Theodicy. 283

ing it, and acknowledge his great candor in debate. "We must add, also, that if the piety which he every-where manifests were the exclusive offspring of his theory of redemption it would go very far to prove its divine origin, and would cer- tainly prove that no particular theory of atonement is essen- tial to salvation.

The substance of the ancient theory is, that the human race by original sin had made themselves the servants of Satan, and being doomed to die in consequence, they were taken after death into Hades, a subterranean region, and made his captives and slaves. To redeem mankind from this deplora- ble condition God offered to Satan a ransom in the person of his Son Jesus Christ. This offer was accepted, and Jesus came into the world, and was subjected to Satan's temptations, and finally put to death. He then descended into Hades and claimed the ransomed captives, and suddenly displaying his divine attributes, before artfully concealed from Satan, he overwhelmed the opposition which Satan began to make to the fulfillment of the contract, and rescued the captives, and ascended with them to paradise.

This theory he traces as far back as Clement of Eome, in the first century. " The sole cause of the Lord's descent into Hades," says Clement, " was to preach the Gospel." Irenaeus in the 6econd century writes : u The law burdened sinful man by showing him to be the debtor of death, and in order to his release Satan must be justly conquered. . . . His suffering was the means of awakening his sleeping disciples, on whose account lie descended into the lower part of the earth." Tertullian, Justin Martyr, and Origen arc quoted for similar testimony. Modern authors are quoted, attesting this to be the doc- trine of the early Church, as Huidekoper, Neander, Knapp, Hagenbach, Bauer, and Schaif. The latter remarks : ;' The negative part of the doctrine, the subjection of the devil, the prince of the kingdom of sin and death, was naturally most dwelt upon in the Patristic period. This theory continued Current until the satisfaction theory of Anselm gave a new turn to the development of the dogma."

After commenting justly and apologetically upon the ele- ment of deception as to Christ's divine nature, which the early Christian ages admitted into their theory, Mr. Beecher re-

2S4 Theodicy. [April,

marks, (t There was something fascinating to the imagination

in it that completely dominated over that rude and iron age. It awoke all their love of the marvelous, all their sense of the sublime, all their pity, horror, and shuddering sympathy. That Jesus, a helpless man, alone dared to meet the wrath of demons dire, treading that downward path from which the angels shrank ; that in the heart of the infernal dungeon he met the enemy, and engaged in personal conflict with him and all his legions ; that he defeated them, and with infinite strength broke the adamantine gates, and crushed the eternal barriers ; these ideas thrilled their whole being through and through, and woke toward Jesus their highest adoration and love."

Mr. Beecher thinks that this theory had an element of truth in it in the respect it had to Satan, so far as authorized by such passages as these : " And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed; it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt braise his heel." Gen. iii, 15. " That through death he might destroy him that had the power of death, that is, the devil." Heb. ii, 14. " He that committeth sin is of the devil ; for the devil sinneth from the beginning. For this purpose the Son of God was manifested, that he might destroy the works of the devil." 1 John iii, 8. He concludes that no theory of the atonement can be accepted which ignores these passages.

SCHOLASTIC THEOEY. He now comes to the Scholastic theory, which was elabora- ted by Ansel m, Archbishop of Canterbury, near the close of the eleventh century, and very rapidly supplanted that which had obtained for over a thousand years.

This theory may be reduced to the two main propositions. . . .

1. Sin is so intrinsically deserving of punishment that the non- execution of penalty in a single instance would be a crime in di- vine administration.

2. God does in fact execute the penalty of the law upon the sin- ner's substitute.

To show that these propositions are maintained by theolo- gians he quotes in support of the first from Turretin, Dr. Ilodge of Princeton, Professor Shcdd of Andover, Bradbury,

1S60.1 Theodicy. 285

Bellamy, and the celebrated Baptist preacher, Mr. Spnrgeon ; and in behalf of the second proposition he cites from Calvin, Luther, Bourdalone, Barrow, the Westminster Assembly, Presi- dent Edwards, the late Dr. Spencer of Brooklyn, Dr. Spring of New York, Spnrgeon, Dr. Hodge, aud Professor Shedd. All these in various forms of speech, florid and plain, simple and elaborate, calm and enthusiastic, clear as a mathematical statement, and glowing with eloquence like a prophet's word, all declare with one voice that divine justice can only be satis- fled b;v a plenary execution of the penalty of the law upon the sinner or upon his substitute.

Either, then, the sinner, however penitent, must bear his penalty, or some one must bear it for him. To this end Infinite Wisdom discovers a way. He gives his own Son. Christ consents. Upon liim, as the sinner's surety, God executes full punishment — a pun- ishment sometimes identical with, sometimes only equivalent to, that due to the transgressor. At the same time, Christ's perfect ohedience is imputed to the believer, he is freed from penalty, and endowed with full title to heavenly felicity.

"This theory," he adds, "is by no means obsolete."

In New England, indeed, it is seldom heard. A few ministers still cling to it ; but though obsolete in New England, it is domi- nant throughout evangelical Christendom, except where the new divinity has penetrated. All the creeds and formulas of the Ref- ormation have it — all the Protestant Churches of the old world. And it yet stands uncondemned in the creeds of the Presby- terian and Congregational Churches, both Old School and New. The difference is, in the Old School it is believed and taught, and in the new it is supplanted by a new theory, hereafter to be con- sidered.

The first prominent opponent of this theory was Socinus, in the sixteenth century. lie contended that the satisfaction of justice by proxy is impossible in the nature of things, and if it were practicable there would be no grace in forgiveness. Says Mr. Beecher :

Grotius, of the seventeenth century, attempting to defend the doctrine, in reality gave up its fundamental principle, and in a measure anticipated the New England theory, though he did not fully elaborate and defend it. His defense, therefore, availed nothing, and produced little effect. Men continued either to hold the Scholastic doctrine or become Socinians. It was not till after President Edwards's day that the new theory, of which the germs were found in Grotius, was fully elaborated and enabled to take

286 Theodicy. [April,

the place of tbe old, so that a man might reject it without falling into Socinianism.

In addition to the objections of Socinns, the Kew England divines have asserted that the satisfaction theory leads either to a limited atonement or to Univerealism, and Mr. Beecher urges still other objections.

Here opens an exciting view of the controversy which for three quarters of a century has been going on between the ad- vocates and opponents of the old theory, the Old School and the Xew School. The younger Edwards, Emmons, Smalley, Griffin, Fiske, Cox, Bern an, Burge, Albert Barnes, Professor Park are seen arrayed on the side of the new theory, bached up in their opposition to the old doctrine, though not in sup- port of the substitute by distinguished Unitarian and Univer- salist writers.

" How plain it is," says Dr. Channing, " that, according to this doctrine, God never forgives, for it seeras absurd to speak of men as forgiven, when their whole punishment, or an equiva- lent to it, is borne by a substitute."

THE NEW ENGLAND THEORY.

This is founded on such texts as Romans iii, 23-26 : " For all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God ; being justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus : whom God hath set forth to be a pro- pitiation through faith in his blood, to declare his righteous- ness for the remission of sins that are past, through the for- bearance of God ; to declare, I say, at this time his righteous- ness : that ho might be just, and the justifier of him which belie veth in Jesus."

The atonement is not to appease the vengeance of the Fa ther, or to satisfy his justice and procure his favor for sinners by the substitution of Christ to endure the penalty of the law, or an equivalent to it, in the stead of sinners, but to give scope for the safe exercise of mercy and pardon by displaying God's regard for justice and righteousness in the Bufferings of his Son, whereby, while the penalty of law is remitted to the penitent, it is done so as not to disparage the justice of the law or detract from its authority.

" The cross was set up," says our author, interpreting this

1869.] Theodicy. 287

theory, " to convince the intelligent universe of the spotless righteousness of God in the final issues of punishment and of pardon. Hence, contrasting the two — the Scholastic and the New England views — we may say concisely, Tn the one the cross was a punishment, in the other it is an argument." But lie prefers to employ in exposition of the new theory the very words of its leading advocates. " That is done," says the younger Edwards, "by the death of Christ, which supports the authority of the law, and renders it consistent with the glory of Clod and the good of the whole system to pardon the sinner." "That the forgiveness of sinners may not bring," 6ays Smalley, " the eternal law of righteousness into disregard and contempt, . . . The letter of law may be deviated from, and yet the spirit of it be supported and the design of it fully obtained." He then illustrates by the familiar example o{ Zeleucus, king of the Locrians, who gave up one of his own eyes to save his guilty son from the penalty of total blindness by the loss of both eyes. " Thus," says Dr. Emmons, " God made it manifest that he feels the same hatred of sin and dis- position to punish it when he forgives as when he punishes sinners." " The atonement," says Dr. Griffin, " was plainly an expedient of a moral government to support the moral law, . . . an operation upon public law for the benefit of the universe. Nothing could have the least influence to satisfy him but that operation upon public law." Mr. Barnes remarks that " the Bufferings endured by the Redeemer in the place of the sinner are fitted to make a deeper impression in the universe at large than would be produced by the punishment of the sinner himself."

This theory is shown by our author to be very different from the Socinian theory, though agreeing with it in the assumption that forgiveness of sins is the absolute prerogative of God. " When the Socinian says that forgiveness is right, and needs not to be made right, New England divines are not afraid to agree with him. Truth must be acknowledged by whomsoever ppoken. Bntwhen the Socinian says that forgiveness was also safe and consistent, so that no incarnation and death of the Eternal Word was necessary, then we draw the line and stand ^ irreconcilable opposition."

The objections to the New England theory are very fairly

288 Theodicy. [April,

stated by our author, and refuted also, so far as they are un- sound ; but he urges his own objections to the theory as a whole, not to that part which makes the object of the death of Christ to display God's righteousness, which he indorses, but to that part which makes the death of Christ to be an infliction of pain and death instead of the sinner's endurance of the whole penalty of the law. The ordinary objections fire, 1, that this theory denies that sin deserves punishment for its own sake, as well as for the prevention of crime. 2. Some say that the will of God makes right, and therefore to will the free forgive- ness of sins displays his righteousness as much as the gift of his Son to die for sinners. 3. Some say that they do not see how the death of Christ exhibits the justice of God, or the sanctity and authority of the law, if the death of a proxy be not a requisition of justice, nor an exact equivalent to the pen- alty of the law.

" This objection was urged by Dr. Hodge in a review of a lit- tle treatise on the Atonement by Dr. Beman twenty or twenty- five years ago ; but in vain have I searched the writings of the other side for a reply. Hence it behooves us to weigh the matter well. As candid men we must allow to every argument all its real weight. Let us then ask, Does the infliction of suf- ferings on Christ, which is yet not punishment nor the penalty of the law, show God's determination to punish ? Does it show respect for the law, or does it, as Dr. Baird afhrms, " consti- tute a signal proclamation of the dethroning of the law, and the prostration of its honor in the dust?"

The answer is, The divine Being submitting to any suffering out of respect to his law, must honor it infinitely. But then, he says, why do you assert, some of you, that God cannot suf- fer, but is absolutely impassible. But as Mr. Beecher, in a chapter full of eloquence and pathos, admits that God can suf- fer, he here adds: "Would it show respect for law unless that very evil were necessary by the law ? '' Yes, in the same way in which Zeleucus, giving up one of his eyes, which the law did not require, gave great honor to the law. But Zeleucus, he thinks, did not honor his law, he degraded it, and for per- sonal and selii^h considerations. What a contrast was his fa- therly weakness to the noble justice of Louis XVth, who re- fused on any terms to pardon his son for the crime of murder in

1600.] Ttteodicy. 289

the streets of Paris. " I will not spare my son for a crime lor which I would condemn my meanest subject."

In this style Mr. Beecher disposes of the New England the- ory. Betainiug that part of it which makes the death of Christ a display of God's righteousness, he combines it with an element of the Patristic theory respecting the overthrow of Satan, and lays it at the foundation of his own theory. Christ lives and dies to resist and to expose the malice of Satan, and to make manifest the justice of God in casting him down from his heavenly throne and delivering those whom he had seduced and devoted to destruction.

Keviewing this discussion, it seems to us that although Mr. Beecher has aimed to do justice to all parties in controversy in stating their opinions and making quotations from their writings, he will scarcely obtain their approbation of his di- gest of their principles and arguments. It is certain that we could not indorse either the Scholastic or the Nova-Anglian theory as he has presented them. The latter, however, is nearest the true definition of atonement, but it is not a com- plete view without taking something from the other side. We should prefer the following view of the atonement :

That it is the satisfaction made by the death of Christ to di- vine justice, whereby the divine Lawgiver is disposed to forgive sinners on suitable application to him on their part ; because this transaction so manifests his righteousness, and the sacredness and importance of his law, that it is, in effect, a full equivalent in the preservation of moral order to the execution of the pen- alty of the law upon the guilty.

This definition shows in what sense the vicarious death of Christ is a satisfaction to the justice of God : it is not a legal or a commercial satisfaction, but a judicial satisfaction ; not the endurance of the same penalty as sinners deserved, or an equal penalty, but what in him as their mediator is fitted to have as good influence in the divine administration. It is grace which accepts this instead of the punishment of the sinner or legal sat- isfaction. The objections which have been urged by the parties in the discussion against each other's theory do not lie against thi^, and it harmonizes with all the texts which have been quoted on either side. As to those passages respecting the devil which Mr. Beecher and the medieval theologians make

290 Theodicy. [April,

so much of, they are important as showing the occasion of the exercise of divine mercy toward man instead of toward fallen angels ; for man was seduced from his allegiance to God by the malicious arts of Satan, who is still seeking their destruc- tion, whereas the angels fell without a tempter and of their own accord ; and this also gives the Divine reason for under- taking the redemption of mankind in the only May possible, by the subjection of his only-begotten Son to death in their stead ; thus counteracting the vile malignity of the apostate angel toward beings who had not injured him, by the self-sacri- ficing compassion of God's adorable Son.

PUNISHMENT.

It remains to consider the nature of the penalty which is attached to sin in the law. Theologians seem not to be con- scious that it is here the real difficulty lies in the vindication of the Divine government. We can reconcile with our ideas of the justice and goodness of God the origin of sin, the depravity of our fallen race, and the atonement, on the supposition that account- able beings are not, in the trial of their virtue, put to the risk of too great consequences in case of failure. The plea that they are free, and if they know their doom, whatever it may be, they are to blame for incurring it, is not satisfactory. They should not be allowed to take such responsibility. Besides, the guilty are not the only ones affected by their doom ; their friends, the angels of God, all sympathetic creatures, and God himself, are concerned in their sufferings. Tet on this super- ficial plea theologians have, to alarm the wicked, piled up hor- ror upon horror, lasting unrespited through eternal ages, not considering in what an odious light it places the character of the Creator, nor whether such exaggerations are not likely to stagger all faith in revelation. Indeed, most of the infidelity of Christendom can be traced to the revulsion which kind and considerate minds have experienced on this subject. It is time for the Christian world to wake up to the effect of such dog- mas if they would not have evangelical religion completely wrecked upon these sand-bars. It is not our purpose to de- fine the scriptural doctrine of future punishment; perhaps in its nature, if not in its duration, it is left in obscurity and mys- tery. Our point is, that it behooves us not to accept any doc-

1809.] Theodicy. 291

trine which reflects upon the Divine justice and goodness. This i> indeed the very first principle of correct interpretation. The following schemes for eternal punishment are now pressed upon our attention:

1. Mr. Beecher's view of the doom of sinners is, that it de- pends for its continuance upon- the continued impenitence of the condemned. At any moment when they will submit to God and ask for mercy they will receive it; but then he be- lieves that they never will submit. This is the view taken by the author of Ecce Deus, (and by Bledsoe in his Theodicy,) who displays equal ability with our author in treating- of this perplexing topic, subject, however, to one drawback in respect to his absurd and almost blasphemous remarks upon the impossibility of the Almighty's annihilating moral beings.

2. There is the doctrine of Dr. Bushnell, that sinners receive a certain measure of sorrow at their doom ; but their being may grow less and less without, ever reaching a com- plete extinction, as the asymptote of a circle is a line so projected as to be always approaching the circle without ever touching it.

3. The doctrine that, the penalty-state is exile from heaven forever, in a depraved character and under eternal despair of any improvement, but not increasiiig in sin or in misery by any proclivity derived from a state of probation, but subject to such alternations as may arise from keeping or breaking the rules of prison discipline.

4. The opinion that by the law of habit sinners will grow more and more wicked, and consequently more and more mis- erable forever.

5. The doctrine that in addition to the pangs of a guilty conscience and disappointment of heaven the wicked will be positively and ceaselessly tormented by burning unconsumed in actual fire, or its equivalent in the power to torture.

G. The doctrine that fire is but the symbol of swift and pain- ful destruction, and that the eternal doom of the wicked is literal death at the day of judgment ; that is, the extinction of con- sciousness and all capacity of thinking, or feeling, or acting. This ends, of course, the terrible scene of sin and Buffering by the destruction of the subject.

292

Theodicy.

LApri

7. The human sonl is material or inseparable from the body — and perishes with, the body at death ; a destiny which will be reversed only in the case of the righteous by resurrection at the final coming of Christ.

8. The resurrection of the wicked at the last day to receive a public judgment and the doom of utter annihilation.

9. Transformation, or moral death, by the elimination of the moral attributes of wicked men and the oblivion of memory ; the abuse of man's moral capacity ending in its destruction, and degrading him, like Nebuchadnezzar, to the level of the beasts of the field.

All these theories agree as to the eternal loss of heaven as being the main element in the doom of the lost. To the in- quiring mind, reconsidering the question de novo, the problem would be to determine which theory is most agreeable to the Scriptures and to rational considerations, and especially the justice and wisdom of God and the moral order and peace of the universe. With some of them a rational vindication of the divine government is easy ; but with others no theodicy is possible, whatever views may be taken of the origin of sin, of depravity, and probation.*

Art. VII.— FOREIGN" RELIGIOUS INTELLIGENCE.

GREAT BRITAIN.

Progress of the Ritualistic Contro- versy— Second Report of the Ritual- istic Commission* — Important Decision of the English Courts condemning several Ritualistic Practices— The Ritualists in Council — Prominent Ritualists in favor of Separation be- tween Church and State. — During the last months of the year 1868,and in the first of the year lSK3,"the Ritualistic contro- versy has assumed in England greater dimensions than it has had at any former period of the history of the AiiLrlie;in Church. The Royal Commission on Rit- ualism which was appointed in 18G7, mid

counts among its members many of the most prominent members of the Church, issued its second report to the Queen. Tiie committee have no intention to settle any principle, but to regulate some de- tails in accordance with established law. The Report, in particular, refers to the use of candles and incense. In their opinion no sufficient evidence has been adduced to prove that at any time dur- ing the last three centuries have lighted caudles been used in parish churches as accessories to the celebration of the Holy Communion until within the last twenty- five years. The use of incense, too, in the public services of th Hmrch during the present century is v -;y recent, and

* Our respected correspondent is of course competent to be solely responsible for his individual opiuious. — Ed.

1809.1

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

293

ll .• instances of its introduction very Tire; and, so far as the Commissioners bare any evidence before them, it is at rariauce with the Church's usage for three hundred years. They arc. there- fore, of opinion that it is inexpedient to : -'.rain in the public services of the Church all variations from established usage in respect to lighted candles and incense.

The remedy which the Commissioners inggest should be provided for parishion- ers aggrieved by the introduction of in- cense and candles is as follows ;

First, that whensoever it shall be found necessary that order be taken concerning the same, the ueage of the Church of Kngland and Ireland, as above stated to have prevailed for the last three hundred years, shall be deemed to be the rule of "the Church in respect of vestments, lights, and incense; and, secondly, that parishioners may make formal applica- tion to the Bishop in camera, and the Bishop, on snch application, shall be hound to inquire into the matter of the complaint; and if it shall thereby appear tlict there has been a variation from established usage, by the introduction of vestments, lights, or incense in the pub- lic services of the Church, he shall take order forthwith for the discontinuance Of such variation, and be enabled to en- force the same summarily.

The Commissioners also think that the determination of the Bishop on such ap- plication should be subject to appeal to the Archbishop of the province in camera, whose decision thereon shall be final; provided always, that if it should appear 10 either party that tho decision of the Bishop or Archbishop is open to question on any legal ground, a case may be stated by the party dissatisfied, to be certified by the Bishop or Archbishop as correct, and then submitted by the said party for the decision of the Court of the Arch- bishop without pleading or evidence, With a right of appeal to the Privy Conn- til, and with power for the Court, if the ftatement of the case should appear to ba in any way defective, to refer back ■wen case to the Bishop or Archbishop »r amendment.

The Commissioners intimated that their intention, in making these recommenda- ' ■'"/;', was simply to provide a special facility for restraining variations from ea- •fMished usage without interfering with the genera] law of the Church as to orna- "Kaits, or the ordinary remedies now in farce.

Fouhtu Sbbies, Vol. XXI —

As this report only contained recom- mendations, it has no practical influence upon the controversy. Of much greater importance was a decision of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the cele- brated case of Martin vs. Mackonochie. The Rev. Mr. .Mackonochie has been for years one of the boldest of the Ritualistic innovators, and he was therefore selected by tho new Low Church Society, the Church Association, to test in his case be- fore the highest court of the laud the law- fulness of some of the most startling inno- vations. Mr. Mackonochie was originally charged: 1. With elevating the elements during the prayer of consecration. 2. With kneeiiug before them during the same prayer. 3. With using lighted candles on the communion-table during the celebra- tion of the holy communion when they were not required for the purpose of giving light, -i. With using incense in the same service. 5. With mixing water with the wine.

The elevation Mr. Mackonochie discon- tinued before the suit commenced, and he was admonished not to resume it. A judgment of the Court of Arches had condemned the use of incense and of water. It admitted, however, the law- fulness of lighted candles, and considered the kneeling a minor point of order, which, if raised at all, should be referred to the discretion of the Bishop. This de- cision with regard to caudles and to kneeling was reversed by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which ruled that kneeling during the prayer of consecration is contrary to the rubric, and that lighted candles are not admis- sible. While giving its decision on this particular case, the Court also gave its opinion on several important general prin* ciples. With respect to the kneeling, the Court observe that the posture of the officiating minister is prescribed by vari- ous directions throughout the communion service. He is directed when to Stan t and when to change this posture for that of kneeling. But it is expressly ordered that the prayer of consecration is to be said by the priest "standing before the table," and there is no indication that he is in- tended to change his posture during the prayer. To the objection made by the defense, that this was one of those minute detads which the rubric could not he held to cover, the Court made the important answer that it is not for any minister of tho Church, or even for themselves, to assume that any departure from or violation of

19

294

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

[April,

the rubric is trivial. The use of lighted I to kneeling at the holy communion, gram- candles raised a question of even greater j matically, and that there was good rea- signilicance and importance. The Ritual- 1 son for accusing the highest court of ap- ists claimed to be justified in adopting! peal of "playing fast and loose:" "loose" any practice which the Prayer Book does' whenever it is the question of allowing not especially condemn, and in retain- < any matter of faith to be disbelieved ; ing as lawful whatever is not expressly "fast" when it is the qtiestion of not al- abolished. They appealed to certain in- j lowing any thing to be believed which junctions in the first year of Edward VI, • popular prejudice disbelieves, and their counsel even went back to the I The Ritualists were not agreed as to time before the Reformation, pud quoted i the course to be pursued in consequence a constitution made by a Roman Catholic I of this judgment of the Privy Council. Council held under the Archbishop of Some were in favor of obeying the law Canterbury in 1322. The Court dismissed of the land, and found some consolation those references as irrelevant, and laid it \ in the fact that the judgment did not di- down, in direct opposition to the prin- ; rectly assail articles of faith. A large

ciplo of the Ritualists, that all ceremonl

are abolished which are not expressly retained in the Prayer Book. Tin's they

meeting of clergy and laity belonging to the Ritualist party was held on Jan;; iry 12. in London, to agree upon a plan of

regard as being placed beyond doubt by j action. Archdeacon Deuison presided,

Elizabeth's Act of Uniformity, now ap- plicable to the present Prayer Book, which prohibits any rite, ceremony, order, or form which is not mentioned in the Prayer Book, and declares void alf prior usages and ordinances. The opening rubric, again, orders that " such orna- ments of the Church and of the min- isters thereof shall be retained, and bo in use, as were in this Church of England, by authority of Parliament, in the second year of King Edward VI." The Ritualists have argued from this, that whatever was lawful in the designated year of Edward VI is lawful now. The Court, however.

and an elaborate report, drawn up by a Committee appointed at a preparatory meeting, was read, concluding with cer- tain resolutions which appeared by the Committee to be required. On these a long discussion took place, the Hon. C. Lindley Wood, the Rev. T. V. Perry, and others, counseling submission to the law of the laud under protest; while the Rev. W. J. Bennett of Frome, the Rev. C. J. Le Geyt of St, Matthias, Stoke New- ington, and others, opposed this course, and supported an amendment which was worded as follows : " Therefore this meeting is unable to reconcile submis-

now distinctly explain that those things | siou to the present decree with its para- only possess the authority of Parliament mount and primary duty of obedience to

which are expressly in the named Prayer Book referred to. It is nothing to the point, that the candles were lawful at the time when the Prayer Book was issued. They are not pre- scribed in it, and they are, therefore, abolished.

The judgment was delivered on the 23d of December. The formal order an- nouncing the judgment was issued by the Quoen in Council on the 11th of. Ian

the Church, and can only wait in patience the providence of God." Ultimately a resolution was passed declaring that the meeting did not consider the existing Court of Final Appeal " qualified to de- clare the law of the Church of England upon either doctrine or ceremonial;" but with respect to the particular judgment of the Court in Mr. Mackonochie's case, the meeting, " feeling the great difficulty of the present case, thinks there are

uary, promulgated in the otlicial London] many reasons why those who have used GvzkHc of January 15, and is now the the ceremonials or practices now con- law of the land, as fully binding upon ' demncd by the Judicial Committee of the the clergy as any act on the statute , Privy Council may be anxious to wait

book.

All the parties in the Church of En- gland were agreed that the judgment was a heavy blow to the Ritualists. The whole of the Ritualistic party denounced the judgment as an act of gross injustice.

rather than to give immediate elfect to the decision so pronounced, and consid- ers it is a matter best left to the individ- ual judgment and circumstances of each priest who has been accustomed to use the ceremonials in question." A resolu-

Dr. Pusey, in a letter to the London tion was also adopted declaring the cou-

Timcs, complained that the Judicial Com- demnatiou of Mr. Mackonocble in the inittoc had not interpreted the rubric, as I costs of the caso to be " a course of un-

1869.]

•Foreign Religious Intelligence.

295

usual and exceptional severity." On the 13th of January another meeting of Rit- ualists was held, composed almost ex- clusively of those who are in favor of continuing the altar lights and other practices condemned by the Judicial Committee of Privy Council. A long and very earnest conversation took place, In which Mr. Bennett. Mr. Orby Shipley, Mr. Edwards. Mr. Lewder, and other gentlemen joined. It. was generally ad- mitted that it would be very unwise to bind the clergy as a body to any particu- lar course, inasmuch as circumstances differed in various parishes, and some might feel it to be their duty explicitly to obey the law of the Church on those points where it differed from the law of the land as recently expounded by the High Court of Appeals. Several clergy- men had determined to continue the lights, at all events until they would re- ceive a monition from a spiritual author- ity. The question of the prosecution of Mr. Benuett on doctrinal matters was alluded to, and it was generally admitted that, in the event of the Judicial Com- mittee of the Privy Council decreeing that the Real Preseuce in the Eucharist is antagonistic to the doctrines of the Church of England, (he High Ohwch party must, oj a body, secede.

The future developments of the Rit- ualistic controversy cannot fail to be of great importance. The party is strong and numerous, and while many are will- ing to submit for the present to laws which prohibit the outward exhibition of their religious belief, they hope that their party will in the course of time succeed in changing those laws. Some, as has already been stated, even admit that they may soon b'e compelled to leave the Church of England and establish an in- dependent A nglican Church. Much larger is the number of those who are fa- vorable to a separation between Church and State, as they believe their prospects in a freo Church to be much better than ii': a State Church. Dr. Pusey concludes his letter to the London Times, which has already been quoted, with the words : " If the union of Church and Stato involve: fl'is ultimate laxity and more than rig Wness in the construction of our formu lanes, involving the denial of true doc- trine and the prohibition of practice which represents doctrine, it certainly •ill be the earnest desire and prayer of Churchmen that the precedent now being

set as to the Irish Establishment may be speedily followed as to the English." And Dr. Mackonochie, in his letter to the London Times, says: "Lot the State send forth the Church roofless and pen- niless, but free, and I will say, 'Thank you.' "

In British America the Ritualists are in a decided minority. The Provincial Synod, which met at Montreal, adopted a resolution prohibiting the elevation of the elements, the use of incense, the mixing of water with wine, the. us'1 of the wafer-bread, of lights on the com- munion table, and the wearing of vest- ments while saying prayers.

MOHAMMEDANISM.

Review of the Mohammedan- Would —Statistics of Mohammedanism in Europe, Asia, and Africa — Important Religious Movements — The Baris in' Persia — The "vTahabees in* Arabia and India.— While the Christian nations, viewed as a whole, have for many cen- turies made steady progress, and now rule the whole of America and Australia, nearly the whole of Europe, the larger portion of Asia, and a considerable por- tion of Africa, the Mohammedan world has been in a condition of progressing decay ever since the advance of the Turks in Europe was stopped at the close of the fifteenth century. A number of Mohammedan States have since been completely wrecked. No new State has arisen that in any way could be com- pared with the great empires which, during the Middle Ages, reduced the territory of Christendom. Among the few independent States that are left, there is none that can claim a rank among the great powers of the world. Of the internal condition of the Moham- medan countries but little is generally known among Christians. Of late, how- ever, a number of events and movements have attracted greater attention, and a brief review- of the present condition and recent history of Mohammedanism may, therefore, be of interest

By far the largest and mosf prominent of Mohammedan countries is still the Turkish Empire. On the religious sta- tistics of the empire, a work pul by a high Turkish official in L867, on occasion of tho Paris Exhibition, (/." Tunprie d T Exposition Oniverseilede 1867: par S. Exc, Salaheddin Bey,) gives the following figures :

296

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

[April,

Religion and Race. Europe.

Mohammedans:

Osmani .... 4,492,000

Arabs, Moors, etc

Syrians, Chaldeans, etc

Druses

Kurds

Tartars 16,000

Tnrcomanni

i Albanians 1,000,000

Circassians 595,000

Total Mohammedans.'.. 6,103,000 Christiaxs :

Syrians, Chaldees

Albanians 500,000

Slavi 6,200,000

Eoumanians 4,000,000

Armenians 400,000

' Greeks 1,000,000

Total Christians 12,100,000

Israelites 70,000

Gipsies 214,000

18,487,000

Other Turkish authorities claim only a population of about 21,000,000 as Mohammedans, and this is the number generally assumed by the best Christian statisticians. Embraced in the popula- tion set down as Mohammedans are several sects, as the Druses, the Ansa- rians. and the Ismaelians, which in many points differ from the large divisions of Mohammedans, and should rather be classeJ as entirely different religions. This is especially the case with the Druses. The Turks belong to that di- vision of Mohammedans who are called Sunnites. The Sultan is regarded as the head of the religion, and at least as the chief protector of all the Sun- nites who live outside of Turkey. Un- til recently Turkey was as much an ecclesiastical State as the Papal terri- tory; the Koran constituted the code of law and charter of rights, as well- as the religious guide of the followers of Mo- hammed, and there' was the closest con- nection between the ministers oi religion and the professors and interpreters of the law. Doth together formed the class of "Ulema," governed by the "Sheik- ul-Islam," the former being called " Mol- lahs,"' and the latter '•Muftis." But of late the Mohammedan character of the Turkish Empire has been considerably modified. Christians have, of late, been appointed to many of the highest offices. Iu 1308 a Christian, Daud Pasha, was appointed Minister of Commerce, and a

Per Cent- Asia. Africa. Total, of Toi/n

10,700,000 15,102,000 88'

900,000 5,050,000 5,050,000 14'SS

75,000 75,<:'00 -18

30,000 SO.OoO -07

1,000,000 1,000,000 2-50

20,000 36,000 -09

85,000 85,000 -21

1,000,000 2-50

413,000 1,OOS,000 252

13,223,000 5,050,000 24,376,000 60-95

160,000 1GO,000 -40

500,000 1-25

6,200,000 15-50

4,000,000 10'

2,000,000 2,400,000 6-

1,000,000 2,000,000 5-

3,160,000 15,260,000 88-15

80,000 150,000 -37

214,000 -53

10,463,000 5,050,000 41,000,000 100.

Council of State was organized, consist- ing of fifty members, a large number of whom are Christians. As will be seen from the above table, the Mohammedans are largely iu a minority in the European provinces of the Empire, some of which, Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania, to- gether with a population of 6,000,000, are semi-independent, possessing their own independent administration, and only paying to the Sultan an annual tribute. They have no Mohammedan population whatever. The other Chris- tian provinces are aspiring to the same degree of independence, and the central government finds it necessary to make them concessions and graut them pro- vincial institutions.

Die possessions iu Africa comprise Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunis, all of which have independent governments which only pay an animal tribute to the Sultan. Xo important religious movements have of late taken place among the Moham- raedaus of Turkey. The intercourse with Christian nations begins to exercise a considerable influence upon both Church and school.

Next to Turkey, the most important Mohammedan country in the world is Persia. Its total population is estimated at from live to nine millions, that of the non-Mohammedans at from 75,000 to 330,000. The Mohammedans are mostly of the sect called Shiites or Bheahs, differing to somo c.xteut in religious doc-

1869.]

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

297

trino and more in historical belief from j a revolution. He replied that the time liie Stmnites of the Turkish Empire. | had not yet come. rheSunnites of Persia, who live especially j The other "wholly Mohammedan coun- iu Kurdistan, betweeu the Persian Gulf tries of Asia are Arabia, with 4,000.000; Bad the Caspian Sea, number altogether i Afghanistan, with 4,000,000; Beloochis- tbout 1,500,000 souls. I tan, with 2,000,000; Toorkistan, or In-

The Persian priesthood consists of ; dependent Tartary, with 7,870.000. Java many orders, the chief of them at the has among its 14,500,000 inhabitants present time being that of Mooshtehed, about 12.000,000 Mohammedans. In tf whom there are but five in number m India there are about 18,r>00,000. In the whole country. Xext in rank to the ' China Mohammedans are numerous in Mooshtehed is the Sheik-ul-Islam, or the northwestern provinces. Russia has ruler of the faith, of whom there is one : 2,090,000 Mohammedan inhabitants in in every large town, nominated by and i its European provinces, 2,000 in Poland, receiving his salary from the Govern- , 1.970,000 in the Caucasus, ],6u0.<>00 in ment. Under these dignitaries there are I Siberia : altogether, 5,602,000. three classes of ministers of religion, the j The total Mohammedan population in Mooturelle, oue for each mosque or place Europe may be estimated at 8,000,000; of pilgrimage; the Muezzin, or saver of and in Asiaat from 75 to S0,000,000. In prayers; and the Mollah, or conductor j Europe it is steadily losing ground, while of rites. in Asia, while its power and influence are

Persia is the seat of one of the few ! on the decrease, its territory has for a preat movements which have shaken the I long time neither increased nor decreased. Mohammedan world during the present | In Africa, Mohammedanism is the estab- eeniury, the sect of the Babis. The j lished religion in the Turkish dependen- lirst full account of this sect was given | cies, Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunis, which in a work by Count Gobineau, formerly j have already been referred to. It also French embassador in Persia, (Leslie- prevails in Marocco and in Algeria. From ligums et les Philosophies VAsie Cenirale. '; the north and east it has penetrated into Paris, I860,) from which the full state- . the interior, where it is said to be still ment of their doctrines and history in steadily gaining ground among the Pagan M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia has j tribes.

been derived. The sect originated in j Christianity as yet has made but little 1843, and spread with great rapidity, j progress among the Mohammedans, and It teaches the unity and immortality of, the number of converts, both to any of the Godhead; declares that all things are | the Protestant Churches or to Roman Ca- emanations from God, and in the day j tholicism, are few. The only serious in- judgment will bo reabsorbed in him. i road upon the territory of Mohammedan- Bab, the founder, interdicted polygamy , ism that lias been made during the and concubinage, forbade or greatly re- j present century was made by the Babis Btricted divorce, and abolished the use referred to above. Of the recent move- nt the vail. Cruelly persecuted by the ments within the borders of Mohammed- l'er.sian Government, they risked after j anism, by far the most important is the iho death of the Shah, in 1848, an armed ; progress made by the sect of the Waha- resistance. They were conquered, and ' bees. This sect is of recent origin ; the Government endeavored to extermi- 1 their founder, Wahab, having been horn "ate the sect. All members thai Were , about the close of the seventeenth cen- koown to the Government, including the I tury. Their original seat was Arabia, Bab himself, were put to death. Bui a | where they tried to restore a primitive new Bab was elected and established ; and vigorous Mohammedanism in the himself at Bagdad, in Asiatic Turkey, ! place of the decay which had spread nnd was thus safe from interference, but throughout the country. Early in the ilt the same time in constant communi- present century they became dangerous cation with the vast Dumber of Persian to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina; pilgrims who pass through that city for, regarding both the Turks and Per- y*arly, among whom he is continually sians as idolatrous, they prevented tho •inning converts, who in turn teach the ' caravans of these countries from reaching new doctrino at home. In 1660 the j the two cities. The Mohammedans of Bab was urged by several Persian Turkey and Persia became greatly cx- exilea to take advantage of tho disorgan- 1 cited at this, and tho Sultan of Constan- Bed condition of tho empire and attempt I tinople, as tho natural protector of

298

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

[April,

Mohammedanism, deemed it his duty to crush the daring heretics. The Pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, was charged with tins duty in 1804; but nothing was done against the Wahabees until 1811, and the object of the expedition was not accomplished until ISIS. The chief of the sect was sent to Constantinople and beheaded. For some time little was heard of the Wahabees; but soon their power was asrain felt, and when Palgrave, in 1SG3, and Colonel Pelly, in 1865, visited Central Arabia, they found a powerful Wahabee empire in existence, threatening to swallow up the whole peninsula. Still the isolation of Arabia from the Christian world is so great that but littie was known about their move- ments. In the latter part of 1868 the important news was received that the Iraaum, or spiritual ruler of Muscat, had been dethroned, and the chief of the "Wahabees had succeeded him. Muscat is the most powerful of all the Arab States, extending to about 116,000 square miles, and containing some 2,500,000 inhabitants. The city of Muscat is the key to the Persian Gulf, and a most im- portant center of trade, where the pro- ductions of Europe, Africa, and the East are exchanged. Its population is already G0,000, and is increasing with great rapidity. The possession of the city and the empire of Muscat gives to the Waha- bees the whole of Central aud Eastern

Arabia, and as they are no less hostile to the Turkish and Persian Mohammi than to the Christians, it cannot fail thai before long they will come into collision with the neighboring countries.

The same sect has for many years been causing considerable trouble in British In- dia. An outbreak which they attempted in 1S6S was promptly put down; but at the close of the year the Government re- ceived information of a Mussulman con- spiracy, "having its ramifications spread over Bengal north aud east of the G ange s." According to tire "Friend of India." all classes were taking an active interest in the attempt to bring about the re-estab- lishment of a Mussulman empire. "For years they have been contributing their means for this purpose. A regular rate of taxation is laid down by the leaders, and cheerfully accepted by the people." The "Friend" enters into detailed state- ments of the method of taxation, and discloses circumstances which fill the English authorities in India with dis- quietude. It is promised by the preach- ers of the coining "Jehad." "that the land- tax shall be lifted from the Mussulman and imposed only on the Hindoo. Con- sequently the peasantry sympathize with the plot to a man. At all events it seems to be certain that in the history of Moham- medanism during the nineteenth century the movements of the Wahabees will occupy a prominent place.

Art. VIE.— SYNOPSIS OF THE QUARTERLIES, AND OTHERS OF THE HIGHER PERIODICALS.

American Quarterly Reviews.

American Presbyterian Review, January, 1SG0. (New York.)— 1. Dr. Asa Burton's Theological System. 2. The true Character of the Adopting Act.

3. The Union Question in Scotland. 4 The Scholar of To-day. 5. l>r. Baird's History of the New School. 6. The Canon Muratorianus. 7. The Interpreta- tion of Bible Word-Pictures. 8. Our Currency and Specie Payments. 9. Chris- tian Anthropology. 10. Assyria and her Monuments. 11. The Theosophy of Franz Baader. 12. Lay Eldership.

BAPTIST Quart eiii.y. January, 1860. (Philadelphia.)—!. The Education that we Need. 2. Difficulties of Infant Baptism. 3. Deacons and the Dun-

4. Suggestions for Expository Preaching. 5. Ritualism in the- Church of En- gland. 6. The Bible Doctrine- of the Weekly Sabbath.

Bibuotukca Sacra, January, 1869. (Andover.) — 1. The Origin of the first three Gospels. 2. Christian Baptism, Considered in Reference to the Act and the Subjects. 3. Revelation aud Inspiration. 4. The Natural Theology of SocialScience. 5. What \Vine shall we use at the Lord's Supper? G. Notes on Egyptology.

1S09.J Synapsis of the Quariedcs. 299

CHRISTIAN Quarterly, January, 1869. (Cincinnati.) — 1. Modern Preachers and preaching. 2. The Fellowship. 3. An Infallible Church, or au Infallible Book — Which? 4. Religion and Science. 5. Indifference to Tilings Indifferent. C. The Secret of Roman Catholic Success. 7. The Union of Christians — How can it be accomplished? S. The Union Movement — What will come of it? 9. Bishop— Overseers.

EFASGEtiCAL QUARTERLY Review, January, 1S69. (Gettysburg.) — 1. Foreign Missions. 2. Life and Labors of Oberlin. 3. Experience and Practice as Necessary in Religion as in Science. 4. Melchizedelc. 5. The Conflict in the Church. G. Codex Sinaiticus. 7. How shall we order our Worship? S. The Reformation: Its Occasions and Cause. 9. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States of America. 10. The Lutheran Doctrine of the Sabbath and the Lord's Day.

MERCERSBCRGH Review, January, 1SG9. (Philadelphia.) — 1. The Church and the School. 2. The Angels, 3. The Relation of the Old Testament to the New. 4. The Christian Conception of History. 5. The Historical Element in Theology. *G. Origin and Structure of the Apostles' Creed.

New Exglander, January, 1869. (New Haven.)— 1. The System of Instruction at West Point: Can it be Employed in our Colleges? 2. How to Build a Nation. 3. The Renaissance in China. 4. The American Colleges and the American Public. 5. Professor Porter's Work on the Human Intellect. 6. The Presbyterian Disruption of 1S3S— A Review of Rev. Dr. S. J. Baird's History of the "New School."

Noimi American Review, January, I860. (Boston.)— 1. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz. 2. The Mental Faculties of Brutes. 3. The Tariff of the United States: Shall it be Augmented or Diminished at the coming Session of Congress?

4. Sir Richard Steele, u. The New Catalogue of Harvard College Library. G. Railroad Inflation. 7. Karl Otto von Bismarck-Schonhausen. S. The Revolution in England. 9. A Look Before and After.

U.n'iversalist Quarterly, January, 18G9. (Boston.) — 1. Religion, Science, Education. 2. Do Groot's Basilides. 3. John Murray. 4. Religious Duty.

5. The Power and Duty of Congress in Respect to Suffrage. G. The Crusades. 7. What Constitutes a Christian? 8. The Ancient and Modern Greek Testa- ments Compared.

The " Universalist Quarterly " is not to be ranked in that class of literature which claims the Christian name in order to invali- date the truth of Christianity, It is reverent in its spirit, seeks to establish its doctrines by a legitimate exegesis of the sacred text, and rejoices in the accession of new evidence for the authen- ticity of the Gospels. An instance of this is the article on De Groot's Basilides.

That even heretics may be good for something appears from the remarkable fact that the earliest and, in some respects, strong- est proof of the authenticity of our Gospels comes not from the catholic but from the heretical side. This arises partly from the fact that the heretical post evangelic writers on record happen to be earliest, and partly from their hostile position, by which their testimony possesses something of the force of an unwilling con- cession to the truth of the catholic canon. The discovery of the writings of llippolytus, according to De Groot, revolutionizes in a great degree the form of the. historical argument, and gives it a

300 Synopsis of the Quarterlies, and [April,

new force by placing at the head of historical vouchers the name of the heretic Basilides.

Basilides is shown from Hippolytus, confirmed by other testimo- nies, to have lived earlier than has hitherto been claimed,, his flourishing lii'e extending from 97 A. D. to 138. He claimed to have been the personal pupil of the living Apostle Matthias. He must have been twenty-five or thirty-five years contemporary with the Apostle John. Yet this Basilides, it is said, quotes unequivocally passages from the Gospels of John and Luke and from Paul's Epistles to the Romans, first and second Corinthians, and Ephesians. The formulae with which he makes his quotations are considered decisive, that not only he, but the general Chris- tian body for whom he wrote, held these books as' canonical Scripture on the same basis with the Old Testament.

These facts, combined with the researches of Tischendorf, con- stitute, it is claimed, a noticeable epoch in the history of Chris- tian evidences. Christian scholars have felt that just the period which Basilides covers is, from absence of documents, the weakest place in the series of historical proofs. There is not, indeed, quite a "missing link." The striking testimony of Justin Martyr bridges over the period. "We have conclusive reason for believ- ing that the lines of Christian Bishops, as well as the successions of all the leading Christian Churches, were the unquestionable conductors of a concurrent and faithful guardianship of the Chris- tian documents on this silent period. Yet the evidence might be greatly strengthened, and a new corroboration of a very important character, though making but a slight figure in Paley, is now claimed in the testimony of the heretic Basilides.

Will some one of our leisurely studeuts of German theology give us a full analysis of De Groot and Basilides?

Princeton Review, January, lSGf). (New York.) — 1. Afrassiz on Provinces of Creation, and the Unity of tin.' Race. 2. Manual of the Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church. "3. Christian Work in Egypt 4. A Method of Teaching Religion in a College. &. Romanism at Rome. "*6. Baird's History of the New

School.

The first article deals with Agassis' theory that the human races have originated from various centers corresponding with the genetic centers of the lower orders of being. The writer denies the reality of any such centers for either plants, auimals, or man. Agassiz confessedly fails in showing the confinement of men during the historical ages, and is therefore compelled to pre- sume it as existing during the pre-historical period, which, it. is claimed, removes his theory from the region of science to the region

I869J Others of the higher Periodicals. 301

of conjecture, and leaves the biblical account both historically and scientifically uncontradicted. The writer of the article is particularly successful in showing that the races of America and Polynesia cannot be considered as certainly indigenous.

In the great and wavering battle on the origin of the human race, the victory at the present hour seems very decisive in favor of the unity of origin within a period not far different from that assigned by sacred chronology. We must, nevertheless, wait for further developments.

English Reviews.

British Quarterly Review, January, 1S69. (London.) — 1. Literary Forgeries. 2. Davidson on the New Testament. 3. Gustavo Dore. 4. Church Principles and Prospects. 5. Dr. Vaughau — In Memoriam. C. The New Parliament and Mr. Gladstone.

Edinburgh Review, January, 1869. (New York: Reprint.) — 1. Spain under Charles II. 2. Lord Kin^sdown's Recollections of the Bar. ?.. Cesarian Rome. 4. Trench's Realities of Irish Life. 5. The Legend of Tell and Rutli. 6. Gov- ernment Telegraphs. 7. Dean Milman's Annals of St. Paul's. 8. Hunter's Annals of Rural Bengal. 9. General Ulysses Simpson Grant. 10. ill-. Bright's Speeches.

London Quarterly Review, January, 1SC9. (London.)— 1. Life of William Blake. 2. The Plymouth Brethren and the Christian Ministry. 3. Philosophy and Positivism. 4. Social and Religious Progress in India. 5. Algernon Charles Swinburne — Poet and Critic. 6. George Macdonald as a Teacher of Religion. 1. The Mythical and Heretical Gospels. 8. Tcrtulliau.

Westminster Review, January, 1 869. (New York : Reprint.) — 1 . The Struggle for Empire with the Mahrattas. 2. Richardson's Clarissa. 3. Our Criminal Pro- cedure, especially in cases of Murder. 4. Mr. Bright's Speeches. 5. Art and Morality. 6. The Adulteration of Food and Drugs. 7. Mr. Darwin's Theories.

Akt. IX.— QUARTERLY BOOK-TABLE. Religion, Theology, and Biblical Literature.

Tat Controversy between Trw> and Pretended Christianity : An Essay delivered be- fore the Massachusetts Methodist Convention, held in Boston, October 15, 1868. By Rev. L. T. Townsknd, Professor of Historical Theology in the Boston Theo- logical Seminary. Published by. voto of the Convention. 2-lmo., pp. 82.

' Bustun: Loo & Shepard; James P. Magee. 1S69.

Mr. Townsend's pamphlet is a timely exposure of what may be called the double-entendre theology. We suppose it requires no

groat wit or talent to write a parody on some line piece of poetry. ^ ery little more ability does it require, by means of special defini- tions and artful double meanings, to so furnish a homiletical parody

302 Methodist Quarterly Review. [April,

of evangelical phraseology, as to make a Rationalistic lecture sound very much like an orthodox Christian sermon. Two sets of hearers in the congregation may receive two trains of studiously maintained meanings. The discourse may have an evangelic and an infidel side to it, quite amusing to the hearer who understands both sides. To an unsophisticated hearer, the same sophisticated preacher may seem at one time a high-toned Methodist, at another time a scandalous skeptic. What Mr. Townscnd does here, with great effect, is to select one of these doppek/cingers, Mr. Freeman Clarke, and bring him face to face with himself. Mr. Clarke, alternately the ape of evangelieism aud the real animal of Rationalism, is made to appear in his true duplicity. An extended series of extracts is given from Mr. Clarke's writings, in which the style of evangelical preaching is parodied, followed by another series which contains a full rejection of all evangelical religion, together with the key to the real nature of the parody. The exposure is complete. This was a work which needed to be done, and the Professor has per- formed the work trenchantly and conclusively.

His pamphlet treats: 1. The parties engaged, analyzing the various sections of Rationalism ; 2. The points at issue, showing .them to be the fundamentals ; 3. The duty to be done; and 4. The spirit to be maintained. It is a timely tract, deserving a wide dif- fusion and a reflective reading.

The question of exchanging evangelical Christian pulpits with sec- taries who not only refuse to worship the Son of God, but who them- selves affiliate without repugnance with Pantheists and Atheists of the most outspoken type, as opened by Professor Townsend, is a very serious matter. First, there arc no speakers, writers, or periodicals at the present day more sectarian, more exclusive or supercilious toward those with whom they differ, than the so-called Literalistic or Rational- istic, "What publications of the day are more truly sectarian than the Atlantic Monthly, the North American, or the Nation ? We have seen nothing so bitterly sectarian as silly Charles F. Nortou's late article in the North American, maintaining that Atheism forfeited no title to respect, and denouncing the entire body of the ministry of the American Fvangelic Church in the most disgraceful and mendacious style. Second. The question of the importance of Christian dogmas is now at stake. Men like Parker, who are just as dogmatical as the Christian theologians, deride the very term dogma, and maintain that doctrines are the transient form, and not the permanent reality, of Christianity. Mr. Ruckle, on being asked the probable destiny of religion, replied that theology is vanishing, hut religion is in- creasing. Mr. Froudc tells us that God gave vs the Gospel, but that

1869.] Quarterly Book-Table. 303

the devil gave us theology. This is the key-note of the -whole anti- Christian song, the proper antistrophe to which, is the firm mainten- ance, by the evangelical Church, of her sacred truths. We know no mode more proper of emphasizing our determination to stand fast in our faith, properly so called, than to decline surrendering our pulpits to the deliverance of an occasional parody of our doctrinal phraseology by those who really deny at all times, in terms of ab- horrence, the real essence of our doctrinal truth. Third. In all con- sistency they must hold us and the whole Christian Church, includ- ing Greek, Roman, and Protestant, to be idolaters, the worshipers of a man, or, at any rate, of a being less than God. The chasm, then, between us is broad and deep. They ought not to share in, much less to lead, or to consent to share or lead, a worship they must condemn. If we could unite with them in a worship which excludes the Son of God, how can they conscientiously unite with us in a worship which their creed pronounces to be idolatrous — thus making both us and themselves Pagans. Freeman Clarke, and his whole sect, is further divided, both in creed and worship, from the Christian Church than from the Mohammedan mosque or the Jewish synagogue. If their view be correct, Mohammed has done more to abolish idolatry in the world than Jesus. Mr. Clarke, then, might very consistently, like a good Mollah, join in the formula, "There is one God, and Mohammed is his prophet." In fine, as Alger and his set are justly convicted by the editor of Zionh Herald of Ilindooism, so Mr. Clarke and his section seem involved in Islam- ism. If the former arc clearly Buddhists, the latter are as clearly Moslems. Mr. Clarke in the last Atlantic declares that the Mo- hammedans are in fact but " a heretical Christian sect." Why "heretical," Mr. Clarke? Why are they not the most orthodox Church in the world, save the Unitarians of Boston? We think Mr. Clarke and a Mollah might readily exchange pulpits ; but we see not how either could consistently enter an orthodox pulpit and lead in Trinitarian worship.

A Grammar of the. Idioms of the New Testament, prepared as a solid basis for tho Interpretation of the New Testament By Dr. George Benedict "Winer. Sev- enth Edition, Enlarged and Improved, by Dr. Gottlieb Lunkmakx. Revised and Authorized Edition. Svo., pp. 7-JS. Andover: "Warren F. Draper. Lon- dou : Trubuer & Co. Lcipsic : P. C. W. VogeL Philadelphia : Smith, Engle, 4 Co. 18C9.

Winer's great work on the Grammar of the New Testament, first issued by him in 1822, was intended to curb the prevalent license of many leading commentators, who, assuming that the

304 Methodist Quarterly Review. [April,

Xew Testament authors wrote regardless of grammar, were pleased to disregard grammar in their modes of interpretation. Such a commentator would change the tense or the article of his original at will, and so, instead of construing the meaning of the author, would substitute a meaning of his own. Winer made it his life work to study the sacred Greek in comparison with the secular and with the Hebrew, and so to analyze thoroughly its modes of expression as to ascertain what were its laws of gram- mar, and thereby to bring these lawless exegetes to order. He availed himself of every aid in the successive editions to revise and perfect his work. After his sixth edition he closed his labors with his life, leaving a body of loose notes, which have been faithfully wrought into the last edition by his literary executor, Dr. Lunemann. This last edition, brought iuto English with great care by Prof. J. Henry Thayer, is now issued in the best style of the Andover press.

Part first of the work is a profound but concise treatment of the nature of the Xew Testament diction. The history of opin- ions is given, and the definite results attained touching the rela- tions of its style in comparison with classic Greek, the ancient Hebrew, and later Aramaic. Part second, under the head of Grammatical Porms of Words, treats the New Testament or- thography, inflections, and verbal formations. Part third is a very full analysis of the Syntax, illustrated by so immense a num- ber of examples, quoted from the sacred text, that we may say that the entire Xew Testament, so far as it has any syntactical peculiarities, is brought under a scientific grammatical analysis. The volume concludes with two very valuable indexes : first, of all the Greek terms and phrases analyzed in the body of the work; the second, of all the passages in the order of theinoccurrcncr- in the Xew Testament, beginning with Matthew and ending with Revelation. Thus, after a due study of the Grammar, the scholar may take his Greek Testament, and, by aid of* the last index, go through a complete grammatical commentary on the sacred text. For the commentator and theologian the work is invaluable as an aid and umpire; not absolute and perfect, indeed, but suggestive and regulative.

The Hew Testament. Translated from the Greek Text of Tisehcndorf, by GEORGE R. Notes, D. D., Professor in Harvard, 12mo., pp. 570. Boston: American Unitarian Association. 1809.

This eminent Unitarian biblical scholar rested about a year since

from his earthly labors. He has left, we suppose, few successors in

1869.1 Quarterly Book-Table. 305

his denomination sufficiently reverent of the sacred volume toe;nu- late bis labors — a sad comment on the tendency of the "higher criticism." Though issued from a denominational " association," Dr. Xoyes interposes a caveat against the supposition of its chiming any other than an individual character. Though doubt- ing the preferableness of some of Teschendorf's readings, he avoids :ill suspicion of ruling the text with doctrinal preferences by ad- hering strictly to Teschendorf's text. The few and brief notes are (unless the note on John i, 5, bo an exception) equally free from doctrinal prepossessions. In the translation the two chief words rendered hell in the common version are very properly rendered by different terms, though we question whether hades is suitably represented by "underworld." The probable etymology of the Greek word indicates invisibility, not subterraneity ; and it would have been better to have transferred the Greek word to the English text. There are many other minuter points which we should have rendered differently, but few or none involving dog- matic differences. On the whole, we cannot review this last work of the departed scholar without avowing a profound respect for his learning, candor, and freedom from the arrogance and irrever- ence which so often characterize the issues of rationalistic au- thorship.

Dr. Xoyes very properly made the established version the basis of his work, varying only as sufficient reason seemed to require. His text is paragraphed, with the chapters and verses designated in the margin. With a handsome page and well-defined type, it presents a fair aspect to the eye. To those who wish occasion- ally to read a translation somewhat relieved from the embarrass- ments of the established version the volume has little that is objectionable.

Ou 1 Cor. ii, S, Dr. Xoyes says: "By this citation, which, at hast according to the text of Teschendorf, forms an uncompleted sentence, the Apostle seems to declare that the knowledge of Divine wisdom comes to Christians not from the senses, but from inward experience ; from the contact of the human spirit with the Spirit of God."

Origin, Articles, and Central Rules of the Methodist Episcopal Gkttrch 2-lmo.,pp. 27, stiff muslin cover. New York; Carlton £ Lanahan. Cincinnati: Hitchcock 4 Walden. 1SG0.

'" tins neat copy of our General Rules, etc., is inclosed a handsome I ': mk Certificate of Membership. It is a very convenient form in which both can be put together into the hands of our people.

306 Methodist Quarterly Review. [April,

Foreign Theological . Publication s.

Geschichte der Predigt in der Deutscken Evangelischen Kirche. [History of Preaching

in the German Evangelical Church, from Mosheim until the hist years of Schleier- maclicr.] Pp. viii, 384. 15y Dr. Kakl Sack. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. 1S66.

Properly, a history of preachers. The author has for many years been immediately connected -with the German pulpit. He has heard many sermons in his own and other countries, has been sixteen years a pastor himself, has preached for longer time than many of his clerical associates, and for thirty-six years it has been his duty to pronounce opinions on the sermons of students, candi- dates, and pastors. In addition to this experience, he brings to his historical undertaking the further and greater advantage of a high appreciation of the rigid necessity of the earnest evangelical element in all preaching of the Gospel. He speaks of the preach- er's call thus : " Christ, as Head of the Church, and Dispenser of the Holy Spirit's gifts, gives to certain members of his Church both the call and the power to preach his word aright." This recognition of the divine call of the ministry would furnish a satis- factory key to the general position of the author, even if his long and laborious life in behalf of an elevated Christian pulpit were less familiar to his many friends and large class of readers.

The history of preaching in the Evangelical German Church is divided into two periods. The first commences properly with the year 1730, when the Leibnit/.ian . philosophy exerted a powerful influence upon the whole German Church. The upper classes were disinclined to any religious service, and the pulpit was at a very low ebb. Mosheim gave new influence to the preaching of the Gospel, for his great versatility of talents compelled the. re- spect of even the most violent enemies of Christianity. The first period closes with Ewald and the celebrated Reinhard in 1810. This space of eighty years is subdivided into clearly defined theo- logical tendencies, each of which has its group of sympathizing minds. The first tendency was that of the elder practical super- naturalism, (1730-1770,) when Jerusalem, Spalding, Teller, and Sturm were the principal preachers of their time. The second tendency is the biblical and historical, (1770-1700,) which is char- acterized by five celebrated names, Lavater, Herder, Ewald, Oe- tinger, and Hess. There was a decided tincture of mysticism in the preaching of this stadium, as may be imagined from the mere mention of Lavater and Oetinger. The last tendency of the first period was that of Christian morality, (1785-1810.) There were

1869.] Quarterly JBooh-TaUe. 307

many preachers in the group ; but if we except Zollikofcr, Hiifeli, ];. inhard, and Ewald, they have mostly disappeared from histori- cal prominence. The. second period commences with 1810, and concludes with the present time. Its beginning was characterized :,v the revival of the pulpit of Protestant Germany. The long- dominant Rationalism had failed to give satisfaction, and the Church had been so generally converted into a mere lecture room for moral discussion that devout minds called for a reform in preaching. Schleiermacher clothed the pulpit with new attrac- tions, for, rare genius as he was, he was able to command the re- spect of the " despisers of religion." His preaching was of a high order, and Ave must judge it not by the present style of clerical oratory, but by the style in vogue when he preached to his de- lighted audiences in Berlin. All was dead around him ; people despised the very mention of public services ; the sermon was re- garded sheer cant, the preacher a mere laborer for his bread. .Schleiermacher may in short be regarded the reformer of the German pulpit in the nineteenth century. Harms, by his popular style and enthusiastic spirit, became one of the most noted preach- ers of this period. Draseke and Theremin characterized the re- ciprocal influence of the literary culture and pious life. The renewal of Rationalism presents but one name of note, Rohr. The present influence of theological science on the German Evan- gelical pulpit is represented by C. J. Xitzsch and Professor Tholuck.

The difficulty of preaching in such a way as to meet the great requirements of the present day must not be ignored. The divis- ion of German Protestantism into so many Churches, the e;reat controversies which have enlisted the attention and participation of so many minds, and the new attacks made on the citadel of Christian faith, unite, to impose a heavy burden on the preacher of the Gospel. But, contends Dr. Sack with the glow of hope, the most recent period of the history of preaching in Germany is very encouraging. From 1S30 to 1850 the pulpit has put on new strength, and in many places God's work has been revived. There H a strong tendency to go down into the depths of scriptural truth and bring up new and old things for the needy congrega- tion. The life of Christ is portrayed before the illiterate as it "ever has been. In the present ohms there is nothing whatever to fear. Still, much reformation is needed in the delivery of the great truths of God. The young preacher's studies must not be ener- vating but strengthening; he must be ever looking at his great work; his aim must be the building up of God'fl kingdom on

30S Methodist Quarterly Review. [April;

earth, and not gaining the applause of the cultivated among the audience. The sermon, to do good, must he full of thought, car- nest, powerful. The thoughts must be simply arranged, and with a careful eye to divine truth. The Holy Spirit will give success to tire word if faith and love pervade the heart. The great truths of revelation, clustering around the person and work of Christ, must be fed to the people as Christ fed the hungry multitude. We would he glad to see this historical sketch of Dr. Sack, which, we regret, touches far too lightly upon the vagaries of the German pulpit during the last century and a quarter, in the hands of each of the hundreds of theological students in the universities of Germany and Switzerland.

Die Mosaische StlftshuUe. (The Mosaic Tabernacle.) By Dr. Cn. Johx Rigqenbach. Mit drei lithographierten Tafeln. Zweite mit einer Anhangvermehrte Ausgabe. 4to. Pp. 62. Basel: C. Detloff. 1867.

Still another work in the department of apologetics. The many thrusts made by later skeptics— to say nothing of their predeces- sors— at the typical and historical character of the Mosaic taber- nacle have made necessary a new work on that subject from the orthodox stand-point. Tire able manner in which Dr. Riggenbach lias accomplished his task proves him to be eminently a master of Old Testament as well as of New Testament criticism. He has spent years of labor, on this work, and the call for the present en- larged edition is testimony that his toil has found an appreciative circle. The first part of the volume contains a description of the Mosaic tabernacle, while the second treats of the authenticity of the scriptural account and the real meaning of the tabernacle. The minute and matter-of-fact description of the tabernacle furnished by Moses is claimed to be a strong proof of the historical fact ; legendary poetry dues not deal in such particulars. This, how- ever, is only one of the many proofs of the orthodox view of the tabernacle ; but the ingenious and well-guarded way in which the Doctor makes it occupy a place in his mass of cumulative argument is really admirable. " It has been a long time the custom," says he, "to speak contemptuously of the tabernacle as an unhistorical fancy . . . but I can say with confidence that this is not the tvay adopted by j>oc(ry. A description so devoid of excitement, so minute, and so matter-of-fact, must be that of something which had a real existence. Then when we come to compare the results of our calculation of the measurement of the tabernacle with the real purpose served by it, the conclusion is incontestable, that every

I860.] Quarterly Book-Table. 309

part of tlie Mosaic account is perfectly historical. The structure was also so completely commensurate with the great purpose of its institution that it bears every trace of the wisdom of the divine Architect. It is a unit in the history of art." Dr. Riggenbach will not allow the strictly typical application of each part of the tabernacle, for in this way, he says, the validity of the whole is compromised. His comparison of the external purity of the tabernacle and the value of its gold, to the purity, divinity, and majesty of Christ is a gem of learned, practical, attractive, and de- vout criticism. The lithographic tables representing the different parts of the tabernacle form a welcome addition to the work.

Die Eihik Luther's in ihren Grundsateen. [The Ethics of Luther in their Grounding.] Bv Chr. Ebnst Luthardt, Consistorialrath und Professor der Theologie. Pp.116. Leipzig: Dorffling und Frauke. 1867.

The last half century has been very fruitful in German works on Ethics. For the past thirty years in particular there has been great attention bestowed on this branch of theological science. Daub, Harless, Schleiermacher, Rothe, Marheinecke, Bdhnier, Schmid, Wnttke, Palmer, and Oulmann, with a large number of less im- portant authors, have followed each other in quick succession. The path of interpreting Luther's Ethical System has been less frequently trodden, though Fabricius (Loci Communes I). M. Liitheri, 1594) and Schramm (de Meritis Lutheri in Theologiam Moralem, 1711) have even here had a good number of followers. The excellence of Dr. Luthardt's work consists in its concise, pointed style, and in its being the result of a careful investigation of the whole mass of Luther's works. Tn the preface the present position of Ethical Science is stated in full, and opinions are passed upon all who have attempted to state Luther's system from Schramm down to Kostlin. We then have the Introduction, in which the difference between Theological and Philosophical Ethics is given. I. The Person of the Christian. The new man is one who has been justified by faith — which faith is a very different thing from the scholastic definition of faith. Christianity is some- thing internal as well as external. The Christian is free from the law of works. II. The Christian's Feeling. Love prevails over all :i"d ndes in all. Still there is a bitter hatred of sin in all its forms. Hi. The Christian's Works. First of all comes prayer, in which the believer must always abound. Then come all the works which a sincere love of Cod and man can prompt. Dr. Luthardt does not disguise the fact that Luther approved of dancing and driuk- Eoukih Series, Vol. XXL— 20

310 Methodist Quarterly Review. ' [April,

ing, (see page 112,) but explains it on the ground of his animosity to all sanctimoniousness. Whether a man must adopt these two fashionable vices — no doubt fashionable in Luther's day — in order to avoid Pharisaism is a question very easily answered. The Doctor appends to every one of his statements of Luther's ethical opinions the corresponding places in the Reformer's works.

Philosophy, Metaphysics, and General Science.

Moral Uses of Dark Things. By Horace Busuxkll. 12Q10., pp. 3G0. New York: Charles Scribner & Co. 1869.

The existence of a creating Mind, Mr. Bushnell, with his usual force and brilliancy of language, claims the right to assume in his very commencing paragraph. " "What we all see with our eyes I think I have some right to assume, namely, that this whole frame of being is bedded in Mind. Matter itself is not more evident than the 2>Iind that shapes it, fills it, and holds it in training for its uses. Philosophy itself, call it Positive or by any other name, is possible 'only in the fact that the world is cognate with mind and cast in the molds of intelligence. And then, as it belongs inherently to mind that it must have its ends, the all-present Mind must have reference to euds, and the whole system of causes must at bottom be, exactly as we see it to be, a system of tiual causes." This is at once a comprehensive statement and a conclusive argument.

But after this great positive assumption there follows a great problem to be solved. There are in our system things whimsical, tilings not beautiful, things that seem expressly contrived for harm, and things accomplished in a bad way that might easily have been accomplished in a good way. . Herbert Spencer boldly and skill- fully adduces them as clear refutations of "the theory of the late Dr. Paley," that there is an intelligent and benevolent God. To the whole argument a very brief and conclusive reply is given by Mr. Abbot in the North American Review, quoted in our last Quarterly, that since so overwhelming a display of Keasou exists in the Universe we have ample reason for a firm assurance that there is a reason for these subordinate facts. And there ever remains an undisturbed validity in the reply of our old Theology, that it cannot be shown that the very best system is not a system with defects; that the allowance of the defects may secure a higher excellence on the whole than the disallowance. Just so a man by incurring and retaining indebtednesses becomes the mill- ionaire who must otherwise have been a pauper.

1869.] Quarterly Book-Table. 311

Wc have here, be it noted, not a theorem to be demonstrated, hut a problem to be solved. Our solutions may not be one but many. Some of them, individually, may be satisfactory, even without being the true ones; nay, subsequent scientific develop- ments may partially disprove their validity. But that fact does not prove the illegitimacy of our attempt at furnishing solutions, just as error in reasoning does not prove the illegitimacy of all attempts at reason. The weekly Nation, a year or two sine*', flagellated Agassiz for' finding proofs of divine wisdom in cer- tain natural arrangements, and charged him with low catering to popular opinion for finding God in his works. The charge was based upon the fact that proofs of this kind are sometimes found illusory ; and, ergo, no such proofs should ever hereafter he ad- duced ; a logic which would put an end to all probable reasoning.

Mr. Bushnell addresses those who believe in God. lie furnishes views of the "dark things" in nature, reconciling their existence with the absolutely perfect Divine Nature, lie rejects many of Paley's solutions as ineffectively accounting for evils by showing their . resistance in physical good. In place of such solutions Mr. Bushnell, assuming that man's higher nature is justly the main object of Divine care, that the education of the soul is the true purpose of the present system, substitutes a resultance in moral good. He purposely gives his work no precise systematic form ; but furnishes a series of essays, possessing much of the. freedom without the superficiality of the so-called " Essays " in English literature. His work serves the double purpose of elucidating our faith in God and giving us cheerful views of life. It abounds in unique paragraphs, opening fresh views of the world and far- extending vistas. His thoughts are clothed in his usual quaint, antique, darkly-brilliant style ; and this volume will be found, per- haps, his most truly readable and not least useful work.

m

story, Biography, and Topography.

Travel a,d Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, formerly Russian America, and in various other park of the North Pacific By Frederic Whymper. With Maps and Illustrations. 12mo., pp. 363. New York: Harper A Broilers. 1869.

Once upon a time the Bear sold to the Eagle an extensive lot of icebergs, walruses, and earthquakes, and thereupon a great debate arose as to whether Bear had cheated Eagle or Eagle had cheated l>car. In the midst of the discussion neighbor Bull happened to occur, and as he entertained about an equal liking, or rather dis-

312 Methodist Quarterly Review. [April,

liking, for both parties, be seemed an impartial referee. An ink- ling of bis verdict appears in the book before ns.

Mr. YYhymper left England in 1 S»j3 in a ship bound for the Pacific, and careering around Cape Horn, touched at San Fran- cisco, and debarked on Vancouver's Island. Thence he made various incursions into the blessed Alaska, and into Kamschatka and Siberia in Asia. He terminates his narrative in California, of which he gives a very favorable and interesting account.

As to the value of Alaska Mr. Whymper reports :

Thot Russian America is likely to prove a bod bargain to the United States Government I cannot believe. The extreme northern division of the country may, indeed, be nearly valueless, but the foregoing pages will have shown that, in the more central portions of the territory furs are abundant, and that the trade in them, which may probably be further developed, must fall into American hands. The southern parts of the country are identical in character with the neighboring British territory, and will probably be found to be as rich in mineral wealth ; while the timber, though of an inferior growth, owing to the higher latitude, will yet prove by no means worthless.

The fisheries may become of great value. There are extensive cod-banks oft" the Aleutian Isles, and on many other parts of the coast. Salmon is Vie common- est of common fish in all the rivers of the North Pacific, and is lated accordingly as food only fit for those who cannot get better. In Alaska, as in British Colum- bia, the fish can be obtained in vast quantities simply at the expense of native labur. To this add the value of salt (or vinegar) barrels, and freight, and one sees the slight total cost which would be incurred in exporting to benighted Europe that which there would be considered a luxury. In Petropaulovski, a merchant told me that he had made in this way $6,000 in one season, at no more trouble to himself than that incurred in a little superintendence of the natives employed. The enterprising American is the last man to neglect this source of profit.

There is a further reason why the United States have done well to purchase this territory. It is an act of justice to the Russian government. For the past twenty years the whalers in Behring Sea and the Arctic — who are mainly Amer- icans— had traded at certain parts of the coast, and had thereby considerably re- duced the profits of the Russian American Fur Company. Although nominally whalers, they were nearly all traders also. The Russians, albeit always hospit- able were naturally very averse to these vessels putting into their parts, and may be, trading under their very noses. A large part of the whaling captains had consequently never visited many of the larger Russian settlements, such as Sitka, Ounalaska, St. Paul's, or St. Michael's. Now all these, and many other ports, are perfectly open to them, while the cargoes of furs, walrus' tusks, oil, etc.. will enter San Francisco, or any other port in the United States, duty free — an important consideration to iliem.

The chain of the Aleutian Isles, comprising four groups, (the Fox, Andreauofi", Rat, and Blignie islands,) is a valuable part of the new purchase.

The acquisition of Alaska has certainly awakened no enthu- siasm, and the idea of the annexation of Canada awakens just as little. Save in the columns of that knave's oracle, the JYcio York Herald, we have seen in no American paper so decided an antic- ipation of such a result as follows:

There are many, both in England and America, who look on this purchase as the first move toward an American occupation of the whole continent, and who f >r>si.p that Canada, and British America generally, will sooner or later become part of the United States. Looking at the matter without prejudice, I believe that

1869.1 Quarterly Book-Table. 313

it will be belter for those countries and ourselves when such shall be the case. Wt shall be released from an encumbrance, a source of expense and possible .. kness; they, freed from the trammels of periodical alarms of invasion, and feeling the strength of independence, will develop and grow; and — speaking very plainly and to the point — our commercial relations with them will double and quadruple themselves i;i value. No one now supposes that had the United S remained naught but l: our American colonies," they would have progressed as Ihey have done ; and it is equally obvious that our commerce with them n bare been restricted in equal ratio. That it is the destiny of the United States to I assess the whole northern continent I fully believe.

On the ethnology of the Northern tribes Mr. Whymper gives cold comfort to the Agassizian doctrine of the plurality of the human race :

Scientific men are now agreed on the Asiatic origin of the Esquimaux, even of those who have migrated as far as Greenland.* Of the Mongolian origin of the Tchuktcbis themselves, no one who has seen individuals of that people would for a moment doubt. A Tchuktchi boy taken by Col. Bulkley (our en^ineer-in-chief) from Plover Bay to San Francisco, and there educated and cared for in the fami ;• of a kind-hearted lady, was, when dressed up in European clothes, cons taken for a civilized Chinaman, and two of our Aleutian sailors were often simi- larly mistaken. Tins happened, it must be observed, in a city which is full of Chinese and Japanese. That the Aleuts, also, are of an Eastern stock, is to my mind undoubted.

The intertribal trade carried on so regularly every year via Behring Sir; its (which is likely now to receive a decided check from the American traders, who will crowd into the country) proved with how little difficulty a colony of ""Wan- dering Tchuktcbis " might cross from Asia and populate the northern coasts of America. Open skin canoes, capable of containing twenty or more person- with their effects, and hoisting several masts and sails, are now frequently to be Observed among both the sea-coast Tchuktcbis and the inhabitants of Northern Alaska. I have seen others that might be called "full-rigged canoes.'' carrying main, gaff, and sprit-sails, but these were probably recent and foreign innovati \

I may be excused if I here allude to two well-authenticated and oft-q facts. In the years 1832-3, two remarkable and unintentional ocean voyag — one of them terminating in shipwreck — were made from Japan to the norr' coast of America and to the Sandwich Islands by junks. The last mentioned is known to have been ten or eleven months at sea. and had nine Jap::: board, who nevertheless arrived safely, anchoring in the harbor of Waialea, Gala;. i- Sandwich Islanders, (Hawaiians, or, as they are called in California, etc., "Kanakas,) when they saw these strangers, much resembling themselves in many respects, said, -It is plain, now, we come from Asia." How easily, then. we account fur the population of almost Liny island or coast in the Pacific.

Such facts as these — the passage of comparatively frail vessels, blown bom their native coasts by typhoons or other usually violent gales, buffeted . lor lengthened periods, yet eventually reaching foreign coasts thousands of miles :t'>m their own — should, I think, make us very cautious in our ideas on the limita- tion of native migrations.

The identity of the Greenlanders with these Asiatic tribes Mr. Whymper demonstrates by the identity of their language. The mystery of the origiu of our Aborigines may be considered as solved. They are man starling eastward from the Asiatic race- center, and meeting here the same man starting westward from 1^<- same center. At the collision hen- the Westerner has the decided advantage. Tempted by the smiling clime of the East,

'See Mark-bam or. the 'Greenland Esquimau." Journal of ttie Royal Qeogr ipl-cal Society, IStiS-

314 Methodist Quarterly Review. [April,

the Asiatic has been alternately enervated by the heats or crisped by the cold out of* the best of his manhood. Driven by warlike invasion, the poor Greenlander passed by the polar land route, where the continents are one, and came out a chilled and dwarfed specimen of humanity. On the other hand the Westerner, ranging around the temperate and well-diversified latitudes of Europe, presents the highest development the race has hitherto attained.

Cliina and the Chinese. A General Description of the Country and its Inhabitants, its Civilizatiou and Form of Government, its Religious and Social Institutions, its Intercourse with other Nations, and its Present Condition and Prospects. By Rev. Jons S. Nevios, ten years a Missionary in China. With Maps and Illustrations. 12mo., pp. 456. New York: Harper & Brothers. 18G9.

China, by a singular revolution in mundane affairs within a few- years past, from being our most distant neighbor toward the East has become our nearest neighbor on the West. A corresponding improved acquaintance has largely transformed our mutual con- tempt and amusement into increased respect. We have indulged large fun at their "pig-tails, shaven pates, thick-soled shoes, as- sumption of dignity and superiority, and great ignorance of many subjects with which we are familiar. They also enjoy a great deal of pleasautry at our short-cropped hair, tight-titting, ungraceful, and uncomfortable-looking clothes, and gentlemen's thin-soled leather boots, tall stiff hats, gloves in summer-time, the ' wasp-like ' ap- pearance of Western ladies, with their small waists and large hoops, our ungraceful manners, our remarkable ignorance of the general rules of propriety, and the strange custom of a man and his wife walking together in public arm in arm." Mr. Nevius exhibits none of the tendency sometimes attributed to missionaries, to make the worst possible case against heathendom. He finds not only the noble basis that belongs to all humanity, but a culture and a morality entitled to a degree of respect. This no more forbids our giving the Gospel to China than Hellenic refinement forbade Paul's mission to Athens. In fact, the entire view given of China by Mr. Nevius is calculated to inspire an earnest mission- ary zeal in every Christian heart.

Within the coming generation the whole stupendous mass of superstition now covering this four hundred millions of the human race is, with all the surety of a mathematical demonstration, to disappear. The reason of this surety is, that the whole system is scientifically false. A university teaching the sciences of Europe is already established. The truly powerful intellect of thoughtful

1SG9.] Quarterly Book-Table. 815

China is already awakened, and, with a rapidity known only to our modern times, it must reject the complicated mass of error which cannot coexist with scientific truth. Then comes a stupendous as well as a fearful vacuum. "Whether emptiness and skepticism (shall succeed — whether a complete atheistic blank shall remain — fu! arc history will disclose. To our view every thing depends upon the promptness and energy of our Christianity. To this de- parting superstition, as of every other, our Christianity is the rightful heir. If during the next twenty years we can pour whole phalanxes of missionaries and whole floods of Christian light over the vacated field, the victory will be complete. Hence, interesting grounds as India and Africa are, no call is so intensely imperative as reaches us from this one third of the human race.

Like the work of Dr. Maclay, issued from our Book Rooms, this volume is replete with varied interest. That interest is greatly enhanced by important events since Dr. Maclay wrote. The. im- mense, increasing, and' almost alarming amount of Chinese popula- tion on our Pacific coast — the mission of Mr. Bnrlingame bringing China into diplomatic intercourse with our Government — the rapid approach of a great epoch of commerce through the Pacific Rail- road, are events proclaiming in the ears of the American Church that her very first duty Is China. We need at this very hour a thousand Methodist missionaries for "the land of the Sinini."

The thanks of the Evangelical Church of all denominations are due to Mr. Xevius for his clear, enlightened, and instructive work.

Her 'Majesty's Tvxctr. By "William ITKi'woriTn Dixon*. 12mo., pp. 263. New . York: llarpcr ;iud Brothers. 18G9.

Tin- Tower of London, the prison for England's great accused, as Westminster is the tomb of her illustrious dead, is according to Mr. Dixon, "the most ancient and most poetic pile in Europe." Perhaps he should have said, the most tragic. It is the pivot upon which has turned the bloody part of England's political history. The narrative, traced in chronological order, with much research and vivid coloring, by Mr. Dixon, is full of fearful and fascinating interest. Of all the tragic characters in the solemn succession, Mr. Dixon's favorite is evidently Sir Walter Raleigh; ours, in the full light of the most modern history, is that wonderful girl of seventeen, Lady Jam' Grey. Her talent, magnanimity, piety, beauty, and above all her lolly firmness when the. turbulent chiefs whose ambition led her to ruin had abandoned their Protestant

316 Methodist Quarterly Review. [April,

faith for even a few hours of protracted life, are a beautiful marvel. "Without the slightest aim at display, nothing could he more heroic than her entire demeanor through the greatest of all trials. A very illustrative engraving of the Tower is frontispiece to the volume.

Jesus of Nazareth, his Life end Teachings. Founded on the Four Gospels, and illustrated by reference to the Maimers. Customs, Religious Beliefs, and Political Institutions of his times. By Lyman Abdott. With designs by L'oro. Do La Koche, Fenn, and others. Red and gilt, 12mo., pp. £22. Xe\v York: Harper & Brothers. 1869.

Mr. Abbott has succeeded admirably in supplying the popular want of a Life of Jesus, illustrated with ample erudition, clothed in modern style of language, and addressed to the modern modes of thought. The work of Kenan had shown how powerful was an eloquent diction in giving place to the great Subject in the popular thought even when divested of His divine attributes. The work of Pressense, though written in a vivid and elegant style, is too loftily theological for the general mind. That by Ellicott is too scholastic to be popular. Wliat Henry Ward Beecher will accom- plish, while much may be anticipated, is yet. to be realized. But at the present state of progress, Mr. Abbott's work may be recom- mended as the first successful popular effort of placing the Saviour's life in a clear and attractive li^ht for general readers.

T7ce Life, Tim**, and Travels of St. Paul By the Rev. W. J. Coxvbeare. M. A.. late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and the Rev. J. S. HowsOJT, it. A., Prin- • cipal of the CVllegiate Institute. Liverpool. With an Introduction by Matthew Simtsox, D. D., Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Two volumes in one, unabridged. Sold by subscription. Svo., pp. 556. New York: KB. Treat & Co.' Chicago : C. V. Lilley. Philadelphia : A. H. Hubbard. 1869.

Our ministry and well-read laity will be gratified to learn that a new edition of Conybeare and Howson has been published, and is afforded at the very low price of three dollars. It is to.be spe- cially noted that it is not abridged, as is another issne of the same work called "The People's Edition." Not a line nor an engrav- ing in the original work is omitted from tins. The interest ofthe work will be enhanced by (he commendatory, but not too com- mendatory in! reduction by Bishop Simpson. It would be super* r- ogation for us to give a favorable opinion of a work which has for years been a standard, unique in its kind. It is one of the books which should be both in the library and in the hands of every minister and every thoughtful Christian layman.

1869.] Quarterly Boole -Table. 317

General Literature.

Tut Poetical Works of Charles G. Halpine, (-Miles O'Reilly,) with a Biographical Sketch and Explanatory Notes. Edited by Robert B. Rooskvelt. Red aud gilt, 12mo., pp. o32. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1SG9.

General Halpine was born in Ireland in ]829, emigrated to this country in early manhood, and became in time associate Editor of the New York Times. He was the author of that celebrated apostrophe to the American Flag, prompted by the capture in Boston of the fugitive Anthony Burns, beginning with "Tear down that flaunting lie."

When the civil war commenced he offered his services to the country and won high honors. When the Citizens' Association was formed to stem the torrent of political and civic corruption in our metropolis he became editor of their organ, The Citizen, and assailed the enemies of public purity and order with a brill- iaucy and vigor seldom surpassed in American journalism. He was a man of heroic impulses, fascinating manner.?, and exhibited a genius not equal, yet akin to that of an Emnielt, a Curran, or a Moore.

The poems, though they do not place him among " the few, the immortal names," ore not merely routine versification, but the fresh jets of a true poetic nature provoked by special occa- sions and contemporary characters. They are full of irregular but brilliant flashes of poetic fire. Political banter or invective, amatory effusions, military odes, and one sacred poem, constitute the body of the volume. We should have supposed, from his indignant flout at the Boston outrage, that he would have stood forth in the forefront of the champions of freedom. Yet with a heart that seemed to thirst for liberty and purity, he was inex- tricably connected with the party of slavery and corruption through his whole career. Many of his poetical shafts are aimed at men truer to freedom and humanity than himself; yet so vig- orous and effective were his onslaughts upon the corruptionists of his own vile taction that his accidental death, in the bloom of heroic life, was no ordinary public loss.

r'<e Poetical Works of Alexander Pope. Edited by Rev. II. F. C.vuy, M. A. A

new edition, carefully revised. Green and (jold, 12mo., pp. -185. New York :

D. Appleton & Co. 1869. The Jerusalem Delivered of lorqvato Thsso. Translated into English Spenserian

Verse, with a Life of the Author, by J. It. Wim:N. 12moM pp. 62, paper

cover. New York : D. Appleton & Co. LS67. 1 bese two volumes are specimens of a series of standard poets in l wo styles, and at two very reasonable rates of price. The series

31S Methodist Quarterly Review. [April,

embraces among others Scott, Burns, Cowper, Campbell, Chaucer, Spenser, and Uemans.

Pope forever stands as one. of the greatest names in English poetiy, whose genius cheated an era in English versification. After Shakspeare, perhaps there is no poet so many of whose line? have attained the position of proverbs in public thought.

Tasso, the immortal bard of medieval Christianity and chiv- alry, finds a worthy expositor in "Witfeu. This translation is, as it stands, iu English a grand heroic song, possessing all the free- dom, melodv, freshness, and boldness of a true original.

Periodicals.

The Galaxy, Vol. YII. No. III. Art. III. Is Being Done. By Richard Grant

"White.

The antiquarian investigator of a living language is engaged in a fascinating pursuit, and may perform a valuable office. He wisely and usefully interposes a check, justified by his learning and authority, upon the incorporation of anomalous, ambiguous, inadequate, or degrading linguistic forms into a living language. But ho may also pervert his office to the most injurious results. His very enthusiasm for the old, honorable and refined as it may be, mav be the very inspirer of this perversion. A living lan- guage ousrht to be the most perfect practicable instrument for expressing thought. Even after its written literature is formed, difficult as the task must be. it rightly aspires to increased exact- ness, force, and beauty. Now it is the very tendency of the enthusiastic student of the old to sacrifice the natural self improve- ment of the language, as a perfect instrument of thought, to its historical connection with outgrown, defective, and even instinc- tivelv rejected forms. When a language is spontaneously yet slowly regenerating itself in any particular — when it is sloughing off some antiquated, clumsy, ambiguous, inadequate form of ex- pression— and assuming a new, more adequate and exact one, the philologist, who stands by and attempts to repress the process, is a pervert and a nuisance.

With all respect for the linguistic enthusiasm and real erudi- tion of Mr. Richard Grant White, we think that in the article in The .Galaxy quoted at the head of this notice he has very une- quivocally committed the error we reprobate. Such phrases as the ho'tse is building, the dinner is eating, the sermon is preach- ■iny, ought, in spite of all his reasoning, to be expelled the Ian-

1SC9.1 Quarterly Book-Table. 319

fraage, as being the uncouth result of a historical connection with older uncouth forms long- since rejected by the public instinct. T<> re-establish that obsolete connection, to retain the anomalous forms, and to reject the later and exacter forms, is to insist on the degradation and not the ennoblement of the language.

Among the rights which the speaking public of a living lan- guage should firmly maintain against the pedantry of philological specialists is, that of tilling the blank places in the language with adequate terms and formulae. The school pedants of the last gen- eration (like Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetoric) gave us formal rules to control the adoption of new words into the lan- guage ; assigning, if we rightly recollect, three generations as the noviciate of the verbal candidate. The common sense of the present day laughs at such effeminacy. A good new word, like any other good thing, is worthy of an instantaneous adoption if we need or desire to adopt it ; a bad new word, or a bad word twenty centuries old, should be as promptly rejected. The ques- tion of the age of the word is very unimportant. The main query i? as to its adequacy to fill a blank spot, or its life and power in expressing a new shade of tbailght or a fresh-born idea. TTe used in our young days to smile at our old professor, who told us that if Addison were alive he woiild not understand our neolo- gism. We say now, as in effect we said then, we "supposed that Addison was dead." If any body is writing for Addison's understanding or approval, let him go to Hades and write for Addison's eye; not plague the light of day with his puerile ultra conservatism. What would Addison understand of the discussions of a modern scientific, or political, or even metaphys- ical discussion ? Open the pages of a scientific annual, and see what entire vocabularies, nay, we may say, what entire new lan- guages have arisen within the boundaries of our English. Neither the living age nor the living language consents to be swathed in the winding-sheets of the past generation.

In defending his rejection of the new formulae in question, Mr. White shows that there was an old form of verbs, such as a-mah- tyti a-going, a-building, in which the a was a contraction of in or on, and the word ending in ing was truly a gerund or verbal noun. To say The house is a-building^ therefore, was equivalent to saying that the house is iu process of building. But by a sub- sequent dropping of the customary a the phrase The /muse is building was left; and in this phrase, too, he infers that building W a verbal noun expressing the process, and so the phrase is the legitimate one. We reply,

820 Methodist Quarterly Review. [April,

The old forms ((-building, a-going, and the like, like thou- sands of other forms, became obsolete, and were sloughed oil" because they were ambiguous, and inadequately expressed the intended idea. They could be active or passive ; could mean that the builder was building a bouse, or that the house was being built ; and, by natural instinct, impatient of a form which had lost the power of making clear the thought, the remnant of the old formula was rejected and sunk into vulgarism. When the prefix a was lost the popular intention gave to the form in ing the meaning of an active participle, and that meaning made it an active participle. But thereby a blank was left and a want was felt. There was now no way in the entire English language of concisely aud conveniently expressing the process of receiving an action. By the same wise linguistic instinct more than fifty years ago the precise formula by which that process could be expressed arose : The house is being built; The thing is being done. By all who prefer that the form of expression should accurately represent the form of thought, it has been adopted. By conservative lovers of even clumsy obsoletisms it has been rejected, merely because it is new, aud so is still challenged. Had there been no philolo- gers or written language, and had the public mind been left to its own healthy unconscious spontaneities, this formula would have long ago become a component part of our language among intelligent speakers, and the old forms would have been relegated to the " Cape Cod fisherman."

Mr. White's attempt at showing that the forms the house is being built, or is being done, are philosophically incorrect, is a signal failure :

To be and to exist are perfect synonymes, or more nearly perfect, perhaps, than any two verbs in the language. In some of their meanings there is a shade of dif- ference but in others there is none whatever; and the latter are those which servo our present purpose. When we say. He being forewarned of danger lied, we say, He existing forewarned of danger fled. When we say that a tiling is done, we Fay that it exists done. When we say. That being done I shall be satisfied, we say, That existing done I shall be satisfied. Is bcimj done, is simply exists existing done.

The verb is, as a copula between a subject and predicate, we reply, is no synonym with the verb exist. It does not affirm the existence of either subject or predicate. It is simply the sign of connection; the coupler; directing the reader to think subject and predicate in unity. When we say Tb> griffin is an imagin- ary animal i we do not affirm that the griffin exists. Saying the dodo is extinct, is not saying that (la- dod<> exists extinct ; for that would be a contradiction. Saying The souls of brutes are being

1869J Quarterly Book-Table. 321

annihilated, is not saying, The souls of brutes exist existing annihi- lated ; for the former is sense and truth, and the latter is contra- diction and nonsense. The verb, is and exists have here little similarity of meaning. The true analysis of such expressions we will now give.

The anvil is being struck. Here sir nek denotes the simple recipience or undergoing of the blow. It does this tunelessly ; that is, irrespective of time; for in the passive we can say equally, ] am struck, I was struck, I will be struck. Struck is the note, therefore, of the timeless undergoing of the blow. The word being is very nearly synonymous with continuing. It denotes just that sort of continuity that the Greek imperfect does in contrast with the aorist. The aorist is struck, the imperfect is being struck. Being struck implies a process, a continuity of some sort beyond :i simple instant. Is affirms the being struck of the anvil. It is the copula which connects the predicate with the subject ; with the superadded idea of time or tense. The anvil is being struck^ therefore, expresses the idea of the passive process of the anvil's undergoing the blow with the most perfect grammatical and phil- osophical precision. And so of the various phrases, The house is being built, The criminal is being tried, etc., we may affirm that they are as exact a use of the verb to express the intended idea as any formula in language can be.

Again, of the active participle striking (which include:; the same idea of continuity as the Greek imperfect) the parallel passive is not struck, which is aoristic, but being struck. The par- allel passive, therefore, of the phrase John is striking is (not John, is struck, but) John is being struck. These parallel phrases express the active and passive idea with equal and perfect gram- matical and philosophical accuracy.

Mr. White again says that our supposed blunder arises from not seeing that is and being are the same verb ; that if the verb to be were regular in form we would never have fallen into the phrases bes being built, or is ising built. We answer that the copula is and the participle being in the formulae we defend are, as we have above shown, different in sense. We nevertheless aflinn that if the verb were regular, and the proper copula were &<-s, then the phrase bes bang built would he perfectly philosoph- ical and should be adopted. .7Ju'«g built would then express the passive process, and bes would connect the process with its suh- jeet. The verbal identity of bes and being would make not the •lightest difference.

-Mr. White, however, heroically affirms that he would use all

322 Methodist Quarterly Reviezo. [April,

the phrases, the dinner is eating, the sermon is preaching, the boy is whipping, etc., and asks "Why not?" Because, we reply, the phrases in the ease are false : the dinner is not eating. Eating is an active and not a passive participle. It is fastening a shame- ful poverty on the English language to compel it thus clumsily to use the same term for both the active and passive sense. Because, also, the phrases are often ludicrously ambiguous. Should Mr. While be sitting at a dinner of roast-pig, and commence a sen- tence with W/rile the roast-pig is eating, (as if the roast pig were one of the guests.) the young ladies near him would in- dulge in a very reasonable titter at his expense. Should he say While the roast-pig is being eaten, they might think him a little bookish, but they would not, as in the other case, think him a fool. So by this phraseology the guests are eating, and the dinner is eating ; both the preacher and the sermon are preaching, the pedagogue is whipping the boy and the boy is whipping too. So the man rides the horse and the horse rides the man; the hammer strikes the anvil and the anvil strikes the hammer. The New York landlady may say (correctly, according to White) "I not only sleep my boarders, but Teat 'em."

While thus treating the subject of supplying deficit spots in a living language, we may note that there is in the English lan- guage, if we rightly understand, one most singular and central blank. We have no one word to egress the regular coming into existence of an event. The words to happen, to occur, include the element of accident. This hiatus we awkwardly patch over with phrases at which the mind is disgusted, as, to come to pass, to take place. Now there is a word which is fresh and clear, which is not very irrevocably appropriated to any other idea, and which by popular healthy instinct is aspiring to occupy the blank spot. The word is transpire. O no ! exclaim the effeminates, thai word must not designate the talcing place of an event ; it signifies to become known. It is of no use to tell these imbeciles thai the latter meaning is itself little known, little used, and little needed, while the want it is called to supply is a startling defect in the entire language. You may supply reasons, but you cannot supply brains. Your only method is to use the needed word in the needing place, and leave the shrieking pedant to his spasms.*

*The following sentence is: from a leading London newspaper, discussing ihe American temper toward England: "They will not declare war on us because an old gentleman of Maryland, who lias just seen brothers cutting each other's throats, chooses to keep on saying that cousinhood is an indissoluble bond of amity." Here, 1. The word cousinhood is a fresh coinage, so perfectly fitted into

1869.] Quarterly Book -Tabic. 323

The word stand-point was, we believe, first appropriated from the German by Professor Moses Stuart, and has generally been adopted In America and England by all who regard the fitness of a term rather than its age. Purists in England, embarrassed by its adap- tation for the purpose, yet unwilling to accept it, sometimes use the phrase " standing point," which properly, however, signifies a point, that stands, in contrast with a moving point. The word stand in the. compound is a noun, signifying position or the act of standing, and the compound word itself is as truly legitimate as the term inkstand.

The word reliable is liable to no other valid objection titan its novelty. It has been, indeed, objected that as we say rely vpon, bo the preposition needs to be incorporated with the verb thus, reH-vpon-able. But though we say a man must, account for an act, we nevertheless say accountable without the preposition ; and though Ave say attained to a thing, we use the adjective attainable. We have laughable, from laugh at ; and that the adjective is not, as some think, derived from the noun lough, but from the verb, is clear from the fact that laughable is synonymous with laitffh-at-able, ns if a proper contraction. It is said, however, that the word (rusficorthy, possessing the same meaning, renders the new word unnecessary. But. trustworthy is a very homely word ; and Mr. White to the contrary notwithstanding, the English language is so utterly homely that cultivated homeliness is a great superero- gation. So homely, indeed, is our native Saxon, that, so far as language is concerned, both the Roman occupancy and the Xor- man conquest were crowning mercies. ZTntrustworthiness is a very ugly word ; and all the inflexions of trustworthy are ugly in comparison with its Latin rival. Besides, the adjective worthy belongs to a living character rather than to a thing or fact. Thus, we think General Grant a trustworthy man, and shall continue so to think until we receive reliable proofs to the contrary.

the sentence as to tie absolutely necessary to its force and point. 2. The writer would justly have treated the womanish remonstrances of any literary purist with contemptuous disregard. 3. The word, nevertheless, however fitted for the writer's Use, is scarcely needed in the language, and lie himself would hardly expect it ever to bo used again. Besides that loose temporary slang which degrades. our con- temporaneous newspaper and conversational style, and which every elevated lhif.kt.-r repudiates, there are temporary verbal formations, dignified and analogical >" their character, which a free and vigorous writer may justifiably use without expecting or wishing that they should become permanent parts of the language.

324 Methodist Quarterly Review. [April.

Miscellaneous.

Glen Elder Books. — The Orphans of Glen Elder, Frances Leslie, The Lyceum Hoys. The Harleys of Chelsea Place, Rosa Lindesay. Twenty beautiful Illustrations! New York: Carlton & Lanahan. Cincinnati: Hitchcock & "Walden.

A nice paper box of five fresh Sunday-school volumes, republi- cations from abroad, beautifully written, and printed and bound in most attractive style. 27<e Ring and the Booh. By Robert Bbownikg, M.A. Volume II. 12mo., pp

332. Boston: Field & Osgood. 1869. How to Read Character. A new illustrated Handbook of Phrenology and Physi- ognomy for Students and Examiners ; with a Descriptive Chart. Red and gilt. 12mo., pp. 192. New York: Samuel R. Wells. 1869.

A very neat and skillful manual for the purpose of making every

man his own phrenologist.

Seeds and Sheaves; or, Words of Scripture; their History and Fruits. By A. C. Thomson-, D.D. 12mo., pp. 323. Boston: Gould and Lincoln. New York: Sheldon & Co. Cincinnati: George S. Blanchard & Co. 1869.

A series of Scripture topics and texts, with striking anecdotal

illustrations.

Be/ore the Throne;- or, Daily Devotions for a Child. 24mo., pp. 123. New York:

M. W. Dodd. 1869. The Poacher. By Captain MarrYATT. 12mo.. pp. 310. New York: D. Apple- ton & Co. 1869. The Chaplet of Pearls : or. The White and Black Ribaumont. By the Author of

"The Heir of Redclyffe." With Illustrations. 12mo., pp. 331. New York :

D. Apple-ton & Co. 1869. Christ and Him Crucified. A Discourse preached in the Methodist Episcopal

Church, Ypsilanti, Michigan, Sunday Morning, September G, 1SC8, on the

occasion of inaugurating his public ministration. By Ret. T. C. Gardner, A.M.

12mo., pp. 16. 0. R. Chase, Ann Arbor. Mich. A Believers Hand-Book for Christians of Every Name. By Rev. E. Davies, of

East Maine Conference. 12mo., pp. 12. Published by the Author. Ee Knew he was Right. By Ai'HOXY TROLLOPE. With Illustrations by Marcus

Stone. 12mo.. Paper Cover, pp 172. New York : Harper £ Brothers. 18G9. Tlie Low of Love and Love as a Law; or, Moral Science, Theoretical and Practical.

12mo. Scribner £ Co. Dr. BeUows's Travels in Eurcqie. Volume IT. 12mo. Harper & Brothers.

Notice of the following postponed to next number : Dr. Peirce's Half Century with Juvenile Delinquents. Appleton & Co. Missionary Report for 1869. Carlton & Lanahan. Pre-historic Nations. Harper & Brothers.

Carlton & Lanahan will soon issue a new edition of Dr. Fosteu's work on " Christian Purity," revised by the author.

Also a volume of Sermons, Addresses, etc., by Dr. Gii.r.v.i:; Ha vex.

M

ETHODIST

Quarterly Eeview.

JULY, 18 G9.

Art. I.— TESTS OF A VALID MINISTRY AND A TRUE CHURCH.

It is one of the advantages and beauties of the Methodist Episcopal Church that there is nothing in her religious faith, or education, or polity, that embarrasses our fellowship with all who love onr Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity. We can commune with them, work with them, and rejoice with them just as far as their catholicity will permit. General delight in the Church of our Lord Jesus Christ is not incom- patible with special delight in a particular branch of that Church. "We may love a large circle of friends very sincerely and earnestly, and yet one of them may be the object of our special regard and joy. We do not love other Churches less because we love the Methodist Episcopal Church more. Nor in asserting the validity of her ministry and the genuineness of licr Chnrchdom are we obliged to invalidate other ministries, or unchurch other denominations. It is in perfect charity toward others, therefore, that we assert our claim to be a true Ministry and Church on the New Testament basis. We select the Church of Corinth as a precedent for our argument.

I. The Corinthian Church possessed a valid ministry because °i its divine appointment. They claimed this in words like these : " Paul, called to be an Apostle of Jesus Christ through the will of God." 1 Cor. i, 1. "Paul, an Apostle of Jesus Christ by the will of God." 2 Cor. i, 1. "For though I

Foukth Sekies, Vol. XXL— 21

326 A Valid Ministry and True Church. [July,

preach the Gospel, I have nothing to glory of: for necessity is laid upon me ; yea, woe is unto me, if I preach not the Gos- pel ! For if I do this thing willingly, I have a reward : but if against my will, a dispensation of the Gospel is committed unto me." 1 Cor. ix, 16, 17. "Who also hath made us able ministers of the New Testament; not of the letter, but of the spirit," "And all things are of God, who hath reconciled us to himself by Jesus Christ, and hath given to us the ministry of reconciliation ; to wit, that God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself, not imputing their trespasses unto them; and hath committed unto us the word of reconcilia- tion. Xow then we are embassadors for Christ, as though God did beseech you by us : we pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God." 2 Cor. v, 18-20. " For I sup- pose I was not a whit behind the very chiefest Apostles." 2 Cor. xi, 5.

This claim to divine appointment was recognized by the Church. " Therefore, seeing we have this ministry, as we have received mercy, we faint not; but have renounced the hidden things of dishonesty, not walking in craftiness, nor handling the word of God deceitfully ; but, by manifestation of the truth, commending ourselves to every man's conscience in the sight of God." 2 Cor. iv, 1, 2. " Knowing therefore the terror of the Ford, we persuade men ; but we are made manifest unto God ; and I trust also are made manifest in your consciences." 2 Cor. v, 11. " Truly the signs of an Apostle were wrought among you in all patience, in signs, and wonders, and mighty deeds." 2 Cor. xii, 12. "We have been thoroughly made manifest among you in all tilings." 2 Cor. xi, G.

The Methodist Church has ever held that no man taketh this honor to himself; that no man can enter the Christian ministry merely as a chosen profession, "but ]ie that is called of God, as was Aaron." And further, that when a man is moved by the Holy Ghost to take upon him the office of the ministry in the Church of Christ, this will of God concerning him is made manifest to the Church. In the exercise of his gifts in the social meetings of the Church, in his conversation and life, there will be seen by the Church such gifts and grace and usefulness as carry to the conscience of the Church the conviction that he is a chosen vessel of God to bear his name before mankind.

1*0.] -^ Valid Ministry and True Church. 327

Therefore in our Church this question is always submitted to the laity. No man can- be licensed to preach among us who is not recommended by the Society or Leaders' Meeting where he belongs. Then the Quarterly Conference, (composed mostly of laymen,) after due examination, may license him to preach. And if he seeks to be a Pastor he must be further recommended l>v the Quarterly Conference to the Annual Conference as a suitable person for that office and work. So that in the case of each one of the more than eight thousand Pastors in the Meth- odist Episcopal Church the laity have three times formally and officially expressed the judgment that they were called of God to this function and ministry. Then after years of trial and repeated examinations they have been ordained by the authority of their ministerial brethren.

We do not deny that a brother may be mistaken as to a call to the ministry. We do not claim that the judgment of the Church is infallible in this matter. But we do believe that when a man professes to be called of God to this holy ministry whose Christian character is a guarantee of his sincerity, and the Church finds in him the gifts, grace, and fruit which a true minister must have, they can decide the question more certainly and safely than any other persons or authorities. So that the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church do not hail from John the Baptist, or from Peter, or from John V\ esley. We seek no investiture from prelate or primate. "\\ e have succeeded to no dead men's places ; we derive authority from no dead men's credentials; there is* no smell of the sepulcher about us; our call is direct from our risen and living Lord, recognised and authenticated ly a living Church, made valid and vital ly the living God. We are the living -ministers of to-day by divine appointment.

II. Another cause of this Church's rejoicing in the validity of her ministry was their endowments. " But God hath revealed them unto us by his Spirit: for the Spirit searcheth all things, yea, the deep things of God. For what man knowelh the things of a man, save the spirit of man which is in him >. even "0 the things of God knowcth no man, but the Spirit of God. fcow we have received, not the spirit of the world, but the Spirit which is of God; that we might know the things that we freely given to us of God. Which things also we speak,

32S A Valid Ministry and True Church. [July,

not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth, but which tho lloly Ghost teacheth; comparing spiritual things with spiritual." 1 Cor. ii, 10-13. These Scriptures state their spiritual perception and heavenly wisdom; their knowledge of divine things.

" For God, who commanded the light to shine out of dark- ness, hath shined in our hearts, to give the light of the knowl- edge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ. But we have this treasure in earthen vessels, that the excellency of the power may be of God, and not of us." 2 Cor. iv, G, 7. As earthen vessels merely they were intrusted with the treasure of Christianity. "But though I be rude in speech, yet not in knowledge." 2 Cor. xi, G. " And my speech and my preach- ing was not with enticing words of man's wisdom, but in dem- onstration of the Spirit and of power." 1 Cor. ii, 4. " Not that we are sufficient of ourselves to think any thing as of our- selves ; but our sufficiency is of God." 2 Cor. iii, 5. These passages prove that God. having called these Apostles, so illu- mined their minds, so endued them with the wisdom that is from above, and so assisted them with the demonstration of the Spirit, as to make them sufficient for their office* and work. In licensing and recommending her ministers the Methodist Church has expressed the judgment that by similar endowments from God they possessed the same ministerial sufficiency.

III. A third cause of rejoicing in their ministers was their devotedness in the office. "'For I determined not to know any thing among you, save Jesus Christ, and him crucified."

1 Cor. ii, 2. " For we preach not ourselves, but Christ Jesus the Lord ; and ourselves your servants [or slaves] for Jesus' sake."

2 Cor. iv. 5. " And I will very gladly spend and be spent for you; though the more abundantly I love you, the less 1 be loved." 2 Cor. xii, 15. Xot to secure their love or their bless- ings, but to save their precious souls, he would sacrifice himself.

This devotedness cost much suffering. " For I think that God hatli set forth us the Apostles last, as it were appointed to death : for we are made a spectacle unto the world, and to angels, and to men. . . . Even unto this present hour we both hunger, and thirst, and are naked, and arc buffeted, and have no certain dwelling-place ; and labor, working with our own hands : being reviled, we bless ; being persecuted, we suffer it."

1SG9.] A Valid Ministry and True Church. 329

1 Cor. iv, 9, 11, 12. " Are they ministers of Christ ? (I speak «3 a fool,) I am more; in labors more abundant, in stripes above measure, in prisons more frequent, in deaths oft. Of the Jews five times received I forty stripes save one. Tin-ice was

1 beaten with rods, once was I stoned, thrice I Buffered ship- wreck, a night and a day I have been in the deep ; in journey- ings often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils by mine own countrymen, in perils by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea, in perils among false brethren ; in weariness and painfullness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness. Besides those things that are without, that which cometh upon me daily, the care of all the Churches."

2 Cor. xi, 23-28.

We submit whether these quotations are not historically de- scriptive of the ministry of the Methodist Church ? Have they not generally been absorbed in the work of their ministry? Have not their lives been those of sacrifice and suffering? Is it. not literally true that they have no certain dwelling-place? Have they not often been compelled to labor, working with their own hands to obtain bread for themselves and families? Certainly they have been in journeyings often, and in perils in all the forms here spoken of, and have endured all the suffer- ings here described. Even in recent times in fulfilling this ministry, some have suffered actual martyrdom. Certainly more heroic devotion, more patient endurance, and more ear- nest labor have not been displayed by any ministry since the example of inspired Apostles. Well may the Church which has such a ministry rejoice in it.

IV. A fourth cause of rejoicing was found in their manner of executing their ministry. " For the love of Christ constrain- eth us; because we thus judge, that if one died for all, then were all dead." 2 Cor. v, 1-1. "I speak not tbis to condemn you: for I have said before, that ye are in our hearts to die find live with you." 2 Cor. vii, 3. " For out of much affliction and anguish of heart I wrote unto 3011 with many tears; not that ye should be grieved, but that ye might know the love which I have more abundantly unto you." 2 Cor. ii, 4. " For I am jealous over you with godly jealousy : for I have espoused )'ou to one husband, that I may present you as a chaste virgin

330 A Valid Ministry and True Church. [July,

to Christ." 2 Cor. xi, 2. What an affectionate, careful pastor- ate is described in these passages ! Indeed, the tone of both these epistles is sympathetic, loving, and paternal. They show the most prayerful solicitude, the most watchful care on the part of these Pastors. "Fed you with milk!" Our care for you in the sight of God ! Daily care of all the Churches ! "Blessed be God, even the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of mercies, and the God of all comfort ; who com- forteth us in all our tribulation, that we may be able to comfort them which are in any trouble, by the comfort wherewith we ourselves are comforted of God." 2 Cor. i, 3, -i. I feel assured that the sentiment of the Church will approve the statement that the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church has very generally, in this respect, been like that of the Apostles. Human infirmity has doubtless made exceptions among them, but the spirit of Christ has usually possessed and controlled his servants in an eminent degree; even in apostolic measure.

V. A fifth cause of rejoicing was, the doctrines they preached. " But. we preach Christ crucified, unto the Jews a stumbling- block, and unto the Greeks foolishness ; but. unto them which are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ the power of God, and the wisdom of God." 1 Cor. i, 23, 24. " For I delivered unto you first of all that which I also received, how that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures: and that he was buried, and that he rose again the third day according to the Scriptures." 1 Cor. xv, 3, 4. "For other foundation can no man lay than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ." 1 Cor. iii, 11. Certainly these were glad tidings of great joy.

They also preached a present, full, and conscious salvation: "Therefore if any man be in Christ, he is a new creature: old things are passed away ; behold, all things are become new." 2 Cor. v, 17. " Know ye not that ye are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwellcth in you?" 1 Cor. iii, 1G. "Having therefore these promises, dearly beloved, let us cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, per- fecting holiness in the fear of God." 2 Cor. vii, 1. 4' For we know that, if our earthly house of this tabernacle were dissolved, we have a building of God, a house not made with hands, eter- nal in the heavens." 2 Cor. v, 1. " Knowing that he which raised up the Lord Jesus shall raise up us also by Jesus, and

1869.] A Valid Ministry and True Church. 331

6hall present us with you." 2 Cor. iv, 14. How rich, full, and positive is this experience ! A new creature ! The Spirit of God dwelling in us! Perfecting holiness in the fear of God! Knowing that we have an inheritance in heaven, and that Jesus is our resurrection and life !

They also set forth the conditions of this great salvation: "For godly sorrow worketh repentance to salvation not to be repented of." 2 Cor. vii, 10. "It pleased God by the foolish- ness of preaching to save them that believe." 1 Cor. i, 21. No attendant upon the ministry of the Methodist Church will deny that these are the fundamental doctrines of her pulpits. Christ crucified ; Christ the Redeemer, Mediator, and Saviour. Made unto us wisdom, righteousness, sanctification, and re- demption— all in all. Joy-inspiring doctrines !

VI. Another cause of rejoicing was found in the success of their ministry. The planting of the Corinthian Church was a proof of their great success. TVe make one quotation on this point as all-sufficient for our purpose: "Now thanks be unto God, which always causeth us to triumph in Christ, and makcth manifest the savor of his knowledge by us in every place." 2 Cor. ii, 14. This has been as literally true with the Meth- odist ministry as it was with the Apostles. "When and where have they failed of success? Not in England, Ireland, Scot- land, or Wales ; not in the United States or Territories ; not in our cities, or villages, or older rural districts. Certainly Christ has made manifest the savor of his knowledge by us in the newer portions of our country. What class of people have we failed to benefit! Not the slaves or freedmen of the South; not the red men of the wilderness ; not the immigrant popula- tion of the country ; not the poor ; not the rich ; not the ignor- ant; not the learned. Among them all God has made known by us the savor of his resurrection. "We have triumphed in Christ in Africa, in China, in India, in Germany, in Scandi- navia. Methodism is becoming as polyglot tic as the race.

Such were the Apostles; such are we. A divinely called, a spiritually endowed, a devoted, living ministry, preaching the glorious doctrines of the Gospel with success all the while and in every place.

The ministry of the Church had equal cause for rejoicing in their people as a true Church of Jesus Christ.

332 A Valid Ministry and Tmie Church. [July,

I. First. As the fruit and proof of apostleship : " For though ye. have ten thousand instructors in Christ, yet have ye not many fathers : for in Christ Jesus I have begotten you through the Gospel." 1 Cor. iv, 15. " Therefore whether it were I or they, so we preach, and so ye believed." 1 Cor. xv, 11. "Who then is Paul, and who is Apollos, bnt ministers by whom ye believed, even as the Lord gave to every man ?" 1 Cor. iii, 5. " If I be not an Apostle nnto others, yet doubtless I am to you : for the seal of mine apostleship arc ye in the Lord." 1 Cor. ix, 2. " Do we begin again to commend ourselves ? or need we, as some others, epistles of commendation to you, or letters of commendation from you? Ye are our epistle, written in our hearts, known and read of all men. Forasmuch as ye are manifestly declared to be the epistle of Christ, ministered by us, written not with ink, hut with the Spirit of the living God ; not in tables of stone, but in fleshy tables of the heart," 2 Cor. iii, 1-3.

It was a devout joy to the Apostle that as he planted and Apollos watered God gave the increase. That working to- gether with God they had been successful Pastors. Their labor had not been in vain in the Lord. Souls had been led to repentance; to faith in Christ; made new creatures in Christ; saved. No success gives greater joy than ministerial success. On this principle no ministry has more cause for joy than Methodist ministers.

Second. Again the Apostle claims this success as the proof of his apostleship, "The seal of mine apostleship are ye in the Lord." He admits that some others needed, as there are cer- tainly some who do at this day, epistles or letters of commenda- tion, but they needed none. "Forasmuch as ye arc manifestly declared to be the epistle of Christ, written not with ink, but with the Spirit of the living God." How richly is this the ex- perience of nearly every Methodist minister! IIow joyously can we point to those we have led to Christ and say, Ye are our epistle ; ye are the seal of our apostleship ! And surely we need give no other proof of Christ, speaking in us. Ministers who can evcry-wheru furnish credentials written not with ink, but, with the Spirit of the living God, need no others. Men who will not accept God's authentication are not entitled to any other evidence.

1600.3 -4 Valid Ministry and True Church. 333

Third. This principle is laid down by a still higher authority. When John sent two of his disciples to Jesus to inquire, " Art thou he that should come, or look we for another?" Jesus wid unto them, "Go and show John again those things which ye do hear and see. The blind receive their sight, and the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear, the dead 'are raised up, and the poor have the Gospel preached to them.'' (Here Jesus rests the proof of his Messiahship on his works. iTiiese being such as belong to that office, prove that he who performs them is that person. If our Divine Master could rest the question] of his Messiahship on the demonstration of appro- priate works, then certainly the Apostles could rest the question of their embassadorship upon that test. If the Apostles could rest the question of their apostleship upon the legitimate re- sults of that office attaching to their ministrations, then we can rest the validity of our embassadorship with equal confi- dence upon the same results. Indeed, reason and Scripture and the divine example do not permit us to ask or offer any other proof of our divine mission and work.

II. They rejoiced in the fellowship of their spiritual experi- ence : " For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body, whether we be Jews or Gentiles, whether we be bond or free ; and have been all made to drink into one Spirit." 1 Cor. xii, 13. "2STow he which cstnblishcth us with you in Christ, and hath anointed us, is God; who hath also sealed us, and given the earnest of the Spirit in our hearts." 2 Cor. i, 21, 22. "But we all, with open face beholding as in h glass the glory of the Lord, are changed into the same image from glory to glory, even as by the Spirit of the Lord." 2 Cor. iii, IS. U there be "kindred spirits" in this world, they are those who have been made to drink into one Spirit, and that the Spirit of Christ. Oneness in Christ Jesus is the most perfect unity that i= found in any of the associations of earth. One nature, a renewed one ; one experience, one worship and service, one destiny. The minister can have no sweeter fellowship than spiritual com- munion with his people; no richer joy than to share with them their pleasures of devotion, their spiritual banquets at the table ^f the Lord ; their foretaste of glory at the gate of heaven. No ministers have ever shared this bliss more fully than those Of the Methodist Church. Saved ourselves, conscious of God's

334: A Valid Ministry and True Church. [July,

pardoning mercy and adopting love ; that the blood of Christ cleanseth us from all sin; dwelling in God and God dwelling in us, we have instructed and exhorted our people to seek the witness of the Spirit, and to go on to perfection. In our social meetings we have encouraged all our members, even babes in Christ, to declare what the Lord has done for them. In our class meetings and love-feasts we statedly hear them speak of the dealings of the Lord, and frequently go with them as far as the land of Beulah, and hear their last and sweetest utterances of the things of God. Our periodicals are weekly recording- death scenes as blessed and as sublime as were those of Stephen or Paul. Blessed be God for brethren and sisters who live happy and die happy in the Lord !

III. They rejoiced in their Christian integrity and fidelity: "I thank my God always on your behalf, for the grace of God which is given you by Jesus Christ ; that in every thing ye are enriched by him, in all utterance, and in all knowledge." 1 Cor. i, 4, 5. " Now I praise you, brethren, that ye remember me in all things, and keep the ordinances, as I delivered them to you." 1 Cor. xi, 2. And I wrote this same unto you, lest, when I came, I should have sorrow from them of whom I ought to rejoice ; having confidence in you all, that my joy is the joy of you all." 2 Cur. ii, 3. " Great is my boldness of speech toward you, great is my glorying of you : I am filled with comfort, I am exceeding joyful in all our tribulation. I rejoice therefore that I have confidence in you in all things." 2 Cor. vii, 4, 1G. Herein the Apostle rejoices greatly ; he is filled with comfort. He glories in their character, the grace they had received, their spiritual knowledge, their observance of the ordinances, and their reciprocal joy.

TVe can say quite as much of the members of our Church. Speaking for the ministry, we say to the laity, "We rejoice that we have "confidence in you in all things /" in your profession, its sincerity, its correctness; in your Christian principles, in their soundness and strength; in your devotion to God, its ardor and entirety ; in your love to the Chinch, your earnest attachment to the institutions and interests of the branch to which you belong; we have confidence in you in all things. The most important modification in our polity ever proposed lias been referred to your will by the General Conference.

1869 J A Valid Ministry and True Church. 335

No question of confidence or honor can be agitated between tlie laity and ministry of the Church. On such a question the laity would hear the ministry saying with one voice: " For we arc irlad, when we are weak, and ye are strong : and this also we wish, even your perfection." 2 Cor. xiii, 9. All the ques- tions under discussion among us are questions of expediency and usefulness. Here differences of judgment may arise, and even questions of conscience and earnest debate may arise ; but the wisdom, love, and prayer of the Church will settle them wisely and to the glory of God.

IV. The Apostles rejoiced in the co-operation of the Church in their spiritual enterprises. 1. By supporting the Pastors. " If we have sown unto you spiritual things, is it a great thing if Ave shall reap your carnal things?" 1 Cor. ix, 11.

2. By prayers. " Ye also helping together by prayer for us, that for the gift bestowed upon us by the means of many persons thanks may be given by many on our behalf." 2 Cor. i, 11.

3. By ministering to the saints. " For as touching the min- istering to the saints, it is superfluous for me to write to you : for I know the forwardness of your mind, for which I boast of you to them of Macedonia." 2 Cor. ix, 1, 2.

4. In their missionary work. "Not boasting of things without our measure, that is, of other men's labors ; but having hope, when your faith is increased, that we shall be enlarged by yon according to our rule abundantly, to preach the Gospel in the regions beyond you, and not to boast in another man's line of things made ready to our hand." 2 Cor. x, 15, 16.

5. In general usefulness. " And God is able to make all grace abound toward you ; that ye, always having all sufficiency in all things, may. abound to every good work." 2 Cor. ix, 8. "Therefore, my beloved brethren, be ye steadfast, immovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, forasmuch as ye know that your labor is not in vain in the' Lord." 1 Cor. xv, 58.

"We are under equal obligation to our people for their intelligent, generous, prayerful co-operation. They sustain their Pastors and their Missionaries at an annual expense of several millions of dollars. Though, owing to circumstances which as yet are found uncontrollable, some of the Pastors Ittffer severely, yet as a whole the support is liberal. They

336 A Valid Ministry and Tonic Church. [July,

also have provided four thousand parsonages, at a cost of some six millions of dollars; some twelve thousand churches, at an expense of about forty millions of dollars ; paid for property of our literary institutions more than ten millions of dollars. These are noble contributions. But the time which has been given to the Church by these princely laymen is, perhaps, worth still more. This property has not been accumulated and taken care of without much time and attention. The direction of our benevolent institutions is also largely under the super- vision and direction of our laymen, and not only taxes their purses, but also their time. The spiritual work they perform is even more important. The one hundred and seventy-five thousand officers and teachers in our Sunday-schools, the ten thousand Local Preachers, the tens of thousands of Class Leaders, the Stewards, the Trustees, a grand co-operative force, working voluntarily, yet officially, with the Pastors. The religious activities of the laity of the Methodist Episcopal Church have never been exceeded by those of any Church since the day of Pentecost. Never were Christian efforts to spread the knowl- edge of God and to advance the kingdom of Christ more wisely directed, or zealously prosecuted, or attended with greater success. The Church has been a royal priesthood. Her mem- bers have been steadfast, immovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord. Heaven and earth bear witness that their labors have not been in vain in the Lord.

Now is all this history a delusion? Are all these services vain ? Are we heathen ? Are we outside of the true Church ? Are all these proceedings irregular or antiscriptural ? Are we at best sharing only uncovenanted mercies? The comparison we have instituted between the Corinthian Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church answers all these inquiries.

If the Corinthian Church was a Christian Church, then is the Methodist Church a Christian Church. If the ministry by whose planting and watering the Corinthian Church was raised up and edified was a Christian ministry, then is tlie [Methodist ministry a Christian ministry. Wre know this from the concurrent consciousness of the ministers and the Church. We know it from the sameness of their spiritual endowments and divine qualifications. We know it from the similarity of the spirit and manner of executing their ministry. We know

1SC0.) A Valid Ministry and True Church. 337

it from the equal devotedness of the ministry. We know it from the oneness of the doctrines tanglit. "We know it from the fame legitimate results, the same soul-saving issues. We know- it because we see every-where our letters of commendation in the handwriting of God. We see every- where the seals of our ftpostleship on the hearts of the people. JSo ministry ever J.uew it more certainly, or rejoiced in it more divinely, or labored in it more scripturally. '''Doubtless thou art our Father, though Abraham be ignorant of us, and Israel acknowl- edge us not. Thou, O Lord, art our Father, our Redeemer; thy name is from everlasting."

As the ministers and laity of the Methodist Episcopal Church constitute as certainly and fully as did the Corinthian Church a true Church of the Lord Jesus Christ, so are the temples they build and consecrate to God Christian temples, as holy aud sacred as any God dwells in on earth. Most despicable are the meanness and arrogance that seek to degrade them by call- ing them "Meeting-houses" in contradistinction from other places of worship called "Churches," assumed to be more wcrcd. If the glory of the Lord filling these houses— if God's recording his name in them, and coming unto the people who assemble in them and blessing them — if this and that man's being born in them sanctifies them, then are they none other than houses of God, sanctuaries of the Most High, heavenly places in Christ Jesus, as holy and sacred and useful as any houses built for God.

Then, too, are the sacraments administered by us as valid and efficacious and scriptural as those enjoyed by any other branch of the Christian Church. All this we steadfastly be- lieve. Wre also believe in the "holy catholic" or general Church, and in communion with all saints. We are companions of all them that fear God and keep his precepts. Grace be with all them that love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity! Xow Onto Him that is able to do exceeding abundantly above all that we ask or think, according to the power that worketh in BB, unto Ilim be glory in the Church, by Christ Jesus, through- out all ages, world without end. Amen.

33S Litcralitij of the Garden of Eden. [July>

Abt. n.— literality of the account of the

GARDEN OF EDEN.

In the second and third chapters of Genesis is found an account of the garden of Eden as the first abode of man. The account given of that garden, and of the transactions said to have been enacted in connection therewith, have been made the subject of much investigation and criticism by good and learned men, and yet it cannot be affirmed that they have removed all difficulty and obscurity from the subject. So have the same topics been made the subject of much skeptical criticism, and even vulgar ridicule, by impious unbelievers, and yet they have failed to prove the history false or unreasonable. It never can be proved to be false, for the reason that there is no higher proof which can reach the case than the history itself. There is no prior or contemporary document which can contradict the Bible record, and there is nothing contradictory or im- possible in the account itself. The Bible story of the origin and first condition and acts of man has a decided advantage over all modem speculative theories; it claims to be a record of the facts, it, can never be disproved, and it is the only document which claims to be such a record.

It is not intended to join issue with Deism, or with any other form of open infidelity in this article; but there have been some disguised attacks upon the integrity of this portion of sacred history which demands attention. It has been insisted by some that the account of the garden of Eden, and of the sin of Adam and Eve and their expulsion, is only a myth, or, at most, only an allegory. It is with this class that the issue is joined. The following is a statement of the position that will be maintained.

The Integrity of the Christian Record requires us to maintain the literality op the account of the garden of Eden.

1. The account of the garden of Eden is a link in the chain of history so connected, that if this link be dissolved into a myth, or transformed into an allegory, it will not only sever the chain, but loosen it at the end from the first great starting point

1869J Literaliiy of the Garden of Eden, 339

of realities, leaving no land-fastening. It is a part of the account of creation. The history of the garden embrace- the only account we have of the origin of our race, for the man whom God formed out of the dust of the ground was the same man which he put in the garden, and who also was the father of the race, so that if the garden is a myth the man is a myth also ; and if the story of the garden is an allegory, the story of the man is also an allegory; and so far as the Scriptures are concerned we have no account of the origin of our race, and the Bible history of humanity ends in a myth or an allegory as you trace it upward.

The first sin committed by man, commonly characterized us the fall, constitutes the principal topic of the account of the garden, so that if this story is a myth the Scriptures give us no matter-of-fact account of the introduction of sin into this world. Cut that first sin, said to have been committed in the garden, constitutes the historic stand-point of the world's redemption by Christ. Make the account of the garden a myth, and you leave only a myth for the first great historic event in the stor}r of redemption, which is the greatest wonder of all the wonders that ever astonished angels, men, or devils.

The story of the garden, and of the transactions said to have taken place therein, constitutes the beginning of the only his- tory we have of our race, and if it is a myth the Bible gives us no truthful account of the commencement of the human family. The Bible history makes the same Adam and Eve who were in the garden, and were driven out of M on account of their dis- obedience, the father and mother of us all. The Adam and Eve of the garden were the father and mother of Cain and Abel. The same Adam and Eve were the father and mother of Seth, from whom Xoah descended, who alone with his family crossed the flood to people the world on this side. From Noah Abraham descended, and Christ descended from Abraham, who was the promised Seed of the woman of the garden that was to bruise the serpent's head. Thus, if you make a myth of the story of the garden, the only history of humanity ends in a myth where it began, if you trace it backward. Make a myth of the story <*f the garden, and the genealogy of Christ ends in a myth.

2. The garden of Eden, with the events historically connected With it. are so referred to by later inspired writers as to impeach 'iie whole Bible history, if that be only a myth or an allegory.

340 IAtcrality of the Garden of Eden. [July,

The recorded facts are referred to by various writers, not as to a myth or an allegory, but as to historical facts. " And Lot lifted up his eye?, and beheld all the plain of Jordan, that it was well , watered every-wliere before the Lord destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, even as the garden of the Lord." Gen. xiii, 10. " The Lord shall comfort Zion ; he shall comfort all her waste places, and he will make her wilderness like Eden, and her desert like the garden of the Lord." Isa, li, 3. " Thou hast been in Eden, the garden of the Lord." Ezek. xxviii, 13. " I have made him fair by the multitude of his branches : so that all the trees of Eden that were in the garden of God envied him." Ezek. xxxi, 9. " The land is as the garden of Eden before them, behind them a desolate wilderness." Joel ii, 3. "If I covered my transgressions as Adam." Job xxxi, 33. The above texts all clearly refer to the account of the garden of Eden as a fact in history, known and believed.

The New Testament contains still more conclusive references to the history of the garden of Eden. Christ, in his reply to the Pharisees on the subject of divorce, quoted the very words of Adam, uttered in the garden of Eden over the woman whom, according to the account, God had formed out of one of his ribs. " For this cause shall a man leave his father and his mother and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh." Matt, xix, 5 ; Gen. ii, 24. " But I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent beguiled Eve through his subtilty, so your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ." 2 Cor. xi, 3. "Adam was first formed, then Eve. And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression." 1 Tim. ii, 13, 14. These allusions to the gar- den of Eden are such as to prove the account to be real history, or to impeach the iSTew Testament by supposing that it rests some of its fundamental principles upon a myth or an allegory.

3. Paul selects the transactions of the garden as his first grand stand-point from which he contemplates the world's redemption. The great Apostle grounds the necessity of re- demption upon what took place in the garden, by which the whole race was involved in sin, and from this point he runs a parallel between the Adam of the garden, the firet Adam, that sinned, and Christ, the second Adam, the redeemer and restorer of what was lost in the first Adam.

1SC9.1 Literality of the Garden of Eden. 341

God said to the serpent in the garden, "I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her Seed; it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel." Gen. iii, 15. This has been understood as referring to Christ as the Seed of the woman ; and though this interpreta- tion of the text is not essential to the validity of Christianity, nor to the soundness of the present general argument, it is proper to show that the idea is interwoven into the entire history of redemption. The genealogy of Christ is carefully traced baek tu the Adam and Eve of the garden. Christ was promised to Abraham as his Seed, and Paul, referring to this fact, no doubt with reference to what was said in the garden, that the Seed of the woman should bruise the serpent's head, comments as fol- lows: "Now to Abraham and his Seed were the promises made. He saith not, and to seeds, as of many ; but as of one, and to thy Seed, which is Christ." Gal. iii, 16. And so literal were the words uttered in the garden concerning the Seed of the woman, that their fulfillment required that Christ should be the seed of the woman without a human father. He was the son of a virgin, and was thus the seed of the woman in a sense not true of any other human being. This makes the words uttered in the garden, which some call a myth or an allegory, not only literal history, but in this item a prophecy of the most profound importance. Paul gives this subject special notice when he says, "But when the fullness of time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were under the law.'* Gal. iv, 4, 5. Also, no doubt with direct reference to what was said in the garden, that the Seed of the woman should bruise the serpent's head, Paul says, " The God of peace shall bruise Satan under your feet shortly." Rom. xvi, 20.

frt. Paul, while discussing the great doctrine of the resurrec- tion, gives us the following parallels between the Adam of the pardeu and Christ: "But now is Christ risen from the dead, *nd become the first-fruits of thorn that slept. For since by l!*an came death, by man came also the resurrection of the 'lead. For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be •Hade alive." 1 Cor. xv, 20-22. lSTo one can doubt that the A.dam here named, by whom death came and in whom all die, U the same Adam upon whom the sentence of death was

Fornnu Semes, Vol. XXL— 22

342 Literality of the Garden of Eden. [J\il\-,

passed in the garden of Eden; and if so, Paul must have re- garded that account as literal history, or he would not have- thus reasoned from it in proof of the important doctrine of the resurrection of the dead.

But Paul gives Ills strongest argument in his Epistle to the Romans: "Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin ; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned : for until the law sin was in the world: but sin is not imputed where there is no law. Xevertheless death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over them that had not sinned after the similitude of Adam's transgression, who is the figure of Jlim that was to come. But not as the offense, so also is the free gift: for if through the offense of one many be dead, much more the grace of God, and the gift by grace, which is by one man, Jesus Christ, hath abounded unto many. And not as it was by one that sinned, so is the gift; for the judg- ment, was by one to condemnation, but the free gift is of many offenses unto justification. For if .by one man's offense death reigned by one ; much more they which receive abundance of grace and of the gift of righteousness shall reign in life by one, Jesus Christ. Therefore, as by the offense of one judgment came upon all men to condemnation; even so by the righteous- ness of one the free gift came upon all men unto justification of life." Rom. v, 12-1S.

The account of the garden of Eden narrates the only trans- actions in the history of humanity to which Paul can have re- ferred in the above scripture; and if we rarely that into a myth, or transform it into an allegory, we leave Paul nothing but a mythical or an allegorical foundation for his masterly argument, at the profoundness of which the deepest Christian theologians have been awed, and the most thinking infidels have wondered. It appears impossible that any one should doubt that Paul's one man that sinned, by whose sin death en- tered into the world, and passed upon all because it involved all in sin, is the man who sinned in the garden. There is no other one man named in the Bible by whom sin and death can have entered the world. Jt appears impossible to doubt that the Adam of Paul's argument, from whom death reigned un- til the time of Moses without any written law, is the same Adam upon whom the sentence of death was pronounced in

1S00.3 laterality of the Garden of Eden. 343

Eden. The argument of the Apostle is built upon two prin- cipal facts.

First, Adam, the one man that sinned, by whose offense many, that is, all, were made sinners, creating the necessity for the redemption of the race, was the first man of the race, the lather of all men. Jews and Gentiles alike suffered by the sin of the one man, and alike needed redemption. Hence it is that this one man, Adam of the garden, was the father of Scth, from whom the race is traced down to Noah, from whom both the Jews and Gentiles have their descent.

The second fact upon which Paul's argument is built is, that Christ, the Redeemer, descended from the same one man, Adam, was the Seed of the one woman, Eve, the wife of the one man, Adam, so that the Gentiles, who could claim no rela- tion to him through Abraham, could claim such relation through Noah, from whom Jews and Gentiles are traced in one genea- logical line up to Adam. Corresponding to these facts, we have the genealogy of Christ, carefully traced up to Adam and Eve, who figured in the garden, and were turned out of it on account of their sin, connecting the Christ of the garden of Geth- eemane and the cross, with the Adam, the sinner, in the garden of Eden. Thus are all men who need redemption, and Christ the Redeemer, ecjually connected with Adam, the first sinner. The argument then is, that as the whole human race has de- scended from Adam, the first sinner, and are sinners like him, So Christ, after the flesh, descended from the same Adam, and stands related, not only to the Jews through Abraham, but to the whole lost race through Noah and Adam. Break this chain, by which Christ the Redeemer, together with the whole redeemed race, stands connected with the Adam of the garden, or remove the literality of that garden by dissolving it, into a myth or converting it into an allegory, and you will subvert Paul's argument, and overthrow his entire view of the plan of redemption.

■i. The laxity of interpretation which is necessary to reach the conclusion that the account of the garden of Eden is a niyth or an allegory, if allowed, will enable every person to explain away a large portion of the Scriptures so far as any settled and literal sense is concerned. The story of Cain and Abel can quite as easily be considered a myth; 60 can the ac-

344 laterality of the Garden of Eden. [July,

count of the translation of Enoch. The story of the flood and Noah's ark may as easily be turned into a myth. The call of Abraham, and in particular his call to offer his son Isaac, has no stronger claim to be a literal history than the account of the garden of Eden. Moses in his ark of bulrushes would be a beautiful myth under this latitudinarian mode of interpreta- tion. The booh of Job is easily converted into a grand legend. The exit of Elijah becomes a splendid myth, and the whole book of Jonah is no more than a legend, and an extravagant one at that. The history of the miraculous conception has been declared to be a legend, which was written and added to St. Matthew's Gospel in after years. If we allow ourselves thus to tamper with the record, landmark after landmark will vanish, stand-point after stand-point will be changed, until we shall have no anchoring ground left into which to cast the moorings of our faith when we find ourselves drifting before the storm.

5. There is absolutely no necessity for such a latitudinarian construction of the account of the garden of Eden as will make it a myth or an allegory. There is no sufficient reason for it, and it can result from nothing short of a spirit of wild specu- lation, or an intention to impair the Christian record and weaken our faith in the same. This position is worthy of a brief examination.

It is not contended that the document has been mistrans- lated, and that a new and correct translation makes it read like a myth or an allegory. Such a position would challenge examination by affirming a sufficient reason, though the affir- mation were false ; but no such claim has been set up.

It is not pretended that the document has been changed by design or by the errors of copyists, and that to bring it back to its original state will show it to be a myth or an allegory. If it were claimed that some more ancient Hebrew copies had been found by which it would stand corrected, every true Christian scholar, and every firm believer in the Scriptures would say, Bring forward your ancient copies, prove their an- tiquity, and let us compare and make all required correction, that wc may have the record as God gave it to man. Hut no such position is attempted to be maintained, and it would be only a pretense if such attempt was made.

1SC9.3 Literality of the Garden of Eden. 345

It is not necessary to convert the story of the garden of Eden into a myth or an allegory as a means of conforming the record to the truth of science. Xo modern scientific discov- eries contradict the literality of the account of the garden of Eden, and of Adam and Eve. The theology of the Church once taught that this earth was a stationary plain, anQ that the sun moved around it; hut science has corrected that error, though the priests and doctors for a time fought manfully against it. But that error and its correction does not involve the truth of the record, but only our interpretation of it. Though men have often been proved mistaken in regard to science, and may be again, yet all real science is truth itself, and our opinions must stand corrected by its undoubted affirmations. So conclusive, however, are the proofs of the inspiration of the Scriptures, that if clearly-ascertained principles of science con- tradict their supposed teaching, we should at once suspect our understanding of them ; for the conflict cannot be with what the Scriptures really teach, but only with our interpretation of them. But no scientific principles have been developed which conflict with the literality of the account of the garden of Eden. It is not a question which can be brought to the test of any of the sciences. Astronomy does not reach it, geology (Iocs not reach it, anatomy does not reach it, physiology does not reach it ; in a word, no science reaches it. It is claimed that geology has demonstrated that the earth is more than six thousand years old. Be it so ; but whether the account, of the garden of Eden is an historic fact or a myth does not depend upon the age of the world. The Bible history of generations teaches that the present race of human beings, the children of Adam, have existed upon earth only about six thousand years, and geology furnishes no proof that our race has existed longer than the Bible history of Adam and his descendants allow. How long the earth existed before God created Adam and planted the garden is another question, which has nothing to do with the character of this part of the history as literal or mythical.

The conclusion reached, then, is, that to pronounce the ac- count of the garden of Eden a myth or an allegory is to sur- render a fundamental document before any legal demand has been made for it ; it is to make a free-will offering to infidelity,

346 Literality of the Garden of Edtn. [July,

and one which will impair the foundation of our religion. It will leave us without the slightest history of our race, for the llible history of humanity does not connect us with the man created and described in the first chapter of Genesis, but with the man Adam of the garden of Eden. It will leave us with- out any account of the introduction of sin into this world ; for the only account we have is contained in the history of the garden of Edeu as man's first abode. It will subvert many of the most sublime truths and richest promises, which are so connected with and based upon the literal existence of the garden of Eden, and the historic truth of what is said to have transpired therein, as to stand or fall with the lit- erality of that account. Let no man, hand upon that document.

Akt. III.— WIIEDOX OX MATTHEW.

A Commentary on the Gospels of Matthew and Marl;. Intended for Popular Use. By D. D. Whedox, D..D. Tenth Thousand. New York: Carlton t Porter.

" The Evangelists," says Bcngel, " contain the rudiments of the New Testament;" and of the Evangelists Matthew is, in many regards, the chief. " There is not," according to Dr. A. Clarke, "one truth or doctrine in the whole oracles of God which is not taught in this Evangelist. The outlines of the whole spiritual system are here correctly laid down : even Paul him- self has added nothing; he has amplified and illustrated the truths contained in this Gospel ; but, even under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, neither he nor any of the other Apostles have brought to light one truth, the prototype of which hns not been found in the words and acts of our blessed Lord as related by Matthew." This Gospel, according to another, is "the most singular in its composition, the most wonderful in its contents, and the most important in its object, that was ever exhibited to the notice of mankind." A good commentary, therefore, on the Gospel by Matthew ought to be an Institute of Theology. If the exegesis be clear and correct, if the doc- trinal topics be properly presented and intelligently discussed, and if all the lights of learning, research, and modern science

1SG9.] Whedon on Matthew. 347

be thrown upon the sacred page, a commentary on Matthew's Gospel will be, substantially, a complete system of salvation.

We have placed at the head of this article the " Commen- tary on the Gospels," by Dr. Whedon, not because Ave purpose to consider the observations made on any other of the Gospels than Matthew, nor because we intend to write an essay with this book for our text, or suggestive topic, but because we hope by an analysis of Dr. Whedon's exposition of the chiefest of the Evangelists, and by a liberal quotation from his comments, to show our readers how complete a theodicy is herein presented, and how eminently worthy of a wide circulation in the Church is the book itself. Let no one be misled by the declaration that this commentary is " intended for popular use." That it is adapted to every order of mind, that it is written in a pithy, pungent, popular style, that every truth is made plain lo the commonest understanding, and that the charms of a faultless rhetoric linger on every page, are statements which might be abundantly verified. But, at the same time, there is no lack of logic, no dearth of learning, and no scarcity of philosophy and metaphysics. The work which the author undertook is thoroughly and exhaustively done. He attempted " the clear presentation of the meaning and spirit of the text itself; " and this endeavor has been crowned with a rare and glorious success. The logic is not dry, the learning is not pedantic, the philosophy is not false, and the metaphysics are not muddy. In a style clear as the light glows the luminous truth. Every page sparkles with brief, pertinent sayings, which gleam out suddenly, like the stars in heaven. The incisive, analytic mind of the author cuts through every false gloss, exegesi>, or doctrine, and displays, in the beautiful harmony of revelation, the manifold wisdom of God. The garnishings of rhetoric and cruditio7i do not hide or obscure the precious truth of the inspired word ; they are the pictures of silver for the apples of gold. That it is the constant purpose of Dr. Whedon to bring out and make plain the mi ml of the Sjurit, as expressed in the text, is a fact to which every page of this commentary bears testimony.

This commentary should be studied with constant reference to the " Historical Synopsis of the Gospels," which is presented, in a tabulated form, as a sort of preface both to the text and

34:8 Whedon on Matthew. tJnly,

the note?. The manifestation and ministry of our Lord is embraced in the following periods :

1. The Infancy and Childhood.

2. The Qualification.

3. The Preparatory Ministry.

4. The Platform and Extending Ministry.

5. Apostolic Commission, and Ministry at Zenith.

6. Transfiguration, and Ministry of Sorrow and Struggle.

7. The Final Journey to Jerusalem, and Contest there.

8. The Suffering.

9. Resurrection and Ascension.

The incidents of these several periods are arranged in sec- tions, and designated by paragraphs, so that the historical synopsis is complete ; and being complete, it is also invaluable.

Bengel's and "Wesley's notes are remarkable for the clearness and accuracy of their definitions; to these "VThedon's must be added. And a definition often amounts to a demonstration. It clears away the mists of error, as it elucidates and sets forth the truth. We append a few examples from our author :

The Gospel. — The term Gospel is compounded of the two Saxon words god, good, aud spd, news. It is the good news of a Saviour's birth, life, and death, sent from God to man. The Greek word evayyiXiov, cvangel'mm, (whence comes our word evangelist,) has precisely parallel etymology. The word gospel, from being the name for the subject of the four histories of our Lord, became, almost immediately after their publication, the title of the books themselves. Hence this book is called the Gospel according to Matthew, as being its author.

A type is a person or object divinely designed to prefigure ei future character or object to which it bears designed resemblance. The future object so prefigured is called the antitype. Type is therefore visible prediction, as prophecy is spoken prediction. Thus the sacrifices were divinely-appointed types of the great atoning sacrifice of Christ. An entire set or combination of objects may be typical of an entire set of antitypical objects.

Jesus Christ. — The word Jesus is, in Greek form, the same as Joshua in Hebrew, and implies Saviour. Our Lord was so named (verse 21) by express command of the angel: first, to indicate that he was the Saviour from sin ; and second, to show that he was the antitype of Joshua, his type ; for as Joshua was lender of Israel, bringing them into the earthly Canaan, Jesus is a Saviour, bringing Ids people into a heavenly Canaan. So, often in the Bible, names are significant and typical, being divinely and pro- phetically given for that very purpose. The word Christ is not

1869.] Whedon on Matthew. 349

primarily a proper name, but is a word of royal office. It is de- rived from the Greek x?<0)-> chrio, to anoint; and is exactly parallel with the Hebrew -word Messiah, both signifying anointed. For as the Hebrews anointed kings and priests to their dignity, so kings and priests were called anointed ; and so the prophets foretold him who was to come under the royal and priestly title of Anointed, Messiah, or Chbistos. Under this title he was earnestly waited for by the Jews, and even by the Samaritans, as the Samaritan woman testifies : I know that Messias cometh, which is called Christ. John iv, 25. Hence our Saviour's name was Jesus ; and his office was to be the Christ, or royal Messiah.

Holy Ghost. — The word ghost is derived from the Saxon word gast, and signifies spirit. Ghostly, in older English, (of which ghastly is a cognate,) signifies spiritual. Holy Ghost is, therefore, synonymous with Holy Spirit. Inasmuch as the word ghost is almost exclusively applied in the English of the present day to the apparition of a departed human spirit, it would be better, per- haps, in case of a new translation, to disuse the word ghost in this connection.

In the comment on the verse, " Except ye be converted and become as little children," we have the following series of definitions :

Conversion generally implies our being turned, by the influence of truth and the Divine Spirit, with the consenting act of our own will, from our course as sinners to the ways of religion. But here, perhaps, it more specially signifies the being brought to renounce the disposition to seek pre-eminence or power over our fellows, especially in the Church. This was now the besetting sin of the disciples, of which it was their momentous duty to repent, and, by the aid of divine grace, be turned or converted. In this work God does the converting ; man does the repenting and the turning to the new course. Justification is simply the pardon of our sins through the merit of Christ. Thereby we are treated by God as if we were just, or innocent of sin past. Regeneration, or the being born again, is the bestowment of those new feelings of love to God and his cause by -which we become in heart and soul children of God ; and we are thence adopted into his family. Sanc- tification is the power and disposition, mure or less complete, to live free from sin, to overcome temptation, and to dwell in the uninterrupted enjoyment of God's smile.

The subject of the Temptation of Jesus is thus introduced,

and the comments correspond with the indications here given :

For great missions the preparation is great trials. It was befitting that the newly inaugurated Prince of Light should come into a trial-contest with the prince of darkness. Our views of this transaction we present with sincere diffidence, giving often what

350 Whedon on Matthew. [July,

appears to us as on the whole the best solutions, rather than dog- matic certainties.

We can view this transaction neither as a mere train of thought.

as a vision, as a parable, nor a myth ; but as a great verity, occu- pying a most significant place in the system of sacred realities. The first Adam truly was tempted, and fell ; the second Adam was as truly tempted, and won the victory. Hence he became the great head of triumphant humanity. Tempted in all points as we, he shows how to overcome. We remark :

1. The history implies in the abstract human nature of Jesus the power to sin. This is necessary in order to a responsible, free agency. If he had no power to choose sin, it is difficult to see how he could be tempted to a choice, not only impossible, but consciously impossible. If he could not comply with temptation, there could be no danger, and truly no temptation at all. If he ■was unable to comply with the temptation, there was no virtue in the non-compliance. He was that much no free agent ; his non- compliance was necessary and mechanical, and so non-meritorious. The supposition that Christ could not sin raises him above all fitness to be an example for us as one " tempted in all points like as we are, yet without sin." Propose such a pattern to a fallible sinner, and he can answer conclusively, "Make it impossible for me to sin and I will be as holy as he." None but a free agent can be an example for a free agent. Nor is any but a free agent capable of responsible probation. This free agency implies.not, indeed, a 'preferential sieite of soul for evil, as exists in depraved man, but a susceptibility, as in the perfect first Adam, to impres- sions which, voluntarily followed out to excess or misdirection, would become sin. This view implies no uncertainty of his accomplishing our redemption. For, in full view of all possibilities, the infinite wisdom and foreknowledge of God had selected, for. Messiah, that being, of all others, who, he foresaw, would, with perfect free will, prefer God to Satan, and in spite of all temp- tation, prove true to his redemptional office. Hence, while there was an intrinsic possibilit;/ in the thing, there was a full and perfect certainty upon which the divine mind could rest, that that possible catastrophe of his fall would not take place.

2. In the whole transaction we are to view the Saviour in pure humanity. As he is led by the Spirit to the scene, so the blessed human one stood sole and singular m the universe; — a pure lone man, as the first Adam himself, leaning, indeed, as every Christian may, on the divine arm, yet as truly able to fall by bis own will from all union with God as our first progenitor, and truly able, by freely standing, to maintain an identification with God, impos- sible to the man of Eden.

Special commendation lias been bestowed, and we think- justly, on Dr. "Whedon'e exposition of our Lord's Sermon on the Mount. Wo quote only the plan or "skeleton " of the

1S09.1 Wficdon on Matthew. 351

discourse, which is the result of the commentator's own analysis. The topical arrangement adopted is especially admirable.

Plax.

I. Christian Piety, as distinguished feom: Ieeeligiox. Chap. v, 3-16.

1. Nine benedictions upon humility, penitence, meekness, aspira- tions after goodness, mercy, purity, peace-inaking, and holy sufl'er- ing for righteousness' sake. 3-12.

2. Woes pronounced upon contrary traits. Luke vi, 24-26.

3. Active duties enjoined upon the blessed ones. 13-10.

II. Chkisti.^ Piety, as distinguished fbom Judaism. Chap. v, 17; vi, 10.

1. Is the completion of pure Judaism. 17-20.

2. Distinguished from degenerate Judaism, in regard to (1.) an- gry passions, (2.) sexual purity, (3.) oaths, (4.) conciliation, (5.) moral love, (0.) sincerity in alms, prayer, and lasting, v, 20-vi, IS.

III. Christianity, as distinguished peom Gextilism. Chap, vi, 19-vii, 27.

1. Supreme trust in God our provident Father, vi, 19-34.

(1.) The earth-treasures must not come into competition with the heavenly treasures. 19-23.

(2.) The world-god must not stand in competition with our heavenly Father. 24-34.

2. Supreme reverence for God as our adjudging Father, vii, 1-27.

il.) Usurp not Ins place as Judge, vii, 1-6. 2.} Confide in his more than earthly paternity. 7-12. 3.) Fnter the narrow way to him, avoiding all false guides. 13-20.

(4.^ Profession no assurance before his judgment-bar. 21-23. (5.) We stand or fall in judgment only by obedience to Christ's Words. 24-27.

The "Plan" we believe to be as correct as it is simple, having a genuine basis in the discourse itself. We add nothing here of tlie comment proper, except the note on the eighth vcr^e of the fifth chapter.

Blessed are the pure in heart — Here is a trait of character Which Grod'fl Spirit can alone produce. This is sanctilication. It may exist in different degrees. Il may be partial ; it may be com- plete. Even when complete, it may, in this world, coexist with many an error of judgment, and many a defect of teraperameut. Yet it enables us to live without offending God, so as to maintain for us the permanent undiminished fullness of the divine approba- tion. And when the heart is clean, the eye is clear. When purity makes us like God, then can we realize and see his countenance. The eye of the pure spirit beholds the pure Spirit. Through the

352 Whedon on Matthew. [July,

beams he shed down upon us, we can look up and see the face that shines. Jn the light of his smi,le Ave behold his smile. So the pure in heart shall see God.

It is, perhaps, the best service which we can render our readers, as well as the clearest exhibition of the soundness, ability, and excellence of Dr. Whedon's annotations, to pre- sent, under appropriate heads, some of the doctrinal views which he has set forth.

1. Of maii* s fallen and depraved nature.

As the corruption of the tree lies back of the evil fruit, so the. corruption of the man's nature lies back of his evil doings. Cor- ruption, depravity, then, lies not, as some teach, merely in the actions, but in the nature bade of the actions. Bad actions usually grow out of a bad nature.

• More full, specific, and conclusive is the commentary on the thirty-third, thirty-fourth, and thirty-fifth verses of the twelfth chapter.

There is a sort of religious doctrine which teaches that men are not depraved in their natures, but only in their actions. Their nature back of their actions, it is claimed, is either innocent or it is neutral — neither good nor bad ; and all of human depravity consists in the fact that men do freely act bad, and always will do so. Now, in opposition to this doctrine, our Lord teaches that there is in men a moral nature back of moral action ; just as the tree is back of the fruit, just as the fountain is back of the stream, and just as the treasury full of good or evil is drawn from by the owner. It follows from this fact of man's fallen moral nature, that in order to be pure in life he must become pure in heart. There must be a change in heart in order that there should be a complete change in moral action. This does not indeed deny that in individual acts (as in the fall of the angels or of man) their free will may choose wrong from a right nature. But in their perma- nent history the actions and the character will conform to each other.

Now no nature can change itself. If the nature is bad, the re- sulting action is bad ; and if the action is bad, that bad action cannot react and make the nature good. So that no mere natural man can regenerate himself; that is, make his own nature good and pure. No lilt hy stream can make its fountain clean. No corrupt fruit can send back a stream of pure sap and regenerate the tree.

There must then be a divine aid. A gracious power must be able to enter our nature, and there, by power, make all right, or must communicate to the fallen nature the power to perform those conditions by which it may come right. Fatalism teaches that

1869.] Wliedon on Matthew. 353

God by arbitrary power seizes some part of the human race, and absolutely makes them right. Our own Church teaches that God rives the power to all men by his Holy Spirit to do works meet for repentance ; that grace used obtains further grace aud power ; bo that by a gracious ability, and not by a natural ability, man may attain reformation, regeneration, and salvation. Yet that grace is not irresistible, nor necessarily unresisted, but accepted and used in action, with a full power of willing and acting other- wise instead.

Tree corrupt — Moral corruption of nature lies to a great degree in the state of the dispositions. It consists in a permanent temper and purpose to indulge the appetites, passions, and desires, with little or no regard to the divine law or the obligations of absolute right. Hence sin is either a state or an action which is a trans- gretsion of the laic.

0 generation of vipers — Our Lord in the last verse had used these doctrines to show that he was pure and good, beeause_ his actions were so. He now turns upon his opponents to convince them that they were the reverse in nature, and must be the reverse in action. The terra generation of vipers indicates that depravity is inborn. As the viper's nature 'is derived by propagation from ita original parents, so man's moi'al nature is derived from his pro- genitors. Divine grace is therefore necessary as that which by nature we cannot have ; and a man must as a free agent use that grace which worketh within him both to will aud to do. He must not receive the grace of God in vain. JToto can ye — They could not by mere nature, any more than an Ethiop can make himself white. Experience, Scripture, and reason teach this. God's grace, over and above nature, must give the power of change, and man must use it. Abundance of the heart — Abundance of the disposi- tions back of the will.

Good treasure of the heart — A most beautiful expression. The heart of a good man is a treasure of good things. Divine truths, blessed expressions, spiritual susceptibilities, holy emotions, dwell there richly, and abound. Like a wealthy banker, he has only to draw the 'precious treasure forth whenever occasion demands. Eoil treasure — But the depraved man also has his treasury of evil Hostile feelings against truth and goodness, skeptical arguments, malign emotions, purpose to prefer self-interest to right, hatred of ^od and religion, are all heaped together, and ready to furnish ot their store whenever the occasion demands.

2. Of God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost That God is a Spirit is plentifully revealed in Scripture. Yet this Spirit speaks of his Spirit. Gen. vi, 3; lix, 21. God sends forth this his Spirit. Prov. i, 23; Isa. xlii, 1. This Spirit thus ■eat forth is an agent, Acts viii, 20; x, 10; and a person, being designated by a personal pronoun. John xv, 20. This Spirit is associated with Father and Son in the baptismal command, and, 'ike the other two, has his name or personal appellation. Matt.

354 Whedon on Matthew. [July,

xxviii, IP. So llic same three appear in the apostolical benedic- tion. -2 Cor. xiii, 18. Here the Father is the personal source of love, the Son of grace, and the Holy Spirit of communion. Yet God's Spirit must be divine, omnipotent, and eternal. God is uni- versally in Scripture declared to be one. Here, therefore, we find that in some one mysterious respect God is trine, and in some Other unfathomable respect lie is one. Here, then, we have a Three-One, a Triune, a Trinity. This view of the sacred word has been faith- fully held by the faithful Christian Church in all ages. Wherever it is denied, rationalism and skepticism are sure gradually to gain the ascendant, and the Gospel life is lost.

The doctrine of the Christian Church in all ages, as derived from the word of God, is thus expressed in our first Article of Faith: "There is but one living and true God, everlasting, without body or parts, of infinite power, wisdom, and goodness : the maker and preserver of all things, visible and invisible. And in unity of this Godhead there are three persons, of one substance, power, and eternity— the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost."

3. Of the atonement made by our Lord Jesus Christ.

Sickness, mortality, temporal death, are as truly a part of the great penalty of sin as the very pains of hell itself. All these were borne by the Saviour in the form of atoning sufferings on the. cross. It was by this substitutional suffering in our stead, that the man Ciiri-t Jesus was entitled to redeem us from hell, and relieve us from even the earthly part of our woes. He healed sicknesses, therefore, by bearing even them in his own body on the tree.

Give his life — Even as the Son of man showed himself greatest of all by the greatest sufferings and sacrifices of all. Give his life a ransom — An atonement — an atonement by death, an atonement by substitution — is here briefly but powerfully expressed. The Saviour will give his life as a ransom for the. souls of man}'. Now a ransom is always a substitute. The price paid is put in the place of the bondage of the ransomed person. If a sum be paid to ran- som a slave, the money goes to the master, in the place of the slave's servitude. If the ransom goes to redeem a captive, the ransom is placed to the conqueror, in the room of the captive. If a Damon gives his Life to ransom Pythias from the Bcaifbld, Da- mdn's death is the substitute for Fythias's death. And so if Christ's death be given to ransom sinners from death, his death must be a substitute for their death, lie dies in their stead. His death is temporal, and theirs is eternal. So that if they by faith accept his death in place of their own, they may be saved from that impending doom.

AY inn our Lord proclaimed the atonement finished, the stroke of his power smote three realms: the realm of grace, of nature, and of death. In the frst, the temple's vail was rent, indieatively of the departure of the old dispensation and its nullity at the ap- proach of the new. Ill the second, the earth was rent, indicating that the same power would destroy and renew again the face of

1869.1 Whedon on Matthew. 355

nature. In the third, the dead rose from their open graces, indi- cating that the dominion of the destroyer should be destroyed, and the human race be raised from his power to a complete resur- rection.

Passover — This was the great feast of the Jews in commemora- tion of their departure from Egypt, when the destroying angel who cut olf the first-born of the Egyptians was made to pass over the residences of the Jews harmless. A victim was upon that occasion slain by divine command, and his blood stricken on the two door-posts and upon the lintel, or top cross-] >iece, as a sign that the house was the abode of an Israelite. See Exod. xii, 1-30. In annual commemoration of this the following passover rites were appointed: On the tenth day of the month Nisan, (corresponding nearly to our April,) a male lamb without blemish, of either sheep or goats, was selected. It was to be kept until the fourteenth day of Nisan, when it was to be slain by the priest between the two evenings of three and six o'clock, and the blood was to be poured at the foot of the great altar. At evening each family, including not less than ten persons, was to eat the lamb. They were orig- inally commanded to do this with all the tokens of rapid depart- ure. Their feet were to be shod, their loins girt, their staff in hand, and they were to eat, not reclining, but standing, and their bread was to be unleavened, and the whole was to be done " with haste." "Bitter herbs" were to be eaten, as a symbol of their bitter sufferings in Egypt. Seven days were set apart (Exod. xii, 15) as a feast of unleavened bread. The first and last were to be days of holy convocation. The first day commenced with the eve on which the paschal lamb was eaten. In the Passion Week it was Friday. See note on verse 5.

We here remark that the victim was a true vicarious sacrifice. Egypt for his sins was punished by the selection of a human rep- resentative, namely, his first-born. Israel too was a sinner; but he Buffered by substitution of the "lamb without spot." The pas- chal lamb was slain, and was to be, not boiled like other sacrifices, but roasted, to indicate by fire the terrible agonies of the atoning victim ; and being roasted upon the cross spit, he was literally crucified. The blood of the first victim sprinkled upon Israel's lintel is a most remarkable symbol of that blood sprinkled upon our souls, whereby God knows us for his own, and spares us when he makes inquisition for blood.

The passover lamb is indeed a wondrous type of " the Lamb of God thattaketh away the sin of the world j" by whose sprinkled blood we are saved from death and redeemed from spiritual bond- age. It was on the passover night that our Lord instituted the sacrament as a bloodless continuation of the same commemoration, divested of its special Jewish significance. And our Lord himself Was slain at this very feast, which was a). pointed by Moses to pre- dict beforehand his 'death. On this occasion the Jews slew not only the typical victim, but the real victim typified by their feasts and sacritices.

356 Whcdon on Matthew. [July,

Sorrowful even unto death — Not sorrowful in anticipation of death ; but a sorrow, not his own, pressed so heavily and so damply upon him, that it would drown and quench the spark of life but for the divine aid impregnating and strengthening his human person. What sorrow was this? Doubtless the Prophet Isaiah (liii, 4) furnishes the true answer: " Surely he hath borne our griefs and carried our sorrows." We do not here find any warrant for the supposition that God, the Father Almighty, poured the thunderbolts of personal anger on his suffering Son. But as Christ suffered as a substitute for a sinful world, so he did volun- tarily, by his own sad consent, encounter all the woe that could be inflicted by hell and earth, (the natural executioners of absolute justice under the government of God,) and thus with his infinite dignity do honor to the law of eternal justice. And in view of this, having done homage to justice in his own person, he is enti- tled to bestow paradise, and confer righteousness on all who obe- diently accept him as their substitute and Redeemer.

And they crucified Jam — The victim was nailed to the wooden post, with his arms extended upon the cross beam, his four limbs being pierced by the spikes. The post sunk into the ground with a sudden shock, producing an agonizing torture. By pain, by loss of blood, and by mental suffering, death slowly and wearily would come. The cross was a Roman mode of execution, reserved for slaves and the vilest of the race, and therefore selected by the Jews, although not a Jewish punishment, as a proof of their con- tempt. The halter among us is scarce so ignominious a term of shameful suffering. Thence the cross became in the apostolic writings a symbol, not only of the atonement, but of the offense and contempt with which the Jews and Pagans viewed Christian- ity. At the same time it was the symbol of the suffering fidelity with which Christians adhered to their religion. It is now the ensign of Christian nations, and is a badge of Christian honor. It floa{s upon commercial banners, and hangs upon the neck of beauty. The Romanists have carried their reverence for the ma- terial and formal cross too far ; but as a visible symbol of Chris- tianity it is worthy of Christian use, nor should there be a super- stitious extreme in the very act of rejecting the superstitious use of the symbol.

4. Of the initiatory rite of the Gosjicl disjjensation.

On the words, (chapter iii, verse 11,) "lie shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost, and with fire," we have this sharp analysis, and eminently suggestive comment:

This text is the fundamental passage for showing, from the very nature of the rite, what is the true mode of performing baptism. This I have shown at fuller length than is here possible, in my two sermons on The Double Baptism, in the Methodist Episcopal Pulpit. We may here remark: 1. The baptism of the Holy Spirit was not by immersion but allusion. At the Pentecost, where the Spirit bap-

IS69.1 Whedon on Matthew. 357

lisra was made visible, tlie tongues of fire descended and sat upon '-.„■>, When our Lord was baptized the Holy Spirit descended nd lighted upon liiin. On Cornelius and his company it was I wired out. So Titus iii, 5, G. The washing of regeneration is .•/,•-/ on us. Baptism by the Holy Ghost is always by affusion. 2. If so, then the word baptizo, as a religious rite, does not neces- i trily or properly signify immersion. It is the descent of the element upon the person, not of the person into the clement. For if baptism by the clement spirit is affusion, then baptism by the element water is affusion. The meaning of the word is the same whatever l.f the element.

ti. We have here a principle of interpretation. The symbol ought always to conform to and picture its original. Now, spirit baptism is the original of which water baptism is the symbol. If spirit baptism be by affusion, certainly water baptism must also be by affusion. Spiritual affusion cannot be symbolized by immersion in water. Hence immersion fundamentally fails to be a picture of the original. It is symbol without a reality, a shadow without a substance.

4. The baptism by fire is a case equally clear. Its process was made visible at the Pentecost, when the fiery tongues sat upon the Apostles. Baptismal fire is by affusion; the fire of hell is by im- mersion. So, verse 10, the fruitless tree is cast into the fire. So, Rev. xx, 15, cast into the lake of fire.

5. Of retribution in the eternal world.

On the words, " He will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire," our author says :

This epithet unquenchable is decisive against Restorationism and against Destruetionism.

ftestorationism teaches that the wicked will be delivered from hell ; but this supposes the word unquenchable to be an empty terror devoid of meaning. For to what amounts it that the lire is unquenchable if the sinner may be snatched from it at any moment ? what cares he for the phantasm of a hell forever empty though forever burning ? Moreover, what sense in supposing a hell forever preserved flaming, yet forever void. But, in fact, hell is the penal condition of the Condemned sinner, and the fire the penal essence Itself ; hell has no existence save as a penalty for guilt. Terminate the penalty and the fire has gone out.

destruetionism is the doctrine that the sinner ceases, by the penalty, to exist. So that God still keeps an empty hell eternally burning! In other words, this term unquenchable is unmeaning, and so essentially false.

Of the " furnace of fire" wc read as follows : Blre is the most usual form under which penal retribution is described in the New Testament. The fires of the valley of Hin- Foir.ni Series, Vol. XXL— 23

35S Whedon on Matthew. [July,

nom were to the Jews the emblem of future penalty. Hence the burning flame is the ordinary symbol of hell. And if there be not in the world of retribution a real material lire, yet what fire is to the body that the element of hell will doubtless be to the soul and to the immortal resurrection body.

This is the comment on chapter x, verse 28 :

Tear not them which kill the body — Neither miraculous power nor divine promise insures the Apostles against bodily harm or bodily death. But they are enjoined to possess a superiority to fear of these corporeal injuries. And in these words is the primal source of the martyr spirit. It is courage founded on faith. Body . . . soul — We have here the two parts of man's compound nature placed in contrast. They are two separate things. The body is not the soul. The soul is not the body. This is dem- onstrably the doctrine of the text. Them which hill the bod;/, bat are not able to hill the soul — From these words, it follows that the body may be dead, and the soul alive. Men can murder the body, they can extinguish its corporeal life. They may burn it to ashes, and scatter its particles to the four winds. Yet stilt the soul is alive. No blows can murder it, no tire can bum it, no water drown or quench it. Nothing less than this can be the meaning of the text, and against the text no materialism can stand. JJut rather f at him — Namely, God. Fear, then, and fear as the dread of punish- ment, is a right and suitable feeling. And those who say that such a feeling is too base to be indulged, are contradicted by this text. And those who deny any punishment from God after the death of the body, contradict these words of Christ. To destroy both soul and body — The Lord does not say hill both soul and body. To destroy is not to kill, still less to annihilate, but to ruin. Our Lord's words teach, not the dismissal of the soul from exist- ence, but its catastrophe and ruin in existence. And this is an evil, a destruction, which we are bound to fear, as a possible reality beyond our bodily death. In hell — In Gehenna. This word Ge- henna, or Valley of Hinnom, in its primitive and literal sense, designated a gorge south of Jerusalem, otherwise called Tophet, where the offals of the city were ordinarily burned. i\s a place of defilement and perpetual lire, it became to the Jewish mind the emblem, and the word became the name, of the perpetual fire of retribution in a world to come. Hence, loose reasoners have endeavored to maintain that this valley was the only hell. And upon this sophism the heresy of Univei salism is mainly founded. But the present text demonstrates that beyond the death of the body, ami therefore in a future state, there is a hell or Gehenna, which the soul may suffer, more terrible than bodily death, and more to be feared than any evil thai man can inflict. God is the author of that evil ; it lies beyond death, it is executed upon the soul as well as the body. No plausible interpretation can expel these meanings from this text.

1869J Whcdon on Matthew. 859

Eqnally significant is the note on the 4:6th verse, chap, xxy:

And these shall go away — Millenarians, "who hold that the righteous are raised from the dead at a first resurrection one thousand years before the resurrection of the wicked ut a second resurrection, are unable to explain this entire scene of judgment. Here at our Lord's next advent, at an unknown distance, stand the righteous and the wicked at once before his bar, listen in common to each other's trial and sentence before either pass to their final doom. The ordinary subterfuge is to say that this judgment Clar- is a thousand years 'long. For. this there is no support in the passage. Besides, by their view the righteous ought to be ac- quitted and glorified for a millennial kingdom before the wicked are tried, or even raised from the dead. Whereas, by this whole description the wicked are raised, adjudged, and condemned before the righteous enter at all upon their reward.

Everlasting punishment . . . life eternal. — The words everlasting and eternal are here in the original precisely the same word, and should have been so translated. Hence the duration of the penalty of the wicked is defined by the same measurement as the duration of the reward of the righteous. One is just as long as the other. The pillars of heaven are no firmer than the foundations of hell. The celestial nature of saint and angels is no more immutable than the infernal nature of devils and sinners. And since the word used is the most expressive of perpetuity that the Greek affords, so we have the strongest assurance here that language can afford. And since the term is used as a measurement of divine duration, we may well infer that the foundations both of the divine rewards and the divine penalties are as perpetual as the foundation of the divine government. Clouds and darkness are indeed round about him ; righteousness and justice are the basis of his throne.

The word aiwv (we may suggest to scholars) is not derived, as Dr. Clarke (quoting Aristotle) asserts, from aet, always^ and wv, existing ; for cov is but the noun termination added to dei. This noun termination is equivalent to the Latin termination urn ; so that the Latin cevum is (with a digamma inserted) the same word as ai&v. The Latin word cevum is the came as our word ever, so that the Greek tig auova is precisely forever. By adding the adjective termination ernus to ad we have (inserting a strengthen- ing t) (btermis, eternal. So that ai&v^ ever, and eternal^ are etymo- logical equivalents.

C Of faith in our Lord Jesus Christ as the instrument of our salvation.

On the words, "And Jesus said unto them, Because of your unbelief: for verily I say unto you, If ye have faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye shall say unto this mountain, J I 'move hence to yonder place; and it shall remove," Dr. "Wliedon observes :

360 Whedon on Matthew. [July,

- This faith, be it remembered, supposes a concurrence between God and man. On the part of God a mission or duty assigned to the man, for which the power of faith is granted; and without this, the true faitli is impossible. On the part of man there must be exercised all the granted faith-power, by which he puts forth the net, or pursues the course which is opened in the way of duty before him. When these two things combine, it is literally true that any thing is 'possible. If the man's mission be to remove the Audes into the Pacific it can be done. If there be no duty to it, there can be no true faith for it ; and the attempt to do it would not he faith but rash self-will. God gives no man faith wherewith to play miraculous pranks. On the other hand, if there be the duty and the God-given power of faith, and yet it be not exercised with the full strength of heart and the firm trust in God which knows the impossibility will be done, no miracle shall follow. This the disciples had not, even to a mustard seed's amount ; and a mustard seed's amount could have as easily accomplished its mission as my hand moves a pen. There doubtless lives many a Christian now with faith sufficient to remove real material mount- ains, if God had any such work for him to do. Yet it may be safely presumed that our Lord used the word mountain as well as the mustard seed by way of figure. He may have used it as Isaiah, xl, 4, prophesies that " every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain shall be brought low." Or as Zechariah, iv, 7, de- clares that the " great mountain shall disappear before Zerub- babel."

Those beautiful words, " And whosoever shall give to drink unto one of these little ones a cup of cold water only in the name of a disciple, verily I say unto you, be shall in no wise lose his reward," are the occasion of the following exquisite note :

One of these little o?tcs — A tender appellation for his Apostles. They were shetp in the midst of wolves, they were harmless like doves, they were tender like little ones. A ciqy of cold water only in the name of a disciple. — In the glowing climate of Palestine, the pursued and persecuted apostle might iind a cup of cold water the preservation of his lite. And whosoever, in recognition of his discipleship, that is, because he was a disciple of Jesus, and from love to his Master, shall furnish him this precious boon, shall in no wise lose his reward. His faith has worked by love, and has been justified by works.

Here, therefore, is no shadow of a denial of the doctrine of justi- fication by faith; but an assertion that works in faith are gra- ciously rewarded of God. And in such faith the slightest work, the simplest cup of cold Mater, is a noble investment for a great reward.

It is said that in India the Hindoos go often a great distance for water, boil it to render it healthful, and then, in honor of some

J -00.3 Whedon on Matthew. 361

i,lo!, stand by the road-side until night offering drink to travelers. Such an act of faith in Christ performed for his apostles cannot fail of its reward.

According to your faith — So that the measure of faith which voa have shall be exactly justified, sustained, and rewarded. Thus faith is a readiness to receive of God. Though it has no merit to deserve a reward, yet it is the right state of soul to receive God's truth and mercy.

But we cannot proceed in this fashion. There is a limit to all tilings, and there must be to these, quotations, choice and tempting as they are. We had purposed to give specimen comments on repentance, on prayer, on the doctrine of Provi- dence, on the inspiration and truth of the Scriptures, on the ten specimen miracles, on Christian character, on the kingdom of Jesus, on the great commission, on the law of the Sabbath, on the interpretation of parables, on the transfiguration, on the family relation, on human ability, on the Church, on the resurrection, and on the events of passion week and the glorious fruits of our redemption in Jesus Christ ; but we can do no more than make this enumeration of themes from which we reluctantly turn. The statement of these topics, however, may suffice to show how comprehensive is this commentary, and what a* variety of interesting and important doctrines it presents for our consideration. We earnestly advise every reader to study, in the pages of Dr. Whedon, these enumer- ated topics for himself.

But there is one portion of this commentary which we can- not pass over in silence. The twenty-fourth chapter of Mat- thew has always been to us a profound enigma. We must say that we regard Dr. Whedon's treatment of it as eminently satisfactory. We have read much larger works on this part of Holy Writ with much less profit. While there may be, in the 1 'articular comments, erroneous views and statements, we are convinced that the general exposition and argument are sub- stantially correct. Let any student of God's word go through the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth chapters of Matthew with this plan of interpretation in his hand, and see if many things fchich were in the mists and shadows do not come distinctly forth into the light as at the break of day.

We have spoken of Dr. Whedon's definitions as accurate and argumentative; and we ought, perhaps, in justice, to add

362 Wftedon on Matthew. [July,

that many of his descriptions are word-paintings of exqnisite beauty and purity. We quote two or three, selected almost at random, as illustrations of our statement.

In one'! k'tely Ms lc2~>rosy teas cleansed — How sweet must have been the sensations of renewing health and wholeness. The crumbling limbs renew their shape, the blood flows quickly through the system, the eye recovers its brightness, and the voice its music. He stands up once more in Iris pure, vigorous man- hood; and scarce can he wait the Lord's commands, before he must rush through the country, a living wonder, to tell the story of his salvation.

Outer darkness — The figure of a banquet is carried out. The splendor, the joy, the society, the feast within, are an emblem of God's kingdom below and above. The darkness of the streets without is an emblem of deep horror. The streets of Eastern cities are narrow and filthy; all the outdoor comfort being re- served for the court or square yard inclosed within the area of the building. At night they are totally dark, being unillumined even by rays from a window. Robbers and ferocious dogs render them dangerous. We have thence a strong image of that utter despair, darkness, and death of a soul excluded from God, and left to weeping and (masking of teeth.

Come unto me — JJe, the very me, to whom John has lately sent his message, Art thou He, or look we for another? Yet the very me who am the revealer (verse 27) of God to man. The very me who exists in ineffable unity with God the Father Almighty — this person now stands as in the center of a laboring, laden, oppressed world, and sends his piercing, mellow, tender voice to all the suffering sons of sorrow to escape all bondage by entering his bonds.

In the extremity of his physical pain the Son of man must en- dure the utmost that human contempt can think- and say and do. The accidental spectator, the chance specimens of our race; the chief priests, the representatives of rank, sacred and secular, are present. The powerful exert the uttermost of their power, and the vilest do their best and vilest. They utter taunts founded on calumnious misrepresentations of his words; they ridicule his kingship, and even his piety. They trample on his pretenses, and exult over his weakness.

A painter with only the skill of a copyist, putting these on the eanvas3, would make pictures of such power that the ages would not suffer them to perish. Let us label them The Cleansed Zejyer, The Outer Darkness, The Pitying //• The Dying Saviour. What subjects for an artist! What themes for a preacher !

Another peculiarity of Dr. Whedon is pithy, pungent utter- ances which have the force of proverbs. They are strewn

] 569.] Whedon on Matthew. 3G3

tlirough his commentary like sands of gold. If collected and fused, what precious ingots they would form. We append a few examples :

While no man can regenerate himself, every man may, at proper will, attain regeneration from God.

Better ejo to heaven maimed, than to hell -whole.

Affections and lusts for forbidden objects must be sacrificed at whatever expense of feeling.

The yoke of Christ is freedom. The service of God is the high- est and truest liberty. The laws of God are the laws of our highest nature; and he who comes under those laws docs but do what is fittest, rightest, most happy, and most highly natural for him. When Christ gives his law, lie gives a heart and a pleasure to keep that law, so that he who obeys it does as lie pleases.

It is a poor piety that attempts to be a substitute for virtue.

"Thy will be done" limits not only all murmur, but all prayer.

The Scriptures teach self-denial, but they do not teach self-anni- hilation. They forbid selfishness, but they do not forbid self-love.

The true, martyr never sought death ; never made a display of heroism ; and never failed when, reposing faith in Christ, he meekly suffered for his name.

The clearness of the light against which sin is committed ag- gravates the guilt.

If persecutions must be suffered, to suffer is reasonable, it is safe, it attains a reward.

A neglect of preparation for the pulpit is carelessness ; an avoid- ance of it under the expectation of inspiration is fanaticism. Xo doubt a divine influence attends a faithful administration of the word, but not so as to supersede the best and fullest exertion of the human faculties.

A faithless Church restrains the convicting and converting Spirit. Unbelief defeats omnipotence.

There would be less skepticism if men's hearts were as pure as the evidences of religion are clear.

Your anxiety is just so much belief that wealth is safer than God, and Mammon a better master than Christ.

Mammon is the supreme dollar of the day.

Ifreligion.be worth any thing, it is worth every thing.

As Christ is a universal Saviour, so his Gospel is framed to be a universal Gospel, and his religion a universal religion. It knows no distinction of race, clime, or color. It belongs to man, and hoHs that humanity is a unit ; and claiming to be a blessin all, and to possess a right over all, it designs to spread that bless- ing and assert that right.

God gives men a chance to labor, not because he need.-, their Work, but because they need his reward.

There cannot be a* permanent contrariety between a moral agent's moral actions and his moral dispositions.

The great crucified leader is followed by an endless train of

364 Whedon on Matthew. tJuly,

crucified followers. They arc crucified symbolically, iu all their Sufferings of mind or body, in behalf of Christ and of truth. Each follower' who hath the spirit of his Master, is crucified in fact or in readiness of spirit. The Spirit of Christ is the spirit of martyrdom.

Few are so mean but they fancy there is somebody below them.

The being who is elevated enough to have a true immortal God to he his Cod, must himself be neither the creature of time nor annihilation.

Many retain a sort of ecclesiastical conscience while committing the grossest immoralities.

No man is bo safe as the child of God. No man is bound to be so cheerful. If he rise iuto the true position of the man of faith, no one can be so fearless, so brave, so generous, so patient, so manly. Buoyancy is with him a duty, and despondency is a sin.

Adversities and prosperities may both be enemies to our soul. Some become soured by trouble, and their time is so engrossed that they have no heart, no room for the service of God. Others become wealthy and proud ; too fine and too fashionable to be pious.

The general typographical execution is superior ; but some errors have escaped the eye of the proof reader, and some blem- ishes and repetitions the keener eye of the author. For in- stance, the dying cry of Julian the Apostate, " Thou hast conquered, O Galilean ! " which is quoted on page 222, ap- pears again on page 357. This is doubtless an- oversight. In the note on the twenty-eighth verse of the sixteenth chapter, Dr. Whedon says: " Our Lord's 'coming in his kingdom* was when lie came from Paradise to resume his body, now glori- fied," etc AVas his body then glorified? Was it in his glori- fied body that our Lord appeared to his disciples, eating with them, showing them his "flesh and bones," "his hands and his feet," and abiding with them forty days? In another place, page 3-10, Dr. Whedon says, " It is very probable that the splendor of a glorified body is always sufficient to over- whelm the senses and prostrate the strength of a living mortal." If " the body of Jesus rose, in possession of super- natural qualities belonging to a resurrection body," as our author elsewhere asserts, does that fact justify the appellation "glorified?" Every mortal production falls somewhat below the ideal perfection ; but there is scarcely enough of deficiency or error in this commentary to shade the picture, or temper the light to our vision. Fortunately for us, it is the pure, ever grateful light of God's inspired truth.

We have in this article restricted our observations to the

1SC9.1 Whcdon on Matthew. 305

Jfotcs on Matthew, but we could speak in like commendatory .-trains of the whole commentary on the four Gospels. The " great Lukean section," embracing what is peculiar to that Evangelist, is unfolded with special clearness and power. And no one has entered more fully than Dr. Whedon into the tender and loving feelings of John, his intense spirituality, and his profound reverence and affection for the divine Son of God.

These volumes ought to be in every minister's library, and among the few well-chosen books in every intelligent Chris- tian household.

"We sincerely hope that the author may be spared life and health " to complete," according to his purpose, " an entire exposition of the 2sew Testament in the same style and pro- portional extent," It will be a good service to our holy Christianity, to the cause of sound biblical criticism, and to our Saxon-English speech. Such a work, we may add, em- bracing the result of modern scholarship, yet popular in its style and compressed in form, will, beyond all question, be accepted by the Church and public as fulfilling, in large measure, the blessed mission of diffusing God's word and "spreading scriptural holiness."

Art. IV.— WHITE'S MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW.

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Preceded by a History of the Religion.* AVars In the Reign of Charles IX. By Henry White. Anieiieau Edition. Now York : Harper k Brothers. 1SCS.

The study of the causes and effects of great national crimes is one of the most instructive that can engage the attention of a thoughtful man. However uncertain or incomprehensible the course of ordinary events may at times appear to our defective vision— whatever pauses, and even retrogressions, the majority of the orbs in our firmament may make— there is no 6uch difficulty with regard to these. They arc the flaming meteors that mark out their distinct and well-defined paths, leaving us in no donbl whence they came and whither they tend. \i' in the case of the. less flagrant violations of the divine laws on the part of

366 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [Julj,

great communities of men it is not always easy to point to the particular punishment meted out for each offense, the retribu- tion that follows the commission of these atrocities is generally so prompt and unmistakable as to vindicate the justice of God even in the estimation of the skeptic and the scoffer. And, for this reason, the contemplation of the class of phenomena of which we speak is exempt from the demoralizing effects flow- ing from habitual familiarity with the annals of individual and personal crime. Vice does not attract, when its terrible con- sequences to the perpetrator can be seen written in characters of light ; and the perpetrator himself stands as a beacon of warning to those who would copy his example of successful wrong- doing.

[Nearly three hundred years ago Christendom was startled by the tidings of the commission of a stupendous crime which seemed to throw into the shade every similar, but less gigantic, deed of blood. A scheme of midnight assassination had been carried into execution, whose victims were not solitary men, but were to be counted by tens of thousands; which was not confined to a single neighborhood, nor even to a single city, but, commencing with one of the most populous capitals of Europe, extended to the utmost limits of the realm : a massacre for which its authors manifested no shame or compunction, which they exultingly avowed, which, with hands yet reeking with human blood, they magnified as an act of extraordinary justice and piety, upon which they invoked, and for which they obtained, the unhesitating approval and benediction of the head of their religion, and a self-styled vicegerent of God on earth. When we add, that the person under whose authority this carnival of blood was celebrated was the monarch himself, that, he was instigated by a woman — his mother— that the suf- ferers were the most virtuous, and among the most exalted in rank of all his subjects, that not only was the deed consum- mated in a time of profound peace, but the occasion selected was that of the festivities attending the marriage of that king's sister, of that mother's daughter, to the recognized head of the party that was to be exterminated from the face of the earth, and that the revolting scenes of inhuman ferocity, so far from being confined to obscure neighborhoods or distant quarters of the city, were enacted in the courts and corridors of the palace,

1869.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 3G7

bv the side of the young bride, whose very bedchamber afforded an uncertain refuge to a single wretch escaping from the hands of his pursuers, we have before us a few of the circumstances that account for the undiminished interest which the recital of the events of the massacre that began on the morning of Sun- day, August 24-th, 1572, continues to elicit.

While the general incidents of this lamentable occurrence are well known and settled beyond the possibility of cavil, there is not a little uncertainty attaching to the current accounts in a number of particulars. But more important than any or all of these, is the question whether the massacre itself should be regarded as the result of a plot of long standing, perfected in all its essential features many months or years before, with whose existence the King of Spain and the Pope of Home were acquainted, if they did not create it, and which, by a miracle of dissimulation, was kept secret, by the large number of per- sons to whom it had been confided ; or whether, on the con- trary, the execution bears the unmistakable impress of having been the result of a sudden and almost frantic determination to extricate its authors from new and dangerous complications.

In the work, the title of which we have placed at the com- mencement of this article, Mr. Henry White has not merely undertaken to solve this important problem, but prepares the way for a clearer understanding of an eventful period by re- lating, with considerable detail, the transactions of the iirst three civil wars. Indeed, since he prefaces his work with a rapid sketch of the progress of the Reformation in France during the reigns of Francis I., Henry II., and Fran- cis II., he has given a continued narrative of the history of the Huguenots, from their origin to the death of Charles IX. It is not too much to say that he has made a book whieh is far in advance of any thing which we previously possessed on this subject in the English language. The truth is, that we have until now had little or nothing deserving the name of a history of the brave Protestants of France. Mr. Browning's work,* indeed, met with remarkable suceess, and we believe was, at the time of its publication, forty years since, eulogized by the

* The History of the Huguenot* during the Sixteenth Century, by W. S. Browfr ''>£. Two volumes. London: 1S29. History of tbo Huguenots, from lo'Jd to 1838, by the same. One volume. Paris: 18L:0.

308 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July.

Gentleman's Magazine as "one of the most interesting and valuable contributions to modern history." But, not to speak of the defects of style, it is not unfrequently superficial, and sometimes inaccurate. At best, it contains only a record of the civil wars of the Huguenots — by no means the most precious part of the legacy left us by that race of sturdy champions of the truth. Eejecting the idea of writing any thing that might seem to approach a martyrology, the author made little use of even that scanty fund of materials for the composition of a history of the origin of the French Reformation which was then accessible. Professor I)e Felice's " Protestants of France," although free from the last mentioned defect, and sufficiently full on that portion of Huguenot history on which recent inves- tigation has thrown so much light, has the disadvantage of having been written originally as a purely popular work, and of having been subsequently enlarged in its scope. It is based on no exhaustive investigation. Besides, the translation of Dr. Lobdell, through which it is exclusively known in this country, is very imperfectly executed, and preserves so many French idioms as to be frequently obscure, and rarely forcible or elegant.

Mr. White's volume, on the contrary, is not only well writ- ten, but exhibits on every page the results of extensive reading, laborious research, and judicious weighing and comparison of authorities. He has evidently given a good share of his atten- tion to the writers of the sixteenth century, upon whose memoirs and histories our information must, after all, chiefly be based. No study of later compilations — not even the exam- ination of municipal records or contemporary letters — could supply the place of the invaluable guidance of La Place and La Planche, of Jean de Scrres, of de Thou, and of that much abused soldier of fortune, Agrippa d'Aubigne, or of that long series of contributors to the national collections of memoirs, many of whom were prime actors in the scenes they describe, and knew as well how to handle the sword as to use the pen. Mr. "White has also made excellent use of the masterly works of Professors Soldan and Baum, whose enthusiastic and life- long labors in the field of the history of the Reformed Church have afforded a most pleasing proof of the true unity of evan- gelical Protestantism in all its forms, and have demonstrated

]v.j9.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 3G9

that a Lutheran, in spite of the hostility of High Churchmen, may be as much interested in the welfare of another branch of the great Christian brotherhood as he would be if no doctrinal differences separated them. Our author appears, moreover, to have visited many of the most important localities that figure in the narrative, and to have instituted some research for orig- inal documents in the archives of the departments. But of this \vc make little account. For in a country like France, where a thousand native investigators are busily ransacking every repository of materials for history — where the results of their industry are every year given to the public, either in special publications or in the proceedings of the great historical socie- ties and of local associations — the historian can scarcely hope to do more than to attempt the task (itself almost a Herculean one) of mastering, digesting, and combining the multitudinous fruits of so much patient and protracted toil. He may, by personal investigations among the manuscripts of the imperial and other libraries, add a little to the eclat of his work ; he will not be likely to enhance its real value.

We shall, in the present article, confine ourself to an exam- ination of the earlier portion of Mr. White's history.

The reign of the first Francis, whose good fortune it has been to obtain credit, even with posterity, for far greater mag- nanimity than he really possessed, was full of alternate encour- agement and rebuffs for the nascent Preformation. The purer faith, Mr. White shows us, enjoyed the favor of one1 sincere friend at court, and that was Margaret, the sister of the King. ^ et even this solitary patron was scarcely assured in her own mind, and injured her influence by the adoption of quixotic theories. " She was not a Protestant," says Mr. White with justice, "and shrank from any rupture with Catholicism. She would have liked to see the old and the new Church united, each yielding something to the other. The age, however, was not one for compromises. Day by day the lines of demar- cation became more strongly marked." * The knowledge that they possessed even so inconsistent a supporter as Margaret, fed the early reformers with hopes that were doomed to disap- pointment. She never could, succeed iu persuading her brother to give his hearty adhesion to the Gospel. True, he entertained

* Massacre of St. Bartholomew, p. C.

370 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

a thorough hatred and disgust for the monastic orders, and had so little iaith in the Papacy, that, in moments of extraordinary

provocation, he would threaten to cast in his lot with the "new religion,"' as it was called. But political motives, especially that doctrine which the prelates were never tired of inculcating, that change of religion inevitably involved an overthrow of the State, were more than sufficient to counterbalance any inclina- tions which he may have had in that direction. " Yon would be the very first to rue the experiment," was the ready reply of the ecclesiastics to the royal menace.* And Francis believed them, and learned to make their words his own. " lie used often to say, if we may credit Brantome, that this novelty — the Reformation — ' tended to the overthrow of all monarchy, hu- man and divine.' Yet none of the kings who embraced the new creed." Mr. White well remarks, " lost their thrones ; while the devotee Henry III., and the converted Henry IY., both fell by orthodox daggers." f " We need not stop to show," he says elsewhere, % " that the kingdom which has always put itself forward as the champion of Popery, both in the East and in the West, " is that in which the Church and the State have suffered more from revolution than any Protestant country."

Yet the reformatory movement went on, if not with royal assistance, in spite of it. Its supporters were men, and there- fore fallible. They made some mistakes. They were certainly ill-advised in drawing up so bitter an invective against the ab- surdities of the Mass, as the celebrated placard of 153-1; and, if it was one of their number that posted it by night upon the very door of the bedroom of Francis in his barred castle, he undoubtedly manifested little common sense in supposing that the. document would hasten the conversion of that trilling and superficial prince. It is, however, by no means clear that the reformers committed one tithe of the blunders that were perpe- trated by crowned and anointed kings and by sapient bishops, when they undertook a work for which they considered them- selves admirably adapted by native endowments and by the gifts of heaven. They taught the truth, for the most part, * " Franchemcat, Sire," said a nuncio of Clement VII., " vou.s en sericy. marri le premier, e-t voua en prendroit tres mal, ot y perdiicz plus que le Pape ; tsar une nonrelle religion, mise parmi un peuple, no demands njnvs que chnn^emeui du prince." — Brantdrnt, vol ix, \>. 202.

f "White, p. 20. " \ Ibid., p. 5.

1869.] - Massacre of St. .Bartholomew. 371

calmly, soberly, and persuasively. They gathered converts from the classes that were most open to conviction, succeeding particularly well with the intelligent middle classes, with the industrious artisans, with the young whose minds were un- biased. Even -their adversaries were forced to acknowledge, that wherever a man was found more than ordinarily skillful, or industrious, or successful, there you would he almost certain to find a Huguenot. "In France," says Mr. White, "it was long before the Reformation reached the lower classes — the masses, as it is the fashion to call them ; the rural gentry, the men of education, the well-to-do tradesmen, artists, and 'all who from their callings possessed any elevation of mind,' were the first converts. They were naturally opposed by the clergy and the lawyers, for corporate bodies are always great enemies to change."* And yet these remarks must be taken with some qualification ; for, although it was never among the de- based and brutalized rabble of the cities that the new faith flourished, it was successful from the very beginning pre-emi- nently with the poor. When Bishop Briconnet, in his short- lived zeal for a Gospel which he was soon to betray, caused it to be preached in his diocese by evangelical men, among whom Lefevre and Farel were prominent, it was precisely the poor wool-carders of Meaux, and the day laborers that flocked to the neighborhood to aid in the harvest, who most readily em- braced the doctrine of justification by faith. And it was they who, when others forsook the profession of the truth upon the approach of persecution, testified with constancy in the midst of the flames.

The ordeals through which French Protestantism was called to pass during the reign of Francis it does not comport with Mr. White's plan to exhibit in detail, lie gives, however, a somewhat extended notice of the savage butchery exercised upon the unoffending Waldenses or Vaudois of Provence, an offshoot of the community established in the "Valleys" of Piedmont. Merindol, Cabricres, and a score of less important places were, by order of the sanguinary Parliament of Aix fazed to the ground, their inhabitants, without discrimination of ago or sex, slaughtered or burned in their homes, or hunted to the mountains, only to be suffocated in thecaverns in which

* White, pp. G-7.

372 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July.

the)* had taken refuge. Xo contemporary writer -was suffi- ciently bold even to palliate these enormities and others which the pen scarcely dares to record. That honor — if such it be — was reserved for one of that class of persons, too numerous, unfortunately, in France, who rewrite history to suit their pre- conceived ideas. On this point Mr. "White's observations are excellent. "A Catholic historian of the^e days has ventured to apologize for cruelties which could find no defender in the sixteenth century. -Certain names,' he says, 'are branded for what is the result of a popular force and movement by which they are carried away. In a religious and believing state of society there are necessities, as there have been cruel political necessities at another epoch. Exaltation of ideas drives men to crime as by a fatality.' (Capefiguc, Hist, de la l?cformc, eh. xvi.) Such reasoning will justify any crime, public or private. To admit the cowardly doctrine of - necessity ' is to destroy moral responsibility, to make intellect subservient to ■ matter, and justice to brute force. It makes the usurper or the murderer accuser, judge, and executioner in his own cause. It is a vindication of coups d'etat — a deification of successful vil- lainy. If generally admitted it would induce a moral torpor fatal to all intelligence. There were men living in the Catho- lic communion in the sixteenth century who thought very dif- ferently from the paradoxical historian of the nineteenth. Sadolet, Bishop of Carpentras — a man so full of kindness and charity that a modern writer has called him the ' Fenelon of his age' — interfered to suspend the execution of the first decree against the Yaudois of Merindol." *

The leader in the massacre of Merindol and Cabriercs was Jean d'Oppede, first President of the Parliament of Provence : the most prominent military officer of the force which executed his commands was Poulin or Polin, better known as Baron de la Garde. Respecting the latter, Mr. White says that lie was " the famous sea-captain, the same who disputed the command of the Channel against Henry VIII., and occupied the Isle of "Wight in 1533. In the religious wars he sided with the 11a- yuenots." 'f Unless, as wo suspect, the types have played hiin false, Mr. "White must have confounded Poulin with some one else; for if the Baron sided with any one it was assuredly not

* White, pp. U, 16. f Ibid., p. 11.

1 509.] Massacre of /St. Bartholomew. 373

with the Huguenots, but with their opponents. After the con- spiracy of Amboise he fought against the Huguenots in Pro- vence, where he attacked Mouvans after lie had capitulated with the royal Lieutenant, the Comte de Tende, and drove him to Geneva.* In the third civil war, being in command of naval forces, he protected Bordeaux and threatened La Pcchellc ; f and after the St. Bartholomew Massacre, a letter of his inter- cepted by the Protestants of this city, in which he uttered menaces against it, contributed much to determine them to refuse admission to the Governor sent them by the King. J

With the accession of a new monarch, it was hoped that there might come some alleviation of the sufferings of the reform- ers. The reverse took place. Like too many of the other kings of France, Henry II. was not only frivolous, but disso- lute. Like them, he was content to attempt to compensate for his vices by persecuting the luckless heretics with an orthodox severity which prelates were quite satisfied to accept as a full discharge of all liabilities incurred through violations of the moral code. Besides, if Henry ostensibly held the reins of state, the regal authority was in effect enjoyed by others — his mistress, Diana of Poitiers, and his favorites, the Chancellor Montmorency and the Guises — and these were all from inter- est, if not from conviction, the enemies of change. Accord- ingly new and more rigorous edicts were launched against the " Lutherans," as they were still styled. Nor were these enact- ments suffered to fall into neglect. "On Thursday, July 4, Henry quitted the Tournelles" — his favorite palace, but since forsaken and torn down by his widow, Catharine de Medici, after it had acquired so melancholy an association from his fatal tilt in the tournament held in front, of it—" at seven in the morn- ing, and rode in grand procession to the great cathedral, where neheard high mass, and then went to dine at the episcopal pal- ace, after which the royal digestion was gently stimulated by ^e burninrr of some heretics. . . . Heretic-burning was one of the popular sports of the day, at which— if contemporary engrav- ings are any authority in such matters — high-born dames attended in full dress." § But when will rulers learn the uni- versal truth, that no persecution short of extermination ever

*Agripj)a d'Aubignd, Hist. Univ., vo!. i, p. 100. \ Ibid., p.826.

X Ibid., vol. ii, p. 35. £ White, p. 30.

Pouara Sebies, Vol. XXL— 24

374 v Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

accomplishes its design ! The Protestant community, which had grown slowly during- the father's reign, under the more severe rule of the son received large accessions, and began to strike its roots deep into the soil which alone could secure it permanence — the despised people :

Extending beyond the small circle of nobles, scholars, and Church dignitaries, by whom they (the reformed doctrines) were first taught and defended, and making their way into the lower strata of society, they had become more definite and radical. The uneducated shoemaker or plowman could not appreciate such nice distinctions as Margaret of Valois drew in her ': Mass of Seven Point?,'" and Mould not have cared for such subtleties if he had understood them. These simple men heard the Bible read and explained to them, and the doctrines of free grace and of the atonement sank straight into their hearts. There was very little but habit to keep the people faithful to the old Church. " They are more affected," says Matthieu, unconsciously imitating Horace, "by example than by instruction, and estimate the truth of a doc- trine by the purity of a man's life." Such an example was rarely found in the Catholic clergy. . . . The cities along the course of the Rhone, and those lying at the foot of the Alps, were strongly Calviuistic, as was also Languedoc, where probably some relics of the old Albigensian spirit of revolt still lingered. In this province the Romish Church was especially hateful, as it had been enriched by the confiscated estates of the Albigensian nobles. ... In Paris the mass of the population was Catholic, the dangerous classes being especially demonstrative in their or- thodoxy. The progress of religious reform might have been more rapid but for certain peculiarities in the state of society, which made every innovation difficult. The guilds in the towns had their patron saints and animal festivals. If a man adopted the reformed faith he must renounce these, aud become a sort of out- cast among his comrades, and perhaps the severest persecution he had to undergo was that he endured at the hands of his fellow- workmen. *

Mr. White, is undoubtedly correct in making the statement that "although the persecution never ceased in France during the reign of Henry II., there were intervals oi' reaction when the fires burned dim and the sword of the executioner hung idle on the wall." It is equally true that " these were usually con- nected with the foreign policy of the Government." But he is less fortunate in supposing that there was any such tendency to pardon, or even to reprieve, the Huguenots in connection with the atrocious episode of Henry's rule, known as the * White, pp. 31, 32.

1869.3 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 375

'* affaire de la Rue Saint Jacques" A. few words are neces- t ary to elucidate this historical point. A company of three or four hundred. Protestants, in defiance of the edicts fulminated against them for an entire generation, and not ignorant of the fearfnl death by fire (not at the stake, but by means of the more cruel estrapade) awaiting them if discovered, met on the night of September 4th, 1557, in a private house in the Hue St. Jacques, immediately in the rear of the College of the Sorbonne, to worship God and to celebrate the holy communion. Bnt the suspicions of the neighboring priests had been aroused, the house was beset, and although some of the worshipers made their way through the crowd of their assailants and escaped, the more defenseless portion of the Protestants— the women, and the aged especially — were captured, and to the number of about one hundred and twenty, after being treated with the utmost contumely, were thrust into loathsome dun- geons. This was but a prelude to greater severities. Several of the men, and particularly a noble lady, were to seal their testimony in blood.

Here Mr. White has accidentally been misled into imagin- ing that the execution of these martyrs for the faith was unac- countably delayed ; whereas, on the contrary, rarely had there- been an instance of greater precipitation ! Mr. White says :

The Reformed Church of Paris -was in a pitiable, state, so many of its members being in peril of their lives. Extraordinary prayers were offered up in every family for the delivery of the martyrs, and a remonstrance, drawn up by the Elders, was presented to the King, who put it aside unnoticed. Hut, strange to say, there was no eager haste to punish the prisoners any further, the example of their seizure having frightened many back to orthodoxy. . . . When the e^:citcrn.eni had abated, and the affair teas almost for- gotten, the prisoners of the Hue St. Jacques xoerc brought to trial. Their lives were forfeited by the mere fact of their presence at an unlawful assembly, and the alternate of recantation or death was presented to them ; but they would not yield an inch. They found that man's weakness was God's strength. Among the captives was Philippade Lunz, a woman of good family, a widow, and only twenty-two years old. She was interrogated several times, but her answers wove such as to destroy all hope of pardon. On the '2",(h °f September, 1558, more than a year after her imprisonment, sho was led out to death *

* White, pp. 41, 42.

376 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

It is not necessary to repeat the story of the more than he- roic courage which this noble woman displayed, and by which she seemed to triumph over every refinement of cruelty which the perverted ingenuity of man could devise. Mr. "White has very faithfully drawn the harrowing picture. The important point to which we call attention — important as showing that the French court, so far from being lukewarm in the work of persecution, as Mr. White supposes, was in reality (whether its motives were political or fanatical need not here be dis- cussed) extremely zealous — is, that this martyr and her com- panions, instead of being imprisoned for the long term of a year, were tried, condemned, and executed within the brief space of about three weeks. Mr. "White has given the day correctly, but has unfortunately overlooked the true year, which was 1557, not 1558.- The author of the history of the Reformed Churches, commonly attributed to Beza, instead of representing the case as dragging along slowly, informs us that the popular voice demanded a speedy trial ; that the prosecut- ing officer was more than usually urgent, hoping by his zeal to divert attention from his own past crimes ; that on the 17th of September, less than a fortnight after the meeting in the Rue St. Jacqnes, the King ordered Parliament to try the accused by commissioners, whom he at the same time named ; and that he commanded the postponement of all other judicial proceedings that these might have dispatch. f The fruits of this pressure were seen before long. Three suffered martyr- dom September 27, two more October 2. Objection being made to the judges because of their cruelty, and a demand offered for other judges, the King overruled the appeal Octo- ber 7, and the remaining cases proceeded with still greater haste. So far was the court of Henry II. from being luke- warm in the prosecution of those accused of heresy.

The. affair of the Rue St. Jacques occurred just*aftcr the dis- astrous rout of the French army near St. Quentin, which Pres- cott has so well described in the '''History of Philip the Sec- ond." After a year and eight months more of warfare the contending monarchs and their allies made a settlement of their differences in the peace of Cateau Cambresis. "With the

* Sec the Histoire Eccl&iastique, (Beza,) ed. of Lille, ™i. i, p. 80, etc. f Histoire Eccl&iastique, ubi supra.

1 S69.1 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 377

general terms of the treaty, so disgraceful to France, the his- torian of the Huguenots has nothing to do. There can be no doubt that both monarchs were influenced not only by the exhaustion of their pecuniary resources for carrying on the war, but by a desire to attend to the extermination of Protestantism at home. Mr. White goes further, and asserts that " by the treaty of Cateau Cambresis Henry and Philip hadbouncl them- ■ foes to maintain the Catholic worship inviolate, to assemble, a general counci], and to extinguish heresy in their respective dominions.'''' If this agreement, of which the younger Tavanncs and others make mention, writing in accordance with the cur- rent reports rather than basing their statements on any author- itative documents, existed at all, it must have been contained in secret articles, for the public terms, as given by Du Mont and other collections of treaties, contain nothing of the kind. Professor Soldan has exhibited with great force his grounds for not believing the compact, and we do not see that Mr. White adduces any reasons for supposing that the conferences ever assumed so definite a shape. Certainly the Apology of William of Orange, while proving that Philip had already conceived in his mind, and communicated to Henry, the design of introducing the Spanish Inquisition into the Netherlands, is far from asserting that such international obligations had been entered into. However this may be, there is the utmost im- probability in the supposition that there was a connection between the treaty and the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Yet this is what Mr. White seems to imply when he speaks of the " knowledge of this projected massacre, delayed for thirteen years," as converting the Silent Prince into the liberator o\' the Netherlands.* The idea is, however, so diametrically op- posed to Mr. White's own theory of the origin of the horrible scheme of j572 that we are at a loss to know how to under- stand his words. The manuscript relations, by Philip's own ministers, of the proceedings at the Conference of Bayonne in 1565, as we may see hereafter, have blown to the winds the stories that were so confidently believed, both by Roman Cath- olics and by Protestants, that the Massacre of St. Bartholo- mew was planned there by Alva and Catharine. It could nut possibly have been sketched out six years earlier. * White, p. 53.

378 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

Without doubt, however, Henry II. had determined on em- ploying the most extreme measures to secure the utter destruc- tion of the Protestants. His arbitrary arrest of members of the Parisian Parliament, for simply expressing themselves in favor of a tolerant policy, when deliberating in his presence in ajudicial capacity, amply proves it. With good reason, there- fore, the reformers saw in the extraordinary and opportune death of Henry an interposition of Heaven in their behalf, even more signal than had appeared in that of the first Francis. Mr. White has described the incidents of the fatal tournament in a picturesque manner, putting to good service the correspondence of Sir Nicholas Throkmorton, who tells us that he was the only one of the foreign embassadors that chanced to be present on the remarkable occasion.- The English envoy, writing the very evening of the disaster, and before its full peril was apprehended, could not but be struck with its providential character. " Thus your lordships may see," said he, "what God sumtymes dothe to shew what he is, and to be knowne ; that amongst all these triumphes, and even in the verry middst and pride of the same, suffereth such mischaunce and heavines to happen."

The accession of Francis IT., a puny boy of sixteen, brought into power the uncles of his blooming and much more intel- lectual queen, Mary Stuart, Never was power more boldly seized, or more recklessly wielded, than by the Guise brothers. For some months there was a reign of usurpation for which there arc few parallels in the annals of modem Europe. The two" older Guises absorbed the entire administration. The Duke Francis installed himself as generalissimo ; his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine, assumed charge of the treasury, and in fact of the whole engine o\' civil government. All this by pretended appointment oi' a minor prince. The scheme would probably have failed, had the claim to the regency fallen to the portion of a less frivolous and untrustworthy person than Antoine of Bourbon Venddme, by marriage King of Navarre. But this unworthy husband of the heroic Jeanne d'Albret, had too little resolution to hoop the promises lie lavishly made to the Protestants, with whom he had pretended to

* Forbes' Full View of tho Public Transactions in the Reign of Queen Eli (London, 1710,) vol. i, p. 151.

] B69J Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 379

identify himself, and was too craven even to resent the stud- ied indignities put upon him when lie came sluggishly from Gascony and made Lis tardy appearance at court. As first prince of the "blood, he was entitled to the foremost place in tin.' board of regency ; in fact, to be sole regent, although with :i board of counselors to assist him in his functions. The only crumb of power which the ruling family deigned to throw him was the privilege of a seat in the royal council, where he had no influence whatever. Mr. "White overstates the amount of this concession. Constable Montmorency and the Chatillons, and other leading Protestants, had not urged him " to assert his rights as prince of the blood to be one of the new council," but to demand the very first position until Francis IT. should attain his majority. Hence Mr. White is mistaken when he seems to assert that Antoine of jSTavarro obtained for a time what he Avas entitled to demand. " At length Conde joined him, and instilling some of his own spirit into his brother, urged him to assert his claim. It was granted after some little demur ; but he was too much in the way, and to get rid of him honorably he was commissioned to escort the Princess Elizabeth to Spain. lie fell into the trap so cun- ningly laid for him, and the Guises were once more sole mas- ters." * One need go no further than to the invaluable history of Francis the Second's reign, by Regnier dc la Planchc,| to see that the Guises never for a moment conceded to the King of Navarre the authority which, in defense of the usages of the kingdom and of his persecuted fellow-Protestants, he might justly have demanded at the point of the sword.

Under such a government persecution went on apace. The most distinguished victim was Du Bourg, one of the members of Parliament whom the late King had arrested. Ilis speeches just before being led to execution, of which we could wish that Air. White had given longer extracts, % are among the mo I pathetic on record, and breathe the very spirit of Christian manliness. During the course of his trial, Minard, one of his judges, was murdered by night in the streets of Paris. The

•White, p. 72.

f Histoire do l'Estat do Franco, etc. EditioD Pantheon, pp. 214, '-'IS. t Soo La Place, Commentaries, etc., pp. 22, 23 ; Orespin, Galerie cluvt, pp. 2, 3, IS, «*X; La Planche, pp. 227, 235; Histoire Eccle'sinstique, pp. 1,1 i>3, cic.

3S0 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

crime was attributed by common fame to a. Scot by the name of Stuart, a blood relation, apparently, of the Queen. Mr. White does not hesitate to adopt the popular belief as his own, and to incorporate it in his history ; and, with equal certainty, he pronounced him guilty of having fatally shot Constable Montmorency in the battle of St. Denis, in the second civil war, November 10, 1567.* But neither statement, is capable of being proved. When Henry of Navarre, at a later time Henry IV.,- wrote to the Duke of Anjou, soon after the battle of Jarnac, where Stuart, having surrendered on promise of haying his life spared, was hilled in cold blood, probably by the Duke's secret orders, the prince reproached him with the barbarous deed ; and, as to the assassination ofMinard, adduced the fact that Stuart had been examined by torture, but nothing- had been extracted from him, and that he had lived six years subsequently at court without even being subjected to trial, as a proof of his innocence. Whether he slew the Constable or not, Henry professed entire ignorance, but maintained that if he did it was in honorable combat, f

The usurpation of the Guises at length became insufferable, but there was no legal redress. ISTo constitution laid down methods of consulting the popular will, and of giving it the force of law. A revolt of some kind or other was inevitable. "In these humaner and more civilized days, obnoxious min- isters and administrators are got rid of by dismissal, or by a vote in Parliament : in ruder times they were removed by revolt or assassination. In the nihil I c of the sixteenth century the government of France was a despotism moderated by the dagger." The Huguenots — for so they began about this time to be called — were of two kinds. The one class was composed of persons exasperated almost beyond endurance by the unconstitutional power assumed by the Guises, whom they still regarded as strangers in France. The other consisted of the Protestants, who, however patiently they might bear the persecution from which they had for nearly forty years been suffering, so long as it was inflicted by command of their legit- imate monarch, would, not suffer themselves to be hung or

* White, pp. 74, 81.

f Letter of July 12, 1569, apud "Lettrca incites dc Henry IV., recuoillies par le Prince Augustin G-alitzin, pp. 4-11. Faris : 1SC0.

IS69.1 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 3S1

burned merely to gratify the whims or the ambition of the two brothers who really reigned in the name of their niece's hus- band. " Even within a month of the death of Henry II. a union of the malcoutents was meditated, the Reformed only holding back until they should be assured of its lawfulness. They consulted Calvin, who declared that ' it would be better they should all perish a hundred times over rather than expose the name of Christianity and of the Gospel to the disgrace of rebellion and bloodshed.' They were more successful with some German divines, who thought 'they might lawfully op- pose the usurpation of the Guises, even with arms, if the princes of the blood, their lawful magistrates by birth, or even one of them, should be at their head.' " *

And now the outbreak followed. The spirit of dissatisfac- tion came to a head in the unfortunate "Conspiracy of Am- boise ;" unfortunate, not that it was not perfectly justifiable in view of the enormities of the persons that had seized the reins of State, but because it afforded the enemy the excuse he wanted for accusing the adherents of the purer faith of insub- ordination to constituted authority, and for throwing upon them the blame of being the first to have recourse to civil war. Probably it was much the smaller part of the Huguenots that knew of the plot, or took part in it. Its bold plan, the reasons of its failure, the fear and confusion of the Guises at the first discovery, their considerable concessions, and the barbarous punishments they inflicted upon the conspirators that fell into 'heir hands, are a fruitful theme of discussion for contempo- rary chroniclers, and are' unfolded at considerable length by Sir. White. And he calls attention to the circumstance that the first pardon, hypocritical as it was, offered to the Hugue- nots that had taken part in the affair of Amboise met with uncompromising hostility on the part of Rome. " The Pope sent a special envoy to France complaining of the amnesty, Mid to point out that ' the true remedy for the disorders of the kingdom was to proceed judicially against the heretics, and if their number was too great, the King should employ the sword to bring his subjects back to their duty.' lie offered to assist in so epod a work to the extent of his ability, and to pro- cure the support of the King of Spain and the Princes of Italy.f * White, pp. 17. f Ibid., pp. 85, 86.

SS2 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

Happily the reign of Francis II. was brief— briefer, in fact, than any other in the tables of French kings. Its conclusion found the Protestants in great peril ; Conde, their real head, a prisoner under sentence of death, and reserved for execution at the opening of the approaching States General ; and Navarre exposed to almost equal danger should he attempt to show- any rnanly resentment. Whereas, a few months before, any one that proposed the convocation of the States would have been punished as seditious, now the Guises had themselves adopted the proposition of Ooliguy at the Assembly of Xotables, held at Fontainebleau, and consented to the summons of the three orders. Not that they had any intention of submitting an account of their administration to the representatives of the nobility, clergy, and commons; but they counted upon con- trolling a large majority of the elections of delegates, and expected to secure without difficulty so preponderating an influ- ence as to insure the formal indorsement of their conduct and the destruction of their antagonists. After the heads of the Huguenots had been disposed of they imagined that it would be easy to compass the ruin of the masses.* The death of Francis II., almost as sudden as that of his father, although resulting from a natural cause, disarranged these well-matured plans. »

One of the most readable chapters in Mr. "White's book is that which treats of" France at the accession of Charles IX. ,:' (15G0.) Within the compass of thirty-two or three pages he lias succeeded in giving us an attractive and intelligent account of the country and its inhabitants. France' was, a sparsely- peopled country containing about fifteen million souls — a large estimate in our opinion — and of this population nearly one third lived in towns. The roads were bad, and all means of communication so* slow and costly as to paralyze commerce, and produce the most striking inequalities in prices in districts not very far distant from each other. Fan's, the marvel of Europe, contained between four and five hundred thousand inhabitants. The people — the tiers-etat — were ground down with oppressive taxes, far more burdensome in proportion than

* Even the Spanish embassador, favorable as he was to all in?*aros of repres- sion, expressed solicitude lest the Guises, in their reckless haste, Bhould run too great risks by their indiscretion. — Mi-jnt!, in Journal da Savants, 1S59, pp. 39.

1869.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 333

those of modern France even under the second empire. The nobles were exempt on the plea of being subject to do military service, the clergy because of their sacerdotal cilice ; although both classes, and particularly the latter, in return for the regal protection, were wont to make voluntary contributions. The government was harsh and tyrannical, the punishment of crime severe and often horribly barbarous, the populace cruel and superstitious. We shall not, however, undertake- to give even a synopsis of the contents of this interesting disquisition.

The reign of Charles IX. opens with the Convocation of the States General ordered by his brother, and with brilliant antic- ipations on the part of the reformers respecting the rapid spread of the Gospel until it should become universal through- out the kingdom. It is hard to say what might have been had the King of Navarre proved courageous and true to his con- victions. But he first basely surrendered to Catharine the position of influence he might easily have maintained, and then openly apostatized from the faith. Still the reformed doctrines, practically, if not legally, enjoying a measure of tol- eration, spread from town to town, from family to family, with the speed of contagion. Within a few months there were those who, misled by this rapid growth, were confident that half France was already Huguenot, and the Spanish and Pon- tifical envoys wrote home letters full of vaticinations of the approaching downfall of the State. The very court of the King and his mother appeared to share in the common move- ment. Marot's and Beza's versified Psalms of David, which, if sung in the streets a few months since, would have sufficed as ground for a capital accusation, were boldly sung in the halla and corridors of the palace. Soon Huguenot ministers, whom unrepealed edicts consigned to the flames, were to be seen preaching openly to listening crowds in the quarter.- of the Queen of Navarre or of Admiral Coligny. Catharine de Medici was deaf to the warnings and threats of the Pope, his nuncio, and his legates. She had conceived the idea thai it was possible, by some partial reformation, to accommodate the differences between the Protestants and the Roman Cath <- lies; and, accordingly, she assembled at Poissy, in September, 15G1, a large number of divines of both persuasions, between whom she hoped that some accord might be framed. This

3S4 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

" Colloquy of Poissy," as it was called, in order to avoid the suspicions which the use of the term {; Council " might give rise to, was a moment of the greatest interest and of critical importance to the future of France.* A reformation accom- plished and harmony secured might have saved France the Bufferings and the bloodshed of thirty years, not to speak of the vast difference in the moral history of the land. But the Romish clergy was in no temper for concession. There is in Montfaucon's Antiquities of France a copy of an ancient print of the period, representing the Colloquy in session. The dis- position of the parties sufficiently reveals the attitude which the Roman Catholic Church meant to assume to the lieformcrs. Six chairs of state stand toward the upper end of the spacious conventual dining-room, one occupied by the King, having on his right the Duke of Anjou and the King of Navarre, and on the left his mother, his sister Margaret, and the Queen of Xa- varre. Behind them are seated other princes and princesses of the blood. The Chancellor, the Cardinals, the Prelates and Doctors of the Romish Church occupy benches on either side, corresponding to their dignities. But the Protestant Divines, twelve in number, are merely admitted to the lower end of the room, and stand leaning on the railing that bars their further advance. The chief spokesman of the Reformers, it is well known, was Theodore Beza. " Calvin, Beza, Peter Martyr, and other ministers were invited, under safe conduct, from Switzerland," says Mr. White, f The very natural inquiry, why the first mentioned, the acknowledged leader of the Gene- vese theologians, did not make his appearance and assume the position in the conference to which his eminent intellectual abilities, his dialectic skill, and his wide spread reputation en- titled him, Mr. White does not undertake to answer. Mr. Bonnet, in his " Lettres Franchises de Jean Calvin," merely informs us that "the Protestant princes of France, eager to attract to the Colloquy of Poissy the most distinguished min- isters, wrote to the Lords of Geneva, asking them to send Calvin or Theodore Beza. The Seigneurie refused the former, and consented to grant the latter." Informed of this" favor-

*Mr. White lias scarcely given sufficient space (pp. 167-172) to a transaction of such vital relation to tie subsequent fortunes of the Huguenots. t Page 167.

1SC0.3 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 3S5

able disposition, the King of Navarre wrote to the Genevese magistrates to thank thorn and to hasten Beza's departure.*

Fortunately, by the aid of a letter in the public library of Geneva that has recently come to light, we are able to explain the motives of a course which; at first sight, appears somewhat strange. It was no excess of caution, but a proper regard for the reformer's safety, that led the Syndics and Council of Geneva to exercise a right which, according to the theory almost uni- versally held in the sixteenth century, they possessed, to decline to permit their pastors and theological professors to leave their territory. The letter is one written by M. de la Riviere, in the name of the entire body of Reformed ministers of Paris, or perhaps of France, to Calvin himself. The date is July 31st, .1561. The Colloquy, it is well known, opened on the 9th of September. After praising God that, even beyond their hopes, the venerable Peter Martyr was to be sent to support Beza in the discussion with the Romish Doctors, the writer adds :

As to yourself, sir, as we have not yet seen much prospect of being able to have you here, so we see no possibility of your being here without serious peril, in view of the rage which all the enemies of the Gospel have conceived against you, and the disturbances which your very name would excite in this country were your presence known. In fact, the Admiral (Co- ligny) is by no means in favor of your undertaking the journey, and we have learned with certainty that the Queen (Catharine de Medici) would not either be glad to see you, and that she frankly admits that she is unwilling to pledge herself for your safety "in these parts, as for that of the rest. The enemies of the Gospel, on the other hand, say that they would willingly hear all the others speak, but that as to you they could not bring them- selves to listen to you nor to sec you. This, sir, is the estimation in which you ore held by these venerable Prelates. I opine that you will not be very much troubled by it, and that you will not con- sider yourself dishonored for being in such repute with this suit of people. In respect to the others, we are constrained to beg you anew to entreat them to set out with the greatest, diligence possible on receipt of the safe-conduct which we sendyou. In our judgment it. will be easy to come hither without being much recognized. Moreover, on arriving here we can assure yon that we shall be able to find three or four hundred gentlemen, if they are needed, to keep them company. And yet wc have no thought that there will be any necessity for so large a force, seeii g that there is no prospect that any of the princes or lords of this king- dom will undertake any thing in violation of the permission and * Bonnet, Lettros Frau9aidcs, vol. ii, p. 424.

SS6 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

safe-conduct given by the King and decided upon in Lis Council.*

So Calvin remained at Geneva, and Theodore Beza went to the French court, to make the first defense of the Reformed doctrines and their professors which the ears of French mon- arch^ had ever been open to hear. And so noble was his ap- pearance, so courtly his bearing, so polished his manners, that he produced from the very first the most "favorable impression. Even the Guises affected to greet him in a correspondingly polite manner. The Cardinal went further, and, in the course of a friendly discussion, made such professions of a desire for conciliation, and took such almost Protestant ground, that one who knew not that his affable exterior covered a treacherous heart might have supposed him on the point of conversion. ■ Bezt had traced his course too long to be deceived, and there were others who were equally astute. After Beza had explained his view of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, the Cardinal, turning to the Queen mother, who was present, observed, " Such is my belief, madam, and I am satisfied." f Madame de Crussol, who had listened to the entire conversation, as she shook the Cardinal's hand at the close of the evening signifi- cantly said, in a tone loud enough to be heard by all, " Good man for to-night; but to-morrow what?" There was sober truth couched in the witty cmcbtion. The next day Lorraine was already busy, circulating the story that Beza had been sig- nally discomfited in the very first encounter. \ But there were happily plenty of witnesses to prove the contrary, and Catha- rine herself contradicted the vain rumor when she heard it from Constable Montmorency's lips. §

With so deceitful an opponent it was impossible to expect fair play, even had the Prelates been willing to listen patiently to au honorable discussion. |j The Cardinal's sole object, as it

* Original MS. in Library of Geneva, Bulletin de la Soca'le do I'JIistoiro du Protestantisme Francois, 10,G03. (December, 13G7.)

| White, p. GS.

{Letter of Beza, August 25th, 1661, o;>N'?Bnum, Theodore Beza, 2 A pp. 52. Mr. White does not mention the latter circumstances.

g Hist. Ecclus, vol. i, p. 312.

\llHert come tin Genevese cms" exclaimed one of the Cardinals when the twelve Protestant divines made their first appearance in the refectory at Poi -y. " Certainly," quietly retorted Beza, whose car had caught the insulting expi

1869.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 3S7

developed itself shortly, was to involve the Protestants in dis- putes with each other, lie went so far, at one time, as to demand of the Reformed pastors a subscription to the Con- fession of Augsburg. To which their orator pertinently replied, by asking whether the Cardinal was himself prepared to give that Confession his unqualified approval.

So the Colloquy came to an end without effecting any thing, perhaps, with the government, except proving pretty con- clusively that it was hopeless to attempt to reconcile such divergent views as those of the hierarchy and those of the reformers. As a last trial of the virtue of theological discus- sion, Catharine assembled at St. Germain, a few months later, a more quiet gathering. But the results were equally unsatis- factory. One point, however, had been demonstrated con- clusively in the minds of all prudent men, that the only mode of preventing the outbreak of civil war in France was to grant some measure of religious liberty to the reformers. And this measure was carried, in a body of representatives of the three orders, and formally promulgated in the celebrated royal edict of January 17th, 15G2. Incomplete and unsatisfactory as it was, the " Edict of January," as it was henceforth known, became the charter of Protestant liberties, continually in- fringed upon by the kings, under the influence of their oppo- nents, but continually demanded and vindicated by argument, and, when need be, by the sword.

The Guises, however, had no thought of submitting pas- sively to the execution of so tolerant a law. They Merc resolved to destroy the edict with the sword. It matters little in the eye of the impartial judge of their conduct whether the massacre at Yassy, (March 1st, 1502,) within six weeks of the promulgation of that edict, was long premeditated, or an acci- dental occurrence, as they and their advocates maintained. The crusade against Protestantism in Prance was premedi- tated, whether the act with which it was to be commenced had been included in the plan or not. It is idle seriously to dis- cuss the problem whether the conspirators who had laid the explosive train intended to lire it at one point or another.

turning to tho quarter whence it came, "faithful ih'js arc needed in t;.c Lord's meepfold to bark at ravening wolves." — Fragmentary MS. in the Collection of the late Col. Henri Tronchin, Laum, vol. ii, p. 238.

3SS Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [July,

Their guilt is not affected by a mere prudential question. They thought it best, however, to prevent the German Prot- estants from lending assistance in the coming contest to their French brethren. And Cardinal Charles of Lorraine believed that he had discovered a capital method of accomplishing this. lie would sow discord between the two by persuading the German princes that the Huguenots were in no sense their brethren in the faith, while he and his brothers were really perfectly in accord with the Lutherans on every essential point. And so early in the February that intervened between the promulgation of the edict and the affair of Vassy four Guise brothers began their pilgrimage to the borders of Ger- many— Duke Francis, Cardinal Charles of Lorraine, Cardinal John of Guise," and the Grand Prior of the Knights of St. John. In the little town of Saverne, in Alsace, not far from Strasbourg, they met Duke Christopher of Wnrtemberg, who came, as they had invited him to come, accompanied by two of his theologians, Brentius and Andrea. An interview of several days' duration ensued, in which the Guises surpassed every previous effort of their own in dissimulation. " The Cardinal of Lorraine," says Mr. White, "twice preached ser- mons so Lutheran in spirit that his open adoption of the Con- fession of Augsburg was eagerly looked for ; and the language of the Duke of Guise and his brother Charles in their confer- ences with Duke Christopher and his chancellor, Prentz, is so extraordinary, and, as regards Duke Francis, so unlike what we read of him at other times, as almost to shake our faith in the genuineness of the report of the conference." f

We should not be surprised at Mr. White's partial skepti- cism were it not that there is, as we shall see, no doubt what- ever that the transaction is faithfully related. The acting was certainly clumsy, and the disguises too flimsy to answer their ends. Soon after tliey met, the Duke of Guise held a long conversation with the Duke of Wnrtemberg, in which he en- deavored to persuade him that the unhappy situation of France

♦ There has arisen considerable confusion in the- histories from the circumstance

that two of the brothers were Cardinal.-;. It was John, not Charles, who was present with the Duko at Vassy. II" died in 1578, at the early age of forty-eight,

J'c-t the last of the six brothers. From his convivial habits, I'Estoile tells us, he had earned the cognomen of " Ie Cardinal des Boutcillcs." Memoirs, p. 9C f White, ISC.

1S09J Massacre of St, Bartholomew. 380

resulted in great part from the position of the Huguenot min- isters, whose unconciliatory demeanor had rendered abortive the Colloquy of Poissy. Wurtemberg did not suffer the cal- umny to pass unchallenged, for he replied that the very ac- counts of the Colloquy sent him by Guise proved that the unsuccessful issue was due to the Prelates, who had come de- termined to prevent any accord. He ascribed the misfortunes of France rather to the persecutions which had been exercised on so many guiltless persons. " I cannot refrain from telling you,1' he added, "that you and your brother are strongly sus- pected in Germany of having contributed to cause the death, since the decease of Henry II., and even before, in his life- time, of several thousands of persons, who have been miserably executed on account of their faith. As a friend, and as a Christian, I must warn you. Beware, beware of innocent blood ! Otherwise the punishments of God will fall upon you in this life and in the next." " He answered me," writes Duke Christopher himself, "with great sighs, 'I know that my lu-other and 1 are accused of that, and of many other things too ; but we are wronged, as we shall both of us explain to you before we leave.' " The Cardinal's profession of faith, espe- cially on the matter of the presence in the sacrament, was equally politic. He acknowledged that his party went too far in calling the mass a sacrifice for the living and the dead. The mass was not a sacrifice, but a commemoration of the sac- rifice offered on the altar of the cross, (non sacrificium, sed me- moria sacrificii praestiti in ara crucis.) With a solemn appeal to God, he declared that he heartily approved' of tho Augs- burg Confession. "But," said he, u I am compelled still to dissemble for a time, that. I may gain some that are feeble in the faith." A little later he adverted to Wurtem berg's re- marks to Guise, and said, " You informed my brother that in Germany we are both of us suspected of having contributed to the execution of a large number of innocent Christians during the reigns of Henry and of Francis II. Well, J swear to von, in the name of God, my Creator, and pledging the salvation of my soul, that 1 am guilty of the death of no man condemned for relig ion's sake. Those who were then privy to the deliberations of state can testify in my favor." Likewise protested the Duke of Guise, " with great oaths." After such Foubth Series, Vol. XXI.— 25

390 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [Jub'?

fair assurances respecting the past, it is not astonishing that when Wurtemherg repeated his warning in relation to the future both the Cardinal and the Duke gave him their right hands, and pledged their princely faith and the salvation of their souls that, neither openly nor secretly, would they perse- cute the partisans o^ the " new doctrines." Nor is it strange that when Christopher of Wurtemherg came to read over his memorandum of the conference with the Lorraine brothers, in the light of the events that transpired only about a fortnight later, he added to his manuscript this brief comment : "Alas! it can now be seen how they have kept these promises. Deus sit xilior doli ct perjurii, cujus namque res agitur /"

Notwithstanding the remarkable character of the professions and assurances made by the Guises, there is, as we have already said, no reasonable ground for even that amount of uncertainty respecting the authenticity of the document containing them which Mr. "White expresses. The manuscript account drawn up by the Duke of Wurtemherg himself was discovered by Sattler, and printed in his " Geschichte von "Wurtemherg unter den Herzcegen." It has been translated into French, and published in the "Bulletin do la Societe de l'Histoire du Pro- testantisme Francois," (1S56, vol. iv, pp. J S4— 190.) If, in spite of Sattler's authority, the document be suspected of being a forgery, the following circumstances will, we presume, dissi- pate that suspicion. This was by no means the first time that the Cardinal of Lorraine, although notoriously the leader of the persecutions in France for many years, had the effrontery to pretend that he was an advocate of toleration; and this even with those who knew him better than did Christopher of Wurtcmbeig, and who saw at a glance through his paltry lying. As early as September 10, 1559, Sir Nicholas Throk- morton wrote to Queen Elizabeth from the French court, "I am informed that they here have begun to persecute again for religion more than ever they did; and that at Paris there are three or four executed for the same, and divers great per- sonages threatened shortly to be called to answer for their religion. Wherein the Cardinal of Lorraine having spoken unto, within these two daies, bathe said, that it is not his fault c ; and that there is no man that more hateth extn then (than) he dothe ; and yet it is knownc, thai it is} notwith-

1869.3 Massacre of St, Bartholomew. 391

standing, altogether ly his occasion" * A few months later, in February 1560, the same prelate indulged in a strain of similar hypocrisy in conversation with the embassador himself, much to the good knight's disgust. He declared himself in favor of a general council, and spoke with satisfaction of an edict just dispatched by Francis and Mary to Scotland, " to sur- cease the punishment of men for religion." "And of this purpose," adds Throkmorton with pardonable sarcasm, "he made suche an oration as it were long to write, evon as thoughe he had hem hired uy the Protectants to defend their cause earnestly ! " f Xot only, however, does the course of the Car- dinal of Lorraine in previous years show that sucb immoderate dissimulation as he is said to have exhibited at Saverne was not foreign to his character, but fortunately there is a well- known letter, written by Christopher of Wurtemberg, which furnishes irrefragable proof of the authenticity and credibility of the report of the conference. After the massacre of Vassy the Duke of Wurtemberg wrote to the Duke of Guise a long letter which has come down to us. In this he reminds him of the advice he had given him, and of the asseverations he had re- ceived in return. A single sentence will suflice to put the matter beyond controversy. " You know also," he says, " with what assurance you answered me that great injustice was done youy in that the attempt was made to represent you as the cause and author of the death of so many poor Christians who have heretofore shed their blood," etc., (epie Ton vous faisoit grand tort de ce que l'on vous vouloit imposer estrc cause et autheur de la mort de tant de povres Chrestiens, etc.) X

In conclusion, we must say that Mr. White's book, although written principally with the design of elucidating the events immediately preceding the catastrophe of the Massacre of St. F.artholomew, and of exhibiting in their true relation the successive acts of that remarkable tragedy, furnishes a very readable, satisfactory, and trustworthy account of the early history of the Protestants of France. We may hereafter take occasion to examine the main portion of his interesting work, and the views it presents of the premeditation of the conspiracy of the " bloody nuptials."

* Forbes' Full View, vol. i, p. 22G. f Forbes, vol. i, p. S37.

% Mc'moires do Guise, (Midland,) p. 491.

392 Application, of Photography to Astronomy. [Jul;

Art. V.— THE APPLICATION OF PHOTO Gil APIIY TO ASTRONOMY.

About twenty-live years ago a leading English magazine, in speaking of the invention of Daguerre, paid it the poor com- pliment of saying that " though now of some half dozen years' growth it is still ' so little of its age ' that it threatens to be a dwarf the longest day it lives." Though so unpromising at that period of its existence, the art of photography has since compelled a recognition of its services, not only as a means of gratifying our love for the beautiful, but as of much practical use in the arts and sciences. To the progress of astronomy it lias begun to render very material aid. Its possible services in this science are very obvious. If fleeting phenomena and transitory phases which disappear too soon to admit of careful study with the eye can by photography be permanently de- lineated, they may then be examined and measured at leisure. If the appearance of a celestial object as revealed by the powerful telescopes of to-day can be made to impress itself distinctly upon the sensitive plate of a camera, we shall have a record more accurate than any skill of the eye and hand can produce, serving not only for present study, but for comparison with the aspect presented by the same object many years hence. If the sidereal heavens can by their own agency be made to map themselves for our use, correctly registering both position and magnitude, astronomers will be saved much tedious labor and many troublesome mistakes. "We design to show briefly how far and with what success this application of photography to the science of astronomy has been made.

"When Daguerre in 1S39 exhibited his method of fixing on a metallic plate the image of objects by means of solar light, Arago was the first to predict the application of the discovery to the science of astronomy; and at his request Daguerre attempted to obtain a photographic representation of the moon, but did not succeed. Other attempts were also made by dif- ferent parties; but though the plate was in some cases ex; to the brilliant image formed by a powerful reflecting telescope twenty times as long as would sullicc for terrestrial objects, it failed to receive the slightest impression. The first to obtain

1S09.] Application of Photography to Astronomy. 393

any thing like a distinct representation of the moon, was Dr. J. W. Draper, of ]S"ew York,'"' who, as early us 1SI0, obtained a picture with a five inch lens by an exposure of twenty minutes. In 1S50 Professor G. P. Bond, of Cambridge, by the aid of his large refractor, produced some fine impressions of the lunar surface, and subsequently of some of the double .-tars of the first and second magnitudes. It was one of Pro- fessor Bond's lunar photographs at the London Exhibition in lb51 which stimulated Sir Warren De La Rue, who has since become famous in celestial photography, to undertake similar experiments. But little progress, however, was made in astronomical photography until 1857, when, the chemistry of the art having been much improved and more sensitive proc- esses devised, Mr. De La Rue, in England, renewed his experi- ments in this direction, and in the following year Messrs. Lewis M. Rutherford and Henry Draper, of New York, began to de- vote their attention to the subject, and have since prosecuted it with noted success. In 1S57 the time of exposure for fixing the image of the moon was diminished from twenty minutes to less than half as many seconds. "When the condition of the atmosphere is favorable, a distinct impression of the full moon can now be taken in less than a quarter of a second, and the planet Jupiter requires an exposure only twice as long.

In taking celestial photographs the telescope is used as the camera, the sensitive plate being usually placed in the focus of the object-glass or mirror, and receiving the image directly upon it. From the impression thus produced enlarged copies may be subsequently taken. Sometimes the image is enlarged by a secondary magnifier before it is received upon the plate. Kither the telescope or plate-holder must, of course, have a uniform motion communicated to it during the exposure cor- responding to the motion of the object. A negative, when obtained with a clear and tranquil atmosphere, and free from all imperfections — such as arc caused by a floating atom of dust, or the slightest tremor of the instrument, or pinholes in the collodion film-— may be enlarged to an extent limited only by the difficulties of manipulating enormous plates. And thus we have for deliberate examination and measurement by day-

' *Ou the Construction find Use of a Siiv..-rt-<l Gla^s Toledo.'!".', by Hoary Draper, •«•», p. 33.

394- Application of Photography to Astronomy. [July

light a permanent aud infallible record of the phases of a celestial body — a record written by itself. A high slate of perfection is essential in the original negative; for as def are magnified equally with the rest, a fault imperceptible in a small picture may become a serious flaw in an enlarged one. The enlargement may be carried so far as to make apparent the minute granules of deposited silver used in the photographic process; but here is an end to the advantage gained by increase of size, no more detail being furnished by any further enlarge- ment. When, however, the original image is enlarged before it is impressed on the sensitive plate, this limit of magnified detail is removed.

The chemical rays, which alone are effective in producing photographic impressions, being more refrangible than the luminous rays, a lens adapted to converge the latter to a focus will not concentrate the former; and hence a glass constructed for optical purposes is defective for photography, the photo- graphic image being too ill-defined to bear much enlargement. Though this objection does not lie against the reflecting tel- escope, which throws all the various rays to the same focus, yet tire least tremor of the instrument being multiplied so many times by the double, reflection constitutes an obstacle to its successful use not easily overcome. Mr. Rutherford, after ex- periencing these and other difficulties with both forms of the telescope, and trying in vain to obviate them, conceived the plan of constructing a new object-glass, corrected solely with reference to the photographic rays. Such a glass was com- pleted in December 1SU-J, and, though utterly worthless i'ov vision, proved to be very superior for photographic pur] With this lens the necessary time of exposure of the sensitive plate was diminished more than ten times by the complete concentration of the chemical rays. A photograph of the moon, twenty-one inches in diameter, taken with this new objective March G, 1865, (three days after the moon's first quarter,) is remarkably (dear, and shows great sharpness of detail almost to the very c(]>j:e. Mr. De La Rue, who has been called the first of celestial photographers, and who in 1SCG received from the French Academy the Lalande prize for the perfection to which he has carried the art, gracefully yields the scepter in lunar photography to Mr. Rutherfurd,

1SG0.J Application of Photography to Astronomy. 305

and acknowledges this picture to be superior to any produced by himself. Mr. Brothers, another English photographer, says in regard to it, "It is difficult to conceive that any thing superior can ever be obtained." It seems fitting that America, which gave origin to celestial photography, should still wear the palm. Professor Henry Draper, who has so successfully prosecuted this branch of photography with his silvered glass reflecting telescope, has produced a lunar photograph over four feet in diameter, which, indeed, presents an imposing- appearance, though it gives no more detail than if magnified to only half that size, on account of the silver granulation becoming visible. He has also taken photographs of the sun which exhibit details that were " almost invisible to observa- tion," and some of which show the precipitate-like or minute flocculent appearance of the solar disk described by Sir John Herschel. I)e La Eue has obtained solar photographs three feet in diameter, taken instantaneously, which (he says) repre- sent the sun's surface as though it had an undulatory motion, " like the surface of the sea agitated by wind." The planets also have given us their photographs, in which the rings of Saturn, the belts of Jupiter and his satellites, the snow zones and other markings of Mars, are shown remarkably well. The brilliant comet of Donati, which appeared in 1S5S, impressed itself on the plate in an exposure of seven seconds. Mi". Ruther- furd has produced a very line photograph of the solar spectrum embracing both the luminous and. chemical rays, and showing the numerous Fraunhofer lines with great distinctness.

We have stated that the image of the full moon can be fixed in less than one fourth of a second, and that of the sun " in- stantaneously." The actual time required to produce a solar photograph has been measured, and the resull is indicative of the remarkable perfection to which photography has attained. According to the experiments of Mr. Waterhouse, a space of time no longer than one twenty-seven-thousandth of a second is required to fix the solar image." Even this small fraction however, inconceivably short as it. appears, is a tolerable length of time compared with that in which photographs are taken by the electric Hash. The duration of the illuminating spark, according to the beautiful and trustworthy experiments of Mr.

* Annual of Scientific Discovery lor 18C0, p. 1G2.

39G Application of Photography to Astronomy. [July,

Wheatstone with his delicate chronoseopc, does not exceed the mUZionth part of a secondhand yet a clear and distinct pho- tographic image is obtained by a single electric discharge. 13y this means may be shown the real form of objects to which a deceptive appearance is given by their rapid movement. If a wheel on whose side any figure is drawn in conspicuous lines be made to rotate with the greatest possible velocity, the figure will present to the eye only a series of concentric bands of dif- ferent shades. Let it now be photographed while in motion by the electric flash, and the wheel will appear stationary with the figure perfectly well defined. A vein of water issuing from a small orifice, which appears to the eye as smooth as a stem of crystal, if seen or photographed by the light of the electric discharge, is shown to be composed of drops variously disposed and of various forms, some being elongated, others flattened, and others almost spherical, f

A series of photographs may be taken at inappreciable inter- vals, which will exhibit the birth, marked phases of existence, and extinction of an act or event much too fleeting to be per- ceived by the unaided eye. And thus photography, in its highest instantaneousness appears to eternize time, making momentary epochs, otherwise inappreciable, as evident to our senses as the presence of animalculae in blood or water is by a microscope.}: This idea recalls the antipodal one of General 0. M. Mitchell's, who, in describing the slow oscillatory motion of the ecliptic, which takes many thousands of years to perform a complete vibration, compared it to " a great pendulum in the heavens, swinging to and fro, healing the seconds of eternity J" §

But let us glance at some of the results which have been obtained by the application of photography to astronomy, and note their bearing in confirming and extending our knowledge of the science. The moon does not always present exactly the same face toward the earth, but within certain limits seems to rock upon its center, at one time turning one limb a little toward us, and at another time another; or, to use the figure

* JonrnrJ of Franklin Institute, v< 1. :<vii, p. 144.

f Smithsonian Report, 1 366, p. 215.

t Annua! ofScient ry for 1S60, p. Ml.

§ A Frencu writer expresses nearly the same thought as follows: "Inunenses pendules de I'&ernite' qui b&ttent lea eieclos commes k-s uotrcs battent I03 Becondes."

1809.] Application of Photography to Astronomy. 397

symbolized in the almanac.-, and lijcening the full moon to a human face, it turns so as to present sometimes more and sometimes less of one cheek than of the other, and again more or less of the forehead than of the chin. The measurement of this libration, as the phenomenon is called, has long taxed the patience and ingenuity of observers, but with photography its determination is at once comparatively easy and exceedingly accurate. Mr. De La Hue's lunar photographs, enlarged to thirty-nine inches, give such accurate micrometrical measure- ments as to furnish precise data for determining the amount of libration. The photographs of the moon taken by him and by Mr. Iiutherfurd under different states of libration and illumi- nation, are employed as the foundation of the great lunar map now being prepared under the auspices of the British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science on the colossal scale of two hundred inches to the moon's diameter. As every prin- cipal object on the photographs will be transferred by measure- ment to the map, a degree of accuracy will thus be secured far beyond that which the best charts now present.

An eminent astronomer has declared tbat in rectifying our knowledge of the moon, more has been accomplished by photog- raphy in one hour than by forty years' observations of occulta- tions. Let us see how this lias been done, at least in part. Dur- ing the total eclipse of the sun in li>G0, which was visible in a part of Europe and Africa, a number of photographicimpressions were taken by Mr. De La Hue representing the different si of the eclipse with remarkable exactness. A micrometrical examination of these photographs indicated the moon's di- ameter to be less by about four seconds than that determined by the instruments of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. A rigid investigation of star occultations shows that the mean diameter of the moon when bright is apparently four seconds greater than when dark. Sole -Ling from a long series of ob- servations those which it is known- give the most reliable re- sults, namely, the disappearance of .-tars at the dark edge of the moon and their reappearance at the dark ed^v, Mr. (i. J). Airy, the Astronomer Royal, has deduced the value ol' the moon's diameter, which confirms even to a hundreth pari of a second that obtained from the measurements of the pho- tographs, thus showing that the photographic record furnishes

39S Application of Photography to Astronomy. \ July,

as good a basis for calculation as the most delicate astronom- ical observations. Mr. Airy thinks this discrepancy of four seconds between the diameters of the full and new moon is due, certainly in part, if nut wholly, to the irradiation of its bright surface, but remarks that even if the whole of it were supposed to be caused by a lunar atmosphere, its tenuity must be so great that it would probably be discoverable in no other way. Its density would be only one two-thousandth part of the earth's atmosphere.*

An interesting fact connected with the photographs of the solar eclipse referred to is, that they reveal more than could be observed by direct vision — the eye of photography caught what was invisible to the human eye. During a total solar eclipse there are seen jutting out beyond the edge of the moon's disk various flame-like protuberances, usually rose- colored, which have excited much interest among all observers. One of these " flames," not sufficiently luminous to be seen with the telescope, was by the predominance of actinic rays distinctly impressed on the sensitive plate. " It probably emitted," says De La Rue, " a feeble purple light." Others of these colored prominences were better defined on the pho- tographs than to the eye. Owing to the discordance between previous observations of these phenomena, it had been a dis- puted question whether their appearance is connected with the sun or the satellite, and different theories had been proposed to meet each view of the case. The various photographs of this eclipse (taken at different localities) furnished a consistent and reliable record which at once and conclusively settled the fact that these red flames belong to the sun, and arc entirely independent of the moon. Recent investigations with the spectroscope prove that they consist of incandescent gaseous matter (chiefly hydrogen) extending into the upper regions of the solar atmosphere. They are visible only during an eclipse, because under ordinary circumstances their light is less brilliant than that of our atmosphere illuminated by the sun. Photo- graphic observations of the solar eclipse, which occurred la t August were taken at several stations, which, though the Btate of the atmosphere was somewhat unfavorable, furnish somi very interesting results. A complete discussion of them will * Monthly Notices of tho R. A. .?., vol. xxv, u. 2C4.

18G9.1 Application of Photography to Astronomy. 390

soon be published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.

The wonderful power of the stereoscope lias been applied to celestial photographs with the most marked and beautiful re- sults. It is well known that this simple instrument exhibits effects which a simple picture cannot produce. The two pictures on a stereoscopic slide, it will be observed, are photo- graphs of the same object from two different positions, varying from each other more or less according to the distance and size of the object, one picture corresponding to its appearance as seen by the right eye, the other as seen by the left eye. Now if, instead of moving the camera in taking the two impressions, the object itself should change its position, or simply turn in its place a few degrees, evidently the same effect would be pro- duced as before. Thus two photographs of a celestial object may possess the stereoscopic relation if taken with an interval sufficiently great to admit of the nccc-sary angular change in its position. For instance, De La Rue photographed a con- spicuous spot on the solar disk; then waiting about twenty- four hours till the sun's rotation on its axis should present the spot under a little different phase, he took another photograph of it, and placing the two in a stereoscope, the one last taken being on the left, they showed the true relative position of the various parts connected with the spot. In this we see a con- firmation of the theory, first asserted so boldly by Dr. Wilson nearly a century ago, that the spots arc immense openings or caverns in the luminous envelope of the sun. The faculai or bright parts of the disk immediately surrounding the spot, arc shown by tin's stereoscopic view to be portions of the luminous matter heaped up above the grosser part of the solar atmos- phere. The penumbra is represented at a groat distance below the outer surface of this luminous envelope or photosphere, while the central black nucleus appears to be an opi through the penumbra down to the opaque orb within, or rather to still darker masses of clouds which surround it.* The solar t-pots, according to M. Faye, indicate the tliicl of the luminous envelope to be from two to join- thoi miles; variable, it is thought, with the latitude. After n ing the above experiment with a sun spot, Mr. Do La Rim * Pl.il. Trans., 1862, Part I, \\ 40G.

400 Application of Photography to Astronomy. [July,

further, " My hope of rendering evident the luminous promi- nences [on the disk as well as around its edge] is dependent upon an extension of this experiment. I believe that with a careful adjustment of the time of exposure of the sensitive plate, I shall succeed in obtaining the outline of the luminous protuberances (the so-called red flames) as very delicate mark- ings on the more brilliant mottled background of the photo- sphere. These delineations, except with the aid of the stereo- scope, would be confounded with the other markings of the sun's surface ; but they would assume their true aspect, and stand out from the rest as soon as two suitable pictures were viewed by the aid of that instrument."

Mr. De La Rue also combined two photographs of the total solar eclipse of 1S60, taken with an interval of eighty seconds, and by an exposure of one minute each, which afford a very beautiful view of the phenomena of totality, and one which could not be enjoyed by mortal eyes in looking at the eclipse. In this stereograph the dark disk of the moon, " hung upon nothing," appears of a spherical form and comparatively near ; while far beyond, the brilliant corona or atmosphere of the sun, which is never seen except in a total eclipse, Hashes out around the disk revealing the presence of the concealed lumi- nous orb in the distance.

In combining pictures of the moon for the stereoscope, two photographs of the same phase are taken, but with an interval of one or more months between, in order that it may present in the latter picture its disk slightly turned from its position in the former, making the difference of libration from live to ten degrees — the two pictures, in fact, (placed in a stereoscope,) representing the moon exactly as it would appeal' if our eyes could be separated thirty thousand miles apart and each view the moon through a telc.-cope at the same time. By the effect thus produced, the globular form of our satellite is demon- strated as a physical fact, being made as apparent to the eye as is that of an orange held in the hand. The telescope exhibits the inequalities of the moon's furrowed surface only as dif- ferences of light and shade, while the stereoscope reveals them as actual elevations and depressions, making as manifest the long mountain ranges and deep valleys, the isolated peaks and numerous saucer-like cavities or craters, as they would be in a

1S69.3 Application of Photography to Astronomy. 401

bird's-eye view to a lunar inhabitant, though of course lack- ing the details. With suitable photographs, the stereoscope is to the telescope what the sculptured bust is to the painted portrait.

While a stereoscopic view of the full moon brings out its rounded form with astonishing naturalness, and gives one, perhaps, a better idea of it as a whole, yet a view of the moon only partially illuminated exhibits the unevenness of surface along the limit of illumination with much greater distinctness and beauty. Ordinary stereoscopic pictures of the moon represent it as magnified from twenty to twenty-five times ; a common stereoscope farther magnifies it about one and a half times, so that it is seen under a power of about thirty-live. Views enlarged to a greater size, with instruments adapted to them, would probably reveal minuter details of the diversified surface.

Photographs of the moon daring the lunar eclipse of October 1865 were found to be in stereoscopic relation with those taken during the eclipse of February 185S, (forming a stereoscopic angle which a measurement of the pictures indicates to be about five and a half degrees.) so that, when combined with each other, we have stereoscopic views of various phases of a lunar eclipse which present a very novel appearance. Strictly speaking, the moon is never full except at the time of a lunar eclipse. A picture of it taken at any other time will appear more or less jagged at some part of its edge. This view oi' the moon lying before me, taken just before contact with the earth's shadow, placed in a stereoscope, presents a clear, smooth outline around the entire edge. The next view shows the moon after contact with the penumbra, which dims a snudl portion of its disk. In the third picture, the muun has just entered the umbra, and in the fourth it is half immersed. The portion of the moon covered by the umbra left not the slightest trace on the photograph, though it was plainly visible to the unaided eye. The limit oi' the shadow, which is gradually softened off, can be much better traced across the disk in the photograph than as seen in the telescope, and it> projection plainly marks the circular, or, more strictly, the elliptical form of the earth's shadow.

The configuration of Jupiter's belts, and the diversity of

402 Application of Ph&togrwphy to Astronomy. [July,

light and shade on the surface of Mars, have enabled stereo- graphs to be produced of those planets, the presence of detail or variety in the appearance of a body being necessary to their production. Mr. Do La Paie hopes to obtain a stereograph of Saturn and his rings by the aid of the latter's periodical change of appearance in opening and closing. An interval of several years between the two photographs will be necessary. The planet itself will probably present only the appearance of a flat disk from the want of sufficient detail on its surface. The same reason will doubtless be a bar to the production of satisfactory stereographs of the sun until the delicate tracings on its luminous surface can be well defined in the photographs. An attempt was made by Mr. Rutherford to produce, one when the sun was remarkably rich in spots, but instead of pre- senting it in relief like a sphere, it gave the appearance of "a flat uniform disk spanned by a spherical network which seemed entirely detached from the disk."

At Kew Observatory, near London, the sun's photograph — we might say autograph — is taken once or twice every day when the sky will permit. By this means we are obtaining a continuous history of the changes in the spots and facuke on its face more accurate and more instructive than could be pro- cured in any other way. An investigation of these sun-pic- tures is fast setting at rest many disputed points pertaining to solar physics. The existence of a comparatively cold atmos- phere around the sun, outside of the luminous matter, and the connection of the solar spots with planetary influence, (chiefly that of Venus and Jupiter,) have been already established by them. Other questions relating to spots on the sun, and their connection with terrestrial magnetism, it is thought, will soon be solved, and perhaps also those concerning the movements of the supposed ring of asteroid? (or, possibly, single planet) within the orbit of Mercury. An investigation is now being made, with the view of determining with greater exactness the angular diameter of the sun. Two series of solar researches, based on the Kew photographs, Lave been published, and further work is being reduced preparatory to a final discussion. In view of the rapid advancement which has been made in solar physics within a few years past there seems reason to hope that the day is not distant when a satisfactory answer

18G9.J Application of Photography to Astronomy. 403

can be given to the oft-repeated inquiry, "What is a sun ? " *

Photography also renders its aid in another essential depart- ment at Kew Observatory. By its means, in connection with ingenious clock-work, all the various meteorological and mag- netic instruments automatically record their momentary changes throughout, the twenty-four hours, and in place of such old names as barometer and thermometer, we see used such new terms as barograph, thermograph, and magneto- graph.

The Russian government lias provided the observatory fit Wilna with a photoheliographie apparatus similar to that in operation at Kew, and there is a prospect of a like instrument being erected at Quebec. We shall thus have, on account of the difference of longitude, an almost uninterrupted self-regis- ter of solar phenomena.

But perhaps the most desirable application of photography, to the accomplishment of which the hopes of astronomers are strongly turned, is its employment in mapping the sidereal heavens. Professor Pond was the first to call attention to the advantages offered by this method of stellar observation, and prosecuted numerous experiments of the kind in 1S57 with his fifteen-inch refractor, photographing stars as small as the sixth magnitude. Mr. Rutherfurd, with his eleven-inch photo- graphic object-glass, has carried the work in this direction to the farthest extent yet attained, having photographed stars of the ninth magnitude. He has taken one cluster of twenty- three stars within the space of one degree square, and another (the Pleiades) of forty-three stars, many of these being of the ninth magnitude, with an exposure of three to four minutes. "With a delicate micrometer, which he designed expressly for the work, Mr. Rutherfurd tool; careful measures of the star images in his photograph of the Pleiades. Prom these meas- ures Dr. P. A. Gould has deduced the relative position angle-, and distances (in arc) of the stars, and a comparison of his

c Recent evidence, furnished by both the telescope and spectroscope, seema to demonstrate that the appearances connectod with bud Bpota are owing to the cooling and absorptive effects of an inrush or descending current of the sun's atmos- phere, which is known to bo cooler than tho photosphere, (See London Athe- nanira, May, 1868, p. T63.)

401 Application of Photography to Astronomy. [July,

results with those obtained by Bessel from his observations of the same stars proves both the accuracy of Bessel's measures and the trustworthiness of the new method, while at the same time it shows the small amount of relative change which has taken place in this group during the last quarter of a century. The observations made by Bes>el extended over more than eleven years, while the observations of Mr. Rutherford were made in a single night. "It would not be difficult," he says. 11 to expose a surface sufficient to obtain a map of two degrees square, and with instruments of larger aperture we may hope to reach much smaller stars than I have yet taken. There is also every probability that the chemistry of photography will be very much improved, and more sensitive methods de- vised." *

The advantages of this method of observation, when so ex- tended as to apply to the smaller telescopic stars, as stated by Professor Bond, are its entire immunity from personal errors, errors of judgment, or from want of skill on the part of the observer, with less liability to ordinary mistakes in reading and recording the indications of the micrometer. Besides which, the permanent record can at any time be re-examined to clear up doubtful points. Another advantage, equally de- cisive, is the extraordinary rapidity with which groups or clus- ters of small stars would be delineated, saving months and years of labor. f The disturbance of the atmosphere does not prove so serious an objection in stellar photography as one would at first suppose. The effect is more or less eliminated by a long exposure of from three to five minutes, or even longer. The stellar impression being the self-registered mean effect of all the disturbances of the image during exposure, (while in direct vision this mean effect has to be mentally es- timated,) the measurements of the photographs are more exact than those made in the ordinary way under the same atmos- pheric condition. A comparison between Professor Bond's photographic measurements and the results of Struve's obser- vations of the same stars, shows the photographic method to have three times the exactness of the ordinary method; that is, the probable error of a single photographic observation is

* American Journal of Science, vol xxzix, p. 300.

\ Astrouoiuiiclio Kacbrichtcn, No. 1,129.

1SG9.] Application of Photography to Astronomy. 405

no greater than the probable error of the mean of three ob- servations made in the usual way. The aid of photography may be also employed in determining the relative magnitudes of stars. From the relative diameters of the star images formed under similar conditions of exposure, a Bcale of photo- graphic powers could be derived which would approximate to the scale of magnitudes founded on then comparative bright- ness.

The path of astronomical discovery is obstructed more by the earth's atmosphere than by the limitation of telescopic power. The highest powers of our largest telescopes can only be used on very rare occasions, when the atmosphere is per- fectly tranquil. It may be possible to construct a telescope of the best optical qualities, and two or three times the size hitherto attained ; but to avail ourselves of its great magnify- ing power we sball need to search the globe for those favored spots where a clear and tranquil sky will afford the desired field for celestial exploration. As such instruments and op- portunities must, from the nature of the case, be rare, the ad- vantage of a rapid and accurate mode of registration in order to secure a greater harvest of the rich fruits thus placed within our reach is obvious. "Let it be admitted for the moment," says Professor Bond, "to be possible to register with adequate perfection an exact chart of each considerable star, surrounded by its host of lesser attendants, what more admirable means can be imagined for the resolution of the great problems of sidereal astronomy \ The rare occasions when an atmosphere of perfect tranquillity offers itself will be improved to the ut- most, and a single night be made to yield the results of months of labor." Another advantage of the photographic method is the avoidance of error.- arising from the imperfection of the physical organization. The method of recording transits by electro-magnetism has greatly reduced these physiological errors, but not entirely eliminated them, as was at first hoped. " The possibility," says M. Faye, "of dispensing with the ob- server (whose 'personal equation' varies not only with years, but from one moment, to another, with the troubles of diges- tion, circulation, or nervous fatigue) has been fully demon- strated. The met hud consists in substituting fa- the eye a photographic plate, and in automatically registering by clee- Foueth Series, Vol. XXI. — 26

406 Application of Photography to Astronomy. [July,

tricity the instant when the light is admitted to the dark chamber attached to the telescope." * By this means M. Fave obtained in twenty seconds ten complete observations of the sun. Again, while the observer, in looking at an object. scrutinizes closely only the parts which specially interest him at the moment of observation, and nearly always permits the rest to escape bis attention, the photograph, on the contrary, permanently registers every thing alike.

*A recent example has shown that it is not always safe to rely on the appearance of exactness even in a science which boasts of its perfection. It was supposed that the observa- tions of the last transit of Tonus across the solar disk in 1709 gave the sun's mean distance from the earth very correctly. But it is well ascertained to-day that the adopted value of this distance, which is the astronomer's measuring rod for celestial spaces, is too great by more than three millions of miles. Transits of Venus will again occur in IST-i and 1SS2, and it is proposed to employ the new and more accurate method in observing the phenomenon, though not designed that it should supplant observations with the eye.f The great interest at- tached to these transits arises from the fact that they famish the most approved method of determining the solar parallax, and thereby the sun's distance. A correction to the value of this necessitates alike correction in all numerical quantities involving the sun's distance as a unit. The advantages of the photographic method of observing such transits are peculiar. It is not important, as it is with eye observations, to catcli exactly the phases of contact of Venus with the sun's limb, nor is it essential that stations should be selected on nearly opposite sides of the earth from which to take the observations. A series of photographs at short intervals can be obtained during the progress of the planet across the sun, thus insuring greater accuracy by increasing- the number of observations. The exposure being instantaneous the exact moment of each record may be accurately determined. And what is b\ no means unimportant, the recording plate, sensitive though it is. has no nerves to be strained in the anxiety to make the utinosl of so rare and important an event. No solicitude prevents the

• Compte Rendu, Sopt 12, lSO-1.

|Sce Moutlily Notices R. A. S., Doc. 11, 18CS.

1869.1 Application of Photography to Astronomy. -107

unerring instrument from recording the event of a century with the same accuracy that it records an every-day occur- rence.

It is well known that " the eternal and incorruptible heav- ens," as they were termed by Aristotle, are undergoing con- tinual and marked changes. The so-called fixed stars — the " landmarks of the universe " — have their own proper motions not accounted for by that of the solar system. Sirius — as that wonderful aid to physical astronomy, the spectroscope, reveals — is shooting through space at the rate of a thousand million miles a year. The star known as Gl Oygni has a trans- verse motion alone of one thousand four hundred and fifty million miles a year. Many stars, more distant still, may even exceed this rate. ^Cooper's recent catalogue of stars shows that no fewer than sevent}r-seven stars previously cata- logued are now missing. This, no doubt, is to be ascribed in part to the errors of former observations ; but it is certain that to some extent at least it is the result of changes actually in progress in the sidereal system. Of temporary stars, about twenty have been observed, and more than six times that number are known to be variable. It appears quite certain also that some of the nebulae have undergone a change of both form and brilliancy. When the celestial lamps shall by their own light record their history on the photographic page, our knowledge of these mysterious luminaries, whose fires wax and wane, or go out in utter darkness, will be less involved in doubt,

Ifecent observations indicate with considerable probability a change in the appearance of Lrnn<\ one of the small craters of the moon. Two other craters near the western limb are sus- pected of having undergone a change; and indeed, if Leer and Madler'8 observations of them are worthy of confidence, it can hardly be questioned. It is quite probable, therefore, that vol- canic action, which from the moon's configuratioD seems to have been so abundant in its past history, has not- yet entirely ceased. Still errors of observation and of delineation pre- clude the possibility of forming a perfectly satisfactory con- clusion with respect to such variations from former descrip- tions, or from the inspection of drawings made by hand ; but if changes are still in progress in that luminary, or if any

40S Application of Photography to Astronomy. [July,

shall hereafter occur, photography, it is thought, affords the

readiest mean? of detecting them. A very interesting ques- tion will be solved when we arc able positively to affirm beyond all doubt that a change in the lunar surface has been observed.

Much that seems desirable in celestial photography is not yet attained; but when we consider that the art is in its in- fancy, and that every day is giving origin to improvements, we may well feel confident that this method of automatic ob- servation will render yet more important service to the science of astronomy. There has yet been but one object-glass con- structed with photographic focus. Its diameter is eleven and a quarter inches. Mr. De La Tiue is having a similar lens constructed of thirteen inches diameter, soon to be in opera- tion, from which, in the hands of so" skillful a director, much is expected. Professor Henry Draper has very nearly com- pleted a new silvered glass reflector of twenty-eight inches diameter, (the largest of the kind yet constructed, except one by Foucault.) which will be of the Cassegrain form, so as to permit the use of a secondary magnifier to enlarge the image before it is received on the sensitive plate. In a recent com- munication he says, " The mirror has already had a prelim- inary polish, and is going to turn out grandly." With this instrument the original negatives will be taken six inches in diameter, with provision for extending them to nine and a half inches if desirable. Such pictures will, of course, contain an amount of detail not possible in those taken with ordinary instruments, which vary from one to two inches in diameter, ac- cording to the size of the telescope. Professor Draper expects thus to obtain photographs of larger size and sustaining higher magnifying power than any that have yet been produced. The amount of advantageous enlargement will not be limited by the appearance of the silver granulation, but will depend wholly on the sharpness of definition obtained in the original picture.

There is now being erected (if not already completed) at Melbourne, in Australia, a powerful reflecting telescope four feet in diameter, of the Cassegrain form, which will be sup- plied with the necessary apparatus for photography, as well as fur spectroscopic investigation. This derives its importance

1869.] Amplication of Photography to Astronomy. 409

chiefly from the fact that the work will he prosecuted in the rich fields of the southern hemisphere.

An important, adjunct to photography is-a method, devised a few years ago, of making a photographic impression do its own engraving— prepare a plate by which, untouched by the hand of the engraver, any number of accurate copies can be printed with an ordinary press. Specimens of prints produced by this method of automatic engraving are given in the monthly notices of the It, A. S., vol. xxii, Ko. 7 ; and vol. xxv, No. 5 ; and also in the Cosmos, vol. xxi, page 176.

We have already alluded to the perturbations of the atmos- phere as being a serious obstacle to astronomical observations. It was suggested by Newton that the serene and quiet air which is so often found on the tops of mountains above the grosser clouds would very much favor celestial observations. Such elevated stations would seem to possess peculiar advan- tages for the application of photography, since the atmosphere is not only less subject to disturbance, hut is also more favora- ble to the chemical action of light. The results of the expe- dition to Teneriffc in 1S5C prove these suppositions correct. In a paper presented to the British Association in 1803 Pro- fessor Piazzi Smith, who had charge of the expedition, states that the chief object at Teneriffe was to ascertain the degree of improvement in telescopic, vision at a high elevation. Ob- servations wore taken at various points, reaching an altitude of eleven thousand feet, or ;i 1 it tic more than two miles. At that height the majority of clouds were found to be far below, the air dry, and in a very steady and homogeneous stale A photograph taken near the sea level could not be made to show the detail on the side of a distant hill no matter how marked the detail might be by rocks and cliffs illuminated by strong sunshine. Even the application of a microscope brought out no other feature than one broad, flint, and nearly uniform tint. But on applying the microscope to photographs of dis- tant hills, taken at a high level, an abundance of minute detail appeared. Each little separate bush could he. distinguished, though the hill-side was four and a half mile.- from the camera.* The important results obtained by this expedition has led to the establishment by the Russian government, of an astro- 0 Annual of Scientific Discovery, 1864, }>. Jia.

410 Application, of Photography to Astronomy. [July,

nomieal observatory at an elevated station on Mount Ararat, near Till is.

As in the telescope the light decreases inversely as the square of the magnifying power, there must be- a limit at which the minute details of an object become lost for want of light. The question has, therefore, very naturally arisen, whether by the aid of photography and extraneous light this barrier can be removed ;' whether a photographic image, by throwing upon it a beam of condensed light, can permit a higher power to be used with advantage than the optical image formed by the telescope. In other words, Is the photo- graphic eye more sensitive than the living eye \ or, Can a pho- tographic recipient be found that will register impressions which the living eye does not detect, but which, by increased light, or by developing agents, may be rendered visible? Concerning this question Mr. AV. B. Grove says, "It is per- haps hardly safe to answer it a priori; but the experiment of reproducing photographs [by which, even when exposed to a more intense light, we find that the photographic details are limited to the intensity of the first impression] would seem to show that more than the initial light cannot be got, and that we cannot expect to increase telescopic power by photography." *

Want of light, however, will be no obstacle to photographing the sun or moon on a scale of any magnitude desired. The light of the sun is so much in excess of what is required to obtain a collodion picture that the loss of light consequent on the necessary interposition of lenses or mirrors for enlarging the image can constitute no objection. "We may reasonably hope, therefore, that photographs of these objects will be ob- tained on a very much larger scale than any yet produced.

* Grove's Correlation of Physical Forces, (Tollman's Compilation,) p. 11 1.

1869.] Jacob's Prophecy respecting the Messiah. 411

Aet. VI.— THE PROPHECY OF JACOB RESPECTING THE MESSIAH.

Tbe scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and him shall the nations obey. Gen. xlix. 10.

This important prophecy of the dying Jacob stands out in bold relief in the history of the patriarchal age. Only two Messianic predictions had preceded it; one of them directed to the serpent, — "I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her Seed : it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel" — language so obscure that the most ancient Targumist * could find in it no allusion to the Messiah :f the other prediction, in the form of a blessing, pronounced upon Abraham — " In thy Seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed" — was more distinct, but simply indicated the salvation of the world through the offspring of Isaac.

Jacob prefaces his predictions with the exhortation and declaration to his sons: ''Gather yourselves together that I may tell you that which shall befall you in the last days." The phrase b^to^n r^Tinaa, ''Il the last days, is a prophetic formula for the remote future.:};

In a prophecy thus reaching to the most distant events in the history of the twelve tribes we naturally expect some allusion to Him who was to make the name of Israel for ever illustrious, and to hold a universal sway over the human race. Accordingly, the exposition that would exclude any reference to the Median in the text placed at the head of this article has in it, d priori, great improbability. It is true, that if we take the Rationalistic stand-point, and assume that all prophecy which is not an ardent hope springing fromthe earnest yearnings and the deeply felt wants of humanity is cither history written after the events, or, where that is impossible, the conjecture of

* Onkelos.

| The Targum of Jerusalem, however, written Beveral centuries after Chrisf, refers it to the times of the Mi isiah. J See Isaiah ii, 2 ; Micah iv, 1 ; Numbers xxir, 1 1 ; Dan. x, 14

412 Jacob's Prophecy respecting the Messiah. [July,

shrewd political observers, then we must deny all reference in the text to any events that lie beyond the time of the composition of the Book of Genesis, which the most skeptical and reckless criticism can scarcely bring down to the Davidic times.

But with the clear conviction of the supernatural character of the Old Testament prophecy, we are prepared to find pre- dictions of events that lie beyond the horizon of the prophet, and so to refer them when the circumstances under which they were uttered and the laws of language require such a reference.

Respecting the import of the single words of the prophecy under discussion, we may remark that tfi», shebet, although originally meaning rod or staff, is properly translated scepter, and has that force in various parts of the Old Testament, of which the following are examples: "Out of Zebulun they wield the scepter," {shebet,) Judges v, 14. " There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a scepter {shebet) shall rise out of Israel." Num. xxiv, 17. "The scepter {shebet) of Egypt shall depart." Zech. x, 12. " One handling the scepter," {shebet.) a king. Amos i, 5, 8. Pgtib, Mechoqeq, translated lawgiver, a participle poel from |?i?ri, means also rider, judge, a scepter, and in the text it may stand in apposition with shebet, scepter, and be synonymous with it in accordance with -a well-known usage of Hebrew poetry.

The word shiloli is written "in most editions and manuscripts nVffi>, with the yod, (">,) and in twenty-eight Jewish manu- scripts and in all the Samaritan it is riid without the yod, and in a few manuscripts -'"^ and i*ii?. But Gesenius thinks this is of no importance, since sh'doh, when the inane of a town, has also this threefold orthography. It is evident, then, that the Hebrew critics and copyists regarded shiloh as a simple word; for had they deemed it compounded of o, she, (an ab- breviation of "i-'a,) and ~o, lo, making i^u;, shcllo, they would never have written it with the yod.

To this objection to its being considered a compound word must be added the fact that b, the abbreviated form of ir», nowhere occurs in the Pentateuch, and is first met with in the Book of Judges. But if, in spite of these facts, shiloh be re- garded as a compound word, which is the opinion of i eminent scholars, then its meaning is, to whom if is, t>> whom the scepter belongs, which is, indeed, very abrupt, and is more

1SG9J Jacob's Prophecy respecting the Messiah. 413

fully expressed by Ezekiel : '; I Avill overturn, overturn, overturn it: find- it shall be no more until He come -whose right it is, (or to whom judgment belongs.) and I will give it him." Chap, xxi, 2.7. Ir. is very probable that the prophet had in his mind this very text, and he evidently refers it to the Messiah.

Taking "shiloh" as a simple word, what is its import? It means pace, tranquillity. Nor is this doubtful, for we have cognate forms of similar force: shalah, to be secure, tranquil, at rest, (Gesenius;) to be tranquil, at peace, secure, (Fuerst.) Shalvah, tranquiUity, security, (Gesenius;) peace, rest, (Fuerst.) In Syriac we have shelyo, rest; shalyo, at rest, peaceful; shalyutho. rest, peace. Arabic, salah, to he serene, tranquil. Shiloh seems to be an abbreviation of shilon,* from which by Hebrew usage we have shiloni, shilonite; just as the word ri»5o, Shelomo, Solomon, is an abbreviation of paj?, Shclomon. The name Solomon is derived from t:i;"i, shalom, peace. In shiloh (from shalah) we have the idea of internal quiet and peace ; in shalom, wholeness, soundness, safety, then peace in opposition to war. Both of these ideas can be well applied to the Messiah.

This name, Shiloh, Peace, stands for the Messiah, who in Isaiah ix, 5, is called DiJra v~, Prince of Peace, which title Gesenins, Rcediger, and Fuerst themselves refer to the Messiah. It was altogether appropriate that the Messiah should be predicted under the title Shiloh, because in him dwells fullness of peace, its very intensity; and we can illustrate this by a clear analogy. The ruler of the Turkish Empire is called Sultan,-\ an Arabic word — the same as the Chaldee ysbv, — meaning power, dominion; he bears this title because he is regarded as the very embodiment of power and dominion, the shadow of God upon the earth. This use of abstract^ for concrete ideas was more common in the ancient than it is in the modern world. The classical scholar will recall to his mind many

*We find that the Septuagint in most cases gives ZnX6fi for Shiloh. The pic-sent name of the ancient Bite ofSbiloh is Seilim. — .'. in Palestine, vol. ii, 269. Josephus writes it Siloun.

f The first Turkish ruler to whom the title Sultan was given waa Mahmudof Ga/.ua, a thousand years after Christ — Gibbon's Decline and Full </ th h Empire, vol v, p. 500.

\ It is not absolutely necessary to tako Shiloh abstract fur concrete; it may bo an appellative, the possessor of peace.

414 Jacob's Prophecy respecting the Messiah. tJuly,

instances in the ancient writers. And what a beautiful com- mentary upon Sliiloh was the announcement of the angels at the birth of Christ : " Behold, I bring you good tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people." "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good-will toward men." Christ is the great restorer of peace between God and man, and between man and his fellow. Christianity, in teaching the common brotherhood oi the human race, has done more than any tiling else to break down caste and promote peace and love among men. St. Paul, in Ephesians, speaks of Christ as " our peace," in the sense of peace-maker, which is perfectly in har- mony with the title Sliiloh.

That the name Sliiloh refers to the Messiah was, it seems, the universal opinion until several centuries after Christ, . The exposition that denies in the name any reference to the Messiah was the invention of hostile, prejudiced Jews, in which they have been followed by some eminent Rationalistic scholars, but scarcely by any one else.

In giving the views that have been taken of this prophecy of Jacob, we shall begin with the Septuagint : "A ruler shall not fail from Judah, and a leader from his loins, until lie come for whom these things are reserved, and he himself is the ex- pectation of the nations."* "The scepter shall not depart from Judah, and a lawyer from between his feet, until He come whose it is, and i'or him shall the nations await." — Peshito Syrieic.\ "The scepter shall not depart from Judah, and a leader from his thigh, until He come who is to lie sent, and he shall be the expectation of the nations." — Vulgate Edition of Sixtus V.and Clement VIII.

The Samaritan Pentateuch contains the text under discus- sion in nearly the same form as it stands in the Hebrew, and there is the best authority for saying that the Samaritans them- selves explain it of a Messiah.

Of all the ancient versions of the Pentateuch that of Onkelos,J made in Chaldee, is the most valuable, and it has always stood

*Ovk ixtetyet up_,vuv t£ lovJo h.m 7)yovfirvog ix r£>v ptipuv aiirov Jc>c lav k?.dy ~u H~oKvijaia avru, ual abrbs irpooioicia tJvu;'. — Van Ess's Edition. The Penta- teuch was translated 2so 13. C.

] Edition of Prof. Lee, London, 1S23. This version was made- in the first or second century.

\ Onkelos probably lived a short time before Christ.

1809 J ' JacoVs Prophecy respecting the Messiah . 415

very high with the Jews. His translation of our passage is as

satisfactory as could be desired : " A ruler shall not depart from the house of Judah, and a prophet (saphra, prophet, lawyer,

scribe) from among his children's children for ever, until the Messiah come whose the kingdom is, and him shall the nations obey."* "Kings shall not fail from the house of Judah. n ir skillful teachers of the law from among his children's children. until the time when King Messiah comes, whose the kingdom is, and him shall all the kingdoms of the earth serve." — Targum of Jerusalem. " Until Shiloh come, King Messiah, whose the kingdom is, and so Onkelos and Midrash [a Jewish Commentary] explain Shiloh." — Rashi.\ "The great scepter shall not de- part from Judah until David come, who was the first king of Judah, and so it was as is shown from the fact that Judah [in the wilderness] marched in the front rank; also Jehovah (the name) said, Judah shall go up first." — Mm Ezra.% He also remarks : " There are some who explain this of the city Shiloh, until an end come to Shiloh, [Shiloh nominative to the verb ttt^, come, to go down, like the sun,] for thus it is written : And he rejected the tabernacle of Shiloh, and afterward he chose David his servant/' Here we have the germ of an exposition that has become very popular among the Jews and with some of the Rationalists — the referring of Shiloh to a city of that name, thus freeing themselves from the necessity of applying the passage to the Messiah.

Fuerst, in his great Concordance of the Hebrew Bible, (pub- lished at Leipsic in 1840,) defines Shiloh: Best^ peace, a title, as the most ancient tradition proves, of the Messiah, who brings peace and rest?'' He then confirms this statement by referring to ancient authorities, and concludes by remarking: ''Some affirm that Shiloh is for Shilyah, and that il is spoken of the son (of Judah,) absurd!)', certainly; others, among whom are also Jewish interpreters, through prejudice, understand it of the town Shiloh." §

* This passage ami the three following wo havo translated from the Ghaldee and Rabbinical in Buxtorfs great Rabbinical Bible.

f A Jewish c mimentalor.

\ A celebrated Spanish Rabbi of the twolfth century.

§ Quies, pax, cognomen, uti vetustissima traditio confirmat, M quitemque afferentis. Alii pro n"v53 de Olio dictum rolunt, ubsurde scilie t; ;.'.!:, inhisetiara Judaici interpretes, Siluntem oppidura praco lligunt

4-16 Ja-coVs Prophecy respecting the Messiah. ' [July,

But let us hear Fucrst in 1863. After giving the view? of others upon the word, he says, " But it is better to abide by the first signification of f'~-~'4 as the name of a place, and take the verse to mean that Judah took the precedence of all the other tribes at the beginning in leading warlike marches till the ark came to Shiloh in Ephraim, and the obedience of the Canaanite peoples was effected ; after which the old leadership ceased." * This is certainly a remarkable falling off in the exposition of a sublime prophecy, and shows great progress in the Rationalistic direction.

Gresenius, in the last edition of his Hebrew Lexicon, has, under the word Shilok, the following: ilJ2esti tranquillity; such seems to be the meaning of the word in the difficult passage, the scepter shall not depart from Judah until rest shedl come, and the nations obey him, (Judah.) That is, Judah shall not lay aside the scepter of a leader until he shall have subdued his enemies, and obtained dominion over many nations; refer- ring to the expected kingdom of the Messiah, who was to spring frorn the tribe of Judah." This is from Dr. Robinson's edit ion at the close of 1843. about a year after the death of Gesenius. In Robinson's eighth stereotyped edition of Gesenins's Lexi- con we have the following from Rcediger, who made additions to the last part of Gesenius: "The scepter shall not depart from Judah until he (Judah) come to Shiloh, and the nations obey him. Here Shiloh is accusative of place, as in rijjiffl &b*?, and he came to Shiloh, 1 Sam. iv, 12 ; 1 Kings xiv, 4. Com]). Judges xxiv, 12; 1 Sam. iv, 4. It was in the patriarch's mind that the tribe of Judah would be the leader of the other tribes in the war against the Canaanites, and thus hold the supreme power. See Judges i, 1, seq. Comp. xx, IS ; Num. ii, 1, seq. x, 14 : nor could this war be regarded as finished and victory obtained until the Hebrews came as conquerors to Shiloh, in the middle of the land, and there set up the sacred ark and tabernacle; after which the Canaanites, being now subdued, Judah ceased to be leader, and the laud v as distributed in peace among the tribes. See especially Josh, xviii, 1. This interpretation Mas proposed by Teller, and has been followed by Herder, Bleek, Tuch, Ewald, Delitsch, and others. In the name n>=

* Hebrew and ChaMeo Lex., translated by Dr. Davidson. New York: 1. y- poMi, K Holt. 1SC7.

1SG9J JacoVs Prophecy respecting the Messiah. 417

the author probably had respect to the signification, red, peace ; and the prophecy may have looked forward beyond that epoch of lime." He also remarks: "Ubt a few modern interpreters take rfrwd here as an appellative, signifying either peace, quiet, or (abstract for theconcrete) pacificator, prince of peace. Most understand by it the Messiah. But this view labors under the difficulty that no such appellative noun is elsewhere found, nor one of a like form, except fo~>, which is the name of a place, as is fftiOj every-where else." Here we have the anti-Messianic view exhibited in its most plausible form by a very distinguished scholar and critic.

But what shall we say of Ecedigers assertion that "no such ap- pellative noun is elsewhere found, nor one of a like form ? " Is not the word ri&lHp, Shelomoh, Solomon, like rij>"»», Shiloh, in form,' and is it not an appellative, and given to Solomon because he was a man qfpeacef* We lind in the Old Testament more than forty proper nouns, the names of places, about thirty of persons, and many common nouns and adjectives, with the termination "f- on. We- lind some words ending in \i>on, that are the names of both cities and men ; for example, y~;~. "f^xf. Why, then, ma}T not Shiloh (Shilon) be both the name of an individual and of a city ? or, according to the usage of the language, be both a common and a proper noun ? Shiloh (from shalah) could be an adjective or a noun. As applied to a per- son, it would mean peaceful, peace, or a peace-maker. When applied to a city, a place of peace or rest.

It seems very probable that the town Shiloh had no cx;-t- ence before the children of Israel, under Joshua, pitched the tabernacle there, and the ark rested alter its long wanderings, and that from this very circumstance the place derived its name, when the " land was subdued before them." See Joshua xviii, 1. We have in Joshua iv, 10, a similar case. It i they "encamped in Gilgal," but the place was not then so called, but acquired the name afterward from the reproach of the Israelites having been rolled away by their circumcision. Chap, v, 0.

Even if the town Shiloh existed in the patriarchal tin

* That Shiloh is generally written with tho yod (-0 makes no difl comparison. Similar in formation arc *Vb*p, *f~~*r- w~?, ■ Gcs<.-riiu.s, is for V1"?. — Pharoix.

41$ Jacob's Prophecy respecting the Messiah. [July,

must have been a place of little note. In the Book of Joshua we have an account of the capture of many cities and kings, but not a word about the capture of Shiloh ; the Israelites sim- ply come thither and pitch the tabernacle. In describing the borders of the hind allotted to each tribe the old names are almost invariably given, and in the description of the limits of Ephraim it is said, "and the border went about eastward unto Taanath-Shiloh." Taanath-Shiloh, according to Gesenius, means "Approach of Shiloh ;" according to Fuerst, " Circle of Shiloh;' That this is the same Shiloh in which the tabernacle; was pitched, is evident from the locality. It is not named Shiloh, but the Circuit or Region of Shiloh, for the land, not the city, was there when Joshua entered the country.

That Shiloh owed all its importance to the presence of the tabernacle and the ark is clear from the fact that after the capture of the ark in the time of Eli the place was almost en- tirely abandoned. It is spoken of by Jeremiah in the follow- ing terms: "But go ye now unto my place which was in Shiloh, where I set my name at the first., and see what I did to it fur the wickedness of my people Israel." Chap, vii, 12. In the time of Jeroboam the prophet Ahijah is spoken of in sev- eral passages - as dwelling in Shiloh. How Fuerst (Heb. and Chal. Lexicon) could say that Shiloh was then an "important city," and refer to these pa-sages simply as the proof, is hard to say.

How unnatural it would be for Jacob to speak of coming to a Shiloh that then had no existence — a most minute prophecy respecting an unimportant event — and to pass by m utter silence matters of the deepest import. To suppose that genuine proph- ecy would overlook the greatness and renown of Jndah with his long line of kings, and the glory of the kingdom of the Messiah who was to spring from Judab, and that it would limit itself to the insignificant honors of the tribe before coming to Shiloh, is absurd in a very high degree. "The testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy.'' But it is very evident that those who explain the prophecy of the coming to Shiloh have no abiding conviction of the genuineness of the prophecy, f but

* 1 Kings \i. 29; xii, 15 j xiv, 2, -I.

t From this remark we should except the Jews, who have a dogmatic interest in not referring it to the M(

1S69.] Jacob's Prophecy respecting the Messiah. 419

rather regard it as language put into the mouth of Jacob when the event justified the prophecy. But there is nothing in the prediction to chow that it is merely history thrown into the prophetic form. When, then, was the Book of Genesis written, or when was this prophecy invented? when Judah came to ShilohJ But the war with the Canaanites was not yet ended. and if Judah had been the leading tribe up to that time, what ground could the inventor have to think that Judah's leader- ship would then cease, when in fact it did not, but rather began after that event? Nor could the prophecy have been invented during the period of the Judges, of .David, or of any subse- quent king.

"What, then, was the leadership of Judah previous to his coming to Shiloh ? The prophecy announces that the scepter shall not depart from Judah. A scepter is wielded by a king ; Judah then had no king. It was Moses, who, under God, held absolute power over the twelve tribes for forty years, from the coming out of Egypt until their approach to the promised land. But Moses belonged to the tribe of Levi. Joshua was the leader until they came to Shiloh, and he was of the tribe of Ephraim. It is perfectly clear, then, that Levi and Ephraim were the leading tribes; just as among the ancient Greeks that tribe from which the president of the senate was selected, was called the presiding tribe. All the pre-eminence that Judah had in the wilderness was the privilege of marching in the front rank in the wilderness,* and it is very likely that this was conceded to him because his tribe was the most numerous. .Dan stood next in numbers; lie was posted as a strong guard in the rear. In the numerous battles recorded in Joshua />/■,.- vious to the coming to Shiloh, not a word is said oibout JudaKs taking the lead.

After the death of Joshua the children of Israel inquire of the Lord, "Who shall go up for us against the Canaanites, first to fight against them."t The answer is, "Judah shall go." But if Judah had been accustomed to take the lead, what need was there to inquire of the Lord concerning the matter? About twenty years after this they ask counsel of the Lord again, "Which of us shall go up first to the battle against the children of Benjamin P The answer is, "Judah shall go up

* Num. x, M, seq. f Ju<!,;r:> i, ], 2.

420 Jacob's Prophecy respecting the Messiah. [July,

first."* All this was after the coming to Shiloh, and it shows that even then there was no absolute leadership in the tribe of Judah.

Furthermore, the second member of the prophetic sentence is wholly incongruous with the explanation "until he come to Shiloh." If we understand pfen'jp, Mechoqeq, (translated law- giver,) as defining more exactly sheftet, (scepter,) and translate it miler, what ruler had Judah before lie came to Shiloh ? If the word means lawgiver or prophet, he had none. If we under- stand by it a lawyer or scribe, it is altogether inappropriate, for when the tribe came to Shiloh the law had been given but comparatively a few years, and these teachers were to continue for many centuries afterward. Besides all this, it is very strange that the Jews should have so palpably misunderstood their own language for so many centuries in referring the pas- sage to the Messiah, never dreaming of this coming to Shiloh. Nor are Fuerst and Hcediger happy in explaining "him shall the nations obey," of obedience rendered to Judah by the Canaanites. For — to say nothing of the unauthorized limita- tion of the expression "nations" to the Canaanites — were they not destroyed rather than held in obedience to Judah ? There would be some force in the exposition if the prophecy read, "By him shall the nations be cut off!" The word nr.p^, construct nrjS??, (English version, gathering,) is found in one other passage- only, Prov. xxx, 17, where it is rendered to obey ' it properly means obedience, reverence, respect. The corresponding Arabic- word wahiha has the same force, to obey.

It may be a question whether the obedience of the nations is to be rendered to Judah or to Shiloh; him, ill the passage, can refer to Judah, but the reference to Shiloh is mere natural, and on the hypothesis that the Messiah is here spoken of, is necessarily required. Nor is there any difficulty respecting gender, for Shiloh is masculine, and if it were not, the sense would demand a masculine pronoun.

But it may be asked, had not the scepter already departed from Judah when the Messiah came? There was. a captivity of seventy years in Babylon, during which the BCepter was in abeyance. When Judah returned from captivity, Zerubbabel, of that tribe, became governor; after him the government was * Judges xx, 18.

1869J JacoVs Prophecy respecting the Messiah. 421

administered by high priest?, (Nchemiah may Lean exception.) until the posterity of the Asmonseans set up kingly govern- ment. The Asmonasan family reigned for one hundred and twenty-six years. This Asmonsean or Maccabean family was destroyed by Herod the Great about thirty-seven years before the birth of Christ. He was the son of an Idumean, and ap- pointed king of the Jews by" the Romans, which position he- held until a short time after the birth of Christ. The Jews, however, had already been made tributary to the Romans by Pompey, about sixty-three years before Christ. About thirty- seven years after the crucifixion of our Lord Jerusalem was destroyed by the Roman army under Titus, and the Jewish people scattered to the four winds of heaven.

But this government of Judah, administered by Levites until the accession of Herod, was by no means a foreign one, for these Levites were blended and reckoned with Judah. Judah possessed the scepter, the royal prerogatives, in the same de- gree as if its rulers had been of its own tribe: just as our States are in their sphere sovereign and independent, though their governors may be Irishmen or Germans. Accordingly, the substantial truth of the prophecy remains unshaken, after all proper abatements are made and limitations set. But it must be observed that in a short, pithy, prophetic declaration, we arc not to expect all the precision of a geometrical definition, or of an algebraical equation. Hengstenberg, in his Christol- ogw of the Old Testament, contends that the scepter m ver has left Judah, since Christ, who now holds the scepter, sprang from that tribe; and that until does not express an absolute limit, any more than when we say to our friends upon parting, " Fare- well until we meet again ;" for this does not imply no concern about their welfare after the future meeting. And this appears to be the right view. Jacob would seem to say, " The scepter shall not leave Judah until Messiah come; beyond that I haw no concern. For if once the Messiah lays hold upon the sc< no power in the universe can wrest it from his hands." Here we cannot but advert to that remarkable providence that preserved the tribe of Judah until the advent of Christ. Between tin- powerful kingdoms of Egypt, Damascus, Syria, and Babylon, it might have been ground to powder. The ten tribes, more than seven hundred years before Christ, had been tarried away

Fourth Series, Vol. XXI. — 27

422 JacoVs Prophecy respecting the Messiah. [Jul)';

captive beyond the Euphrates by Shalmaneser, to return no more. Judah, to which Benjamin was reckoned, alone re- mained, as the stock from which should spring "The Branch," under which the various nations of the earth should find peace aud safety.

In conclusion, this prophecy, in its fulfillment, has become matter of history. The kingdom of Christ in three centuries broke to pieces the Roman Empire of Paganism, and dethroned Jupiter himself. The most cultivated and powerful nations of the. earth recognize the divine mission of Christ. Millions of hearts now render homage to him. His mfluence shall go on increasing until all the nations of the earth shall bow to his "scepter."

Art. VII.— BIBLICAL MONOGRAPHS.

SAUL AKD PAUL.

The change of name in the great Apostle of the Gentiles has given rise to various interpretations. The precise meaning of Paul. The motive for adopting it in the place of Saul is still a subject of dispute.

The original name of the Apostle was Saul, the most distin- guished name in the genealogy of the tribe of Benjamin, to which he belonged, (Rom. xi, 1 ; Phil, iii, 5. Compare Acts xiii, 12.) He used it among the Jews, at least before he en- tered upon his independent apostolic labors among the Gen- tiles. But in the latter part of the Acts and in his Epistles the name of Paul uniformly occurs. He chose it, in all proba- bility, as the nearest allusive and alliterative Hellenistic and Latin equivalent for Saul, and because it was already familiar to the Greeks and Romans ; while Saul, as a proper name, was unknown to them.

It was customary among the Jews and early Christians to use two names, cither similar in sound and identical in mean- ing, as Silas and Silvanus, Lncas aud Lucanus; or similar in sound but different in meaning, as Jesus aud Justus, (Col. iv, 11,) Saul and Paul, Hillel and Pollio; or different in sound but identical in meaning, as Cephas (Hebrew) and Peter, (Greek;) or different both in sound and meaning, as Jacob and Israel, Simon and Peter, Bartholomew and Xathanael, John

18C9.] Biblical Monographs. 423

and Mark, (Acts xii, 12, 25,) Simeon and Niger, (xiii, 1,) Bar- sabas and Justus, (i, 23.)

It is possible that the Apostle Paul as a Roman citizen received this name in early youth in Tarsus, or inherited it from some ancestor, who may have adopted it in becoming a freedman or in acquiring the Roman citizenship, Pan! being the well-known cognomen of several distinguished Roman fam- ilies, as the gens JEmilia, Fabia, Julia, Sergia, etc.

It is more probable, however, that he chose the name him- self, after he entered upon his labors among the Gentiles, as a part of his missionary policy to become a Greek to the Greeks, in order to gain them more readily to Christ. (1 Cor. ix, 19-23.)

At all events, the name Paul is first mentioned during his first great missionary journey, when he, taking henceforth precedence of Barnabas in words and in acts, struck Elymas, the sorcerer, with blindness, and converted Sergius Paulus, the Proconsul of Cyprus, to the Christian faith. Acts xiii, 8. After this striking fact he is uniformly called Paul in the lat- ter chapters of the Acts and in all the Epistles.

But we have no right for this reason to infer (with Jerome, Olshausen, Meyer, Ewald, and others) that the name Paul was a memorial of the conversion of Sergius Paulus, as his first fruit. For, 1. He may have converted many Jews and Gentiles before that time ; 2. Pupils are called after their teachers and benefactors, and not vice versa; 3. Luke gives no intimation to that effect, and connects the name Paul, not with that of the Proconsul of Cyprus, (xiii, 7, 12,) but with that of Elymas (lie sorcerer, (verse S.)

The last circumstance favors the ingenious hypothesis of Dr. Lange, that the name expresses the symbolical significance of the victory of Paul, the small man of God, over Elymas, the mighty magician of the devil, :is a New Testament counter- part of the victory of David over Goliath, or of Moses over the sorcerers of Egypt. Dr. Lange, however, admits the probability that Paul had his Roman name before tin's occasion.

At all events, the change of name has nothing whatever to do with his conversion; and all allegorical interpretations of Chrysostom, Augustine, Wordsworth, and others, which go on this assumption, arc merely pious fancies, which arc suffi-

424 Biblical Monographs. [July,

ciently refuted by the fact that the Apostle is repeatedly called Said long after his conversion, as in Acts ix, 25, 30 ; xii, 25 ; xiii, 1, 2, 7, 9 ; and that it is said of Said in one pas- sage (xiii, 9) that he was " fdlcd with the Holy Ghost."

I add, as an exegctical curiosity, the view of Dr. Words- worth, who, in his Commentary on Acts xiii, 9, uncritically combines all the various interpretations of the name, except Dr. Lange's, which was then not yet known to him, and assigns no less than eight, reasons for the change of Saul into Paul. 1. Because laZXog was a purely Jewish name ; 2. Be- cause among the Greeks it might expose him to contempt, as having the same sound as oav?.og, wanton; (see Homer, Hymn Mercur, 28, and Ruhnken in loc. ;) 3. To indicate his change and call to a new life from a Jew to a Christian, from a per- secutor to a preacher of the Gospel; 4. But in the change much of the original name was left, and commemorated what he had; hem. The fire of zeal of lavXog still glowed in the heart of ITavloq, but its flame was purified by the Holy Ghost ; 5. His new name denoted also his mission to the Gentiles, the Romans being familiar with the name Paulus; 6. It was a token of humility, Paulus-parvulus, (1 Cor. xv, 9 ;) 7. It com- memorated the cognomen of Paul's first (?) convert, Serghis Paulus, and was a good augury of his future success in the Roman world ; 8. It indicates Paul's intended supremacy in the Roman or Western Church as distinct from the Aramaic, name Cephas, and the Greek name Peter.

TIIE T.OOK OF EXOC1I. The name of Mwch, or more properly Chanoch, (Hebrew, Tj-irn,) is applied to four Biblical persons, namely, 1. To the oldest son of Cain, (Gen. iv, 17;) 2. To a grandson of Abra- ham, (Gen. xxv, 4;) 3. To the oldest son of Reuben, (Gen. xlvi, 9 ;) 4. To a descendant of Seth, father of Methuselah and great-grandfather of Noah, (Gen. v, 19, 22; Heb. \i. 5; Jude 14, 15.) The one last mentioned is alone historically important; first, because of the fragmentary but at the same time interesting accounts in the Holy Scriptures concerning his life and destiny; and, secondly, because of the various tra-

1809.1 Biblical Monographs. 425

ditions concerning him and the apocryphal book bearing his name, and mentioned by St. Jude in his epistle, verses 14, 15.

Enoch, " the seventh from Adam," though born at a time when the human family had increased in numbers and in sin, "walked with God," and therefore ;c pleased him." His mind was pure ; his spirit rose above the turmoil of worldliness ; he delighted in calm communion with God. Seth addressed Jehovah through the medium of the word,* (Gen. iv, 2G,) Enoch approached him by the still more spiritual medium of thought, the highest form of religious life and experience. As a reward of his faith and piety, and probably to preserve him from being contaminated by the surrounding evils, " he was not" ("K^l,) "for God took him," (Gen. v, 2-i;) he was trans- lated that he should not see death ; and was not found," {nai ovk evgcoKSTO, 6i6tl jiert.0/]ic£v avrbv 6 Of6c, (Heb. xi, 5.) While the biographies of most of the patriarchs close with the sen- tence, " and he died," that of Enoch closes with the suggest- ive words, "He was not, for God took him." Though a descendant of a sinful race, he was delivered from the real pun- ishment which sin had inflicted upon the human family ; his existence was uninterrupted ; he was undying, as man was originally intended to be. God took him as a loving father to his eternal home without laying him under the necessity of undergoing the ordinary process of physical dissolution.

The history of Enoch may justly be regarded as embodying profound religious truths, and as furnishing one of the strongest proofs of the belief in a future slate prevailing among the early Hebrews. For without admitting this belief, the his- tory of Enoch is a perfect mystery, a hieroglyph without a clue, a commencement without an end. But admit it, and the histories and songs of the Old Testament become intelligible and beautiful; and instead of being enveloped in the gloomy clouds of despair they arc luminous with rays of hope, point- ing to that higher and holier life, to that immortality fully brought to light through the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ.

The translation of Enoch n<> doubt gave rise 1<> many tradi- tions that were handed down to subsequent generations, and were even transplanted to the Gentile nations of the ante- *Scc Kalisch'ri Commentary on Genesis in be.

426 Biblical Monographs. [July,

Christian world. It is known that the classical writers men- tion such translations into heaven. They assign this distinction, among others, to Hercules, to Ganymede, and to Romulus. (Liv., i, 16 ; "nee deinde in terrisfmt") But it was awarded to them either for their valor or for mere physical beauty, which advantages, though valued among the Hebrews, were not considered by them as sublime or godlike ; a pious life alone deserved and obtained the crown of immortal glory. But the idea of a translation into heaven is not limited to the old and ante-Christian world ; it was familiar to some of the tribes of Central America. The chronicles of Guatemala record four progenitors of mankind who were suddenly raised to heaven, and the documents add that those first four men came to Guatemala from the other side of the sea, from the East."

Later legends have busily adorned and amplified the history of Enoch. An apocryphal book, containing all the traditions which the lapse of time had accumulated concerning him, has been written under his name. That such a book, bearing his name and containing his supposed prophecies, etc., existed during the apostolic time, is evident from the fact that St. Jude quotes from it. (Jude 14, 15.) Its recent discovery, contents, author, time and place of its composition, we will briefly consider in the following pages, f

In 1773 the distinguished British traveler, Sir J. Bruce, dis- covered in Abyssinia three manuscripts in the Koptic or Ethi- opian language, of the Book of Enoch mentioned in Jude 11, 15, and brought them to Europe, one of which he presented to the King of France, and the oilier two to the library of the Uni- versity of Oxford. The knowledge of the existence of these manuscripts in Abyssinia having reached Europe as early as the first half of the seventeenth century, their discovery caused naturally a great stir in the theological world. For nearly a quarter of a century, however, they lay partially neglected in the dusty alcoves of these libraries, until, in 1800, Mons. Dc Sacy, of Paris, published in the Magazin Encyclop., (vol. vi, torn. i,p. 382,) a brief historical sketch, together with a Latin translation of a few chapters of the Book of Enoch, under the

♦ See an acfouut of these chronicles in the Athenaeum of May 31, 1856.

fin considering these points results only arc given, and not the processes by

Which they were obtained.

1869.] Biblical Monographs. 427

title, "Notice sur Ic Livre d'' Enoch .^ This sketch was trans- lated into German by a Dr. F. T. Punk, and published in book form in 1801. In 1821 Prof. 11. Laurence, of Oxford, pub- lished an English translation, with note?, of the Book of Enoch ; a second edition appeared in 1833, and a third in 1S3S. Since that time German translations, with valuable commentaries, were published by A. G. Hoffmann, 1833 and 183S; Riippel & Gfrorrer, 1840, and Dillmann, 1853 ; while essays and crit- icisms were written on it by Lucke, Edward, Murray, Krieger, J. Hoffmann, Ewald, Kostlin, and more recently by llilgcn- feld.* The Ethiopian text was published by Laurence in '183S, and by Dillmann in 1851.

The contents of this remarkable book are divided, according to most manuscripts, besides a brief introduction, into five parts, nineteen sections, and one hundred and five chapters, and each chapter into verses, varying in number from one to thirty-seven. The whole book would make a duodecimo vol- ume of about one hundred and twenty-five pages.

In the introduction the book is characterized as a revelation of the seer Enoch concerning the future judgment and its con- sequences upon both the just and the unjust, namely, eternal happiness of the former and eternal misery of the latter. Chap, i-v.r

*Die Judische Apokalyptik, pp. 91-184.

\ At tbe close of the first chapter of this introduction occurs the celebrated pas- sage quoted by St. Jude in his epistle, (11, 15.) So as not to break the connection we will give the entire chapter in :• Latin translation. Chap. 1. " Sermo benedic- tionis Enochi, quomodo benedixit olectis et justis, qui futuri sunt in die afili ad expellendum (i. e. quando expelielur) omnera iraprobura ot impium. Locutus est, et dixit Enoch, vir Justus, qui a Domino (wnit) quo tempore ocuh* eju! sunt, et vidit visionem sancti, qui in coebs est, quem osti aderuut mini Ai audivi ab eia omnia, et novi ego illud, quod vidi, et non est (i. e. n »n esse) futurum in hac generatione, sod in generations, qua- ventura e^t (bominum) longe dissi- torum, propter electos. Dixi et locutua sum propter eo . cu a (eo) quod exibit sanctus et magnus de tabernaculo suo, et deus mundi: ot inde calcabit montem Sina, et videbitur in tabernaculo suo, et mauifestabitur in fortitudioe vir- tutis suae de ecelo, et pavebunt omnes, et commovi buutur v-igiles, et capiet c«s timor ot tremor magnus usque ad fines I eme, et a istcrnabuntur n et deprimentur colics sublimes, et I :ut mel favi pi

getur terra, ot i tea sunt, peribunt, ot crit judicium super omnes, i

justos; quoad justos autora, pacem faciet ois, *.t Boruabit eli ctos, et erit d( super eos, et omnes erunt Dei (roii ft <ri ) el oi unt fecilcs, ot benedieentur, et E ; Dei lucescot eia, Et venit cum my torum, ut foci per eos,

etperdat impios, et litiget cum omnibus carnalibus, pro omnibus, quaefeeerunt et cj<c-

42S Biblical Monographs. [July,

Part I opens -with an account of the fall of angels, their marriage with the daughters of men, and the consequent race of giants, (Gen. vi, 1-8;) of their spreading dangerous arts among men, thereby increasing their wickedness, and of Enoch being sent to them to announce to the7n the judgments of God with which he would destroy them. Chap, vi-xvi. Then follows a description of the journeys of Enoch through the earth and the lower heaven, accompanied by angels, who explained to him all the mysterious places and things he saw. These mysteries revealed to mankind are to strengthen their faith in God, the creator and preserver of all things and the judge of all men. Chap, xvii-xxxvi.

Part TI opens with an account of Enoch's "second vision of wisdom.'1 It is divided into three sections or " parables," (chap, xxxvii-xliv, xlv-lvii, lviii-lxxi.) It continues to narrate his journeys through the highest heaven, receiving revelations of its splendors and beatitudes, and of the consummated kingdom and glory of the Messiah. In Part I he describes natural places and objects, in Part II the supernatural. In the first he uses a plain narrative stylo, here the prophetic and para- bolic.

In Part III, (chap, lxxii-lxxxii,) entitled " The Book of the Revolutions of the Lights of Heaven," are described the revo- lutions of the sun, moon, and stars, and the consequent changes in the days, months, seasons, and years, and their relation to each other. The " winds of heaven " and their effects, ami the most important mountains, rivers, and islands of the earth are also mentioned. With this part the account of .Enoch's jour- neys closes.

Part IV (chap, lxxxii-xci) contains the "dream-visions" which Enoch had in his youth concerning the development and

rati sunt contra eum, )■• scatores et impii." The Greek text, with some of the viri- ons reading, is as follows: 'ldoi, i/'/Jh Ktigioc iv [tvytaiiv uyiaic (or, tv ii)tcic ftvQLur.iv, or. a-. .'cif ayyiXkCtv, or, &yiov ayytTJk&v) avrov, ~":l;oui (or, tov T:oiF;cai) K(iiaiv kqtu -dvruv, Kai kt-e?.£y£ai (or, eMyfct) -dvrur ru'vr ioefteic air,: n . ttuvtuv tuv loyw oac'3iiag (or, loyuv irovrJQw) airruv Sn> ijoiprjoav, kcu negt travruv tuv okXijouv (?mj<jv) Ctv c?.&%noav kit' airov i/xnoTuXoi uaijhir. "Beb Id, I Lord cometh with ten thousands of his Baints to execute judgment u;k>:i all, convince all that arc ungodly among them of all their ungodly deeds which thej have ungodly committed, and of all their hard speeches which ungodly Manors 1 .■-. tpokeu against him,"

1S09J Biblical Monographs. 429

consummation of the history of man. Of these " dream-visions" there are two kinds ; the first relating- to the judgment of God, the flood, to be sent upon mankind soon after his departure from earth; and the second relating to the entire history of man from Adam down to the judgment of the great da}-, and the final consummation of the Messiah's kingdom. A brief paternal address to his descendants closes this part. Fitly joined to this is

Part Y, (chap, xcii-cviii,) called the "Book of Doctrines and Exhortations.*' Ilere Enoch is exhorting first his immediate family, and then all the inhabitants of the earth, with all the love and earnestness of a departing father, to be faithful and steadfast, and to flee the manifold sins and errors which in the course of time would prevail upon the earth, and on account of which God's eternal judgments would be visited upon the godless and wicked. Finally, the book closes with a brief account of some wonderful signs that would become visible at the birth of Noah, typifying the coming retribution.

As to the real author of this wonderful book, and the time and place of its composition, different opinions prevail. So much is certain, however, that it was not written by Enoch, "the seventh from Adam." But most 'of its critics agree that it is an indisputable fact that in its present form it was composed before the canon of the New Testament closed, and that its chief portions, at least, were written by a Jew of Palestine, in the Hebrew language, more than a hundred years before the birth of Christ. Whether he belonged to the sect of the Es- senes or the Pharisees, or to neither, is not certain. Probably he was one of those "pious men " of the Asmonsean period who took no part in the doctrinal quarrels of these two sects, but in the strictest obedience to the letter of the law lived a severely righteous life, and wailed patiently for the coming of the Messianic kingdom.

As to the integrity of the book, it is admitted by most critics that additions and interpolations have been made. These are said to occur in chapters x, L-3; xx; liv, 7-lv, 2 ; Ix; lxv-lxix, 25 ; lxx ; lxxx, 9-20 ; and cvi ; but they do not ma- terially change tin: connection. In its present form it is one of the most interesting literary monuments extant of the time between the close of the Old Testament canon and the begin-

430 Biblical Monograjrfis. [July,

ning of the Christian era. It gives us an insight into the religious life and prophetic theology of that period ; and in the absence of an inspired account, may be relied upon as tolera- bly correct data of the Messianic and eschatological hopes and views entertained by the pious of that period.

We may add, with regard to the history of this extraordi- nary book, that when it appeared it was evidently read with eager interest ; that it was soon translated into Greek, and from Greek into the Ethiopian dialect ; that not only the later apocryphal writings, as for instance, the "Book of the Jubi- lees,'- and the "Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs," but most of the fathers of the Church down to the time of Augus- tine and Jerome, used and quoted it ; that, however, from this period it fell into almost entire oblivion, and was. with the exception of a few fragments of the learned monk Syncellus, at the end of the eighth century, and some allusions in Rab- binical writers, almost totally forgotten. *

As to the question, 'Whether the book under consideration is the same quoted by St. Jude, and frequently mentioned by the Church fathers, most critics answer in the affirmative.f But we are not to conclude therefrom that it ever posseted the authority of a canonical book. The mere fact that the Apostle Jude quotes from it docs not invest it with such an authority any more than the works of the Greek poet and the Cretiau prophet, from which the Apostle Paul quotes, (Acts xvii, 28; Titus i, 12,)+ are to be invested with this dignity. Most of the Church fathers, with the exception of Tertullian. considered it as belonging among the apocryphal books of that age ; and Origen, at the beginning of the third century, ex- pressly declares that the Church never considered it as an in- spired work : tv ralr tfcichpinig ov tAvv <f>igerai &g Oeia.^

♦See IV. Hoffmann's edition of the Book of Enoch. Introd. Also, Dr. Dill- mann's Introd. to his edition. Also, Kalisch's Comment., Gon. v.

■| See Introd and Comment to Hoffman's Enoch. Also, Dillman's Introd. to the Look of Enoch.

| "For iri him wo live, and move, and have our being; as certain also of jrour own poets have said, For we are also his ofiapriug." " One of thei even a prophet of their own, said, 'J 1. • Ci cti i are always liars, evil beastf bellies."

gSco Orig., Contra Celsum, p. 201. lid. Sponc. Celsus tool braid the Christians for their credulity in believing, as he says, the visions of Enoch, not knowing that the book had no canonical authority.

1869.] Biblical Monographs. 431

Jerome, in his "Catal. Scriptor. Apost. sub nom. Judas," says, " Judas frater Jacobi, parvam quidem, quae de septem Catho- licis est, epistolam reliquit. Et quia de libro Enoch, qui apocryphus est, in ea assumit testimonium, a plcrisque rejici- tur." And again he says in his Commentary on Psalm exxii, 3 : " Manifestissimus liber est, (speaking of the Book of Enoch,) et inter apocryphos computatur, et vcteres interpretes de isto locuti sunt ; nonnulla autem nos diximus, non in aucto- ritatcm sed in commemorationcm."

We might multiply quotations from the Church fathers to show that the Book of Enoch never possessed the authority of a canonical book in the early Church; but the above will suffice. ]Sror is the Epistle of St. Jude to be rendered sus- picious (as some critics have attempted to do) on account of its containing a quotation from this book', fur on the same ground they might suspect the authenticity of the address of the Apostle Paul to the Athenians, (Acts xvii,) and of his letter to Titus, because both contain quotations from profane writers. To argue thus is simply preposterous.

From what has been said it is evident that this remarkable apocryphal book was well known and carefully studied in the early " Church, probably because it embodies several of the leading ideas of the New Testament, and insists with all the earnestness of the old prophets upon the renewal and restora- tion of the pure BiUical faith, combating with equal energy the corruptions of rabbinical interpretation and the inroads of Greek philosophy, traditional exaggeration, and undue em- bellishment. And if we are not mistaken it will probably, at some time or other, be used as a witness in the history of re- ligious dogmas, and for that reason it deserves even now a careful study. (

ST. PAUL'S CLOSING PJ3AN.—ROM. via, 31-39.

The first eight chapters of Romans embrace Paul's great argu- ment of the epic of redemption. ' It traces human ruin and human salvation until, at viii, 30, the whole scheme, crowned with glorification, stands like a grand structure, and the Ap commences a paean with, What Bhall we say to these thin

The semi-poetical character of this paean is evident from its phenomena of number. Tin re are three interrogatories of ad-

432 Biblical Monographs. [July,

miration, verses 31, 32 ; three challenges to the foes of the re- deemed to accuse, to condemn, or to separate, verse 35 ; seven earthly foes are challenged by name, verse 35 ; and ten tran scendental potencies arc defied as unable to sever the believer from Christ, verses 38, 39.

In regard to the sacred numbers, three and seven, the reader may consult the supplementary note in our commentary to Luke vi, 13. The number ten we shall soon discuss.

Our present purpose is to call attention to the two cata- logues of potencies, namely, the seven terrene and the ten tran- scendent, which are challenged and defied successfully to assail the Christian persistently adhering to Christ, This sevenfold list is furnished in confirmation of the third challenge, Who shall accuse? Who cendemneth? Who shaU separate? He finally calls the roll and challenges the seven, one by one — ■ " tribulation, distress, persecution, famine, nakedness, peril, sword.3'

As seven is rather a gracious than a hostile number, we should hardly expect the Christian's foes to be symbolized under it. But it is from the victories over them that the Apostle assigns this favorable number; counting out seven martyr tri- vjnphs. The foes are none of them living beings, but all abstrac- tions, yet implying a fierce human authorship behind them. They are all terrible; none of them seductive or tempting ene- mies. They are the terrors and trials of which the Apostle's own personal history was full, and which rose, doubtless, in their awful shapes, to his memory as he wrote. How sublime the sense of divine strength and triumph in his own soul as he consciously felt their impotence to break the tie between him and his crucified Lord! There seems something almost pro- phetic, however, in the fact that tin- catalogue closed in this enumeration, as it did in the Apostle's history, with the sword/ Without the gates of the very Rome to which he was now writing the executioner's sword was in a few brief years to close the catalogue of his sufferings and triumphs. The; foes were strong, but his love to Christ was still stronger. Wisely did the wise king say, (Sol. Song, viii, 6, 7,) "Love is strong as death. Many waters cannot quench love, neither can the floods drown it."

A curious parallel to this cnumerative seven is the inventory

1869.] Biblical Monographs. 433

of Abraham's wealth in Gen. xii, 1G : "Sheep and oxen, and he-asses and men-servants, and maid-servants and she-asses and camels." Here, in allusion, doubtless, to its fulfilling the covenant blessing upon him, the number is seven, elaborately wrought out by counting males and females, paralleling sexu- ally he-asses and men-servants against maid-servants and she- asses, but keeping the seven by making no sexual division of the camels.

The ten potencies, in verses 3S, 30, for transcend the seven, rising grandly above the earthly and the human, and spreading out. upon the wide universe. Elements of the most widely different nature are selected, a tinge of personification pervad- ing them all. So vast and shadowy, indeed, so unique and unparalleled with other passages are the idealities with which Paul's conception here surrounds him, that few commentators have seemed quite able to rise into a full comprehension of their import. Nor does the Apostle select them as possessing essentially a malignant, hostile, or infernal nature; but as endowed with unmeasured power, if they were called to exert it hostilely. Just so,.in Gal. i, S, he selects an angel from heaven as the hypothetical announcer of a rival Gospel. lie sends his voice of challenge through the vastitudes of the uni- verse, defying their power to break the love between Christ and his redeemed.

As Fletcher of Madelcy somewhere beautifully says, Not all the powers of hell can separate the Christian from his Saviour; not all the powers of heaven will do it; none can or will, unless the man himself.

Erasmus says there is nothing in Cicero superior in eloquence to this passage of the Apostle. But there is nothing in Cicero so in the same style as to be suitably brought into comparison. The passage is rather poetic than oratorical ; rising into regions into which secular oratory at least, like Cicero's, rarely ascend-. Horace, though a pagan port, gives a picture of the firmly just man, which, though immensely inferior 1<» this grand passage, is not unworthy to be brought into comparison.

Justiim ac teuacem propi riti vinitn,

Non eivium ardor prava jubentium

Non VTlltua instatltis tyniTUii

Mento quatit Bolida ; uequo AuBter

43 i Biblical Monographs. [July,

Dux inquieti turbidus Hadrise

Nee fulminantis magna manna Jovis :

Bi fractus illabatur orbis

Impavidum ferient ruinse.

The man, just, and firm of purpose,

No popular excitement enjoining crime, No face of menacing tyrant Shakes from his steady mind; nor south-blast

Stormy lord of the restless Hadrian sea Nor the great hand of fulminating Jove : Should the shattered firmament fall Its ruins would strike him fearless.

Were we to apply predestinariau exegesis to the words of Horace, we should hold him as denying that a just man ever ceases to be just, and so make the epicurean poet a good Calvinist.

The number ten appears to symbolize the mundane or uni- versal, usually in its secular or profane aspects; 'and that in distinction often, but not always, from the sacred, especially from the elect of God. The ten horns of Daniel and John are the ten worldly kingdoms. The ten plagues of Egypt, the type of the world power, were a judicial penalty upon the profane. The ten commandments are judicial and mundane. The first ten pedigrees of Genesis, as being a thread of mundane history, embrace each just ten generations. Ten multiplied into seven gives us the seventy mundane nations. (See our Commentary on Luke x, 1-16.) The Apostle marshals his ten potencies in four couplets (each couplet linked by an and) and two units. Thereby the ten is divided into two fives; each live contains two couplets, followed and closed by one unit.

Death and Life, Angels and Principalities,

Powers, Presents and Futures, Heights and Depths,

Creature.

It was from want of knowing litis remarkably exact numera- tion and parallelism that Alt'ord, in his note on the word )>ow(r$ says, "Some confusion, evidently, has crept into the arrange- ment."

The first couplet embraces the two potencies of existence; the second of living spiritual agencies ; and the unit the

18G9.3 Biblical Monographs. 435

potency of force. The third couplet presents the potencies of time, the fourth of space, and the last unit, of general Jinitude. Upon -which we offer the following norcs :

Verse 38. Neither death nor life — The two potencies of exist- ence, v&mely, the two stages of human existence, life and death. These are both mighty powers over human destiny. Personi- fied life is armed with terrible dangers, and death is the very king of terrors. Nor angels nor principalities — Two potencies of living agents in the supersensible spiritual world. Angels throughout scripture are the messengers of God, armed often with divine authorities. Principalities are the ranks and orders of beings in the background, never appearing to human view, and but dimly presupposed and rarely alluded to in scripture. The Jews assigned various ranks to the beings of the invisible world ; arid they were doubtless correct in assuming the exist- ence of ranks and orders, though we have no reason to imag- ine that their description of those orders was accurate, or drawn from an}- revelation. So Paul in Col. i, 1C speaks very indefinitely of thrones, dominions, principalities) powers: and in Eph. i, 21, principled It >j, power, might, dominion, anal wery thing named in this 'world and that to come. All of which intimates that the Kew Testament, by a glimpse into the spiritual world, authorizes the belief of a great variety of classifications without giving us any distinct description of their nature. They come but very slightly within the range of the redemptive scheme, and so scarce within the limits of the purpose of Scripture revelation. Nor powers — Perhaps including the grand physical forces of universal nature known to science, especially to astronomy, in the abstract, but sometimes personified in Scripture as living agencies, and even identified with angels. From the Creek word dwautig comes our dynamics, dynamical. And then we have a sublime conclusion. Not all the forces that move the astronomic worlds could separate the redeemed from Christ. This is a thought which was not fully taken in by the Apostle's mind, yet his words seem pregnantwitb it, and li git- imately express it to us. This unit, powers, after the two couplets, finishes the first five of the ten, as the other unit, creature, finishes the second five. Nor things present nor things to come — Two potencies of time, embracing the vicis-

430

Biblical Monographs.

[July,

situdes of tlie present and the unknown revolutions of the future.

Verse 39. Nor height^ nor depth — Two antithetic potencies of space. The interpretation of heighths and depths as equiv- alent to heaven and hell is altogether incommensurate with the Apostle's conception. He designates the opposite extremes of immensity. Height indicates the sublimit)* of loftiness or grandeur ; depth the sublimity of darkness, obscurity, and ter- ror. Both personified suggest limitless power for unknown destruction. Any other creature — Any other nature or being, save God and the man himself. Only these two (neither of whom are named in the list) can work the terrible separation ; the former never will ; the dread alternative rests solely with the latter.

Aiit. VHI.— FOREIGN RELIGIOUS INTELLIGENCE.

PEOTESTAtfTISU. GREAT BRITAIN. tltt: disestablishment of the imsit Chubch — Main- Features op the Bill — Its Passage in tut: House of Com- mons.— The great battle in England for the disestablishment and disendowment of the Irish Church lias been vigorously carried on during tlie pasl three months. The bill was introduced by Mr. Glad- stone on the lirst of March, when it was read a first time; on the twenty-fourth of the same month, after a debate which will ever remain memorable in the Parlia- mentary annals of Great Britain; il was passed to a second reading by the large majority of US, the numbers being for the second reading 368, against ii 250. The BUI which is to produce so radical a change in the Anglic a I tains sixty claus s Its full title is: "A BUI to put an end to the Establishment of the Church of Ireland, and to make provision in respect to the Temporalities thereof, and in respect to the Royal Coll( -■- of Maynootli, 1 i \v. feat- ures of tli n ■ -ire are a< foil First, as to d ant. This will

bo total, but it will not take effect until the first of January. Isll. On that day the ecclesiastical courts will be abolished, the ecclesiastical laws will ceaso to have any authority, the Bishops will be no

longer Peers of Parliament, and all ecclesiastical corporations in the country will be dissolved. Seam Uy, as to disen- don :■ '. Technical!) and legally this will be total and immediate. The pres- ent Irish Ecclesiastical Commission is at once to be wound up, and a new Com- mission, composed oft -. is to

be constituted, in which the entire property of tlie Irish Church will vest from the day on which the measure receives the Royal assent A distinction will be made between public endow- ments, including everything in the nature of a State grant or a State reserve, and

endowments, which Mr. Glad- stone defines as money contributed from private Sources since the year 1GG0. The former I i led by the

State; tlie latter will be restored to the

lished Church. The value of the public endowments is estimated at £15,500,000; the valui of private en- dowments is put at £500,000. Tltirdly, as to ; First of all,

compensation has io be made t< \

■ with M ■ the J

in receipt of tlie Ret ' D

;est i- that tif incumbi nts. . at of

■ ducting what he may have paid for curates, will be Bccured to him during

1869.]

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

437

his life, provided he continues to dis- charge the duties of his benefice. Under certain circumstances this interest may,

upon his own application, be commuted for a life annuity. The next class of interest is that of curates, permanent and temporary. Next will come lay compensations, the largest pari of which will be absorbed by parish clerks and sextons. The amount of the Maynooth endowment and the Presbyterian ll.gium Donum will be valued at fourteen years' purchase, and a capital sum equal to that amount will be handed over to the respective representatives of the Presby- terians and Roman Catholics. Alto- gether these payments will amount to about £8,000,000, leaving about £ ?,500,- 000, or an annual sum of £30.000, to the disposal of Parliament. This will bo appropriated " mainly to the relief of unavoidable calamity and suffering." but at the same time in a way that will not interfere with the obligation imposed upon property by the Poor Law. When the affairs of the Established Church shall have been wound up. the Com- missioners will report to the Queen that the objects immediately contemplated by the Act have all been provided for, and that such and such a surplus is available for charitable purposes. Fourthly, as to private endowments. These are to be handed over to the disestablished Church. The Government "presume" that im- mediately after the disestablishment the bishops, clergy, and laity of the Church will proceed to constitute for themselves something in the nature of a "governing body," and power will be given to the Queen in Council " not to create such a body, but to recogni/.e it when created." During the passage of the Bill through Committee of the House, the Conserva- tives in vain attempted to modify some of its most important provisions. All their amendments were rejected by majorities of about one hundred.

SPA IX.

Pkorgamzatiok of run Reformed Spanish Chgbch — Tub Provisioxs or THE NEW CONSrnTTION ON Reugiocs Toleration. — In the January number of the "Methodist Quarterly Review" wo referred to th< suddi u and ; ratifying opening which the Spanish revo! of September, L868, bad prepared for Protestantism in what was commonly regarded as the most fanatical and ul- tramontane country of the Roman

Foubth Series, Vol. XXI.--

Catholic world, and we gave a brief out- line of the previous history of Spai Protestantism. The history of the six momhs which have since elapsed is full of promise and encouragem nl for the future.

The representatives of the Sp people, chosen by uuiversal suffrage, have met in a Constituent Cortes and elaborated a uewconstil m, wl provisions on religious affairs is rery dif- ferent from the laws which, with h; any interruptions, have reigi ed in Spai*; during the last three hundred year-. When the time of election . | was generally known by the people that, next to the question whether Spain is to have in future a monarchical or republi- can form of government, the n li question would be the must import) be decided by the Cortes. The. views of most of the candidates on this subject were well known; and it n be justly assumed, that, on t i views and votes of the deputies repre- sented the sentiments of the Spanish people. The draft of the new constitu- tion, as prepared by a special Commit- tee of Fifteen, contained the foil articles on religion: "The nation bin • ■ self to maintain the worship and minis- ters of the Catholic religion. The public or private exercise of anj otl er form of worship is guaranteed to ail foreigners resident in Spain without any I . limitations than those of morality and right. It' any Spaniards shall pri ess a religion other than the Catholic, .ad that the last paragraph provides i to them." All the priests who members of the Constituent Cortes — the Cardinal Archbishop of Santi go, the Bishop of Jaen, ami Canon Manterola — violeutly opposed the rights conceded in tin 50 articl - t > Protestants, and de- manded the continuance of the I laws, which forbade the e\ non-Catholic n ligion. With them, i f course, vot< d all the adherents ■■!" the ex- Queen and the I Dty in number, and about as many bers of tho 1 litical reasons, wished to pres<

us uniformity of the conutr) ; ' til : -, the ! >' i: and the Ropu iu de-

nouncing the i iruii r iutol raul i ■••. -. and tin Republicans unanimously den completo separation bet I

Mate, and lull rcligiOU " ev< ry

form of belief They did not cany their 28

43S

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

TJuly.

point; but one of them (Castolar) mode in favor of religious freedom the greatest and most impressive speech of thewbole session, in which he paid a beautiful tribute to the Protestant countries. The majority of the Cones adopted the Con- stitution as it had been drafted by the Committee, and. after its promulgation on the fifth of June, religious toleration be- came, the law of the land. The mani- festations of public opinion relative to the discussion of the articles on religion in the Cortes clearly indicated that the Spanish people are much less priest-ridden and fanatical than has commonly been supposed. In every part of the country a strong sympathy with the new laws on religion was shown, and the steady growth of the Republican party indicates thai even complete separation between Church and State, and absolute freedom of religion, may be hoped for at no dis- tant day.

For fourteen years there has been in Edinburgh a " Spanish Evangelization Society," which, notwithstanding tho cruel laws of ti.e kingdom against Prot- estants, succeeded in maintaining a num- ber of agents in Spain, who circulated the Bible and rel gi isl !.-. and worked efficiently for the dissemination of Prot- estant principles. This Society has been very active since the beginning of the new era. In .March it supported about twelve agents, three of whom were men of superior education, well-tried Chris- tian character, and good ministerial gifts. In Seville, the capital of Andalu- sia, and the second city of Spain, there were two evangelists — the Rev. Juan B. Cabrera, and the Rev. Antonio S. Soler. The Protestant population of this city alone amounts to ful !y 4,000, A neat, comfortable, and suitable place for wor- ship has i a 0] a I at the expense of the Evangelization Society, but it is by far too small. It is thought that if Se- ville had from four to six churches they would all be well fill* I. The congrega- tion of Cabrera consists for the i i - part of workii 1 their wives.

On the evening of Good Friday tho Lord's Supper was administered to about one hundred an t fifty communicants.

Protestant chapel in Madrid was opened on the 21st of March, 1*. can seat about nine huudred persons, and it is always largely attended. Tho con- gregation is fully organized and consti- tuted. On Paster Sunday fifty iaids received the communion, this, being

I the first time that the Lord's Supper was , thus administered in the Spanish <■■ ; The congregations in Barcelona, M and several other cities are also consti- tuted. The number of places in \ evangelical worship has occasionally be m celebrated is very large. In i places as many as cue or two tho people were present, and listened to ti.e new doctrines with interest and atten- tion,

The circulation of the Bible and of religious tracts has been carried on with great, energy and success. An meats were early made by the religious societies of foreign countries to La'.. Bibles and tracts printed in Spain, and the eagerness of the people to receive, and even to buy, the hitherto prol books was marvelous. Prom the B stand in Madrid more than 100.COO Gos- pels and Epistles parsed into the hands of the people. The tracts, printed in Madrid lor the Religious Tract fc of London number about 500,000. F of the forty-nine provinces has now vol- untary agents, who aid in the distril u- tiou of Bibles and tracts. They are men of all professions — medical men, mer- chants, shopkeepers, clerks, and mi ny of ihum report gr«.-at successes,

ROMAff CATHOLICISM. Tin: Comikg Council— Thk Omextal and the Protestakt Churches — The State Governments — Progress of Preparations. — liver since lh( ; cation of the Pope's Bull convoking I (Ecumenical Council, and of his let invitation to the Oriental Bishops and the Protestant Churchi b, the prepari for the Couueil have made unintei i progress. The Jesuits in Rome have

shed a periodical specially di ■ to giving information concerning the coming Council, entitled " I hi Matters relating to the Future Council," and similar periodicals haw 1 eeo ■ Ushed in Germany and France, It may naturally be supposed that these p i cola publish nearly all the trustwi information that can be obtained i

uncil, and the s. nsalional reports of the Roman coi Jitical

papers must be n ci ived « itl trust The prcparaii< ns an i tho chief direction of a Spoci lion of seven I . They are all

Italians with the exception of one, Car- dinal do Keisach, who is a German, aud

1869.]

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

439

was formerly Archbishop of Munich. To them are added seven Consullors, four of whom ^re Italians, one, Mgr. Talbot, an Englishman; one, Professor Feije, of the University of Louvain, a Belgian; and one, Professor Hefele, of the University of Tubingen, a German. The last named has the greatest reputation among the members for scholarship. He is the author of the best work that has ever been written on the History of the Coun- cils, and is generally esteemed, by both Roman Catholics and Protestants, as one of the best Church historians of Germany. Special Commissions have been appoint- ed for ceremonies, for politico-ecclesiasti- cal affairs, for the Pastern Churches, on religious orders and congregations, on questions of dogmatic theology, and on points of ecclesiastical discipline. There are in all these commissions more members from Italy than from any other country. Hardly one of them is known outside of his Church, or even outside of Italy. The scholarship of Catholic Ger- many has received some recognition by the appointment of the next largest num- ber of commissioners from Germany. Some of them are authors of works whose scholarship is cheerfully acknowledged in Protestant literature ; as Dr. Alzog, the author of the best Roman Catholic Church History and of a Manual of Pa- trology; Dr. Hergeuroether. the author of the great work on the Patriarch Photius, and the Separation of the Latin and Greek- Churches. Dr. Hefele has already been mentioned. Dr. Dollinger, probably the greatest living Roman Catholic theologian of Germany, has also been invited, al- though he is decidedly disliked in Rome on account of the liberal views he hi 'Ms on several questions. He has declined the invitation, and report credits him' with the authorship of several articles on the Council in the'" Augsburg Gazette," which have been very unfavorably re- ceived in Rome. Dr. Newman, in En- gland, has also declined an invitation on account of his infirm health.

The principal architects of Rome havo begun to prepare one of the large chap- els of St Peter's Chnrcb, which is capable of containing several thousand , for tho sessions of the Council. The altar of the Council is at one end of the chapel, the throne of the Popeal the op- posite end. On the right and left of the throne are placed the seats of the Cardi- nals, Patriarchs, and Embassadors of Sovereigns. The seaifl of the Prelates

are arranged in two semicircles, each tier being elevated above the one before it; the tribune of tho orators is placed in ti: • middle of the open space between; and there are also tribunes prepared for those who will be admitted as .spectators of the public sessions.

The invitations sent to the Bishops of the Greek Church promise no re The emphatic refi i 1 of tli Patriarch of Constantinople and the Emperor of Rus- sia to comply with the invitation, would alone be sufficient to decide the course

. reat majority of the Bishops. A few instances are cited of Bishops who received the letter with respect. Thus the Bishop of Trebizond is said to have raised it to his forehead and pressed ii to his bosom, exclaiming with emotion, :' 0 Rome! 0 Rome! 0 St. Peter! 0 St. Peter! :! The Bishop of Adrianople re- turned the letter, saying, "I wish first to reflect. I wish to decide for myself/' But not one Greek bishop, it seem thus far signified his intention to be present, and the expectation of some org ins of Rome that probably about a hundred Oriental Bishops would attend is certain to be doomed to disappointment Tho interview between th« Papal C m- missioners and the Greek Patriarch elect of Alexandria is of special interest, as the ai juments of the Patriarch explain more fi My than any other reply from the Eastern Bishops which we have yet, the present .relations of the Greek to the Roman Catholic Church. Resides numerous others, the Patriarch Btated in bis conversation with the Papal embas- there are particularly three ee>n-

ti ius which render the ace. of tho Papal brief by the Greek Bishops an nil; o sibility. In the first plac .

: old Rome, though merely tho oc- cupant of one of the ancient Patriarchal □d a peer onlyol the either Patri- archs, claims a sovereign d iminion over all tho others. The (Ecumenical Councils ancient Church conceded to him the honor of and he

irefore, no right to convoke a General Council witl nt of

the otbor Patriarcha The proper way for a F ce a Council which

win. Id I i! in t.io eyes ■

Greek Church, also, would be to i tho pr. vious consont and co-op ral

ndly, the Pa- triarch objects to tho Pope teaching aalvation is ezclusivoly found in tiu • inunion of Rome, whereas, according to

4-10

Foreign Religion* Intelligence.

[July,

the Patriarch, the grace of God has operated throughout the habitable globe. In the third place, the Patriarch remarks that the "Festival of the Immaculate Conception of the Mother of the Lord," on which the Council convoked by the Pope is to meet, is ono wholly unknown to the ancient Church, a recent invention of the Church of Pome, and by no means a solitary one. In conclusion, the Patri- arch advises the Pope, in case he sin- cerely desires the unity of the universal Church, that ho should write to the Pa- triarchs individually, and acting in con- cert, endeavor to come to an understand- ing with them respecting the course to be adopted: renouncing every idea of domination and every dogma on which opinions may clash in the Church. By so doing his efforts might perchance be crowned with some degree of success.

It is, however, probable that a few Bishops of the smaller Oriental Churches, may be induced to be present. The Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, who at first referred the Papal Com- missioners to the Catholicus of Etscbmi- adsin, the first Bishop of the Armenian Church, seems subsecpiently to have been gained over, together with a num- ber of other Bishops. But the great majority of the Armenian population does not want to hear any thing about, trans- actions with Pome, and so earnestly re- monstrated against his course that the Patriarch was forced to resign. The Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria is said to have received the Encyclical with great respect and many expressions of courtesy toward the Prelate who was its bearer.

The attendance, then, will be almost limited to those who are entitled to a scat by the Church law of Rome This class embraces the Bishops, the Cardinals, Abbot-, and Generals of religious orders. The Bishops are entitled to a seat by divine right, the others by ecclesiastical law or privilege. The number of Bishops is considerable, and it has of file rapidly increased. The "Annuario Pontiticio" (official Paper Almanac) for 1868 gives the folio? ing summary of the dioceses of the Roman Catholic Church:

Patriaechates.

Of the Latin Bite and the Oriental Rite 12

AiiCHCisuonucs. Latin Kit,:

Immediately subject to the Pope 12

With Ecclesiastical Provinces 120

Greco	.Ale	chite
Greco	-Roumanian
Greco	Ku	heman
Greco Svri.i-	-Bu	.".nan

Oriental Bite. With Ecclesiastical Provinces.

Armenian Bite 1

Greco-Roumanian Kite 1

Greco-Ruthenian Kite l

Dependent on Oriental Patriarchs.

Grcco-Melchite Bite S

Syro-Maronite Kite 1

Total Archbishopric? 189

Bisnorincs. Latin Site. Suburban (the Sees of the Cardinal

Bishops) 6

Immediately subject to the Pope 64

Suffragans in Ecclesiastical Provinces 5G1

Oriental Bite.

Armenian 16

Syro-Chaldaic 12

Syro-Maronite 7

Total Bishoprics 714

Total Patriarchates, Archbishop- rics, and Bishoprics 805

Of these dioceses about 100 are usually vacant, leaving the number of Bishops who have actually been -invited by the Pope about 750. There arc, besides, about 230 titular Bishops, who are not at the head of the idoeese, but are cither coadjutors of diocesan Bishops, or vicars apostolic, delegates apostolic, or prefects apostolic. The question of the ri these Bishops to a seat was, according to the latest advices, still under considera- tion. The number of dioceses has received a considerable increase by the present Popo, who has erected G archbishoprics and 112 bishoprics. The increase has b i n | reater in the countries of America than in any of the countries of the Old Wei hi, and at the beginning of the pres- ent year the number of Ami i already amounted to 152, or more than one sixth of the total number of dii

The number of Cardinals, who are oot at the same time Bishops, ij about 25. Of Gonorals, or Superiors of Monastic Orders, most of who! the Papal Almanac m it 50.

fmiton i Lbboi is nlso con- siderable. As all those who are entitled to a seat Me net only invited, but com- i to come, the number of absen- tees will be comparatively small, and the il >ly will number probably from S00 to 900 members.

1869.]

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

441

In Holland there has been for over 1 JO years a small sect called the Jansenists, •who consider themselves as Roman Cath- olics, though they are unrecognized and excommunicated by the Poj o. They are the followers of Bishop Jansenius, whose work on Grace was, after Lis death, con- demned by the Pope, a sentence which called forth a great commotion in the Churches of France and the Netherlands, the friends of Jansenius maintaining that the book of Jansenius hr;d been misunder- stood at Rome, and appealing from the decision of the Pope, whose infallibility they denied, to the supreme authority of an (Ecumenical Council. They have one Archbishop and two Bishops, all in Hol- land, who probably will go to Homo, and, submitting to the Council will b<.> re- united with the Church. The entire popula-ion connected with this sect is about 8.000. The Protestant world has, on the whole, taken but little notice of the Council. A few Churches and cor- porations have published, in reply to the Papal letter inviting the Protestants to return to the Roman Catholic Church,

declarations or letters restating the fun- damental differences which separate Prot- estants in general, and the Church which they specially represent, from 2: Other Churches, as the Old and New Scho 1 Presbyterians, have recently resolved to do tin' same thing. That portion i English Ritualists whose great aim is the reunion between the Church o gland and Rome, still talk of & uding representatives to Route to negoti ite :' r terms of submission. On! idc of that party there are only a few isolated m the Protestant world who think tl Council may aid in healing (he divis ns of Christendom, and in preparing the day when ail the believers in the Lord Jesus Christ will agree in the! - articles of faith. G-uizot has ex; : -- l himself in this sense, and in Germany a lev.' Protestant writers have advanced similar views; but on -the Protestant world in general the Papal letter and j the procei dings of the Council will "nave as little effect as a General Assembly of | Mohammedans or Hindoos would pro- i duce.

Art. IX.— FOREIGN LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

GERMANY.

The great work of Calvin, the Insti- tutes of the Christian Religion, has been published as a part of the new edition of the complete works of Calvin v. hicL appears tinder the editorship of Drs. Baum. Cuuitz, and Reuss, three profe s- ors of the Seminary of Btrasburg. It is also sold separately. This is by far the best edition of the Works of the reat reformer win h has yet appeared. (//*- stitutio /.' - ij ' its Christiana. 2 vols. Brunswick. 1869.)

The popular lectures by Professor Ha- genbach on Church History, which w< re rirs: pu li L in s ral i liti ns, indc- i ndent of each other, have no • united by tl e author into one worl Kirchi

mm 19 Jahrh ■'. Leipsic, L8G9.)

The whole work, in il - pn jcuI lb form five volumi i. Tli ■ fi ontaintug the history of the first sis cod tin lia recently been published. The lectures on recent Church hi story, of v I English translation has just been an-

nounced by Dr. Hurst, arc part of this work.

Sebastian Pranck, one of the noblest and most prominent representatives of the enthusiasts and separatists, whom Luther d (signal d by the name of been made the sub- ject of a leam< d ni in .-mm by Carl Alfred Llase, a son of the well-known historian. {Sebastian Frai It • ■

The • - :,: d of Po th in S rmons of Ricliard Rotlio is now completed by the appi arancc of the third a has been published by J. Bleek. The

Dr. Sch >nkcl. {/.' Pr 'i'jten. Ell An autobiography has bei n ] ul i pulpit orator ! rich Williehn Krum . | December 10, L8G8. The ti j many o: bis works into tho English,

Dutch, and other langi had made tho name of Kniramacher well ! known throughout tho world.

442

Foreign Literary Intelligence.

[July,

Ono of the standard works of the evangelical school of German theology, Dr. Ebrard'a WtssensclwftHsclie Kritikder Evangelischen Geschichte, Las been pub- lished in a third edition. (Frankfort. 1 S69.) The author gives iu this new edition a full review of the whole recent literature on the Gospel history.

Among the most important of ihc recent theological publications of Ger- many belongs, according to the opinion of all schools, the History of the Old Testament in the Christian Church, by Dr. Diestel. professor in Jena. (Geschichte des Alien Testamentcs. Jena, 1869.) The object of the author is not only to give a history of the interpretation of the Old Testament, but also a review of the the- ological views concerning the Old Testa- ment in the several periods of the Christian Church, of its influences upon the life, constitution, worship, and doc- trine of the Church, as well as of the use made of Old Testament subjects in art and the application of Old Testament pre-

cedents in law. The book is divided into seven periods, namely : 1. The times oi the Fathers, from 100 to 250, A. D. (The Old Testament in the Apostolic Church is only briefly treated of ia the preface.) 2. The time of the great Chui 250-600. 3. Theological science as pupil of the fathers, 600-1100. -1. The times of Church power, 1100-1517. 5. The Ref rmation, 1511-1600. 6. Tlie i opposing systems under the predominance of orthodox}-. 1600-1750. 7. The conflict and reconciliation of the opposing sys- tems, 1750 to the present day. No work of so comprehensive a character has ever been published, and the schol- arship and accuracy of the author meets with general approbation.

Among the last publications of the "Rough House," in Hamburg, we find one, a German translation of a work by a distinguished Danish theologian, Dr. Kalkar, on the history of the conversions from Judaism to Christianity. (L die Kvrche. Hamburg. 1SG9.)

Ar.T. X.— SYNOPSIS OF THE QUARTERLIES, AND OTIIERS OF TflE HIGHER PERIODICALS.

American Quarterly Reviews.

AMERICAS PresbytERIax Review, April, 1869. (New York.) — 1. Recent Dis- coveries in Geology. 2. The Reformed or Calvinistic Sens-. 3. Biblical Preach- ing. 4. President Wbeelock and Ins Contemporaries. 5. Progress of the Reunion Movement. 6. The Incarnation, and the System which Stauds upon It. 7. Mr. Mill and his Critics. 8. An " Old Side" Plea fur Reunion.

Baptist Quarterly, April, 180C*. (Philadelphia.)— 1. Dale's Classic Baptism.

2. The Causal Judgment. 3. [nfant Baptism aa Invention of Men.

Great Pyramid of Gizch. 5. The Tubingen Sch k>L C>. Exegetical Studies. Biblical Repertory and Prixcetox Review, April. 1S69. (New York.) — 1. The

Calvinistic Methodists in Wall . 2. S >me Recent Discussions on the Funda

Principles of Morals. ::. Planting of the American Churches. I. The Novel

and Novel Reading. 5. Ethics

6. Froude's History of En I nd. 7. Tli I shment of the Irish Church.

S. Recent Developments resp iting Presbyterian Reunion. Bibliotqeca Sacra, April, 1S69. (Andover.) — 1. The Origin of the Fir.-'

Gospels. 2. Jonathan Edwards. 3. The Authority of Faith. ■'■■■ 'I

Parker and Adoniram J udson. 5. The Doctrine of God's Providence, o. !.

tion and Inspiration. Christian Quarterly, April, 1860. (Cincinnati.)— 1. Galileo and the Church.

2. Phases of Religion in the United States. 3. The Glories of Mary. -t. The

Royal Priesthood. 6. Christology. G. The Kingdom of God. 7. I

Officers.

1SG9.1 Synopsis of the Quarterlies. 44-3

Evangelical Quarterly Review, April, 1SG9. (Gottysburgh.) — 1. Death and the Intermediate State. 2. True Faith: Its Nature and Efficacy. 3. The Meaning of the Word Selah. -1. The Good Angels. 5. How shall we Order our Worship? C. Lutheranism before Luther. 7. The Key's. 8. Sermonizing. y. Sprague's Annals of the American Lutheran Pnlpit. Mercersbubg Review, April, 1869. (Philadelphia.)— I. Nominalism and Real- ism. 2. Luther's Translation of the Holy Scriptures; The New Testament. 3. The Christologic Problem. -1. Reply to Dr. Dornor's Criticism on "Mercers- burg and Modern Theology Compared." 5. The Catholic Church Movement. 6. '"The Wisdom of God in a -Mystery." 7. Preaching. S. The Unity of the Apostles' Creed. New Ekglasder, April. 18G9. (New Haven.)— 1. The Ran Kiau, or the Three Re- ligions of China. 2. False Definitions of Faith, and the True Definition, 'i. Yale College, and the Late Meeting of the Alumni in New York. -I. Spain, aud the Late Revolution, by an Eye-witness in the Winter of 18G8-9. 5. The American Colleges and the American Public. G. Princeton Exegesis, No. II.— Its Dealing with the Testimony of the Scriptures against the Doctrine of a Limited Atonement. Universalis! Quarterly, April, 1869. (Boston.)— 1. The Dogmatic Use of Old Testament Passages in the New Testament j and their Importance as Binding upon the Christian Expositor, with especial Reference to Hebrews i, o-13. 2. The Origin of Sin. 3. Ancient Babylonian Literature, -i. The Development of Protestantism. 5. The Fullness of Christ. 6. Our Nation, and Statesman- ship. 7. The Mission of Christ. North American- Review, April, 1SC9. (Boston.)— 1. Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft, 2. The Talmud. 3. The "Seven Cities of Cibola." 4. The Sanitary and Physiological Relations of Tobacco. 5. The Financial Condition of the United States." 0. The Spanish Revolution. 7. Earthquakes. Mr. Poole, in the first article, rescues the name of Cotton Mather from the imputation of leading the witchcraft excitement in New England. Indeed, he shows that the most responsible parties were not the clergy but the judges; not the theology hut the law. Would not a fair allowance for the really inexplicable character of some of the phenomena justify, generally, a less severe tone of history on the whole affair?

English Reviews.

British and Foreign Evangelical Review, April, 1869. (London.)— l. Chris- tian Female Authorship. 2. Modern Judaism. 3. The Procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son. -1. The Antiquitj of Man. 5. Romeward i

■■ the Day. 6. Scottish Prelacy after tho Restoration. » ' • *

Church. 8. The Royal Supremacy and Religio

arnsa Quarterly Review, April, 18C9. (London.)— 1. The Works of Mrs. Oliphant 2. Royal C »mrois lion on tho I aw i ol M irrin -. 3, R Five Great Monarchies, -l. Roman Catholicism in Prance. 5. Po ticnl Works t Browning. 6. The Irish Church in the Sixteenth Century. 1. Pau- 8. The Brahmo Somaj of India. 9. Rcsull ofthe Irish Chun h l1 •' at Review, April, 1869. (New York: Reprint.)-— 1. «' Funci 3 Tho Competitive Industry of Katio '■- '■'■ do Lafayette. 5. The Sett! ment of Ulster. CD 7 Matthow Arnold's Critical Works. 8. American Finance, IS65-

of Robert Browning. 6. The Irish Church in the Sixteenth Century. 1 perism, 8. The Brahmo Somaj of India. 9. Rcsull ofthe Irish I burch D Edinburgh Review, April, 1869. (Sew York: Reprint.)— 1. J 2. Edible Madame

Britain. 7. Mattlu

1869. 9. Lifi aud Times of Edward III. 10. Campbell's Lives oi Lyn and Brougham.

-M4 Synopsis of the Quarterlies, and [July,

Lqxdos Quarterly Review, April, 1869. (New York: Reprint.)— 1. Rassain's

Abyssinia. 2. Modern English Poets. ?. Geological Climates and the Origin of Species. 4. Cost of Party Government. 5. Dante Alighieri. 6. Female Ei ica- tion. 7. Travels in Greece. S. The Religious "Wars of France. 9. Aim; of Modern Medicin •. 10. Irish Chuvcli BiE North British Review, March, 1869. (New York: Reprint)— 1. The Royal Engineers. 2. Russian Literature — Turguenief's Novels. 3. Revolution i Queen's English. 1. Dean Milraan. :>. The Increase of Lunacy. 6. Tip son's Bay Company. 7. Whatis Man's Chief End 2 8. Public "Works in ) 9. The Reconstruction of Germany.

German Reviews.

Theoxogische Si gdiex uxd KRiTBCEy. (Theological Essays and Reviews.) Tliird Number. 1S69. — Essays. 1. Achelis, Dr. Richard Rothe. 2. DlETSCH, Th Doctrines of the Inspiration of the Scriptures. 3. Klopeer, The Meaning the Object of Rom. v, 12-21. Thoughts and Remarks. 1. Burkhaedt, On the Credibility of the Reply of Luther: "Here I stand; I cannot otl help me, Amen." 2. Guaf, Tho Accounts of the Four Gospels on the Resur- rection of Jesus. Reviews: 1. Walters, Conrad von Heresbach, and the His- tory of the Reformati m of the City of Wesel; reviewed byWiLKixs. 2. Piper, Introduction into Monumental Theology; reviewed by Geuseisek. o. Peiss, Apology of Faith ; reviewed by Baxsiann.

Richard Rothe is so eminent among the theological writers of the present century that we cannot be surprised at the large number of biographical sketches which are published of him. Among the fullest and best accounts of Ins life and Lis works art- counted those published by Schekel in the Allgemcine Kirch- liche Zeitschrift, (1867, numbers 0 and 10,) and in the preface to his edition of Rothc's Posthumous Sermons, (Nachgelcu IWdif/'ai, vol. i,) by Dr. Nippold, Professor at the University of Heidelberg, in Gelzer's Monat&hefte^ 18GS, and in particular that by Hbnig, Suddcutschcs protest. WocJicnblutt, I8u7. The article in tliis number of the Studien, by Achelis, will take its rank among the best. In four sections it treats of Rothc's life, of In- religious and moral character, of his eminence as a pulpit orator and scientific theologian, and of his relation to the ecclesiastical parlies. Rothe occupies a peculiar position in the history of the German Protestanl Church. In the great literary controversy between the believers in the supernatural origin of Christianity and the special inspiration «>f the Bible on the one hand, and the Rationalists on the other, Rothe stood very emphatically on the side of the former; and evangelical theologians unanimously class his great work on Elhiks (I'/teolog. Ethik, 3 vols., 1846-1848, second edition, volumes i and ii, 1867) among the standard works of recent Protestant theological literature, lie had, however, many peculiar views. He himself, to designate his theological

I860.] Others of the higher Periodicals. 445

stand-point claimed the name of a Christian thcosophist, and professed to be a follower of Jacob Bcelrni and of Oettinger. The author of this sketch in the Studien remarks that Uothc was the first to raise theosophy to the rank of a science, and that by his method of theological speculation he rendered the greatest sendees to theology. Rothe (in his work, Anfange der Christ- lichen Kirclui und Hirer Verfassung, and again in his Theolo'g. JEthifr) developed an entirely new theory of the Church. He viewed it as an exclusively religious communion as distinguished from the several moral communities, the totality of which, accord- ing to him, is the State. The Church, as an abstractly religious communion, can never, according to Rothe, completely realize its own idea ; as a separate organization it is the less needed the more the moral development of the State advances, until finally it will be entirely superseded, and the State become the kingdom of God. Rothe had a profound appreciation and admiration of the progress of modern civilization, and had the firmest conviction that as this civilization was an outgrowth of Christianity, it could and should be fully harmonized with the fundamental doctrines of Christianity. He deplored the course which the great majority of the orthodox Churches of Germany are pursuing with regard to the progressive tendencies of the age, and, therefore, resolved to co- operate with the Protestant Union," (Protestanten Verein,) which demands the abolition of the influence of the State governments upon the Church and the reconstruction of the Church upon a popular basis. Most of the leaders of this association arc Nation- alists, but Rothe believed that the change of ecclesiastical con- stitution advocated by them was a step in the righl direction. The author of this biographical sketch, an euthusiastical admirer of the piety and the character of Rothe, believes that' in expecting any good to come from an association controlled by Rationalistic leaders, Rothe was radically mistaken.

In the little article on the famous saying of Luther at the Diet of Worms, (Here I stand ; I cannot otherwise; God help me, Amen,) Dr. Burkhardt, a writer already favorably known by several writings on Luther, undertakes to prove, from a carefnl comparison of ad the original documents, that those words do probably not contain the real answer of Luther, but thai the first hah' is a later addition.

The next article, by Graf, has for ils object to prove, against the attacks of Dr. Strauss, the entire harmony of the accounts of the four Gospels relative to the sending of the Apostles to Galilee after the resurrection of Christ.

446 Synopsis of the Quarterlies, and [July,

Zj;iTScnim-T pub Historischb Theologie. (Journal for Historical Theology.) 18G9. Second Number.— 2. Elemme, Life and Writings of Johann Yennhardt. 3. Foerster, Johann Forster; a Life Picture of the Time of the Reformation. A. Herzog, Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray. b. Linder, The Reformed Church of Switzerland in its Conflict with Pietism ami Separatism during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.

Third Number.— G. Bittchee, Life of Peter Abelard. 7. Gbote, Andreas Mus- culus. S. Lixder, The Weininger Affair in the Years 150S-1G0O, a Contribu- tion to the History of the Controversies between Lutherans and Reformed. 9. RoXSCH, Testimonies of the Fathers on the First Latin Version of the Bible.

The most interesting article in the above two numbers is that by Dr. Herzog, the editor of the Theological Cyclopedia, on Fenelon. It is, like the article on St. Elizabeth in a former number by Dr. Kahnis, in the form of a lecture, and, on account both of its subject and its form, is certain to interest a much larger number of readers than the great majority of articles in this Review. Dr. Herzog treats of Fenelon, first as the educator of the Dauphin, next as the apologist of the pure love to God, and, in the third place, as a patriot and politician. An interesting letter is published in the third part of the article, in which Fenelon severely criticises the policy pursued by Louis XIV., and which shows him to have been imbued by truly liberal principles at a time when nearly all statesmen bowed their knr-e to the absolutism of Louis XIV. The letter was not printed until 1 '787, when D'Alembert published it for the first time in his History of the Members of the French Academy. Its authenticity was long doubled, but all doubts were dispelled in 1S35 by the discovery of the original, the whole of which was clearly in the handwriting of Fenelon.

ZEiTSCiiKirT pub WlSSEXSOHAFTLICUE Theology. (Journal for Scientific The- ology.) 1869. First Number.— 1. Lipsius, The Dialectics of Schleiermacher. 2. lionv.MAN.s", The Relation of the Gospel of John to the Synoptical Go ?.. Spiegel, Hardenbcrg's Views Concerning the Lord's Supper. 4. Egli, Biblical Notes.

Second Number. — ">. LiPSics, The Dialectics of Schleiermacher, (concluded.)

6. Holtzmanx. The Relation of the Gospel of John to the Synoptical Gospels.

7. Obeebeck, On Rom. viii, 4. 8. Roxsch, Remarks on the Assuinptio Mosis. 9. Hilgexfeld, The Pastor i fllermas.

Third Number.— 11. Lipsius, The Pastor of Hennas. 12. Grimm, The D( s Rom. ix, 5. 13. Immer, On Biedcrmann's " C7 'stliche Dogmatik." 1'.* ens, The Sources for the Ili toryofthe Essenes.

The history of the Essenes has been for a series of years a favorite topic for the contributors to this periodical. The last named article, by Dr. Clemens, a young scholar who i^ already favorably known by a work on the subject, is another valuable addition to tlii- literature. The author enters into a thorough examination of the credibility of the accounts of Joscphus, Philo, and Pliny, the only three writers on the Essenes who were their contemporaries,

1869J Others of the higher Periodicals. 4-17

and from whom the accounts of nil subsequent writers have been derived.

The articles of Hilgenfeld and Lipsius on the Pastor of Hernias are both directed against the recent work on that subject by a young theologian of the evangelical school, Dr. Zahn. As one of the eai'liest among the post apostolic writings of the Christian Church, the Pastor of Hernias is a work of great importance for settling the controversies relating to the first period of the history of the Christian Church.

The Christian Dogmatics of Professor Biedennann of Zurich, (Christliehc Dogmatik, Zurich, 1869,) which i^ briefly noticed in the thirteenth article by Professor Irnmer, of the University of Berne, is the most ultra rationalistic work on the subject which has yet appeared. Biedennann is one of the chief representatives of the new rationalistic school in the Reformed Church of Switzerland, which openly reject even the belief in a personal God and the immortality of the soul, and yet deem it right to retain their membership in the Reformed State Churches first organized by Calvin and ZuinsILus.

Aet. XL— QUARTERLY BOOK-TABLE. Religion,) Theology, and Biblical Literature.

THE EPISCOPAL CORRESPONDENCE OX CHURCH REUNION. Our venerable Mother Church, the Methodist Episcopal, has a powerful hand, but a liberal heart. To all the lesser Methodisms she extends her genial invitation to become, with her, one family. Her dignity is unoffended by their declining. Her very invita- tion means, that if they prefer a separate home they are none the less welcome to her cucharistic table whenever they choose to make a fraternal visit. It is thus that our Bishops lately, in the exercise of the discretion which belongs to their office, availed themselves of the meeting of the Bishop9 of the Church South to bring to the attention of the latter the Commission appointed by our General Conference on Church reunion. The great body of the Church, we doubt not, approvcthis action and the address of our Bishops. Of the response from the Southern Bishops, we regret to say, an adverse and condemnatory view is taken by a large part of our best thinkers. This condemnatory view is one-sided, and arises from omitting to put ourselves in the stand-point of

448 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

those Bishops, in allowing too little to human nature, and in for- getting our own past.

For more than thirty years we have, rightly as we think, wrongly as they thought, talked very severe things to and of the Church South. We have done so before the Avar, during the war, since the war, and up to the very latest dates. All at once we tune down to a very gentle melody, and of course wc expect them to chime in, instanter, with just as gentle a harmony ! Xo, indeed. If they are me)i, either in the higher or humbler sense of the word, they will not do it — just as Ave would not. What, then, do they ?

They do just as wo might predict. They meet the address with every expression of love and courtesy, with every assurance of a desire for peace and mutual brotherhood, hut they firmly and frankly state the feelings that still exist as the result of the ter- rible past. They still feel the sting of our rejection of their fra- ternal delegate ; they reject the assumption of their identification with slavery, or of their being on a level with Breeders ; they unfold the wrongs they hold themselves to suffer ; frankly, though in undertone, admitting that the wrung is not all on one side, and in a higher tone proposing a co-operative effort to check the mu- tual wrong and secure a permanent peace. Their reply is a peculiar blending of an earnest desire not to offend, with a feel- ing of distrust for so sudden an overture, and a firmly determined purpose to avail themselves of the occasion, which our Northern papers do not usually afford them, of getting their views before the Methodist Episcopal Church.

This frank holiness, blended with every effort to evince a fra- ternal purpose in that very holdncss, we approve. We have ourself repeatedly used it, and before this article closes Ave pur- pose to use it again. Our readers will recollect that a short time- since Ave "read a lecture"? to Dr. Summers, referring to some hitter points hutli of the past and future. His response so fully appreciated both the plainness of our speech and the friendliness of our purpose, as to lay us under the obligation not to he out- done in magnanimity.

The Southern Bishops say that there must he unity of heart, the removal of strifes, before there can he organic unity. Per- haps this is tin.-. And yet, paradox as it may seem, the reverse order may he the true order. It seems to us nearly true that the frank offer of reunion on our pari is, ipso fact07 either the repa- ration, or the offer of reparation, of every wrong, as well as settle- ment of every question. Did we reject their oiler offraternization ?

18G9.1 Quarterly Book-Table. 449

Surely the offer of a reunion is a cancellation of that slight, with a surplus. Do we impute slavery as a cause of separation? That is a dead issue when, regardless alike of cause or occasion, we say we know no cause at all for present separation, and pro- pose reunion. Do we impute to them secession, and level them with schismatics? We say Ave are ready to hold them ecclesias- tically as good as ourselves, and recognize them upon our own level, as one with ourselves. Have there heen strifes among our Churches, proselytisms, and "church-stealings?" Tho^e die for- ever at the moment of reunion. When we are one we cannot proselyte from ourselves, nor steal our own churches from our- selves. We avow, then, the paradox, and reverse the Bishops' or- der; give us the antecedent, reunion, and we will guarantee the con- sequent, the dismissal of dead issues and the settlements of strife. If, however, the Southern Bishops mean to affirm, as the only "basis" of reunion, that the Methodist Episcopal Church must recognize the validity of the Plan of Separation, and hold her ju- risdiction over her Conferences and Churches in the South as dejure null, and de facto a usurpation, that, so far as the Bishops are concerned, closes the matter. For, first, it. bases reunion on a fal- sification of facts ; and, second, it prescribes dishonorable condi- tions. It falsifies facts, for, 1. The Plan of Separation tailing of the constitutional vole of the Annual Conferences attained no valid existence ; and, 2. The boundaries between the two pro- posed sections were notoriously disregarded by the Church South, which attempted, in some cases with violence, to acquire churches in the Northern section. It proposes dishonorable con- ditions y for since our Church, recognizing that no limitation to her evangelizing work existed, occupied Southern territory, she can never stigmatize her own work by pronouncing it unlawful, or abandoning it in the full tide of its success. She is willing, as we believe, to wave punctilio and past questions, and proceed to inaugurate a reunion; she is willing, as the result of that reunion, that the Southern territory shall come under a .-ingle jurisdiction ; but she is not willing to condemn her own present occupancy of the South as a transgression and a crime. Tin- pro- posal would be rejected as a contumely. But let it be remem- bered that it is only the Southern Bishops who are by some con- strued as taking this ground. There is time yet for the Southern General Conference in May, 1870, to revise the position; and then there is a further time for the people of the two • make up their verdict. After a full and conscientious discussion of the cjuestion for one or two years, both sections being fully

450 Methodist Quarterly Review'. [July,

famished with the argument for and against, ice would he very willing to submit ii to the popular vote of (tic two churches.

The difficulties in regard to Church property (trhioh have given rise in the Church South to the unseemly neologism, " church- stealing ") if strongly pressed will raise a political discussion. The temporary occupancy of Southern Churches during the war raises the question, What, by the rules of war, according to the laws of nations, are the rights of a government over ecclesiastical property in a section of the nation in rebellion ? What are those rights, especially, over churches used in aid of rebellion ? And, then, Has there been a rebellion ? And have any Southern Churches aided and abetted rebellion ? If so, "What is the duty of loyal ministers in case the government call them to occupy the churches as loyal citizens? It will be perceived that each party will seethe course actually pursued to be right or wrong according to his own antecedent political views. This whole question had, therefore, better be waived, and the above neologism had better he dismissed from the Southern ecclesiastical vocabulary. As to all other Church-property difficulties, we apprehend that investiga- tion will show that if any " church-stealing " has been committed, the Church South will be found to be the more aggres:ivc party.

Dr. Summers, of the " ISTashville Advocate," in noticing Dr. Pech's late article on Methodism, furnishes the following views, which views are indorsed by Dr. Myers, of the "Southern Chris- tian Advocate," as indicating " the only plan of union which may be feasible or profitable :"

K the North had followed out in pood faith the provisions of the brotherly cove- nant proposed and urged bj its chief ministers iu 1844, and which we kept to the letter, there might have been to-day one great (Ecumenical Connection in the Unit d States, with perhaps three or mere General or Provincial Conference! . and as many Coll . ■.'.-: ofBishops as the rapidly-growing Connection and widely-extending coun- try might require. We have never been averse to such a fraternal arrangement Had our Northern brethren abode by the Plan of Separation, Mel have been developed into a higher unity than it had before the division of the Church in 1814. Dr. Elliott, th i greal cl ampion of the North, said then, that two General Conferences were imperiously required by the rapid growth oi tl nection, and he iustanced the Provinces of Canterbury and York, into which the Church of England is divided, as a precedent for our division. Th ro might have been a " Methodist Episcopal Church in America," the original titl< of tl nection, with half adoz n jurisdictional divisions, (General C d Col-

leges of Bishops,) and a Gen ral Co u il, or (Ecumenic IC ferci meet at stared times to recognize and rati y '

there would not have been the disgrace and Bcandal of "altai ■•" and

all the deplorablo consequent a ol such schism. God knows we nevi i wanted lo invade their territory, or to infringe upon any of their rights. We wante I I Methodism a unit, the world over— every particular secti in rec ignizing t and each keeping within its own jurisdictional bounds as in the case with cur cir- cuit.-, districts, and Annual Conferences. Il is not our fault that this i-< not the case.

18C0J Quarterly Booh-TcMe. 451

As to the infringement and validity of the " Plan of Separa- tion," a future Quarterly may furnish a chapter of history and exposition. The decision of the Supreme Court settled the ques- tion of law as to the Church property ; but it had no ecclesiasti- cal or moral force to limit our evaugelizing labors or church exteusion within any geographical section. Nevertheless we think that such questions, as, Which was in the wrong ? Was slavery the cause or occasion ? Was the division a separation or secession? Was the Plan of Separation legal ? etc., etc.. however interesting as history, arc dead as issues, and their ghosts should be expelled the premises.

Dr. Myers, in the " Southern Christian Advocate," states such conditions as these:

1. All aggressions upon our congregations, members, Churches, white or singly or in a body, publicly or privately, must cease; and all arrangements that look to disinte jrating and absorbing our communion must be arrested.

2. Every attempt to judge us as Christians or Methodists for our political opin- ions or public acts as citizens, and all animadversions upon our [political]

or conduct, must come to a sudden pause. Those things lie out of the range of Church questions, and we refuse, to bejudged therein by the Church.

The first of these conditions, rightly construed, ought to he observed in any case. But it is not to he so interpreted as to exclude our Church from the Southern States; to prevent our asserting the rights of the colored Methodists of the South; to preclude our attracting to our own Church all who felt them- selves wronged when the separation cut them off from the " Old Church ;" or to prohibit our entering into that fair and honorable competition which all denominations have a right to exerciM', by both a public and private exhibition of their faith and order. None of these rights will he sacrificed to any " fraternization." Whatever Church denies them must take our wager of battle.

In regard to Dr. Myers's second condition, the very offer of re- union is "an offer to dismics dead issues ; to judge no man as a Methodist adversely from historically settled questions ; to im- peach no man <: as a citizen" for any thing not immoral; and to hold no one censurable for future political opinions unless ' opinions contradict our religions doctrines, our Church order, or common Christian morality. The term "political" cannot, how- ever, in general, he held to justify or cover from rebuke any transgression of the law of God. A man who insists on the right as a politician persistently to break the Sabbath, or t. tain Sabbath-breaking, we do condemn. The sins of politicians are no better than any body else's sins.

452 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

Since penning the above our eye recognizes the following ful- ler statement of Dr. Myers's meaning:

No Church will ever succeed at the South which requires Southerners to titler sentence of condemnation against their honored dead, or the cause in which they died. They do not do this to become citizens' of the reconstructed i will not do it under ecclesiastical dictation; and yet they will provt tht (7-5 faithful to the Constitution and laws of (heir country as an those irlo hold ■ opinions respecting political questions. The xlvv discussion, then, of the que Church union means — letall political opinions whicli divide Northern and Southern citizens be ignored ; let ' the dead past bury its dead ;' throw out of tl the dead issues of secession and slavery; in short, consign 10 an eternal gri . between the Northorn and the Soutlx rn Methodists — the one Church and the other — all questions of secession, slavery, war, suffrage, and the like; resolve tl at, how- ever differing in opinion, for Christ's sake and the Gospel's, there shall never be introduced, directly or indirectly, into any Church, court, or assembly, great or small, in document, speech, sermon, exhortation, prayer, or into book i r ] (excepr in violation of the spirit of the compact between the two Churches,) any reference to the causes, consequences, history, or results of their past difficulties, in any such way as could offend or do violence willingly to the most delicate Christian charity — that they will never bandy such epithets, in crimination and recrimination, as slaveholder, abolitionist, pro-slavery, secesh, radical, unionist, rebel, and such like — will try to forget that these words ever had any application to members of either body, or that the opinions and acts they suggest ever had any existence — or if ever existing, that they have now ceased lobe a reason for any treatment other than thatin accord with the sincerest Christian love. If we know what is meant by Christian forgiveness — without which no proper union can exist — this is the temper, spirit, and purpose with which to approach this question whicli some of the Northern papers are proposing to discuss.

We do not agree, as a general principle, that respect for our ancestors or our dead hinds us to maintain their opinions, or to indorse all they did as right. Truth and righteousness are inde- pendent of human relations. Our illustrious dead would he not our benefactors but our enemies if they hound our souls to error and wrong. We will hind garlands around their tombs, hut never will we pay them so poor a compliment as to immo- late truth and peace to their manes. The disposition to main- tain a principle, because it Mas bequeathed us by the dead, or because it belongs to our side, is the iniquitous source, all through history, of perpetuated falsehood, hereditary hate, feud and bloodshed. But the principles laid down by Dr. Myers as fundamental to Church unity, though needing cxacter expression on one point, are about correct, and would tend to national peace. Our Quarterly would 7iot engage, for instance, to never utter an ethical condemnation upon slavery, or upon the late war on the national government ; .and yet we would, and we do, avoid referring to cither with the animus of reproach upon the Church South. There should be upon neither side cither the purpose of contumely, or a cultivated sensitiveness, anxious to take offense, and proud to lay hampers upon all free

1809.] Quarterly Book-Table. 453

utterance. But Dr. Myers impracticably lays down this platform as condition precedent to negotiation. How can it be made ob- ligatory, or enforced on either side, previous to any compact ? How can Dr. Myers undertake beforehand to keep the Episcopal

Methodist in decent order?

And now it is our turn to present "conditions," and utter frank statements. And they shall not be selfish conditions, seeking our own good, but seeking right-dealing toward a third party — the negroes. We should have been almost entirely opposed to any organic effort to take possession of southern territory but for what appeared to us to be the manifest purpose of Southern Methodism — to retain the negro as nearly as possible in his original state of ignorance and serfdom. The southern editors claimed that the negro was still exclusively theirs; that they only "understood the negro;" that every body else must keep "hands off." They launched their nicknames and denunciations at the incoming teachers from the North. At the same time every imputation was heaped upon the negro character for laziness and vice, result- though they were of centuries of a most cruel and debasing legis- lation; and last came those ominous predictions that the negro race would soon die out. The absolute condition of any fraternity, on our part, is generous justice to the colored Methodism of the South. The spirit of oppression that seeks to disfranchise and de- grade must cease. We do not, however, condemn schools, churches, or conferences intended for one color, where both colors consent. Every man, also, has the right to select his own social intimates; and the negro does not ask promiscuous sociality. He asks, and he must have, fair play in life to develop his most noble man- hood. How fully the Church South is now ready to accord these rights we know not; but the apparent evidence is yet in the negative. The (Philadelphia) "Christian Recorder," edited by a negro, utters its own views in the following strong, probably exaggerating, language :

In do part of our CI urch are more di perate efforts madet iiirelu -

and the people who ' unit I with us lhan in Kentucky. Thi Ir . : \ . ■ Mel

: sachers aud tl om, at the dawnof libertj ! off with con-

t, mpt, not allowed I i er way. Talk-

ing with one of our ; meof I

em preachers, lie incidentally made the remark, u\ of lying to a black man than though it were nothing.' tent this is true all ovi i tl 8: >uth. So seared arc tin in I ' :

not feel themselves bound to be truthful to the negro. " No faith l was the wat hen of the Romanist. "No faith with negroes," is the watchword of tb Southern Methodist.

Foueth Series, Vol. XXL— 29

45-1 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

Again :

"We do not think we over-estimate the fact, when we state that there, are now about five times the number of schools and school-houses at the South to what then.' wag previous to the war. All classes arc now going to school. The sons oft! whites and negroes now vie with the sons of the grandees. A generation hence the country can make an estimate of the relative capacity of the two races. This could never be done before; yet did our enemies do it, and pronounce against us; but their very condemnati >■. was our glory. What was it? It was that a black untaught did not know as much as a while taught — that a negro boy out of could not keep up witb a white boy in school. Astounding judgment !

The lime has come, brethren of the South, for considering negro testimony. The paper above quoted is not inferior to the average of your own periodicals in moral or intellectual character. And now it removes all hesitation on the part of any section of our ven- erable Church when we are convinced that the wrong indi- cated, perhaps exaggerated, in the above testimony is in fair way of being surely renounced. And when our Bishops respond, as "wehopethcy will, to the very proper offer of the Southern Bishops to unite in conciliating Church quarrels, we trust they will also propose, as absolute conditions, to unite in giving full fair play to the colored race. With that plank superadded we are ready, and the Church, softened by advancing time, soon will be ready, to ac- cept Dr. Myers's paragraph substantially as a basis. And then, looking to a future (Ecumenical Methodism as foreshadowed by Dr. Peck and indorsed by Dr. Summers, the Churches can, by a true Christian policy, attain a wise reunion.

Foreign Missions: ftefr Relations and Claims. By Runts Anderson, D.D., LLP., Late Foreign Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. ]2mo.. pp. 373. New York: Charles Scribner & Co. 1SG0.

At the age of threescore and ten Dr. Anderson resigned Ids office, after a service of forty years, and was appointed to an endowed Lectureship lor Audover Theological Seminary. His course of lectures, delivered in the most important of his denominational Seminaries, are now embodied in this handsome volume. They furnish the results of lung years of observation and experience ; they were heard with earnest attention by very competent audieuces; and they furnish thought equally important tor all the C'lri; engaged in the- work of evangelical missions.

Dr. Anderson's view of the missionary held, though recognizing that fifty years have accomplished but little more than preparatory work, is confident that it is a grand preparation, and sanguincly assured of final success in rendering a living Christianity the religion of the race. He commences with an expanded view of the simulta- neous double work of the Church's awakening to the missionary

1SC9.] Quarterly Book-Table. 455

enterprise, and the providential breaking away, of the national barriers, in succession, furnishing a wonderful access to the peaceful armies of the cross. As Jehovah has said to the Church, " Awake," he has also said to the world, " Give way."

Tracing by the light of Scripture and history, as furnished in the Xew Testament, in the Irish missions, and others of the early Church, Dr. Anderson develops the principles and discusses the methods of our modern missions, both in enlisting the interest of the Church at home, and. in attaining a broad and permanent suc- cess abroad, lie then gives a brief sketch of the foreign Held as it now stands, furnishes a bird's-eye view of the entire army of occupa- tion, showing the degree of success attained, and the proper view of the success attainable. This is a cheerful, instructive, and timely book. To the inquirer about the missionary held challeng- ing "What of the night?" it is the vigilant watchman's answer, "The morning cometh, arid also the night."

It seems very amazing that the American Board and other missionary managers have discovered hut lately, and as if by accidental experience, that the true method is to train up the earliest possible native workers, and to throw the native Churches as early as possible upon their own strength. In the Sandwich Islands, when the missionaries were driven oil' by French invasion, the natives selected their own religious leaders, and for the hist time displayed and developed their own independent vigor. When Madagascar, after a period of missionary successful labor, expelled the missionaries, the native Christians, arising from the apparent weakness of their pupilage, not only showed themselves self-sus- taining, but displayed a spirit of martyrdom worthy the apostolic age. Dr. Anderson lays down the rule that the foreign missionary should never become pastor of a mission Church ; but, appointing a native pastor, should remain in the broad, apostolic held.

Dr. Anderson well refutes the idea, every now and then uttered with oracular authority by ignorant editors of secular papers, that civilization must precede Christiauizaliou. The pseudo-experience of men who never studied missions is constantly reasserting this fallacy, falsified by the whole history of missions. The barbarian mind is a vacant mind, and you have not to empty it of a powerful preoccupant. Idolatry does not satisfy, and. gives way easily to a higher system. Hence we have more hope of heathenism than of Mohammedanism and Romanism. There are in the latter two systems elements of elevated truth that serve a< conservatives to the error: but in the blank, uncivilized religions, is a moral basis for industrious habits ami healthful civilization.

456 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

Dr. Anderson's work is well worthy the study of both the friends and opponents of missions.

Fiftietk Annuo.' Report of tlie Missions))/ Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church for the Year 1868. Svo., pp. 184. New York.

Upon our excellent Annual Report, which has been before the Church some months, we oiler no remarks, but make a few points on the present aspects of our missionary enterprise itself.

The fact that our Secretaries, cannot, in our whole Church, find the proper individuals to man our fields, is not only sad in itself, but suggestive of other sad things. It suggests that our mission- ary zeal is too superficial and routine. The missionary enterprise is accepted, of course, as an established thing; but our people, if not ministry, seem to know little specifically about it, and feel less. How is it that so few of our young men are taught and inspired by the preaching they hear to burn with a holy ambition to carry the Gospel to the dark peoples ? How is it that of so many young ministers entering our Conferences "moved by the Holy Client," so few, oi- so almost none at all, are consecrated in spirit to the wide parish of the world? How is it that already, in each of our theological schools, there are not the full dozen waiting for the Macedonian call '? The whole Church ought to cherish a sen^e of self-condemnation until this shame disappears.

A million dollars a year ought to be, without spasm or struggle, but easily and normally, raised. For this purpose the next General Conference, we trust, will authorize and cause to be put in motion the plan of a dollar a member through the whole Church. We cannot but hope that our respected Secretaries will feel encouraged to construct the proper plan for adoption.

Ought there to be a distinct missionary seminary established ? or ought the missionary work t<> occupy largely the attention of" our present seminaries? For the present, certainly the latter. The Boston school claims, at the present time, to take the lead in the importance it gives to this department, and we hope it will earnestly strive to justify the claim. But so long as the Sec- retaries are compelled to say that any field calls vainly for an occupant, our b< minaries must lay vigorous claim to a large share of the responsibility. There is not a student within their walls who ought not to examine his own case before God.

One great reason, we might, perhaps, say, the great reason, why our missionary zeal is so routine is, that our system, as brought before the people, is a vague generality. They are asked

1809.] Quarterly Book -Table. 457

to "give for the missionary cause;" and their gift is, as it v. ore, flung into an unknown sea. Whether it goes to India or Michi- gan the giver never knows. By our ministers little or no mission- ary history is ever given ; the missionary map is seldom exhibited and explained, and no specific interest is felt. We have often surmised, that if every Conference of the Church had some one missionary ground to sustain, or some one or more missionaries to support, an immense deal of new interest would be created, and a much larger amount raised.

One illustration of the routiue character above specified is, the character of missionary speeches delivered at the anniversaries. The speakers seem to know that there is a missionary effort in process to convert the world. Upon this point they are often very eloquent, and present the grand idea with such impressive- ncss that the Church has very fully acquired it. And in thai idea lies the large amount of our missionary strength. But in these speeches you usually see little reference to any specific fact in the present state of that effort. You are half inclined to suspect that the speaker himself is not very thorough in his acquaintance with it.

John's Gospel. Apolog-ol ical Lectures. By J. J. Van Oosterzkk. D. P., Profc Theology in the University of Utrecht. Translated, with additions, by J. P. Hurst!"" 12rao., pp. 25G. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. New York: Scribner, TVe-lford, & Co.

It is a marvelous power of work displayed by Dr. Hurst, that besides the duties of his seminary, his contributions to periodicals, his translation of Hagenbach, and his forthcoming translation of the Commentary on Romans for Dr. Schaff, he should, as seed by the way-side, throw out this little volume of Van Oosterzi e. lie furnishes an example followed by too few of our young scholars. Van Oosterzc1 is already known in America as one of the contributors to Lange's Commentary. lie is one of the most eloquent preachers and profound scholars of Holland, a little more than fifty years" of age. His great qualities entitle him to measure weapons with the haughtiest skeptics of Europe. Tl - prescut volume is a course of lectures by him, delivered to : ami intelligent audience in the Odeon of Amsterdam with go »d effect. They are preluded with a preface by Dr. Hurst i letter from the author to him, and consist of four very valuable and highly interesting pieces, namely. On the Authenticity of John's Gospel, On John and the Synoptics, John's Miracles of Jesus, and John's Christ.

458 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

There is less concentration and positiveness of style than we expect in a great orator. Yet in spite of a very slight Teutonic haze and languor of style, the argument in its full volume is stated with much freshness and conclusiveness. He sheds touches of light on a succession of points; and to those who have been perplexed by the plausibly stated difficulties of John he suggests very plausible solutions. One thing stands finally as clear as day: the Bteptic disregards all scientific criticism in rejecting the authenticity of this Gospel; his sole final practicable resort is that taken by Kenan, and finally by Strauss, to admit, the authen- ticity and deny its veracity, on the ground mainly that all mira- cles are fictitious.

This Gospel, including the others, differs from all other books containing miracles in this, that the miracles are not incidental, hut the main tiling. Christ himself is the miracle ; and so a Gospel is miracle from end to end. Tacitus and Livy subsidiarily weave in miracles ; but this Gospel takes the bull by the horns, and is boldly all mh'aclc. And these miracles are not scientific performances, such as a chemist performs in his laboratory, nor to be tried by scientific tests. They belong to the region of spirit, and are to be appreciated in the temper of a spiritual and yet perfectly rational faith.

Tlie Sermons of Henry Ward Beecher in Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. From Verbatim Reports bv T. J. Kr.i.Txwooi). "Plymouth Pulpit," First Series: September, 1868-March, 1869. 8vo., pp. 438. New York: J. B. Ford & Co. 1869.

More- Hashes and detonations from the powerful battery of that great brain, and the still more powerful battery of that great heart. It is suggestive to be called to read Beecher and Spurgeon within the same* few hours. In Spurgeon we see revived one of the great Puritan preachers of the seventeenth century, rugged, oaken, dogmatic, evangelical, intensely Christian. If this nine- teenth century, with its London Times, and criticism, and rail- roads, and liberalism does not like him, still there he is, a live fact; and what <-1i><.^ the nineteenth century -propose to do about it? Mr. Beecher's problem is to identify himself with the nine- teenth century in its intensest spirit, to lead its onward march, i" surrender all inconsistent with its demands, and yet to retain last hold of Christ in the soul. It is a diificult problem. We Buspect that Mr. Beecher makes many a minor mistake. We often fear lest he surrender that firm hold ; we often think he makes unneces- sary surrenders. But his problem is his mission, and we trust he will work it out triumphantly.

1SG9.] Quarterly Book-Table. 459

The JDay-Daum and The Rain, andoiher Sermons. By Rev. John Ker, Glasgow, Scotland. 12mo., pp. 450. New York : Robert Carter & Brothers. 1 ; 19.

•Mr. Ker's name is new to us, but these beautiful sermons form a very favorable introduction to it. The British Quarterly thus characterizes him :

All good sermons arc now compared to Robertson's, and possibly all sermon writers since him have drunk in his spirit. Mr. Ker is of his school, and with the exception of the posthumous sermons of Mr. E. L. Hull, we have mel with i worthy of standing by his side. Mr. Ker's thought, although perfectly simple and natural, is fresh and bold; and if ic may not claim absolute originality, it : claim that distinctive individuality which indicates the honest and vigorous inde- pendent thinker, who, whatever lie may owe to other men, owes it on owes nutriment. His style is quirt and cha te, every thing is. said with the ut- most simplicity, but also with a refined beauty which works like a spell. There is scarcely a fine sentence in the volume, but neither is there a common-pl; ■ tence. Every thing is quietly, easily, naturally produced and set forth; but its qualities of thougbtfulness, suggestiveness, and strength arethose whic! i ■■ men would vainly strive after. Mr. Ker isa thoroughly-cultured man. and yet un- compromisingly and devoutly evangelical. His thought and reading have l< to an unhesitating acceptance of the great verities of the Evangelical cr however, in any creel shape, but in their thorough adaptation to the Dati i necessities of human souls. The doctrine is every where humanized, and pre- sented in vital forms of human need and experience.

Cfiristian Purity ; or. The Heritage of Faith. Revised, Enlarged, and Adapted to the Later Phases of the Subject. By Rev. R. S. Foster, D.D., L.L.P. With an Introduction by Bishop Jaxks. 1 2mo., pp. 364. New York : Carlton ft Lanahan. Cincinnati: Hitchcock ft Walden. 18G9.

It is nnnecessary for its to commend a work which 1ms for years been accepted by the Church, and which now conies forth renewed by the author's matured thought and experience. Though treat- ing a subject reaching the inmost recesses of mind, Dr. Foster, while writing to be tested by the metaphysician, writes more truly for the popular reader. Avoiding the technics of theology he endeavors to so state his views, like a guiding and loving teacher, as to bring the willing heart to the decisive point oC Christian experience. It will be a gratifying consideration that Dr. Foster carries not only his views, but Ins feelings and his purposes, into the professorship to winch he has so worthily been called.

The work will be reviewed in a full article of a future Quarterly.

Ant dotes of the Wesleys. Illustrative of their Character and Personal Flisl ry. By Rev. J. B.Wakeley. With an Introducl ' ' ■

lCmo., pp. 391. New Turk: Carlton & Lauahan. l

A book for the million, and we wish that a million copies could be forthwith sold, the lady author of "The Gales Ajar" tells usthat there will be the witticism and the laugh in heaven. And Mr. Wake-

460 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

ley loves a smiling, if not a laughing, religion ; and loves to presenl

his saints with their most radiant face on, and to send them forth brightening tbc faces of his million readers.

These anecdotes are arranged in five classes, each class gathered around its own hero ; namely, Samuel Wesley, Susanna:1. Wesl y. John Wesley, Charles Wesley, and Charles Wesley, Jun. The whole presupposes some interest in the reader for the Wesleys ; and, in fact, it is very much a popular history of the wondrous family in sprightly, anecdotal form. This is a memorable history, and we rejoice to send it out in this most popular guise.

The. Satdt it's Scripture History.— The Old Testament History. From ti. ation to the Return of the Jews from Captivity. Edited by William Smith, LL.D., Classical Examiner in the University of London. With Maps and Wood- cuts. 12mo., pp. 715. New York: Harper & Brothers.

We have had occasion to make much use of Dr. Smith's New Testament History, and have found it a remarkable specimen of thorough, ultimate erudition, clothed in a style condensed, clear, and gracefnl. The present volume, we judge, from a cursory ex- amination, to he an equally excellent accompaniment. By noth- ing in our language, can the rugged old volumes of Shuckford and Prideaux he so successfully and relievingly replaced. Both volumes would he valuable occupants of a place in our course of ministerial study.

No Sect'; in Heaven, au'l other Poems. By Mrs. E. H. J. Cleavitland. 2 pp. 95. New York: Clark & Maynard.

A little gem of decidedly piquant and sprightly poetry. The first piece, ': Xo Sects in Heaven," is well couceived in the general, but fails in the details. We do not see why Dr. Watts appears as n "sect,"' or why he must leave his immortal '-hymns and psalms" behind him in going to heaven. We doubt not that not only he, but millions after him, will take them in memory and heart and chant them in the choirs above. Wesley is made to leave behind him his 31SS. ; hut we opine that it is the mere paper of them that is left behind, not their thought and spirit. "When Bucll men as Watts and "Wesley v; rest from their labors," "their works Mill fol- low them."

K.- m : ] ■■ E ■ i i : or, !;'-;.'i;t ga ■■■'■ Event C. H. SrCRGEax. 12mo., pp. 400. Xew York : Sheldon & Co. I

Spurgeon's purpose in tie- present volume is to furnish a page ■■:' stirring religions thought for the' hour of evening devotion, a- a sequel to his "Morning by Morning." It is a richly evangelical

1869.] Quarter!,, Book-Table. 4G1

page he furnishes, going right, with life and power, to the depths of the Christian soul. Hereby you may have such a preacher as Spurgeon pouring his faithful monitions in your ear, tuning and toning the heart to its evening prayer. .

Foreign Theological Publications.

Die leizten Lebenstage Jesu. Ein Biblisch-historischer Versucb. (The Lasl of the Life of Jesus. A Biblical-Historical Treatise.) Von Dr. Joseph Lax- gex. Svc, pp. xii, 431. Freiburg im Breisgau : Herder. 1SG1.

Das Judenthum in Pal ' Zeit Chrisii Ein Beitrag zur OflTenbarung

Religions Geschichte als Einleitung in die Theologie di Neuen T (Judaism in Palestine at the Time of Christ. A Contribution to Revi Religious History, as an Introduction to the Tin A igy vi' the New Tesi You Dr. .Toseph Laxgex. Svo.. pp. xiv, 528. Freiburg ira Breisgau : Hi r- der. liOG.

Professor Langen is one of the principal representatives of Ca- tholicism in Northern Germany, and is not willing that Protest- antism should monopolize the defense of Christianity ; and both his works may be regarded as among the best contributions of Catholic theology to the department of apologetics. In his Last Days of the Life of Christ he avows his principle that the life of Jesus is the foundation of the whole order of salvation recorded in the New Testament, and the center of the whole history of the world. He takes up the last week in the life of Christ, and treats it historically instead of exegetically. His bias as a Roman Catholic may be seen to advantage in his elaborate treatment of small and unimportant points connected with the scene of the crucifixion. For instance, we have a lengthy discussion of the question whether Christ was crucified perfectly naked or girded about his loins. After an argument covering five pages he con- cludes that the latter was the case, and i-. quite right when he says that the ancients were much more delicate in many respects than a large number of their most enthusiastic admirers of ton- own day. Another question of similar character is, whether three or four nails were used in crucifying Christ. If there writ- only three, one foot must have been placed above the other, and one nail driven through both; but if there were lour, the feel were nailed separately, lie finally decides in favor of the 1 The concluding portion of the work, Golgotha and the Holy S p- ulcher, i.> a learned investigation of the localities connected with the closing scenes of Christ's life on earth. The English authori- ties are liberally quoted, and our American Dr. Robinson is declared to be the most importanl of all the recent topographers of Jerusalem. lie opposes Iiobinson's view, however, that Acra

462 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

was situated in the northwestern part of Jerusalem, and closes his argument by affirming that Roman Catholic tradition is the only authority on which we can rely at the present day in ascer- taining the sacred places of Jerusalem.

Dr. Langen, in his Judaism in Palestine at the time of Christ, addresses himself directly to the attacks of Kenan, Strauss, Schenkel, and Colani, and raises the objection to them all that their accounts of Christ are utterly unhistorical. In order to prove this he enters into a thorough examination of Judaism at the time when the Messiah made his appearance. The Jewish religious views were neither the starting-point nor the close of a development, but only the element of transition. It is important to see what was the relation borne by the Jewish religious views of Christ's time to the Old and New Testaments, and also to trace the connection of later Judaism with foreign views, and particularly with Hellenism. Tire Old Testament is intimately related to the New, and each is dependent on the other. Rut there are such points of difference between them that an apoc- rypha was necessary to form a connecting link between them, thus uniting the Jewish revelation with the Hellenic thoughts and opinions that began to spread over the Jewish nation at the time of the great Grseco-Oriental monarchy. It was the mission of the Romans to connect the. whole earth into one great unity, in order to render possible the universal progress of the Gospel. It was the task of the Grecian mind, as it ruled the whole world at the time of Alexander the Great, to constitute an intellectual union for the reception of God's last revelation ; while it was the part of the East to enter into connection with Hellenism, so that the Hellenic and Oriental spirit might be propagated over all the world. The book abounds in many good thoughts, and the style is far above the average of Continental theol >gians, whether Protestant or Catholic. The following is its comprehensive plan : Introduction. I. Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Original Literature; 1. TheCanonical Writings of the Old Testament from the Jewish-Hellenic Period; 2. The Non-canonical Books which originated iii Palestine; 3. The Non-canonical Books oi' Egyptian Origin; 4. The later Jewish Literature and the Apocryphal Writings of the New Testament. H. The Religious Views of the Jews of Palestine at the Time of Christ. 1. The Religious Parlies in Palestine; 2. The Doctrine of God ; S. The Doctrine of the Logos; 4. The Doctrine of the Holy Spiril ; 5. Angel and Demonology ; 0. Anthropology; 7. The Expectation of the Messiah; 8. Eschatology.

1S09.1 Quarterly Booh -Table. 403

Die altesten Zeugnisse betreffend die Sckriften des Neuen Testamentes. (The Oldest Witnesses on the Writings of the New Testament.) Von J. FL Scholten. Aua dem Hollandischen iibersetzt, v-on Carl Maxchot. 8vo., pp. xii, 191. Lreraen: H. Gesenius. ] B67.

A pointed and outspoken Dutch reply to Tisehendorfs "When were our Gospels written?*' a -work, as is well known, written to prove the correctness of the orthodox view of the early origin of the Gospels. The German translator, Dr. Manchot, is a Bremen Pastor, and an earnest advocate oi* the new skeptical theology of the Protestant Unions. Of course he is cheek by jowl in sym- pathy with Dr. Scholten, whom he here makes to speak in Ger- man. Scholten, in his preface, aims to destroy Teschendorf's claim to any critical ability whatever, and repeats with great gusto the opinion of Volkmar of Zurich on Tischendorf, that "he is not only not the first man in the -whole of the learned world, but that he is a perfect stranger in it." The introduction is a continuation of similar language ; it is not only superfluous, how- ever, but worse. The following divisions furnish a clear idea of the scope of the work: 1. The ecclesiastical writers down to A. D. 170; 2. The heretics: 3. The ecclesiastical writers, canons, and translations, A. D. 170-200 ; 4. Traces of doubt on the apos- tolic origin of the fourth Gospel at the end of the second cen- tury ; 5. The Apocryphal Gospels and Pilate's Acta. The surprising conclusions at which Scholten arrives are, that there was no Canon of the Books of the New Testament before A. D. 200 ; that not a hook in the Old Testament was regarded as "Holy Scripture" before A. D. 170 or 175; that, down to the same time, if we except a few of Paul's Epistles and John's Rev- elation, no author was mentioned by name; that at the time of Papias (A. D. 125-140) oral tradition was much more highly respected than any written document; that it is very uncertain whether Papias, in his reference to Matthew and Marie, had in mind the same Gospels attributed to them which we have; that it is not clear that he had any acquaintance whatever with the third Gospel; that there is no sufficient proof for the existence of our three synoptical Gospels before the time of Justin Martyr; that Paul's writings were not used, or regard..,! with respect, by the prominent teachers of the Church until the middle of the second century ; and that there is no trace of John's Gospel, either in the writings of the principal ecclesiastical authors, or of the Gnostics, or of the first Montanists, until A. 1). 170! In fact, if we except a l'^v of Paul's Epistles and the Revelation of John, history has nothing to say on the whole of the New Tes-

464 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

tament, and the writings of the New Testament are not by the authors whoso names they bear. Without entering into Dr. Scholten's arguments in detail, we may say of bis method that it has this fatal defect : he infers from the silence of certain early writers on certain books of the New Testament that such books had no existence whatever. He seems to forget that their exist- ence was assumed as a matter of universal consent. The point of Teschendorf's excellent little work, to which this is a reply — that there is abundant external historical testimony from the last quarter of the first century in favor of the early origin of all the Gospels— still remains unrefuted. To all into whose hands this book may fall we commend a reperusal of the volume which has provoked it, and also of Hofstede de Groot's little volume on Basilides, as the first witness for the age and authority of the Nov/ Testament writings, and especially of John's Gospel.

Das Buck tier Richter. Mi; besouderer Riicksicht auf die Geschichte seiner Ausle- gung und Kirchlichcn Venvendung. (The Book of Judges. With special regard to the History of its Exposition and Ecclesiastical Application.) Yon Dr. Jo- hannes Bachm an. Svo., pp. vi, 2 12. Berlin : Wiegandt und Grieben. 1SG3.

This is the first elaborate attempt, since the works of Osiauder (Tubingen, 1GS2) and Sebastian Schmid, (Strasburg, 16S4,) to explain the Book of Judges from a decidedly ecclesiastical stand- point. Dr. Bachmann has therefore an essentially different ob- ject from Keil (18G3) and Paul Cassell, (lSGo,) as he does not confine himself strictly to an cxegetical interpretation of Judges, but bears in mind as well its historical, theological, and ecclesi- astical relations. He divides this first installment of his work into two parts, the first being an examination of the scope and extent of the period of the Judges, the position and importance of this period in the history of the Old Testament, the political ami religions condition of Israel during the Judges, and the chronol- ogy of the period. The second part begins with an introduction (pp. 77-8t3) to the commentary proper, in which the views of numerous exegetical writers on the dates and events described in Judges are carefully sifted. One of tin' mooted questions is 1 1 : <- exact date o( the events recounted in the first chapter of Judges. A number of Catholic expositors, and recently Hengstenberg, place all of them in the life-time of Joshua, Dr. Bachmann enters fully into this question, and decides that a portion of these events took place after Joshua's death. The most plausible ground which he gives is, that the general condition of the people in the

18G9.] Quarterly Book-Table. 465

first chapter of Judges is that of a people without a head. The commentary opens with a parallel between the beginnings of the Books of Joshua and Judges. The former commences with an account of the death of Moses, and the latter with one of Joshua. After the death of Moses the Lord speaks to Joshua, but after the death of Joshua the children of Israel inquire of the Lord. The beginning of Joshua refers to the essential equality of the period of Joshua with the Mosaic, of which it is a conclusion ; but in the beginning of Judges we find a broad chasm between the closing of one period and the dawn of the new one. In the former God continues his revelation uninterruptedly, but in the latter there is a period of quiescence, which calls out more strongly than ever the human activity of the people.

The work gives promise of being a valuable contribution to exegetical theology. We must withhold an opinion on it as a commentary until the other parts shall have made their appear- ance, for the present only takes us through the first three chap- ters of Judges. Of the publishers, Messrs. Wiegandt and Grie- ben, we cannot speak too highly. They publish an excellent class of works, and are one of the unhappily small class in Ger- many who will issue nothing but evangelical books. We wish all publishers had as much conscience in their acceptance of MSS. for publication.

History, Biograp7iyi and Topography.

Chips from a German WorksTioj). By Max MoLLElt, M. A., Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Vol. I, Essays on the Science of Religion. Vol. Tl. I on Mythology, Traditions, and Customs. 12mo. In two volumes, pp. 371, 402. New York: Charles Scribner & Co.

Some fourteen hundred years before the blessed Advent, near the epoch when Moses was leading forth the Exodus and com- posing the Pentateuch, the Aryan race, residing upon the table- lands east of the Caspian, were pouring forth those rhythmical compositions which formed both their psalm book and bible, and which have come down to the present age under the title oi^ the Rig- Veda. This fact has a stirring interest to us and the peoples of modern Europe; for these Aryans were kin with us, as sons of Japhet; and in fact this very word veda -akin with the Crock oida, and (by an interchange of v and w) with <"if, tcist, and <f.om— is radically an English word. This Rig- Veda or Song-tore^ in a racial point of view, is our bible; and, in placing ourselves under the guidance of the Hebrew canon, we are Japhet sitting

4CG Methodist Quarterly Review. {July.

in the tents of Shem, But Japhet, though physiologically far

the more manly race, is less intuitive and spiritual, and hence he was not chosen to be the official exponent of the Infinite, or the progenitor of the Incarnate. The Veda, though intensely interesting as the natural and simple utterance of the childhood of our race, and furnishing a few specimens of lofty and devout inspiration, is for the must part a mere mass of earthly and sec- ular twaddle, the prattle not only of childhood but of childish- ness. The body, of one thousand and twenty-eight songs, is not, like the Old Testament, impregnated with God, and it is only a rare exception that rises into companionship with the Psalms of David, or tells of immortality and retribution.

The Aryan had not yet produced that class of composition in which Japhet's genius has since shone so resplendently— accu- rate consecutive history, reproducing to the present the realities of the past. So that we know with little distinctness when it was that the Aryan adjourned from his first known abode into India. Xor can we trace how, from the primitive simplicity of the Yedie theology, there arose, under the name of Brahmanism, the most iron hierarchy the world has ever known. Talk of American slavery ris caste; talk of feudalism, papacy, any thing elsewhere in history ! These were all democracies compared with this most intensified gradation of despotisms. Underneath the whole structure, of course, lay the luckless " colored man," not only as " nigger *' but as reptile and devil ; against whom hatred most diabolical was a divine duty, and imprecations were chanted as divinely inspired.

At length against this despotism a protest arose. More than five hundred years before Christ, Sakya-Muni, a beautiful young prince of India, was from his childhood endowed with a won- derful insight into the perfect unreality of earthly things. Prince- dom, power, beauty, wealth, he saw to be, as they are, momentary, shadowy, vanishing, nothing. And that same powerfully intui- tive eye that so vividly knew this nothing, sought, with earnest- ness and ceaseless unrest, for the Reality. It perpetually asked that solemn question, put by a brother Aryan, in a later aj the divine Shcmite, What is trutii? Six years In1 subjected himself undo- the iron ritualism of the Brahmans, and decided that ritualism could not disclose the divine secret, lie resorted to the severest fastings, but found that though mortifications could subdue the passions and clarify the intellect they could disclose no revelation. At length the day came. It was n |f that, like Wesley, his "heart was strangely warmed" by the

1869.] Quarterly Book-Table. 467

divine fire, but his head was illumined by the divine light, and his eye looked straight upon Truth, and saw it ! ! Thereby, no longer a doubter, an inquirer, he became a Buddha, a boder or hnower / for here, too, we have an English word, bode, (as in fore- Jo^,) but in the stronger sense of know, lie sprang forth — a preacher; fascinating and eloquent, unsurpassed by anyWhitefield or Summerlield, gathering crowds of hearers, thousands of fol- lowers, menacing Brahmanism with overthrow, and promising to become the sole apostle and prophet of India. After having yielded for long years, Brahmanism at last made an overwhelming rally, and drove Buddhism from India, to spread over Eastern Asia, winning and partially elevating one third of the human race.

The doctrines which so magnetized and still entrance these millions recognize no supreme personal God of all, and as the highest boon for the most perfect piety promise the attainment of — annihilation ! The Buddha, Sakya-Muni, saw a universal fatalistic system in existence, ruled with a most complex system of necessary laws. In that system all phenomenal existence was synonymous with misery, and release from existence was the highest attainment. Why not then commit suicide? Alas, that would produce only a change, not a termination of being — a leap from the frying-pan into the tire. For then we should only trans- migrate, through various animal forms, during the ages, our moral imperfections producing bodily deformities and degrada- tions. The only escape was Nirvana — the blowing out, as of a candle. Yet whether the Buddha really taught actual annihila- tion is a greatly debated query among the Sanscrit masters. Max 3Iuller takes the affirmative; hut also maintains that his 'disciples, unable to endure the awful dogma, subsequently trans- lated Nirvana into blissful quietude. The truth may be, that as Herbert Spencer maintains that his Unknown Absolute po not intelligence, but may possess some inconceivable attribute infinitely superior to intelligence, so Nirvana may utterly exclude existence, but include an inconceivable something infinitely supe- rior to existence! But as it toot the enlightened eye of Buddha himself to cognize this Nirvana, probably no human language could convey it to ordinary mortal conception. It is vain then to discuss; no one can understand Nirvana until he attains the Buddhic eye and sees it.

Even in the primitive ages, before the Aryans migrated from their northern home, there arose the sect of Zarathrusta or Zoro- aster, Avho aspired to a lofter theism and a more spiritual religion than was taught by the Vedio faith. They too can be tra©

40 S Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

descending into India, and thence moving eastward into Persia, where they became the predominant, sect. They separated from the primitive stock later than the sections M'ho migrated west- ward to form the future natioirs of Europe, whose sons we are ; for their language, the Zend, is a nearer sister of the Sanscrit than any European tongue. These spiritual religionists were severely orthodox, for they use the names of the Vedic gods to designate their devils. Their sacred canon, the Zend Avesta, is still extant in a form more or less authentic, containing the doctrines of the Zoroastrians, though not the. work of Zoroaster. The fancy of the Aryan was ever fascinated with the element of Light, and thence the Zoroastrian held it, in the form of flame and fire, to be the emblem and essence of the good and the divine, in profound con- trast with Darkness, the identical of evil. And this duality is the very soul of the ancient Persian heathendom.

Fifty years ago not a line of the vast literature embraced in the sacred books of the Brahmans, the Buddhists, and the Zoroastri- ans, the three great Aryan religions, could be read by any Euro- pean scholar. The learned Frenchman, Eugene Burnouf, was the founder of the Zend philology. In 1846 a young German at- tended the lectures of Burnouf, and was fired with the ambition to make it his life-task to strike to the fountain head, and trans- late the entire Rig- Veda; a work requiring a stupendous amount of study, labor, and expense, to result in six thousand pages of quarto, of which not a hundred copies were likely to be sold. Coming to London, by the mediation of Chevalier Bunsen, the Board of Directors of the East India Company nobly under- took to defray the expense, and our young German, Max Muller, set himself to work. Four volumes were completed in 1862. " Now," said Bunsen to the young laborer, " you have got a work for life. But mind, let us have from time to time some chips from your workshop." These volumes, sent us by our friend Scribner, are the result of these occasional furnishings; and two baskets full of more nutritious "chips" it has seldom been our lot to nibble.

The Vedas, though almost adored by the Brahman and his ad- herents, as embodying the divine mind and insuring salvation to those who study them, have been seldom found in India, and arc generally unread even by the priest who found their authority upon them. It is ■.< wonder t<< the Hindoos themselves that their sacred books, their sole absolute authority in religion, are better understood on the Thames than by the (binges. The western Japhet is altogether ahead of his eastern brother. The pcopl<

18G9.] Quarterly Book-Table. 409

mutter the Vedic hymns by pure unintelligent rote, while the

listening European scholar alone recognizes the sacred syllables of three thousand years ago. And, what is mora to the point, the missionary, like Luther, is able to appeal to the sacred text in condemnation of the present tenets and practices of the Church. He has amazed the pundits by showing thai neither caste, nor prohibition of second femalen arriages, nor widow-burning, have, even by their own standard, any divine authority.

Max Miiller studies and writes of philology as a handmaid to what he considers the most important of all histories, the history of religion in all its forms throughout the human race. In accord- ance with the views of our best Anninian doctors, Episcopius, Curcellaeus, Wesley, and Fletcher, he holds that elements of truth pervade the world, and that every probationary being has his light and his possibility of salvation. Of his erudition, his eloquence, and his noble spirit we have spoken fully and freely in former notices. These qualities make their full display in these fascinat- ing pages. _______

Prehistoric Notions ; or, Inquiries Concerning some of the Croat Peoples and Civil- izations of Antiquity, and their Probable Relation to a still Older Civilization of the Ethiopians or Cushites of Arabia. l)y John D. Baldwin, A. M. TJiuo., pp. -11 •£. New York: Harper & Brothers. lSC'j.

Mr. Baldwin belongs not to the Xiebuhr school of historical criticism, but to the grandest order of the Bunsen chronologists. Rejecting with disdain the Darv iuian deduction of humanity from moukeydom, he nevertheless accepts the theory of human develop- ment through the longest, geological ages; ages, however, not so much of dreary anthropoid degradation as of lengthened and magnificent civilization. ]]<■ is cheerful and genial in temper. The only creature he utterly hates and expectorates upon is the "impious" race of Biblical' commentators, who mendaciously protend that there is any chronology whatever in the sacred text. Having exterminated this vile species of ccphalopods, with all their chronological romances, he has no issuo with the Bible ov r< li ami utters not one irreverent word thai we have found of either. Having overleaped these narrow and factitious limits, he springs forth, like a wing footed steed, ramping over the vasl and magnifi- cent expanse of historical eternities, lie measures you oft" and :eons with all tin- facility of a dry goods clerk, knowing that he has the amplesl resources behind him.

His method may be illustrated by the instance of Egypt. The monuments verified by Manetho carry us vast ages beyond the

Fourth Series, Vol. XXL— SO

470 Methodist Quarterly Rem [July,

Ushcrian epoch of creation. But the first monuments demonstrate a proud civilization, requiring antecedent ages of development since the historical cities of Egypt were founded. But these historical cities are based upon the surface of an alluvium which has required long geological ages to deposit; and these deposits, when perfo- rated, reveal proofs of civilized inhabitants down to the very bottom of the series of alluvial layers. There need, therefore, be no minute quarrel between the Hebrew and Septuagint chronolo- gies. Egypt has been humanly inhabited during the large share of the tertiary period. And this process of calculation can be repeated with variations upon most sections of the globe. He can run us back through the historical period ; then back through the mythological period, which, however nebulous, 'is still the shadow of true history; and finish off with the iron, brass, and stone ages of geological man.

Your Bible Dictionary will tell you that Tyre is one of the most ancient cities of the world. But Mr. Baldwin will further tell you how little aware these dictionary gentlemen are that before Tyre was born Sidon had had ages of growth, ages of zenith, and ages of decline. Then bach of Sidon, Berytus, the modern Beyroot, had its threefold ages. And back of Berytus was the old dynasty of Joppa, whose king was Kepheus, the grandfather of ages.

And these Phoenicians were a part of that great vEthiopic or Ctishite race, which is Mr. Baldwin's special favorite, the flower and glory of the prehistoric ages. This illustrious progeny, be sure, are no negroes — though Mr. Baldwin launches a lightning fork at all defenders of slavery — but of a stately ruddy race. And the term JEthiop does not. signify burnt face, (as Mr. Blyden lately told our readers,) but bright face, and indicates the true Caucasian bloom. The genetic center of these, glorious Cushites was Central Arabia; but thence they spread, and covering the large share of the globe, left the magnificent monuments of their genius and power in those stupendous architectures that have been the uniinilated problems and wonders of all historic ages. These architectures have lately been disclosed l>\ Mr. Palgrave,as noM standing in solitary state in Central Arabia; a region, until his visit, supposed to have been a blank desert. Bui they are known in Greece as Cyclopean; in Ceylon, in Syria, in Egypt; and in Britain as the Stouehenge. Sometimes we have magnificenl tem- ples carved, as Canova carved a statue, from the single Bolid rock. Sometimes they are gigantic nms.-es of rock, piled up into structures by machines unknown to modern art. Of all tl

1869.] Quarterly Booh-Talle. 471

history famishes no record; and they bear tokens of existence earlier than any historic commencement.

Antiquity appears to have begun Long after their primeval race was run.

And now, what can the commentators (for Ave belong, alas ! to that irredeemable race) say to all these disclosures? Or, how have we the heart to disperse to the winds Mr. Baldwin's ara- besque air-castles? Above all, how could we, with relentless steel pen and slaughterous ink-shed, endure to exterminate this won- derful race of prehistoric white-faced ^Ethiopians? Our compunc- tions are, indeed, somewhat soothed by the apparent possibilities that they never had any existence; and that after all, the only really used-up man might be Mr. Baldwin, who seems to be the actual Adam in whom this whole race is seminally concentrated, and in whom they must live or die.

If any patient of our.'-, however, were bitten by Mr. Baldwin's theory, and the virus were taking dangerously, we might, i'ov the nonce, pursue the following treat mi Tit : First, for the primary geo- logical paroxysm a i^w of Dr. Jewell's an ti- geological pills, :m in- stallment of which was done up in a late number of our Quar- terly. For the mythological stage we would give a few doses of Max Miiller's philological analyses, showing how easily whole groups of myths have been formed out of etymologies and meta- phors. As for the Egyptological period, Sir Cornwall Lewis might furnish a few febrifuges. As to the dim twilight of written semi- history a little more Max ; forinstance, the following prescription :

To extract consecutive history from these re-collect ions is simplyi mpos All is vague, contradictory, miraculous, al< u J. C

of which few only of the anci had any oouception.

Nov.- and then, it is true, one ira 'S certain periods and landn

but in the next pago all is chaos again. Itmaybodiffi 9 that with all

the traditions of thi earlj migrations of C Tops and Danaus into Gr& Homeric poems of the Trojan War. aud the gem aucient dynas

Greece, we know nothing of Greek history before the i even then. Y(t Ote t

of this ,.

T'ne same applies with a force increased a buudrcdfi the aboriginal races of America, and I '1 the better

for the credit of American scholars. Rv the trad Lions of I

Ghichimu: - which form t;. . American am

rians, are no better than I

an(j ;■- ;. ■/ i .■ . ., waste of time to construct out of history

And as for the extent of real human history, which a healthy belief, tempered with a healthy skepticism, can accept, take the following dose of B writer perfectly familiar with all the most

472 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

modern developments from the various ancient inscription.?, Dr. George Rawlinson :

On the whole, it would seem that no profane history of an authentic chai mounts up to an earlier date than the twenty-seventh or twenty-eighth century before Christ. Egyptian history begins about B. C. 2700 ; Chinese, perhaps, in B.C. 2637; Babylonian B.C. 245S; Assyrian in B. C. 1273; Greek, with the Tro- jan War. B.C. 1250, or, perhaps with Hercules, a century earlier: Lydian in B. C. 1229; Phoenician ab >ut the same peri >d; Carthaginian in L. C. 880; Macedonian about B. 0. 720 ; Median not befor IS. C. 70S; Roman i the middle of the same century; Persian in B. ('. 558; tndian about B. 0. 350; Mexican and Peruvian not until after our era. The oldest human constructions remaining upon the earth pve the Pyramids, and these dale fn m about B. C. L' : 0 0 : the brick tem] Babylonia seem, none of them, earlier than B. V. 2300; B. C. 2000 would be a high date for the first Cyclopean walls iu Greece- or Italy ; the earliest rock inscriptions belong to nearly the same period. If man has existed upon the earth ten or twenty thousand years, as M. Bunsen supposes, why has lie left no ~\ of himself till within the last live thousand years? *

We do not say that these furnish the last words on this sub- ject. Religion and history can calmly wait the most ultimate researches. We may, perhaps, bequeath the discussion to investi- gators yet unborn. Yet we can afford to feel that the conclusion will leave the foundations of a devout religious faith undisturbed. And so, for aught we know, thinks Mr. Baldwin.

Literature emcl Fiction.

The Gates Ajar. By Elizabeth Stuart Phelps. 16mo., pp. 24.8. Boston: Fields, Osgood, £ Co.

Are we to be fitted fur the future heaven, or is the future heaven to be precisely adjusted to us? Smitten by the sudden loss of her beloved brother Roy, -Mis. Phelps seems to require that God, upon penalty of forfeiting Ins character for goodness, restore hi)/) to lur pure human affections, and will not consent to be so reconstructed as to become supremely blessed on a higher than the sisterly plane. Heaven must be suited to he); am) to her present mood ; not. site to a transcendent sphere, and far more glorious moods. She writes this beautiful parable to show that heaven is the renewal of our present, feelings, with their due gratifications, in a more perfect state. There will be the jest and the laugh, the arts and the graces, the fields and the houses, with all the tender related affec- tions, with their more perfect gratifications.

♦The "lent weapons hi the drift," and Mr. Horner1 ottory, will be

said to he such vestiges. But the extremely doubtful i h< ;

well shown bv the " Quarterly ltaviow," (No. 210, ]

former as ovi'dence of extreme human nntiquity inusi depend en two qui neither of which has yet been solved. 1. Axe thoy of tl tion in which they are found? and 2. Is that formation itself of an ontiqoi remote? It has Leen clearly shown by a writcrin " Blackwood's M i ,;

MO, pp. 422-439,) that the high antiquity of the drift is at anj rate " not proven.

1869.] Quarterly Book-Table. 473

How all this can be fully carried out she Tails to show. Grant that her brother will be restored to her. But Tor that saintly widow of a depraved husband and mother oT live depraved children de- ceased, what comfort has this parable ? All the fibers of her human affections tie Iter to the children of sin and hell. For her we must furnish either Universal isni, or the doctrine of a substitution of higher affections than belonged to her earthly relationships. And how many of* us are there whose affections of marriage or con- sanguinity would. not demand the admission oT some one of the finally wicked into heaven ?

Mrs. Phelps seems to evade these difficulties, and triumphantly flaunts her brilliant heresies into the face of her village Church, frightening the Deacon and getting preached at by the Minister, so as to raise a very lively ferment in the little flock of orthodoxy. It is even asserted in the advertisements that her book is under the orthodox ban, and so is glorified with the honors, not only of heterodoxy, but of virtual martyrdom. This clever play-off of heresy and martyrdom, however, is all a skillful Yankee device. Mrs. Phelps has slyly inserted in the very center of her book a proviso which amply saves its orthodoxy by solving the mysteries of her parable. For what is the meaning of these palaces, and parlors, and pianos, and pictures, and poetries, and puns in heaven? "I don't suppose (p. 144) that the houses will be made, of oak and pine nailed together, Tor instance. But I hope Tor heavenly types of nature and art. Something that will be to its what these are now? O that is it, then; in the author's own italics. So that, after all, all she means is, thai a higher Roy may come to her higher affections. Now had Mrs. P. frankly told the Deacon and the Minister this, she would have saved them from their horrors ; but her book would have lost perhaps some notoriety, and have gone into a very quiet public acceptance as a beautiful but not perfectly consistent apologue.

Yet we thank Mrs. P. i'^r thus tenderly impressing upon us the feeling that we arc Mil! to be human in heaven. We have in- herited from our Methodist fathers a human Jesus, a human heav- en, a humanized religion. We thank Mrs. Phelps for illustrating to the popular feeling how beautifully the human heart demands the Divine-human now and forever. Our Puritan friends might have learned this mellow humanenc - of piety, if not from \\ esle) , a! least from Whitefield. Mr. Wakeley, in his Wesloy Anecdotes, (uoticed on another page) tells the story in effect as follows: A narrow- hearted Calvinist asked Mr. Whitefield if ho expected ever I John Wesley in heaven. Yes, replied the great-hearted Calvinist,

4:74: Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

unless lie is so near the throne that I cannot get sight of him. We cannot, therefore, conoede to Mrs. P. any consistent claim to het- erodoxy. We do not allow her the penalty she inflicts on Dr. Bland's sermon.

My Recollections of Lord Byron, and those of the Eye-witnesses of his Life. By the Countess Gdiccioli. l2mo., pp. 670. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1869.

To Byron neither the literary nor religious world has done any injustice. His rare gifts, his noble birth, his disastrous career, are all understood. His imperial ideality, his exquisite sense and power of painting even moral beauty, the unaffected sadness that he breathes through the productions of his genius, who does not feel ':' We place him in the first rank of English poets. But then can genius, with till its gifts and fascinations, reverse the eternal laws of truth and righteousness? The last sad fact in the history of his moral being is this: that the defender of his Christian and consci- entious character is the Italian woman with whom he lived years of adultery.

Periodicals.

Annual Report of fke Boston Theological Seminary, 1SG0. Riverside Press. 1SC9. Catalogue and Circular of the Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston. Illinois. October, • 1SGS. Chicago. 1868.

Catalogue of ike Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J., 1SG9. It is a significant fact, that as soon as a number of eminent lay- men came into council on the subject there was a very hearty con- currence in the policy of establishing schools of Christian learning for the educating of our future ministry. On this subject we ever believed that our people was quite abreast with, if not ahead of, our ministry. Our hearers were not much better satisfied with our extant preaching than the preachers themselves. Still, it is with earnest solicitude that our ministry and laity reflect on the fact that we are making anew the experiment whether a scholarly ministry can be a truly stirring popular ministry. "We cannot, indeed, do our part in resisting the incoming tide of scholarly infidelity without furnishing the means of the highest religious and theological scholar- ship. We musi haven class of profound Christian scholars as writ- ers and professors. But scholastici m in the pulpit i< forever feeble and unpopular. An over-drilled and thoroughly manufactured min- istry lose9 its popular power. Even our most intelligent people always will prefer an untrained yet gifted preacher, warm with his first love, in whom religion is a reality and a power, rather

1809.] Quarterly Book-Table. -175

than a titled B.D. or D.I). with whom it is a profound ab- straction and a most accurate science. It is a ruinous bargain if, for theological erudition, we barter away our popular power. We had better transform our theological schools into orphan asylums.

There are, we think, against this result, three important precau- tions, well realized by our present professors. The first is, the cultivation of the. highest tone of piety; the second is, the engaging in the active work of the ministry during the course; and the third is, the uncompromising maintenance of the preaching, as a lawyer pleads and a senator harangues, without manuscript. On the first point our earnest doctrine of entire consecration should rule, as we believe it does, in our seminaries in supreme practical and revival power. On the second point, a great advantage it is that our seminaries be really or virtually, as we believe that of Boston is, in the heart of a great city, where the active, popular work of exhorting, preaching, and revivals shall both keep the soul alive and spread the ruling power of the institution over the city. Heathen missioning, a plenty of it, might be found a few blocks from the seminary halls. On the third point, particularly empha- sized at the Drew, the example and precept of all our princes ::i Israel, our bishops, our professors, and our eminent doctors, should be exclusively, as it is mainly, on the side of extemporaneous preaching.

"We cannot quite agree with those who would abolish those titles of reverence which ever seemed to us so becoming to many past great men of the Christian Church. The prefixes which the Christian ages have furnished to even our ordinary names are, we take it, not a sign of servility, but of benign courtesy. When Christ verbally forbade the title of Rabbi, and Master, and Father, he did not forbid the mere prefix syllables, nor the courtesy express in modem days, but that subjection oi' the sold to the dicta of those absolute dogmatists who overruled reason and truth, by which Jewish tradition excluded Christianity, li it was the mere literal epithet that Christ forbade, then the Boston student must refuse to address hi-; chief teacher as Dr. Warren, or Pro! Warren, or Rev. Warren, or even Mr. [master] Warren, bul blankly as Warren. But who can suppose thai our Lord gave a precept requiring this mere adoption of the old Uoman in | ence to the modern style of address? It is t" din j contempt upon Jesus to charge him with so puerile an ethic Km. wing as wo did not only the high-toned scholarship of Dr. Warren, hut his 1 iigh- toned love of scholarly forms, and predilection for making

4:70 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

scholarly impression, we would not have predicted the abnegation of this custom in that quarter.

i Both the eastern seminaries have drawn forth the charl outlines oi'a University. We coincide with those who view with profound regret the multiplication of nominal universities, to the manifest depreciation of all higher education. This de] becomes all the more disparaging from the fact that genuine can universities are looming up in stupendous proportions, flinging us by the comparison into a still more pitiable background. The policy of encouraging every academy to start, up into a noi university, mid of scattering small pocket colleges broadcast over the country, is disobedience to the pronounced voice of the Church, a disgrace to her character, a waste of her resource?, and treason to her best interests. If, indeed, some enthusiastic and munificent patron, or number of patrons, were ready, like Cornell, with liberal heart and purse, at once, and durii living years, to endow

and rear a university forthwith' to vie with the tallest of the land, he might put it just where he pleased, and we would consent that half a dozen small affairs should repose under its shadow. And the fact that educational rationalism, a separation of higher <. ;. tion from religion, with a verging toward Atheism, promises to reign in institutions like old Harvard and young Cornell empha- sises the call for a Methi disl university of the highest grade But an institution with less than a million endowment, yet plastered with the name University, is in danger of soon feeling oppr« by the title it bears.

The criticism upon the terms. Halieutics and KerykHcs, terms im- ported from Germany, have not been of the most intelligent kind, and yet are not without their basis. The German technics, intro- duced during the last thirty years, are no improvement to our lan- guage. They aie clumsy, crowd out appropriate native terms, and come in with bad associations. It is not pleasant to learn Christian defenses arc all .,;/ logetic, and Christian truths are all dogmatic, and Christiai i ts are all polemic; that the ) hil • -

ophy of common ' ft Z, and that the higher philosophy

is barely rational. And as t<> that "word of learned length and thundering sound," soterioloyical, with a body as long as an ana- conda's, we would like t" take it by tin- tail and fling it back i<- Germany. Many technics, therefore, even authorized !>_>• German extraction, arc very undesirable accessions.

Laying out, of pr< i til account our two humble institutes for the Southern freedraen's benefit, we have reason for great gratulation at the. aspect presented by our three noble Theological 5

1869.] - Quarterly BookTable. 477

They arc no supposititious affairs. The ripest scholarship of the Church, the best practical ability, the most untiring industry, the worthiest and purest ambition to aid the Church in acquiring a learned, fervent, working ministry, are concentrated at these three foci. Our young ministry will increasingly realize their value, and, aided by an increasing liberality, will gather in larger number to their halls. The Church gives the faculties her fullest confidence ; and her prayer and trust is, that their great problem will he con- scientiously and successfully wrought.

Juven ile.

We have received from Hitchcock & Walden the following Five Series in red and gold :

Ebme Circle Library: Series I. Beginning Life; Living in Earnest; Counsel to

Converts: Yoiing Man's Counselor; Successful Merchant Series II. Young Lady's Counselor; Path of Life; Friends in Heaven; Early

Choice. Series III. Village Blacksmith ; Heavenly "World ; Hester Ann Rogers; Sketches

for the Young: Memoirs of Cavvosso; Sketches and Incidents. Series IV. Sketches of Pioneer History; Pea Ridge and Prairie Grove; Diary of

a Country Pastor; Jottings from Life. Series V. Wesley and his Coadjutors; Asbury and his Coadjutors.

From Perkinpine & Higgins the following: My Bible Class. With an Essay on Bible-Class Teaching. By a Scripture Teacher.

2-imo., pp.'lTT. Philadelphia; Perkinpine & Higgins. Rays from the Sun: or, Twelve Lectures from the Bible, for Children and their ■ Teachers. By S. G. GUEEX. 2-lmu, pp. 160. Philadelphia: Perkinpine &

Higgins. Crumbs from the Bread of Life ; or, Twelve Lectures, illustrating for Children the

Leading Points of Evangelical Doctrina liy S. CI. Green. 2-lmo., pp. 153.

Philadelphia: Perkinpine & Higgins. Bible Portraits; or, Nine short Addresses to Children. With Sugj

Teachers and Preachers of tho Children's Church. By S. G. Greex. 24mo.,

pp. 1SG. Philadelphia: Perkinpine & Uig ins.

Pamphlets.

Woman as God made her; The True Woman. V^y Rev. J. D. Fulton, ofTremont Temple. To which is added, Woman vs. Ballot. 24mo.,pp. 48. Bostoi I Sbepard. 1869. Mr. Fulton is generally a graceful writer and an eloquent speaker, with his heart ou the right side, and we trust a noble future be- fore him. His arguments, however, upon female suffrage, such as that its advocates are generally infidel, are rather ad captandum than logical. We had supposed thai in the Baptist Church female suffrage had long been a right, safely and properly exercised. He overlooks the fact thai our Methodisl General Conference, by a large majority, gave to females the ballot on one of our mosl funda- mental constitutional questions.

478 Methodist Quarterly Review, [July

We would stoggest to Mr. Fulton that there is no such English word as helpmeet. We are, moreover, sony to find him Baying " We have never supposed it the imperative duty of every man to vole. Andweknowthal many of the most intelligent and upright do not vote." The man who claims to be upright and refuses to vote falsifies his claim. He surrenders our nation over to the ride of the wicked, and is a traitor to his country and his God. He is responsible for all the " nastiness," etc., which Mr. Fulton ascribes to our elections, and which the presence of woman might purify.

Mr. Fulton says, but does not prove, that "the right to vote im- plies the right to rule, and to take the presidential chair." lie might as well say that the right to refuse an offered husband implied the right to select her man. A woman, even if she never ought to rule, ought to have some voice in the selection of her public as of her domestic " lord." Mr. Fulton has no gift for making a watch; but he would perhaps claim some right to choose his own watchmaker. St. Paul probably tolerated the four daughters of his friend Philip at Caesarea, who weve proplietesses ; and also his friend Pha-be, of Pome, who was a deaconess ; and yet he suffered not a woman to teach amid the wrangling contests of the synagogue, nor to usurp authority; nor have we in the Xew Testament any official eldress or bisho2>ess. And all these distinctions are quite as nice as the difference between voting for a ruler and being elected to rule.

We neither fear, expect, or desire to see woman filling high mil- itary, civil, or ecclesiastical office, for which she is in the general physiologically and psychologically unfitted. Offices under gov- ernment requiring a dexterous tact in management she may dis- charge, not posts of authority requiring bold statesmanship. But a vote is a quiet exercise of a humble privilege, partaking as much of the nature of a petition as vf a mandate. Puling ability is a specialty; its possessor is selected on principles of particular expe- diency j voting is a rightful universality, appertaining to all v ' destinies are at stake, and are competent to act.

We have for many years f< It it our most solemn duty, having for self and descendants a deep interest in the welfare of our country, to ^o to the polls and deposit our vote. We should do so for ex- ample to others, even if we gave a blank vote. We have not found atthe polls thai "nastiness "of which Mr. Ful ton speaks. We have passed through Xew York city on the most important election days, and, save thai the ordinary business of life went on, il usually been as quiet as a Sabbath, 'flu' voting room has. indeed, been of the plainest order. This bare plainness i*- doubtless the result of the fact that men of false refinement leave the polls under

1869.] Quarterly Bool- -Talk. 479

tlic care of the coarser part of community. If wc were all expect- ing that our wive? and daughters would he present to lake share they would, doubtless, be improved in style. And then what impropriety or immodesty there could be in the most refined lady's walking forward and depositing a paper ballot in a box sur] • our perspicacity to discover. She could do it as gracefully, as femininely, as '■lie uowpresidi •• : t our domestic boards, or stands in a quartette at church, or electrifies the house from the stage like a Siddons or a Jenny Lind.

Miscellaneous.

A Half Century wWi -1 ' '• J' '<' ts; or, The New York House of Refu« its Times. By B. K. Peirce, D. D., Chaplain of the New York House of 13 Svo., pp. 381." New York: Appleton & Co. 1869.

It was about fifty years ago that James W. Gerard, a young lawyer of New York, having defended a young culprit really g of larceny, was led to reflect on the awful dilemma in which hi< little client, with a large class of similar cases, was involved. If acquitted, as he really was, he was likely, as he really did, to be- come emboldened by impunity, to engage in a career of crime; if condemned, he was associated with criminals in prison of the hardest depravity and became equally hardened. Mr. Gerard was already associated with a body of men whose, names are enrolled in the records of New York- philanthropy in a Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, and he brought before that body a report upon the subject, of juvenile reform which his family preserve as a permanent memento of a great fact. The Society- gradually entered upon the enterprise of constructing an institution in which, should be blended in due proportions the elements of prison, fam- ilv school, work-house, and church, all which elements were to co-operate for a reconstruction of the juvenile character.

Vjy favor of Congress they purchased, at a reduced sum, the Na- tional Arsenal at the fork of the Bloomingdale and old Boston Pos( roads and so refitting it as to accommodate a large numl pants placed the establishmi til under a wise superintendence, and made, a most successful experiment. Entirely apart from politics, the men who wereengagedin the enterprise, attracted by no selfish ends but inspired \vjtli an unpaid philanthropy, were purely self- selected and were of the true elect. In due time the pop extending up town, and streets threatening to grounds, our institute, like Daniel Boone, was compelled lo relive in a place remote from encroaching civilization, and th •

480 Methodist Quarterly Iteviclo. [July,

spot they abandoned became a centre of social splendor, tbe resi- dence of " Flora M'Flimsey of Madison Square." They obtained

possession of the hospital called Bellevue, looking down upon the East River, but the same overflow of population compelled another move. Our institute at last took flight beyond Hell Gate, and landed on an elysian isle — transformed from crude nature by the hand of art into elysian — in the East River, Randall's Island, where it stands forever a prison yet a palace.

Dr. Peirce says :

Few sites are more chai ming now than the noble buildings, surrounded with their handsomely-arranged grounds and fruitful gardens— a very happy .- work upon which the Socictj for half a century has been engaged. 1 have been recovered from stony wastes, and from low and unwholesoi and are now both beautiful and useful. The inmates of her houses have often the hardi si and m »sl i nproinising children of the land, taken from the 1 haunts, and themselves noxi s of tbe community. Many

now an honor to her culture, and to the Statu that has generously offered the means both for the physical and moral changes which have been wrought out here.

Apart from the benevolent tenor of his topic, Dr. Pence's pages are fascinating a* a romance. The volume present- a beautiful advance of successful history; it abounds with portraitures of noble character, men memorable in our best Xew York history, and it is interspersed with anecdotes so blending humor and pathos as to compel at once the laugh and the tear. The institute, by its pure benevolent character, and the most scrupulous wisdom of its management, .has won the heart wherever it has approached. Men Mho have not the spirit to enter the enterprise And the soft side of their nature touched when it comes in contact with them. When it cctaes into courl the stern judge flings all the presump- tions of law into its favor; and when its prerogatives are in question, successive Statu governors of different parties screw their own powers to the narrowest dimensions to give it a wide berth. Above all, it is exempt from that fearful anomaly that threateus the ruin of our republic, the appointment of i:s officer . not for their moral fitness, but for their services to a political party.

With the history of this institute Dr. Pcircehas happily bl< notices of cognate philanthropic efforl from the time thai Howard was inspired to start upon his divine mi- ion to the presenl d as to render ii a true manual of humanitarianism. And it is a hu- manitarianism of a sort, silent, dewy nature. It stands in 1 ful, modest contrast to that fierce and fiery humanitarianism be- queathed us by the terrible yet necessary antislavery battle, which now "raves, recites, and maddens through the land," costing nothing but vociferation, unpacking itself in satires and iuvectives, and

1809.] Quarterly Book-Table. 481

leaving us in doubt whether the philanthropy is any thing more

than a cloak for the infidelity. The volume opens histories and expands views into which it becomes every Christian minister to enter. And we could wish that the hook could he so abridged, by omission of its appendix and other less necessary parts, as to furnish a very cheap edition for wide spread circulation.*

27-f Symldism of Free-Mi iso nry : Illustrating and Explainii ..• Philosophy, its Legends, Myths, and Symbols. By Albert Macket, Author of "Lexicon of Freemasonry," "Text-J etc., etc. 1 1 mo., pp. 3 CI. New York : Clark & Maynard. L869.

The profoundest secret in masonry — one, indeed, unknown to : — is the origin of its own existence. Its claim of descent from the Ancient Mysteries, or from any of the esoteric institutes of an- tiquity, is, of course, transparent " bunkum.*' There, however, is no doubt that Sir Christopher Wren was grand master of an i ciation of which the present body is a descendant. And W association was probably slenderly connected with the associ: of architects which existed in the Middle Ages, by whose genins and labor the grand piles of Christian antiquity were erected. To these associations of artisans the highest dignitaries of Church and State were connected in an honorary way, so that in those ages it possessed both a manual and an intellectual era members. Gradually it lost its actual connection with the man- ual trade, and became purely a theoretical institute, a mutual-aid society.

No sensible man supposes ihis association to possess any heritage of profound truth unknown to the rest of the \ Taking for its fundamental principles the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, i! seeks to impress by signifi symbols the lessons of a perfect morality upon the mind, and to require its average practice in its members ; so that, without deny- ing a revelation, it is a sort of human Church of natural rcii.

* Tie "Princeton Iteviow" thus \. ry justly charai I long experie f Dr. Peii intii

House of E

pursued there •. and of the comparative i

bin qualifications i '

whieb he :' much of the

rej ... •

ing ; the views pn along with the ■ airable slruci i

where; the summation of Lh< es, and judicial dech

of points that have em< rged in the d tvelopment of this grcal eharil othi r valuable matter, render tliis work an important aid in th - the more difficult questions in aoci log; and < stian philantbi

482 Methodist Quarterly Review. [July,

The immense number of its members "who arc too vase not to understand what is right, and too just to flagrantly violate it, seems a voucher that it contains nothing atrociously wicked. We could never see any need, certainly, of its binding iis members l>y ferocious oaths to keep its secrets, for it has no immutable secrets to keep. The secrets revealed to-day could be substituted by new-made secrets to-morrow. Ceremonials, trappings, symbols, and signs are pretty much all of secrets it can possess; and these, with its showy externals to impress the popular imagination, and its mutual aids and general benev- olences'and morals, are all there is to it. "Without advising any young man to join a " secret society," and recognizing the liability of every permanent organization to he abused to wrong ends, we see no reason to doubt that as a whole masonry is a beneficent institution.

Dr. Mackey seems at the present time to be the great expositor of Masonry. He writes in a clear, terse, ringing style. For both the outsiders and the insiders this, and a catalogue of masonic books by the same author and publishers, are doubtless standard instructors.

Twenty-Fourth Annual Report of the Executive Committee of the Prison Asi i a- turn of New Tori; and Accompanying Documents, for 1868. Argus Company. Printers, Albany, X. Y.

In our July number for last year the question of the reformation of criminals in our penal institutions was considered, and refer- ence was made to the very valuable contribution of Doctors Wines and Dwiglit to the material facts and principles involved in the solution of this problem in their volume entitled "Prisons and Reformatories in the United States and Canada," prepared at the instance of the Prison Association. This Association, of which Dr. E. C. "Wines is the Corresponding Secretary, has now issued a volume of even greater value in the form of its twenty- fourth annual report. From the cultivated pen of its able Secre- tary, from the highest authorities upon the subjects discussed m England, France, Denmark, and Russia, and from the most intelligent wardens of prisons mid practical writers in our own country, papers have heen collected in this volume bearing upon all the related questions of prison discipline, the recovery of criminals from a life of crime, and the reformation of juvenile delinquents. It forms an octavo volume of nearly seven hundred pages, and is a thesaurus of information upon these topics unsur- passed by any American or European treatise. There is a gen-

1869.] Quarterly Book-Table. 4S3

eral conviction among students in social science that the period has been reached for some radical changes in the administration of criminal law, and for more positive measures to secure the recovery as well as the punishment of those who havehecome the foes of society by entering upon a life of crime. In almost every civilized nation this question is urging itself upon the considera- tion of thoughtful men. Perhaps no paper in this volume will give a more grateful surprise to the reader than the elaborate and original discussion of the problem of prison discipline by Count W. Sollohub, of Russia. He will marvel to find such advanced and generous opinions promulgated, and even em- bodied, in an institution in this Empire. In no country can these well-considered theories of reform in the treatment of crime be- more readily tested than in ours; the criminal class has not yet become with us formidable in numbers, or a hopelessly sunken and emasculated body of pariahs, as in the metropolitan citi Europe, and our mobile form of government easily adapts itself to radical changes. We are now hardly abreast of the advanced experiments in this direction on the Eastern Continent, while our true place is at the head of the column of social reformations. This volume, we trust, will be an efficient aid in securing for us this position, and we commend its admirable and interesting pages to the thoughtful perusal of all in any way connected with the administration of public affairs or the management of prisons and reformatories.

The Wedding Day in all Ages and Count) ies. By Edwabd J. "Wood. 12mo., pp. 200. New York: Harper k Brothers. 1869.

"Bolingbroke says thai marriage was instituted because it was necessary that parents should know certainly their own respective offspring; and that as a woman cannot doubt whether she i- the mother of the child she bears, so a man should have all t! su ranee the law can give him thai he is the father of the child i puted to have been begotten b_\ him." This bring the natural basis of marriage, the numerical equality of the tw cure 1

by some unknown but established law of nature, den onstrates that polygamy is a crime againsl nature. And the deep connection of marriage with the individual existence, temporal and eternal, of every member of the race, profoundly suggests a religious sacred- ness iu the formation of the union.

Mr. Wood's book is one of the most entertaining and not least valuable of that class of bbokg which trace a single subject through the changes of human history and the varieties of the race.

2 as- e-

4S4: Methodist Quarterly Review. [July.

Five Acres Too Much. A Truthful E icid iti d of the Attractions of the Country,

and a Car ful I i sideration of tl s of Pr< Loss 'as involved iu

Amateur Fartni with much Val able Advice to those about Purcli ing]

or Small Places in the Rural Districts. By Robert 33. Roo evi .T.

pp.296. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1869.

A clever satire on cockney farming. The Gospel Tn u iry <• d Expository and U rrnony of (he 7-1 ■ i in (he

Words of th Autltorized Version. Having Sci '

Notes from the dqosI Approved Commentators, etc, etc. Compiled by R

Mdtfriss. Two volumes in one. 12mo., pp. 019. New Tork: M. W. Dodd.

Much valuable matter in small space. The Life a, ' F stl - of St. Pa I. By Rev. W. J. Conybeare, M.A., Late ]

of Trinity C " . C ridge, and Rev. J. S. Howsox, M.A., Principal i

Collegiate Institution, Liverpool. The only compl unabridged •

Two vols in one. 8 vo., pp. 556. New Tork: Charles Co. 1S69.

Kathleen. By tl of " Raymond's Heroine." 8vo., pp. 183. New Tork:

Harper .t Brothers. 1869. That Boy of X cotfs. By Charles Lever, Author of "The Bramleighs of

Bishop's Polly," etc. With illustrations. Svo., pp. 73. New York: Hai

Brothers. 1369. He Knew He Was Right. By Axthony Trollope. With illustrations by Marcus

Stone. Svo.. pp. 172. New Tork: Harper & Brothers. The Virginians. A Tale of the Last Century. By Wm. Makepeace Thackeray,

Author of ■■ Vai '\ Fair," etc With illustrations by the Author. Svo., pp. :i I.

Nov York: Harper &, Brothers. 1869. Breaking a B>u ■;"'.-'■' (;';"' l^nche Ellerlie's Ending. By the Author of "Guy

Livingstone," "Sword and Gown," etc. Illustrated. Svo.. pp. 139.

York: Harper i Broth rs. 1S69. Tue Dpdge Club; or, Italy i:i 1859. By James De MlLLE, Author of "Cm I

Creese." With one hundred illustrations. Svo., pp. 133. New Tork: Harper

k Brothers. Vanity Fair. V Novel without a Hero. By William Makepeace Thackeray,

Author of "The Newcomes," "Pendennis," etc. With illustrations b

Author. 8vo.. pp. 332. New Tork : Harper & Brothers. 1869. TheSi ' A Story of Lippe Detmold. By the author of " M

Progress." With by 0. G. Buch. 12mo., paper cover, pp. 153.

Nov.- York: Harper A Brothers. " 1869. The Victori -. A Poem ou the Assassination of President Lincoln. By M. B.

Bird, Wesl ry. Port-au-Prince, Hayti. 12mo., pp. 57. Ki- .

Jamaica: M." De Cordova, M'Dougall 4 Co. 1866. Malbone. An Port R By Thomas Wentworth Hjggixson. 12ino.,

pp. 244. Fi ' & Co. 1869.

Three Seasons i ' V trd*. Tn iting of Vine Culture; Vine D

and its Cure; Wine Mai , Red and White ; Wine Drinking

feci:;,' I rals. By William J. FlaGG. 12n Now

York": Harper 1869.

Fisl ng in An • I By I itt. With One Hundred ai

enty illustr i :-. 12mo., pp. : •'.. New Tork: Harpor & Brothers. I

!■:• i ■■-:. s of tlie Plymouth Brethren -1 n m to !■■ Contrary to

Scripture: I Rev. Edward Hartley Dewabt. 24jno., ]

Toronto: V. i ■' " O,. the D '•-. P ' Organic Life. By '/.. C. M "

M.D., Pres ' <■"■ Svo., pp. 38. St. I >uis: P. SI P i

1869. 77/6 Case of C ba. With a Lottci from John D. Shen . pp. 28. New York: Sol I

1869. Livingstone in Africa. Fits Explorations and Missionary 1 I »rs. Bj !."■•. a A.«.

Jewett. '■ ■ pp.301. Cincinnati: Hitchcock*

den. New York: Carlton & Lai

JA

ETHODIST

Quarterly Eeview

OOTOBEE, 1869.

Abt. L— MEMORABILIA OF JOHN GOODWIN.

The name of "John Goodwin, the Araiinian," the world should " not willingly let die." Barlow could write to him: " I always find in the prosecution of jour arguments that per- spicuity and acuteness which I often seek and seldom find in the writings of others." John Owen was compelled to say of him : " My adversary is a person whom his worth, pains, dili- gence, and opinions, and the contests wherein on their account he hath publicly engaged, have delivered him from being the object of any ordinary thoughts or expressions. Nothing not great, not considerable, not some way eminent, is by any spoken of him, either consenting with him or dissenting from him." Puritan and Churchman alike acknowledged his learn- ing, talents, and power. Though devoted to profound theo- logical studies, he so influential];, participated in the political discussions of his times, that at the Restoration parliamentary vengeance coupled his books with John Milton's in the sen- tence of burning by the common hangman ; and, while his life was spared, he was held to be of sufficient consequence to be forever incapacitated from all public employment. Oblivion or obscurity is not the rightful portion of such a man. Baxter, Howe, and Owen could fall in ■ and suffer ejection

from their pulpits only to shine with greater splendor in ceeding ages. The University of Oxford burned Milton's political works ; but the philosopher and statesman of to-day Foubth Seeies. Vol. XXL— 31

4S6 Memorabilia of Join Goodwin. [October,

find in his pages some of their profoundest lessons of wisdom. So time, that often reverses the decrees of the past and finds the world's truest heroes among the men most deeply covi by the prejudices of their own age, has lifted the vail that for a century and a half rested upon the fame of this noblest of the old Puritans.

John Goodwin had the honor of co-operation with the :• ■men of his time who struggled and suffered for the liberty of England, and in the cause of religious liberty he was an emi- nent leader. He had the misfortune, however, of holding senti- ments so obnoxious to one party or another, that when he fell at the Restoration, he stood so alone that no party was con- cerned for the rescue of his name and works from eternal reproach. As an advocate of the fullest, religious toleration, he had opposed the pretentious claims of Episcopacy and Presbytery alike, and could not expect favor from parti of the restored Establishment. lie had defended the sentence pronounced by his judges against Charles as just, right, and necessary for the liberty and safety of the State ; and no i-oyu\- ist, however ready he might be, because of his opposition t extravagances of the Parliament, to exempt him from the pen- alty of death, would subject his own loyalty to suspicion by any eulogium upon him. lie was the most outspoken Arminian of his day ; and Calvinists, who would rally around Owen and Howe, perpetuating their influence and renown, in those days of uneharitableness and hardness were more likely to rejoice in the downfall of their stoutest antagonist than to give him honor. The Episcopal clergj were mostly Arminians; but they were loyalists as well, and the stigma of disloyalty, which rested upon Goodwin as truly as upon Cromwell or Harap was too heavy a burden for them to lift for the sake of the theological creed held in common with them by one who was hostile to the intolerant Church. Had he been either a I ist or a Calvinist, he would have stood in the world's judgment pre-eminent among the men of his generation: beinga Puri- tan and an Arminian it was inevitable that the pub': which fell upon him should have crushed him, leaving but a precious few, unknown and uninfluential, whose self-inl did not require .forgetfulness of him and his works except for purposes of defamation and misrepresentation. But tin- truth

1SG9.] Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 4S7

is, lie was more nearly right than they all ; and the free thought of the nineteenth century, which has less respect for the jus d'vclnum of kings than for the rights of the people, and calls no man master except as lie nobly holds and fearlessly teaches the truth, is proving the Nemesis which awards to John Good- win his rightful place among the loftiest names of the period of the Commonwealth.

The solution of the sole mystery in his history and fortunes is in the tact that he was no time-server or parasite, but unva- rying in hi; fidelity to God. truth, and man. jt was impos- sible for a London minister to be neutral in the struggle which gave supremacy to the Parliament, abolished Episcopacy, es- tablished Prc-sbyterianism, and cost the King his head. Had he rolled along with the popular wave, he might have ridden upon its summit into a place of honor and power. He would have denounced all who dissented from the prevalent Oalvin- istic sentiments as heretics, Pelagians, and blasphemers-, and called upon the civil magistrate to punish them with his strong- arm. He might thus have won the distinction of being fre- quently called to preach before the Parliament, where he could have skillfully dodged all allusion to inconvenient topics, though all England was shaking with them; he might have become the right band of Cromwell as one of his " triers" in settling the pulpits of the realm, and have sat in the vice-chancellor's chair in the university. Or, if ambition's voice could not thus lead him, worldly wisdom and a regard for his own quiet would have bade him meekly bow before the storm which he could not control. But the rights of conscience were in peril, and, the first of his order who had the penetration to discover and the courage to utter the great truth, he openly and con- stantly proclaimed the inalienable light of every man to free- dom of opinion and worship, undisturbed and tmcontrolli any earthly power. Jt was a doctrine as mi; Presbyterian party, thou in the ascendant and clamoring for the divine right of their system and tin; forcible suppression <>f all dissentients, as it had formerly been to Laud. [lis advocacy of it wascnough to provoke their uitt< rest wrath; but t<< this was added the fact thai he was already accused of Arminian- isra, a crime for which sympathy or tol days of wrongs performed in the name vi' religion, and b

4S8 ■ Memorabilia of John Goodwin. [Oc

authority of a Parliament that was contending for liberty, present nothing more shameful than the repeated examinations and final ejection from his vicarage of this minister of more than fifty year:, of age, fitted by his piety, his learning, his elo- quence, to adorn the loftiest pnlpit of the realm, administering a cup prepared only for malignants to one of the best fri and wannest advocates of the P the reason why lie must drink it.

An Arminian Goodwin was not at this period. Indeed, he had just concluded a series of sermons in which he had, as he conceived, set forth the peculiar doctrines of Calvinism in an unanswerable: light, and, as his friends asserted, "cut the hair between other divines and Arminians." An exception taken to an incidental passage in one of them by a youth of more fire than brains, led him to a reinvestigation of the entire system, the result of which was, its absolute rejection and the adoption of that of Arniinius. From that day to the close of his public ministry he was the chief mark for the most fiery darts of his theological foes, from the author of the ponderous volume to the petty pamphleteer. Where argument could not demolish, ribaldry, invectives, scoffs, falsehoods, and appeals to the au- thorities to crush him by civil power, were employed against him and his cause. It seems to have been only Cromwell's interpositioD that at one time saved his life, lie was, says his biographer, "an object of general reproach: a sort of scape- goat, on whoso head were laid, by his Calvinistic brethren, nearly all the errors, heresies, and mental follies of human nature."*

Only the sturdiest nature could have stood erect in the furious storm of calumny and persecution, and only oneiml by divine grace could have stood meekly. Of passion he bad little, of modesty much; but for the truth he could be bold and suii'er. lie says :

They who have known me from my youth up, until soui* years past, very well know, that however I was encompassed about with infirmities otherwise, yel did I never eithen bear the blame of bold icss, bul C'.. : ys the < God was pleased to calJ me out of the rotiremenl of nrj able bashfulncss, ho hath made me, as Jeremy of old, an iron pillar and brazen wall, f

* Jackson's Lifo uf Goodwin. f Triumviri, Preface.

1SG9J Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 4S9

And he said truly: he stood like an iron pillar and brazen wall against Lis antagonists, not defiantly, but for the truth. He wrote : *

The serpentine hissing of tongues ai d p ma againsl me is now no strange thing, and so no great trial. From my youth np I have conflicted with the viperous contradictions of men; truth

having acted me in full opposition to my genius and spirit, by making me a man of contention to the whole earth. But I can willingly and freely say, Let truth handle mc as she plcaseth ; de- prive me of all things; yea, of thai very being itself of which I am yet possessed, upon condition that she herself may reign. . . . The most intemperate zeal of men against my ] me, or

books, is a temptation of a very faint influence upon me to turn me out of any way of truth, or to make me their enemy. Only when the truth is offended I confess I burn ; and in case 1 find any strength in my hand to redress the injur) done to it, 1 have no rest in my spirit until 1 have attempted the vindication. By truth, I do not moan mine own opinion ; for that which is no more than so, I shall neither trouble myself nor any other man about it: but I mean a doctrine or notion which 1 am able to demon- strate, either from the Scriptures or clear principles in reason, to be agreeable to the mind of God.f

At another time he said :

I am resolved, God assisting, not tobe ashamed of any of Chi words, nor to forbear, upon occasion, the freest utterance of them, before what generation soever; and hope thai neither frici nor estate, nor liberty, nor life itself, which have not betrayed me hitherto, will ever prove a snare of death to me, or hinder me from finishing my course with joy. If I fall in any of my stand- ings up for the truth, the loss is already cast up by L\v' arithmetic : I had rather fall with Christ than stand with Cresar. J

The most important theological work of Mr. Goodwin is the "Redemption Redeemed," § the first systematic present! in the English language of the Arminian doctrines, and more powerful than any previous dissent faun the then popular the- ology. Other pens had attacked one or more of the peculiar

* Exposition, Pr face. \ Cat

J Scourge of the Saints Displayed.

§ The modernize! t London edition of 18-J

tion Ri deemed : \VI ■•■ :;> the Mo t Glori

World by Jesus Christ \i \ ■ imc&

With a thorough Discussion of tin - eat I is c

lion, and the Perseverance of the Sainta n. Jous Goodwin, 31. \ "

490 Memorabilia of John Goodwin. [October,

features of Calvinism, and during the Commonwealth several prominent theologians adopted more or less of Arminian view? ; but so marked was the ability and so formidable tie character of this work, that others were lost sight of, so far at least as to seemingly justify the erroneous statement that '"'John Goodwin must be mentioned as a solitary but brilliant exception to the general character of those times." •• Brilliant, indeed, but not solitary. The work was dedicated to " Dr. Benjamin Whiclicote, Provost of King's College, and Vice- Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, together with the rest of the Heads of Colleges and Students in Divinity in that University." It would be easy to interpret this aet us the pre- sumption of arrogance, or the defiance of the trampled but un- conquered and haughty controversialist, were it not for the candor and nobleness of the dedicatory address itself. He says :

The oracles consulted by me about this dedication were neither any undervaluing of you nor overvaluing of myself or of the piece Lore presented to you, nor any desire of drawing respects from you cither lo my person or any tiling that is mine, much less any ma- lignity of desire to cause you to drink of my cup, or to bring you under the same cloud of disparagement which the worhi I spread about me. Praise unto His grace, who hath taught me some weak rudiments of his heavenly art of drawing light out ot^ dark- ness for mine own use, I have not been for so many years to- gether trampled upon to so little purpose as to remain either ig- norant or insensible of mine own vileness, and what element I am nearest allied unto, or so tender and querulous as either* lo plain of those who si ill ':go over me as the stones in. the Street," or to project the suli'erings of others in order to my own solace and relief. My long want of respects from men is now tinned to an athletic habit, somewhat after the manner of those who, by long fasting, lose their appetites, and find a contenteduess of.nature to live with little or no meat afterward. 1 can, from the dui whereon I sit, with much contentment and sufficient enjoy] of myself, behold my brethren on thrones round about me. . . . The discourse, such as it is, with all respects of honor and love, I present unto xvu, not requiring any thing from you by way of countenance or approbation otherwise than • (.[citable

te/ms on which Augustus recommended hie children to the favor of the Senate- -si meruerit. Only as a friend and lover of the truth, name, and glory of God and Jes ;.-t oi the peace,

joy, and salvation of the world, with you, 1 si I

out my soul in this request unto you, that either you will oounrm,

•Bogue and Benn

1S69J Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 491

by setting to the royal signet of your approbation and authority, the doctrine here maintained, if you judge it to be a (ruth, or else vouchsafe to deliver me and many others from the snare thereof by taking away with a hand of light and potency of demonstration those weapons, whether texts of Scripture or grounds in reason, wherein we trust. Your contestation upon these terms will be with me more precious than your attestation in case of your com- port in judgment with me; though 1 shall ingenuously confess that for the truth's sake even in this also I shall greatly rejoice.

lie requests that in any reply they may make they will not throw their strength against the weaker passages or particular expressions, bat against the main points of his argument, and declares his freedom from any apprehension that they will be influenced by " those mormolukes or vizors of Arminianism, So- cinianisin, Popery, Pelagiauism, with the like, which servo to affright children in understanding out of the love of many most worthy and important truths/' Such was the spirit of this address, in which, with eloquence and dignified courtesy. the hunted divine laid his offering at the feet of his alma mater.

The volume, originally (in 1651) a i'olio, is in its modern form a stout octavo, in solid type, of seven hundred and forty pages. The preface, after the fashion of those days, is lengthy, contain- ing forty-two pages. It is an address to the reader, first briefly stating how the author came to adopt the sentiments here ad- vocated, and next showing villi great fullness and power of argument, 1. The danger ui' error and misapprehension in the things of God ; 2. The necessity lying upon all, without ex- ception, who are endued with reason and understandinj . engage those noble faculties to the utmost about the thin. God and matters of salvation; and, ?>. "The innocency and inoffensiveness of the doctrines maintained in the present discourse in respect of those vulgar imputations which, by way of prejudice, are laid to their charge.'' The almosl playfulness with which he tells the story of his abandoning the "bread" which he had "found ever and anon gravelish in his m and fretting in his bowels," is followed by«tl • and

solid discussions in which a 'gigantic mind deals with th< mightiest truths as ea il v ami familiarly as men of common him!,] do with those o\' every-day life. One can hardly help inking if he be not putting forth his greatest strength in

492 Memorabilia of John Goodwin. LOctober,

preliminaries to his main task ; a query that is forgotten long before the opening chapter is finished. It is his purpose, not only to prove the doctrine of universal redemption, but to so prove it that no other can have any possible foundation left. lie, therefore, begins at the very bottom, in the metaphysics of theology, and shows in the first chapter that there is no created being, or second cause whatsoever, but depends upon the First and Supreme Cause or Being, which is God ; and that in its motions and operations as truly as in its simple existence. In the second chapter he shows, that although there is as absolute find essential a dependence of' second causes upon the First in point of operation a:- of simple existence, yet the operations of second causes are not (at least ordinarily) so immediately or precisely determined by that dependence as their respective beings are. In other words, the inquiry is, " How tar and after what manner the motions and actions of second causes are de- termined or necessitated to be, both when and where and what they are. by that essential dependence which they have upon God." The question lies at the point of divergence of the Calvinian and Arminian systems, and is met with a fullness of view and an accuracy and delicacy of discrimination not easily surpassed. Second causes are of three kinds — natural, animal, and rational or voluntary. They all have such a dependence upon God that "none of them can move into action without a suitable concurrence from him, yet are not their action- or motions thereby determined ordinarily, or necessitated to them." Of the first class, fire, for instance, barns, not because of God's presence or concurrence when it bums, but because of natural properties given it by the law of creation ; of the second, a lamb runs to its dam because of its natural sympa- thy; of the third, a man's "actions arc not determined, that is, made rational and voluntary (much less are they nec< si tated) by the conjunction or presence of God with him when he acts or moves, but 1»\ his own proper and live electit what he nets or moves unto." Then naturally arise the .. tions of uecessitation growing out of providential interposals of God, the effect of permissive decrees, the relation of fore knowledge and. necessity. The third chapter treats of the knowledge and foreknowledge of God, and the difference be- tween these and his desires, purposes, intentions, and i

1SG9.3 Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 493

and the distinctions of these one from another. The fourth presents the perfection of God in his nature and being, to- gether with his simplicity and actuality, and his go decrees us dedueible from tin's perfection. It shows that what we call his attributes, separately or collectively, are only his single, simple, and pure essence, and that that essence being infinitely perfect, he can as he pleases give forth himself in all the variety of action indicated among men by the terms dom, knowledge, love, and the like; that love, hatred, etc., are matters not of affection, but of dispensation ; that God acts in eternity, and not in time ; that no act of his necessitates free causes; that "his counsels and decrees of election, reprobation, predestination, etc., concerning men, relate to them, not as in- dividually or personally considered, or as such and such men by name, hut in a specifical consideration, or as persons so and so qualified, or of such or such a condition ;" and, finally, that. "if God in his nature and essence he absolutely and infinitely perfect, then can he act, order, decree nothing to the prejudice or hurt of any creature whatsoever, hut only in a way of right- eousness and equity, that is, upon the consideration of some demerit or sin preceding."

Thus, beginning with the First Cause, the argument proc step by step, carefully considering objections at every point, until it reaches the conclusion that a rejection of any man from eternity is inconsistent with the nature of God and the relation of a Creator to his creature.

The author is now prepared for the Scripture argument, in which he finds four " great vein- and correspondences," namely : 1. Those texts which present the gift and sacrifice of Oh] ' for the world j 2. Those which declare the ransom of ( and the will and desire of God as to salvation, to be f men and every 'man; 3. Those that speak of salvation offered to him and whosoever will believe ; 4. Those which that Christ died for men who may, and actually do, | Not only is the exposition of the passages adduced hut no erroneous interpretation, no gloss, objection, or cavil known to him from his extensive rea lilered to i

without a confutation. At this point he takes up the doctrine of perseverance, making probably the most full and thoi argument upon the Bubject ever written, and bo perfect, thai i:

494 Memorabilia of John Goodwin. COctober,

called out in reply the pen of Dr. John Ov.cn, the great Cal- vinian chain}. ion of that day, in an octavo of three times as many pages.

The subject of universal redemption is then resumed, and continued to the close of the volume. Additional scriptural and other arguments are presented, shoving that Chi death was intended, and was actually suffered, for all men without exception; and finally, for the sake of those who are afraid to believe any thing but what other men have believed before them, Mr. Goodwin furnishes extracts in their own words of the faith on the subject in debate of many of the Christian fathers in the purest age of the Church, as Augustine, Ambrose, Jerome, Chrysostom, Athanasius, JTilarius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Eusebius, "Arnobius, Didymus, Basil, Gregory Xyssen, Gregory Nazianzen, Epiphanius, Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian, and many others ; he quotes from Calvin, Peter Martyr, Bucer, Parous, Gualter, and a dozen others of the most eminent opponents of the views advocated, lie says of these testimonies :

My intent in citing Calvin villi those other laic Protestant writ- ers whom we have joined in the same suffrage in favor of the doctrine of general redemption, is not to persuade the reader thai the habitual or standing judgment, either of him or of the greater part of the vest, was whole and entire for the said doctrine, or stood in any great propension hereunto, (though this I believe concern- ing sundry of iliein.J much less to imply that they never, in other places of their writings, declared themselves against it, but only to show, 1. That the truth of this doctrine is so near at band ; and, 2. That the influence of it is so benign and accommodatious unto many other truths and doctrines in Christian religion, that it is a hard matter for those that deal ranch in these affairs not to assume and assert it ever and anon, and to speak and to argue many things on the authority of it ; yea, though extra cas\ cessitatis on the one hand, and incogitantia on the other, they arc wont to behold it as God doth proud men, il afar off"

It vas proposed in a second volume to answer all the ol tions to the doctrines of this treatise known to its au Twenty-three are specified. The. doctrines of personal eli and reprobation, infant damnation, and universal grace, be intended to formally discuss; and. also to include in the volume an exposition of the ninth of Romans. The controversy in which he became involved prevented the accomplishment oi his purpose, which would have rounded out this great work to

1SC9J Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 495

the manifest advantage ofi the world. Nevertheless, the Ex- position, as we shall see, was published in a separate form, and Mr. Goodwin's views on the questions of election and grace are so fully stated in his various published works that wc are left in ignorance of them on no important point.

In what sense Goodwin maintained the doctrine of uni- versal redemption he clearly and guardedly declares. He says :

When, with the Scriptures, we affirm that Chrisi died for ali i we mean that there was reality oi' intention on God's part, that as there Avas a valuable consideration or worth of merit, in the d of Christ, fully sufficient for the ransom or redemption of all men, so it should be equally, and upon the same terms applicable to ah men in order to their redemption, without any difference, or special bnhtation of it to some more than others ; that God did only ante- cedently intend the actual redemption ami salvation oi* all men in and bv'the death of Christ; hut consequently the redemption and salvation only of some, namely, those who shall believe; that I is a possibility, yea, a fair and gracious possibility, for all without exception, considered as men, without and before their voluntary obduration by actual sinning, to obtain actual salvi by his death; so that in case any man perisheth, his destructi altogether from himself, there being as much, and as much intende 1, in the death of Christ toward procuring his salvation as there is for procuring the salvation of any of those who come to he act saved; that lie not only put ail men without exception into a bility of being saved, as, namely, by believing, but he also wholly off from all men Hie guilt and condemnation brought upon all men by Adam's transgression, so thai no man shall perish or he con- demned hut upon his own personal account, and for such sins ouly which shall he actually and voluntarily committed by him, oi such omissions which it was in his power to have prevented; that by his death he procured this grace and favor with I men without exception, namely, tluitthey should rec ave froi i sufficient strength and means, or be enabled bj him, to repent and to believe, yea, and to persevere m both to the end ; and that ( bv his death purchased this transcendcnl grace also and favor in the Bi*h1 of God for all men without exception, that upou I repenfanceand believing in him the) should be justilied and receive forgiveness of all their sins, and that upon then . unto the end they should he actually ami imputation, guilt whereof we desire in special i

we-' . ncybythis

1 old universal redemption, so we hold likewise universal sah or that all men shall be saved by Christ. Such an oj.i b no consequent of the doctrine maintained in th me it seemeth not a little strange how any man professing i

496 Memorabilia of John Goodwin. [October,

tion of judgment unto the Scriptures should ever come to .1 con- federacy with such au opinion.*

The theory of the atonement, as held by Goodwin, is per- fectly apparent from numerous passages:

Being Oeav0po)~or, God and 3fa?i, or man subsisting in the human nature personally united to the Godhead, by the willing offering up of himself as a Lamb without spot in sacrifice unto God the

Father, he made atonement for .sinners. The. death of a person of that transcendent worth and dignity was judged by the unerring understanding and wisdom of God a valuable and equitable con- sideration why he should actually, and without any other ; intervening, pardon the sin of the world, that is, the sin of Adam as imputed or communicated in the guilt of it to all his posterity, together with all the actual sins of all such of his posterity as should believe in him. . . . The fullness of Christ's satisfaction is not to be estimated by the will of God about the application of it, or the actual communication of its benefit to particular men, but by the proportion which it bears to the sin to which it relates in the nature of a price, ransom, consideration, or satisfaction. If it be of that nature, consequence, and consideration that God may, with the sufficient demonstration of the glory of his justice., or perfect hatred of sin, or wisdom, etc, pardon sin without any thing added by way of satisfaction or punishment, it is in reason to be judged, a sufficient satisfaction, although, upon some other account, he sus- pend the benefit or actual application of it to particular men, upon reasonable requirements of them otherwise, f

Further :

Christ is said to have made an atonement for the sins o^ men, because lie hath so far pacified and reconciled God to the world, that he. is willing, notwithstanding their great sin, and affront put 1 him, to oiler terms of life and peace; yet so that they who will condescend, or rather that will not ascend, to the terms offered by him, that is, that will not believe, shall have no further benefit by any thing he hath either done or suffered for them. Nor will it follow that, they lor whose sins Christ hath satisfied, must needs, by virtue of that satisfaction, be presently justified and Baved; or that God otherwise should be unjust, if, having received satisfaction, he should condemn men for those sins for which he hath been satisfied. The reason is, because (he satisfaction of Christ !• an ordinance of God for the justification and salvation of men, merely arbitrary, and depending upon his will and pleasure, as well in the operation as in the being of it, it caunol be conceived 1 • extend any further, nor to produce its effects upon any other terms, than his will and pleasure is that it should produce them. Nov Scriptures are very clear in this., that the gufti ring* of Christ do not save any man simply, or by themselves, but through a. I

*B I, page 662. f Banner of Ji |

1869J Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 497

believing. Notwithstanding the love of God and the gift of Christ, without believing there is no escaping eternal death, because that love and gift, being voluntary, justify and f-nve no further, on no other terms, than the will and good pleasure of God i- they should.*

The relation of faith to the atonement is set forth by him

with a remarkable clearness:

Christ alone justifieth by way of merit, and as he that hath pur- chased with a valuable price, the laying down of his life, the ;_ of justification for men. Faith justifies instrumentally, or sub- serviently under Christ, namely, as a conditional act required by God of men in order to their actual investiture with that grace or benefit of justification which Christ, by the merit of his death, pur- chased for them; yet with this reservation or proviso, that the actual communication of the said benefit or grace unto particular persons, of years capable of believing, should be suspended until it should be desired by them, and sought for by believing.f

The commercial theory he thoroughly rejects, and a the value of the atonement to be not in its calculable worth, as though just so much suffering had been endured for just so much sin, but in its demonstration of the divine justice, so that God as a righteous sovereign can oiler pardon upon such terms as his infinite wisdom may be pleased to dictate. That Christ died sufficiently and intentionally for all men he argues over and over again, against objections urged this day with as much confidence and pertinacity as though they were newly dis- covered or had never been answered. But he likewise in that in the eternal punishment of the unbeliever, God docs not exact a second satisfaction:

That satisfaction which Christ made for the --ins of any p who dies in unbelief was never accepted b) God in the nature of an appropriate, particular, or actual satisfaction for their sii . only as a potential satisfaction; thai is as of value enough to I made a particular and actual satisfaction for such a man's sins as well as for the sins of those who believe, and which he fully intended to accept for such a satisfaction on his behalf in ci had believed. . . . Christ neither desired nor intended to • satisfaction by his death for the sin- of unbelievers any otln r nor upon any other terms, than thai God the Father should, upon the account thereof, justify such persons from their sins in easi should have believed; and, in this sense, he doth accepl H satisfaction for them, being more ready and willing to pard i the sins of all men, as well theirs who never will believe, m case

* Divine Authority o ires, page 195. f Ex]

498 Memorabilia of John Goodwin. [October,

they should believe, as well as theirs who shrill believe and be actually justified thereupon. So that God, iu compelling unbelievers to suffer for their sius, does not exact a second satisfaction, but only puts them upon payment of their debt themselves, who des- pised his grace*

Equally clear and sharply drawn are Lis statement?, of pre- destination and election. He remarks :

God is asserted to have predestinated or purposed so many of them, be they fewer or be they more, as should truly believe, unto life and glory; and the residue, be they fewer or be they more, namely, all' those who should not believe, being capable through years of believing, and otherwise competently rational, unto destruction. Such a predestination of men from eternity as this the Scriptures clearly and frequently hold forth ; and without controversv such a predestination as this is fairly and fully con- sistent with the glory of his wisdom, and highly magnifies all Ins attributes, without the least disparagement of any. Whereas that doomful pretention, that blood which many wring out of the Scriptures instead o\' milk, hath no rational or intelligible com- port at all with any of them, but casts a kind' of spirit of obscu- rity and contestation upon them all. f

There is no election or reprobation from eternity, but decrees of election and reprobation only. There is no reprobation of per- sons, because it is impossible there should be any persons from eternity. But the decrees of God being nothing but God him- self, to deny such decrees from eternity is to deny God. But tills is that which I deny : that these decrees respect persons y ally considered. They only rcspecl species of men. The decree of election from eternity was, that whosoever believes should be saved; and, on the contrary, that whosover lives and dies in un- belief should be condemned: this is the decree of reproba There is no other de :r< e of election and reprobation from eternity but this. J The tenor of God's law or decree of election, winch was from eternity, is this : whosoever shall believe in my Jesus Christ, whom I purpose to send into the world, shall here- upon become a man of that species, sort, or hind of men whom I have chosen from among all other men or torts of men in. the world, and designed for salvation. That men cannot, in propri- ety oi' sp< ech, be said to he , lected bom eternity, is evident, be- cause they had nobeii ernity, nothing having been from eternity but God himself alone.§

NoCalvinist ever more highly exalted divine grace, than did John Goodwin, unless it be in il • allege I irresistibleness, which, in his view, absolutely destroys its very nature as free grace.

* IJniinor of Justifica f Redem] IM

% Pebr.tc with Simpson, ;' J;.! n ption Redeemed, page 33-1.

1869.] Memorabilia of John- Goodwin. 499

For its office is to aid and bless men ; but if it necessitates (heir believing, it render.- their faith unrewardable :

l\"o law, no rule of justice or equity, provideth any reward for such actions, to the performance whereof the doers are necessi- tated by a strong ami irresistible hand. There is more reason of the two why merely natural actions, as eating, drinki ing_, walking, etc., should be rewarded by God, thau actions whereunto men are necessitated by a power extra-e tial to them.*

All ability to faith, he taught, is of grace; and no man ex- ercises that ability without the immedii te assistance of grace:

The act of believing, whensoever it is ] erformed, is at so low a rate of efficiency from a man's self, that, to help apprehensi

little in the case, suppose the act could be divided into a thou- sand parts, nine hundred and ninety nine of them are to be as- cribed unto the free grace of God, and only the remaining one unto man. Yea, this one i:; no otherwise to be ascribed to man, than as graciously supported, strengthened, and i v the

free grace of God. I attribute as much as possibly can be attrib- utcd to the fruc grace of God in the act of believing, saving the attributablcness of the action to man himself, in the lowest and most diminutive sense that can well be conceived. For certain it is, that it is the creature man, not God, or the Spirit of God, that believeth ; and therefore of necessity there must so much, or such a degree, of efficiency. about it be left unto man, which may with truth give it the denomination of being his. And they that go about to interest the free grace of God in the act of believing upon any other terms, or so that the act itself cannot truly be called the act of man, are injurious in the highest mau- ner to the grace of God ; I this i lain turn.f

While he held that no person, without the assistance «>f grace, has any power or disposition to will any tiling go >d, or to repent or believe, he most strongl) taught the freedom of the will, as restored through Christ :

All persons, without exception, are put into an actual po sionofthc favor of God by his grace in tin ■■'•'■• of Jesus Christ, which possession they keep during infancy, and until the commis- sion of actual sin ; [and j all men living to years of discretion, and more especially while I yet foull] 1 or

wretchedly hardened themselves by long continuance in wn known sins, arc, by the same grace pi ood capacity of

solvation; so that if they be uol wanting to tli may, by the 1) afed to th i repent aud

licve, and persevere believing unto salvation."!

* Agreement and Distance of Brethren. \ I

of Brethren.

500 M&morabttia of John, Goodwin. [October,

The fall exposition of his doctrine of the liberty of the will we have lost by bis failure to complete the " Redemption Re- deemed;" but in the volume given as be argues at .considerable length the proposition that God 1ms vouchsafed to all men a

sufficiency of moans (inclusive of power) to be saved; showing that otherwise God deals with men more severely under the covenant of grace than he did under the covenant of works, and also than he does with the devils themselves; that far the greater part of men will be damned for what is no sin, that is, for not doing what they cannot and never could do; that our Saviour's wonder at the unbelief of men was without the least ground ; that only by the gift of adequate power to believe can the unsaved be left without excuse, and the mouths of the wicked be stopped ; and that

If God, knowing that an ungodly man is in (he utmost danger of perishing forever, and withal, that he hath no power to re- pent and believe, shall yet vehemently and affectionately urge, press, and persuade such a- man to repent and believe, that he may not perish, such an application as this can bear no other con- struction than as derisory, and proceeding from one who doth not simply delight in the death of a sinner, but to make the death ot' such a miserable creature as full of gall and bitterness as he well knows how to do. lie rather insults over him in bis extremity of weakness and misery, than really intends any tiling gracious and of a saving import to him.*

We have thus presented some of the leading features of Goodwin's theological system. The universal and absolute depravity of the race, the Godhead of Christ, the personality and Deity of the Holy Spirit, the infallibility and inspiration of the Scriptures, the atonement by the death of Christ, its availability upon the sole condition of faith, and the u< of the aid of the Holy Spirit in order to repentance and holi- ness, are doctrines which ho unwaveringly held, and upon which he employed his vigorous pen. But it is rather Ins views on the poiuts in debate between the schools of Calvin and Arminius which have occupied our attention, am have found him soundly and thoroughly Anuiuian. While some of th-.- followers of Arminius would .-ay that God elected from eternity certain persons to eternal life in view of theii foreseen faith and holiness, Goodwin denied any personal elec * Redemption Redeemed, page t>:>r>.

1869.] Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 501

•tion whatever from eternity, and admitted only the broad de- cree that a certain sort of persons should receive eternal glory. and another certain sort should receive eternal death. We think him right. It is certainly difficult to answer his argu- ment, and we know of nothing in the Scriptures that, rightly interpreted, conflicts with his view. Ir was in the study >A~ the Scriptures rather than of the metaphysics of. the question that lie found the key to the system which he subsequently advo- cated with so great power. Christ Jesus, he read, tasted death fur every man; and around that, as the central point, all the doctrines of his theology must stand. Whatever is inconsist- ent with this fundamental truth he unhesitatingly rejects how- ever precious it may have previously been held; and whatever accords with it, however unpalatable before, is heartily ac- cepted. There was, therefore, nothing to conceal, nothing held as truth which he could not openly and freely declare. As is the case with all true Arminians cvery-where, he had no doc- trines which he could not proclaim to the world at anytime, and which must be kept in shadow only as they might be safely delivered to the ears of the initiated few on select occasions.

It was very easy for his enemies to charge Goodwin with Socinianism and Pelagianism ; but only the bitterness and ran- cor of men bent upon his rain could have accused him of the former in view of hi:: published words, while the apolo< ignorance of either Arminianism or Pelagianism, and perhaps of both, may suffice for the latter, li i- true that many tli gianSj in both Holland and England, who rejected the /tor deoretum of the Genevan master, were therefore classe< Arminians, although on the questions of original sin and j tication by faith they dissented from the views of Arminius and Calvin alike. They were Arminians in nVproper e and yet, for the sake of them and th ' ■ ■ -. '

followers of Arminius have been compelled I >beartV of Pelagianism. But Goodwin did no) '■ charge upon his opponents, and with r : >r the main

que i ion between Augustine and Pelagius was " Christ be truly the mediator of all nun/' as hecould not b< the latter alleged, men are not fallen in Adam, and may attain holiness withont the aid of divine grace. If*

Fourth Series, Vol, XXI.— 32

S02 Memorabilia of John Goodwin. [October

they need no atonement, and the doctrine of universal redemp- tion is false. In original sin Pelagius did not believe, and it cannot be shown that he held the universality of the atonen Nevertheless, Arminius, Goodwin, "Wesley, and theMeth have been to this day stigmatized as Pelagians by a specie.-, of theological quackery that was bad enough in the. seventi century, but is intolerable and inexcusable in the nineteenth.

Ecclesiastically, Goodwin, though an Episcopalian until the abolition of Episcopacy, was an Independent. Indeed, he- could under the circumstances hold no other position consi ently with his opinions respecting liberty of conscience. His advocacy of the Congregational system was based upon the ■conviction that only by its prevalence could a true religious toleration prevail, and was therefore more a protest against on authoritative Presbyterianism than an assertion of Independ- ency as the only system that is in harmony with the Scrip- tures. "I know that 1 am looked upon," he observed, " as a man very deeply engaged for the Independent cause ag Presbytery. But the truth is, I am neither so whole for the former, nor against the latter, as I am generally voted to be." For the purposes of "building up himself in holiness, and the promotion of spiritual religion, his choice wa.s for thos wisely made; nevertheless, it is not difficult to see thai ' he living in our day, a day of the fullest recognition of the rights of conscience, his true place would be found under another standard.

Only a well-balanced mind could have retained it- equanimity and avoided all expression or indulgence of bit! when

-exposed to the suspicions, the harassing.-, the conspiracy public assaults, the published defamations, the incessani con- troversies, :'H'! the attempted destructions that dogged bis path for more than a quarter of a century. Never : original as- sailant, except in the single instance of his attack upon ( ' wolfs Triers and Ejectors of Ministers, ho svas yel almost continually involved in c Bui 11 wj nol to his

taste, however admirably his great learuinj 1 powers

fitted him for it. lie wrote nothing in self-defense unti was openly charged with heresy and blasphemy. In the i to one of the most abusive and scurrilou ver made

upon him he said :

1800.] Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 503

The great Searcher of hearts knowcth that if liimself would dis- charge me of the service ul' contradicting aud opposing men, and dispose of me in a way of retirement, were it never so private and obscure, where I might only contest with my own weakness and errors, he should give me one of the first-born desires of ray As for revenge, my thoughts hardly sutler me to conceive of it as consisting with those things that accompany salvation. I v i; were as easy for others to forbear injuring me, as it is for i neglect and pass it by when they have done it. \Vhosoever burden me with the crimes of ambition and revenge, certain I am that they are strangers to my spirit and converse.

To the low personalities, the coarseness, the vitnperation, that so sadly disfigure most of the controversial writings of tl at day, and, with scarcely an exception, those of his antagonists, he never descended; lie rather pressed his points with statement, strong argument, sharp analysis, keenness in detec- tion of a fallacy, and great facility in exposure of an absurdity. He was a gentleman, as well as a scholar and a Christian. Nevertheless, it must not be thought that he never sharpened his pen to a point. Hisscathing analysis of Dr. Owen's style of reasoning in his reply to the " Redemption Redeemed" might be read to-day with profit by the admirers of the Magnus Apollo of the Calvinian orthodoxy, lie could be witty as M*ell as sharp. '; As for passion," he says, " I am not conscious of writing by it, unless haply it be when 1 meet with Ignorance riding in triumph upon Confidence's back;" and then he could be terribly severe. His catholicity was in marked contrast with the bigotry around him, reminding us not unfrequently of the great Arminian of a century later, his successor to vials of theological wrath as well as to the work of theological reform. As a preacher, he was clear, eloquent, spiritual, and well fitted to shine among the most brilliant pulpit oral age.

Multitudes thronged his church and hung delighted apon h;< lips. But his eminent abilith s, whether of pen or speech, were consecrated first of all to his work as past »r. In t'i ' especially delighted, rightly esteeming the spiritual growth and unity of his J! lii Licr moment than the more

public tasks to which he was providentially called.

In exposition of Scripture, Good . mfs excellence is quil mirked as in theological argument. Rejecting the peculiar method of many of his contemporaries, which assigned n meaning to insulated texts with no regard to the

504 Memorabilia of John Goodwin. [Oc1

which the original writer used the words, a practice by which the 'greatest aburdities may be maintained— and which, by the way, has not yet been entirely abandoned— while he lays suffi- cient stress unon the import of the words, he always con ; the passage in hand in connection with the argument of which it forms a part. What he says of his "Exposition, of the Ninth Chapter of the Epistle to the RomaDs," is equallj of the numerous expositions of briefer passages ■ throughout his works. " I have not willingly wrested any phrase, word, syllable, or letter; but have with all simplicity of heart, and as in the sight of God, followed the most ge ducture of the context and scope from place to place, consult- ing, without partiality, all circumstances which occurred which I could think of, in order to a due steerage of my judg- ment in every tiling." The Exposition of the Ninth of Romans, extending through three hundred and sixty octavo pag one of the most valuable of his publications. It rests the theory that St. Paul is, in that chapter, vindicating v ■ real or supposed objections of the Jews his dec-trine of j n cation by fait li, for the willful rejection of which their own I tion was nigh at hand, and that he is not at serting any absolute and personal election and reprobation of men from eternity. Thoroughly acquainted with the interpretation then comm •received, he successfully meets it at every point; whil also beautifully expounds the chapter upon his own tl and finally, from its closing verses, demonstrates that he has correctly stated the Apostle's meaning. As a part oi promised second part of the "Redemption Redeemed," tl "Exposition" merits a high place in theological literature, as well as for itsown intrinsic worth.

Goodwin's political, or rather his politico-religions writi originated in his profound convictions in behalf of relij liberty. He was no revolutionist. Jle believed in a sti stable- o\ n went that would protect the rights of the p< and the government defacfowas that which he conscii ntiously served. ;' From first to la t," he says of hie self, " I stood by the Authorityfor the time 1 have cont<

for a universal subjection in all things lawful unto it. \ there were two Authoritic tng, that of the Kii

the other of Parliament, I joined that which ] judged

1869.] Memorabilia of John Goodwin. 505

pleadable, and most promissory of civil and religious I ncss." He defended the parliamentary cause by his pen, and endeavored to restrain it from self-destruction by opposing its projects of Presbyterian supremacy. He sustained Cromwell in the Commonwealth, and wrote severely against his measures for only a limited toleration. "My great desij n in givii Caesar," Le says, "that which I know to be Cses: r's, is, thereby I may purchase the more equitable liberty to to Caesar that winch 1 know is not his. And if Caesar, whoever he be, careth not to be served upon such an account, he must wait for relief till I am dead." The Parliament n warded him with expulsion from his vicarage, and Cromwell with only protection from personal violence. Honors and emolun were not for him who demanded the most urn free-

dom for conscience, and was at the same time an Arminian,

Art. IL— WUTTKE OX PRE-PLATONIC ETHICS.*

Christian ethics cannot he understood apart from its history, nor the latter apart from the history of the systems that pre- ceded or lay outside of Christianity; but the hi tory of ethics presupposes a knowledge of the historical devi ' ethical consciousness in general, of which ethics itself is simply the scienl ific fruit. The oue-sidedness of the more rec is largely due to inattention to its history.

MOK.\L CONSCIOUSNESS AND ETHICS OF HEATHEN NATIONS.

I. Though the majority of heathen nations have had co tions of moral, semi-religious life-rules, yet, until tl age of Greek philosophy, tiny lacked systems of ethi - pr The ground-character of all heathen ethi ;al < of heathen ethics is this : the origin and goal of the ethi< not an infinite spiritu ither an imp irsonal

ral, or a merely individual!, al. The ori

* This article is a free translation from ruttke's

' :i Sittenlchre, found In the

Methodist Quart* rlj !.'■ view, January, 1500.

506 Wuttteon Pre-Platonic Ethics. [October,

infinite Spirit, and the goal not'the perfecting of the moral personality in a divine kingdom based on the moral perf of its members, and in- the communion of the individual with the infinite personality of God; but always simply alii good, whether a merely earthly civil perfection, with th noring of an extra mundane goal, (the Chinese,) or the enti renunciation of personal existence, (the Indians,) or a merelj individual perfection, apart from the idea of a divine kingdom raising individuals into becoming its living members, (tl e Egyp- tians, Persians, Greeks, Germans.) Throughout there is lac a recognition of true moral freedom : either it is expressly denied, or ascribed only to a few specially-gifted ones; while the re t of mankind are, as barbarians, incapable of moral freedom and perfection. There is, therefore, entirely lacking, also, a recog- nition of humanity in its entirely, as called to the accomj ment of a moral life-task. It is always simply a single nation, or an aristocratic section of a nation that is ethically active. The slave is incapable of true morality.

Where, however, humanity itself is called to morality, (the Buddhist--.) there the life-task is essentially negative, and di- rected to the annihilation of personal existence. Throughout there is lacking a recognition of the moral corruption of the natural man, and consequently of the need of a new birth; morality is not so much a struggle as rather a simple devel- opment. There is noticeable^ it is true, a consciousness of im- moral states of mankind, even of natural incapacity for ; ' ; but the former are generally attributed to mere civic and indi- vidual degeneration, and the latter confined to barbarian- and slaves. The idea of the highest good, however, is either only negatively embraci d or referred to earthly weal, or left enti in doubt, or at besl .-ought in mere individual perfection.

Bat more in detail. The heathen moral consciousness can of course be understood only in connection with the reli« consciousness upon which, for the time boh;-, it rests, we have, of the majority of heathen nations, only loosely joini I moral maxims, pr< rb . i tc, but no ethic;.! .-;. r our

comprehension of their moral consciousnei . no loss, since such systems arc always stamped more or less with the subjectivity of their author--.; whereas ma: ims, pi-ovt rbs, etc., are an objec- tive, unclouded reflection of the moral conscious of a nation.

1869.] WuWkeon Pre -Platonic Ethics. 507

As it is the essence of heathenism to conceive of God as in some way limited, so is its moral consciousness correspondingly defective. Is God viewed as an nnspiritual nature-deity \ Then is morality stamped with un-freedom, and is either a passive submission to the general, eternally uniform course of nature and of civil authority, (the Chinese,) or a renunciation of the human personality to nature conceived as a divinity with whom human freedom is inconsistent, (the Indians.) Is Clod con- ceived as limited and individual, and consequently as plurality '. Then is the human soul viewed as not in absolute moral de- pendence on him, but as relatively coeval with him, and as not having the divine will as its unconditional law. Morality is, in the main, subjective and variable; the self-love and selfish pride of the vigorous individual appear as the justifiable m motive of the moral life, (Western Asia and Europe.)

With such views the goad of moral striving, the highest good, can appear only as something limited. Among naturalistic nations (the Chinese and Indians) it is devoid of positive char- acter, and looks only to the greatest possible merging of per- sonality into impersonal nature. In China the moral spirit can attain to nothing which did not already from nature, that is, necessity, always exist. The task is not to create a moral king- dom, but only to preserve and passively subordinate one's worthless personality to the (independently of all per action already existing) eternal kingdom of necessitated order. In India, both among the Brahmins and the Buddhists, where the consciousness of the personal spirit is awakened to a much higher degree, the moral struggle assumes a truly tragic char- acter, in that the entire direct antagonism of the per spirit with the therewith hostile nature-God com recognition. The highest goal of the soul is not only not a positive one, not even the preservation of the eternally uniform order of nature, but the absorption vi' personal being into un- conditioned nature; the highest good is complete self-annihila- tion through moral activity. Among western hido-Germanic nations human personality is not extinguished, for there the divine is conceived of as personal. I3ul as the divii conceived as a limited personality,* or al least only in the esoteric heights of philosophy, as infinite, the certainty of the moral goal is shaken. The personal bpiril ot to

508 Wutikeon Pre-Platonic Ethics. [October,

vanish in (he tumult of the great world-organism, as in China, or to sink into the nameless unconditioned Bn hm orNervaua, as in India, but, on the contrary, to attain a positive result. For this, however, it finds no unshaken basis. As the individual here sinks tragically, a victim of fate or of envious deit : is his recompense in the world to come entirely doubtful. Achilles longs to return from the state of the departed, even in the position of a servant. Socrates is not certain that for his philosophic virtue, he will have the pleasure of converse with the eminent dead. At best, doubting hope looks only for a merely individual well-being; and the idea of an actual divine kingdom, with its roots in man's earthly moral life and its crown in its post-mundane perfection, and whose essence is the history of humanity, is unknown even to the most enlightened heathendom. True, moral-freedom is actually denied only by a few of the more consistent philosophers "of India, though in no ease is it thoroughly admitted. In China it is stilled under all-regulating imperial Jaw ; among the Brahu Ins it is admit- ted only in a very limited degree, and all personal initiative regarded as 'unjustifiable, or rather, as mere illusion. Imper- sonal Brahm is the only real existence. The Greeks, even in their highest philosophy, ascribe moral self-determination not to mankind, but only to the free Greek. Tie barbarian is only a half-man, incapable of true virtue, and called not to moral freedom, but only to unfree service under the tree Greek. A universal human morality i> not recognized even by Aristotle.

Among the chief imperfections of heathen ethics is the total lack of the idea of humanity. Buddhism, the sole system thai breaks over the barriers of nationality, docs so only because of its negative character, because in its conviction of the nullity of all being even the differences of rare also vanish ; but this morality does not aim to build up a spiritual kingdom of ethi- cal reality, bat contrarily, to free the soul from all reality, even its own personal existence.

Human depravity iinds in heathendom only fainl recogni- tion. For the Chines* all reality is good. The is mirror-smooth ; and if, perchance, a .-light ripple ] ' Burface, a moment's calut suffices for its vanishment, b Indian all existence is equally good ami equall I a form of God ; bad, as transient or deceptiv< . '•

1869.] Wutike on Pre-Platonic 1 509

with God, witb the universe. Man suffers from the falseness of the world, but has not occasioned it.

The Persian comes nearer the truth. Mankind, in his view, is really morally depraved; and thai because of moral j because of a fall from the good; and man musl morally struggle against the evil and for the good. But the fall exterior to the sphere 'of hnman action and guilt— lies in the sphere of the divine. Not the rational creature bnl a god has falleu. The divine exists as a hostile duality, the Grood Being in contest from thebeginning villi the Evil. The world, both moral and natural, is the work of botli these antagonistic beino-3. The moral weakness of tins system lies in the fact that, throwing the guilt back upon the divinity, it deprives man's moral efforts of their true and strongest motive ; but with the Greeks even this partial truth of the Persian: is thrown into the background by the notion of an inner actual harmony. That which in Christianity is the moral goal is here conceived as an already and necessarily existing reality; so that in o to the attaining of this highest good, man has only to d.e\ the essentially faultless germ of his' actual spiritual being. Of a positive struggle against the might of an actually indwelling evil even the greatest philosophers have no conception ; and what of manifest evil did'ibrce itself upon their sounder prac- tical -jud-anent was by their intense self-complacence sought not in man himself; but beyond him, either in the spin I the gods who, even in the hands of the more moral poets, ap- pear as morally stained and justly roproachable, or beyond the god-sphere, in irrational fate, or in non-Greek mankind, who as barbarians are morally degenerated. By tar the highest heathen conception of morality and guilt is found among the ancient Germanic nations.

J J. The moral notions of savages lie outsid Id of his-

tory. The gentler of the half-civilized peoples, the Mexicans, and especially the Peruvians, broughl social morality to some perfection; but it appeal's to have been a thing rather of < rooted custom than of clear, conscio ness. 1 moral < i sciousness of the Chine-.. ply d ivcloj cd as 1

merest minutiae of life, and contained in numerous holy-es- teemed writings, is, without higher ideas, merely empirically comprehensible, purely civic, and looking only to an external

510 Wutike on Pre -Platonic Ethics. [Octobei

fitness. The essence of this morality is a quiet conformance to changeless order., a preservance of the happy mean, "without any consciousness of a lost and to-be-regained perfection of the race. It presupposes entire goodness of human nature, perfect harmony of reality and ideal. It looks not to the sanctification of an unholy reality, but to the modeling of the individual after purely human patterns.

The bright point in Chinese morality is obedience in family and state; its chief* trait is a passive remaining in the move- ment of the whole, an even pulse-stroke whose meaning is not in a goal but in the movement itself.

But more fully. The religion of the Chinese is a pra and consistent naturalism, and is rich in moral maxims. It was reduced to system about GOO .B. C. by Confucius. Uni- versal life, even in its spiritual phrase, bears here a naturalistic stamp; there is no notion of a morally-attainable spiritual goal, but only 01 an eternally self-repeating course of nature ; morality looks not forward, but only backward upon what has been and ever shall be; and all amelioration of an unfor- tunate present is mere return to the previous better. The moral goal is not progress, but preservation of, or return to, the past.

The ideal is not yet to be attained, but properly has already, with only transient becloud ir.gs, always been p Humanity is, without development, already perfect. Morality aims not to produce something that was not, but only io heal a slight disturbance of what already was. The highest j is not a goal and aim, but mere existence itself. The paradise into which nature first placed nfuu has never been los furthest, only a few inconveniencing thorns and thistles have en.'p! in, which, however, are ca>ily rooted out. Man i.-^ no! to help to shape the course of world-history, but simply t-> on with it, to work as a passive wheel in the eternal cl work. The high'- t symbol of morality i; the natural sky with its eternally uniform movement. As the actual world is the mutual intet ion of the two primitive principles, heaven

and earth, and holds the equilibrium between them, . morality the preservation of equipoise— the middle waj is always the best. Morality is, therefore, not exacting, ain nothing high, but is mild, temperate, and practical. Man i

1869.] Wutthe on J V- -J '/, \ ton ic Eth tcs. 511

not to deny himself, to counteract his heart, but only in all things to be moderate. Man, that K ^he Chinaman, is natu- rally able to fulfil] all morality; and there have been, there- fore, absolutely sinless men. Virtue is easy, as it meetshostile evil neither in the heart nor in society, and as it c.v every-where, not bale, but love and esteem.

As morality is the mere expression of natural order, Xl stands in relation to the course of nature. Keeping the i mean preserves the equipoi eof nature ; and every disturl . of the same by sin re-echoes through the whole— especially when the sinner is the vicar of Heaven, the emperor, who is called by office to be a pattern, a moral ideal. Drouth, famine, overflows, pestilence, are not so much penalties inflicted bv a personal god as the immediate natural consequences of th< sins of the emperor, and of the people in imitating him. Instead of an historical connection, a working of sin oncoming- generations, we have here a natural connection, a working it on present nature and on the present generation. Ace ing to this conception, man's sins have not only to do with himself, they react also disturbingly on the universe, and on its highest manifestation, the Celestial Empire; all sins are, therefore, crimes, and hurtful to large.

The center of moral life is the family; in it is revealed the divine life, consisting in the antagonism of the male, or active, and the female, or passive, (spiril aud matter,)and in the union of the two. Family life is a living divine service, and family duties the highest. Filial obedience yields to no other. What heaven is to earth, thai is the father to his children, and i ence to parents is a religion- virtue. Marriage is, therefoi moral duty which the virtuous cannot ne< lect. The celibate breaks the succession of the family and on his

But a fully realized morality appears only in the ' which i- simply the pcrfecte i family. The emperor, as son and vicar of Heaven, and a- ruling, not arbitrarily bu :1 laws, is the fath ir and educatoj;of the people, not i protecting right, bnl also, as pattern of virtue,

:is people. Ju China :! ind every thine; is the State. Between civil and moral law there is no disl inction.

III. The Indians, both Brahmins and Bui ally

512 Wiitike on Pre -Platonic Ethics. [October,

with their extreme pantheism, conceive of morality in an essentially negative foqm. Human personality is delusive and unjustifiable, and, therefore, the essence of morality i denial, world-renunciation, passive suffering. The moral goal is not a personal possession, not a realization of, am1 - tiou to, a moral kingdom of persons, but the giving up of personality. All finite reality is evil, not by man's fault butin itself; needs nut redemption but annihilation: but pure pantheistic Brahminism derives the world and humanity from the divine substance, and, therefore, admits a substratum of divinity in exevy thing. Buddhism annihilates even deity itself, and. mates morality to consist in a patient, hop contemplation of the nullity of all things.

But to particularize. The Brahmins have, in their sacred books, ancient and rich collection-; of ethical teaching-. Of divine origin, and almost equally esteemed with the Vedas, are the Laws of Mann, of which portions belong to differenl i though the most recent are anterior to the fourth century J !. 0. Moral maxims are yet unseparated from religious and civil.

The Brahmin regards the real world as neither necessary nor justifiable, but as a sort of dreamlike emanation from Brahm, which after a temporary and purposeless continuance will vanish back into the bosom of the All. Personality is an evil. Continued existence in soul-transmigration i.- punishment, not reward. All reality is, as individuality, evil, and only i general divine basis, good. The moral subject is not man se; there is no human individuality, but only closer or rei circles mound the divine center-classes (castes) of men, < different by nature, mid of which the lower are inferior to many beasts, and utterly incapable of morality. To teach the A> i or the Laws to >\u;}\, is the greatest crime. Only for the higher castes is true knowledge and morality possible. Even among them are moral capacity mid duty \ it. An In-

dian speaks of the duties, not of men, bul limins

alone are capable of the highest morality, and morality ' a positive shaping and developing of reality, but a contemptuous tumii d :'"!1! the .-ame in order to verge personality

the impersonal All. The highest virtue i- renunci merely of sensual pleasure, of earthly comfort, but of personal consciousness, in order that Brahm alone may exist. The

1869.] WuttkeonPre-PlaionicB/tics. 513

highest good is to become one with Brahm, not in moral like- ness, but as a drop loses itself in the ocean. As in deepest sleep man is nearer deity than when awake, so the goal of

virtue is the eternal sleeping of the personal soul, the evapo- ration of the drew-drop that trembles on {lie loins leaf. Hold- ing fast to personality is the root of all evil. Naught should exist but God. for whom, indeed, the existence of the world is at best but a dream -phantom, a transient hallucination.

The Brahmin looks sadly at the present, with indifference into the future, and with contentment only on the past, when naught was but. Brahm, and into that future which Will again realize this past. A Brahmin's morality is less a working than a sacrificing, and is identical with his worship, vi' which the essence is simply self-torture. What nature doe- for her prod- ucts by decomposition man must do for himself by morality. The fearful self-tortures of the Indian arc not penance for sins, but highest acts of sanctity. He has no consciousness of guilt; the evil that exists is not his, but Clod's. The evil that is associated with all finite reality i; inherent in the same, and has no remedy but its sinking back into the infinite. All morality is mere self-denial ; the true sage needs not only do no positive works, he avoids them from principle, for they be- long only to the realm of vanity.

For man even, a.s an object of moral action, has the Indian no concern; he has a higher love for nature, as this stands nearer the deity. In nature he sees his mother, and lovingly reverences her as the most immediate revelation of Brahm. The same Brahmin who can coldly see apariah famish, with- out even reaching out his hand to help, shudders at the thought of breaking a grass-blade or swallowing a gnat, and will not, without cause, break the least earth-clod. Marriage and the family life in general can be only a transition stage for the in..: ally imperfect. The enlightened Brahmin musl forsake father and mother, wife and child; musl die to the worl I to himself ; and live only in solitary contemplation of Brahm, standing for years on the same spol ■ seeking or accepting only the !

finite must become utterly indifferent, until, fading awa\ a plant, lie attains the longed-for death. For socii !y and politics those o( the lowei i y have c mcern. Brah-

511- Wutike on Pre -Platonic Ethics. [October,

mins care naught for these things, and higher than the warrior- hero or the dominating prince is the crown-despising hermit.

Stronger still is the ethical consciousness of the Buddhists, whose wide-prevailing religion — an offshoot of the Brahminic, and founded in the sixth century 13. C. by the Indian prince Sakya-Muni — is the only heathen one that over sent out for- eign mission-. Within a few centuriesit spread itself through all middle, southern and eastern Asia as far as into Japan. The sacred books of the Buddhists are chiefly of moral contenl their religion itself is, in the main, morality.

Going- a step beyond the unconditioned Brahm of the Brah- mins, the Buddhist regards this undetermined baseofall tl as nonentity itself — Nirvana. All being sprang from nonen- tity, therefore every thing is in essence nonentity, and in an- nihilation finds iis true goal. Such only is the goal of man and of all moral aspiration. All is vanity in heaven and earth — heaven and earth themselves are vain; and over ;!; • vanishing ruins of a falling universe sits eternally enthroned the infinite void. The morality of this atheistical religion is in striking contrast to the lustful pleasure-seeking atheism of modern times, and consists in this, that the Buddhist is truly in earnest with his comfortless dogma ; that he presents the God- forsaken world to himself as really such, denies himself all en- joyment of the same, and considers deep grief at the emptiness of all being as the height of human virtue. Unable to conceive! of a personal God, he rejects an impersonal one as worse than none. His religion in its pure form is a religion of di pair; and with it his ethics correspond, differing entirely from Brahminic. Here, there is no divine center of the unr around which privileged classes are grouped, humanity j simply a vast sea of uniform sand-grains. Here, no divine fatality controls human action; but moral activity aims ■.: positive goal, only al annihilation. The Bnddhi not,

but onlysuffei . The world's history is one vast tragedy. The height of wisdom is deeply to feel and to compassioi rrible

catastrophe. Suffering and sympathy are the sole sentiments of the sage; his nu in aspiration i9 I at of this life of

woe. In n world without God he is horaelcs , restless, com- fortless, without future, without joyful present. His world- renunciation is less active, virile, self-torturing than that of the

1869.] WuttJcem Pre -Platonic Ethics. 515

Brahmin, but, as it were, passive, feminine, quietly suffi i submissively waiting, till existence falls away of itself. Man must ck-spise the world, not in hope of a better, but because misery is inseparable from it. The pious should live as a home- less wanderer, or as a hermit in forest or desert, in beggar garb, possessing notliing, solitary, indifferenl to pain or pleasure, dead to all emotions. Wedlock, as producing new existi . and, therefore, in itself evil, he must absolutely avoid. Such self-denial the older, purer Buddhism required of all men, and it is only a deteriorated form of later times that conceded to a portion of the population a less rigid severity.

Buddhist ethics is mainly negative. " Thou shall not," is the prevailing form of command. An important precept is, to avoid increasing the unhappiness of either man or beast. Hence is here found, hand in hand with the highest contempt of the world, the greatest gentleness toward all living creatures. Nothing may be hurt, nothing hilled. To alleviate, the pain of another, man should even take it upon himself. And a historical fact, the Buddhists have been the gentlest of all heathens. But this gentleness .is not so much active love as mere compassion.

TY. The moral consciousness o( the Egyptians and of the Semitic nations, especially the Assyrians and Babylonians, as yet, very imperfectly known. Thus much seems certain, that amonf these nations, which form a sort of link between the Pantheists of cast Ana and the Theists of west Europe, the moral destiny of man and the personality of God came {» a partially correct recognition.

But more in detail. Egypt stood on the dividing line be- tween the naturalistic and the p< rsonally-spiritual-world theory. True, the divine is, at base, only a nature-force; it gles up, however, into spiritual personality. The presuppo- sition of morality is an inner moral-world-antagonism. 1 personal good divinities an' opposed by evil in the form of a bein"" who, though less spiritual, is likewise divine and mi Man in his moral life is invulved in tie mi, and is

call d to deterinin • him >lf fi I ■ the evil.

Mains self-determining power ; i i icivcd under a higher form than in China or India. Here, therefore, more war- like historical characters have been produced. The goal of

510 Wuttke on Pre -Platonic Ethics. [Oct

life is the victory of the good over the evil by the per spirit.

It was among the Egyptians that the personality of the came first to full recognition. Spirit is other and higher than nature, and is called to victory over it, to moral self-determi- nation, and to personal immortality. -But this calling to vic- tory over nature does not realize itself in the earthly life. As Osiris succumbs to the evil Typhon, so must man finally suc- cumb to unspiritual nature — only, however, to come to the enjoyment of full spirituality in the future slate. The morn- ing of spiritual freedom has dawned in .Egypt, but it is not yet day. Only through struggle, suffering, and dying is the made free both in the world of gods and of men. Osiris be- comes a real ruler only in the lower world ; so, also, man a real num. Only out of death springs life and victory. The moral life of the Egyptian, though brighter than thai the Indian, is still overspread with a dusky vail, a melancholy breath. Though eventuating in fruition, it is here full of sor- rows. Though not yet free, he becomes so after death, it' he here bravely battles; and he is conscious of full r isponsibility for his state after death. His lot is not assigned b; by him who firs.t vanquished nature and death ; by ( >siris, who is king of the next world, in which true life first begins, and who judges all human conduct by the scale of righteousness. With Osiris the just live on in communion and bliss. Osiris, wl the highest representative of the spiritual godhead, the pattern and earnest of immortalit}T, the first-born of those who live alter death, is also the highest representative of Egyptian mo- rality, the chief trait of which is persistent battling for right- eousness.

But perfect righteousness is attained only in the next w< on earth the evil powers have irresistible sway. Thei the Egyptians, C mtrary to the Chine e, direct all their low concern to the future life. Tin of their living v. etc

ly paltry huts, whereas those of their dead were monu- ments of the highest int. and of an unparalleli zeal. The i il : > and the royal tombs, the p; num-

ber among the wonders of the ancient world, and def ravages of time. The present lite is, as in India, lightly es- teemed; not, however, because of the vanity of all being, but

1 869.] Wuttke on Pre -Platan ic Ethics. 5 1 7

as compared with :ui immeasurably higher, richer future life. Mementoes of death attended the Egyptians cvery-wherc, aim mummies or images of the deceased served as such even at their banquets. "The Egyptians," says Diodorus, "esteem the time of this life as very unimportant; they call the dwellings of the living, inns; but the graves, eternal dwellings."

The heathen Semitic nations, especially the Babylonians, base religion and morality on the ground of the subjective mind, the isolated personality. The vague nni naturalism they have abandoned, but the} have not yet attained that of the infinite Spirit. Spirit appeal's only in the multi- plicity of individuals. In religion, as in morality, is there manifested, for the first time, the independency of bold, rude, subjective spirit on any absolute objective power, whether nat- ural or spiritual; an arbitrariness of individual volition, daring deeds, sustained savageness of will and passion, powerful move- ment without end or purpose. Man as individual steps for- ward as highest authority. Morality lacks a firm basis and norm. Jr. is the era of the great heroes, tyrants, and God-dc- spisers; from Nimrod, who began to be a mighty hunter before the Lord, to Nebuchadnezzar, who openly revolted against him. A rude, egotistical, moral consciousness is stamped with the defiance of the haughty subject toward all objective or divine authority. Cruelty and sensuality characterized even the worship — much more the moral life. Nineveh and Babylon reached the highest foi m of godless, pleasure-seeking, luxurious life in the pre-Christian world.

V. To a higher stand-point than the earlier nations, though not to a higher development of it. rose the temporarily world- historical Persians. The sharp moral antagonism of the two divine principles call- here to earnesl combal ;■ born evil. Moral personality is more highly esteemed. The moral calling is more earnest, and has the a surance of victory over evil not merely in the next world, but within the sphere of history itself. Morality has here, for the first time in thendom, a positive historical realization ol a king-

dom of good on earth. The Persiaus arc the solo heathen nation which has, for the basis of it- moral aspirati nite prophecy. 'The essence of Pci ian morality is a hope- buoyed, conscious combat against mighty evil, which is \

Fourth Series, Vol. XXI. — u'o

518 Wuitkeon Pre -Platonic Ethics. [October,

not as a natural, but as a moral and thoroughly abnormal cor- ruption. It looks to a purification of man from evil through volitional resistance to an evil deity.

But more explicitly. The Persians were not able, in the brief period of their historical glory, from Cyrus to Alexander, to develop their ethical consciousness to a ripe sci< ntific form. Our chief source of information, the A vesta, is far inferior to theprofound sacred books of the Indians, though the moral stand-point is higher. The real world is no longer a divine substance, but a product of creative act. Gu<} is higher than, and rules over, nature, though not as a perfectly free omnipo- tent Creator. The material world is not hostile, but friendly, to virtue. Man begins to feel at home in it, and regards his highest good as here realizable. His goal, moreover, is attained, not by natural development, but by constant, earnest bat! against positively existing evil. This evil inheres net in nature, but was guiltily caused by the fall of a divinity from good. This view approaches nearer Christianity than any we I ■ thus far met. The Chinese, in ignoring evil, and the Indians, in regarding it a-- a necessity of finite reality, deprive morality of its highest motive. With the Persians, all evil com personal act, though not human but pre-historical and divine. The godhead pt /: •-• , however, cannot do evil ; but there is other equally personal god, who, having freely chosen evil, interpenetrates the good world with his own, is concerned in all actual evil, and is therefore called Angra-Mainyus, (Ahri- man,) the " evil-disposed," the originator of death, Jab. impurity, and all hurtful creatures.

Though casting the guilt of evil from himself back on the god- world, still the Persi an conceives his own moral d and duty in regard to actual evil much more clearly than th • earlier nations. Man stands with full freedom betw and evil, and ha-, a- moral calling, to come into constantly do er communion with the good Being, and into ever greater antagonism t<> the Spiritof Evil. Morali . and is

based on the definitely-revealed will of Ormuzd. Tim- mo- rality is no longer naturalistic, but purely spiritual; and the subjective arbitrariness of the S

an objective moral norm is attained. The revealed holy Word is the mightiest weapon against Ahriman. The moral Btrn

1869.] Wuttke on Prc-Plaionic .Ethics. 519

is here more earnest than in Egypt, for it is buoyed up by hope of victory in tliis world. Osiris has been virtually banished from this world into the future, but Ormuzd maintains against evil, even here, a hopeful contest. The Persian, holding himself

for a champion of God. has in his moral strife a high to defend God and his work ; a high goal, redemption of the world from evil: and a high hope, for Sosiosch, the Helper, will finally come to perfect the victory. It is not without reason that the Persians, who were hostile to foreign religions, especially to the grossly idolatrous, showed constantly ■■:. high esteem for the Jews, for in their higher God-idea they found a similarity to their own.

The morality of the Persians is, in harmony with their the- ology, mainly of a denying character, directing itself destruc- tively against the manifestations of the evil Ahriman. Purifi- cation from whatever emus in real or symbolical contact "with evil, death, or corruption, the killing of poisonous or hurtful animals, and the like, are not only moral duties, but also acts of worship, and the Avesta abounds in minute directions on such points.

But also the positive morality of the Persians is much hi than with earlier nations. Persians stood, in the eyes of their contemporaries, in favorable moral contrast to the luxuriou of the Semitic nations. They were sympathetic and active. Indolence i-: from Ahriman ; labor, especially laud culture, ma- terial amelioration, etc., are holy requirements of Ormuzd. The moral bearing of man to his fellow is delicate and noble. High respect for personality is tin; basis of social virtue. Honesty, truthfulness, and high personal honor distinguishes Persian morality very widely from the ea

Only whore evil is viewed no longer as a mere abstract inci- dent of reality, but a- a concrete, guilty, personal actuality, moral resistance against the same become really earnest. The Chinese, labora quietly, busily, mechanically; the Indian pa- tiently endures ; the Egyptian mourn.-: and longs lor the next world; the Shemite pranc< sand enjoys; but the Pereian battles in manly, moral earnest. The chief error in his moral sciousness is, that ho assigns evil to the god-sphere, and iloes not recognize it in his own heart. The ethical coiii ■ of the Greeks isverydiff

520 Wuttke on Prc-Platonic Ethics. [October,

that of the Persians. Though developing itself more wideiy than tliis, it seems to approach less nearly the stand-point of Christianity. The heathen mind could not ! n h ild fast to the Persian dualism ; the Greeks seek the reconciliation of the world-antagonism by placing it in the past, and regard the present as an unbroken continuance of the world-ham which was obtained at the outset of human history by the vic- tory of the personal Spirit over hostile nature-forces. The dualism of hostile antagonism is lost in a dualism of love. No evil god and no unspiritual nature-power oppo es the ethical activity. Morality is not contest, but normal development of the essentially good and pure human being. Man, by follow- ing liis naturally harmonious disposition, by enjoying the beau- tiful actuality of the world, by ennobling sensuous enjoyment through spiritual culture, and by unfolding equally all pli of his sensuous and spiritual life, attains to the harmonious perfection of his personality, the highest goal of ethical aspira- tion. The beautiful is,^w se, the good. In enjoying and cre- ating the beautiful is man moral. The battle is not to destroy a world of evil, nor to realize an ethical ideal, but simply to develop the full heroic personality. The Greek battles for the sake of battling— finds in battle enjoyment, heroic sport. The Greek ideal is the vigorous, youthful personality ; in the go l- world, the young Apollo; in the hero world, Achilles; until, at the close of Grecian ascendency, Alexander realized it in an historical form. But all ideality inheres in the transcend- ent individual. An enduring world-historical, ethical reality, however, the Greeks could nol create. The positively perfect goal was lacking. Alexander's conqnering deed-' looked to- ward, and could only glorify, his own heroic, person; had t away at his death; and the Greeks became an easy pre) nation which, with zealous persistence, aimed; at the positive ^oal of a unified world, and held the individual in absolute subordination to their purpose. To the', kl ethical ides is move an object of e ,iheti< al i i ']■ i) menl than of moral realiza- tion. For the : ' ber moral life, the family, is his ethical conpciousness extremely defective ; am humanity per se} he doi - r : only the Hellene, no1 the barbarian, is held for a truly moral personality. Slavery is the indispensable basis of a free State.

1869. J Wutthe on Pre -PUton ic Ethics. 52 1

But to take a closer view. The earlier world-antagonism, of which all heathen nations have been conscious, though not perfectly overcome by the Greeks, is yd resolved into a sort of harmony, which, however, as viewed from a Christian stand- point, must he regarded as delusive. The consciousness of such an antagonism ; . d in myths concerning ancient

struggles between spiritual deities and Titanic nai The former remain victors, and the actual world manifests the reconciliation of the antagonism. Every-wherc, in heaven and earth, are nature and spirit in harmonious union. All p hostile to personal mind was already conquered in the pre- historic period, and the Titans arc thrust into Tartarus. The basis of Grecian morality is, therefore, delight in actual exist- ence—love as bliss. Man is not to sacrifice his desires, but only to heighten and indulge them so far as they bear the stamp of harmony and, beauty, lie is not, as the Indian, to renounce the world, but to enjoy its inexhaustible beauty in peaceful satisfaction ; nor as the Persian, to combat its evil- permeated actuality; but to pluck its joy-bringing fruits. Grecian morality is that of one who, without severe inner struggle, is complacently satisfied.

The Hellene has, on the one hand, in his conviction of world-harmony a strong motive to virtue. Glad to preserve this harmony, he is in general kind, open, honorable, and shows respect for the moral personality of, as well as some de- gree of generosity to, his enemies; but he has in it, on other hand, a tendency to superficial morality — believing that without any contest he possesses the good already, and that his natural desires are right, lie i.. inclined to indulge hint even in excessive lusts if they only wear tlj . au-

tiful. The Inauty of the manner excuses the sin. The wor- ship of Aphrodite gives to sensuality even a religiou counte- nance. Grecian eliemiuacy and luxuriousness, to which the

ans alone were an exception, became proverbial a: the Romans. Also for the darker passions, hate and revi the Creek had little blame; lie took no offense at the borrid abuse of the heroic [lector. The mosl virtuous were nol i spected, but banished ;. the flatterers wen- honored, the frii of truth h;iied or killed. Exquisite taste for the beautiful elevate- the Greek to a I

522 Wuttkeon Pre-Platonic Ethics. [October,

conception of moral beauty, and the poets sketch moral i with masterly hand ; but their ideals are more for esthetic contemplation than moral imitation. Morality bec< therefore, a mere spectacle; and in no heathen nation is the contrast between the ideal and real life so great as in that which conceived the ideal the highest. The moral require- ments of practical life were different from tl The same people v. ho on the stage admired, and in song- heard, with rapture, such female ideals as Penelope, Antigone, and Electra, placed in actual, life woman, marriage, and general domestic life much lower than the Chinese and the ancient Germans; and even accomplished concubines enjoyed, not • in the condemned taste of the more corrupt circles, but also in the moral judgment of the most cultivated, (especially after the time of the notorious Aspasia, who is associated in history with Pericles, and was also honored by Socrates.) higher regard than simple housewives, and became the real guides of female culture and the ideals of female grace. In Sparta the family was destroyed by express legislation, and the penal laws against bachelors, which soon became necessary, are but a proof of how popular those laws hostile to domestic life really were. Solon found it necessary to the well-being of the State to prot with penal sanction-, the simplest natural duties of the marriage state — a proof of how great already, in his day, was the general aversion to wedlock— a state which, though forming the basic true morality, was regarded in the brightest age of Greece as little better than a necessary evil. Abortion and the ex- posing of new-born children were a parental right which not only protected by laws, but also justified by tb teemed philosophers. The depravity, nol only of actual life. but also of the general moral itself mosl

unambiguously in the unnatural lusts which even philosophers stooped to gloss up int.. respectability. Paul's dark picture (Rom. i) not onh of Grecian morals, but also of the i consciousness of the Greeks, is perfectly confin cd by \ history. In our modern i improve Chin tii n pi '

phy by '• classic," these fai ts ought not to be lefl ont of sight. The heathen Germans stand, in thi " the

Greeks. Put high as, indeed, was developed the idea of the sacred

1869.] WuttJee on Pro-Platonic Ethics. 523

of personality, still this sentiment was indulged only for the free Hellenes, who formed but a small minority of the Greek population. (At greatest prosperity Attica contaiue I slaves, ami Corinth 460,000.) Barbarians and slaves have no right to personal liberty. Freedom without slavery is absurd. The general mild treatment of slaves was more an expression of natural kindness and personal interest than of acki justice. Spartan slave-murdering was an unquestioned i of State and citizen. Even Plato and Aristotle are unab imagine a ^vcq State without the personal nnfrce ivery.

This "humanitarian" race limits freedom to tlie possessors of slave?. And the higher the right and might of the free ri increases their power over their slaves. That the latter were only rational domestic animals was a general opinion, and ad- mitted by the sao

Though the practical opinions and actual morals of the Greeks are in some respects far below those of other heathen nations, vet is their speculative morality higher. Th:tt which in Christianity forms the presupposition of all truly moral life, the reconciliation (at-one-ment) ol' contradiction and antagonism in tl e actual world, and the higher right and power of personal spirit over unfree nature, is by the Greeks r I in a

higher though distorti d form than by earlier heathens. A- in Christianity only he who. through an historical atonement, is made free from natural sinfulness and raised" to true moral liberty can realize true morality, so also the Hellene lays at the basis of his ethics a prehistorical reconciliation of nature and spirit. Of course he could come to such a conception "t the atonement of the world-antagonism only by ignoring per- sonal guilt for it, by placing its reconciliation in the pre-his toric ao-es among I Is, and by regarding man as now en

•jovini this world-harmony, and as having nothing more with the ancient antagonism, bu I csthctically to reproduce it in a; i and poetry— in mock Titan ball!.'- on Olympic plains, and in Promethean tragedies. Still flu- basal though! in this is im- portant: thai onlj man, as mad.' free and placed in harmony with the universe, is capable of true morality. ■ sirry-

\UJr out of this thoughl i very defective; that tl : through his fables and tragedies, docs not rise to true moral earnest : mere result of his heathen surroundings. And

624 Wutikeon Pre -Platonic Ethics. [Oc1

even in the fact that to the Hellene morality seems so i there is a presentiment of the true thought, tied to the morally- emancipated the moral law appears no longer us a yol den, but rather as the immediate, unconstrained, bliss-inspi normal life of the sanctified man. To no other heathen ua is morality so easy a task as to the Hellenes. The Greek recognizes for the moral subject no absolutely binding law; evers the moralizing philosophers confine themselves, in sharp contrast to the Chinese, Indians, and Persians, ah exclusively to the mere generalities, seldom giving minute precepts. Free man bears the law in himself, and !>•>- noi is external. And this is but a heathen distort io

theyAV se true thought, that for the spiritually-regenerated the law of God is written in the heart ; that his yoke is easy and his burden light. If Chinese and Persian ethics remind us of Jewish, so do Grecian of Christian. That among the G the resembling phase rested vu a false basis, and in application wrought pervertingly, leading to frivolity, and in i speets to a lower morality than that of the Orientals, proves not the perversity of the theory, but the perversity of the natural man, who turns the truth which he possesses to the service of sin, and thus confirms the declaration that only whom th< makes free is "free indeed." He who is spiritually entree while imi gining himself free, is in greater danger than he who. being unfn e. knows himself such. The Greek is more respon- sible and more guilty than other heathens, I'rr lie has a hi knowledge, and the Apostle's condemnation of the heathen (Rom. i) strikes the Greek more severely than others.

VII. It was through Socrates that the moral consciousness of the Greeks first approached a philosophical form. J: him we find little but isolated practical maxims. Soci speculating less on ontolog) than on " the good," not onty bases the ethical on philosophical knowledge, but finds tl essence and perfection. Knowing is the highest virtue, and out of it flov immediately and necessarily all others. A con- tradiction between knowing and willing is inconceivable. Ethics realizes itself practically in the subordination of irra- tional de ires to rational knowli ■ ially iu obi civil law. Without consciousness of the might of evil in nat- ural man. Socrates finds the moral, mainly, i>\'.}\- in a common-

1869.] Wutike on Pre -Platonic Ethics. 525

sense calculation of external fitness. His significance for ethics lies in his having indicated rational knowledge as the fountain of the ethical and objective, though imperfectly defined, good. as the goal of rational life.

More definitely. The Greeks speculated very early concern ing the moral, and the most ancient sages were chiefly i ists; but it was long before the isolated practical maxims were reduced to systems. Philosophy proper was purely specula- tive, and the moral views of the philosophers were but loosely connected with their systems.

Socrates, it is said, flrsl brought philosophy from heaven to the earth. With him it becomes essentially mural. Even as to God, it is the mural rather than the ontological that inti him. To know the good is for him the essence of philos But as ethics is derived exclusively from philosophy, so in it the element of knowledge overbalances that of emotion. With Socrates ethics is coldly rational, and has not, as in I ity, an historical basis, but is a priori discoverable. Man is by nature totally good, and has in his freedom a decided natural tendency to the good, as in his reason he has a natural thirst for truth. Evil Oi<h.^ not spring from a Lad will, but . from error. The judgment may err, and the consequent act is evil ; and it is absolutely impossible that man should not wjll that which he recognizes as good. If, therefore, nan are only led to a knowledge of the good, they will surely act virtuously. The motive to morality is not love, but knowledge. To in- struct is to render better. The philosopher is the virtuous — he only can practice true virtue. The ignorant is also unmoral. "Know thyself" is the presupposition of all morality ; not, however, in the sense of knowing the evil natun itural

heart, but in the sense of knowing the mind in its logical proc- esses. In his dialogues Socrates docs not aim t<> shov i their moral guilt, bill 1" convince them how little they know. Ilis ethics is a one-sided knowledge. Thi one virtue of wisdom, tin I cr virtues 1

only forms of this one.

The chit oing of wisdom is Bclf-mastery, sub-

ordination of pn Man must

in all cases walk by the light of knowledge ■ self-con-

sistency, and not yield to his instincts. Aud as know!

520 Wuttke on Pre-Platonic Ethics. [October,

cannot be stolen, and as changes of feeling arc subordinate to it, so has man, in its fixedness, also happiness ; the sage is n< c- essarily happy within himself. Herein is the freedom of the wise. Knowledge, virtue, and happiness are essentially but different sides of the same thing. In thus identifying the good with knowledge Socrates rescues it from the arbitrari of the individual, as truth is objective, and not in his control. The good is, therefore, independent of the individual, and all rational men must recognize it. The ethical idea has, there- fore, obtained a universal positive meaning, and ^ocrates recog- nizes its objective validity in ascribing -true wisdom to God alone.

These general thoughts of Socrates form the basis of the terns that follow him. He does not develop them. When he aims to give them a mure specific meaning it is by advei to civil law, in obeying which man becomes moral. His mo- rality is, therefore, only Greek civic virtue— -has no high i • .1 prototype. Obedience to civil law is the sum of all duties. "Just" is synonymous with "legal." To do good to friends and evil to enemies is a moral requirement, though it is better to sutler wrong than to commit it. Injury inflicted on em is not injustice, but righteous retaliation.

The general spirit of Socrates is a dry, prosaic utilitarianism. His moral views, except as developed by Plato, lad: ideal in- spiration. In his own life he rises not above ordinary Greek morality, and it is onlj our modem deistical charlatani m that could have placed Socrates, as a moral ideal, by the side of Christ.

In Plato's Symposia n Socrates rivals all others in drinl and outquaffs, withoul getting intoxicated, the whole company, and vet is this Platonic Socrates considerably . In

Xenophon Qlem. iii. 11) he goes with a. friend t<> a public woman and teacli 's her the art of fascinating men. The i to justify this is by no means si If in such a i

Socrates thinks of nothing better than indulging in logical gymn istics hi., moral ji dgmcnl of the thing i.-, evident enough. His bearing otherwi e to Grecian licentiousness (Mem. i, 3, M, 15) manifests deep obscurity of moral consciousness even in the philosopher. Of moral and domestic love has S i far

as we know, scarcely ;i dream. When, after his condemnation

1809.] Wutikeon 1J 're -Platonic Ethic*. 527

to death, his wife with her child comes to his prison to take leave of him, Socrates merely remarks dryly to his friends, "Let someone take the woman back to her home." She is led out by a slave, and in his last long farewell to life he does not find place for a single word for wife or children.

VIII. From Socrates went forth several schools whose dif- ferences were mainly ethical. The Cynics (Antisthenes) give, in its practical application, a one-sided prominence to the rates' doctrine of the ethical significance of know!- i Knowledge creates the good immediately; virtue, resting ex- clusively on knowledge, is man's highest goal. Its chief trait is battling against irrational desires; freedom from desire is highest virtue. Opposed to tlmse the Cyrenaics (Aristippos) emphasize the other side of the wisdom-life, happiness. Hap- piness is the highest good — the goal of morality. 'Virtue is but a means to this end. But happiness consists in the feeling of pleasure — enjoyment. Enjoyment is, therefore, the goal of morality. By it man becomes free, for it puts to rest his dis- quieting desires.

More specifically. Both of these schools seek an objective basis for morality ; but in fact both are thoroughly subji the Cynic beginning with subjective knowledge and the thereby- determined -will, and the Cyrenaics with feeling. Both are one-sidedly Socratic. If knowledge, virtue, happiness are essentially identical, then it is indifferent whether we say virtue consists in unconditional obedience to knowledge, or in Eeeking after happiness. The Cynic is. therefore, consistent when he says, I need only follow knowledge, indiflerenl as to pl< or pain, for true happiness must i pring from virtue, and what- ever feeling may contradict this is to be despi ^vy. The Cyrcnaic is also consistent when he says, 1 uecd oulj fol- low my pleasurable feelings, indifferent as to philosophical knowledge, for since happiness must spring from virtue, I have, in my sensation of pleasure, the certainty that J practice virtue —that 1 comprehend tin . >od i ightly.

According to the Cynics there U for the good no othi tinguishing trait, than knowledge. A knowledge of the and a therewith-accordant conduct, ore the onl) things . knowing Only the good In \] only

the bad is ugly* Whatever else maj seem p] »r the

52S Wuttkc on Pre -Plutonic Ethics. [October,

senses or feelings is perfectly worthless. True freedom is per- fect indifference to every tiling exterior to the mind il All evil is error — arises from false impressions andconcepti but not from the heart. By virtue of his knowledge the is free from all sin.

In this system the independence of the individual mind is pushed to an absurd extreme, both in its disdainful indifference to all objective reality, and in its presumptuous reliance oi own very imperfect subjective knowledge. It leads to i plete contempt of the world, and of social and civic customs. Whatever of half truth Cynicism may have, its practical appli- cation leads almost nec< i'v fc( i mere caricatures of humanity — to a Diogenes. The school, as a whole, gives free scope to the pride of easily-contented self-righteous ones.

The Cyrenaicsgo to the other extreme. A happiness that is not felt as pleasure is none at all. If virtue makes happy it must be through the feelings. Whatever is truly good evinces itself as such, through the feeling.-; and conversely, win excite- pleasure must be good, otherwise there would happine.-s that did nut spring from virtue. Between manifold pleasures there i no e 3iitial moral difference, and the ] ure-sensation is a perfect guide in the sphere of morals. The chief object of practical wisdom is, therefore, to procure the greatest amount of pleasure. Reflection must do this work. By reflection, for example, I find that temperance is a virtue, for intemperance produc* s pain. True wisdom con- fore, in iipding the just limits of each pleasure, but not in a knowledge of general principles. Each pleasure lias a different measure, and this cau bo discovered by experience alone. brines us down to PI — .

Aiit. 111.— SAUL'S INTERVIEW WITH THE WITCH OF EKDOR.

I SAMUEL XXVIII,

The practice of witchcraft and necromancy ia of ai

origin. We trace it back through the antiquity

as far as to the patriarchal age, and even then its beginning readies on into a remoter past. But whatever it.> origin, and

1SC9.3 Saul's Interview with the Witch of JEhdor. 5ii'j

whatever the real nature of its mysteries, it is every-where treated with sternest denunciation by the law of Cod. " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." Exod. xxii, 18. "Reg not them that have familiar spirits, neither seek after wizards, to be defiled by them." Lev. xix, 81. "There shall not be found among you anyone that maketh Ids son or his daughter to pass through the fire, or thai useth divination, or an obi of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, or a charmer, or a con- suiter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a necromaucer.* For all that do these things are an abomination unto the Lord, and because of these abominations the Lord thy Cod doth drive them out from before thee/" Deut. xviii, 10-12. In this last passage a necromancer is distinguished from a consulter witli familiar spirits, but one person might practice many forms of witchcraft, so that a consulter with familiar E might also be a necromancer. Accordingly we find the Witch of Endor pretending to hold intercourse with the dead, tl. she is called a woman that had a familiar spirit. The primary sense of the Hebrew word. (r.V) translated familiar spit i sMn-bottle, and is so rendered in Job xxxii, 19. The Scptu- agint renders it by eyyaoroiuvSoc, a ventriloquist^ in refi pence, perhaps, to the manner in which persons of tins crafl their responses. Hence Fiirst defines the word as ' hollow bell) of conjurers, in which the conjuring spirit resides, and speaks hollow, as if out of the earth."

Saul's interview with the Witch of Endor has ever I regarded as a subject beset with peculiar difficulties. Justi Martyr and Origen held that, by the incantations of the Witch the spirit of Samuel actually appeared and conversed with Saul. Modern Spiritism has also affirm) d thai the Witcl a medium through whom the King o\' Israel received commu- nications from the Prophet's Bpirit. But the majority of the older expositors, and some few moderns, believing it absurd to suppose that a holy prophet could b ■ made to i: c from tl e dead by the ministry of witchcraft, regard tlie supp • rition as Satan personatii much* " It

teenth century," says Iveil, " that tin opinion was express that the apparition of Samuel was merely a delusion produced

* For a thorough etymologi < : ■• :

Cyclopaedia, or Bl'Cliatool aud Si

530 Saul's Int&iview with the Witch of F ml or. [Oc

by the Witch, without any real background at all. After Reginald Scotus and Balthazar Bekker had given expres- sion to this .•pinion, it was more fully elaborated bj L\ Van Dale, (1GS3;) and in the so-called ago of enlighten this was the prevailing opinion, so that Thenins still regards it as an established fact, not only that the woman was .•• ' postor, but that the historian himself regarded the whoL I as an imposture." The prevailing opinion of modern divines is, that not by the- magic arts of the Witch, but contrary to her expectations, and by the express permission and com of God, the Prophet Samuel actually appeared and spoke to Saul.

On the moral character of witchcraft there can be no con- troversy. Tt litis over been associated with venality and fraud, and boars the condemnation of God's holy law. Wi driven, therefore, to adopt one of two conclusions. The mysteries of divination are certain psychological phenomena not yet fully explained by thorough scientific investigation but. of which Satan has taken advantage to deceive and les d captive the souls of men ; or else, they are wrought by the immediate supernatural agency of Satan and his angels. "This latter alternative we are slo^ to accept. We gather from the Holy Scriptures that (he evil spirit is so limited to a certain definite sphere of operation that he is never allowed to use supernatural power to mislead where there is only human .capacity to resist. Much more plausible, then fore, is the, supposition that the marvelous feats of magic and witch- have a physiological and psychological bads in the human constitution.

Careful and continued investigations in Clai\ within the last century, shed much light on the mysterii magic. We know that men have charmed serpents and ser- pents have charmed men. Why, then, should v.e doubl that man can charm man \ We cannot doubt it, for the thim often been done, and it has been shown beyond succes fill con- tradiction tli at, Iu accord a ice with certain laws of our b one person can so fascinate another, and | : electrical rapport with his soul, as to become sensible of \ he feels or imagines. This power, however, exists in diffi ii ni degrees. £ >ns it seems impos ible to mesmerize at

1869.] Saul's Intemiew with the Witch of JEi . 531

all, or at most only by long-continued efforts on the part of the operator; others are highly susceptible to mesmeric opera- tions, and are easily thrown into a clairvoyant state. Others, again, have the rare power of spontaneously inducing upon themselves the clairvoyant state, and then seem to revel at pleasure amid the things that belong to the spiritual world. In this state some, with their ever- closed and bandaged, will accurately describe persons and places that are far away, and that could have been known to them at the time only by some inner sight. Now by coming in dir tional

contact with the soul of another, the superior clairvoyant becomes cognizant of the emotions that are agitating there. By the power of an inner vision he sees in soul the images and impressions that are deeply wrought on the imagination and memory.

The limits and design of this dissertation preclude attempt at a physiological and psychological explanation of clairvoyance.* But the facts by which the abov • ta1 may be sustained are all but innumerable, and will nol questioned by those who have given the subject a } i examination. These facts cannot be without cause, and I must be some clew to the mystery that surrounds {hens. ~\Ye believe that the only successful way to refute and put to silence the pretensions of witchcraft is, not by denying her well- authenticated facts, and in the spirit of Popish p srsc- euting all attempts at their scientific im n, but by showing that all her lying wonders in the past are trac to a foul and unholy use of powers peculiar to ousti- tutions, but which were not at the time understood. It fell noi within the province of divine revelation to commn scientific instruction on this or any other subject, and tin r» we are not, to look to the Bible for an exposition of any prob- lem in nature which it is the proper pi explain. I>ut between the revelations of the Bible ai

* Those v.i '

hology : or, the Science of l

ally," by Dr. M See

ing," by John B. N"< wi ian, M. D.; i Del Part IV. sections 12 ai

532 SauVs Interview with the Witch of £?idor. [October,

Bcienoe there can be no real antagonism, for they arc both offspring of the everlasting Father.

We understand that the Witch of Endor was a clairvoyant of extraordinary power; that she could spontaneously place herself in sensational intercourse with the souls of those who came- to inquire of her ; and thai with this power she united the practice of lying and deceit as she found occasion to her own dark purposes. We hope to show by fair and worthy criticism, that, upon this hypothesis, the narrative before us is capable of a happy and consistent explanation; and at the proper places in the course of the discussion, we shall urge what we regard as insuperable objections to the commonly received interpretation, which assumes an actual appearance of Samuel.

A preliminary question, worthy of a passing notice, is, How did the writer of this book of Samuel become acquainted with the facts winch he lias here recorded ? There are two supposable ways, lie could have received his information by immediate revelation from the Holy Spirit, or from the testi- mony of eye-witnesses. There arc tilings recorded in the holy Scriptures which could have been learned only by dir< el reve- lation from Heaven ; but where the things recorded are of such a nature as not to need a miraculous revelation to communicate them, we have no sufficient reason to believe that such a revelation was given. We therefore conclude that our author received his information originally from the two men (verse S) who accompanied Saul to Endor, and were undoubtedly eve and ear witnesses of all tha d to

him there.

The sacred writer introduces the narrative by reminding readers of a fact already recorded in the previous history, that Samuel was dead and buried, lb' also inl' ael of

Saul's reign no! recorded elsewhere, by which all \ dieted to the divining art had been driven mil of the land el* Israel. This had be, n done in accordance with the law. (Exod. xxiij IS ; Lev. w. 27,) and perhaps by the advice el' the Prophet Samuel at an earl;- period of Saul's reign. The deadly perse- cution had caused all witches that could escape to the from the land, or else hid,' themselves in ('ark places of the wilder] One female necromancer had concealed herself in the ca

1809.) Saul's Interview with the Witch of Endor. 533

al Endor,* and her dark retreat was known to some of Saul's

servants.

In order to appreciate the wretched and abandoned slate of Saul at the time of his intercourse with the woman at Endor,

we should glance back for a moment over the misfortunes which befell him after his first transgression at Gilgal. Chap, xiii. At that time the Prophet announced to him thai kingdom should not be established in his posterity, but be

given to one who had a better heart than he. .And yet in the war Avith Amalek another fair trial was given him, and again he showed himself stubborn and rebellious. Chap. xv. Then Samuel uttered against him the final oracles of judgment: "Because thou hast rejected the word of the Lord, he also hath rejected thee from being king." And as the venerable Prophet turned to leave him, Saul, seized by sudden fear and trembling, violently grasped the skirt of his mantle, and it. rent in his hands. Usingthe imagery thus afforded, Samuel immediately said to Saul, " The Lord hath rent the kingdom of Israel from thee this day, and hath given it to a neighbor of thine that is better than thou." This was the last iuterview with Saul that. Samuel ever had; (verse 35;) for though Saul afterward i into Samuel's presence at Ramah, (chap, xix, 2L) and prophe- sied') before him, they had no intercourse with each ether.

From the time pf Samuel's last interview with him the Spirit of the Lord departed from Saul. Chap, xvi, 14. The divine influences of which lie had been made a partaker at the be- ginning of his career, (see chap, x, 10; xi, 6,) were withdrawn from him, and Grod no longer inspired him to noble euterp Then " an evil spirit from the Lord troubled him." A demon, sent by command of the Almighty, like, those so often mention- ed in the New Testament, entered into him, and to >fc p

:;' Endor, the mo lern the Philistine army encamp > reach it from the heights oi l

and his two men must have pari . a n i. ]

village is overhung bj a di rtivity which ia full of co I tl« Book," vol. ii. p. IG1.

•| S nil's pro] : at H unali was [>i

upon David, lie was seized bj an unseen, irr r, which caused him

to Bill down, and, Balaan like, predict 1 i

heart at other times ho would gl Uy I ■ curs I hii . < rds at a

1 '• r time, chap, xxiv, 20; :o.\i. 25.

Foi rth Series, Vol. XXL— 34

534 SauVs Interview with tlie Witch of Endor. [Octolx r,

sion of his soul. But while he thus became possessed by a supernatural evil power, if is very likely that a mental dise bordering on insanity, was the substratum on which the evil spirit worked. After Samuel's last words of judgment {Ik- King i not be happy in his kingdom. The more he thought upon his doom the more it harrowed np his soul. It was, perhaps, his highest ambition to be the father of a race of kings, and to have this hope suddenly dashed from him was to have ness settle over all his life. " The Hebrew mind," soys Kitto, "so linked itself to the future by the contemplation of poster- ity, that it is scarcely possible to us, with our looser att&clu to the time beyond ourselves, to apprehend in all its intensity the deep distress of mind with which any Hebrew, and .much more a king, regarded the prospect that there wou

'Xo son of . •-.'•"'

Saul's future thus became full of ghostly images, and v disengaged at times from the excitements of war and of government, he sat down to think over his i for-

tunes, his mind and heart, forsaken of all divine influ from Jehovah, became an easy prey to foul suspicions and gloomy fears— a most inviting state for demoniacal possession. The evil spirit, entering and reveling amid these mental dis- orders, carried him at times to the wildest height of ma and derangement.

We need not linger to trace onward the successive misfor- tunes of the unhappy Saul. They thoroughly convinced him that his <>\vu reign must soon terminate, and he knew David would succeed him. Chap, xxiv, 20; xxv, 25; coi al . xxiii, 17. When now he saw the mighty host of the Philistines as embleand encamp at Shuncm, armed an I tor a most de perate battle, there fastened upon his the dark presentiment that his end was nigh. Fearful h must have been his emotions as the darkness of that last gathered around him on the heij I of I past comes up before him. and tin departed Samuel seem to ring again upon hi, e in memory he stands at Gilgal, and. Samuel, wrapped in hi. mantle, rises up before hum shall he do to relievo his burdened spirit; Hia p .

1869.] SauVs Interview with theWitch of Endor. 535

strength is departing from him, for all day and all night thus far he lias taken no nourishment. He calls around him the most distinguished of Samuel's school of prophets, but they can give no comfort., for neither by vision nor by dream (Num. xii, 6) has Jehovah given them any message for Saul. One mure resort for him is to inquire by the urim on the eph the high priest, a priest whom he had probably himself appi ' in the room of the slaughtered Ahimelech. Chap, xxii, 18. But how could he expect an answer from that source when the blood of eighty-five priests was on his soul ? To him all holy or are dumb, and he realizes the awful truth that he is Go l-for- saken. "I am sore distressed," he cries. "The Philistines make, war against me, and God is departed from me, and answer- eth me no more.*' Whatever dim and visionary hopes he may have cherished hitherto, all now are crushed, and the foul spi that had formerly been driven from him by the magic power of David's harp again hovers about him and fills his imagina- tion with ghostly specters. What shall he do ''. With fell pur- pose, and that impulsive rashness which was ever his easily ■ b ting sin, he resolves to take counsel of one who pretends to hold communion with the dead. Swept down by the raging i ract of accumulating woes, he still, like a drowning man, grai ps at a straw. Surely no necromancer ever wished for ab subject to impose upon than was Saul when he approached the Witch of Endor.

Saul so carefully disguised himself that the woman did nol recognize him when he came into her presence. Nothing could have been further from her thoughts than that the I of Israel, at that dark hour of midnight, and when the Philis- tine army lav between his camp and Endor, was presenting himself to inquire of her. The King made known his errand in language such as one who inquired of a ni nicer would

naturally use: "Divine unto me .by the familiar spirit, and bring me tip whom ] shall name unto thee." Her su were at once aroused, and she charged hira with layii snare for her life. Bui Saul Bwaro unto herb) Jehovah that no harm >\>^\\Vt b( fall her ; and when i he a ked him whom lie would consult, he said, •• Bring me op Samuel." Whal i arts or incantations she proceeded to make use of \ told ; but the next utterance we have from her is one of excite-

536 Saul's Interview with theWitch of Endor. [October,

ment and alarm : ""Wliy hast thou deceived me? for thou art Saul."

How did the woman learn so pood that her gu< Saul ? To tlii- question the advocates of the common int tation hare failed to give any satisfactory answer. Somi that she inferred it from the venerable appearance of Samuel. But how could this be \ There is no evidence that she had i ■<■ seen Samuel before; and even if she had. we fail to see how mere appearance on this occasion could have convinced the Witch that it was Saul who inquired of her. Others saj she learned it from something that Samuel said. But as yel Samuel had not spoken. Rabbi Abrabanel supposes that when Samuel appeared he reverently bowed to Saul, from which the woman inferred that her consulter could be no less a person than the King of Israel. This supposition, however, is too absurd to need any refutation. But understand that the woman was a clairvoyant, and the answer to this questii : comes easy and simple. Tin's is acknowledged by Keil, the recent commentator, though in his exposition of the pa he teaches that Samuel actually appeared. He says, "Her recognition of Saul when Samuel appeared may be easily ex- plained if we assume that the woman had fallen into a state of clairvoyance, in which she recognized persons who, like Said in his disguise, were unknown to her by face."

Bui the writer say-. ik The woman saw Samuel." Yes, we re] 1I3 ; the clairvoyant o\' real power (and our interpretation assumes that the woman of Endor was such) can place herself in electrical or sensational rapport with another's soul as to hoc '100 cognizant of what is imaged there, and in tin's way the woman of Endor not only learned who her distinguished consulter was. but she saw prominent among the images that were pictured on his excited imagination the venerable form of the mantled Samuel. She saw him just as he appeared fo Saul the last time, and just tern and threatening form

had haunted thai monarch's s ml for many years.

The mass of interpreters have strangely i irtned th I woman's alarm and outcry must havi 1 ed !>\ the bu I

den and unexpected appc: 'Samuel. She saw Samuel,

indeed, and the manner in which she saw him in Said's excited soul was one moans of her recognizing Saul. Bui her

1869J SauVs Interview with the Witch of Endor. 537

words most clearly show that her alarm was not at the sight of Samuel, but at finding that the very monarch of Israel had himself detected her in her Borceries. ~\Ye understand that the alarm of the woman was so great at her re • Saul

that she came out of her clairvoyant state. What she ha ' seen in that one vision of Saul's soul was a sufficient basi I i her to devise and utter the responses which follow, and which pretend to come from Samuel.

The Xing- was convinced that she had seen some marvelous sight, and after quieting her fear.-, he ashed her whi I She replied, "I saw gods ascending out of the earth." The word --"';s\ gods, is somewhat indefinite, and by it she may have meant one thing and he have understood another. But did she see gods? We must remember that these words are the sayings of a witch, and she alone, not the writer of them, nor the interpreter, is responsible for their truth. Whether true or false, we regard them as a part of the devices by which she sought to terrify and impose upon Saul and his servants. But we have every reason to believe that at the moment she became clairvoyant Saul's soul was full of ghostly fears. Dark specters haunted his imagination, and he expected i moment to see some strange apparition start up in horrid reality before him. As she looks in upon this disordered of bis soul, and sees these ghostly pictures pass like so many shadows, over his wild imagination, she aptly describes the sight as that of gods coming up otit of the earth.

'Then Saul asked, " What is his form '. " He uses the Bin- gular iTOi, his form, though the Witch had spoken in the plural, of gods. She probably alluded to the g which she saw in his imagination, of which the im;i Samuel was the most prominent ; but he, ex] sec the dead Samuel arise, or hear him speak, 1 in

bis soul the image of that Prophet as he 1.. .

him. The clairvoyant having seen that form altogether j incut in hi '^n

oldmancometh up, and he is covered with a ma., could nol ■ ' Samuel except in i

mantle whose skirt he laid hold of and rent when the Prophet uttered against him the last bitter oracle of judgment. 1 ■ xv, 27.

538 Saul '* Interview with the Witch of Endor. [Oct

"And Saul perceived that it was Samuel." Observe, it is not said thai Saul sa"v\ Samuel. He formed his opinion enti from the woman's words. She described the form of Samuel exactly as he appeared at Gilgal — an old man wearing a man- tle-: -and from this description, not from actual Bight, he knew (?--, Sept. eyvu, Vulg. intcUexit) that it was Samuel. So overpowering was the impression thus made upon his mind, and so awe-strnck was he with the thought oi' the Pro: I presence, that "he stooped with Ins face to the ground and bowed himself."

"And Samuel said to Sard." Did, then, Samuel actually Bpeak? We understand that as the "Witch did all fc] for Saul, so also she did all the speaking to him. She was the medium both of sight and sound. The Septuagint version calls her a ventriloquist, and she may have caused her voice to sound from some dark corner, so that Saul and hit servants believed it to be the voice of Samuel. But it is not ] to suppose this. Saul unqiu stionably believed that the woman was holding intercourse with the real Samuel, and reporting to him what Samuel said. And so any one, who sought unto the dead in this way, though lie saw and heard the necro- mancer utter the communication with her own lips, if he be- lieved that it came from the person sought would naturally speak of it in this way. So when Saul's servants afterward reported this interview they would naturally say, "Samuel said to Saul;*' not " the woman said to Saul;" lor they un- doubtedly believed that the communication came from Sai

It should here be observed how perfectly non-committi ; sacred historian is in recording this mysterious transaction. lie records the whole matter precisely ns it was reported to him by the two eye-witnesses, and these witnesses reported ii precisely as it appeared to them. We believe thai S servants were imposed upon and deceived. They beli that Samuel had spoken to their King; but the sacred \ expresses no opin ion in the case. Hemayhave I their

report as they did, but he does not say so. And in this r the sacred writers are al!

commit themselves 1" any explanation <>r the mysteries which they record. They represent the magician ino- miracles in opposition to Moses, but tbeymal duo attempt

1S69J SauVs Inii vol. w with the Witch of Endor. 539

to indicate or explain the nature of those miracles. Nor need we suppose that they themselves had any settled opinions in the case. They recorded many things which they did not understand, and though they may have inquired and sear* diligently into their nature, the Holy Spirit has signally pre- served them from expressing their own conclusions.

Thus far, then, Ave find no evidence that Samuel actually appeared. The words "Samuel said to Saul" necessarily imply at most only that Saul and his two servants believed and reported that Samuel had actually spoken. Who can show that the words must necessarily mean more? The nar- rative also very clearly teaches that Saul himself saw nothing. He believed from the woman's representation of her \' that Samuel was there, but he saw him not. We have also observed that the woman's alarm was caused by her r nition of Saul, not by the appearance of Samuel. But while we find no evidence of an actual appearance of Samuel, there are several considerations which convince us that that holy Prophet had no personal connection at all with this affair at Endor. First, the manner of his appearance. He is r< sented as an old man, coining up out of the earth, and cov< re I with a mantle. If now he really came from Paradise, i passing strange that he should have appeared in this way. Can we well believe that a sainted prophet would return from the world of glory, bearing the marks of decrepitude and i and wearing again the cast-off garments of his uiorli ' And is it not more natural to suppose thai he would have appeared, not as coming up out of the earth, but as co down from above? Another more weighty consideration is the time and occasion of his appearance — after Jcl refused to answer Saul by urim and by prophets, and au ently through the medium of a witch! [t has often that Samuel appeared at the command of God, and n< any in tality of the Witch, but this statement is utterly

>' ate i from the narrative. The woman !■■

conf< -■•< d th • her alarm wa al recognizing Saul, in Samuel. We have i ;cd that she did all the •

She &aw the god i i n ling; she saw the dd man with mantle; and il wasonly after she told her vi ion that Saul ! (not saw) that it was Samuel. Theiv who affirm thai

5-10 Saul's Interview with the Witch ofEndor. [October,

Samuel appeared to Saul, or that ho came contrary to the woman's expectations, and not by her sorcery, have the whole narrative against them. Consider then the utter absurdil maintaining that, after the law had uttered its heaviest ex< lions against all forms of witchcraft, and after Jehovah had refused to answer Saul by urim, by prophets, and by drc the Holy One then sent Samuel from heaven to answer him through the agency of a miserable witch!

Still another consideration at war with the supposition that Samuel actually appeared and spoke on this occasion, is the nature of the communication itself which pretends to i from him. A careful examination of his words will show that he uttered nothing worth calling a saint from heaven to tell, nothing which the woman might not, under the circur and having the excited soul of Saul unvailed to her inner sense, have most naturally devised to awe and terrify the King, and perfect upon him her imposition. Let us examine the language.

The first utterance is unworthy of a holy prophet sent on a mission of God from the land o]' the blest : <; W"hy hast :' disquieted me to bring me up '." The Hiphil of the verb tan, in every place, where it occurs,* signifies to di . quiet* or alarm. In Job xii, 6, it is rendered provoke. The common interpretation affirms that Samuel rose from the dead by spe- cial permission and express command of God. How, then, could the Prophet truthfully say that Saul had disturbed lum ?. Can il be aught but a pleasure for any of the saints in light to obey Jehovah's orders '. Or if the order besupposed to involve a painful duty, would it not be rebellion for the servant to complain \ IIow absurd, in the light of Christian trut imagine the Bainted Samuel coming at the command of God from the world of spirits, and angrily complaining .to Saul that he had disquieted him! Surely the question Bavors nioi the theology of I lieni m than of Holy Scripture, and is explicable only when regarded as a device of thi , itch to awe and subject to her own will the soul of Saul.

We pass to the next nttera • : " Wherefore dosl thon of me. seeing the Lord is departed from thee, and i thine enemy?" It required no prophet to rise from the ■

*Jub ix, C; xii, Gj rs. xiii, 13; siv, It.; ss\:\, 11 ; Jer. 1, 31

1SC9.] Saul's Intei-view with the Witch of 1 oil

to suggest this question co the God-forsaken King; and if we regard it as any thing more than another device of the woman to increase Saul's terror, we involve ourselves in the absurdity, already presented above, of supposing that after Jehovah had in his law condemned all seeking unto necromancers, and after he had refused to answer the King by urira aud h\ proph< ts, he nevertheless disturbed a holy prophet from hi- rest in. heaven, and suffered him to rise from the dead apparently as ii forced up against his will by the arts- of witcheraf !

If, now, the reader will turn to chapter xv, which contains account of Samuel's last interview with Saul, he will find that the following words are in substance a repetition of ver * - IS, 26, and 2S of that chapter: " The Lord hath done for himself* as he spake by me; fur the Lord hath rent the kingdom out of thine hand, and given it to thy neighbor, even to David : cause thou obeyedst not the voice of the Lord, nor ■ his fierce wrath upon Amalek, therefore hath the Lord dune this thing unto thee this day.1' Now we submit whether any expositor has ever shown or can show a worthy reason for Sam- uel's coming from Abraham's bosom to repeat these words to Saul, who already had them deeply imprinted on hi- memory. If Lazarus could not revisit the world to warn the living of their danger because they had Moses and the Prophets, (Luke xvi, 31,) still less can we suppose that a sainted prophet would be" permitted to return and repeat to an incorrigible trans- gressor the very oracles of his earthly ministry.

Next follows the only utterance of all this ;■ munication of Samuel that seems to in iperhuman

knowledge: " The Lord will also deliver Israel with tl the hand of the Philistines, and to-morrow shall thou and thy son- be with me ; the Lord also shall deliver the host of I rael into the hand of the Philistines." If there is any thing in the entire pas-age that looks like a communication from n super- natural source it is here. But where, in this predictii . : involved any conceivable obje I importan

Saul or to any one else to call Samuel from the '• Id t"

tell 1 Dr. Clarke says that "Samuel did actually nop:

* i. o! hi i ... purposes. '

5-12 SauV 8 Interview with the Witch of Endor. [October,

Saul; and that ho was sent by the especial mercy of G warn this infatuated king of his approaching death, that he might have an opportunity to make his peace with his Maker." But there is no shadow of evidence that Samuel actually ap- peared to Saul at all; and if such an unusual effort had been made by the mercy of God to secure Saul's conversion I his death, is it not passing strange that no intimation either of its success or failure is anywhere given us in the word of God? Then we may observe that the words "thou and thy sons shall be with me" arc somewhat open to suspicion. It is usually understood that the words with me refer to the state of the dead generally, and were spoken in accordance with the ideas of that age ; but we submit whether a holy prophet, fresh from Paradise, who must have known that in that world there was a great and impassable gulf between the righteous and the wicked, (Luke xvi, 26,) would have expressed himself in this way. If Saul died in hi as we have every reason to suppose, how was lie, a vile t gressor, to become at once associated with the sainted . prophet '( Jesus said to the dying thief, " To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise;" hut we have evidence of the thiefs repentance and conversion, none whatever of Saul's. In 1 Chronicles x. 13, we read, ''Said died for his transj sion... and also for asking by a familiar spirit to inq (ur.vip rriao -"V-;";.) How could this be according to Cla opinion ? Punished with death for inquiring at a source whence he received revelations which enabled him '; to make his j with his Maker " before death, and attain to everlasting I Finally we ask, what is there in this prediction more won- derful than what many a second-rate fortune-teller of modern times, under the same circumstances, might have told '. The woman saw all Saul's despair and terror. ELehimseli in her presence, "I am list : for the Philistines

make war against me, and God is departed from me, and an- swereth me no more." She knew that the Philistines had even probability of victory on the i '&ub'

probable that Saul had the dark presentiment < ; mirrored in Id- soul. Thi irvoyant i

havesoen. She might have discerned in the tendencies < emotional nature a settled purpose 1" commit suicide ra*hoi

1869.3 Said's Interview with the Witch of Endor. 543

than fall a living prey into the hands of the uncireumcised Philistines. Sue might also have seen in that soul-picture the

image of the monarch's sons. For them he trembled as well as for his kingdom, and the bitterest drop in his cup of sorrows was the prospect that his name and lineage would be cut off. Chap, xxivj 21. She might have been persuaded that warriors like Jonathan, A.binadab, and Malclu-shua were no more likely to survive defeat than their father. Look now at all these things which the woman had before her, and where is there aught exceedingly wonderful in this announcement ? In such a crisis as was sure to come upon the morrow, Saul's own death could hardly be uncertain. This had possibly be- come a foregone conclusion in his own mind, and had driven him in such madness of despair to inquire of one that had a familiar spirit.

We conclude, then, that this pretended communication from Samuel contains nothing worth calling a sainted prophet from heaven to declare, and some parts of it are unworthy of such an origin. It contains nothing which the woman might not, under the circumstances, have told, audit is most easily expli- cable when regarded as apart of her devices to awe and terrify the King.

We need not linger to comment on the events that followed tliis interview, or on the overwhelming effect that it had on Saul. We have endeavored to give a more satisfactory solution of the difficulties of this portion of Scripture than the com- mon interpretation affords us, and we apprehend opposition only from those who scoff at the Avords Glairvoyaiice and Mesmerism, and without proper examination deny all their alleged facts and wonders, and cry them down as delusion and deviltry. That there has been any. amount of fraud practiced by the devotees of Mesmerism is a fact abun- dantly well known, but that there arc also numberless facts, put beyond all question by hundreds of careful and most inquisitive witnesses — facts as mysterious and wondei I, if not as celebrated, as this interview of Saul with the Witch of Endor — no intelligent person, who has carefully ex- amined tlie subject, can deny, indeed, what a tremendous power have the mysteries of divination exerted over the human heart in all the ages past. How large a chapter of

54:1 SauVs Interview with the Witch of Endor. [October,

human history would it require to record them all ! To af- firm that these are all the immediate works of the devil, and not in any form to be meddled with by men, is in one sense to surrender to the Evil One and pay him reverence. If the mysteries in question lay beyond the sphere of human history and experience, the Christian might indeed be content to let them alone; but since they are interwoven with human experience in every age, it is exceedingly important that their real nature be shown. They who. cry down all attempts to explain these mysterious phenomena are helping on the triumphs of the devil. The}" say. in effect, that here at lea-t Satan has all the advantage, and we must sound a re- treat before him. But if we show that these mysteries of witchcraft have their explanation in peculiar physiological and psychological phenomena of the human constitution, which have been hitherto misunderstood, we at once gain a noble triumph over our ancient foe, and drive the Prince of darkness from a throne of power over the human heart, vdiere he has too long held undisputed empire.

Ast. FT.— WHITE'S MASSACRE OF ST. BARTU.OLOILE YT.

[Skcox)) Ann'.:.:-:.]

In a former article we examined the portion of this history which traces the growth of Protestantism iu France down to the outbreak of the civil or religious wars. The next division of the work is taken up with a faithful, and, in the main, emi- nently judicious, delineation of events which can scarcely be narrated or read without feelings of the most profound sorrow. Ii is always painful to see a Christian man, or an assemblage ■of men that make profession of devotion to the Christian faith, resorting to the Bword to settle their grievances. But it is still mere a ground for regret, when the holy names of truth and religion are invoked to justify recourse to the most desperate method of redress. It is certain that nothing was further from the intention of the French reformers than to

1869.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 545

counsel armed resistance to oppression, and that, so far as their influence was felt, it was consistently, and from the very begin- ning, on the side of a submission to the constituted authority, which might by the malevolent be mistaken for pusillanimity far more easily than construed as favorable to revolt. True, the moment that the reformation began to reach entire popula- tions, or very considerable portions of the community, some symptoms of restiveness under the most galling persecution began to manifest themselves. But so long as the authority that inflicted the penalties of the terrible code for the punish- ment of those who presumed to differ from the religious views countenanced by the Crown was undoubtedly legitimate — that . is, while it was a king that chose to imbrue his hands in the blood of his own subjects, and not a subject by no means of the most exalted rank, or the most intimately concerned in the lasting prosperity of the kingdom, who had fraudulently usurped the royal prerogative to cloak his own ambitious de- signs— the disturbances were rare and inconsiderable. They scarcely amounted to more than the occasional rescue of some martyr for the faith from the hands of the guard that was con- veying him to trial before blood-thirsty judges, or to an inhuman execution. Even these acts of insubordination were evidently the fruits of the inconsiderate zeal of young and thoughtless persons, whom the current of religious fervor which surrounded them had swept along with it, but whose connection with the reformation was not the result of deep-seated convictions, and promised little to be either strong or long-lived.

But the ease was far different when, first under Francis II., and then under Charles IX., the severities exercised against the Huguenots passed out of the realm of law into that of usurpation. It was not now a Valois that instituted tires for burning heretics on the squares of Paris, moved, it might be presumed, by religious zeal, but it was Charles of Lorraine, who wished to further his own private ends, perhaps to pave his way to the papal chair, by sacrificing countless victims to the all-devouring flames. And it was still worse when a triumvirate of powerful nobles made a secret compact to prevent the initiation of any plan of toleration lor Protestants; or, when that plan had been adopted by a formal xoio, of the deputies of the three orders banded themselves to rob the Reformers of all its benefits.

546 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

In point of fact, the option between peace and war was scarcely offered to the Huguenots. They were merely called upon to decide whether they would allow themselves to be butchered, without even a struggle to protect their lives and those of their wives and children, or whether they would vin- dicate their rights as Frenchmen against persecutors, the fore- most of whom were foreigners from Lorraine and Italy. Mr. White observe- :

It may be said that if ever there was a time when Christians were justified in resorting to the sword it was the present. The laws in favor of the Huguenots were constantly and systemati- cally broken. The massacre at Yassy was only the first of a series •of outrages equally barbarous. At Sens in Burgundy, a Huguenot having insulted a Catholic procession, the tocsin was rung, and there was a general onslaught upon the Reformed, without regard cither to age or sex. The bodies of the victims, stripped and fastened to planks, were thrown into the river and floated down to Paris, twenty leagues distant. The fanatic populace destroyed every thing, even rooting up the vines in the Calvinist vineyards. For three days the hideous carnival of murder went on, and ceased only from want of victims.*

We need not follow the writer in the revolting catalogue of atrocities committed by the Roman Catholic populace upon the Protestants. " All over France, from the Channel to the Mediterranean, similar ferocious outbreaks occurred."! ^n every case the occasion or the pretext that served to call forth the violent passions of the people was so trifling, that under ordinary circumstances it would have been utterly inadequate to produce such, wonderful effects. What, then, was the cause of the universal fermentation \ It was to be found in the sedi- tious teachings of the Romish clergy, exasperated beyond en- durance by the enactment of the ''Edict of January,*- which placed the reformers under the protection of law, and recog- nized them as possessing certain rights to life, property, and religious worship. The pulpits resounded with denunciations of the patrons of heresy, who had consented to a compact the most pernicious to tine religion, it was asserted, that had ever been entered into by Christian princes. Charles IX. did not escape obloquy. But it was his mother that Mas attacked with the least reserve. Bibles long unused were searched for the names of supporters of the false prophets of Baal. Garrulous * White, p. 199. f lbi-L, p. 200.

1869.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 517

Claude Haton tolls us that for a long time there was not a eermon preached in which Catharine de Medici and Antoine, King of Navarre, did not figure as Jezebel and Ahab ; albeit his reader may find it difficult to understand to what "persecutions" of the orthodox he alludes in drawing his historical parallel, unless they consisted in the Roman Catholics not enjoying the unchal- lenged privilege of persecuting their neighbor.* The same write]-, himself a bigoted priest, quotes with evident approba- tion the sermon of a Franciscan friar, Maitre Barrier, wliich may serve as a specimen of the homiletics of the period, lie had just read the royal ordinance of toleration in his church of the Holy Cross in Provius. lie said:

Well now, gentlemen of Provius, what must I and the other preachers of France do*? Must we obey this order ? What shall we tell you '? What shall we preach ? The Gospel. Sir Huguenot will say. And pray, saying that the errors of Calvin, of Martin Luther, of Beza, 3'alot, Peter Martyr, and .other preachers, with their erroneous doctrine, condemned by the Church a thousand years ago, and since then by the holy (Ecumenical Councils, arc worthless and damnable, is not this preaching the Gospel? Bid- ding you beware of their teaching, bidding you refuse to listen to them or read their books ; telling you that they only seek to stir up sedition, murder, and robbery, as they have begun to do in Paris and numberless places in the realm, is not this preaching the Gospel ? But some one may say, " Pray, friar, what are you saying? You are not obeying the King's edict; you are still talking of Calvin and his companions; you call them and those, who hold their sentiments heretics and Huguenots ; you will be denounced to the courts of justice, you will be thrown into prison ; yes, you will bo hung as a seditious person." I answer, "T/iat is not unlikely, for Ahab and Jezebel put to death the proph- ets of God in their time, and gave all freedom to the false prophets of Baal." "Stop, friar, you are saving too much; you will be hung." "Very well, then there will be one gray friar hung! Many others will therefore have to be hung, for God by his Holy Spirit will inspire the pillars of his Church to uphold to

* Memoires do Claudo Haton, vol. i, p. 211. In fact, Catharine seemed fated lo have her name associated with tbat of the most infamous queen i i annals.

A Huguenot poet, writing aftorthe massacre, with more show ofjustiee, if must be admitted, institutes a studied comparison between the two, wliich terminates with the disadvantageous ion, tha dogs will decline to touch the Modi-

cean queen's !v!'!:iii>< !

".Mais la charogne do Cathl

Sera differente ence point,

Carlos chiens no la vouldront point." Ibid., vol. ii, npp., p. 1110.

548 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

the end the edifice, which will never he overthrown until the end of the world, whatever blows may he struck at it." *

It is not surprising that such constant appeals to the passions of the multitude bore speedy fruit in bloody massacres of all that bore the name of Protestant. After chronicling these popular excesses, Mr. White remarks :

All comment on these things would he superfluous. Is it won- derful that in such a state of lawlessness the. Reformed nobles and gentlemen armed in self-defense? With indignant eloquence, Agrippa d'Aubigne vindicates the rebellion in which the Hugue- nots sought to protect themselves: "So long as the adherents of the new religion wore destroyed merely under the form of law they submitted themselves to the slaughter, and never raised a hand in their own defense against those injuries, cruel and iniqui- tous as they were. But when the public authorities and the magistracy, divesting themselves of the venerable aspect, of jus- tice, put daggers into the bands of the people, abandoning every man to the violence of his neighbors, and when public massacres were perpetrated to the sound of the drum and of the trumpet, who could forbid the unhappy sufferers to oppose hand to hand, ami sword to swoid, and to catch the contagion of a righteous fury from a fury unrestrained by any sense of justice.f

The Huguenots have so often been condemned for resorting to the sword, and the bloodshed that characterized the history of the latter part of the sixteenth century has so often and so unjustly been attributed to their culpable precipitancy, that Mr. White's discussion of this matter (pp. 201-203) is worthy of a careful consideration. He shows conclusively that they were forced to a course diametrically opposed to the theory and practice of their most respected religious teacher by the inex- orable logic of events. Their only choice " lay between exter- mination, hypocritical conformity, or rebellion. They were contending against intolerable oppression ; the laws were no protection to them ; and in such circumstances they believed resistance to be justifiable. Why should they apostatize or be burned while they had strength to wield the sword, especially as the letter of the law was in their favor? "%

However justifiable the course of the Huguenots in taking up arms to repel their assailants, it cannot be denied that the necessity was an unhappy one. War injured them externally

* M£moires <\e Chudc Hani!:, vol. i, p. 'J 12.

\ White, pp 200, 201. J. Ibid., p. 202.

1S69-.J Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 519

and internally. It alienated many whom they might other- wise have gained over; it gave their adversaries the handle they desired to represent them as the fomenters of disorder and strife. What was still worse, it lowered the standard of piety in their own ranks. Their campaign began with a dis- cipline wonderfully pure and exact. Gambling, and even its implements dice and cards, disappeared. Theft, profanity. licentiousness, were unknown. Prayer and singing of psalms pervaded the camp. But this exemplary goodness was as ephemeral as Admiral Coligny had, from the beginning, pre- dicted that it would prove. The Huguenots learned to plunder as well as the Papists. Thirst for retaliation begot cruelty, in some eases not falling much behind that displayed by their opponents. There is, however, this difference to be noted, that where;:.: the Protestant ministers were always foremost in de- nouncing and opposing not only all acts of cruelty, but even the iconoclasm in which the troops were wont to indulge, the Romish priest, was as uniformly the instigator of the inhuman passions of the mob. It is not surprising, therefore, that the most frightful atrocities laid to the charge of the Protestant soldiers were almost all directed against priests and friars; nor that frequently the clerical dress or tonsure was sufficient to insure immediate execution for a prisoner that fell into their hands.

The first civil war, after lasting about twelve months, came to an abrupt termination in March, 1563. The event which brought about the unexpected peace of Amboise had so direct a connection with the history of the causes of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew that, it deserves special mention here. Of the four principal leaders of the Roman Catholic faction, three had been providentially removed within a few months from the beginning of the war. Navarre had been mortally wounded at the siege of Rouen ; St. Andre had been killed, and Mont- morency taken prisoner in the battle of Dreux. Guise alone remained at the head of the army, and was on the point of cap- turing Orleans, the Protestant stronghold, when his life was cut short by the pistol-shot of an assassin. The misguided youth who committed the deed, though bold in action, was craven enough after his arrest; and, when put to the torture, accused Coliguy, Soubize, Deza, and others of having instigated

Fourth Series, Y<>;,. XXI. — []'>

550 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [Oct "

him. Now the accusations were, in part, absurd — Bezn, for instance, had never even scon the man, so far as lie knew — and, in part, retracted by the assassin himself as soon as he was re- leased from the rack. Indeed, the miserable creature was so conscious of his weakness, that he warned his judge that when again subjected to the rack he would doubtless confess any thing-he was desired to. His admissions, however, were so acceptable to the Court that his retraction was unheeded. Catharine de Medici was eager to weaken Coligny's influence, and nothing could serve her purpose better than to have him believed guilty. In vain did Coligny write and pray that the murderer should be reserved, in order that he might be able to confront him. The Queen was resolved to preclude the possibility of any such judicial purgation, and the very day before, she made peace with the Huguenots caused Poltrot to be executed with every refinement of cruelty. The alleged complicity of Coligny in the murder of Francis of Guise became the occasion o{ a lasting feud between the Ohatillons and the Lorraine family — a feud which Henry of Guise pretended to avenge nine years later on the bloody Sabbath of August.

Bad Coligny contented himself with a simple denial, his well known character for veracity would probably have over- borne the accusations of his enemies. His excess of frankness led him to make a defense so outspoken and manly in its dec- larations that it has been easily distorted and misrepresented by those who have wished to prove him guilty, while many of a more fair turn of mind seem to be unable to appreciate its merit. Miss Freer writes :

The character of the Admiral, in the opinion of his contempo- raries, never recovered from the stain of his having been privy to the assassination of the Due de Guise. If, in reality, the Admiral had been endue. 1 with that chivalrous probity and unsullied honor with which lie has been invested^ he ought' to have repulsed the suspicion of so atrocious a deed with the indignant energy which his position and repute as a Christian man and a cavalier demand- ed. But what was Coligny's conduct at this juncture in repelling the suspicion — the source of the future, misfortunes which b< fell him— when, as a loyal subject and a valiant knight, France awaited his vindi i the charge? In reply to the memo-

rials presented by the princes of Guise to King Charles, to Cath- arine, to the Parliaments of Paris, Bordeaux, and Toulouse — memorials which were dispersed not alone over the realm but throughout neighboring States, and in which the Admiral

1869.3 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 551

plainly accused of connivance in the foul assassination, Coligny addressed three letters to Catharine do Medici, and published two memorials, in which not only does he not deny categorically the charges preferred against him, hut nnblushingly proceeds to prove that, whoever might hare been the instigator of the crime, lie deserved well from God and the King.*

Even Mr. White, who has weighed the whole transaction, in a calmer spirit, remarks :

It must be acknowledged that the Admiral's conduct and lan- guage were not altogether satisfactory. . . . This leaves no doubt that Coligny assented, if he did not consent to the crime, lie was not unwilling to profit by it, though he would do nothing to further it. This may diminish the lofty moral -pedestal vn which sonic- writers haA e placed the Protestant hero; but be was a man, and had all a man's failings, though lie may have controlled them by his religious principles. Nor was assassination considered at all cOwardly or disgraceful in those days ; not more so than killing a man in a due) was until very recently among us.f

Now both, of these writers do great injustice to a man whom. while we cannot claim for him a perfection beyond that which is human, was far removed- above the age and court in which he lived. Ooligny's statements Lear the unmistakable impress of truth. They were freely made, in spite of the opposition of his friends, who feared, with good reason, that, the enemies of his house and of his faith would do their utmost to distort and pervert them. lie chose voluntarily to enter into minute par- ticulars, which a guilty man would have suppressed, that he might be aide to protest, "in the sight of God and his angels," that he had given no instructions to Poltrot other than those he indicated in his letters. To doubt his unequivocal assertions, vouched for by an unimpeachable reputation for truthfulness, is to set a premium on insincerity and duplicity. It is an ex- cess of unfairness to employ his manly and fearless admissions as a convenient basis for advancing further charges which he indignantly repudiates. From the Admiral's clear exposition of all the circumstances, it is established : first, that Poltrot, who had come to him recommended by Soubize, was employed by him in the capacity of a spy in the camp of the Duke of Guise, at that time pressing the siege of Orleans; secondly,

*Henry 311., His Conrt and Times, by Martha Walker Freer. Throe voli

Vol. i, p. D7. Loi Ion: 1 658. f Massacre of St. Bartholomew, pp. ?:22, 223.

552 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

that Coligny paid hiin first twenty, and afterward one hun- dred, gold crowns to defray his expense?, and particularly to enable him to purchase a horse, and held out to him the ex- pectation of still greater rewards if he brought him important intelligence, especially respecting a question about which the Hu- guenot general was extremely solicitous, namely, whether Guise would pursue him in his expedition into Normandy ; thirdly ^ that Coligny had from time to time been apprized of plans or threats to assassinate the Duke of Guise, but had strongly dis- suaded all persons from engaging in them, although consider- ing Guise as the most prominent enemy of God and his cause in France; fourthly, that a few months before the siege of Orleans, he had. received intelligence of plots instigated by Guise and St. Andre against the lives of the Prince of Conde, his brother d'Andelot, and himself; fifthly, thai, from this time forth, while taking no part in retaliatory plots, he deemed him- self no longer bound to interfere by his remonstrances in order to shield so treacherous an enemy; sixthly, that Poltrot, so far from having been instigated by Coligny to the murder of Guise, had repeatedly, and in the most imprudent manner, announced his design to Soubize and others, long before being introduced to Coligny; seventhly^ that although he spoke of such a thing to the Admiral, the latter paid no attention to it, believing it to be an idle boast, and considering Poltrot to be very un likely to intend undertaking, or to be able to execute, so hazardous a deed : nor was this strange, for such threats of personal ven- geance upon the leaders of the enemy are common in every war; never, perhaps, more so than in our own late war.

Such seem to be the simple facts of the case so far as Coligny is concerned. He neither counseled nor abetted the assassination. At the same time he regarded the death of the Roman Catholic general, the "Butcher of Yassy," and the proximate cause of the war, as a blessing to France, to the Church, he v,- os seeking to destroy, and to the Chatillon family, which he pursued with envenomed hatred. " Put do not imag- ine," he wrote to Catharine after clearing hims< If from any par- ticipation in the i tion, " that I say this because of any regret I feel for the death of the Duke of Guise, which event 1 esteem the greatest blessing that could have befallen this king- dom, the Church of God, and more especially myself and al

1869.1 Massacre of St Bartholomew. 553

my house ; " and lie added, that if improved, it might be the means of securing rest to the kingdom. TTe cannot agree- with Mr. White that "this leaves no doubt that Coligny assented, if he did not consent to the crime," and " that he was not un- willing to profit by it,'" except so far as Christian men have ever been glad to profit by the death of eminent persecutors of the Church.

The belief that the massacre of August 24, 1572, had long been determined upon, and even its minute details elaborated with scrupulous exactness, although rejected at the time by many of those who were best informed, was generally accepted as an incontrovertible fact. It was commonly supposed that the plan of the wholesale destruction of the Protestants was first suggested by the Duke of Alva at the celebrated confer- ence of Bayonne, in the early part of the summer of 1565, and that the scheme was there agreed upon by Catharine de Medici and her fellow-conspirators. Indeed, it is strange that a persuasion of the formation of a compact to this effect should have spread almost instantly among both Protestants and Roman Catholics upon receipt of intelligence that such an interview had been held b}r Charles IX. and his mother on the. one side, and Isabella, Queen of Spain and daughter of Catha- rine, and the Duke of Alva, on the other. In spite of the efforts of Granvellc and others to persuade the public that the meeting had no ulterior design, and that its sole object was to afford a mother and daughter who had, for five or six years, been separated, the opportunity to see each other again. o\\ perhaps, all the more on account of their protestation.-, the majority oi' men persisted in being convinced of the very reverse. A characteristic saying of Alva, for which the best proofs of authenticity were claimed, was soon current and in all mouths. "For one incident of the conference," says Mr. White, "we are indebted to Prince Henry of Xavarre, who was allowed to visit Bayonne because, said Philip, 'he is still a child, whom Cod will not allow to remain iu ignorance.' One thi} when the Duke of Alva and Catharine were convers- ing together, the former, putting Tarquin's gesture into words, advised her to get rid of ihe Iluguenot nobles, after which all would be easy work. ' Ten thousand frogs,' he said, ' arc not worth the head of one salmon.' Henry overheard him. and

55i Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

the words struck him bo much that he repeated them to Soffrey do Calignon, one of his attendants, by whom they were transmitted to the Queen of Navarre. They soon became

known to the Huguenot leaders, and aroused a suspicion which it would have been well for them had they never laid aside. The words produced a deep impression upon Catha- rine, and more than once she tried to act upon them, until at last she succeeded but too well."* .

Now, however, since the secret papers of the prime actors in this important period of history have been rescued from the repositories wliich so long sheltered them from the inspection of the people, we have something Letter than mere surmise or hearsay testimony upon which to ground our belief. In the correspondence of the Cardinal of Granvelle, published in nine large volumes by order of the French Government, (the last volume in 1S52,) there is a detailed account of the conference, in letters written from Bayonne by the Duke of Alva, between the fifteenth of June and the fourth of July. 1565; besides numerous allusions to its character in the letters of Granvelle and others. Mr. White sums up the whole matter in these words: " It is certain that nothing was settled at the Bayonne meeting, Catharine being steadfast in her purpose to maintain her power by holding the balance between the two hostile parties. 'She has promised to do wonders,' wrote Granvelle, (August 20, 1505,) 'but will do nothing of any service.' " f

The documents undoubtedly prove that the meeting at Bayonne was not a mere interview for the purpose of gratify- ing the affection of a mother and her daughter, and cementing more closely the friendship between the French and Spanish courts. Besides the gorgeous display of costly dress, bi - the splendid pageants and games, the storming of enchanted castles, and tournaments between the supporters of the ve- sportive claims of Virtue and Lovc,J there were less ostenta- tion.-, but more real passages at anus in which neither love nor virtue were very much displayed. Alva had come commis- sioned to p ' trine and her son to adopt more decisive measures fortlie eradication of heresy. Before assailing his royal hosts, he thoughl it appropriate to sound the dispo : of the swarm of French nobles that accompanied them; and

* White, i>. 265. i Ibid., p. 25G. \ See White, ] p. 250-252.

I860.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 555

lie Lad reason to be satisfied with the devotion which some of the highest rank and largest influence professed to entertain for his master, the Most Catholic King. The weak Cardinal of Guise, younger, brother of the Cardinal of Lorraine, whose convivial proclivities earned for him the title, strange to chnrchly ears, of ,% le Cardinal des Bouteilles" was overcome with emotion, and implored Philip, by the Jove of God, to pity a kingdom whose religion was ti^i going to ruin. Montpensier declared himself ready to he rent in pieces in his behalf, protesting that in case this were done the name of "Philip" would be found written on his heart. The barbarous Blaise de Montluc, after being duly Haltered by the embassador, avowed sentiments after Alva's own mind, and pointed to his former relentless cruelty as proof that he was opposed to the display of false humanity. But with Charles JX. and his mother the wily Duke's suggestions of the necessity for the employment of violent measures against the Huguenots met with but a cold reception. To the bare insinuation that God was reserving him for the execution of a good work in the punishment of offenses against religion in France Charles promptly replied: aO, to take up arms does not suit me; I have no disposition to effect the destruction of my kingdom, which was begun in the past wars." The Duke perceiving, as he noted to his master, that the young King was but repeating a lesson that had been taught him by others, con- temptuously dismissed the !

The. matter was treated at far greater length with Catharine de Medici, and the Duke of Alva's letters present her in a very different light on this occasion from that in which contemporaries, who were not well informed respecting the occurrences at the Bayonne conference, have painted her. Instead of welcoming, we find her repelling Alva's suggestions. The topic of persecution, in fact, is one that she mani ' ' . desires to avoid touching upon at alL the had plenty of bitter reproaches for her daughter, whom she accused of having allowed herself to become a thorough Spaniard, and was not backward in telling Philip's embassador that the distrust his master evinced of Charles IX. ami herself would not im-

* Cartas que el Duqtie do AJba scrivW a uu Ufagestad, Papiers d'Etat du Card. ol. i: . }\ 291. See a!>u White, ]>. ~2i>C

550 Massacre of St. Bartholomew, [October,

probably ripen into open war. But the moment that the delicate subject of the treatment of religious dissensions in France was broached — the subject above all others near to Philip's heart, if his protestations are to be taken of any account — the Queen Mother displaj-ed such tact in parrying every thrust, thai she earned the admiration of one who was himself no novice in the art of dissimulation. Her circum- spection, he declared, he had never seen equaled.* She would make no con She maintained that the Ediet

of Toleration — referring to the Edict of January as modified by the Pacification of Amboise — was working well. She asserted that the royal proclamations were received with respect and obeyed. "When Alva and her daughter attacked her for retaining so notorious a Huguenot at the head of the adminis- tration as the Chancellor Michel de FHopital, she calmly replied that she did nol consider him a bad Catholic, "Then you arc the only person in France," bluntly responded the grim old Duke, " that is of that opinion." Xot only did Catharine take the most hopeful view of the present situation, but she greatly shocked the orthodox Alva by announcing that, instead of securing the unqualified acceptance of the decrees of the Council of Trent, she intended convening a conference of good prelates and learned men to settle matters of dispute. It was evident she had not the fear of the repeti- tion of the Colloquy of Poissy before her eye-. The Spaniard came to the conclusion that Catharines sole design was the an of a recourse to salutary rigor.\ What that salu-

tary rigor was Alva only hinted; but, though lie declined to tell Catharine, in her manifestly indisposed frame of mind, pre- cisely what Philip would have her do, for fear of committing his councils to one of whom he felt \uy uncertain, he permits us to see all thai is essential in the advice of some " good " Papists, which ho reports to his master with every mark oi% approval. [J •■■■- in the first place to banish all Protestant ministers from the kingdom, and prohibit utterly ;.-,.; oftlu Ref n I reli ' The provincial governors could be

reli d upon to execute this part oi rk. .IJut b.

• Carl

f Pareeeme que qi

■ • p. 318.

1869.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 557

this, it would be necessary to seize a few of the leaders of the Huguenots, and to cut off their heads. Five or six, it was suggested, would be all the victims required." The plan was, in tact, essentially the same as that with which Alva himself,

a year or two later, undertook to reduce the Netherlands to submission to Spanish tyranny and the Papal Church. Treacherous arrests of the nobles most suspected of entertain- ing heretical views — arrests which could scarcely have been confined within such narrow numerical limits as were sug- gested—with a " Blood Council" to complete the work, or with a massacre in which the proprieties of judicial investiga- tion might be less nicely observed — such was the scheme which would have corresponded exactly with the views of Philip and his minister.

So far, then, was the general belief, adopted until lately by the great majority of historians, that Catharine framed at the Bayonne conference, and with Alva's assistance, a plan for the extermination of the Protestants by a massacre such as was put into effect on St. Bartholomew's Day 1572- from being correct, that, on the contrary, she refused, with a peremptory manner that disgusted the Spanish fanatics, every proposition that looked to violence. That we have not read the correspondence of Aha incorrectly, and that no letter containing the mythical consent of Catharine ever reached Philip, is proved by the tone of the letters which passed between the great agents in the work of persecution in the Spanish Netherlands ; among others, from that of Granvelle already referred to, from which Mr. White quotes a few- sentences. The diplomatists were all agreed that Catharine's plan, if persisted in, would entail the ruin of religion, and the overthrow of her son's throne. f

Two years after the Bayonne conference the war between the Court and the Huguenot.- broke out afresh. Systematically oppressed, and denied, by interpretative declarations, the rights which solemn edicts secured them, the Huguenot-- had ample grounds of discontent. "Still," as Mr. White remarks, "the actual rupture might have been deferred but for circumstances connected with the state of the Netherlands." The passage

vol. ix, p. 4 SI.

* Cartas, etc, vol. ix, pp.	296, 297.
f Papicrs d'Etat du Card.	di Granve

55S Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

of the Duke of Alva with an army of ten thousand picked veterans, along the eastern frontiers of France, from Genoa through Burgundy and Lorraine to Flanders, alarmed the Government, as well as the Protestants. "Catharine, who distrusted Philip, thought it prudent to watch their march, and for that purpose collected all the forces she could muster to form an army of observation. These being insufficient for the purpose, Conde and the Admiral advised the enrollment of six thousand Swiss mercenaries. The Queen, delighted at such an opportunity of raising soldiers without offending the sensibility of the Huguenots, promptly acted upon the advice."* But the Protestants soon had reason to regret the step. The command of the troops was denied to Conde, who was threatened with vengeance by young Henry of Anjou, Catharine's favorite son, if he ventured to renew his applica- tion ; and the Swiss, instead of being disbanded as soon as Alva reached Brussels, were ordered to approach Paris. The Huguenot leaders thought they saw unmistakable proofs that this force was retained to be employed in overwhelming then?. After a series of consultations, in which Coligny ap- pears as the opponenl o'f rash attempts and his brother d'An- delot as the advocate of decisive and prompt measures, they found " no alternative left them but to draw the sword." " It was an unfortunate decision," says Mr. "White, " and not justi- fied by the real facts. But the mistake committed by the Huguenot chiefs is patent enough, and they were thought by their contemporaries to have acted very wisely. Languet writes from Strasburg on the twenty-second of October that the Huguenot chiefs knew for certain that the Pope and the other princes who had conspired against the true religion had determined, as soon as it was put down in Lower Germany, to do the same in France, and for that purpose the King had raised a strong force of Swiss." f Whether right or wrong in their surmises, however, the Huguenots failed in the step with winch they commenced the Mar. They had hoped t<> wresl the ICiug from the counselors by whom he was surrounde '., to briug them to justice, and to replace them by men who would belter cousnlt for the interests of France.

anew, p. 2GG. f Ibid./pp. 258, 2C9.

18G9.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 559

But the royal court escaped them ; and, what was worse, they incurred the indignation of Charles and the hatred of Catha- rine, who never forgave them the audacity of having seemed

to attempt to take her prisoner.

Three years of bloody warfare now ensued, interrupted only by the truce between the Bccond and third religious wars, which lias been called the " Bud Little Peace." Defeated more frequently than victorious, and particularly unfortunate in the two great engagements of Jarnae and Moncontour, the Huguenots had the faculty of rapidly renewing their strength, and never appearing more formidable than just after the reverses which their enemies had hoped would prove fatal. The last achievement of the third war was a masterly march by Admiral Coligny, who, starting first almost as a fugitive, after a brilliant victory of the Roman Catholics, swept up the valley of the Garonne, through lower Languedoc, up the valley of the Rhone, and through Burgundy almosi to the gates of Paris, bringing Catharine's dilatory negotiation- for peace to a speedy conclusion. So favorable were the terms now granted that many, among others the anonymous author of the " Tocsin contre les Alassacrcnrs," '"" have considered the peace as forming merely a part of the nefarious conspiracy which culminated two years later in open butchery. Mr. White discusses this important point at considerable length :

The color given to the next two years of the reign of Charles IX. depends much upon the view we take of the Peace of St. Germains. Was the court sincere, or only playing a part to entice the Huguenots into a trap, and so get rid of them a! <>nc blow? This is the opinion of many, and particularly of Davila, who says positively that the peace was a snare. But he is occasionally too subtle: he belongs to that class of historians who think that kings and statesmen regulate their policy by 1 schemes of far-sighted calculation, instead of living, as it were, from hand to mouth. The imj revu, to use an apt French word, plays a much m< re important part in human affairs than some historians are willing to believe. The Treaty of St. Ger- mains—and Ave have Walsingham's express testimony to that effect — was the work of the Politicians, [the party which en' deavored to steer between the Papists and the Huguenots,] all

•The title of the ition i.-. "Le ' reura et

Autlieura des confusions en France, Ad lo8 Princes Chreatiena. A

Reims, 15 ('..>."

560 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

good Catholic-, like Cosse, Damville, nud Montmorency. Wal- singham adds that the King had sharply rebuked the mutinous Parisians, and told them that ho meant to have the treaty " duly observed." He further explains whyCharles would have desired ]• ■ : " His own disposition, necessity, pleasure, nrisliking witli certain of the council and favoring of others." Walsingham already saw the small cloud arising that would soon overshadow France: "Monsieur (Anjou) can hardly digest to live in the degree eta subject, having already the reputation of a king."

Languet's testimony is equally decisive as to the pacific disposition of Charles IX. Contanni speaks doubtfully about the treaty, although lie says, "Peace was the aim and desire of the King and Queen." indeed, it was not Catharine's policy t" crush the Huguenots utterly: she needed them as a counterpoii 3 to the Guises, who, though at this time rather out of favor at court, were, perhaps, all the more popular among the fanatic

It must he further home in mind, that, at this turning-point of Catharine's policy, not only the Pope was not consulted, hut the Court, in making peace, acted in direct opposition to his re- monstrances. In January Pius V. strongly advised a continu- ance of the war, and when he heard of the Treaty of St. Germains, he wrote to the Cardinals of Lorraine and Bourbon, expn • his '-fears that God would inflict a judgment on the King and all who counseled and took part in the infamous negotiations. We cannot refrain from tears as we think how deplorable the peace is to all good men; how full of danger, find what a source of bitter regret." it would have been very easy to quiet the holy father by telling him that the treaty* was a snare; hut nothing of the kind was done; and, on tile contrary, the Bang and his mother both represented to him the necessity of peace. Pius replied in angry tones, and the Court made answer that the King was master in ids own dominions to do as he pleased. In a somewhat similar manner Spain tried to thwart the negotiations; Phil']) If. even ottered to send Charles a force of three thousand horse and six thousand foot, provided he would engage never to make peace with the heretic rebels. But this attempt to prolong the v/ar also failed, and we learn from Walsingham s dispatches that a great coolness sprang up between the two Courts.*

The intense hostility of Rome and Spain to the conclusion of the pea ' tainly one of the strongest points in the

proof. Both had been firm allies during the recent wars, and .had sent material assistance. No one would have welc< a. treacherous treaty with greater avidity. There are diffi- culties surrounding the matter which may, perhaps, nev< fully cleared up; hut, as Mr. White remarks;

•:■■■'. .!''■' mew, i>;>. 315, .10.

1869.] ■ Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 561

If we assume that the Government was sincere, every thing becomes clear for the next two years; if we adopl th opinion, the course of events up to the eve o\' the massacre is an inextricable maze. True, it is impossible to say whether Ci rine accepted the treaty without any i ' ' ■■ , ; i

reservation— for she accepted every thing, and was sincere in nothing except her master-passion, to govern France. For this, she not only played one party against the other, but habitu dallied witfc opposing schemes, intriguing now ou this side, now on that, deceiving and betraying all.*

Scarcely less important in an historical point of view is the question of the sincerity of the French Court in the pro- posed marriage.- between Henry of Anjou and Queen Eliza- beth, and between Henry of '.Navarre and Marj Mr. White decidedly inclines to believe that the suspi which subsequent events have thrown upon them are un- merited. ".Respecting the former, it may be observed that Catharine, acting under the influence of resentment against Spain, because of the indignity which Philip II. had put upon her by persuading Sel I to decline the French

matrimonial alliance, was disp< sed to draw closer to not to speak of her desire to secure so bright a jewel as the English crown for her favorite sun. Charles IX. | evidence of being equally anxious for an ari ul that

would free him from the presence in France of a brother whose military reputation he envied, and whoso influence over his mother he dreaded. The case was different with Henry of Anjou himself. Independently of his relucta leave France— a country that furnished him sin mities

for gayety that all other i • resembled in

desert— his intimate association with the ultra . tholics

made him averse to marry a Protestant queen and b ruler of a country where the Protestant i exclusive toleration. Besides— and this is one of Uh proofs that the Queen mother and the King were :' the Guises > concilably opposed to the plan. The,

no stone unturned to prevent parity of the ages of the parties. They nol ■ Elizabeth as extremely ugly, but persua

* Massacre of St. 13 irthol « lew, p

562 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

moral character was not above reproach.* In his eagernc prevent the marriage, the Cardinal of Lorraine, il is said, even promised him, on the part of the French clergy, a pr< of fonr hundred thousand crowns.f Surrounded by 6uch in- fluences^ and flattered as the sole hope of the Roman Cat] party, it is n< ' nge that at the very moment when he was declaring to Elizab V embassadoi his intense admiration the charms of his mistress, "being, as even her very enemies say, the rarest creature that was in Europe these fv< hum years;' X he was meditating the best means of retiring grace- fully from the competition for the hand of the " Virgin Queen." But that Catharine, was sincerely desirous of the conclusion of the matrimonial alliance is evident, not only from the threats she uttered in her private correspondence with the French embassador at London against the persons who might have dissuaded Anjou, but also from her prompt substitution of her youngest son. Alengon, as a suitor for Elizabeth's hand and crown.

It is no less evident that the Navarrese mai ' ■ pro-

posed as a means of restoring concord between the two great factions within the borders of France. Again I of the extreme Roman Catholics is proof not intended as a trap to take ihc }'.,

at least, that even the Roman Catholic leaders nizani

of no such scheme, and did. not even suspect its possibility.

It (the marriage) was naturally opposed by th »t, as

some write, because the Duke a pin I to Margaret's band, for he had been marrii d some months to Catharine of Cloves, tb< i of Prince Poivien, but because il would strengt and make the II influence predominant. Thi nuncio

the Spanish emb the match; but (

not to be divert< d from hi-; purp

* See Catharine do ! tlic Eu rlish Court, J 1571. I

(Pari - ' 10.) vol vii, p. 179.

| Soldan, buch, 1

J Letter i May

eador, p. 101.

!i Wl ite, p. 340. C "Ti.o most eminent and faithful of i condition of i ..

1869.3 Massacre of St. BartMemew. 50"

We agree with Mr. White in thinking, notwithstanding tome suspicions circumstances, that Charles IX. was in earnest in his deliberations with Coligny during those critical months when the Flemish war was discussed. Perhap chari-

table when he repr< ents Charlc \ and

in his weakness leaning on Coligny, whom he had learn< trust as a child trusts his father ;"' while nn g the

true reason, for the respect which even so corrupt a buy could not help entertaining for the Huguenot chief:

There was much in the Admiral to attract the I was a

man of probity aud h< n r, actuated bj tives,

but by the purest desire for the greatn< is of Franca Cli had never possessed such a friend befo]

How far back, according to Mr. White, was the ma planned? With Eaumer, Ranke, and Soldan, (whose admi- rable monograph, " Frarikreich und die Baxth ■ ?hl" is by far the most complete and satisfactory di of the subject,) he supposes that even by Catharine and h r e m Anjon, upon whom the guilt chiefly rests, the deteri to murder Coligny was adopted but a few days before the attom] Maurevel, on Friday the 22d of August. Had the arqu< shot of this famous assassin accomplished its work, it is the positive statement of the Papal nuncio Sal\ iati, thai the whole- sale butchery of the Protestants would not have been und - taken.f However much Catharine may have been incli in the height of her indignation againsl Philip EL, to join with England in taking advantage of so fair an revolt of the Xetherlands afforded for humbling the Spain however much she may have humored Char! inti- macy with Admiral Coligny— her mind changed compl when she began to perceive that the King was li emancipated from the tutelage in which she had alwaj tained him; that the influence i I lom- ised to be replaci d by that vl' the ■ lli:it France was on the eve of bring- involved in :

powerful prince of Christendom, with bul an unc support from the Engli h Queen. After the unfor!

* Whil ■ ' ' i Si I1

.5G4 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

of Gcnlis -with the French detachment that had started to re- inforce the "Beggars" of the Low Countries, and whtfn ever}' thing boded an immediate outbreak of hostilities, th of the Queen Mother became in her own eyes more critical.

She was too wise to oppose her son's warlike humor openly, but Bhe so far shook hi i m as to have the whole subjeei brought

before the Council. She was averse to the war on man) groi but principally because she fell assured thai if Coligny carried on a successful campaign his influence would quite superse le her own.

Shortly after this Charles,

that, ho might enjoy a little quiet, suddenly started for pipeau, a pleasant hunting-lodge, intending to remain there until the eve of his sister's marriage. Meanwhile bad ne • the French Court; Catharine discovered that Queen Elizabeth was playing her false, and while pretending zeal for an alliance against Spain, "was actually treating with that power. D< I and Fene'nii both wrote from private information thai she had been advised to recall her troops from Flanders and not quarrel with Spain. " Whereupon," write.-.; YValsingbam on the 10th Au- gust, "the Queen Mother fell into such fear thai tl must necessarily fail without the : id of Eng] The i

was untrue., and was probably a mere invention of soi le < traitors in the English Council. But it frightened Catharine, end she determined to make one more attempl to r< dency over the King. She hurried to Montpipean with such im- petuous haste thai two of her horses fell dead on the road. With tears in her eye--, she accused Charles of in a i lother

"who had sacrificed herself for his welfare, and incurred everj risk for his advantage." " 5Tou hide yourself from me," shi tinned, "and take counsel with my enemies. v>>"; are about to plunge your kingdom into a war w ith Spain, and y t England, in whose alliance y< a tru ted, is false to you. Alone yon ci resist so powerful an enemy. You will only make France a to the Huguenots, who desire the subversion of the ki their pwnbeneiit. If you will no longer be guided by i suffer' mc to return to mj native co\ Dtry, that 1 Buch disgrace."-!

The exact date of this interview, in which a motl were successful, i- not known ; but since, as Mr. Whil

* Tbe quolati "Where ip n such of his Com Mother in such n fear ..•, : i :

wise was v< ry rcsolni

t White, p. 363.

1869.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 505

the English embassador refers to it Id his letter of the 10th of August, it probably took place in the first week of that month. That Charles listened toColigny rather than to his mother u was the Admiral's death-warrant."

"What do yon learn in your long conversations with the Ad- miral?" asked Catharine one clay. ' <:i learn," lie n ,"; 1 have no greater enemy than my mother." She saw berp slipping from her, and Iter son Anjou, her beloved, i son, in danger; for she knew how violent Charles coul he was once aroused. And all depended upon thi life • man! And when in those days did any body, especially a i ian man or woman, allow a single life to stand between them and their desire? Colignj must be got rid of ; then the Quei i ! would recover her influence; then there would b i f this

perplexing Flemish business; and with Henry of Navarre, the head of the Huguenot party, married to her daughter, there would be no cause to fear a revival of internal disturban

Mr. White regards as of doubtful authenticity the narrative of the secret history of the preliminaries of the massacre which Anion is said to have given to one of the French men who followed him into Poland, and which has been published in an appendix to the Memoirs of Villeroy.f But the statements it contains agree so well with the information we get from other sources, that we cannot avoid coming to the conclusion that the attempt on the life of Coligny was first resolv< d upon ;..- a method of self-preservation by Catharine and Anjou, and was afterward communicated to the Duchess of Nemours. latter, who was the well known Anne d'Este, daughter of the excellent Renee of France, and granddaughter of Louis XII., was also the widow of the murdered Francis of Gui hated Coligny, as the sup] igator of hi i . with

a relentless malignity, in which her sou Henry, the pi Duke of Guise, fully participated. Ii was the DucIk • of \< - mours and young Guise that, earned Maurevel, alrei Ijai ex perienced hand in the work of murder, to be placed in. the

♦ ATliite, pp. ';r,\, 3

•! Pi " ■ •'■ Colli clion ol Memoii si xliv, pp. 496 510. Con ' ; ■ . . x, ]>. ::i 5. Prof. Soldan

that tl by Capefigu : im '

I hi co i ( rine ol Ihe chai

even Foubth Semes, Vol. XXI.

500 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. [October,

house of Canon Yillemur, formerly tutor to Guise, there to watch for the coming of the Admiral.

Contrary to the confident expectation of the coi Haurevel's shot was ill directed. Coligny was wounded, not killed. The King, ignorant of the high source of the plot, but suspecting Guise, uttered fearful imprecations ag the

authors.

All tliis time the Queen Mother and Anjou were in a dn state of agitation. The Move had failed, and if the victim recov- ered frorohis wounds, their participation in the plol could do concealed. "Our notable enterprise having miscarried, Duke, "my mother and myself had ample matter i i and

uneasiness during the greater part of the day." '1 hen ■ : ■ still .hope, ll>r the bullets might be poisoned, or the wounds mortal.*

lint this hope was le tined to be disappointed. Sat came, and with it the announcement thai the , pro-

nounced Coligny on the road to recovery. What was w< the King was more suspicious than ever, since Ids interview with the wounded Huguenot leader ; and Catharine and Anjou had been thrown into fresh consternation by the vi< mands of the Protestant lords for the punisbnu nity done them during the nuptial festivities to which they had •come, trusting to the monarch's word for their protection. It was then that, convinced— to use Anjon's own words -of the impracticability of employing ruse and cunning any further, Catharine and her younger son resolved ivj , action, and

.determined to bring the King to consent to Coligny's death. Mr. White has described in an interesting manner the thril story of the artful harangue in which the Floi excited apprehensions of a Iluguenol ri ' in the mind o weak hod. and broughl him to consent to the deed thai del France with, blood, and idled his own heart with morse, if, indeed, it did not cut short hi Mr. White's

recital of the death of Coligny and | and

succeeding atrocities is temperate, and free from all exaj lion. He accepts,! as wo believe -

that Charles IX. shot at the fleeing !' with jNi arquc-

buse from hie window in the Louvre, in -, that has recently been expressed in regard to the uukingl inhuman act.

♦ Massacre of St. Bartliol* mew, p \ ' ;: PI

1S09J Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 507

The work of butchery was no less horrible in its revelations of human baseness in the provinces than in the capital. Hap- pily, the times also developed some singular and brilliant excep- tions. We shall conclude our examination of Mr. White's work with reference to two of the alleged instances of honora- ble insubordination to the King's bloody orders. The reply which the author places in the mouth of James Hcnrj Bishop of Lisieux, is unfortunately to all appearances destitute of an historical foundation.* Far from being a prelate of the stamp which this reply supposes, Hennuyer was a pliant cour- tier, who knew no rule of action but the will of those at w hands he looked for honors and emolument. Independent of this proof, we have the almost perfect certainty that the I !i instead of being in his diocese, was with the Court at the time of the occurrence of the massacre. f

It is more pleasant to be able to establish the authenticity of an equally noble rejoinder, which has been somewhat credited. ^Jr. White says: "Viscount Orte or Orthez, Gov- ernor of Bayonne, wrote a letter, which one would fain believe to be true, in spite of the discredit recently thrown npon it : ' Sire, I have communicated your Majesty's commands to the faithful inhabitants and garrison of this city. 1 have found among them many good citizens and brave soldiers, but not one executioner.' [Bourreau — hangman.] One thing is certain, that the Huguenots in Bayonne were saved." % And in n foot-note: " Capefigue says the letter is a forgery of the i - Louis XIV., but it is published by Agrippa d'Aubigne in 161S. Adiram d'Aspremonte, Viscount d'Orte, (as he is sometimes called,) was a cruel man, cruel to both parlies. Even Charles

*The style of the prel ■:. ted '. lieutenant il

resemblance to tbat i - . " Kb, no, si I

always oppos i the si cb an order, towhi I

Pastor < b of Lisieux, and the people you are coram

floc-ic. . which .

nevertheless return, ; [will not gh White, p. -155.

\ M. L. D. Pau wo think, cleo II

of Hennuyer, as '•■• read before th ciety, vol vi. (1 (1862,) p. 125, etc.

\ Massacre of St. Bartholomew, p. -155.

56S Massacre of St Bartholomew. [October,

IX. was forced to write to hiin in 15Y4 and tell hiin to be more moderate.'' The story, as Mr. "White indicate . the authority of Agrippa d'Aubigne, and it is worthy of obser- vation, that, at the same I Line that he records this magnanimous action, lie mentions that the Viscount was " homme violent autres ehoscsP* D'Aubigue was eyidcntly well informed respecting the circumstauces, and he narrates an event, in a subsequent, portion of his work, which serves as a most conclusive incidental corroboration of the truth of thisanei Some time subsequent to the massacre (in 157?) D'Aub himself was in command of a body of Huguenot troops, which, near Sables, (in the present department of Les Landes,) fell in with a Roman Catholic detachment which was conducting to Bordeaux three noble ladies condemned to be beheaded. / a very brief combat the Roman Catholics were compellc surrender, whereupon it was discovered that about a score were lieht-horsemen of the Viscount of Orthez, while about as many more were men raised at Bayonne and Pax. The warfar those days was cruel and sanguinary. Captain and soldiers recalled the infamous massacre of the Protestants in thepri of Dax. It scarcely needed the order of D'Aubign6 to n bloody reprisals upon twenty-two soldiers who came from that city. On the other hand, all the Bayonncse were curie collected, their arms and their }mv<cr- were restored, and, after their wounds had been carefully dressed at la Harie,they were dismissed with a friendly message to the s ' their Gov-

ernor, that his men had seen the different treatment whi " soldiers " and "executioners" Qourrcaux) received. "T adds the historian, " was in allusion to the answer ti had made to the King when he received the i '■' the

massacre, a3 we have said in its place." Within a wi trumpeter came from Bayonne, with scarfs and embroidered handkerchiefs for all a tokeu of the V

Orthez's appreciation.! It is evident tl Interwoven with the history of the period cannol bi the inven- tion of a ': manly am

* FTist iii • Univ< IS; Vol. ii. p. 28.

Book I. c

f Histoire Univ. du ."■ mi d'Aubi ■>.' vi I V. \ p. 291, 2! 2, sion iu tho Biilletra d pp. 13-15j 116, etc., and vol. xii, p. 240, etc.

1869.] Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 509

Governor of Bayonne, although it may hove received b< coloring from the medium through which it has been I mitted to us, is substantially accurate.

We are glad to pee, that while Mr. White finds no reason to believe that cither the Pope or the King of Spain was privy to the massacre of St. Bartholomew, he is careful to show that the fearful catastrophe was only the legitimate fruit of tb teachings of Pius V. and of .the Very Catholic King respecting the necessity of exterminating heresy; and that, on learning of the murder of tens of thousands of innocent men and I less women and children, the successor of Pius vied with Philip and Alva in expressions of joy. With the two latter, it is true worldly wisdom had perhaps as much weight as devotion to the Roman Church. Philip was forever freed of the di of an alliance between France and the Protestant Powers.

MuUis minat .-, • ' f / ' .

Neither Elizabeth nor William of Orange could ever gi without a shudder the hand that reeked with the blood of tl e guiltless.

Akt. v.— religion and the reign of terror.

Religion and the Reign of Terror; or, the Church d inj tin Prepared from the French of M. EtmoxD de i i trois premiers siecles de l'Egli I . i urn ;" " Je'sus-Chrisl son oeuvre;" "La Pay9 de I Bvangilo;" and editor • i.. !: i By Rev. John P. LAcitnix, A.M. 12rao., pp. 4.16. N v Y. . :C han. Cincinnati: Hitchcock & Walden. 1869.

Great events are slowly adjusted to their final place in history.

There are so many complications to unravel, so many*:

tions of prejudice and pas ion to correct, so many simulations

to unmask, thai time is indispensable to the ;

up of truth. In nothing, however, is the divinity of I

more strikingly evinced than in the certainty with which, Iioa -

ever hindered, ii comes to eventual recognition. Prom wl

ever bonda< e truth musl break, however intricate lb

is compelled to travel, or formidable the fo< il tuusl -mite

down, it marches surclj on to that ultimate complcl

lypse in whose light history records its irreversible decision.

570 Religion and the Eeign of Terror. [October,

The instances are few in which truth has been s1 asserting itself than in that of the first French Revo] We stand removed from thai event three quarters of a century. It has been deeply studied j views, accepted once, have been altered or reversed; but the judgment is not yet p which truth will finally confirm. Peculiar causes : spired to prevent the truth respecting that event from going into history. The French themselves were unprepared . to estimate it justly. The grand movement, whosi thrilled them to ecstasy, had borne them in it i progre - into seas of trouble. While the waves were yet tumultuo Icon took control; and when, with armies and police Lis single, arbitrary will, he had tranqnilized the agitation, it was natural that the masses, weary of the chaos of so many years, were more disposed to applaud his achievement r question his assumptions. Hence, dazzled by the glory or awed by the power of the Consulate and Empire, whoever of them might take in hand to tell the story of the R would manifestly he disqualified to do it fairly. When Water- loo restored the old regime^ the likelihood was even less that a Revolution whose guillotine had so rudely cut the Bourbon line would be justly weighed or truthfully described. Nap '. ideas, made supreme again by the coup d'etat of I hardly more auspicious for the truth of history. Among othei peoples fain - was at first even less to be expected. F. where in Europe the privileged classes heard, in the tl that convulsion, the mutterings of doom for them; and while every-where the unprivileged and oppressed hailed i1 as the dawn of their deliverance, the} 1 by

the madness into which it fell that their admiration chai to horror and execration. A movement, therefore, in its na- ture so alarming to one class, and in its i every other, was little likely to receive impartii ; at

the hand- of an} . With the lapse of , ' .

but truth fared ;.. badly :. bi lore. A brood « f !:;.-:<.,•;. went abroad as - 'I1'-' former were in i

sin-e ; in particular, intensely cul

posed, indeed, the fury of the Revolution, bu! did uol rcsl till much of all that was deare I in the struggle v.. chained to the wheels of liis despotic car. Now here, if not always, trutl

1SG0.] Rdigion and the Reign of Terror. 571

in the middle. Assuredly the Revolution was not all good was if wholly evil. If infidel and atheistic lies were there, the dearest truths concerning God and man were also there. 1 1 that dreadful floor blaspheming demons plied the flail, there were threshers, too, in whose esteem the good seed of truth and right were dearer than their lives. To this view opinioi been tending-. Investigati i ' mate, has

silling out the grain. Tl | tdulum of history, unduly swayed at first by prejudice and passion, then carried by rebound to the extreme of fulsome adulation, is settling to the ultimate repose.

Xo other aspect of the Revolution has had to wai for just appreciation as the religious. The picture of that tumult which still flo I the common mind is, we aj

hend, that of a people suddenly inspired with love of li throwing themselv( s into 1 ' if infidelity ; and then, a- if

possessed of demons, perpetrating in the name unut-

terable crimes; insanely merry even while the death-ax wi manding its daily feast of blood ; prating of freedom while the furies of disorder were trampling out its life ; but a pi into which, if religion come at all, it is religii speut, playing no worthy part in the terrible drama, but ;, ing, in one universal apostasy, to the pressure of that ;- and atheistic storm. Besides the scandal to i h a

picture is untrue. In fact the great truths which upon the spiritual were at no period of tl unfelt. The sorest perplexities and saddest failures ol olution were largely the result of the ill-consid early took, and the policy it afterward questions of religion. It- treatment of I ture of the State, and ii- mad ei u'iin

the shackles of human law. awakened that resie turn, provoked those storms of infi

wrecked so many of its hopi -. And eveu when nthi ism, in the horn- of delirious triumph, wa • d< lari his worship done away, the inc: ' wa^ heard ] »f God and

the soul wit! a ' un"

belief to unsay their vaunting lies, and cease from their dia gUStin" mummeries. In a word, i to the wild

572 Religion and the Reign of Terror. [Octo

spirit of the Revolution a resistance so persistent and invincible as religion; and yet if has been the fashion either wholly to ignore, or at most to treat with inadequate appreciatioi connection with the struggh .

The book whose title stands at the head of this | to 6npply this defect. Its author reviews the history of the Revolution for a single purpose — to ascertain "''■ rela-

tions of Church and State during its progress, and to < sti in what degree a false adjustment of these relati< ii c out- set, and the evil c mt on that mistake, c aspirations of his countrymen to become free and self-govern- ing to encounter defeat. There was assurance in advance that he would do it well. Distinguished rank among the writers of his country, enlightened views on the social questions of the age, taken in connection with extensive studies in the line of Church History, designated him as peculiarly qualified for this particular work. It is little to say that the result equals the promise. He has produced a book not merely of deep and thrilling interest, but replete with lessons, whose importance it were impossible to overstate. It cannot fail to concili ers that candor is so manifest on i v< ■ | . ge. While tl avows, and in every way evinces, the warmest sympathy with the Revolution, he deals in no measured condemnation of its crimes; while he writes in vindication of religion, fairly gleams with indignation when the sycophantic pliancy of clerical demagogues and the policies and plots of politic ' - siarchs are passing in review. In fact, thorough r< dent study, accurate deduction, and !

viction, are so manifest throughout the book, thai we ai irricd along in it< perusal hardly feeling that w we wish, to dissent from any of its conch ' The work,

moreover, is extremely opportune. At a tim< land

king peacefully to readjust Church and S'atc. 1 a portion of her realm when Spain i; grappli I the

questions involved hi the French Revolution — whei civil and rein ious libert every-wh* re, i; is more than timehj

dence— that the rock on which the i nch liberty was

wrecked should be j uintcd out, and the li made available for others.

1869.] Religion and the Reign of Terror. 573

The opening of the book is quite Homeric. There is no liminary nnfolding of the plot; no time is spent; in depic the oppressions out of which the Revolution grew. Assuming familiarity with these, the author hurries at once into the n ' of the tumult. For readers of his own nation this perhaps is no defect ; it may not he a serious one for ol ment has made its origin widely und ft is a tru

partial statement, ascribed to Madame de Stael, that the 1 ' lution was "au event which came forth out of the womb • centuries." In the sense that its provocations were the of centuries this is certainly true. Assumptions an coming down from ages acquiescent in the masterhood ofl were that which woke at last the spirit of revolt. The y ' sought to throw off was of mediaeval imposition. The cl it rose to break were the forging of feudal times, [n fclii gard its genesis was truly of the ages. But while wo i allow that its potential causes were in the arrogations and mis- rule of past centuries, we can none the less believe thai event derived its peculiar character from the fact that its a coming forth was from the bosom of French Encyclope The doctrines of Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, and their di pies had gradually infected French opinion till (he poison was every-where diffused. Th rature of the day was infi-

del or atheistic. Some of the most brilliant pens oi srere in its service. The resull was an aim. -si universal ;• leuce of religious skepticism. It could not he, th. rcfore, that, born amid such influences, the Revolution would prove an ■ merely to achieve political freedom ; thai opinio these pouring from the pn and with which the popular i was so thoroughly imbuedjwonldnol colorand being made to break the power of d< , and i

rHit'of self government. Even worse thai foreboded came top;,-. Religion, treated for a tim tronizing tolerance, n tl inioni gol i

to a merely servile state. Circled with restraints, ai suffer wrongs which will be an eternal stigma on the R tion n was finally r

which reason could no long r I .lei to. Tim ■' ' early assumed, and to tl.. On 'the one side, it was the effort of a greatly-suffering ;

574 Religion and the Reign of Terror. [Ot-

to emancipate themselves from bondage ; on (lie other, of infidel opinion to control the movement adversely to religion.

Lessons of vast concern to nations crowd the history of that unhappy straggle. That Christianity is essential to liberty — that iii organizing States the spiritual should be untrammeled by the secular — that the spirit of infidelity is one of merciless proscription— that, as a system, Oatholici ' unfri lly to popular freedom — that Christianity is invincible by human or Satanic power, are voicings of that struggle which can i die away. Some of these, as among the more important les- sons of the book, we desire to signalize by a special word.

1. That religion is the only stable basis of government is attested by the fact that the empires which have flourished and endured have been built on this foundation. The religion built on may be false, yet, as holding of the spiritual, it 1 mastery over men which the merely temporal is unable to exert. A faith which holds, though feebly, the great trntl future existence and accountability is a stay to the social struc- ture which a purely atheistic basis can never be. Cicero, comparing Rome to other nations, accounts for her superior- ity on the ground that she ''excelled all nations and peoples in piety and religion, and in this one wisdom of fully recognizing that all things are ordered and governed by the power of the immortal gods.""- Whatever we may think of his Roman partiality, we must allow the sentiment he utters : thai not numbers, nor valor, nor policy, nor culture arc the real ele- ments of national stability; that only a.-- nations are religious — recognize that over them is an Infinite Ruler, and hold them- selves accountable to him— -are they strong to overcome the perils which endanger their existence.

Christianity, as the cleai ' tion of the future and of

our relation to it, gives a sanction I ions vastly

more potential, and lights the way to an adjustment of social relations vastly more perfect, than are possible to any

*Quam volui p 10 , nee ro hoc ipso hujn

i dpi, ate, i s una snpieutia, quod deorum iumortaliuin nu-

jiiino omnia rogi, mua — Ok . ,: ■' ' _ ■ '■'■

1869.] Religion and the Reign of Ten ,. 575

other religious system. It enunciates principles and intiv ■■'■ agencies whose tendency and operation are so to mold individual rind to regulate society as to secure, with the leas restraint, of personal freedom, the greatest social good. Il affirms the sovereignty of God, and expressly teaches the equality of men. While, therefore, it claims for i of all, as between themselves it demands for each the ut liberty consistent with that social order which it also sane i Especially it demands that conscience be unfettered ; that thought and speech be free. As, therefore, the grout trutl which civil and religious liberty have their root arc the : cation of Christian it j alone, rejecting it is fatal to the boj any people striving to be free. jSTo sadder illustration I there been than was furnished in the French experiment. If is, in. truth, a demonstration for the ages of the impossibili founding liberty on any other basis than that of Christii It was a sublime spectacle which France presented at the o ing of the Revolution. A nation that till recently app hopelessly decadent had i I a blow the chai

centuries had riveted, and, with the flush of youth upon il brow, was standing in the morning light of liberty, lookingout, elate with joy, on a future of unbounded hope. It was a which neither pen nor pencil can depict. Paris I enthusiasm, and the glow diffused throughout the provii No cloud upon the sky, no muttering in the air, gave I the storm.- that were to come The people fancied they free, and on the road to a destiny surpa sing all their dri What was their mistake ? Why, after such exi miss the goal ? The primal cause, thai to which all ol may be traced, was the effort to ally freedom with irreli That the leaders of the movement were hone i in r. to establish liberty, and, for a time, labored at the task wi patriotic ardoi rving admiration, none familiar wit'

history will question. Bui they disallowed the only »toi which the structure could be reared. At (ij liking, but in deference to what the} counted .- i] were willing to allou religion were attempting ; but,.when they failed I with bound!' ss scorn thej est ' it utti build on the negation of all thai makes liberty possi

576 Religion and the Reign of Terror. [0

Warned we may well be by the monstrous result. But 1 not be counted any fault of liberty that the French nation, starting on its exodus with such glowing promise, lost the way and traveled weary years to reach at last a bon severe than that from which they sought escape. The guides were blind. Other leading must the nation follow that would be tree. If the French saw the bloom of freedom wither, it was because iniidel hands rudely plucked it from the stem. If the child on which their hope was set proved a mons because godless accoucheurs presided at the birth; if it? life was sickly and its death untimely, it was beci as poi-

soned in the nursing.

2. After the foundation, there is nothing, perhaps, of more concern to liberty than a right adjustment of the secula spiritual in the struct are of the State. "Within a cemun "have been two impressive demo i ''"the immense advan-

tage to liberty of that adjustment which leaves religion unem- barrassed by any organic connection with the When our fathers came to organize the liberty their arms hail taught by their traditions they resolved in no deg] plicate the temporal and spiritual ; to cover religion, in all its forms, with the shield v^ impartial protection, but neither to assume its support nor meddle with its worship. The leaders of the French movement, on the contrary, swayed in p: ancient complici d in part by unbelief, began with the purp dinate reli: ion 1 . from step to step till they had compassed its complete enslave- ment. Both of these experiments — the one in its success, the other in its fail i of the right adjustment of these relations. The latter, ind disti than that in organizing liberty it is fatal to invade t: ■ of the soul.

In order I «ate what • beting religi n in

the process <■;' framing a < - for the n . it is

necessary to have in mind the p uditiou of the Church

one of the ord ' tate. It had long li

the sole le jalized religi

power, and ri"v cd, u

banished, put to death ; in short, emploj of penalties and paius to silence dissent It controlled the

1800.3 Religion and the Reign of T . 577

education, monopolized the offices, and kept the conscicnc< ol the nation; in a word, exercised official power in life and dealli over body, and mind, and soul. Its wealth was enor- mous. The piety of the living and the fears of the dying Lad. lor age-, been augmenting its possessions. The E found it with an annual revenue of two hundred rnilli* That with such resourci . moral and material, it should be potent in the secular sphere was altogether natural. In i functions of the government it was, in fact, controlling. On occasion it could make its power felt even to the throne, i ' thus a partner of the State, it was naturally anxious to con that peculiar civil polity i o fa's < irable to its own ■ ; oient.

This espousal by the Church of that despotic order which the liberal party were determined either to reform or enti supersede, taken in connection with the skepticism of its 1 ers, explains the hostile attitude which the Revolution, i very outbreak, assumed toward the Church. While many of its members, and a fair proportion of its inferior clergy, were in accord with the spirit of the hour, with few exception higher clergy, who controlled its policy, had no liking ' movement which they knew would deal roughly with :" pretensions. Thus began that breach between Liberalism Christianity which infidel leaders were able to widen, till at last, in complete divorce, they fought each other throu night of anarchy on which it seemed no morning v rise.

It was therefore likely in advance that, when they came 1" legislate for the new order of things, their course toward n Church so unfriendly to their aims would noi I perhaps, judicious. And so il proved. The coercive tei of the leaders was apparent from the start. B thy to i /'.': ion, th Eina ' tress of tin

them to seize its property. The immense wi alth of the < "■■ could it be devoted to the uses of the State, would i present trouble, and enable the nation to bi gin auspi< new career. Hence I -t and feeling impelled tl

to nnspai in tion. Authority to di

was claimed on the ground that corpora^ I existence from civil law, hold their rights by the same tei and that, consequently, any lithe thej po - . Iiavii j

578 Religion and the Eeign of Terror. [<

onlj in the sanction of law, may be altered or annul]

itivc power. As a reason for applying v. to the pending question, it was maintained that the weall the Church was a moral disadvantage; that ri the priests, and thai consequently a true regard for the h ests of religion demanded of them to free the el< great impediment to their appropriate work. After i debate of nearly a month the alienating derive was ] terms were these: "All the property of the clergy i- i I disposal of the nation on condition that it shall, provide in a fitting manner fo] the expens j of worship, the maintenance of its ministers, and the necessities of the poor. As to the dispositions to be made for the mini . they shall

be paid each not less than one thousand two hundred fi not including lodging and the use of a garden." Such was their decision of the gravest question with which the Revolu- tion had to deal. How unwise it was the histor fully to appreciate.

The execution oi' this decree caused intense agitation. The initial step was an order enjoining every holder of a be:: . to furnish the court.- a del of the property of i

kind pertaining thereto. With more than prudent 1 decrees followed, first, for the immediate sale of p] the amount of hundreds of millions of francs; next, for the unhousing and suppression of the monastic orders ; then, for the pensioning of monks ; and last, fort) the confiscated property. These respective measure- were adopted after prolonged and able, bur acrimonious and in- tensely-irritating. On the side of the deputi with argument and el seldom snrj frequent exhibition of defi an 1 and ex: | Q. On the side of the clergy, along with some noble utl were earnest deprecation and frantic appi '. there were • ics of frenzied cxcitei when p to such a pitch that bloodj col force.

In treating the qut *tion of prop< rty the 1 era! times violate d right : of c ii This, however,

as ye! elicited I »non-

Btrance. They fought with desperate earnestness I

1809.] Religion and the JRcitjn of Terror.

their rich endowments ; but scarcely an earnest word hi been spoken in defense of religious liberty. Bui this wa to last. The steps already taken by the Assembly inv the necessity of going further, and from this point I of legislation was deplorably inconsiderate of the righti of science. When the Assembly took in hand to adjust the fr work of the Church to the new civil order an ecclesiastical fac- tion, with many wrongs to avenge, in coalition will) the i leaders, gave it a constitution utterly subversive of the ol< ganic form. It abolished many bishoprics, aim is! ignored the jurisdiction of the Pope, suppre and titl s, re-

duced the number of schools, gave to Protestant and infidels an equal right with Catholics to vote in the i I of Church incumbents, and in effect so weakened and embar- rassed the officials thus selected that the ultimate authority in things spiritual rested largely with the civil power. Had this constitution been the work of a Church council it would have. been a grievous wrong, but its enactment by a political a bly was an outrage on the dearest right; of man. Ko wonder it proved a Pandora-box of direst evils to the liberal c

In man} parts of the country the population, al-

ready much excited by the sale oi' their churches and m teries, were unable quietly to bear this new infliction. Mut- terings of revolt were heard. The smoldering fires of pa kindled to a blaze as the news of its ad iption went abroad. This frenzied discontent made it easy for the disaffected < to organize a counter-revolution. Nocturnal meeti held, and inflammatory speeches made. By tongue and pen the Assembly was denounced as infai

sented as a crime which if was religious to oppose. Over all the land opposition was organized. By sccre! i the Pope did all he could to foment the trouble. En i places the enforcement of the Constitution was stubbornly with- stood. Irritated by this resistance, the Ai erably adop measure which had the effect to alienate n many of its warmest friends. It was an order "requiri who lu'h! positions in the Church to take an oath to - ipport and obey not r'\\\ the laws of the laud in general, but to tain with all their power the Civil Constitution of the ( as decreed by the Assembly, -and thai on pain of ejection

580 Religion rind the Reign of Terror. [October,

office, forfeiture of pension, and loss of citizenship." The en- forcement of this outrageous oath was commenced with the clerical members of the Assembly. The scene that followed was unspeakably sad, yet truly grand; sad, in that, on the side of those representing liberalism, there was nulling but an insulting exhibition of the most hateful despotism ; grand, for noble words and brave deeds on the other side, in vin licati truest liberty. The note of resistance that day struck electri- fied the Church. Emulous of the grand example set by the clerical representatives, Church officials every-where refi the oath; and when the task of its attempted imposition was completed, it was found that all hut four of the hie thirty-one Bishops, aud a multitude of the inferior clergy, had preferred the forfeiture of office and pension and citizen to their retention on terms which conscience disallowed. So serious was tin? result that for a m mient even the most radical of the Assembly showed concern to allay the storm they bad provoked ; but it was fatal to pacific thought.- that Rome about this time threw all its power in favor of the refractory clergy. "While the Pope had not concealed hi.- disapproval of all that had been done since the convocation of the States-General, nor left in doubt the stand he would ultimately take, he yet, for reasons of policy, was slow to utter an official condemnation. But silence was no longer politic. The oath was a 1>!>>\\ a; his supremacy not to be endured, . ud hi.- fulmination went forth denouncing, protesting, asserting, aud (dosed 1 ly ab-

juring "all Catholic-, in the name of their < ternal salvation, to remain faithful to the ancient five- of the Church and to Holy See." The immediate effect wa> to rend the Church. One part, embracing nearly all the Bishops, a I u'tion

of the clergy, and a. multitude of members, remained loyal to the Pope; the other accepted the yoke of civil domini An^ry opposition to the thin;' r broke out on ever) side. The nation, rocked in the storm of increasing agitation^ began to feel the throes .vliicli i tin end brought forth Terror.

Surely no clearer demon I needed of the hurt to lib-

crty of thai an : trol of re-

ligion than is furni lied by the evils into which it piling* French nation. J', is, however, rendered still more clear l>\ what occurred later in tin e. Afl the nigh: of I

1869.] -Religion and the Reign of Terror. 5S1

wore away the more candid of the leaders began to admit that error in the matter of organizing religion was the source of their greatest troubles ; that fr< with

which laws should not meddle. These principles were al length embodied in the Constitution, and with the happiesi results. The storm began to subside, the sky to clear, and the a liberty, righting itself, set forth again with fail- getting safely into port. That it failed to enter, or, a: I came in with but a portion of the precious things it carried, the author charges to the perfidy of Napol

The differing estimates of this famous man are among the cuvions things of history. National antipathy explains tl i traction of Scott ; the inspiration of Abbott's fulsome panegyric is not easy to assign ; but however explained, it is a fact thai, writers on his career have seemedmore intent to gild < his character than to set it in the coloring of truth. Tim.-, however — le grand justicier du se — to use an expression of Montaigne's, at hist fades out e\\:XY false tint, and hangs the perfect picture in its rightful place. We have the i that Pressense has done much to complete that portrail of .Na- poleon which the future will accept. Conceding his and the value of his services to France, he yet affirms thai was possessed of an "insolent contempt of every superior prin- ciple, of all right, of all liberty." In proof, he shows that from the coup d'etat which made him First Consul he had but a single purpose — to centralize .all power in himself, I glory of empire to martial renown ; that his policy in m; of religion was conceived and followed with the single \i< w to further tins design ; that to gain the assist! enslaved religion; that, in a word, he disregan ; right

in order to build up a despotism wl) would

so contrast with the anarchy an . ' the Revolution

blind the nation to its real character. No pari of th< I has left on us a adder it

this perfidious course. Thai the liberal moveincu ! th from its great embarrassment, and advancing to sue- tu j, should be again arr< itself imi

is all the more to be itcd in it- row kind,.

execration at the thought that it was t! who,

in the. moment when their freedom seemed assured, fotl

Podjrth Series, Vol. XXI. — 37

5S2 Religion and the Reign of Terror. • [Octo

thorn again. Hut it is a thought we cannot put away : the author sustains the verdict he pronounces by facts which fore- close appeal. No part of the boot is more conclusive in its logic than that which fastens on Napoleon the odium of hi sacrificed to his own ambition the most precious fruits o Revolution.

3. Another truth of saddest illustration in that strug ' tin intolerance of unbelief. Skeptical leaders were throughout fierce and vengeful persecutors. Their impatience of die beginning with insolent words, exhausted the possi ■outrage. The sanctioning of mobs, the banishment and mas- sacre of priests, the enormities of the Rev< and the final infamous attempt to abolish religion, were i hitions of intolerance unsurpassed in the hi If other, proof were needed of theessential proseriptiv< ,. fidelity it is found in the later history of the successive phase of unbelief, as il rose to )■ . . died every other with a hate as merciless as thai displayed against religion. Atheism, in the brief period of its ascendency, hurled its against Deism with no less fiendish rage than against C tianity; and when Robespierre triumphed, Deism follow ■deniers to the scaffold with as much delight a- ev< it • rienced at the death of priests. In fact the history of unbelief, whether in the bald negations of Atheism, or in thi firmations of Deism, or in the floral wreathing of Theophilan- thropy, was as intolerant of unbelieving as of religious differ- ences. Its treatment of the latter was so hurtful to the liberal ■cause, and is hence so prominent among if the

book, that it demands a more particular statement.

Alarmed at the rupture of the Church, the Assembly labored to secure the non-conforming party protection in their worship; but popular passion was mightier than decree-. Liberty of wor- ship for non-juring Catholics was in reality hut a name, was periled,. lost, in the efforl to enjoy what law

allowed. Mobs expelled them fr the chin.-' d for

their worship, i • threw their altars, and indulg<

them all the promptings of vindictive rage. !

lative Assembly their condition was even wore

course of this body is explained in , peculiar coi

sition, and in part, by the circumstances under which il

1869.] Bdigion and the Reign of Terror.

called to deliberate. It was largely composed o\' young men chosen mainly for their revolutionary zeal. Among men of splendid talents, but inexperienced in the work of leg- islation. For a time the leaders were the famous Girondist deputies; but along with :! ' soon to be their \: •

were the Mountain party, the future men of tei these

impulsive natures the times were constantly applying the - of irritation. Many of the Bishops, on surrcndi . ' . had

fled the country, and in their exile some of them were concert- ing with the Pope and with royalists abroad to fomenl satisfaction, hoping so to manage the reactionary mo ultimately to defeal the Revolution and restore the old regi i . It Mas not strange, therefore, that youthful, fiery men. w3 attachment to the Revolution was an absorbing • were

driven by a knowledj e plots into 1<

se\ erity. Certain it is that compulsion was the single note they struck, and, through a rising se;fle of end. Scarcely laid they entered on their work when tidin increasing agitation poured in from every quarter. In one place a mob massacred two hundred men and women susp of opposition to the Revolution. The Assembly, by a most iniquitous decree, justified the crime. It was a rapid anarchy, for it pledged impunity to lawlessness, hi en said to mobs, Riot and kill, the blood of the dii crates the dagger. This virtual license of the mob soon bore its natural fruit. The revolutionary fury rose to an .a; mood. Wherever it dared, the popular wrath practi the non-conforming party every enormity of law;--.- rage. It increased the trouble that this outrageous tr< always quietly received. In was strong they were far from turning the otl smitten. Blows were given in return. Tin the Assembly in a ' JU(Ji'

cious legislation. In order " the more quickl} I enemies of the Revolution," ii was pr< id, in their

case, the operation of the laws : and ;] ugn in form, I was'nol taki n, a ; which virtual^

the ni h-conforming party. It failed of the veto, besides being widely di regarded, bn flict with the King which - avulsed the nation, and in tl

584 . Beligion and the Reign of Terror. [0

bore him to execution. The immediate effed was a terrible exasperation of the revolutionary party. The treatise suspected priests became more brutal than ever. From • provinces they were exiled, in others they wer< into

prisons foul from heat and lack of air, where they end untold sufferings, and in many cases escaped starvation only through succor stealthily conveyed by friends. In frequent in- stances they were put to death.

Convents declining the services of Constitutional pri were assailed by mobs, forcibly entered, and their inmates bru- tally treated. Nuns were sometimes whipped with rod-. persecuting spirit of the Assembly culminated in a dec:. extradition against accused priests. But they had now quite lost control of the Revolution. Passion was too wild to be kept within the limits of the most proscriptive laws. There ' opposition which law hud failed to crush, and the mo] resolved to try the knife. The spectacle exhibited in I and in other parts of France in the autumn of 1792 palling beyond the power of description. That tin the Hejptembnseurs had their inspiration " in hatred ol the Church party admits of no dispute. One of the ward- of Pi '- openly voted "that all the priests and suspected per fined in the prisons of Paris and other cities b The mob performed the bloody work. " At a half doyrn dif- ferent prisons in Paris the priests were butchered en the provinces followed the example of the capital." But a was now aroused which none could lay. Infuriate crowds, athirst for blood, poured from the alleys and faubourg Pari.-, and, with the aspect of unchained d city dav and night, pcrpi trating butcherii e of the i in(* barbarity. Th e, however, proved bill the prelude I drama of terror. One of the I i ■ the Natl

vention was to organize machinery through which I weapon.1 of proscription with discerning aim, and with all the powerof the State. A Revolutionary Tribunal and tee of Public Safety were i

from its ii ' leci ion : ': ' ;n< >• -' v '

victims of tin it h ite. To ■• thcr they formed an cngini rr of murderous proscription more terrible tin '

suspected might chide; that marked them secretly and-

1869J Religion and the Reign of Terror.

them as with lightning-stroke. With such accusers and jud and with the guillotine to execute their vengeful arbiti nothing could surpass the terror it inspired. ' were

always flying, or ever ready to be hurled. It excites no Bur- prise that this machinery was used to the utmost in reli persecution, when it is remembered that the National Conven- tion was more thoroughly imbued with the infidel pi and numbered more enthusiastic advocates of its p principles, than either of the preceding legisli five b >di< - : but that its spirit was so brutal ought surely to rebuke the ; sions of philosophy to master human passion. The pi of Nero was hardlj more inhuman. When, for instance. of money prevented deportation of the priests. were sent to the scaffold. In different places they \ sacred and drowned. Death within twenty-four hoiu decreed fate of every priest returning from abroad " susp of relations with the enemy.'' Bi ; can alone impart an adequate impression of the rem. * cruelties practiced by these apostles <

moreover, that they had other aim;, than that | ; 'hat

their real object was not so much to compel civil subn as to crush religion. It must forever bar the pica of pati ardor, as a palliation of their crimes, that their persecution was now indiscriminate. No sooner did tin; Terrorist sure of power than they began to unmask. Catholics i' accord with the Revolution were no less via ti than others. The proof accumulates with e\ real purpose was to strike down Christianity. Tli demolition began with the abn be Chri tian eal

dar. The year was made to date from the founding Republic; the old weeks were superseded b} < the months were given first a philosophical, and then a po< cal, nomenclature ; and a!! this avowedly to free tl from all association with religion. At 1< ngth, whe and the pre had duly , . and tcntatr

raenta had shown that il i

■ denunciations and scandalous aposl abolished, an. I a worship of was there worship so misni ined. The Saturnalia of |

586 Religion and the Reign of Terror. [Ocl

Rome were not more licentious and disgusting than the i inations Atheism practiced in the celebration of it? w Churches were transformed into halls of revelry. "An priests were seen dancing with harlots around brighl fir by holy bo >ks i nd ritua] , and relics. And tin

was propagated like a sort of death-dance thro:. ' nation." Then, that the new religion might lade nothii perfection, the Convention hastened to canonize i was fitting that Marat— the man who, by consent of all, \ the crown ...Satanic eminence, among the demons of the Rev- olution— should be awarded this distinction. With enthu ' demonstrations, his remains were transferred to the Pantheon. " The veneration for this monster knew no bounds. H were written in his honor. On divers stamps he was | by the side of Christ. Men swore by the sacred heart of Marat. The new worship was complete; it had desses, and a man of violence and blood for a martyr and. saint."

Now that Christianity was a religio ittu Ita in Franc . adherents fared worse than ever. They were span I of oppression or outrage in the compass of vindictive ]-<>•.. invent and practice, ii seemed the purpose of th( clique to extinguish, if need be in seas of blood, the last spark of Christian faith. But a rule so* monstrous could not last. Availing .:-'.' tl e protest which muttered in the popular I against tin e disgusting practices, Robespierre, in the inte of Deism, struck down the Atheistic party, and sent its li to the guillotine. Their overthrow, however, afforded I • tians no relief ; for though liberty of worship firmed

by the Convention, in practice it was evcry-where ignored. The cheerless worship of the Eternal, with which Robespierre was able to di place the indecent and revolting i Atheism, was, with loud protestations of liberality, i ecriptive. i yed from using terror only h\ the

fall of its founder. Il i- both a pr< anarchy which

terror had | rod lc d, and a f< n lul ii. - tribution,

in fift

in which R< I : • itc had played the rol< of and from which he cam..' the arbiter of destinies, he borne to the scaffold throui tion and i

1869.3 Religion and the Reign of Terror. 587

unequaled in the case of any other victim of the guillo- tine.

The final lesson we may note is the manner in which Chris- tianity endured this severe and protracted assault. Never, perhaps, was it assailed at greater disadvantage to itself than at the opening of the Re volution. So many Delilahs had ca- ressed and weakened it thai it seemed at the mercy of ite It is to be lamented that the apostles of unbelief foun in the scandalous abuses of the ecclesiastical system to poinl and wing the arrows of their hate Caricature, invective, scorn, poured their missiles with terrible efFecl on the follies of the Church. Every bolt crashed through some rotten < And though, in reality, religion was untouched by these assaults, and would have been by the inter demolition of its exi organism, yet to a people unaccn tom< d to dii tinguisb between religion and the Church, it was at the disadvantage of seeming to deserve the derision poured on its corrupt organization. [1 had the further disadvantage of a false position. Religion and liberty are friends; their grand ideas travel in the same di tion ; but perfidy to its principles on the part of those claii to represent religion set them in apparent op] The

Catholic Church of France has no di , grace than that

when the great principle of the Gospel, thai in Christ men are equal, was asserting itself, it joined with despotism to perpetu- ate its negation. It, therefore, was not strange that, cumbered with corruptions, and seeming to oppose the cause it favore . ligion was unable for a tin)'' to make a worthy defense. Truly it was pitiful 1" see the clergy so conccn ed i- pi external pomp, and yet so careless of the blows whicl were aiming at its life. But il While the course of its assailant . ive, the course of its defenders was becoming worthi cause. Losing ;:i the fires of trial much that marred manifestations, their resistance beca in countless instances a hcroi nt worthy to rank with I i sheds undying glory on the mai '

volume sho ' itno - that no corrup-

tions of tomi can extinguish the life of ( liristianity. A pics of this witness we cite the following: " My choii e ; in said Abbol Paquot to those who wer< urj ing I :. i t< I ke the

588 Religion and the Reign of Terror.

oath; « I prefer death to perjury. If I had two lives 1 give one of them to you, bul as I have but one ] si for God." "These are tlie golden day of the Church,5 the language of many on the way to death; "these are the times to try the courage of her true children." " A large num- ber of nuns, who were confined in a single prison, nobly in these words to tin ir | ■ - cutors, who charged I with fanaticism : 'It is fanatics who slaughter and kill, b pray for such.' 'You shall be sent abroad.' 'Wh arc sent we will pray.' 'Whither would you prefer I sent?5 'Where there are the most of suffering ones h sole, and these are nowhere more than in France.' 'Il' you remain here it is to die.' 'Then we will die.' Tl women sang aloud, and joyfully, sacred hynms at the foot of the scaffold." The author closes his allusion to the September mas- sacres in these inspiring and admonitory \v..rds:

Nothing is more glorious in all the annals of martyrdom than seme of these scenes. They combined an emulati

ism with a heart-trusting 'piety. The vi abl< Ircl bisl ;'

Aries, thanking God for the duty of offering his blood fi . cause — those prints confessing to each otl . other the kiss of peace b fore laying their heads on the Glock— those answers, kind but firm, and worthy of —all t}iO--t- noble manifestations of a religion at that' time in such ill repute — all this throws ;l celestial light on the close oi an in- credulous century, a ud reveals the presence of God with an ex- traordinary power at the very momenl when ■ mpt is about to be made to banish hi- worship from society. From the blood of all these massacred persons a warnin j voi It says to :■■'< I aiders of civil pow er, li science, for it will surely rise. pure and triumphant over yoi saults,-and leave you covered with defeat and shi

It is gratifying that the work has hem gii readers in a way so worthy of its merits. The translatio Professor La roi ; not merely preserves .

but also in a high degree thai graphic charm which I marie'! or lost in the proce? of transferring thought from ■ expression to uotln i*. It has been widely noticed by the | i and without exception, so far as . en, in term ■

mendation. hi one or tw< , otherwise favorabl

arc statements likely to convey a wrong hnpre glish work in oue respect. "It is diflicil

1869.] Religion and tfo Reign of Terror.

"to say precisely what tins book is. It is no! a translatio the original work. Mr.Lacroixin one place calk it an- a' menr,' in another a 'digest.'" Now if from : sion be taken that the boo* has been so modified in the pi of rendition as to have lost material identity with tL it is utterly at fault. ^Vc have looked through the French work sufficiently to feel justified in saying, that, while details are sometimes con tated, and sp

questions lacking the interest for American renders which I had for French are in some instances epitomized, the .- ib always presented, and that in other respects the original i- fully rendered. This method of preparing the work in Ei j we understand, the author's cordial approbation. The in of tlie work is enhanced by a biographical appendix, carefully prepared, by the translator. It has. besides, what tl • lack-, that requisite of every complete book, a copi The publish* rs show their appreciation of the work in th gant and attractive style in which they have issued it. ] have done the author a favor, and the cause of civil i ious liberty a signal service in sending it forth in a form at a cost so favorable to its extensive circulation.

Akt. VI.— YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ^SSOCIAI !'

Oxf. of the most hopeful signs of the times,] point of view, i< tl g the youthful i

Church in the service of the Divin< ' EE<

energy has been repressed, rather than quence of the imperfect facilities for its employe

The ( ri ii ! in I it tions of to-da} ne< d tl young bl ■ • ; and vigorou • energj . Hung ■' . only one in eleven of tli

membership of thai State is under forty year shows thai the sympatl i< • of the ) enlisted in the cause of religion ; and shall be the future of the Church? Am

Nol '

590 Young Mentis Christian A iaiions. COcI

around the standard of the cross, and enlists them Id of the Christian workers of the age, is an augury of bl the future.

The peculiar t< inptations to which young men are exposed in the cities make >ns especiall; le. In the

greal emporia of t-.il and traffic, the manufacturing and com- mercial centers of the country, are gathered . aggregate number of young men, mosl of wh . ■ the

country. Cities will al be the centers where good and

evil are manifested in their intensest and most active i Like the fabh ] dragons of old, demanding a daily tribul human lives, the pitiless vices of the city- -its intemperane profligacy, and its crime — destroy their hecatombs of victims every year. The cunning Circe, Sin, weaves her web of >phis- try and sings her siren song, and flaunts her subtle blandish- ments; and Pleasure, that Delilah of men' conscience into fatal slumber, robs the spirit of il betrays its victim into the hands of the Philistines. The homeless youth in the solitude of a great city pines for tl joyment of society. The only sort to which he can obtain access is frequently that of the theater, the billiard parlor, the drinking saloon, the concert hall, or the haunts of still «' resort, whose steps go down to death. After exhausting men- tal or physical labor he seeks relaxation amid the multiplied seductions on every hand, which have all the charm of and some of them the additional fascination of being forbidden fruit. He frequently procur • excitement for his jaded nerves and overtaxed brain in sensual indulgence in thenar the wine cup. or the more subtle, en ervati vices which despoil both soul and body of their purity and strength.

It was for the spiritual and temporal advanl of young men— to shield them from temptation, to n scu< I from the toils of evil, to raise them up when fallen, to fu Christian - icie y innocent recreation and intelli and for religious fellowship and evan ort — that t

associati : ' ' ;• ! : im"

portant enterprise, in a very quiet, am nner.

The rivers that water the valleys have their sprinj amonc the mountains, or in soi .; sothisstn

18C9J Young Main Christian Associations. [r:\

of hallowed influence had its humble origin in one of the scure by-ways of life. Some five and twenty years ago, in a drapery house in the heart of the city of London, a :' men assembled in a prayer-meeting for the promotion sona] piety. They heard of a similar meeting in another com- mercial house, ami invited its members to unite with tl A meeting of young men from both houses was, therefore, ; at No. 72 St. Paul's Church-yard* on the Oth of Ju where it was resolved to form a "Society for improving the spiritual condition of young men engaged in the drapery other trade.-." To the religious character of th i n it-

founders soon added the idea of intellectual improvement, for that purpose established libraries ami instituted deb They also inaugurated the Exeter Hall lectures to young men, which have since become famous throughout the world. Tl lectures have become a permanent institution, enlisting much of the first literary talent in Great Britain, and i thou-

sands to their delivery. In their published form they have reached multitudes throughout the English-speaking porti the world. In ten years an aggregate of , . lumes waa

sold, and since that time probably 150,000 more. Th ! also instituted Sunday Bible classes, and employed it- i • in general Sunday-school and Ragged-school work. It ado] a regular system of trad distribution, and in 1851, the y< the first universal exhibition, its members distributed no than 352,000 tracts among the visitors to the V, held 1,550 public and social religion- services in the me- tropolis.

In December, 1S51, the first Foung Mi ciation in America was established :■' on the 29th of the same month the first in the United the city of Boston, Ala--. Similar societies rapidly in New York, Buffalo, Y<\

Francisco, and. elsewhere, i" the number of twenty-five In two years. The felt necessity of some means for Lhe intcrchai thoughl and opinion led to the calling <>i' the at Buffalo, X. \ .. present, and a voluntary conl

central committee and annual conventions, whose fun< * Messrs. G

592 Young Men's Christian Associations. [October,

however, were to be merely advisory in their character, 'i conventions have been held as exhibited in the following table:

Da* 1 ..

1854 Buffalo, N. T.

- ■

25

1855 Cincinnati, 0 62 CO

1856 Montreal, Ca 88 G7

185? Richmond, Va f.2 - :

1S5S Cliarli I . .- C 98 ]0T

1859 Troy, X. V 231.....'.'.'.'..,

I860 N ; 128 20;>

1861 New Yoi k 43

1! ' ; Chicago, D1 150

1864 Boston, Mass 136

1865 Philadelphia, Fa 220 192

1 866 Ml ,! :,:. . X. Y 250

1SG7 Montre tl, Ca 594 245

1SGS Detroit, Mich 502 613

The great Rebellion, though it threatened the verj existence of the confederacy of associations, was really the occasion of marvelously developing its energy ami usefulne 3. The con- vention had been appointed for St. Louis in the spring of ] but the outbreak of the war prevented its meeting. The Com- mittee, therefore, called a convention at New York in the month of November to bee if the agencies of the i could not in some way com,' to the aid of the country in thai fearful struggle. The resull was the formation of that i. organization, the Christian Commission. All the world 1.: the history of it.- labors, which gleam like golden broidery on the ensanguined mho of war — like the silver li:': som-

ber clouds of fate, irradiating the gloom of battle by glin ; of the heavenly light of love and charity. Th< tfthis

commission carried at once the bread that peri bread of life, ;;:.>i healed the wounds both of the body and the soul. The} - k bade to life, and by their hallowed

ministrations quickened in the soul aspirations for thai hi life thai is undying. Tin- Christian artillery of the battli I — the coffi supply trains of the Commissi*

succored many a wounded warrior, whose brui deadly enginery of war 1i::<1 well-nigh crushed to <! iath. 'I plum. tian chivalry exhibited a i

as dauntless often as his who lid the victorious charge or cov- ercd the disastrous retreat. By their gentle ministrations to

1869.1 Young Mens Christian Associations. 598

the stricken and the dying, amid the carnage of the battle-1 and in the hospitals, they have laid the nation under < of gratitude whi :h si 01 Id never be forgotten. From Novem- ber, 1861, to .May, 18G6, this Commission disbursed both for the benefit of the patriot soldiers of the Union and for the rebel wounded that fell into our hands the sura of §6,291,107. It employed \ gents, working without

ompense an aggregate of 185,502 days. These agents held 130,050 religious services, and wrote 92,321 letters for il ■ diers. They gave away 1,466,748 Bibles, (in whole or in part,) 1,370,953 hymn books, 8,603,434 books or pamphlets, 18,18! newspapers and magazines, and

tracts. They also greatly assisted the operations of the Sa] ' Commission, which expended in the same time §4,924,048, making an aggregate by the two of §11,215,155 poured out as a freewill offering by a grateful country for the moral and physical welfare of its brave defenders. The world had never before seen such an example of colossal liberality.

During the Ions: years of the war, when the nation si convulsed with the throes of a mortal agony, the confederacy of associations was weakened by the Loss i>f its Southern members, and by the destruction of several local brand the North, but now has more than regained its former strength. There are now in America five hundred and thir- teen associations — more than in all the world besides— with probably fifty Hi »nsand m i i I LO ■: es in their

libraries. The annual conventions are OCCAS] pedal

interest. The inhabitants of the city where they are held i their houses in hospitality, the pub

crowded, and are addressed by representative men from dif- ferent parts of the country. In the ■ are generally confined to three or five minutes, thus variety and vivacity. These convchtii Christian sympathy of the communities where they are I and stimulate their zeal for philanthro] ' and powerful revivals of they leave behind, and the I

The following an '>< "'•• Chri

•iations thro ighonl the world, at pr national c held al Paris in U i by the

594: Young Men's Christian Associations. [October,

latest information upon the subject : In Great Britain I arc ninety-five associations; in the colonics, i twelve; in Holland, one hundred and four; in Belgium, eleven; in Germany, seventy ; in France, fifty-four; in Switz- erland, ninety-five; in Italy, live; around the Mediterranean, five; in the United States and Canada, five hui fifteen ; in all, nine hundred and sixty-four. The II associations are af Turin, Genoa, Naples, Florence, and Milan. There are also associations at Algii

Smyrna, and Constantinople; at Madras and Calcutta; in Australia, New Zealand, and Ceylon ; at the Ca] Hope, at Natal, and Sierra Leone. Besides these, then corresponding members at St. Petersbnrgh, Buenos Ayres, Honolulu, and. Bessarabia. The membership of the conti- nental associations is generally small, frequently not more than ten or twenty. At Elberfeld, however, it reaches hundred, and at Berlin five hundred and twenty-six. The largest in Great Britain has three hundred members, excepting that of London, which, with it.- eleven branches, numbers thousand and thirty-four. In America they are much la _ . and have taken a deeper hold upon the popular sympathies. That at Brooklyn numbers three thousand eight hundred and ninety live members; that at New York, one thoi hundred and fifty-two : or together, five thousand five hui and forty-seven. The as iation at Philadelphia has two thousand five hundred members; that at Boston, tw< three hundred; al Providence, one thousand three bun at Troy, one tin ■ and fifty ; and at Chi

one thousand.

Thus much must suffice for statistics. We will the scope and tendency of these as ociati < >untry.

One effect, we conceive, will h business— to prove thai i; is not a mere The national reproach of America, whether is its intense dollar wor hip ; its eager race for riches, in which all

The tendency of all ihi- i ' and hard-

ening to the I

reckless extravagance fo tered hy the Gold Room and i Exchange are Bwl

1869.] Young Me?iys Christian Associations. 595

business, when ennobled and dignified by a lofty Christian

principle, will become a high and holy calling. Thia desirable

consummation will vastly increase the resourc of the Church,

and will unseal fountains of liberality which will water

earth with the streams of an almost boundless benefio

Men who early acquire the habit of Christian ac '

of systematic giving, when with the la

increase, will be moved by that second nature, which is

stronger than the first, to liberally endow the I

institutions of the country. The commercial su

tian men will prove what seems to be doubted, that religion

does not spoil a man for business, nor make him a men mills

sop in the active relatioi bib; and tl i will

carry their business faculties into the religious ei

of the Church, and give th( m a n< w efficiency ai

The dissemination of Christian principles among busii men would assuredly elevate the political tone of society, and inspire a nobler ethical sentiment in all classes. Legi lation would be recognized as the highest function of the patriot statesman; as a duty to be performed, not in thi blind

partisanship, but in a calm judicial frame, and in humble de- pendence upon that wisdom which cometh from above, and is profitable to direct and to guide into all truth. S exercise of the franchise would be apprehended as a solemn trust, which a man would no more sell for go power, than he would sell his wife's affection, hi ■' honor, or his son's integrity.

There are, however, some dangers into which tl tions may have a tendency to fall, and against which be well to guard. There is, for instance, the active spirits becoming to rtivc, and being:

pronounced in their opinion

sometimes harsh and c< nsorious, in their judgments ; ' zeal, but not according to knowledge." They liav. mellowness of i of charity, wl ' the world. But thi

presenc an. [>athy of those who have •

youth. The wisdom of Nestor is no less valuab) than the valor of Achilles in conflict.

596 Young Men 's Christian A, ' ons. [Oct

Another danger is tliat of falling into secularism of tone in the character of the mee tings, tions,

ami amusements of the associations. Unless due provisii made for the devotional element, it is apt to be crowded out by business discussions, or by literary or social cntertainm An antidote to this danger is found in the practice of e< ■ associations, of havin<

themselves, and. as much as possible, by committees, and of having an evening set apart every week or fortnight for devotional exercises. The classification of members and associate, the former of whom must be members of some Christian Church, i icures that the executive of tl. i sociation shall bo such as to guard against undue dang secularism.

The question of amusements is a difficult on I app] iach, and must be adjusted to the varied circumstances of the dif- ferent associations. That which would be appropriate crowded city would be unsuited to a country village. In places gymnasia are employed to furnish opportunity for athletic exercises. The}* may frequently become valuable auxiliaries to the aim.- of the institutions.

Nothing will so much conduce to the spiritual well-beii a proper care for the body. A ' may often do much

good by providing, for the sedentary classes of office-cl and others, an opportunity for developing a " muscular Chris- tianity," and quickening their sluggish circulatiou b atic gymnastic exercises. But billiards, i ikers, ami

other mere amusements, have also been advocated. '' lurks a danger in their adoption. There must be a limit somewhere. 1) these be admitted, the demand may be n for the introduction of cards, nine-pins, fencing, Christian Association is a religious mere secular club. Its memb< i i d b\ the holy i

of Christ, and profess t" be his di ciples. They should I no reproach upon thai nam..'. In Germany, Christliche Jun erein is a sort <>!" (. hristian club for

young me ' I oth

secular character, furnishing board and I ing instructors in Fi ing,

Jonirelinfs Verbond of Ilollai

1800.] Young Men's Christian Associabm . 507

tution. In America, however, these secular features arc generally avoided.

in the patronage extended to lectures, readings I like, great care should be exercised. The endorsement of anj enter- tainment by these associations is an implied itb character. They should, therefore, employ only such lec- turers, and permit only such readings, as v.'ill not invali their claims to be judicious caterers to the intellect! of the Christian public. The New York A lias

had excellent art exhibitions at its rooms. It has also provided for its members a course of lectures on physiology and the laws of health — an example worthy of imitation.

The presence of the ladies at the entertainments of th ciation will be one of their greatest charms and stroi attractions. Conversationes and musical reunions might be arranged for this purpose. They need not be formal cone but occasions for social singing, where c\ery one may .join in the refrain. Music has powerful attractions for even the coarsest natures. Witness the crowded concert halls of our great cities. In New York alone there are fifteen hun- dred of these haunts of the siren. :^ offer a counter-attraction by instituting occasi moral and religious pieces, the stirring anthems and revival melodies which form such a noble body of Christian psaln These "songs of Zion" will often awaken in the hardesl heart thrilling memories of home and childhood ; and with their sacred strains, holy lessons will glide into the soul tl barred against every other influence. In tins matter, esp( cially, the aid of the ladies is necessary. Without their —Her v< the music will be rather harsh. Christian women exert a powerful influence for t

The question has been asked, What relation do ciations hold to the temperai i 1 li is ''I11 rul

some Church organizations that no member -" • sell,

or use spirituous liquors. But ether Churches do not h< I strongly pronounc* d opinions upou 1 " i to ion to the individui :

each member, and let all work unitedly for th of the association \

The relation of this institution to tbe Church is an impor- Foubtu Semes, Vol. XXI,

598 Young 'Men* Christian Associations. [< :

tant question". Ii is not tlie rival of the Church, as . have supposed, but its handmaid. -Many ministers and Churches at firsi looked askance at thei ' tions, and

turned toward them the cold shoulder; but they now rej them as their mosl valued allies. The greater flexibilil their organization makes them most facile and effective in- struments by which the Church may carry on much im- portant evangelistic labor. They are to the Church what arms are to the body. They also utilize a large amount of energy, now lying dormant, by employing laj . and

causing that energy to flow through a grei ' y of

channels.

The truly catholic character of this institution is one of its most admirable attributes. It brings the most ar spirits of the different Churches into intimate relationshi] co-operation with each other. It rubs off the . intense denominationalism, and cultivates a spirit of broader catholicity. Cliristianity is something nobler and more com- prehensive than any of man's petty issues, and in some c has especial facilities for working when freed from sectarian trammels. In certain hinds of evangelistic labor, purely non- sectarian effort disarms prejudice, and is free from every pos- sible suspicion of prosclytism — a liability to which suspi frequently defers ministers and others froD work. Moreover, the non-professional character of these lay- services renders them acceptable to a c they consider the perfunctory visitation of the regular cl A^ain, these associations will form a sort of < for recruiting tk if tin Christian ministry. They fur-

nish the opportunity for the exercis 3 of Chrii tian activit; . for the development of whatever "gifts and gr . ecial

aptness for the work, Its meml I . will

be of infinite service b-. 1 labling mi n tails

of social evils, without which u ■ ■'» be

of much ava.il. " Thi rthan thil

The concn more than the

sight of a wounded or dying man in

than the report of a thou and slain in battle. It was his inti- mate acquaintance with the horrors of Bedford jail that kindled John Howard's enthusiasm iu his life-work of prison

1869.] Young Men's Christian Associations. 500

reform. So the personal contact of the members of tl associations with the various forms of vice and end-

ing in great cities will Lc their best education in the work of practical philanthropy and social reform.

The associations throughout the country vigoi evangelistic labor in street preaching, bet) tribution, cottage and noon prayer-meetings, Bible cli visitation of the poor, of the prisoner in the jails and • soldier in the barrack-room, and ministration to th dying in the hospitals. Their members literally fulfill th< mand of the Divine Master, " Go out into the highways and compel them to cone iu.;J In New York, Chicago, and i large cities, they go to the saloons, the billiard-parlors, the concert-halls, to the very borders of hell, to re cue their ;' men from ruin. They visit the hotels, the boardiug-hoi the workshops, to find out strangers < Dming to 'be city. '.! bey invite them to their room?, inl tl m to Christian I

lies, and throw around them the arms of love and sym] to shield them from the snare- that surround the pi sophisticated youth in a greatcity. There is n ' kind

of work. In every city there are young men, once the pri happy homes, who are making shipwreck of their lives going down to death; and who so fit to put forth thehan ' speak the word as young men like theras by common hope, and sympathies; young men whose hearts God hath touched, and who, full i thusiasm of

their early zeal, yearn to bring their erring brothers to the path of virtue.

These associations, area sort of Christian police, watching over the spiritual inti or useful what were otherwise i mon weal. Its members are the good Samariti i friendless strangers who have fall< plunderers who prey upon their fellow-men. I seval order of the C bound by no convcntui I of want and i them. Their .

cholera at Nev Orleans, and ..i';1.' yellow fever a! N Virginia, will nev^r be forgotten by those who

600 Yoimg Men's Christian Associate [July,

Their work among the firemen of Philadelphia was productive of great and permanent good.'

Many of their financial undertakings are " enterprises of great pith and moment." The association rooms in the large cities arc frequently noble and costly buildings. In Chii they erected a magnificent marble hall which would seat I thousand five hundred persons, at the cost of a quarter i million of dollars. It was no sooner completed than i burned to the ground; but before the ruins had ceased to smoke $125,000 were subscribed for the erection of another, which has since arisen, phcenix-like, from the ashes of its pred- ecessor. In 1SG7 that association circulated one hundred and ninety thousand tracts. They received a donation at one time of ten tons of tracts for distribution from Great Britain. The Boston Association spends SS,000 a year, and that of Brooklyn 814,000 a year, in Christian effort. The Executive Committee at Xew York publishes a spirited quarterly in the general interests of the associations, which has a self-sustaining circula- tion of two thousand.

There are at leas! fifty thousand young men in Ameri and probably as many more in Europe, who are thus hound together in a blessed brotherhood, to toil in the service of the Divine Master for the spiritual welfare of their fellow-men : young men who occupy positions of honor, of tru i, of influ- ence, and who will control much of the financial, and political, as well as religious destiny of the age: a noble band of Christian workers, true Boldiers of the holy cross, knight a loftier chivalry than the ! warrior- of old I I

their banners is inscribed the sublime watchword, "Christ for all the world, and all the world for Christ!" ] purpose, to hasten the time when npon wrvy industry and activity of Iwll be written "Holim rd ;"

and when the sin-stricken world, like the demoniac out of whom wer< «••■ -: ,; levils, shall sit clothed and in

its riarht mind at die f el of C

18G9.]

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

C01

Akt. vn.— foreign religious IXTl-LLK

PEOTESTAKTISK.

GREAT BRITAIN. The Disestabi • Irish

; !b ■ . . '

for the aboli I tl

Ireland, the full history of which has : irubcrsof the "Methodist Qviartei an end. In the I majority with which it v.

' •'. ■ '.'.'-■ House in all important r as it v. as wl In the Ho

ingof the bill was (June 19) :• trrii 1, in a house of 300 i pairs, by a majority of 33. T

aber than the mini selves pr ibabl; when the

.' the bill came in the work of destruction

began. By a number of am the Lords endeavoi ;d tial endowment out of the wi ecclesiasti

by the Archbishop of Canter- : in moving three millions, thought a modesi ni for the

Church ■ new mission. W

i wn to the I ' they v. ere received with il ■■

therej :

even those which I I .- I led in form When the to the Hon l

No) .; I I '■'■ '' ' ■

thej

tl ■ •

the in>t divi minist r i further p

■ withdrawn. A I Couji il, how-

- .

lives, while the disposal of the the dis- cretion of Goven

. ment. Tl suit, of an \

wh adopted by the

• olio and Presbyterian as well as in the

first made in committee by the Duke of

moved as a " rider," si

and v.-.'.s I

. pport of i bj Earl B . may be

■ the Marquia oi' Salisbu startling was it to lind I ported by two Ai

\

Mr. ■

■ leated without a debate or ■

■• erumeul .

.

- which the Lords ( :

i

602

Foreign Religious Intdli

[October-

in accordance with the ] pr< i aU ' our country.

EOMAU CATHOLICISM, The cojnxG Co sen Thci hardly an) doubt ical Com :i y the T

me . a :

1869. From all ] n s of 1 Bishops of i itholic Com- j

inn-.; n have

in the Council, in accordance with tho i s> , press command of the Pop . ai I if may be regarded as certain thai the i of those who will be absent will be small. The interest in tho subject con-

n v it nir,y already I noEiV: of the 1

be present, and aoProi t, on this

occasion, the C Rome.

Since we •. .' '■• the article • ■ Council in the ]

"Met! ;; few

more replies ries of

the Greek Church, as the Pal archs of

• lisLi-d. They fully accord with the tenor

of the

othei Pati

Chun

the to

Th

appears to :

i tiom of the Pope I i

Greek. In the last a n

"Quarte lj R< rii is "

Armenian Pi

Bogo

that he would 1

Bubji utthel

the Ei

the mon

Russia The

WhoS : '

been publi:

" Ararat J

It has 1

justi

p]

n

1

but, in considering the 1

ho I: i

■

cam* •

1

oftl

the aspiratio 1 of tl & • • f

. with canoi

■ ■

proclaims th< tl bo the

y— a doctrii

I

j the

■ with the oth r E isl . "our

L Of I ■

to the

:

Vicars-i I of the '

not to give place I and dis

of tho " Civilta Cathol-

i ■ i," the • n of tho

■ y the invitation of the P

■ paper th 1

;' I

of I

travl

I

' I

I

1869.]

Foreign Religious J<

C0'4

duringthe lasi thi totheCouucil. A few ! i in Europe have pa! In \ ■

stating the reasons no union between El Protestants. Dr. C has written a letter to the Westminster,! bo p - nil

pelical Protesl ntism in I Rome; and vvl thai he was no autlio question, Dr. Curai same q

expressed his read to i ppear in

Rome if permi -' n cil shall be given to liim. Churoh historian, Merle d written a letti r1

well-known i emb i ol the House of Oi mm ms in \ ... h he estant world to resume the Reformation wli ;re, i > see the sixteenth century, it was unfortu- nately interrupted. Hej Protestant Ch make provision to December, I860 — the di Council will be o] services, iu which points like ing be d scuss : ■' head of the Church; tl e w sole ■ :

the righteousness of Chri ins i! of w« rks n id sup i ;:'i> moui 3 ; relig liberty, in tl

of the syl

the plac s of m -

He also recomi ! I

the enlightenment of those who - und t the ; not esi '

Catholic nations will soon join the I rot- estam Chi a true Chri: Church of ; Jewish elem resumeinil the pi belongs, i : ■

the •■ New Bvai seal Chui i of Berlin in the ovan reli ' i

ci I C isten

-

iufid I

nroa,:,. •• Cath i ' andha I

-and the numl

rully

■

:

I of the Pope I

I

-

I :

■ whe at pn :ni

erallj I ' Roman

i I

■

■

I

604

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

[October,

said to have i

end '.villi con ideral i Car-

dinal is l will not]

and tlii t still • give calming

assurances « iih i of the Council. I '.

dared that the m ijority ol tin French Bishops des re pea and will not encourage any exi I jndencies. But whether liberal attitude of the French Bis • will be fulfill may be con-

sidered as certain that, majority of th

at kast read ews of

Rome, and will c n in any

i: ing the Pope

claimed by the d in any

resolutions that may b ■ o will be nee ou

the part ol i ■ i

A Lr more forniii tion than

among the I

the lean Lh ogiani of the '

lie world have nev( n ir dis-

satisfaction with tin prii Papal Syllabus of 1SC1. Many are in open rebel Church.

Some men of ( i the I

lau, who I year joi Church ; Dr. i

Professor at the Unh - I

whoseveral 5 ear? ago wa ' I ]

of Mentz, but not Pope;

Dr. Pichler, tl 0:1 the s jparalion b Catholic and the Gi -■■ w!io

has accepted a 1 II

. :. [y to job

A glan lo

other couutrii • and al

at the amieip il

The literary d> ' ! >- of Papal ii : ity. and of other like nl ramoi lam • even if they are Ai champs of M ■ Kol-

tel r ol :■'. 111 by so

lion of the | ■■ I

on qi 3ti(

Pope wo ild b ■ I

for cor dealt to I

1 '

Among the i-vi it country of I urope I wli 1 secretly arc dissatisfied wit

>

I 1

have ,

will en liether

may carry with them a nui liberal laity,

. by name. Che : 1 nui which the Catholic ]

-

indi- wh'.cli

oflayni 1 int-iit of ultrai

tiou of

and ulira-P pursue.

on qu

tween the lioverumi 1 Tho

1868.]

Foreign Religious Intelligence.

605

proposition did, ho

much approval. The first to reply was

the Prou stant ' llor of l

Hungai

In fuU accordance with the \

ciples wiiich have governed

during the last eig a i lis, Austria

v ill n - i . le at all

tical question, but wait until il le rus

the action of the Council. Th i, ; l

present liberal ruiui ;trj

power, it will know how to

I is likely that i ■

; movement in Ei i separation I

i i lomoi

tries th.iu any previous event.

Art. Yin.— FOREIGN LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

GERMANY. The able work of Dr. J. F. A. Mticke, on the Life and of Emperoi Julian

the Apo T • , is :ompl Ibyi am e of - • ■ ' volume. (J

: 1869. The author holds evangelical views, as appears from Arian-

ism, but he co torical

truth to give an even more fa\ s] .-, • :. of th ■ chari cter of Julian than Q-ibb .... Ho d nies thai Julian can properly be called .

never i ■■■ I baptisi i. He by strong argum >nts refutes ti e report of a ,.■:_. ■ ti of I istianity by Julian.

The • . C i New Testament, by F

or Ti i .

the R •

editioti o fis ndorf \ dinal M ii, ;■ and 1859. I I

Va ica '. L '. . 18G9.) Ti show 5 ( irrtctcd the •

of Mai

more than four hundred

ITALY.

The national i of Italy has

given o new impuls

- phcr, S tlvalor

!;sof

! Berlin, ) B68.) This i

ment of Tur- in all the Ital • .

ol tho country, « b •

■

■ : y a return to

Art. IX.-SYNOP8IS OF THE QUi ' ffl uF

THE

Am* ■ ' ' ' ■

^MBRtOAS ' S REVIEW, I

h?s Critic*

3 I .

Ti ■ Historical i

J; ■

606 Synopsis of tie Quarterlies, and [Oci

Sa< ra. July, 1869. (Andover.)— 1. The Natural

Science. 2. The I , of Nescience; or, Hai i

lous Thought. ;;. Dai - of the Apocalypse from h

] nglish "\ crsion of the New Test

Lebanon. Christian Quartern, July, 1869. (Cincinnati.)— 1. 1

ism. 2. ] ' e. ::. Harmony of the Bible ai

Spiril of Ri - i o,

Sins. G. Thi Life. t. Myi I

Woman's Rights. 8. A] o: Lotical Evangelical Qi r Review, July, ] ) ; -

Presence. 2. Tl i toys. 3. The ft'ill 4! R minis 1 of Li

isters. 5.TheL I's i | pi r. 1 ] l 1 ,urch. 7. The I

ony and Lutlx ran Church in Mi

Publication Society. Meecj ksbi rg R July, 1! 69. (Phil; "> Iphia.) — 1. The YTritl

Incarnate Wi 2. retch of the History of the En

Beginnings of the Chri tian Church. . foi j am 1

Ascendi d to My !'■ ll ■ r." 5. Psychologic W I

the History and Poci of the 1 ill. C Gem m :

for the American Church, ?. Infidelity. 8. TheChui

Union. New Exglaxder, July, 1S69. (Nov Haven.)— 1. The Rel

2. The An Public. 3. R

gery in Pol ; us of the Jesuits. 6. M01

Romanism. 6. The i ' ban a Qu North American Review, July, 1869. •- I . ] ' . 2. A

CI ■ pter of Erie.

gland. S. Op Gi Culture. 6. Hi R »u q . v.

Laws of History. 8. Volcanoes. PRINCETON' Rj view, July, I

fineness. 2. 2 Rev. J

and Middle Egypt. 1. Pai ibles of the Kingdom— Matthew

oral .' I of the Late

sition and I : Hsu er£ ■.: ■• c I ■■ ■■ July, 1869. I I - I. '.

tory, the J" Di\ ino Aulh .

o. '! :. ;.. -lit. ■;. Biblii ]

pars tivc Myi . God.

English Ri vi

British ant i July, 18G9. (Lond

Ext /■ lical licanism in [n

3. The La to Conn

son's luti •

Pr< -

8. Rel'igion

British Q

Com tho Middle /

Con 1 1 ■

Light. 6. B 1 m :■■ 11 '■ Worl 3 of < • :

Jacqi mi nt' i '

1869.] Others of the higher Periodi

Guide. 6. Mrs. Somerville on .'■' S. Freemau I the Norman I

10. The Marriage La •: of the Empire, Loxdos Q ... ■> Review, July, 1869. (London.)— 1. ! - cf Psychology. 4. Cosiu

view of the Abyssiuian Expedition. 7. Norway. Chri

Westminster Review, July, 18G0. (X-. Refori . 2. The 1

ents, Pal Public, 5. Mr. C

lal Health.

NOB H Bl . n, iv, July. ] :.!.!!

Lif

Morals, t. Geological 1 5. D — ]

moirof Sir Willi n Bi

Sj - L .: .-. :■ '

The article on Geological Time is very important in its 1

upon the theory of human "development by natural selection.3

Our readers are aware that geology, revealing no transitional

fossil forms, furnishes a .strong contradiction to thi

■win replies by affirn ing that scientific geologj hi

a fragmentary share of the vast amount of pasl

He claims imme i I e ages of geological time of win

ontological record exists. J>ut Sir William '• hi - >1iowii

ample reason from natural philosophy for denying that the i

amount of geological ages can he more than one hundred millions

of years. For, 1. Go back that amount of ti

mass of melted matter. 2. The tidal influence of the mi

retarding the earth's rotary motion, minutely ind

tainly, that go back a hundred mil trs and the earth must

have rotated so very fast as to 1

3. So rapidly does the sun . i od diniini

that go back mure than a hundred million j

great a solar heat for animal life. All this •

rigid unifoi rips Darwinism

Butthe Revi »w ing verj •

threatening a still more decisive fatality: " *V<

sidcrable pr , say thai natural phil<

to a period of some ten or Ji

can be allowed for the j .

tolo fist; and that it is not unlikely that,

mental data, this period may be Btill

. , this greal q i< a hardly yel

ami its future prog cb v itli the phj

ri

COS Synopsis of the Quarterlies, a [October,

The article on the Earl] History of Man maintains, in accord- ance with the views of the Duke of Argyll in his Primeval that without invalidating Scripture history, we must rej ct the chronology deduced from Scripture, and maintain an imn antiquity of man, of, say, twenty th >u .His argi

are very much the same as those of Dr. J. P. Th in our Book Tahle, drawn from Egyptology, Chinese and [ndian archeology, and language. They appear powerful, but not, per- haps, conclusive.

German fit vit ws.

Studied dxd Kritike*. (Essays and Reviews.) 1869. Fourth Jfi Essays: 1. Betschlag, Biographical 2. Brcckser, On the Re] x. 24, ::. Koin i ■;. The Roman La md tl I Remarks: 1. Vol: The Christian Church <

Esoteric Religion. R •. I. D L/AGarde's Genesi

Questiones h sbraie . i . iew< I by Ki 2. I

Johaunis (Revelation of John) reviewed by Weiss.

The recent war between England and Abyssinia made the I country a'subject of special study on the part ofanuniberc scholars who accompaui< d the English expedition either as mem- bers of the army or as travelers for scientific pur] '< eratnre which lias been published by these men is very vol and is of great interest, not only for the friends of history and geography, but also for the theologian; i'nv cot onl) is the Abyssinian or Ethiopian Church more i ated of in all tin- recent works on Abyssinia, but a number of works I sively or chiefly of the religious affaii ■uniry. Ai the works of this <■' ■ ice, Flad (German mis Abyssinia) Zicolf Jalxn in ibyssiniu, etc., (] history of King Theodorus and of the Protestant mis his government ; a work by the same aut hoi on the '•'. black Jews of W ; sinia.

Itwas a hap]>y idea on the part of the author of ■ above articles to colled all the information published iu i works on the Abyssinian Church. This church h awakened a peculiar interest throughout the Chri A

number of highly importanl apoerypl tian or carl] i liristian period, which hitherto wei having been who : ■ nocb,

the Jubilees, the Ascension of Jesaiah, hi ly becomo

known to us for the first time in !

1869.] Others of the higher Periodicals. COO

Church historians, like Werner (Die Abyssin. !.' /■'<•-

schHftfurd. gesammte Kath. Theologie, 1852) : . | G -

schiefite der ICirohl. Trennungmoi dent. 31u-

nich, IPC i,) place the origin of the Abyssinian Church in the h est antiquity, the former even at the close of the tury of

the Christian era, arid according to Stanley (Too Eastern Chi it breathes an atmosphere of the Eas1 and of antiquity which is not to he found in any of the oilier Churches of the East. As it ap- pears to he highly probable that the Abyssinian Church will ere- long he brought into living contact with other bran< Christian Church, wo give the most interesting article.

Like the Copts, with whom they agree in n their

doctrine and practice, the Abyssinians circumcise theii on the eighth day after their birth ; the bo;

the fortieth day, the girls on the eightieth day after their birth. The child receives a name at the circumcision. In i with a remarkable custom ofth most ancient Church, the Binians give to the newly baptized milk ami honey. Baptism is performed in a little lake, which for (hat purpose i the church to^er-; the candidates for baptism being I immersed, and baptized in the name of the Father, and and the Holy Ghost. Previous to baptism, the d the body an" anointed with the sacred oil, in all thirty-six ti acustom which i- believed to be related t«. the old : belief that thirty-six demons have divided among thcmselv different parts and limbs of the human body. Adults after bein anointed raise up the right hand, and turning toward th« swear oil' Satan, or the prince of \ then, turnii

the east, or the sun of righteousness, they repeal the eonl of the Christian faith. Then th< Christina in the thirty-six different parts of the body. custom at the Abyssinian baptism is the clol baptized 1-:], children and adults, with the n five feet lon< of blue sill:, which all constantly we°ar to distinguish them from the The priest, after performing the ad of baptism, the sacred oil, makes by m< person baptized, and then ti( them to hi

Baptism, as in the ancicnl Church, waa followed by th< diate reception of the Lord's Supper, not only on ll adults hut also on the part of children, to whom the | with his finger a drop of wine from the -acred cup into which a

010 Synopsis of the Quarterlies, and [October,

little piece of the consecrated bread has been cast. Thenceforth the children receive- the Lord's Supper from their tenth to their twelfth year, after which age an Abyssinian rarely receives the Lord's Supper until he reaches about the fortieth year of his

The Abyssiniansj like the Copts, count the day from ev to evening, and begin the year in the fall with the autu nox. They celebrate, besid ; l nday, also the Jewish bath, The church can he approached only with bare feet. They spend the night from Saturday to .Sum. lay. as well as the i preceding the festival of a saint," in the church. The Lord's Supper is distributed before sunrise, except on fast days, when it is distributed at three o'clock in the afternoon, in order n interrupt the fasting. The priests receive it daily, th< | eople on Sundays. At least five priests (or deacons) mm nt at

its distribution. The Abyssiuians do nol kneel at divine service, but remain in a standing posture, and when they arc tired lean on a kind of crutches. During the service they frequently bow, and they also accompany it with singing and dancing. On enter- ing the church they kiss (he threshold. The kissing of -. objects in general is regarded as so essential that tead of "going to church," it is common to say "to kiss the church," and that a religious man is frequently called a "church kisser."

The Lord's Supper is administered in both S] id the

Abyssinians are the only Christian sect in which not only the bread hut also the v ine for the Lord's Supper is | ithin

the walls of the church. The bread is leavened, of the finest wheat, and is baked by specially appointed church bakers with great care in an oven in the church premises. It has the shape of round cakes of middh size, is marked with a cross in thi of a luman X, and must always be fresh. Only on the fifth day of the holy week unleavened bread is used in commemoration of

:>:na of Christ, and in general the whole of the Jewish I over is obnerved. The wine is prepared from raisins, which are preserved m the • sauctuary. The) are I ir ten

days in w 'iter, then they are dried and .vine

thus gained is mixed at the communion with \. A

peculiarity of the Ethiopian mass, which is Coptic liturgy, is the prayer for the dead, (< which immediately succeeds the absolution; it ; Werner as a reli antiquity. To ihc inv<

Holy Spiril i for evermore," i ncr infers

that the prayer ii nol for a transubstantiation • i cnts,

but for the perpetuation of the eueharistii

1869.3 Others of the higher Periodicals. Gil

sacramental presen e of the Lord in the Church. After the con- secration of the bread the people exclaim, "Amen, amen; we believe and arc certain this is truly thy body," and after Ihi secration of the wine, "Amen, this is truly thy body, v, Werner regards these exclamations as a relic of th Ethiopic liturgy. The words used on administering the b are, "This is the bread of life, which has descended from heaven; truly the precious body of Emanue] our God ;" and on adminis- tering the cup, "This is the cup of life, which hasdescende I heaven, which is the precious* blood of Christ." Ae rule, only the cli i : ive bread and wine separately ; to the

laity a piece of consecrated bread, dipped an inthewine;

is given in a spoon.

Whether the Abyssinian Church believes in transubstauti: lias been a controverted point eve r lolf w rote 1.

works on the language, literature, and religion of the Ethio] One of the best informed Protestant missionaries who have La- bored in Abyssinia, the present Bishop Gobat of Jerusalem, says that the Abyssiniaus call the consecration of the bread and the wine at the Lord's Supper " Melaw at," (change,) and that such expressions as "change it into thy body, change il i blood," frequently occur in the Ethiopic liturgi mg their belief they usually said that the na1 wine is not changed; that both remain what they were 1 that whoever partakes of them in faith receives with I Christ ; and that therefore they call thebodj and ated

cup the blood of Christ. The author of th Studien (Vol/) thinks many expressions in the liturgi takably indicate an "incipient" belief in transubstauti more than this is not claimed even by Roman Catholic \ ri like Werner.

The wine with which the priosl cli cup he tin

and his hands he does not dry. He i of the sanctuary; the people walk up to him, h. Puts and gives them hi blessi ! I

stands a clergyman with a round Baucer containing uiic< wafers, ol which he giv.i ■ ■ divine service. ,

Of special intcresl i Tabol an imitation of the arl; of covenant. Th. j,llv exceptions, are round, and have, like the niesquid* of the Falashas, after the i i temple in Jerusalem,

ions: the vestibule, the sanctuary, and the holj of holi< ,. The

612 Synopsis of the Quark' [Oc!

Abyssinians believe thai the genuine Mosaic ark <»f tlie covenanl is still in the church of Asum, the ancient royal city, brought there by Menilck, the son n and the Queen of SI

the ancestor of the royal AbyBsinian house. In i very church of the country is an imitation of the ark, which is regarded as the greatest sanctuary, and an assurance of the Divine presence. i< is the center of devotion; presents are offered to it, and the sanc- tity of the church edifice depends chiefly upon it. It. is a little box, mostly made of wood, and upon it are pi iced the sauc< the bread and the cup nscd a1 the Lord'.- Supper. Thej made very artificially, and con:;;. in a roll of pan name of the patron saint of the church. It is carried abonl in procession, and the people prostrate themselves before it in the dust.

It is probable that the great interest which is now taken on all Bides in Abyssinia and its early history will yet light

on the origin of Christianity in that part of Africa, and on development of Jewish Christianity in general

Art. X.— QUARTERLY BOOK-TABLE Religion^ Theology^ and Biblical Li

y sor in Chi-

, . 512. Andover: W

1869.

These "Studies''- are mostly a collection of Pr

articles published at different times in the Bibliotl

They are productions of more than ordinary excellence, and

well' worthy republication, and a general ':

class of mind- delighting in thought upon their high thci

Professor Haven's writings are marked by grace

stvlc rather than by ; lepth. H<

is'a very lucid '•' ; ositor, and o

We : /i". e with him in in

there are between i portanl points an

ference.

There are, fii t, two valual ton. Next conv i a (

with much gra • and perfectly corrccl in its

trines. The young student in philosophy will hardly find topic anywhere els< raon

1869.] Quarterly Book-Table. CIS

theology there are essays on natural tl . ilea,

and sin.

We have never admired Dr. Haven's efforts at discussing the freedom of the will. He is necessitarian, but rt.-j.-ci> tl i of eausational necessity of volition, and adopts that of invariable succession. Will is not necessitatively can volition by the strongest motive, but it alwa; >>nl-

ing to said motive. By this distinction he expects lo escape the must choose so and. so, and substitute the alw oand

so. But how is a law of invariable succession any 1 and fatalistic than a law of causational succession ? A absolutism, and an absolutism must be obeyed. To say tl Will obligated by an absolute law to a given v li ion can will otherwise is a contradiction. Nor will it do for Professor Haven to deny that he holds this invariability to lie does. For ask him why we may not believe thai a Wii! sometimes act out of that law and actually choose otherwise, and you willfind the Professor (unless pul oi 1 1 will smile with

blended compassion and con 1 tell you "Thai

ahonr.'l Invlneo...^. Avn-ivi-,,, (I-,- ■•...,- » Th?.t 3 tl '

according to the given motive is absolute law. And now we ash, Why is an absolute law of invariability any less fatalistic or exclusive of contrary power, or destructive of responsibility, than a law of causational necessity?

Again, why is the exertion of a contrary power any more con- tradictory to law than the existence of a contrary power? Why is an act contrary to the law of invariability any mor< than the power for the act ? Th;

broken no more invalidates tbi ility of its

being broken. It is - much of the verj essi of a law t<> exclude a contrar] a contrary fact.

You cannot tack a power of contrar;j choice up litional invariability. Y>'; Brown, and I

missed cause and causation from th universe of events, and substituted universal eternal in did they imagii

sible limited vari: bility ? The two Yon i man; it drop off by 1

usibility is tht doctrine of Plato, Cndi the doctrine of an aj ' voli-

tions, the actuality of either n ml

Fourth Series, Vol. XXI. — 39

Cli Methodist Quarterly Review. [October,

On page 115 Profess >r Haven gives us (be following very dis- couraging sentence: " In common wit)

sitarians, Mr. Mill understan Is by necessity si'mj ■/ of

an event." Now it is a flal untruth, of which Pi Haven

ought to he chary, to say that Edwards understood by "ne- cessity " " simple certainty." Edwards meant th< of effect from absolute cause. The following | from

Edwards stands not alone, ■ book, arid the clench of his whole argument :

Tf every act of the • ' 'iheact of the will. If I

the causes of 1 being

put forth into ac(

is properly the ■ motives. M I

ments but by tlieir in!

For thai ; • thing that is 1

the influence of anotl thing.

■ they are m r motives; ever;

event being, ns was pi proper ground and n ■ i of il ■ • /. — P. l'2C>.

It is true that Edwards does apply the ■ ■ . '. ■surety, but it is by taking the word certainty out of its true meaning and applying il to quite another thing, na lute production of an effect by a cause destitute of power for any other effect instead. It was the great purpose of Edw famous argument of Infinite Series to prove thai • other cause, is destitute of "contrary power." Now •" simple certainty " is merely the will-be of an event whi not, be otherwise. The most unflinching causatii I that

ever wrote, so far as record can Jonathan!;

In regard to the basis of moral obligation, G< thing

because it i-> right, i;. the time proposition; not, A ;i.; right beca i • ills it. [1 is true that "G

to do whatever 1 •' ," pro via1 •'• perfectly docs) to do only what is find Calvi ■'■ intain tin

hear Arminian >;

the divine "Will. It is strange, beeau argu-

ment, in which they fire so cam o, is that for ( U tl to w ill tl be W]

We are obliged to Profe: sor Haven for th elusive reasoning on I point, in fine ( Id I "Dr. Bellamy, the fri< ad and pupil of Kdwj

1869J Quarterly Book-Ta C15

If we should supposo (as some do) thai tl ante-

cedent i" a co] I the positive will and law •

reign will

-

1. T. ■ perfections of i cance

at all.

nd so no fonn ■ any moral pr

nothing for God 10 I >v< or hate, ■ inclinatio < i •' ■

lit and wrong. ... .

2. Thi ' ; ings there is no mi than there is to

r wrong. Just as if God was not i rthy of our big

rea-

and stronger ridently ab-

surd.

3. That there is i

him. or forbid thee ■ • aid reward Iheoue

i 0j q{ ij'g jawis overt u I, and all religion torn up by the roots, and nothing is left but arbitrary tyrannj jection.

Things divine arc often well illustrated by things human. Sup- pose the Empress of France to be so perfectly the arbiter of fashion that what she wills to wear is c

the world over. Could any body then be so absurd as to com- pliment her as being a very fashionabU ; ' ht be complimented as beinj ; thai is, with obeying the laws of esthetics in setting the fashions. But 6ince wl y she dresses becomes very fact the standard of fashion, no one would ever think of attributing i: to her a< a merit thai she was perfectly fashiona ble; for fashionabl means con/on - a fashion tablished. So if whatever way G ably wills 1 ry fad the standard of right, no one could attribute to God any merit in being a rigl bein^.

Professor Haven (on p. 425) seems to say that Dai trine of "Natural i removes all occasion for

X„n-: we think, Dan in's theory only tells how certain "mind- molded " forms survive an I ' u'11 how, or by what \)0\ er, they are eith< can showhow the " I "fit " should o ' how sub hi-! ' nifice:

organism and cl

eystemization |uei

mands a continual interposition into chaos by mind-di

63 C Methodist Quarterly Revi [Oc1

power; that is, a continued series of miracles, presuj agent-mind as Cause.

Tf vo seei • thus far only picked a series of qui

with the Professor, let it be noted, first, \ great awakener of thought ; and second, thai our : mostly rather with his system than with his methods of< ing it. Apart from these specia] nd his writi

as embodying very subtle thought in very lucid style.

The Oficeand Work of tlie Christi U ' i/. By James M. Hoppix, Pr< ressor of Homil 8V0 ,,p_ 620.

Sheldon k Com] any. 18G9.

Professor Hoppin's purpose in this volume is to furnish a text- book in Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. Though inte chiefly for the use of the theological student, he has made valuable book for pastors as well. He believes that, while ti and men change, bo that the jut. ul in one ■■

unadapted to another, there are certain unvarying principl preaching which are always true nud essential. These print ' he has well laid down and illustrated, departing hut littli the ordinary plan, and in a clear, fresh, attractive i

A practical theologian is both preacher and pastor. The topics of "Preaching" and the "Pastoral I fore,

with propriety, treated in tin- same volume. The Inti devoted to a consideration of the greatness • i f the

ministry, in a manner impressive to the sti 'The

subject oi^ Preaching is discussed in t\ : ■ first, " Preach-

ing Specially Considered;" and, second, "!.. Preaching." In each part are two " di of " The History and Art of Preaching ;" the second, of " Analysis of a Sermon." While the author defines preachii "literally a heralding of the word of God to n braces all mo les of making known the Gospel to men, the design of Christian preaching, ii

i, to be "so to Bet forth divine truth. simplicity, love, and ' upon the Spiril

build up men in the i' of <

Is." This is bro '. cl r, i ■ the only sen seen a better sketch of the history of pi in about twenty-five pages. Tin ing are not passed over. Pj the niemoriter m< thod of delivery, more for the written, an 1

1869.] Quarterly Book -Tc 017

for the extempore. lie advises a written sermon for the moi

and an extemporaneous one in the afternoon of the 1

because a man who does not write much cannot spe; '

lie acids, "Yet, if one will continue to write and study carefully,

and not let down his literary standard, but be constantly advancing

it, then lie may, and perhaps should, strive to make !*;

gether an extemporaneous preacher." In any case he would have

him strain every nerve, and be equal to the demands ofth< I

A student in a theological seminary must Vie supposed ; familiar with (lie principles of rhetoric, bu1 their application to preaching is so finelj that this divisi

most admirable portions of the treatise.

In the part of the book winch treats of the Pastoral I bracing nearly half its pages, the author endeavors ><> give counsels as will tend to produce "those strong, hai I; bearing, cheerful, hopeful, wise, hiving, and single-mind who are willing to labor among the poor i rich and the educated, who are willing to go any wh re,and any thing which is required for the i: 1 of mi .." H

Writes asa Congregationalist ; but there is verj little which is applicable to the of any Church, and no !

his earnest words without a stirring of his - quickeniug

of his zeal. He treats (!) of the pastoral office in itself ered, (2) the pastor as a man, (3) the pastor in his relations to society, and (i) the pastor in his rela1i< Church, ei I

ing the two divisions i f public 1 the car

Much thai pertains to the pastoral life and work can be learned onh from experience ; bu1 the young minister who has carefully studied and pot lei d the

upon his great and noble life-work with broad \:--- high aims, ad an intelligence that is no mean preparation for the duties of his

We are pl< ased w ith this volume, and h our ministry for its intrinsii worth as a whole, and its extensive and admir; I I treatraenl i ' >ffice. In

the latter resp< ct we know no work thai surpassi

• - . ■ tine 1

]'.]>.. J :

In seven lectures I))-. Thompson discusses the il qu< Btion of the concord bi I w e< a

creation and man. The Mosaii oarral

CIS Methodist Quarterly Review. [Od

Bhows, in spite of al] di1 . to present that com

with science which stands in contrast with all the fai mogonies of other races, which cannot be accidental, and < must therefore have been supernaturally composed. On this | the lecturer is very skillful, and very admirably turns the t upon his scientific obj<

On the antiquity of man he : grees et ;entially with the Duke of Argyll and Mr. Baldwin, that the received Usheriau chronology c in- not stand. The order of pre-Abrahamic events h Genesi . loubt- less, true as an outline historyybu1 the supposed chronolo j > longer be accepted, 'i oe aye of the pyramids, the mosl authentic and increasingly corroborated pedign e of Egyptian kings, the ver) early appearance of distinct negro faces on the monuments, and the very primitive divergences of language's, conspire in his view to thrust the flood and the Edenic events into a deeper anti of an unknown extent. J low all this can be reconciled with the sacred text, especially with the carefully-dated genealog i esisj and the Messianic genealogies in the ■ yll, Bald-

win, and Dr. Thompson alike omil to state. It is difficult to read the precisely-worded an }< formal pedigrees in Genesis without rec- ognizing a distiii 1 chro lological purpo

Dr. Thompson rests the refutation of Darwinism upon the geo- logical argument. Tl .1 remains reveal no transitional tonus. Orel dations there are, but each new grade makes a distinct and separate 1 ment, suggesting either miraculous creations, or origination bj a pri- mordial law not less wonderful and divine. Dr. '1 not aware of Professor Thompson's astronomic disproof of tl sibility <>f sufficient geologic time for the theory of development. ]j(. quotes the following valuable passage from "The Silurian rocks, as regards oceanic lite, are perfect and abun- dant in the forms thej have preserved, yet there aro no fish. The Devouian age followed, tranquilly, and without a nd in the Devonii Idenly, fish appear— appear in Bhoals, and in forms of the highest and most perfect type, 'flu-re i- 1 links or transitional forms between the great class ofmollnsca and the iriv.it class of fislu •. There i that such forms, if they had existed, can have 1 deposits which i red in wonderful | 1 linut- estorn ' ' ' containing little thai is new to those vie. have studied tl ject, are well wn rth pi rusal.

1869.] QuaricAy Book-Table. 619

Lamps, ?itcl tratc lb: ; Pulpit E H « -: Minis r of " Square Chapel

York: 51.1V*. I

Under the three leading symbols of his title Mr. Hood classifies the different styles of the Christian ministry, and furnish i variety of enterl ' L instructive ] ii illustratioi

is perfectly catholic in its character, including in its compi sive range ibe various ages, countries, and denominati Christian Church. Of the apostoli t. Paul; of

the early Church. Chrysostom; of the Middl • oi' the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Puritan Ad m is. I1 is to be followed by another volume treating the pulpit of own age, discussing Robertson, Pusey, Manni . f man, Spur- geon, the Abbe Lacordaire; a volume which will apparently have room for somebody to supply a third volume of Am " Lamps, Pitchers, and Trumpets." Tl rolume <

some very piquanl pages upon the Methodist raiuistr; th oi England and America. Our young pr< achers will find it i readable and ?. ive, though s< lesultory, 1

Mr. Hood's authorities for American Methodism are Dr. vens's History, Sprague's Annals of the American Meth< Pulpit, Strickland's Lives of Aabury and of Grul . ' mi- spelled Kruber.)

lie thus characterizes two celebrated English Met! preachers :

II hasl :• well - ' Dawson's eloquence on any other 1

me

metaphor, andj

,

....

;

.

620 Methodist Qua ' [October,

Lamp. Robert Flail

- bul his own c " Tall, graceful,

■ He had vast thought, sever.- ;

J ■■:■ iahandhis 1 Designed for both!

pp. 431 and vvii.

This volume con letesl

Prophets, the greater as well as the minor, and is to ho foil by Notes on Solomon's writings. They arc- all charactcri: the s: : simple, clear, practical, pi>ms. and usually perti-

nent. Novelty and profundity are not their aim; yel exhibit the results of considerable scholarship and research, without the. display of erudite references and philology. Ii volume particularly, which, as the author states, covers a portion of Scripture frequently regarded as of less general interest than the other pr ' , the 1 ■ a sympathy with the

of the sacred writer thai gives them special freshness and unc- tion. Scholars will not perhaps deem them of v< but the plain reader will prize them as in the main unfoldin sense of Sen ire in an easy and satifi the devout hearl ton; . Divine dealings with

people during Jeremiah's period, As we mighl ■ m the

author's ' jical stand-point, these interpret*)

with the Calvinistic views of the inevitable and absolute cl ter of God's disp nsations, . necessarily pat foi ;ii i:i I h ■ ex] menting on the Prophet's own cl

very birth, (chap, i, 5,) Dr. Cowles r« . der should

not assume thai '• : ■ or 1 i-

antec any more fixed in tin case of Jeremiah than in

every [any] ' ■ .hare the divine]

and d ided, as is usu il with

ird to the univ. inexoi

should : - ! Vn Appei dix :

appropri I '• oe pi 1 with a refutation of the extreme 1. win-- of the Milh very difficult task, pin

i simultaiK I

mai itain that ' our Lord's historical advent, bul .

1869.] Quarterly nook-Tulle. 621

?><' Secret of ' ■ icidation of bi

NaturalHu mity. By Henry James, 8vo., pp. 243 !'

& Co. 1

Swedenborg is a problem whose "secret" would be well •.

knowing could we find (what never yet has appeared) a coin]

revealer. "The secret " of Mr. James is, th

little competence in that direction, lie is, inde

reverent discipl of th< gi . ede, and profoundly irreverent in

most othei di Hei ; ■ ' hater," a ver

one. Of this, as of a former work of his which we 1 avi

review, a very striking characteristic is elaborate invectiv<

vective againsl all systems, worships, and revi

own. The extant Ghristianitj he prouo an the worst

Atheism. " The most flat-footed and flat-headed Materialism

day, such as that of Carl Vogt, and Moleschott, and Biichn r, is

preferable in this state of things, as it appears me, to our old .

supematuralism."

Credo. 16mo., pp. 444. Boston : Leo & SbeparcL 18G9.

What Henry James is pleased to style "old fossil supernatural- ism," appears hi these pap;.- quick with a vivid life. The I appears a true "supernatural book;" the risen Jesus, the "Three- One;" Satan and the spirit-personalities are pres "super- natural beings;" Christian r< generation is the "supernatural life;" and in the eternal future i.-, disclosed a "supernatural desl These four supernatural constitute the topii ok.

The work is written in an animated, rapid style, and abound-: with individual! tic 1 hes and live hints. Jt ha

impression upon the public, and makes its impress upon iudr minds.

Professor T<>v. nsend has rei on to bi gratified w ith i' of his work. Ten years more of mature and varied

reading will enable him to produce so funda-

mental and perma

■

!

othi rs;

12mo., ] !•■ 476 I

A very scholarly work, with a preface written i:i a

spirit. Both

a tendency to dii tinish th- n iraculoua i '

C22 MeiJiodut Quarterly Eeview. [October,

History, Biography, and Topography,

Tha Ma . i , | 0f the Orang-TJtan and the Bird

A Narrative of Travel, -\ , md Nature. By Au

Wallai and Rio Negro,1

. 12roo., !■].. G38. New York; Ha

Mr. Wallace is specially distinguished among scientist! bavin- arrived independently at the central i . '. Mr.

Darwin has elaborated with such brilliant results in his < of Species— that animal forms are limitlessly variable in their development, and species is bnt the present form preserved by favorable conditions. The present work is the record of 1 years' scientific life and vigilant observation in the isles of the Indian Ocean. It is the pioneer of a comph t< r knowl< dge of a region but diinh 1 qowu in English literature; in fact, one ■ I opening announcements that the great and wonderful Pacific, rich with incalculable future po; ibil wig into hi.

Mr. Wallace, however, has no dashing enthusiasm, no rhetoric, or pictorial fancy. His h the quiet, prosaic enthusiasm of the man of science, who rejoices in catching flyin ; aique

butterflies, fresh species of beetles, and rare birds for stalling and housing for the museums of the savans. He spends days in hunting the orang, that mockery of the human shape, leaping from tree-top to tree-top, skillfully evadii amid the

densest foliage. It is a perfect paradise to hiin t< species of that unrivi aim, the Bird of

Paradise; and his pi ges are pictorially glorified with their beauti- ful figures, adorned by nature with a quai atriv- ances too clearly intenti ,.al in their aspects and ch: r explicable on the theory of blind development. Most minds are apt to imagine that in this regi< ance, when the sunbeam and the moisture blend their I 1 paint all u in the most dazzling hues, and to wreath all being in; luxui " ■ the fancj of th into life in the roost prosaic brain. Mr. Wall exhil ■ inspiration, bul he flings a terrible w< ovt r the enthu: ' readi rs by firralj U

■ pictures of lu adors havi

real counterpart in ni • arc tropics, ui • • i • ■ I in brilliancy by the other belief that the tropica] landscapes and tbick< oncd with

an ovens h ' rgro wth of cvcr-bl lisan

illusion produced bj the collection of the ricl in the

1800.] Quarterly Book-Table.

hot-houses of our naturalists. "The tine tropical flowering plants cultivated in our hot-houses have been culled from the • varied regions, and therefore give a mosl erroneous idea of their abundance in anj one region. Many of them are very rare, others extremely local, while a c le number inhabi

more arid regions of Africa and India, in which tropical vegeta- tion does not exhibit itself in its usual luxuriance Fin< varied foliage, rather than gay flowers, is more characteristic of those parts where tropical vegetation attains its highest develop- ment, and in such districts each kind of flower seldom perfection more than a few week--, or sometimes a few days. In every locality a lengthened residence will show an abundam e of magnificent and gayly-blossomed plants, but they have I sought for, and are rarely at any one time or place so abun as to form a perceptible feature in the landscape, But it has been the custom of travelers to describe and group together all the fine plants they have met with during a Ion j thus produce the effect of a gay and flower- pail I . :ape.

They have rarely studied and described individual scenes \ vegetation was most luxuriant and heautiful, and fairly stated what effect was produced in them by flowers. J have done so frequently, and the result oi' these examinations has convinced mo that the bright colors of flowers have a much greatei in fluence on the general aspect of nature in temperate than in tropical climates. During twelve years spent amid thi tropical vegetation, I have seen nothing comparable t<> tin- effect produced on our landscapes by gorse, broom, heather, wild hyacinths, hawthorn, purple orchises, a L buttercuj ."■ P

Mr. Wallace e, observant of the nature <

presented in these Pacific regions. The two great rac< Papuan, whose center appears to he Australia; who hails from the I h< e are

strikingly contrasted races. The former are an irrepressible, lively, rollicking, ingenious, and inquisitive folk ; the latter, with their mil.! odimenl of the ;•'

matic, the soft, and the imp; ... The Papuan immen en the liei 11 Pacific ; i< ;. including : •

wieh. If Ci in asii i.

Mr. Wallace predicts that the Malays will - venient Bui the

" destiny " of the irrepressible Papuan. 'A warlike and i

gctio people, who will not Buhmit to nat or to

62i Methodist Quarterly JRevi [Oct

domestic servitude, must disappear before the white man as surely as do the wolf and the tiger." So that Mr. Wallace applies i duly, even to the human race, the { "survival

of the fittest."

But in comparison witb the primitive life oft! i leSj Mr. y/. ig no | r of our present complex cii The

idea of our phil: : ; a future

right and justice shall so rule that the - I happiness of all

shall be secured, "Now it is very re)::. hat among

people in a very low stage of civilization we find some app to such a perfed te. I have lived with •

Bavawes in South America and in the East, who I e no jts or lav courts but the ptiblic opinion of the village freely expr. Each man scrupulously respects the ri f his fellow, and any

infraction of those rights rarely or never takes place. In such a community all are n ;- There are none of tl

distinctions of education and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master and servant, which are the product of our civilization ; there is none of I division of 1 tDor which, i

it increases wealth, produces also conflicts inl not that severe competition and struggle for* wealth, which the dense population of civilized inevi-

tably creates. All incitements to greal crimes are tl i and petty ones are repressed, partly by the influ nee of public

opinion, but chiefly by that natural sense of j or's right ma to be, in me degi

every race of num. "Now, although we have

state in intellectual achiev< i

in morals. It is true that among those i bo have no

wants that car, ' sily supplied, and torn pubho

ion has gi he rights of otl

spected. Tt is tme, also, that wc ' the

sphere of tho e ri I include within them all tl

hoodofman. But il i nol '

onr i ulations have nol al all advanced be;

and have in r

ficient morality is th. greal bl

ereal

* If therefore, thi "

are now only in a co] • .

will only be realized as the result of a higl

1869.] Quarterly JBooh-Table. 625

be the artistic consummation of which the natural stab the shadow. Is there any just hope of this high attainn If through nature, it can only he by countless ages of <J< If through revelation and grace, there may be now the dawning morning-ray.

0»:r X trated. !. id and gilt. 12mo., ; p. 524 :

A half century ago "the tour of Europe" was the su

of touring ambition ; then came "the toui

tine;" now is inaugurated "the tour roui Id." Mr.

Coffin pioneers the way, in the present volume, with a living

spirit, an observant eye, ami a rapid, vivid pen. Few writers have

more of the gilt to make the reader hims If an imi i ' el< r.

His boot is happily illustri ted with pi turea from 1' • -

temporized maps, enabling the reader at every step to 1

bearings.

Mr. Coffin left New York in July 1866, and spent two years and a half in compassing the globe. Passing thro: ; i and

crossing the Mediterranean, he takes an interes Egypt, and givesa ruiJ account of tbe buez CanaL J bonee.thn the lied Sea he passes to India, and lays open thai country to our view. Its ancient history, its reli its cities and ranges of country and clime, all paa graphic review. " Its rebellion and terrible o\ erth of European ideas and customs, the pr< ! I"

mission work, are described in a true and genial spirit. An i space is given to China and Jap our voyi

the Pacific, touches at California, i ■

three thousand miles from heme, his foot is ou th« own

dear country. In California he find* scriptive pen in the both

magical in its growth and wonderful in it. ],Y

the great Pacific Railroad !

His Mediterranean I ints to him how I

is become Europ< an if not I

626 Methodist Quarterly Review. [Od

fri q Cons tantinopl to "Wid I has gi rtcr

■ the Fi ; He is i

body \- ho -jvill aid

I .. . keep tin ir coach . ;

at all tl is froi i • 1 ' ■ " to! "—P. 14.

How the railways of India arc convertinj tl ' from

their prose;;: religion— whatever they are converted to — appears from the following :

Up to 1S53 ti I sometimes in carl;

drawn by oxen, but die usual convex was a palanq

should' >. Somo of the paths i

rainy bio. Sin for travel wli

proj tated. The p]

not only in India,

be i ter a railway car on account .of their

iutermii ling o -. . . . So ii obtaining any

returns for their i icd fur

the opi uing of a shorl

Contrar avail theroselv s ol unniisi ;able, tal

afford nn

board a: I the iuterior. . .

thousai d mil i. ... At the < • Brah-

mai s ]

villi men of 1 ft I them

for their high railroad

managers had an ei on t!

■ iii mam ropeon

S3 stem ol - • and told tlie

could not

The !• nl breaking; up u

who is pu re i

bench, ■

I ■ :

si

like a ;

roots It is . with

i

; it 1

. i that I

Ll

In favor oi and miss i linions arc

I : "Mis*

: . - • . .

their >'

1869.] Quarterly B< >Jc-T<

am mg the passei Baid captain oi

Facts and The census i

• India and Burniah at about , - I •

iry E ! •:'-•. • to i regard to the moral infl ce which has g great that dauce for them, excej aronou

time was when ihei e no J

B01 ■ ,, ; . Li rd Clive down to tl

mistresses All Eng re Christians in 1

■eaters ; i abomiii! tion to tl

■inkers will find it difficult to enter paradise. B Chi • • n as au Ei ■ -

'. . ill on his km . , .

demad

Christianity, ou th< i E, ' . - v

in the army, and all b

The. greatest national crime of the last three centuries, the greatest moral disgrace which Christendom has suffered, England's forcing the l< opium trade" upon China at tl • mouth. Opium could be raised in India and sold in Chin profit of four hundred per cent. The heathen I at the demoralization and ruin the drug was producir prohibited its importation. '; It is true," said he, "1 prevent the introduction of the flowing poison. Gi and corrupt men will for profit and b< i hut nothing will induce me to d< rive a n v< Due from the i misery of my people." ButtheEnglii h Govei am

heathendom itself, by f r compelled I

the hellish drug. The horrid sale and the hon • I the

sale are still in full blast to this hour. The indignaut lam of the English missionary, Martin, is n

Why, the si

d - '

Buttheopi a.

ir ■<■■■; I

Si

Thousands who \ re i atranced bj the *! | Bishop Hamlinc will gladly hail tin

628 Methodist Quarterly Review. [Octol .

of sermons. Dr. Hibbard gives us no intimation of tin extei I to which he intends to publish these "Works," but, lanu-

script theological, literary, and religious works" of the Bishop were placed in his hands as editor, and the General I ■ of 1868 warmly commended their publication, we assume thi have in the present volume only install rery

valuable series.

Bishop Hamline's great intellect and high culture were, from his conversion, fully consecrated to Christ. The thoro ciplined powers which gave him eminence at the bar co not, if he were called to the ministry, fail to make him distingui in the pulpit. From the day in which he was, by his brethren, thrust out upon his six weeks' circuit, he burned to sav< souls. Preaching was his business. To it he consi ■ m the first,

his entire energies, intellectual, moral, and physici I illiant

genius, extensive reading, keen logic, vigorous thou-': quisite taste were all brought to the work of saving men, were as freely expended upon the rustics gathered in a b house as noon the more polished and crowded c< >n in a

city church.

It is from this stand-point that these sermons are to be read. They were written, not for the press, but to be preached. As in preparing an argument for the bar he had aimed al iththe

jury, so in preparing these sermon- he wrote as in tl of living men, every one of whom he must win to C i aimed at immediate effect, and, to an almost marvelous d< attained it. We, therefore, find them ch clearness of statera 'nt, conciseness of expression, aptm tration, power of argument, and that clinching of a point, when once made, which always tells. We are prepared, m< practical and spiritual themes, v. • , however lofty, |

gophical, 01 pi ' foi nd the discussion of them may be, ifl i souls to the cross.

" Dr Hibbard, after a line Monograph of twenty p Introduction, hi as twenty-three of th«

apparentlv e lectccl as to give the read

of topics ai matter, but a fuU and I

Ramlineas a preacher. Two or three of them i communion ten ation and anotl

a»onthcocc;i ion of the death < Harrison; the rest were for the regular ! what an . i , beauty, and (broo pervade th m nil I

and there a word or sen-

1869.] Quarterly Book-Table. 629

the author's revision, but such flaws are more than co for by numerous of surpassing elegance and

perfect that to touch them would be only to mar them. The training of the lawyer is continually manifest in the metho the discourse, the discussion of legal principles, the use - guage, and the avoidance of that stereotyped phn which it is go convenient for preachers to fall, and which the world denominates cant. The sermon on " God ateous

Judge" perhaps best illustrates the effect of hi That on "Jesus Reviled" is full of melting tenderness, and Mr- fancy we can hear the shouts of the audience as the preacher ap- plied its doctrine. If he could melt to tears, excite to raj I and win to submission, he could also alarm by the terril . the sermons on "The Sentence against Unbelief," and "The "Wages of Sin." Indeed, we do not wonder that an infidel, who once heard the latter from Hamline's lips, said to a friend that "for days after nothing rang in his cars but wages! loages!''''

As Bishop Hamline prepared hi? discourses for the people, this volume may well be received by the people as published for tl selves. Xeverlheloss, as his great argument in the General Conference of 1844 has been read and re-read for its of ecclesiastical law, so our students of homileti tageously study these sermons as the productions of one of great masters of pulpit oratory, and especially for thi and naturalness of their structure.

e? ■

Institutes of Ecclesiastical £ rected, enlarged, ai I improved from I uthoritics. Bj Jons Law-

bexce Vox MosHEiir, ] >. D., C : ■ an ! literal ti

Notes, e-r'.:'<: J D

8vo., pp. 470, 4S5,

Mosheim's Chur is one of the standard works \

may be, in particular i d,butcans<

seded or becom ition by Dr. M irdo

been acceptable to Christian scholars on both sid Ulan-

tie. The ;

proof of tl of the work, ]

ianism, of course, tb<

Dr. Murdoc

taste and temper. The n

which this great work is n iritbin the i

of <-vcry owner of a library.

XXI. — 40

630 Methodist Quarterly Review. [October,

The Pid of the '

Ami ricaa J. ] ,.

graving* oi wood, by Lo

bor. 8vo.,pp. 1013. Greenandgilt New York : ]

One of the attractive books of the Lo

familiar to American households. The pn \ '

of the most trying of our early nation::! Btrug .'■ I j

interest both to our curiosity ami our patriotism. Over tin- 1

fields pictured here by Lossing, both North and South can

with united pride.

Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. By Rev. C. Adams, DD. Illustrated. 12mon pp. 3-10. KewYork: C balden.

Johnson was one of the most noble characters in English litera- ture, and bis biography by Boswell is, in some respects, unparal- leled in any literature. The stupcnd< re in our day pi-esses the old giant, into the backgroimd ; but Dr. Adams's classic pen makes here a- noble effort to bring him forward. It i^- a noble book for our young nun, and young women too.

Bold Fn Preacher. A Portraiture of Rev. William Cravens, of ".

Rev. J. B. "Wakeley. 18mo., pp. 119. Cine a ti : Hitchcock 4 V. .

York : Carlton & Lai

The powerful denunciations of slavery by Wesley, Coke, au-1 Asbury were sustained in the South for some time by a few in- trepid spirits among the Southern Methodb t ministry, v ' is very likely to be lost from history. • Mr. Wakeley has < to preserve the doings and utterances of one of thi in the

present little volume. Had the South, Church and ! to and obeyed these monitions, what crimes and sorrows would have been prevented.

Poli ncral Mor ' .

Uislory of E

York: Air. Led > has attained a high r<

j of Katie alistic stand-point. The present tw< written, perhaps, with an equal ability and an i of Rationalism. Mr. >ns with an ablo di

old question of the basis of tlu

>19 0f Qtili and Intuitionalism, in which he

stronelv advocates tl aofthe latter Bchool W

1869.] Quarterly Booh-Ti 633

any fundamental originality in this discussion, Mr. L

his views with great clearness and freshness of thought and Btylc.

Though it has been forcibly, and perhaps correctly, urged by

reviewers that this discussion lias no proper plao b

fully disconnected with the body of the history that it i tight be

omitted without diminishing the historical complel aesa of the

work, we should reluctantly consent ti alue,

Scientific investigation into the nature of ethics an title investigation into the secrets of physics — of primary i: ance to the attainment of perfection in our views of reli Whatever a thorough analysis in either departn false or wrong— however it may have been incorporati past history or theory — Christianity is bound by her very u to reject. If adverse criticism could demonstrate in the very sacred text itself the maintenance of a wrong, Christianity would be obliged, by her fundamental doctrines, to admil and repu the blemish. If, then, the scientific moralist is able to drav. I history new views of morals, as may in many depi I case, those views forthwith become a part of our present Chris- tianity. It is thus that, through all the progress of mind, ' tianity perpetually readjusts and reproduces herself. '1 b disappears, the essential stands forever.

Wo entertain no fear, then, of works like Mr. Li his stsad-point this is a profoundly conscii Qtious w< rk. "Whether it be Philosophy or Religion, Stoicism or Christianity, the Church or the World, all are treated with an inte tional fairness. No faults of philosopher, saint, church, or intentionall; 1 or aggravated; no excellence! are d

aged or denied. Perhaps his position of neutrality was the best possible for the cl fresh truth. We need the cold, adverse comrade to 1 and fairly our own faults. Set tl tiful and discriminative vi< ■

of Christianity over all pi and every other reli

system, and though the triumphs of ( itly attribute! to its wonderful fitness natur< . • sively ' '

full and heartfelt recognition of tl or the absolute divinity "l' Christ. In spi

want and its in detail, the wort v i'l be fa n i full

of interest and instruction to the discriminating i are mi ny »ower, which, 1...

G32 Methodist Quarterly Review. [October,

ions. Sermons, Speeches, and Letters on Slavery and its \ From ' . I

By Giusert Ha vex. 12mo., pp. 650. Boston: L: fc£ . . York:

Carll . . 1869.

This a cry handsome volume contains a series of free and bold manifestoes, in eloquent style, on the side of truth and righteous- ness, extending from the year ]S50 to 1SG3. They mark the epochs of the great contest between liberty and d< We

need not say that Mr. Haven's positions were ever of the most advanced and sanguine order, generally provi tic of

coming events. His closing sermon ou America's; Past and Fi is especially predictive, we say not how accurately, of the when not only color shall disappear from among the numl political and social distinctions, but when it shall be rather pro- vocative by contrast of the esthetic and amative emotions. This would seem to us to involve so nearly a change of both our psychological and physiological structures that, we should be rather inclined to classify it with the miraculous. Our own view is, that we need only take care of the present duty, and let that prophetic morrow take care of itself. We have so many pi problems on our hands, that we have not time and nervous fluid to spare upon a panic lest our great-grandchild should marry a negro. Indeed, we suspect that the lover of sable beauty in that generation will hardly be able to find an object to love. proportion of colored faces to white was once one fourth; it is now one eighth; and the next census will find it fore our children leave the stage it will be one twentieth ; and when our whites reacb a hundred millions, the Babies and tawnies will probablj fall below six millions. As an occasion ofp< power and plague, as well as an object of philanthropy, Afric America is a vanishing quantity. The schoolmaster is truest friend of tl 3 negro. Education, industry, and wealth, will brino-hi ral respect, and- of color and

contempt. When the artificial a of poverty!

are completely removed, the whole matter may be 1< ft to our natural feelings such as they will prove I

We hope to furnish a full article on this volume.

A Pr ■■''■ Untrodud

Some years ago Professor Harkness i his debtor by big" H

1869.] Quarterly Book-Tdk

More recently he has added to thai obligation by hii Latin grammar. In the Latin Prose Com] another instalkn< at of the b< '

The work is essentially a supplement to both the Second Books of Latin and the Latin Grammar. l gout

with the simplest* forms and constructions, it carries the student along by a natural and easy progression lill be n culties and elegancies of Latin • out the entire v irk the author preserves a judicious 1 tween grammatical princi] ' • zeroises fo]

peculiarities of usage are skillfully subordinated to re] struction. The book is I, fresh, scholarly. v.

Periodicals.

The Hour- m Home (Scribner & Co.) is almo I the only monthly magazine which we can unequivocally commend I Christian family. The conductors do not deem if indi ; i to its existence to call any of the semi-infidel clique of our country into its corps of contributors. It is < tinctively, though not offensively, Calviuisti . alisl ic.

Among its articles awhile since were extr

and diary of Sarah Pierpont, afterward Mi

the great metaphysician. Among these i

phetic dream of hers at the time of the birth of thi i

Aaron Burr.

Stc I '.

Dj lb B von of to;1:' ' '

Burr, Jr., i ' the College. 1

immortal will grow

iible.

of broken sleep, in i

the oil. ■.-. H

v well. At I .

rise. £

length '..

at the \ ' •

G34 . Methodist Quarterly Review. [October,

At this I vrokc in distress, and was glad enough to find it was only a dream. Kow, yon may make as much or as little of this as you . ] link the

d . d stat.: of our country, along with my own ind

edit. A ]■■-- • ie that her little Aaron

is a In ::.-. ] rattl 'some fellow, filling Lis parents' hearts with joy.

Tour loving sister, Sarah.

On this dream we remark, I. Of the authenticity of its record

and of the reality of its occurring there can be no doubt. The " higher criticism " would be obliged to respect and accept it. 2. Its coincidences with facts to take place at the distance of half a century in the future are too numerous, too minute, and too exact, to he solved on the theory of chance or accid concurrence. 3. We Lave, then, a clear case of prophecy / and the fact is not to be ignored under the Rationalistic assumption thai prophecy — being supernatural— is of course to he rejected as unhistorical, unscientific, tsud false. 4. It is remarkable that the facts are not presented to the dreamer in literal form, but artistically draped in allegorj ; betraying to all appearance the art and design of some unknown mind shaping the conceptions to her mind. It is, therefore, a iievelation. 5. This revelation is either natural or supernatural. If natural, then the term natural is so enlarged as to swallow the supernatural, and so vacate the distinction. The term nature may then include superhuman nature, super-mundane nature, and even divine nature. We are then left with this conclusion : Within the range of nature in its ' largest sense, prophecy and revelation are not only a possible but an actual occurrence. The. rule of the "higher criticism," that the Old Testament prophecies must be repudiated as prophecies, becir.se prediction is in nature impossible, is itself to be re- pudiated. _

American Agriculturist. For the Farm, Garden, and Household. 4to., pp. 3S. hly.) New York: Orange Judd,

The only farm we have in the world is Mr. Judd's c: Agri- culturist." 1* is i "■■■ the less model and all the more cheap for being a farm on paper. Our management is scientific Our cows arc J c with milk if not with honey; our

pigs are orbs of fat, with i ; a tail for opposite p ' .

our roosters and turkeys are struttii lis of "fuss and

id machines are able to perform on- , like the Apocalyptic . ty month. We have a "castle in Spain" \ we purpose to locate on tl oon as we get tune to

become a nidaleo.

1869.3 Quarterly Book-Table. 635

Miscellaneous. Our Late Article on Schleieiinacher.

Upon Professor Reubelt's learned and interesting article upon Schleierniache] in . late number of our Quarterly Br. W. P. Warren makes the following valuable suggestions:

"John Wesley anticipated Schleiermacher more than half a century,

(a.) In rejecting all definitions of rejig; on which make it either fycoc/nitio or an actus. * Weder ein Wissen noch ein Thun.' (See Wesley's Definitions of Religion ;)

(Ik) In discerning the defective nature of the traditional (anti- deistic) apology, (Wesley, vol. v, p. 758;)

(<?.) In constructing theology from the stand-point of a clear Christian consciousness.

He excelled Schleiermacher in that he escaped the following errors, into all of which Schleiermacher fell :

a.) Necessit aria n i Pin .

b.) Pantheism (for a time.)

c.) Sabellia . .

d.) Denial of a proper atonement.

e.) Denial of Christ's real pre-existence. f.) Denial of the Personality of the Holy Ghost.

g.) Identification of the Holy Spirit with the esprit de corps of the Church.

h.) Identification of religion with one of its constituent ele- ments.

i.) Unsettlement of the Canon.

Facia about W ■ I ' lection of Anecdotes haying a I

i the two mo t In portanl " Dosi ir of " Fact;: al

pp 307. Ni .',■ 3 ■■':(.' ; [ton & Lanah i. I . inn ; : 1 1 I I I \

From a wide course of literature, ancient and modern, Mr. ; kersley has collected a mass of anecdotal illustrations which will, we doubt not, be very acceptable to the class for whom the work is done. It is unique in ii< hind, and fills a blank space.

Notices of the fol ooks postponed for want of room.

Pn ». Woolsey on Di J. .'. Co.

Garl ' Goul

i;' . i I Co

Brooke's Sermons. Fields, 0

636 Methodist Quarterly Bern [October,

The DEAD-LOCK.--Our pamphlet on tlie " Dead-lock of Lay ation in the Annual Confer, s really wril

articfe lor our October Quarterly ; but ho widely has it been cir- culated, (with our own consent,) in our Church papers and other- wise, that its insertion is forestalled— fortunately, as giving room for a pre- of other matter.

The editor of The Methodist pronounces our anticipations of strife to be baseless, inasmuch as "the laymen" have spoken, and avowed that they would, as in past times, pursue, in any event, a trail tuil and patient policy. We cheerfully accept the intimation, and do not doubt that it will he verified, and a very salutary influence he thereby exerted. But "the laymen," as thus designated can he fairly construed as including only that class of our laity with whom Dr. Crooks stands in more imme-

rdly able to pledge the entire la the Church through a possible earnest contest of six or < future years. Our article was prematurely published by r< of parties far more widely and thoroughly cognizant of our entire Church than any of us editors have the means of being. Th( 'w Christian Adv ate has professed to 1

illV(; re, our article as a threat, intended to

bring our ministry to vote under stress of terror. We expressly declared tl rrote without any communication from the

laymen, and took explicit care to exonerate them from any regp01 - anticipations or evil drawn from the general

qualitj man nature. The editor of the Advocate, there-

fore ]Y .. , < to hi 1 lers the ludicrous idea that we have utte'nd an elaborate threat upon the great body of our n :

0'n olir ov, lority! Dr. Bushnell, in his argument

against female suffrage, describes in glowing colors the evils that will result, : nd the terrible tilings th.it women will do if allowed to vote. With what wisdom could any opponent pronounce that degcri] • t? If Dr. Curry will please maturely to an-

. we doubt not lie will fail to find tnere5 of a belief that any menace was

intended 0 ;' 1 :'^ ,ll° c voting pro-

c'^,]_ . that the three-fourth vote will be

attained. At lecided will he the majority tl

trust (witl

the Editoi j t!lC'

Church, v l an aflarmative -

INDEX.

Abbott: Jestn of Na-me-th, his Life and

Tea ihings Page 316

Adams: Life of SamuelJohnson, LL.D.... 630 Attains: l'hc Weaver Boy who became a

Missi >nary 161

Ame 'ican Agi cull I i t t I

Anitrican Presbyterian and Theolo I R

view 131,295, 442, 605

Anderson: Foreign Missions; thiir Rela- tions and Claims 454

Athenians, The Religion of the 165

'i : e Ap itl< Paul i Athens

Ten pie, Statues, and AltaTs of Athens... 1C5 Paul detive.s .'.i- J'i.-tour;---.. oa Mars1

Hill 16S

The Athenians a " Religious People"... 169

Mi iningof Sup rstitiou : 1G9

Mea::ii ; of it-. ...1 '■ :;■■'■ ion" 172

Faith of the Athenians in the Being of

God 1T8

Altar to the " Unknown God" 178, J--'

M m's Consciousness of Dependence ui>on

God 17G

Prayer Natur ! ',' ■ .■_ o M-n, . .. 180 Religioi •: • : , ■;. :i\ i:: ^ On-

C!"USIJ.JC3 n:" i>.-; :.•' r. •. :i .-

Being '. 153

O " I of ] iability to

Funishui ' ' of lispi .-

turn by Pi 1S-G

Atkinson :" The Garden of Sorrows, etc.. .. 1-fl

Bachinan: The Bo ! fJnd es 464

Bain: Mental Sci c ' 146

Bal er: Tl Mu I ■•- 10'

Baldwin: I i ■ ... toric Katioi b, etc 4 19

Baptist Quarterly 127. 2

Beet . ■ . . : Redeemer and R. de< i ■-■•<< . 2T0

— - Sermoi • by 140, 45S

Bcf re the i lir ine ; or. Daily Devotions for

a Child 824

B How »'s Travels in Europe 824

Bible Class, My.... 477

U ! .■■ l: [..-.Mti-ry, Tlie. I.".

Bib ii 422

Saul aud Pi n 422

The Book of Enoch 424

St. Pi ■ i an ' .

Biblical RejK-itvo a^d Princeton Review, 1 ■', 8

Bibliothvca Sacra Iv7, W, V.±x (■•■'■'•

)• i." •; : i i - ■ ■ •■ toTl Irtj 161

Bird: '( he Victoi iPoei 4->l

Bishop: A Tl i. .

South An: rici 163

i 169

i Bil le Thoughts

•' ...

port : : 414

Boi . . of our

161

1 -. : ;.. 4M

' ■

I

Quarterly Reviow i .

I : ... i . . .... 824

•

etc .' 04

a Natu-

i atel 01

. II: Moral Uses ol DaA rblnga Clo

Calamy: Works f'f the llev. John Howe.

M.A., with Memoir Pag 149

i .

' II.. 163

■.;. i tie of Kerry 150

■ ■ of Pi arls, etc. ". 8.'4

Chaiarter, How to Read 8'24

rly 299,412

i . I cer 183

Chun iooI 1 he 191

The Three Steps in the Culture of a Soul,

Lllustral of J 10I 102

The Work of the Family and of the l'i 1-

pit '. IPC

'i : v • - ! .' ■ ■ .. I from

' i ■ :. . ..*. 157

The Ch ireb Sch 193

The Church 1 I in the Primitive Church 199

■ of tbo Modern ( I

1. The ; WO

2. Y el< tlcal 1

of Grace 207

8. Earnest, 11 lined Chri

era 209

ClcaveUnd : J\o Sects In Heai en, and other

: 460

■■: A Defense of Jrs'.is <'iiri.-'. 14J

i . - New v . R ind the World.. 625

* liries 161

J i. '. •■• 127

i •■' .-Axhn.r 102

■ : ;.' Hows :. : Life, 'i Ii

of St. Paul ' I

Conks- Jeremiah and bi» Leu

with Notes C20

621

C Hi .. Thi Case of •!-•:

Dalton: A Treatise on Physiology and Hy-

168

Darwin: Variation of Ai.imals u::.l l';a.>U under Domestication !»*">

Davics : \ Beli • - - Uand-Book foi Chris- tians of Every Name 8-4

D,.vl-i..eV„ Tie..: I 16

De Mil :.•'...

Di •• art : Bi

the Plyi : . !■; 1-4

;■' I'ower

'. Moth- 685

■ »< '

i • 183

94

Edinburgh Review 1

■ .

M7

104

.

150

Falrbalrn ; Tbo Bel I InScri]

135

■ : 7 So i-

ch.... <R<5

633

INDEX.

Flagg: Three Seasons in European Vino- yards Page 4S4

Folsom : ThoFour Gi (pels, Translati dfrom thcGre ' • ■ ''■•''•■ 621

Foreign Literary lntelligenc 125,4

Germany..... 125 '

Greece..

Holland 126

Italy ' I '

Foreign Bolig Lous] 120,202, i, 601

• Germany.. 121

Great Britain 292-, 436, < I

Mohammedanism

Roman Cath ■ 1 122

Si.ain 1

Sweden 122

]\ <• -r: C1. :;-.;_. . J "•irll v ; or. '!"'.;• II

ofFalth '. 459

Krer-v.i:. I ■ v 127

Fulton: Woman as God made her; The True V,' oman 477

Garden of Eden, laterality of the .'

of i ho '• 883

Integrity oftbeSci ipture Eei »rd •

The Edi nic Account the fc'lri I Link, in

History 83S

Eefen _ to bv I ired Writers.. .

St. Pan ■ 840

Tln=- Mystic V'i< w 1 1" Edi o shown t< be

False 843

And Unti • ■ ■ • 341

Gardner: ' ' r'.ieii'vd, A Ser- mon 5-24

Garrett Biblical I ' ••• 47-1

G< ilogical Evidences of tb i An | lit) of

Man PI

Lii.-nsiriT!.' ll:.:/.' -i-.'ii

Kitcbi a M ' ■■ ■ 99, 10?

Limestone Caveri 3 99

Deltas 101,110

Kivc-i •..'-. .. 1"';- I1"!

Tlu: Cv.-if ■.-. :- ]■• ;i Human Skull. .105, 117 Conclusion-... 'i-'

Hteginson : Malbone Page 4S4

Lit r;.:>, The SfriC3 477

1; ■ .Monthly,. 160

M iod : !' imp . I'ii noi.;, i id Ti an p ■. : •' !:• "Hire mid Work ofthi (

tian Ministry 616

B - atHomi I'hc 683

I

Physics and Hydranll i

siptiEivar-.... Pi

M- ':■■■ ■ ' ' ' '

. Eield"

v

in

Historj

; oal Su] < i ity of the Hindoo

I

85

1 ' ■ /. ■". :<■'■■> SuhJtrutnin 06

Social Oreaniz itli

; id ■ in Missionary Enter-

i ise

ical Eei iar_s

The Seen t of Swedenborg 621

:m Delivered ofTorciualoTaaso.T:.'-, 7

James :

•• ; n Delivered of Torquato';

Je ft'ett : Livingstone in Africa. . ,

'

Glen Eldi c

I

G'-» dwii, : Dr. 1. ■ .

G.. ;..!.. in, .i.,!,d. :■ nRhilia of

Ori v. of bi= ":

•n< _;,.:.:; ,--f i ii, 'i'i tl

His -i;./ I emed"

Statement of li D

HlsTI ption

— Oi Ati : 11 •

Prodi stiB iti ■

Ability of : ■:

Estimate of I

Green: Bib Poll .... .-•". •

Cm nbsfi l!- ';"

Ki . ' i''i

Guthrie: - la of< ■ ■ ' ' (' I Ti ''''-

.; v - orDoctrines !!i

1 : ]' -

Hal ' ,( ;

nail: II .......... !'•'

namili ' •••■ lca

Harkn. :

1 . ■ ' ■

Harper's _ ,":.V" "

H

Hawlci . Uenders :

M9

Herald of II

Culture, Tin 160

)i bbai i . v. .

line, V i> 627

K • hi 4?4

Kellogs: Lion Ben of Elm Island 161

k, i ; The D".v-!> .v.;i, .Mid thi.-lii.iii 4'3

Kinglake : Th luvasion of the Crimea, its

"Origin, etc MS

■ ■ ; •: David, King of Israel 143

Lacroix : Religion and the Reign of Ter- ror 141, 569

•. i tc 156

: 1 :.' -nncat the Time

• 461

Life of Jesus J.ol

i i 223

Mulle'r. March, and Whitney ranked to-

22S

i .- and Import of Growth in Lan-

■ ■

long Phys- ical Sciences

"Institution"

!•:.., ■ i ' : r..-\ Hi .. -■ 5

! ■ :

dently of History 2-7!)

etc 324

Lecky : History ol t'.mopi in Morals ft-oia

/,•_•.- 630

4 -

Liddun: Wvi > ■

• i- --.- < hrist. 1ST

Life of G "-.

i: oberl

Liii(i..n : Mtn-a.irei A ■ torj ol I l.i-il.- : >

i ■. 153

j_-.--ii._- : The Piclorial Field-book of the

War of 1812, etc

of Luther In their

Lyell: i. .''•- ty of Man, etc P4

' -

ilLiter-

I'1

IM

!

4-l

. ■

r;-'

Marsh: Lectur«« oi

639

and History of the L

Language i '-. •■ 25 :

May: Dotty Dim] 161

M.B ■ herde I* - ■

•' -I!-!. 1 ■■<.<•:■■ I."

Methodism : its '.•■' I a: 1 Mi

! > beol a

!hl ....

H- '.I ::. ■■ I i .'.i ;> i 249

1 ■ . li isi . 253

lb ....

Governim ital • • ssible in the

Widesi CI ■ 2C0

Met]

The Mixed Divine • Lif€ 264

Its<

The J tiiod of M . ■ '■ m ■> Inspiration,

in ] ctio ' ! - .- 206

Meth' ■':':. ':-, Ar.i-

c' ai ■ • f ti.t Z'Sj

Metr polisoftl C8

T. cation of 63

dim.'".' :.' 1 !:•.- :•:,.-- 6o

Growtii ■ .

Schools a v.J Ghurci'- ' 6S

Prospecth e Prosperity 69

.v-d Ex- pository • ■ ■• Four

i.i: :.- : • ■ . ! . • , :.---■ .'

i -• : \ .i-; »n i I

Muller: Cliipa Jr. m aG

Lectures o

Murdock : i;. '.

tory, A:.. . [Law- rence VonMotbeiai, D. D C20

Nashville Christ

71

V.

Differ. ■!••. A'.t.!.--:i; -.." 70

l'cro -io:r. ;'s Tc--:.ii:io:iy of the two Divis- ions ofKthi-pi.r.f 7C

Sir Henry j . 7-

Tradition of Foi ..:•- T9

Ancient t)[.i . r 70

'. he Q u Ethiopian's Degen- eration considered SI

Fro :'.- •''.:.' • ••- &* : Negro in

counted for EC

The Negro • ; Pro Tf - 51

His Future. 91

Cliii .'. ' '

C!4

:>'■-.. .'•. .

;"■

■.' ',

...6

i - ...... 9

God's i.. .-

10

.

1!

— :. .... 10 In theP< ' 28

iii oi

lory 25

Gre t Value of •

': i

N..Mh \ ■ ■

North Urftisb Noyes : 'i1 from Hi. I

t >ptl ■ : I •

Make or I ....

Farton: Smoking and Dri.nkinr I"

I

Peirci A. Half

470

Phelps : ]

U. E Gr ' .. D

1CS

Ph ■".:;..

of. ". 892

. ■ I in

America 893

Time reqi :;. id t • Lial Pho

.

iphy..

Plaw ;■ .- .U'\

M - - ■•

■

I ■ Insiro

40S

Piatt : (

; Pulpit 160

'...r V- pc ■ :

■ • 817

146

f of J

\ " 411

Imp ■

f tin-

I. ....... .

: . 420

185,801,441,612

is of Lord Byron, etc., I

47-1

- . l.w-. By the D

—

French Revolution 570

... : 7! .

I '-'i

i

■

I

of Public Safety

Attic

Manner in which Christiai this seven Mid , I . •

. . ■ • '

M

• •

. ' !

I :

........

I

'

:

— 139

IIU i

\

■ His V-. • : ) . > ' i 215

6,10

INDEX,

g hli " i ol freefromDo-

terminisin Pago 218

HisYieivs of Christ 219

His Mo le pn vii : ofGod. 225

WW.c. 1: Ilu. pee of hi- 'i :i< >i- v 226

Gi'i'i' -. ."'.u l\ l'i v,-n j.b Theolotry

221

• our late Article on 0%

Bcholl n: The Oldest n on the

Writinffi of the KewT. i m al 468

Scofi '• IJ n-a-s 15-'

Scott: ] '•-• " 4S4

Brai'b : ical " etc 10-i

Si ■ d

lor , etc 460

Bpui i.n: Eveni l>y I • . ■ lu -!■

in- ?.t i:vo:itia«... : 4 CO

Bt\] li. , i : Kiitiken 188, H, 60;

Bund ool Journal for Teachers and

1'oung People ICO

Tauler, Jol : . - 45

Moral i).;r:<i. •-< of iU j ."' i.. eti.ii Cen- tury 45

"Frit • 49

Visit ofNicbol sof Bai I 60

Tanler's )"ir;i Sermon after his Conyer-

]\.rser-.ri-.n of Lim ani his A- ...riuej... M

P • .i iler 56

His 'J :•• "1 "•' 51

His .' ropology 58

His - ■ ' >L-y M

Hi? >.:!•:<.::! -\i>U-in 60

Tiivl^r: I :''.r.oy and Manhood of Christian

' Life -' 143

I.e. i - :ili rion ; or, noi '■■ be ! ved.. 142

TeM: of :. V: . ' ' i !'\ ' ' I rue < huich I -'">

•j iie Ministry Scrip- tural 825

do.; ;n- :. with Corinthian Church as

to Divine Ap| ii tment 825

Spiriti nts 821

IX- vos d>i. j- in Ollice 82.?

Mr.nin.-i of Kveu.ti;,g their Ministry 829

1 : •"'

s:k ■■ ■■' v • "■ 8;'-

Mel;.' -J:-i 1 : '!>e Fruit of

88i

b Quarterly Boview.

, Tage 128, 299,

■

V; : Oosterzee: John's Gospel, Ipologetical Lectures 45T

,- : .' m ■ loti ol the Wcsl< ys 459

- — Bold I : < : . A lVrtrull

. [ Rev. We Cravens, of Virg ' 10

Archipelago

V. i . .in I. . .: 'view 132, 3"1, I 'T

Dr. > I. S47

: slated I

Hi- i'l.v: nf i. h i.-;'i - in", . o: t lie Moui - .

His Doctrii ..' A i •-■. ofDi [iravltj SK.2

— of the Trinity 3.' I

— of the Atonement "■'

— of ]'.:.: tisin ■■ '•

— ..-; I':-- IHetribution 351

— of 1

Dr. Whedon's Exp - tion of Matthew,

( , ip er XSiT 861

lli = V. .., ' . ■ '': S62

m Pn lTtterauces 3

. Vol. Til, No. Ill, Art. III.

i- 1 'l ■ .; 818

v:iiii.-\ :.. -.- >■■.■■ ofs? i'. ." i view. .3'

W :.; I for 361

J .>:•*, e • f the Mi^rK-re '■ '■

I' I : : I >

' 813

P '•<<''

" 3V

Have a Chri

Tl . i y and Fl

C

< .!

• '.re

....

|

j - Irgtoiana 4cf

Vanity i-':.ir

Tbeodiev

Bynoi ■ "-''l-'

. . . ■ ' ,

""4

Depravity 219

2"'2

Bcln :•■ ""'

- -'j

j ... Ish-

inelii <■' i.-i.'.-rid 290

j ' : • Gcolo-

C1T

824

')■

Ti ■ i True i

r 501

3'

Twcnu

live( n i :

rl 4^2

') he "Coll |u;

834

: ' - 3^■7

.lies IX. 545

The I oise 549

i ,:-'...'■■ ie CM

-' \X;\r'' 551

Death oft &"'5

i ie t of the Massacre 567

,,:,a tin - . of Laa-

. Travel and Advi nture in the

Territory of Alaska 811

r.ie ]);irk to the Day.... 163

' Seed W2

SVii ■ . mmarofthe 1 liomsof tl

i 303

Wi idiniT-lv-.y i:i nil Ages and

. ..

.'

Morals aud Ethics of !'

] ; . oft Chinese

Brahmins

ts

!'

opby

— '

ti ma,

lau Corn'

i

icj

;

Tbtol-

. . • i

<±D

6