1

LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

Class

METHODS IN TEACHING

BEING THE STOCKTON METHODS
IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

METHODS IN TEACHING

BEING THE STOCKTON METHODS
IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

BY

ROSA V. WINTERBURN

* »

FORMERLY SUPERVISOR OF ENGLISH AND HISTORY IN THE STOCKTON CITY SCHOOLS

INCLUDING A CHAPTER ON NATURE STUDY

BY

EDWARD HUGHES

Neto ¥orfc
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1907

GENERAL

COPYRIGHT 1907
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1907

Must or

* E*A PKINTING COMPANY
LAMCMTCR, PA.

TO MY MOTHER

FROM WHOSE BEAUTIFUL NATURE
I LEARNED

MY FIRST LESSONS OF LIFE

167026

FOREWORD

Among the exhibits at the St. Louis and Portland Exposi-
tions was one from the Stockton Schools. It was so arranged
as to show in the smallest possible compass as complete a
picture of the development of the course of study as could
be presented in written form. The work in all bound vol-
umes was shown in the following sequence :

1. A typewritten monograph, or method sheet, treating
of the subject illustrated in the volume.

2. The course of study in the subject in printed form.

3. The teacher's daily program.

4. Work from the pupils, showing all the written lessons
given in the subject from the first lesson in September to
the last lesson in June.

Under this arrangement the methods followed, the course
of study to be carried out, the time value of every subject,
the results secured, were shown in every volume. There
were ninety-two monographs, or method sheets, illustrating
fully the methods followed in the different subjects taught.
In all cases these monographs were written by the principals
or teachers.

These volumes of method sheets, illustrated as they were
with the results secured from pupils, met with a generous
commendation from the teachers of America. Since the
close of the Expositions hundreds of letters have been re-
ceived asking if the Stockton methods could be secured in

vii

Vlll METHODS IN TEACHING

printed form. To meet what seemed to be a real demand, it
was decided to issue " The Book of Stockton Methods."

The labor of editing the monographs was committed to
Mrs. Rosa V. Winterburn, under whose skillful direction as
Supervisor of the Primary and Grammar Schools of Stock-
ton much of the work has been developed. From this pro-
posed editing of teachers* and pupils' work the present more
ambitious book has grown, in which are given many experi-
ences and suggestions that were not embodied in the original
plan. In the use of the teachers' monographs repetition has
been avoided and in many cases the methods have been con-
densed, but the thought and the wording have been pre-
served in so far as practicable.

The book does not pretend to be an answer to the ques-
tion, "What are the best methods of teaching?" It does
seek to show what is being actually done by teachers under
working conditions when they strive intelligently to make
their methods rational and useful. No claim is made that
the methods given in this book are models for others to fol-
low; but it is claimed that they are methods of practice
rather than of theory. As such they are submitted to the

teachers of America.

JAS. A. BARR,

City Superintendent of Schools.
STOCKTON, CALIFORNIA,

June i, 1906.

PREFACE

"Where no wise guidance is, the people falleth;
But in the multitude of counsellors there is safety/'

Out of the experiences of many people, tested, retested,
and tested again, this book has grown. May there be in it
words of help and direction ! In a sense it is a composite,
but it is only in the way in which the civilization of today is
a composite of what has gone before. No man dare say that
he stands alone in his achievements ; preceding ages and con-
temporaneous efforts have helped place him where he is, no
matter how strong within him may be the personal element.
So with this book. Superintendent, supervisors, teachers,
and pupils, with perhaps an unusual degree of harmony,
have worked together over the problems of the schoolroom.
Some of the helpful deductions thus made are recorded here.

This is a book of methods rather than of subject matter.
Both might well be presented, but to do so would overburden
such a publication. While it is true that without subject
matter methods are valueless, the supposition is that a man
or woman who is admitted today into the schoolroom is
fairly well provided with the knowledge requisite for the
task. Many teachers fail, however, in handling their equip-
ments; many and many a pupil wastes a large part of his
time in school because of the imperfect way in which the
subject matter of even a common school education is pre-
sented; many parents, eager for the best interests of their
children, find themselves bitterly disappointed with the

ix

X PREFACE

product turned out by the schools which have been control-
ling the intellectual development of the children for eight
years.

Character, individuality, citizenship, knowledge, indus-
trial ability, general culture, — these have been the desired
lines of progress for our schoolrooms. Along them there
has been felt a strengthening, intensifying, broadening in-
fluence that has been unquestionable in its formative power.
It is in the hope of aiding to perpetuate these aims — known
and reached out after by all true teachers — that we offer this
book to our fellow-workers.

Grateful acknowledgments are extended to Mr. James
A. Barr, Superintendent of the Stockton City Schools, for
his unfailing help and ready suggestions; to the teachers,
who have kindly permitted the use of extracts from sum-
maries submitted by them of their work and methods; to
Mr. Edward Hughes and Mr. S. H. Cohn, who have made
possible a greater completeness of treatment by their liberal
contributions on nature study and geography; and to Mrs.
Alice Smallfield Schneider, whose careful development of
the word study is the basis of the thoughts here presented on
that subject.

Believing that ordinarily the busy teacher has time for
only a few reference books, the lists appended to the subjects
are short, containing only some of the books that have been
found to contain the most direct help or the most suggestive
guidance.

ROSA V. WlNTERBURN.

Los ANGELES, CALIFORNIA,
May 23, 1906.

CONTENTS

PART I.

LITERATURE LANGUAGE WORD STUDY

CHAPTER I.
GENERAL THOUGHTS ON LITERATURE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 3

CHAPTER II.

PRESENTATION, ACQUISITION, AND ILLUSTRATION OF LITERATURE
IN PRIMARY GRADES 9

CHAPTER III.

PRESENTATION, ACQUISITION, AND ILLUSTRATION OF LITERATURE
IN GRAMMAR GRADES 23

CHAPTER IV.
IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING FOR ALL PUPILS . . 48

CHAPTER V.
ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE WITH PRIMARY GRADES . . 58

CHAPTER VI.
ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE WITH GRAMMAR GRADES . . 78

CHAPTER VII.
WORD STUDY 100

PART II.

ARITHMETIC
CHAPTER VIII.

GENERAL AIMS: INTRODUCTORY THOUGHTS; SUMMARY OF THE
DEVELOPMENT OF A COURSE IN ARITHMETIC . . . .127

xi

Xll CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX.

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS IN FOURTH, FIFTH, SIXTH,
SEVENTH, AND EIGHTH GRADES 145

PART III.

NATURE STUDY GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER X.
PLANT STUDY 173

CHAPTER XL

ANIMAL STUDY: THE AQUARIUM; THE INSECT CAGE; LESSONS
ON ANIMALS 190

CHAPTER XII.
NON-LIVING THINGS 201

CHAPTER XIII.
GEOGRAPHY . . . . . 231

PART IV.

HISTORY CIVICS

CHAPTER XIV.

INTRODUCTORY WORDS. HISTORY IN THE PRIMARY GRADES . . 263

CHAPTER XV.
HISTORY IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES 287

CHAPTER XVI.
Civics 316

PART V.

CHAPTER XVII.

DRAWING. Music. PHYSICAL CULTURE. SEWING . . .333

PART I
LITERATURE LANGUAGE WORD STUDY

LITERATURE

CHAPTER I

GENERAL THOUGHTS ON LITERATURE FOR ELE-
MENTARY SCHOOLS

To prepare the child for life is the aim of education. He
who knows how to read, and who desires to read valuable
and instructive books has gained a great part of his educa-
tion.

A course in literature for grammar grades should tend to
produce in the pupil the desire to read, the ability to under-
stand accurately what is read, a familiarity with books that
will result in discrimination in buying or in selecting reading
from the shelves of libraries. None of these aims may be
actually attained, but as potentialities they are worth striv-
ing for long and earnestly.

In this education there are three personal factors: the

parent, the teacher, the child. The parent in the home is

the mainspring. Where it is possible for

Factors ^im to provide suitable books for his child,

to direct his selections, and to encourage

acquisitions in various lines of thought, there need be little

fear for the future reading. Home impulses and training,

4 METHODS IN TEACHING

when they are real forces, are the strongest influences in a
child's life.

The teacher's place in this scheme of education is most
difficult. He should guide many minds in many directions ;

he should direct the school for the general
Guidance

good of all, and at the same time he should

discover individual strength and preference, for he is train-
ing to secure the best results for the race as well as for the
individual. To select reading for a number of young people
is no light task. Too often only general interest or amuse-
ment is considered, and it is forgotten that these should be
but means toward the end, — life and progress. It is not
sufficient to encourage reading ; sometimes it must be checked.
Many pupils read too much instead of too little. Seventh
grade boys have been known to draw a library book every
other day. Such a condition usually means unwholesome
reading and a sieve-like mind. It requires restraint as surely
as the sprouting fruit tree needs the pruning knife at the
proper season. A child frequently becomes interested in
one kind of reading and is prone to refuse all else. An
eighth grade boy said that if he had ten dollars to spend
for books, he would buy nothing but Henty's stories. This
is a perverted taste, for specialization in any subject should
be preceded by underlying information on many. General
knowledge is imperative for the broad foundation that is
most useful for all lines. Moreover, different kinds of
reading may open up new possibilities of life work, and
may so guide the pupil into a variety of interests, — his-
tory, travel, science, poems, biography, art, that a breadth
of view is acquired that prevents narrowness in later
specialization.

LITERATURE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 5

The center of this education is the pupil, who should learn
self-control and self-guidance. He should gradually be led
to make conscious and self-earned advances.
Let him read with unconscious happiness
and interest what has been selected, enjoying with childish
abandon story or biography; but when another choice is
made, lead him to consider the opportunity of broadening
out into new fields of thought and knowledge as well as
exploring more thoroughly the old ones. By this means, he
will learn to choose books more judiciously and to lay a more
systematic foundation in all subjects.

In the first two grades the stories are told to the children
by the teacher. Compared with reading, this method in-
volves some loss of time and literary style ;

Presentation ^ut ** means on *ne Part °^ tne PUP^S deeper
interest, closer attention, greater concentra-
tion, more sympathetic response ; on the part of the teacher
it means more careful preparation, through which comes a
stronger fellow-feeling in the presentation, and the cultiva-
tion of the art of story telling, a power with children. In
the third grade stories may be read, although telling is still
preferable. A short story should be told as a whole. This
is demanded by the natural longing to get to the end, which,
fortunately, aids the teacher in cultivating the sense of a
complete thought or narrative. In long stories there are
natural divisions which should be observed, for young minds
retain best a short, connected recital. These breaks do not
destroy continuity of thought or interest, for every portion
of a well written story has within itself certain elements of
completeness ; on the other hand, long narratives are con-
fusing and tend to weaken continuity of thought. Every

6 METHODS IN TEACHING

part should make a finished little production, so told that the
next division fits on naturally.

Reproduction follows narration. Every member in the
class should feel that he is held responsible for some part in

this exercise; he should be able to answer
Reproduction

questions if he can not tell the whole story.

By dividing the class into small sections, every pupil may be
asked for a part, perhaps all, of the reproduction. This is
valuable training for little ones, for, added to the growth in
English, there is the greater purpose of developing a sense
of responsibility. The child comes to understand that here
is a duty for him to perform to the best of his ability. He
feels that in order to meet this responsibility to his work
and to himself he must listen well, remember accurately,
and reproduce fluently. A teacher can not develop too
early a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction in a self-completed
task. Written reproductions can be commenced during
the first year, for the children soon take pleasure in form-
ing composite stories for the teacher to write on the board.
The children should be conscious of continuity of thought
in these exercises. That is, no sentence given by the class
should be written anywhere except in its proper place in the
development of the story, and the teacher should either tell
why it is not used in the place suggested or have the chil-
dren themselves explain the reason. In making these com-
posite stories many opportunities are found for improvement
in sentence structure and for noting vulgar and incorrect
idioms for future correction. Frequent reproductions add
rapidly to a child's vocabulary and to a correct use of the
new words learned; continuity of thought is strengthened
by making complete stories ; there is a gain in self-possession

LITERATURE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS /

by rising and narrating before the class ; clear concepts are
formed if care is taken that the dramatic situations are pic-
tured mentally ; the composite productions furnish abundant
material for reading lessons, copying exercises, drawing,
and spelling.

Narrative drawing by the children is of greatest assistance
in forming clear concepts of striking scenes. No matter
how crude the child's illustration may be, his
ideas are clearer for his efforts to put them
into pictures. The better, more logical drawings that may
be put on the boards by the teacher or by older pupils are a
help and pleasure to the children, for they aid in fixing the
development of the story, consequently, in acquiring con-
tinuity of thought.

In teaching a poem the pictures presented by it should be
seen clearly by the pupils before they try to commit to mem-
ory. In these first grades the poems are
usually narrative, as in that pleasing little
account of the raindrops :

" Some little drops of water,

Whose home was in the sea,
To go upon a journey
Once happened to agree.

" They had a cloud for carriage
And drove a playful breeze,
And over town and country,
They rode along at ease.

" But oh, there were so many,

That soon the carriage broke,
And to the ground came tumbling
Those frightened little folk.

8 METHODS IN TEACHING

" Then through the moss and grasses,

They were compelled to roam,
Until a brooklet found them
And carried them all home."

The description of the home, the journey, the breakdown
of the carriage, the run home again, can be made most inter-
esting first in story form. The poem is then welcomed with
delight; difficulties in meanings and constructions vanish;
memorizing is almost without effort. Formal and formative
studies on a poem should be kept distinct. While a child's
mind is absorbed in the journey of the raindrops in their
cloud carriage from the ocean over the land, down the brook,
and back home to the sea, it should not be confused and
distracted by a search for definitions of " happened " or
" agree." If the meaning is understood the enjoyment
should be unalloyed ; later, there can be taken up studies of
words, constructions, and reproductions, when the mind
may find in these more formal studies a pleasure equally as
great as that given by the poem itself. Synonyms can be
given and used. Five or ten minute drills two or three times
a week in word exercises are invaluable, giving surprising
results.

The reviews of poems and stories should be tactfully ar-
ranged, so that they do not become tedious. By this means,

memory and power are fostered. The dra-
Dramatic , , j c- 1

Element matic element can be preserved. Simple

acting by the children, even of the stories
given early in the first year, is very enjoyable, and it serves
to emphasize action and to vivify concepts.

Of 1 HI

UNIVERSITY

or

CHAPTER II

PRESENTATION, ACQUISITION, AND ILLUSTRATION
OF LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES

FIRST YEAR GRADE

During the year it is possible every month to learn a short
poem and to use a folk tale or a Bible story for narration,
reproduction, reading lesson, and other drills. Many teach-
ers are able to add a history story occasionally to the month's
story material.

A teacher l in a first grade gives some of her experiences
with the children :

About twenty minutes are taken for telling a new story
to the class. The second day about the same length of time

is taken for questioning the pupils to help
Presentation

them remember the story. This is the first

step in reproduction and memorizing. The third day indi-
vidual reproduction can begin. At first, one child rarely
tells the whole story. The stronger or the older pupils open
the way ; one begins, another continues, and so on, until three
or four have taken part; finally, more and more eager little
hands are raised, until nearly every child in the two upper
divisions can tell the complete story.

Sometimes a little play is made of part of the tale. A
tiny maid in her red hood makes a dear " Little Red Riding
A ,. Hood," on her happy way through the for-

est to see Grandma; some small boy de-
lights in the hoarse growling that is supposed to belong to

1Mrs. Edna O. James.

9

IO METHODS IN TEACHING

the part of the old wolf. Cinderella, her gracious fairy god-
mother, and her wicked step-sisters often converse for the
edification of the other babies, who, in their turn, enact
Silver Hair and the three bears, Tom Thumb, Dick Whit-
tington, and the other heroes of the fiction dear to children.
Fortunately, little ones do not tire quickly of these stories
and representations, and ten days or two weeks pass pleas-
antly in the efforts to reproduce in good lan-
guage the story that has been listened to
with such rapt attention. In the meantime, all unsuspected
by the children themselves, much more than the story is being
learned. The first problem that teachers of first grades
must meet is how to induce the babies before them to forget
their shyness and talk about the things that it is desirable
the class should be learning. The above exercises accom-
plish much in this line in addition to all the progress possible
in language and general culture ; this is especially true when
the stories are acted out. The dramatic instinct, or playing,
is in every child ; if it has an opportunity to express itself,
it becomes an important factor in self-forgetfulness, one of
the first requirements for the happiness of a child in the
schoolroom. There now follow formal language lessons, and
the formation of a composite story for reading and copying.
Toward spring the story of Hiawatha's childhood is taken,
preceded by two or three weeks on Indian life. Much illus-
trative material can be obtained for class
Hiawatha

use. The children examine everything, ask

questions, and are told interesting facts. After a fairly clear
child's idea of the Indians has been formed, the poem is
begun, and for several weeks the many stories about the
little Hiawatha are a source of delight to all. During this

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES II

introductory work one day, at least, is given to Mr. Long-
fellow and his love for children.

The childhood of Hiawatha is presented in several divi-
sions, some of which are : the cradle, lessons in the sky, the
fire-fly, the rainbow. Wherever an opportunity for a science
lesson presents itself, it precedes the literature. The fire-fly,
for instance, is studied before taking up that part of the
poem that tells about it. In this way the pupils understand
the references with perfect ease. The story is first presented
to the children in prose narrative. After it has been enjoyed,
understood, and reproduced, the partial version is read or
repeated to the pupils, who learn as much of it as can be
remembered without too great an effort. In fact, the greater
part of the memorizing is almost unconscious on the part of
the pupils. The first grades use from the sixty-fifth to the
two hundred and thirty-fifth line, and about one-third of this
amount is remembered by the majority of the pupils.

During the year we have taken but a step, it is true, into
the wonderland of story ; but if we have created in the chil-
dren a desire that will lead them toward an enjoyment of the
best in literature, have we not done much?

SECOND YEAR GRADE

In this year the poems to be memorized are taken from the

writings of the Gary sisters, Eugene Field, and Longfellow.

They are first presented orally by the teacher,

who tells the story involved, often using the
&ucL
Method words of the poet, if they are understood by

the little ones. It is very desirable that the
children should form clear-cut mental concepts of the pic-
tures in the poems. To facilitate this, expressive drawings

12 METHODS IN TEACHING

by the children supplement excellently the narratives of the
teacher. Oral reproductions follow, some of which are
written on the board, as was done in the first grades. A
composite story produced in this way by the pupils is copied,
thus aiding in the proper use of capitals, punctuation marks,
and words, and in correct spelling. The poems are learned
as early in the presentation as seems advisable to the teacher,
difficult ones being given more time to be thoroughly com-
prehended. Several stanzas are often almost committed to
memory before the teacher is really aware of the fact, simply
by using the poet's words and constructions frequently in
telling the story, and by encouraging the children to do the
same in their reproductions.

During the last half of the year pupils may be permitted
to write original reproductions, in which they should be
enheartened to advance towards the accuracy of the copied
work.

In connection with the poems and sometimes with the
stories, a little knowledge may be gained about authors.

Field, the Gary sisters, Longfellow, can all
Authors

be made real characters to the children.

Short stories about them are interesting ; something of their
lives can be seen in their writings, even by these little folks ;
poems that are not in the regular course can be read aloud,
several times perhaps, just for enjoyment, general culture,
and familiarity with the poet.

The following are thoughts from a second grade teacher : 1
In the second grade about twenty minutes a day are de-
voted to the literature stories during two weeks of every
school month of the year. This time does not include formal
1 Mrs. Mae Simms.

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 13

language drills, nor does it cover all that is spent in the final
writing of the stories. The former belongs to the language
lessons, and some time for the composition work is found in
the penmanship period. One of the most enjoyable stories
for our grade is " Horatius," by Lord Macauley. The por-
tions used are those that are full of life and action, where
the story interest carries the child over language difficulties.
It is surprising how many stanzas can be understood by
the children, who follow with keen delight the preparations

of the enemy against Rome, the flight of the
" Horatius " country people to the city, the desperation of

the " city fathers/' and the heroism of Hora-
tius. As this poem is long and is used for both literature
and history, it is permitted to run through the month, pro-
vided the children show no signs of tiring of it. Usually,
from the beginning to the end, the interest never flags, not
even in the writing and formal language drills based upon
the poem. The primary instructor well knows that in all
the teaching in which she is the first source of the material
for the class, the inspiration also must come from her, and
that the results will be in accordance with the enthusiasm
that she can arouse. If the pleasure is deep and sincere,
the tongues of the listeners will be unloosed in willing and
eager reproductions, and the writing that follows will be no
task. When introducing a new story, it is advisable to tell
it to the children in the morning while the teacher and the
class are at their best. Then let the narrator put into the
presentation all her power to make the subject interesting
and attractive. Let her strive to so impress the listeners
that later mention of the hero or heroine will bring a
glow to the cheeks and a sparkle to the eyes. It is a good

14 METHODS IN TEACHING

plan to refer to the story several times during the day after
it has been narrated, instead of leaving it untouched until
the hour for reproduction. It can be kept fresh in the minds
of the children by a question or two or a talk of a few mo-
ments, which can be brought in without interference with
other lessons.

In the regular period for reproduction members of the
class are called upon to tell different episodes, until, after a

few days, any child can tell the complete
Reproduction

story, or the portion of it that has been

given; or he can take it up at any point and continue it.
Telling the story at home is encouraged, for it gives added
power to be able to make a continuous narrative when there
is no teacher or eager classmate at hand to suggest or to
assist. Pupils who tell the story to parents, brothers, or
sisters, usually show more rapid growth in language and a
better command of the continuous thought of the narrative
than do those who have only the class drill.

About the third day after the introduction of the story the
children are ready to write some part of it. The morning
hour is generally taken for this purpose. A
simple outline is placed upon the board, as :
Rome, hills, gate, river, bridge, Lars Porsenna, soldiers,
Horatius. This is to assist in keeping the continuity of
thought, a difficult task for children. An outline for this
purpose should be made thoughtfully by the teacher. It
should be a careful arrangement of successive thoughts in
the natural progression of the story, whose relation one to
another is self-suggestive to the inexperienced little com-
posers. For twenty or thirty minutes the children write,
telling the story in about the form that it has already been

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 1 5

given in oral reproductions. To the writers, however, it
probably seems like a totally new presentation of the story ;
and so it should, for to many of them it will be the first com-
plete reproduction. Care must be taken not to tire the little
writers. If at the end of a half hour the papers are not
finished, they should be taken up, and the completion of the
story left for the next day or for several successive days.
The writing must not become burdensome; it should be a
pleasure.

To find material for the stories is not so difficult as is
often imagined. Children like life and action, and delight
in many a story that has been considered adapted only to
older pupils. Good, interesting writers in both history and
literature furnish abundant material ; still more can be found
in periodicals. Children often need more solid intellectual
food than is given in many school courses, and they thrive
wonderfully upon it.

The following is an original reproduction by a second
grade child, written independently after the oral class repro-
ductions. The periods and capitals are well placed. Note
how the story interest carries the continuity of thought.

HORATIUS.

Rome was built on seven hills.
Rome had a large wall around it.
Rome had four gates in the wall.

And Rome had a large river and the name of the river was
the Tiber river.

And the Romans called it the Father Tiber river.

Horatius was the gate keeper.

A man came to Rome and wanted to be a council men and

1 6 METHODS IN TEACHING

they did not want him to be and he went off and got an large
army of soldiers.

Some men heard that Lars Porsena was getting an army
of soldiers.

They went around to the houses and told all the people.

It took them three days and nights.

They got in to Rome and they saw the soldiers.

Horatius and two other men went with him across the
bridge.

they killed the first three soldiers.

They killed the next three.

They called Horatius and the two men.

The two men ran across the bridge.

Horatius stayed too long and the bridge fell down and
Horatius was alone.

He prayed to the river and he jumped in.

They thought that Horatius would not come out of the
river.

But he did come out and the Romans were glad.

THIRD YEAR GRADE

In this grade the teacher reads many if not all of the stories
and poems, so that the words of the writer become familiar
to the children. Easy narration by the teacher, to vivify or
to simplify the words of the author, is made supplementary
to the reading. The pupils should now be reading many
stories for themselves, for they should be appreciating and
using the power gained by their knowledge of the mechanics
of reading, and they should be learning how to get from
books the enjoyment that they have been receiving through
the lips of the teacher.

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES I/

In composition original reproductions should now super-
sede composite exercises, the latter being used only for train-
ing in acquiring continuity of thought or in
Composition ° . . / r

illustrating some special features of writing.

For such purposes composite lessons remain valuable for
several years. In the original reproductions topics should be
given for short papers. If these are chosen from consecu-
tive stages of the story the child will have eventually the
complete narrative, a satisfaction to him, and a pleasure to
the teacher and the parent. Such papers should be made
into a note-book, as in the second grade. The first draft
should be the one preserved unless mistakes are very numer-
ous ; and even in this case it is advisable to keep the original
as well as the rewritten sheet, in order to stimulate the child
to do more careful work on succeeding first efforts. Weak-
ness is being educated when a child is allowed to rewrite
frequently. Insist upon clear pictures before the reproduc-
tion is attempted. If a child can close his eyes, so as to shut
out intrusive externals, and can imagine that he sees Sleepy
Hollow, Ichabod Crane, or the wild ride on Gunpowder, he
will be able to tell a more concise and vivid story than if the
writing is entered upon without the clear mental pictures.
The following story of King Midas is an original, uncor-
rected third grade reproduction :

THE GOLDEN TOUCH

Once there was a very rich king whose name was Midas.
He had a little daughter he liked odd names so he called her
Marygold. He had a dungeon under his palace. When he
3

1 8 METHODS IN TEACHING

wanted to be happy he would go down into the dungeon.
Marygold went out to pick buttercups and dandelions. Midas
said Poh, if they were as golden as they look they would be
worth picking. Before Midas was so rich he had a garden
of roses he thought the roses were very pretty. He use to
go down in the dungeon and wish that the sun when it was
setting it was gold and could be squeezed into a golden cup.
One day a shadow fell upon his gold. He said in a surprise
that he locked the door tight. The stranger said, are you
satisfied. No said Midas, I wish that everything I touch

would turn to gold.

ii.

The stranger promised King Midas that he should have
his wish. Tomorrow at sunrise you will have the Golden
Touch. When he woke the next morning he touched the
things around him and they remained the same he thought
that he was fooling him. After the sun came over the hills
he put his clothes on and they turned to a suit of gold. He
went out and touched all the roses and they became a thin
plate of gold and the worms in the heart became gold.

He went back to the palace to get his breakfast. King
Midas ordered Marygold to be called, very soon he heard
her coming around the house crying bitterly when she
opened the door he said what is the matter, Marygold said
that all the beautiful roses are gold and have know fragrance.
Everything that he ate turned to gold. He thought that
if he ate it quick it wouldn't turn to gold. So he put a hot
potato into his mouth and it turned to gold and he danced
around the room. Marygold came in the room and said
what is the matter and when he put his lips to kiss her she
turned to a golden statue.

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 19

These extracts from a reproduction show the difficulty in
combining mechanical accuracy with literary creation. There
are many good points for a third grade writer, — life, vigor-
ous treatment, continuity of thought, accurate spelling, a fair
conception of paragraphing, and the use of periods and cap-
ital letters ; and there are several indications that the writer
possessed knowledge that was not used. Some sentence
structures are weak and loose, especially where the thought
grows more rapid, but the sentence structure is very good
in other parts of the story. Personal revision by the writer,
when undivided attention could be given to mechanical accu-
racy, would probably remove the greater number of the mis-
takes and strengthen many weak places.

FOURTH YEAR GRADE

In the presentation of a story in this grade the children
read for themselves whenever the books are provided in
Method sufficiently large numbers to permit of a

class exercise. Otherwise the teacher reads.
Individual reading is encouraged constantly under all cir-
cumstances, so that the pupils are learning to use and to
understand books for themselves and are deriving pleasure
from their efforts. Pupils should read many more stories
than those treated as class work, and the teacher should have
on hand a store of pleasing and profitable reading for odd
moments during the day.

Reproduction follows the reading, usually after an inter-
val of a day. It is either oral or written, preferably both.
Only the regular stories, one a month, are so treated ; those
read by the pupils for themselves or by the teacher as a
relaxation are rarely taken up a second time. The monthly

2O METHODS IN TEACHING

story serves many purposes, literary and linguistic. The
reproductions are on detached but consecutive topics, giving
opportunity for short, clearly pictured scenes in the papers
that are preserved in the notebooks.

There is a great deal of material for language lessons in
these stories. In fact, the reproductions, the composition
work, the correction of papers, are all treated under lan-
guage. Correlation is very close in all of the essential
branches ; differentiation belongs to analyses of methods and
material, pupils need not be troubled with it.

The purpose is not to give an immense amount of infor-
mation, but to arouse the child's lasting interest in the sub-

_. ject, to show him how to read, and to put

Jt urposc

exhilarating material into his hands. There
is subject matter enough in any one of the Bible stories or
the narratives from the " Odyssey " for much more advanced
pupils, so care must be taken not to tell these fourth grade
children too much. Such a mistake would overload the
course of study, and, probably, by making teacher and pupils
feel hurried, it would create a distaste for many of the
stories. The first thought in presenting the stories is pleas-
ure,— childish, natural enjoyment. This can be gained only
by easy narration or reading, interspersed with conversa-
tions. The reproductions should have the same purpose in
mind, although progress must never be forgotten. Rightly
handled, however, progress, in both literary and mechanical
directions, is one of the keen enjoyments of the work.

Three aims should be kept constantly in mind: — interest
in our world heritage through participation in the well
known stories that are a part of the world's culture; self-
development through this world heritage, or a conscious

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 21

growth in power on the part of the child; acquisition of
knowledge. If the first two purposes are remembered the
third follows as a matter of course.

A fourth grade teacher1 gives in the following paragraphs
some of her ideas about teaching literature stories :

Literature as presented to the children is not the intensive
study that is given to mature minds, even when the subject
matter is the same. In the elementary grades, the teacher's
aim is to lead the pupils into enjoyment of literature, for
pleasure in good and beautiful stories is the first step toward
future appreciation of authors.

A little mystery or a suggestion of tragedy quickly
arouses interest. David's encounter with Goliath, Ulysses
and the Cyclops, are received with avidity. Repeatedly the
question is asked, " What is the name of the book that has
that story in it?" Or, " Is that story in the public library?"
Thus the children are led into reading for themselves.

After the story has been given and some parts repeated,
it is discussed by the pupils, who ask questions about the
portions that have not been understood, or
and Poems *n whicn tnev ^ave taken special pleasure.

In this way the teacher is able to measure
the interest of the class as a whole, as well as of individual
pupils, a great assistance in knowing how to prepare the next
story for presentation. The poems, which are usually short,
are presented in a somewhat different manner. Every poem
is either written on the board or mimeographed, so that a
child can have his own copy. The pupils read it slowly, dis-
cussing the thoughts, and getting the story. They are asked
to tell from the poem itself, if they can, why the poet wrote

1Miss Lottie Grunsky.

22 METHODS IN TEACHING

it. They talk about it freely, choosing favorite expressions
or thoughts, pointing out "pictures," finding new ideas,
making it their own. Many portions are memorized almost
unconsciously ; some poems are learned outright. There are
many explanations and discussions based upon the poems,
but there are few reproductions except of the story running
through any one of them.

CHAPTER III

PRESENTATION, ACQUISITION, AND ILLUSTRATION
OF LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES

FIFTH YEAR GRADE

Pupils in the fifth year in school enjoy many poems by
Longfellow, who has a delightful power in picturing vividly
Material scenes of life and action. The poems should

not succeed one another too rapidly, nor
should they be hurriedly presented. The teacher's observa-
tion of the attitude and attainments of the class should be
the guide in both respects. The first thing to be considered
is that the pupils gain a view of a complete poem. This can
be accomplished in several ways : The teacher may read the
poem through, stopping over every stanza long enough for
the children to give naturally its substance, and, at the end,
the whole poem may be summarized ; the pupils, instead of
the teacher, may read, a similar stanza analysis being given ;
the pupils may read the poem for themselves before coming
into class, looking out the thoughts for themselves. The
last treatment is the most difficult for children ; it should not
be insisted upon too rigorously nor too often, for to do so
would probably result in dislike for poems. Pupils of this
age grow but slowly into individual analyses, especially of
poems, although they greatly enjoy this work with the
teacher. The purpose in this preparatory glimpse of the
poems is to gain the power of uniting several successive

23

24 METHODS IN TEACHING

thoughts into a complete whole ; to enjoy the poem ; to be
constructive rather than analytic ; to have in mind the whole
instead of the parts. Pupils must be trained in the acquisi-
tion of this power. Classes may read in the ordinary school-
room manner such a poem as Longfellow's " Ropewalk "
several times without any interest in it, for they have ob-
tained no clear conception of what it is about ; but when they
picture to themselves the long alley, the making of the rope,
and the poet musing over the various uses to which the rope
here made can be put, they will not only enjoy a short study
of the poem, but they will also suggest several important
uses of rope that Longfellow seems to have forgotten.

We enjoy literature from the complete thoughts that we
take out of it. To begin a poem with minute analysis or

intensive study tends to leave an impression
Intensive £ , M . Tr ,

Study °* details, not °f a whole. If such an intro-

duction to beautiful poems is distasteful to
the more mature minds of high school age, which are often
turned forever from poetry because of the interminable de-
tails and analyses forced upon them, how repugnant it must
be to younger pupils ! Impressions thus gained are respon-
sible for much of the dislike for " school reading." If, by
getting the complete story into their minds, the children
enter first into the life, motion, vigor, of such a poem as
" The Skeleton in Armor," they usually take up readily more
detailed study of difficult words and passages ; indeed, they
frequently want to know what these very portions mean, for
they come to see that some thought is not complete without
an understanding of the more intricate passages. This is
usually all the intensive work needed by young children, or
that it is advisable to give them.

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 2$

Word studies should be growing in importance by the
time the. fifth grade is reached. Selection of synonyms, de-
fining words, giving attention to root sylla-
Studies kles> prefixes, suffixes, and their meanings,

may all be made interesting research for the
children, who are thus growing in knowledge of words and
power over them. Training should be given in the mys-
teries of the dictionary, for, to a child beginning its use, it is
really a sealed book.

The training of earlier years in forming clear concepts
should be continued. Narrative drawings by the pupils
strengthen the ability to do this by giving
Details visible form and completeness to the imag-

ined pictures. Outlines improve the judg-
ment and the power of analysis, both of which are weak with
children of this age. Maps make more real the geographical
references, thus broadening the child's knowledge of the
world. Where the globe and wall maps are used intelli-
gently, and no attempt is made to require a child to memorize
all that is told him, map work is a delight to children, who
pore over maps again and again, thus gradually absorbing
what it would be impossible for them to learn and assimilate
in many lessons of drill.

The pupils see some of the simpler beauties of the poems
if their attention is called to the comparisons, which can soon
be differentiated into similes, metaphors, and personifica-
tions. There should be no intention of teaching figures of
speech ; the desire is to show how more enjoyment can be
obtained from the poems. The result, however, is that many
of the pupils do learn these three figures very accurately,
while others are prepared by observation to learn them more

26 METHODS IN TEACHING

readily in later years. This recognition of the figures by
fifth grade pupils and naming them correctly should come
slowly and by imitation, rather than by drills and direct
teaching. The teacher explains often how she recognizes each
one, and the children gradually acquire the same power.
The first step, that of selecting a comparison, will be enough
for many slowly maturing minds.
The following thoughts are from a fifth grade teacher : 1
Little reproduction is attempted with the poems by Long-
fellow, for it is thought better to have the child retain the

Reproduction poet's own charming expressions. Two of
the main objects of this year are to inspire
in the child a love for the beauty of the thought expressed
in a poem, and a recognition of some beauty of form as
found in rhythm and musical rhymes. If a reproduction of
such a poem as " The Village Blacksmith " is asked for, we
find it all cheapened, even to the child himself. He is right
when he says, " I know it, but I can't say it." Who would
attempt to express those thoughts in any language but that
of Longfellow? In a poem like "The Wreck of the Hes-
perus," where a clearly defined story is found, reproduction
is in place ; but it is the story of the whole that is asked for,
not an exhaustive paraphrase of stanza after stanza.

After reading the poem for the first general conception,
we go back and make a more intensive study. The pupils
are asked to look out for themselves the
Study meanings of the new words found in the

stanzas, slow work at first, for at the begin-
ning of the year a fifth grade pupil is but slightly acquainted
with his dictionary, and has to be given special lessons in its
1Miss Elma Hopkins.

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 2/

use. Again we go through the poem to see the pictures to
be found there. The pupils look for the number of changes,
the "pictures," which they can find and describe. Some-
times the passage is read to them while they sit with eyes
closed, and then they tell all that they have imagined, going
even into details. What one does not see, another sees ; and
many times, when ideas do not agree, very animated dis-
cussions are brought out as one pupil tries to convince
another about the right interpretation. Finally, out of a
combination of the suggested ideas and of those clearly ex-
pressed, a very definite word picture is brought forth. The
child has been made to see with his mind's eye, and has been
led to stand and express himself in words coming from
independent thinking, not in the language of reproduction.
Personal study along various lines is carried on every day.
The dictionary is to be used, words are to be studied, papers

are to be written. The greater part of the
Personal , , , . ,

Study *lme these purposes comes from periods

set aside for the more formal language work
and for penmanship. Sometimes the pupils are asked to
copy a poem, especially for training in punctuation, spelling,
and accurate transcribing.

Finally, the poem is read through carefully, considered
line by line, stanza by stanza, in order to leave with the chil-
dren a clear understanding of the complete
Hvipfll
Reading thought. Then an outline is made by the

class. The pupils suggest the topics, the
best ones are chosen, written on the board in proper arrange-
ment, and 'copied during the next study period. Part, or
often all, of a poem is learned, and in some cases written out
from memory. In such poems as "Excelsior," where a

28 METHODS IN TEACHING

moral lesson may be inculcated, the deeper thought is left
until the last. Merely the story is taken first; then, if the
children seem ready for the inner thought, it is taken, but
it is never forced. Recently, after the study of " Excelsior,"
a particularly appreciative child asked if the poem did not
have another meaning than the one that had just been
brought out by the story. The question led to a discussion
of the great life lesson suggested by Longfellow, after which
the children loved the poem far more than they did the others
studied. Toward the close of the school year, when a paper
was written on " My favorite Poem," more than half the
class chose "Excelsior" and "The Village Blacksmith,"
giving in substance as a reason for the choice that the first
might apply to themselves, and that the second might mean
any good man whom they knew. The time given to these
poems varies considerably. Such a one as " The Skeleton
in Armor," where the life of a strange people in a foreign
country and a distant age has to be discussed as a prepara-
tion to the poem itself, may take from two to three weeks.
The shorter poems may be completed in two or three days.

The papers of the pupils, saved throughout the year, show
that a great deal is gained from ten months' study of Long-
Results fellow. There are drills in reading and writ-
ing; the arousing of independent thought;
the inspiring of a love for Longfellow and his poems ; the
memorizing of many poems, usually with little effort; an
ability, gained by nearly all the class, to read and enjoy for
themselves the simpler poems of our writer, and to see and
appreciate some of the beauties of his style.

The following reproduction of a poem by Longfellow was
written by a fifth grade girl. It is accompanied by a study

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 29

of words and another of figures given the class in connection
with reading the poem. Probably the majority of the pupils
knew much or all of the poem by heart. The quotations
used are from memory, as is shown by the failure to remem-
ber the arrangement of lines. No corrections have been
made.

THE WRECK OF THE HESPERUS.

It was a cold stormy day, and the schooner Hesperus was
sailing along the coast of Massachusetts. The skipper had
taken his little daughter with him to bear him company.
She was a beautiful little girl with eyes as blue as the fairy
flax.

He was standing beside helm watching the veering flaw
blow the smoke in different directions when an old sailor
came up to him and said, I pray thee put into yonder port,
for I fear a hurricane. Last night the moon had a golden
ring, and tonight no moon we see." The skipper did not
believe what the sailor had said and paid no attention to him.

Down came the storm and smote the vessel in its strength.
The skipper called his little daughter to him and said, " do
not tremble so, for I can weather the roughest gale that ever
wind did blow." He wrapped her in his great seaman's
coat and bound her to a mast.

The little girl said that she heard the church-bells ringing
and asked her father what they were and he answered that it
was the fog-bell on a rock bound coast, and he steered for
the open sea. She heard the sound of guns and asked her
father what it ment and he said, some ship in distress that
can not live in such an angry sea." Again she cried out
that she saw a gleaming light and asked what it was, but
her father answered never a word for he was dead.

3O METHODS IN TEACHING

He was lashed to the helm all stiff and stark and a lantern
gleamed on his fixed and glassy eyes. When the child saw
her father was dead she prayed that she might be saved, and
she thought of Christ who stilled the wave on the Lake of
Galilee.

The vessel swept through the sleet and snow tow'rds the
reef of Norman's Woe.

The vessel struck on some rocks, and like a vessel of glass
she stove and sank. In the morning a fisherman stood on
the shore aghast to see the beautiful child lashed to a drift-
ing mast. The tears were frozen on her eyes and her hair
like the brown sea-weed floating on the waves.

" Such was the wreck of the Hesperus,

In the midnight and the snow
Christ save us all from a death like this
On the reef of Norman's Woe."

In ordinary class work this paper, which is presented in
uncorrected form, would be returned to its writer for per-
sonal correction. Omitted words would be supplied in all
cases, probably, with a possible exception in the last sentence,
where the child's ear might not recognize the necessity of
the verb in connection with " floating."

Sentence structure, so difficult a problem for children, is
faulty in the repetition of " and." There is excellent drill
for the class in putting such sentences on the board and in
having the pupils develop better structures by the omission
of "and" or by the use of relative pronouns or adverbial
connectives.

There can be no objection to the use of the poet's own
words in such a paper. The child is consciously reproducing

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 31

or quoting, and the elevation of thought and language is

very evident.

WORD STUDY LESSON.

I. Schooner, sharp built vessel, having two or more masts.
2. Skipper, master of a small vessel. 3. Helm, instrument
for steering a ship. 4. Veering flaw, changing wind.

(This careful defining of words is a frequent exercise,
every lesson containing from fifteen to twenty-five words.)

SIMILES.

As the fairy flax. As the hawthorn buds. Like yeast.
Like the dawn of day. Like a frightened steed. Like a
sheeted ghost. Like icicles from her deck. As carded wool.
Like the horns of an angry bull. Like a vessel of glass.

SIXTH YEAR GRADE

Literature and history are still alternated in this grade in
periods of ten weeks each. Whittier is the poet for the year.
M . . . The first ten weeks are given to several

short poems and " Snow-Bound " ; during
the second literature period some more of the short poems
and " Among the Hills " are read. It is desirable that the
teacher plan to keep before the pupils the complete thought
of a short poem, and of every division of a long poem. This
is more important as the works read grow longer and the
opportunities for intensive study increase. There is great
pleasure for pupils in " Snow-Bound " and " Among the
Hills," provided that the methods and difficulties belonging
to maturer study are not forced upon their young minds.
Many involved sentence constructions are readily mastered
by grammatical analyses ; that is, by connecting subject with
predicate, locating modifiers, or by using simple diagrams.

$2 METHODS IN TEACHING

This is not done in the grammatical spirit ; it is for assistance
in literary interpretation, although the practice strengthens
the child greatly in understanding his grammar and in apply-
ing it to his daily needs.

There are delightful character studies in " Snow-Bound."
The pupils should observe, discuss, and recreate the char-
acter of the father, mother, aunt, and other members of the
family, not forgetting Whittier himself. Have them inter-
pret a New England home and the life of the affectionate
Quaker family. Lead them to enjoy the beautiful figures
of speech. Some of the last stanzas are too difficult for
pupils of this grade, but that is no reason why they should
not read all the delightful first portion of the poem. -What
can not be understood can be omitted, or, better yet, it can
be shown as a fitting conclusion by means of the teacher's
interpretation.

The prelude to " Among the Hills " should rarely be at-
tempted by sixth grade pupils for a beginning, but it may
be used as an admirable ending and summary of the poet's
thought. After the scenes of the poem itself have been pic-
tured, the children are ready to imagine the drowsy heat
of the summer day and the desolate, forlorn homes, where
love is lacking.

Careful attention should be given to oral reading. Pupils
in the grammar grades lose much of the proficiency in read-
ing aloud that has been gained in the primary classes. This
is due in part to growing self-consciousness on the part of
the maturing boys and girls, and in part to the fact that
silent reading is supplanting reading aloud, making the latter
seem only an exercise instead of a means of acquiring knowl-
edge as it was in younger days.

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 33

The following methods and experiences are taken from
the work of a sixth grade teacher : *

Some of the aims in literature for this grade are, to give

the children a genuine appreciation of a few of Whittier's

beautiful and uplifting thoughts ; to cultivate

the ability to read intelligently aloud and

silently; to train a readiness in expression, both oral and

written.

In " Snow-Bound " and " Among the Hills " the pupils
are prepared by a discussion of the geographical setting of

the poem for the climatic conditions and the
Treatment

occupations that will be referred to in the
reading. The pupils then listen appreciatively to the reading
of " Snow-Bound " by the teacher. These discussions and
readings may take three days, but after them the children
are ready and eager to begin their own work with the poem.

After a general but complete thought of the poem has
been grasped by means of the reading by the teacher, the
poem is divided into three parts for ease in studying it : — the
storm, the evening at the fireside, and the day following the
storm. The pupils now read, giving their own interpreta-
tion of difficult thoughts and phrasings. Aided by a few
suggestions from the teacher, they picture the Whittier home
on the dreary December day, — the low-hanging clouds, the
great circle around the sun, the east wind bringing from the
distant shore the roar of the angry ocean, all forerunners of
the coming storm. We imagine the day's work, digging a
path to the barn and preparing for the coming night, when
all gather around the blazing fire to listen to songs and
stories. The kitchen, too, is new and strange to all the class.

1Miss Charlotte Treanor.
4

34 METHODS IN TEACHING

The children are greatly interested to know that the old
house is now owned by the Whittier Memorial Association ;
and that the bake-kettles, bellows, foot-warmers, candle
moulds, and some pieces of old china are still preserved.
The first division of the story having now been read, it is
completed by narrative drawings, written descriptions, brief
outlines of different topics, and language exercises.

The second division of the poem with us is the evening
at the fireside, where,

" Shut in from all the world without,
We sat the clean winged hearth about."

This we try to picture very clearly, for this is the home life
of the Whittier family as seen by the loving son and brother.
At last the great logs crumble down ; the " bull's eye watch "
points to the hour of nine ; and the pleasant circle separates
for the night. The uncle remains behind to cover up the
embers; the mother stays to express in quiet her grateful
thanks for the blessings that have been granted all ; the boys
climb to their chill attic, where they lie listening to the storm
sounds without. Soon sleep steals over them, guiding them

into

" The summer land of dreams."

Through this part of the poem comparisons of the characters
are made and short sketches are written about the members
of the family.

The third division of the poem deals with events after the
clearing of the storm, when, at last, with the coming of the
village newspaper, the ice-locked door of the world swings
open again, and the family is in touch with fellowmen. It

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 35

is with regret that we reach the point where Whittier closes
the book of his memories, for by this time the members of
the family are our friends and their interests are ours. The
last two stanzas, however, are too difficult for sixth grade
children, and the poem closes for them with Whittier's apos-
trophe to memory, the " angel of the backward look."

The papers, or " stories," based upon the poem are now
written. When they are finished enough time has elapsed
after the second reading of the poem so that
^ can ^e ^ven its fina^ reading without the

Reading

repetition being at all tiresome. This final

reading serves to put all the thoughts together as a whole,
to connect its pictures, to interweave its characters and re-
citals, and to discover new beauties. These are found in the
figures of speech, which are studied for the enjoyment that
they give, not to develop rhetorical knowledge. One result,
however, is that the pupils, already prepared in the fifth
grade by their studies of comparisons, recognize with con-
siderable readiness nearly all the similes, metaphors, and per-
sonifications, calling them by their proper names. This un-
derstanding of the simpler figures adds greatly to the pleas-
ure of the children in the poems.

Memorizing is frequent, but is made as easy as possible.
The children are at an age when they remember easily and
Mem riz* constant supervision is given to training and

exercising the memory. Much of the poem
is learned almost unconsciously. The teacher may start a
line, asking someone to continue, someone else to go farther
in the quotation, then still another to give the whole. By
almost daily observance of this practice the pupils form the
habit of memorizing, and the amount retained by some pupils

36 METHODS IN TEACHING

is surprising. Memories thus trained hold on most tena-
ciously to what is read.

The treatment of shorter poems is about the same as
that of divisions of long poems ; that is, mastery of a com-
plete thought; the connection of successive
Short Poems

thoughts; a first reading for understanding

the poem, for grasping its complete thought ; a second read-
ing for detailed study, for grasping and connecting the suc-
cessive thoughts ; separation of the purely interpretative and
the purely analytical ; oral reproductions or narratives based
on the thoughts of the poem; written reproductions; word
studies ; a final reading to leave in the mind the poem as a
whole, encasing its beautiful wordings and thoughts. A few
of the shorter poems by Whittier receive special geograph-
ical treatment, as " The Fishermen " and " The Lumber-
men." " The Poor Voter on Election Day " may be read
after a mock election.

Illustrations of various sorts are used. There are Perry
pictures and selections from magazines and other publica-
tions ; the children make narrative drawings
Illustrations

of incidents selected by themselves or sug-
gested by the teacher. This year Whittier's home on " that
bleak December day " was constructed by the children. The
house, the corncrib, the wellsweep, were made by the boys ;
cotton was used for the snow; the members of the family
were represented by tiny dolls dressed by the girls. The
miniature stage was set to show

" Sweet doorway pictures of the girls,"

as the oxen and the drivers came plodding along down the
hillside.

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 37

The tetm closes with a sketch of Whittier's life as it is
known after twenty weeks spent in the study of his poems.

By the time the sixth grade is reached the papers are too
long to be given in their entirety. Extracts, however, show
some of the progress made by the pupil in composition and
in his comprehension of literature. They also indicate lines
of correction and guidance for the teacher.

AMONG THE HILLS.
Prelude.

Whittier commences the prelude of "Among the Hills"
by telling of a hot, quiet, sultry, summer day. There was
only a little wind and that was a high one, because just the
tops of the maples made a faint motion. Everything seemed
to be lazy and the only sounds were the locust and a hay
wagon creaking along with the driver half asleep. The
goldenrods were drooping in the sun and through the door
came a drowsy smell of heliotrope, clover and mignonette.
The harvesters were resting under the trees as it was in the
hottest part of the day, which was noon. As they were
resting there they told riddles and sang.

The day was very hot and hazy and the sheep were hud-
dled up against the stone wall, for it was the coolest and
shadiest place they could find. Whittier had been busy a
long time writing and lecturing about slavery but now, when
he has finished, he begins this poem. He says that all are
not idle, a farmer's son who took a fancy to work did his
work in the field and was proud of it.

The farmer and his family were willing to do their work
and as there was love, harmony, and beauty in this home the

or

38 METHODS IN TEACHING

work seemed easier. As the farmer loves his wife, he is
just, generous, and tender toward her. After Whittier de-
scribed this home he said,

" I know too well the picture has another side."

Then he thinks of away back and describes a bad, dirty
home. The people are well off but they are so stingy and
selfish that everything seems uncomfortable and they grow
old before their time. There is no love or beauty or har-
mony in their home and nothing seems happy as in the other
home. They have no flowers, trees, or vines around and
the only things growing are weeds and burdocks, because
they grow without cultivation. These people do not notice
anything beautiful, as the turning of leaves in October, the
sparrow's and bobolink's song, the beautiful hills, the woods,
and the sun and flowers.

They go to church because they are afraid of the unseen
Powers, but when it comes to pay pulpit-tax or pew rent
they grumbled.

The walls of the house were blistering in the sun, because
there were no vines or trees to shade them. Instead of cur-
tains, rags were stretched across the window panes. There
was confusion in the kitchen and the floor was not washed,
the only times it was cleaned was with a broom. The best
room was like a cellar and as it was always shut up from
the air it was damp and suffocating. There were no books
in this room and the only picture was that of an old green
haired, peony cheeked woman sitting under willows that
couldn't be recognized.

The women that lived here were always complaining and
quarreling and the men were cross and sullen. These peo-

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 39

pie had no love, and they piled up their rubbish against the
chimney, then covered it with logs so that it couldn't be seen,
and they were also talking ill of their neighbors most of the
time.

They tried to save in everything and when they had pork,
they only put a little salt on it. They thought that the " Ser-
mon on the Mount " is no more than an outdated almanac.
These people had plenty of land but they didn't till any
more than half of it. When the beggar came for something
to eat they refused him but he thought that he was better
off in his best than they were by the way they were living.

Whittier says that a home is not like the one just de-
scribed when there is love, happiness, and beauty, and people
plant flowers and vines. He also says that if people have
the money they should have nice homes as most of them are
now but once in a while a bad one is found. At the last
of the prelude Whittier calls happiness " Golden Age " and
he thinks that it ought to come to every one living in this
country,

" Where whoso wisely wills and acts may dwell
As king and lawgiver, in broadacred state,
With beauty, art, taste, culture, books, to make
His hour of leisure richer than a life
Of fourscore to barons of old time."

This paper shows what is so often found in those gram-
mar grades that are so fortunate as to be encouraged into
thought growth and thought expression, — a power of
thought in advance of mechanical accuracy. It is a natural
condition under the circumstances just mentioned, and it
is far safer for the child's development than when the reverse

4O METHODS IN TEACHING

is true, and mechanical processes are drilled and drilled upon
with little or no thought behind them, and less possibility
for its development.

The nature of the mistakes made indicates the kind of
drills needed, probably by the majority of the class. In-
deed, almost every error in this paper is suggestive of class
work, rather than individual correction; while it would be
almost labor lost simply to write corrections on the compo-
sition. The errors are not careless, they are the result of
growth, and they have deep, underlying reasons which must
be laid bare to the child and drilled out of his use. Some
of them are indications of the most necessary grammar
work ; some show the needed help in rhetorical lines. Gen-
erally speaking, they are lack of agreement between pro-
nouns and their antecedents ; lack of continuity in the tenses
of the verbs; occasional disagreements of number between
verbs and their subjects; punctuation lags behind the sen-
tence structure, for semicolons are needed in several places,
and a number of constructions with the comma called for by
the sentences are evidently unknown to the pupil ; the para-
graph sense is rather weak.

These are all rather mature points for sixth grade pupils,
and they are undoubtedly just the ones that are being pre-
sented in the class drills as preparatory to direct instruction
in them later.

That which it is important to note is the clearness with
which the child's production points out the next steps that
are desirable in instruction. If this is a typical paper, the
class drills are easily seen.

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 41

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE

If, as the children mature, an appreciation of the reading

selected for school courses is to be fostered, extremes must

be avoided : — there must be neither too much

of Material nor to° ^ttle ' ^ must ^e ne*tner to° difficult

nor too childish. Too much reading gives
no opportunity for thought; too little is mental starvation.
Thoughts that are too difficult discourage a child ; those that
are too childish disgust him with class discussions and drills.
Without the thoughtful consideration that can be given a
limited number of books, there can not exist that apprecia-
tion of the finer literary qualities which brings aesthetic rest
for the mind, and which helps clothe the ever pressing prac-
tical side of life with poetry and nobility. On the other
hand, if reading is scanty and lacking in the elements through
which intellects grow, the minds are left empty and barren
of all the great thoughts of the centuries. Sometimes, a
meager supply of reading in class comes from the desire of
the teacher to analyze exhaustively every sentence, thereby
limiting the amount that might otherwise be mastered.
Grammar grade pupils are not ready for this kind of study,
although it is true that they can be held to its performance.
Such a method is almost sure to deaden any love for the
great masters in literature. Children should not analyze
their writers, they should revel in their works. This must
not be considered as meaning that pleasure is the only profit
in reading ; but, with grammar grade pupils, a desire to read
and an enjoyment of the books read are the most important
aims to be attained. During every school year there should
be enough reading material handled to train the pupil's mind

42 METHODS IN TEACHING

to a ready comprehension of a complete story or poem, and
to create the sense of power that comes with rapid acquisi-
tion. On the other hand, the amount should be so limited
that the striking beauties of every selection can be appre-
ciated, its great thoughts sounded, its characters known, and
its author made familiar to the reader through the general
features of his style.

Written exercises should be short and frequent rather
than long and occasional. One power to be fostered and
guided by reading is the ability to use good English. An ex-
cellent way to stimulate such an ability is to write frequently
and while in close enough touch with the author to be in-
spired by his genius. There need be little fear of educating
plagiarists. Where there is much conscious reproduction,
the pupils will distinguish for themselves between an orig-
inal use of words and thoughts and borrowing from an
author.

The following is a resume of some of the work done in a
seventh grade class : l

Seven works are read in class during this year: "The
Talisman," " Ivanhoe," "Courtship of Miles Standish,"
" Evangeline," "Rip Van Winkle," "Legend of Sleepy
Hollow," and " The Spy." The first two are abridged, the
others are in complete form. These seven do not seem too
many books to read, discuss, study, and write about during
the ten months of the school year. " The Talisman " and
" Ivanhoe " come in connection with some history work on
the Crusades, which precedes our history of the United
States in this grade. " Miles Standish " and " Evangeline "
are connected with the colonial period. " Rip Van Winkle,"

1 Taught by Mrs. Carrie Berdine Goode.

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 43

" Legend of Sleepy Hollow " and " The Spy " precede or
accompany the Revolution.

The maximum time permitted in the schoolroom every

day for preparation, reading, discussion, and written work

is fifty minutes. Many pupils, however, who

take a pride in their notebooks, spend much

extra time upon them. This does not interfere in the least

with other studies ; it is simply utilizing leisure time.

Independent preparation must be insisted upon, for self-
dependence is a most necessary lesson to learn. The pages
or the topics assigned should be carefully studied. The
teacher often gives definite assistance by putting on the
board such directions as these : Read the chapter attentively ;
be able to reproduce it orally; define the following words,

; explain the following lines, ; picture to yourself

certain scenes ; how is this lesson connected with the pre-
ceding reading?

The recitation following this preparation is as varied as
possible. There are readings and discussions; words are
studied; difficult constructions are explained; all kinds of
allusions are noted, explained, or assigned for the next day ;
a few rhetorical figures, principally those familiar in the
lower grades, are considered, and new ones are occasionally
taken up, if prominent in the reading. The lesson as pre-
pared by the pupils is always the basis for the recitation, but
it is far from being the limit ; for the recitation is more than
a period for testing ; it is an opportunity to teach good habits
of work, to show the desirability of broad information on
many subjects, and to develop the mental powers of the
children. The humor of the author, his vivid descriptions,
his ability to make his characters live for us, are all talked

44 METHODS IN TEACHING

about. Many questions are asked to bring out the thoughts
conveyed by the lesson. One question often asked in some
form or other is, " What has made this chapter so interest-
ing ?" or, " Why has this chapter not been as interesting as
the preceding ?" Spirited and varied are the answers of the
youthful critics.

During the reading in class, while the more careful study
is under way, pictures of scenes in the story are presented.
For this purpose books are brought from
the public library, magazine articles are util-
ized, and home libraries become more familiar to the chil-
dren. As abridged editions of " The Talisman " and " Ivan-
hoe " are used in class, the teacher often reads some of the
vivid descriptions in complete form and recommends them
to the pupils, many of whom read the longer edition.

The written work based on the literature averages about
twenty minutes a day for ten months. Notebooks are kept,

and every pupil is responsible for every sub-
Written .
Work ject treated, for every map, and for every

drawing. The notebooks are in every day
use and are taken care of by the pupils themselves. Ordi-
narily a paper is written and submitted to the teacher for
criticism, then it is copied if necessary and put into the note-
book. Many of the portfolios thus made consist entirely of
first papers, that is, of uncopied papers which have required
little or no correction. Before writing begins a clear state-
ment is made of what is desired. If the paper is to be a
character sketch, a short narrative, or a description, a short
outline is placed before the pupil as a guide. If it is to be
an outline of a chapter or of a poem, the class work it out
either as a composite production or they do it individually.

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 45

While the pupils are writing the teacher passes among them,
dropping a hint, suggesting a change, or making a correc-
tion. After the papers are completed one is selected for crit-
icism by the class. Portions are placed upon the board;
pupils point out faulty constructions or erroneous ideas, and
reconstruct the passages. This method is followed about
once a month, but all the papers are corrected by the teacher
every time a set is written. The corrections made in the
papers by the teacher relate to spelling, punctuation, gram-
matical errors, and poor style. A few words on the margin
of the paper often indicate the nature of the weakness, as:
" A poor beginning." " Reconstruct this sentence." " Mean-
ing not clear." " Rewrite the entire paper." " I cannot
understand your thought." " Story too long." " Too much
repetition."

Some of the most interesting lessons of the year are those
spent in determining what has been learned about the author

through his book ; in discussing the qualities
the Pupils *kat ma^e certain characters the hero and

the heroine ; in recalling incidents similar to
those mentioned in the story; in bringing out the lessons
taught ; in discussing the inspiration for living that one can
gain from such characters as Rebecca, Ivanhoe, Miles Stan-
dish, Evangeline, Priscilla. There is, however, a subtle im-
pulse that pupils receive from the right kind of literature
that can not be described by the teacher nor illustrated by
any visible sign. Many a pupil may read an entire book,
study it all carefully, write frequent papers upon it, and yet
not be able to give account of the most valuable information
that has been imparted by its pages ; but, if he has been en-
thusiastic, he has gained a desire to read more works by tal-

46 METHODS IN TEACHING

ented authors. Companionship with great writers means
that a child's leisure may be valuably rilled, and that an in-
tangible, immeasurable influence may have begun to elevate
his life. No matter how many ends have been served by the
child's study of literature, surely, this is the highest.

In literature, as in the other studies, a notebook is kept by
every pupil. Some of the papers it contains are original,
some are the result of class work, some are given in sub-
stance by the teacher; there are maps, drawings, illustra-
tions, suggestions from various sources. The result is often
a very pleasing whole, although failures and imperfections
mar this phase of the work as frequently as any other, for
the notebooks are as purely individual as any other part of
the year's work.

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE

During this last year of the grammar grades the works
read are principally from American authors, although Scott

and Dickens are also represented. It is in-
Material

tended to associate every American author

read with the period of history in which he belongs, and to
present some of the formative influences of his times. Pe-
riod dates are to be kept in mind, but it is hoped to accom-
plish this by grouping events around a central date rather
than by sheer memory of many dates.

Acquaintance with the author is broadened and deepened
by reading aloud to the class additional poems or extracts
from stories and essays, and in many ways the teacher tries
to keep the pupils interested, thoughtful readers. In their
pleasure will be found an incentive to read more; in their

LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES

47

thoughtfulness will be the means of growth ; and in the wise
selection of books, toward which they should be guided
through the school acquaintance with authors, will be the
safety in their reading.

LANGUAGE

CHAPTER IV

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING FOR ALL
PUPILS

To use good English is of as much importance to the busi-
ness man as to the frequenter of social functions, but this

" good English " must not be interpreted as
Language .

Training meaning simply scrupulous grammatical ac-

curacy. Such precision is important to the
cultured, thoroughly educated man ; but of far more impor-
tance to the future of the ordinary boy or girl is the acquire-
ment of an easy flow of language, spoken and written, that
is concise and accurate in the choice of words, terse in the
utterances, explicit in the details, truthful and convincing in
argumentation, according to the pleasure or need of the occa-
sion. Such a power is of inestimable value in the home, the
workshop, the office, in any professional career. Natural to
some people, almost denied to others, the school is the train-
ing room for its acquisition by all.

In our city there is carried on throughout the eight years
of the grammar schools a definite, systematic plan for the
elimination of common errors of speech and for the training
into an easy, tolerably correct, and ready use of English in
written and spoken form. From the first year three divi-

48

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING 49

sions are made in this training and three kinds of drill are
constantly practiced. These divisions are: — oral language;
technical work, consisting of applied grammar in the four
lower grades and of drills and textbook grammar in the four
higher grades ; composition.

Since to converse is a necessity for all, why should not
a part of the school time be used in exercises that tend defi-
nitely toward gaining power in oral expres-
Language sion? Children of the first grade should

begin to reproduce stories, to narrate inci-
dents of personal experience, to describe persons, actions,
and objects. This training, simple as the child's own life,
should accompany his development, broaden with his widen-
ing horizon of thought and observation, and adapt itself to
the growing power of expression that belongs to every suc-
ceeding year of school life. Oral exercises should be of
about the same grade of difficulty as the written ones, and
should precede when both are given on the same subject.
There should be as great a variety of topics as possible,
chosen from the known elements of the child's life. Narra-
tion predominates in all grades ; but there should also be
simple, accurate descriptions, expressions of opinions, pic-
tures of people. While talking, the child should be very free
from the restraint of formal training, telling freely his
thoughts about the suggested subject ; later, there will be a
special time for the consideration of errors and the substitu-
tion of correct forms.

One of the methods to which children respond most readily

and unconsciously in oral language is the reproduction of

stories. It is a useful servant in all grades, but, like other

servants, it should not be overworked. The effect of this

5

5O METHODS IN TEACHING

exercise is quickly seen in an increased vocabulary, new and
easier expressions, greater continuity of thought, and a better
conception of the development of a story and the story in-
terest. Reproductions should not be permitted by the teacher
to degenerate into mere memory recitals ; they should have
some of the vim and skill of the raconteur. To develop
this power one must never lose sight of the interest in the
story, felt by nearly all children, and also of the natural
desire to gain power, to do better and better work, to be
wiser today than yesterday.

In the primary years it is advisable to have some repro-
ductions on the same day as the narrative by the teacher,
while the interest is still keen and the mem-
Reproduction or^ retentive- Volunteers are called for,
perhaps ; or, the teacher selects some pupils
who are sure to make a very good beginning in the repro-
duction. Gradually, all of the pupils take part, and all of
the desired portion is given. The whole is a composite,
made up of many small offerings, not the least of which is
to be scorned. It is very difficult for some little ones to
offer anything at all; moreover, the tiniest piece of marble
may be just what is required to give proper form or the right
touch of color to the finished mosaic.

What to do with this oral rendering, this composite story,
is often a puzzle to the teacher. As a finished product it is
unsatisfactory ; as a step in training it is acceptable. It is,
therefore, as a part of the training that it must be consid-
ered; here it serves several important purposes. It lays
bare the pupil's faults in speech ; it suggests to the class the
material that every pupil should eventually be able to give
alone in reproduction ; touched up by the teacher, all or part

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING $1

of it may be written on the board, where it serves as a read-
ing lesson; later, when the pupils can write, it is copied
from the board, the first composition work possible for the
youngest pupils.

The errors noticed in the conversations and reproductions
furnish subject matter for many technical drills, which should

be a part of the training in every year ; for
Technical . . , \

accuracy in either written or spoken lan-

guage can be gained only by long and patient
observation and drill. Monotony must be guarded against,
that enemy of technical language drills. In the teacher's mind
the corrections should be grouped around grammatical prin-
ciples, not because the child is to learn grammar, but because
the teacher will do more effective work if the errors are
treated systematically.

The past tense of the verb is one of the topics that the
teacher should have in frequently recurring drill. To be is
a good starting place. Were is an almost unknown word to
many children. It must be introduced to them, then there
must be explained its use when speaking of more than one
person or object; many drills must follow. "You was,"
"we was," "they was," are the torments of all primary
teachers, and they are not unknown to the ears of even gram-
mar and high school teachers. Even young children can
learn that these forms are incorrect, and they can be given
the right word as a part of the conjugation :

I was we were

he was you were

she was they were

The pupil readily accepts the conjugation as correct, and he

52 METHODS IN TEACHING

sees that " you was " does not belong in his speech ; then
comes the effort to use the new form. To see and to do are
separate matters, but the doing is easier when the reason for
it stands out clearly. • At first the pupils say the conjugation,
often completing a sentence with every form, as :

I was hurt yesterday We were hurt yesterday

He was hurt yesterday You were hurt yesterday

She was hurt yesterday They were hurt yesterday

These repetitions give the necessary knowledge, fix the cor-
rect forms in the memory, and train the ear and the tongue.
After the conjugation, the pupils give many short sentences,
using the correct word. Such drills should be short, from
five to ten minutes long, but the work should be rapid and
unflagging.

There must be no attempt to teach technical grammar to
the little children, except in so far as it is a natural and com-
prehensible explanation of errors and an aid to their removal.
On the other hand, corrections are rarely effective when con-
fined to incidental suggestions in the schoolroom, because a
reason for the change in speech is often necessary to con-
vince a child of an error in the customary form. This is
natural. A child from a careless or ignorant home, who
never hears " you were " but who hears the incorrect " you
was " fifty times or more a day, can not be expected to accept
readily the really foreign " you were " by simply hearing it
a few times in the schoolroom and by being corrected occa-
sionally. Only a naturally self-observant child, desirous of
progress, will thus change his language. It is useless for
the teacher to become discouraged; equally valueless are
scoldings and faultfindings. The child must be given a

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING 53

desire to speak properly, and a reason why the old usage is
not right ; the correct form must be clearly understood ; then
must follow long and patient drill to overcome habits of
years and existing daily environment. The mind must be
convinced, desire must be aroused, the ear and the tongue
must be educated, and the memory must be brought into
active service ; by these means considerable progress will be
made. That so many children do acquire a correct use of
English must be the teacher's encouragement in this some-
what disheartening task.

Composition, or some form of written exercise, is an im-
perative part of language work. It should be used fre-
quently in every year of school life. The
Composition

conversational ease and frequent laxity of

oral exercises can be turned into more polished constructions
and accurate expressions when put into definite written form.
To a first grade child a written sentence should be a pictured
thought with letters, capitals, and punctuation marks all
properly arranged. By frequent drills, made so interesting
that they do not deaden the desire to acquire power and
knowledge, this acquaintance with a sentence must pass into
mechanical accuracy, until easy sentences are written prop-
erly, without that struggle for correct expression that so
frequently mars the pleasure of writing. Pupils like to
write. Unfortunately, injudicious teaching too often trans-
forms the pleasure into a dreaded task.

Composition follows the lines of development observed in
oral exercises, through narration, description, and explana-
tion, into character sketches, biographical details, judgments,
discussions, debates. The first step is copying the composite
stories. Original reproductions come next. These, rare in

54 METHODS IN TEACHING

the first year, are permitted more and more frequently as
the pupils grow older, until copying is used only for the
most technical drills. The two forms differ radically from
each other. Copying is mechanical, formal, requiring close
attention to accuracy in details; the original reproductions,
while based upon memory, permit some use
Writing °^ t^le creati°na^ formative powers, demand-

ing an absorption into the thoughts of the
subject that is often detrimental to the mechanics of compo-
sition. Manifestly, the methods of producing the two forms
of writing, and the purposes that they serve in the training
of the child must differ greatly. The copying is for mechan-
ical accuracy; the original writing is for thought develop-
ment and growth.

In the original writing the interest must be preserved.
The flow of ideas in the story telling must not be checked
by reiterations about mechanical details; these will be at-
tended to at another time. When the child can write by
himself let him spend some unbroken time over his nar-
rative or description. Let him express his thoughts un-
checked, just as a mature person must do if he is not to lose
the inspiration. That is, give the inspiration opportunity
to develop, unhampered by the fear of mechanical errors.
Separate the formal from the formative. Since training
for habit must always be a part of our work with children,
this freedom from interruption during writing must not
mean careless work. The pupil should try to write as cor-
rectly as he can in this first draft. He will be assisted in
doing so if correct spelling, capitalization, punctuation, are
referred to by the teacher before the writing is begun, and
the pupil is encouraged to make this first writing as free as

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING 55

possible from mistakes. But errors will occur. Who is
absolutely free from them in making a first draft of a manu-
script? The teacher should not be impatient nor the child
discouraged. Put the papers away for a day or two, as a
more mature writer would be liable to do, then give them
back to their writers for corrections, and it will be surprising
how many of their own mistakes the children will notice.
This is the most helpful kind of correction, for it is self-help.
There are two lines of correction and criticism to, be
observed constantly : — known errors, or those on which there

have been class drills which have made them
Papers "^ familiar to all the pupils ; unknown errors, or

those which the children have not yet learned
to recognize as mistakes. The method of correction should
be radically different for these two kinds of errors. Pupils
should be held to self-correction of the former, just so soon
as the drills have been sufficiently thorough to warrant thus
throwing the responsibility on the child; but they can only
be assisted to understanding the second class of errors in
preparation for later study. Advanced grammatical points,
good sentence structures, unity and harmony of thought,
composition of paragraphs, can be subjects for class criti-
cisms, suggestion, and drills, gradually and whenever the
pupils reach the necessary development for their comprehen-
sion. It is surprising how critical children become about
their own productions, and how helpful they are to one
another, under friendly, suggestive guidance. This is the
beginning of real power. It is learning to recognize and to
correct one's own weaknesses.

Writing papers belongs to the literary side of education,
to the intensive, the inspirational, the formative; but cor-

56 METHODS IN TEACHING

recting papers belongs to the analytical, the technical, the
accurate, the formal. Correcting papers is a serious and
difficult task in all grades, even in the first, for upon the
success of the criticism and the correction depends the growth
of the child. It is wasted energy for the teacher to spend
solitary hours in correcting papers or in indicating their
errors. Such efforts rarely result in more than correct
papers, while it is the child who is to be corrected, and who
must learn to correct himself. The only true help is in guid-
ing others to help themselves; and to wear out the teacher
over piles of exercises is a false conception of values. The
teacher's freshness, enthusiasm, and vigor should be for some
immediate work with the children ; they belong in the school-
room, not in solitary work at a desk over papers. At the
same time, the pupils must have the advantage of careful
corrections or their writing will be in vain. This can be
gained in various ways. Oral class drills make plain the
common errors and the correct forms that should replace
them ; class correction of a few papers out of nearly every
set handed in shows the care taken by some pupils and the
thoughtlessness of others, it is also further drill in correcting
old errors and in pointing out new ones to be avoided ; hold-
ing the pupils responsible, within reasonable limits, for over-
seeing their own papers opens the way for them into self-
help, while, incidentally, it relieves the teacher of much
drudgery ; an occasional exhaustive criticism of a whole set
of papers gives exact valuation of the work of every pupil.
Constructive criticism leads out into new fields of exer-
tion; consequently, children should be
Criticism

helped, stimulated, encouraged, into new

efforts. Adversative, severe criticism belongs only with

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING

57

carelessness; it should be for the purpose of throwing the
burden of careless errors where it belongs, — upon the pupil.
Pupils trained to these two kinds of criticism, and through
them out into self-criticism and self-correction, write more
surely, accurately, and willingly than do those whose papers
are regularly corrected by the teacher for the pupils to
rewrite.

CHAPTER V

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE WITH PRIMARY
GRADES

FIRST YEAR GRADE

The following thoughts from the schoolroom are by a
first grade teacher : 1

During the first four months of the first term in school
the time devoted to language has for its special purposes

accustoming the child to freedom in express-
First Lessons . . . «,.,,. . ,,
in Language ln£ hlmself> leading out as rapidly as pos-
sible into the substitution of correct forms
for the many errors that mar the speech of the ordinary
child. Ten minutes are used for this purpose in the morn-
ing, ten more in the afternoon. At first the pupil is led to
talk easily and naturally about any familiar object, animal,
or game. He is making statements, or " telling stories." A
tiny narrative is often the outgrowth of such a talk. Writ-
ten upon the board, this pleases the children and gives oppor-
tunity to impart the technical information that a capital letter
should be used at the beginning of a sentence and a period
at the end. A proper noun is often used, also requiring a
capital. These stories furnish material for lessons in read-
ing and copying ; they are often enjoyed more than the stories
in the readers.

When "telling stories" with their punctuation are well
known, practice begins with " asking stories," or questions.

1 Miss Susie M. B. Spooner.

58

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 59

The children are requested to ask about something. Some
of the questions are written upon the board, attention being
called to the mark that is now put at the end. Correct punc-
tuation does not come until the child discriminates accurately
between the statement and the question, and this is an accom-
plishment that is acquired more slowly than is usually recog-
nized by teachers.

Very early in the year the daily time allotment for lan-
guage can be put to two uses, — ten minutes for story telling,
or the bringing together of material; and ten minutes for
formal language drills, or the correction of errors noted in
the telling of the stories or in the child's conversation. The
two periods should be distinct, separated by an hour or more,
so that the pupil does not get the idea that his language is
under severe surveillance when he is talking. Self-con-
sciousness increases the number of mistakes with many
pupils and often destroys all spontaneity of narration. Cor-
rection of errors is not the sole purpose of the narrations,
and the children should not feel that such is the case.

Among the many errors noted during the first four months

the following were taken for special, daily drills : " I seen,"

" have got," " is broke," " I goed," " aint,"

Technical „ he ^» „ Mewed>,, « drawedj» « keeped,"

" brung," " writed," " you was," " they is,"
" I are," " I runned," and " tored." One error is taken as
the special thought for a week, although many other correc-
tions are made during the same time. Many correct sen-
tences are given by the children in quick, snappy drills.
Some of these sentences are written upon the board for gen-
eral reading and for drills in capitalization and punctuation.
By the beginning of the fifth month the pupils are copying

6O METHODS IN TEACHING

on the board from their readers, and copying from the board
the composite stories from literature, history,
Language or nature study. These are drills for cor-

rect forms. By the end of the seventh
month the pupils are able to write little original stories occa-
sionally, in which they use their own reproductions in place
of the composites and try to remember capitals and correct
punctuation.

The children often illustrate their little stories with their
own crude drawings. Sometimes pictures are collected from
newspapers or magazines and placed upon the teacher's desk ;
every pupil chooses one, names it, pastes it on his paper, and
writes the story that it suggests to him. This is a satis-
factory basis for a written exercise.

The above report is adapted from the words of a teacher
engaged in a quarter of the city where there are many chil-
dren of foreign parentage, some of whom hear little English
except when in the schoolroom. In other schools, where
pupils come from homes in which English is the usual lan-
guage, and where parents ordinarily work intelligently and
sympathetically with the teacher, more is accomplished in
the first year and different methods can be employed, although
the general work is the same.

From the many exercises found in a notebook belonging
to a first grade child, a few have been selected. They are
uncorrected, just as the pupil copied them from the board.

I
Questions and Answers. (Written in January.)

Did you go to the train ? I went to the train. He went
home.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 6 1

Is your pencil broken ? My pencil isn't broken.
Is the ruler broken? The ruler is not broken.

II

Use of is and are.

The books are on the box. The boys are good to the girls.
The rat is in the dish of milk. The little kitten is fat.
There are six kittens. Your hands are on the book.

Ill

Abbreviations. Capitals for proper nouns.
Dr. Hammond is Ada's friend. Hiram knows Dr. Cross.
Mr. Barr is our superintendent. Mr. Tumelty is our
janitor.

Our school is on Washington St. I live on Harrison St.

IV

Nature Study Story. (Class Composite.)
We have two new caterpillars.
Etta and Laura gave them to us.
See the black rings on their green backs.
One has yellow spots and the other has orange spots on
the black rings.

They eat parsley and anise.

SECOND YEAR GRADE

In this grade there are continued the systematic efforts
begun during the preceding year to develop power over lan-
guage and to make its use more accurate.
Language There are conversations on common objects

of the pupils' lives ; descriptions of pictures ;
stories suggested by pictures ; reproductions of the stories in

62 METHODS IN TEACHING

history and literature ; little, very simple descriptions of peo-
ple, places, objects ; short narrations.

The correction of errors is turned a little more along
grammatical lines than in the first grades. Not that the

pupils are conscious that this is the case, for
Drills ' there is no desire to teach them grammar;

but the teacher's work becomes more syste-
matic if it is arranged along known lines of knowledge, and
a great aid is given the comprehension and memory of the
pupil when work is put before him systematically. The
conjugations continue with a slowly increasing number of
verbs, and they are always enjoyed by the pupils if the
teacher is tactful in handling them. As a result of their use
the ear is accustomed to new sounds, and the tongue becomes
ready with what were oftentimes previously unknown words.
Pronouns are corrected and drills are given if such care
seems necessary; but if one pronoun is corrected, others
should be associated with it, so that there is shown to the
child a series of related corrections. It must be constantly
remembered that persistent drill upon a few is better than
haphazard correction of many. Perhaps only ten awkward,
incorrect expressions can be eliminated during a school year ;
but, if the number seems small to an eager teacher, just
imagine the pupils' conversations without those ten promi-
nent, ever-recurring errors. Would not such a result be a
delight to the ears of a language-sensitive teacher or parent ?
Would it not really be great progress ?

The past tenses of several verbs are a part of the work

for this year. These are generally irregular

ones, but whenever mistakes occur in regu-
lar verbs they are immediately added to the list for correc-

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 63

tion. It is of advantage to drill one day on regular verbs,
separating them completely from irregular forms. The ear
is aided by this plan. Saw and did are among the first drills
of the year, although they also belonged to first grade work.
The simple verb, I did it, is not drilled upon at the same
time as the compound form, I have done it. These are two
drills, for separate days even. Many children use the past
participles of these two verbs correctly; consequently, the
drills given are for learning to use correctly the words saw
and did, comparatively new to many children. In this way
it is possible to escape falling into the solecism, "I have
saw," an error often blundered into through over-zealous
efforts to use the new words.

When the mistake is in the use of the past participle, the
drills are on these forms of the verbs, saying nothing about
the past tenses, which are probably being used correctly.
The past participles specially suggested to the teachers of
this grade are: written, broken, eaten, bitten, flown, blown.
The past tenses for special drills are : ran, did, saw, ate, flew,
blew, dug.

Drills continue in the use of the period and interrogation
mark. The comma is used in address, for attention words,

to separate words in a series, to precede a
Punctuation „ , , . , .

Word Drills quotation. Several new abbreviations are

learned, accompanied by the required period.
Word exercises are frequent, as in distinguishing between
their and there ; to and two ; too is included as soon as used.
Many common adverbs are taught; as, well, nicely, slowly,
kindly. Such colloquialisms as " busted," " ketched," " slung,"
and others taken from the pupils' vocabularies are discour-
aged by suggesting better forms in their places. While it

64 METHODS IN TEACHING

is true that many pupils will continue to use these expres-
sions, the leaven of better language will be surely at work.
Drills must accompany all this word work; it is the only
way to fix the points involved.

The written work is of the same general nature as the
oral, a development of self-expression, the use of an accurate

and growing vocabulary, the formation of
Composition

compact sentences instead of loosely con-
nected clauses. Little letters to some friend or relative give
opportunity to teach proper letter forms. Reproductions are
frequent, both the composite, copied from the board so that
capitalization, punctuation, and spelling shall be correct;
and the original reproduction, written after careful oral
lessons over the same material.

Simple as these individual versions may seem to a mature
mind, for the child they present difficulties and responsibili-
ties. Spelling and capitalization become more formidable if
the writer is obliged to think for himself, even if he helped
decide about every word of the composite when the teacher
was writing it on the board. Moreover, there is the neces-
sity of thinking out the story, remembering the details and
putting them into proper order.

Such " original " composition should not be given as busy
work. It should be under the careful supervision of the
teacher. In this way mistakes can be avoided, infinitely
preferable to correcting them after they are made. To get
the right form into the mind first is worth much in the train-
ing of a child and in the acquisition of knowledge. The
pupils must be at liberty to ask about any doubtful point in
spelling, capitalization, punctuation, choice of words, form of
sentence, general arrangement. They should be encouraged

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 65

and trained to recognize their weaknesses and uncertainties
and to ask for information rather than to make a mistake.
On the other hand, they must not be permitted to become
dependent. That which they have been taught thoroughly
they should be expected to know and to use without assist-
ance. Pupils respond quickly and happily to such self-
responsibilities when they are firmly but kindly enforced.
Just before beginning a paper have the children recall points
for which all must be on the watch during the writing. This
assists in remembering what has been learned and in putting
it into practice in a new paper. After such a reminder many
a pupil will produce a creditable paper instead of a faulty,
unacceptable exercise. This is not direct assistance; it is
one of the steps in training the child's mind to be observant.
There follow three written verb drills from second grade
pupils.

I

has 1
See saw seeing have f- seen

had J

See, see, the dog is running away.
I saw an automobile up town yesterday.
I have seen Eva today.

II

has -}
Write wrote writing have f- written

had J

Our teacher is writing.
Our teacher wrote something on the board.
Billy has written his lesson on the board.
Gladys, the teacher has written a sentence.
6

66 METHODS IN TEACHING

III

has ]
Do did doing have f done

had J
My work is done.

We have done the drawing.

Who did it? The teacher did it yesterday.

Did the janitor do the cleaning?

You did the drawing but mother has done the painting.

THIRD YEAR GRADE

Reproductions are continued, the pupils telling the stories
that have been told or read by the teacher. Narrations are
based on some topic chosen from the life of

Language

the pupil. Descriptions, simple but accurate,

are given of what may be readily seen or
heard by the child. Sentence structure is carefully watched
to prevent the repetition of loose connectives. A knowledge
of how to form compact sentences must be gained from the
drill periods, but in the time for oral language the child
should be held to practicing what he has learned. The pupils
are being led to self-observation in sentence making, con-
tinuity of thought, and other accuracies and niceties of lan-
guage. Until they learn to criticise themselves there will be
no sound basis for progress. This they can soon learn to
do concerning the points which are known, and it is the work
of the drill period to make known certain definite correc-
tions for the child to incorporate into his language.

In the technical work, the year is begun with a careful

review of the points that have been drilled

Verbs A ,

on in the preceding grades. A number of

new abbreviations are learned. Quotation marks are

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 6/

used in many simple sentences. The principal parts of
a number of the commonly used verbs are learned, as:
break, go, see, sit, eat, tell, fall, give, come, take, sing,
begin, draw, forget, speak, drive, write, tear, let, (to correct
the use of " leave " in the sense of permit), know, blow, do,
shine. The pupils learn the four principal forms of the verb,
as: break, broke, breaking, broken. They are written upon
the board, where a list soon grows, with distinct columns.
It must be remembered that this is simply a method to cor-
rect speech, not a grammatical learning of conjugations ;
consequently, if the pupils speak of the " second form," the
"fourth form" of the "word," there is no need to feel
troubled. The aim is to learn to use these forms, and the
arrangement in columns helps a child greatly in remember-
ing which form is used without a " helping word," which one
requires such assistance. Incidentally, much grammar is ab-
sorbed, even names of forms coming easily to the lips of
some of the pupils. Sentence making, in which the various
forms of the verbs are used, is an important and frequent
part of this drill. So also is the simple saying of the four
forms ; calling quickly for the fourth form, the third form.

A beginning is made in this grade to teach pronouns sys-
tematically. The idea of a subject of a sentence is developed

in order to learn to use I, he, she, correctly.
Pronouns

No attempt is made to teach the grammar

of these subjects, for third grade children are being dealt
with ; but even these little folks quickly get the subject sense
in a sentence. At this stage of the work little or nothing is
said of me, him, her, as these forms are probably being used
correctly.
The number of common abverbs in the vocabularies of the

68 METHODS IN TEACHING

children can be greatly increased in this grade by combining

them with the verbs in the verb drills, thus

developing in the child's mind that idea of

relation between verbs and abverbs that is imperative to the

correct use of the latter. In these drills care is taken to

avoid predicate adjectives, as, he looks neat; they would be

very confusing to these children.

The use of relative pronouns is taught by introducing them
into the vocabularies of the children for connectives in the
sentence building exercises. If "and," "and,"

" and>" " but>" " but'" " but'" are taken away
from the children, something must be given

in their places. Relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and
well-chosen conjunctions are given, and the children grad-
ually pass into the use of fairly well-formed complex sen-
tences, without, however, being troubled about their gram-
matical analyses. If relative pronouns are grouped together,
if on certain days a list of conjunctive adverbs is placed upon
the board for use in sentence building, if the teacher is sys-
tematic in the presentation of this material, the children will,
however, acquire their knowledge systematically, and later
grammatical work is made easier and more practical. Com-
bining sentences by these aids permits considerable individ-
uality and is fascinating to the pupils. A list of relative
pronouns and two or three short sentences are put upon the
board :

who I have a book. I am reading from the book,
whom Then the children combine: I have a book from
which which I am reading. I am reading from the book
what which I have. Have you the book from which I
that was reading?

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

69

Composition

After a little help lists of relative pronouns written upon the
board are used readily and quickly by the pupils. Parti-
ciples are made a part of the child's vocabulary by the same
method. Thus complex sentences become familiar to the
children and the sentence structures are steadily improved.

Some kind of composition work is given every day. Nar-
ration predominates, interspersed with frequent descriptions.
Correction of the papers is carried along on
two lines : self-correction by the pupils, after
the lapse of a day or two, of errors that have been subjects
of drills ; correction by the teacher of errors that come from
imperfect knowledge, those that will in later months become
subjects of drills. It is not necessary to correct all papers.
Experience gained by frequent writing will soon be manifest
in self-correction or in avoidance of errors, especially if,
before beginning to write, attention is called to the common
mistakes so that they shall not appear in the papers.

ILLUSTRATIVE THIRD GRADE PAPERS

I

Questions and Answers

A question is a sentence that asks something. A question
is followed by a question mark. Lucy, are you going home
now?

II

Definitions

A statement is a sentence that tells something. I have
a pen at home.

An initial is the first letter in a name. May Agnes Tier-
ney, M. A, T,

7O METHODS IN TEACHING

An apostrophe shows ownership and omission. Mary's
coat is on the rack. Don't you like to go up town?

Ill

Special Words and Homonyms

Will you pare the potatoes? My pencil is broken. She
is going to my house. Let me see it (not " leave me," etc.).
Mamie writes well (not " good "). Their yard was dirty.

IV

Break broke breaking broken

Tell told telling told

Go went going gone
I have broken my cup and vase. I told you the answer.

She has gone away. I have given you some candy. My
pen is broken.

FOURTH YEAR GRADE

In the oral training reproductions, descriptions, and nar-
rations are continued, with careful attention to vocabulary
building and to sentence structure. Personal
Lan uaee criticisms by the listening pupils are encour-

aged so long as they are helpful and sym-
pathetic, but they are checked if they become unkind, sar-
castic, or personal. The children are still so young, how-
ever, that it is very easy to guide these class corrections along
friendly, helpful lines, thus making them sources of great
assistance and enthusiasm. In the technical work abbrevia-
tions are continued, and quotations, simple and broken, are
frequently drilled upon. Capitalization and punctuation
progress by the addition of new rules as demanded by the

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 7 1

work and development of the pupils. Constant effort is
made to bring the children into mechanical ease and accu-
racy in the use of the rules already learned.

Many adjectives, appropriate for nouns in common use, are
suggested and used. Gradually, these displace those that

have been used loosely or incorrectly. Chil-
Adjectives

dren need this drill upon adjectives, as is

indicated by the exaggeration and inaccuracy in their use
heard on all sides. The comparison of all the adjectives in
use is learned, adding materially to the vocabularies. Plurals
of all nouns used by the children are taught. The posses-
sive singulars are given, but the possessive plurals are left
for fifth grades unless the pupils show themselves especially
proficient in acquiring them.

The principal parts of all the verbs learned in the third
grade are reviewed, and as many more are taken as the chil-
dren can master. The individual teacher
must be the guide here, for classes differ
greatly in language development and abilities. The follow-
ing are some of those considered most important for this
year's drills: shall and should, distinguished from will and
would; may and might, distinguished from can and could;
lie and lay; ride, set, hear, lead, sink, drink, swim, hide,
show, shoe, throw, rise, know, spring, slide, write, shake,
drive, grow, choose. As in the third grade, the conjugation
of the present and the past tenses is learned as are the prin-
cipal parts of all the verbs studied. Sentence drill with the
verbs is the important part of the work.

A sufficient study is made of the sentence to see clearly
the subject, predicate, and object. Clauses are used, as in the

72 METHODS IN TEACHING

third grade, by combining short, simple sentences by means
of relative pronouns, participles, and conjunctive abverbs.
Sentence Phrases are formed with prepositions, par-

Structure ticiples, and infinitives. Phrases and

clauses are used both as adjective and as adverbial modi-
fiers. The teacher speaks of the different sentences as sim-
ple, complex, and compound; the phrase and the clause are
given their proper names, but no attempt is made to have
the children discriminate. If they learn to distinguish one
from the other accurately much has been gained ; but there
is no effort to teach these grammatical points, for all that is
desired is that the pupils shall be using naturally and cor-
rectly all three forms of the sentence. Whatever more is
learned about them by fourth grade pupils is pure gain. Of
course, in putting clauses together, it is often necessary to
suggest which relative pronoun to use, or which connective,
but this is exactly what the drills are for. Lists are fre-
quently written upon the board, from which the pupils select
words that will unite smoothly the short, simple sentences
into one complex whole; but this should not be done until
the pupils have been well drilled on the individual words
that make up the list.

In all this applied grammar care must be exercised con-
stantly or the teacher will be trying to teach technical gram-
mar. Such a mistake would be fatal to the
Grammar rea^ PurP°se- The children may and do

absorb much grammar, but to hold them,
down to its acquirement would seem useless to them,
would divert the attention of pupil and teacher from the real
object, and would probably create intense distaste for the
work. The purpose is to improve the ordinary speech of

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 73

the child by many suggestions and corrections, which are
made far more effective by being grouped around simple,
elementary principles of grammar. The children see rea-
sons for the corrections; several of a kind are grouped
together, thus forming a basis for a rule ; systematic arrange-
ment leads to an assurance through which the children are
often guided into self-help, where incidental corrections
would have left them helpless on generalizing out into new
corrections. The pupils are not retarded in this progress if
the teacher uses proper grammatical terms, adverb, noun,
pronoun, verb, adjective, phrase, clause, sentence. Indeed,
it is a help rather than a detriment in the work itself and
in the preparation for coming years.

In the composition work original writing is more clearly
differentiated from imitative than heretofore. The latter

includes reproductions, copying, dictations,
Composition .

illustrations given by the teacher either orally

or by reading. Its purpose is well denned in the mind of
the teacher ; it is to aid in developing ease and grace of style,
accuracy in the mechanics of writing, and improvement of
the vocabulary. Reading a choice description or a vivid nar-
ration from some good writer and commenting a little on
how the effect was produced is an incentive to personal
efforts in similar lines. Original writing is the purpose of
a course in composition, but the steps leading into it are
made easier and quicker for all, while the road itself is
opened to many, if these imitative steps precede attempts at
originality. A desire for individuality can be fostered by
leading the children to enjoy the most original papers and
by seeing the weakness when someone accepts another's
thought in place of his own. Papers should be frequent,

74 METHODS IN TEACHING

but short, and subjects should be so definite that pupils know
just what they are expected to do.

The mechanical divisions of an article are the sentence
and the paragraph. A knowledge of each should be culti-
vated in the fourth grade. The possibility of expanding and
contracting sentences has already been suggested to the chil-
dren by third grade work on combination of several short
sentences into one long one. Still more can be done in the
fourth grade by changing adjectives and adverbs into phrases
and clauses, or vice versa; or by using participles, relative
pronouns, and subordinating conjunctions. The weak sen-
tence structure, so noticeable in the speaking and writing
by children, is more frequently ignorance of better forms
that might be used than carelessness or disinclination to
employ more elegant constructions. There should be special
thought given to sentence structure. The children must be
guided for some time along one line of progress, as the use
of relative pronouns ; then another must be taken up, as
dependent adverbial clauses ; then still another must be made
familiar ; and all the time that which was first learned must
not be neglected. While working over any special phase,
have the pupils correct their own papers in that one respect,
so that they will grow observant.

The sense of the paragraph can be more easily developed
by having the pupils write two or three paragraphs on a
subject, than by calling for one. Selection and division of
material is imperative to the formation of paragraphs ; writ-
ing only one gives no chance for this thoughtfulness. The
teacher must not become discouraged in showing again and
again the proper use of the sentence and paragraph. Both
are very difficult, even for older pupils, and these younger

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 75

ones must move slowly in the comprehension of what each
means. The pupils are not yet mature enough to discrimi-
nate very accurately, but they are learning to use both cor-
rectly.

The pupils should learn how to correct and improve their
own papers. Sentence and paragraph structure, especially

the former, choice of words, the possibility
Correcting £ ... , , ,

Papers °* expanding and contracting thoughts, con-

tinuity, harmony in the material chosen, are
all matters for criticism. Pleasant beginnings and compre-
hensive conclusions should be discussed in class; witty and
earnest papers should be read aloud for all to enjoy and
appreciate; the general style of a paper should be analyzed
occasionally, in a manner adapted to the age of the pupils.
These efforts at composition should be frequently criticised,
every few days, but the general impression left with the
pupils must be that of guidance and inspiration, not of dis-
couragement. Unfriendly attacks upon the creative powers
used in composition tend to make sensitive pupils afraid of
further writing, and careless pupils antagonistic toward all
composition. Criticism, especially with such young children,
should be constructive, not destructive.

Pupils complete primary work with the fourth grade.
There has been no textbook preparation in formal grammar,
but by systematic application of some leading principles
during the primary years, the children have passed the first
difficulties of technical grammar and have made a fair begin-
ning in composition. Five of the parts of speech, noun,
pronoun, adjective, adverb, and verb are well known by use,
and most of the children are talking about them by their
proper names and recognizing them readily in their ordinary

/ METHODS IN TEACHING

uses. Verbs are conjugated in the indicative mode, the prin-
cipal parts of the common verbs are known. Descriptive
adjectives are compared and used. Many adverbs are used
with a fair degree of accuracy, and most of them can also
be compared and used in the forms thus presented. Sin-
gulars and plurals of nouns in ordinary use have been learned,
and their possessive cases, both singular and plural, are in
constant and generally correct use. The nominative and
objective forms of the personal pronouns are known and used
correctly by the majority of pupils who will pass out of the
grade at the end of the year. Several relative pronouns are
in use, although the pupils know but little about them tech-
nically, probably not even their name. There is also some
acquaintance with prepositions and conjunctions ; with the
former in connection with the work on pronouns ; and with
the latter through the efforts to improve sentence structures.
Adjective and adverbial clauses are in frequent use, with a
very clear idea that they belong to the noun or the verb
modified, but there is no technical knowledge whatever
about them.

ILLUSTRATIVE FOURTH GRADE PAPERS

I

Comparison of Adjectives

bad worse worst near nearer nearest

good better best many more most

late later latest sweet sweeter sweetest

II

Correction of Errors noticed by Pupils
" I saw a wagon full with men." I saw a wagon full
of men.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

77

"I will haf to close the window/'" I will have to close
the window.

" After a while some boys come along in a wagon." After
a while some boys came along in a wagon.

"One man had a small popular tree in a flower-pot and
the tree was about two feet tall." One man had a small
poplar tree about two feet tall in a flower-pot.

" It aint planted." It isn't planted.

" I aint going." I am not going. I'm not going.

" I seen her go by." I saw her go by.

CHAPTER VI

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE WITH GRAMMAR
GRADES

FIFTH YEAR GRADE

After a brief but careful review of the work of the pre-
ceding years in punctuation, the children are held respon-
sible for what they have learned. They
Punctuation , - . , 1^,1

must use what they have been taught, the

teacher does not stand ready to put in whatever is forgotten
by the child. Several new rules for the comma are now
demanded by longer and more involved sentences, some
of which also call for one or two of the simpler uses of the
semicolon; even the colon is needed by a few pupils.
These should all be given as needed, accompanied always
by an abundance of illustrative drill. Although but few
pupils are writing sentences requiring semicolons and colons,
the needed rules for their use should be given to avoid
incorrect punctuation by those few ; other writers may also
be led into strengthening their sentence structures in order
to employ the new marks after their uses have been ex-
plained. Wrong ideas of the relation between the parts of
a sentence may be imbibed if these rules are not given. It
is still necessary to drill on the use of quotation marks, the
punctuation of quotations, and the possessives of nouns in
both singular and plural. Their mastery is not easy, and,
although they have been in use since the first grade, new
conditions spring up, some of which seem stranger to the

78

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE /9

children than at first thought appears possible to teacher or
parent. One must be in close touch with the workings of
these young minds to comprehend the nature and reality of
their difficulties.

The correction of vulgarisms and common errors must be

carefully continued. The child's own pride in ready and

cultured language is coming more and more

Grammar tO the hdp °f the teacher>* although, at the

same time, there has to be overcome the
feeling that is peculiarly strong in these middle grades, that
the school, in some occult way, is not life, real life, and that
its lessons are for the schoolroom only, to be forgotten as
soon as the outside air is reached. To counteract this feel-
ing, it is well to keep in touch with some form of everyday
life that stands close to the pupil. Show what carefully
selected language is used by some persons, known and
respected by the pupils ; read an extract from a speaker who
will appeal to them, calling attention to the fact that the
verbs are properly used, that pronouns are in their right
cases ; various means can be employed to impress upon the
children that good language, far from being a schoolroom
bug-a-boo, is a recognized necessity of cultured life.

The grammatical drills are beginning to take on a more
formal nature. A conjugation is called a conjugation; the

indicative mode is thoroughly learned by all ;
Technical in.* -n • •

Grammar distinction between shall and will is im-

pressed, although a teacher must not be
flattered with the thought that it will be definitely learned;
present and past participles are used in phrases as adjectives,
adverbs, nouns, and in their verbal significations, in order
to show their flexibility. While the technical element is

8O METHODS IN TEACHING

growing in these presentations, they should still be con-
sidered as language rather than grammar ; but if pupils see
that the third and fourth forms of verbs have a variety of
uses, future grammar is simplified. Adjectives and adverbs
are frequently used in drills, and their comparisons should
now be well understood, both with the use of er and est and
of the words more and most. Nouns should be readily
recognized, and their plurals formed. Pronouns should be
declined, in order to ensure their correct use. Frequent oral
drill, in which every pupil of the class is involved, must be
given the nominative and objective cases. This includes a
fairly clear idea of prepositions and of the subject and ob-
ject. The use of who for persons and of which and that
for animals and inanimate things should be taught. The
teacher must be constantly on guard not to be drawn off too
far into formal grammar ; the pupils are still immature, and
practice, or application, should far exceed theory or memor-
izing. The grammar should be presented, for the pupils
are old enough to understand many of its simpler principles,
but there is no great loss, as yet, if the technical reason for
a correction or for a drill is forgotten, provided the appli-
cation is remembered. The explanation has served its pur-
pose in clarifying the correction; it will be remembered by
many pupils, and wholly forgotten by only a few.

Composition progresses constantly. To write well, a
pupil must be permitted to enjoy creative work ; individuality

must have expression or writing will be a
Composition ,

bore. Encouragement and growth mean

pleasure to teacher and pupil ; discouragement opens up a
cheerless prospect for both. Before beginning to write have
the pupils tell what must be remembered in mechanical

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 8 1

lines; then let the writing go on freely, without every
thought being hampered by the idea that the critical teacher
is peering over the shoulder, or that the paper " wont pass "
if the periods and spelling are not correct. Even a mature
writer of ability, buried in the inspiration and enjoyment
of his creation, may make technical mistakes that he will
stare at later in astonishment ; but he will correct every page
of his manuscript with the utmost care before permitting it
to go to the public. Give the child an equal freedom of
creation, teach him an equal patience in correcting.

Subject matter is comparatively easy to find, for it is
the handling of the material that is of importance. A paint-
ing from a master's hand may be only a weary laborer halt-
ing for a prayer in obedience to the call of the bell in his
village church. The canvas may be small. It is not the
subject, it is not the size, that makes the painting immortal ;
it is the treatment. The subject for a child's composition
must be as simple as are the experiences of that child. His
training is in expression. A wandering bee, buzzing in the
window; a bird, twittering over the spring nest; a dog,
coaxing and fawning for his evening meal; a horse, cross
and rebellious at being cinched up under the saddle, — is
there any end to the thoughts about which a child will talk
or write? Give ideas, not subjects. The former inspire, the
latter deaden. Do not trouble about the subject, a paper
can be named after it is written.

Then there are real and imaginary letters, narrations, de-
scriptions, reproductions, and simple character sketches.
Children readily express personal opinions about poems and
stories. All papers should be short, sometimes a few lines
will be all that can be given. The clothing of the thought
7

82 . METHODS IN TEACHING

in many words should be carefully guarded against, lest
mere verbiage takes a hold upon the writer. The study of
figures of speech in the literature of the year will probably
lead to some embellishment of the pupils' papers. While
these efforts should meet with encouragement, they also need
guidance, so that a florid, unnatural style is not developed.

The study of the sentence and the paragraph can not be
relaxed, for the power of the children over them is weak
and vacillating. Study the effect produced by long and
short sentences; illustrate changes in emphasis resultant
upon transposition of words, phrases, clauses. We are deal-
ing with children, and only childish results can be expected ;
but there should be a steady, even if slow, growth in power
over written expression.

Fifth grade pupils need to know the subject, predicate,
and object of a sentence in order to discriminate in the use
of nominative and objective cases. A faint conception of these
features of a sentence begins in the more favored fourth
grades; pupils of fifth grades, even where the language
difficulties are greatest, make this knowledge clearer, not
for grammatical purposes, however, but for use. Some
illustrative papers, uncorrected, follow.

I

The subject of a sentence is that part of a sentence which
denotes that about which we are thinking.

The predicate of a sentence is that part of a sentence
which asserts something about the subject.

The strong man works.

The sharp knife cuts.

The watchful dog barks.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 83

II

A story about the raindrops, written after a friendly class
conversation on the subject; that is, after oral composition
came the individual writing. The paper is uncorrected, just
as it came in the first draft from the pupil, except that the
effective original illustrations are omitted.

THE RAINDROPS

The little raindrops were playing merrily on their velvet
carpet one day long, long ago when all of a sudden they
began to sing, hop, and dance because they were leaving
their home and were going to live on the earth.

"Oh! such fun we will have," exclaimed one little rain-
drop. Another said, " we will dance on umbrellas, and play
hide-and-seek on the house tops."

These little raindrops were merry wee creatures dancing,
jumping, and singing to one another.

One little raindrop flew on a wee baby plant and it sent
the raindrop down deep into its roots to help it to grow tall
and pretty.

The paper was handed back to the child for personal
correction, and the most noticeable errors were seen and
corrected by the writer herself. Some changes were made
in the language of the last paragraph by the teacher, in order
to avoid repetition of words; but the original paper, where
the creative power was at work and the mechanical accuracy
was slumbering a little, is the one given above.

SIXTH YEAR GRADE

Formal grammar from a textbook begins in this grade,
but it should develop so continuously from the applied

84 METHODS IN TEACHING

grammar of the preceding grades that the pupil is always
conscious of the direct and important relation between
grammar and written or oral expression. The aims in
teaching grammar are broadening by the time the sixth
grade is reached. To speak and to write correctly have so
far been the only purposes, but now there must come the
recognition of the fact that many pupils continue their
studies in higher institutions of learning, and that prepara-
tion for work there must begin in the grammar grades. The
textbook is now, necessarily, the basis of the year's work in
grammar, and a well written, elementary rhetoric should
be in the hands of the teacher for guidance in composition.
The growing self-consciousness of pupils in the sixth, sev-
enth, and eighth grades tends to weaken and shorten oral
expression with many, but papers are often correspondingly
better, because in writing there is a feeling of freedom from
direct supervision and observation.

There follows a summary of some thoughts by a sixth
grade teacher1 on composition with her grade:

The aim in this work is to apply the knowledge gained
from a study of technical grammar to oral language and to
written exercises. Much drill is given in the correct use of
prepositions that are commonly misused, of pronouns, adjec-
tives, and adverbs ; of the conjunctions as if and as though
in distinction from the preposition like, so frequently used
for them, as in the sentence, " It looks like it would rain."
Several verbs belong also in this frequent drill, lie and lay,
sit and set, and others that, in spite of careful oversight in
lower grades, still exist in the vocabularies of the pupils in

1 Miss Margaret Meehan.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 85

incorrect usage, or have returned into them through force
of environment.

In sentence structure, commencing with simple sentences
containing adjective and adverbial modifiers, we develop

phrases and clauses, and study compound
Sentence , ^ .

Structure an(^ complex sentences. For example: A

golden wreath was given to the victor. A
wreath of gold was given to the victor. A wreath that was
made of gold was given to the victor. A wreath was made
of gold and it was given to the victor.

To make sentence structure plainer, we begin analyzing
and diagramming sentences. At first only the simplest form
of sentence, with only a word subject and a word predicate,
is taken. Then follow sentences with simple word modifiers,
then with phrases and complements. The compound sen-
tence is treated next ; and, last of all, the complex sentence.
All puzzling constructions are avoided, for the pupils are
not studying diagramming, they are simply clearing away
difficulties in sentence structure in order to speak and write
more correctly. Analysis and the diagram are for them a
means to an end, not the end desired.

In developing the singular and plural numbers of the dif-
ferent persons and cases of pronouns, the following device
is found helpful :

took books with

Pronouns .

took books with

The children are told to fill in the blanks in the first
sentence with the pronoun standing for the person or per-
sons speaking, thus: I (or we) took my (or our) books
with me (or us). The second is to be filled in with the
pronouns standing for the person or persons spoken to; a

86 METHODS IN TEACHING

third, with the pronouns for the man or men spoken of; a
fourth, with the pronouns for the woman or women
spoken of.

Considerable drill is given on the correct use of two

pronouns in one construction, as: Hattie spoke to

and . and are going. They invited

and . When the children are puzzled, as frequently

happens, they are helped out by being told to put in one
pronoun at a time, and then to put in the two together.
There is often heard such a form as, "He gave it to you
and I." The test in these cases is to try the pronouns alone.
No child in the sixth grade would say, He gave it to I.

The pupils are also drilled in the use of who in its differ-
ent cases. For example, is going? did you see?

In the latter sentence the children are told to find out the
subject, and even to diagram the sentence, so that the sub-
ject and object are clearly pictured. Time is also taken to
show that the same word may be used as different parts of
speech, as : salt, the noun, verb, and adjective.

Throughout the term of ten months we work in com-
bining several short sentences into a larger one, using the
pronoun, adverbial, and verbal connectives. In paragraph-
ing, such work is done as is within the capacity of the
pupils; both sentence and paragraph structures are kept
constantly before the pupils, but the drills come at varying
intervals, so that they shall not be monotonous. A brief
study is made of the stanza, developing the difference be-
tween it and the paragraph. Letters, both friendly and
business, are written, with careful observation of the proper
forms, and many suggestions as to what may be put into the
body of a letter.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 8?

Subjects for compositions are made as varied as possible
within the scope of the children's knowledge : some familiar
work or exercise ; the noted pictures, studied during the term
from reproductions on the walls of the schoolroom, or from
the small Brown and Perry pictures; original stories of
some event; phrases suggestive of some occurrence, as, in
the woods, under an old oak, beside the stream; a list of
words to be used in a story, as, toad, cellar, pile of bricks,
pan of milk, coal-man ; a familiar occurrence, as, a Stockton
flood, spearing wood, a tramp in the woods.

That use is the keynote of the sixth grade language les-
sons is shown by the number of the compositions in the
year's notebooks. These are first drafts, self-corrected, or
revised by the teacher, three necessary phases of progress
in composition. There are also many lists of grammatical
points, as exercises on pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prin-
cipal parts of commonly used verbs, diagrams of easy sen-
tences, and application in illustrative sentences of the points
studied. A few of these exercises are appended.

COMBINING SENTENCES

He drew a picture of his home. It showed the house.
He was born in it. It also showed the barn. The orchard
was also to be seen.

The picture he drew of his home showed the house which
he was born in, the barn, and the orchard.

The orchard, barn, and the house he was born in were
all shown in the picture he drew of his home.

He reached his home. He gave orders. He was not to

88 METHODS IN TEACHING

be disturbed. He went to bed. He tried to sleep. He
tried in vain.

When he reached home he gave orders not to be dis-
turbed. He went to bed and tried to sleep but in vain.

Combining sentences, begun in the third grades, is also
a frequent device in teaching sentence structure, showing
the use of relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs, and
in giving a general suppleness in handling sentence forms.

II
USE OF WHO, WHOSE, AND WHOM

To whom did she speak? Whose book is that? Whom
did you see? Who is going? Of whom did you write? To
whose house did you go? Whom did she know? Whose
pen is that? At whom are they looking? To whose house
did you go? Whom is writing?

An interesting fact is illustrated by the above exercise.
The drill has been largely upon whom and whose, and there
has developed in the child's mind a little vagueness as to the
use of the nominative who. This indicates the necessity of
clearing up the sense of the nominative, and of drilling upon
who until confusion disappears.

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE

During the seventh grade the pupils continue the textbook
study of grammar, keeping the work in close touch with the
practical needs of ordinary speech. Composition exercises
are frequent, and considerable inspiration is drawn from
the writers studied in the literature throughout the year.
Maturity of selection and treatment become more noticeable ;
expressions of opinions, analyses of subjects, comparisons

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 89

of authors and of characters, are made more prominent
than in the lower grades. Narrations and descriptions are
studied carefully in order to acquire an apt and forceful
style. Individuality of treatment, without eccentricity or
absurdity, is always encouraged.
A seventh grade teacher1 says of her work :
The aim throughout the year is to gain power in origi-
nality and readiness of expression, and to foster a literary
appreciation of good authors. During the first part of the
year careful reviews are made of the punctuation and
capitalization studied in lower grades. Reproduction exer-
cises are continued, material being drawn principally from
the history. During the early part of the term much of the
written work consists of reproductions, as they furnish
opportunities for putting into practice the principles that
are to be impressed. The mind, not being busy with original
thought, is left free to exercise care in grammatical con-
structions, punctuation, paragraphing, sentence formation.
These exercises tend to make the accuracies of writing more
and more mechanical, a condition to which teacher and
pupils are consciously trying to attain. At the same time,
the pupil is gaining power of expression and a certain bal-
ance and proportion in style from studying the writings of
great authors. During some of the literature periods there
is paraphrasing, for the purpose of learning to make clear
the thought of the author with little repetition of his lan-
guage. Such exercises are both oral and written. There
are also some book reviews during the year ; they are prac-
tice in giving in concise form the thoughts of an author, and
they also train the pupil in forming and expressing an
1 Miss Ella Daly.

9O METHODS IN TEACHING

opinion of an author and of his writings. As a preparation
for writing, the teacher occasionally puts a few suggestive
questions on the board; or the pupils talk over the subject
in class; or an outline may be developed and left in sight,
especially if the paper is not to be composed largely of per-
sonal opinions, or if it is to be long and somewhat involved.

In writing narratives one device is to ask for some
event in the pupil's own experience, as: Trying to keep a
secret. The trick that failed. An afternoon visit. One
day the class was asked to write an account of a runaway
that had occurred as it might appear in a daily newspaper.
Several members of the class were called upon to read their
papers, after which the question was asked, " Which account
do you consider best?" Three papers, which, by the way,
were really the most creditable, were the favored ones. The
question, " Why ? " called out a spirited discussion, in which
many merits and demerits were laid bare. As the criticisms
were kindly, they resulted in stimulating the desire to write
more articles of the same nature, and the next newspaper
report was not only less irksome, but it was also much more
successful and businesslike.

Considerable attention is given throughout the year to
letter forms and to original thought of various kinds. Im-
aginative writing is interesting to a large part of the class,
and is very helpful, provided it is kept along healthy lines.
In connection with the history study of the battle of Lexing-
ton and the reading in literature of the ride of Paul Revere,
the pupils were asked to imagine themselves living on the
outskirts of Lexington on the eighteenth of April, 1775, and
to tell the story of that thrilling night and the following
day : the approach of Paul Revere, the stir occasioned in the

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 9!

home, some loved ones up and away at the country's call,
the anxiety and interest in the battle, the result of the con-
flict, and the return of the patriots.

It is not deemed necessary, or even advisable, for the
teacher to correct all the written work, although many sets

of papers are so treated. Sometimes the
Correction M - . .

of Papers pupils themselves read over their papers a

few days after writing, and it is surprising
how many of their own errors they are able to correct. One
method of class correction is to place upon the board for
class criticism, by which is meant only friendly criticism,
several paragraphs from the work of various pupils, without
giving names. Such extracts are taken up, sentence by sen-
tence, improvements being suggested by the class. Very
often some of the best ideas come from the writers of the
papers, showing that more careful or more deliberate con-
sideration is all that is necessary for better work. In this
form of criticism, where self-consciousness is engendered
under even the most favorable circumstances because of the
publicity of the corrections, teacher and pupils make favor-
able comments on good points noticed. Appreciation is as
helpful as adversative criticism. If one is striving toward a
higher standard, and knows what he is trying to do, many
weaknesses drop off of themselves, and the attitude of the
worker towards his work is reversed, — he is urged onward
by consciously adding strength, not depressed by being
turned constantly toward his mistakes. Sometimes one of
the best papers is copied on the board, to show that glaring
errors do not always occur, and as an incentive to bring
up the average work of the class.
One of the most valuable forms of correction, or one of

92 METHODS IN TEACHING

the farthest-reaching in its effects, is for the teacher to pass
from desk to desk while the writing is in progress, calling
attention to mistakes as they are made, the pupils correcting
immediately. The force of the correction seems to be more
easily comprehended by both teacher and pupil. This plan
is most feasible in reproductions, where little interruption
to the thought is to be feared.

In these days one mentions formal grammar almost with
an apology for the words ; but, no matter what the fads of
the day, a scholar always has a wholesome
Grammar respect for the essentials of English gram-

mar. If every child could be brought up
where he heard only correct expressions, he might never
have to hesitate between right and wrong forms of speech ;
but, as such ideal conditions rarely exist, all pupils need
careful training in grammar and in its application. I think
that it was Holmes who said: "Grammar is the humble,
oft-despised, but truly loyal hand-maid of thought's best
expression."

During this year, formal grammar takes a recognized
place in the curriculum, and a fairly thorough study is made
of the parts of speech with their forms and modifications.
When any part of speech is taken up its various uses in a
sentence are carefully dwelt upon, and illustrative sentences
are constructed. That is, the noun as subject of a verb;
object of a verb, participle, infinitive; a predicate noun;
object of a preposition; possessive modifier of a noun or an
infinitive; appositive modifier of the subject, object, predi-
cate noun; as an adverb. The other parts of speech are
treated in the same way, and the vocabularies of the pupils
grow visibly more flexible through the knowledge gained.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 93

The time devoted to language and grammar is twenty-
five minutes daily. Compositions based upon other subjects
are written during the periods given to those branches.
" Evangeline's Search for Gabriel," "A Day at Ichabod's
School," belong to the literature period; "The Battle of
Lexington," " Our Flag," are history writing ; " The Story
of Belgium," "Eve of Waterloo," are geography papers;
but any of them may come into the language period for
correction and discussion as to treatment.

Several seventh grade drills, taken from the notebooks of
pupils, are given below.

USE OF MAY, CAN; MIGHT, COULD

Statements to be remembered: May asks and gives per-
mission. Can implies ability to do something.

Can I go ? means, Am I able to go ?

You can go, means, You are able to go.

May I go ? means, Have I permission to go ?

You may go, means, You have permission to go.

I, myself, know best whether or not I can do a thing.
Whether or not I may do a thing usually depends upon my
receiving permission to do so.

I hope I can go, but I am not yet well.

I hope I may go, but my father may not consent.

You may go, Charles, and see whether you can unlock
that door.

Mr. Brown told John he might stay over night.

I wish you could get your lessons without help from
others.

94 METHODS IN TEACHING

III

COMMON ERRORS

Lie lay lying lain.

Lay laid laying laid.
Lay requires an object.
Lie, meaning to rest, never requires an object.
The autumn leaves lie scattered on the pavement.
The rain will lay the dust.
I found a horseshoe lying in the road.
Mother has lain down to rest.
Many poets have been laid to rest in Westminster.
The snow will not lie long on the ground.
The men are laying a concrete sidewalk.
Do not leave your hat lying in a chair.
Will you lay aside your work?
Lake Ontario lies between New York and Canada.

IV

A NEST IN A POCKET (Uncorrected)

One spring day, a bird in search of a place to build a nest,

was flitting about our back yard. This bird was a sparrow,

not very beautiful I thought, but she seemed so restless.

Finally she peeped into the granary; she stayed there

quite a while, and then I noticed her carrying in grass and

stuffs, and of course I knew what she was doing; but I

kept right still and did not let anybody know. No one knew

where she built her nest, and I know nobody could guess.

It was in the farmer's coat pocket.

There she built her nest and in a few days more I heard
a tiny chirp up in the granary where the grain was stored.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 95

We let them alone until one day the farmer missing his coat,
thought he would go up into the granary and get it. When
he stepped on the floor of the loft he heard a most awful
chirp and then such a fluttering.

Although he needed his coat he let the birds stay there
until they could fly. He went home and told his wife who
advised him to leave them there.

A few days later the mother and all the family were seen
flying about, and so we knew she had left the pocket. She
came up to the door one day and just the same as said,
" Thank you," for the nest which she had borrowed.

The farmer felt very proud of the coat and showed it to
nearly every one who came to his house. He left the coat
up in the granary to see if another bird would want it for
a nest.

The creative spirit expresses itself beautifully in this
paper, and the mechanics are not very faulty for a seventh
grade child. There is abundant suggestion in it for the
teacher in guiding the whole class. " A most awful chirp "
calls for the selection of an appropriate adjective. Several
places need punctuation study. Some of the pronouns need
to be attached more closely to their antecedents. A few of
the sentence structures can be strengthened. Seventh grade
pupils should be using the connective that more frequently.
Care should be taken in such corrections that the teacher's
personality is not impressed upon the literary side of the
paper, but that the individuality of the writer is preserved.

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE

In this, the last year of the elementary grades, the work
is governed largely by textbooks. The grammar is com-

96 METHODS IN TEACHING

pleted, and the composition is aided and guided by a begin-
ner's rhetoric and composition textbook, in the hands of the
teacher. Plenty of practice, so arranged as not to become
monotonous, is given in writing. Pupils are held to what
has been learned in grammar and writing, just as they
would be in any other subject. Mistakes in known capi-
talization, punctuation, spelling, are looked upon just as
inaccuracies in multiplication would be considered in
arithmetic.

There follow some extracts from a paper on language,
submitted by a teacher in an eighth grade i1

Composition is along the lines of invention, description,
reproduction. Numerous quick pencil sketches are re-
quired; these are discussed in class, or privately if the
errors are special rather than general. The necessity for
unity is discussed, and the means of obtaining it. One way
of investigation is reading from good authors. The pupils
note the points that, in their opinion, make the description
strong; they tell the effect upon their own imaginations;
they analyze as well as they can; they discuss the way in
which the description grows. After this consideration by
the class, papers are written, in which the pupils try to
embody some of the essential points that have been noticed.

For a subject on which to write after such a discussion
something familiar is suggested, some pleasing feature of
our own surroundings, perhaps. The pupils are asked to go
to the place, to think about it, to study it while before it,
and to try to make their observations and ideas real to others
by means of pen and paper. In narration, an account of
some occurrence on the playground or in town may be called

'Miss Belle Mitchell.

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 97

for. This may be talked over in class, so that the points
stand out clearly, then a quick sketch is asked for. Pupils
who did not witness the event write it up from the talk,
while those who saw it are expected to give it the vividness
of an eye-witness.

All the pupils keep their written work for the year in
portfolios. Occasionally, the class period is devoted to self-
study and criticism, by looking over these papers and writ-
ing down the observations made. Such information as the
following is frequently given by the self-critics :

" I am careless in the use of commas, of 's, and of quota-
tion marks." " I often use the wrong form of the pronoun
and verb." " I do not place my phrases and clauses so as to
express my meaning clearly." " I put two paragraphs into
one." " My paragraphs lack unity."

It is needless to add that such a search into one's own
weaknesses is often the most effective cure.

From many eighth grade papers a few are chosen illus-
trating drills in sentence structure, one of the particular
points for the year ; others show special features of training.

I
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

The poorly constructed sentence is given first, followed
by the recast, sometimes obtained by concerted class action,
sometimes through correction or suggestion by the teacher,
while sometimes it is the individual effort of the child.

a

Just a short distance from the pavilion is the palace, with
8

98 METHODS IN TEACHING

its long arcades and ornamental columns, and its gardens
which are called the Generalife.

My sentence sounds as if the gardens were the Generalife
instead of the palace.

Just a short distance from the white pavilions is the pal-
ace, or Generalife, with its long arcades, its ornamented
columns, and its gardens.

b

At these missions were where the Indians built their
homes, and it was there that they were converted to the
Catholic religion, to cultivate the soil, to do carpentering,
and to build adobe houses.

The sentence is so poorly constructed that the meaning
is not clear.

It was at these missions that the Indians built their homes,
were converted to the Catholic religion, learned to cultivate
the soil, to do carpentering, and to build adobe houses.

Second correction: It was at these missions that the
Indians built their homes, learned to cultivate the soil, to do
carpentering, and to build adobe houses. It was here also
that they were converted to the Catholic religion.

II

USE OF ADVERBS

Sentences taken from various papers by the pupils.
We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure.
It is impossible continually to be at work.
The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually.
Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy even.
Rule to guide in the correction of the above errors : Place

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 99

adverbs where there will be no doubt what word or thought
they modify.

CORRECTIONS

We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure.

It is impossible to be continually at work.

The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. Or, The
heavenly bodies are in perpetual motion.

He not only found her busy, but even pleased and happy.
Or, He found her not only busy but even pleased and happy.

CHAPTER VII
WORD STUDY

One charm in a ready speaker lies in his mastery of
words. Whether this power is natural or acquired it is the

growth of years. Observation, accuracy.
Power Over
Words use, are the means by which it is built up.

Observation of new words; accuracy of
meaning and pronunciation; frequent, familiar use in con-
versation and writing. Children begin their word studies
with phonics, which should be continued through three or
four years, until a thorough foundation has been laid for all
ordinary pronunciations and spellings. The dictionary and
analysis of words carries forward this systematic acquaint-
ance even into the high school, where language studies sup-
plement the work begun in the phonics of the first grade
Drills in phonics are daily exercises during the first three
years in school. The first thought is to secure distinct artic-
ulation and accurate pronunciation, and, by
Phonics

providing a key to language, to prepare th<

children for independent, self-reliant reading. Both the ear
and the eye must be trained. The ear must learn to recog-
nize sounds readily, through slow pronunciation, or sepa-
ration of a word into its sounds ; ear training should precede
sight training. The eye must learn to know instantly the
letter, syllable, or word presented to it. For this purpose
every primary room should be provided with cards, on
which are the letters, phonograms and sight words to be

100

WORD STUDY IOI

taken up in the daily drills of the year. Type words are
made the bases for the accumulation of many lists of words
in the first three or four grades.

From the first acquaintance with words careful attention
is given to their spelling, one of the essentials in a school

course. Spelling can not be learned inci-
Spelling

dentally; much can be taught in connection

with all written exercises, but a regular place should be pro-
vided on the program for persistent daily drill on selected
words. A carefully chosen list for every grade is a neces-
sity. It is the core of the work in spelling, and should be
made up of a stock of common words from the vocabularies
of the children. It should not be so exhaustive as to prevent
the teacher from adding other words that are needed from
day to day.

The majority of pupils learn to spell most accurately
through the use of the eye ; many, however, acquire a surer
knowledge through the ear ; all are assisted by speech. The
best results are secured by appealing to the mind through all
these avenues of approach. The unit of pronunciation is
the syllable, and no method has produced better readers or
spellers than the old-time oral spelling with its pronunciation
of syllables.

Pupils are trained to avoid guessing at spelling. In the
primary grades, if they do not know how to spell any word
needed in their writing, they are encouraged to ask help
from the teacher; in the grammar grades, they consult the
dictionary. Teachers keep lists of words frequently mis-
spelled, and the children are encouraged to make notes of
words which they have missed. Occasionally some pupil's
list is taken as the basis of the day's spelling. In all grades,

IO2 METHODS IN TEACHING

as an incentive to self-criticism, pupils sometimes make
up the list of words for the lesson from those that they feel
ought to be known, but which are really troublesome. The
names of the days, months, seasons, holidays, objects in the
schoolroom, articles of clothing, household utensils, things
bought at a grocery store, occupations, words alike in termi-
nations, words illustrating a certain sound of a letter or
diphthong, words having a common syllable, are suggestions
for interesting and important spelling lists. All unfamiliar
words are used in sentences, oral and written. Many words
aie defined as well as used. The common homonyms are
carefully taught, associated with the meaning, and so pre-
sented in writing that the one will not suggest the meaning
of the other.

The pupils are led to formulate inductively the more im-
portant rules for spelling, such as: retaining or dropping
final e; doubling a final consonant; retaining or changing
final y. Before taking up these rules the pupils must be
able to distinguish clearly between vowels and consonants.

The study of phonics leads naturally into word analysis.

In the grammar grades word analysis is phonics, grown into

a scholar, investigating the history and

W radical make-up of the words that, in the

Analysis

primary grades, were his playthings as h

formed them from letters and phonograms. Anglo-Saxor
prefixes, suffixes, and roots are taken first, as they are sim
pier and more frequently found in the vocabularies of th
children; but Greek and Latin elements, as they occur, ar
used in an elementary way, as : tele-phone, tele-graph, tele
scope; geo~graphy, tele-graphy, bio-graphy, ortho-graphy
After attention has been called to such a syllable, short list

WORD STUDY IO3

are made of words in which it is found. These lists are
usually left on the board for several days, so that the words
sink into the memories, and so that new words can be added
as suggested by the children. This work is generally very
interesting, pupils hunting eagerly for more words to add
to the lists, thus, unconsciously, adding rapidly to their vo-
cabularies. The treatment is not formal or mechanical, nor
is it in the nature of textbook presentation. To the children
the lesson seems to be suggested by the reading; but the
teacher really has in mind a definite plan that aids in the
selection of certain words and the exclusion of others.
Affixes are most readily taught, but root syllables are also
frequently made bases for lists, as: art, art-istic, arMst,
art-izan, artificial.

There should be regular lessons, at least once a month,
taking the place of some exercise in language or literature.
These lessons should be so carefully planned that they
progress from month to month. Too much must not be
attempted. Thorough knowledge of a little is power, a
smattering of much is weakness.

FIRST YEAR GRADE

The first step is to train the beginner to recognize the
various sounds of which a word is made up. The name of a
familiar object is pronounced slowly, as,
Training c-a-t; the pupil recognizes the word, pro-

nounces it himself, so as to give the three
sounds ; then he gives it as a whole, but trying to hear the
sounds. Many words are given in the same way, those
being chosen which are familiar and that have distinct
sounds, easily separated and reunited. The teacher gives

IO4 METHODS IN TEACHING

action words ; such as, jump, run, skip, sing, cry, separating
them into their sounds, the pupil performing the act as
soon as he recognizes the word. The pupils pronounce
words in a similar manner for their classmates to perform
the action, or for the teacher or pupils to guess. This is a
very important part of the work, requiring much time and
patience. Its mastery by the pupils means quick recognition
of sounds; hurried and inaccurate training leaves the chil-
dren incapable of taking this first step in phonics, and sub-
sequent work will be weak and full of errors. Games, fre-
quent changes of teacher and pupil in giving sounds, action
words, guessing contests, all tend to keep the interest from
lagging, until the pupils are led into a high degree of
accuracy in recognizing words from their sounds and in
separating one sound into several. Children even begin to
notice the inaccuracies of pronunciation, as, in for ing, kin
for can, although wholly dependent upon the teacher in
this respect.

When the child recognizes quickly the word as a whole
from its sounds, and can separate a word quickly into its

sounds, work begins with phonograms.
Phonograms

Some phonogram, as at> is chosen. When,

as in this case, it is a complete word, the children use it as a
word in sentences, until the teacher is sure that they know
just what the word is and how to use it. The children get
the sounds, a-t, by slow pronunciation. They are drilled to
associate thoroughly the letter with its sound. The letter
is made and the sound called for ; the sound is given, and the
children are asked to give or find the letter; they write the
phonogram.
When the teacher is convinced that the phonogram is

WORD STUDY

known, word building begins. The picture 01 a cat is shown,
and the word is placed upon the blackboard. The, sounds
are given, the children discovering almost immediately that
cat contains the same combination, at, with which they have
just been working. A hat is shown the children, the sounds
of the word are given, and the word is quickly classified with
cat and at. The accumulation of words now proceeds rap-
idly and pleasantly. The phonogram at being well known,
the drills are really to teach the children the consonant
sounds that precede in the various words, cat, rat, Nat, hat,
mat, bat. The children must become thoroughly familiar
with these consonants, for much depends upon the knowl-
edge now gained.

New phonograms, as, it, et, ut, ot, follow. Every day's
lesson is introduced by a three or four minute drill on those
already learned, sets of cards being a convenient way of
conducting a rapid recitation. As lists of words are made
out, it is well to have the pupils define the words they give,
especially if there is any probability that they are giving
sounds in place of known words. Although the definitions
may be crude, the vocabularies will be strengthened by the
new familiarity with the words.

After the study of the phonogram at, there are taken up
those formed with the vowels and b, as, ab, eb, ib, etc.;
then with d, as, ad, ed; with g, as, ag; with m, as, am; with n,
as, an, en. The pupils are now ready to study the long vow-
els. Many of the words already listed can be used, as, at, ate;
fat, fate; mat, mate; met, mete; pet, Pete; bit, bite; not,
note; cub, cube. Other sounds of the vowels can now fol-
low, and diphthongs begin to appear.

In spelling, the children first learn to distinguish forms

IO6 METHODS IN TEACHING

and to see the word. Careful attention is given to this in

in the different subjects, — reading, drawing,

numbers. The first real attempt at spelling

is to reproduce the word by copying from the blackboard.

This is done with the cardboard letters with which every

teacher is supplied ; later the word is copied upon the board

by the child. After much preliminary work of this kind,

flash spelling is introduced and continued throughout the

year. Words and simple sentences are dictated.

The names of the letters are used only incidentally at
first; but as the child becomes familiar with the long and
the short sounds of the vowels and with the consonant
sounds, there are associated with the characters their alpha-
bet names. When a pupil leaves the first grade he should
know all the letters by name and be able to give them in
order.

SECOND YEAR GRADE

The first work of this year is to review carefully what
was done in the preceding grade, for little folks forget

easily. For new drills some of the sounds
Phonics

that were only touched upon in the first

year are used, as: a in ask; oo in stoop and in look; u in
rude ; ph in cipher ; gh in laugh, and others that proved too
confusing during the first lessons. This is an individual
matter with every class, depending upon conditions often
external to the schoolroom. Abundance of material is found
in the words of the day's lessons in history, literature, nature
study, reading, numbers.

Copying exercises and flash spelling are continued
throughout the year. There are oral and written lessons in

WORD STUDY

ID/

Spelling

spelling every day. Words and simple sentences are dic-
tated. Many lists are used from the vocabularies of the
children and from the various lessons of the
day. Words of more than one syllable are
divided into their parts. Pupils in advanced grades often
make the mistake of dividing words anywhere, because
they are ignorant of the proper divisions. This can be pre-
vented, in part at least, by training the children from the
first to recognize the syllables of a word in spelling and in
pronunciation, and often in lists for writing. The use of
the hyphen is not necessary, the word is spaced, joy ful ly.
If a division comes at the end of a line the hyphen is used.
The meanings of simple prefixes and suffixes are easily
studied, and, although much is forgotten by these little folks,
so much is retained that the effort is well worth making.
Some of those used are, ing, as in going, coming; er, in
faster, nearer; est, in sweetest, hottest; less, in careless,
homeless ; ness, in kindness, sickness ; ful, in careful, useful.

Contractions, as don't, can't, are expanded to find out
what they really are made up of. Synonyms, homonyms,
and definitions help interweave the word study and the
language work.

The following is summarized from a year's work with
second grade pupils :r

As in the first grade word study generally means phonics
and spelling. Fifteen minutes are given to phonics daily
throughout the year. Ten minutes daily are given to writ-
ten spelling, five minutes to oral spelling. Lists of from ten

fifteen words are given during the first part of the year ;
iter, the number is increased to eighteen or twenty. Two

1 Teacher, Miss Flora E. LaRue.

IO8 METHODS IN TEACHING

or three sentences are used in every written lesson, in order
to present some of the words from the lists in their connec-
tion with other words and in sentence meaning. During a
large part of the year a period of fifteen minutes a week
is given to a spelling match. In this, as in all oral spelling,
all words must be divided into their syllables, which are
pronounced as spelled.

The first two weeks of the year are devoted to a review
of the sounds and names of the letters. Beginning with a,
the sounds of the vowels, diacritically marked, are placed
upon the blackboard. These are pronounced carefully by
the children, who also give lists of words containing the
sounds. The set of phonic cards supplies a means of rapid
oral drill.

In the second month, the study of final y is begun. The

pupils are accustomed to calling the vowels sisters, and the

consonants brothers; they know that there

Jiflfll JL

are seven sisters and many brothers. This
device, whose usefulness soon passes, is very helpful at
first, when so much depends upon distinguishing between
vowels and consonants, but while the process is still difficult
for such little children. Many words are shown the chil-
dren; as, boy, boys; baby, babies; play, plays. After some
study it is discovered without the teacher's help that words
ending in y with a "sister " before it add s in the plural ;
but that if the final y has a " brother " before it, y changes
to * and es is added.

With the help of the teacher, so that no mistakes are
made, a list of plurals is made out of words ending in y.
Word building can now be greatly enlarged, and such lists
as the following are made: try, tries, tried; play, played,

WORD STUDY 1 09

player, plays; gay, gayer, gayest. Word building with
words of this kind is given constant attention throughout
the year.

During this same month word building with ing is com-
menced. The first words taken are those in which the
syllable is simply added, as in play, playing ;

The the next list is of words like come, coming,

Suffix

Ing where final e is dropped; finally, the words

used are like stop, stopping, where the final
consonant is doubled. Having already learned that final e
is dropped on adding the suffix ing, the pupils now learn
that it is dropped upon adding any suffix beginning with
a vowel; as, bake, baking, baker, baked, bakes. That is,
as the little folks say, " Two sisters do not stand together
in these places, they want a brother between them." A
great deal of attention is also given to words doubling the
final consonant; as, fit, fitting, fitted, fitter. Words of this
class are the most difficult of all to master ; they need much
patient drilling for more than one year with the majority
of pupils.

Some very simple prefixes and suffixes are studied to
show the meaning which they give to words and to impress

their spelling. The ones usually selected

Prefixes ar^ ^ joyful ; less, homeless ; un, unkind ;

Suffixes

R00ts a, ashore. There is easy word building

with roots. Some simple word, as truth, is
taken from a reading lesson and derivatives are called for.
The pupils enjoy this work greatly, and lists are quickly
made up. They readily give such words as truthful, truth-
fully, truthfulness; the negative forms are given with just
as much ease, untruth, untruthfully, untruthful, untruthful-

IIO METHODS IN TEACHING

ness. If the children are told that a certain word or affix
is to be studied the next day in class, they delight in bring-
ing in lists. These are sometimes surprisingly long and
complete, resulting in a remarkable increase in the size of
the child's vocabulary and in the accuracy of its use.

Lists of words are frequently marked as to syllables and
pronunciation. Punctuation and capitalization in the sen-
tence writing are carefully watched. Early in the year
the children begin to use ink in writing the daily lessons;
this calls for great care, for all scratchings and repetitions
are counted as errors.

No brief summary can reproduce the work of a year, but
the above suggests its scope and spirit. In the hands of an
earnest, inspiring teacher, who sees the value of knowledge
for its own sake and for the power that it gives a child,
even phonics become deeply interesting to many pupils and
exceedingly practical for all. If up to this time the chil-
dren have been carefully trained in their phonics and word
studies, if the phonograms have been thoroughly learned,
if frequently met groups of letters, as lion, have been drilled
upon until absolutely familiar to the children, if diacritical
and accent marks have been in constant use, difficulties in
pronunciation are about ready to slip away into the past.
The teacher must be the guide and help a year or two longer,
then the dictionary will become the proper tool for the
student's own use. It is surprising how much the children
can learn to do in these first two years and how keenly they
enjoy their progress and accomplishments.

In the second grade there is a variety of exercises ; among
them are many lists of words, marked and unmarked, for

WORD STUDY

III

spelling lessons; sentences in which the words for spelling
are used (I.) ; illustrative use of certain affixes (II.) ; add-
ing ing (HI.) ; lists formed upon some given root syllable

(IV.).

I.

Polliwogs eat insects.

They become frogs.

Buttercups are now in bloom.

The teacher has given me a pencil.

Our lessons keep us busy.

I have been reading a fairy story.

Have you much work?

II.

Ish means like.
child ish
self ish
fool ish
salt ish
girl ish
baby ish
boy ish
clown ish

Less means without. Un means not.

mother less
sleep less
home less
father less
care less
friend less
pain less
hope less

un like
un done
un told
un able
un buttoned
un written

means one who. Er means more.

teach er
play er
danc er
dig ger
sweep er
catch er

hard er
sweet er
near er
firm er
clos er
high er

THIRD YEAR GRADE

Material for word study, either as phonics or spelling,
constantly surrounds the teacher; in fact, it is so abundant
that the whole subject is frequently neglected because the

112 METHODS IN TEACHING

task of classification and systematic use seems too vast.
First of all, it is the common words that should be made
usable for the children in as simple and practical a manner
as possible, for the most frequent mistakes in pronuncia-
tion and spelling are in the words that are in most general
use. How frequently one hears " ud " for would ; " I'd a
done it," for I'd have done it ; " callin' " for calling, and
so on through an endless list of pronunciations, while the
number of misspelled words is equally perplexing. There
is no way of eliminating these errors except by vigorous,
unremitting treatment, and the earlier it is begun the bet-
ter. If the word work and the language lessons have been
well done during the first two years, the pupils are already
struggling consciously with several of the most flagrant
errors, and an excellent basis has been laid for correct Eng-
lish. These word studies give definite reasons for the re-
quired pronunciations and spellings, and association with
other words aids greatly in memorizing forms and sounds.
English is a difficult language to learn under the best of
circumstances, and children need all the aid that can be
derived from carefully planned word lessons.

The third grade begins with definitely arranged reviews
of the sounds learned in the preceding grades, listed in
words adapted to the growing powers of the pupils. The
new words of a day's lesson are put upon the board, with
the syllables indicated and the sounds marked for pronun-
ciation wherever it is deemed necessary.
Drills

The children are drilled upon these lists so

that mispronunciations are avoided with many pupils and
words. A constant watch is kept for words that in every-
day conversations are mispronounced or slurred by the

WORD STUDY 113

children, and these are drilled upon frequently. Five min-
utes of such drill every day of the year will work wonders
in correct pronunciation, and, incidentally, in spelling also;
for words clearly written and properly enunciated accord-
ing to syllables are not ordinarily misspelled except by very
careless pupils.

Spelling is carefully attended to in both oral and written
exercises every day. Words are given in lists and in sen-
tences. Pupils are held responsible for the
Spelling

words found in the day's lessons, so that
the habit of noticing new words and of retaining old ones
is constantly encouraged. Compound words that do not
require the hyphen are included in the spelling lists, for
this is a much abused part of correct word writing. Some
new affixes are studied, such as: under, underdone; well,
welcome ; ly, manly, nicely ; er (one who) , worker, builder ;
ed, learned, shouted. This material should be carefully
listed by the teacher, so that the work for the month or the
year is in mind. It varies greatly according to the devel-
opment of the class, but it is always to be found in abund-
ance in the subjects read or studied by the children.

FOURTH YEAR GRADE

During this year the pupils become acquainted with all
divisions of letters, — vowels, consonants, their various
sounds, and their combinations into digraphs and diph-
thongs; also with such equivalent sounds as a in ate and
ey in they; e in even and i in machine. Calling attention
to these points and making a few lists of illustrative words
obviates many of the difficulties of spelling. The simple
rules of phonics, to be found in any good manual on the
9

114 METHODS IN TEACHING

subject, are made familiar to the children before the end
of the year. They are not thoroughly learned, it is true,
for the pupils are not ready for this step, but there is formed
with them that general acquaintance which must precede
later drills for possession and mastery.

Oral spelling is given every day in the week, if time per-
mits. In addition to words from the adopted speller, lists
Spelling are made fr°m tne various studies, from

daily conversations, and, very insistently,
of such words as have been generally misspelled by the
pupils. Only constant diligence and patience on the part
of both teacher and pupils can make good spellers of many
children. English is full of phonetic etymological puzzles.

Prefixes and suffixes are given occasional lessons, based
upon the vocabularies of the children and upon any other
source from which lists of practical words
Studies can ^e built up. Common roots are no-

ticed, thoughtfully defined, and lists of
derivatives made. Even some roots of foreign origin,
especially from the Latin, occurring in words frequently
used, are studied, thus throwing unexpected light on mean-
ings and spellings. If these exercises are kept easily within
the abilities of the pupils, they are very helpful for adding
to the vocabulary, acquiring a correct and discriminating
use of words, and fixing accurate spellings. Lists of words I
are marked diacritically by the pupils ; the syllables are in- I
dicated. Simple rules of phonics that have already been j
drilled upon in preceding years are learned; such as the J
value of final e in pin, pine ; bat, bate ; nap, nape.

An adopted text-book is used in the spelling, but words j
are also chosen from all other subjects. Dictated sentences, ]

WORD STUDY

two or three in every lesson, and about thirty words form
the daily assignment. Lists of misspelled words are kept

by both teacher and pupils for weekly re-
Spelling

views. From two to four times a month

lessons in homonyms are given, consisting of ten or twelve
sentences dictated by the teacher or the pupils. Several
rules for spelling are developed during the year. Some
may be entirely new to the pupils, others may be the con-
summation of the inductive reasoning of preceding months
or years.

In word analysis, simple affixes, in, un, a, less, ness, ish,
let, are used in forming new words ; or words having these
prefixes or suffixes are chosen from the lessons, their mean-
ings are given, and other words having the same syllable
are suggested.

Some fourth grade analyses of words are also shown
here.

a.

delight ful full of delight

leaf less without a leaf

a fire on fire

plumb er one who plumbs

un happy not happy

un certain not certain

use less without use

use ful full of use

a shore on shore

b.

bright ness the state of being bright
sad ness the state of being sad

Il6 METHODS IN TEACHING

joyful ness the state of being joyful
full ness the state of being full

c.

Words ending in e preceded by a consonant should have
the last letter dropped on taking a suffix beginning with a
vowel.

bite biting

come coming

give giving

have having

hope hoping

live living

lose losing

FIFTH YEAR GRADE

The pupils are now old enough to develop understand-
ingly and usably the most important of the rules for spell-
ing, a step rendered easier by the work in phonics and word
analysis that has been done in the lower grades. Many
of the rules will be but wording and putting into easily
remembered form the practice of the preceding years.

Systematically arranged drills are found in
Course in
Spelling text-books on spelling, where words are

usually classified as to sound, form, use,
and meaning. These lists are supplemented constantly by
words selected from the various subjects studied, and from
conversation vocabularies. The dictionary now becomes
the frequent aid of the pupils in spelling and pronouncing,
and careful training should be given in the use of this valu-
able language tool.

WORD STUDY 1 1/

The children are probably acquainted with many of the

familiar prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Pleasure and interest

in such lessons is fostered if they are ac-

Analysis companied by short talks on the people and

the countries from which the words came,

showing that words, like people, can travel long distances,

bearing with them lasting traces of their original homes.

By the time the child has finished the fifth grade, he should

be familiar with the following:

Anglo-Saxon prefixes : A, after, all, al, be, for, fore, mis,
out, un, under, well, wel. Suffixes: ar, ard, dom, ed (d
or t), er, est, ful, head or hood, ing, ish, less, ly, ness, s or
es in plural, 's or ' in possessive, some.

Latin prefixes : ab, ad (with the change of letter depend-
ent upon the first letter of the root to which it is affixed),
bene, circum, contra, subter, re, semi. Suffixes: able, ess,
eer, er.

Greek prefixes: ex, hemi, tele. Suffixes: ist, ise, ize.
At the beginning of the fifth year the pupils purchase
their own dictionaries, and they also have free access to the
unabridged edition. They must be taught
Dictionary ^ow to use these new books, which, with-

out instruction, long remain sealed, like
the prophecies of old. The teacher calls attention to the
alphabetical arrangement of the words, then to the second
letter, ba before bea, be before bi ; then to the third letter,
bar before bat. The children are trained to open quickly
to the desired place, every one in his own dictionary, by
asking for A, for M, for any section, and even for first or
last part of the section devoted to any letter. This may
seem almost childish training, but one only needs to com-

Il8 METHODS IN TEACHING

pare the awkwardness and helplessness of some people with
the accuracy and rapidity of others, to realize the effect of
training and habit in handling the dictionary. The dia-
critical markings may seem difficult at first even to a child
trained in their use in class ; but a little explanation makes
them perfectly clear. The use of the typical words at the
bottom of the pages should also be noticed.

The many definitions, varying from one another by
shades of meaning, are puzzling to the children ; so also are
the many abbreviations. A verb may be followed by v., t.,
imp., and pp. ; then come the languages through which it
has passed into the English. All of this must be explained,
if not to fifth grade pupils, then to those in the more ad-
vanced grades. The definitions need to be considered, so
that the children can discriminate among them; and atten-
tion should be called to the help afforded by the punctua-
tion. Occasional lessons should be given in definite ex-
planation of the dictionary. " The unabridged dictionary
is a much neglected book," but, by such studies, it takes
its place as one of the most available and practical aids to
the student.

SIXTH, SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES

Throughout the last three years of the grammar grades
the rules for spelling are developed inductively as rapidly

as they can be illustrated satisfactorily,
Spelling

comprehended, and remembered. As in

the preceding grades, material is found in the assigned text-
book, the daily lessons in all subjects, and the new words
noticed in the vocabularies of the children. The pupils are
trained to notice constantly the spelling of new words found
in the reading. In word analysis an accepted textbook is

WORD STUDY 119

completed, or such a portion of it as is considered suitable
for grammar grades. New work is always presented
through use, leading out into generalizations, the forma-
tion of rules, and the classification of knowledge.

There follow a few papers from pupils, giving a slight
view of the work done.

The various lists for the sixth grade are of the same
general nature as those in the fifth grade. Some of the
sentences illustrative of the use of words are here given.

When Scipio died he left orders that his bones should
not rest in a city which had proved so ungrateful as Rome.

Cato ended every one of his speeches by saying, " Car-
thage must be destroyed."

Cornelia's jewels were her two sons. She was the
daughter of Scipio Africanus.

" Run for your lives ! " said Horatius, " I will keep the
bridge."

Gnats and mosquitos are very troublesome insects.
They bother us in the summer.

The governor is the chief officer of the state.

The seventh grade notebooks contain drills in spelling,
definitions, sound marking, homonyms, synonyms, and a
variety of lessons in world analysis, some of which follow.

I.

HOMONYMS

I heard the lowing of a herd of cattle.
There are their books where they were put by the chil-
dren.

I2O METHODS IN TEACHING

Sweating through every pore, the workmen pour the
melted iron into the molds.

A hale and hearty old man was hurrying along in the
midst of the rain and hail.

The rest may rest while I wrest the prize from him who
would win it.

II.

USE OF INDICATED WORDS

Conrad feigned to be a friend of Richard, but he was a
traitor.

The vein in his hand broke.

These aquatic flowers are not very pretty.

He came with an invincible army.

III.

WORD ANALYSIS
a. Root word

The Latin root pes means a foot. Fed has the same
meaning. Many words are formed on this root.

ped al belonging to the foot

bi ped two footed animal

quadru ped four footed animal

ped dlar one who travels afoot

ex ped ite to free the foot

ex ped ition the act of expediting

im ped iment hindrance

The pedestrian stopped at our house for refreshments.
The men sent an expedition to the New York colonies.

WORD STUDY 121

IV.

WORD ANALYSIS

b. Prefix

The Latin verb cedere means to yield, to go. Cede and
ceed are forms of the verb cedere.

ac cede to yield

con cede to go with

ex ceed to go beyond

inter cede to go between

pre cede to go before

pro ceed to go forward

re cede to go back

sue ceed to go beyond any one else

Harvey Birch wished the Americans to succeed in war.
Captain Dunwoodie was interceding for Captain Whar-
ton.

V.

WORD ANALYSIS

c. Suffixes

Judge, verb, to determine.
Judge, noun, one who determines.
Just, adjective, lawful.

judge ship office of a judge

judg ment being judged

just ify to make right

just ness the quality of being just

just ly lawfully

122

METHODS IN TEACHING

PREFIXES

pre judge to judge beforehand
ad judge to judge to
re judge to judge again

un just not just

ad just to make right, to make just

The above lessons are given without change from the
notebook of the pupil, showing the seventh grade concep-
tion of the meaning of the words as gained from roots and
affixes. Prefixes and suffixes have been studied separately
and in connection with simple words ever since the fifth
grade, so that their meanings as used in the above exercises
are not touched upon. They belong to the knowledge that
is already fixed. New affixes are taken up from time to
time as the occasion demands. Later language studies will,
of course, broaden all this acquaintance with words.

From the many lists in the notebook of an eighth grade
pupil the following uncorrected exercises are chosen, illus-
trating studies in homonyms, use of words in sentences,
spelling and defining. Occasional lists are made of won
frequently mispronounced; these are carefully marked
to sounds of letters and accented syllables.

I.

precurser

accessory

itinerary

alleviate

hypocrisy

SPELLING AND DEFINING

one who runs before (precursor)

have access to

from place to place

to lessen

deceive

WORD STUDY

123

enunciate

indelible

Apennines

asphaulton

cognizant

recommend

Philippines

act of enunciating
not erasable
mountains of Italy

understood
give authority of
islands

II.

Alaska was formerly isolated.
He will lubricate the wheel.
They manipulated the books.
He meditated deeply.
She will participate in the event.
Electricity is a subtle power.
The school suppressed a laugh.
She assumed a dignified air.
The guide preceeded the party.
They relinquished all claims.

(asphaltum)

(Preceded.)

Gamble at cards.

To gambol on the grass.

The soil is barren.

A German baron.

Two quarts.

A vein of quartz.

A minor matter.

A coal miner.

A gilt frame.

To confess a guilt.

III.

To sell at profit.
A weather prophet.
A boiled carrot.
It weighs a carat.
An easy lesson.
Pain will lessen.
To bathe in the surf.
The serf was set free.
A broad base.
A bass voice.

PART II
ARITHMETIC

CHAPTER VIII

GENERAL AIMS: INTRODUCTORY THOUGHTS; SUM-
MARY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COURSE
IN ARITHMETIC

Arithmetic in the public schools should lead to definite
results along two lines, — knowledge and power. The

knowledge gained should be a sufficient
Knowledge

arithmetical basis for any occupation or

profession entered by the pupil after leaving school. It
should include the fundamental operations with integers;
fractions, both common and decimal; percentage, with its
application to reckoning interest. An important element
of this work is the recognition of number as the " tool of
measurement " in a concrete study of lengths, areas, vol-
umes, values, and other relations liable to arise in after
life. These topics, with an elementary study of accounts
and common business forms, furnish ample material for the
knowledge element of the subject. By the end of the
eighth school year all pupils should be thoroughly grounded
in the essentials just mentioned.

Arithmetic offers abundant opportunity for training in
habits of logical thought and exact statement; while the

ability to form a clear-cut mental picture
Power

of the quantity represented by any num-
ber, integral or fractional, is so important that it should
be developed constantly. Its value is not confined to arith-
metic, it belongs to all subjects. All judgments and infer-

127

128 METHODS IN TEACHING

ences should be expressed completely and accurately. In
this development of mental power no factor is of greater
consequence than the solution of well selected problems.

Measurement is the origin of the number idea. Conse-
quently, from the first, the child is led to measure some-
thing, to compute through measurements,
mentg and to think in terms of known value. He

is to think as well as to measure, for
" thought is the main thing in mathematics as well as in
language." No matter whether the child is considering
length, breadth, time, space, weight, or value, he can ex-
press his thought in figures ; but he must never be permitted
to work with the figures alone, separated from the magni-
tude that is represented. To do so, is to deal with the
abstract, an unnecessary, if not an impossible feat for the
immature mind. If the child's difficulties are to disappear,
he must see, actually or mentally, the thing that is to be
measured or computed. Dimension measurements are
drawn in some prominent place in the schoolroom, on the
wall, on the board, where there can be marked off and
preserved before the eyes of the pupils an inch, a foot, a
yard, a square inch, a square foot, a square yard. The
dimensions of the room, the building, the yard, are meas-
ured and frequently mentioned. The length of a city block
is learned in feet or yards; the distance to some near-by
public building is spoken of as a certain portion of a mile ;
some well known object a mile away is located. These
distances are referred to frequently, as is also some frac-
tion or multiple of them, until their value is well recognized
by the pupils. The children estimate and then measure
accessible distances. They draw lines of estimated length,

GENERAL AIMS 1 29

and then measure them to see how nearly correct their
efforts are. This sense of magnitude is kept before the
pupils for years, if necessary, until accuracy is gained.
There is no need of permitting the exercises to become
monotonous, if the teacher only uses ingenuity in varying
the processes employed. The value of these actual meas-
urements is immediately apparent if even advanced pupils,
who have not had such training, are asked to draw lines of
given lengths, or to estimate areas, widths, or capacities.
They guess wildly, showing that the abstract figures, not
the actual values, have absorbed their efforts.

Training in analysis begins early in the course, starting
with the simple reasoning from one to many and from the

many to one. When a problem is stated,
Analysis

the first requisite is to find the starting

point; the second, to see the steps by which the end is to
be gained, — multiplication, division, addition. The child is
not permitted to start his analysis until these points are
assured, for not until the process is seen clearly can it be
accurately performed. There is no objection to the indi-
vidual methods of analysis developed by this kind of train-
ing, provided clearness and accuracy are retained. More-
over, if the pupil's expressions are awkward and inapt, he
is glad, through the teacher's guidance, to adopt easier and
more set forms of speech usual to analysis.

Oral work is so important that from one-third to one-
half the time for arithmetic is devoted to mental training.

Every new topic is introduced orally, and
Arithmetic written work supplements the oral only

when the numbers are too large or the
processes too involved to be grasped readily. The pencil
10

I3O METHODS IN TEACHING

is used only on a problem that can not be solved without
its aid. Pupils who understand the principles of arithmetic
and can apply them to oral problems have little difficulty
with arithmetic. The majority of the problems contain
small numbers. Applicants for admission to our high
schools and normal schools fail constantly on problems deal-
ing with numbers of one figure. Pupils are trained to give
and to solve original problems. The thoughtful reading
of problems is emphasized in all grades. Pupils are led to
forecast results, so that unreasonable answers are at once
noted. In all grades many problems are given in which
the processes to be performed are indicated by signs.

Many of the problems given in all the grades are based
upon prices of labor and material, for which teacher and
pupils secure data from the store, the market, the mill, the
post office, the lumber yard, the wood and coal yard, the in
surance agency, the tax collector, the transportation agent
The various ways of making change, of levying a stree
assessment, of collecting taxes, of marking goods, of depos
iting money in a bank, and of remitting money are inves
tigated.

Business forms, especially letters, receive much attention
All pupils above the fourth grade should be able to writ
a thoughtful letter, correct as to form, spelling, punctua
tion, and capitalization in the superscription and conclusion
Tax receipts, insurance policies, money order blanks
checks, bills, receipts, notes, and other business forms and
papers in daily use are brought into class for study an<
comparison.

In all grades a minimum amount of required work is as-j
signed for all the members of the class, and sufficient)

GENERAL AIMS

optional exercises to keep the most proficient busy. The
required work covers all the essential principles; and the
elective work is made interesting, broad in its scope, prac-
tical, and closely related to home and business affairs.

It is claimed that the results obtained in arithmetic in
many schools are not at all commensurate with the time

given the subject. No one doubts the jus-
Assignments

tice of the criticism. Consequently, fewer

and more practical topics are assigned the various grades
in our schools, and the time given to arithmetic is increased
in every grade above the second. The elimination of obso-
lete and impractical matter, combined with an increase in
time, should lead to better results, more particularly if the
following points are borne in mind by the teacher:

Cultivate the spirit of self-reliance in the pupils.

Give mental arithmetic its due proportion of time.

Lead pupils to think of the conditions of the problems
before " figuring."

Give full attention to development lessons and to object-
ive work.

Lead the pupils by accurate observation into clear thought
and exact statement.

Have a definite plan for every lesson.

Do not give conundrums.

Require the pupils to think more and to depend less upon
the teacher.

Teaching arithmetic has passed through so many tor-
mented phases of being that considerable valuable informa-
tion is to be found in the way in which a modern course of
study has come into being. This is so clearly shown in an
article by Superintendent Barr of the Stockton schools,

132 METHODS IN TEACHING

published in " Primary Education," January, 1904, that
part of it is here reproduced.

" In May, 1892, a careful study of the conditions in the
Stockton schools was begun to determine just what results

were being secured in each subject in the
Arithmetic J

la I8ga school course, the time given to the sub-

jects, the grade when the pupils begin to
leave school. Briefly, here are some of the facts shown by
this investigation:

" i. From one- third to one-half of the school day was
given to arithmetic in grades one, two, and three.

" 2. In the judgment of the majority of the teachers the
pupils were not well prepared in the work.

" 3. The children could not read many of the problems
that they were expected to solve, nor could they apply with
a fair degree of readiness the number facts learned to sim-
ple problems taken from their own experiences.

"4. In general, the training in other subjects, especially
in reading and language, had not kept pace with the train-
ing in arithmetic.

" 5. Practically all pupils remained in school at least foui
years.

" Obviously, the problem for 1893, even from the stand-
point of arithmetic, was to emphasize reading and
guage so that the pupils could grasp the thought in the
problems to be studied. This naturally led to the cutting
down of the time given arithmetic; yet, to the surprise of
all, the classes were better prepared in that subject at the
close of the year than before.

" This happy result led to the further emphasis of read-
ing and language in 1894 and to a further cutting of the

GENERAL AIMS 133

time given arithmetic, and again did the work in arithmetic
improve."

" In 1895, all formal instruction in arithmetic was omitted
from the first half of the school year, the time so gained

being given to reading and language, based
Incidental , 1 -

on nature study and on stories drawn from

history and literature. In 1896, instruc-
tion in number work was made incidental throughout the
first school year. In 1900, the incidental period was ex-
tended to include the first half of the second school year.

" The results secured by the omission of formal instruc-
tion in arithmetic in the first term of 1895, in the second in
1896, in the third in 1900, showed clearly (at least to the
observers in Stockton), that other subjects are much better
adapted to the needs of the pupils during the first year and
a half of school life than is arithmetic. The final results
in 1903 have also demonstrated that, compared with 1892,
the pupils, by the close of the third school year, can not
only read better, spell better, use their mother tongue bet-
ter, but that they are fully as well prepared in the mechan-
ics of arithmetic, and are far readier in the application of
what they have learned.

" In 1903, the following is the time devoted to arith-
metic :

" First school year, instruction incidental.
Arithmetic
Igo3 " First term, second school year, instruc-

tion incidental.

" Second term, second school year, thirty minutes daily.
" Third school year, sixty minutes daily.
" In the primary grades of the Stockton schools, the
pupils are grouped into small sections for the study of such

134 METHODS IN TEACHING

essential subjects as reading and arithmetic. The number
of sections is determined by the needs of the class, the
teacher being the judge. With a class of
Work forty pupils the number of sections will

vary from three to six and even to eight.
Not only do the number of groups vary in the different
rooms, but the number of pupils in each group and the
time given to the group vary as well. In the drill work
the group usually gathers around the teacher, and the rest
of the class is given carefully prepared busy work in arith-
metic, in drawing, or in language. This method not only
enables the teacher to develop the child along the line of
his needs, but it leads to self-reliant habits of study on the
part of the pupils at their seats.

" The following aims have been kept constantly in mind
in teaching arithmetic in the primary grades in the Stock-
ton schools: i. The securing of accuracy in
Aimg all mechanical processes. 2. The applica-

tion of the number facts learned, first to
the experiences of the child, later to other experiences that
he can readily grasp.

" The incidental work of the first three terms is a prep-
aration for the later systematic study of arithmetic. Only
as the child feels the need of number in

Thc expressing the relations that arise in his

Incidental t . , .. , ,. ,T

Period other work, is number supplied him. Na-

ture study, reading, drawing, and other
studies furnish ample material for developing the number
idea during these three terms. With their interest aroused
through seeing the need of number, and with the maturity

GENERAL AIMS 135

that has come through the three terms' work, the children
are eager for number work.

" Without seeking to exhaust the ' how ' of the incidental
period, which is as varied as are the individualities of the
teachers and the needs of the classes, the following are
among the lines of work taken up during its last two
years :

" As number deals with the relations of quantity, eye and
mind are trained in seeing relations, even during the inci-
dental period. By means of objects in the
Comparisons ••

schoolroom, of lines drawn on the board,

of surfaces, many indefinite comparisons are made. As the
child's number sense develops, and he demands more defi-
nite terms than ' longer,' ' shorter,' * higher/ ' lower/ the
common measuring units are introduced.

" All pupils are supplied with rulers, one foot long, with
sticks of various lengths, with cardboard squares, one inch

square, with shoe pegs, etc. In the work
Measure- , . , r f ,

ments in drawing the use of the ruler is soon

mastered. The half, the fourth, and other
simple fractional relations are as easily seen and mastered
as are integral relations. The following exercises, selected
at random, will give an idea of the work during the latter
part of the first year and the first part of the second :

" i. Measure sticks and draw lines as long, beginning
with one inch.

"2. Measure a one-inch cardboard square. Draw it.
Place two squares side by side. Measure and draw.

" 3. Place sticks so as to form a square, a triangle, an
oblong. Measure and draw.

136 METHODS IN TEACHING

"4. Draw a line, by judging, one inch long. Measure
and correct.

" 5. Draw a one-inch square, by judging. Measure and
correct.

" 6. On blackboard draw, by judging, lines one foot long.
Measure and correct.

" Children enjoy the rhythm of counting. As they are
brought into touch with the idea of number through com-
parisons, measuring, games, counting is
made definite, not only in giving the con-
secutive number names, but in applying them to correspond-
ing groups of objects. The children are led to recognize
instantly objects in unit groups of two, three, four, and five.
In any work above five the smaller group units are used.
This work is never given until the child has met with the
number again and again in his nature study, drawing, or
other studies. In training in the instantaneous recognition
of unit groups, all sorts of objects are used, — dots, lines,
marbles, flowers, boys, girls. Care is taken not to go be-
yond the maturity of the child. In most cases the pupils,
before the close of the incidental period, can count by ones
and tens to one hundred and back."

SECOND YEAR GRADE
SECOND TERM

" With the beginning of the second term of the second
school year formal instruction in arithmetic is begun. Ad-
dition and subtraction are taught together;
The Steps

multiplication, division, and partition, to-
gether. During the first three months of the term addition
and subtraction are emphasized.

GENERAL AIMS 137

" Discovery, through observation of the number fact to
be taught; drill, to fix the fact in mind; application of the
fact to the experiences of the children and to relations that
they can readily grasp, is the order of instruction usually
followed in taking up the formal study of number. At this
time the utmost skill of the teacher is required to know the
content of the child's mind. When the child says that 4
and 3 are 7, for instance, has he imaged 4, 3, and their sum,
7 ? Does he see clearly the relation that 4 and 3 bear to 7
or has he, parrot-like, repeated a sentence without meaning
to him? Every pupil is led to discover the combinations
and separations for himself, again and again, until he knows
them. During this stage of the work the figure processes
are kept in the background, and the number fact is dis-
covered, applied, and emphasized. Figures are then intro-
duced with good old-fashioned drill to fix the facts.

" Training in the instantaneous recognition of the unit
groups, 2, 3, 4, and 5, is continued. Clear mental images

are formed. By this grouping the pupils
Imaging

are led (assisted by objects whenever neces-
sary), to image 6 as 3 and 3; 7 as 5 and 2; also as 3 and
4; 8 as 4 and 4, and as 5 and 3. Subtraction is imaged as
readily as addition. The same process of imaging in
groups, followed by persistent drill, is used in taking up the
work in multiplication, division, and partition.

" As soon as four or five combinations are learned, col-
umn addition is begun. In this work great care is taken

by the teacher in preparing exercises, as no
Addition combination is presented that the children

have not already learned. The work in
counting and writing numbers is continued within reason-

138 METHODS IN TEACHING

able limits, seldom extending beyond one hundred. The
pupils count by I's, 2's, 5's, and ID'S, both forwards and
backwards.

" In applying the number facts learned, such common
measuring units as the cent, nickel, dime; inch, foot, yard,

square inch, square foot, cubic inch; pint,
Measuring
Unitg quart; pound; dozen, are constantly used.

In so far as possible, the measuring units
are used by the children themselves. Estimates by obser-
vation and verification by measurement are an important
factor of the work. Drawing lines and surfaces at the
blackboard, modeling at the sand table, stick laying, string-
ing beads, measuring water or sand, are among the exer-
cises that may be noted in the various grades.

" The following from a second year plan book will give
an idea of the use of the foot rule in the application of the

number facts learned:
*° " i. Addition. Measure a stick. Draw

a line one inch longer; two inches longer.

" 2. Subtraction. Measure a stick. Draw a line one
inch shorter; two inches shorter.

" 3. Multiplication. Take two sticks equal in length.
Draw a line as long as the two together. As long as three
sticks. Measure a cardboard square. Draw an oblong as
long as four squares ; as two.

" 4. Division. Measure a stick. Draw as many one-inch
lines as equal it. As many two-inch lines.

" 5. Partition. Measure a stick. Draw a line half as
long. Draw one one-fourth as long. One and one-half
times as long.

GENERAL AIMS

139

" 6. Estimates. Draw on the blackboard, by judgment, a
ic one foot long. Measure and correct. Two feet long.

[alf a foot long. Similar simple exercises are worked out

>r other measuring units."

THIRD YEAR GRADE

" In the third school year, the greater portion of the time
during the first term of five months is devoted to addition
and subtraction. Seeing, memorizing, applying, these are
still the successive steps followed in presenting the work.

" Objects are used occasionally, but only when the chil-
dren need help in imaging the combinations given. A re-
view of the combinations in addition and
subtraction, previously given, is combined
with their systematic application to all pos-
ble combinations within the number space no. As sub-
ction is but the inverse of addition, the two are corre-
ed, the emphasis, however, being placed on addition,
ginning with the combinations 2 and 3 (although any
,er combination will do as well), the pupils commence the
rmal work of the year as follows :

The
Combinations

3333

2 12 22 32

2222

3 13 23 33

3
102

2
I03

then

" After the pupils have mastered these combinations, the

I4O METHODS IN TEACHING

work is reversed, and the corresponding combinations in
subtraction are taken up.

" Simple questions are now given, in which the pupils
are led to apply the combinations formed with 2 and 3 to
relations 'and measurements that they can understand. Re-
turning to the combination work, the next step taken up
is with 5 (2 and 3) and 4. The same work is given as that
indicated with 2 and 3. Column addition is now begun
with 2, 3, 4. Adding 10, 20, 30, etc., to the 2, the drill is
continued until the pupils can add the columns accurately
and quickly.

" The third combination taken is 9 and 3. Here the
pupils must be led to understand the increase by tens.
After taking up all the combinations with 9 and 3 within
the number space no, the pupils continue the drill with
column addition, taking 2, 3, 4, 3, and adding successive
tens to the lower figures as long as may seem best.

" The multiplication tables are developed by addition,
generally by means of rectangles or circles drawn on the

board and divided into the proper number
The

Tables °^ Parts by the children. Division and par-

tition are correlated with multiplication.
When the child learns that 6X3 are 18, and that 3X6
are 18, he can readily see that there are six 3's and three
6's in 18; that one-third of 18 is 6, and one-sixth of 18 is
3; also that two-thirds of 18 are 12, and that 12 is two-
thirds of 18. When the children see how any particular
table is formed, they are drilled in it, sometimes by se-
quence, always by skipping about, until they know it.
" Much of the drill work in multiplication is combined

GENERAL AIMS 14!

with addition. This is frequently done with the more dif-
ficult combinations in addition. For in-
Addition stance .

w*th 2 X 0 -f- 7 ' — '

Multiplication

3X9 + 7= etc.

In real life a large part, in the schoolroom most, of our
multiplication is combined with addition. There is econ-
omy both of time and effort in such training, as well as
excellent preparation for the work in long multiplication.

" A thorough drill is given on inexact divisions, not only
for the thought involved, but as a preparation for short
division. As soon as the table of 2's is completed the work
is begun with short multiplication and short division.

" In the application of the number facts learned, the com-
mon measuring units are kept before the children.

Through estimates and measurements of
Applied f. . t. ,

Arithmetic hnes, surfaces, solids, and other magni-

tudes coming within the experiences of the
pupils, they are trained in seeing relations, both integral
and fractional. When the measuring unit can not be
handled by the pupils, they are given a clear mental picture
of it. For instance, it is a mile from the Court House to
East Street. John has walked the mile between these
points in thirteen minutes; Henry has covered it on his
bicycle in six minutes. In giving any problem involving
miles, it is always related to some particular mile taken as
a unit.

" Children like to draw, to make things. This construc-
tive faculty is made use of, not only in the third school year,

I42 METHODS IN TEACHING

but in the first and second as well. In the third year rect-
angles are drawn by measurements in developing the multi-

plication tables. Many simple problems are
Constructive

given for blackboard and seat work, that can

be solved by means of diagrams. Simple
exercises in drawing to scale are given. Pupils are encour-
aged to make things from paper, pasteboard, wood, accord-
ing to definite measurements.

"Through similar constructive work the pupils are led
to add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions, no attention

whatever being given to processes. Here
Fractions

is the way four such questions, given as

busy work, were solved by a pupil during the second school
month of the third grade, the telling being preceded by
drawings in each case:

" I. I drew a line 2.\ inches long. I added to it a line
ij inches long. My line is 3} inches long.

" 2. I drew a line I J inches long. I drew another twice
as long. My last line is 3 inches long.

"3. I drew a line 2j inches long. I cut off ij inches.
My line is now ij inches long.

"4. I drew a line 5 inches long. I divided it into half
inches. There are ten half-inches in the line.

" Such exercises develop not only observation and
thought, but what is of equal importance, expression.

" Only simple problems are given. In so far as possible
they are drawn from the experience of the children. Be-

ginning with the second year simple prob-
Problems

lems are given as a part of many reading

lessons. No part of the arithmetic work has a greater
value than this. In reading problems, the children are

GENERAL AIMS 143

trained to note what is given, what is asked for. They are
led to feel that reading the problem is the first great step
in its solution.

"While the pupils are trained to explain in simple lan-
guage the problems given, all the whys and wherefores are
not demanded in either the problem work or in such me-
chanical processes as ' borrowing ' and ' carrying.' Nor is
it considered criminal if pupils fail to be able to apply all
the numbers taken up. While applied work and measure-
ments are important and are not neglected, the principal
aim of the year's work is facility in handling the combina-
tions given. Even in the third year something must be
left to the growing maturity of the child."

From the many exercises in arithmetic by pupils of the
third grade three are given below.

I.

I drew a square one inch on every side.

I drew two squares. There are two square inches in it.

I drew a rectangle 4 inches long and 2 inches wide. It
is twelve inches around it. There are 8 square inches in
the rectangle.

One square is J of the rectangle. Five squares are f
of the rectangle.

II.

I have a small square. In my square are four triangles.
Each triangle is J of my square.

III.

PROBLEMS

A farmer had 275 horses. He sold 78 of them. He had
197 horses left.

144 METHODS IN TEACHING

One pencil cost 5 cents. I bought 5 pencils and had to
pay 25 cents for them.

There were 23 cows in one field and 57 cows in another
field. In the two fields there were 80 cows.

There were 400 cows in one field and the farmer put 127
of them into another field. There were 273 cows left in the
first field.

CHAPTER IX

SOME SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS IN FOURTH,
FIFTH, SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND EIGHTH GRADES

FOURTH YEAR GRADE

The work of this year includes daily oral drill in addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, division, and partition of
numbers through 144. Many combina-

Matter t*ons are £*ven> suc^ as 25 + 18; 80 — 21 ;

9 X 400 ; the indicated operations being
performed mentally. Long division, easy factoring, prac-
tice in reading and writing numbers through two periods,
are also in the allotment for fourth grades. Such Roman
numerals as are found in the reading lessons are taught.

Certain fractions are taken objectively; such as, f, f, f,
f , and many others. Where the results are integers, parts
of numbers are found. By the use of the ruler and of
blackboard illustrations, pupils are led in a simple, con-
crete way to add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions,
continuing the work begun in these lines in the third grade.
To aid in the thorough comprehension of fractions, differ-
ent concrete, fractional forms and results are frequently
compared with one another.

By the use of the common unjts of measurement, the
pupils are kept familiar with inch, foot, yard, mile; square
inch, square foot; cubic inch, cubic foot; pint, quart, gal-
lon; ounce, pound; unit, dozen, gross; second, minute,
hour, week, month, year.

ii 145

146 METHODS IN TEACHING

Throughout the year problems are considered very im-
portant. At least one a day is required in written work,
and every day several are given orally. They are taken
from a variety of sources, — geography, nature study, the
stories, daily events; there are simple exercises in buying
and selling, and in making change. No problem is given
requiring more than two mental operations, and a clear
statement of his problem is required of every child, whether
he is solving it orally or in writing.

By constant association of concrete forms with their
actual measurements, empirically determined by the chil-
dren; by training to see relations, both integral and frac-
tional, the solution of these problems is raised out of guess-
ing into careful calculation and accurate knowledge. These
are two of the important aims of the work in the fourth
grade.

Busy work and class exercises, closely correlated with
drawing and geography, are also prominent features of the
work of the year. This constructive work centers around
the use of the ruler, of surface and solid forms, of prob-
lems involving the use of diagrams, and of drawing to
scale.

A fourth grade teacher1 says of this work:

On coming into the fourth grade the children can use

the inch, half-inch, and quarter-inch, and they soon learn

the eighth-inch also. By using the ruler

Fractional the children readily learn to add such ex-

ments amples as the following: Draw a line ij

inches long ; add to it a line 2 J inches long ;

how long is the line thus made? Draw a figure 2j inches

*Miss Maud Southworth.

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 147

by 3! inches. Tell what you did. Find the perimeter.
How long is it?

Later, such examples as the following are mastered: I
have three pieces of string; one is 2j inches long, another
is 3J inches long, and the third is 2,\ inches long. If laid
end to end, how long a piece of string would I have?

Towards the end of the school year the pupils will add
such numbers without actually drawing the lines, and many
can add them mentally.

Comparisons of lines are also made. Lines are drawn
on the board with colored chalk or put on a square of card-
board. Different objects in the schoolroom are considered,
width, height, length, being compared one with the other.
The objects for drawing are reasoned out in the same way,
and proportion becomes easier. Thus the children become
accustomed to measuring and to estimating the perimeters
and surfaces of objects varying greatly in shape and size.

Until Christmas, the end of the first term, the children
are busy with measurements, fractions considered con-
cretely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and short
division. One problem is given every day and the children
are taught to read it and to reason it out. After the Christ-
mas vacation comes the real work of the year, long division.

In the third grade, in learning the tables, the children
found J of 12; in the fourth grade they find f, f. Later,
they find mentally such parts as f of 480.

For mental drill such combinations are given as:

14 18 20 30 14

+ 10 +10 +10 +10 +ii or 14 +10+ 1

148 METHODS IN TEACHING

2O 4O 60 30

— 10 — 20 — 40 — 19 or 30 — 10 — 9

76

— 48 or 76 — 40 — 8

For help in long division such tables as the following are
given :

13X3; 14X3; 15X3; 16X3;

17X3; 18X3; 19X3; 19X9;

39-^3; 42-^-3; 45-^-3; 48-^-3;

5!-^3; 54-^-3; 57-^-3; 171 -f- 9-

Compound numbers are begun in the earlier grades by
actual measurements. In the fourth grade also the pint,
quart, and gallon measures are in the room. Pupils are
using the inch, foot, and yard with their rulers; and they
find the square foot and square yard by measurements. If
all this has been done before it is so much easier in the
fourth grades; it is never unnecessary training, for to be
accurate in estimates the pupils must be kept in frequent
touch with the actual measurements.

By the last of the year the pupils can find the area of
such surfaces as this:

A piece of paper is 9 inches long and 6 inches wide ; what
is its area? Pupils draw the surface, divide it into square
inches, and write the answer in a sentence, telling how th
work has been done. The pupils are then shown that the
same result is obtained by multiplying 9X6. In time they

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS I4Q

use much larger numbers, without drawing. The process
of solving the problem mentally is often followed by draw-
ing the area to scale.

Thirty minutes a day are given to arithmetic in the
fourth grade. Most of this time is taken for oral exer-
cises, unless some entirely new subject is to be presented.
Thirty minutes a day are also used for seat work by every
pupil. This generally consists of ten examples. Much of
the grade work is based on problems drawn from the expe-
riences of the pupils.

FIFTH YEAR GRADE

With the close of the fourth grades there begins among
the pupils that constant dropping out of school that does not
cease thereafter. Consequently, persistent effort is made
to give every child as thorough a preparation as his mental
development will permit for the world into which he is
entering. Arithmetic is one of the necessities in all lives,
but the processes are not many that are required for a boy
or girl who leaves school when but eleven years old. Such
a child does need, however, thorough knowledge of those
few processes, rapidity and accuracy in their use, and a
quick recognition of the proper operation.

The fifth grade outline of arithmetic aims to give care-
ful and extensive reviews of the uses of integers in numbers
through three periods and of the handling of simple frac-
tions. In using integers there is drill in rapid addition of
ledger columns; mental work with such combinations as,
33 + 42, 84 — 47, 6400 -r- 8 ; long multiplication and divis-
ion are completed ; pupils become very familiar with factor-
ing; numbers of three periods are written and read; the

ISO METHODS IN TEACHING

greatest common factor and the least common multiple are
introduced, but drills on these subjects are in connection
with addition and subtraction of fractions; Roman numer-
als are treated incidentally, as they appear in reading.

Fundamental operations with small fractional numbers
are a constant part of the fifth year course. They are stud-
ied concretely by means of lines, diagrams,
solids, as in the lower grades, so that the
pupils are led to think of fractions as having representative
bodies in the world of realities. Puzzling and complex
forms are omitted, for there is no desire to confuse the
child; on the contrary, the aim of the year in regard to
fractions is that every pupil become able to form clear men-
tal images of fractions, so that all operations with them
may be simplified. Such fractions as are commonly met in
business transactions are used for the drills and problems
given in the class. The most frequent are, — halves, thirds,
fourths, fifths, sixths, eighths, twelfths. The pupils are
expected to learn to find the least common denominator by
inspection. Aliquot parts are studied, and fractions are
compared.

Measurements are continued. The various linear, sur-
face, cubical, liquid, and weight units are in the room, and
in a concrete way the pupils become famil-

Num^ers *ar wit^ them a11' Dri11 is given in cnang~

ing any unit of these measurements into the

next larger and the next smaller unit. Estimates are made
of lengths, weights, surfaces, cubical contents, and the esti-
mates are verified. The area of rectangular surfaces is
found by multiplying the number of units in a row by the
number of rows.

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS

Problems of some practical nature, but simple enough to
be within the grasp of the pupils, are in daily use. Mental
work is given as much time as written work; it always
comes first, so as to prepare the mind for more rapid think-
ing in the written exercises. Considerable constructive
work is given in connection with drawing and geography.
About fifty minutes a day are given to arithmetic, mental
and written, in this grade.

The following is summarized from an account of the
year's work and the method of developing its various fea-
tures, as given by one of the regular teachers r1

For convenience in handling fractions the subject is di-
vided into three topics, — preliminary work, addition and
subtraction, multiplication and division. Under prelimin-
ary work the following points are taught, — denominator,
numerator, formation of a fraction, raising to higher terms,
reducing to lower terms, changing whole or mixed numbers
to improper fractions, changing fractional forms to whole
or mixed numbers, finding the least common denominator
of two or more fractions.

To develop the idea of the denominator an exercise sim-
ilar to the following is taken: Divide the pages in your

readers into two equal parts. What is each
Denominator

part called? What are the two halves

equal to? Show J, |, J, f of the readers. Find J, £ of
your rulers. These exercises are continued with lines,
squares, yard-sticks, and circles.

Development exercises for the numerator follow. The
teacher tells the class to draw a line showing the denomina-

'Miss Harriet M. Keating.

I $2 METHODS IN TEACHING

tor 3. A brace is placed above one of the parts, and the
class is asked to express in words and by the proper frac-
tional writing how many parts have thus
Numerator

been taken. The pupils then show § of a

line, |, £ . The same is shown with squares, circles, objects,
until the meaning of the numerator is clear. The forma-
tion of the fraction is then dwelt upon, until the meaning
of both numerator and denominator is thoroughly under-
stood.

A line is divided into two parts and one-half is taken.
Directly beneath the first line a second one is shown, hav-
ing the denominator ?.
Higher and

Lower Terms 2

I

Then come questions and observations. How many parts
have we? One-half of the line is the same as how many
fourths? Write J, f. Each term of the first fraction has
been multiplied by what? Has the value of the fraction
been changed? Illustrate many times. Use squares, cir-
cles, lines, objects. Make the rule for what has been done.
Reduce to lower terms by reversing the operation and the
illustrations. Drill thoroughly.

Factoring is developed through questioning, and num-
bers to 145 are factored. Rules for factoring by inspec-
tion are copied into the notebooks and used
Factoring

for reference. Two numbers are then used

for factoring by inspection and for comparison, as 52 and
78, and cancellation is developed and explained. It is soon
understood, and its use minimizes the labor.

Integers are changed to fractional forms. How many
halves in 4? How many times £ are there in 2? How

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 153

many times £ are there in 3 ? Thus there is developed the
rule for changing an integer to a fractional form.

Fractions are next reduced to a common denominator, as
J and J. This is a repetition of the process of finding

higher terms for a fraction, and is devel-
Common . .. . .

Denominator oped with lines and circles m a similar man-

ner. This includes fractions whose de-
nominators are prime to each other, as | and ^. The drills
in factoring immediately suggest 6. By means of circles
divided into sixths the common denominator is illustrated.
Fractions having different denominators are compared
as a preparation for the operations for which the pupils are

about ready. A pupil is given ten circles,
Comparison

of Fractions cut mto halves- From these i» l> f are

taken and fitted into wholes, f are taken
up and f- are removed from them. After many exercises
of this sort, fourths are made from a portion of the halves,
and twelfths from some of the fourths. Fourths and
twelfths are added, subtracted; combinations are also made
with the halves. Five circles are cut into thirds; some of
these are cut into sixths; some of these into twelfths.
Thirds are added and subtracted; sixths; twelfths; combi-
nations are made, and the pupils .work out the results.
Mental and oral drills are given. Addition and subtraction
of fractions now follow with comparatively little hesitation
or confusion.

Multiplication of a fraction by an integer is first pictured
with lines. One line is divided into eighths, and one part

is taken. A second line, of equal length,
Multiplication {s drawn • t ^ ^ fi it .g

of Fractions

divided into eighths, three of which are

taken. The pupils readily see that the second line that is

154 METHODS IN TEACHING

ond line that is marked off with a brace is three times the
length of the first one. They write the two fractions, J, f ,
realizing that to obtain the latter they have multiplied the
first by 3, and that only the numerator has changed. Many
drills follow, that, in spite of their simplicity, fix the fact
that to multiply the numerator of a fraction by an integer
multiplies the value of the fraction.

To multiply a fraction by an integer by dividing the
denominator is also illustrated by lines and circles. Many
illustrations, continued at intervals for several days, fix the
fact that the smaller the denominator the fewer and larger
are the parts into which an object is divided; hence, divid-
ing the denominator by any number multiplies the size of
the part by that number.

Division of fractions reverses the illustrations for multi-
plication of fractions ; consequently, because of the resultant
confusion in the minds of pupils, special care must be ob-
served in making the illustrations, which
ivision should be frequent and numerous. The steps

taken are : I . To divide a fraction by an
integer by dividing the numerator. 2. To divide a fraction
by an integer by multiplying the denominator. 3. To divide
a mixed number by an integer. 4. To divide an integer by
a fraction whose numerator is I. 5. To divide an integer
by a fraction when the integer is exactly divisible. 6. To
divide an integer by a fraction when the integer is not
exactly divisible. 7. To divide a fraction by a fraction
when the numerator of the dividend is exactly divisible.
8. To divide a fraction by a fraction when the numera-
tor is not exactly divisible. 9. To divide a mixed number

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 155

by a fraction. 10. To divide a mixed number by a mixed
number.

It is desired that the pupil shall be able to do more than
" work " fractions ; he must be able to see them, to visualize
the operations so that he understands them perfectly. In
this ability will lie his real mastery of their use in later life.

Compound numbers and tables are also a part of this
year's work, and the aliquot parts of a dollar are studied.

f> £> T£ °f I0° cents are found mentally;
Money

rib t> £ are worked out by diagrams. For

|| an oblong is ruled, 6 by 4 inches in size, divided into
spaces one-half inch square. By inspection of the ruler
the children estimate J of an inch and add a strip that wide
to the width of the oblong. This gives a surface I2x8j
inches, or the equivalent of 100 squares. One row equals
TV of 100, or 8J squares ; two rows equal -fz of 100, or i6|
squares.

For f an oblong is ruled, 4 inches wide by 6J long, di-
vided into half-inch squares. This gives a surface of 8x
12 J squares, or 100 squares. One row is £ of 100, or 12 J
squares. Two rows are f of 100, or 25 squares.

For £ an oblong is ruled, ij inches wide and 4 inches
long, and divided into quarter-inch squares. By inspec-
tion of the ruler the children estimate f of a quarter-inch
space, and add that amount to the length of the line. This
gives a surface of 6 x i6| squares, or 100 squares. One
row is £ of 100, or i6| squares. Two rows are f of 100,
or 33^ squares. Some of the most important parts of 100
are learned by the pupils, as : 8J = ?V of 100 ; I2j = J of
100; i6f = £ of 100. Other aliquot parts are also mem-
orized, as: f, |, i, i, |, etc.

156 METHODS IN TEACHING

The other weights and measures, mentioned above, are
reviewed, in order to test, rectify, and strengthen the chil-
dren's knowledge and ability to estimate. Then the tables
and the various abbreviations in use are learned.

SIXTH YEAR GRADE

The general outline of the subjects to be studied in the
sixth grade is similar to that for fifth grades, only the work

becomes more intensive, and the subjects
Course

are treated more broadly. Decimal frac-
tions added to common fractions means that percentage,
bills, .and many business transactions in money matters can
be studied more fully than in the earlier grades. Complex
fractions are also taken up this year. Exercises and drills
are numerous to fix the tables of weight and measure
learned and used in the preceding grades.

Mental and oral exercises are given one-third of the time
allotted to arithmetic during this year; concrete measure-
ments are continued at intervals; construc-
Distribution . , . .„ . , . , , ,

of Time tlve wor^ 1S stl^ associated with the draw-

ing, and, in addition, pupils are required to
draw to scale the surfaces mentioned in assigned problems
or to make illustrative diagrams, showing that the opera-
tion to be performed is understood thoroughly. This illus-
trative work is continued in the seventh and eighth grades.
The special new feature of the year is the study of deci-
mal fractions, particularly in their application to percentage

and to other business forms. At first, the
Percentage

pupils are led to see that the underlying

principles of fractions, both common and decimal, are iden-
tical with those of percentage. They are also led to see

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 157

and to think the percentage relations by the use of lines, cir-
cles, squares, just as was done with common fractions, until
fifty per cent, of a body has as concrete an existence in their
minds as one-half of that same body would have. Drills
are used on giving parts of numbers as decimals, common
fractions, aliquot parts, and percentage. The aim is that
pupils know at sight the decimal and percentage values of
the following fractions : |, f ; |, f , | ; £, f , f , J ; |, f , f ,

$ > i> I > f > T> f> f> f j i> i» f » i> i » TT> rV 5 TCT > 3rV

The following definite suggestions come from a sixth
grade room:1

Common fractions having been introduced in the fifth
grades and the principles learned there, the work in the
sixth grades is a review of the subject,
combined with more thorough and difficult
work by the introduction of more difficult
problems, correct analysis, decimal fractions, and complex
fractions. In presenting the subject of decimals, the pupils
are led to see that they are studying another kind of frac-
tion. The parts of the unit are first given in the form of
a common fraction, then as a decimal fraction. The nu-
merator and denominator of a decimal are considered, and
the use of the point as well as the importance of always
noticing it. Wfiile learning to read decimals, the pupils
also spell the denominators and the corresponding term in
whole numbers, so as to fix the distinction in spelling, pro-
nunciation, and meaning. Careful attention is given to
writing and reading decimals before any examples are
given, for the majority of the mistakes in working with
decimals come from the fact that the pupils do not under-

"Mr. Edward P. Liesy.

METHODS IN TEACHING

stand these first steps, consequently the real value of any
decimal is obscured.

The pupils are taught that decimal fractions, like com-
mon fractions, can not be added or subtracted until they
are reduced to a common denominator.
Adding Illustrations by comparing decimals placed

ftflfl

Subtracting correctly and incorrectly with common

fractions show how this common denomi-
nator is to be found. As:

T<>- 125

•I25—

The fact that placing decimal points under each other re-
moves the difficulty is usually hailed with delight for ease
of operation, and the illustration usually tends to greater

care in writing decimals. As: * . The pupils are led

to see that with this position tenths are being added to
tenths, hundredths to hundredths. Many examples are
given through all of this preliminary work with decimals,
because of the importance of getting started right. Spe-
cial drills are necessary where whole numbers and decimals
are to be added or subtracted, as: 25 + .i25=?2 +
.001 = ?

Multiplication and division of decimals are introduced
through common fractions, in order to fix the need and the

reason for the pointing off of the product.
Multiplication Examples are given as follows : & X 1% —
Division TTT- Written out as a decimal the pupil

observes that to say .2 X .2 = .04, he must
put in the cipher to make his decimal read correctly. Drill

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 159

is frequent, comparing constantly with equivalent common
fractions, until the processes and the reasons for them are
thoroughly learned.

After studying fractions and decimals percentage is com-
paratively easy. Much oral work is given before any writ-
ten work is attempted. No terms, such as
Percentage

base, rate, are required in the beginning.

The first problems are similar to the following: What is
25 per cent, of $160? What is 17 per cent, of 140 gallons?
Common fractions are substituted for the per cent, and the
indicated multiplication is also performed.

The next problems deal with finding out what per cent,
one number is of another; as: $9 is what per cent, of $12?
This is so closely related to fractions that the same solution
is required, only the answer is finally given in per cent.
From a knowledge of aliquot parts many of the fractional
answers are given as per cent, at sight ; others can be given
by a little mental work; still others must be thought out
more laboriously. This last, however, is an exercise that
belongs to more advanced grades. Problems in profit and
loss and many miscellaneous examples, including all of the
principles that have been developed in percentage, complete
the work of the year in percentage.

To secure accuracy in business forms and letter writing

requires much careful work. There are so many little

points to be observed that pupils are liable

Forms " to over^°o^ some of them; consequently,

repetition and rewriting are necessary.

The proper forms are placed before the class and explained.

After copying and studying them, many bills and letters are

dictated. The result desired is that every pupil shall be

I6O METHODS IN TEACHING

able to write a letter ordering a bill of goods, to make out
a bill to be sent with the goods ordered, to write a letter
sending the money to pay for the goods, and to write the
receipt for the money paid. Every paper must be accom-
panied by the proper addresses of the person to whom the
letter is sent and of the sender. The pupils also write many
original bills and letters. While making out these bills and
orders, the pupils are asked to learn from the daily paper
the actual prices of produce, and to use them in their trans-
actions. From these newspaper price-lists a great deal of
information is obtained concerning articles bought and
sold. In connection with letter writing, there is taught
how to subscribe for a newspaper or magazine.

No written work in measurements is taken during this
year, but many applications of the tables already learned
are made, work with the ruler is frequent,
mentg and the tables are reviewed whenever it

seems necessary. Some new measurements
are drawn on the board; the square rod is drawn on the
floor of the school room; the square mile is indicated as
lying between certain boundaries, and the pupils are en-
couraged to walk or ride over its area so as to become
familiar with its extent. Square and cubic measure are
emphasized, as being the least understood of all the tables,
but the work is in the nature of simple problems to make
the principles clear, rather than difficult problems for the
sake of the work itself. Drawings are made to represent
some of the solids measured by cubic measure, and the con-
tents are found.

Simple interest is taken as a part of the money topic.
The subject is given in a very elementary manner. The

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS l6l

pupils are told how men borrow money, pay for its use, and
return it; how securities are given as a safeguard for the
Simple money borrowed. No difficult problems are

Interest given, and no special rule or method is in-

sisted upon for rinding the interest. Many problems are
given, the simpler ones being worked orally, while the more
difficult ones are worked out on the board or paper.

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE

Accuracy, rapidity, neatness, these are the three require-
ments kept constantly before the seventh grades. Pupils

who have remained in school until this year
Course

will, if passed in their studies, ordinarily

continue until the end of the grammar grades. Conse-
quently, the work of the seventh and eighth grades can be
planned together as a whole more safely than any other two
consecutive grades. There are many and frequent exer-
cises in rapid addition of ledger columns and of simpler
sums. Mental work is continued in combinations of two
or more figures, a feature of the exercises in all of the
grammar grades. The Arabic and Roman notations are
completed. The textbook presentation of common and
decimal fractions is finished during this year, although
drills on these subjects are important so long as the pupil
is in school. The pupils are made familiar with several
more tables, taken concretely at first, if possible. These
are troy weight, dry measure, paper and books, English
money, and counting table. Subtraction of dates; lumber
measure; city blocks; cost of building walks, fences, grad-
ing streets, excavating, and similar work, all belong to the
seventh grade. The pupils measure walks and fences that
12

1 62 METHODS IN TEACHING

are being built, cellars that are being excavated, rooms that
are being plastered, and report on the measurements taken
and the data secured. This work may be done by one pupil,
by the whole class, or by a committee appointed for the
purpose. In connection with geography, a simple course
in longitude and time is given.

Percentage is applied more extensively to business opera-
tions by familiarity with the following topics: percentage,
profit and loss, commission, simple interest, accounts, in-
surance, and simple work in partial payments. In connec-
tion with these subjects the pupils are trained to write all
the business forms required by them. Simple algebraic
equations are used in many solutions.

The principal of one of the grammar schools and the
teacher of a seventh grade gives the following suggestions
from his work :*

Much oral work is given to oblige correct thinking ; there
are frequent short oral drills for quickness and accuracy;
computations are tested both by rough estimates and by
exact means ; unusual technical terms and formal rules are
avoided except when necessary for good work, careful ex-
pression, or complete understanding.

Since the cry of the business man that pupils can not even
add or multiply correctly is only too well founded, much
practice is given for acquiring facility in
calculations. Hence, addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division are reviewed, reviewed, and re-
viewed. All kinds of problems, especially those that are
based on actual business transactions, are used to prevent
monotony in these reviews. Common and decimal frac-

*Mr. O. H. Grubbs.

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 163

tions are reviewed and completed, special attention being
given to pure decimals. As in the drills on integers, in-
numerable problems are given in fractions to develop speed
and accuracy. Much stress is placed on cancellation, actual
multiplication and division being performed by the shorter
process whenever possible.

Believing that any one, " good at figures," can readily
adapt himself to his environments when placed on his own

resources in business, only a few tables in
Denominate , . , , , ,

Numbers denominate numbers are required; but, by

a concrete use of linear, surface, and cubic
measures, weights, money, and counting, pupils are led to
make more and more definite their ideas of number rela-
tions. Constructive diagrams, drawn to scale, illustrative
of the assigned problems, are required very frequently. In
objective work, measurements of lumber at the lumber
yards, of excavations being made, of special points in
houses under construction, of fences, sidewalks, streets, are
usually obtained through efforts of the class as a whole.
An individual or a committee takes the measurements when-
ever it is not convenient for the whole class to do so. This
work is very interesting and instructive for both teacher
and pupils.

As we are working for mathematical power, its develop-
ment is not retarded by forcing unnecessary assistance upon

the pupils. In percentage, for instance,
Percentage .

where the problems are similar in every

respect to those given the fifth grades in fractions and the
sixth grades in decimals, the pupils are expected to reason
out their own work. Knowing this, the children respond
to the requirement, usually with readiness and success.

164 METHODS IN TEACHING

Little stress is laid upon the various terms, insurance, com-
mission, profit and loss ; the pupil who has been well taught
in fractions and decimals handles any of these topics with-
out further help. Simple problems are given, and empha-
sis is laid upon the fact that per cent, means hundredths,
or a fraction with 100 for a denominator. The pupil is
trained to ask himself of what the per cent, is to be taken.
This is, of course, largely a matter of language. Making
use of aliquot parts connects percentage with fractions eas-
ily, and helps prevent falling into rote methods.

In mental arithmetic the aim is to cover the same work
done in written arithmetic, fixing the principles by short,

simple, practical examples. Part of every
Arithmetic period for recitation is devoted to oral

analyses. Every day from five to ten ex-
amples are given by the teacher, the pupils writing only
the answers.

As there is nothing beyond the intelligence of the average
child in the application of simple algebraic formulas to the

solution of problems, the use of the equa-

Til A

E uation t*on *s °^ten required. It is always em-

ployed in a simple manner, and the pupils
soon learn to enjoy its use and to appreciate the greater
ease of solution thus made possible.

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE

The chief work of this grade is a thorough review of all

the subjects and processes of the preceding grades, laying

special stress on the fundamental operations
Course

with integers, common fractions, such of

the tables as are in frequent use, and percentage. Abund-
ant drill is given in problems, both oral and written, for the

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 165

accuracy, rapidity, and precision of work that is considered
essential for every pupil before finishing the grammar
grades.

The advanced work deals with ratio, proportion, partner-
ship, taxes, compound interest, trade discount, powers and
roots with application to mensuration. Mental work is
still a prominent feature, one-third of the time, approxi-
mately, being given to exercises that are to be solved men-
tally. Some work in book-keeping is introduced, familiar-
izing the pupils with the meaning and use of the terms
debtor, creditor, cash account, day book, and ledger. Keep-
ing small personal accounts is usually an interesting method
of study with the pupils. In connection with these exer-
cises, there is opportunity for considerable training in writ-
ing business letters and making out necessary forms. The
simple algebraic equation is used as in the seventh grades
in the solution of many problems.

The principal of one of the grammar schools and teacher
of an eighth grade1 gives some of the methods used in his
class :

The idea of training for habit is kept constantly in mind,
while the thought of the year concerning knowledge is to

give the pupils a familiarity with number
Aims

processes that will assist them definitely in

bread-winning pursuits. Many pupils and people have
ability, but they are lacking in the power of concentration ;
they have brains, but are handicapped by an inability for
continued effort. Consequently, if pupils can work in-
tensely on some problem for one recitation period, endeav-
oring, while working out the solution, to express their ideas

1 Mr. William H. Murray.

1 66 METHODS IN TEACHING

logically, systematically, and neatly, valuable power is being
gained. Certainly, concentration is being developed. Ex-
tremes in this mental discipline are avoided, for ability to
reason out a puzzle does not always imply that the power
gained can be applied in other directions.

The problems and general treatment of insurance as given
in our textbook having been pronounced obsolete and im-
practical by a half dozen of our local in-
Insurance

surance agents, the teacher has made a

study of modern methods and presents the subject as busi-
ness is actually transacted in the offices. One of our local
agents kindly favored us with a talk on insurance methods,
which proved very instructive. From him we obtained a
rate book and insurance maps of the city. The superin-
tendent of streets loaned us his rubber stamp of a city
block. Every pupil was given a diagram of a block, upon
which, after locating the lot where he lived, he made a dia-
gram of his own home and of other buildings if there were
any. From the rate book was obtained the rating of the
property, after which finding the premium was an easy
matter.

In considering insurance such questions as these are
asked: Why is A's house (which is isolated) rated so much
lower than B's (which is crowded among other houses) ?
Why are brick buildings rated lower than frame buildings?
The pupils are asked what rates they would think livery
stables, planing mills, paint factories, would have to pay.
In most cases the answers are readily given. Pupils who
live in the country discover that their rates are higher than
those of many living in the city, and they are eager to
know why. The fact that Chinatown has a high rate af-

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS l6/

fords food for thought. One member of the class dis-
covered that his rate had been almost doubled during the
last year. A committee of the pupils sent to investigate
concluded that it was because a large hay barn had been
constructed on the adjoining lot.

Comparisons between the school house and other build-
ings are made. The pupils are encouraged to bring in all
the questions that they can, and by the time that we are
ready to take up a new topic the ground has been very well
covered. The teacher is often surprised to see how inter-
esting a dry rate book becomes when put into actual use.
Many oral and a few written problems are given, and every
pupil writes a paper summarizing the knowledge that is
gained.

In computing interest the hundred month method is used.
The basic idea is that the interest on any principal for one

hundred months at 12 per cent, is equal
Interest

to the principal, and that the interest for a

number of months, an aliquot part of one hundred, is just
that part of the principal. The interest for one month is
yj-g- of the principal, and the interest for a certain number
of days is equal to so many thirtieths reduced to the lowest
terms of y^ of the principal. If we desire the interest
for eight months, we point off two places in the principal
and multiply by 8. Having found the interest at 12 per
cent., the interest at any per cent, may be found by first see-
ing what part the given per cent, is of twelve, and then by
taking that fractional part of the interest at 12 per cent.
The advantages of this method are speed and the avoidance
of bothersome fractions, for the work is largely of a deci-
mal nature.

1 68 METHODS IN TEACHING

Square and cube root are developed by the blocks. When
the pupils understand the principle, they are allowed to work

by rule. After the demonstration is made
Square and , Jf

Cube Root v teacher, a pupil, generally one of the

brightest, is called upon to present the same
to the class, using the blocks while so doing. In a very
short time every pupil in the class is able to present the sub-
ject intelligently. Finally, the pupils are required to make
the drawings representing the different steps, and to de-
scribe the process in writing. Problems involving the ap-
plication of square and cube root follow.

In measuring surfaces and contents, a special effort is
made to lead the pupils to see that shapes and forms have

a certain relation to one another; and that,
Mensuration

when a few truths are well understood, it

is possible to discover others. Few rules are required, the
pupils developing their own whenever possible. The rec-
tangle and triangle are first mastered. When a new figure
involving area is presented, the thought is, first, find the
rectangle; then, find the triangle. The pupils are led to
see that the faces of most solids are related to one or the
other of these figures: that the side of a hexagonal prism
is a rectangle, and that the base is a hexagon, which can
be divided into triangles; that the base of a cylinder is a
circle, made up of triangles; that the sides form a rectangle;
and that the cone and the pyramid can be resolved into
triangles.

In our work with solids, we follow the idea so well ex-
pressed by Griffin : " Lead the children to see that, when
finding the volume of a solid, they are finding the number
of cubic units it contains, which are found in layers, of a

i

SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 169

given number of rows, of a given number of units in a
row."

The relation of the volumes of the pyramid, prism, cone,
and cylinder to one another is shown by experimenting
with tin measures. The pupils see by experiments that the
cylinder and prism hold respectively three times as much
water as do the cone and the pyramid. Hence the rule for
finding their volumes. The volume of the sphere, from a
model divided into pyramids, is seen to be the aggregation
of the volumes of a number of pyramids. The relation of
the great circle to the surface of a sphere is shown by wrap-
ping the flat and the convex surfaces of a hemisphere with
a string. The pupils see that twice as much string is re-
quired in the latter as in the former case; hence, the rule.
It is found by experiment with a string that the circum-
ference of a circle is about 3^ times the diameter. It is
convenient to have the class learn the formulas: D X
3.1416 = C; and D2 X .7854 = ^.

Considerable attention is given to drawing to scale plans
of rooms, yards, and gardens, then finding the areas. A
great deal of time is required for this kind of work, as much
as a week having been spent on our school yard alone.

PART III
NATURE STUDY GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER X

PLANT STUDY1

^— -
Nature study is an attempt to place the child, through

iterest, in intelligent touch with the natural objects and
>rocesses which surround him. It turns to practical use

le restless spirit of investigation which is so characteristic
of healthy childhood. This innate curiosity that marks the
child mind is the natural, wide-open door through which
multitudes of little experiences reach their places in the
storehouse of knowledge. It is the province of nature
study to direct and develop this form of interest; to guide
the child to correct solutions for the many problems that
arise in his actively growing mind, and thus help him in
securing an education that is both liberal and practical.

Thus far the tendency has been toward plant and animal
study; but, while these subjects are admirably adapted to
the work, every course is enriched and interest is better
sustained by including lessons on air, water, evaporation
and condensation, steam, air and water currents, light, heat,
sound, electricity, minerals, including the useful metals,
soils and soil formation, and other topics. Plant study has
already taken the eminently practical form of school gar-
dens. In these the elements of plant physiology, soils and
other plant foods, preparation and cultivation of the soil,

1 The chapter on Nature Study is written by Mr. Edward Hughes,
Supervisor of Nature Study in the Stockton city schools and Prin-
cipal of the El Dorado Grammar School.

173

METHODS IN TEACHING

and many other phases of agriculture are taught objectively.
This movement, wherever directed with intelligence, will
be an important step toward a condition in which trained
men and rational methods will supersede our present " hit
and miss " practices in farming. Other phases of nature
study promise much for other industrial pursuits as well as
for public health and sanitation.

Nature study is a common sense subject and does not
require special preparation of the teacher. Experience in
teaching is a great help; tact and good judgment are essen-
tial. All of us are in conscious contact with nature some-
where. Let the first lesson or series of lessons be drawn
from something that will commend itself to parents as prac-
tical or useful. Make the lessons short and simple. Study
results. That which appeals to a child's interest and under-
standing will form the nucleus of a course. When a begin-
ning has once been made every day will contribute some-
thing for the enrichment and extension of the work.

A common mistake by teachers and supervisors is the
attempt to make science of the subject. The child sees one
thing at a time well. Class interest flourishes in the study
of the isolated object or phenomenon. It dies when we try
to establish causes and effects which are not almost self-
evident. Our knowledge comes to us as isolated facts and
experiences. The classification into a body of knowledge
is the work of maturer years.

Pupils should find out things for themselves ; they should
not read too much. Those who get into the habit of accept-
ing the statements of others at the expense of the power
of independent observation have gained nothing from the
work. The use of nature study readers may arouse inter-

PLANT STUDY

est, but it is not nature study. The work should be recrea-
tive in its nature. It should be a break in the monotony
and drill of the more intensive application of the essential
subjects.

Nature study should have its own time on the school
program; it should be taught for its own value. At the
same time it furnishes valuable material for oral language ;
it may be used to some extent in written work, although
pupils should not feel that they are to be held to writing
up everything studied in nature work; nature study and
drawing are mutually helpful; the value of nature study
to geography is self-evident.

Every phase of the work discussed in the ensuing chap-
ter has been tested and its usefulness demonstrated by
teachers of experience and good judgment in the schools
of our city. For a country so wide in extent and so varied
in climate and other conditions as ours, it is impossible to
indicate in all cases at just what time of the year a particu-
lar kind of material will be available for the different re-
gions included.

PLANT STUDY

A subject well suited to the time at which schools usually
open in autumn is seeds and seed distribution. It should
be introduced by a study of such seeds as

the bean' S(luash> acorn> or anv lar£e seed
in which the embryo plant is easily seen.

Each pupil should have specimens of the different seeds to
be examined. Avoiding technical names, draw from pupils
such facts as they already know concerning the seed and its
work in the continued life of the plant. Add to this knowl-
edge anything within the pupil's comprehension which may

I? METHODS IN TEACHING

be necessary to impress upon his mind the great importance
of the seed in the perpetuation of the plant species. The
collection of seeds should follow. In this work the teacher
may indicate a certain class of seeds to be collected by each
grade. Thus, grade one, cereals; grade two, vegetables
and flowers; grade three, fruits; grade four, forest trees;
grade five, common weeds.

Discuss with classes the advantage of such appendages
as make seeds easily carried by the wind. Examples:
dandelion, thistle, milkweed, salsify, maple, ash, and linden.
In some cases the whole plant breaks off at the surface of
the ground and is rolled by the wind for long distances,
scattering seeds as it goes. Examples : tumble-weed of the
western states and the specially troublesome Russian thistle.
Other seeds have hooked or barbed spines for taking hold
of the hair or fur of animals or the clothing of man. Ex-
amples: cockle-bur, burdock, hound's tongue, beggar-lice,
Spanish-needle, and the barbed beards of grain. Still
others have spiral " clocks," very sensitive to moisture.
These, by their motion, help the seed to bore into the soil,
thus insuring its growth. Some plants, as the fruits and
the nuts, depend upon birds and animals to scatter and plant
the seeds. Thus the jays, woodpeckers, squirrels, become
tree-planters and conservers of forests. Each plant must in
some way solve the problem of effectually scattering and
planting its seeds. These are interesting problems, and
perhaps nothing in nature tends more to develop the habit
of close observation than such work as here indicated, and
much more that will suggest itself to the teacher.

Another phase of the subject and one better suited to the
needs of higher grades is seed production and rate of in-

PLANT STUDY

crease among plants. Most plants produce an enormous
number of seeds. Have pupils count the number of grains
Seed of wheat produced by a single " stool " ; the

Increase number of seeds in a single poppy head, and

from these estimate the number produced by an entire
plant. Estimate the possible increase for crop after crop.
Beginning with a single seed, how long would it take
under perfect conditions for any one of the plants studied
to occupy all the land in a single city block? in a square
mile? in the state? in the United States? That plants
do not increase at any such rate is apparent. Why not?
What becomes of the seeds thus produced? In early
spring have a careful, persevering pupil measure off a
square foot or a square yard of ground and carefully pull
up and count all the plants that come up in the space. In
the same way measure a similar space and let all grow that
will. How many of the plants in this space are able to
reach maturity and produce seed? Compare this number
with the number that started in the space where they were
counted. Plants struggle with other plants for space in
which to grow. They also struggle for life against ani-
mals, poor soil, climatic conditions, and other obstacles to
existence. Why do plants produce such a great number
of seeds?

Secure any thrifty plant, six to ten inches high, and place

its roots in a bottle of water in the schoolroom. Place a

bottle of the same size, also filled with

arts of water, beside it for comparison. Note

a Plant

after a day or two that more water has

gone from the bottle containing the plant than from the
other. The plant has used some of this water. Which part

or THC

METHODS IN TEACHING

of the plant has taken in the water ? What would happen to
a plant if its roots were placed in perfectly dry soil? Call
the attention of pupils to the root hairs near the growing
tips of the smallest roots. Tell them that these are the
parts of the roots that take water from the soil. What else
do roots take from the soil ? In what form must plant food
be before the roots can take it in?

In a similar manner develop the use of the stem, leaves,
buds, flowers, and fruit of the plant. With young pupils
this should be done very simply, but with the aim of giving
correct ideas of the uses of plant organs as far as they are
able to understand them. With older pupils, the work
should be carried farther. Such subjects as osmosis, sap
circulation (shown by the use of colored water), transpira-
tion by the leaves, the absorption of carbon dioxide from
the air, and the giving off of oxygen by the green parts of
the plants when exposed to sunlight, and many other phases
of plant physiology, are easily shown by experiment, and
they add wonderfully to interest and understanding. If a
compound microscope is available, the pupils will be much
interested in seeing the stomata of leaves, plant cells, and
chlorophyl grains. The latter can be shown best in a, little
green scum from ponds.

From the study of the simple plant as suggested above,
it is only a step to the study of the tree through its annual

cycle. Let the class adopt some individual
The Life of . „ . „ . .,

a Tree tree as the class tree. Review and iden-

tify the parts of a plant as found in a tree.
Have the class note in a series of properly timed lessons
extending through the year, the following phases of the
tree's vegetative activity, beginning soon after school opens

PLANT STUDY

in the autumn: ripening of fruit; dropping of leaves;
period of rest, during which a study of twigs and buds will
be found very interesting; opening flower buds; opening
leaf buds; period of growth, during which the twigs are
lengthened by growth of the terminal bud and a new layer of
wood deposited just under the bark all over the tree, and at
the same time an inner layer added to the bark ; formation
and maturing of buds for next year; maturing of fruit
(seeds). During the study, call attention to the means by
which the tree heals wounds in its bark; how its seeds are
dispersed and planted; and settle with the class such ques-
tions as whether or not the heart wood grows, and whether
the bole of the tree lengthens by growth near the ground.
What other forms of life are found in the tree? Lichens?
Moss? Mistletoe? Insects? Birds? Animals? Extend
the work to other trees for comparison. Compare with
palm or other endogen if available. The palm grows from
a single bud of enormous size. This bud never assumes
the dormant form, because the climate of the tropics is
never cold enough to render this necessary. In the endo-
,gens (inside growers) no annual rings are formed. Note
| the differences between the seeds and the venation of leaves
of exogens and endogens.

In the germination of seeds shallow boxes, three to five
inches in depth, are best for indoor work. For deepest

interest the work should begin before the
Semination , , . , ,

)f Seeds advent of the growing season out of doors.

Lima beans, peas, pumpkins, squash, In-
Han corn, and some of the larger wild seeds from the seed
ollections will be found well adapted to the work. While
/aiting for the germination of the planted seeds, have the

ISO METHODS IN TEACHING

pupils examine some well-soaked lima beans. They should
make out the skin-like outer covering and the small open-
ing near the scar of attachment to the ovary. This opening
admits water to the germinating seed. The bean shoulc
then be split and the parts of the embryo plant made out
The pupil will see the parts better if he is asked to draw
them. Other seeds should be examined in a similar man-
ner. The embryo of Indian corn can be well seen by split-
ting the grain through a little to the right or left of its
center.

When the young plants appear, pupils should watrf
closely their manner of breaking the soil crust, noting
which of the parts previously seen in the seed are showr
in the unfolding of the young plant. Have them make out
the seed leaves of the bean and pumpkin, and find what ha<
become of the body of the seed in the case of the corn anc
peas. Serial drawings will help them in remembering th(
stages of growth. When pupils are too young to make
these satisfactorily, blackboard drawings by the teacher wil
suffice. By questions lead the pupils to see that the con-
ditions necessary for proper germination are moisture, heat
and air. If they do not see these as needful, they can be
readily convinced by experiment. Try planting some seed;
in soil that is constantly soaked with water to the exclusioi
of air. Try planting lima beans with the opening befor
mentioned just above the surface of the ground. Plan
others at the same depth with the opening down, leavin
the back of the seed exposed. Which of the seeds thv
planted develop? The use of the seed leaves (cotyledons
should be made clear. The growth of the roots and roc!
hairs can be better seen by the germination of a few radis1

PLANT STUDY l8l

seeds or grains of barley on gauze or cheese cloth. The
material should be tied loosely over the top of a drinking
glass filled with water. Invert a saucer over the glass until
the roots of the germinating seeds reach the water in the
glass. This forms a moist chamber in which the seeds will
start readily. The logical continuation of the work thus
begun in the school is the home or school garden, in which
the planting and tending are done by the pupils under the
direction of the teacher.

For the simpler work with flowers have the pupils bring

to school the first wild flowers of the spring. The common

names are written on the board with the

name of the child who made the collection,
otudy

By the end of the school year there will be
established a speaking acquaintance with the common wild
flowers.

For pupils of the higher grades the work may be ex-
tended to the study of the parts of a perfect flower and the
uses of each part. Having familiarized themselves with
these, the problems of fertilization (pollination) and cross
fertilization and nature's methods for insuring these vital
processes are opened to the pupils. If possible, show the
growth of the pollen tube from the pollen grain as follows :
Place pollen of the sweet-pea in a ten per cent, sugar solu-
tion. This is made by mixing a teaspoonful of thick sugar
syrup with nine teaspoonfuls of water. Examine under
the low power of the microscope two or three times at inter-
vals of as many hours. Explain the significance of this
growth to the pupils : the pollen grain adheres to the sticky
surface of the stigma and sends its pollen tube down
through the style to the ovule in the ovary. The proto-

1 82 METHODS IN TEACHING

plasm of the pollen grain and the ovule are thus united in
the latter, resulting in its development into a seed. Let the
pupils prove by experiment that pollination is necessary for
seed production.

For the purpose of study flowers may be divided into two
classes: those that depend upon the wind for pollination;
as, Indian corn, willow, walnut, pine, wheat, and other
grasses. Those that depend upon insects ; this class includ-
ing all flowers conspicuous through bright colors or pecu-
liarity of form. The following are particularly interesting
for study, alfalfa, Scotch broom, perennial pea, snap-
dragon, evening primrose, milkweed, Smyrna fig, the mel-
ons and squashes, and the perfect and imperfect flowered
varieties of the strawberry. Indian corn and the straw-
berries are especially adapted to the experiment above men-
tioned. In studying the milkweed have the pupils brush
the flowers gently over the hairs on the back of the hand.
The pollen masses will be found tight-clutched to the hairs.
Catch some of the insects that visit these same flowers;
their claws and long hairs will often be found loaded with
the pollinia, which are thus dragged over the stigmatic sur-
faces of the flower, insuring fertilization.

Pupils will find it very interesting to watch insects at
work among the flowers, seeking the nectar, or pollen.
Careful observation will usually disclose the method by
which the bee or other flower-loving insect thus becomes
the unconscious but indispensable servant of the plant.
There is a side to such work as this that has proved more
than practical. It is practice, based upon wide knowledge
of this character, that enables a Luther Burbank to produce
fruits, flowers, and other plant products almost to order.

PLANT STUDY 183

Plants furnish to men and many other animals a very
large part of their food supply. Perhaps the most impor-
tant foods which man obtains directly from
Food plants are the starches, sugars, and oils.

Formed by ^ ^e starc^ producing plants the follow-

Plants ing are well known: potato, sago palm,

arrow-root, the manioc from which tapioca
is derived, rice, and the common cereals. Mix a few drops
of dilute iodine with a little flour paste, and note that the
mixture changes immediately to a bright blue. A thin sec-
tion of potato treated with very dilute iodine and examined
under the low power of the microscope will show the blue
starch grains in the colorless potato cells.

Sugar is derived mainly from three sources, — sugar cane,
beets, and the evaporated sap of the maple tree. It is also
found in many ripe fruits; as, grapes, figs, prunes, apples,
pears; it is also present in small quantities in the sap of
other trees than the maple, notably in the sugar pine of the
Pacific slope. Pupils in the higher grades will be inter-
ested in knowing that sugar, wood fibre, and starch are
very much alike chemically. Each is a chemical union of
carbon (charcoal is a familiar example) and water in
slightly different proportions. The following experiment
demonstrates this for sugar:

Fill a test-tube about one-sixth full of thick sugar syrup.
Add the same amount of sulphuric acid. Set the tube in
a glass and put the glass on a piece of heavy cardboard.
Note that the mixture slowly turns brown and then very
black. The mixture rises in the tube and considerable heat
is generated. The acid has decomposed the sugar by tak-
ing out the water, leaving the almost pure carbon. If the

184 METHODS IN TEACHING

substance is now washed thoroughly in running water to
free it from all traces of the acid, and then thoroughly
dried, it is found to be quite like soot, and it may be burned
as other forms of carbon are burned. Pupils already know,
perhaps, that in digestion starch is converted into sugar.
The same process takes place in the ripening of some fruits
and in the germination of starchy seeds. See malt and beer
making.

Vegetable fats, also nearly pure carbon, are obtained from
the seeds and fruits of many plants, notably the olive, cot-
ton-seed, and practically all the nuts. Other vegetable fats,
as turpentine and linseed oil, are important in the arts and
manufactures. These substances are, of course, stored up
for the plant's own use ; man and other animals appropriate
them and apply them to needs of their own.

All plants store food in their seeds or in those parts used

as seeds, — as tubers, bulbs, spores. This stored food is

manifestly for the use of the young plant

Food until it becomes able to support itself.

Substances _ , . .

Stored by Other plants store food in quantities for

Plants the purpose of having a large amount of

quickly available material out of which the
flower-stalk, flowers, and seeds are formed rapidly in the
proper season. Some of these mature in one year ; as, rad-
ishes, lettuce, alfileria, mullein, and many others. Some
require two years from seed to seed again ; examples, beet,
carrot, onion, cabbage, celery. Still others require several
years, as is the case with the so-called century plant.

Food is thus stored in the roots, as in parsnips, radishes,
beets, turnips; in the leaves, as in cabbage, lettuce, and
mullein; in the leaf bases, as in celery, onions, and lilies;

PLANT STUDY 185

in the flower-stalk, as in the cauliflower; in portions of the

stem, as in the potato ; and in the seed cases, as in the fruits

generally. The purpose to be gained with the fruits seems

to be to cause the seeds to be scattered. This is largely

accomplished by those animals which use the fruit for food.

Among the plants useful to man may come first the food

plants. These may be divided for convenience into cereals,

vegetables, fruits. Let pupils prepare lists

Useful to °* those that are Pr°duced locally; those

Man grown in other portions of the country;

those that are imported from other coun-
tries. Have samples of the most important ones for exam-
ination. Which part of the plant is used for food? What
is its appearance? Where is it produced? Etc. Etc.
Treat similarly the textile plants, cotton, flax, ramie; the
timber used in building and cabinet making; medicinal
plants may also be considered.

Besides the movements of growth noticed in the growing
parts of any plant, there are a number of motions that are
very interesting when shown experimen-
Movements ta^v- Some of these movements would in-

dicate that plants have something akin to
the nervous system in animals. At least, certain parts of
plants have sensibility and the motion that results from it.
The common sensitive plant, easily grown in a pot or box
in the schoolroom, furnishes perhaps the best illustration
of plant motion. Working from this as a beginning, pupils
will find many examples of flowers that either close their
petals or droop their blossoms at night to protect their pol-
len from the dew. Many flowers also show a more or less

1 86 METHODS IN TEACHING

marked inclination to follow the apparent diurnal motion
of the sun. The leaves of many plants, notably oxalis,
varieties of acacia, anemone, and lupines are folded at night
or during stormy weather. The movements of twining
plants, such as the morning-glory, pole-beans, and others
can be studied easily from plants in boxes in the school-
room. When such a plant begins to " run," it takes a slow
revolving motion, the tip feeling for some support upon
which to climb. As soon as this is found the twining mo-
tion begins. What is the direction of this motion? Is it
similar or opposite to the motion of the hands of a clock?
Do any plants twine in the opposite direction?

The motion of tendrils in such plants as peas, grapes,
passion vines, wild cucumber, and pumpkin is also easily
seen. Leaf stems of some plants are similarly sensitive and
act as tendrils. The nasturtium is a familiar example.
Root tips show a marked sensibility. This enables them to
seek the line of growth that offers the least resistance in
their extension into the soil, also to locate plant food even
at a considerable distance. The following is a simple ex-
periment that will illustrate the movement of root tips:

Suspend several peas or beans in a moist box until they
begin germinating. To the growing points of the roots of
two or three attach a very small bit of thin card by means
of a little mucilage or glue. Note that the root tips so
treated tend afterward to grow toward the bit of card, re-
sulting in very crooked roots. The roots of the others
grow straight downward.

There are tramps and paupers in the vegetable world;
they are the parasites. Through parasitism they have long

PLANT STUDY 1 8?

lost the power of independent existence. The different
varieties of mistletoe are interesting plants that never have
Parasitic any direct connection with the soil. The

Plants viscid material surrounding the seeds serves

to make them adhere to the bark of trees, where they
germinate and grow. The common dodder, or love vine,
is a degenerate morning-glory. Its seeds germinate in
the ground as other seeds do, but, unless the young plant
finds a host upon which to prey before the food substance
of the seed is exhausted, it dies. Through disuse, it has
lost its leaves, which are represented by scale-like organs
that are functionless. It has also lost the power to pro-
duce chlorophyl ; hence, the absence of the green color char-
acteristic of plants, and of the power to assimilate plant
food taken directly from the soil. Therefore it does not
retain connection with the soil after the first week or two
of its life. It forms its snake-like vines, its flowers, and its
seeds from food stolen through many root-like organs,
which it thrusts through the bark of its host, the plant upon
which it lives. This parasite is known by its yellow or
orange color. The story of its life contains a strong moral
lesson which applies to human affairs, the loss of power
through a lack of use.

A subject that abounds in interest for pupils and that is
of great practical value is the propagation of plants. Fill

pots or boxes with coarse, sharp sand.
Propagation
of Plants Make cuttings of two or three buds each.

In planting, leave one bud above the sur-
face of the sand. Keep the sand moist, not wet. Try
cuttings of the following plants, — grape, currant, fig, rose,
geranium, carnation, and chrysanthemum. For the best

l88 METHODS IN TEACHING

results place the cuttings in the sand in November or De-
cember. In the spring try rooting oleander and willow in
bottles of water.

A modification of propagation by cuttings is known as
layering. A branch of the plant from which the cutting
is to be made is cut partly off and pegged down in a shal-
low trench. It is then covered with soil for a few inches
above and below the point where the cut was made.
Plants which refuse ordinarily to grow from cuttings root
easily by this method. If the branch to be rooted is part
of a tree, or if, for any reason, it can not be bent to the
ground, it can be layered by pegging it in a box of earth,
which is placed upon a support high enough for the pur-
pose. Very interesting, also, are the processes of budding
and grafting, so indispensable in horticulture. These are
very simple, easily taught, and of unquestionable value to
any pupil.

The work of plants in the disintegration of rocks, both
by growth of roots into faults and seams of rock strata and
by the dissolving action of acid secretions
Soil Makers w^ furnish material for experiment and

discussion, as will also the work of the
roots of leguminous plants, clover, peas, etc., in furnishing
free nitrogen to the soil. Have pupils dig up roots of clover
and examine the nodules which stud them thickly. These
nodules contain bacteria which have the power of making
soil nitrogen from that in the air, thus making it available
for plant food. The importance of this work will be better
appreciated by pupils if they understand that, of the plant
foods, nitrogen is one of the most difficult to supply to

PLANT STUDY 1 89

soils. It explains, also, the value of the clover crop when
used in rotation with other crops.

Discuss with pupils the work of plants in the formation
of the coal series, — peat, bitumen, lignite, bituminous and
anthracite coal, and graphite. Also the
effect of Plant gr°wth in delta regions and
low coasts in holding and increasing depo-
sition of sediments, thus adding to land area. In this con-
nection mention especially the swamp grasses, reeds, man-
groves, and willows.

CHAPTER XI

ANIMAL STUDY: THE AQUARIUM; THE INSECT CAGE;
OTHER ANIMALS

At least two lines of animal study will commend them-
selves to the teacher because of the relatively large returns
obtained from a small expenditure of time. These are the
study of life by means of the aquarium and of the insect
cage. The uses of the aquarium in nature study are so

many and so important that it may be con-
The

Aquarium sidered almost a necessity. To be success-

ful with the aquarium, we must imitate
somewhat closely the conditions that exist in open ponds,
for these are natural aquaria. During the warmer season
such ponds teem with animal and vegetable life. Ponds
present a great amount of surface to the air; in a sense,
they breathe. That is, they are constantly giving off car-
bon dioxide, and receiving oxygen by diffusion. In ponds
containing a large amount of plant life this exchange is
largely between the water and the plants. Our aquarium
presents relatively less surface to the air, so it must? contain
a greater amount of aquatic plant life, such as normally
produces its green tissues under water. Some plants of
this nature are the different varieties of swamp grasses,
water-crowfoot, water milfoil, and the" fresh water algae.
Plants which produce their green parts above the surface
of the water and those which float upon it do not supply
oxygen to the aquarium, although they may add to its
beauty or may serve other important purposes.

190

ANIMAL STUDY

Any clear-sided vessel having a large mouth and a capac-
ity from a quart up may be used in the study of some form
of aquatic life. A more pretentious rec-
Vessei tangular aquarium may be secured at mod-

erate cost, and with proper care will be an
ornament as well as a center of unfailing interest in any
schoolroom. Having secured a suitable vessel, place in the
bottom a layer of washed sand and gravel. In this place
cuttings of swamp grasses, bulbs of the calla or arrow-
leaf, or roots of the umbrella plant, if the vessel is a large
one. Fill with clear water, preferably from a pond, taking
care that in pouring it in the force of the stream is broken
so that the material already in the bottom is not disar-
ranged. After filling add water milfoil (myriophyllum),
or if this can not be secured, any plant that grows with
its green part submerged. In the absence of more suitable
plants fresh water alga, the green scum of ponds, may be
used. If this is used, care should be taken to secure that
which is in vigorous growth, as will be shown by its bright
green color. The aquarium is now ready for animal life.
Certain forms of life, although living in the water, are
air breathers, and so do not tend to exhaust the water of

its oxygen. The aquarium may contain

Animal •

Life any number of such creatures, consistent

w^th' the food supply. Turtles, water-
beetles, back-swirnmers, water-boatmen, and the larvae of
mosquitoes and gnats are of this kind. Turtles exist upon
animal food, which should be supplied very sparingly, as
whatever is not eaten quickly contaminates the water.
They are not ve$y satisfactory animals for the aquarium,
unless it is very large. In case they are kept a float should

192 METHODS IN TEACHING

be provided for them to climb upon when they wish to leave
the water. The insects mentioned, if kept in reasonable
numbers, will find food for themselves. Such insects are
found in ponds and watering troughs. The eggs of the
mosquito will be found in little rafts, which look like flakes
of soot floating on the surface of the water. Placed in the
aquarium these eggs hatch in a few days. Pupils should
see the insects emerge from the eggs ; they should continue
their observations until the final change into the perfect
insect takes place. This will occur in from ten to fourteen
days after hatching. For close examination place a Half
dozen of the wrigglers in a glass of water and use a hand
lens of moderate power. Soon after hatching mount a
very small one in a drop of water. Place cover-slip pn it
very lightly and examine under the low power of a com-
pound microscope, as a transparent object. Make out the
digestive canal, mouthparts, eyes, and the air tubes (tra-
chea) where they connect with the breathing pore at the
caudal end of the insect. Aside from their nature study
value, mosquito larvae furnish food to other animals which
may be kept in the same vessel.

The dragon flies are also very interesting creatures for
the aquarium. In autumn, along the reedy margins of
permanent ponds, several species of dragon
fly may be found depositing their eggs.

Certain of the larger species pierce the
reed stems just below the surface of the water with the
ovipositor, and deposit the eggs in the slit-like openings
thus made. Watch the female at work, and when she has
finished cut off the piece of reed containing the eggs and
transfer it to a small clear-sided jar of water. When the

ANIMAL STUDY 193

young appear a week or two later, place some mosquito
eggs in the jar. These on hatching will provide food for
the young dragon flies for a time. As they grow larger,
supply any small soft-bodied insects or even small earth-
worms, in addition to the young mosquitoes. Still later,
small poliwogs will be acceptable to them. Dragon fly
nymphs are voracious feeders, and, if their food is not
supplied, they will eat one another. Children will be inter-
ested in their manner of feeding, breathing, moulting, and
locomotion, as well as in the final change when they emerge
from the water, make their last moult, and take the adult
form. This should occur in May or June; and, if at this
time there are no plants with stems projecting above the
surface of the water in the aquarium, some reed stems
should be placed in it for them to crawl out upon. The
children should now be told something about the life of a
fully matured insect. Boys know it as the " mosquito
hawk," " darning needle," " snake doctor," and " snake
feeder." Its first name is deserved, for it does feed upon
small insects taken upon the wing; but the last names are
misleading, as it sustains no known relations with snakes.
Water beetles, both larvae and adults, are interesting
objects in aquaria, but they are quite destructive to other

forms of life with which they are associated
Water
Beetles *n nature- ^ kept alone they may be fed

on bits of fresh meat, earthworms, tadpoles
of frogs. The larvae, sometimes called water-tigers, should
be kept in shallow vessels, as they are air breathers and
must be able to reach the surface of the water with their
breathing organs.
The water boatmen and the backswimmers, two very

194 METHODS IN TEACHING

active water bugs, add much to the interest in the aquarium

by their rapid movements and by their
Water Boatmen .. ,, , £ . « « , « f .

_, , . peculiar method of carrying: a bubble of air

Backswimmers r

with them for respiration. Under water,
this has much the color and brightness of a drop of mer-
cury.

Pond snails are easily obtained. The eggs, deposited on
the glass or on stems of plants, are valuable for showing

active cell division. Mount some in a lit-
Pond Snails

tie water in a watch crystal, and examine

with a microscope of low power. If the eggs are taken
when quite fresh, an hour or two after they are deposited,
the beginning of segmentation can be followed for the first
ten hours, or until the cells become too small to be seen
with the low power. Later, the developing eye and heart
can be made out, and still later, the motion of the young
snail itself in the egg. These snails are found in permanent
ponds, watering troughs, and streams. Daphne, cy clops,
and other " water fleas " are very small crustaceans, num-
bers of which are to be found in temporary rain ponds in
spring. They add interest and furnish food for other
forms of life, looking out for themselves and requiring no
attention on the part of those who care for the aquarium.

If muck from the bottom of a permanent pond or of a
sluggish stream is used on the floor of the aquarium instead

of the layer of coarse sand or gravel, or if

Freshwater , . . . , ., , . .

Mussel muck is mixed with this regular cover-

ing, a small specimen of the fresh water

mussel can be kept.
With the first heavy rains of winter and spring the adult

salamanders appear in considerable numbers in the ponds.

ANIMAL STUDY 195

Owing to their nocturnal habits they are seen by com-
paratively few people. They are easily secured, however,

at this time of the year by raking out the
Salamanders . ,

leaves and other debris from ponds. These

adults, after being kept a few days for examination, should
be returned to the ponds. The eggs are deposited singly
or in masses, enclosed in a jelly-like substance adhering to
twigs or to the stems of plants in the ponds.

Secure the eggs as fresh as possible, place them in small
vessels, and note development. If secured very soon after
being deposited, the division of the egg can be seen with
the unaided eye. Later, note the formation of the spinal
groove in the embryo ; and still later, just before the young
are ready to hatch, note the budding and growth of the
external gills at the neck. Two or three days after hatch-
ing, the young salamander begins to feed. At first, it finds
food in the microscopic forms that are normally present in
the aquarium ; later, it feeds upon the water fleas and mos-
quito larvae ; and, still later, the tadpoles of frogs will sup-
ply its needs. In the absence of the latter it may be given
a small earthworm. If fed in this way it soon learns to
rise and take food from the hand when hungry.

Note that the young salamander is fish-like at first, and
that the fore-legs appear soon after hatching as bud-like
growths just behind the gills. The hind legs appear much
later. A few days after hatching, the circulation of the
blood through the gills can be most beautifully seen under
the low power of the compound microscope. Place the
young salamander in a watch crystal of water and examine
the gills as transparent objects. Note that the blood in
such small amounts is not red, but a very light straw color.

196 METHODS IN TEACHING

Explain why to the pupils. Note the interruption of the
blood current by the pulse. Note also the currents of water
flowing past the gills. These currents are kept up by rap-
idly moving cilia, difficult to see even with the high powers,
owing to their small size and rapid motions.

To see all these things requires time and much patience,
as the little creature frequently moves out of the field of
view and must be brought back again by moving the watch
glass so as to bring the animal again under the objective.
It is worth all the trouble, however, for there is probably
no better object lesson on the circulation of the blood.

A little later in the season the frogs and toads appear in
great numbers in the ponds, adding their choruses to the

other subtle sounds and influences of spring.
Frogs

The eggs are similar to those of the sala-
mander, but they are loosely coherent in masses of fifty
or more, attached to plants or floating free according to
the species by which they are deposited. The development
of the tadpole is similar to that of the larval salamander.
It has no external gills except when very young, and it
feeds almost exclusively upon vegetable matter. The legs
develop in the reverse order to those of the salamander, and
in the final change the tail is completely absorbed. At the
same time the digestive system undergoes pronounced
changes to fit it for the exclusive insect diet of the adult
stage. Respiration in frogs and salamanders takes place
not only through the gills, but through the skin every-
where, and through the widely expanded tail-fin, which is
plentifully supplied with capillary vessels. In the adults
of both forms lungs take the place of gills.

ANIMAL STUDY 1 97

Fish are, perhaps, the leas,t desirable of all the animals

suited to aquaria. One or two very small
Fish

fish may be desirable during seasons when

other material is scarce.

The price of success in all work with the aquarium is
extreme care against overstocking with animals which take

oxygen directly from the water. For the
Caution

best practical results use several vessels

having capacities of from one to six quarts, rather than one
large aquarium. As young forms, such as tadpoles, de-
velop, remove all but two or three of each kind, as crowded
conditions and insufficient food are fatal to good results.
Food supply is very important with the young of all ani-
mals. Once started, the whole care of the aquarium may
be given over to trusty pupils.

THE INSECT CAGE

The rearing of insects in an insect cage is much simpler
than the caring for animals in an aquarium; consequently,
the former is better adapted to work with young children,
although its value is just as great with older pupils.

The cages may be very simple, — a flower pot with a wire
cover, a small box or a glass jar with a little slightly moist

earth in the bottom, or a more elaborate
The Cage , ,

affair made for the purpose. A good form

for the latter is a rectangular box, two feet long, one foot
wide, and sixteen inches high, with space in the bottom
for a tray three inches deep for soil. The sides may be of
glass, and, to secure ventilation, the ends may be of wire
screen. The lid should be on the top and hinged; it may

198 METHODS IN TEACHING

be solid or covered with wire screen. Fill the tray with
loose soil, slightly moist, and the cage is ready for use.

As a beginning ask the pupils to bring in any caterpillars,

noting on what plants they are feeding so that fresh food

may be supplied every day. If there is any

difficulty in finding caterpillars, direct the

children to look for them on parsley, sweet anise, milkweed,

tomato, cabbage, tobacco, and cheese weed. Secure some

of the eggs, for it is desirable to have the pupils see the

development of some of the species from the egg stage.

When the caterpillars reach full development, they will
become restless and crawl about seeking a place in which
to make their transformation. Note whether a cocoon is
formed or the chrysalis is simply hung in position, and
how. Some of the caterpillars found in the early spring
and late summer will complete their changes into moths
or butterflies in a few weeks ; others, especially those taken
rather late in autumn, will remain in the chrysalis stage
until the next spring.

The eggs of grasshoppers may be secured in autumn by
catching the females and allowing them to deposit their
eggs in the soil in the bottom of the cage. Early in the
spring sow barley or wheat in the soil to furnish food for
the young when hatched. Eggs of the katydid are sure to
be found on twigs. Place these in the cage for hatching.
The young will feed upon the leaves of black walnut. The
caterpillars of the sphynx moths, found upon the tomato,
tobacco, and grape, burrow into the soil when they have
finished feeding.

Other insects profitable for study are the aphids, or plant
lice ; the lady bugs, which feed upon them ; the lace-winged

ANIMAL STUDY 1 99

flies; the ant lions, which form the curious, funnel-shaped
traps for catching their prey; and, where the leaves of the
white mulberry are found, there are the silkworms. Any
of the insects mentioned can be reared successfully in a
closed cage containing a little soil, if there is good ventila-
tion and a daily supply of fresh food. Most caterpillars
can be reared in open pasteboard boxes, but mice destroy
them, and they wander much just before entering the chry-
salis stage.

LESSONS ON OTHER ANIMALS

In the lower grades it will be found worth while to make
comparative studies of such animals as the chicken and the
duck, the cat and the rabbit, the dog and the sheep, the cow
and the horse, and other familiar animals. Have the pupils
discuss under guidance and in a comparative way struc-
ture, food, general habits, keenness of sight, smell, and
hearing, and the various uses of animals to man.

The common birds should be known by name; there

should be discussions on the habits of those
Birds

that are well known, — nest-building, food,

song, migration.

Study the dog as to the general features of his structure.
Compare with the cat. Tell the pupils what is known of
the origin of the domestic dog. Discuss
varieties and their uses to man. Lead "the
pupils to a consideration of the characteristics which make
dogs interesting companions or servants, — faithfulness,
affection, obedience, courage, strength, speed, and the won-
derfully keen senses. With older pupils discuss peculiar
habits, such as howling, burying bones, turning about before

2OO METHODS IN TEACHING

lying down, and other instinctive acts that persist to link
the dog to his wild ancestry. Discuss the wild dogs, —
wolf, jackal, hyena, dingo, fox.

Discuss with older pupils the importance of animals in

subsoiling and admitting air and moisture to the soil. This

is performed by earthworms, ants, moles,

SoHlatas fidd mice' S°Phers> Prairie d°Ss> ground

squirrels, and by the animals that burrow

or bury articles; also by the many forms of animal life
that hasten the decay of dead trees and other vegetable mat-
ter by boring and tunneling, thus letting in air and mois-
ture.

In connection with geography discuss the animal origin
of limestone, chalk, ana coral islands.

CHAPTER XII

NON-LIVING THINGS

In the lower grades evaporation may be presented very
simply. Take plenty of time to prove that, while some of

the water that disappears after a rain is
Evaporation

absorbed into the ground, much of it passes
into the air as invisible water vapor. Show that water in
closed vessels will remain indefinitely, while that in open
vessels is soon taken away by the air. Boiling a small
quantity of water shows that heat hastens evaporation.

For grades above the first two, the experiments may be
extended to the evaporation of volatile liquids, such as
alcohol, gasoline, ether, chloroform, carbon-bisulphide,
cologne, and many others. Only a teaspoonful or two
should be used of those substances which vaporize rapidly
into highly inflammable gases. Pour into the hollow of
a pupil's hand a small amount of one of the liquids men-
tioned, and caution him not to spill it. The liquid soon
disappears ; if it has a strong odor it can be smelled through-
out the room, so helping tell the story of its diffusion
through the air.

' Next make a series to test the comparative rapidity of
the evaporation of several liquids. Arrange small, shallow
dishes with labels showing what each one is to contain.
The following liquids may be used, — glycerine, water, coal
oil, turpentine, alcohol, gasoline, carbon-bisulphide, and
chloroform. Use equal amounts of these substances, and

201

2O2 METHODS IN TEACHING

determine the order of the rapidity of evaporation. Satur-
ate some cotton with the liquid that evaporates most rapidly,
wrap the cotton around the bulb of a thermometer, having
first noted the temperature indicated by the dry bulb.
Swing the thermometer in the air to hasten the evapora-
tion, and note the rapid fall of the mercury. Bring out
in discussion that evaporation cools the surface from which
it occurs. Why does moistening the skin even with warm
water make it feel cooler when exposed to the air? Why
does it feel cooler when moistened with alcohol or ether
instead of water? Why are wet cloths put around jugs
and casks of drinking water? What is the effect of the
evaporation of perspiration upon the temperature of the
body? Where would this effect be greater, in regions
where the air is moist or dry? Why are sunstrokes more
common in moist climates than in dry ones?

Discuss the formation of dew, fog, clouds, rain, and
snow. Have the class see the clouds growing larger on

days when there is a falling barometer, and
Condensation

smaller when the weather is clearing. Dis-
tinguish between true vapor, which is invisible, and fogs
and clouds, which are visible. The immense, flat-bottomed
cloud masses that fill the sky on spring days, and the great
cumulus clouds commonly called " thunder heads " are.
really parts of vapor masses reaching to the earth ; only the^
tops are visible, however, because these lie in currents
of air sufficiently cold to condense them into fog. The
lower and warmer layer may be from half a mile to a mile
in depth. Often two layers of air can be made out above
this, when the clouds at different heights float in different

NON-LIVING THINGS 2O3

directions. In quiet weather the column of smoke from a
large fire will often have a cloud-tipped top. Explain.

It is a fact not very generally known that water vapor
will diffuse through a vacuum as quickly as it will through
air. In other words, the presence of air is in no way essen-
tial to the process of evaporation, which is even prevented
if the air is already saturated with water vapor. Why then
does not the earth lose some of its water supply by evapora-
tion into space? Why should high ranges of mountains
prove barriers for moisture in winds?

Experiments in magnetism are full of interest for the
younger pupils. These should include a study of both the

bar and the horseshoe magnet. Show the
Magnetism

lines of magnetic force by covering the

magnet with a sheet of paper upon which iron filings are
gently sifted. If blue print paper is used and exposed to
sunshine for two or three minutes, a permanent print may
be secured showing the lines of force. Suspend magnetized
needles by fine silk threads, noting their direction when the
motion stops. Show the practical application of the mag-
net in the mariner's compass. What other uses might it
have? With older pupils take up in an elementary way
the electro-magnet in some of its simpler applications, such
as the electric bell, a part of telephone receivers, telegraph
instruments.

• Provide a florence flask fitted with a rubber stopper
which has been bored to fit small glass tubing. Secure a

piece of glass tubing five or six feet long;
Expansion
By Heat Put xt mto "*e °Penm§' m the stopper so

that all connections are air tight. The re-
sulting piece of apparatus is of course full of air, and the

2O4 METHODS IN TEACHING

attention of the pupils should be called to this fact. Im-
merse the free end of the glass tube in a shallow dish of
water and clasp the bulb (flask) with the hands. Almost
immediately bubbles of air begin to escape from the tube.
Why? Hold the bulb some distance above a Bunsen
burner or an alcohol lamp ; heat carefully, until as much of
the air as possible has been driven out. Keeping the end
of the tube submerged in water, allow the bulb to cool
slowly; note that water travels up through the tube into
the flask. Why? Now empty the water from the flask
and tube. Warm the bulb as before by clasping the hands
about it. When a small amount of air has been forced out,
let the bulb cool enough to suck up three or fouf inches
of ink or colored water. Hold the flask upright and let the
water sink through the tube almost to the bulb. The in-
strument will now be found to be very sensitive to the
slightest change of temperature in the bulb, the short col-
umn of water being forced up or down through the tube
by the expansion or contraction of the air in the flask.
With a little practice in handling this " air thermometer,"
very interesting, positive results may be obtained. In such
experiments pupils should furnish the explanations for the
phenomena observed. They should also be able to explain
the popping of corn and chestnuts when heat is applied,
the blowing out of bicycle tires when left in the hot sun,
and similar occurrences.

For showing the expansion of liquids the same apparatus
can be used. Fill the flask full of water that has been
boiled to remove the air and afterward allowed to become
cold. Press the stopper into the mouth of the flask until

NON-LIVING THINGS 205

the water rises in the tube a few inches. Mark the height
of the water in the tube by tying a string around it at the
point to which the water rises. Heat the flask slowly over
a gas or alcohol flame, and note the rising of the water in
the tube. Why does it rise? Does it expand as much as
air? Which is more elastic, air or water? Water which
has been expanded to a gaseous form (steam) is very
elastic.

The expansion of water by freezing may be taken up
here or in connection with dynamic geography. Experi-
ments along this line are very interesting to pupils. Fill
a heavy glass bottle, a small necked one is best, and stop
with a tight-fitting cork. Place in a freezing mixture of
broken ice and salt. In a few minutes the bottle is broken
in pieces by the expansion of the freezing water. The ex-
periment is more striking if a short piece of heavy iron pipe
is used instead of the bottle. The pipe should be capped
at the ends with the regulation caps or plugs used by
plumbers.

For the purpose of showing the expansive action of heat
upon metals, secure a piece of brass or iron tubing about
an inch in diameter and six inches long and a solid brass
or iron ball which will just pass through the bore of the
tube when both are cold. If the tube is difficult to get,
an iron ring will answer the purpose. Heat the ball a few
minutes, and it will be found too large to go through the
tube. Set the tube upright in a shallow vessel with the ball
resting in the opening at the top. Pour cold water upon
the ball, which, upon cooling, passes easily through the tube
as before. Another method of showing the same effect is

2O6 METHODS IN TEACHING

as follows : Take a rod of iron, copper, or brass, about two
feet long, and place it in a horizontal position with one end
against any solid object. Let the other end touch the short
arm of a lever which acts as an indicator. Now heat the
rod, and it will be noticed that it expands and moves the
indicator. Why does the blacksmith heat wagon tires be-
fore putting them upon the wheels ? Why are small spaces
left between the ends of rails on a railway ? Why does the
column of mercury rise in warm weather and fall in cold?
In connection with the expansion of gases and liquids by
heat, air and water currents may be taken up. For the
study of air currents there should be pro-
Water Currents v*ded a glass-sided box, air tight, except
for openings which may be closed when
necessary. Such a box may be eight or ten inches high,
eighteen inches long, and from six to ten inches wide. The
sides should be of glass, puttied in, and a door at one end
should be as nearly air tight as possible. Augur holes, of
a size that they may be closed by means of large cork stop-
pers, should be bored in the top near each end, and som<
may also be bored at different heights in the end opposite
the door.1 A burning candle will act as a stove in the
thus made. If the box is fairly tight and all openings ai
closed, the candle flame will go out in a few moments aftei
it is lighted. Why? Now open the holes at the top am
place the lighted candle under one of them. Test the din
tion of the air currents by holding smoking punk or tou<

aThe glass-sided box described above is very satisfactory for tl
work indicated, but it is not indispensable. A pasteboard box witl
out glass may be used, although it will be less satisfactory.

NON-LIVING THINGS 2O/

paper1 over the opening under which the lighted candle
was placed. The smoke from the punk indicates the true
direction of the air current. Now hold the punk near the
other opening. In which direction is the air moving here?
Which is lighter, air that is expanded by heat or cold air?
Explain the direction of the currents as shown by the move-
ments of the smoke. Take the temperature of the school-
room at the floor and at the ceiling. Where is the warmer
air? Why?

Close the openings at the top of the box and open two
at the end, one near the bottom, the other near the top.
Test with the burning punk as before. Which shows an
inflowing current, the upper or the lower opening? Is air
flowing out of the other opening? Explain. Make clear
the cause of the currents thus set up. Does the cooler,
heavier air flow in to take the place of the warm air that is
rising, or does the cooler air, owing to its greater weight,
cause the warmed air to rise?

On a quiet day, when there is a brisk fire in the school-
room, close all openings except one window. This should
be open at both top and bottom for six inches or a foot.
Test the air at the bottom to find the direction of the cur-
rent by suspending a light sheet of paper from the lower
edge of the window sash. Test in the same way the cur-
rent through the upper opening. If conditions are favor-
able the results will speak for themselves very definitely.
Now open the window from the bottom only by raising
both sashes as high as possible. Test the upper and lower

1 Touch paper is easily made by soaking blotting paper in a sat-
urated solution of saltpeter. When dry the paper burns slowly
and with much smoke, making a good substitute for Chinese punk
sticks.

2O8 METHODS IN TEACHING

parts of this opening for the direction of the air currents.
Explain. Have the pupils draw a diagram of the room,
representing by arrows the direction of the air currents in
it, and indicating which are warm and which are cold.

For showing currents in water, fill a florence flask or
other thin-sided glass vessel with water which has been
previously boiled to free it from air bubbles. Floating par-
ticles of sawdust or paper may be placed in it to show the
movements of the currents. Heat very gently, and note the
results. Or, with a glass tube which has one end drawn
to a fine capillary tube, let into the bottom of a thin glass
jar or flask some ink or colored water. (The vessel should,
of course, be filled with water before this is done.) Touch
the bottom of the jar with a heated rod or with the blaze
of a match, and a column of ink will quickly rise from the
bottom. This is a striking experiment, but its preparation
takes some time and patience.

In discussions with pupils in the higher grades connect
the experiments on air currents with the larger movements
of air upon the surface of the earth.
Air Currents Areas of low pressure are heated areas in
Over
The Earth which air currents are moving upward

from the surface of the earth; they are in-
dicated by the word " low " on weather charts. " Highs "
are areas in which cooled masses of air are sinking to the
surface of the earth. The equatorial calms are a heated
belt characterized by upward currents of air. The calms
of the " horse latitudes " are characterized by descending
currents. All upward movements of air (" lows ") tend to
produce rain storms; downward moving masses (" highs ")
generally indicate fair weather.

NON-LIVING THINGS 2 09

Pupils already know that water and other liquids have

weight. Discuss with them the comparative weight of

water, oil, molasses, mercury, and other

Pressure of liquids. Construct a hydrometer as fol-

Liquids and

GaseS( lows: Fit a piece of light pine about the

size of a lead pencil into a large cork, one
about an inch in diameter by an inch and a quarter long
will do. Load the bottom of the cork, so that when placed
in a deep vessel of water the hydrometer will float per-
pendicularly. When properly loaded, mark carefully upon
the stick the level reached when the instrument floats at rest
in pure water. Why does the instrument float? Because
it is lighter than the water that it displaces. That is, it is
lighter than the amount of water which would exactly equal
it in bulk. To prove this, fill a vessel holding a gallon or
more brimful of water. Set this in a larger vessel that will
catch the overflow. Select some object that is heavy enough
to give a considerable displacement and that does not water-
soak. A drinking glass will do. If too light at the bot-
tom to float upright, load it with a few nails or shot or even
sand. Place it in the full vessel, and have the class note
that as it sinks to its level the water overflows into the larger
vessel. Now weigh both the object used as a float and the
water that overflowed, and the weights will be found to be
equal.

When pupils understand this simple demonstration of the
law of floating bodies as it applies to objects in water, dis-
cuss with them the density of different liquids. What
liquids are lighter than water? Those most easily secured
for experiment are alcohol and the various kinds of oils.
Liquids heavier than water are salt water, sugar solutions,
15

2IO METHODS IN TEACHING

molasses, and mercury. Test with the hydrometer. Test
mercury with shot, pieces of iron, and pebbles.

Into a test-tube about six inches long and one inch in
diameter put equal amounts of water, mercury, and oil.
Do the liquids mix? Drop a buck-shot or other small
piece of metal into the tube. Note that it sinks in both
the water and the oil but that it floats on the mercury. By
careful trial find a substance that floats on water but which
is too heavy to float on oil ; and, finally, find some substance
that is light enough to float on gasoline. Cork the tube
tightly, invert it, and note that the liquids rearrange them-
selves according to their several weights. Demonstrate by
means of the hydrometer that strong salt water is heavier
than fresh water. Show the same fact by actually weigh-
ing equal amounts.

Water weighs about sixty-two and a half pounds to the
cubic foot. In a tank, ten feet deep, what is the pressure
on each square foot of the bottom when the tank is filled
with water? Would a fish near the bottom of the tank
be under a greater pressure than one near the top ? Divers
can work successfully only in comparatively shallow waters,
from fifteen to thirty-five or forty feet deep. Why? Why
are tanks for private water supply usually placed high above
the ground? Have you ever seen standpipes used in con-
nection with city water systems? Why are they used?

We live at the bottom of a great sea of air which is vari-
ously estimated at from fifty to four hundred miles deep.
The pressure at the bottom is equal to the
water pressure at the bottom of a tank
about thirty feet deep. Our bodies, developing under this
constant pressure, are not only used to the tremendous

NON-LIVING THINGS 211

weight thus always borne, but they need it to keep them in
compact, solid form. Thus air seems to us as nothing,
except in its unusual manifestations. We commonly say
that a vessel is empty when it is full of air, and the fact
that air and other invisible gases are really forms of matter
is not always easy to make plain to the child mind.

In the lower grades this fact should be made plain by
discussion and by simple experiments. Discuss with the
children the movements of air that can be felt, — the blow-
ing of the wind ; rising currents from heated stoves ; move-
ments of clouds, which are simply masses of fog high above
the earth, floating in variable currents of air ; the movement
i dust and other light objects or even of small pebbles by
wind. We can hear, feel, and in a sense even see air.
supports the bird in its flight, the boys' kites, and toy
alloons. Under compression it is even used for cushions
nd mattresses; it can be made solid enough to sustain
reat weight, as when it is pumped into bicycle and auto-
lobile tires, thus being greatly compressed.
Invert a jar and force it mouth down into a vessel that
ontains water. Does the water rise to fill the jar? Why
ot? Fill a drinking glass nearly full of water. Put a
ard over its mouth and invert the glass, holding the card
uring the process. Now take the hand away from the
ard; it will be found that the card remains in place and
lat the water does not flow out. Why not? Now lower
ie glass mouth down into a vessel of water, and as soon as
is touching the water remove the card. The water still
emains in the glass. Why? With a crooked tube let air
ito the upper part of the glass, and the water flows out
ntil it reaches the level of that in the vessel. Why ? Fas-

212 METHODS IN TEACHING

ten a toy balloon to a glass tube ten inches in length, and
thrust the other end upward through a bored cork that will
fit a large florence flask. Thrust the end having the balloon
attached into the flask until the cork fits snugly the mouth
of the flask. Try to inflate the balloon by forcing air into
the outer end of the tube. It can not be done. Why not?
Withdraw the cork a very little way, inflate the balloon, and
replace the cork. The balloon remains inflated. Why?
Take two test-tubes, one of which is enough smaller than
the other to slide easily into it. Fill the larger one nearly
full of water ; put the end of the smaller tube into the larger
one until it displaces the water to a depth of about an inch
and a half. Invert the tubes in this position over a vessel
to catch the water. As the water slowly trickles out of the
larger tube, air pressure forces the smaller one into it.
This is a very striking experiment for pupils of any grade
above the fourth.

Another that holds interest quite as well is the following :
Secure a board, two feet long, ten inches wide, and half
an inch thick. It should be of tough wood. Place it upon
a table or desk so that nearly half of it projects over the
edge. Now spread two or three thicknesses of newspaper
over the end that is on the table. Direct one of the stronger
boys of the class to strike a quick, heavy blow downward o
the projecting end. The class, as well as the boy, will
greatly surprised to find that the board is scarcely moved;
owing to air pressure acting upon the board and paperj
The paper, of course, simply prevents air from passinj
quickly under the board. Thus the blow meets the resis!
tance of the pressure on the upper surface of the board, th;
whole of which in this case would amount to nearly a tori

NON-LIVING THINGS

Other manifestations and uses of air pressure are seen in
the use of the siphon and the common lifting pump.

The measure of air pressure may be taken up with pupils
of the sixth grade and above. Introductory to the work
of making a barometer the follo'^^tigf will be helpful : Bend
a piece of glass tubing into the form of the letter U. Fill
the bend of the tube with mercury, and have the class note
that when the tube is perpendicular the mercury stands at
the same height in both sides. Call attention to the fact
that the air presses with equal weight on the mercury in
both tubes. Ask the class what would be the effect of blow-
ing into one of the tubes, thus increasing the pressure on
that side. This they will readily see. What is the effect
of sucking some of the air out of one of the tubes ? Why ?
Be sure that the class sees that difference in the force of
air pressure makes the mercury stand higher in the tube
in which the air pressure has been reduced by drawing out
some of the air.

The making of the barometer should follow. For this
the following will be needed : A piece of glass tubing about

thirty-six inches long and one-fourth of an
Barometer

inch in diameter inside. This tube should

be closed at one end. A piece of tube, the same diameter,
twelve inches long, and open at both ends. Two pieces of
strong rubber tubing, about six inches long, and large
enough to fit snugly over the ends of the glass tubes.
Enough mercury to a little more than fill the longer tube.
A small funnel having a stem equal in diameter to that of
the glass tube.

Connect the open end of the long tube to the shorter tube
by means of the rubber hose. This should be tied tightly

214 METHODS IN TEACHING

with stout string at both connections. In the same way
connect the funnel to the free end of the short tube. Now
run a straight wire to the bottom of the tube thus formed,
leaving a few ind^Hfcrojecting from the mouth of the
funnel. Pour the m^Bpy in very slowly, being careful to
dislodge air bubbles by means of the wire. When the wire
is finally removed, the mercury should a little more than fill
the longer tube. Remove the funnel and its rubber connec-
tion. Keeping the short tube in a perpendicular position,
elevate the longer one until it is parallel with it. Notice
as the longer tube assumes the vertical position, that the
mercury falls a few inches in it and that there is a corre-
sponding rise in the short tube. How much air pressure
in the closed end of the long tube ? Pupils readily see that
there is none, for there is no air there and the tube is closed.
They also see that at the open end of the short tube air
pressure acts normally. With a little thought they will be
able to see that the weight of the column of mercury is sup-
ported by air pressure acting upon the surface of the mer-
cury in the short open tube. Would the same result be
reached if the tubes were either larger or smaller? Yes.
What is the height of the column of mercury supported?
(Measure from the level of the column of mercury in the
short tube.) If near the sea level, it should approximate
thirty inches. A column of mercury one inch square and
thirty inches high weighs fifteen pounds. Could we make
a water barometer? How long would the longer tube be?
Why can not water be pumped with an ordinary lifting
pump more than thirty feet above the water level in the well
or soil?

Work in solution and crystallization may be undertaken

215

with pupils in any/$ the grades. Pupils should provide
themselves with pfeces of common window glass, about five
Solution and or six incnes squam, Prepare a saturated
Crystalliza- solution (one inj| Hi there is as much of

any given substlp^as will dissolve in the
fluid) of common salt, and put a small puddle of it upon the
pupils' pieces of glass. If the weather is dry and warm,
salt crystals begin to appear in a few minutes. Watch their
formation, using low power microscopes or hand magnifiers,
if available. For larger crystals pour some of the solution
into a glass or small dish and set it away for a few days.
When the water has evaporated, discuss the shape and size
of the crystals, how trry form, the time required, and many
other points noticed. Then try solutions of sulphate of cop-
per ("blue stone"), saltpeter, borax, epsom salts, hyposul-
phite of soda, or any other crystalline substance soluble in
water.

With older pupils extend the work by considering sub-
stances soluble in alcohol, as shellac, camphor gum, or
crystals of iodine ; substances soluble in oils, as resin, solu-
ble in coal oil or gasoline; paraffin, soluble in turpentine;
lime, soluble in dilute sulphuric acid. With these simple
experiments as a basis, discuss any crystalline rocks which
may be found in the region, such as crystal quartz, granite,
marble, calcareous spar, stalactite formations. Call atten-
tion to the different forms in which some substances are
found, as in the case of carbon, which may be in the form
of a gas, common charcoal, mineral coal ; as a part of veg-
etable and animal tissues; graphite, of which lead pencils
are made ; or the crystalline diamond, which because of its

2l6 METHODS IN TEACHING

beauty, its rarity, and its durability, is one of the most
valued of gems.

Children in general have little knowledge of the common
metals. Specimens of these arc easily secured, and should

form a part of every school equipment.
Metals Where practicable, there should also be a

collection of the common metallic ores. Of
the various useful metals perhaps iron is best known; for
this reason it should be studied first. Draw from the class
what is already known concerning the sources of the iron
supply in this country; distinguish between the terms
wrought iron, cast iron; steel and cast steel. Discuss with
the class such properties of iron as its strength, hardness
in various forms, elasticity in tempered steel, weight, color,
and ductility. Discuss its uses, adapting the discussion to
the age and experience of the pupils. Direct attention to
some of the many ways in which it is used in the school-
room or building; in the home; in the city. What Andi-
tions hasten its decomposition? (Oxidation or nf^ng.)
Why do we paint iron? By what other means 'do we ex-
clude the air from iron and steel? The use of oil, zinc,
tin, or silver for these purposes. The use of iron as a con-
ductor of heat. Compare with wood in this respect; with
copper; lead; aluminum. For this purpose place rods of
several different metals in such a position that one end of
each is in contact with an alcohol or gas flame. At the
same distance from the heating ends of the rods, stick
pieces of paraffin or tallow. Note on which one of the rods
the tallow melts soonest, and the order in which it melts on
all of them. Which metal is the best conductor of heat?
Which is the poorest?

NON-LIVING THINGS

The following list of metals is suggested for a continu-
ance of the work: lead, tin, copper, zinc, aluminum, silver,
and that to the child most interesting of all metals, mercury.
Compare each with iron in suclj,; properties as hardness,
weight, strength; and discuss uses. Discuss also important
alloys, as hfonze and brass; also the reasons for making
alloys, \jmere sufficient heat is easily available, young
childrentfspecially will be much interested in seeing lead
used in casting bullets or even poured into cold
it takes on peculiar shapes. Mercury, at ordi-
na^temperatures, remains in the melted state. At a tem-
perature of forty degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, however,
it hardens to a form somewhat like lead.

SIMPLE CHEMISTRY OF AIR

Provide a couple of ordinary candy jars; a shallow
trough or basin with a capacity of two to four gallons;
some rubber and glass tubing, one- fourth inch in diameter;
ancrm few medium-sized test-tubes with corks to fit. Have
also some short pieces of wax or tallow candle, an ounce
or two of potassium chlorate, three or four ounces of man-
ganese dioxide (black oxide), and an alcohol lamp.

Experiment. — Place a short piece of candle upon a float
that is small enough to go easily into the mouth of the candy
jar. Float the candle in an inch of water in a plate. Light
the candle and invert the candy jar over it, letting its edge
sink into the shallow water. Call the attention of the
pupils to the fact that the jar is filled with air. At first,
the flame burns brightly, but it soon grows dim and small,
and after a few moments it goes out. Repeat the experi-
ment, noting the water that rises into the jar. Why is the

2l8 METHODS IN TEACHING

I

flame extinguished? If no one is able to answer, explain,
and repeat the experiment. Why does the water rise as the
candle burns and for a short time after it is extinguished?
Has any part of the air been actually used ? Can anything
be burned in it now ? Slip a piece of pasteboard under the
mouth of the jar and hold it in place while the jar is turned
right side up. Light a taper and thrust it into the jar.
Does it burn? No. Now invert the jar over a piece of
burning candle on the table. Can air get into it now?
The candle burns for a time and then goes out. Lift the
jar gently while still warm, cover, and turn right side up.
Pour into the jar about a tablespoonful of clear lime water,
and shake it thoroughly. Note that it turns milky, showing
the presence of carbon dioxide. Explain the lime water
test to pupils, and as a control experiment, shake some lime
water in a vessel filled with pure air. The absence of milki-
ness indicates that, if carbon dioxide is present at all in
pure air, it is only in very minute quantity. As a matter
of fact, it is about five parts in ten thousand.

Fill a jar with water, place a card over its mouth, and

invert into a vessel which already contains an inch or two

of water with a capacity for at least as

Collecting much more as the jar contains. Insert the

Defacement end of the deliveI7 tube under the edge
of the inverted jar, and the gas as gener-
ated will displace the water. Collect Jb^ the above method
a jar of breathed air, and test for oxygen and carbon diox-
ide: the former, by means of the lighted taper; and the
latter, with lime water. Repeat several times, if necessary,
until the pupils see that air that has supported burning and
air that has been breathed are very much alike in the fact

NON-LIVING THINGS 2IQ

that they are both deficient in oxygen and contain an excess
of carbon dioxide. Collect another jar of breathed air.
If the breath is held for a few seconds the results will be
more positive. Test for oxygen. It does not support a
flame. Place a branch of some plant with fresh green
leaves upon it in the jar. Invert the jar into a vessel of
water as before, and put it into the sunlight. After two
or three hours, test for oxygen ; it will be found to be pres-
ent. Test for carbon dioxide. It has been absorbed by
the plant and water.

Place a mixture of equal parts of pulverized potassium
chlorate and " black oxide " in a test-tube. Cork with a

bored cork, which has tightly fitted into it
Qx en a delivery tube composed of eight or ten

inches of quarter inch glass tube and about
two feet of rubber tubing. Heat the test-tube over an al-
cohol or gas lamp, and collect by displacement the gas that
is thus generated. This gas is oxygen. Test it by thrust-
ing into it a piece of charcoal with a small spark of fire
upon it, or a burning splinter after the blaze is extinguished,
leaving a tiny, glowing coal at the end. In the oxygen
these tiny sparks spring into life and burn fiercely. In a
gas that so actively supports combustion green twigs, thin
pieces of steel, as watch springs, and fine wire, burn bril-
liantly, and drops of the molten metal fall to the bottom of
the jar. Two or three inches of water left in the bottom
of the jar will cool these and prevent the glass cracking in
the intense heat.

In a bottle holding about a quart, put a few marble chips
or a couple of ounces of baking soda, and add water until

22O METHODS IN TEACHING

the^fcottle is a little more than half full. The cork for

the bottle should be bored for the delivery tube and for a

" thistle," or funnel tube. The delivery tube

Dioxide should have about two feet of rubber tubing

attached to the outer end, and its inner

end should extend only just through the cork. Pour small

quantities of either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid into the

bottle by means of the funnel tube, which should reach

almost to the bottom of the bottle.

The gas that is given off is carbon dioxide ; it may either
be collected by displacement or, by reason of its being con-
siderably heavier than air, it may be allowed to flow into
any deep vessel in a room where the air is quiet. When
sufficient amount is secured, test it by a burning paper.
Does it support burning? Would it support animal life?
If the jar is large enough, drop a small, light soap-bubble
into it, and notice that it floats in the gas much as a rubber
balloon would float in water. It may be dipped and poured,
run through troughs and pipes, or it may be siphoned like
heavier liquids. Make a deep trough of pasteboard and
place short, burning candles in the bottom. Pour the heavy
gas into the trough, after elevating one end of it, and note
that the lights are extinguished in order as it flows down
over them.

Call attention of the pupils to other forms of oxidation
besides burning and breathing ; such as decay of animal and
vegetable tissues, fermentation, and the oxidation of met-
als,— iron, zinc, lead, copper. How is the oxygen thus used
up replaced in the air? In connection with the experiments
with carbon dioxide, discuss with the pupils " choke damp "
of mines, and the " damps " that are sometimes found in

NON-LIVING THINGS 221

wells and deep vats. How do people test wells for damps,
and thus know whether it is safe to descend into them?
How are such collections of the gas, carbon dioxide, re-
moved ? %

Place a piece of lime the size of a walnut in a quart of

water. Twenty-four hours later, pour off the clear water,

taking care not to disturb the lime at the

To Prepare bottom. The lime water thus simply pre-

Lime Water . .

pared is as good for all purposes as is that

bought from druggists.

Nitrogen can be separated from the other constituents
of the air by burning a piece of phosphorus the size of a

pea, instead of the candle, as in the first
Nitrogen

experiment with air. The dense white gas

formed is phosphoric oxide. It is rapidly absorbed by the
water, leaving nearly pure nitrogen. Care should be used
in handling the phosphorus, and the gas should not be
allowed to escape into the room.

Experiments in combustion may either precede or follow
or be given with the study of air, as the subjects are closely

interrelated. Substances which burn with
Combustion .

a flame are always those which, under cer-
tain conditions, give off combustible vapors or gases ; those
which glow by incandescence but from no flame are com-
monly some form of more or less pure carbon, as charcoal,
coke. The following experiments will serve to illustrate:
In different glasses place a few drops of carbon-bisul-
phide, gasoline, and alcohol. Cover the glasses for two or
three minutes to allow the different liquids to vaporize and
mix with air. Remove the cover and apply a red-hot wire
to the mouth of the glass containing the carbon-bisulphide.

222 METHODS IN TEACHING

It flashes. Try in the same manner the other two sub-
stances. If they fail to ignite in this way, try the flame of
a burning taper, and they flash as did the carbon-bisulphide.
Place about a teaspoonful of each of the substances in
saucers or shallow dishes. By trial, show that each ignites
easily and burns with a flame. Extreme care should be
used when handling such substances. Only small quanti-
ties should be used at a time, and the rest should be kept
in tightly closed vessels. Children should also be taught
the extremely dangerous character of highly inflammable
liquids such as these, and the reasons why they are so.
Discuss with them the difference between these liquids,
which are very volatile — that is, throwing off large quan-
tities of inflammable vapors at ordinary temperatures — and
those liquids which give off such vapors only when heated.

Place a small quantity of kerosene in a saucer and try to
light it by means of a match or taper. It refuses to burn.
Now place a small quantity in a beaker and heat until it
nearly boils. Try the taper in the air above the mouth of
the beaker. It flashes about as gasoline flashes at ordinary
temperatures, and continues to burn. Take hold of the
two ends of a sheet of paper and bring it down quickly to
the mouth of the beaker so as to exclude the air. The
flame goes out. Why? Discuss the best means of extin-
guishing burning clothing, oil, etc.

Test various other fats and gums: first, by trying to set
fire to them cold; then by melting them and trying the
melted form; and finally, by heating until the inflammable
gases are given off, when they will flash readily. The fol-
lowing can be tested easily by heating in an ordinary tin
tablespoon: — butter, lard, tallow, paraffin, pitch, and resin.

NON-LIVING THINGS 223

Each is found to flash when heated to the point where it
vaporizes freely. To show that the blaze from burning
paper, wood, or coal is due to inflammable gases given off
by heating, try the following:

To show gas from paper, cut strips of foolscap or other
heavy writing paper an inch and a half wide, and as long
as possible up to eighteen inches. Roll into tapers, folding
the larger end to prevent unrolling. Light the small end,
and after the flame has traveled up the lighter three or four
inches, note that there is still a flame at the small end, al-
though the paper is evidently burned. Blow the lower
flame out gently and observe that a dense gray " smoke "
pours out in its place. Collect a quantity of this in a wide-
mouthed bottle. Stop the bottle and set aside for a few
minutes. While waiting for this, repeat the experiment by
filling another bottle or a test-tube with the " smoke/'
While it is still hot apply the flame of the taper to it and
note that it flashes somewhat as did the vapor of gasoline,
leaving the bottle clear. Examine the bottle that was set
aside. If sufficient time has elapsed the " smoke " should
have entirely disappeared. Examine the sides of the bot-
tle for a yellowish liquid, — creosote. Discuss the results
with the pupils. Was what we called smoke really smoke
or was it gas ? that is, an inflammable vapor ? Can this gas
be burned after it is cool, or must it be heated to reach its
flashing point? Repeat the experiment if necessary.
After burning some of the gas from the bottle, test the air
that remains for carbon dioxide. What is the result?
Draw from the pupils the fact that the heat of the flame
on the outside of the taper drives the gas off from the
inner surface. Why does not this burn at the point where

224 METHODS IN TEACHING

it is formed inside the paper tube? What prevents the air
from entering the tube? Why does not the flame travel
through a gas pipe when we light the gas at the burner?
Collect some ordinary illuminating gas by displacement in
a wide-mouthed jar; a quart fruit jar will answer. Light
the pure gas and note that it burns rather slowly from the
top downward. Repeat, by filling the jar with about one
fourth gas and three fourths air. Light with a long taper
and note that the whole mixture flashes at once. In this
connection discuss the blow-pipe, also the bunsen gas
burner, and the common gas stove burners, which have
devices for mixing the gas with air and thus developing
great heat by securing more rapid combustion.

Verify the taper experiments by placing a small quantity
of torn paper in a baking-powder can (not soldered), and
heating it over a gas or alcohol flame. When the gray
vapor begins to rise in considerable quantity, test with
lighter. Does it flash as before? What produces the
flame, the solid paper or the gas that is driven off by the
heat? Repeat the experiment, substituting small pieces of
wood for the paper. Compare results with those of the
previous experiment. What is left in the can after the
vapor ceases to be given off? Compare with common char-
coal. Can this be burned ? Will it produce a flame ?
Heat until incandescent, and catch some of the gas that is
now given off by inverting a glass over it for a moment.
Test the contents of the glass for carbon dioxide. The
charcoal can be burned in shorter time if air is admitted
by perforating the can near the bottom for this last experi-
ment.

The experiment can be made a little more striking by

NON-LIVING THINGS 22$

using a section of thin gas pipe, properly capped and fitted
with a delivery tube. Place some dry sawdust in the pipe
and shake it down into the end to be heated. Heat over
alcohol or gas flame until the vapor passes from the de-
livery tube in a sufficient quantity to light. With the same
apparatus use pulverized soft coal instead of sawdust. By
heating the coal gas is generated, which may be burned
similarly at the end of the delivery tube.

By use of this simple generator collect a small quantity
of creosote by condensing the gas from paper or wood.
Show the pupils that this liquid can be expanded again into
gas by heat. Place a few drops of the liquid in the barrel
of a bicycle pump, and heat over the alcohol lamp. The
liquid expands again into the heavy, gray gas, and flashes
into flame on being tested with a lighted taper.

For experiments with a candle flame, a large candle is

so much better than a small one that it pays to make it if

it can not be secured otherwise. A mold

Experiments for this purpose can be made by rolling
with the . .

Candle Flame heavy writing PaPer into a tube about an
inch and a quarter in diameter. The wick
should be several times the size of common candle wicking.
When this candle is lighted it does not catch as readily
as the wick of a kerosene lamp. Why not? At first, the
flame burns low, afterward it increases in size and bril-
liancy. Why? Call attention to its shape, which is the
result of molding by air currents. Tell the pupils that its
color is due to particles of carbon (soot) made incandescent
by heat. Hold a cold slip of glass in the flame for a mo-
ment, and show the carbon that condenses upon its surface.
Some of this carbon can be seen escaping unburned from
16

226 METHODS IN TEACHING

the flame, which is not hot enough to consume it all. Com-
pare the flame in this respect with the flame of a kerosene
lamp without the chimney. The effect of the chimney is to
cause this carbon smoke to be completely consumed, thus
making the flame larger and brighter. Is the flame of the
lamp hotter with or without the chimney? Call attention
to the dark area in the center of the candle flame. Thrust
a toothpick through the base of the flame and hold it there
until it begins to burn. Remove it quickly and blow out
the flame. Note that it began to burn at the two places
in contact with the outer surfaces of the flame, but that it
did not burn in the middle of the flame. The flame is hol-
low. Why? Because air does not get into the center and
nothing can burn without oxygen. What is in this central
portion that we have said was hollow? Take a piece of
glass tubing about ten inches long, and, holding it at an
angle of about 45°, thrust its lower end into the dark cen-
ter of the flame. A gray gas, reminding us of the gas
from the paper lighter, rises through the tube. Have some
pupil light this at the upper end of the tube. Discuss its
origin, and, if necessary, heat a small piece of tallow in a
spoon until it vaporizes and takes fire? When pupils rec-
ognize this gas as vaporized tallow, ask again why it does
not burn in the center of the candle flame? To fix this
point still further, thrust the head of a sulphur match into
the dark center of the flame, and call attention to the fact
that it does not at once take fire and burn, although it may
blacken by heat. When removed, it immediately takes fire.
Try again, this time only touching the head of the match
to the outer surface of the flame, where the air reaches it.
What is the result?

NON-LIVING THINGS 22/

Blow out the candle, noting that much gray gas rises
from the wick while it is still hot. Condense some of this
by holding in it a piece of clean, cold glass. Let the pupils
see that it is really tallow, which assumes its original form
when condensed and cold. Relight the candle, and, when
it burns brightly, extinguish the flame as before. Have a
paper tube half an inch or more in diameter and six to ten
inches long; hold it so that the gas flows upward through
it. Light the gas at the upper end of the tube, and note
that the flame travels quickly down to the wick, relighting
the candle.

The study of combustion can be extended indefinitely,
according to the maturity of the pupils and the interest
manifested. The work as here described has been found
suited to our fifth and sixth grades, but much of it will
bear repeating in grades as high as the eighth. It requires
little in the way of apparatus that can not be made by the
teacher and the pupils, and it results in an insight into many
of the common things that none of us understand too well.
With older pupils interest may be added to the work by dis-
cussions on the manufacture of illuminating gas, gas and
gasoline engines, and many other things connected directly
with combustion.

Teach pupils the relation of the moon to the earth, the
relation of the earth and the moon to the sun, and the re-
sultant phases of the moon. Teach also
Sky Lessons

the relation of the earth to other planets of

the solar system, and the differences between planets and
stars. The constellations may also be taken up simply by
mapping them upon the blackboard and asking the pupils

228 METHODS IN TEACHING

to look for them at night. They should know, of course,
whereabouts in the heavens to look for a given constella-
tion at a certain hour.

The apparent motion of the sun may be shown by mark-
ing the position of shadows or spots of sunlight in the
schoolroom at different times during the year. The shadow
should be marked at about the same time, about twelve
o'clock, every day that it is observed. If sunlight does not
enter the room at that time, the class may be taken into the
yard, and the shadow of any stationary object, as a post or
a part of the building itself, may be used for the purpose.
The length of the shadow should be noted, especially at or
near the beginning of the different seasons.

Permanently fasten the barometer described elsewhere to
a board, and tack beside it a yard stick, so that variations
in the height of the column of mercury can
Studies ke seen easily. Note the height of the

column in clear, cool weather, and use this
as a standard for future observations. Call attention to
any changes, until pupils form the habit of making use of
the barometer in the study of climatic conditions. Dry,
dense air is heavier than moist, expanded air. Therefore
low barometer indicates storm conditions, and high barom-
eter indicates fair weather. Study other local weather
changes, the direction of winds and clouds when storms are
approaching, and their direction in clearing weather which
follows the storm. Local weather signs, if they are at all
reliable, should be noted and discussed with a view to their
better understanding. Daily weather records become verj
monotonous and are not to be recommended; but observj

NON-LIVING THINGS 229

tions may be recorded once a week or oftener by the class,
if results justify so doing.

In the absence of an organized course in physiology for
the several grades, based upon adopted texts, health lessons

on such subjects as the following will meet
Lessons *^e more seri°us needs: — The skin. Its

structure, glands, and other organs, includ-
ing perspiratory and sebaceous glands, organs of touch,
temperature, and pain; its appendages, — in man, hair and
nails ; in other animals, feathers, claws, hoofs, horns, beaks,
and spurs; its functions, including excretion, regulation of
temperature, and protection of underlying organs, and its
hygiene, including massage and bathing. In a similar way
the muscles, teeth, digestive organs, nervous system, may
be treated.

Work under the head of alcohol and narcotics should be
well considered and tactfully presented. Some knowledge

of the nervous system is almost imperative
Alcohol for the success Of the work with older

and
Narcotics pupils, as it is upon this system that the

profound effects of these things are pro-
duced. The effect of the use of tobacco upon growing
minds and bodies should be emphasized with young pupils.
In general a stronger case is made against alcohol and
other narcotics by emphasizing the moral rather than the
physical effects ; but boys at the age when interest in athlet-
ics begins to develop, are deeply impressed by the fact that
these things are inimical to normal muscular development.
Teachers should not forget that it is through curiosity
purely that most boys begin to tamper with tobacco and
alcoholic drinks.

23O METHODS IN TEACHING

In the space here available it is impossible to do more
than suggest subjects and treatment. Such suggestions

will not, of course, take the place of text-
Conclusion

books m the various subjects from which

work is taken, and which should form a part of every school
library.

CHAPTER XIII1

GEOGRAPHY

Geography has been defined as the study of the earth and
man's relation to it, but that which holds the attention of
the student is rather, as is claimed by Dr. Charles A. Mc-
Murry, " the interaction between man and earth." The
pupil should know more than the location of places and the
boundaries of countries, he should also have some concep-
tion of his own social relation to the various parts of the
world. This requires that he must first gain a knowledge
of his own country, its institutions, industries, products,
physical features, climatic conditions, and its commercial
relations with other countries, for the value of the knowl-
edge itself and as an illustrative basis for the comprehen-
sion of conditions in other parts of the world. The pupil
gains this knowledge just in proportion as it arouses his
interest and is grasped by his understanding. The normal
child is blessed with curiosity; a keen desire to know; an
intense interest in natural phenomena, in his neighbors, in
industries, in commerce, in government. The satisfaction
of this curiosity is the keynote to success in education.
Only when the world is made unreal and foreign to the
child does he lose touch with it.

Geography may be divided into physical and social stud-
ies. Under the former are grouped those conditions with

1Much of the subject matter of this chapter has been furnished
by Mr. S. H. Cohn of the Stockton schools.

231

232 METHODS IN TEACHING

which nature has surrounded man, as the physiographic and
mathematical features; under the latter belong the condi-
tions with which man has surrounded him-
Divisions of ir ...

Geography self> as those Plaining to commerce, agri-

culture, government. Development of civ-
ilization is to a great extent dependent upon environments ;
but a child begins his study at the other end of the evolu-
tion, with results instead of causes, with the realities around
him that are the results of man's efforts, passing later to the
natural conditions and laws that govern his surroundings,
and that promote or retard his development. The newer
teaching recognizes what the older treatment overlooked,
that the study of geography must be based upon material
within the experience of the child, for all knowledge is con-
crete or it has a concrete standard of comparison. In order
to secure this knowledge, to widen the child's mental hori-
zon, to add to the sum of his experiences, to establish units
of comparison, two ideas have come to take the lead in the
methods of prominent teachers of geography, — the excur-
sion and the establishment of a type form. That is, obser-
vation and representation.

Seeing is more than believing to the child; if it is the

right kind of seeing, it is also knowing. In geography, the

excursion is seeing, it is getting informa-

Excursion t^on at ^rst nanc*- Two thoughtful objec-

tions are urged to the excursion, — the diffi-
culty in maintaining discipline and the great amount of time
needed. Does not true discipline, however, take cognizance
of the real child, training him for his life work? The
excursion tends to put the real child under the eyes of the
teacher, an opportunity not lost by an observant, sympa-

GEOGRAPHY 233

thetic person. The time required for an excursion is cer-
tainly an important consideration ; but does not the trouble
in this respect usually lie in thinking of today only as time?
If the knowledge gathered on the excursion is well seen,
if it is so thoroughly learned that reviews and reproduc-
tions are less necessary than with the information gained
from a book or through the teacher, is not time really gained
in the course of the year?

Aimless wandering is not a geographical excursion. The
teacher should know where the class is to go and why ; the
pupil should have some understanding of what he is to see
and why. One teacher, before taking her class to the
woolen mills, made three trips there herself, so that she
might be familiar enough with it to direct attention profit-
ably, and to answer intelligently any question that might
be brought out by the pupils at the mill or in the class dis-
cussion that followed the return to the schoolroom. A
paper written by a pupil after this trip was pronounced by
the superintendent of the mill correct in all respects except
in the use of a few technical terms, a result worthy of the
devotion of the teacher. Not only must the eye see but
the mind must record scientifically and correctly what is
seen. The excursion and the discussions that follow offer
excellent opportunities for such training, which is just what
is required in many branches of life.

Our judgments are formed on certain established stand-
ards or units. The more definite the standards, the more

unerring the judgments. In geography,
XliG Type

the pupil must have some means of convert-
ing the ideas roused by reading about distant lands and
foreign conditions into known quantities. To do this he

234 METHODS IN TEACHING

must be able to visualize, to typify. The local river, creek,
slough, becomes his type for the study of other water
courses; the distance from his home to some known place
is his unit of measurement; the length of his play-time or
his study period is his standard of time ; the hottest day or
the coldest morning is a unit for climatic comparison.
When the local types have been fixed, the imagination is
brought into play in order to understand distant conditions.
Pictures, books, stories, all aid in giving that larger view
by which the young mind passes to new types. Thus, from
the local stream, the type changes to the Mississippi, a
standard for measuring all great rivers. In similar man-
ner cities, countries, governments, and peoples become
known, but the home type is the point of departure.

FIRST AND SECOND YEAR GRADES

The geographical work of these years is incidental and
is usually associated with nature study; the teaching is
objective, and it should always be within the limits of the
child's observation and experience. Distance, location,

direction, are the first three thoughts pre-
Distance sented tQ the dass> The dt block {& the

Direction

Location standard of measurement with these begin-

ners, who are led to notice and remember
how many blocks it is from home to the school, to the car
line, to some public building. Cardinal points are learned
in connection with objects outside the schoolroom; later,
they are applied to the interior of the room and building.
The child is led to observe in what direction a certain street
car runs, where the sun rises and sets, how the shadows fall

GEOGRAPHY 235

at different times in the day. That is, his attention is called
to the directions that are within his experiences.

The children tell what some of the people whom they
know are doing, thus beginning to study occupations.
They talk about the public buildings of the
Industries c^' l°catmg them by the cardinal direction

from certain well known points, and men-
tioning in terms intelligible to the child some of their uses ;
it is a foundation for later studies in government. The
ways of going around the city are discussed, in order to
understand the needs and the kinds of transportation. The
most noted industries or manufactures of the city are men-
tioned and located if possible. Some of the most common
fruits and vegetables are talked about, the children finding
out where they come from and if any are shipped away.

Stories of children in other lands begin the pupil's ac-
quaintance with foreign countries, they are the first steps

in the geography of the world. This
Stories of
Child Life knowledge may be only of names, correctly

pronounced and spelled; of simple facts
about countries, as that Switzerland is a land of lakes and
mountains, as shown in " William Tell " ; or that Holland
has dykes to keep out the sea, as the islands below Stockton
have levees to keep out the San Joaquin river. Whatever
the facts, if they are learned correctly and are well fixed in
the memory, they are supplementary geographical knowl-
edge. In the second grade, the globe and the wall maps
are used freely with the stories, thus familiarizing the chil-
dren with the representation of the world as a whole, with
the shapes of the continents and oceans, and leading many
of the brighter minds to locate the places talked about.

236 METHODS IN TEACHING

The blackboard and the sand trough are used freely in
developing the work of these grades both by the teacher

and the pupils. By drawing and modeling
Constructive ,. , .11*. i ,

Work the teacher presents thoughts more clearly

and forcibly; by the same means the child
expresses his comprehension of a subject, and visualizes for
himself that about which he is studying.

THIRD YEAR GRADE

With the mile as an understood unit of measurement, in
this grade many distances around the city are made intel-
ligible to the pupils. Distance is also meas-
Distance , . . . „ , . f

Home City u m time> a ten mmute walk, bicycle

ride, trip on the railroad, on the street car.
The principal work of the grade is to give the pupils a
definite idea of the size and plan of the city, which is laid
out as a rectangle, and of the location of the principal build-
ings, especially those belonging to the city. The printed
maps of the city furnished the schools are used by the chil-
dren for indicating parks, buildings, factories, hotels,
schools, depots. In connection with the map work, the
pupils learn direction as represented in drawing. In addi-
tion to the details of the city within its boundaries, the
features of the country around the city are studied: the
great plain in which Stockton is located; the mountain
ranges in the distance ; the rivers and other waterways ; the
nature of the soil. On maps of the city, drawn or modeled,
or on the wall map, the children locate the streets, parks,
and other points of interest, telling in what direction they
would go if passing from one point to another.

Stories of child life are an important feature in the read-

GEOGRAPHY 237

ing for the year, and care is taken that some of them shall
be of a nature to arouse the interest of the

Stones of children in the world as well as in its people.

Other Lands

Conditions in many countries thus begin to

impress themselves upon the minds of the pupils. The
globe and the wall maps are used in these stories, although
no fixed amount of knowledge can be required. If the
information is given accurately, if the locations are clearly
pointed out, and if the children frequently hunt out places
and countries for themselves, the results are almost sure to
be satisfactory in regard to the amount of geographical
information obtained.

FOURTH YEAR GRADE

Units of measurement of distance and time are developed
through a comprehension of one mile, five, ten, a hundred
miles ; an hour, a day, a week, a month, a
year. Pupils try to realize long distances

by translating them into the time occupied
in covering them by various modes of travel. This corre-
lates well with number work, the children solving some
really difficult problems for their grade through interest in
the thought and a real understanding of what they are try-
ing to do.

From six to seven months of the year are given to home
geography. An elementary text-book is used, and the al-

lotted time is ample for collateral reading
Geography an(^ ^or ma^m& experiments to illustrate

some of the phenomena described. It is
easy to show the children the carrying power of rivers in
transporting soil; the way in which hills are washed down

238 METHODS IN TEACHING

by rain and other actions of water; the effect of lateral
pressure on the crust of the earth is easily presented by
putting differently colored soils with layers of salt or some
other white substance between them on a large blotting pad
slightly raised in the center. Apply lateral pressure gently
until the uppermost fold breaks.

Several careful experiments are made so that the chil-
dren may understand the action of air. This is very inter-
esting to the pupils and is preparatory to
of ^ the study of climate in later grades. For

one of these experiments a short section of
gas pipe is filled with water, the caps are screwed on se-
curely, and the pipe is placed in a bucket and surrounded
with a mixture of salt and ice. The children watch the
formations that appear on the outside of the pipe, — dew,
frost, and ice, where a few drops of water have been placed
on the outside. After a while the pipe bursts by the ex-
pansion of the water as it turns to ice. A thermometer
placed in the bucket adds to the interest in the experiment.
Valleys are treated in connection with rivers, several
weeks being devoted to the related subjects. Sandbars
formed in a river, channel, or creek are
and Rivers good examples of the work of a river.

Several land and water forms are learned
through the study of ponds and lakes. These are distin-
guished, named, and drawn by the pupil, who is led to form
his own definitions. As new places are mentioned they
are looked up on the map in the text-book, then on the
wall map, if possible on the globe as well. The habit of
locating a new place is to be classed with looking up a new
word.

GEOGRAPHY 239

In connection with the work on the home city industries

and commerce are studied. The government is considered

briefly, in terms comprehensible to the chil-

Commercial dren, correlating it with civics and the ordi-

Ind tri nances of the city government that are ap-

Ljfe plicable to the lives of the children. Maps

are drawn of places studied, not as perfect

reproductions nor as examples of painstakng efforts, but in

order to fix general proportions in the minds of the children.

The topics connected with the commercial and industrial
life of the city are more than geography. They correlate
so closely with local history that on many occasions there
is no attempt to differentiate between these two subjects.
Leading articles of export, as flour, combined harvesters,
leather, woollen goods, fruits, are made the bases of class
talks. During the year excursions to some local industries
are made, the teacher visiting the factory first in order to
become familiar with the processes, all or part of the class
going later with the teacher. It is not necessary that all
fourth grades should visit the same industry; the follow-
ing are those inspected by some class during the year : the
flour mills, glass works, woollen mills, briquette factory,
cannery, harvester works, iron works, ship yards, planing
mills, macaroni factory.

The order of the study is to procure any samples possible
and usable in the schoolroom, to locate the works, study
the raw material, observe the process of manufacture, study
the product and its uses, review the excursion by means
of photographs, write it up.

The county is studied, beginning with near-by districts
and any portions of the county known to any of the pupils.

24O METHODS IN TEACHING

The topics taken up are, — surface and drainage, position
and boundaries, industries, products, roads, lines of trans-
portation, rivers, towns. A study is made

County °^ t^ie wa^ maP °^ t^ie countv> furnished

every fourth grade. The county is drawn
again and again until the children can reproduce it easily
and accurately from memory. After the outline is firmly
fixed in the mind, the principal towns are located and their
leading industries are discussed. It is shown that Stockton
is a distributing center, and that its intercourse is great
with all parts of the county.

As a preparation for talks on the products of the county,
the various kinds of soil are discussed, not in scientific lec-
tures, but in the curiosity-satisfying, obser-
Soil

vation-loving methods, delightful and in-
spiring to the minds of children. The peat land of the
islands, the adobe in and around Stockton, the alluvial bot-
tom lands of the rivers, are treated briefly. A map on the
board, locating these lands in colors, makes the work very
graphic. Products grown upon the different soils are dis-
cussed; the teacher talks of the irrigation and reclamation
near the city. On all these points the children are either
already informed or they hunt up a great many interesting
points to contribute to the class.

The children make a long list of local products, — fruits,
vegetables, grains, animals, dairy products. In these stud-
ies it is usual to procure such specimens as
Products ^ seems desirous to have in the school-

room; to find out in what part of the
county each is grown ; to study a little about the life of the
specimen on its home ranch; to collect samples indicating

GEOGRAPHY 24!

the nature of the growth, or to make illustrative drawings
for the same purpose ; to study the manner of handling the
product, including the mode of gathering, packing, and the
means of transportation; to follow the product to its point
of sale, speaking briefly of the city merchant and his store.
Written work, incorporating the results of these investiga-
tions, completes the study of any one product.

The dependence of occupations and industries upon one
another and upon productions is easily shown; it forms an
interesting feature of this part of the study, and partakes
of the nature of geography, history, and civics. The in-
dustries growing out of any production are called to the
attention of the children by such questions as the following
about wheat raising: Why are there several flouring mills
here ? How is the wheat taken from the ranch to the mill ?
Where is the flour shipped to? By what means of trans-
portation? In the shipments to China is there any reload-
ing of the flour after leaving Stockton? How many occu-
pations can be named that grow out of wheat raising in
San Joaquin county?

Stories of children in other lands are continued in this
year, forming one of the most interesting features of the

course. There are always discussions on
Children the home of the child about whom the story

of other
Lands is written; where it is located; what kind

of a country this is ; how it differs from
our own ; personal appearance of the people ; clothing ; food ;
animals, and the uses to which they are put; occupations.
There is an immense fund of delightful information to be
gained in this way, over which children never tire. Map
and globe researches are its constant accompaniment, favor-
17

242 METHODS IN TEACHING

ing the acquisition of a great deal of accurate geographical
knowledge. Much assistance is given by locating on the
globe the world belt in which our home is found ; this may
be transferred to the wall map most frequently in use, thus
furnishing the pupils with a quick and sure means of locat-
ing places north and south of the home zone, and establish-
ing a means of comparison with places that are not in the
same latitude. Pictures are used freely, and all illustrative
material, such as articles of dress, utensils, products, all of
which help to picture life in foreign countries.

Maps are drawn of the home city and county. The land
and water forms are studied; sometimes illustrated by the

puddles in the school yard after a rain
Representation

storm, sometimes seen in objective form by

trips to the harbor and river. Plans are drawn to scale,
showing a surface as a bird would see it from above. Ideas
of area and scale are developed. This work is closely con-
nected with arithmetic and drawing.

The following extracts are from a teacher's account of
her work:1

One of the first duties of the teacher is to lead the child
to observe everything in nature around him, — the air, the
water, the sky, the temperature, the clouds ;
animals, planets, rocks, hills, valleys, soil,
streams, the habitations and the occupations of men. He
should also learn the necessary terms with which to express
the ideas gained by his observations. This is important
preparatory work in geography, from which, in addition to
knowledge, the child gains the power of accurate observa-
tion, inference, and expression; also the ability to make

1Miss Maud Soutfiworth.

GEOGRAPHY 243

clear his thoughts by drawing, modeling, painting, and con-
structing.

The work of the year includes oral lessons on distance,
location, and direction. The use of the compass is investi-
gated. The North Star is located. A
The Year weather record is kept during the winter

months when the weather is changeable. A
plan is drawn of the schoolroom, the school block, the home
block. A map of the city is then drawn.

A topic, as rivers, is placed on the board, with such ques-
tions as the following: — What is a river? Name one near

Stockton. Where is its source? Many
Topical
Treatment other simple questions are asked to lead the

children to consider a river from its source
to its mouth, some of the work it performs in carrying soil
and other ways, and the change in the country through which
it flows from the hills or mountains to the sea. Many of
these questions must be subdivided into new topics. Some
pupils have seen the source of a river in the mountains;
others have seen the mouth of the San Joaquin or the
Sacramento river ; all know about the overflow lands. So all
the thoughts suggested by the above questions can be de-
veloped intelligently and concretely with the whole class.
After the oral work is completed the children write up a
story on the subject. Other topics, as mountains, valleys,
lakes, soil, air, moisture, are treated in a similar manner.

After drawing a plan of our city Stockton is taken up
according to the same method. Such topical questions are

given as : — How is Stockton governed ?
Home City

Who makes the laws ? Who are the princi-
pal city officials? What are the railroads, the street car

244 METHODS IN TEACHING

lines ? What are the leading industries ? Is the land in and
around Stockton level or hilly? What are the nearest
mountains? the rivers? After the children are thoroughly
familiar with the topics by means of the oral treatment, out-
lines are made, and many are written up. In all our
geography work as many pictures as can be found and used
profitably are brought in by the children or are provided by
the teacher.

During the past year, while studying about the local indus-
tries, the class visited one of the creameries. The day before

the visit we talked of the things that we
The
Creamery expected to see ; of the number of creameries

in Stockton; where they were located; how
they got their milk and cream. We spoke of the skimming
stations, and agreed to find out how many there are in the
county and of what use they are to the farmers ; also to find
out about the means of transporting milk and cream. The
following outline was then worked out with the class as a
guide for the excursion and later for the paper on the sub-
ject.

Creameries.
Number.
Location.
Skimming stations.

Location.

Handling the milk — weighing.
— straining.
— separating.
Churning the cream.

GEOGRAPHY 245

Handling the butter — working.
— moulding.
— packing for sale.
— shipping.

Centers for sale of butter.
Near home.
Shipping by rail or water.

The children copied this outline and carried it with them
the next day. They were told to ask questions and to find
out all that they could about everything that they saw. After
careful inspection of the creamery, we returned to school
and talked over what we had seen and heard. Paper was
then passed to the pupils, and, from their outlines, they
wrote an account of the excursion. For drawing that day
an outline was made of Stockton, locating in reference to the
city the principal dairy farms of the county as we had
learned about them that morning at the creamery.

The class took up the flour mills of Stockton in the same
way, but only two of the pupils visited them. These two re-
ported to the class the day after their trip, outlines were then
made, and the stories were written. Other local industries
are taken up in one or the other of these ways, but not all are
reproduced in writing.

The study of the state follows that of the city and county.
In history California is studied with reference to the Indians,
the mission fathers, the discovery of gold,

Home State an(^ t^ie ^mission mto tne Union as a state.
In this work the children draw maps show-
ing California as it looked when the Indians were here; as
the mission fathers knew it, locating the twenty-one mis-

246 METHODS IN TEACHING

sions ; and as it is represented on the maps today. The chil-
dren find interesting work in the discovery of gold and the
different ways of mining still practiced in the state, especially
in the Mother Lode region in the Sierra Nevada mountains.

Twenty minutes a day are given to geography. The work
is mainly oral with, perhaps, two written lessons a month.

The following paper was written by one of Miss South-
worth's pupils after the excursion to the creamery. There
are no corrections in any manner whatever.

" We went three blocks and a half to the creamery.

" The creamery is on the corner of Center Street and
Miner Avenue.

" The owners of the creamery are Mr. Cy. Moreing, Mr.
W. A. Hildreth, and the estate of Mr. W. F. Jordan.

" It is leased by Mr. F. H. Armsburger, its manager.

" When the milk comes from the farms they put it in large
cans. Then they put them in country wagons and send the
milk to the skimming stations which are scattered all over
the country. There is one in Elks Grove, in Sacramento
County, has twenty patrons ; another in Lodi, in our country
which is San Joaquin County, has twenty patrons; another
in Bellota, in San Joaquin County, has twenty patrons and
two private skimming stations; another at Holt, in San
Joaquin County, is private; another in Lathrop, in San
Joaquin County, is owned by patrons; and another in
Modesto, in Stanislaus County, is owned by patrons.

" They have a machine called a separator in the skimming
stations. It has two pipes, one for the cream and the other
for the milk to run out. The milk is the heaviest so it stays
at the bottom and the cream goes to the top.

" They have a kind of tube they put a little of the milk in

GEOGRAPHY 247

and some liquid with it to tell how much the milk is worth.

" The purpose of this is to give the men the money that
they ought to get. The men that have poor milk don't get
much as the men that have rich milk.

" They take the skimmed milk off and give it to the calves.
When the calves have too much the men give it to the pigs.

" They put the cream on trains and send it to Stockton.
When it arrives the wholesale milk wagon comes and gets it
and takes it to the creamery. The cream is carried about
forty miles to Stockton.

" The churn is wooden outside and tin inside. It is shaped
like a cylinder. When the dasher is running the rollers
aren't, and when the rollers are running the dasher isn't. It
is large enough to hold fifteen hundred pounds of butter at
once. It runs by steam power. It takes one and a half
hours to make the butter. They have a man from the
country come and get the buttermilk for his pigs.

" They wash and wash the butter in the churn. They put
water in the churn and run it through the butter. After the
butter is washed they let the water out. The rollers keep
turning the salt into the butter while they go around. Then
they take it out of the churn and put it in a kind of trough.
They have four wires on and they push a stick fastened to
the wires and cut the butter in cube shape. There are two
pounds in each package. Then they take it out of the trough
with a kind of paddle. After it is hard they wrap it up in
paper which has their name on, 'The San Joaquin Cream-
ery/ They sell the butter to the grocers and dealers.
When they send it to them they put it in boxes. They sell it
to the skimming stations patrons, too. When the man at

248 METHODS IN TEACHING

the creamery pays the patrons he takes so much off for his
work."

FIFTH YEAR GRADE

The two principal topics for this year are the earth as a
whole and Stockton and San Joaquin county. The earth as

a whole means that world units begin to take
Course •

the place of local units. History helps de-
velop an idea of the size of the world and of the location of
other lands than our own. No detailed work is done, the
desire being to grasp the larger ideas of the world first. The
topic includes elementary geography and many studies on
food products, especially those that find their way to our own
tables near and far. The home geography of the year is

confined to two or three weeks. Mathe-
The Earth

matical and physical phases of geography,

in forms that are intelligible to the children, are given at the
beginning of the year. Every device imaginable to the
teacher is used to give the pupils a clear concept of the form,
size, daily motion, and zone division of the earth.

The various geographical sections of the United States
are studied from an elementary text book, comparing con-
stantly with our own section. Each division
United States . . y

is given a few days or a week or two as

needed. The geographical study is followed by an examina-
tion of products, interest being sustained by outside reading
and by comparisons with the products of the home county
and state. For instance, how have the supplies of coal, iron,
and oil benefited the New England states? Have we in
Stockton been benefited by the opening of the Tesla coal
mines ? The price of coal in the East is compared with the

GEOGRAPHY 249

price here. The child is led to see that there are reasons for
cities being located in certain places, and for their growth.
In discussing the Erie Canal, the conversation is turned upon
the fact that Stockton owes its location and growth to its
waterways.

Agricultural conditions in the Southern states are dis-
cussed, and two of their staples, cotton and tobacco, are
grown in window gardens and yards. The Central states
are taken up in the same way. Great cities, as Boston, New
York, Chicago, New Orleans, are studied and imaginary
visits are made to them. A week may be taken looking up
information, about any one of the above named cities by some
individual pupil or by the whole class. Then a letter is
written, purporting to be from the city studied, describing
conditions, and perhaps bringing in notable buildings and
other objects of interest. It is often an incentive for the
class if the teacher writes the first letter ; interest is awakened
and a model is given to the pupils. Such a letter may be
read without giving the name of the place, the class deciding
what section is described. In the Western States three ideas
stand out prominently, the mountains and their mineral
wealth, the Great Basin, and the fruitful regions on the
Pacific slope. There are so many points of comparison, so
many interesting features of knowledge in all this work that
the pupils rarely tire of it. It can be so conducted that it is
almost a record of travel to them. It should be. Geography
is wonderfully interesting, but many people have to travel
before they find it out; the children should learn it in the
schoolroom.

The work on South America is brief and should not be
intensive. Aside from Brazil, which receives individual

25O METHODS IN TEACHIN.G

treatment, it is taken up in sections. In studying Europe, a
comparison of conditions and productions, already a little
known to the pupils through the stories of
South America children of other land is the method of
Europe

Asia, Africa approach. The dykes of Holland are com-
pared with the levees along the San Joaquin
river; the mountains of Switzerland with the mountains of
California; the coal and iron of England with that of the
Middle Atlantic states. Where comparisons are not easily
drawn, the stories of other lands may be taken as points of
departure or as centers of interest. In studying Asia, China
and Japan are the two countries to be emphasized, especially
for the growing commercial relations between them and the
United States. The attention of the pupils is called to the
marked contrast between the two countries. Africa is
studied very briefly, for this continent touches but lightly
the interests and knowledge of the children of this age.

The home geography for the year is an extension of that
for the preceding grade. The city is studied with reference
to its location and advantages. Why is
Geography Stockton a commercial city? Of what ad-

vantage is transportation of freight by
water? What railroads pass through the city? What ones
terminate here? In what way do they benefit Stockton?
The manufactures are reviewed ; the sources, uses, advan-
tages of the various kinds of power available for manufactur-
ing purposes here are talked over, always remembering the
limitations of a child's interest and comprehension. The
lighting of the city is discussed, as are also the drainage sys-
tem and the means of disposing of the sewage. Stockton

GEOGRAPHY 25!

in relation to the county, to the great central valley, to the
state, are subjects for thought and discussion.

In this and succeeding grades the natural interdependence
of geography with other subjects, especially history, must be

borne in mind constantly by the teacher,
of Work Pupils should be trained to consult the globe.

atlas, wall maps, gazetteer, encyclopaedia,
when any unfamiliar geographical reference is met with in
any work. They should be trained thoroughly in the use of
all labor saving aids, as the table of contents, the index, the
key to pronunciation. Frequent short exercises in map
drawing should be given, beginning with copying either a
state or a section of the United States, and repeating the
map until a recognition of proportion and a facility in execu-
tion have been gained. This drawing is for general charac-
teristics of a country, not for detail, and memory maps be-
come a feature of the exercise. Blackboard work permits
of freedom of movement by the pupil and ease of inspection
by the teacher. Only such places are located as have some
connection with the child's work, no matter what may be
given on the printed map. Sections of the country are
drawn rather than individual states, although for variety a
section is sometimes built up by drawing the individual states.

SIXTH YEAR GRADE

The work for the year centers on North America, under
the following topics : — California, the home state ; a general

study of North America; more detailed
America study of the United States, the principal

topic for the year; somewhat detailed study
on the remaining countries of North America. The leading

252 METHODS IN TEACHING

thought of the grade is to give the pupil an appreciation of
his own country. His own state, which is his unit of com-
parison, should now be well known geographically, industri-
ally, and commercially; and a map of the state should be
drawn readily from memory, with the principal rivers,
mountain ranges, and cities located correctly.

As the development of certain industries in some localities
and not in others depends upon physiographic and climatic
conditions, the pupils should have a clear understanding of
the broad principles that underlie existing conditions in any
section of the country that is being studied. Whenever a
new section of the United States is taken up it is well to re-
call the general laws and see how the particular section
under discussion is affected by them. The simpler treat-
ment of these subjects in earlier years is the basis for the
work in every grade. The habits and habitats of animals
and plants found in different sections provide material for
short talks and papers.

The general geographical divisions for the study of the
United States are, as in the fifth grade, the different sections

of the country, but the work is more inten-
United . c , A. . . . , .

States Slve' Some of the principal topics are: —

New England, its forests, building stone,
fishing, manufacturing, and early historical importance;
Middle Atlantic states, agriculture, mining, manufacture of
articles from mineral products, growth of New York city;
Southern States, industrial awakening since the war, mining,
manufacturing, growth and nature of New Orleans, includ-
ing its sanitary problems, its cosmopolitan population, its
streets ; the great region of the Central states, the store house
of so much of the nation's wealth, both materially and in

GEOGRAPHY 253

the physical and intellectual power that have been influential
in the progress of this country. The important points of
study concerning the Central states are settlement, agricul-
ture, mineral products, the lake cities, the river cities, Chi-
cago. The great variance in physiography and climatic con-
ditions in the different sections of the Western states requires
that they be treated separately. The Great Basin of Utah
and Nevada is different in every way from the productive
Pacific slope. The points to be emphasized are physiography
and climate, agriculture, irrigation, mining, scenery, and San
Francisco, a typical Pacific coast city. A short time is spent
on the territories and dependencies of the United States, —
Alaska, Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaiian Islands, Philippines.

The study of British American possessions gives oppor-
tunity for reviewing adjoining sections of the United States

because of the similarity in conditions, in-
Countries dustries and products along the boundaries.

The points to be established are differences
in people and government, lumbering, fishing, rapid develop-
ment of the Northwest, transference of people, immigra-
tion of farmers from the United States into the Northwest,
and settlements of Canadians in our own country. Mexico
is the basis of the study of the countries to the south, and for
a comparison with our own social, physical, and industrial
conditions. The intermixing of races has brought about a
social and an industrial deterioration. The laboring classes
among the present inhabitants are ordinarily ignorant and
indolent, adhering to the crude methods of life practiced by
their ancestors. The great mineral wealth and the rich agri-
cultural opportunities have caused an influx of Americans
into Mexico and Central America, attracted by the chances

254 METHODS IN TEACHING

for accumulating wealth. In Central America the instability
of the government and the growing of coffee are the princi-
pal topics considered.

Many maps are drawn throughout the year. Progressive
map drawing is valuable in fixing outlines and in giving an

idea of a pupil's grasp on a subject. The
Map Drawing . , . . '

following order is suggested : — outline map ;

physical map; rainfall map; isothermal map; produce,
mining, or manufacturing map, according to the industrial
nature of the section; political map, which may be colored.
The following paper was written by a sixth grade boy in
connection with the geographical study of industries. No
alterations whatever have been made in it.

THE RECLAIMED LANDS

A delta is a triangular alluvial deposit formed at the mouth
of certain rivers.

The most interesting land of San Joaquin county is the
tule land which extends from Stockton north to New Hope
south to Tracy and Banta and west to the boundary of the
county. This tule land covers as much as two hundred and
fifty thousand acres. It was formed by the constant rushing
of the water from the Sierra Nevada Mountains carrying
the decayed vegetation and depositing it forming the San
Joaquin delta.

This rich land is intersected by many navagable rivers
which are the San Joaquin, Old, Middle, North Fork, South
Fork, Calaveras, and Mokelumne Rivers. These rivers
running along form many Islands which are Roberts, Union,
Bouldin, and Rough and Ready islands. These islands were
once covered with water furnishing irrigation for a small

GEOGRAPHY 255

reed or tule which is about as large as your finger and grows
to the height of twelve or fifteen feet.

The sediment or alluvium which was brought down by the
rivers settled to the roots of these tules forming a very im-
portant peat land.

As this soil in the tule lands is peat it is the richest and
most productive soil in the world. When this peat land is
reclaimed a dredger is taken to throw levees up around the
different claims leaving the water inside these levees. After
the levees are thrown up men set fire to the tules and burn
them. If they pumped the water off this land before burn-
ing the tules this peat or tule roots would catch fire burning
a great deal of land.

When the tules are burned pumps are used to pump the
water from in these levees. Then a ditcher is brought down
which cuts a straight irrigation ditch through the different
claims. After this work is through with the cultivating
begins. The men plough this rich soil then they plant sui-
table vegetables to the soil. Some of these vegetables are
onions, potatoes, beans, asparagus, and grains. When one
crop is raised of one product there is a different product
planted so as not to tire the soil.

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE

The work of the seventh year includes the following
topics: — about nine weeks on physical and general geog-
raphy; four or five weeks on South Amer-
Course of r . - , ^ .

study ica ; from eight to ten weeks on Europe ; five

or six weeks on Asia ; two to four weeks on
Africa; three to four weeks on Australia and the Pacific
islands.

256 METHODS IN TEACHING

To give pupils a knowledge of geography sufficient for
the needs of a lifetime is manifestly impossible and is not
attempted. The work in the seventh grade practically com-
pletes the subject as presented in the grades. The aims
should be to develop interest in this science, which in its
entirety includes all natural sciences; to give the pupils a
definite plan or method for the acquisition of geographical
knowledge and for systematizing that which has already
been gained; to lay foundations for future knowledge and
studies by investigating some of the causes for present con-
ditions of the earth and among its inhabitants.

The teacher must be satisfied to impress upon the mind of
the pupil the larger facts which are strongly characteristic
of countries and peoples. The attempt to hold pupils re-
sponsible for details of minor importance often renders first
causes obscure and colorless. For example : England mines,
manufactures, and engages in commerce. Why? She
mines because her territory contains coal, iron, and other
valuable minerals that are always in demand. She manu-
factures because the intelligence and inventive genius of her
people enable her to put her cheap fuel and valuable mineral
resources to the best possible use. She engages in commerce
because she must import food supplies and raw materials as
well as find markets for her manufactures. Such facts are
elementary in their relation to English life and to much of
her government policy; they should stand out even in the
mind of the grammar grade pupil. Details are added for
interest and clearer understanding, but they should never be
allowed to befog that which is essential.

By the time children have reached the seventh grade they
can hold some clear ideas on the relation of the sun to the

GEOGRAPHY

earth and to the other planets. They should distinguish
such terms as sun, planet, star, satellite, and be able to
demonstrate by diagram and globes the motions of the earth
which give us day and night, and the seasons. They
should also understand the interrelations of the earth, the
moon, and the sun, which give the phases of the moon.

Comparison of the sun, moon, earth, and other planets
is always interesting to pupils if given in a manner that is
readily understood. Many questions will suggest them-
selves to teachers for arousing interest and developing defi-
nite concepts, as : If the earth is represented by a globe three
feet in diameter, what will be the diameter of a proportional
globe to represent the sun? the moon? Jupiter? If the
globe representing the earth were placed in a certain posi-
tion, how far away would the other globes have to be
placed to maintain proportions as to distance? If the earth
were represented by a globe two blocks in diameter, how
high would Mount Shasta appear on its surface? How
high above the surface would clouds float if proportional
distances were maintained?

The views of modern scientists regarding the condition of
the interior of the earth can be noted and discussed, and the
principal physical changes that are constantly in progress
on the surface of the earth should be considered as fully as
time will permit.

Pupils of this age are able to comprehend many of the
factors which make up climate and to determine the distri-
bution of animal and vegetable life. Thermal zones, winds,
ocean currents, and the causes and distribution of rainfall
all prove profitable subjects in this grade.

In connection with the study of races, some attention is
18

258 METHODS IN TEACHING

given to the development of industries, religions, and
governments, all of which indicate the degree of civiliza-
tion attained.

The following thoughts are selected from a teacher's
method sheet1 :

Before treating the methods employed in the seventh
grade it is advisable to reconsider the knowledge already
possessed by the child. In the fifth year the pupil becomes
acquainted with the simpler physiographic forces, such as
air, water, heat within the earth. He learns the result of
the rotation of the earth and becomes familiar with the loca-
tion of the zones. He learns in a large way about his
country, the continent as a whole, the United States, the
countries to the north and to the south. A similar view but
with less of detail is given of the other countries of the
world. In the sixth year there is a deeper insight into the
physiographic forces. The continent of North America,
especially the United States, receive more intensive treat-
ment. On this foundation is built the work of the seventh
grade.

The methods employed are treated under the following
heads : — physical forces, physiography, industrial conditions,
social conditions, maps and map drawing.

By the use of a globe and a baseball the revolution of
the earth is shown. The earth's rotation and the phe-
nomena of day and night are explained by
Forces*1 shutting out the daylight and using a candle

and the globe. A series of experiments is
conducted to show the circulation of air and water in an

*Mr. S. H. Cohn, principal of a grammar school and teacher of
the seventh grade.

GEOGRAPHY 2 $9

endeavor to simplify air and water currents. Diagrams and
maps are drawn to emphasize and clarify the understanding
of these points in reference to the world. Whenever a new
section is studied the influence of the various air and water
currents upon it are discussed.

The physiographic and climatic conditions are the basis
for the study of productions, which in their turn give the

key to the industrial conditions in any
Industrial .

Conditions country. For example:— the physiography

of the Andean section of South America
suggests mining as a leading industry; the climate and
physiographic features of the La Plata country recall the
prairies of the United States, explaining the similarity of
products in these two regions. Occupations and commercial
progress grow naturally out of the industries; these form
the basis for the study of the development of the people.
The rise and decline of a nation belong to the realm of
history, but the geographical environment must be known

in order to have a correct understanding of

Of\««o1

Conditions ^e conchtions that make for its progress or

decline. In the study of Switzerland, the

social conditions and development are brought strongly into

connection with the physical characteristics.

In the study of a continent or a section of a continent
the development is brought out clearly by a
series of maps. Skill is obtained by many

short exercises ; first, in copying, later, in drawing from

memory.

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE

A final study of the subject of geography is given during
the last two or three months of the eighth grade. The pupil

26O METHODS IN TEACHING

now possesses a knowledge of his country's history, and his
powers of observation are sufficiently mature to make of

this final work more than a mere review.
Completed ^ ^ecomes a study of cause and effect,

in which results are attained that could not
have been thought of in the lower grades. The study of the
continent is now preceded by a discussion of the historical
events that led to its discovery, settlement, development, and
division into the countries of today. The physical and
political geography is reviewed, stress being laid upon those
features that constitute important causes in the development
of the country; such as, navigable rivers, harbors, mineral
deposits, agricultural possibilities, climate.

Physical and political maps of our country are carefully
drawn, so that the pupil's knowledge shall be very exact of
the location and boundaries of states, location of cities in
reference to navigable waters and to railroad connections,
and, later, with reference to surrounding areas of produc-
tion. Memory drawing of individual states is one of the
best means of securing familiarity with the location of im-
portant cities, rivers, mountain ranges, and boundaries.
Groups of states may be taken up in the same way. The
results of this kind of training in interest and accurate
knowledge are surprising to those who try the method for
the first time. Sketch maps of the United States, showing
important mineral regions, forest areas, wheat and corn
belts, and the regions in which cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco,
and other staples are produced, prepare the pupils for the
readings and discussions that are to follow.

PART IV
HISTORY CIVICS

CHAPTER XIV

INTRODUCTORY WORDS. HISTORY IN THE PRIMARY

GRADES

Tie greatest teacher of mankind is man. History is the
record of men and their achievements. The lessons that
are set forth by history pertain to every field of life and
labor. Success and failure, causes and results, are written
large on every page. History is a teacher, silent but elo-
quent. It tells impressively of the need of character.
Through history the far-reaching laws of existence, the
causes and results of events in the life of an individual or of
a nation, may be interpreted by students. Even children
may read their signs, and who can say how lasting will be
the effects upon their own lives? The personality of an
individual and the importance of an event should be the
basis of many a discussion in the history class.

The most important results can not be obtained if the
pupils read principally about our own country. Modern
history is too complex to form the best grazing ground for
young minds. Interest in its events and some knowledge of
its needs and development, we must have, but its problems
are not the best ones for the young student to attack. More-
over, American life is an outgrowth from the older social
and political bodies of Europe, whose conditions still con-
tinue to influence us. In the less complex life of older
countries, of more primitive times, the unerring law of
cause and effect can be traced with greater ease than in the

263

264 METHODS IN TEACHING

complicated narratives of later days and countries. Besides,
when a perspective view can be taken down several centur-
ies, confusing details are subdued or entirely hidden, and
there are thrown into striking relief the broad principles chat
have meant the making or the undoing of a country. Even
a sixth or a seventh grade child can see readily that the giow-
ing corruption, luxury, and vices of Rome were important
reasons for the downfall of that country, and the whole
study can be based upon stories so completely that theie is
no feeling on the part of the child that the teacher is moral-
izing or that history is prosy. On the contrary, the young
reader is liable to feel that he has discovered a great truth,
and he will pore over his readings with an intensity of
interest. But, to produce this effect, the stories can not be
taken at haphazard, they must be well selected to illus-
trate the phases of national or individual life that it is de-
sired to teach.

History should begin with carefully chosen stories for
the primary grades ; it should not become a serious study
before the seventh year, and even in this
Material grade the story element should still pre-

dominate. Throughout the primary and
early grammar grades history stories should be for cultural
and character development and for the accumulation of a
great amount of information, so important in a well-
balanced, educated life. The training that can be derived
from history studies is also a most important factor in the
life of a child. As the pupil passes into the later grammar
grades, the subject matter becomes more scholarly and the
presentation grows more systematic.

There is so much material for story work that to choose

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 26$

is no easy task, as any teacher realizes who has tried to out-
line a well centered, progressive line of history stories for
primary grades. The folk tales that so often form a begin-
ning in literature are well suited to the same place in history,
and in their use no differentiation of the two studies is de-
sirable. Fairy stories belong to a different category. When
used, the children should know that they are not at all true,
but rarely will the pleasure in them be diminished by such
knowledge ; the change in attitude toward them that may be
noticed is desirable, — the stronger minds will begin to de-
mand " true stories " very early in school life. Fairy stories
rarely accord with history, they belong rather to the branch-
ing out into literature. Myths, if given their true value, are
enjoyed at a later period of development. Myths are prop-
erly a part of history; they should not be given as fairy
stories, except perhaps, those charming little nature myths
that so delight the imagination of many children, especially
in the first and second years. Myths should be told, read,
enjoyed, while the children are still young enough to delight
in their ludicrous, grotesque, impossible details ; but when,
on the other hand, the minds are mature enough to see the
glimmering of truth and the dawning of investigation in
these beliefs of people long passed away. In fifth and sixth
grades, many pupils find great satisfaction in tracing out
how many myths came into being, and in seeing why ad-
vancing civilization led to their abandonment or to their
relegation to the realms of poetry and art. To put many
myths into the first, second, or third grade is about as seri-
ous a mistake as to expect high school pupils to read with
patience or pleasure detailed accounts of the amours of the
Greek gods and goddesses. The absorbed student of myths

266 METHODS IN TEACHING

must be either the child, just awakening into half amused,
credulous interest in the world, or he must be the sedate
student, revelling in the slow upbuilding of the mental proc-
esses of civilization.

Such poems as " Horatius," by Lord Macauley, stories
like that of " William Tell," by Schiller, alternate delight-
fully with the folk tales of the second year; while history
becomes more marked in the little biographies of such men
as Washington, Franklin, and Lincoln. From the third
grade on, knowledge of the world grows broader and
deeper; and, while literature and history are frequently
correlated and are mutually helpful, the two studies are
clearly differentiated.

Although consecutive history does not belong to the first
three grades, the stories gain in solidarity by grouping those

that have a common basis. Topical ar-
Presentation . .

rangement becomes marked in the third

grade, where the stories for two or three months may be
devoted to the development of one line of thought, as Bible
stories, lives of inventors, local history. A systematic way
of working is developed if the teacher insists quietly but
regularly upon acceptable forms. Even outlines, such helps
in literary work, are used readily by children, provided they
are active, working helps, not dead matter looked upon as
the end to be attained. Power over books is gained steadily.
Judgment is quickened by discussion. The importance of
definite training in making decisions based upon proof is
manifest when we think how many children reach the age
of ten, eleven, even fifteen, before beginning to decide for
themselves. A personal decision before this age too fre-
quently means either willfulness or disobedience; hence, to

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 267

" do as I like " too often means what the powers in authority
do not like. If children grow up with this idea, we may be
sure that they will not change it suddenly when they become
men and women. The history recitation is one of the best
places in the school for learning the value or the unimpor-
tance of one's own decision; history should teach how to
sum up evidence, and how to make and test opinions.

Throughout the eight elementary grades several aims
should be kept constantly in mind by the teacher : — improve-
ment in reading and language; acquisition

Aims

of knowledge, especially through familiarity
with many well known stories, for the children will never
again be so fascinated by the pure story element, and they
may never again have the time to give to it; constant and
systematic mental training; development of the capacity for
a citizenship that is rooted in love for country and apprecia-
tion of its institutions, and that is broadened and strength-
ened by some comparative knowledge of other countries ; an
unceasing effort for the conscious and unconscious develop-
ment of the child's character, possible through historical
training, the study of real men and women, and the observa-
tion of the great movements of the human race.

FIRST YEAR GRADE

There are three centers around which are grouped the
stories for the first grade : — some of the holidays, Bible char-
acters, Hiawatha. The holidays are attractive local centers
of interest, and are good bases for beginning history through
biography. They give to a holiday something of its true
value, and should lead out into just estimates of a few of
our great men and events. The Bible stories are simple

268 METHODS IN TEACHING

narratives, easily remembered because of the natural se-
quence of their pictures and the primitive simplicity of their

thoughts, so at one with the period of the

child's development. They offer fine oppor-
tunities for undogmatic character training, and for laying
the foundation of a knowledge that will lead into rational
views on historical evolution. These stories are so beauti-
ful as literature, their accounts of migrations, customs, and
events are so important and interesting as history, that only
the literary and historical sides should be presented to chil-
dren. Custom decrees that religious phases should be left
untouched. Hiawatha takes the place of more purely his-
torical material because of its charming and sympathetic
treatment of the lives of the aborigines. First and second
grade children love Hiawatha, as Longfellow pictures him
to us; from this beautiful poem they draw a truer verdict
about the lives of the Indians than is obtained from the
stories of war and bloodshed that are so frequently the only
knowledge possessed even by adults about the Indians.

Special tact and training should be possessed by the one
who teaches beginners in the school room, for the task has

peculiar difficulties. The history must be
Problems arranged with constant reference to the

problems to be met. From the first sym-
pathy must be established between the teacher and the little
ones, for without it the best good of the year will be missed.
One of the earliest lessons for the untrained little minds to
master is the meaning of attention and how to concentrate
the thoughts upon the lesson. A well told, interesting story
is invaluable for this purpose; history is full of stories of
absorbing interest for young as well as old. The teacher's

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 269

preparation must be comprehensive, both for the presenta-
tion of the story to the class, and for the skillful drawing out
of its reproduction from the pupils. The various desired
results must be very clearly in mind, as must also the steps
by which the children pass from the unknown story as it
comes from the lips of the teacher to the completed product
in their memories and notebooks.

For the first two years, perhaps longer, presentation of a
story is identical in history and literature; later comes dif-
ferentiation. There must be considered the
Presentation

divisions of the story, the mental attitude

and development of the pupils, the length of time before the
reproduction is to be made. The portion given must be very
complete in itself, neither too short for the arousing of inter-
est, nor too long for comparatively easy retention by the
memory. All possible aids to the narration should be used,
pictures, curios, blackboard drawings, sand table illustra-
tions. Here as everywhere sweet discretion must never be
overlooked. Too many pictures leave indistinct memories;
too much work at the sand table becomes tiresome. Clear-
ness of perception, alertness of interest, these are the guid-
ing signs by which the teacher notes success.

When a division of a story has been well presented, it
should be reproduced. The story interest should never be

lost nor frayed out by repetition after repe-
Reproduction

tition. The division of the story for the

day should always be accompanied by a specific mechanical
aim, supported by the interest in the story itself; this may
be a ready choice of words, consecutive thought, a really
good story, or clearly presented " pictures." No one day
will see the end gained, but every day may see a step towards

2/O METHODS IN TEACHING

the desired accomplishment. The majority of the children
need to drill again and again on every means of progress;
but there is no monotony if the stories are well selected.
The stories are always a delight, and the progress in the
mechanics of thought and language is a steady growth.

SECOND YEAR GRADE

In the second grade as in the first no attempt is made to
teach history as a subject. The stories for the year are still

grouped around the holidays, they are
Material

chosen because of some correlation with the

literature, or they are simple biographies. The stories sug-
gested by the holidays are as follows : — Admission Day, or
'* the birthday of California," in September ; Thanksgiving
Day; Christmas. The stories correlated with the literature
are " Horatius," the poem for January; "William Tell,"
the story for March; and Indian life made interesting
through the poem of " Hiawatha." The more purely his-
torical narratives are about Columbus, in October; and
Washington's boyhood and life during parts of the Revolu-
tion, given in February.

The work in the first grades is so simple that there is no
repetition in the second grades even when the subjects reap-
pear. For instance, the Thanksgiving story in the second
grade tells of the Pilgrims, always interesting to little folks.
The Christmas story tells of the babyhood of Christ, the
flight into Egypt, and other points that belong to his youth
or to the description of the country where he lived. The
stories of the Indians become farther reaching than was at
all possible in the first grade, including little studies of
Indian wampum, the peace-pipe, canoe making.

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES

The aims of the work in history during the second year
are a broadening out of those in the first year. The pupils

should be learning more about the world,
Aims and . . - . t . , >

Time acquiring their knowledge in good form,

and gaming the power to use readily what-
ever they learn. The time for history is the same as in the
first grade, twenty minutes daily for two weeks out of every
month. This period is used variously by the teachers, ac-
cording to their own judgment of their classes; but, ordi-
narily, it is given to oral presentation and reproductions, the
written reproductions being put into the time for penman-
ship or drills in writing, and the illustrative drawings be-
longing to the period for drawing. The history story is
looked upon as furnishing material for these subjects, jtist
as is the case with the literature and nature study. Written
reproductions and drills in writing can be worked in to-
gether very well so long as both are formal, as in the simple
copying of the stories. When original stories begin, their
writing can not be associated with drills in penmanship, for
the latter is purely formal while the story writing is largely
creative, at least in the meaning of creative for this age.

Some teachers prefer to tell a portion of the story, having
the reproduction follow immediately, so that the details will
._ ^ , not be forgotten. In this method the teach-

er's narration will extend over all of the first
week, and perhaps part of the second, accompanied every
day by the pupil's reproduction of the story of the preceding
day, and a resume of the narrative as just given. The final
review takes the form of either an oral or a written repro-
duction of all or of a chosen part of the story. If time per-
mits, the story is both told and written by the children.

METHODS IN TEACHING

The following is from a second grade teacher1 :
The teacher usually tells the story in preference to reading
it in order to 'arouse greater interest and closer attention on
the part of the children. The work is so arranged that every
day's narration is a natural division of the story. For in-
stance, the story of Columbus is divided into five sections,
one for every day of the week. Monday, a talk on the world
as people knew about it in the fifteenth century, including
the dangers of sea navigation at that time; Tuesday, boy-
hood of Columbus, his love for the sea, his enjoyment in the
sailors' tales ; Wednesday, his early manhood, his knowledge
of the compass ; Thursday, his idea about the rotundity of
the earth, his appeals for aid to test his theories ; Friday, his
voyage, with its dangers and difficulties, and the discovery
of America. Every day the story as told in the previous
lesson is rapidly reviewed, sometimes by the teacher, some-
times by questions answered by the pupils.

No real difficulties are given in these stories, neither do
they go deeply into any part of the life of Columbus. They
form a very brief sketch of some of the
of ,!jr salient points known about the great ex-

plorer, upon which later studies can be built
without wearisome repetitions of the trifling details that
little children enjoy in these first glimpses of noted men.
The desire is to give such events and efforts as can be readily
understood and remembered; they must be simple enough
to be grasped by children ; nevertheless, they must be in ac-
cordance with accredited history, so that there will be noth-
ing to unlearn in later years.

*Miss Mary E. McDougald.

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/3

ILLUSTRATIVE PAPERS BY PUPILS, SELECTED SECTIONS.

L

THE PILGRIMS

a.

These people were called Pilgrims.

First they went to Holland, but the Pilgrim fathers and
mothers did not like it there.

The children were learning to speak Dutch.

b.

Some of them did not want to go to church.

The fathers and mothers were not satisfied.

They said, " Let us go to America."

They fitted up two ships, the "Speedwell" and the
" Mayflower," and started across the Atlantic ocean.

The " Speedwell " broke down, and the people had to
come in the " Mayflower."

c.

Some friendly Indians came to visit the Pilgrims.

One Indian, called Squanto, spent the winter with them
and showed them how to plant their crops.

In the autumn the Pilgrim fathers gathered their crops of
wheat and barley.

II.

OUR FLAG

June 14 is our flag's birthday. On that day, one hundred
and twenty six years ago, the people adopted it as the flag of
our country.

George Washington planned the flag. It was to have
thirteen stripes, seven red ones and six white. These were
19

2/4 METHODS IN TEACHING

to represent the thirteen states which then made up the
United States. The field of the flag was to be blue, with
thirteen white stars. A stripe and a star were to be added
whenever a new state came into the Union.

New stars and stripes were added until there were fifteen
of each. It was decided then to have always thirteen stripes
in memory of the first thirteen states. But in the blue field
were to be as many stars as there are states in the Union.
Now the flag has forty-five stars. When a new state comes
into the Union another star will be added.

The colors of the flag have a meaning too. The red
means courage ; the white, purity ; and the blue, truth.

THIRD YEAR GRADE

In third grade history there is the same arrangement for
time as in the two lower classes, twenty minutes a day for
two weeks in every month. The growing powers of the
child, however, make possible maturer methods of work.

The story is now read to the class as often as it is told.
The relief to the teacher from preparing for an oral pre-
sentation makes room for the more careful

Drawings oversight of written reproductions, becom-

as Aids in

Presentation m§T necessary on account of the increasing

length of the papers and of the larger
vocabularies used. Pictures and drawings are still, as
throughout the course, an ever-present aid in teaching.
Going from room to room among third grades, one notes
with pleasure the growing power of the children in artistic
illustration, indicated by the more ambitious drawings on
the boards. These special pictures, by the best artists in the
class, are preserved for days, valuable aids in the portrayal

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/5

of characters and events of the story. In addition to them,
every pupil is expected to use his own training in drawing
in making original illustrations for his own written repro-
duction.

During the presentation of the story, questions are asked
by the teacher to see that the thought has been fully grasped.
This dropping into conversation is the more necessary be-
cause a story that is read in the author's own version usually
contains many new words ; the sentences are more involved
than in stories which the teacher has carefully adapted to
the development of the children; it is also more difficult to
get the continuous thought out of reading than to grasp it
from a well told story. Therefore reading aloud to the chil-
dren is a training for them that must not be neglected.
They must be learning to enjoy books, and the desire to read
for oneself should be assiduously cultivated.

The reproductions begin to vary in their nature. Instead
of trusting simply to the memory of successive events as
a framework for the complete story, the
Topicg pupils are frequently called upon to tell

about a certain event, to describe some per-
son, or to narrate how an occurrence took place. That is,
the child is being trained to recite topically; to keep to a
certain assigned thought; to discriminate between the im-
portant and the trivial. Not much can be done in this line
of development, but the first steps are important even if they
are short and faltering. More pointed questions are asked
than in the lower classes, in order to cultivate exact obser-
vation and accurate retention even of details.

Outlining, that valuable aid to later historical studies, be-
gins in this grade in the most elementary manner. The

2/6 METHODS IN TEACHING

children are asked to tell what are the principal events,
or who are the most important persons, in the story. Then

Outlines t^ley are *ec* tO arran£e the information

given in some consecutive order. It is an
interesting study of children's minds to notice how scattered
the items will be when first given, and what an effort of
memory is required to arrange all in acceptable consecutive
form. This is the first step in outlining, in arranging
material systematically. The little outline is developed in
class, written upon the board item by item, as evolved by
the pupils, and it is. then used as a basis for written work.
From the first, the outline should be a help to the pupils ; it
is not an end to be worked for, it is an aid in the use of
knowledge. The only use that the pupils of this age have
for the outline is as an aid in writing a systematic, complete
paper. Put it to this use, and, if possible, lead the children
,to see how much more systematic the work can be by its use.
When an outline is voluntarily made use of in written repro-
ductions an important step has been taken in developing the
analytical powers.

This work is an aid in the regular composition exercises,
for it is very easy to lead pupils to put thoughts by them-
selves. That which groups itself into a thought is often a
natural paragraph, and it may happen that by this simple
training in the separation of thoughts a third grade pupil
will pass into an easy and comparatively accurate use of a
third grade conception of a paragraph. The successive
headings in the outline, as given by the pupils, are usually
the subject thoughts for the successive paragraphs. No
difficulties or uncertainties are presented to the young
minds; they simply learn that that which we have to say

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/7

about one related thought is put by itself in a paragraph.
They see that Washington could not be made the subject of
a paragraph, for it is the subject of the whole paper, and
there are several thoughts, or paragraphs, about Washing-
ton ; but they also see that Washington is not used as one of
the headings in the outline, consequently the relation of the
headings to the subject thoughts of paragraphs is not inter-
fered with. It would be unreasonable to say that there is
no difficulty in this training. It is exceedingly difficult, for
it is analysis ; but it is presented in so elementary a way that
the children take the first steps with comparative ease, thus
beginning to understand and to practice dividing a dis-
course into its parts, analyzing a subject into its thoughts.
Pupils like to think; they enjoy the conscious training of
the power to think logically; but such an exercise should
always be short in order not to tire the minds. Of course,
the thoughts as suggested by the children are never in their
right order ; subordinate thoughts are always appearing in
coordinate rank with leading headings ; but all are taken,
written upon the blackboard, and considered by the children.
Then comes the fun and the work of arranging everything
in proper succession and subordination. In this third grade
outlining very few subordinate thoughts are written down ;
only the principal thoughts, those that are to be the subjects
of paragraphs, are written, the subordinate thoughts being
talked over merely to show the pupils to which principal
heading they belong. The outline as thus left on the board
J9 a succession of headings that are really paragraph
thoughts. In oral work the next day, every pupil may tell
one paragraph, or, perhaps, all the story.

2/8 METHODS IN TEACHING

The following are some of the results out of the experi-
ence of a third grade teacher1 :

The first oral reproduction is often started out by ques-
tions and answers. Narratives are based upon headings
given orally by the teacher or written upon the board before
the children. One device, frequently employed, is to ask
the pupils for word pictures of people or events. The pupils
are first asked to imagine the picture clearly to themselves,
then to tell it aloud. Sometimes the whole is built up by
several children.

The first stories for the year are written in class, the

teacher at the board writing the sentences that, after careful

deliberation, the pupils consider the best

Writing presentation of a thought, and that the

teacher considers acceptable. The pupils at

their seats copy ; sometimes the copying is done later, as busy

work. Very short stories are written by the pupils without

outlines and unaided by questions. Short and frequent

papers are more satisfactory from all points of view than

long and occasional ones.

Illustration with this grade is very interesting and is pro-
ductive of many good results. Pictures, relics, are kept

before the class. Characteristic ways of
Illustrative . . , r

Material dressing, houses occupied, and other facts

are collected by the pupils. Perry pictures
are used to adorn the papers, and the production that is to
be thus embellished receives the utmost care in preparation.
Sometimes these penny pictures are given by the teacher as
a mark of recognition for an especially meritorious paper,
or the children purchase them for themselves. The pupils

lMiss Elizabeth Perry.

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/9

are easily encouraged to bring to school books and pictures
relating to the subject in hand; indeed, care must be taken
that they do not bring them too freely. Through this chan-
nel it is often possible to have before the class illustrative
and supplementary material that would be quite inaccessible
otherwise. Where no objection is raised by the pupil or is
probable from the home so kindly loaning this material, it
may be kept on a table in the schoolroom, where the pupils
can look it over at their leisure and where the teacher can
keep it under supervision.

Third grade pupils are interested in local industries and
modern conditions, some of which are made special features

of the year's historical course. When
.n us nes printing is taken up, a visit to the news-

Inventions paper office is usually permitted by one of

the daily papers. The class is taken in
sections for the greater convenience of the teacher, for more
detailed investigation, and in order to be less trouble in the
office. Before making this visit the modern newspaper is
made the subject of study, how it is distributed, how news
is collected, how it is printed. Some terms, such as type,
stick, galley, form, proof-sheet, roller, are taught; the
objects are brought to school, if possible, where they can be
seen and handled by the children, so that they may know
the various objects when seen in the printing office, and that
they may talk about them more intelligently. Toy presses
are brought to school, and some of the busy work time is
devoted to setting up type. Many buy type and set it up at
home. Then the visit to the printing office is made.

After the study of the modern newspaper, the children are
told about conditions before there were newspapers of

28O METHODS IN TEACHING

printed books, and the importance of printing is discussed.
The story of its invention and inventors is then full of
interest.

Another phase of third grade work is found in local his-
tory studies. Here, as elsewhere, the children make only a
beginning, leaving real research for maturer
History minds. Nevertheless, this work is very real

to the little folks, and it is of great import-
ance in creating a taste for such investigations and in bring-
ing together much valuable information about the home
town. Old landmarks in Stockton are hunted out; grand-
parents and old residents, some of whom " crossed the
plains " in true pioneer style, are interviewed about their
early experiences and primitive conditions in the city and
county ; many interesting facts are brought into class, where
they are talked over and most of them written out in the
notebooks that the children are learning to keep. A map of
Stockton is drawn, on which are located the principal places
mentioned in the lessons.

A pupil's paper on local history is given below. It is
uncorrected, but was written after oral reproductions of the
subject had been made in class.

THE BEAR FLAG

Many years ago California belonged to Mexico. A great
many Indians lived here, a few Mexicans, and a few white
people who came to trap animals.

The people in the East did not know much about Cali-
fornia. They thought it was a desert. General J. C. Fre-
mont came over the mountains to California to find a path.
When he got here he asked the Mexican governor for per-

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 28 1

mission to go through the state. But he refused. So he
went up to the mountains and spent the winter. In the
spring he started for Oregon. On his way he found that a
war had broken out between United States and Mexico. So
he took his men and went back to Sonoma. Here he took
the Mexican governor prisoner. They took down the
Mexican flag and raised the bear flag. This flag was made
by taking a piece of white cloth and sewing a piece of red
flannel across the bottom. With the juice of some berries
they stained a bear in the center. In the upper right hand
corner they made a star.

Commodore Sloat came into Monterey bay with an
American war vessel. He told his men to haul down the
Mexican flag and put up the American flag. So California
belonged to the United States. They sent flags to San
Francisco and Sonoma. When the flag reached Sonoma
they hauled down the bear flag and with cheers raised the
American flag.

FOURTH YEAR GRADE

History in the fourth grade continues, generally speaking,
along the biographical lines of the three preceding years.
History should mean to the children man and the develop-
ment of mankind, and there is no means of producing this
effect except by teaching it through men. On the other
hand, the work should not be simply the story of a man.
History is far broader than that, just as the life of one per-
son can not be lived for himself alone. This, indeed, is one
of the lessons that it is hoped the children will learn from his-
tory. Through the lives of the men about whom they are
learning a little, they should see the broader movements of

282 METHODS IN TEACHING

the period of time in which these men lived, and should
begin to grasp the importance of a man to his period. This
is one of the first lessons in estimating the relation of man to
his surroundings, and one of special meaning in a republic.
The time devoted to history in the fourth grades is the
same as in the first three grades, twenty minutes a day for

two weeks of every month, history still
Time

alternating with nature study. The children

usually enjoy bringing into class any reading or pictures that
they find bearing upon the history, and, unconsciously, they
are thus being initiated into historical research. The public
library, with which some of the pupils began to be ac-
quainted even in the third grade, grows constantly in use
and value for the children, many a pupil commencing to
delight in the books found there.

The study of inventors who have contributed greatly to
the progress of the world is continued in this grade. The
steam-engine in its modern uses is observed
Inventions an(j Discussed jn ciass untji the importance

and
Inventors °f tne invention to the world is called to the

attention of the children. Then the lives of
James Watt, George Stephenson, and Robert Fulton are
studied. Electricity, its many uses and its marvellous aid to
modern life are talked over; Edison's life, which follows, is
always fascinating to the children. A trip to the woolen
mills is preceded by preparing the children for what they
are to see, and is followed by a study of some of the primi-
tive methods of weaving and the products of simple looms.
Some attention is given to different materials, and consider-
able thought is directed toward the importance of the inven-
tion to the civilization of the world. An invention is never

HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 283

studied as an isolated fact. Its importance to man, its re-
lation to the advancement of civilization, and its place in
modern life, are all points for consideration. These studies
are elementary, suited to the stage of development of the
children; their purpose is to turn the young minds toward
existing conditions, the way in which they came into being,
and the part taken by man in their evolution.

Local history, first studied in the third grade, begins to
take its place in relation to the history of the nation. The
first local history concerns the Indians, but
History ^is year it is the California Indians that

are studied. The children see the actual
daily life of the Indians of our state woven into an interest-
ing story, that of " Docas." After the work on the natives,
there come the lives and adventures of some of the earliest
explorers in California and along the Pacific coast. This
naturally leads into the accounts of the Spanish gold seek-
ers, then into the settlements made by the Spanish in the
west. The connection is kept with explorations in Mexico
and trips of Spanish galleons to the Philippines. Maps and
the globe are in constant use, so that a fairly clear child's
idea of these events is obtained, and deep interest in them
rarely flags. As the first of this period antedates the settle-
ments of the English on the Atlantic coast, it is a fitting
introduction to American history in the following year.

The presentation of a story is similar to that of the third
grade, except that the ripening powers of the children per-

Presentation m^ ^e Use °* more mature methods. The

teacher now rarely tells the story ; it is read,

if it is obtainable in a form suitable for the understanding of

the children. The pupils are also reading for themselves.

284 METHODS IN TEACHING

They usually become interested after a story has been com-
menced in class by the teacher and either read from the book
used by the teacher or they succeed in finding other sources
of information. In the latter case, considerable additional
material may be brought into class, always a delightful
digression from the regular form of presentation.

The children are now mature enough to be led to see the
daily division of the story as a whole by taking a few

moments at the end of the period for select-
Outlines

ing essential points and writing them on the

board. This systematizes the information, emphasizes the
leading thoughts, and visualizes the whole lesson in a com-
pact form that is readily retained in the memory. It is an
invaluable touch of training. This simple outline must be a
means to the end, or the weaker minds in the class will be
repelled and discouraged by the real difficulty of analyzing
and systematizing. The children must see the aid that they
receive from the outline ; they must not be left with the idea
that they have worked in order to produce the outline. The
outline was made in order to be used.

The treatment of the writing and correction of the many
papers that accompany history belong to the section under
language. The writing, the creative side, belongs to his-
tory; the correction, the mechanical side, belongs purely to
language.

ILLUSTRATIVE PAPERS FROM PUPILS.
UNCORRECTED

I.

How STEAM DOES ITS WORK

We had a glass tube with water in it, and it was corked
tight at the top. And it opened at one side.

- 'HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 255

We held this tube over a flame until the water in the tube
boiled. We put a little stopper in the side hole and the
steam which the water made pushed the stopper from a little
way in the tube to the end and then popped out on the floor.
It came out because the steam had such a pressure.

(There follow several papers on James Watt, George
Stephenson, and Robert Fulton, showing the invention and
development of the steam engine. The experiments with
steam preceded the stories of the inventors, so that their
work might be more fully appreciated.)

II.

One story is chosen from the many written by the pupils
on early California.

FINDING MONTEREY

Portola came back to San Diego discouraged and said
there was no Monterey. But Father Junipero Serra who
had heard Portola's story thought that they had 'found the
bay, but didn't know it. Portola was so discouraged that
he wanted to go back to New Spain. He said. " Our food is
giving out, and we shall starve to death if we don't go back.
Measure out the food and see how long we can stay, and on
the next day we will start." So they measured out the food
and it would just keep them twenty days. The days dragged
by and the nineteenth day came. They packed their bag-
gage, and fixed the vessel, and were already to start, but
early on the twentieth morning a cry rang through the camp,
" A sail ! A sail !" They all ran out and there was a sail in
a distance. This ship brought food and a letter.

286 METHODS IN TEACHING

As soon as they could they started up the coast one party
by land and the other by water. They soon got at Monterey
and set up an altar and they swung the bells which rang out
to the sleeping hills, they then fired volley after volley and
they, too, rang out the claims of the Spanish King.

CHAPTER XV

HISTORY IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES
FIFTH YEAR GRADE

In the fifth grade the pupils are considered old enough to
commence a systematic study of the history of our country ;

a text book is put into their hands, and the
Material

story is made continuous. The time is also

extended, in order to give a longer period for consecutive
work, and history alternates month by month with literature.
The daily period is also lengthened by the introduction of a
definite time for the preparation of the lesson by the children,
twenty or twenty-five minutes for study. The lives of men
are still the centers of the stories, for with children no inter-
est is stronger than that of human life ; but periods of history
are marked off far more distinctly than in the preceding
years. This is very easily accomplished in the child's mind,
but the teacher must be skillful in keeping the right propor-
tion between periods and between men.

In the fourth grade the pupils have become somewhat
familiar with maps and the globe, so the period of explora-
tions and discoveries is preceded by considerable geographi-
cal study, in order to obtain an idea of what constituted the
known world in the times preceding Columbus. Without
such an introduction no clear idea can be gained of the rea-
sons for the voyages that resulted in the discovery of
America. The children can understand in part the frenzied

287

288 METHODS IN TEACHING

search for the wealth of the Indies, and time can even be
found to tell a little of the story of Vasco da Gama and of
that of Marco Polo. Thus the efforts and voyages of
Columbus begin to take their right place in the world's his-
tory, and his long trip to the west across the mysterious
Atlantic has a new meaning to the children. They have
already, in the fourth grade, heard some of the stories about
the coming of the Spaniards ; here is the opportunity, in the
fifth grade, to show how these explorers had followed fast
on the track of Columbus, eager to take advantage of his
discoveries. This review of the fourth grade stories, the
more detailed accounts of Columbus, round out sufficiently
for the fifth grade the Spanish explorations. The discover-
ies of the French are omitted entirely ; those of the English
center around the Cabots, Henry Hudson, and the settle-
ments in Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. The
colonial life is given character and distinctive existence by
the stories that cluster around the lives of such men as Miles
Standish, Benjamin Franklin, William Penn, the boyhood of
Washington, and the Indians.

It is not the accumulation of historical facts that is de-
sired, there will be plenty of time for them later. It is the
picturing by the children of the life of a
period that is valuable, the collection of
many details, incidents, stories, that will vivify a period and
give it reality in later history study. There should be a
solidarity about every period. The life should be seen in
those details that are dear to the hearts of all children : the
houses lived in, the mails, the work done, the implements
used, the means of transportation, the love for England, the
kind of liberty that came to the dwellers in the new land.

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 289

This is not difficult, for all of it can be found in the stories
of the period, in illustrations, and from knowing what the
men themselves did and how they accomplished their ends.
The work should always be more than pure biography, it
should be a picture of the time studied.

In the latter half of the year there are given stories of
the Revolution, the Opening of the West, and the Civil War.
To the child Washington is the man most intimately asso-
ciated with the Revolution, and the war is grouped around
his heroic struggles. Daniel Boone is the hero of the period
of expansion that followed the establishment of peace, and
intensely interesting he is to the children. Abraham Lincoln
is the hero of the Civil War. Stories of this great Ameri-
can, heard by the pupils in the third grade, are renewed, and
to them are added many others showing the determined
effort of Lincoln that all human beings in our country should
be free. The war is not studied as a war ; it is a background
on which are sketched some of the great incidents in the
life and efforts of Lincoln.

The children are now delighted to read for themselves, if
the way is only opened for them, and they will search
happily and persistently for reading on
topics in which they have been interested.
It is often surprising what mature books children will read
understandingly, if they have only been given enough of the
story to be able to follow its development through even
unknown words and new sentence forms. While books for
children are not to be decried, still much of the so-called
juvenile reading is so puerile as to be a positive injury to
young minds. As squirrel's teeth are kept sharp and clean
by gnawing hard substances, so children's minds are sharp-

20

290 METHODS IN TEACHING

ened and brightened by contact with invigorating mental
food. What difference does it make if there are in a book
many words that a child has never seen before ? How is he
to learn new words? To give a child interesting reading
containing many words whose meaning he does not know is
like giving a squirrel nuts to crack. If the story is alluring,
the meaning of the new words will be found out by some
means.

The outline, used tentatively in the third and fourth
grades, becomes a recognized tool during this year. The

teacher's outline may sometimes be used as
Outlines

a model and an incentive to progress, and

the teacher should often work over with the pupils their
outlines. As such a lesson is very instructive for all the
class, board work is better than individual criticisms. The
teacher must not be too ambitious for her pupils in this
acquirement. It must be remembered that outlines are
largely a matter of judgment, a faculty slightly developed
with fifth grade pupils. The training to be derived from
outlines in this grade is the help they afford in the develop-
ment of the judgment, of the power of analysis, and of the
ability to put together in a continuous, systematic form the
thoughts of any whole. These three processes, at least, are
involved. A story is before a child as a whole, as the
teacher has told it, or as he has read it for himself. He is
to mention the various important thoughts in that story;
that is, he is to analyze it, selecting certain thoughts and re-
jecting others. Then he is to arrange those thoughts ac-
cording to their proper relation to one another; that is, he is
to exercise continuity of thought. When we think how
many mature people are lacking in judgment, analysis, or

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 29!

continuity of thought, we must be very considerate about
the young minds, and not tax them too severely. We wish to
give them just the powers so conspicuously lacking in many
people, but if too much is asked in difficult lines, a distaste
for the work is created that may never be overcome. In
fifth grades, and even throughout all the grammar grades
and the first year of the high school, outlines should be very
simple, rarely going to more than a second indentation, that
is, to the second division of a thought. They should also
be of use to a child, an aid in doing some work, for the
thought should never be permitted that the outline is the end
for which one is working; it is a tool. The outlines should
be made because they are to be used in reproductions, in reci-
tations, in writing, in memorizing, in examinations. Their
frequent use in this way leads a child to depend upon them,
which really means that the minds are being trained to de-
pend upon order, system, judgment, analysis. Is this not a
desirable end? Nevertheless, I have known teachers who
stopped using outlines when they noticed that the children
were beginning to depend upon them ! Did such teachers
comprehend the first uses of an outline?

Recitations must be varied in order not to become monot-
onous. The child is roused to strive for a clearer under-
standing of what he is studying" if he does
Reproduction

not know whether he is simply to tell the

story, or to be quizzed searchingly, or to uphold his views
and knowledge in discussions with fellow-pupils. Discus-
sions are excellent eye-openers, and serve to make the chil-
dren alert to ideas, judgments, and conclusions. The talk-
ers should not be permitted to become personal in their argu-
ments, but a discussion can be very brisk and instructive

292 METHODS IN TEACHING

without any objectionable features. Quizzes put a child
on the watch to know everything that he can find out about
a lesson, and they give a teacher chance to probe deep into
real and assumed knowledge. Reproductions give a pupil
confidence in himself, by leading him to stand before a class,
to try to express himself understandingly, and to tell a com-
plete story in an interesting manner. Unless a story is very
short, a child should rarely be called upon to " tell all he
knows " about a story. Such a request leads to diffuseness,
to scattering thoughts, to bombast. Give a topic, and hold
a child to careful, well expressed reproduction of that part
of the story, with no wanderings into any other portion. If
it is really desired to test a child's memory of a whole story,
it is better that he should reproduce it according to the out-
line, following the principal thoughts and omitting the de-
tails; but this is summarizing, not reproducing.

Fifth grade pupils understand and enjoy maps and the
globe. During the whole period of explorations and dis-
coveries the globe is an essential aid. It
should be used in connection with wall maps
of the sections under discussion. In the
period of settlements, the map of the United States is pre-
ferable to maps of states or of special localities, for the pupils
are not yet familiar enough with the outlines of the whole
country to study profitably the details of smaller portions.
Trace out settlements, arctic explorations, crossing the
mountains into the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi. The
pupils should draw many outline maps.

History made interesting to the children can not fail to be
productive of results in character building. Love for some

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 293

of our great men, admiration for their energy, self-sacrifices,
and persistency, tend to elevate the ideals of children. They
can not study the characteristics of men,
Results watching a boy become great, as Washing-

Gained *on> Franklin, Lincoln, seeing the strength

of character behind the deeds, realizing
the difficulties to be overcome, without looking on life gener-
ally, and their own lives in particular, in a broader, better
way. One's own difficulties seem less when compared with
what some one else has overcome, and on which he has risen
to strong and noble manhood. From the warnings and
examples of history one should learn better living and
greater love for home and country.

The following thoughts are from a fifth grade teacher1 :

One of the chief values of history work lies in the oppor-
tunity which it affords for teaching good habits of study.
Every day some independent preparation
of Study must be made by the pupil. This should be

carefully assigned, so that too much is not
required in a given time. One of the principal reasons for
poor preparation of work in all studies in the grades is that
too much is expected for the length of the period for study.
Lessons half learned a few times lead to careless habits of
preparation that might have been avoided had but little been
required but thorough mastery insisted upon.

Another fault is that the teacher works too much with the
class, too little time being given to independent preparation.
Some pupils thus gain nearly all of their knowledge from
class work, and almost the only habit formed is the destruc-
tive one of dependence. The chief value of working in

1Miss Elma Hopkins.

294 METHODS IN TEACHING

sections is that the child is forced to work without help from
the teacher and to depend upon himself.

Outlines prepared by the teacher are used freely in the

preparation of a lesson. Only important points are noted,

so that the pupils know for what they are

Preparation tO be held answerable- Their use while

studying accustoms a child to a systematic

arrangement of the material in a lesson from its assignment
to the final writing. Sometimes the outline is screened from
view while the class is studying the lesson for the first time ;
then, with book closed and outline in view, every pupil is
supposed to go over the lesson again, testing his knowledge,
discovering his weak places, and, finally, looking up what-
ever he does not know well.

The outline given below is a composite, made in class and
copied from the board, showing how the pupils are trained
to make and use outlines.

I.

HENRY HUDSON

I. Conditions three hundred years ago.

1. England poor.

2. Spain rich from gold mines in America.

3. Portugal rich by southern route to Asia.
II. Muscovy Company formed.

1. Wish to find northern route to Asia.

a. Failure.

b. Trade with Russia.

2. Henry Hudson employed by the Muscovy Com-

pany.
a. Found no northern route to Asia.

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 295

b. Found many whales.

c. Stopped by ice on second voyage.
3. Muscovy Company discouraged.

a. Decide to make money from whales.
III. Hudson employed by the Dutch East India Company.

An original outline follows, showing how slowly the
pupil's mind grasps the large headings which are to be sub-
divided. Details stand out unrelated to a main topic. No
corrections have been made.

II.
MORSE AND THE TELEGRAPH

I. Difficulties before the invention of the telegraph.

I. Mail carried on horseback.
II. Morse sent to Yale College.

1. Interested in electricity.

2. Becomes a painter.

III. In 1832 Morse sails to Europe.

IV. Morse plans the telegraph.

V. Morse becomes a professor in 1835.
VI. Morse meets young Vail..

I. Experiment by Vail and Morse.
VII. Judge Vail decides to give Morse money.
VIII. Vail improves Morse's invention.
IX. Judge Vail growing discouraged.
X. Telegraph proves successful.
XI. Congress gives Morse money.
XII. Puts wires underground but fails.
XIII. In 1844 Miss Ellsworth sent first message over the
wires.

296 METHODS IN TEACHING

SIXTH YEAR GRADE

As the pupils grow older their work should become more

scholarly and their methods of reproduction and composition

should be growing more and more mature.

Need of

M t r- i The grammar grades are the starved grades

in many schools, although unconsciously so.
Children in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades can read
much if they have the material. They long to know about
the world, the whole world ; no country is so remote that it
can not arouse their curiosity, no people so quaint that it can
not interest them. The sense of acquisitiveness is so strong
at this time that, rightly managed, an immense amount of
information can be gained between the years of eleven and
fifteen. How much many children read at home! How
eager they are to visit every " show " that comes along ! It
is the natural desire of the time of life. The world is be-
ginning to assert its hold over the imaginations, and these
are the years when habits of work and reading are becoming
life methods. This condition is not fully enough recognized
in our schools; to do so would be expensive, for it would
mean equipping grade libraries. Consequently, children
suffer from an ill-timed economy. There should be books
in abundance where the children can use them freely. These
should be on all subjects within the comprehension of the
children, and some of them should be leading out into new
fields of thought so attractively that inquiring minds will be
charmed along hitherto unknown paths. Better equip-
ments for children in science and manual training are being
granted in many schools, and it is to be hoped that the pur-
chase of well selected grade libraries for every school, or

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES

every small group of schools, will be one of the steps taken
in the near future.

The history of the sixth grade is arranged to meet the

craving to know about the world. There are stories of the

earliest days, when human beings lived in

Civ I It

caves; then the life of mankind is traced
Grade
Stories down through the development of several

nations. It is not intended to study history
seriously, but it is desired to place before the children con-
siderable reliable information about the past, so that a truer
understanding may be gained eventually of our own life and
place in the world. In this way, sixth grades read many
stories of ancient history, before the era of Christ. Seventh
and eighth grades take up stories of the Middle Ages and of
England. During these last two years the United States
history is the regular class work, and we find that it is more
easily mastered because of all the story work on earlier
nations that has preceded. It is interesting to note that the
stories, read and discussed as such, are often more easily
remembered than is the American history, the work for the
class.

This distribution of time and application serves well the
culture growth of the children ; for, having once become
acquainted with the true stories of history, few pupils lose
their liking for this great study, " the story of man." To
attain this end the pupils must like the stories. This can
be done by remembering that knowledge is not the first and
only object sought. The purposes are rather: the forma-
tion of a deep and lasting interest in history; an apprecia-
tive study of man and his development; mental training in
rapid reading, accumulation of facts, ready discussion,

298 METHODS IN TEACHING

formation of judgments based upon proofs, and systematic
arrangement of the knowledge gained ; historical knowledge.

In order to like history a child must read easily and widely,
not narrowly and intensely on a short period of time where
he is expected to master all the details. To
Training study the men about whom he reads, he

must discuss their motives and characters,
and he must compare them with one another. To acquire
mental training the material used must be systematized, and
the judgment must be exercised and developed. In all these
efforts at education the teacher must remember that sixth
grade training must be simple. Discussions and decisions
will be crude, but the fact of using powers means their
growth. The pupils are in the story age. They can read
many accounts that turn about the same center of knowledge
without tiring of the subject. Thus, by varying the stories
but keeping the same center of thought, material is accu-
mulated for discussions, comparisons, outlines; and broader
knowledge comes from the presentation of a thought or fact
in several different guises.

For instance, the love of the Greeks for adventurous ex-
peditions comes out very clearly from reading the stories of
Jason, the Iliad, the Odyssey. To the pupil there is no repe-
tition of thought, but, if the discussions have been kept up,
and if the teacher is skillful in drawing out the character-
istics of the Greeks that led to these expeditions, at the end
of the reading the pupil will have a knowledge of the way
in which the Greeks during the period of colonization scat-
tered their life, customs, and seeds of awakening intelligence
all around the Black Sea, in Asia Minor, in Southern Italy
and the adjacent islands. It is a knowledge that is import-

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES

ant to an understanding of the rousing up of civilization in
Europe. Sixth grade pupils can see it as a matter of course,
in a child's way it is true, but the fact will cling to their
memories if it is well impressed by stories and maps; high
school pupils, however, often finish ancient history without
a thought of this strong connecting link between ancient and
mediaeval civilizations. What is true of this topic is equally
true of many others. The pupils are reading stories and
enjoying them, but, if properly guided, they are also laying
an excellent foundation for later serious studies.

Another instance of this cultural training may be found
in seventh grade reading on the feudal system and the
Crusades. From well selected stories pupils can gain a sur-
prising amount of interesting knowledge concerning the
commercial, political, and social conditions of mediaeval days,
leading to a fair understanding of the reasons for the dis-
covery of America and for the revolt against Old World
customs that caused the establishment of our freer political
institutions. Such readings and deductions are a delightful
part of grammar grade history. No attempt should be made
to build up historical structures, but the foundation laid for
those of later years should be firm and true. During all this
period of story reading the pupils will scarcely have realized
that they have been working. Not that pupils should not
work knowingly, but they will be learning one of the first
important lessons in the acquisition of history, that work in
history is thoughtful and systematic reading. If, then, chil-
dren are learning to read history intelligently and with pleas-
ure, they are also learning to work happily.

In the stories of Greece and Rome the pupils are now old
enough to distinguish between the myth and the germ of

3OO METHODS IN TEACHING

truth at its root, and they can see how the myth grew up
naturally in the lives of these beauty loving, inquisitive,
primitive people. Consequently, the historical myths are
more interesting here than in the lower grades, where the
little children can not differentiate between the truth and
the fancy in the story. The life and development of both
Greece and Rome can be shown by a comparatively small
number of stories, grouped around centers of national
growth and enlivened by accounts of men and events. In-
stitutions and laws belong to later years.

Methods as well as material should be progressing con-
stantly. That which fifth grade pupils did well should be
the basis upon which the sixth grade builds.

E7™UtA01!, The teacher should know what the children

of Methods

were able to do in any given exercise, as
outlining, in the preceding grade ; she should try them to see
just how much they can do well, and then advance them
certain steps.

The fifth grade pupil did not attempt to outline beyond
headings for paragraphs in separate, comparatively short

stories, with a few indented suggestions for
Outlining ,. .

the body of every paragraph. His outlining

was preparatory to writing. The sixth grade pupil will con-
tinue much of this paragraph outlining as an assistance to
written reproduction; but he will also begin to outline a
subject by its larger heads. In the fifth grade these larger
heads have been given by the teacher as the subjects to be
outlined, because the judgment and analytical powers of the
children were still too immature for them to reason beyond
the details. Sixth grade pupils will not go far beyond that
point, but they can take a subject that has been under con-

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 30 1

sideration for several days and give the most prominent
headings, so leading out towards a larger, more complete
view of a subject. This means that two kinds of outlines
are being carried on in the sixth grade; or, more properly,
that the new step added to the fifth grade outline seems
temporarily like a new kind of outline. These can seldom
be worked out satisfactorily on the same day. If the larger
headings for a complete story have been developed, the
teacher will find that the minds are tired by this stretching
process, as it really is to the children, and that the hour would
better be filled out with some interesting narrative. The fol-
lowing day one of the headings from this complete outline.
can be treated in detailed, or paragraph outline. This will
be far easier work than that of the preceding day. In de-
veloping the outline the reading from various books should
be put together ; this will have its special difficulties of amal-
gamation, usually confusing to children, who do not compre-
hend at first how to combine thoughts from several authors.
The minds are still young.

It is good practice occasionally to write an outline on the
board just as it is given by the class, and then to rearrange it
for continuity of thought. In an outline of any length there
will be much to do, and a great deal of guidance will be
necessary. There are two reasons why continuous thought
comes slowly : we are all prone to forgetfulness, leaving out
something that we know full well belongs in the develop-
ment, and putting it in when we think of it, out of its place,
of course; continuity of thought is a power of maturity,
whose fullness can not be expected from these children. It
is being cultivated, but its growth can not be forced, it
must be developed through careful, intelligent use.

3O2 METHODS IN TEACHING

The outline may or may not be left before the pupils dur-
ing the written reproductions. If the story is long, requiring
several days for writing, the outline will be a great aid, and
results will be better. If the memory is to be trained, the
prop should be taken away by erasing the outline. Memory
is a useful servant, but other faculties are of equal or greater
importance of life work.

If the topic for writing is assigned occasionally a day or
two in advance, the pupils have a chance to think over what
they wish to say and how best to say it.
Careful workers soon learn to take advan-
tage of the opportunity to look up the spelling of new words,
to think out a satisfactory outline, and to prepare in many
ways. The results are naturally better than when the efforts
are extemporaneous. This kind of preparation also tends
to cultivate a habit of self-examination concerning readiness
for a task, a habit of incalculable importance in the produc-
tion of satisfactory work and in the formation of character.
Still more ambitious papers may be written by giving the
pupils a week to prepare on either an assigned topic or on
one chosen by the writer. Reading from reference books
then becomes possible, and actual research in history is be-
ginning. The reading references should be suggested by
the teacher, so that too difficult tasks are not left to untrained
minds. Selection of material is one of the most involved
steps in the preparation of a paper.

There are the usual accessories of maps, illustrations,
reference books. The maps are for fixing

^lass the larger features; the less important ones

Accessories

become known through repetition. The

illustrations that are now used often have considerable

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 303

value. These should be exposed somewhere in sight of the
pupils so that they become a part of their germinating artis-
tic and intellectual life. Reference books should be fur-
nished every school ; they may be drawn from public librar-
ies; sometimes they are willingly loaned for careful use by
private owners. Reading is to history what plants and ani-
mals are to nature study, the material with which to work.
Reading is a necessity.

From the sixth grade on throughout life as a student, note
taking and the notebook have dignity and importance. In
the book are collected all papers of value,
B° k separate sheets that are preserved as writ-

ten. The best form of notebook that has
been evolved from our work is the one composed of separate
sheets, comprising work of all kinds connected with the
study, fastened together in a folder or a homemade cover of
pasteboard. Paper fasteners are not satisfactory for hold-
ing the leaves together as they do not permit the book to
open freely enough. A string holds the sheets safely and
allows ease in turning.

The time given to history during the year is twenty weeks,

in two periods of ten weeks each, alternating with literature

periods of the same length. The daily

allotment of time is forty-five minutes,

twenty for study, twenty-five for recitation.

The following thoughts are from a sixth grade teacher1 :
For the history of primitive man Ragozin's " Earliest
Peoples " is used. The book is too difficult
to be put into the hands of the pupils for un-
aided reading and study, so it is read aloud
by the teacher. Discussions and reproductions by the class

'Miss Charlotte Treanor.

3O4 METHODS IN TEACHING

follow. By this means there is gained an introductory
knowledge of the world before the age of Greek civilization.
Attention is called to the westward movement in the life of
the world, and this tendency is referred to frequently
throughout the term. The stories of Kablu, Darius, and
Cleon are read from " Ten Boys." A time line is begun and
continued during the term. A cross in the middle indicates
the beginning of the Christian era ; time before Christ is put
at the left, and time after Christ at the right of the cross.

Early Greek history is studied through stories of the gods,
many beautiful myths showing the childlike attempts of the

Greeks to explain the phenomena of nature.
Greece

While reading about the heroes and the

period of the Trojan War, fully two-thirds of the class have
read large parts of the " Iliad " and the " Odyssey " in the
children's editions in the room. A comparison of Sparta
and Athens is made through stories of the life and training
of the people in the two cities. The next age is best told by
the lives of some of the great men; as, Pericles, Socrates,
Demosthenes, and Alexander. Pictures are an important
source of information, study, and pleasure. A brief glance
is given to the overthrow of Greece by the rising power of
Rome.

Through selected stories the children learn to see the
Romans as an energetic, industrious race, fond of conquest,

intensely patriotic; training the young men
Rome ..

carefully in the art of war, and according

great honors to successful warriors. " Horatius," studie<
and partially learned in the second grade, proves an inter-
esting foundation for some of the conquests made by th<
early Romans. Some rays of light are thrown on the lonj

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES

and bitter struggle between the patricians and the plebeians
by a few of the most stirring tales of those days. There are
pictures and descriptions of the temples, theaters, aqueducts ;
the military roads are admired by the pupils, who receive
through them some idea of the necessity of marching armies
quickly from one part of the Empire to the other. Greek
influence is noted in the artistic life of the people. Chariot
racing is made more vivid by reading the chariot race in
" Ben Hur." The war with Carthage is intensely interest-
ing, and keen sympathy is aroused for the conquered city.
Augustus Caesar is presented as one of the best emperors.
Nero is selected as a contrasting type, with his cruel perse-
cutions of the Christians. For many centuries the power of
Rome weakened. The children read with interest stories of
the barbarians who swept down upon Rome from the north,
terrifying the Empire, and finally subverting the conditions
of Roman life.

This is but a meagre outline of the work given. Every-
where it is presented through stories, whose meanings are
often seen by the children without help. Connecting links
between periods must be supplied by the teacher, but these
are given in a few words that are made more comprehensible
by keeping the trend of events in every period before the
minds of the pupils.

A large map of the country being studied is drawn upon
the board, and important places are located as they come up
in the recitations. This map is made per-
manent for the term by being outlined in
thin white paint. The places are located temporarily in
chalk, so that the day's lesson may be erased if desired with-
out destroying the outline. In a short time the principal
21

306 METHODS IN TEACHING

rivers, lakes, bays, mountains, cities, and provinces are
quickly and accurately located whenever mentioned. At the
end of the term the painted outline can be removed easily
from the board.

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE

In the seventh grade the subject for the year is American
history. This is introduced by stories of the Crusades,
selected and prepared for the classes so as
Introduction to show the restlessness of the Middle Ages
History anc^ t^le knowledge of the world that was

gradually leading men out of their own
home countries into distant lands. The pupils thus see how
the Europeans came into contact with the higher civilization
of the older countries of the East, imbibing many of the
luxurious tastes there prevalent. To supply the commodi-
ties demanded by these new tastes long and difficult com-
mercial voyages were undertaken, well suited to adventurous
spirits that still held back from the more settled, monotonous
habits of industrial life.

All the time desired can not be given this period of
awakening in Europe, so fitting an introduction to the dis-
covery of America, for it is also desirable to familiarize the
pupils somewhat more specially with life and conditions in
England just before the voyages of discovery and the begin-
nings of settlements in America. For this purpose a text is
used. The whole book can not be read and discussed in
class, and it is not desirable that it should be ; but selections
are made of stories illustrative of the periods most closely
connected with American history. Many pupils read the
entire book for themselves.

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3O/

After a rather too brief introduction of this sort, when its
importance in our history is considered, the regular study of
American history is begun. In addition to
*1 t^ie text Purc^ase(^ by the pupil, three other

authors are kept in sets in every seventh
grade room, so that every pupil has four books to which he
can refer in preparing his lessons. The use of the city
library by the pupils broadens and strengthens in every
grade. This is a fact of importance and magnitude. The
children should not be simply turned loose in a library,
to select anything that suits them; they are not yet old
enough to be discriminating, nor will they be for several
years to come. Neither is it ordinarily satisfactory to leave
them to the guidance of librarians, unless there is a juvenile
room in charge of a capable, sympathetic person. No one
can know so well as the teacher just what topics and what
phases of them are to be discussed and emphasized in the
class. That the teacher keep in close touch with the reading
becomes of more importance constantly as the pupils and
the study become more mature. This is the source of
supply, the subject matter, the red blood from which is to
come the live tissue of the body of knowledge that is to
be built up. If the library is large and if the teacher is very
busy, and what conscientious teacher is not? it may follow
that the library is not thoroughly canvassed for a year or
two; but when this has once been done and the teacher
knows just what books are applicable to her class work, it
is not difficult to keep track of the new books that are added
to the library. By putting the information about all these
books into the topically arranged card catalogue of accessi-
ble books for the class, which should be a part of the outfit

3O8 METHODS IN TEACHING

of every teacher, the great problem of supplementary read-
ing is reduced to system, and ceases to be a constantly re-
curring bugbear. The teacher and the librarian should
work together for the good of the schools. It is a most
efficient aid in the use of books, and it is eventually for the
best good both of the public and of the library.

In the seventh grade the time for history is doubled; it
becomes forty-five minutes a day for the year, instead of for

five months, as in the preceding grades.

Twenty minutes are usually taken for prepa-
ration, twenty-five for recitation.

Pupils should be growing more independent in prepara-
tion, although the proportion indicated above of study time

to recitation time shows that the influence
Preparation of the teacher in guiding is still considered

Recitation preponderant over the discrimination powers

of the child in choosing for himself. Reci-
tations must include time for careful suggestions about read-
ing and methods of work. The value of definite assign-
ments can not be over estimated, but a failure to make clear
just what is to be done and how it is to be done is one of the
most frequent weaknesses of teachers. The lesson should
rarely, perhaps never, be assigned as so many pages.
Topics, even if only the paragraph headings, should be
plainly dictated. The alert teacher, however, will seldom
be satisfied to use these summaries as topics for the lesson.
More personal topics will be chosen, something that can be
made more a part of the class life than the headings from
any book, no matter how scholarly. They will be such as
the teacher will select, through a knowledge of the class, as
necessary to the promotion of some undeveloped thought in

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3OQ

the recitations, or those that are most accessible in the refer-
ence books, or that lead directly into future studies. In
short, here as everywhere, there should be that class person-
ality without which all teaching palls. The topics are placed
upon the board; pupils are expected to prepare themselves
thoroughly either from the class text or from that and the
reference books. This may be the material for the first
day's recitation. The next day, after this preparatory sys-
tematizing of the topics, broader reference reading may
come, perhaps for individual reports from different books,
or as reading by all the class on some special phase of the
lesson from any supplementary author. The latter method
is usually preferred, for reproductions from individual read-
ings tend toward dry resumes, appreciated by few, no mat-
ter how conscientious the child who makes the report. This
method is more practicable with older students. The second
manner of preparation, all looking up the same topic but
from various books, is more liable to bring out discussions,
comparison of opinions, expressions of differing ideas, all of
which result in live, vigorous class work. The larger the
number actively interested in a recitation, really taking part
in furnishing details, or in presenting ideas for the discus-
sion, the greater will be the life and energy of the recitation.
On some days, careful, thorough reproduction of the text
that has been read is excellent drill. Pupils do what they
are directed to do; they have a natural tendency to neglect
what is not required. Consequently, in leading a class out
into discussions, care must be taken not to permit a neglect
of restating exactly the author's opinion. The teacher
should call frequently, every day perhaps, for an exact
rendering of what Fiske, Montgomery, or any other author

3IO METHODS IN TEACHING

used in the preparation, says in regard to any point in the
lesson. Sometimes a reproduction of the whole lesson,
topic by topic, should be called for. Two ends are gained
by this kind of a recitation, formal as it may seem at first
glance. The pupils are led to notice more carefully what
they are reading, and, gradually, to form the habit of pictur-
ing mentally the thoughts of an author, a most important
power; secondly, the memory is steadily developed, and this
is a servant too useful to be left untrained. Every recitation
can be made to vary in some respect from those immediately
preceding, so that monotony of presentation, that deadly
enemy of enjoyable class work, does not lay hold of the
pupils.

Another feature of the instruction that is beginning to
take shape is the presentation by the teacher of definite sup-
plementary knowledge. While this is never
Talks bv

*v T t, so formal as to deserve the name of a

the Teacher

" lecture," it partakes of that nature. From
books that are inaccessible to the children or that are too
difficult for them to assimilate in undiluted form, the teacher
collects points of interest and importance. When these are
given in sufficient abundance to warrant note taking, the
pupils should be asked to keep track of what has been told
them, incorporating it in some shape in their notebooks.
Like outlining, this method is easily abused, for children
never like taking many notes; but if the insistence of the
teacher on taking the notes is in a spirit of helpfulness, and
if the children are led to use the material in some way, and
to appreciate the assistance furnished by their notes in
writing or reciting, the majority of the pupils respond

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES

quickly and happily, and the talks by the teacher have an
added force.

Outlines continue, still largely as composites, produced by
all the pupils working together, guided by the teacher ; some

original efforts are made, and with very
Outlines

good results if the work can be analyzed in

a manner already familiar to the children. The reasons for
not leaving the children to their own devices are the same
as in previous years. The powers of analyzing, judging,
selecting, and systematizing material, upon which the value
of an outline depends, are still immature. They are not be-
ing used so much as being trained, developed, through all
these years, preparatory for later actual use. Consequently,
the work should never be very difficult nor should it be left
without supervision. It is like developing a muscle; there
must be wise oversight or there may result injury rather than
education.

The notebook may add greatly to the pleasure of the
class, and every pupil should be encouraged to put together
one of which he will be proud at the end of
the year. -These books are not to be left in
desuetude under the desks, simply kept as
receptacles for the papers of the term; they are for use;
they are practical, indispensable aids. On certain days there
are reviews of the month's work, based on the indexes of
certain notebooks. This brings out friendly comparison of
the number of papers and of pages written and preserved;
of the notes taken from the teacher's talks and from supple-
mentary reading ; of the maps made ; of the drawings by the
pupils themselves; of the pictures collected. Some of the
papers are read, a map is reproduced on the board, or an

312 METHODS IN TEACHING

especially original outline is read, discussed, or recited upon.
The notebooks are used as a partial proof of scholarship, of
ability to pass the subject. The books sometimes go home
for the approval of the parents before the end of the term,
so that the stimulus thus obtained may come back into the
class.

It is possible that the English history may have been
given in a fragmentary manner throughout the year, fitted

into the periods of American history so as
Summaries

to illuminate the relations between, the two

countries. When this is the case the detached lessons are
put together towards the end of the year under the general
headings of their particular periods ; the Tudors and the era
of explorations and early settlements; the Stuarts and the
religious changes in England, leading to heavy emigration
to America ; the Georges and the Revolution.

To fix the history from the period of explorations through
the Revolution, a topical review of two or three weeks is
admirable exercise. The geography must be kept well in
mind. The broad principles in the whole period are brought
out for the headings of the smaller divisions ; the relation of
period to period is shown; the causes and results of events
are analyzed ; the children are led to generalize, to compare,
to judge, as far as their powers will permit them to go. In
a review of this nature details are not dwelt upon except to
prevent the recitations from becoming dry and monotonous
or to refresh facts; they are used constantly, however, as
accumulated material which is for the purpose of forming
broader views and for grasping the sure, uninterrupted
movement of a nation. The details have been studied and
gained through the preceding months, but the children

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 313

should leave no important period without also seeing that
these details are not the end for which we are studying, but
that they make it possible to see the real meaning of the life
of the nation, just as flying scraps of paper tell the direction

of the wind.

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE

The administrative period, from the Revolution to the
present time, and the history of California form the subject

matter for the history of the eighth grade.
Time ^, . ££. . ,

Material e £lven 1S ""v mmutes a day

throughout the year. Half of the period
is used by the pupils for preparation. According to the
state law no study out of school can be required by the
teacher, but many interested pupils read at the public library,
or take school books home with them for the evening, through
their own desire to know more about the periods studied.

This part of the history of our country has many difficul-
ties for grammar grade pupils, for its development is along

the lines of mature growth, it is the complex
Matter history of modern times, and care must be

taken that it is not overwhelming to the chil-
dren. There are many topics that are important and inter-
esting without going into the vagaries of the currency, the
intricacies of the tariff, or the vacillations of political parties.
Such are the questions of transportation; the opening of
new roads ; the conditions of the negroes ; the attitude of the
North and the South toward the freedmen; immigration,
and the settlement of great stretches of our country through
the influx of foreigners ; the reasons for the development of
certain states, as California, because of its mines, grain pro-
duction, fruit raising, stock raising, climate ; Kansas, because

314 METHODS IN TEACHING

of the opening of its land to soldiers after the Civil War, and
the vast areas there ready for the plow ; the Northwest, with
its seemingly inexhaustible wheat acreage and pasture land,
and its vast wealth in mining. Such questions are of far
greater value to the children and they are more intelligible
than are the majority of governmental and political topics.
Unfortunately, reading matter on them is less accessible,
and it is rarely written for children; but if the teacher and
pupils are working together for the accumulation of mater-
ial, wonders can be accomplished. At least, the emphasis of
the preparation and the recitation can be laid upon those
topics that are nearest the pupils, while those that are so
difficult as to be studies even for the teacher can be passed
over lightly enough to prevent the pupil abominating forever
afterwards the very name of tariff, finance, presidential elec-
tion. In our zeal to prepare the children for statesmanship,
we are prone to overlook the fact that they must first be
citizens. Citizenship is far simpler than statesmanship, it is
nearer the individual life, it must touch every one.

In the preparation of his lesson the eighth grade pupil
naturally uses the methods of the preceding grade, even

while he is being led out into broader uses
Preparation .

of his maturing powers. The supple-
mentary texts and the regular class text are first used, as a
sort of summary on the assigned topics. Then the pupil
turns to the public library, the home collection of books,
periodicals, and papers.

The recitation follows the general lines of that of the

seventh grade. Frequent discussions involve
Recitation

the majority of the pupils and have more

life than set reproductions. Searching quizzes and short,

HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3 IS

accurate reproductions occur at any time, so that prepara-
tion for them will never be neglected by the pupils. An
eighth grade teacher1 says : " An effort is made to lead the
pupil to talk from a topic and to know when he has ex-
hausted his subject. He is encouraged to think and to give
his own opinions. Before such a topic is assigned to an
individual, the class is usually led to think about it, so that
all are interested in the treatment. In this way pupils reason
out many points, without the aid of books. When conclu-
sions have been reached individual presentation is called for
in order to clarify ideas. Sometimes a general talk of this
nature precedes the studying of the lesson, leading the pupil
to think and reason while studying. Library reading is
done on many topics."
1Miss Belle Mitchell.

CHAPTER XVI

CIVICS

The state supports the schools. The schools are the
avowed training centers for citizens of our republic. Conse-
quently, in return for the money lavished
Importance

upon the schools, the state should be given

citizens with a high degree of civic pride and honor, pre-
pared to render willing support, and possessed of a knowl-
edge of the possibilities and limitations of citizens.

It is true that the family is, and always must be, the strong-
est influence in character training. The school can only

supplement the efforts of the home ; but the
Institutional
Sense school may be a better instructor than the

home in general information concerning the
duties of citizens. To be thoroughly a part of a man's life,
the conception of honest, unselfish citizenship must be com-
menced with the child. His understanding and appreciation
of the institutional side of his own character and of its
necessity in a well balanced life must be educated in his child-
hood. Many growing children are prone to cast off allegi-
ance to any person or institution simply from the belief that
it is a sign of strength to do so; but, if shown that such
allegiance is courage, loyalty, patriotism, that it appeals to
the best and bravest in man, it may be embraced with an
affection that long years of worldly struggle can not weaken.
The object of the course in civics is to purify and render
intelligible the child's institutional sense, and to direct it

civics 317

toward its legitimate objects of loyalty. The first steps in
this training are to make clear to a child the nature of those
institutions nearest to his life, as the home,

the school> the neighborhood- These are
broadened later to the town, the state, the
nation. There is thus trained that part of the child's na-
ture that finds expression in patriotism toward home insti-
tutions and in allegiance to constitutional government any-
where. This training has its foundation in character ; hence,
whatever elevation can be given to the character of a pupil
is sure to be reflected in his citizenship.

Instruction in civics accompanies history, and, in all grades
to the eighth, the recitation time is taken from the daily
period for history. No set time is arranged
on the daily program, but it is expected
that every week or ten days there will be careful work on
some topic in civics. If two lessons are closely related they
are taken on consecutive days. No regularly assigned work
has as yet been followed in our schools, but every teacher
selects from the summaries the material most suitable for
her class, and comparison of work done in different grades
prevents repetition of topics.

PRIMARY GRADES

Cultivate a spirit of social responsibility, of interest in and
for companions. Man is a social animal, he must live in
company with his fellow-men. He should
realize, therefore, the benefits and responsi-
bilities arising from such relations. The
school is an excellent place for starting the education of this
idea with children. Relations with others begin in the

3l8 METHODS IN TEACHING

family. Discuss the family and the home with the little
ones. Do more than talk to them; lead them into thinking
and expressing their own ideas, so doing much of the talking
themselves.

The family : Formed of whom ? children must be loved
and cared for; children should have consideration for
parents and an understanding of some of
Family ^e ^ur<^ens an(^ responsibilities of parents;

responsibilities should rest upon every mem-
ber of the family ; children need some fixed tasks in order to
help and also to learn how to work; interdependence of
members of a family.

Authority in the family : Its necessity, seen in the need of
constant care for infants, of long continued training for chil-
dren, and in the great number of things that there are for
children to learn before being ready to go out into the world ;
necessity for punishment after wrong doing, its nature;
parents the center of all authority; older children, if they
are reliable, grow into a share in the parental authority ; the
honor to the child who shares this responsibility ; the respon-
sibility attached to it; the necessity for all children to learn
how to govern themselves and how to help govern others.

Ownership: Individual, as in marbles belonging to one
boy; common, as in a swing for the pleasure of all the chil-
dren ; care of property ; accumulation of individual property
and its relation to the good of all; increasing the scope of
common property, and its relation to the individual.

Bonds of union: Mutual interests; its effectiveness in
training for the future ; personal affection, the strongest bond
in the life of many people in home life, patriotism, religion.

Early in the school year discuss with the children the

civics 3 i 9

great change that has come to them by entering school.

This may precede the discussions on the family as it ought

to help fit the little ones into their new en-

f|*T|»

* vironments ; but after the talks on the home

the school should be reconsidered, so that
the pupils fit it into their conception of the enlarging circle
of their social relations. Interest in and for others is the
true basis of social relations. See that the children live
socially, that they play, work, chat, with others. Theory
without practice is like looking at the apparatus of a gym-
nasium without being trained by its use. Notice difficulties
that arise in adjusting games or schoolroom routine, and,
without making direct application to the occurrences, dis-
cuss with the children the reasons for such disagreements,
the rights involved, the possible injustice to some, and the
means of settlement. There will be a response to good
government and also an education toward an intelligent par-
ticipation in it. In many cases, where absolute authority is
not required, it is safe to allow the pupils to discuss and vote
on the method of procedure, and so the children are learning
to obey the will of the majority. Cheerfulness in such obedi-
ence should be inculcated.

Some of the rules for the schoolroom may be made more
effective if the necessity for them is clearly understood by
the pupils. Two broad divisions of rules
and laws are readily seen, — rules for re-
Laws straining and rules for direction or progress,

The need for both is quickly recognized.
The children develop for themselves that the rules for re-
straining are for the few, that those for guidance are for the
many. They realize that there are comparatively few chil-

32O METHODS IN TEACHING

dren in the room who are so lawless that they must be re-
strained by rules and regulations, for it is noticeable that in
every class there are few evil-disposed pupils in proportion
to the whole number; but they also reason out very easily
that two or three noisy, quarrelsome, or disobedient pupils
quickly disturb the peace and happiness of the whole class.
Hence the need of restraint. Rules for direction, for train-
ing, whether in book learning or in conduct, are for the
many ; they are for progress, and all wish to advance. Some
need more training than others; consequently, such rules
may have to remain in effect longer for some pupils than for
others. These thoughts, simplified for childish minds, made
concrete by schoolroom examples, talked over in friendly,
cooperative manner, prove remarkably helpful in fitting the
individual into the social and governmental relations of
school life, in arousing a desire for every one to control him-
self by responding to conditions, and in direct preparation
for self government.

The children in the first two grades are too immature to
be interested in the city government, but they take pleasure
in learning the names of some of the public
Officials officials nearest to their lives. In talking

over the school system, for example, it is
easy to pass from the class teacher to the principal of the
building, then to the superintendent of schools. It is even
of importance to give names accurately, writing them upon
the board when not well understood. The duties of the
teacher, principal, superintendent, can be talked over briefly,
so that the children begin to see the interdependence of the
parts in a large system and their relation to the well-being
of the whole. The mail service is traced out briefly from

civics 321

writing a letter to its being sent out of the city; and vice
versa, from mail coming into the city to its delivery at the
house by the postman. The police and the fire department
are explained in a simple manner. General knowledge is
thus gained and classified in an elementary way, observation
is stimulated, personal interest is aroused, and the child feels
himself more distinctly a part of the surrounding life.

In the third and fourth grades, in connection with local
history studies, some of the institutions of the city, and possi-
bly of the state may be studied. As in the
Third and ^Tsi two gra(jes ^g object is not to accu-

Fourtn Grades

mulate a great amount of detailed knowl-
edge, but to develop and rationalize the institutional side of
character.

In the third grade study of early Stockton and the growth
into a city, there is opportunity to show the need of a mayor,
a city government, protection from fire, at-
Conditions tention to streets and sidewalks, an organ-

ized police force, a city jail. This founding
and developing of a town combined with the growth of its
government is a correlation of history and civics that is
always valuable to a student. The fourth grade, dealing
with Stockton as it is today, studies the modern city in a
simple manner. Attention is called to the division of the
city into wards, the city council, the school board, the city
parks and their care, and many other matters of interest to
children that may suggest themselves to the teacher. The
children talk about their immediate surroundings, the need
of good sidewalks and streets, the pleasure derived from
well kept parks and shady trees. They learn who is the
member of the city council from their own ward, how large

22

322 METHODS IN TEACHING

the ward is, they inquire at home and report in school about
some of the duties of a councilman toward his ward. Local
interest and patriotism quickly adapt themselves to the larger
units of city, state, nation; but if the local spirit has never
become real and intense, broad patriotism is never truly
quickened. Love for beautiful, sanitary, honestly won sur-
roundings in one's own neighborhood is the foundation on
which to build the desire for similar conditions in the wide
nation that is our heritage.

In discussing with the children the desirability of such
moral attributes as honesty, bravery, truthfulness, unselfish-
ness, develop the reverse of the picture.
People That is, have them talk over why the oppo-

site traits of character are dangerous to the
happiness and well-being of the home, the city, the state.
Include idleness, ignorance, and drunkenness in these dis-
cussions. Find out whether the laws concerning them
should be those of restraint or of training.

An important part of the teacher's duty is to train pupils
in courteous habits. This is a part of the child's character

formation that goes on steadily at school, it
Conduct

is also one of the points of closest contact

between the home and the school. The teacher deals with
the child in his relation to a larger, more formal society than
is met in the home life. The teacher should realize the
social as well as the intellectual meaning of this change and
should be equal to the needed guidance. Many a child is
more courteous, truthful, honest, and unselfish at home than
in school, and the opposite is also sometimes true. Either
condition is almost wholly dependent upon the atmosphere

civics 323

of training and discipline in the home or the school rather
than upon the child himself. Short, pointed, friendly talks
with the children help wonderfully in establishing a general
response to genuine, kindly courtesy; and, since such talks
help form the child's character, they are an important and
legitimate division of civics, the making of the future citi-
zen.

There should be informal discussions with the children in
which they express their own opinions on such points as
kindness to each other at home; or at school, where there
is less intimacy than in the narrower circle of home and
immediate friends. Between persons where there is no
desire for a close friendship, there may still be that courte-
ous friendliness that makes even strangers feel at ease in
each other's presence. Discuss in a similar way the honesty
that precludes cheating in school as well as stealing money ;
respect for the old and infirm; unselfishness; the bravery
that dares stop a fight, or use correct language on the play-
ground in place of slang; manliness and womanliness.

The subject matter must be adjusted constantly to the
maturity of the class. Lessons on the postman in the first
or second grade should be so different from any treatment of
the post-office in the fourth grade, that the children have no
sense of repetition of old material. The same is true of
every topic. The work that belongs to one's own grade is
what should be attempted, not that of a year or two in

advance.

GRAMMAR GRADES

Instruction in the grammar grades includes a maturer
treatment of the topics used in the primary grades and the

324 METHODS IN TEACHING

study of more difficult subjects. A summary of the latter
is given in the following outline, suggestive
Outline *or teacners °* a11 grades; brief class out-

lines are given under the different years.

The machinery of government: ward, city, county, state,
nation; the development of this machinery through the
family, tribe, community, city, nation; early governments in
the United States,

Laws : necessity, makers, interpreters, enforcers, penalties
for violation.

Finances: cost of government, taxation, assessment of
property, expenditures, safe-keeping of money.

Voting: machinery, benefits, will of the majority.

Citizenship : the " American race/' a conglomerate ; for-
eign born element, its helpful and dangerous sides ; duties of
all citizens ; responsibilities ; interests ; patriotism ; dangerous
citizens ; " graft."

International relations: friendship with foreign nations,
possible benefits and disadvantages.

Democracy : its opportunities for all ; justice of its govern-
ment; dangers from bribery, carelessness, dishonesty, indo-
lence ; need of educated citizens ; higher education in the high
school and university should make better citizens of boys
and girls ; patriotism ; the temptation offered by rank in for-
eign countries and the meaning of such a society to the
" lower classes."

Some topics fit naturally into history, but correlation
should not be made so close that useful, easily comprehended
topics in civics are excluded because they do not also occur
in history.

Certain phases of taxation and of the expenditures of

civics 325

public money can be studied in the fifth and sixth grades as
well as in the seventh and eighth. Americans are proverbi-
ally careless of public buildings. Instructions concerning
their acquisition and care are very necessary. Children often
deface public buildings because they are ignorant of the fact
that the people themselves must either endure the displeas-
ing appearance or they must pay for the renovating. Waste
of public supplies, whether by oneself or permitted in some
one else should be considered.

Through the last three years of the grammar grades a
class society is very helpful to the pupils in acquiring some

knowledge of how a meeting should be
Societies conducted, and of how to work together in

organizations. Such a society should have
a definite reason for existence; it should not be conducted
in a haphazard manner; some recognized set of parliament-
ary rules should be followed in all the forms needed by the
children.

In order to become familiar with the needs of government,
the difficulties attending a democracy, and the consequent

necessity for public spirit and unselfish at-
Self-
Government tention to details let the children of any of

the higher grammar grades undertake some
degree of self-government. By the will of the majority,
expressed in regular form, they can make some rules for
their own government in school, in the yard, concerning
their games; members of the class can be appointed or
elected to enforce these rules ; some form of punishment may
even be decided upon for any violation of the rules. Such
a self-government committee may become the very life and
inspiration of a school. The teacher must, of necessity, be

326 METHODS IN TEACHING

the guiding spirit; the years of childhood are the years for
training, and pupils of the grammar grades are not mature
enough, they are not well enough trained, to be allowed a
large degree of independent self-government. On the other
hand, that which is granted them must be real ; to feel that
the committee is simply enforcing the teacher's rules, or
that it has no liberty of decision and action, quickly kills the
effectiveness of a so-called self-government. If entered into
seriously and lived up to by the pupils, there is an invaluable
training and an insight and growth into actual self-govern-
ment.

It is far easier to begin such a system than to carry it out.
While the novelty lasts the pupils are enthusiastic; but, as
time passes, the repetition of the common details of govern-
ment seem monotonous to some ; or the evil of influence,
which passes so easily into bribery of some form, becomes
apparent. Here is the opportunity of the teacher. The great-
est dangers to our democratic institutions lie in corruption
and the apathy of honest, common-sense citizens. If a
teacher or principal possesses the power to guide pupils past
this danger point into steady, regular administration of petty
details, he has done more for the establishment of a depend-
able public spirit than can be accomplished by any other
study.

The following outline indicates centers of discussion and
instruction for the different grades.

FIFTH YEAR GRADE

The City (not to be carried far into details).
Mayor : name, length of office, principal duties.
Council : number of members, election, principal duties.

civics 327

Departments : fire, police, school, health.
General topics :

Hospitals and charitable associations.

The pound, animals at large in the city.

Dredging channels.

Paving streets and laying sidewalks.

Sewers.

Street sprinkling.

Water supply.

Board of education, principal powers and duties.

The schools.

Public library.

Lighting the city.

Misdemeanors, especially such as may concern the con-
duct of children. Many offenses begin in ignorance
or in lack of respect for authority.

City property.

Telephone.

Wharves.

Which of the above regulations are for restraining citi-
zens ? Which for training ? Which for convenience, pleas-
ure, well-being, health? Are there any that refer to com-
panies acting with the permission of the city?

Perhaps the most important thought for the children in
the above outline is that pertaining to misdemeanors. Bring
before the class regulations that may concern their own lives,
— riding a bicycle on the sidewalk, the speed of an automo-
bile, defacing public buildings, petty thefts. Throw a little
light on the laws of the city so that the children may act more
intelligently. Remember that general information and the

328 METHODS IN TEACHING

cultivation of an intelligent and obedient public spirit is the
object of this instruction, not the accumulation of detailed
facts. Indigestible knowledge creates in the mind of the
pupil a reaction against all study of civics ; assimilated knowl-
edge means deep and lasting interest in local government.

SIXTH YEAR GRADE

The general outline is that of the fifth grade, with special
elaboration of certain topics. Local self-government: its
need, benefits, dangers ; need of honest, capable citizens and
officials, the latter experienced in business in a large way.
Legitimate matters for local control: making roads, build-
ing bridges, erecting public structures, educating children,
caring for poor and infirm, restraining dangerous people,
protecting the city from fire. Other topics will suggest
themselves to every teacher for the greater fullness of treat-
ment in this grade.

Some very brief, elementary work should be done on the
state and nation. The principal offices and their incum-
bents may be mentioned, and some illustrations of the rela-
tion between city and state, or state and nation, may be
made. These general studies serve many purposes. They
illustrate the similarity of organization throughout our vari-
ous governments ; the power of the people in making their
own laws ; the growing boundaries of authority through city,
county, state, nation; the more intense local interest in the
smallest unit of government ; the petty details in the smallest
unit ; the growing gravity of interests involved in the affairs
of larger units; the need of broad, loyal citizenship every-
where.

civics 329

SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES

Texts are used either in the class or as supplementary
reading; in the eighth grade a recitation period in civics
should be arranged for on the daily program,
G vernmcnt either once or twice in the week throughout

a definite portion of the year, or for a few
consecutive weeks. In both grades the work concerns itself
less with details of the machinery of government than with
what is being done for the people by the government; the
meaning of government ; its defects and sources of strength ;
the reasons why, in a democracy, the people should under-
stand the government. As, for instance, a study is made of
the care of the poor on a county poor farm, the hospitals or
asylums for the insane, reform schools for incorrigible chil-
dren ; of what this care consists, why it is given, by whom,
who pays for it, effects to the public if it were not given.
There are many topics that can be followed out in this man-
ner, arousing lasting interest in actual social conditions.
Details of government must also be studied, but they should
not exclude what is being done by putting in its place how
it is done.

Some of the topics for guidance of the teacher are :
Government : necessity ; the family, school, societies, city ;
various forms, — democracy, kingdom, absolutism; abuses
and perils; good citizenship; personal character in its rela-
tion to government ; public spirit, knowledge of state affairs,
industries, relations to one another.

The city : guided by the preceding outline, selecting those
points about which the pupils show least knowledge.

The county: geographical importance; board of supervi-
sors and their duties ; relation to the city government ; county

33O METHODS IN TEACHING

schools, roads, bridges ; county seat ; any topics from " the
city " that are applicable to the county.

The state : governor ; state legislature ; state duties toward
people; care of poor; of criminals; many topics from the
text.

The nation : historical connection with the development of
the constitution ; points of contact with the pupil's life ; sig-
nal service ; life saving stations ; weather bureau ; post-office ;
harbors ; army and naval cadets. Make the nation a living,
active entity in the mind of the children. Details as to the
government will be mastered later if they seem tiresome and
dry in these years.

PART V

DRAWING. MUSIC. PHYSICAL CULTURE. SEWING

CHAPTER XVII

DRAWING. MUSIC PHYSICAL CULTURE. SEWING
DRAWING AND ART1

Art is added to drawing because drawing hardly covers
all the work that is at present given in our schools. The
oldtime drawing consisted mostly of copy-
ing from the flat and the drawing of geo-
Present metric figures, and had at its best the nar-

row aim of training only the eye and the
hand. The chief aims of drawing as taught in the best
schools today are to lead the pupils to acquire first, the power
of accurate observation; second, keen perception; third,
sound reasoning; fourth, the development of a taste for the
beautiful in nature and an appreciation for the achievements
of man in art. To promote the first three aims object draw-
ing and color work are given ; while the study of the prin-
ciples underlying designing, the study of historic ornament,
and the observation of pictures are means to secure the
fourth.

Art is the oldest language; it is the most natural; it is
universal. The oldest records of the human race are the

works of the artists of their day. Art is a
Art as a - , ., . ....

Language means of expression for the ignorant child

and for the untutored savage; it is a com-
munication of thought for the most highly civilized races.
The works of the great masters of all ages and all nations,

*This section on drawing and art is taken very literally from
the course of study for the Stockton city schools.

333

334 METHODS IN TEACHING

such as those of Phidias, Raphael, Diirer, Murillo, Rosa
Bonheur, Landseer, need no translation. They are uni-
versally understood.

Considered in this light, a knowledge of drawing and art
are essential in a well-rounded education. Instead of add-
ing to an already crowded school curricu-
Correlation

lum, in the hands of a skillful teacher these

branches become aids in mastering other studies; as, arith-
metic, geography, nature study, history, literature. A pic-
torial representation, as a drawing, a photograph, or even a
few touches with pencil or chalk, often makes a thought
clearer than when it receives only oral or written descrip-
tions. Consequently, the correlation of drawing and art
with other subjects is of great importance, although their
teaching as a separate study is never lost sight of. The
first thought in arranging the work for the grades is to have
a natural, gradual growth and development along all the
lines included in these branches throughout all the years of
school life.

Formerly the individuality of the child was not sufficiently

respected; today there is more danger of not doing enough

class work. To foster individuality original

Individual exercises, as narrative drawing and design-

Qass Work in&> are Siven f reQuently J general drills and

training are found in directed work, as
drawing objects and geometric designs. While there are
many reasons for the original work, the training under
guidance must not be neglected, or no progress will be made
along general, systematic lines. The two forms of exercise
are necessary in public school work if good results are to
be obtained.

DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 335

The work of the course for the schools is arranged under
four general headings : constructive work, object drawing,
creative drawing, and the aesthetics of art. No marked divi-
sion line is drawn between these phases of art study with
the children of the grades, and each is liberally interpreted
in its relation to all the others ; but the four lines of growth
are carefully nurtured throughout the eight years of the ele-
mentary schools.

The constructive work consists of paper folding, drawing
geometric figures and designs, using the ruler, drawing to

scale. The various exercises are carefully
Constructive
Work planned to tram accuracy and attention, and

are arranged to correlate with the more
mechanical studies of the course, as arithmetic and geog-
raphy.

Object drawing consists of the drawing of objects either
singly or in groups. For this purpose models are used, such
as geometric solids, vase forms, and other
Drawing figures; leaves, flowers, seeds, animals, fel-

low pupils. These all afford desirable
training in the power of accurate observation, keen percep-
tion, and sound reasoning. Suitable subjects are also as-
signed in nature study for the object drawing whenever it
is possible.

Creative drawing is subdivided into narrative drawing and

designing. The first is more suitable for primary grades,

while the second is better adapted to the

Drlwilg greater maturity of the grammar grades.

The material for narrative drawing is taken

largely from history and literature. This should be an

opportunity for the free expression of the child's own

336 METHODS IN TEACHING

thoughts and conceptions; but, at the same time, his atten-
tion should be called to the proportions of the various parts ;
he should be encouraged to make use of the knowledge
gained from object drawing, thus aiding in the development
of a healthy imagination. Designing should also be indi-
vidual work, although the attention of the child should be
called to the underlying principles. Here is the opportunity
to make use of the geometric drawing of the constructive
training and of the freedom and observation of the training
in object drawing; for the designs must be based upon con-
structive lines, and the conventionalized forms of foliage,
flowers, and seeds are the most frequently used units. De-
signing is the practical channel for the development of taste
through individual effort.

Under the fourth heading of the course is placed every-
thing which tends to awaken an appreciation for the beauti-
ful; but no attempt is made to teach the
ofh^SthetiCS theory of art. Growth in such knowledge
is induced by teaching color and calling at-
tention to color harmony; secondly, by studying historic
ornament, and by acquainting the children with the lives
and some of the works of a few of the great masters in the
world of art ; thirdly, by more general picture study as con-
nected with tasteful schoolroom decoration. All these
efforts and acquisitions give an unconscious tendency toward
a fuller appreciation of the beautiful and a clearer under-
standing of the higher standards of art. In all this work it
must not be forgotten that one of the highest aims is to de-
velop in the child the power to see for himself the beautiful
in nature.

DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 337

Blackboard drawing should be encouraged, for the draw-
ing can be done on a larger scale, a necessary consideration

for little children with still undeveloped
Drawing" muscles. It admits of greater freedom of

movement and stroke; criticism by the
teacher is more easily made and observed by all the class ; it is
an invaluable means for training all children, especially timid
ones, in freer and bolder work. In the lower grades, some
time every day should be given to drawing on the boards.

The necessity for training in the use of color must be
fully recognized. Color work begins in the first grade,

where the earliest steps are taken by means
Work of the spectrum and color slips, and by

letting the children draw with colored cray-
ons on the blackboard and with wax crayons on paper. From
the second grade water color boxes are used.

Brush work begins in the third grade, writing ink or

neutral colors being used. For this and
w . all color work Chinese brushes are used.

A few lessons in pen and ink are given in
the upper grades.

The general medium of expression is the pencil, but other
mediums are also used. Pencils for drawing are furnished

from the third grade through all the upper

classes. The " Eagle Academic, Soft Me-
dium," is used in the primary grades and also in the fifth
grade ; in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades " Eagle
Draughting, No. 314," is used. For pencil and brush work
a rough manilla paper is used ; for the color work, a rough
white paper; while for special work the children are fur-
nished at times with white or gray paper, well adapted for
23

METHODS IN TEACHING

color or pen and ink work. The paper is put up in pads 6x9

inches in size for use in the grades up to and including the

fifth ; in the higher grades, pads 9x12 inches are used.

Every school building has shelves for drawing models.

These are well proportioned vase forms and type solids.

To give variety and to add to the interest, the children bring

natural forms and interesting objects used in every day life.
The lighting of the schoolroom has been little considered

in connection with the drawing. It is an essential. Poor
lighting is a great drawback to the work in
regular class rooms; while proper lighting,

as it is provided for in modern buildings of the better kind,

greatly facilitates all work in drawing.

PHYSICAL CULTURE1

There is no longer a question as to whether physical cul-
ture shall be taught in the schools. Nature has not provided

for an unaided development of the mind,
Development and we cannot assume that of itself the body
and Body wil1 acQuire rignt habits of performing all

its functions, especially under the artificial
conditions in which the growing child is placed. The de-
velopment of the mind and body must go hand in hand, for
a healthy body is the basis of intellectual, moral, and spiritual
growth. Complexities of modern life make constantly in-
creasing demands upon mental and nervous forces, and
children must be trained physically if they are to have sound,
sturdy bodies, capable of withstanding the wear and tear of
the struggle before them. Nature demands the cultivation

*The section on physical culture is compiled from the course of
study for the city schools as arranged by Miss Emily Dodge, super-
visor of that branch.

DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 339

of all our activities, and there can be no proper training that
does not educate the whole system of man.

The exercises used are selected and arranged with the
following points in view : Real value in the development of
the body. The limitations of the school room as regards
time and space. Systematic training of large numbers with-
out confusion.

In the first lessons the children are taught the correct rest
and active positions of the body while seated, the manner of

rising and sitting, and the correct standing
Positions

position. The simplest exercises are selected

for the first and second years in school, and the work is
made as objective as possible. For example, in stretching
the arms upward the teacher says : " Try to touch the ceil-
ing;" or something to arouse the conscious effort of reach-
ing up after an object. In the horizontal arm stretching for
chest expansion they are told, " Try to touch the sides of the
room." Exercises in marching are given in all the lower
grades as helpful in forming correct habits of carriage for
the body. The position for marching, " head erect, chest
leading, hips back, hands at sides, weight on the balls of the
feet " should be retained as the children march around the
room or through the aisles, keeping step as they sing some
bright marching song. No exercise is more thoroughly
enjoyed than marching, and none is more helpful in afford-
ing the needed rest and relaxation from the study period.

The attention given in the first years to the position in
sitting and standing is continued throughout the course. In
the upper grades special stress is laid upon the correct carri-
age of the body. This is essential, not only as a matter of
gracefulness, but also for health. The result of regular,

34° METHODS IN TEACHING

systematic exercise in the schools is visible in the improved
health and physical development of the children.

MUSIC1

Music holds a distinctive place in education, one which no
other study can fill. It develops the emotional nature and

reaches to the higher and inner life of the
Education heart and the soul. " The meaning of song

goes deep. Who is there who in logical
words can express the effect music has upon us ? A kind of
inarticulate, unfathomable speech which leads us to the edge
of the infinite." Martin Luther says : " Music admonishes
man, renders him mild, gentle, modest, and reasonable. He
who knows the art is ennobled by it and has aptitude for all
things." How carefully must this subject be presented so
that it may perform its true office of developing high and
noble ideals which may become realities in the life and char-
acter of the child.

Great care is exercised in selecting songs both as to words
and music, for impressions that are to be lasting are being

formed. Every song should represent a

mood that the child can feel and express;
the music should be suited to the words and in a key that is
adapted to the voices. The songs are often chosen with
reference to the season of the year, correlating when possi-
ble with nature study, literature, or history. No song should
ever be sung in a lifeless or indifferent manner. " There is
a correspondence between the soul of a song and the heart of
a child," and if the teacher is enthusiastic, in sympathy with

1The section on music is compiled from the course of study for
the city schools as given by Miss Emily Dodge, supervisor in music.

DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 341

the children, and susceptible to the sentiment of the song,

it is not difficult to establish this correspondence. The music

lesson should always be a happy period.

When singing there should be a natural erect position of

the body with chest active and head up. If the chest is in-
active the breath is impeded, and if the head

Position

is down the chin presses upon the larynx,

preventing its free action. In the motion songs and the
games of the primary grades there should be entire freedom
from self-consciousness. The more natural and spontane-
ous the play, the better for the music and the child.

The breathing exercises may be given during the music

lesson, or in connection with the physical culture, or at any

time during the day when rest from the

Exercises? study period is needed. The criterion for

correct inspiration is " an increase in the size

of the abdomen and lower part of the chest. Whoever

draws in the abdomen and raises the upper part of the chest

in the act of filling the lungs breathes wrongly."

Simple vocal drills are introduced in the first year and
continued throughout the course in order to overcome the

tendency of the ordinary child to scream
Vocal Drills *

his notes and so as to secure pure, sweet,

sympathetic singing. Loud, harsh singing not only injures
the throat but it emphasizes those very traits of character
that it should be the province of music to overcome.

Sight reading does not mean simply a mental exercise of
reading from note to note. " Singing is the

ojUuLY

Reading expression of the emotions and not of the

intellect," consequently sight reading should

include the sentiment of the song as well as the mental

342 METHODS IN TEACHING

exercise of reading the notes. If the exercises are sung in
phrases and with expression, it is not always necessary to
have words with which to express the emotion. The order
of the lesson should be varied frequently to prevent monot-
ony, and so that the children do not become weary and
inattentive by dwelling too long on any one feature. The
exercises should be selected to meet the needs of the class,
and when a difficult one is mastered needless repetition
should be avoided.

Every morning session should be opened with singing, and
in the primary grades there should also be a closing song.

The first lesson in the receiving class consists of a few
simple exercises for placing the tone and uniting the voices.
Then come the rote songs which are the
s principal feature of the lessons in the first

year. These are chosen for a pleasing
melody and a strong rhythm. Words and music are pre-
sented at the same time. The rote songs for the primary
grades are selected with the utmost care so that the form of
the song is correct, the rhythm perfect, and the words suited
to the melody and within the comprehension of the children.

As the lessons proceed the scale is taught, beginning with
the upper tone and singing down; then follow the simple

intervals and the combinations of tones.
Scales

Realizing that the ear is especially sympa-
thetic at this age, great care is taken to have tfye pitch of
every tone absolutely true and every interval thoroughly
fixed in the mind. From this simple beginning a course has
been outlined for primary, intermediate, and grammar
grades, so that a teacher knows what is required in music
from month to month, just as in all other branches.

DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 343

The course includes opening and closing songs, songs of
home life, songs descriptive of various occupations, and

songs of nature. The latter are arranged to

harmonize with the California climate. In
the intermediate grades, where the pupils have learned to
read at sight, part songs are given, soprano and alto being
taken interchangeably by boys and girls. When the higher
grammar grades are reached the change in boys' voices has
to be considered, and care is exercised to keep the voice
within a suitable range so that it is not overtaxed. The
music for these grades is divided into soprano, alto, and
bass. The part songs and choruses that are used consist of
folk songs and strong, characteristic hymns and melodies.

The time allowed for music on the daily program is fifteen
minutes. The supervisor visits every class once a week,

taking charge of the instruction the first
Supervision an(^ tmrc^ weeks on the occasion of the visit,

overseeing the lesson as given by the grade
teacher the second and fourth weeks. Teachers' meetings
are held once a week for the instruction of new teachers and
of any others needing the help.

SEWING1

The economical and practical value of manual training to
the future mother and housekeeper can not be over-esti-
mated. The early habits of industry and the standard of
good workmanship thus fostered, the uplifting of hand work
by placing it among the studies of the public school, will add
dignity to the woman and give pride in an accomplishment

*The accompanying pages on sewing are taken from a short de-
scription of the work by Mrs. Marie Reimers, supervisor of sewing
in the Stockton city schools.

344 METHODS IN TEACHING

so essential to good housekeeping. The immediate whole-
some educational effect upon the girl is of no less value.
Order, patience, perseverance, concentration, determination,
and ingenuity are stitched into every garment; and to de-
velop thoroughness, independence, originality, and individ-
uality should be the aim of every system of manual training.

The practical teacher of sewing is soon confronted with
the fact that individual teaching is necessary to attain the
best results. If need be the regular plan of the work must
be made so elastic as to suit the pace of those who are swift
of eye and hand and who, after all, are the teacher's best
assistants ; for through their grit and enthusiasm the whole
class may be fired to greater efforts, and the slow of eye and
hand may come out triumphant in the end.

The general outline of sewing in the public schools of
Stockton comprises cutting and neat preparation and sewing
of the work by the pupils. Objects similar in practice but
different in form are given, thus arousing zeal and interest
in the children. Sewing is taught in the seventh and eighth
grades, one lesson a week. The period is three-quarters of
an hour long in the seventh grade, an hour in the eighth.
At the beginning of the term every pupil in the seventh grade
is provided with a half yard of checked gingham and a quar-
ter of a yard of muslin. Later on in the term both grades
furnish their own material, thus giving full scope to indi-
vidual taste and originality.

The different stitches, seams, and fastenings of threads
are first taught on a frame and copied by the child on a piece
of gingham. The child is then ready to put the first lessons
into practical use by cutting, basting, and joining by hand

DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 345

twelve squares, as part of a larger quilt. Then follow in
succession in the two years' course :

(i) Sewing bag: practice in cutting, hemming, overcast-
ing, and outline or embroidery stitch for initial. (2) Needle
case; practice in cutting, backstitching, and overcasting.
(3) Apron: practice in cutting, hemming, gathering, and
putting on band; also, for advanced pupils, the cross stitch
or simple drawn work. (4) Sleevelets : practice in cutting,
French seam, and hemming. (5) Darning. (6) Patch-
ing- (7) Mending woolen dress goods. (8) Buttonhol-
ing. (9) Handkerchief: practice in hemstitching and sew-
ing on lace. (10) Corset cover: practice in cutting by pat-
tern, repetition of former work, facing, (n) Shirt waist.
(12) Skirt.

In December embroidery and other fancy work suitable
for use as Christmas gifts are taught, and complete freedom
of choice is given.

In these lessons no attempt is made to teach by chart, but
the pupil is familiarized with handling patterns, so that by
independent use of scissors and needle she can in the future
expand and achieve her operations as taste and purse will
allow. The resurrection of our grandmother's art proves
indeed a blessing to the girl of today, and industry and use-
fulness are fast becoming ideals of our times.

REFERENCE BOOKS
LITERATURE AND READING

TEACHERS' LIST

Arnold. Reading: How to Teach It.
Arnold. Waymarks for Teachers.
McMurray. Special Method in Reading^

Teaching Reading in Ten Cities. A series of articles published in
Primary Education for 1899-1900.

FOR CLASS USE
First Year Grade

Open Sesame I. For poems for reading by teacher and for mem-
orizing by the pupils.
Scudder. Fables and Folk Stories.
McMurray. Classic Stories for the Little Ones.
Kipling. The Jungle Books.

Stevenson, Robert Louis. Some of his poems for children.
Blaisdell. Child Life.
Bates. A Fairy Tale of a Fox. *

Second Year Grade

Andersen, Hans Christian. The Little Match Girl, and other stories.

Craik, Mrs. D. M. Adventures of a Brownie.

Dodge, Mary Mapes. Hans Brinker. *

Beale. Stories from the Old Testament.

Kingsley, Charles. The Heroes, or Greek Fairy Tales for Children.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Tanglewood Tales.

Wonder Book.

Blaisdell. Child Life in Tale and Fable.
Smythe. Old Time Stories Retold.
Chaplin, Little Folks of Other Lands.

Third Year Grade

Arabian Nights, Six Stories from Eliot ,

Lamb, Charles. Adventures of Ulysses.

346

REFERENCE BOOKS 347

"Ouida" (Louise de la Ramee). The Dog of Flanders.

The Nurnburg Stove.
Mulock, Miss. The Little Lame Prince.
McMurray. Robinson Crusoe.
Baldwin. Fifty Famous Stories Retold.
Heller. Snowdrop and Other Stories.

Fourth Year Grade
Swift. Gulliver's Travels.
Andrews. Seven Little Sisters.
Cooke. Nature Myths.
Lang. The History of Whittington.
The Princess on the Glass Hill.

Fifth Year Grade
Hawthorne. Tanglewood Tales.

The Paradise of Children.

The Miraculous Pitcher.
Sewell. Black Beauty.
Kingsley. Water Babies.
Brown. Rab and His Friends.
Thompson, Ernest Seton. Wild Animals that I have Known.

The Biography of a Grizzly.
Schwatka. The Children of the Cold.

Sixth Year Grade

Ruskin. King of the Golden River.
Dickens. Little Nell.
Scott. Stories from Waverley.
Hawthorne. The Great Stone Face.
Browning. The Pied Piper of Hamelin.
Lamb. Tales from Shakespeare.
Alcott. Little Women.

Little Men.

Andrews. Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago.
Pratt. Stories of Colonial Children.
Brooks. The Story of the Iliad.

The Story of the Odyssey.

Eighth Year Grade

Lamb. Tales from Shakespeare.
Johnson, Dr. Rasselas.

348 METHODS IN TEACHING

Yonge. The Prince and the Page.
Warner. Being a Boy.

A Hunting of the Deer.
Hale. A Man without a Country.
Hughes. Tom Brown at Rugby.
Dana. Two Years before the Mast.
Cooper. (Several of his stories.)
Kingsley. "Westward Hoi"

LANGUAGE
TEACHERS' LIST

Primary Grades

Arnold and Kittredge. The Mother Tongue, Book I.
Tarbell. Lessons in Language, Book I.
Badlam, Anna B. Language and Reading.
Sheldon. Primary Language Lessons.

Grammar Grades

Lewis. A First Book in Writing English.

A First Manual of Composition. (Especially applicable for

eighth grades.)

Chittenden. Elements of English Composition.
Lockwood. Lessons in English.
Scott and Denney. Composition-Rhetoric. (A book for high

schools, but an excellent guide for teachers in eighth grades.)
Kittredge and Arnold. The Mother Tongue, Book II.
Tarbell. Lessons in Language, Book II.
Davenport and Emerson. Principles of Grammar.
Sheldon. Advanced Language Lessons.

FOR ALL GRADES
Bechtel. Slips of Speech.
Allardyce. Punctuation.

Hardy, Irene. Composition Exercises. (Full of valuable sugges-
tions for devising subjects for compositions.)

WORD STUDY

Arnold. Reading: How to Teach It.

Pollard. Manual of Synthetic Reading and Spelling.

Ward. The Rational Method in Reading.

REFERENCE BOOKS 349

ARITHMETIC

Specr. Elementary Arithmetic.

McLellan and Ames. Public School Arithmetic.

Prince. Arithmetic by Grades.

Eaton. The New Arithmetic.

Walsh. Higher Arithmetic.

The Psychology of Number.

NATURE STUDY

Bailey, L. H. Lessons with Plants.
Elementary Botany.
The Nursery Book.

Gray, Asa. How Plants Grow.

Newell, Jane H. Outline Lessons in Botany. 2 vols.

Parsons-Buck. Wild Flowers of California.

Comstock, John H. Insect Life.

Miall, L. C. Natural History of Aquatic Insects.

Keeler, Charles A. Bird Notes Afield.

Miriam, Florence. Birds thru an Opera Glass.

Parker, T. Jeffrey. Elementary Biology.

Jenkins and Kellogg. Lessons in Nature Study.

Murche, Vincent T. Object Lessons for Infants. 2 vols.
Object Lessons in Elementary Science. 3 vols.

Woodhull, John F. Simple Experiments.

Laurie, A. P. Food of Plants.

Bulletins of United States Agricultural Department. Monthly lists
furnished on application. (Teachers should by all means
make use of this source for literature on school gardens, agri-
cultural methods, etc.)

GEOGRAPHY

Farnham. Oswego Methods in Geography.

Geike. Physical Geography.

Shaler. First Book in Geology.

Parker. How to Study Geography.

Mill. Realm of Nature.

Tarr and McMurray. Home Geography, Book I.

North America, Book II.
Frye. Child and Nature.
Redway. Advanced Geography.
King. Methods and Aids in Geography.

3 SO METHODS IN TEACHING

HISTORY

Beale. Stories from the Old Testament for Children.
Brooks. The Story of the Iliad.

The Story of the Odyssey.
Ragozin. Earliest Peoples.
Guerber. The Story of the Romans.

The Story of the Greeks.
Harding. The City of the Seven Hills.

Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men.
Moore. Pilgrims and Puritans.
Eggleston. Story of Great Americans for Little Americans.

Household History of the United States.
Brooks, Elbridge. True Story of Abraham Lincoln.

True Story of Columbus.

True Story of Washington.
Fiske. History of the United States.
Montgomery. Leading Facts in American History.
Sheldon (Mrs. Mary Sheldon Barnes). Studies in American His-
tory.

McMaster. School History of the United States.
Towle. Heroes and Martyrs of Invention.
Mowry. American Inventions and Inventors.
Powers. The Missions of California.
James. Old Missions and Mission Indians of California.
Winterburn. The Spanish in the Southwest.
Royce. California. American Commonwealth Series.
Hood. Tales of Discovery on the Pacific Slope.
Snedden. Docas, the Indian Boy of Santa Clara.

CIVICS
Dole. The Young Citizen.

The American Citizen.
Jutison. The Young American.
Macy. Civil Government.
Young. Government Class Book.
Fiske. Civil Government in the United States.

American Political Ideas.

Ford. American Citizen's Manual, Parts I. and II.
Bryce. American Commonwealth. 2 vols.

INDEX.

Addition, 129, 136, 137, 138, 139,
140, 141, 145, 149, 161, 162
Adjective, 71, 76, 80
modifiers, 72, 85
Adverb, 67, 76, 80

adverbial connectives, 68, 72,

86
adverbial modifiers, 72, 76,

85

Africa, 250, 255
Air, action of, 238

chemistry of, 217
currents of, 206, 208, 257
pressure of, 210
Alaska, 253
Alcohol, 229

Algebraic formulas, 162, 164
America, 287, 306, 307
Animal study, 173, 190

animals as soil makers, 200
Aquarium, 190
vessel, 191
life, 191-197
Arithmetic 127

first grade, 1 34 ; second
grade, 136; third grade,
139; fourth grade, 145;
fifth grade, 149 ; sixth
grade, 156; seventh grade,
161 ; eighth grade, 164
group work, 133
incidental period, 133, 134
mental, 129, 151, 161, 164,

165

problems in, 130, 142, 146,
151, 161, 162, 164, 167, 237
Asia, 250, 255
Australia, 255

Barometer, 213

Bible stories, 9, 20, 267

Birds, 199

Brush work, 337

California, 245, 251, 280, 283, 313

Candle, experiments with, 225-
227

Carbon-dioxide, 220

Carbon-bisulphide, 221, 222

Gary sisters, 11, 12

Caterpillars, 198

Central America, 253

Civics, 316

primary grades, 317
grammar grades, 323
fifth grade, 326; sixth grade,
328 ; seventh grade, 329 ;
eighth grade, 329

City, 236, 243, 320, 326, 328, 329

Climate, 228, 238, 258

Color work, 337

Columbus, 270, 272, 287, 288

Combustion, 221-227

Composition, 53, 54

first grade, 60 ; second grade,
64; third grade, 69; fourth
grade, 73 ; fifth grade, 80 ;
sixth grade, 87 ; seventh
grade, 90; eighth grade, 96
in literature : first grade, 1 0 ;
second grade, 12, 14; third
grade, 17, 19 ; fourth
grade, 19, 20; fifth grade,
30; sixth grade, 39, 40;
seventh grade, 42, 44, 45
correcting papers, 55, 56, 69,
75, 91, 95, 97

351

352

INDEX.

Compound numbers, 148, 150,

155

Condensation, 202
Counting, 136
County, 239, 240, 329
Creamery, 244

excursion to, 246
Crusades, 42, 299
Cuba, 253
Cube root, 168

Dickens, 46

Dictionary, use of, 25, 27, 116,

117

Division, 129, 136, 138, 141, 145,
162

long division, 148, 149
Dog, 199
Drawing, 333

blackboard drawing, 337

Creative drawing, 335

object drawing, 335

in history, 274

in literature, 7, 11, 25, 36,
46, 83

in nature study, 175

England, 256, 297, 306
Europe, 250, 255, 299
Evaporation, 201
Expansion, by heat, 203, 205
by freezing, 205

Factoring, 152

Fairy stories, 265

Field, Eugene, 11, 12

Figures of speech, 25, 31, 35, 82

Flowers, 181

Folk tales, 9, 265

Fractions, common, 127

by constructive work, 142
by measurements, 146
fundamental operations
with, 150-155

Fractions, common, text-book

presentation of, 161
reviews of, 162
decimal, 127, 156, 157-159,
161, 162

Gases, collecting by displacement,

218

pressure of, 209
Geography, 231

first grade, 234; second
grade, 234; third grade,
236 ; fourth grade, 237 ;
fifth grade, 248; sixth
grade, 251 ; seventh grade,
255; eighth grade, 259
Geographical excursion, 232

to the creamery, 246
Geographical type, 233
Grammar, applied, 49, 59, 61, 66,

70, 72, 79, 84, 88, 95
formal, or technical, 49, 52,

79, 83, 88, 92, 95
Greeks, 298
Greece, 299, 300, 304

Hawaiian Islands, 253

Health lessons, 229

Heat, expansion by, 203

Hiawatha, 10, 267, 268, 270

History, 263

first grade, 267; second
grade, 270; third grade,
274 ; fourth grade, 281 ;
fifth grade, 287 ; sixth
grade, 296 ; seventh grade,
306; eighth grade, 313
local, 280, 283. (See also
Stockton.)

Horatius, 13-15, 270

Insect study, cage, 197

life, 198
Insurance, 166
Interest, 127, 160, 167

INDEX.

353

Language, 48
oral, 49
written, S3

first grade, 59 ; second grade,
61; third grade, 66; fourth
grade, 70; fifth grade, 78;
sixth grade, 83 ; seventh
grade, 88 ; eighth grade, 95
Laws, 319, 324, 328
Letter writing, 81, 86, 90

business letters, 130, 159
Library, 282, 307, 314
Lime water, preparation of, 221
Liquids, pressure of, 209
Literature, 3

first grade, 9; second grade,
11; third grade, 16; fourth
grade, 19; fifth grade, 23;
.sixth grade, 31 ; seventh
grade, 41 ; eighth grade, 46
Longfellow, 11, 12, 23, 24, 26,
268

Maps, 25, 46, 236, 238, 240, 242
Map drawing, 243, 254, 259, 260
Magnetism, 203
Measurement, 127, 128, 135 138,

143, 145, 146, 148, 160,

161, 168

Metals, common, 216
Metaphors, 25, 35
Mexico, 253
Midas, 17
Middle Ages, 297
Money, 155
Multiplication, 129, 136, 138, 140,

145, 149, 162
Music, 340
Myths, 265

Narcotics, 229
Nature study, 173
Nitrogen, 221
North America, 251
Notebooks, history, 269, 303, 311
24

Notebooks, literature, 20, 43, 44,
46, 60, 87, 93, 97

Odyssey, 20

Outlines, history, 275, 284, 290,

300, 311

literature, 25, 44
Oxygen, making of, 219

Paragraph, 19, 74, 82, 86, 91, 276,

277

Paraphrasing, 26, 89
Partition, 136, 138, 145
Percentage, 127, 156, 159, 162,

163

Personification 25, 35
Philippines, 253
Phonics, 100, 102, 110

first grade, 103 ; second
grade, 106, 107; third
grade, 111, 112; fourth
grade, 113, 114; fifth
grade, 116

Phonograms, 104, 105
Physical culture, 338
Plant study, 173
flowers, 181

food stored by plants, 184
seeds and seed distributing,

175

seed germination, 179
tree, its life, 178
movement of plants, 185
parasitic plants, 187
propagation of plants, 187
plants useful to man, 185
plants as soil makers, 188
plants in land building, 189
Poems teaching of, 17, 23, 26,

27, 28, 31, 33-36
Porto Rico, 253

Pronouns, second grade, 62 ;
third, grade, 67 ; fourth grade,
76; fifth grade, 80; sixth
grade, 85, 86

354

INDEX.

Pronouns, relative, 68, 76, 88
Punctuation, 19, 40, 58, 60, 63,

70, 78, 89, 96

Pupils' illustrative papers, arith-
metic: third grade, 143

geography : fourth grade,
246; sixth grade, 254

history: second grade, 273;
third grade, 280 ; fourth
grade, 284, 285; fifth
grade, 294, 295

language and composition :
first grade, 60, 61 ; second
grade, 65, 66 ; third grade,
69, 70; fourth grade, 76,
77; fifth grade, 82, 83;
sixth grade, 87, 88 ; seventh
grade, 93, 94 ; eighth grade,
97, 98

literature : second grade, 1 5 ;
third grade, 17, 18; fifth
grade, 29, 31 ; sixth grade,
37

word study: second grade,
111; fourth grade, 115,
116; sixth grade, 119;
seventh grade, 119; eighth
grade, 122, 123

Reading, 3, 28, 32, 33, 41
Reproduction, history, 269, 275,

291, 309

language and composition,
49, 50, 53

first grade, 60; second
grade, 61, 64 ; third
grade, 66; fourth
grade, 70, 73; fifth
grade, 81 ; eighth
grade, 96

literature: first grade, 10;
second grade, 12, 14; third
grade, 1 7 ; fourth grade,
19; fifth grade, 26, 28
Rivers, 237, 238, 243

Rome, 299, 300, 304

Scott, 46
Seeds, 175

distribution of, 175
increase of, 177

Sentence, structure of, 19, 30, 66,
68, 69, 71, 72, 82, 85, 86,
87, 91, 97, 98
Silkworms, 199
Similes, 25, 31, 35
Sky, lessons, on, 227
Soil, 240

made by animals, 200
made by plants, 188
Solution, 215

South America, 249, 250, 255, 259
Spelling, 101, 110

first grade, 105 ; second grade,
107; third grade, 113;
fourth grade, 114; fifth
grade, 116; sixth, seventh,
and eighth grades, 118
Square root, 168
State, the, 245, 251, 328, 330
Stockton, in arithmetic, 131, 132,

133
in geography, 236, 240, 243,

250, 254
in history, 280. (See also

local history.)
Story, presentation of, 5

first grade, 9; second grade,
13; third grade, 16; fourth
grade, 19, 21 ; seventh
grade, 41

in history, 268, 269, 274,275
dramatic element, 7, 9, 10
Subtraction, 136, 137, 138, 139,

145, 162
Switzerland, 235, 250, 259

Teachers' method sheets, arith-
metic: fourth grade, 146;
fifth grade, 151; sixth

INDEX.

355

grade, 157; seventh grade,
162; eighth grade, 165

geography : fourth grade,
242; seventh grade, 258

history: second grade, 272;
third grade, 278; fifth
grade, 293 ; sixth grade,
303; eighth grade, 315

language and composition :
first grade, 58; sixth
grade, 84 ; seventh grade,
89 ; eighth grade, 96

literature : first grade, 9 ;
second grade, 1 2 ; fourth
grade, 21; fifth grade, 26;
sixth grade, 33 ; seventh
grade, 42

word study: second grade,

107

Technical drills in language, 51,
59, 62, 66, 70, 79, 80, 84,
86, 88, 93, 97
Tobacco, 229

United States, in geography, 248,

251, 252, 253, 260
in history, 42, 297

Valleys, 238

Verbs, drills in use of, 40, 51, 52
first grade, 59; second grade,

62, 65, 66 ; third grade, 67 ;

fourth grade, 71, 76; fifth

grade, 79

Water, currents of, 206, 208, 257

pressure of, 210
Whittier, 31, 32, 35, 36
Word study, 100

first grade, 103; second
grade, 106; third grade,
111; fourth grade, 113;
fifth grade, 116; sixth,
seventh, and eighth grades,
118
in literature, 25

1 r V
or rnr X

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