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THE MIKIRS

Frontispiece

Ml KIR MAN.

'jr^,

i" f 1

^ ^.^

bv^

11- n

i\ e

^J%^%'^.h

#

iu J A i ji

i ft

i^Sx-sHii

THE MIKIRS

FROM THE PAPERS OF THE LATE

. EDWARD STACK

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE

SOMETIME DIRECTOR OK LAND RECORDS AND AGRICULTURE, AND SECRETARY TO THE CHIEF COMMISSIONER, ASSAM

EDITED, ARRANGED, AND SUPPLEMENTED BY

SIR CHARLES LYALL

(^ublisljeb lutbcr i^c orbcro of ff)c ^joocrnmcnf of pastern "gikngal anb ^ssam)

ILLUSTRATED

LONDON

DAVID NUTT

57, 59, LONG ACRE 1908

FEINTED BT

WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

LONDON AND BECCLES.

To

M. R. L.-J 3n /nsemoriani

i-'J'^iiycs

INTEODUCTORY NOTE.

In L882 Edward Stack, appointed the first Director of the newly-created Department of Land Records and Agriculture in Assam, entered upon his duties in that province, and applied himself with ardour to the study of its people. He had passed just ten years in the Indian Civil Service, which he joined in 1872 at the head of his year. These ten years had been fruitful in varied interest and activity : the strenuous life of a District and Settlement officer in the North-AVestern Provinces ; secretariat employment in his own province and the Government of India ; and, just before his translation to Assam, six months spent in travel in Persia.* Activity of mind and body, and keen interest in the people and speech of all the countries he lived in, were his strongest characteristics. During the cold season of 1882-83 he spent several months in moving up and down the Brahmaputra Valley, learning, oljserving, and noting. He acquired a working know- ledge of Assamese with surprising rapidity ; with this as his foundation and instrument, he attacked the multitude of tribal languages which he found impinging on the Aryan pale. To him, more than to any one else, is due the honourable distinction of the Assam

* The record of tliese travels, under the name Si.i: Months in Persia 'two vols.), was published in 1882; "A really clever and trustworthy, readable, ])ook," was the judgment on it of the late Sir Frederic Goldsmid — the l)est of all judges.

h 2

viii INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Province iu the grammars, vocabularies, and phrase- books of nearly all the most important of its multi- tudinous varieties of Indo-Chinese speech, which have been drawn up by officers and others who have served there. In 1883 the Report on the Census of 1881 in Assam was published ; and in this Report, mainly the work of the Chief Commissioner, Sir Charles Elliott, the chapter on Castes and Tribes was written by Edward Stack. Paragraphs 131-136 deal with the Mikirs, and much in these represents the result of his careful personal inquiries among them. His interest in this tribe gradually grew. In 1884 he was called to take up the work of Secretary to the Chief Com- missioner, and while thus employed he occupied his leisure in studying Mikir. He became acquainted with a bright young Mikir lad, a convert of the American Baptist Mission at Nowgong, named Sardoka, to wliich he was accustomed to add the names of his sponsor at baptism, Perrin Kay. With the help of Mr. Neigh- bor's Vocabulary of English and Mikir, vitli illnsfrativt' sentences,* Stack and Sardoka worked together at the language, correcting and largely supplementing the material contained in their text-ljook. From this they went on to folk-tales, which were written down, with a careful attention to systematic orthography, by Stack from Sardoka's dictation, each day's work being pro- vided with a series of notes elucidating every difficulty in it. Thus material gathered ; and in the course of 1886 Stack liad arranged, when relieved at the end of that year of the duties of Secretary by my return to Assam, to put together a complete account of the

* See Bibliography, No. 7.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE ix

.Mikirs and their lanfruaofc, fullv illustrated (as his wont was) l»y ample variety of phrase and idiom, and a collection of stories in ]\likir with commentary and vocabulary. But during the latter half of 18HG his health failed. Partly the moist climate of Assam, and partly, perhaps, unsuspected flaws of constitution, told upon his strong and active frame ; and, after some months of gradually increasing weakness, he died at sea on the 12th January, 1887, aged 37, just before the vessel reached Adelaide, in South Australia, where he had planned to spend his furlough.

A few months after his death his papers were sent to me at Shillong, and for some time I hoped, with Sardoka's help, to be able to carry out his purpose. But the steadily increasing pressure of other duties prevented this. I left Shillong on a long tour in November, 1887, and soon after my return in the spring of 1888 I was transferred to the post of Com- missioner in the iVssam Valley, eventually leaving the province in the autumn of 1889 for engrossing work elsewhere, never to return, except for a brief space as Chief Commissioner in 1894. It had become evident from an examination of the materials that to do what Stack had set before him involved much more labour than I could give. It was necessary to learn the language from the beginning, to construct grammar and dictionary, and to retrace the steps which he had trodden in his progress ; and this with an aptitude and power of ac(|uisition far inferior to his. Accordingly. on my departure from Assam, the papers were made over to others, with whom they remained until, on the organization under Dr. G. A. Grierson of the Liii(/ul-'<f/c

X INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Siu-ve/j of Xortherii India, they were again inquired for, and utilized, so far as the scope of that work admitted, in preparing an account of the Mikir language for insertion in the Survey.*

In 1904, when Sir Bampfylde Fuller had ol:>tained the sanction of the Government of India to his scheme for the preparation of a series of descriptive monographs on the more important tribes and castes of Assam, he proposed to me to undertake an account of the Mikirs, based on Stack's materials. There were several reasons why I hesitated to accept the task. It was many years since I had left the province, and oliicial work and other studies claimed time and leisure. The materials were themselves in the rough — mere notes and jottings, sufficient for the man who carried the main part of his knowledge in his head, but by no means easy to interpret or set in order for one who had no such knowdedge. They dated, too, from twenty years back, and in the interval great changes had occurred in the material development of the tract where the jMikirs live, which is now traversed by the Assam- Bengal Railway. I decided, nevertheless, to make tht- attempt, and, however imperfectly, to do something to perpetuate the work of a man to whom I was most intimately l)ound by affection, and whose great powers and attractive personality were the admiration and delight of all who knew him. The present volume is the result.

In addition to Stack's notes, I received from Assam three sets of replies to ethnographical questions which had been circulated to persons acquainted with the

* See Bibliography, No. 15.

INTR()1HTCT()R\' \(^TE xi

tribe. These were tVoni Mr. W. ( '. M. Ilinultus, Siib- <livisional OHirer of North Caeliar, aud tlic Rev. P. Iv Moore ami Mr. Allen of the American Baptist Mission.* These replies, which were not very detailed, while (juitc independent in origin, agreed closely with Stack's data, and showed that the lapse of years had not made the latter inapplical)le to the present time, hi the follow- ing pages an}' information drawn from these sources has been duly acknowledged.

It was explained in tlie Introduction to Major Gurdon's Monograph on the Kliasis (l*.)07) that the order and arrangement of subjects to be treated in dealing with each 'tribe had been prescribed by autho- rity ; and Stack's notes had to be brought within this framework. As will be seen, under certain heads not much information is forthcoming ; and perhaps the more searching standard of inquiry applied by ethno- logists in the present day might demand more ex- haustive treatment of some points in this presentment of the ^Fikir people. This, liowever, must Ije left for our successors.

Section I has l)een expanded by adding numerical data from the last Census (1901), and measurements from Lieut. -Colonc] L. A. Waddell's Trihcs af th,' By<tlini<iiiiitr(i Valli'i/ (1900). Section II (Domestic Life) is entirely due to Stack. The same is the case with Section III (Laws and Customs), except the Appendix. Section IV (Religion) is wholly Stack's ; readino- the careful and minute account which it contains of the funeral ceremonies, one is strongly

* I must apologi/.e for tlie niisdcscriptioii of tlicse gentlemen at pp. 44 and 70, as of tlie American J'nulifjfrritin Mission.

xii INTRODUCTORY NOTE

impressed by tlie thoroughness which he brought to his investigations. Section Y (Folk-lore) contains trans- lations of three of the folk-tales written down in ^likir b>' Stack, of which the original text, with an inter- linear rendering, is given in Section VI. These trans- lations, in both Sections, have been made by me. Stack's manuscript supplied the Mikir text, which has been faithfully copied, and a numlter of explanatory notes, but no connected rendering. I have therefore had to depend upon my study of the language in the linguistic materials collected by him, and those con- tained in Mr. Neighbor's vocabulary and Sardoka's dictionary and phrase-book. I had hoped t<> have the assistance of Sardoka himself in revisino- the transla- tions. He served for many years in tlie Assam Secre- tariat after Stack's death, and helped in the preparation of tlie specimens of ]\likir for the LiiKjiiisfic Sarcey in 1902; but in September, 1904, he was transferred as iiinuzadar, or Revenue collector and administrator, to the important mauza or territorial division in the ]Mikir Hills called Duar BagurT, now divided between the ilistricts of Nowgong and Sibsagar ; and on the 8 th ]\lar(;h, 1905, he most unhappily died there of cholera. Other help was not fortlicoming. I must, therefore, ask for the indulgence of those better acquainted than I with Mikir in regard to these renderings. Probably they contain many errors of detail ; but at least they seem to hang together as a whole, and to be consistent with what I could ascertain elsewhere of the fashion of Mikir speech. The notes are chiefly from Stack. The sketch of the Grammar in Section VI is reproduced (in a somewhat altridged form) from that which I

I\TR()I)UCTOR\' NOTE xiii

contributed to tlie Liin/iiis/l,- Stiri-ii/. Stack liiinscli' had drawn up no grannnar, though he had put together much illustrative material fiom whidi the mechanism of the lanouaoe could be deduced. The main tacts are

o o

clear and comparatively simple, though there are not a few idiomatic expressions in the texts of wjiiili it is difficult to give a satisfactory account.

For the last Section, that dealing with the probable affinities of the ]\[ikir race, I must take the full respon- sibility, it is the result of the collation and comparison of materials from many sources, and especially those contained in the three volumes of tlic /Jii(/ni-^f/c Snrri-j/ treatino- of the Tibeto-Burman familv of speech. The authorities on whicli T liave relied are indicated in the text.

In the Bibliography 1 have entered only those works (so far as known to me) which contribute some- thino- to our knowledoe of the ^likirs. 1 have not thought it necessary to specify mere casual allusions to the tribe, or to quote imperfect lists of words which have been superseded by more accurate material.

For the coloured illustrations I have to thank ^liss Eirene Scott-0'(*onnor (now Mrs. Philip liogers), and for the photographs Major Gurdon and Mr. W. ( '. M. Dundas ; the reproductions are l)y Messrs. W. Griggs and Sons. The map (by Mr. -T. G. Bartliolomew) showing the localities inhabited by the Mikirs is taken from the new volumes of the Imix i-tal Guzcfto'r i>l India. An explanation of the system adopted for rendering Mikir words will be found on p. 74.

C. -I. lAALL.

April, I'JOS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

TN'n;i>i»rci<>i;Y \<)TK

I'AGKS

vii— xiii

Section I.

GENERAL.

NiiinlnTs and 1 )istril>iui(

Ill ..... .

1—2

Hal)itat .

■2—:i

riiysit-al characters .

4

Traditioii.s as to origin

4—5

])re.ss

.-)— fj

Tattooing .

0

-Icwellery .

G

Wrai)ons .

Skctiox 11. DO.MKSTK' LIFK.

(i

< )i(ii]>ations

7

Houses

7 — it

Furniture .

!>— 10

.\ranut'actures .

10

Agriculture and ci-ojts

10—11

leads' clubs (rl.'fo-7/inr)

11—12

Hunting and tisliing

12

Food ....

12—13

Drink

i:{

Luxuries .

14

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section J II.

LAWS AND elSTOMS.

St'i-tiuiis or Divisions

Exogamoiis groups .

IVrsoiial names

Marriage .....

Female cliastity

Polygamy ....

Divorce

Words for i-elationsliiji liy lilood or mairiage

lulieritance

Property i)i land

-Mikir inntcas ......

1 )ecision of disputes : village councils War

Outsiders admitted to tribe

Ai'i-KNDix : List of exoganiou.s group.s as given authorities

other

l-AGES

17 17—19

19 19—20

■20 :!<)— I'l

21 21—22

•22, 2Z

.Section IV.

RELIGION.

General character of pojiular V)elief in gho.sts anil .s

jiirit.-

^, am

a future life

2^—2i)

Amulets

:)0

The god^ and tl:eii- worshiji ....

:V)—:>A

l)ivinati<jn and luagic

:i4— ;{7

Oaths and impiecations .....

•M

Funeral ceremonies

:!7- tii

Fi'stivities .......

43

Tn/>,>

13

1'

AUtM

44-

-46

k;-

-48

18-

— .")"»

.").")-

-70

TARIJ'. n\' C0XT1:NTS

Si;( iioN \'. KOI.K-LOKK AND FOLK- TALKS. Clianictcr ol .Mikir l-'olk-Uik's

Three stories translated : —

1 . Story of a Frog-

•2. The Orphan and liis fnclcs .... '^. llarata Kui'iwar

Ai'i'KNDix : The Tieneiid ot' Ciration ...

tSECTION VI.

L.XXdUAGE.

Outline of Mikir grammar ....... I'.i — 87

.Mikir text of three stories : —

1. Story of a Frog 88—04

L'. The Orphan and his Tncles . ..... 95—112

3. Harata Kninvar 113— 150

SK( TION \'ll. AFFINITIES.

The jilace of the Mikirs in the Tiln'td-llunnaii l''aniily . . 151 — \~-2

FjIUMockai-hy 173 — 177

]ni>k\ 17!)— 183

LIST OF ILLUSTiiATlONS.

A .Mikir Mail

Frontispiece

A (Jroup of Mikirs 'North Cachar) — 1

. Ti)Jace pwje 5

A Mikir Ciil

• . „ 0

Plan (.r Mikir House

I'nue 8

Mikir House : Family (iroup .

To face paije 10

A (Jroui) of ^Hkirs (North Cachar) — -1

23

A Mikir 15oy

56

All < )kl .NHkir Woman . . . . .

59

NVomcii pounding l'a<kly ....

132

Map showing Looality of Mikirs

at end of volume

THE MIKIRS

I.

GENERAL.

Numbers — Habitat — Physical appearance — Traditions as to origin — Attinities — Dress — Tattooing — Ornaments — Weapons.

The Mikirs are one of the most numerous and homogeneous of the many Tibeto-Burman races inhabiting the Province of Assam. In the tables of the Eeport on the Census of 1901 the number of Mikirs by race is given as 87,046, and that of speakers of the Mikir hmgnage as 82,283 ; but there are curious discrepancies in the details. In no district are the speakers of Mikir identical in number with those returned as Alikir by race ; and it is remarkable that in several, more persons are returned as speaking the language than as lielonging to the tribe. On the other hand, in the North Cachar Hills none of the 1446 Mikirs by race are shown as speaking Mikir, which is manifestly absurd. The following are the figures : —

Speaking Mikir.

72«

166

8,026

3,108

34,273

22,803

nil. 13,142 37

District.

Jlikirs by race

Cachar Plains

717

Sylhet

15()

Kamrup

10,587

Darrang

2,64(5

Nowgong

35,732

Sibsagar

22,909

North Cachar

1,446

Khasi and Jaintia Hills

12,840

Elsewhere

13

Total

87,046

82,283

In Kamrup, ISTowgong, and Sibsagar it may reasonably be assumed that the Mikirs returned as speaking some other

2 HABITAT

language (probably Assamese) also spoke the speech of their tribe, being bilingual like other non- Aryan races in Assam ; and the 809 persons in Darrang, the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, and elsewhere, returned as speaking ]\Iikir, though not as Mikirs by race, must really have belonged to the tribe. Since 1891, when the number of Mikirs was retm-ned as 94,829, there has been a considerable falling-oif, due to the terrible ravages of the disease called KdJd-dzdr * in the Xowgong and Kamrup districts.

The Mikirs inhabit in greatest strength the hills called after them, the isolated mountainous block which fills the triangle between the Brahmaputra on the north, the Dhansiri valley on the east, and the Kopili and Jamuna valleys on the west and south ; this tract is now divided between the Xowgong and Sibsagar districts. They are also found in considerable numbers on the northern skirts of the Assam Eange, in Xowgong, the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, and Kamrup, and were once numerous, as testified by the local place- and river-names, in Xorth Cachar. They have settled in the plains, and taken to plough cultivation, in Nowgong and Kamrup, and have also established recent settlements of the same kind north of the Brahmaputra in Darrang. The great bulk, however, remain a hill tribe, occupy- ing the forest-clad northern slopes of the central range of Assam, and practising the primitive method of cultivation by axe, fire, and hoe.

In the Mikir Hills there are summits which attain 4,000 feet, but the greater part of the block is of much lower eleva- tion. The rock is chiefly gneiss and granite, with few traces of overlying formations ; and the whole is clothed with forest growth, chiefly of bamboo, figs of different species, cinnamon, Artocarpus, nalior {Mcsua ferrea), and a few other trees valuable for their timber. The soil is light, and soon exhausted by cropping ; it is naturally most fertile in the valleys, where the deepest deposits are found. The Mikir Hills, in 1886 when Mr. Stack wrote, had been very little explored by Europeans, and their interior was almost unknown. To the north, from Koliabor to Kaziranga, they abut on the Brahmaputra, only a narrow strip of country, traversed by the southern Grand Trunk road,

* This is the official spelling. The real name is KaJa-jwar, pronounced Kola-jor (or zor), which means "black fever."

HABITAT 3

intervening between them and the river. This stri[) has few inhabitants and little cultivation, and is covered with hvAi grass and cotton tree (.ny'//2«/) jungle, the haunt of wild l)uiralo and rhinoceros. To the east is the great Xfimbar forest, a ■dense area of liigh trees occupying the Dhansiri valley from Dimapur to within ten miles of Golaghat. To the south-west is the valley of the Jamuna, now traversed by the railway from •Gauhati to Lumding, a region of tall grass and sparse tree jungle. The plain which is formed by the alluvial valley of the Kopili (or Kupli) river and its affluents, the Jamuna and the Diyaung (the latter coming from the North Cachar Hills), next intervenes ; and to the west the land rises again in the northern skirts of the Jaintia and Khasi Hills. Here the country is of (the same character as in the Mikir Hills, but better known. It •consists of a series of plateaus or shelves rising from the level •of the valley, composed of gneiss and granite, and covered with a red clay soil, the result of the decomposition of the meta- morphic sandstones which overlay the igneous rock. The jungle here also is chiefly of bamboo, with a few patches of valuable forest, chiefly sal (Shorca rohusta), still surviving ; but most of the larger timber has been destroyed by the secular practice of axe and fire cultivation.

It is in this hilly country, and in the plains at its base, that the Mikir people are found. The region is continuous, and is distributed, as the figures just given show, between the districts (from east to west) of Sibsagar, Xowgong, Xorth Cachar, the Jaintia and Khasi Hills, and Kamrup. It is malarious and unhealthy for unacclimatized persons, with a very moist climate, and is wanting in the breezy amenities of the higher plateaus of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills ; but (save during the recent pre- valence of Kcdd-dzCir) the inhabitants appear to have acquired some degree of immunity against the noxious influences of the locality. Side by side with the Mikirs dwell, in the Mikir Hills, the Eengma Nagas (who are recent immigrants from the eastern side of the Dhansiri) ; in the Jamuna and Diyauufr valleys, the Dimasa or Kacharis ; in the Jaintia Hills, the Kukis and Syntengs ; and in the Khasi Hills and along the Nowgonn and Kamrup borders, the Lfilungs and a few settlements of Khasis.

4 PHYSICAL APPEARANCE

The name Mihir is that given to the race by the Assamese : its origin is unknown. They call themselves Aiihig, which means man in general.* In features the men resemble Assa- mese of the lower classes more than most of the Tibeto- Burman races. Their colour is light yellowish brown, and the girls are often fair. The men are as tall as the majority of the hill races of Assam, Colonel L, A. Waddell's eighteen specimens averaging 1633 millimetres, or 5"354 feet, in height, the tallest being 5-583 feet, and the shortest o"108. The average is noticeably higher than that of their neighbours the Khasis. The average head measurements in these specimens were — length, 181 millimetres ; breadth, 141 ; cephalic index, 77'9. The nose is broad at the base, and often flat, giving a nasal index of 851, and an orbito-nasal of 107'7. The facial hair is scanty, and only a thin moustache is worn. The front of the head is sometimes, but not generally, shorn. The hair is gathered into a knot behind, which hangs over the nape of the neck. The body is muscular, and the men are capable of pro- longed exertion. In frontier expeditions in Assam they have frequently served (like the Khasis) as porters, and carry heavy- loads, the burden being borne upon the back and secured by a plaited bamboo (or cane) strap passing round the forehead (Mikir, sindm).

The traditions of the race point to the Eastern portion of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, bordering on the Kopili (or Kupli) river (where many still remain), as their original abode. They sj)eak of this as Nihang, in contradistinction to Xil'ip, the Daar Baguri or Nowgong region which they now inhabit. Being harassed by warfare between Khasi (or Synteng) chiefs,

* It has been asserted that Arleng means properly only a Mikir man,. not a man in general, who would be called momt or riiumt. This, how- ever, is opposed to usage as exemplified in the folk-tales collected by IVIr. Stack, and to well-established parallels found elsewhere. Tlius, in Assam, Mamie (=mau) is the national name of the Garos ; (JliimfpliU' ( = man) is the tribal name of the race so called in the Upper Dehing valley; lioro (= man) is the proper designation of the Kachari race. So, in Chutia Nagpur, the Mundii people of Ranchi call themselves lloro (= man). Similar cases are found all over the world. In Europe, for example, the name Deutsch for the Germanic race indicates that their ancestors spoke of themselves as '■'■the people" (diot, diota), ignoring the other memVjers of humankind. Mumt is a] very recent loan-word from Assamese, and nowhere occurs in the tales.

GROUP OF MIKIRS (NORTH CACHAR). (1)

p. 5

TRADITIONS AS TO ORIGIN: DRESS 5

they resolved to move into Aliom territory, and sent emissaries to claim protection from the Aliom governor of Ralia (Nowgong District). These unfortunate persons, being unable to make themselves understood, were straightway buried alive in the embankment of a tank which the governor was excavating. The hostilities whicli ensued were concluded by an embassage to the king himself in Sibsagar, and the Mikirs have ever since been living peacefully in the territory assigned to them. They have dim traditions of a king of their own in the good old days, whom tliey call Sot BhcIio, and are said by Mr. Stack to expect his return to eartli. His seat is said to have been in lionr/- Ihdnff (or Rvn(j-]ian<i) , perhaps connected with Ni-hang {Rhng, village). They had fights with the Dimasa or Hill Kacharis, and were led by Thong Nbkbe and other captains, who estab- lished a fort at Diyaung-mukh (the junction of the Diyaung and Kopili rivers), the ruins of which are still to be seen. Along the northern skirts of the Mikir Hills there are remains of old brick buildings and sculptures, which are now ascribed to the Gods. Old men tell historical legends to the young ones, and there are also legendary songs, sung at festivals ; but there is no class specially set apart for the preservation of such traditions, and the memory of the race is short. They are a mild and unwarlike people, and are said to have given up the use of arms when they placed themselves under the protection of tlie Aliom kings.

They claim kinship with no other tribe in Assam, and are, in fact, difficult to group with other branches of the great Tibeto-Burman stock to which they undoubtedly belong. The conclusions as to their affinities which it seems legitimate to draw from their institutions, culture, and language, will be found stated in Section A^ll. of this Monograph.

In dress the Mikir man imitates the Khasi, to whom he seems to have lived in subjection in former times. On his head he now wears a turban {'pohu, poho), but formerly the Khasi cap {pliu-tup), of black or red cloth, was more usually worn. On his loins he wears a dlioti (rikong) of cotton cloth, and sometimes, if wealthy, of silk. His coat is a sleeveless striped jacket (cJioi), with a long fringe covering the buttocks and coming round in front {choi-dp-i). In cold weather he

6 DRESS: ORNAMENTS: WEAPONS

wears a thick wrapper (called in Assamese hor hiipor) of erl silk (jje-inkl). The legs are uncovered, and shoes are not worn.

The women wear a petticoat iiiin'i), secured round the waist by an ornamental girdle (vdnJcbk). The petticoat is of white and red striped eri cloth. The upper part of the body is covered with the jl-so, a wrapper passing under the arms and drawn tight over the breasts. The head is uncovered, and the hair is draM-n back and tied in a knot behind. In the funeral dances, however, the head is covered with a black scarf (jl-so ke-ik).

The men do not tattoo any part of the body. The women, on attaining puberty, usually tattoo a perpendicular line with indigo down the middle of the forehead, the nose, upper lip, and chin ; no other part of the body is tattooed.

A characteristic ornament is a large silver tube inserted into the lobe of the ear, which is much distended thereby ; this is called Tcadhigcliinro, and weighs three or four rupees. The ordinary hanging earring (suspended from the outer part of the ear) of gold or silver is called no-rlk. Necklaces (lek) are worn, of gold or silver and coral beads, as by the Khasis. Rings (drndn) and bracelets (roi), of gold and silver, are worn. The feathers of the hhlm-rdj are worn in the turban on festal occasions, as among the Khasis.

The national weapons are the long knife (nbk, nuk-jir), by the English commonly called by the Hindi name ddo, the spear (chir), and the bow (thai, hop-thaill) made of bamboo, with a string of tough bamboo fibre. In these there is nothing peculiar.

vv:^'

??i Sillr

i{j\4

lewitt

eworii,

F)M

.f>

.*..* \i

f.Ji

r. ^

i^%'-\

WJj-Al'U-N--

T

J iL

'-> .-.-*' -^'

^^^^^1

•er lip.

d thereby; this

;r rupees. The

. .... .,^|.|^g

' Ti,

ide of bamboo, rliere is nothing

^$f^^%^'«^/<

MIKIR GIRL.

P e

I

II.

DOMESTIC LIFE.

Occupations — Houses — Furniture — Implements and utensils — Manu- factures— Agriculture — Jlixumdr, or lads' clubs — Crops — Hunting — Fishing — Food and Drink.

The Mikir people have always been agriculturists. Their villages, in the hills which are their proper habitat, are set up in clearings in the forest, and are shifted from place to place when the soil has been exhausted by cropping. Their houses are large and substantial, and are strongly put together. The Mikirs are not now (if they ever were *), as Colonel Dalton relates in his EtlLiwlocjy of Bengal, in the haljit of lodging several families, or even the whole village, in one house. The inhabitants of a house are all of one family, but may often be numerous, as married sons frequently live with their parents.

The Mikir house is built on posts, and the floor is raised several feet above the ground. The material of the super- structure is bamboo, slit and flattened out, and the whole is thatched with srwi-grass. A moderate elevation, with a flat top, is preferred for building ; a slope will be taken if no better site can be found.

The house is divided lengthwise by a partition called drpoiuj, or nuksek-drjHjnff, into Idm, the guests' or servants' chamber, and kitt, the living-room of the family. Kdm is on the right side as you enter, and the only door into the house leads into it. In lum a platform or chang, called tihung, raised above the floor the diameter of a bamboo, runs along the outside wall ; this may be divided off laterally into rooms for sleeping. In InU,

* One is tempted to conjecture that this statement is an error Ijastd on a confusion between the Miria and the Mikirs in Colonel Daltou's notebooks. The custom referred to obtains among the Mii'is.

Plan of Mikir House.

Pang (unroofed platform)

Pang-hbngkup (back veranda)

Dhtn-buk

Saiig- rdngtik

Mi- hip (fireplace)

^

X

(back door)

^

Dam-thak paddv stores

o b o

fi replace

?^ <

fi replace

vo-roi-amehan (dooT^

hling-thu

(front door)

Hbng-kup (front veranda)

Hong or Hbng-pl'ang

[unroofed platform)

bo

k

Theng- roi-rai

Dbndbn.

(ladder)

Hbng-phdrld

T 1 k u p (Yard or compound before the house, usually fenced round)

HOUSES: FURNITURE 9

separated off by a partition on the side of the outer wall, is a long, narrow chamber, one bamboo's diameter lower than the floor, called vo-roi, in which tlie fowls and goats are kept at night ; it has a separate door, called ro-roi-dmehdn. In Jait, towards the back, is the fireplace (mehlp). The space Ijefore it is ddm-thdk, where the family sleep, and the bamboo paddy- receptacle stands. Behind the fireplace is ddm-bul; a vacant space, where the grown-up daughter or old woman sleeps. Between the fire and the vo-roi is the rice-pot {sdng-rdngtih), holding the stock of husked rice. Between the fire and tlie partition (drjJong) is the laU-dthhigthhr, a space for miscellaneous articles. Above the vo-roi a shelf is raised under the roof, called vd-lidrlq), for pots, etc. Opposite the fireplace is a door leading into kdm.

In Idm, if the house is large, there are two fireplaces. Before the fire the space is called Idm-dthe/if/thut, or nolstk. In the corner of the front wall and tlie partition {drpong) are put the wa.ter-chungas {Idng-ljoiuj); it is called Idng-tenun . The front door is called hongthu, the back door ^xt?i, or pdn- hbngthu.

The front veranda is called hong-hup. The tihung runs out into it, and the part beyond the front wall of the house is called theng-roi-rai, " the place for bringing (or storing) firewood " (theng). Beyond the hhng-kiip the platform extends unroofed {liong-pldng). If the house be a large one, a hong-pihdrld, roofed over, for strangers to lodge in, is made on the right side of the hhng-pldng, but disconnected ^\"ilh tlie thhig-roi-rai ; between it and the latter is the ladder to gain access to the platform (dondbn), usually a tree-trunk with notches cut in it for the feet. The hhng-phdrld may extend also across the front of the house ; it is roofed over, but open towards the house. Similarly, at the back of the house is the jMng-honghq), or liack veranda, and the unroofed ^;d?i^' beyund. Xo ladder gives access to this.

Under the house are the pigsties, pihdl-roi, and in front is a yard or compound {tikup), usually fenced round.

Tlie furniture of the house is of the simplest description. The floor, or a raised platform of bamboo, serves as a bed. A block of wood (inghoi ; Ass. plrd) is used as a stool to sit on.

lo MANUFACTURES

Baskets of Ijamboo and cane are employed as cupboards in which to store the household goods, the paddy, and the clothes. These baskets are of various shapes and sizes, and bear many different names. Joints of bamboo (Ass. cliungd ; Mikir, laiuj- Ibng) are used for holding water, and also as l)0xes to contain valuables of all kinds.

The Mikirs have few manufactures. Weaving is done by the women of the family on rude wooden looms {loe-thcrang), the cotton raised in their fields being previously spun on a wheel {ml-thbngrang). They also raise erl silk (inkl), the cocoon of the Attacus ricini, fed on the castor-oil plant, and weave it into coarse fabrics, chiefly the hor-hdpor, or blanket, used in the cold weather. They dye their thread with indigo (sibu), a small patch of which is grown near every house. The indigo is not derived from Indigo/era, but from a species of Strohilanthes, generally identified as S. fiaccidifolius. Mr. Stack notes that there are two kinds, hu-thl and hu-jlr ; the latter, he says, is trained up poles, and has a longer leaf. The leaves of the plant are bruised in a wooden mortar and mixed with water, and the blue colour develops, as in ordinary indigo, in a few days' time by chemical change. Besides indigo, they use a red dye, the source of which is probal)ly the same as the Khasi red dye (see Khasi Monograph, p. 60),

Blacksmiths (hemai) have existed among them from remote times, and they can fashion their own ddos and various kinds of knives. They also make needles (for which old umbrella-iibs are in much request), and hooks for fishing.

They also make their own gold and silver ornaments (neck- laces, bracelets, rings, ear-ornaments).

Pottery is made without the wlieel, as among the Khasis {Monograph., p. 61). It is thick and durable, and well burnt. There are few potters among them, and the accomplishment is not common.

In all these branches of manufacture the tendency, witli the increase of intercourse and the cessation of isolation, is to give up domestic workmanship and rely more upon outside markets.

The main crops are summer rice {maikiim), sown with the first rains and reaped in November — December, and cotton {phtlb), also grown in the rains and gathered in the cold

tT: 5:

!*1 =

CROPS: LADS' CLUBS ii

weather. The system of jhuming, hy which huij is prepared for cultivati(jn by cutting down and burning the jungle, is in no respect different from the practice of all hill-tribes in the province. They do not plant out their rice, nor use the plough in cultivating it. There is no irrigation.

Jjesides these main crops, castor-oil is grown for feeding the erl silkworm ; maize {thengtht), turmeric (fJidrmit), yams (hhi, Colocasia), red pepper (birik), aubergines (Hindi, hainfjan ; ^likir, liepi), and ginger (Jidnso) are also cultivated in small patches. Another crop is lac, grown on branches of the arhar plant (see Khasi Monograph, p. 47).

When j\Ir. Stack wrote, the most important institution from the point of view of agriculture was the association or club of the dclcas (Ass.), or young men (from twelve to sixteen, eighteen, or twenty years of age) of the village (Mikir, ri-sd-mdr) ; but it is reported that this useful form of co-operation is now falling into desuetude. Li former days the village youths (as in Xaga-land) used to live together in a house by themselves, called in Mikir metro or terang (in Assamese, deka-chang)* Now there is no nidro, and the rlsomdr live in the gaohhurafs house, in the hong-jjhdrld, the place in which strangers are lodged. They send a boy to bring their food from their homes, and all eat together. Each man's share is brought in a leaf-bundle (dn-hur) to keep it warm. The gctonbura calls the people together, and proposes that, having so many lads in the village, they should start a lads' club. If agreed to, the union of the rlsomdr is formed, and the lads take up their quarters in his hou.se. The club is organized under regular oificers appointed by themselves. The gaohhiira has general authority over them, l)ut their (avu chief is the Jdeng sdrpo. Next comes the Ideng-dvn, then the soddr- Jcethe, then the soddr-so or phdndiri, then the sdngho-lrrai (" he who fetches the company"), then the hdrlon ("carrier of the measuring-rod "). Other officers are the chhig-brup-in and ckeng- hrup-so (drummers, chief and lieutenant), the i^hdn-h-'i (the

* In the Frocei.-diiKjn cf the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1874, p. 17, there is uu illustration and description of a Mikir "bachelors' house," or terang, by ]Mr. C. Brownlow, a tea-planter in Cachar. The group of Mikirs ainong whom it was found lived at the head of the Kopili river, looking down on the Cachar valley.

12 HUNTING: FISHING: FOOD

lad who waits on the klhig scirpo), the motan ar-t and motan drvl (" the right and left outside strips of the field "), the langhong-po (" carrier of the watev-chunga "), drjjheh-ijo (" carrier of the broom "), and the chinhak-jjo (" carrier of the basket of tools "). The risomdr all work in the fields together, each having his own strip (d-mo) to till. The village fields are allotted each to one house, and the grown men confine their work to their own fields ; but the risomdr go the round of all the fields in the village.

Work is enforced by penalties. They used to roast tliose who shirked their share ; now they beat them for failure to work. If the Jdeng sdrpo finds a lad refractory, he reports him to the gaonhura.

Villages like having delxc clubs. They help greatly in cultivation, practice dancing and singing, and keep alive the village usages and tribal customs. They are in great request at funerals, which are the celebrations in which most spirit is showTi.

Hunting, with spears and dogs, is practised. The objects of the chase are deer and wild pig ; also the iguana (Ass. gui) and tortoise. The dog barks and follows up the track by scent. They also set traps (drhdng) for tigers, with a spear placed so as to 1)6 discharged from a spring formed by a bent sapling ; twice round the tiger's pug gives the height of his chest, at which the spear is pointed ; a rope of creeper stretched across the path releases the spring when the tiger passes that way and comes against it.

Fishing is done with rod and line, but chiefly by means of traps and baskets, as in Assam generally. The trap (ru) is a basket of bamboo, constructed so that the fish can get in but cannot get out, and is fixed in an opening in a fence {d-rn-pdt) placed in a stone dam built across a stream.

The staple food is rice, which is husked in the usual way, by being pounded with a long pestle in a wooden mortar, and cooked by the women of the family. The flesh of cows is not eaten ; there is said to be a dislike even to keep them, but this prejudice is now dying out. Milk is not drunk. Fowls, goats, and pigs are kept for food, but eaten chiefly at sacrifices ; eggs are eaten. A delicacy is the chrysalis of the trl silkworm

FOOD: DRINK 15

(Atiacus ricini) ; it is eaten roasted and curried. Children (but not grown folk) cook and eat crabs and rats. In cooking meat, spits (ok-dknut) are used ; the meat is either cut up and skewered, or a large lump is placed whole on the embers ; it is thorougldy cooked. Fish is cut into slices and put in the sun to dry, or smoked. ]\Ieat also is cut into strips and dried on frames in the sun.

The vegetaljles are those commonly used by the Assamese. Sugar-cane (nok) is not much grown. A favourite seasoning is mint {IdjJong-hrik).

Men and women eat together, within the house. The right hand is used in eating. Leaf-plates are most used, but platters of pot-metal are also found. No knife is used in eating : the meat is cut up beforehand.

The first meal is cooked and eaten at 7 or 8 a.m., and consists of rice. The evening meal is cooked after the day's field-work is over, unless there be a cook in the liouse. At each meal a pinch of the food is put aside for tlie God (a niar/i).

The national drink is rice-beer (hor, hbrpo), which is made by each household for itself. The rice is cooked, and well broken up on a mat. It is then mixed with a ferment called thap (Bengali, hdkhar), made of powdered rice with certain kinds of leaves pounded into it, and the whole dried for use as required. After this has been thoroughly mixed with the boiled rice, the latter is heaped up and covered with plantain leaves, and put aside in the house. In three or four days, in the hot weather, fermentation sets in ; in the cold weather a longer time is required. It is then put into an earthern jar or kaUl (Beng.) and water added, after which it is emptied into a conical basket, whence it is allowed to strain through a bamboo joint into a pot below. To make hur (Ass. modh), rice is taken from the basket and warmed with water, which is strained ofi', and is the modh or liorpo ; the rice is thrown to the pigs. The better and stronger beer is that which was drained oil' the original conical basket, and is called lior-dlang.

Ardk (Hind.) is the spirit distilled from the fermented rice mixed with water. The still is a rude one of earthern pots connected by a bamboo. A stronger stuff is made by distilling hor-dlang.

14 DRINK: LUXURIES

Hor will keep good for two months if left untouched. It is a common family drink. Gourds are used for keeping it in and carrying it about for use.

Drunkenness is not common in the villages, and the cere- monies and festivities at which beer is drunk are not noisy. The me or general council, however, when large quantities are consumed, is sometimes noisy.

Opium is used to a large extent by the Mikirs as by other Assamese (Mr. Allen states that nearly all male adults indulge in it). Tobacco is smoked, and also chewed with betel. The bowl of the tobacco-pipe is made of burnt clay or of bamboo root. Betel-nut Qcove ; Khasi, hwai) is largely consumed in the usual way, with lime and pdn-lQoi (bltlil) ; and (as among the Khasis) time and distance are computed by the interval required to chew a nut. (The plu-ase is ingtat e-om-td er, " the time it takes to chew the nut and ^xf?i-leaf red": ingtat, roll for chewing; i-, one ; bm, chew ; er, red.)

III.

LAWS AND CUSTOMS.

Internal structure — Sections or divisions — Exogamous groups — ^larriage laws — Counnon names — Marriage ceremony — Female chastity — Polygamy — Divorce — Words for relati(jnship by blood and marriage — Inheritance — Property in land — Decision of disjjutes — Village council — Relations with neighbouring races — Appendix ; Lists of exogamons groups given by other authorities compared with those given by Mr. Stack.

The Mikir people proper — that is, those who continue to live in the hills — are divided into three sections, called Chintonff. lioughaug, and Amri. In the days of the migration eastward from the Kopili region, ^mri stayed behind, or loitered, and Chintbng and Ebnghang waited for him as they moved from stage to stage. At last, on arriving at tlie Dhansiri river, Chintbng and Ebnghang resolved to be only two sections in future. The laggard Amri afterwards arrived, but was not received back into full fellowship. He has no honour at the general festivals, and in the distribution of rice-beer at feasts he gets no gourd for himself, but has to drink from those of the other two. These are the conditions as they exist in the Mikir Hills and Nowgong (Duar Baguri) ; in Ni-hang, however (the region of the Kopili), Amri is on an equality with the others. The Mikir Hills are chiefly inhabited by the Chintbng section, North Cachar and the hilly parts of Nowgong by the Ebnghang, and the Kliasi and Jaintia Hills by Amri ; but individuals of all three are found dwelling among the others.

These names, however, do not indicate true tribal divisions, supposed to be derived from a common ancestor and united in blood, and are probably in reality local- or place-names. Amri, in particular, seems to be a Khasi river-name, and Ebnghang is the legendary site of Sbt Eecho's capital. The real tribal

15

i6 EXOGAMOUS GROUPS

exogamous divisions run through all three, and are called hur (aKhasi word : Assamese, i)hoid). Each of the three sections of the race has within it the same kurs, and the individuals belong- ing to these Icurs, whether in Chintbng, Ebnghang, or Amri, observe the same rules of exogamy.

The number and names of the kurs, or exogamous groups, are differently given by different authorities. The differences appear to be partly explained by the fact that one authority has taken for a principal group-name what another has entered as a sub-group under another larger section. In an appendix will be found the grouping according to several different authorities. Here the data given by Mr. Stack, who appears to have relied chiefly on information obtained in Duar Baguri,are reproduced.

He found that the people recognized four Jcurs, called respectively Infjt'i, Tcranr/* LeJdJie, and Timung, under which the smaller groups (also called kur) are ranged thus —

I. Ingti. ir. Terang. III. Lekthe. IV. Timung.

(1) Taro. (1) Be. (1) Hanse. (1) Tokbl.

(2) Katar. (2) Kro. (2) Tutso. (2) Sengnar.

(3) Hensek. (3) Ingjar. (3) B5ngrun. (3) Rbngpliar.

(4) Ingleng. (4) Kramsa.

As already mentioned, these kurs are exogamous : an indi- vidual belonging to kur Ingti must go outside that Icur for his wife ; and similarly Terang, Lekthe, and Timung cannot marry wives drawn from within the kur. The sub-groups are, of course, as parts of the larger groups, also exogamous ; and it is easy to perceive how one informant may count as a principal group-division what another may regard as a sub-division. All the kurs are now socially on an equality, and have no scruples as to eating together or intermarriage ; their traditional rank is, however, as given above. Ingti is said to have been in former times the priestly clan (Ass. gohdin) ; Terang also claims this dignity, but is thought to be of lower rank ; but in both cases the office has fallen entirely into desuetude. Lekthe is said to have been the military clan, while Timung represented the rest of the people.

The Mikirs who settled in the ^^lains of Nowgong and took to plough cultivation are called Dumrall by the Mikirs and

* Other authorities mention a fifth, Teruu, which Mr. Stack may have overlooked because of the similarity of its name to Teramj.

NAMES: MARRIAG]-. LAWS 17

ThohuL by the Assamese. They are said to have acted as interpreters to the mission which visited the Ahoni kin^f at Sibsagar. They also have the same lau's as the other three sections of hill Mikirs.

The children are counted to their fatlier's Inir, and cannot marry within it. They may, however, marry their first cousins on the mother's side, and indeed this appears to have been formerly the most usual match. This absence of matriarchal institutions strongly marks off the Mikirs from the Khasis, from whom they have in other respects borrowed mucli.

The following are common personal names among tlie Mikirs :—

Mkn.

Women.

Sfirdoka.

Burfi.

Kareng.

Kare.

M5n.

Pator.

Kaclie.

Kasang.

Dili.

Long.

Kaban.

Kadoni.

There.

Men.

Kamang.

Dlnil.

Kangther.

Bi.

Ka-et.

Ingle.

Tamoi.

Sotera.

Ka-jir.

Teiuen.

Katfi.

It is said that no meaning is attached to these names ; tliat is, they are not given because of any meaning which they may possess. (It is evident that many of them have a meaning: e.g. Bl is a goat, Lmuj a stone, Pator is a village official among the Khasis, B^ird is Assamese for " an old man," Tdmoi is probably the Assamese for the betel-nut (tdmol.) Sotera may be corrupted from sangtard, orange.) The prefix Ka- in women's names is manifestly taken from Khasi usage. There are no surnames, but tlie name of the kur is used to distinguish one individual from another, as Mon Lektlu", Mon Timung.

The age for marriage is from fourteen to tweuty-iive for the man, ten to fifteen for the girl; eighteen or nineteen and fifteen are the most usual ages. Child marriage is unknown. If a young man fancies a girl (from meeting her at dances and the like), he sends one or botli parents to her father's house, and if the girl's parents agree, the lad's father leaves a betrothal ring or bracelet with the girl (this is called ke-roi-dun) ; sometimes a gourd of rice beer is taken and accepted, and in that case, if she subsequently marries another, the village council fine her family 25 to 35 rupees; otherwise only the betrothal ring or bracelet is returned. The C

i8 MARRIAGE

length of the engagement is uncertain, but the actual marriage does not take place till after puberty. When the marriage day is fixed, both families prepare beer and spirits ; if the bride- gi'oom is rich, he provides drink for the whole country-side (hbr-hak hbr-tibulx). The bridegroom's party, giving a gourd of beer to each village they pass through, arrive at the bride's house in the evening. There they sit awhile, and then offer one gourd of beer and one glass bottle of spirits to the bride's father on the Mmg. A colloquy ensues : the bride's father asks the bridegroom's why they have come, and why these offerings. He answers, "Your sister {i.e. the wife of the speaker) is becoming old and cannot work, so we have brought our son to many your daughter." (The custom formerly was that a boy must marry his first cousin on the mother's side, and if he did not, the maternal uncle could beat the lad as much as he liked ; but now they can do as they please.) The reply follows : " My daughter is unworthy, she does not know weaving and other household work." " Never mind, we will teach her ourselves." The bride's father then asks his wife to enquire of the girl if she will take the lad ; without her consent the beer and spirits cannot be accepted. If the wife reports consent, the beer and spirits are drunk by the two fathers. Sometimes they sit the whole night before the girl's consent is obtained. If any knowing old men are there, they sing in two parties : " We cannot send our daughter to your house ! " " Wc cannot leave our boy to stay with you ! " When the question of consent is settled, all eat together. Then the bride prepares the bed inside the house for the bridegroom, in the Ixam ; in the tihung (see plan *) if there is room : if not, in the thhigtlibr; but if the lad is ashamed, he sends one of his garments to take his place in the bed.

What follows depends upon the wealth and standing of the parties. If the wedding is dl-cjoi — that is, if no payment is to be made for the bride — the girl goes with her husband next day to her new home. Her parents accompany her, and are enter- tained with food and drink, returning the following day. If the wedding is dkemen (literally, ripe, iJalJai), the lad stays in his father-in-law's house. He rests one day, and then works for his

* P. 8.

MARRIAGK 19

father-iu-law for a year, or two years, or e\'on it may bo t'oi- life, according to agreement. There is no money payment in any case. If the girl is an heiress or only daughter, the marriage is usually cikcmhi ; ].)ut in tlie great majority of cases it is dlrjoi. The neighljours of both villages assemble at the marriage, and when the bride goes to her husband's house, the neighl)0urs of the village accompany her anil are hospitably entertained.

Before marriage it was reported, when Mr. Stack made his enquiries, that there was little intercourse between the sexes. Seduction rarely «»ccurred, but when it did, the parents of the girl had to give her to the lad in marriage. It was not punished. Old men, however, couhl rememijer (1885) when the tcrang or " bachelors' house " used to Ije the abode not only of the lads, but also of the maids, and illegitimate births were common. The girls used even to work in the fields with the boys ; there was not even a matron to look after them !

After marriage adultery is said to be rare. The case is judged by the me, or village council, who inflict a fine. The guilty pair are tied up and exposed to the scorn of the neigh- bours until the fine is paid by the man. Adultery was never capitally punished. After the fine is paid, the husband has to take his wife back, unless there are no children, when he might refuse to do so. The fine is not given to the olfended husband, but distributed among the elders who compose the me.

The authorities differ on the question whether more than one wife is allowed. "WTien Mr. Stack wrote, in 1883, the chapter on "Castes and Tribes" in the Eeport on the Assam Census of 1881, he stated that " polygamy is permitted if a man can afford it." His subsequent notes of 1885-86, however, record tliat monogamy is the rule, and no one is allowed to marry two wives. Mr. W. C. M. Dundas, Subdivisional Olficor of Xorth Cachar, writing in 1903, says that an Arleng may marry only one wife. On the other hand, the Eev. P. E. Moore, who has a long experience of the ]\likirs, writing in 1902, says, " Polygamy is not common. A man sometimes takes a second wife. In one instance which came to my notice recently the two wives were married on the same day. The man is usually fined Es. 12.8 for this irregularity. Tlie father of a boy who is now in my service had six wives, and

20

MARRIAGE: WORDS FOR KINSHIP

was not pimished at all," * Perhaps it may be concluded that monogamy is the general rule, and that cases of polygamy have occurred in consequence of the effect of the example of the Assamese, and the weakening of tribal sanctions.

The young couple live in the bridegroom's father's house. The old people often get separate rooms allotted to them as they advance in life, and are supported in idleness.

Widow marriage is allowed. Divorce is rare, but permis- sible if there is no offspring, or if the girl goes home after marriage and refuses to return to her husband. In that case the husband takes a gourd of beer to her parents and declares himself free. Both parties, after the divorce, can marry again.

[Note by Editor. The following list of Mikir words for family relationship has some points of interest : —

Grandfather^ p7r«. Father, po. Husband, peng-dn.

Grandmother, pjhi. Mother, pei, jn. Wife, jtjesJ.

(Wedded pair, Peng-dn-so, Pengnan-su.)

Wife's father, Inqjo, bngJiai. Husband's father, Jbk-hai. Father's brother, punu. Mother's brother, bng, nihu.

Wife's mother, nipi, nihai.

Father's sister, p'lnu. Father's brother's wife, ni.

Child, common gender, without reference to parents, so.

Boy, oso.

Son, sopo.

Grandson, supo.

Brother, in general, Tcor, Tcorte.

Brother, when speaker is a female,

cliekle. Elder brother "» words used (ih Younger brother/ by both sexeslwit

Brother - in - law : wife's brother,

ong-so. Sister's husband, me, ingjir-arlo ;

korpo. Son-in-law, and. Nephew, generally, phiJipo. Elder brother's son, ik-dsO. Brother's son, kor-dso. Sister's son, osd.

Girl, osopji. Daughter, mpl. Granddaughter, supu. Sister, in general, kor, kbrte.

Ite, when speaker is a female. ingjirpjt, when speaker is a male. Younger sister, mu. Brother's wife, for male speaker,

tepl ; for female speaker, neng. Wife's sister, korpi.

Niece, philipi.

* In the story of Harata Kunwar, p)ost, p. 57, a second or co-wife is mentioned (Mikir, pjdteng, pdju).

INHERITANCE: I'KolMJM'V I X LAXlJ 21

The remarkalile poiut ahouL tlicse nuines is that most of tlicm are the same for both sexes, aud that the sexes are <listin,t,Miished only by words iiidieating «,'eiider where this is required. Po is the index for the male, jn that for the female.

Again, tlie same word appears to l)e used in diiTercnt senses : cy. bng is maternal unele, but i)ii<i-sd {so is the syllable indieatiuj,' a diminutive) is the wife's brother, the " little uncle ; " osa is lx)th nephew (sister's son) and son-in-law (pointing to the custom of intermarriage of first cousins on the mother's side). Te is sister, but tejii (/,i indicates greatness) is brother's wife. Similarly, kur is sister (or brother), korpl is wife's sister, /cor/w sister's husband.

It will be observed that brothers and sisters, and brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law, use different forms of address when speaking of their relationship i/iter sp.

The whole subject seems to demand further investigation, in the light of comparison with the system of family grouping in other allied tribes, and the history and etymology, so far as it is possible to ascertain them, of the words indicating relationship.]

The sons inherit ; if there are none, the brothers ; after them the deceased's nearest agnate of his own kicr. The wife and daughters get nothing. But if the deceased has no sous or brothers, the widow can retain the property by marrying into her husband's Inr. In any case she retains her personal property, ornaments, clothes, etc. If the widow will not surrender the property, the case has to come before the ??ie.

The eldest sou gets somewhat more than the others ou the father's death. Generally, however, the property is tlivided beforehand by the father, who often prefers one son to another. The fauiily usually continues to dwell together, the grown-up sons supporting the widowed mother. Adoption is unknown.

Villages have no fixed or recognized boundaries, but are moved from place to place according to the needs of cultivatiou. Only house-tax is paid, except by Mikirs cultivating land with the plough in the submontane tracts, who are treated in all respects like other Assamese raiyats. In the hills the cultur- able land, at the first settlement of a village in a new locality, is divided among the householders by the mi', or village council, presided over by the gaohhura, the head of each household choosing his own land for cultivation, and any dispute being referred to the me. Should the dispute not lie settled in this

22 DECISION OF DISPUTES

manner, the majority prevails, and the dissident households, if they do not acquiesce, may remove elsewhere and set up for themselves as a new community with a (jao'iibura of their own.

The following are the Mikir mauzas, or territorial divisions including a number of villages, in the Nowgong district : —

Duar Baguri, Duar Bamuni, Duar Sal(5na, Bbngkhang, Duar Amla Parbat, Duar Dikhoru, Duar Kothiatali, Jamuna-par, Langpher, Lumding IMikir. The last two are new mcmzas, the opening-out of which is due to the Assam-Bengal Eailway, which traverses the tract. Each mauza has a ]\Iikir mauzaddr or Wilioya.

The decision of disputes is the business of the village rue, or council,* presided over by the gaohhura (Mikir, sdr-tlte). The me is composed of all the male householders. The gaoYibura is chosen for his personal character by the householders. On election, he repairs, with beer and spirits, to the head gaoiibura or mauzadar, bringing with him two or three other gaonburas. A pig is killed, the company eat and drink together, and the gaonhiira is declared duly elected. The me is summoned by the gaoiibura. It decides all village disputes, and inflicts small fines. It also determines whether the village shall be shifted, and where it shall be removed to. A me-pl (" great council ") consists of gaokhuras only, presided over by a mauzadar or head gaoiibiira. Graver matters, such as charges of adultery, witch- craft aimed at life {iiiajd Ixelwnglwi), tigers in the mauza, questions affecting the viauza at large, the arrangements for the IlhngVer or annual village festival, and such like, are referred to the rfie-'fi.

The Mikirs have never been a warlike race, nor are there any traditions of inter-village feuds. Head-hunting has not been practised, but the tribe have often been the victim of raids for this purpose by their neighbours, the Angami Nagas. There are said to have formerly been vendettas between families.

During the Burmese wars in the early part of the last century, the tribe deserted its settlements in the submontane

* This is an Assamese word, md. The Mikirs cannot pronounce a final ?, and always omit it or change it to i or y in words adopted from Assamese; tjj. hell, plough, becomes hay; pitol, brass, jpitoi ; tcimol, betel-nut, tdmoi.

GROUP OF MlKinS [NORTH CACHAR).

f}. 23

OUTSIDERS ADMITTED: KURS 23

tract, and fled into llie higher hills. Many Assamese are re- ported to have taken refuge with them dnriiiL,' this time, uml to have become Mikirs. [Mr. Dundas also mentious that in North Cachar outsiders are admitted into the tribe and are enrolled as members of one of the /vys-, after purification by one of the Ije-kurii /.?</■ (Mr, Stack's 7jV' and Kro, sub-/.»/-.s'of Terang). In the group opposite, taken from a photograph supplied by Mr. Dundas, the short man is evidently a Khasi, while the man to his left appears to be an Assamese.]

The Mikirs call their Kachari neighbours rdro/,-, the ^likir pronunciation of Boto (in the allied dialect of Tipperah horok means " man ") ; the Assamese are Ahbm, the I>engalis L'ongnal {Bongncd-ddin, " British rule "), the Nagas AT^Au. The Khasis generally are called Chomang, the border race of Khasis, adjoining the Kopili or Kupli river, being Cliomdng-Kicht. Keclie is, no doubt, equivalent to Khdsl, the vowel-change being the same as in Iitcho for PuijCi.

APPENDIX.

1. The Icurs or exogamous groups of the Mikir race are thus given in the Assam Census Report for isOl (vol. iii. \\\k cii.-ciii) : —

Main Suhdivisions.

I. Ingti. II. Terang. III. Teran. lY. Tmnnng. Y. InLdii or Hengse.

I. Subdivisions of Ingti — 1. Tnyle.

2. Ingti-Henchek.

3. Ingti-Kiling.

Kathfir. Turak or Tare.

II. Subdivisions of Terang —

1. Be-bonghaiig (read Be- I 0. Kro-Jingthong.

Boiighwu/). 7. Kro-ghoria.

2. Be-Jiiigtliong. e. Lilipo-kro.

3. Injai. ••• Kongbijiya.

4. Kro. 1<»- Tarang.

5. Kro-bonghiing (read Kro- 11. Terang.

liongldiny.

III. Subdivisions of Teran —

1. Ai. -i- Mihk.

2. kangkat. 1 «■ Tarap.

3. Lanyle.

24 KURS ACCORDING TO OTHER OBSERVERS

IV. Subdivisions of Tumuny —

1. Benar-pfitor.

2. Chenar.

3. Dera.

4. Keleng.

. iSubdivisions of Inghi —

1. Bonrung.

2. Handle.

3. Ke-ap.

4. Lekethe.

5. Ronghanw-crhoria.

5. Rongphar.

6. Rongtar *-Jungthong.

7. Takki.

8. Tumung-pator.

6. Rongpi.

7. Rongchehon.

8. Tuso.

9. Tutab.

An attempt is made in the report to translate some of these names, but it appears very doubtful whether the meanings assigned are correct. So far as they go, the explanations show that some of the names (to which an Assamese form has in some cases been given, as in those ending in ghorici) are designations of offices {e.g. Pator, Rongchehon = village watchman), while others are local or place- names.

Under I. Ingti, (1) InglG is evidently Mr. Stack's Ingleng ; (4) Kathar is his Katar, (2) [Ingti] -Henchek is his Hensek, and (5) Taro his Taro.

Under II. Terang, (I and 2) Be is Mr. Stack's Be, (4, 5, G, 7) Kro is his Kro, and (o) Injai is probably his Ingjar ; the others seem to be either local names (8, Lilipo-kro = Western Kro, Nilip = west ; 9, Rongbijiya = inhabitants of some particular village), or duplicates of the group-name Terang (Xos. 10 and 11).

Mr. Stack had no group named Ten'in.

Group lY., Tumung, corresponds to Mr. Stack's Timung ; of the subdivisions, 2, Chenar is probably his Sengnar, 5, Rongphar agrees with his list, and 7, Takki is probably his Tokbi. Nos. 1 and 8 are explained as office-holders, No. 3 is a place-name, No. 4 is a river (Kiling), and No. 6 seems to be a duplicate of No. 5.

Group v., Inghi, corresponds to Mr. Stack's Lekthe, which occurs as the name of subdivision 4 in the census list ; 1, Bonrung, is Mr. Stack's Bongrun ; 2, Hanche, is his Hanse ; 8, Tuso, is his Tutso. His Kriimsa is not found in the census list, but occurs, as will be seen below, in other lists.

2. Mr. Dundas, Sul)divisional Officer of North Cachar, writing in March l'JU3, gives the following groups : —

Main Exogamons Groiips. 1. Inghi. II. Timiing. HI. Teron. IV. Kathar. Y. Be. YI. Injai.

* Qu. Rongphar?

KURS ACCORDING TO OTIIKR OBSERVERS 25

1. Iii;,']il has tlic folldwiny; sul)(livi,sii>iis : —

1. llongpi, furtliLi- subtUvidei.1 (a) Knngchaichu, (/') Rongclu-hoii,

into (c) Cliiutliniig, ((/) LinclMv.

2. Ronghang ,, ,, ('/) Htimpi, (b) Heiiiso.

3. Inghl ,, ,, («) Hi'inj)!, (/>) H^msG.

4. Hrmsu ,, ,, (a) Duronij, (b) Noiigkfila,

(c) Chintlmng, ('/) Kiliiig.

5. Lektlie ,, ,, («) Keap, (6) Tereiig.

6. Bongruiig ,, ,, («) KrilinsiT, (b) Rungcliulii'iii, (c)

H6mso.

7. TutsO ,, „ (rt) Motliu, (6) Roiigphu, (c) Houg-

hing, (d) Rongchitiui, (t) Rung- chaichu, (/) Rongchehon.

(Nos. 4, fi, and 7 agree with Mr. Stack's list under Li-kthe, and Mr. Stack's Kramsa appears as a further subdivision of Bongrung. As regards the others, the names beginuiu'4' with Rong may be local village names ; Chinthong and Ronghang are the names of great sections of the Mikir population, not of exogamous groups ; Hempi and Hemso mean merely " great house " and " little house.")

J I. Tiniung (Mr. Stack has the same spelling) comprises —

1. Timung Liucluk, subdivision (a) R^ngchaichu.

2. Rijngphur ,, (a) HompI, (i) Hemso.

3. Chinthong . , (a) iSeng-ar, {b) Hemjii, (c) HSmso.

4. Phangchu ,, (a) Juiti, ib) Rongphang,

(c) Hempi, (d) Hemso.

5. Phura „ (a) Dili.

6. Tnkbi ,, .(«) Tuksikf.

7. Kiling

8. Mcii

9. PiltGr

10. Longteroi

11. Yaclii ,, (o) Hempr, (b) Hemso.

12. Dera ,, (w) Hempi, (b) H^mso. 1:3. Rr,ngpi

(Here Nos. 2 and G correspond with jNlr. Stack's subdivisions, and No. ;-5 (a), Seng-ar, is his Sengniir ; several of the remainder appear to be local names.)

III.

Teron C(jmprises —

1.

Langne,

subdivision (a) Rongchfiichu

2.

Kongkar

(a) Dcngya.

3.

Mejl

4.

Milik

,, (a) Serang.

5.

Mele

6.

Kiling

(Mr, Stack has none of these names ; but Langne evidently corresponds to Langle in the census list, and Knugkiir to Kangkiit, while Milik is in both.)

26 OTHER LISTS OF KURS

IV. Kathfir comprises —

1. Ingti-Kilthar

2. Riso

3. Hensek

4. Ingti-Kiling

5. Ingling, subdivisions (a) Henipi^ (b) Hem so.

6. Ingti-Chinthong

7. Taro

(These names, except Riso, which means "young man," all occur in Mr. Stack's group Ingti. Nos. 4 and G are evidently local subdivisions.)

V. Be comprises —

1. Rijnghang

2. Kiling

3. Linclok

4. Seng-ut

0. Terang, subdivisions (ff) Dili, (h) Rongchaichu.

('). Kuru ,, («) Rongchaichu^ (b) Nihang, (c) Nilip.

(This group corresponds to ]\Ir. Stack's Terang ; Kuru is his Kro. Subdivisions 1, 2, and 3 are apparently local names.)

VI. Injai comprises —

1. Injai

2. Ing-ilr.

(Mr. Stack gives Ingjar as a subdivision of Terang ; the census list also classes Injai under the same main group. Mr. Dundas notes that the Injai may not take a wife from the Be (i.e. Terang) group, from which it may be concluded that they are really a sub- division of that name, or Terang.)

3. So far the three lists are in general agreement ; but the Rev. Mr. Moore, writing in August 10u2, gives what at first sight is an entirely different arrangement. He separates the Mikir people into the following five groups : —

I. E-jang. II. Tung-G. III. Kr6n-5. IV. Lo-e. V. Ni-e.

I. E-jang he subdivides into —

1. Rungpi.

2. Runghang.

3. Tutso.

4. Hanse.

.">. Bongrung.

II. Tung-e comprises —

1. Tiiiiung.

2. Tukln.

3. Timung-Kiling.

4. Timung-Rongphur.

6. Kramsa.

7. Keap.

8. Lekthe.

9. Rongchehon.

5. Timung-Senar.

6. Timung-Phangchu.

7. Timung-Juiti.

8. Toktiphi.

OTIIICR LISTS OF KURS 27

III. Kr6n-e includes —

1. Teron. 1 3. TtTMn-L;\ngnt'.

2. Teron-Kungk.\t. I

IV. Lo-e is divided into —

1. Be. 4. Ingjfii,

2. Kro. b. Ingnar.

3. Terming.

V. Ni-e comprises —

1. Ingti. I 3. Taro.

2. Ingleng. '

Comparing tlie sublivisions with those given Ity Mr. Siafk, we perceive that five of the nine shown under Mr. Moore's I. E-jang (Nos. 3, 4, 0, 7 , and 8) are identical with Mr. Stack's Li'kthc and its subdivisions; the remaining four (Rongpi, lionghang, liongchehon, and Keap) are all found in the census list of 1^91 under Inghi, another name for Lekthe. Evidently, therefore, E-jang is the equivalent of Mr. Stack's Lekthe and the census Inghi.

Under II. Tung-e all ]\Ir. Stack's names classed under Timung appear ; of the remainder, some are found in Mr. Dundas's list, either of subdivisions or smaller sections, under Timung ; Toktiphi is probal)ly Mr. Dundas's Toksiki ; and Timung-KiHng is the census "Keleng" (a river-name). It is clear, therefore, that Tung-e is the same as the Timung (Tumung) of the other lists.

III. Kron-e is evidently the small group Teron or Teran of Mr. Dundas and the census list, not found in ^Ir. Stack's enumeration.

IV. Lo-e is also clearly the Terimg of the three other lists, which account for all the names given under it.

V. Ni-e is the equivalent of Mr. Stack's Ingti, called by the same name in the census list, and Kathilr in Mr. Dundas's list (the omission of the name Kathar, or Kiitiir, from ^Mr. ]\Ioore's list is somewhat noticeable).

It thus appears that all the four lists in reality agree in a re- markable manner, quite independent as they are in their origin, and that all observers concur in stating that the Mikir people are divided into five (or four) great exogamous groujis, whether situated in the Mikir Hills, in Xorth Cachar, or in the Khasi Hills and the hilly country to the south of Nowgong.

IV.

RELIGION.

General character of popular belief in ghosts and spirits, and a future life — No idols, temples or shrines — Amulets — The Gods and their worship — Divination and magic — Oaths and imprecations — Funeral ceremonies — Festivities — Taboo.

Beliefs about the Dead.

The Mikirs have borrowed from the Hindu Assamese the ideas and the names of Boil-untlw (VaiJcuntha, Vishnu's Paradise) and Noroh {Naraha, Hell) ; but these conceptions do not play much part in their views of a life to come. Better known, and more often mentioned, is Jbm Rh:lib {Jam, Yama Bajd), the Lord of Spirits, with whom the dead remain below o-round. His abode — the abode of the dead — is Jom-drong* and the elaborate ceremonies of the funeral are the means by which the spirit of the dead gains admittance to Jom's city. Unless they are duly performed he remains outside.

They speak of having seen the shade (image, cirjan) of a dead man {ne Id drjan tlieUok, " I saw his shade ") ; a sickly man catches such glimpses in the house, on the road, etc. Fhdrlo, spirit, is used both of living persons and dead. Tove ne- 2)hdrld ne Id-dhanrj tWeh-long , "Last night in my spirit I saw him " ; where j)lidrlb is the spirit of the sleeping man. When such glimpses are experienced, betel and food are set aside in the house, and after a time thrown away.

On a death occurring, the old women of the village wash and lay out the body. Then one composes a chant, setting forth the parentage and life of the dead : " You will now ineet your grand-parents, father, deceased brother, etc., and will stay with

* This name, which means " Jom or Yama's town," is often incorrectly written Chomarong or Chumarong.

2S

BELIEFS ABOUT Till': DILAD 29

tliem and eat with them." Then a separate meal of lico and a boiled egg is placed beside the body, and the dead man is invited to eat. This is done twice a day, the meal being cooked separately from the food of the family. After being offered and placed beside the corpse for a time, the food is thrown away. This goes on day by day until the funeral service is held (see below). After that there are no regular offerings, but occasionally a man or woman puts aside from his or her own share of food a portion for the dead, as, for instance, when another funeral reminds them of those who have died before.

There does not appear to be any fear of the dead coming back to trouble the living. Some people, however, it is said, are afraid to pass the burying-place of the dead after dark.

They say that a man called Tltl-rhuj Viing-reng (literally, " Dead-alive come-alive ") in former times used to travel between this world and J 6m Eecho's abode ; he taught them their funeral ceremonies. At last he did not come back. Everything is different in Jbm-arbng. Thireng Yangi'eng saw the people there go out to fish, and gather instead pieces of stick. They asked him why he did not gather them too; he answered that they were not fish, but sticks. They waved over them a lighted brand, and he saw them as fish. So, too, there a crab becomes a tiger, or seems to be a tiger. Men do not stay in Jbm Eecho's city for ever, but are born again as children, and this goes on indefinitely (here we seem to have a borrowing from Hinduism). " The Mikirs give the names of their dead relations to children born afterwards, and say that the dead have come back; but they believe that the spirit is with Jbm all the same." *

A man with unusually keen and alarming eyes is said to be possessed by a demon (hl-l). The phrase is dhl-l Icdo arll-ng, and, of the eyes, dmeh dhl-l kedo. But the superstition of the evil eye, as prevalent elsewhere, seems to be unknown, and such a man is not avoided ; rather, the In-i is supposed to give him cleverness. The same phrase is used in familiar abuse to a child : Ahl-l hedo oso, " You devil-possessed brat ! "

* Sentences enclosed in (juotation marks were so written by Mr. Stack, and are probably the ipsissiiua verba of his informants.

30 RELIGION

PiELiGiox — Divinities.

The Mikirs have no idols, temples, or shrines. Some people, however, have fetishes or amulets, called hbr. These are pieces of stone or metal, by keeping which they become rich. Sometimes, however, a man unwittingly keeps a hbr that brings him ill-luck and loss. A man is said to have got a hbr, hbr 'kclbng ; Bbr do-kbJcIe, planri-pU- jl md ? "If you have got a hbr, will you not become rich ? " Bbrs are not common ; one gets them by chance in river, field, or jungle. Or a man dreams that he can get a hbr in such a place, and finds it there. But these amulets are not objects of worship or propitiation.

The Gods — Arnam-dtum — are innumerable, and are wor- shipped in different ways, at different times, and in different places. The names of some of the most important are given below.

Arndm Kethi;, in spite of his name, which means "The Great God," has no definite authority over the other Gods. He is a house-god, and is sacrificed to once in three years, if no occasion (in consequence of trouble) arises meanwhile. His appropriate offering is a pig. The family obtain Arndm Keihe by asking him to stay with them, and by castrating a young pig, to be sacrificed three years later. All families liave not got Arndm Kethe to stay with them, nor does he always come when invited. If a man is sick, and the uche (diviner) declares that Arndm Kethe wishes to join the household, the ceremony is performed, but no offerings are made at the time. After three years — or earlier, if there is any sickness in the family — the pig is killed, and a general feast, with rice, beer, and spirits, given to the village. A booth of leaves is built in the three days before ; the first day is devoted to cutting the posts for the booth, and is called iihbnrj-rbnff Icethuj ; the second, to garlanding leaves round the posts, called 2)hb7ig-rbn(^ Icetbm ; and on the third day leaves are laid out for the rice, rice-flour {pithaguri, Ass.) is sprinkled about the ground, and plantains and other trees are planted around the booth. All these preparations are done in the early morning before eating. Then follows the ceremony — Arndm Kethe kdraldi. First, there is the invoca- tion : " To-day has come, and now we will give you your

RELIGION 31

three-years' offering ; accept it kindly ! " Fowls are killed, iiiid then the pig (all animals killcil in sacrifice are beheaded with one stroke of a heavy knife delivered from above). Thu liver, heart, and lights of both are cooked for the god. Then the hoof, ear, and tail of the pig are offered, then pieces of cooked meat. Afterwards the sacrificers eat tekdr Idh'i or fekdr-so, then tekdr-jn. Both are pieces of flesh, the first smaller, the latter larger, eaten with rice-beer. Then all the company set to and eat rice and flesli together. Sometimes three or four pigs and forty ditlerent kinds of vegetables are consumed at the sacrificial feast. The women get sixfold or ninefold the shares of the men, and carry them home bound \x\> in leaves (aji-hdr and bk-hur).

Pl'n'j is also a household god. His offering is a goat, sacrificed yearly, in the tikup or space before the house. Some neighbours are invited to the sacrificial feast. Fhij lives in the house, Arndm Ketlie in heaven. Peng is also sacrificed to in sickness. Very few houses have not Peng. JMaize, rice, and a gourd of rice-beer are placed for him above the veranda of the house, and the firstfruits of the harvest are offered to him. " But these two gods only come to eat, and families avoid taking them if they can."

Hemphu ("head of the house," "householder") owns all the Mikir people. Everybody can sacrifice to him at any time, and pray for deliverance from sickness. Mukranj is similar to IL-mphu, Ijut slightly lower in dignity. These two gods, the preservers of men, are approached by the sacrifice of a fowl or' goat. Heinpliu must be invoked first in every sacrifice, being the peculiar owner of men.

Reh-anglbng ("the mountain of the community") or Inglbng- pi (" great mountain ") is a house-god, Init is worshipped in the field, and only men eat the sacrifice, which is a fowl or a goat once a year. He is the god of the hill they live on, the Dcus loci, with whom they have to be at peace; but not every family in the village need have him.

Arndm pdrd (" the hundred god ") is the name of a god who takes a hundred shares of rice, pithdguri, betel-nut, and the red spathe of the plantain tree cut up. He is worshipped with a white goat or a white fowl as the sacrifice. He and PeJc-dnglbng

32

RELIGION

fifTure particularly in the Rongker, or great annual village festival, celebrated in June at the beginning of the year's cultivation. {Arnam-pdro seems to be a colleative name, to include all gods whom it may concern. Kamakhya, the Hindu goddess of Xilachal above Gauhati, is mentioned as one of the deities included in Arnam-jjard.)

The "ods named above are all invoked and propitiated to wrant prosperity and avert misfortune, both generally and specially. There are, besides, numerous gods who take their names from the special diseases over which they preside or which they are asked to avert ; such are —

Chomcmg-dse (" Khasi fever "), a Khasi god, who lives in the house and is propitiated with a goat ; he is comparatively rare. This god appears to be identical with KecJie-ase, which is the rheumatism. {Chomanr/ is the name for the interior Khasis, Keche for those immediately in contact with the Mikirs.)

Ajb-cise (" the night fever ") is the deity of cholera (md-vur or pbk-dvur). The sacrifice to him is two fowls and many eggs, and is offered at night, on the path outside the village. The whole village subscribes to furnish the offering, and with the eatables are combined a load of cotton, a basket of chillies, an offering of yams, and the image of a gun (because cholera is thought to be a British disease) ; also sesamum {nempb), many bundles consisting of six sticks of a soft wood called cJiekndm (perhaps the cotton tree, homhax) tied together, many bundles of the false cane (ingsa), and double wedges of cTu'lndm wood. The god is invoked : " Don't come this way, go that way ! " The eatables are eaten, and the other articles thrown away. The houses are then beaten with rods of chehidni and ingsu.

So-meme ("evil pain") is the god to whom barren women have recourse.

Recurring sicknesses and troubles are ascribed to Tlieng-thon or dk-ldngno, a devil (Jil-i) ; he is propitiated with a goat and a pig, or two or three fowls. A man gasping in sickness is being strangled by Theng-thbn. If, notwithstanding invocations of the gods, sickness grows worse, a sacrifice is offered to Theng- thbn without summoning the diviner or sdng-lddng-dhdng.

Mr. Stack gives the following as the names of the chief •diseases (besides those already mentioned), the averting of which

ri:ligion

jj

forms the main object of worship : goitre, iilmn-hanfj (" swollen throat ") ; phthisis, .n-l (also cough) ; stone, irKjthak ; diarrlKca, foh-laniis'i ; rheumatism, la'chv-ds? (" Khasi fever") ; neuralgia, hub dse ; small-pox, i^i-dimr ("the Mother's flowers"); black leprosy, sl-i ; white leprosy, drnl- ; elephantiasis, hhui-tviui {keiifi, leg ; iiuituini, funnel-shaped basket); dysentery, y)'V.; ICipdcl (" bleeding of belly ").

The house-gods come down in the family; no others w(j\dd be sacrificed to if the family were uniformly prosperous.

All natural objects of a striking or imposing character have their divinity. The sun {arm) and moon (chiJdo) are regarded as divine, but are not specially propitiated. But localities of an impressive kind, such as mountains,* waterfalls, deep pools in rivers, great boulders, have each their drndm, who is con- cerned in the affairs of men and has to be placated by sacrifice. The expression driuim do, used of a place, means, generally, to be haunted by something felt as mighty or terrible. All water- falls {langsnn), in particular, have their drnanis. In Baguri mauza there are two great waterfalls in the Diyaung river which are specially venerated as divine ; one of these, the Lang-kawjtonrj ("Rolling-down water"), can be heard half a day's journey off. Similarly, there are places where a river goes underground {lang-lut); these also have their driiam.\ Such local divinities of the jungle are propitiated chietiy to avert mischief from tigers, which are a terrible plague in many parts of the Mikir hills.

There is no worship of trees or animals.

Lam-dpliu, " the head or master of words," is a deity pro- bably of recent origin. He is the god sacrificed to by a man

* Sir .Joseph Hooker {Hi malaydn Journals, e(\.. 1855, vol. ii. p. 182) relates that at the Donkia Pass, one of his servants, a Lepch.a, being taken ill, "a Lama of our party offered up prayers to Kinchinjhow for his recovery." Perching a saddle on a stone; and burning incense before it, "he scattered rice to the winds, invoking Kinchin, Donkia, and all the neighbouring peaks."

t Such worship of objects and places of an impressive character is, of course, connnon throughout India. Thus, in the Pachmarhi Hills the writer has seen flowers and red lead (sindur) offered at the brink of a terrible ^ulf of the kind so common in the plateau. Again, at Balhfirpur, in the Chanda district of the Central Provinces, he has seen worship offered to a bastion in a solidly built ruined fort adjoining the village. — (Note by Editor.)

34

DIVINATION

who has a case in court ; the sacrifice is one young cock, which should he offered at night, secretly, by the sacrificer alone, in a secret place.

It should be mentioned that, following an ill-sounding idiom of the Assamese, the Mikirs use " Arnam" as a common (propitiatory) form of address to human beings (Assamese, deutd). Pb-arnam-yb ("god-father") to a man, and _23e-arndm-^« ("god-mother") to a woman, are the phrases. In one of the stories given in the next Section, the king is addressed as Hemphu Arndm, " Lord God."

DlVIXATIOX AND MaGIC.

Sickness, if long continued or severe, is frequently attributed to witchcraft {majd). A man suffering from long sickness is said to be mcijd helong — " witchcraft has got hold of him." To discover the author of the spell, or the god or demon who has brought the trouble and must be propitiated, the services of a diviner are necessary. Uche, feminine nche-jn (Hindi, bjlici), is the general name for the cunning in such things. Of these there are two grades — the humbler, whose craft is acquired merely by instruction and practice, and the higher, who works under the inspiration or ajflatus of divine powers. The former is the sdng-keldng dhdng, " the man who looks at rice," in Assamese, mangalsud ; the latter, invariably a woman, is the lodet or lodet-pl. In serious sickness or distress the latter is called in ; on ordinary and less important occasions, the former.

The sdng-kcldng dhang picks out of the pot the unbroken grains of rice {sang), and places them, by fives and tens, in pentacle or other fashion. He then counts by couples. If in the groups the odd numbers predominate, the omen is good. If there are no odd grains over, it is very bad. Then all are swept together again, and arranged in three or four heaps. Each heap is counted out, a god being named, and if after the counting, again by couples, three single grains remain, the god named is the one to be propitiated. If three grains do not remain, the process is tried over again. Cowries (chohai) are sometimes used instead of rice in the same way. Also, with cowries a handful is taken and spread out, and the number

1)I\I.\A 1 I().\ 35

with the slits upwards counted; if thry uic. the iimjorily, the omeu is good.*

Another mode of divination used liy the iiiioif/d/siui is to arrange iu a circle, eciuitlistaut from a point marked on a board (inffJioi), as many little heaps of clay as there are gods suspected in the case, each hea]> being called by tlie name of its god. An egg is then sharply thrown into the middle of the board at the marked point. When it breaks and the yolk is scattered, that clay heap which receives the largest splash of yolk, or towards which the largest and longest sjdash points, indicates the god responsible for the affliction.f

Another mode is to use the nok-j'iv, which is a long-handled iron dcio with a cross-piece at the handle and two inclined pro- jecting pieces higher up, before the blade, thus :—

This is held upright iu the hand. It shakes of itself when the charm is recited and the nok-jlr invoked to become inspii-ed : Nanrj uche vanrf-iild'ot ! " Let your spirit {ucltc ) come ! " The holder asks whether the sick person will recover, and goes over the names of the possibly responsilde gods, and the nbkj'ir shakes at the right answer and name. The charm (the Assamese word montro is used) recites the making of the nbkjir, and ends — " if you tell lies, you will be broken up and made into needles " ( — the lowest use to which iron can be put, to sew women's petticoats !).|

The Lodet is an ordinary woman (not belonging to any par- ticular family or kur), who feels the divine afflatus, and, when it is upon her, yawns continually and calls out the names and the will of the gods. Another lodMpi is summoned in to question her, and ascertain if her possession is really divine ; a saiig-kdang Cdjung may also be consulted. If the report

* So also among the Khasia ; see Khasi Moiiogra^Ji, i>. ll'.», l)ottom.

t This also is evidently borrowed from the Khasis. See Monograph, p. L'21.

X Compare the Khasi methods of divinatiun l>y tlio lime-case {shanam), and the bow {Monoijrai>Ji, p. 11!V.

36 DIVINATION: WITCHCRAFT: CHARMS

is favourable, a purificatory offering of a fowl is made to Hemphu and Mukrang, the preservers of men, and the woman is accepted as a lodetpi.

She sits by the bewitched person {majd-lcelowj), and the neighboui's come in after supper. The lodefpl bathes her hands and feet and face in water in which the tulsi plant {Ocymuni sanctum, holy basil) has been steeped, and begins to shake and yawn. A gourd of rice-beer is brought, of which she drinks some, and begins to call out the names of gods, and they descend upon her. She is now inspired, and when questioned indicates, by indirect and riddling answers, the enemy who has bewitched the sufferer, or the gods who must be sacrificed to. AVhen tliis is ascertained she goes aw^ay. The accusation of practising witchcraft is carried before the me or village assembly. The sacrifice to placate the gods proceeds next day, and is usually costly.

To bewitch a person, it is necessary to have some of his hair, or a piece of his clothes ; these are buried with one egg, some bones, and some charcoal. A good lodetpl can produce these things by the power of her inspiration. A white cloth is tied up into the shape of a bag. She conjures the things into it, and on opening the bag next morning they are found inside. When they are thus recovered, the spirit Qcdrjong) of the sufferer returns with them, and he gets well.

Charms {ijlierhn) are much used for medicinal purposes, either alone or in combination with other remedies. For an ordinary stomach-ache (pbl-Jcesd), a little mud rubbed on the abdomen, with a muttered charm, is the specific. For rheumatism {heche- dse), a castor-oil leaf is struck on the place, and a charm muttered ; if this fails, a sacrifice must be offered to the god Keche-dse. The worker of these remedial measures is called hhigtok dhdnfj, and the verb is inrjtoJc. Charms are not, as a rule, carried on the person.

The expression vnr kdclictlidt^ " to kill for oneself (a fowl) for disease," means to prevent evil by sacrifice after a dream w^hich had previously been followed by mischance.

If a child does not thrive, it is imputed to the sin, or devil {dhi-i) of the maternal uncle (pn(j), or, if tliere is no maternal uncle, of one of the child's mother's I'v.r. The family apply

OATHS, 0RDI-:ALS: FL'XI'.kAL ri:ivi:.M().\I i:S 17

ti) the persou held to Ije responsible, ami he gives a Vn'aas ring to 1)6 hung vduikI the child's neck, ami a rice-ball (an Cidum).

There is no entertaining of friends on recovery from sickness. The sick person is tended by his wife and relations.

Tcken', 'Thckeri', means a man who knows a spell or montro, especially one which protects him against tigers {ttli').

Oaths and Oudeals.

Oaths and imprecations take the place of ordeals. Earth is put on the head, and the man says — " May I be like this dust ! " A tiger's tooth is scraped, and the scrapings drunk in water : " May the tiger eat me ! " Similarly, an elephant's tusk is scraped, and the scrapings drunk : " May the elephant tranqde me to death!" {Inrjndr ne pcdhnfi-nang !) The copper ring worn l)y the vxhe is dipped in water, and the water drunk, the man saying," May the tiger catch me ! " Another form of oath is Tdmhitiii J,un;/Jir ds(j)itot ni- pdmjjir'ndiKj, "May I be melted like molten copper (or pot-metal) ! " Such oaths are used to confirm promises, and also to attest evidence ami iiroclaim innocence of a charge.

Funeral Ceremonie^^.

The funeral is the most elaborate, costly, and important of all the ceremonies performed by the Mikirs. Such ceremonies are considered obligatory in all cases except that of a child who has been born dead, or who has died l)efore the after-l>irth has left the mother; such a child is Imrit-d without any ceremony. Victims of small-pox or cholera are buritnl shortly after death, but the funeral service is performed for them later on, the bones being sometimes dug up and duly cremated. "When a person is killed by a tiger, if the body or clotlies are found, they are buried at a distance from the village, because the tiger is supposed to visit the burial-place. Such persons cannot gain admittance to Jom-arung unless there are elaborate funeral ceremonies performed for them. IJeing killed by a tiger is generally imputed to the victim's sin. His spirit is believed

38 THE FUNERAL

to dwell iu tlie most dreary of the places "where dead men's spirits go ; there is no notion (such as is found among some races in India) that it animates the tiger who killed him. Except in these cases the dead are disposed of by cremation, the burnt bones being afterwards buried.

The elaborateness of the funeral depends on the means of the family. The description which follows applies to a case where the household is well-to-do. In any case the body is kept in the house for one day after death; if a regular service is held, it may lie as long as from a week to twelve days.

The body lies in the Jc^d. The persons occupied with the funeral ceremonies live in the hung-phdrld ; the rest of the family cook and eat in the kam, but the officiants, male and female, must go across a stream or creek to cook and eat. As already mentioned, the old women of the family wash and lay out the corpse. Then beer is prepared, rice husked and got ready, and a convenient day fixed for the service. If the house has not a big enough hong (front platform), the neighbours join and build one on to it. From the date of the death, each household in the village gives a man to sleep in the house (in the IwiKj-iilidrUC). "When it is settled that the beer and rice required can be provided in four or five days, the village lads are summoned about 8 o'clock in the evening. They bring their drum {cheng), and drum up to the tiJaq') (front yard) ; they drum there awhile, and then, w^hile one keeps time with the drum, dance by pairs, holding in their left hands shields (chbng- Jcechengndn), and in their right hands sticks. They go round twice in a circle ; then they all dance round, holding each the other's hands (this is called chomdng-hdn, " Khasi dance "). After an hour spent in this way they go back to the gaonbura's house to sleep. Early next morning they come without beat of drum, and dance the chomd)ig-ldn to the drum ; they then dance the shield-dance as before (chbng-kcchhigndn) to the drum, and go home. Next night they come as before, but a little later, and go through the same ceremonies. Next morning they proceed as before, and in the usual course they kill a fowl and roast it in pieces on spits in the tilaip, and eat it there. The third and last night is that of the hln-jn {" great dance ").

THE FUNERAL 39

Meautime, durin^^ the day, the rlsomdr have to work at getting ready the tele — the stout bamboo to which the corpse is to be slung : the hanjiir — a bamboo ornamented with curled shavings (hii) hung in tufts to projecting arms; and the scrosij — shorter bamboo sticks similarly ornamented and tipped witli leaves. The men have to go to the ilun (village Inirning-place) and prepare there a cluing or platform, with logs for burning the body arranged \mder it ; this chaiifj is built in a peculiar manner, known only to adepts. The uchep'i (a skilled old woman) is summoned to prepare the viaticurn for the dead, and the duhuidl, with an assistant, who beat the two drums which have now been hung up in the Icam-Citheiujtlivt: the duhuidl is one skilled in tolling on these drums. Then comes the girl called ohbl'pl (not necessarily a maid), that is, the "carrier" of the dead man ; but in place of the dead she carries on her back a gourd for holding beer ; she must belong to his mother's ku7\ Also the niJnc, the maternal uncle or other male repre- sentative of the mother's l-u.r, and the infjjlr-arlo, sister's husband, or father's sister's husband, of the deceased ; it is his office to kill the goat for the dead, if they can afford one.

About midnight the villagers, with torches, drums, and the attendant risomdr, assemble in the tikuj). The neighbouring villages, if so minded, may come too {drong drl is the phrase for the contingents as they arrive). Each contingent is welcomed with the drum, and joins in the drumming concert ; the lads and girls are dressed in their best, and provided with betel. The chief of the village lads {Weng-sdrpo) then calls the other rlsomdr to touch (not taste) the beer, hbr kdchcme* Then follows the shield-dance, first by the rlsomdr of the village, then by the outside contingents in order of arrival or merit. Then all together take hands and dance in a circle. The young women join in the line, taking hold of the lads' coats, while the lads take hold of them by the belt (rdnkbk) ; the girls cover their heads and faces with a black scarf (Jlso kc-lk) : the petticoat is a red-striped Mikir trl cloth. Near the first cock- crow, seven young men go up on the hung or house-platform from the dancing, with the duhuidl and his assistant ; one lad

* Mr. Stack notes that there was some reluctance on the part vi his informant to explain what was meant.

40 THE FUNERAL

goes in and dances in the inside of Icam, in the space by the partition-wall {nolcsel:), while the six others stand at the door {hbngthu, or inghcip angho = " door's mouth"), and dance there. The six whoop three times together as they dance. After a quarter of an hour they return to the circle of dancers in the tikiq). At dawn they go up again, and dance till sunrise. The cii'cle breaks up at daylight, and then follows the shield-dance. Then all the drums go round the circle where they dance ten to twenty times, playing a different tune each time. Then, while they all drum standing, a pig is brought forth, tied up for killing. The risomdr in successive parties recount over the tied-up pig the history of the funeral service ; this is called jjhah dphu kcicholanrj. Then the pig is killed and cut up for the risomdr, and for the men engaged in the funeral service. The latter have to cook and eat their shares of the meat, which is given in leaf-bundles (bk-hbr) or on spits (bk-kron), beyond the river. The risomdr also get their shares in the same way, and cook them in the dancing-ring. A small piece of flesh is cooked by the ucJiejn for the dead man, and this is put in the plate of the dead and carried by the ingjir-drlo up to the body in the hut, the duliuidl tolling the drum as he goes in; this ceremony is called I'dsole. Meantime the old experienced men, braving the horrid stench, have been performing certain rites * about the body. The remainder of the cooked Hesh, with rice, is distributed to the young girls. The risomdr then, provided with rice, beer, salt, chillies, and greens from the dead man's liouse, disperse to houses in the village to eat, and the officiants go off beyond the river to prepare and eat their food. This part of the ceremony is called rlso I'dchiru, " the lads' entertain- ment."

Then two or three of the risomdr take a cock on the road to the burning-place, and kill, cook, and eat it there. A small pig is killed by the other lads where they dance, and the head and one leg are sent to the road-side risomdr. The blood is caught in a bamboo-joint, and smeared on the hdnjdr, which is set up in the road like a maypole ; it is a thick bamboo about seven feet long, with sticks projecting on three sides, from which hang tassels of curled bamboo shavings {Idnjar abu) * Not further explained.

TIIK FUNERAL 41

These shavings also are smeared with the l)hjod, so as to look like liowers. Six shorter pieces of bamboo, three feet long, also ornamented with tufts of shavings, are called seronus, and these too are smeared with blood : likewise the tele for carrying the corpse to the pyre. Six young men, each taking a serosa, dance round tlie hanjCir.

The iicliepl has now prepared all the food. The ohbJqji takes the beer-gourd on her back, and one egg in her hand, and the ucliepi a beer-gourd, and they break the egg and the gourd against the fele as it lies upon the house-ladder {dundon). The duhuidl tolls the drum, and dancing as before takes place on the hdiifj and in the Lcim, but not with the scrosos. The vxhe'pl and the oholqn then go on to the burning-place. The tele is now taken up by the old men into the house, and the corpse tied to it and brought down ; all the dead man's clothes are hung over the bamboo. Then a pair of ducks and another of pigeons are killed by the nihu, and a goat by the ingjlr-drlo, each previously going thrice round the dancing cu-cle with the sun. The goat is called hungvat-dhl ; the heads are thrown to the rlsomdr, the rest of the meat kept and cooked later on by those who remain. Preceded by the duhuidl and his assistant tolling the drums, they all march in procession, carrying the hdnjdr and serusos, to the burning-place. The body is untied from the tele and placed on the pyre, which is lighted. While the pyre is burning, knowing women sing the Icdchdrhe — a chant describing the dead man's life, whither he is going on leaving this earth, how he will see his dead relations, and the messages he has to carry to them. A few of the lads dance while the cremation is proceeding.

The body is thoroughly burnt, and the liones tliat remain are tied up in a cloth and buried. The felt is either laid down whole or cut into three pieces, which are split again into six, and placed in the little house which is then erected over the grave. This is built with the hdnjdr and the scrosos, the former being in the middle and the latter used as props for the roof. The food prepared by the ucJiejJl is now placed on a Hat stone over the grave, and the ceremony is at an end.

The company, returning, clean and wash the house, and cook and eat and drink on the hun(/. On coming back from the

42 THE FUNERAL

cremation, the niluc gets some money, clothes, salt, and a knife He shares the salt with his own lair, if any are present. The ingj'w-drlo next morning has to clean up the dancing ring {rung- rii kangru, or tihivp kdrJcol).

The ceremonies of the funeral are performed by the neigh- bours and cunning men and women of the village, and the old people of the family. The wife, children, parents, brothers and sisters of the dead sit beside him and mourn, in spite of corrup- tion, or even sleep beside the decomposing corpse. " It is genuine grief, a national characteristic. Even after the funeral service, they remember and mourn ; and the death of another renews their grief." The mourners continue their lamentation, heedless of the dancing.

If a great man, such as a riiauzadar (hihhdyd) or leading gaonbura {sdrldr, sdrthe), dies, in addition to the ceremonial described above, there is another, called Ldiujtuk ("the well"). A well or pit is dug outside the village, four-square, w^ith sides ten to fifteen feet : it need not be carried down to the water ; stairs are made to the bottom. At the corners are planted various trees. A tall upright stone {Ibng-chbng) and a broad flat stone {Ibng-pdk), supported on short uprights, are brought and set up, as in the Khasi hills. The risomdr come and dance there the whole day, with manifold apparatus. The nchepl sings and places food of different kinds on the flat stone for the dead man ; his clothes and umbrella are put upon the tall stone, with flowers. A fowl is killed for the well at the bottom of the pit, and a goat, two ducks, and two pigeons are killed at the top, and their heads thrown to the risomdr. Then the people of thirty to forty villages assemble. The uchejn sings extemporaneously before the memorial stone, and the people dance and eat there until dark. After dark the company go to the liouse and perform the usual service already described. The Idngtuk is very costly, for people have to be fed at two places, and double the quantity of food for an ordinary funeral has to be provided.

FESTIVITIES 43

Festivities.

The Iivnjiier is the anuual compulsory village festival, held at the time of the beginning of cultivation (June), or in some villages during the cold season. Goats and fowls are sacrificed. Arnam-pdro gets a goat, and so do the local gods of hills and rivers. A small village will sacrifice two or three goats, a large village ten or twelve. The flesh of the victims is eaten, with rice and rice-beer, but only men can partake of the sacrifice. They must sleep on the hbnri apart from their wives that night. The gods are invoked in the following terms : " We live in your district : save us and help us ! send no tigers or sickness, prosper our crops and keep us in good health, and year by year we will sacrifice like this. We depend wholly upon you ! " There is no music or dancing at the Rangier.

At harvest-home there is no sacrifice, but the whole village help mutually in getting the crops in, and feast together on rice and beer, and dried fish and dried flesh saved up against this celebration, or fresh fish if procurable. No animals are killed, except in some houses a fowl, lest the paddy brought home should decrease ; this fowl is eaten. On this occasion there is a little dancing on the hong, but with this exception music and dancing take place only at funerals.

Occasionally there is a Eongl-er-pl {"great Rougher") for the whole viauza, as, for instance, to expel man-eating tigers. Each village, headed by its gaoiihura, brings its contribution to the great sacrifice, and repairs to the mauzadars or lor- gaonburas house, where the feast is celebrated.

Mr. Stack's notes do not mention the observance by the Mikirs of general talus, called in Assamese genua, such as are common among the Xaga tribes ; * but personal tahts of various kinds, entailing separate eating of food and abstinence from commerce of the sexes, have already been indicated. Women during menstruation are said to be unclean and unable to touch the cooking-pots.

* See, liowever, wliat is said aliove as to the Rmgker, wliich agrees with the observances elsewhere known as <jtnnas.

V.

FOLK-LOEE AND FOLK-TALES. Three INIikir stories — Legend of creation (Mr. Allen).

The Mikirs are fond of tellincj stories, but the historical material which they contain does not appear to be of very ancient date. Eeference has already been made to the deliverance of the Arlengs from slavery to the Khasis, and their contests with the Kacharis under the leadership of Thoug-Xokbe ; also to their early relations with the Ahoms. They have also myths dealing with the creation of the earth and man, one of which has been related Ijy ]Mr. Allen, of the American Presbyterian Mission, and will be found in the Appendix to this Section ; it seems doubtful, however, whether it is a genuine legend, or due to imagination stimulated by questions : the concluding episode strongly resembles the Biblical story of the Tower of Babel. These legends have not been handled by Mr. Stack, and are therefore not reproduced here. The Picv. Mr. Moore notes that " Mikir stories in general do not agree very minutely," and this appears to be particularly the case in respect of tales of the intervention of the gods in human affairs.

Mr. Stack wrote down, chiefly from the dictation of a Mikir named Sardoka, who had become a Christian, a number of excellent stories, which well deserve separate publication. Three specimens of these are given here. They correspond in every respect, as will be seen, with the general characteristics of folk-literature all over the world. Folk-tales containing the same incidents, as is w^ell known, aie found from Icekind to Japan, from Alaska to Patagonia. The original source of such a tale is now incapaljle of identification. The same sequence of events and general form recur everywhere ; what

44

I-OLK-TALES 45

is tlistinctive and characteristic is not the progress of incident, l»ut the local dressin^^ the narrator's point of view, the colour of his daily life which he lends to the details of the story.

The first of the three specimens is the favourite Indian form of a sequence, well known in Sanskrit literature, Init quite as popular in Europe and in general folk-lore. It is given here, because another version of the same narrative has been included by Dr. Grierson in his Liiujuistic Survey, vol. iii. Part III. p. 223, as found among the Aimol Kukis, a race of Tibeto- Burmans dwelling, far away from the Mikir country, in the hills bordering the valley of Manipur on the east.

The second specimen tells of the adventures of an orphan, the son of a widow, a stock figure in Mikir folk-tales, and abounds in local colour. Here too the incidents in part coincide with those of a folk-tale belonging to a very distant country, the part of Kumaon bordering on Tibet, which will be found in vol. iii.. Part I. of the Linguistic Survey, pp. 483, 495, 510, 522. The third is a remarkably complete and interesting version of the wide-spread folk-tale of the Swan-maidens. It was most probably derived from some Indian source, though, so far as known, no version of the tale in its entirety, as told by Hindus, has yet been published. The name of the hero, Hdrdtd-Kiiinoar, may be the Indian Sarat-Kumdr, and is evidently not Mikir. But all the setting — the colloquies of the six brothers and their father, the attempt on Harata- Kun war's life, his methods in defeating his treacherous kinsmen, his device for winning his fairy wife, and many other features of the story — seems genuinely local. The narrative is an excellent specimen of Mikir diction, and shows no little skill in composition. In vol. iii. Part II. of the Linguistic Survey, there will be found, at pp. 218-220, a short story, entitled, " How Jesu got a goddess for his wife," which is identical in motive with this tale of Harata-Kunwar. It is current among the Angiimi ISTagas, a race much less influenced by Hindu culture than the Mikirs.

The original Mikir text of these tales will be found in the next Section ; the English translation here given is as literal as it was possible to make it. In the Linguistic Survey, vol. iii.

46 STORY OF A FROG

Part II. pp. 395-403, two other short stories of the same character, both text and translation, have been printed. The second of these, the story of the clever swindler Tentbn, evi- dently belongs to the cycle of tales called Tcnton-Charity mentioned, in its Assamese version, as existing in manuscript l)y Mr. E. A. Gait, at page G8 of his Report on the Progress of Historical Research in Assam, 1897.

1. Story of a Frog.

One day a big black ant went to carry a meal of rice to his uncle. A frog sat down in the road and blocked it. The ant said, " Please make way for me, frog ; I want to carry this rice to my uncle." The frog answered, " You can get by if you creep under me. Every one has to pass under me who goes this "way." The ant said, " My uncle's rice is tied up in a bundle of leaves ; how can I possibly creep under you ? " But the frog would not give way, so the ant would not go. In this manner things went on till noon. Then the ant said, " Oh, my uncle will be hungry for his rice and angry with me because he does not get it ! " And he crept under the frog. Then the frog sat down flat on the top of the ant. Thereupon the ant gave the frog a sharp bite in the loins. Then the frog, becoming angry, jumped on the ladder of a big old squirrel, and broke it. The old squirrel, becoming angry, cut in two the stem of a gourd.* The gourd, becoming angry, fell plump on the back of a wild boar. The wild boar, becoming angry, rooted up a plantain-tree. The plantain- tree, becoming angry, fell upon a sparrow's t nest and broke it. The sparrow, becoming angry, flew into the ear of a deaf elephant. The deaf elephant,

* ''Gourd'': the word hunthdr in the original is explained by Mr. Stack as the name of "a creeper, with a fruit as big as a small jtumpkin, with a hard kernel in soft rind ; the kernel is the size of a mango-stone ; the marrow inside is in two slices ; when washed, it loses its bitter taste, and can be fried, oil exuding. It is a favourite dish with the Mikirs." It is, therefore, not really a gourd, but I api unable to identify the species.

t ''Sparrow": vo-dr-bipi, explained as a small bird, the size of a sparrow. In the Ainiol version the corresponding word is rendered '•' bat " ; but a bat in Mikir is vo-drplak, and a bat has no nest {tar) as the bird has here.

STORY OF A FROG 47

becoming angry, rooted up a rock. The rock, becoming angry, rolled down and killed the Eaja's son.

Then the Eaja held a court to try the case. '"Who is it that killed my son?" " Oh, the rock rolled down and killed him," they said. So they summoned the rock. " O rock, rock ! why did you roll down and slay my son ? " The rock answered, "Oh, Lord God I^ing! how was I to help rolling down and killing him ? The deaf elephant uprooted me on a sudden from my place, and then gave me a push. As for me, I have no hands or legs ; how then could I withstand him ? Your son being in the way where I was rolling down, I rolled upon him and killed him."

Then the Eaja said, " Oh, then that deaf elephant was the cause of all this trouble," and summoned the elephant. " 0 elephant, elephant ' what did you root up the rock for ? " The elephant answered, " Oh ! how could I help uprooting it. Lord God ? The sparrow flew into my ear, and I lost all control of myself, and so I tore Tip the rock."

Then the Eaja said, "Oh, then that sparrow was the cause of it all," and summoned the sparrow. " 0 sparrow, sparrow I why did you fly into the elephant's ear ? " The sparrow answered, " Oh, Lord, how could I help it ? The plantain- stalk fell upon my nest and smashed it, and being very disturbed in mind, I flew into the elephant's ear."

Then the Eaja said, " Oh ! then that plantain-tree was the cause of the trouble," and called the plantain. " 0 plantain, plantain ! what did you tumble on the sparrow's nest and smash it for?" The plantain answered, "Oh, how could I help it. Lord God ? The wild boar tore me up out of the ground, and I had no root left at all. How was I to go on standing in my place ? I have neither hands nor feet."

" Oh ! then that pig was the cause of it all," the Eaja said, and summoned the pig. " 0 pig, pig I what did you tear up the plantain for ? " The pig answered, " How could I help it ? As I was feeding quietly by myself, the gourd fell plump on my back. I was in great pain, and therefore tore up the plantain tree."

Then the king said, " Oh, the gourd caused all this trouble," and summoned the gourd. " 0 gourd, gourd ! what did you

48 STORY OF A FROG

tumble ou the wild boar's back for ? " " How was I to help it, Lord God ? The sqiiii-rel cut through my stem. I have neither hands nor feet, nothing but a stalk ; if that is cut through, I cannot but fall. So I was obliged to tumble on the wild boar's back."

Then the Eaja said, " Oh, that squirrel caused all the mischief," and summoned the squirrel. " 0 squirrel, squirrel ! what did you cut through the stem of the gourd for ? " The squirrel answered, " Oh, how could I help it, Lord God ? The frog jumped on my ladder and broke it. Then I had no road to get out, and I had to cut the stalk of the gourd."

The Eaja said, " Oh, then that frog caused the mischief," and summoned the frog. " 0 frog, frog ! what did you jump on the squiiTel's ladder and break it for ? " The frog answered, " How^ was I to help it ? A big black ant bit me sharply in the loins, and with the pain of the bite, not knowing what I was doing, I jumped on the squirrel's ladder and broke it."

Again the Eaja said, " Oh, it was the ant that caused all the trouble," and summoned the ant. " 0 ant, ant ! what did you bite the frog in the loins for ? " The ant said, " How could I help biting him ? In the morning I was carrying my uncle's rice along the road. The frog sat down and blocked the way. I said, ' Please make room for me to pass.' ' Creep under me,' said he. I crept under him, and he sat down tight on the top of me. That was why I bit his loins."

Then said the king, " You are both of you guilty." They tied the ant fast w^ith a hair from a man's head ; so now his waist is very small. The frog they beat severely with a stinging- nettle,* so now he is spotty all over.

2. Stoey of an Okphan and his Uncles.

Once upon a time a widow woman liad an only sou. His mother had six brothers. One day at evening his uncles said to the orphan, " Xephew, let us go and set up a lish-trap." f So

* "Stinging-nettle": tarnte-lhu'jhorKjj this is probably iiot a nettle (tirtica), but some other kind of blistering j^lant found in tlie Assam jungles ; ttlrme means a creeper, langhortg a vessel made of bamboo to hold water.

t Fish-trap, ru, : a bamboo cage placed in an opening in a weir or dam

STORY OI- A\ OR I' MAX 49

the oiiiliiin went \vitli thcni. Then the six brothers, his uncles, lijiving built a good weir u[)-streani, set the trap. The ori)han, having put together a few stones down-stream, behjw his uncle's trap- weir, set his own trap carelessly in the middle of them, and returned home. The next morning they all came to look at their traps. The uncles' trap, though very well put together, had not caught so much as a cray-fish ; as for the orphan's trap, it was quite full of fish. Then the uncles said, "Nepliew, we will set up our trap here ; do you go down-stream and set up your trap again." Then, after the uncles liad set up their trap in the orphan's trap-weir, the orphan again set up his trap down- stream. But again the fish entered it just in the same way ; while not one fish had got into the uncles' trap, the orphan's trap was quite full of fish. Every morning the uncles continued to take for themselves the place where the orplian's trap had been. At last the orphan, becoming very tired of continually setting up Ids trap in a different place, one morning, instead of fixing the trap in the stream, placed it on a cluni]) of grass and left it there. Next morning his uncles came and called to the orphan : " Xephew, let us go and look at the traps." The orphan answered, " For my part, I have not set up my trap at all; nevertheless I will go with you as your companion." So saying, he went with them. Then he went to look at his trap, and found that a wood-pigeon had got inside it. He tied this wood-pigeon with a noose and brought it home.

That orphan had one calf ; you could not imagine how fat and sleek it was. His uncles, being unable through envy to look at that calf, killed it. Then the orphan, having taken off the calf's skin, took one leg and secretly hid it in the house of a rich brahman who lived at a distance. Then the orphan said, " Oh ! how strongly the house smells of cow's flesh ! " The brahman, becoming angry, said, " i\Iay a tiger eat you, you wicked boy ! * How should tliere be any cow's flesh here ? I

built of stones or constriicteil of wattled boughs, so that the fish enterino- cannot get out. The same v>un\ is used later (see note p. 53) for the iron cage (ingchiu dni) in which the orphan is confined.

* " May a tiger eat you, you wicked boy ! " Te/cc nun<j kordutpi d-osu, literally, "You tiger-bitten boy!" 2>i is a syllable used in abuse, as jio ("father") is used in the oppo.site sense, e.g. po-dinum-pu, "My good sir!" literally, "father-god-father;" lower down, addressing a girl, we (" mother") is similarly used : '' pc-dnmm-})!," "dear girl ! "

E

50 STORY OF AN ORPHAN

am a brahman — produce it, if you can : if you cannot, I will take your life." The orphan said, " Very well, I will make a search." He began to search in a careless, lounging way ; but coming to the place where he had hidden the calf's leg, he suddenly pulled it out. " See, this is cow's flesh," said he ; "I told you so." Then the brahman, fearing lest, if other people came in and saw this, his caste would be destroyed, said to the orphan, " Orphan, my good sir ! don't tell any one. I will give you a cloth-full of money." * So saying, he gave him a cloth- full of silver, which the orphan took with him to his home. When he arrived there, he said to his mother ; " Go and ask my uncles for their basket." His mother went and called out : " Brothers ! your nephew says he wants a basket." Then the widow's brothers, having given her a basket, said among them- selves, " What does he w^ant to do with the basket ? Go and watch." So they sent the youngest of them, and he went and watched, and saw the orphan measuring the money with the basket. Then the one who had watched returned home and told his brothers : " Where did that nephew of ours get all this money ? He is actually measuring the rupees with a basket ! " After they had finished measuring the money, the orphan's mother went and returned the basket. Her brothers said to her, " Send our nephew here." When the widow reached her house she said to her son, " Your uncles bid me ask you to go and see them ; they want to speak to you." So the orphan went, and his uncles asked him, " Where did you get all that money ? " He answered, " It is the price of cow's flesh ; I went a-selling the flesh of my cow which you killed. The people said, 'There is not enough of it for us,' and they all bade me to bring more." His uncles asked him again, " Then if we go selling cow's flesh, they will take more of it ? " The orphan replied, " Certainly they will take more ; you have many cows, and if you kill them all and go and sell their flesh, how much money Avill you bring back ! " Then each one of his six uncles killed a cow, and having made the flesh into loads went to sell it. The orphan explained to them, " When you arrive at the village of that rich brahman, offer your meat for

* Cloth-full, manfliung : a cloth or wrapper {pe) folded cylindrically into a bag, and tied at the top and bottom Avith slit bamboo (jingfak).

STORY OF AX OKl'lIAX 51

sale. Call out iu the villaf,'e as suou us you reach it, ' Who will take more cow's flesh ? ' " So these six brothers, taking up tlieir beef, went on their way, and, arriving at the brahman's village, they cried, '■ Who will take more cow's flesh ? " The people answered, " We will take more ; bring it here," and called them in. So when they arrived at the brahman's house, all the inhabitants of the village, having gathered together, seized those six brothers who had come to sell cow's flesh, and having tied their hands, beat them soundly, and said, " AVe are brah- mans ; do you dare to come here and traffic, offering cow's flesh for sale ? " So saying, they let them go. Then those men who had brought the beef returned homewards, and on the way took counsel together : " Oh, how that orphan has cheated us ! Not only has he caused us to kill our cattle ; over and above that, he has got us skins that smart all over. As soon as we get home, let us set fire to his house ! " So when they reached home, they set fire to the orphan's house. Then the orphan, having woven two baskets, collected the ashes of his burnt house, and made them into a load, and went to a distant village where the people suffered from sore eyes. In that village there was not a man who had not a pain in his eyes. Wlien they saw the orphan coming with his load of ashes, they asked him " Why have you come hither ? " The orphan answered, " Oh ! when I heard that your whole village was suffering severely from sore eyes, I came to sell medicine to cure the complaint." " Oh, that is very good indeed, dear sir," said they, and all the people of the village collected a load of money, and gave it to the orphan. Then the orphan said, " Do not apply this medicine to your eyes just yet ; after I have gone a bit of the way I will call out to you, ' Apply it ' ; then rub it in." So the orphan, having got a load of money in exchange for his ashes, started for home; and when he had got a little bit of the way, the people with sore eyes called out to liim, " Shall we not apply the medicine yet ? " He answered " Wait a bit ! " ; and he con- tinued telling them to wait so long as he was near the village. But when he arrived at a distance where he thought they could not catch him, he called out, " Now apply the medicine ! " Then the sore-eyed people applied to their eyes the ashes they had bought from the orphan. As soon as the medicine touched

52 STORY OF AN ORPHAN

them, their eyes began to smart as you cannot imagine ! The pain in their eyes became much worse than ever before. They said among themselves, " Oh ! liow that fellow has cheated us, and gone away ! if he comes again, let us bind his hands fast and beat him ' "

"When the orphan reached home, he sent his mother again to

fetch his uncles' basket. The widow went to her brothers'

house, and, having lent her the basket, those six brothers said

among themselves, " Go, young one, watch again ; what is he

going to do with the basket ? " So the youngest went again

secretly to watch. Again he saw the orphan measuring money ;

and again he went back and carried the news to his brothers :

" Our nephew has returned, bringing with him much more

money than the last time." Then the six brothers went to

the orphan, and asked him, " Where did you get so much more

money ? " The orphan answered, " It is the price of the ashes

of my house that you set lire to. The people in the place

where I sold the ashes were crying, ' It is not enough, bring

us as much more again ! ' Now, my house was but a little

one, and so the ashes were not much. But your houses are

big, and if you set fire to them and sell the ashes, how much

money will you get for them ! It will be more than you can

possildy carry." Then the six brothers, his uncles, said one

to another, "Let us too set fire to our houses." So, having

burned down their houses, they gathered together the ashes,

and each brother took as heavy a load as he could carry.

Then the orphan exj)lained to them : " Take the loads to the

village of sore-eyed people, and, when you arrive near it, say,

' Will any one take ashes V" So these six brothers went theii-

way, and, when they came near the village of sore eyes, they

called out, "Will any one take ashes ? " Then the sore-eyed

folk called out, "Bring them here." So they went into the

village. As soon as they got inside, all the people bound them

fast with ropes, and rubbed into their eyes the ashes which

they themselves had brought, and thrashed them soundly.

When the thrashing was over, the six brothers started to

return home. On the way they took counsel again together :

" Oh, how that villain has deceived us ! Not only has he got

us smarting skins ; he has, over and above that, caused us to

STORY OF AN ORPHAN 53

burn ilowii our housi-s ami mir liaivcsts. Xow, iiiiniediately we get home, let us make him fast iu an imu cage,* and throw liim into the river."

So when they got home they seized tlie orphan, and liaving shut him up in an iron cage they took him to the bank of a great pool in a river in the jungle. Then they said, "In a little while we will drown him ; now there is no chance for him to escape us, so let us go and eat our rice." So saying, they went to eat their food. When they had gone away, a certain king's son, who was hunting deer, came hy. "When he arrived where the orphan was, he asked him, " Wliat is the reason why you are tied up in that iron cage ? " The orphan answered, " My uncles have a daughter, so lovely ! You cannot imagine how fair she is. They tell me to marry her, but 1 always answer that I will not. So my uncles, becoming angry, liave shut me up in this cage." Then the king's son said, " Oh ! then can I get her to wife ? " " If you get into this cage and stay there, you will be able to get her," the orphan answered; "after a while my uncles will come, and will say, ' Have you nothing more to say ? ' If they ask you this, then answer them, ' All I have to say is that I will take her, uncles.' " " Very good then," said the prince. Then the orphan said to the king's son, " If you go into the cage wearing your own fine clothes, they will recognize you at once. So let me out. I will give you my clothes, and then you can enter the cage." So the king's son opened the cage and let out the orphan, and tlie orphan gave his clothes to the prince, while the prince gave his coat, dltoti, necklace, and bracelets in exchange to the orphan, and entered into the cage. Then the orphan made fast the door of the cage, and having dressed himself iu the prince's clothes, necklace, and bracelets, went away to his home. Then the orphan's uncles returned from eating their rice, and coming up to the cage asked, " Have you anything more to say, nephew ? " " All right, uncles, I agree to take her," answered the king's son, as the orphan had told him to say. Then they threw him in the iron cage into the deep pool. Thereupon the six brothers, the orphan's uncles, said one to anotlier, " How much trouble tliac * '' Ii'oii cage " : see note on p. 48 above.

54 STORY OF AN ORPHAN

fellow caused us all ! Now, however, he is dead and done with ! " Then they returned home.

"Wlien they got there, lo ! they saw the orphan again, not dead at all, wearing the king's son's clothes, necklace, and bracelets, splendidly adorned and decked out as you could not imagine ! They said one to another, " The orphan is not dead after all 1 There he is, decked out and strutting in his finery ! " They went up to him and asked, " Nephew, how is it that you arrived here so soon ? " The orphan answered, " Oh, uncles, my grandmothers and grandfathers sent me back here in a pdlkl very quickly. Immediately I arrived there, my grandparents gave me these fine clothes, this necklace, and these bracelets. Only look at them ! They sent w^ord, too, that they wanted you also to be told to come to them ; as a token, they sent this gold knife — see ! " So saying, he showed it to them. Then his uncles said, " How shall we manage to get there ? " " Let each one of you take an iron cage with him to the river bank, and get into it there," answered the orphan. So each man took a cage to the river bank and got inside. Then the orphan tied each tightly up in his iron cage, and threw the eldest brother in his cage into the deep pool. As he fell, quantities of bubbles came up on the surface of the water. The orphan cried, " Look, uncles ! My eldest uncle has drunk so much of the rice-beer which my grandparents have given him, that he is vomiting." Then he brought the next brother and threw him into the water ; and so having cast all his six uncles, one after another, into the stream, the orphan returned to his home. Then his aunts, his uncles' wives, asked him, " When will your uncles come back again ? " " They will not come -s'ery soon ; have they not just met their parents, after being separated from them for so long a time ? " replied the orphan. So after waiting three or four nights his aunts asked the orphan again, " Why have your uncles not come back by this time ? " He answered, "They will come very soon." Then after waiting two or three nights more they asked again, " Why have not your uncles come yet ? " Then the orj^han spoke clearly, " Put each man's share of rice in the ndJcsel." * So his aunts cried, " Ah ! they are

* The nbksek : tlie part of tlie liouse (in lam : see plan, p. 8) between

STORY OF HARATA KUXWAR 55

dead and gone!" Ami umlci.staiuliug this at last, they wept and made lamentation.

So the orphan became rich, antl there was no one left to envy him. And having become a great king, he lived a happy life.

Note. — Two incidents in this story, viz. tlie pmfit made by tlie orplian by disposing of the riesli of his shvughtered calf, and his gain l)y selling the ashes of his burnt house, and the disappointment of liis uncles when they endeavoured to imitate him. much resemble the incidents of a folk-tale given as an illustration of the Tiljeto-Burman dialects of Kangkas, Darma, Chaudangs, and Bj'fings in vol. iii. Part I., of the Lingnistic Siirmj. The.se dialects are spoken in the northern j)ortion of Kumaon, on the borders of Tibet. In this version the animals slaughtered are goats and sheep, and the protit is made out of their skins, while the ashes of the burnt house are by an accident exchanged for a h)ad of dour. Still, the motif is the same, and the great distance of the country where this tale is current from that of the Mikirs, and the impossibility of inter- communication, make the coincidences interesting.

3. Story of Harata Kuxwar

Harata Kunwar was one of six brothers, the youngest of them. From his very birth he spent his time in shooting deer and wild pig, and never laboured in the fields. His elder brothers, the five, did the field work. Then they, the five brothers, took counsel together with their father, saying, " This Harata Kunwar does no field work, but spends his time in hunting. Let us talk the matter over at night." So that night they talked it over. The father said to his eldest son, " How will you supply me with rice ? " He answered, " As for me, I will become a head man of a village, and sit in assembly night and day ; from the rice-beer which people will bring me as the head man's perquisites, I will supply you with good white rice and beer." " And you, the second son, how will you supply me with rice ? " " As for mo, I will become a black- smith; night and day will I spend in forging knives and ddos ; with the money produced by these I will furnish you with beer, betel, jx'in, good white rice, and all kinds of spirit." '' And you, the third son, how \vill you suj^ply nie Avith rice ? " "As for me, I will labour in the fields, and having filled granaries and

tlie tireplace and the middle partition, where the offerings of food for the spirits of the dead are placed.

56 STORY OF HARATA KUXWAR

barns with produce I will give }'oa good beer and good white rice." " And you, the fourth, how will you provide for me ? " " As for me, I will go as a companion to some one, and what that person gives me of rice and beer I will give you." " And you, the fifth, how will you provide for me ? " " As for me, I will become some one's slave, and will support you with the rice and beer he gives me." " And you, Harata Kunwar, in what way will you furnish me with rice ? " " As for me, I will marry a daughter of the Sun-god, and ha\ing become a great king, I will seat you on a throne, on a fine couch, I will cause slaves, male aud female, to bathe your arms and legs, and I will give you beer, rice, and spirits." So they finished their talk. Xext day, in the place where they worked at their field, Harata Kunwar not being with them, those five brothers consulted again together with theii' father. " This Harata Kunwar says he will take to wife the daughter of the Sun-god and become a king, forsooth ! "Where will he get his kingship ? Let us kill him, and let us talk about it again to-night." That night, after they had eaten and drunk, they consulted together about the way in which the killing was to be done. " Let us build a field-watcher's hut * for Harata Kunwar, on the border of the jungle let us build it, and make him watch there ; then at night let us go and thrust him through with a spear." Harata Kun war's sister-in-law overheard them as they were con- spiring together. Xext morning, after they had eaten and druuk and gone away to their work in the fields, Harata Kunwar came home from his hunting. His sister-in-law gave him his rice, aud after he had eaten and drunk she said, " Let me kill that insect on you, Harata Kunwar." Then she killed a louse, and as she killed it a tear fell upon Harata Kunwar's leg. He asked her, " Sister-in-law, are you crying ? " And his sister- in-law said, " I am not crying, a raindrop fell upon you." Again, as she killed a louse, a tear fell the second time. Harata Kunwar asked her again, "You really are crying, sister-in-law ; tell me why you are weeping." So she told

* '"A field-watcher's hut," hem-thap : a small hut, raised liigh upon posts and thatched over, built in a clearing for cultivation, in which the cultivator passes the night for the purpose of scaring wild pigs and deer away from the cr<-»p.

*>«

y\ M I

* irt < .

jtv^

i» ■ :_ 'J

•>P-rns wirl

HARATA

^vill give you go ;rth, how ivi

-^•^«'

I provide for mt

.•-;xave, aud will ;: " "Arulyon. I ___._.

Is for me, I .id liuviug b' a fiue couch, , irms and legs, an y finished their : . x^cd at their field, .:ose five brothers l their father. "This Harata Kimv- '■'*' '^ Vaighter of the Sun-god , \vin be get his kingshij 2:ain to-mfjht."

That nmbt.

a Kun\\

ini his r eaten and .id, " Let ni'

Harata Kuuv, ;>[ j iien she ^' ' * R tear fell upon Harata Kr ■ ate you crying ing, a ra; 1 J, a teai wr again, "You ly you are -v

'he purj/

'IK

^\^\H/

MIKIR BOY.

p. 56

STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR 57

him : " My fatber-in-law and your elder brothers have plotted togutlier to make you watch l»y ni.dit iu a jungle liut, and tlien they will thrust you through there with a spear, they say; that is why I am weeping." Harata Kiinwar said, "You need not be afraid ; you have told me : it is well. To-morrow morning you Avill see what hap[)ens. If I am not dead, I will come home to you after they have gone, and I will throw six clods, taken from the worm-castings, on the roof of this house. If you don't hear the noise of them on the roof, you will know that I am dead." So in the evening his brothers came home from the field, and his father said, " This night Harata Kunwar must go and watch for us in the jungle hut. Wild pigs are eating up our paddy. There, by the side of the jungle- clearing, we have built for you a watcher's hut." So, having eaten and drunk, Harata Kunwar took with him his bow and went. Then having gathered the fruit of the puroi-sdl-* he put the juice of it iuto the sheath of a plantain-stalk, and having made it like the form of a sleeping man he put some clothes on it and laid it as though sleeping in the hut. He himself hid quietly under the shelter of the rice plants. Then, after their first sleep, his father and brothers awoke one another : " Come ! let us go and kill Harata Kunwar." Then, each one takinir with him a spear, they ^\■ent to Harata Kunwar's jungle hut. Then the father said, " Go thou, eldest, climb up and thrust him through." The eldest said, " How should i dare to put my spear through him ? he is our brother, our youngest brother, we have one mother and father, and besides, we have sucked both of us at the same breast, the same nipple. Since we are brothers, how should I dare to kill him ? I dare not." " Go, then, you, the second." The second answered, " Oh ! he is not the son of a second wife, own brother he is, our younger brother ; how then should I dare to kill him ? I dare not." *' Go, then, you, the third." He answered, " Our thigh is one, our foot is one, our arm is one, our hand is one ; we have grown up together, lie is our brother. How could I possibly kill him ? I cannot." " Go, then, tlum, the fourth." He said, " We sucked together at one nipple, own brothers are we, no sister has he,

* A species of potherb, so-called in Assamese : Bengali j^tutilal, Basella lucida. It has red juicy fruit.

SS STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

how could I venture to kill him ? I dare not." " Go, then, vou, the vounfTest." " Oh ! why do you send me on such an errand ? I am the next to him. From childhood it was I who nrew up with him together. We ate our rice together from one platter ; we drank our beer from the same mug. How should I dare to kill such a one ? I dare not ! " Then their father became ansrv. " Then why did you dare to say, ' We must kill Harata Kunwar ' ? If you cannot bring yourselves to do it, you will never become men." So saying, he climbed up the posts of the hut, and thrust his spear through that plantain-sheath, and the juice of the 'jjuroi sdk came dropping out from it. Then he called out, " Harata Kunwar, strong though he be, has got his deserts now at last ! Let him marry the Sun-god's daughter and make himself a king now ! " Harata Kunwar overheard all this. " What, what are you saying, my brothers ? " he called out. Then, saying " Harata Kunwar has his bow with him ! " they ran away in fear, stumbling and falling as they ran. When they got to their own jungle hut, they vomited, and on the night clearing away, with great difficulty in the morning they reached home. Then Harata Kunwar, after they had come, himself came up, and took six clods from the worm-casts and threw them on the roof. So after they had eaten and drunk, his brothers went away to their field. Then Harata Kunwar came in, and his sister-in-law .gave him his rice. After eating and drinking, he said, " Sister ! I cannot remain here with you ; my own brothers, nay, even my own father, aim at my life, and are plotting to kill me. I must therefore go a-wandering. Get ready and give me a store of rice to take with me, bread, and parched grain." So his sister-in-law prepared food for him, 1 tread and parched rice. And he said to her when he parted : " If I do not come by my death, then when I come here again I will throw six clods from the worm-castings on the roof ; tlieu, when you hear them, wash and make ready the stools and benches 1 " So they wept together, and parted. Then Harata Kunwar, taking his bow with him, went on his way. At last he arrived at his grandmother's house. " Oh, granny ! are you there ? " The old woman answered, " Who is there ? as for this place, I have neither kin nor helper. AVho is come?" llarata Kunwar answered, " It is I, granny." Then the old

OLD MI KIR WOMAN.

p. 59

Th-

granD rayselT.

►^c

;:ly he er.

STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR 59

woman said, " Why are you come, my dear ? 1 uin a pour ^vido^v. I have neither house nor field. I live only hy begging my food. Why have you come ? " Harata Kunwar answered, " I will stay here with you and be your companion." The old woman said, " You, who are fit to l>e a king, a gi-eat man, how will you be able to live with me here ? " Harata Kunwar answered, "Yery good, granny; here I will stay." So he became her companion there. Then his granny the widow said, " Harata Kunwar, spread the paddy out in the sun to dry. I will go and beg paddy in the king's village. After you have spread out the paddy, if you want to bathe in the river, don't go up-stream ; bathe on the shore close by this house of ours." So having spread out the paddy, his granny the widow went to the king's village. Harata Kunwar took charge of the paddy ; frequently turning it over, in a very short time he dried it. Then he collected the paddy together and went to bathe in the river. He thought in his own mind, " for what reason did my granny, when she went away, tell me not to go up-stream to bathe ? I will go up-stream and see for myself." So saying, he went up-stream. There he saM' shards of broken water- vessels of gold and silver lying. " Oh ! that is why granny told me when she went away not to go up-stream. At night I will ask her whose glu'it (watering-place) this is." So he returned home. Then his granny the widow in the evening also came home again from the king's village. So at night, after they had eaten and drunk, Harata Kunwar asked her, " Whose ghat is that up-stream ? There are broken pieces of gold and silver water-vessels strewn all about it." Then the widow said, " I told you when I went away not to go up-stream. You have been disobeying me and have gone up there, I know ? " Harata Kunwar answered, " Yes, I did go, granny ; now tell me whose ghat it is." So his granny the widow told him : " It is the ghiit of the King of the Great Palace. His daughters, six sisters, come to that place to bathe ; don't go there any more." Then Harata Kunwar considered again by himself : " My granny tells me not to go again, liut go I will and see for myself." So up-stream he went again, and hid himself quietly under the river bank. At midday the six daughters of the King of the Great Palace came to bathe there in the river.

Co STORY OF HARATA KUXWAR

Descending beautifully, each one laid aside her clothes and jumped into the water. This did one after the other, and fair it was to see — like the brightness of the moon and sun ; there they bathed and frolicked in the water. Then when the day became cool, the eldest sister admonished the rest : * " 0 my dears, it is cooking time ! time to serve up the food : time to house for the night our fowls and our pigs. Our mother will scold us, our father will scold us, if we stay any longer. Let us go." So they ended their bathing and playing in the water. One after another they shook out their clothes in the breeze and put them on, and beautifully flew away ; but the youngest of them flew away last of all, lovely like the brightness of the moon or the sun. Until they were lost to sight in the heaven Harata Kunwar continued gazing after them till his neck got a crook in it. So they entered heaven, and he saw them no more. And he returned to his house, thinking to himself, " How fair, how lovely ! (I will not rest) until I get one of them to be my wife ! To-night I will ask granny about it." So home he came, and after supper Harata Kunwar asked his granny : " Oh, granny ! such beautiful, such lovely ones I never saw ; how shall I get one to wife ? Tell me a plan." His granny said, " Oh, Harata Kunwar, these are children of the Sun-god, children of a great king ; how should you, who are a man's son, succeed in getting one to wife ? " Harata Kunwar said, " Not so, granny : get one to wife I must and will. Show me a plan ! " Since he continued to press her with questions, at last she said to him, " If you must and will get one for your wife, then clear a field on the river bank." " Very good, granny," said Harata Kunwar, " to-morrow, this very next day, I will go and clear it." So he remained watching for the dawn to break, until the sun fully rose. Then, taking with him a dc'io, he went. From the moment he reached the place he rested not, but cut and hacked ilown the jungle there, till in a single day he had finished the clearing. Then, having heaped the fallen trees together, he set tire to them, and the fire devoured them there, till there was not a single piece or stock left that was not burnt. Then he dibbled in maize, small millet, sugar cane, plantains ; besides

* X<jtice the simplicity of life indicated by the occupations the fairy princesses have to attend to on their return to their celestial home.

STORY ()!• IIARATA KL'XWAR 6i

these be planted flowers — luaivel of I'eni, white lilies. marir;olds,* many kinds of flowers. Then the daughters of tlu^ Kin,L( (»f the Great Palace came down to Ijathe in the river; beaiitifnllv they descended, fair as never was seen ; like the moon, like tin- sun in splendour, tliey came right down there. 80, having finished bathing and splasliing al)Out in the water, they sjnetl Harata Kunwar's garden plot. They said, " Oii, whose field is tliis ? It is very pretty indeed ' " The eldest answered, " It must be our brother-in-law Harata Kunwar's field." So tliey flew away beautifully again to heaven together. Harata Kunwar there pondered in his mind : " Shall I ever succeed in getting her to wife ? " And again he asked his grandmother, " Granny, when shall I succeed in getting one to wife ? " His granny answered, "Not in that way, grandson. Build for yourself a jungle hut." So next morning a jungle hut he went to build. In a single day he finished building one, great and big, and came home again. "The jungle-hut is finished, granny," lie said. " Then cut for yourself a flute," advised his granny. So he cut several flutes for himself, and bored holes in them. Then the time for maize and millet to ripen came. And his granny advised him : " Go and watch in your jungle hut, and play the flute." As for his field, in a very short time flowers blossomed there as you never saw ! Then the daughters of the King of the Great Palace arrived to bathe in the river; flying down beautifully one after another they laid aside their clothes and jumped into the \vater, and bathed and frolicked. Then the eldest admonished them : " Come, my dears, let us go." There- upon Harata Kunwar began to play on his flute so beautifully that you never heard the like. " Oh ! this flute-playing is very pretty to hear ! Surely it is the man (called) Harata Kunwar. Come, dears, let us go and ask for a fe\v flowers." So they went. " Harata Kunwar, we would like to pluck for ourselves a few flow^ers. May we pluck and take some, sir?" "Yes," said Harata Kunwar, " you can pluck as many as you like." Then each one plucked some flowers and went away. Gracefully they flew away with the flowers. Until they disappeared in the sky, Harata Kunwar gazed after tliem, until liis eyes became

* The exact species of tliese flowers is not vouclied for ; those named are common in the house-f'ardens of Assamese cultivators.

62 STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

quite sore with gazing. So they returned into heaven. When he could see them no more, Harata Kunwar also returned home. And his granny the widow asked him, " Did you have any talk to-day with the daughters of the King of the Great Palace ? " " Yes, we had some talk ; they even asked to be allowed to gather some of my flowers." Then his granny explained a plan : " To-morrow is a lucky day. Go, you, before the Great King's daughters come down to bathe, and hide yourself as I tell you, and watch by the river. The elder sisters, all five, have got husbands already. As for the youngest, the King of the Winds is asking for her to marry her to his son ; already the gourds and chunrjas of beer (for the wedding-feast) have arrived. Neverthe- less, having singled out her petticoat from among the others, while they are all bathing, bring it here to me. I ^^•ill weave a petticoat just like it in exchange for it ; take that one back there and put it down again in the same place where her real petticoat was ; her own petticoat let us hide away. Then she will not be able to fly away. If she asks for her petticoat back again, say ' One or other of you must marry me.' " " Yes, very good indeed, granny," said Harata Kunwar. From the time that his granny imparted to him that plan, Harata Kunwar's mind was so cheerful as you could not imagine. All night long he could not close his eyes, but went on thinking continually. So morning dawned. Then, having breakfasted, he went to his field. " Oh, when will it be midday?" he said, as he went on waiting. Then he hid himself quietly under the sand. Then at midday the daughters of the King of the Great Palace came. Gracefully they flew down there, and one after another removed her garments and plunged into the stream. So when they were all in the water, Harata Kunwar rose stealthily and seized the petticoat and striped cloth of that youngest one, and carried them off straightw^ay to his granny the widow. And his granny wove in place of them another petticoat and striped cloth just like them. In a very short time she had done them, and Harata Kunwar ran back again there, and having put .the new petticoat and striped cloth in the same place, himself went into his jungle hut and played the flute. Wonderfully he played it there ; never was heard such playing.

So when they had had enough of bathing and sporting in the

STORY OF IIARATA KUXWAR 63

water, tlie eldest admonished lier sisters : * "0 my sisters, let us go ! it is time to pound the rice, time to clean it after pountl- ing : time to cook, time to serve up : time to heat the beer, time to squeeze it from the rice-grains." So having put on her clothes she said again, " Come, let us go and ask for a few flowers." Then, having plucked some flowers, first the eldest flew up, tlien the younger sisters also flew up to her gracefully, and last of all the youngest also tried to fly, but found she could not. If she flew she fell back again there ; if she got up and tried to fly again, she fell back a second time. Then the eldest said, " Oli ! what in the world is the matter ? " So the elder sisters also came down again there, and went and said to Harata Kunwar, " O Harata Kunwar, without doubt it is you who have changed our youngest sister's petticoat ; therefore, bring it back ! " So they called out, and Harata Kunwar answered, " One or other of you must be my wife." The daughters of the King of the Great Palace said, " How is it possible that any of us should stay here and be your wife ? AVe have each of us got husbands already." Harata Kunwar said, " Then I cannot give you the petticoat ; one of you must positively marry me." Then the daughters of the King of the Great Palace said to one another, '' Sister ! do you marry him." The eldest answered, " How should I marry him ? I have a number of children already." " Then you, the next, you marry him." " How can I marry him ? I also have four children already." " You, the tliird, you marry him, then." " How can I, when I also have three children already ? " " Then you, the fourth, you marry him." '' I also have two children already ; how should I marry him?" " You, the fifth, you marry him." " I cannot marry him ; don't you know that I also have one child already ? " "Then you, the youngest, you marry him." The youngest answered, " As for me, the King of the Winds is asking for me to marry me to his son, the gourds and chungas of beer (for the wedding feast) have arrived already. How can I possibly marry him ? " Her eldest sisters said, " Well, but you are not married yet. You must marry him, dear. It is getting dark ; we must "0. There at home our fowls and our pigs will be calling out for us ; besides, our mother and father will be looking * See the note on p. GO.

64 STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

out for us. And we will come and visit you from time to time." Then the youngest one said, "AVhat is to be done, sisters ? Well, I will marry him ; you go. Our mother and father will be angry." Then the eldest one said : " Harata Kunwar, you would not listen to our instructions, therefore we are leaving our youngest sister here with you ; but be careful not to grieve or trouble her. Do not make her cook or serve lip ; moreover, touch not her hand or her foot." So, after giving parting instructions to their youngest sister, they flew away gracefully to heaven again together. The pair who were left behind continued gazing after them till they were lost in the heaven and they could see them no more. Then Harata Kunwar said : " It is getting dark, let us two also go home." So Harata Kunwar was happy and joyful. Night and day he shot deer and wild pig, and his platform and drying stand * (for drying flesh on) were never dry {i. e. without flesh exposed on them to dry).

So one year came to an end. *' 0 Granny, I say to myself, ' I will go home ' ; what am I to do ? " said Harata Kunwar. " Sure, you have your own house, you have your own field ; you can go if you like ; nevertheless your wife is not yet entirely at one with you here." "Nay, but," said Harata Kunwar, "is it not a whole year (since we were married), granny ? " " Nevertheless, you have not come to perfect agree- ment yet." " Oh, then," said Harata Kunwar, " I cannot go yet." So Harata Kunwar stayed there, working in the field and labouring, and getting barns and granaries stored with the produce to such an extent that the widow's house was filled up with baskets and barrels full of grain. And God gave Harata Kunwar a child, one son only. Then he asked his grandmother again : " Granny ! I keep saying to myself, ' we will go home to my mother and father.' " The widow answered, " Your wife has not yet thoroughly accommodated herself to you, grandson." "Not so, granny; she has indeed. Has she not already borne me a son ? " " Go, then. You w.ould not listen to the warnings I gave you from time to time. Go

* The flesh of animals killed liy hunter.s is cut into strips and dried in tlie sun on frames of bamboo, for future use. The frames are called in Mikir ur and rap.

STORY OF IIARATA KUNWAR 65

together. But your wife has not yet made u[) her mind to stay with you, I assure you." 80 Harata Kunwar said to his wife, " My dear ! let us two go together to our home." His wife answered, " Go. Wherever you take me (I will go too)," Then the morning dawned, and they took their breakfast and started. They went a bit of the way. Now, his child and his wife Harata Kunwar bound firmly to his waist with his turban, and so carried them. And so as they went on they saw a jungle-cock* scratching the ground in a wonderful way on the mountain side, Harata Kunwar said, " Oh, jungle-cock, ■what are you doing there? I am in a hurry to get liome; leave the road open to me." The jungle-cock answered, " I will not leave the road open to you. I say to myself, * Harata Kunwar to-day will bring along his wife and child,' and I am watching the way he is coming." Harata Kunwar rejoined, " What jest is this ? Be careful, lest in a little you have to say, ' when Harata Kunwar brought his wife and child to his home and field, my life was lost.' " The jungle-cock said, " I don't say so ; to-day (we will see whether) you or I will prevail." Harata Kunwar said, " Is that true ? " " True." " Do you swear it ? " "I swear it." Then Harata Kunwar, setting an arrow to his bow, shot him.

Then as he went on a little further (he came upon) a cock-pheasant f blocking the road, and scratching in a wonderful way on the mountain side. And Harata Kunwar said again, " Oh, cock-pheasant, what are you doing there ? I am in a hurry to get home ; leave the road free to me." The cock-pheasant answered, " I \von't leave the road free to you. I say to myself, * To-day Harata Kunwar will bring along his ■wife and child,' and I am watching here the way he is coming." Harata Kunwar said, " Oh, don't be silly, lest you have to say in a little while, ' when Harata Kunwar brought along his wife and child, I lost my life.' " The cock-pheasant said, " I don't say so." Harata Kunwar said again, " Are you in earnest ? " " In earnest." " Do you swear it ? " "I swear it." Then Harata Kunwar set his bow and shot him.

* "Jungle-cock" : Gall us ferr>t[/iiic lo', the wild fowl of Assam jungles. t "Cock-pheasant": vorek ciJdpd, the doi-tk (Ass.) or "derrick,'' Oennocus Horsfieldi, the black- breasted kalij pheasant of north-east India.

66 STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

Then, as they went ou still further, a -^ild boar, so big as you never saw or imagined, with his tusks overlapping his mouth, was straddling across the road, and rooting up the earth there on the mountain side in an extraordinary way. And Harata Kunwar said, " Oh, wild boar, what are you doing there ? leave me the road open, I want to get home quickly." The wild boar answered, " I will by no means leave you the road ; saying to myself, ' To-day Harata Kunwar will bring along his wife and child,' I am watching the road he is coming." Harata Kunwar said, " Oh, don't joke ! is it true or not ? " The wild boar answered, " It is true." Harata Kunwar said, " Be careful, lest in a little while you have to say, ' when Harata Kunwar brought along his wife and child, my life was lost.' " The wild boar said, " I don't say so." " Are you in earnest ? "

" Yes." " Do you swear it ? " "I swear it." " Oh, then "

So saying, Harata Kunwar set his bow and shot him.

Then, when he had nearly arrived at his house, he collected six clods from the worm-casts, and threw them on the roof. Then his sister-in-law said, " Harata Kunwar has come home ! Wash the stools and the benches ! " Then they washed all the stools and seats and planks and benches. And Harata Kunwar, bringing along with him that wild boar, put it down beside the hedge, and entered the house. And as soon as he arrived, his sister- in-law gave him there beer, bread, and parched rice. His wife was so very beautiful that no one could look her in the face, as one cannot look straight at the brightness of the sun. Then his brothers were perplexed, saying, " What in the world has happened to us this night ? " And Harata Kunwar said, " A short time ago I shot a little pig on the road. I just put it down there beside the hedge. Go and get it and scorch it (for cooking)." So his five brothers went, but the boar was so veiy big tliat they could not even move it ; they could do nothing with it at all. So Harata Kunwar went with them. With one hand he easily lifted it and brought it away; and they scorclied it and cut it up. So home they brought it and cooked it and served it up, and joyful, noisy, laughing and jesting, they ate and drank.

Then next morning dawned. Hearing that Harata Kunwar had brought his wife home, all the people of the whole

STORY OF IIARATA KUNVVAR 67

country-side kept coming and going to gaze upon her, in such crowds as you never saw. And Ilarata Ivunwar put, away carefully in a bamljoo chunga liis wife's own petticoat aud striped cloth, with her gohl ornaments, her necklace, and her gold drum (Ass. mddoll) worn on the breast, and tied tliem up in the pitch of the roof So Harata Kunwar Ment to pay visits to the people of the village, aud tlie ryots of the country- side came to visit him ; and then they went on to gaze upon his wife. And all the women — aunts on mother's and father's side, sisters-in-law, elder brothers' wive.s — each one said, " Oh ! is she not lovely, sister ! " Thus they wondered at her. Then Harata Kunwar's wife answered, " Not so lovely yet as I mi^ht be. If I were to put on again my own petticoat, my striped cloth, my necklace and my bracelets, then, indeed, there would be something to see ! " Then some old woman said, " Oh, then, give them to her." And Harata Kunwar's old father said, " Where in the world did that idiot of a boy put them away ? Why did he not give her her own petticoat and striped cloth ? " Then Harata Kunwar's wife explained : " They are there in the roof-pitch where he has tied them up." So his father untied the bundle and gave it to her. Then she put the things on and arrayed herself. Thereupon she became inconceivably beautiful. " Oh ! " they cried, " lovely ! beautiful indeed ! It is not for nothing that she is called child of the Sun-god ! " Thereupon Harata Kunwar's wife rose up to her full height, and flapped her clothes, and gracefully flew away back to her own place. Then Harata Kunwar, happening to see her from where he was on a distant road, kept continually bending his bow. And his wife said, as she left him : " Wait, wait ! hereafter we shall meet again." So Harata Kunwar, weeping bitterly, sick and sorry at heart, came to his house. Immediately he got there, without eating or drinking, he took his child on his back, and straight- way set out for the house of his grandmother the widow woman. Thus he went on till he arrived, and at once on arrival began to weep and wail as you could not imagine. Then his grand- mother said : " I told you from the flrst that your wife was not yet reconciled to her lot with you. How will you get to see her now ? How will you be able to reach her in heaven ? " This only aggravated his weeping ; refusing meat and drink, he

68 STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

followed liis grandmother wherever she went, continually dogging her steps, and was like to die of grief. At last his grandmother said, " Harata Kunwar, take a little food, and then I will tell you of a plan." So he took something to eat, bread and parched rice, and then his grandmother told him her scheme. " To-morrow," she said, " the son of the King of the Winds will come there to marry your wife. Before that, your father-in-law's elephant will come here to bathe. Do you go and hide yourself there under the sand. When the elephant (after its bath) is just about to go, hold on tight to its tail, and bind your child firmly to your waist with your turban. If the elephant asks you anything, say that you also are going to the place where your wife is. Then to-morrow, in the evening, you will arrive there. Remain concealed on the river bank. Then male and female slaves will come to draw water there in order to bathe your wife. Call out to them, ' Give me one draught of water for the child.' Then, if they give you the water, drop into the water-pot a gold ring. Then she {i.e. your wife) will call for you. Go to her, and when you arrive, put down your child on the ground ; then the child will go of itself towards its mother."

The morning dawned, and Harata Kunwar, after eating and drinking, went to the river bank and hid himself quietly under the sand. Then the elephant came down to bathe in the river, and having bathed, was just about to go away, when Harata Kunwar grasped firmly liold of its tail, and with his turban tied his child securely to liis waist. Then the elephant flew up with him to heaven, and put him down on the river bank there. And all the people of tlie King of the Winds had come to the house of the King of the Great Palace in order to celebrate the marriage of the son of the King of the Winds with Harata Kunwar's wife. And the King's slaves, male and female, came to draw water in order to batlie Harata Kunwar's wife. And Harata Kunwar called out to them for water for liis child : "Give me just one draught of water for my son, good rnothers!" One after another paid no attention to his request, till at last an old woman came up. So Harata Kuuwar called out again : " Give me water, one draught only, good madam, for my child." So the old woman gave him some water. Making as though he

STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR 69

would take lioM of the water-jar, Harata Kunwar <ln))i))e<l into it a gold ring. Then they brought the water for Harata Kuiiwar's wife's hath. After washing delicately her arms and her legs, tliey poured the old woman's water-jar over her head, and the gold ring fell out. Then Harata Kunwar's wife asked, " Oh ! who is the person whose water-jar lias just reached me?" Then one after another they said, " It's not my water-jar." Then all called out together, " It is the old woman's jar." Then she said to the old woman : " "Wliere did you get hold of this ring ? Seize that man and bring him here at once. If you cannot bring him, it will be a matter of your life." So the old woman, weeping and lamenting, came to Harata Kunwar and called out to him, " Be pleased to come with me ! What was the reason why your Honour, under pretence of asking me to give you water, had it in your mind to make me lose my life ? " So Harata Kunwar, taking the child on his back, went with her. Immediately on arriving he put the l)oy down on the ground, and the child ran straight into its mother's lap and began to suck her l^reast. Then the King of the Great Palace said : " Why ! such a thing as this was never seen ! They have got a child big Ijetween them already ! " So the King of the Winds' folk were ashamed and disgusted, and returned home sad and sorry. So they celebrated the wedding of Harata Kunwar and the daughter of the King of the Great Palace.

So Harata Kunwar remained there one year, two years, and laboured at tilling the fields, so that he got twelve barns, twelve granaries full of grain. Then said Harata Kunwar to his wife : " My dear ! we two, like the sparrow or the dove, should have a nest at least, a roosting-place of our own. There- fore let us go away together. Do you ask father-in-law and mother-in-law." So at night Harata Kunwar's wife asked her parents: "0 father and mother, your son-in-law says, 'we two, like a sparrow or a dove, should at least have a nest, a roosting-place of our own. Let us go away together,' and he bade me ask you about it. What are your commands in the matter?" So the King of the Great Palace said : "My daughter! I have once for all given you away to this man like a bundle of greens, and have nothing more to do with you. Go away together, to-morrow if you like, or to-day if you prefer it."

70 LEGEND OF CREATION

Then he went on to say, " What do you two desire of me ? slaves, male or female ? ryots, husbandmen ? gold ? silver ? " So she went and told Harata Kunwar : " My dear ! my mother and father say, ' You may go away together to-day or to-morrow as you please : moreover, slaves, male and female, ryots, husband- men, gold, silver, — mention whatever you desire ' — so they say." And Harata Kunwar said, " I want nothing at all." And morning dawned. Then Harata Kunwar went and did obei- sance to his father and mother-in-law. And his father-in-law said to him, "What do you desire? slaves — handmaids — ryots — husbandmen — gold — silver ? " Harata Kunwar said, " I need nothing." Then Harata Kunwar and his wife, the wedded pair, and their son started for home, and in due course arrived there. A king he became, a great man, and night and day he lived in happiness and greatness, and his kingdom was great and stable.

APPENDIX.

THE LEGEND OF CREATIOX.

Condensed from Mr. Allen's (of the American Presb3'terian Mission) replies to ethnographical questions, dated October, 1900.

Long ago the gods Hemphu and Mukrang took counsel together for the creation of the world. They marked the limits of their work, setting up four great posts to fix the boundaries of things, and fastened them immovably with six of their mother's hairs. Then they looked for seed to produce the earth, but found none. Then they consulted a hundred other gods, with their wives, making, with themselves and their wives, two hundred and four in all. It was decided to send one of the wives to beg for some earth from the god Hajong, and Bamon's wife was sent on this errand. But Hiljong refused to give any earth from his world from which a rival world might be fashioned, and sent the goddess Bamonpi away empty-handed. But as she returned she noticed the worin-casts on the road, and carried off one and hid it in her bosom. But even with this piece of warm earth nothing could be done, until the gods sent for Htdong Recho, the king of the earth-worms, who came and worked up the piece of earth, till in one day it became a heap many

LEGEND OF CREATION 71

feet in diameter ; so be continued, till eventually it became tbis eaitb of ours. But it was still soft moist eartb, on wbicb no one could travel. So tbey called Kriprang tbc blaeksmitb, wbo witb bis bellows produced a wind wbicb dried tbe mud to solid eartb. Tben the gods said, " "We must cause plants to grow on it." Tbey searched everywhere for seed, and at last sent to Rekbepi in tbe west, by tbe great post that marked tbe place of tbe setting sun, to ask her for seed. Rekbepi came, and herself brought seed and sowed it. (Another version states that Rekbepi and Rek-kropi, wives of two gods, went to Kanii, ])eyond the boundaries of tbis world, and obtained from bim tbe various seeds of trees and plants. As they were returning, the sindm, or bead-strap, wbich beld the baskets on their heads broke, and tbe winds scattered tbe seeds on the surface of the earth. This occurred on the bank of the river Kallang, in tbe south-eastern part of Nowgong. But all tbe bamboos that grew from these seeds were jointless, and therefore weak : strong winds would break down tbe entire crop in a single storm. So tbe goddesses who 1)rougbt tbe seed tied round tbe stems pieces of thread to strengthen them ; tbe threads made scars, until at last all the bamboos we have now are marked witb scars at the joints.)

Next came the creation of animals. Hempbu and Mukrang were the leaders, but tbey were helped by Pitbe and Pothe ("great motber " and " great father "). The elephant was tirst created to be a servant to man. Tben the tiger was made, and bidden to eat the wicked ; any one killed by a tiger is still tbougbt to have committed some great crime.

Tben a great council was held, and it was decided to create a being called arlhiff (man). The first man's name was Bamon-po, and be bad created for him two wives, one a Mikir and the other an Assamese. But no offspring was born to the man for a long time. At lust the Assamese wife sent her husband to her elder brotber, who understood the secrets of nature. He sent Banionpo into his garden, and bade bim pick an orange for eacb of bis wives, and give it to her to eat, when all would be well. Biimonpo did so, and went bomewards with bis two oranges. On tbe way, becoming bot, be stopped at a river to bathe. While he was in tbe water, a crow came and carried away one of tbe oranges. Bamonpo sadly returned to bis home, and gave tbe one orange left to bis Assamese wife, who ate it. But tbe Mikir wife picked up a piece of tbe peel and ate it, and in process of tune she had a son, whom she named Ram. Tbe Assamese wife also bad a son, whom she called Chiiputi. He, however, was weak and puny, w'hile Ram was strung and valiant. Ram could pull up trees by the roots, and break them down as he

72 LEGEND OF CREATION

pleased. He could fight and conquer any demon who attacked him, and any man whom he met. But he had no wife. One day while out hunting he became thirsty, and climbed a tree to look for water. He saw a pool, at which he quenched his thirst. As he did so, he noticed in the grass a white thing, which he put in his basket and carried home. It was a large egg. For some days he forgot to look at it, and later on, when he went to see it, he found that the eiro- was broken, and a beautiful woman had come forth from it. The demons tried to seize her and carry her off, but Ram vanquished them all, and made her his wife. She was very fruitful, and her children multiplied until they were numbered by thousands. Ram's fame spread throughout the world, till at last he disappeared, and was deified by a race of his descendants, called Hindus. They were a mighty race of men, and in the course of time, becoming dissatisfied with the mastery of the earth, they determined to conquer heaven, and began to build a tower to reach up to the skies. Higher and higher rose the building, till at last the gods and demons feared lest these giants should become the masters of heaven, as they already were of earth. So they confounded their speech, and scattered them to the four corners of the earth. Hence arose all the various tongues of men.

Additional note to 2^. 45. — A very exact parallel to the story of Harata Kunwar will be found in Mr. S. .J. Hickson's book entitled ^-1 Naturalist in North Celebes (London, 1889), pp. 2(j4-(J. It is a story current among the Minahassa people of that region, of heavenly nymphs in whose clothes resided their power to Hy, and one of whom was captured by a man who made her his wife ; other details agree closely with those of the Mikir story.

VI.

LANGUAGE.

Outline of Mikir grammar — The original text of the three stories trans- lated in Section V., analysed and elucidated.

The language spoken by the Mikirs belongs to the great family of Indo-Chinese speech called Tibeto-Burman, the general characteristics of which have been fully set forth in TJtr Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iii. ]\Iikir itself is treated on pp. 380 ff. of Part II. of that volume, and is described by Dr. Griersou as a member of the Naga-Bodo sub-group, in which it is classed together with Empeo or Kachcha Naga, Kabul, and Khoirao. It is unnecessary here to occupy space with any demonstration of the fact that Mikir is a Tibeto-liurman language, or to cite lists of words in it agreeing with those of other languages of the same great class. In the next section an attempt will be made to examine its affinities with other varieties of Tibeto-Burman speech, and to define more clearly its place in the family ; in this the language will be dealt with in its internal structure only, and, as specimens, the original text of the three stories translated in Section V. will be given, with an interlinear rendering and a running commentary.

A grammatical sketch of Mikir was printed at pp. 381-391 of Part II. vol. iii. of the Lintjidstic Survey. What follows is mainly borrowed from that source, which was the first published attempt to explain systematically tlie facts and mechanism of the language.

Sounds.

Mikir has no written character of its own. The lirsL publi- cation printed in it, a short catechism issued by a missionary

73

74 GRAMMAR

press at Sibsagar in 1875, used the Assamese character ; since then, so far as is known, the Roman alphabet has always been employed to express the sounds of the language. Mr. Stack, from whose materials this monograph has been compiled, dis- tinguished the following vowel sounds : —

(/, long a as in father (chiefly in open syllables) ;

a, the same shortened and pronounced abruptly, as in the German Mann, always in closed syllables ;

(N.B. The language does not possess the short Hindi a, representing the 'tc in Tjitt.)

e, the long c in the French scene ;

e, the same sound shortened, as in helief',

e, the sharp e in the English men (always in closed syllables) ;

I, the long i in maehine ;

i, the short i'mit ;

0, the long o in lone ;

0, the same shortened, as in obey ;

0, the sharp abrupt sound in pot (always in closed syllables) ;

ii, the long u in June ;

u, the short u in full. The diphthongs are —

ai, as in aisle ;

eiy almost as in feign, with the i audible ;

oi, as in hail ;

ui, long M with i added : no English equivalent.

The consonants used in Mikir are b, eh, d, h, j, k, I, m, n, ng, 'p, r, s, t, V (all with their value as in English), and the aspirates kh, ph, th (pronounced as in cooJchouse, haphazard, anthill). Bh, dh, and g occur only in a few borrowed words, and hh and dh are commonly resolved, as bahdr (for Hindi bhdr), " a load," and dohbn (for Ass. dhon), " money." F, sh, w, y, and z are not used. Ng is never initial, and the g is not separately heard (always as in singer, never as in younger).

Monosyllabic Roots.

The root words of the language, whether nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, or adverbs, are generally monosyllabic ; where

GRAMMAR 75

simple roots have more than one syllable, the additions are formative jprejixcs, once probably separate words, which have become incorporated, Sucli are the prefix h-, M-, La-, used to form adjectives, present particiides, and verbal nouns ; and the prefixes ar- (in ami, "sun," drlbng, "stone," dr/lnr/, " niau," etc.), ing- (in inylbng, "mountain"; infjlion, "pity," etc.), and tc-, ti-, to- (in tcram, " call," /cld/i(/, " abandon," tlhup, " house- yard," tovdr, " voad," etc.), of which the precise significance is not now traceable. In compound roots, formed by combining monosyllabic elements, the force of each individual syllable is still fully felt ; such compounds are exceedingly common.

Words are not inflected, but are located in sense by their position in the sentence or by the addition of particles. These particles may often be omitted where ambiguity is not likely to occur ; such omission is particularly frequent as regards the postpositions indicating case, and the tense-affixes of the verb.

Gender.

Gender is not distinguished except for animated beings, and in them either (1) by added words indicating sex (as so-pu, *' boy," s6-pi, " girl " ; dso-pinsd, " male child " ; cisd-pl, "daughter"; chcdnbng-dld, "bull"; chainong-dpi, "cow"), or (2) by the use of difterent terms {po, " father," ^^e or pci, " mother," plm, " grandfather," -phi, " grandmother," etc.).

Number.

The ordinary suffix for the plural is -//<??i (which is originally a separate word meaning " company," " followers ") ; but other words are occasionally employed, as mco', a " mass, quantity, or company " ; bng, " many " ; and U, a respectful form used in addressing a number of persons. When -turn is suffixed to a noun, it takes the prefixed a- of relation, as drrenrj-atum, " men " ; when added to a personal pronoun it does not require this adjunct, as will be explained below {ne, " I," ne-tuni, " we " ; nang, " thou," ndng-tnm, " ye " ; Id, " he, she, it," Id- tum, " they ").

ye GRAMMAR

Case.

Case is indicated by position, or by postpositions. The nominative, and, generally speaking, the accusative, have no postpositions, but are ascertained by theii- position in the sentence, the nominative at the beginning, the accusative following it before the verb. Both, when necessarj^, can be emphasised by the addition of the particles -kh and -si, which in some sort play the part of the definite article ; but these are not case-postpositions. There is no device (as in Tibetan) for distinguishing the case of the agent with transitive verbs.

The genitive always precedes the noun on which it is dependent. When the word in the genitive is a pronoun of the first or second person, nothing intervenes between them : ne-men, " my name " ; nang-pt, " thy clothes." But when the pronoun is in the third person, or a noun is in the genitive case, the following noun has a- prefixed : e.g. la d-po, " his father"; Arnam a-hem, "God's house"; hijai-dtuiii d-kdm, " the jackals' work " ; drnl-kdngsdm d-jior, " day- becoming-cool time." This prefixed d- is really the pronoun of the third person, and means his, her, its, their ; the full meaning of the combinations given above is therefore " he, his father" : " God, his house " : " the jackals, their work " : " day becoming cool, its time." As in many other languages of the Tibeto-Burman family, nouns (especially those denoting personal relations, parts of the body, etc.) are seldom conceived as abstract and self-contained ; they most often occur in relation to some other noun, and thus the syllable d- is more often prefixed to them than not. Especially is this the case with adjectives; these ordinarily follow the noun which they qualify, and almost always have d- prefixed ; e.g. Arndm d-kethe, " God Almighty " : Id d-kibl d-bdng, " that younger one." Sometimes this prefixed d- is thinned down to e-, as in hem-e-pl, hem-e-po, " widow, widower," literally " female or male owner of the house " : hijai e-hur, "a pack of jackals." Most postpositions (originally nouns joined to the genitive of the qualified word) similarly require d- before them ; and the suffix -turn of the plural, since it means " a company," also in this manner assumes the form

GRAMMAR yy

d-titm. Before ing- the prefix a- is absorbed, and the result is dng.

The other cases are formed by postpositions. The instru- mental is generally indicated by phi (sometimes with prefixed a- or e-, as dphi, epen, but more often without), or phi-sl. The dative takes d-phdn, " to or for," which is also occasionally used for the accusative. The sign of the dative of purpose is dpot : pl-dpot, " what for, why ? " Icopi-dpotsl,, id. The ablative is formed with pen or penst : non-pien, " from now " ; ddk-phi, " from here " ; dpdrd (Ass. j'xmy?) is also used, generally with pen as well. The locative has a number of postpositions, according to the position required : -si is used for " in," as hern-sl, " in the house," ddtt-s'i, " in his country " ; drlo is also used for " in, inside." Ze (properly the conjunctive participle of a verb meaning " arrive, reach to a place ") is often used as a postposition for " at, in." Other common locative post- positions are d-thdk, "upon, on," dngsong, "above, upon," iirum, " below," dber, " below," dlbng " together with " (long means " place "), ddun, ddimg, " beside, next to " (du7i is a verb meaning " to be with, accompany "), dddk, " between," daghbng, " in the middle of," dplu, " after."

Adjectives.

Adjectives are regularly formed by prefixing Jcc-, hi-, or Ld- to the root, and do not change for gender, number, or case. Thus, from the root me, " to be good," we have leme, " good " ; held, "distance," l-dhelo, "far off"; dol\ "to have savour," kedbl-, " savoury " ; ho, " to be bitter," keho, " bitter " ; Ibl; " to be white," Mbk, " white " ; rl, " to be rich," lirl, " rich." Ke- and Id- are generally used with monosyllables, Jed- witli longer words ; kd- with ing- forms kdng.

The form of the adjective is precisely the same as that of the present participle of the verbal root, used to form the present tense, and also as that of the infinitive or abstract of that root, and the collocation of the sentence alone determines the meaning of the word used. When particles of comparison or other modifying elements are added to the adjective, the prefix ke- etc. is often dropped as unnecessary ; thus —

yS GRAMMAR

Mbk, " white " ; Ibk-hik, " whitish." kerne, "good"; me-7nu, "better"; me-ne, "best." keding, "tall"; ding-mu, "taller." 'QMt kangtui, *'high"; kangtui-mu, "higher"; kangtui-ne, " highest." Comparison is effected by means of the postpositions djidr and dphan ; " his brother is taller than his sister," d-te dpdr (or dphdn) d-kbr ding-mil.

Adjectives commonly follow the noun qualified; when they precede, the construction corresponds to what in Aryan languages would be indicated by the relative pronoun (see below, p. 80).

Numerals.

The cardinal numerals are Isl, one ; hml, two ; ketliom, three ; 2yhill, four ; phbngo, five ; thcrbk, six ; therbk-s'i, seven ; nerkep, eight; sirkep, nine; kep, ten. It will be seen that seven is six plus one, eight ten minus two, nine ten mi^ius one. From eleven to nineteen kj^e takes the place of kep : kre-lsl, eleven ; kre-hhii, twelve; kre-kethbm, thirteen, etc. A score is ingkoi, and from this point onwards the syllable rd is inserted between the multiple of ten and the added units : ingkoi-rd-isl , twenty- one ; ingkoi-rd-hlnl, twenty-two, etc. Thirty, forty, etc. are formed by adding kep to the multiplier unit : thbm-kep, phili-kep, etc. Eighty is therbk-nerkhp, ninety thcrbk-serk£p. A hundred is plidrb or ydrb, a thousand suri.

The numeral follows the noun. In composition liinl (except with hang, " person ") is reduced to nl, and kethbin to thbm, as jb-nl jo-thbm, " two or three nights." Fhili and therbk are often contracted to phlt and thrbk.

Generic determinatives, as in many other Tibeto-Burman languages, are commonly used with numbers : —

with persons, hang, as d-bng-mdr kbrte hdng-therok, " his uncles, the six brothers " ;

with animals, jbn (perhaps an Assamese loan-word), as chelbng jbn-phili, " four buffaloes " ;

with trees and things standing up, rbng : tkengpi rong-therbh " six trees " ;

with houses, hum, as hem Imm-therbk-kep, " sixty houses " ;

GRAMMAR

79

with ilat things, as a mat, a leaf, a knife, jja/.- as tar j^ak- 2')libngd, " five mats " ; Jo pdk-jjhil'i, " four leaves " ; voke pak-thom, " three knives " ;

with globular things, as an egg, a gourd, a vessel, piun: as vo-tl pum-nl, " two eggs " ; hojir/ 2^i^f'fn-therbksi, " seven gourds " ;

with parts of the body, and also with rings, bracelets, and other ornaments, hour/ : as keng e-hbmj, " one leg " ; roi hbn;j-m, " two bracelets."

One of anything is not formed with tsr, but, if a person is spoken of, limt (a Khasi loan-word) is used: if anything else, e- is prefixed to the generic determinative ; " one cow," chainbny e-jbn ; "one tree," tliengpl e-rbiig; "one book," ^:>?///d e-pak ; " one egg," vo-tl e-imm. This e- appears to be borrowed from Assamese, where it is shortened from elc.

Ordinals are formed by prefixing hdtai to the cardinal, as hdtai-kethbm, "third," hdtai phill, "fourth." They seem to be little used : in the story of Harata Kunwar it will be seen that clumsy periphrases are employed to designate the second, third, fourth, and fifth brother of the family to which the hero belonged. Distributive numeral adverbs are formed by pre- fixing pur or 2^^i'bng to the cardinal : piir-tliom or phbng-thbm, " thrice."

Pronouns.

The following are the ijersonal pronouns : —

1st Person : 7ie, I ; ne-tum, ne-ll, ne-h-tum, we, excluding the person addressed : l-tum, l-ll, we, including the person addressed ;

2ad Person : ndng, thou ; ndng-tum, ndng-ll, ndng-ll-tum, ye ;

!ld, he, she, it ; Id-tum, they ; dldng, he, she; aldng-ll, dldng-dtvm, dldng-l'i- fum, they. (The pronoun Id is really a demonstrative, = this, that : it is probable that the original pronoun of the third person was d.) These pronouns take the postpositions like nouns. The possessive or genitive prefixes are ne, my, our, excluding the person addressed ; e- or I-, our, including the person addressed ; ndng-, thy, your ; a-, his, her, its, their.

8o GRAMMAR

The dcmonslrative pronouns are — Id, Idhangso, hdngm, this ; pi. Idlangso-idum, these : hdla, hdldhangso, that ; pi. hdld-tum, hdldhangso-dtum, those. The syllable lid- connotes distance, as ddksl, Iddak, here ; M-dak, there ; lid dlihn che-voi-lo, " he returned home from a distance."

(There appears once to have been another demonstrative pronoun, pi, 2^^, i^«> still preserved in the compound words pi-ni, " to-day," _29e»dp, " to-morrow," pcdd2), this morning," pd- ninqve, "to-night." Instead of ^n and p)e we also find mi, me, as mi-ni, me-ndp. This survival is important for the purpose of comparison with other Tibeto-Burman languages.)

As in other Tibeto-Burman languages, there is no relative pronowi ; its place is taken by descriptive adjectival phrases. Thus " those six brothers who had gone to sell cow's flesh " is — Id cliainong d-hh Iccjor-ddm-d-tum Forte hdng-therok. Those cow 's flesh to sell going (plural) brothers persons-six ; " The man whom Teuton had tied with an iron chain " is — Teuton ingcliin d-nl-pen Ice-lcbk drlhig. Teuton iron chaiu-with tied-up man.

In these constructions, it will be seen, the adjective or qualifying participle precedes the noun.

The interrogative syllable, used to form interrogative pro- nouns, is ko- : komdt, komdt-sl, who ? kopl, pi, what ? ko-pu, ko-pu-si, kolopu, kolopu-son, how ? ko-dn, ko-dnsl, how many ? kondt, kondthu, where ? kondm-tu, ndm-tu, ndm-tu-si, when ? Always when the sentence does not contain an interrogative pronoun, and sometimes when it does, the syllable md at the end marks a question: "Are you atva^id," ndng j^kere-det md ? Ne (probably an Assamese loan-word) is also used instead of md : " Will you marry him or not ? " do-jl-ne do-de-ne ?

The reflexive pronoun is dmcthdng, self; hinong, own ; but the most usual way of indicating that the action affects oneself is to prefix the particle die- (clii-, ehing-, clieng-, and rarely clio-) to the verbal root : Id hem che-voi-lo, " he returned home," i.e. to his own house ; d-bng-mdr-dtum che-pu-lo, " his uncles said to one another " ; che-hdng-jo, " they asked for themselves." With initial ing-, die- coalesces to cliing : with dr- it unites to form chiir.

GRAMMAR 8i

Verbs.

The Mikir verb indicates time, past, present, or future, by means of particles prefixed or suffixed to the root. It does not vary for number,* gender, or person. There is no separate verb-substantive, though there are several ways of expressing existence, as do, " stay, abide," used also for " have, possess " ; pldng, " hecome" ; I dnr/, " exist, continue (with a sense of in- completeness) " ; h', " arrive, happen," etc. Great use is made of adjectival or participial forms, and, in narrative, of the con- junctive participle. Compound roots are very extensively used, the i)rincipal verb being put first, then the modifying supple- ments, and last the time-index.

The simj^ile, or indeterminate inesent is expressed by the participle with Ice-, led-, without any suffix : hondtsi ndng kedo, "where do you live?"; vo I'd nf/Jdr, " the bird flies " ; mrhurd thl'lbt-sl ne kd-chirii, " the old man having died, I am weeping " ; ne-phu ke-so-kbn, " my head is aching badly." This tense, as in other languages, is often used historically for the past.

The definite or determinate present is expressed by the same participle with -lo added : Id kopl kdnghoi-lo 1 " What is he doing (now) ? "

The habitual present is expressed by the verbal root with -lo : as vo-dtum-ke ne-p)hu-dtJidk inejjdr-lo, " the birds fly above our heads."

The simple or narrative piast is formed by the verbal root with -lo or -det added : Id fu-lo or pu-d'et, " he said " ; ne-phu sb-det, " my head was aching " ; Id kcrl-dphi-sl Ibng-lo, " he, after searching, found it." Sometimes del and lo are used together : Id ne ingtbn-det-lo, " he abused me." Bet may also be used for the present when the state indicated by the verb is one that began in the past and still continues : e.g. " Why are you afraid ? " may be rendered kojn dpbtsl ndng phere-det, or kopl dpbtsl ndng kdphere ?

The eomp)lete p)ast is indicated by the root with tdnglo added : Id-dpbtsl ne ddm-tdnglo, " I went, or had gone, on his account " ;

* There are certain particles, jo, j'lm, hiir, hbr, and hri, used to indicate j'lurality when tliis is necessary ; but they are inserted between the root and the tense-suttix, wliich is invariable.

82 GRAMMAR

telbng longle pho-tanglo, " the boat lias touched ground." Tang is a verb meaning " to finish." There are besides a great number of other particles indicating past time used with par- ticular verbs. Thus, with verbs meaning "to fall," hup and huk are common : halci che-koi-lup, " he fell down " ; hem ru- hup, " the house collapsed " ; Ibiuj-chong Ml-bup, " the upright memorial stone fell down " ; Ibiig-pah klo-huk, " the liat memorial stone fell down"; thengpl ang song -pen nang-Ho-huk, "he fell down from the top of the tree." Such particles generally indicate not only past time but abruptness.

A periphrastic past, with the root followed by inghoi-Io, " did," frequently occurs ; this is probably an imitation of Assamese idiom.

Here may be noticed the prefix nd)ig, used, as the specimens show, with great frequency in narrative. It has the effect of fixing the occurrence to a known place, and may generally be rendered " there." It is probable that this particle is originally the pronoun of the second person, and that it refers to the knowledge of the person addressed : " as you know," " as you see."

The future is represented in two ways : (1) by -po added to the root, to indicate an action beginning now and continuing in the future ; as itum nbnJce labangsb dlxcim dpbtsl pu-po, " we will talk about this affair now ; " and (2) by -jl added, for an action which commences later on ; as hddu drVeng-td thl-j'i, " all men will die " {i.e. at some future time). As -po includes the present in the case of continuing action, it may be, and often is, used in a present sense ; -jl is restricted to future time,

A corivpound future may be formed by adding to the root with -fi the words dbkdbk-lo : Id thl-jl dbkdbk-lo, "he is just about to die " ; an chb-jl dbkdbk-lo, " it is near breakfast- time " (rice-eating); an Ik-jl dbkdbk-lo, "the rice is nearly all done." A doubtful future may be expressed by -jl added to the present participle : kondt cliainbng d-bk-sl ddk-sl kedo-jl, " where should cow's flesh be here ? "

From the above it will be seen that there is much indefinite- uess in the indications of time afforded by the Mikir verb : except tang for the past complete, and -jl for the future, the other suffixes may, according to circumstances, be rendered by

GRAMMAR 83

the past, present, or future ; they may also ou occasion bo omitted altogether. But the context generally removes all ambiguity.

Conditional jihrascs are formed by putting -ti}. or -A', " if," at the end of the first member, and the second generally in the future with -jl or -jjo. Of the conditional future an example is nang ddm-ie, ndng Id thek-ddm-jl, "if you go, you will see him." The conditional past inserts dsmi ("like, supposing that,") before -te : doJibn do-dsbn-te, ne Id ndm-jl, " if I had money, I would buy it." The conditional pluperfect modifies the second member thus : ndng dam dsbn-te, ndng Id Ibng-loJc dpbtlo, " if you had gone, you would have got it " ; ndng ne than dsbn-te, ne Id Idem tdng-lo, " if you had explained to me, I would have done it."

The imperative is, for the second person, the bare root, or more usually the root strengthened by the addition of nbn or thd, and dialectically of noi; nbn (= "now ") is the strongest form. The other persons are formed by the addition of ndng (a verb meaning " to be necessary ") to the future in -jjo or present in -lo : " let us go " is l-tum ddm-po-ndng ; " let us go to the field and plough," rlt hai-hai ddm-lo-ndng. "We may, for the third person, use the causative form of the verb : Id-Jce peddm-nbn, " let him go."

Participles. The p)rcsent participle has the form of the adjective, with the prefixed Ice- (In-) or iCi- ; as keddm, " going," kd-chiru, "weeping." The past participle is the root or the present participle with tdng added : ddm-tdng, " gone," thek- tdng, " having seen," kd-pdngtu-tdng, " fattened."

Perhaps the most used form of the verb, especially in narrative, is the conjunctive picLrticiplc, which is either the bare root, or the root with -si ; hem che-voi-sl thek-lo, " having returned home, he saw." When the past is indicated, det is used, either with or without -si, as clio-d'et jun-det, sdrhurd, tbn- drlo kaibbng pdtu-joi-sl, l-lo, "having finished eating and drink- ing, the old man, having quietly hidden his club in a basket, lay down " ; Tentbn, dohbn-dldnghbng Ibng-si, rlt ddm-de-det-sl, kdt-jui-lo, "Teuton, having got the bamboo-joint with the money, without returning to the field, ran away."

When the phrase in which the conjunctive participle occurs

84 GRAMMAR

is terminated by an imperative, the sufl&x is not -si but -rd : "having eaten your rice, go," is an cho-rd ddm-non ; but "having eaten his rice, he went," is an chodef-s'i dara-lo. "While -SI links together parts of a narrative, -rd links together a string of imperatives.

The infinitive or verbal noun is identical in form with the present participle; kum-lirht tangte Jceldn drk'i ndng drju-Vonglo, " he heard (got to hear) there {ndng) the sound {drki) of fiddle (kiim) scraping {M-rot) and dancing (ke-lcin)." All words beginning with 7:e-, ki-, and Id- may therefore be regarded as (1) adjectives, (2) participles forming tenses of the verb, or (3) verbal nouns ; and it will be seen from the analysis of the specimens how clearly this at first sight strange allocation of forms can be made to express the required sense.

In all Tibeto-Burman languages the passive voice is either non-existent or little used ; a sentence which in English would be stated passively is turned the other way, and appears in an active form. Thus — " Four trees were uprooted by the wind" would be rendered tombn tJiengjn rbng-pJiill pi-pur-Jm-lo, "the wind uprooted four trees " ; " this house has been thrown down by an earthquake " is chikli-si Idhdngso dliem pi-m-hup-lo, " an earthquake has thrown down this house." Sometimes a passive may be expressed by a periphrasis, as " I was beaten," ne kechbk en-tang, lit, " I received a beating." The only unquestionable example of a passive is in the case of past participles, and here the passive is expressed by the simple expedient of putting the participle before instead of after the noun : Idng kevdyi dlwi\ " the drink brought by people " ; mdjd heVong drleng, " a man bewitched " ; ne ke-pi d-dn dJior, " the to-me-given rice and beer." This construction is exactly parallel to the method (explained above) of expressing the relative phrase by putting the adjective first, instead of after the noun, and is in fact another case of the same idiom. The participle, which may also (as just explained) be regarded as a verbal noun, comes before the subject of the sentence, because the action passes on to the subject, instead of emanating from it, as in an active construction. We are tempted to think that languages which lack what seems to European modes of thought such essential elements as a relative pronoun and a passive voice cannot be

GIL\MMAR 85

capable of any subtlety of expression ; yet this phenomenon is common to forms of speech like Tibetan, Burmese, and Chinese, which possess vast literatures dealing vdth all kinds of subjects, and in which it is possible to render ideas of the greatest com- plexity and variety. Even in Europe, the clearest and most logical of languages, French, prefers to use the active form of phrase {with on) rather than the passive.

The negative verb is a very interesting and remarkable feature of the language. A separate negative root, formed by prefixing or suffixing a negative paiticle, and conjugated in the same way as the positive, is indeed a common property of Tibeto-Burman speech; but in Mikir this secondary root is formed in a peculiar manner. The negating syllable -e is added to the primitive, as an, " can," un-e, " cannot" ; bn^, " be much," bng-e, " be not much " ; 7, " lie down," i-i, " not lie down." But when the root begins with a consonant or a nexus of consonants, and is monosyllabic, the consonant or nexus is repeated before the added vowel : thek, " see, be able " ; thtk-the, " not see, be unable"; dam, "go" ddm-de, "not go"; kroi, "believe, obey," kroi-kre, " disbelieve, disobey " ; mek-prdng, " eye-open, awake," meh-prdng-pre, " not awake." When the verb is of two or more syllables, the last is chosen for reduplication : inghoi, " do," inghoi-he, "not do"; ingjinso, " show mercy," ingjin-so-se, "not show mercy"; chini (Ass. loan-word), "recognise," chini-ne, " not recognise."

The secondary root thus obtained is treated in construction just like the positive root, and takes the tense-suffixes : pKik-td pi-vdng-ve-det-lo, " anybody to give him (anything) came not." The time-index is, however, with negative verbs more often dropped as unnecessar}', owing to the context showing what the time-relation is.

In the imperative the reduplication is not used ; the particle -rl is added to the positive root, with or without non as well : tKek-non, " see ! " ; thek-ri, or thek-rl-nbn, " see not ! "

It may be added that this method of forming the negative by reduplication is also applied to verbal adjectives in h:-, ki-, kd-, which thereupon usually drop the prefix : keso, " in pain, sick " ; so-se, " not sick, well " ; but kdngjiiiso, " merciful " ; kdng-jinsb-se, " merciless."

86 GRAMMAR

Besides this organic negative, there is a periphrastic negative formed by adding the word dve, " is not " : Arnam abang dve, kecheng dve, kdjjetdng dve, " God has no body, no beginning, no end" (lit. "God his body is not, beginning is not, end is not"). The a in dve is the usual d of relation, and may be dropped: dldm-dve " without a word " ; Idm-ve, " word-less, dumb." Kd- may be prefixed, forming have, used as an adjectival nega- tive : koixd (Ass. kopdl), " fortune," kopoA-kdve, " unfortunate." Another negative used separately, in emphatic assertions, is kdli : tovdr ndng kepek-jl kdl'i, *' the way I will by no means yield to you " ; ne-thibvk hall, " it is not my water-jar."

The causal verb is formed by prefixing the syllable 2^<^-, P^-, pd- * to the root : this is probably the verb pi, meaning '' to give"; e.g. cJio, "eat," p)<^chd, "feed"; tang, "finish," p)^i^^9> " cause to finish, end " ; ingrum, " be gathered together," pdng- rww, " collect " ; vhxlet, " be lost," pi-wircTet, " destroy." This syllable takes procedure of che- in reflexive verbs : e-chainbng e-pd-cM-thu-koi-ldng , " he has caused us to slaughter all our cows " : here e- is the pronoun of the first person plural inclusive of the addressee ; pd-, the causal prefix ; elii-, the reflexive par- ticle, indicating that the cattle slaughtered were their own ; thu, a verb, " to kill liy cutting " ; koi, a particle indicating completeness ; Idiig, the tense-sufiix.

Compound verbs meet us at every step in Mikir. Roots are heaped together, and the compound is closed by the tense-suffix. Ordinarily the first root determines the general meaning of the compound, the rest being adverbial supplements of modifying force : — cJiiru-pl-Vem-lo, " he pretended to weep " (chiru, " weep," lem, " seem, appear," pl-lem, " cause to seem, pretend ") ; ke- pMbng-ddm abang, "somebody who will go and set fire (to the funeral pile) {" iMbng, " kindle," dam, " go ") ; kroi-dini-lo, " she consented " {kroi, " agree, obey," dim, " go or be with another ") ; ne do-dun-jl-7iid, " will you stay with me ? " (do, " stay," du7i, as above). The texts which follow supply a multitude of other examples.

These adverbial supplements to verbs, inserted between the principal verb and the tense-suffixes, are a very characteristic

* Pe- and pi- are used with monosyllables, ^u- with most polysyllables ; 2>d + iit<j = iMiKj.

GRAMMAR %y

feature of the language, and their proper use is one of the most difficult things for a learner to master. Certain roots take constant supplements of this kind, and are scarcely ever found without them ; thus the verbs tli't, " die," l, " lie down to sleep," and jang, "close the eyes," are almost invariably followed by lot ; reiKj, " to live," takes et before verljal suffixes ; long, " to get," takes Ibk; chinghdr, "to be equal (in size, weight, height)," and chingdon, " to be equal in length," take chit ; inghbii, " to love," and ingjinsd, " to pity," both take duk ; jbh and thcf, both meaning " to escape, get loose," take ^^/i/o^. The complements for verbs meaning " to fall " have been mentioned above (p. 82). These supplements frequently cause the tense-endings to be dis- pensed with, in which case the action is understood to be in the narrative past or historic present. Xo doubt most of them were originally separate verbal roots, but are not ncnv capa])le of being used separately.

The brief outline given above will, it is hoped, enable tlie reader to apprehend the general construction of the narratives which follow, and display the language in action ; for further analysis reference should be made to the notes appended to the texts.

I.

OHONGHOLOSO ATOMO. FROG ST0B7.

Arni-si miso-rbngpo a-bng an cbe-thbn-damlo.

Day-one a big Mack ant (to) Ms uncle rice to carry went. ChoDgholoso tovar ingnl-thip. Ansi miso

a frog the way sat down and hlocked. Then the ant

pulo : " Tovar ne pek-tha, chbnglioloso ; ne ne-bng said: " The tvay forme leave free, frog; I my-nnde

an chethbn-dam-ji." Chbngholosb j)^^^6t : " Ne-rum rice carry-go-vnll." The frog answo'cd : " Under me

ne-lut-thbt-ra dam-te : pakta ne-rum-si dtim-

entering {creeping') go your way : every one under me hbr-le." Miso pudet : " Ne-bng a-an bbr do-

passes." Tlie ant said : " My uncle's rice leaf -bundle being kbk-le, pusi nang-rum-le n<\ng-kelut-thek-ji ? "

tied up, how you-underneath enter, creep, shall I be able '. "

Ansi chbngho-ta pek-pe, miso-ta dam-de.

So the frog would not give way, the ant could not go.

Ansi nerlo chitim-lo. Ansi mis5 — " Ai, ne-bng

So day became middle. So the ant — " Oh, my iinclc an-ingchir-si aning-ne-thi-po " pulo ; chbnglioloso-arum rice-hunger -in angry vnth me will be" said ; the frog -under

lut-thbt-lo, An-lo chbugholoso miso-athak ingni-dun- he entered, crept. Then the frog the ant-upon sat-down- chet-lo. Lilsi miso-rbngpo chbngholoso a-mi kbr-rak. fiat. Thereupon the big black ant the frog' s loins bit-severely. Ansi chbngho aning-thi-ning-thi karle-sarpo-a-dbn

Then the frog becoming very angry squirrcl-hig-old's ladder

STORY OF A FROG 89

chon-iai. Karle-sfirpu finin^llii-ninglhi

(on) jit77i2}cd and broLc. The hi<j old squirrel hccoming very awjnj

hiinthiTr-a-kok rot-pet. Huuthar aningtln-ningtlii

(jonrd's stem rut in two. The gourd hecominy very unyry

phak-belengpi fi-iuoi klo-diip. Phiik-belengpi aningtlii-

a wild hoar' s hack {on) fell plump. The wild hoar hccoming

ningthi lo-bong thimur-phak. Lobbng

vcinj anyry a 2ilantain-trce rooted up. The j^lantain-tree

aningthi-ningthi vo-ail»ipi a-tar siip-rai.

becoming very anyry a sparrow 's nest struck and broke. Vo-arbipi aniiigtbi-ningtlii ingmir no-thbng-pO a-no The sparrow hecominy very anyry an elephant deaf-hig 's ear

lut-tbbt. Ingnar no-thong-po aningthi-ningtlii arlbng entered. The elephant deaf-hig becoming very angry a rock beliing-pblut. Arlbng iiningtbi-ningtbi Eecbo- a-so

tore up suddenly. The rock hecominy very anyry the King 's son kbnglbng-pi-bup. AnSi Eecbo naug-bisar-lo : " Mat-si rolling-doion killed. Then the King made an enquiry : " IV ho ne-po pitbl-lbtlo ? " " Ai, arlbng-si kbnglbng-bup,"

my son has killed !- " " Ob, the rock rolled doicn on him," pulo. Ansi arlbng arju-damlo : " 0 arlbng,

they said. Then the rock he summoned to ansiver : " 0 rock, arlbng ! pi-apbt nang ne-so kbnglbng-bup ? "

rock ! for luhat reason you my son did roll down upon ! " Arlbng pudet: " die ! Hemphti-arnam-recbo, pi ne kbnglbng- The rock said : " Oh ! Lord- God- King, how I to roll

bup-be-ji ? Ingnar uo-tbbngp5-si ne belang-

down-not ivcts I ? The elepltant biy-dcaf me torn up

pblut-le ne doi-pbit-lo ; ne-ke ne-ri five,

suddenly having, me pushed out ; as for me, {to) me hands are not,

ne-keng ave, kolo-pu-si cher-cbak-tbek-ji ? Nang-

{to) me legs are not, how then withstand could I ? Your

sopb ne kekbnglbng a-tovar dokbksi, ne kbnglbng-

honourahle son my rolliny down-path beiny-in, I rolled down

bup-lo-te." upon him accordingly.^'

90 STORY OF A FROG

Ansi Eecho pulo : " Mai ! la iuguar no-thbng-po Then the king said: "Oh! that elei^hant deaf -big la-anset bbn-he " — pusi, ingnar no-thbng-po

tlMt so much {trouble} caused" — saying, elephant deaf -big arju-dam-lo. " 0 ingnar ingnar ! kopi-apbt nang

summoned. " 0 elephant, elephant ! for ivhat reason you

arlbng helang-phlut ? " Ingnar pudet : " Che !

the rock tore up suddenly ? " Tltc elephant OMstvercd : " Oh,

pi ne helang-phlut-phle-ji, Hemphu arnam ? Vo-arbipi hovj I vjo.s to help tearing it up), Lord God f The sparrow

ne-n5 ne-keliit-thbt-si, ne a-bidi thek-the-det-lo-le, my ear having entered into, my wits halving lost control of me,

la-helo ne arlbng helang-phlut," therefore I the rock tore up suddenly.

AnsI Eecho pudet — " Mai ! la vo-arbipi la-anpin Then the King said — "Oh! that sparrow that so viuch

bbn-he " pu, arju-damlo. " 0 vo-arbipi voarbipi !

(trouble) caused" saying, summoned. " 0 sparroio, sparrow! ingnar a-no kopi-apbt nang lut-thbt ? " Voarbipi

elephant's ear for vjhat reason did you enter ! " The sparrow 'thakdet — "Che! Hemphu! pi ne lut-le-ji ?

answered — " Oh ! Lord ! how I was I not to enter ? lobbng ne-tar kesap-rai-le, la-helo

the plantain-stalk my nest falling on having broken, therefore ne-ning oi-bng, ne ingnar a-no lut-thbt."

my mind being very disturbed, L elephant's ear entered."

Ansi Eecho pu — " Mai ! la lobbng lapu

Then the King said — "Oh! that p)lantain-stalk, it seems,

anpin bbn-he " — pusi arju-dam-lo. " 0 lobbug

so much (trouble) caused " — saying he summoned. " 0 lolantain^

lobbng! nang kopi-apbt vo-arbipi a-tar sap-

'plantain! you for what reason the sparrow's nest fell upon

rai ? " Lobbng pudet — " Che ! pi ne sap-rai-

and broke ! " The p)lantain said — " Oh ! hoiv L was not to

re-ji, Hemphu arnam ? Phak-beleng-pi-si ne

fall and break. Lord God ? The wild boar me

STORY OF A FROG 91

kathliniir-pliak-le : lu' tlriiiiiir-[tliiik-li)-tr' in" iiigkur rooted me iqi suddenl// : f Ji(ivin(/ hern roofed up, I root kiive-det-lo-le : kopu-si ue kurji'ip tlu'k-ji-laiig ?

none had at cdl : hoiv I standi iifj-ui) was to he able to ruitliauc ? Thangbak ne-ri ne-keng le-kedo kali-det-le."

Ani/ to me-liaiid to me-leg being, existing, not-at-all there is." "Mail la phak pu aii-piu bon-hC-," pvi

"Oh! that ]}ig, it seems, all the (trouhlc) caused," sajjing Eech5 pulo. Ansi phtlk-aphan arju-dam-lo. " 0 pbak pbak ! the King said. So the2ng (accus.) he summoned. " 0 pig, pig !

pi-apbt nang loljong thimur-phak " ? Pliak pudet

for what reason you the 2Jli(ntain rooted up" ! The ing ansivercd

" Pi nc tbimur-phak-phe-ji ? Ne cbopan-vek,

" How I eould, help rooting it up ? (as) I icas feeding, grazing, maraatsi bautbar ne-moi keklo-dap-lC- : b'l-belo

suddenly, the gourd my hack (on) came tumbling down : therefore

keso-bng ue lobong tbmiur-pbak." being in great pain I the plantain rooted up."

Ansi Eecbo — " Mai ! bautbar pu au-piu bbu-be "

So the king — " Oh ! the gourd, then, all this (trouble) caused,"

pusi bautbar arju-dam-lo. " 0 bautbar bautbar! pi-iipbt

saying the gourd summoned. " 0 gourd, gourd ! for what

pbak-beleug-pi a-moi uaug klo-dup ? " " Pi ne

reason the wild boar 'shack (on) you fell-plump?" '^ How I

klo-dup-de-ji, Hempbii Arnam ? Karle-si ue-k()k eould help falling'': Lord God': The squirrel my stern (to me)

ne-kerot-pet-le, ne-ke tbangbak ne-ri, ne-keng

having cut through, I at all to mc hand, to me foot

le-kedo kali-det, ne-kbk isi-pet au-belo, la-le

there-not-existing, my stem, one-only, so much having, that if ne rbt-pet-lo-te, ne klo-naug-po. Pbak-beleng-pi

to me is cut through, I must necessarily fall. The wild boar

a-moi keklo-nang-dup."

's back (on) falling became necessary."

Ansi Eecbo pu-le-lo — " Mai ! la karle pu au-piu So the King said again — " Oh ! that squirrel t/ien so much

92 STORY OF A FROG

bbnhe" pusi kaiie arju-dam-lo. " 0 kiirle

{trouble) caused " saying the squirrel summoned. " 0 squirrel,

kiirle ! kopi-fipot nang hanthar a-kbk rot-pet ? " squirrel! for wliat reason did you the gourd 's stein cut through ? " Karle pudet — " Che ! pi ne rot-re-ji, Hemphu

The squirrel said — " Oh, hoio I tvas not to cut it, Lord Amam ? Chbngh6loso-si ne-dbn clibn-rai-le. La-

God? The frog my ladder {on) jumijing hroJic : There-

si ne tovar ave-det-lo : ne hanthar a-kbk rbt-

fore to me a road did not remain: I the gourd 's stem had

pet." to cut."

Eecho pudet — " Mai ! la chbngho la-pu an-pin

TheKiTig said — " Oh ! that frog, it seems, so much {trouble) bbn-he" pusi arju-dam-lo. "0 chbngholoso chbngholoso ! caused" saying he summoned. " 0 frog, f'>'og !

kopi-apbt nang karle a-dbn chbn-rai ? "

for what reason you the squirrel's ladder jumping on broke ? " Chbngho thakdet — " Pi ne chbn-rai-re-ji ?

The frog ansiuered — " Hoio I ivas to help jumping on and breaking? Miso-rbng-p6-si ne-mi ne-ke kbr-rak-le : la keso-bng- Tlie big black ant my loins, even me, bit hard : that pain-great-

si ne karle-adbn-bo-po ne chini-ne-det-si chbn-

from I squirrel's ladder (honorific) / not knowingly jumped upon

rai-te." and broker

Eechb pu-le-lo — " Mai ! miso pu an-pin

The King said again — "Oh! the ant, then, caused all the bbn-he " pusi arju-dam-lo. " 0 miso miso ! pi-apbt nang trouble" saying summoned. " 0 ant, ant! ivhat-for did yoit chbngholoso-a-mi kbr-rak ? " Miso pudet — " Pi ne kbr- the frog's loins bite severely? " The ant said — "How I was to

rak-re-ji ? Adap ne-bng an che-thbn-

hclp biting him ? In the morning to my uncle rice I was going

dam-lo : Chbngho tovar ingni-thip. La-lo

alcm,g carrying : the frog the road sitting down blocked. Thereupon

STORY OF A FROG 93

11c ' toviir ne pek-tlia ' piilo : ' nr'-ruiu-lc lu(-U()U ' pu.

/ ' road to me free-leave ' said : ' me undernea.th creep ' he said. Ne lut-thbt-lo : chbngho nc'-thiik nO ingni-tlii]) ;

/ C7'ept imder him : the frog on the top of me sat doivn tiyhi ; lasi ne a-mi kbr-rak."

therefore I his loins hit-severely."

Ansi Eeclio pulo — " NJing bung-liliii kelct-dJ't." Misb-kr' Then the King said — " You pcrsons-tivo gitdtij-arc." TItc ant cliujbng-pen kbk-chek-lo : nbn a-vam cheng-jan.

hair of head-with they tied-firmly : now his-waist is very slender.

Clibiighb-ke tarme-lang-bbng-pen sap-phrut-phrat ;

The frog a hlistering erccper-witJi they soundly thrashti/ ; lasi nbn phrbk-se-nbk-tbk.

therefore noio he is speckled all over.

NOTES.

This simple and direct narrative, easy of analysis, affords an excellent illustration of the mechanism of Mikir sjieech. First, we observe that the indication of time is put at the beginning of the sentence : drnl-si, "one day"; udap, "in the morning." Then follows the subject, then the object, and last the verb, with all its (qualifications. Tlie most frequent conjunction is ansi, " and, so," which appears to be made uj) of all, the particle indicating quantity, and si, the particle indicating locality, used also for the conjunctive participle ; the meaning would then l)e — "so much having passed (what follows conies next)." Au-hP, an-U- and an-lo have the same force.

For the tenses we find the usual suffixes, -lo, -det, for the narrative ])ast, -po for the present-future, and -jl for the future. In the narrative a much-used auxiliary is -Uj, which means "having ai'rived." Tlie passage is remarkable for the number of cases in which, no ambiguity being ])ossible, the tense-pai-ticle is omitted, and the past is expressed by the bare root, without, or more commonly with, an adverliial supplement. Tluis, we \\;\\e pulo, pndU, and^-iu for " said " ; infjni-tJiip, " he sat down and blocked," kbr-rak, "bit severely," dtun-rai, "jumped upon and broke," rbt-pef, "cut in two," Mu-dup, "fell plump," thimur-phak, "rooted up," sa/»-?-ai, " struck and broke," /(/^M?^/, " entered," htlawi- phlut, " tore up suddenly," ^j-6tiy^ "killed by tumbling on him," chh-phn- vek, "was feeding, grazing," shp-2)]irht-phrht, "beat soundly." Then, we notice that the great majority of tliese cases are examples of roots (qualified by the addition of a particle whicli, while not used separately by itself, gives energy and definiteness to the verbal root ; this method of heightening the force of verbs is a great characteristic of ^likir diction, and is at once the chi(!f beauty and the chief difficulty (to a fi>reigner) of the language. The adverbial i)articles so used are vcrj' numerous, but they are appropriated to particular verbal roots, and if they were wronglj' applied the result would l)e nonsense. Thus, the particle lot is used witli three verbs only, thi, "die," /, "lie down," and jaiKj "close the eyes,"

94 STORY OF A FROG

and always jn-ecedes tlie verbal suffixes with these roots : it cannot be used with any other. Thot, again, always occurs with lut, "to enter," fok and vnr, " to throw." Bup conveys the idea of a sudden blow or fall, and is used with verbs of falling or striking. Dap and dup seem to have much the same force. PH, hoi, klip are particles used to indicate com- pleteness ; hit-pet-Io, "all have gone in," rht-pet-lo, "he cut through," dio-koi-lo, "he ate up," thu-koi-lo, " he killed them all," chd-kUp-lo, "he devoured them." Several of these auxiliary particles seem to be onomatopoetic.

Much resembling the use of these particles are the cases in which verbal roots are combined together to form a single expression. Thus, in our story, thtn-dum-Io "he carrying went"; do-kbk-Je "remaining tied-up " ; ingnl-dun-chet-Io " he sat down suddenly (chet) when the ant was passing (dim) " (dun means " to be with," and is constantly used as an auxiliary, but can also be employed alone in the sense " to go with ") ; arju-dum-lo "he summoned to answer"; ne Mu-nang-po "I must necessarily fall" (nung, verb of necessity).

The story gives a number of examples of the remarkable Mikir negative verb: pek-pe, "did not give way (pek)" ; dam-de, "did not go" ; pi ne konglb7iy-bup-he-ji, "how was I not to roll down upon him and smash him ? " where the negative syllable bt borrows the initial consonant of tlie qualifying particle bup; similarly, hiUtng-phlut-phle " not suddenly root up " ; sap-ral-re " not strike and break " ; cJiun-rai-re "not jump upon and break"; cliini-ne-det-si "not know^ing " (where chini is a loan-word from Assamese).

As regards vocabulary, tha in ne-pek-thd is the imperative particle : another such jiarticle (rarely occurring) is te in ne lut-thot-ra dam-te ; ra is used as the suffix of the conjunctive participle in a string of imperatives. Jlhr in dum-hhr-le indicates plurality : " every one has to pass under me " ; other such particles are yo and jarrt. Td in chonghO-td and mlso-td gives definiteness and emphasis ; so also ke in ne-ke, &c. Sdrpo in kdrle sdrpo means "big chief": puia a syllable added to give honour and dignity. Notice intensiveness indicated by reduplication in dningthi-ningthl, " very angry " ; ning-thl, angry, is made up of ning, mind, and thl to be vexed (also to die). Hanthur : see note on p. 46. Rot-pM means to cut down a slender stem or twig by drawing a knife across it : pi-pit to cut down a thick trunk of a tree ; rot is used for drawing a bow across a liddle in kn in-klrut ' ' fiddle-scraping. " Beleng means a shovel or tray for winnowing rice ; phhk-btJing-pjl is a wild j^ig, because he roots about in the earth with his snout like a shovel ; -pfi is a syllable used to form augmentatives, as -so indicates a diminutive. Bisdr, to hold a judicial inquiry, is Assamese. HhnplM, "owner," the God Mikirs belong to. Vo-drblpi, '^ a small bird, the size of a sparrow " (not the sparrow itself, which in Mikir is vu-pmru). Ne chopan-vek, "I was grazing"; chOpan is used of feeding for animals only ; vek (or vek-vek) is a particle indicating con- tinuance. Mamatid is used of some sudden and unpleasant interruption : klem-vek-vek mamafsl thl-lo, " he died suddenly as he was working" ; ne (tn cho-vek mamatsl ne chbk-det, " he beat me while I was eating." Notice, finally, imn, the particle most often used to indicate a strong imperative, here in its original sense of " now " ; in this meaning it is usually emphasised by adding ke or le, nbnke, nbnle.

II.

jAngreso pen a-ong-atum atomo. tee obpean and eis uncles ' story.

Hako inut ahein-epi asopo iuut-pet do ; la

Once on a time one luidow a so7i only one had ; she

fichekle-mar korte bang-therbk do. Ansi

(ivoman's) brothers (plural) brothers ijcrsoiis-six had. Now

arni-si arni-kangsam a-bngmar-atum

one day in the cool of the day {evening) his rnaternal uncles

NOTES.

Here we have a narrative of a more complex character than that of the first story, with a richer vocabulary, and abounding in the descriptive adverbial particles which are tlie main feature of the language.

Jangre, orphan : so is a diminutive particle. Janr/n' indicates that one parent is dead ; juNgren;/ is used when neither survives.

Inut, a loan-word from the Khasi ngut, used for tlie enumeration of persons : in Mikir initial ng is inadmissible.

Hem-epl, widow, literally, " sole mistress of the house " (hem) ; the syllable e is perhaps a thinning down of (7 ; juZ is the feminine affix, here of dignity.

Achekle, brother, used oidy by a woman speaking of her brothers ; Ik is used by both sexes ; mdr, collective particle, used to form [jlurals : often (Itum is added ; korte, brother : both k(jr and te separately may be used for either brother or sister ; hang, the class-word used for human beings before numerals.

Do, a verb meaning to stay, dwell, exist ; specially, it has the meaning "to live with as a wife," and is the correlative of en, "to take (to wife)."

Arnl-kangsam, "day-becoming-cool-time," the late afternoon. As is natural where there are no clocks, the divij^ions of the day are marked by other means than the count of hours. Ami is a day (or sun), regarded without reference to the lapse of time = French Jour ; anerlo is a day's si)ace = journee. Similarly, djo is a nig-ht, jlrlo a night's space. The first indication of coming day is vo-khu e-the, "first cock-crow" ; then follows vo-khu the-n'i, "second cock-crow," and vo-khu the-thhm, "third cock-crow " : then thP-dng prinpre-le, " just before dawn " ; then wlap kang-thang, dawn (ddup, general word for morning) ; then nerlo-chitim, "day-middle," noon ; then ariil tlii-Mo, "tlie sun at its height" ; then drnl-kdngsdm, "the sun becoming cool," afternoon ; then ingting lim-rim, or iugting-rim, dusk. Then begins djo, night, when the evening meal is

95

96 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

vaug-si jangreso-aphan nang-hanglo — " Osa !

having come the orphan (accus.) called-to — ""Nephew!

rii cho-du-dc\m-nang." Ansi j<\iigres6-ta dun-lo.

juh-tra'p set up-go-let-us." So the orphan went vnth them. Ansi aoug-mar kbrte bang-therbk-ke laug-thak-si pat Then his uncles, the hrothers persons-six, up-stream a dam me-sen-si rii dii-lo. Jangreso-ke a-ongmar-atum

having well built the trap set up. The orj)han his uncles

a-rn-pat a-ber-si arlong dii-i pbang-o-phang-a-si

' trap-dam helow stones having set up carelessly, disorderly, ru dii-lo, ansi bem nang-cbe-voi-lo. Ansi latum adap

traiJ set up, and home returned Then they in the morning

ru cbe-vat-dam-lo. A-bngmar-atum a-rii-pat

the trap-their went to inspect. His uncles ' trap)-dam

an kepat-peme-ta, cbikuug-cbikang-ta cbe-var-

so very well-huilt though, one cr ay -fish even had not thrown thbt-tbe ; jangreso a-rii puke, bk kejang

itself into it ; the orphans trap as for, fis/o holding, entering

a-rii tengset, Ansi a-bngmar-atum pulo — " Osa !

his trap ivas quite full. Tlien his uncles said "Ncpliew!

taken, after which soon comes the first sleep, an-chu mek-hur, "rice- having-eaten eye-close " ; then /E/'?o chitim, midnight.

Narig-, a particle used, prefixed to verbs, to give vividness, is reallj' the pronoun of the 2nd person singular, emphasis being given by referring the verb to the person addressed. Nhng at the end of the phrase is the verb of necessity = must ; it often means " let us do this or that."

Piit, as a noun, is a stone dam or fence, put across a stream with an opening in the middle in which the bamboo cage or fish-trap, ru, is placed ; as a verb, it means to build such a dam or fence ; du means tO' place a thing so that it will catch or intercept something else.

Lang, water, stream : lang-thhlc up-stream, Idng-her down-stream.

Che- prefixed to verbs gives them a reflexive meaning, and indicates that the action relates to the subject ; hem che-voi-lo, "he went home, to his ov)n house " ; che-pu-Io, " they said to one another " ; ru clic-vht-dum-loy " they went to inspect their ovni fish-trap."

C'/nknng, a cray-fish ; chikang is an imitative sec^uent ; similarly 2>}ihng-u, carelessly, is followed by phang-d.

Jang, as a verb, means to fill up, or, of the containing vessel, to hold — hk-hejung d-ru, " fish-to-hold-traij." Notice that hk means both fish and flesh ; alone, it has usually the former meaning, or that of game, animals hunted ; when joined to the name of an animal, the latter : chaiiihiig-d-hk, beef ; phdk-u-(jk, pork ; bl-d-hk, goat's flesla.

Tt:)ig and plf^ng both mean to be full : set is a particle added tcv strengthen the verb, taking the place of the tense-affi.\.

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES 97

netum duk ru put-po, uangli-ke lang-bcT-lt' pal-dam- we here trap vrill build, do yoii down-streain go and set thu-non." Ansi jangreso iT-ru-put fv-bng-

your dam againy So tlic orphuis trap-dam (in) his

mar-atum a-ru du-si, jangreso-ke langbersi

uncles their trap having set vp, the orphan down stream

psit-dajn-thu-lo ; bonta ok kejang lapu-thak-thak, again built his dam; but the fish holding just that same wag, a-ODgmar-atum a-ni-ke ok-ejon-nat-ta jang-thbt-the,

the uncles ' trap one single fish even did not hold,

jangreso a-rii-ke ok kejang plbngset-plengset. Ansi tliC orphan's trap fi^h holding icas quite full. So

adap-vang-ta jangreso a-ru-pat a-bng-atum che-

niorning-every the orphan's trap-dam his uncles took for

rai-ver-lo. Lasi adap-vang along

themselves continually. Therefore every morning a palace kaprek ni-pat selet-bng-si, adap-isi-ke

different (in) trap-set-up becoming very weary, morning one

rii dti-tekang-ke-detsi, bap a-phang-athak bi

the trap not setting iip at all, grass clump upon p)lacing tekang-kbk. Ansi adap le-lo, a-bngmar-atum vang-si

he left it. So morning arrived, his uncles having come

jiingreso-aphan nang-hang-lo : " Osa, ni chevat-dam-

to the orphan called out: " Ncpheiv .' our traps let us go

le-lo-naug." Ansi jangreso pulo : " Neli-ke rii-ta

again and visit." Then the orphan said : " As for me, a trap

dn-tekang-ke ; da bbnta, uanglitum-firi

/ have not even set up; come, nevertheless, (as) your companion

nang-dun-ji," piisi dim-lo. Ansi fi-rii

/ will go ivith you^ so saying he went ivith them. Then his trap

Adap-vang, " every morning " ; literally, " as (each) morning came." Ohe-rai-ver-lo ; here che- is the reflexive particle, rai a verb, to occupy, take up, irr a particle indicating continuance, to the tense-aftix ; the whole therefore means " they kept on taking up for themselves."

Du-tehang-ke-det-si ; du, verb, to place, set; iiktnKj, a verb, to leave, depart ; ke, negative syllable, reduplicated from last syllable of tckajig, det, particle of past time, si affix of conjunctive participle ; the whole therefore means "not having placed and left," "without setting up at all."

II

98 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

che-lang-damlo. Vo-thung lut-thbt thek-dam-lo.

he went to look at. A wood-pigeon having entered he found. Ansi labangso a-vo-thung ari chekbksi hem

So that wood pigeon his cord (with) having tied 'up home che-van-lo. he bought.

Labangsd a-jangres6 chainong-as5-ta e-joii do, la

TJiat orphan a cone's child (a calf) also one had, it

kangtu puke matba-thek-the jadi-thek-the, nei-bot an-

fat so very, as coidd not he imagined (doublet) very sleek so

pin. Anke a-6ngmar-atuni lang-un-e-si

greatly. Noio his uncles to look at-heing tinahlc (through envy)

labangso a-chainbng-aso thri-pet-lo. Ansi jangreso

that calf killed (entirely). TJicn the orphan

labangso a-chainbng-as5 a-reng lumsi akeng-ehbng

that calf's skin having taken off, leg one

ha bambn kiri-p6 a-hem pbu-si patu-dam-

to a distance a hrahman rich-hig's house (to) taking, hid it

joi-lo. Ansi jangresb : " Mai ! hem-ta chainbng-

quietly. Tlien the orphan (said) : " Oh ! the house cow's

a-bk angnim-hai-bng-he ! " Anke bambn-p6

flesh (of) smells strongly ! " Then the hig hrahman,

aningthi-si pulo : " Teke nang-kbrdut-pi a-os6 ! konat

becoming angry, said : " Tiger -bitten boy ! where

Ej7m : jhn is the class word for animals, as hang is for persons, used with numerals; e- is the prehx for "one" ; the other numerals follow — phuk fon-nl,j7)n-thom, two, three pigs.

Mdthu thek-the ; milthd, verb, to think, imagine ; thek, verb, to be able (also to see); the neji^ative affix: the whole therefore means "as could not be imagined " ; judi-thek-the is a doublet of the same meaning. An- pin : an, particle of quantity ; pin up to ; also tik ; dn-jnn or an-tik therefore means " to such a degree.'

Aktng e-Jcung : a its (the calf's), keng, leg, e-, one (as before), hong class-word for enumerating parts of the body ; hd, particle indicating distance ; La, this, hd-Ia that : Id-dak, here, hd-ddk, there.

Teke-nhng-kurdut-pl d-osu: ieke, "tiger" ; ndng, particle of vividness, or, possibly, "you"; ^cr, verb, to bite, duf, particle strengthening the verb and dispensing with tense-affix, 2^1 syllable used in abuse, d- syllable of relation, osO boy : the substantive being put last indicates that the verb is to be taken passively: "you tiger-bitten scoundrel of a boy!" As the Mikirs consider that to be eaten by a tiger is conclusive evidence of

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLKS

99

achainbng-ri-oksl dak-h" ke-do-ji ? NO-kr; l>fiiiii)ii-l(-.

cows flesh here should he > I am a hrahvmn.

Nang peklung tlu'k-ser-mH-sI : tliekthe-le ming-prun You xtroducc, show, must he ahle to : you cannot-if, yunr life nang-en-ji." AnsI jangreso pulo— "Dei, tangte ne I will tahe here." Then the orphan said — " Verij well, then I ri-po,". pu-si ri-lo. Ri-phang-o-phang-a-si, fdiing

tvill search," saying he searched: seanddng carelessly, he

kapatu-albng diim-si chainong-aso a-keug vuug-dam-phlut hiding-place (to) going the calf's leg ^m^/ out suddenly

iuglioi-lo : " Laiig-ubn, chainbng a-bk do," pu —

did: See-now, cow's flesh there is," saying —

" ne nang pu-lo-he ! " Ansi bumbn po — " Bang-kaprek-

" / tuld you so ! " Tlien the hig hrahman — '' pec^le other atiun vang-thek-dun-te, ne-jat virdet-jl " pu,

(plur.) come-see-together-if, my-easte ivill he destroyed " saying, phere-si jangreso-aphan pulo : " Jangreso, p6-arnam-po ! pak-ta fearing the orphan-to said : " Orpihan, my good sir ! any one than-ri-nbn ! dohbn mantung-isi nang pi-po " — pusi do not tell ! money a cloth-full-one you I will give" saying dohbn mantung-isi pilo. Ansi jangi-eso labJingso adohbn money a cloth-full gave. Then the orphan that money

the wickedness of the victim, the phrase is equivalent to "you wicked Av retch of a boy ! "

Nung iJcMiing tlick-scr mn-sl ; nang, "you," kiting, verb, "to see, observe " ; pe-, causative particle, so that pek/ang means " to show, to produce"; ^Ae^-, verb, to be able, sci' strengthening particle, "fully"; 711(1, syllable used for direct or indirect questions: dujl-md ? "will you marry me ? " Nang peso en-taug-ina ? " have you taken a wife ?" ; then, for alternatives, do-jl-ma do-de-ma? "will you marry him or not?"; and lastlj% as here, ^' if you are not able to produce — then," etc. ; si, affix of conjunctive participle, i)roperly a locative particle.

Dei, " very good," a loan-word from Khasi. Tang-te, "then," — pro- perly " not having tinished " ; titng is the verb meaning to be ended, com- pleted, tJi tlie negative syllable.

Vimg-dam-ptilut inghoi-lo. This periphrastic construction, in which inglioi, to do, is used to strengthen the verb, seems to be borrowed from Assamese ; many examples occur further on.

Pu-arnam-pr>! a honoritic form of address ; ^o, literal!}', "father," but used also of a son {cf. the Hindustani hilha) nrnam, (iod (Ass. deutu), pu, big, honourable. For a girl the corresponding phrase is pe-drnam-pi. Dohon, Assamese dhX)n {dhun), wealth, money ; notice that the dli is resolved by the insertion of a vowel ; similarly, further on, hahdr occurs for hhdr (Ass.), a load ; neither dli nor bh is used in purely Mikir words.

lOO THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

p6u-si hem che-voi-lo. Hem che-le-lo, ansi

taking with him, home returned. House his he arrived, and

a-pei che-pu-lo : " ne-bng-atum a-tbn hang-dam-tha."

his mother {to) said : my uncles basket go-ash-for."

Ansi fipei da,m-si hang-dam-lo : " Ik-mar-li ! nangli

So his mother going asked for it : "Brothers! your osii kipn, ' ton tangho.' " Ansi ton nang-lo-lo. Ansi

nephew says, ' a basket I want.' " So a basket they sent. Then

hem-epi a-ik-mar-atum ton pisi che-

the widow's brothers the basket having given said among

pu-lo " Ton pi kanghoi-i-ji-ne ? lang-dun-tbn-

themselvcs — " The basket what is to do with / go and fecp

tha" — pusi akibi-abang toi-dim-lo; ansi la nang-

(imper.) — saying their youngest one they sent and he there

lang-dun-tbn-lo, anke hotbn-pen dohbn keteng loent and ivatchcd, and the basket-ivith money measuring nang-thek-dun-lo. Ansi nang-kelang-dun-tbn-abang

there he saw. Tlien there-the-one-who-had-ivatched-person hem che-voi-si, a-ik-mar than-dam-lo — "La

house his having returned to, his brothers informed — " That

e-osa konat-tbng kelbng-dam-lo-ne ? hotbn-pen

our-nepheio wherever get-did he {all this money) !■ with a basket dohbn keteng chinam sai-se." Ansi dohbn

money measure really he has to." So the money

teng-tang-det jangreso a-pei-ta tbn

measuring-finished-having the orphans mother the basket

thbn-dam-lo, anke achekle-mar nang-pu-dun-lo "Osa

returned, and her brothers there said to her " Nephew

Ton, hotoit, one of the numerous words for basket. Ttmg-lid, a word used by a messenger to express the wish of hiia who sent him to ask for something: not used in other phrases. Tun pi khnfihoi-i-jl ne "the l)asket for the purpose of doing wliat is ? " Pi, what, khrxjhoi, infinitive, to do, -I syUaVjle added to indicate purpose, jt affix of future, ne, particle of enquiry, an Assamese loan-word. Lhng-dun-thn-thd : long, verb, to look, dim, verb, to go with, to be with, fon, verb, to peep, pry, thu, imperative particle. 'Teng, to measure, with a vessel of known contents ; originally, to fill (see above, tPngsct = plhigsH). Konut-thng kelhng-dhni-lo- iii : konut, where : tung, a particle expressing xnicertainty : ' ' where on earth did he get it " ? Sai-se "■ in order to " ; "he really (rJdnam) has to use a basket in order to measure this mass of money ! " Tfih)i, to return

THE ORPIIAX AND IIIS L'NCLKS loi

nang-toi-tha." Ansi hem-fpi lieia naiig-clic-le-si asopO- hcrc send." So the icidoiv home haviny arrived her son

aphau cbe-pulo — " Nang ong-atum kipu ' Vaug-tha-tu tangho to said — " Your uncles say ' Come here, we want you,

po.' " Ansi jaugresO-ta damlo. AnkO a-bng-atum naug father'" So tlic orplian v:ent. And his uncles there

arju-lo — " Konat adolibii-si uangli kelong-dam ? " Ansi asked — "Where all this money you obtained V Ami

jiingreso pulo : " Chainbug-a-bk a-uam : nangli-tum-ue- tlie orphan said: " Cow's Jlesh {of) i^ricc {it is) : (hy) yoic my

kithii-pi-pet a-chainbng a-bk-si neli kejbr-dam ;

hilled-entirely eows flesh I vxnt a-seUiny ;

clietangte cbehang-jo ' an-pin lang ? ' "

it not being sufficient, togetlicr they ashed ' is there only so much / ' "

Ansi abng-mar arju-thu-le-lo : " Tangte chainbng-a-bk jbr- Then his uncles asked again: "Then cow's Jlesh go

dam-te la-tuiu enji-lang-ma ? " Ansi jangreso

a-selling if (we), they will taking-go on ! " And the oriihan

pulo — " En-ji lang-te ; nangli-tum-ke

said — " They loill go on taking certainly ; you

chaiubng-do-6-para lale tliu-koi-ra a-bk

cows having many hecause, therefore killing tliem all their flesh

a thing borrowed. Vurxj-thu-tu taiiy-lnl-po : notice the use of ])u, father, as a res2)ectfiil address, by the mother to her son ; so also the uncles address their ne2)he\v resjjectfully with nhtig-U. N(ni(jIl-funi-iiP-fci(hri-]>l- pet dchainhng : notice tlie string of descriptive words prefixed adjectivally to tiie noun : this is an excellent example of the manner in which Mikir deals M'ith what in English would be a relative sentence — *' the cow of mine which you put to death by cutting her up " ; literallj', " l)y-}'ou-my- killed-and-cut-up cow." Thn, to kill by cutting : iil, here a verb meaning to cut a large mass (see note to preceding story, p. 1)4) ; pet adverbial sui)j)lement indicating completeness.

Chetaiig-te, " It is not enough " : che, reflexive particle, Hm;}, verb, to complete, finish; (e, negative : literally, " it does not tinish our business, it does not do all we want." Che-hhng-jO : hang, to call out, summon ; che, as before, indicates that they all called out togetlier ; Ju is one of the particles used to indicate jjlurality ; others (which will be found further on) are Jfiin and kreri. Lang, an auxiliary verb which seems to indicate continuousness, to go on being or doing. Observe that -(r is used to indicate the two parts of a conditional sentence: " chuiiihng a-i)k jhr- dum-te, cn-jl lang-te " if we go selling cow's Hesh, they will go on taking it." In chainhng-du-o-pdru, ci is a syllable indicating multitude, perhaps

102 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

jbr-dam-te, ko-ausi dohon kevan-ji ? " Ansi

if you (JO selling lioiu much money you vjill hring ! " So a-6ngmar korte-bang-therbk abang-phu ejbn chainbng his uncles hr others the six each one one cow

thii-si a-bk bahar pbn-si jbr-dam-lo, ansi

having killed, its flesh load having tal:en, vjent to sell it, and

jangreso than-dun-lo — "Nangli-tum hala

the orphan explained to them — " Yoit that {distant)

bambn kiri-po a-rbng-le jbr-dam-nbn : la-rbng hrahman rich-big's village in go and sell : that village (at) ivhcn

le-lo-te ' chainbng a-bk en-ji-lang-ma ' pu-ra

you arrive, ' cow's flesh ivill {any one) go on taking !■ ' saying arju-nbn." Ansi latum kbrte-bang-therbk chainbng a-bk ask." So these brothers six coius flesh

pbnsi damlo, ha bambn-arbng le-si, " Chainbng-

taking went, that Brahman's village having arrived, " Coiv's a-bk en-ji lang ma ? " pu arju-lo. Ansi

flesh will {any one) take more ? " saying asked. And

" en-ji-lang, van-nbn," pu nang-hang-lo. Ansi

" loe will take more, bring it here," saying they called out. So

bambn-po a-hem le-lo. Ansi bambn-po

the big brahman's house they reached. Then the big brahman's rbng-isi asangho che-pangrum-pet-si, la

village-whole inhabitants, having collected all together, those chainbng-a-bk kejbr-dam-atuin kbrte bang-therbk,

cow's flesh bringing to sell-'people, the six brothers,

nep-si, a-ri kbk-krei-si, jasemet chbk-si

having seized, their hands tied firmly having, severely having beaten, pulo : " Netum bambn-le : ' chainbng-abk en-ji ma ? ' said: "We brahmans are : 'coiv's flesh will any one take .^ '

pu nang nang-katirva-hai ? " pu-si lo-lo.

saying, you here-solicit a customer dare ! " saying let them go.

another form of ong ; piird is a loan-word from Assamese. Abnng-j)hu, "each one"; also ubang-phu-isl {used further on) : phu means "head," isi " one " ; the hitter is used m hunibn-pu-rhng-lsl in the sense of "the whole," "as one man." A-rl-lwk-krei-sl : d-rl "their hands," /i^Vc, verb, "to tie with a noose^" krei, particle of plurality. KCUircu, "to ofler for

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLICS 103

La chainong-a-uk kovun-atuiu-ta luiu cbu-voi-l<j, iinsi

These cow's-jiesh hringing ijcrsons home their own went, and

tovar chingvai-pon-lo : " Mai ! an-le lilang

on the way took counsel together : " Oh .' how much that

jangreso e-kechobei ! e-cliainong e-haidi e-pfi-chi-thu-

orplicin us has cheated ! our cattle (doublet) he has cu. used us to koi-lang.; apbu-tbak-ta e-reng e-hu O-ka-

kill all ; over and above that our skin (doublet) to us he has

peso. Apot-ke kele-pen a-hem

caused to smart. Therefore immediately on arriving his house me-kei-dam-po-nang." Ansi bem che-le-lo anke jang-

Jire-set-to Ict-us-go." So home they arrived, and the

res5 a-hem me-kei-dam-dut inghoi-lo. Ansi jangreso orphan's house fire-setting did. Then the orphan

atum hini chibu-si hem me-kecho aphelo

baskets-two having ivoven, house-fire-catcn, devoured (of) ashes hum-si bahar p6n-lo, ansi hii mek-keso

having collected a load toojc, and that (distant) sore-eyed arong le-lo. Lal)angso iirong arleng abang-

(peoplcs) village luent to. That village (of) men, each one phu-ta amek-keso-abang angse. Anke phelo

of them, sore-eyed folk were only. So ashes (of) a-bahiir-pen jangreso latum nang-theksi nang-firju-lo — a load-with the orphan they having seen, called out to him — *' Nang kopi kevang ladak ? " Jangreso thak-dct —

" Thou what for comest thou hither ! " The orphan answered —

" Ai nangtum arong mek-keso a-vur do-tang-pu

"Oh! your milage sore eyes disease has finished getting, thus arju-longsi ne mek-keso a-bap nang-

having got to hear, I (for) sore-eyed people medicine here am

sale," a loan-word from Kliasi (tijrwa). E-ke-chubei, " us he has cheated,'' e- is the pronoun of the tirst person pkiral including the person addressed. Notice the doublets — Tchaiahng Ihaidi "our cattle," Irt'ng P-hu, "our skins" (/m, "hide, bark of a tree"), and observe how c- is prefixed to each part of the sentence. Attim chihusl : turn is here a bamboo basket in which to carry a load on the back ; hfi, "to plait or weave." Hem mi- Jcechu " the house that had been eaten (c/id) by tire (mt-) " ; huia, to pick up^ collect, rhclu means both " a^hes " and " cotton." Arju-lhng-sl, " having ^ot (Jong) to hear (arju)." Arja means both "to hear" and "to ask."

104 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

kejor." Ansi latum pulo— " Ai ! tangte me-bug-cbbt-lo,

selling." TJien they said—" Oh .' then (that) is venj good indeed,

p6-arnam-p5 ! " pusi rbng-isi asaughd dohbn

my good sir ! " so saying the whole village inhaUtants money

chi-rung-si dohbn-bahar-isi jangreso nang-pilo.

having collected, of money load one to the orphan there-gave.

Ansi jaugreso pulo : " Laljaiigso a-lmp nbnke

Tlien the orphan said : " That medicine immediately

chi-hi-ri-tha : mo ne tovar ebeng

do not apply {rub) to yourselves : afterwards I the road a piece

lelo-te, 'cbi-hi-nbu' pu ne nang-pupo,

have gone ivhen, 'apply {rub) it' saying I will tell you,

an-le cbi-bi-nbn." Ansi dobbn-babar-isi pbelo

then {and not before) apply it." Then mo7iey -load-one ashes {of) a-nam jangreso Ibng-si, bem cbevoilo. Anke la

irrice the orphan having got, home to his returned. When he tovar me naug-le-lo, mek-a-vur-kelbng-atum

road a little had gone eye disease who had got people jaugreso-apban ' cbi-bi-nbn-tu-ma ? ' pu bang-lo.

The orphan-to " shall we apply it 7iow / " saying called out. Jangreso nang-tbak-det " tba " ; tebbk-bet tik-ke The orphan answered " v)ait " ; near so long as, "tba" pu-bbm-si la ba beloving le-lo ; anke

" wait " saying having continued, he to a distance arrived ; and

" nang-pho-dun-un-e-lo " pu matba-lo,

" he7x reach to me they cannot " saying lie thought, " the " bap cbi-bi-nbn " pu jangreso nang-bang-lo. Ansi

medAcine rub in now " saying, the orphan there called out. Tlien

mek-keso-atum jangreso-kevan-apbelo a-mek

eyes the sufferers from pain orphan-brought-ashes on their eyes

cbe-bi-lo. La bap kacbi-bi-pen-apara, amek ki-kru

rubbed. That medicine applying from at once their eyes smarted

puke matba-tbek-tbe jadi tbek-tbe : amek keso

so much, it cannot be imagined (doublet) ; their eyes sore

Chi-hl-rl-thu, chi reflexive particle ; hi, verb, " to rub in " ; rl particle for the negative imperative, " do not " ; thd, ordinary imperative affix, whicli may be dispensed with when the negative particle is used. T/id ! " wait " !

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLKS 105

taii-niuchot che-pluug-lo. Aiisi hltuui cliipulo :

more mud b became. Then they mid to one another:

" Mai ! aii-le iilaii'' O-ke-cliobei tekiiiii' : la

" Oh ! so much he us having cheated lias left : he

vaug-thu-lo-te, a-ri kbk-dbng-ra clibk-nang." Jangresu-ku comes-again-if, his hands tying fast let us heat him." The orphan

hem che-le-si lipei-aphau " ne-biig-atum ahotJju eii-dum- home having come his mother-to " my uncles basket take-go-

le-tha" pu toi-le-lo. Ansi hem-epi a-ikmar-atuin

again" saying he sent again. Then the undoio her brothers

a-hem hotou haug-dam-le-lo. Ansi hotoii naug-l6-si house basket to ask-went again. Then the basket having sent

latum korte-bang-therok clii-pu-le-lo — " Da,

they brothers six said again among themselves — " Go,

akibi, lang-duu-le-tha ; liotbn pi-tbng

youngest, watch again ; [with) the basket what in the world

kaiighoi-i-ji-ne ? " Ausi akibi-aliang nang-laug-dun-

is lie going to do / " Then the youngest ivent there to watch

tbn-le-lo. Jangreso dohbn keteng nang-thek-dun-

secretly again. The ori^han the money measuring there he saw

le-lo. Anke iiang-kelaug-dun-tbn abang hem che-voi-si

again. Then there watching -secretly person home returning

a-ikmar che-thaii-dam-le-lo — "E-osiL chu-

liis brothers (to) explained, r'elated, again — " Our neijhew than

aphau-te nbn dohbn kevan bng-muchbt le-lo." Anke

last time noiu money bringing much more has arrived." Then

latum kbrte-bang-therbk jangreso-albng dam-si arju-dam-lo — they the six brothers the orphan-near going asked —

" Konat adohbn-si nangli Ibng-dam-o-lo ? "

" Where {all) this money you have got so much more ! " Ansi jangreso nang-thak-dun-lo — " Nangli-tum-me-ne

Then the orphan there answered them — " {By) you fire my

loan-word from Assamese. TiDi-mu-chht : mil is the comparative particle, " more," rhht is the constant sutt'ix to mu ; tan, a verb, to be severe, burden- some. Chu-aphan, "than last time : " ('iplihn is the postpositi(.n of com- parison = " than." Lhng-dhm-O-lo " have y(ni got so ninch more " : o is, as

io6 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

kekei-pidut a-hem a-phel6 a-nam. Neli phelo

applied having house, its ashes 2^''^ce {it is). I ashes kejbr-dam-along ' kedor-de ' pu liang-jo : ' an-pin

selling-place {in) ' it is not enoiujh ' saying tlicij cried : 'just so much van-thu-tha ' pusi pu. Ne-li hem-ke bihek-si,

briTig again ' saying they said. My house being small, a-phelo ong-e-det ; nangli-tum ahem-ke the-dung-para, its ashes not much were ; Your houses, since they are large,

lale me kei-ra a-phelo jor-dam-te, dohon-le nangli-tuin therefore fire applying the ashes go selling -if, wealth ye

ko-ansi kevan-ji ? Kevan-si nangli-tum un-e."

hoiu much ivoidd bring / To bring it you looidd be unable." Ansi a-bngmar korte-bang-therok chi-pulo :

Then his uncles the six brethren said, among themselves : " Tangte itum-ta e-hem me chekei-dam-po-nang." Anke

Then to our also houses fire having applied let us go." Then hem me chekei-dam-si, hem a-phel5 hum-si

houses fire their having -set-to, house-ashes having gathered, kbrte abang-phu-ta bahar-un-tik bahar-un-tik j)bn-lo.

the brothers each individually as much as he coidd carry took. Ansi jangreso than-dun-le-lo : " Ha mek-keso-

Thcn the orphan explained to them again : " To that eye-sore-

arbng-le pbn-nbn ; ha rbng-a-kung le-lo-te,

village up to take, carry ; that distant village near v:hen you arrive, ' Phelo en-ji-ma ? ' pura-punbn." Ansi latum kbrte-

Ashes will you take / ' saying say." So they brothers bang-therbk damlo. Ha mek-keso-atum arbng pang-le-lo, six went. That sore eyed pcopdc's village near arrived,

ansi arju-lo — "Phelo en-ji-ma?" Ansi mek-keso-

and asked — " Ashes will you take ! " Then the people vjith

atum " Yan-tha " pu niing-hang-lo ; ansi latum dam-si

sore eyes " Bring it here " saying called out ; then they going

before, the particle of multitude. Kedhr-dc : dor, "to suffice, be enough " ; de negative syllable ; hany-jo, " they cried i)i crowds " (ju, particle of plurality). Ony-e-det; hng "much,"' particle of quantity; ?, negative; <IU tense-suffix. The-duny " big " ; kt-thc great, duny particle ; on its addition the kt- is dropped.

Tin-: ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES 107

rung Ic-lo ; kelu-peu firi

the village arrived; immediately they arrived their hands kbk-krei-inghoi-si, Ifi ulaug-tuiii-kepbii-aphelo-peu

tying each, all, having done, thuse hy-tJicin-hrouglU ashes-vji/h

amek hi-si jasemet cliuklo ; alike

their eyes having ruhhcd severely they heat them ; then • chbk-tlicng-det, latum korte-baug-therbk

having hcen beaten and pnmmelcd, those brothers sic

hem Diing-chevoilo. Anke tovar nang-cheugvai-thu-

home returned. Then (on) the road they eonsidtcd together le-lo — " Mai ! an-le aluiig e-kechobei-ra e-renii

again — "Oh! so vucch he us-having-cheatcd our sicins

e-kapeso, fiplm-thak-ta e-hem i-rit

he has caused to smart, over and above that our houses our fields e-pa-che-kei-koi ; nbnke

'US he has caused to set fire to and burn up ,• noiu

kele-peii iogchin-aru beiig-ra

immediately we arrive iron-of a cage {in) having firmly secured

lang jbk-thbt-lo-nang." Anke kele-pen

{him) water {into) let us throio him." So at once on arriving jangreso nep-chek ingchin-arii-pen Leng-cliek inghoi-lo, the orphan seizing of iron-a cage-in firmly secure they did, ansi habit lang-bi akethe-pi a-kung

and in the jungle a pool very great (deej)) on the bank

bi-dain-kbk-lo. " Mb-le hiug

putting doton they jL>/act(Z. " After a little while water {in) nim-po-nang ; iibiiko kat-athai ave-lo ; apbtke

let us drown him ; noiv run away-powcr he has not ; therefore an che-cho-dam-si-nang " pusi, an che-cho-dain-lo.

rice our-eat-go-lct-us saying, rice-their they ivent to eat. Anke a-bngmar an ehecbo-dc\m-aphi, konilne

Then his uncles their rice had gone to eat cftcr, someone or other

Ildh'tt, "in the jungle," locative of Assamese hdli, forest. It is noticeable that many, if not most, Assamese nouns borrowed by IVIikir iire taken over in the locative case (of which tlie final t is the proper ending in Assamese), as here: thus (/e/, " country '' = Asa. drh ; munlt, "man ' = Ass., muni; nhrukht, hull = Ass. nurhk. Konnni: "some one or

io8 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

recho-asopo ok nang-kehung viiiig-lo, ansi jangreso a-dung King's son deer there-hunting came, and the orphan near

nang-le-si, jangreso-aphan arju-lo " Kopi apotsi having arrived, the orphan (accus.) asked " What on account of

iugcliin-aru-arlo nang-kebeng-chek-lo ? " Ansi jangreso iron-cage-inside you are here firmly secured 1 " Then the orphan

pulo : " Ne-6ng-mar-atum asopi kerne pu matha-thek- said : " My maternal U7icles a daughter, how fair ! as one cannot

the an-pin do. Lasi ' en-tu ' pu ne-phan

imagine so greatly have. Her ' take to wife ' saying to me

ne-kipu, bbnta ne-ke ' en-e ' pu kipusi,

me they say, but I ' will not take ' saying replying,

ne-bng-mar-atum aning-kithi-si ru ne-kebeng-

my uncles lecoming very angry cage (in) me have

chek-lo." Ansi recho-asopo pulo — " Che ! tangte ne

fastened up." Then the King's son said — "Oh! then I

en-long-ji-ma ? " " La ru-arlo-le nang

(Aer) take {to wife') shall he able / " " This cage into you

nang-do-te, en-long-ji-te " pu jangreso pulo :

here-get-in-if, you icill be able to get her " saying the orphan said :

" elom-te ne-bng-atum vang-po, anke- — • ' Anhelo-

" in a little tvhile my uncles will come and — ' Save you

ma?' pu naug arju-lo-te, 'anhelo, en-po,

anything to say !- ' saying you if they ask, ' all right, Ivnll take her,

bnguiar-li ' — pura punbn." " To, tangte," pu recho-asopo uncles ' — saying reply." " Yes, then," saying the King's son

pulo. Ansi jangreso recho-aso^io-aphan pulo — " La said. Then the orphan the King's son-to said — " That

other," Ass. loan-word. Keme-pu " slie is so lovelj' ! " me, " to be fair, Vjeautiful," pu, literally, " saying." En-tu : here en, " take," lias the special sense of "take to wife, niarrj' " (see wliat is said of do, ante, p. '.^5) ; tu, one i)i the signs of the imperative mood, is j^erhaps borrowed from the Khasi to. Bhntd, " but," perhaps aKhasi loan-word. An-helo-inn, a difficult expression to translate : au '* so muoli," particle of ipiantity ; Ju-lo " far " ; mu particle of questioning ; it might be rendered " how are you getting on ? " litei-ally " thus-far-what " ? But it is also used in the answer bo the question: an-lielo there seems to mean " all right" — "so far so good." TO-tungtt ; tu is a Khasi loan-word: in tliat language it is

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES 109

nang-pe imng-ri-pen mainatlr naii;^' ru-arlo Jiaiii^'-liu-ln-te, your coat your dhoti-with bedecked you cage-into here enter-if, nang chinl-dct-po ; iTpbtke ne ingpu-nnii :

yoiL tlicy ivill rccoynizc at once ; ilwrcfore mc let out :

\\v-\)ii iR'-ii nung pipo, anke rfi-arlo hU-iiim." my coat my dhoti you I will yive, then caye-into enter." Ansi recho-asopo rii ingpu-si jangreso nang-bar-

So the Kiwjs son the caye haviny opened the orplian there cavic lo, ansi jangresO a-jH' a-ri recho-asOpO })llo,

out, and the orphan his coat his dhoti to the king's son gave,

la recho-asopo a-pe, a-ri, a-lek, a-roi,

that King's son his coat, his dhoti, his nccldacc, his hracclcts

jangreso pi-tliu-lo, ankt' recho-asopo

to the orphan gave in exchange, and the King's son ru-arlo lut-lo, ansi jangreso ingkir-dun-thip-lo.

into the cage entered, and the orphan the door made fast. Ansi jangreso-ta recho-asopo a-pe a-ri a-lek

Then the orphan the King's son's clothes, dhoti, necklace, a-roi che-pindeng, ahormu kedo-an chepindeng-si, bracelets, having put on, his things all having pint on,

ha ahem che-dam-lo. Ansi jangreso a-bngmar-ta

away to his house went. And the orphan's uncles also

an cho-dam-pen nang-che-voi-lo, ru-along nang-le-lo,

•rice eating-from there returned, at the cage's pilace arrived

ansi arju-lo — " an-helo-ina osa ? " " Anhelo

and asked — " have you anything to say, nepheio 1 " " All right, bngmarli, en-po " pu jangreso-kethan-

uncles, I vnll take," saying the orphan (by) instructed kang-ason-thot recho-asopo pulo. Ansi ingchin-firii-pen

according to the King's son said. Then the iron cage-with

langbi var-chui inghoilo. Anke

deep pool (into) throw into loater (him) they did. Then

jangres5-a-bngmar kbrte-bang-therbk chi-pu-lo —

the orphan's uncles brothers six said one to the other —

used in answer to a question to express assent = " very well." Vdr-chui, "to throw into water," "drown": so aho nhn-chul. It seems possible that chul here maybe an old word for water, corresponding to the Tibetaii

no THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

" An rdang i-duk e-kanglioi a-pot, nbu anke " So much he iis-trouhlc iis-causing on account of, noiv however alang thi-lo " ; ansi hem che-voi-lo. Anke jangreso

he is dead " ; and home they rehirned. Then the oiyhan puke — kithi-ji kali, recho-asopo a-pe, a-ri, a-lek,

as for — dead not at all, the King's son's coat, dhoti, necklace, a-roi che-pindeng mesen keraat matha-thek-the

bracelets having 7:>m^ 07i, heautifully adorned inconceivaUy , jadi-thek-the-det thek-dam-thii-le-lo ! Ansi latum

unimaginably, they saiu again on arrival/ Then they chi-pu-le-lo — " Jangreso thi-lot-lo kali !

said among themselves again — " The orjyhan is not dead at all!

Ha-la-le, kemat-lep-ra ka-pang-elim-ke." Auke a-dung There he is, adorned, and strutting in his finery." Then near him

le-lo, jangreso-aj^han arju-thii-lelo — " Osa ! namtu-si they went, the orphan (accus.) ashed-again — " Nepheiu ! hoiv

nangli nang-kele-toug-rbk ? " Ansi jangreso thak-lelo — you here arrived, so soon ! " Then the orjyhan answered —

" Che, bngmarli, ne-phi-ne-plm-atum dola-

" OA, uncles, my grandmothei^s and grandfathers a 2)alanquin- peu-si ne nang-kapethbn-dun-kok-le ; hali ne-li

vnth me here-caused to he escorted hack ; there I

le-rbk-pen-apara ne-phi-ne-phii-

frmn the first moment of arriving my grandmothers and

atum pe-keme, ri-keme, lek roi ne-kepi :

grandfathers coat-good, dhoti-good, necklace hraxelets me gave :

la lang-nbn ! Nanglitum-aphan-ta pevang-tu-po-nang them look at ! You-to also eause-to-come it is necessary

kepha-dun-par : asin nang-kelo, la ser a-tari-lbn,

they sent word urgently : a sign they have sent, this gold-of knife,

lang-tha ! " pu pe-klang-lo. Ansi a-bngmar

look at it!" so saying he showed it to them. Then his uncles

chhu. Che-pindeng " having i)ut on himself " : 2^indeng, " to i)ut on," is an Assamese loan-word. Kithl-jl kuli : the use of ji, the particle of the future, seems anomalous here : possibly the phrase means " lie is not going to die, not looking as if he •were going to die ; " kiill is the emphatic separate negative. DOlu, " a palanquin," Ass. loan-word. Ke-plui-dun- yur : 2>1iu, verb, to send a message : dun, verb, to be with : par intensive

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLKS m

piilo — " Kopusi nC'litum knlain-ilitk-po ? " " Ingchiu nvU said — " Ifow ive <jo shall he able '. " " Iron cayc

abang-phu-isi che-pbn-ra lifi

person-head-one (i.e. each one of you) tnkhuj for himself that liiiig-kung lut-dam-ik-iioii " pu jangmsO pulo.

river hank {to) get into it, good sirs" saying the orphan said. Ansi latum ingchin-ani che-pbn-sl ha laiK'-kuu"

So they iron cages having taken that river-hank (fu)

lut-dam-lo. Ansi jangreso iugcliin fuu lakduu-

got into them. Then the orphan {in the) iron cages tightly liet-rakdunhet-lo. Ansi jangreso akleng-si-abang ingchin- tied up {each one). Then the orphan the eldest one with the aru-pen laugln var-dam-chui inghoilo. Anke-phbng

iron cage deep pool {into) throiu did So then

lang-abuk-l)uruk vang-jam-cheplang-lo ; anke jangreso ivater-huhhles coming tq) many-continued ; then the orphan

pu-Ui-lo ! " Ja ! ongmarli, lang-tha ! ne-ong-a-kleng-ko

said again ! " TJiere ! uncles, look ! my uncle eldest

la ne-phi ne-phii hbr kipi-.si hbr

him my grandmother my grandfather heer having given heer

kangri-si ka-cheng-bk-lo." Ansi adak-van-tfi

having drunk is vomiting." Then the next one also

lang-var-lo. Anke kbrte-bang-therbk-ta lang-

he threw into the water. Then the brothers six having all var-klip-si jangresb hem nang-chc-voi-lo. An.'^i

throivn into the river the orpthan home returned. Tlien

jangreso-aphan a-ni-mar-atum nang-arju-lo —

the orphan (accus.) his aunts {uneles wives) there asked — " Nangli bng-atum namtusi vang-ii ! " " Tbng-tbnc:

"Your uncles when will they come?" "Quickly

particle, " urgently." NungTcelo " they have sent " : 7o is a verb, " to send a thing," while toi means "to send a pev.son." Ser, gold ; it is remarkable that the Tibetan word {qsT'i; pronoiniced scr) is used for this object of cultux-e both in Khasi (ksktr) and Mikir, and not the Assamese {sdii,hOn); for silver, on the other hand, the Aryan rup is in general use. Lut-dum- Ik-mm ; hit, verb, " enter," dhtu, verb, " go " ; Ik, honorific address = " elder brother " (though he is speaking to his maternal uncles) ; iihn imperative particle. Note the doubling of the verb rhk-duii-hct-lo to indicate repe- tition of the action in the case of each person.

112 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

Vi\ng-ve : an kachepho-phe apbtsi,

they ivill not come: so long not having met together on account of, nbn kachepho-le-ma ? " pu jangreso pulo.

now have they not met at last ? " saying the orphan said. Ansi jo-thbm j6-phili do-si ako a-ni-inar

Then nights-three nights-four having waited again his aunts

jangreso aphan nang-arju-thu-le-lo — "Nangli ong-atiim the orphan (accus.) ashed again there — " Your uncles

pi-apot vang-ve-rek-ma ? " Ansi jangreso

ivhat for have not come hy this time ? " Then the orphan

thak-lo — " Vang-dap-prang-po," Ansi jo-ni

ansioered — " They will come to-morrow morning T Then nights-two

j5-thbm dosi latum jangreso-aphan arju-

nights-three having waited they the orphan (accus.) ashed

dam-thu-le-lo — "Nangli bng-atum kopi-apbtsi nbn-pu-ta

again — " Your uncles for what reason up to now

vang-ve-det-ma ? " Ansi jangreso than-lo — " Nbksek-le

have not come ? " Then the orphan explained — " In the nbksek

an deng-pi-ik-krei-nbn." Ansi jangreso a-ni-mar-atum rice set on (honoxi^o) for each." Then the orphan's aunts

" thi-koi-lo ! " pu chini-si, chirulo,

" they are really dead ! " saging having recognized, wept, chernap-lo, mbn-duk-lo, mbn-sa-lo. Ansi jangreso

lamented, and were plunged in sorroio. So the orphan planglo-philo, pak-ta lang-un-e-abang ave-lo. Ansi

became rich, any one to looh on with envy there urns not. So

jangreso recho kethe chosi reng-me-reng-dbk-lo.

the orphan hing great hccoming, lived a happy and pleasant life.

l^ksek-ie. The noJcsek (see plan of Mikir house at p. 8) is the part of the house where the food (a/i, cooked rice) is placed as an offering to the Manes. Deng, " to place a share, leave a share " ; jn " give " ; Ik honorific •(as above); h-ei particle of multitude = "for each one." Mhn-duk-lo, Assamese loan-words (raon, mind, heart, dukh, grief). Lang-un-e-uhang " a person who cannot {un-t) look on {Uing) another (for envy)."

III.

IIAEATA KUNWAK ATOMO.

HA RATA KUN WAR'S STORY.

Harata Kuiiwar kbitc baug-tlierbk,

Sarata Kunwar {and) his brothers {were) six j^^^sons, akibi-si Harata Kunwar. Amehang-kethek-pun-

thc yoiinged {being) Harata Kumvar. From the time of Ids

apara thijbk, pliak-leng ke-ap, tiki-ke inghoi-he ;

birth deer J ivild jng shooting, he never did any field-work ,- a-ikmar bang-phongo-ke sai-katiki. Ansi latum

his brothers, the five of them, laboured in the fields. Tlien they,

kbrte bang-pbbugo a-po-pen bfing-therbk chingvai-

the five brothers, with their father six persons, took counsel

lo : " Alang Harata Kunwar-ke tiki-ke inghoi-he ok

together : " This Harata Kumvar doing no v)ork deer hung-chbt; apara ningve chingvai-nbn." Ansi

hunts only ; therefore at night take counsel together." So aningve cbingvai-lo. Apo aso akleng-aphan

that night they took counsel. His father his son eldest (accus.)

NOTES.

This story is a much more elaborate piece of composition tliaii the last, and may be said to exhibit distinct marks of literary style. Its vocabulary is copious and varied, and it makes large use of a device wliich is employed in Mikir, as in Khasi,* to give amplitude to the plirase by duplicating the leading words ; nearly eveiy important term has its doublet, with the same meaning, following it.

Amehang-ktthek-pt'ii-npnrtl : fnnehnng-kethe/i, "^to see tlie face," is ecjuivalent to "being born"; ^xm and Cipuru, the latter borrowed from the Assamese para, have the same signification, and the latter is really superfluous. Phak-lt'itg, shortened ior 2>liak-be/ciig, "wild boar" ; see the explanation of the term in the notes to No. I, p. 94. Tiki-ke inghoi-he: notice that loth verbs are given in the negative form; this is unusual.

* See "Khasi Monograph," p. 211.

114 HARATA KUNWAR

arju-lo — " Nang kopusi an ne-hi-po ? " " Ne-pu-tangte

asked — "You how rice me-will-supply V " As for me,

sarlar plangsi jo-arni me do-ji ;

a headman having become night and day I toill hold assembly ; sarlar a-man bang-kevan ahor-ahan-pen-si an-

headman's perquisites by people brought the rice-beer -from rice- 16k an-me hbr-lang hbr-p6 nang pi-ji." "Tangte white rice-good beer (doublet) to you I will give!' " Then nang adak-vam-ke kopnsi an ne-hi-po ? " " Ne-pu-tangte you the next, how rice me will supply V " As for me, hemai hansari plang-si j6-arni noke no-pak

a blaclsmith (doublet) hccoming night and day hiives daos

thip-ji ; la noke nopak nang-ketbip-atum

/ ivill forge ; by those knives and daos there made by me kevan a-hbr a-han akove abithi pensi

brought (i.e. procured) beer (douldet) betel-nut pan-leaf together an-lbk an-me arak-chidhir nang-piji." "Nang with rice-white rice-good spirit (doublet) you I will give!' " You adak-vam adunke, kopusi an ne-hi-po ? " " Ne-pu-tangte the second next to, hoio rice will you supply me ? " " As for me,

sai-tiki-si puru phandar pelbng-si anlbk

field-work-doing granary store having got together rice-white an-me hbr-lang hbr-p6 nang-piji." " Nang adakvam

rice-good beer (doublet) you I vjill give." "You the second adun le-thbt-ke, kopusi tin nehipo ? " " Ne-pu

next corning after, how rice loill you supply me / " " As for tangte bang-ahem do-dun-si, labang

me, {other) person's house inhabiting as a companion, that person

ne-kepi a-an fihbr ahan-si nang pipo." " Nang

me given rice and beer (doublet) you I ivill give." " You

adakvam-adun-le-thbt-ke kopusi an nehipo ? "

the second next coming after, hoio rice will you supply ! "

Man, "' perquisites " ; Assamese loan-word.

Kove, "betel-nut," Khasi kiuai, Ass. f/uwi'i. Chidhir, "spirit," the doublet of uriik (itself a Hindi loan-word) is perhaps the Khasi kiad-hiar. Notice how, instead of using the ordinal numbers for second, third, fourth, and fifth brothers, the father employs clumsy periphrases to indicate the sequence. Phandar, "store," Ass. loan-word {hhandar).

HARATA KUNWAR 115

" Xe-pu-ti\ngtr' hunfr-iiban usbt plungsi ne-

" As for me, another person's slave (doublet) hecoming me

kepi a-an ahor ahan- jx-usi ue-an nang jii-

(jiven rice and l)eer-{^0Vi\AQt) withy from, my rice you I will

po." "Tiingte nang Harata-Kunwar-ke, kolopu-si an ne- give." " Then you Harata-Kunwar, in what way rice me

hipo ^ " • " Nepu-tangte Arnam-asO Arni-aso

will you supply ?" " As for me, God's child, Sun's child

en-si recho kethe plangsi, inghoi athak

having married, a king great having hecorae, throne upon

inghu-athak, kapbt-athak kapleng-athak nang pangni-

(doublet) plank-upon (doublet) you having caused

si ban-sbt-atum nang-ri nang-keng nang-pecham-

to sit slaves and maids your hands your feet having caused to

si, libr an arak-chidhir nang-pi-ji." Ansi chingvai- wash, heer rice spirits you I tvill give." So they finished tanglo. Anerlo sai-tiki-albng, Harata-

constdting together. That day^ cultivation-jylacc-in, Hurata- Kunwar abang-kave-aphi, alangtum korte bang-phbngo fipo- Kunwar not being there, those brothers five, with

pen bang-therbk chingvai-thu-voi-phak-lo. " Alang

their father persons-six, began to consult together again. " That Harata-Kunwar Arnam Arni-aso en-si recho

Harata-Kunwar God Suns child having wedded a king

plang-ji-si pu ? Konat arechb-si alangke plting-ji-ma ? vjill become, indeed ! Where a king is he to become !

apara pethi-lbt-lo-naug. Apara ningve cbingwai-thu

so then kill let us {him). So tlien at night time let 7cs considt si-nang." Aningve an-chbdet jundet

together again." That night rice having eaten having drunk alangtum chingvai-lo, kopusi kapethi apbtlo.

tJiey eonsidted together, how the killing was to be done.

A-hun (i-sht : in tliis doublet the second member, M>f, properly means "■female slave"; a similar use of a word of ditierent meaning as a duplicate term will be found below (p. 11'!*), where d-intk "his eye" is followed by d-nO "his ear," the meaning being ''his eyes."

ii6 HARATA KUNWAR

" Apara hem-tliap kim-po-nang ; Harata-Kunwar-aphan-ke " So then a field-hut let us huild ; Harata-Kummr (accus.) naidung-ahoi-le kim-pi-rfi pehbn-po-nang. Anke

clearing-on the harder having built it let us cause to uatch. Then etum ajo dam-ra chir-pen tbk-bt-nang."

let us hy night going ivith a spear thrust-and-kill-him."

Alangtum kachingvai Harata-Kunwar

Them taking counsel together Harata-Kunwar' s eldest

atepi arju-dun-lo. Ansi adap an-chodet

sister-in-law overheard. Then in the morning rice having eaten

jundet alangtum kado-kave sai-tiki-dam-aphi

having drunk they all having gone to vjork after,

Harata-Kunwar ok-hung-pen hem vanglo. Ansi Harata-KiLnwar from hunting home came. Then his sister-

atepi an pilo ; an-chodet jundet

in-lavj rice gave him ; rice having eaten having drunk

atepi pulo — "Nang miso nang-

his sister-in-law said — " (On) you a black ant (here = louse) tliere

prolang, Harata-Kunwar." Ansi a-rek pelo, pe-ma-

let me kill, Harata-Kunwar." So a louse she killed, while

pe-lo amek-kri H. K. akeng-athak nang-klo-

she was killing it a tear H. K.'s Icg-on fell with a

bup. Ansi H. K. arju-lo — " Tepi, nang chiru-det-

splash. Then H. K. asked — " Sister -in-laiv ! you are

ma-da ? " Ansi atepi pulo — " Chiru-re :

iveeping ?- " And. his sister-in-law said — " / am not weeping :

arve a-mu-si nang-ke-klo." Ak5 pe-ma-pe

rain-of a drop has fallen on you." Again while she was killing,

amek-kri nang-kl5-thii-voi-phak. H. K, arju-thu-le-lo —

a tear fell upon him a second time. H. K. asked again —

" Nang chiru-det avi, tepi ! ne-than-non, kopi-

" You crying are really, sister -in-lavj ! me explain to, for

Kudo-kuve, literally, "being-not-being," a periphrasis for "all of then).' Miso, "a black ant," used verecundia: causa for rl-k, "louse." Notice the idiom pe-mu-pe-lo, uhere the insertion of nul between the repeated roots indicates the time during Avhich an act is done.

HARATA KUNWAR 117

apotsi nang kricliiru-uul." Ansi than-lo : " ne-

luhat reason you are crijing." Then she explained : " my lokhcai an-tiingte iiang-ik-atum kachingvai,

father-in-laiv and also your Irethrcn have taken counsel together, hem-thap niing pehbn-si ajo cliir-

a jungle-hut {in) you having made to wateh, hy night icith a pen nang- tok-ot-ji-si-pu : lasi ne ka-

spear you loill pierce and kill-they say : that is why I am chiru." Ansi H. K. pulo — " Phere nang-ne ; nang weeping." Then H. K. said — " You need not he afraid ; you ne-tMn-lo, me-lo ; menap il-dap niing proman long- me have told, it is well ; to-morrow morning you proof will

ji. Ne thi-the-tang-te, alangtum aphi-aphi hem nang- get. I not dead am-if, them after home here

dunsi chilonghe tham-therbk ne sarnung niing-

coming, ivorm-castings clods six I roof {upon) here var-po: Lale sarnung ne-niingkevar arki ave-det, will throw: that if roof {on) my -here-throwing noise there is not, tangte ne kithi-lo." Ansi arni-kangsiim apbr fi-ik-

then I shall he dead!' Then day-lccoming cool-time his atum rit-pen nang-clie-voi-lo, ansi apo pulo :

brothers from the field there rettorned, and his father said : " Mngve-ke H. K,-ta hem-thap hon-dun niing-po ;

This night our JI. K. jungle hut (in) go watching must ;

sbk phak cho-koi-lo; ha naidung-ahoi netum the paddy pigs are eating up ; there clearing-on horder we

hem-thap nang-kim-pi-koi-lo." Ansi an-cho-det

a jungle-hut have finished building." Then rice having eaten

jun-det, H. K. a-thai che-pbn-si hem-thap

having drunk, H. K. his bote taking with him the jungle-hut dam-lo : ansi chitii- a-the lik-pbn-si a-lang

went-to ; and {name of a plant) fruit having gather edy itsjtuce

An-tangte, "and also," literally, "so much not finished." Phtre nang-ne : nang is the verb of necessity, ne the negative j^article : " there is no need for fear." Pro/nun, " proof," Ass.

Chiti'i, the plant called in Assamese puroi-suk, Basella lucida ; its fruit lias a red juice.

iiS HARATA KUNWAR

phingu-a-bp-pen Iji-si, urleng ki-i a-sonthbt-si-

plantain-sheath-in having iiut, man sleeping {(rf) likeness athak pe pachap-si pi-i-lo; H. K.-ke

V-iwn clothes having put round he jjut it to sleep ; H. K. himself sbk a-se arlo chepatu-joi-lo. Ansi an-cho-mek-

rice-arch underneath hid himself quietly. Then after their first bur a-p6 a-ik-atum chingthurlo : — " Yang-noi,

sleep his father hishrothcrs awoke one another : — " Come now,

H. K. pithi-dam-po nang." Ansi aljang-phii chir-epak

H. K. to kill let us go I " Then each one of them a spear-one

chi-van-si, H. K. ahem-thap-albng vang-lo. Ansi

taking with him, H. K.'s junglc-hut-place {to) came. Then

apo pulo — " Da-naug, akleng ! arlu-ra tbk-dam-

his father said — " Go you, the eldest, clinibing up pierce him nbn!" Akleng pudet — " Kopusi ne tbk-dam-

throughl" Tlie eldest ansivered — "How I go and pierce hai-ji-ma ? e-kbr tang-det, e-mu tang-det-le ;

dare shall ? our brother he is, our younger brother he is ;

ipi isi-pet, i-po isi-pet ; aphiithak chubbng isi-pet our mother is one, our father is one ; inoreover nipple one

chithe isi-pet tbng-rap-chbm : akbrte tang-det, kopusi

breast one we sucked together : brothers-full-being, how

pithi hai-ji-ma ? ne hai-he 1 " " Da tangte nang

kill-him shovM I dare ! I dare not!" '' Go then, you adakvam ! " Adakvam pu-voi-phak — " Mai ! pateng-

the second ! " The second son rejoined — " Ah ! (of a) second kali, psiju-kali: kbrte-apbk, mu-te-

wife he is not (the son) (doublet) : brother of one ivomb younger

Arltng ki-l, "a sleeping man" : observe that drleng here evidently means a human being in general (see note, p. 4). An-cho-mcJi~-hur : see note, p. 96. Viiiirj-noi ; «oi is a variant of jh^??, imperative particle. Chir- epak: "one spear"; notice that the generic class-word for flat things, pak, is used with dnr, a spear^ referring of course to the head only. _ Du in Bd-nitnf/ seems to be a shortened imperative of dam, to go. Arlu-rd thk-dum-nhn : notice how urhi, usually a postposition (= up in), becomes a verb when necessary ; similarly, further on, in T'-khr UmydH, khr, "brother," is furnished dii-ectly with the sufhx for the past tense ; e- and 1- are used interchangeably for the j^ronoun of the 1st jierson plural inclusive ; the second is perhaps employed when the vowel- harmony calls for it. 7o)H/-rdp-clbm : rap, "to he]])," is emploj^ed as an adverbial supplement to indicate that two persons do the same thing together ; chhm is a doublet of rap. Putenfj, paju, words for a second wife.

HARATA KUNWAR 119

iipok tangdot-l«l, kopusi pithi-hai-ji-iml ?

brother of one ivonib since he is, lioio (him) slay should J (htre !

uc hai-he." " Da-tangte nang adak-vam-aduu." La pu-

/ dare-not." " Go, then, you second-to the next!' He re- voi-phtik — "Keng-tham isl-pet, keng-pak isi-put, li-deng joined — ''Our thigh is one, our foot is one, ourujyperarin isi-pet, ri-pek isi-pet-si, kethe-rap-chom akbrtc tang

is one, our hand is one, ivc grcio up together, our Ijrotlicr siricc

det-le, kopusi pithi-thek-ji-ma ? ne thek-the ! " " Da-

he is, hoio could I possibly kill him ? I cannot ! " " Go

nang adakvam-adun-lethbt." La pudet — " Mbk e-bbng-pet

noiv you, sccond-next-next." He said — " Nipple-one (at)

tbng-rap-chbm akbrte tang-det, aplni-thak-ta Ijhin

having sucked together brothers fully being, moreover sister

kali bha kali le, kopusi kupithi hai-ji-ma ? ne hai-liO." he has none (doublet) hoiu kill him shoidd I venture 1 I dare not."

" Da-tangte nang akibi." " Mai ! kopusi nele ne

"Go-then, you the youngest." "Ah! liow me are you

ketoi-mfi ? Ne duu-taugdet, ne-pu-tiing-te, akibi-pen

sending ! I being next him, as for me, ehildhood-frorn

the-rap-rap : apln"itliak-ta an e-van-pet

we grew up together : over and above that, rice (from) one j^lattcr

kecho-rap, hbr harlung isipet kejun-rap :

we ate together, beer mug one (from) ive drank together :

abang-le ne pitlii-hai-ji-ma ? ne hai-he." Ansi stich a 2^7^8071 I to kill should dare ? I dare not." Then his

apo auing-thi-lo : " Tangte kopusi ' H. K, pithi-naug ' father became angry : "Then Jiow ' H. Iv. must be killed '

pu nangtum kepu-hai ? plaug-ple-ple-le,

saying ye dared to say 1 if you cannot bring yourselves to this

nangtum pinso plang-vangve," pusi nujbk arlu-si, you male ivill never become," saying, the post climbing up,

Bldn kail, hlid h'di : hJiin is Ass. hahiii, sister ; Ihd must be Ass. bli(n, brother, but is used as a doublet of hhin.

Notice tlie energetic reduplication of the negative in 'pluny-pU-ple-tv . I'insO, male, virile, "worthy of being called men."

I20 HARATA KUNWAR

chir-pen lobong-a-op tbk-proi-lo ; ansi

ivith a spear the jjldntaiii-sheath he pierced through; then chitu-alang nang-bii-lo ; ansi " H. K. kang-

(narae of plantyjuice came dropping out : so "U.K. strong tang-ma-kangtang nbnke nang-dan-lo-bo ! Arnam

though he he, noiv here he has got his deserts ! God

Arni aso ensi, recho kethe peplang-bbm-

of the suns daughter having wedded, a great king let him riial:e lo-nang non-anke." Ansi H. K. nang-arju-dunlo : " Kopi- himself novj.'''' Now U.K. there overheard all this : "What, kopi tang-a, ikmar-li ? " pulo : anke " H. K. athai

what are you saying, 'brothers ! " he said : and " H. K. his boiu do " pu, phere-si kat-lo ; chingthvi-cherbu-si

has" saying, fearing they ran aioay ; stumbling and falling kat-lo ; ahemthap kachile aning-vangphak-

they ran; at their f angle hut their own arriving, they vomited (lit. vangphak, ansi ajd-pangthang bbr-i-det-si

their breast came up), and night-clearing away with great difficulty

adap hem chevoilo. Ansi H. K.-ta alangtum-

in the morning home they returned. Then H. K. also them apbi-aphi dun-si, chilbnghe tbam-therok sarnung var-dnn-lo.

after coming, the loorm-casts clods six on the roof threw. Ansi an-chodet jundet a-ikmar rit

Then rice having eaten having drunk his brothers field (to) damlo; aphi H. K. vanglo. Ansi atepi

luent afterwards H. K. came. Then his sister-in-law

an pilo. Chddet j undet pulo, " Ai tepi !

rice gave him. Having eaten and drunk he said,'' 0 sister-in-law! ne dak nang-do-dun thek-the-lo : kbrte-apbk

I here remain with you cannot : my brothers own

inu-te-apbk aphu-thak e-po-apbk-ta ne-pran ne-mui-si (douljlet) nay even our father own even my life (doublet)

Kopi luny-d " what are you saying?" tanfjd is only used in this way as a (juestion, as iangho (see above, p. 100) is used in carrying a message, fr)r jm, to say.

Jfi>r-l-dH-sl " witli great difficulty "; hhr-l-hhr-d, "by hook or by crook."

HARATA KUNWAR I2i

ne rirleu-thuron<j; : ur-pctlii-ji nO-pejang-jI-si mutlui-

mc aim at (plur.) ; mc to kill mc to slai/ they are

thurong. Apotke ne cliongvir-po. Sang-tet

2')lottln(j {\)\\\v.). Therefore I willcjoa-wainleriiaj. A procisio/i sangti him sJingpher-lc ne sik-p'i-nim." Aiisi

of rice Irr cad parched rice also tonic ^^rc/mn'/i^^^iyc." Then atepi pu-tekang-lo — " Lfilr- nr thi-dam-de

to his sister -in-lcno he stnd on leaving — " //' / do not die jaag-dam-de-dct, tangte ne-kevang-apbr chelbnghu

(doublet), then my-retiLrning-time {at) worm-cast

tham-therbk nang-varpo ; anke inghoi-ingliu kapbt-

elods-six here I lu ill throw ; then the stools the

kapleng cham-nbn." Chiru-rap-j6-si cliekak-lo.

planhs vjash clean." Having wept together they parted. Ansi H. K. athai che-pbn-si kedam-ma-kedam, }\nsi Then H. K. his how having taken went along, and

a-phi hem-('p'i filiem le-lo. " 0 phi ! iiaiig baug-

his granny the loidow's liouse {at) arrived. "0 granny! are you do ? " Sarpi nang-thak-det " Komat-ma ? dak

there ? " The old looman there ansicered " Who is there ' as for piitang-te, ne-dbn ne-rap avedet-pile : komatsi kevang-

this place, to me kith and kin there is not any : Who is

ma ? " H. K. thak-det, " Ai ne phi." Ansi sarpi come?" U.K. answered, " Oh, I, granny." Then the oldicoman pulo — " kopi-kevang-ma, pb ? neke hem-epi :

said — " Wliy have you come, my dear ! I am hut a lone ividow : ne hem ave ne rit ave : chO-hang chbrek-chbt-si

I house have not I field have not: food-hegging (doublet) only (from) kechb : kopi kevang-lo ? H. K. thakdet — " Nang-lbng

/ eat : why have you come " / Ii. K. answered — " With you nang-do-dun-po." Sarpi pudet —

/ idHI remain here as a companion." Tlie old woman said —

Arliii-thu-rong, mathu-thu-rong : urlen is "to aim at," miithn "to tliink about " ; thu a particle meaning " again," and rung one of the cirtixes indicating thu plural. Cldru-rup-ju-sl : jo is an affix indicating the plural.

Nang-bang-do ? " are you tliere ? '.' lit. " is your Lody {l'<ii,g) present ? " Kopi keuhtifi ma pn ? po, " father," is used as an endearing word in addressing a son, w as here a grandson (see ante, I'p. W, lUlj.

122 HARATA KUNWAR

" Nangke recho-atheng kethe-atheng le, kopusi ne-

" Yoit that Jit-to-be-a-ldng, Jit-to-be-a-great-man are, hoio in my hem nang nang-kedo-dun-thek-ji ma ? H. K. tliak-det — house you can keep me company ? H. K. answered —

" Me phi : nang-do-dun-po." Ansi do-dun-lo

" Good, granny ,- here I will stay." So he stayed with her thak-dun-lo. Ansi aphi hemepi pulo — " H. K., nang

(doublet). Then his granny the widow said — " H.K., do you

sok te-dun-non ; ne recho-arong sbk-sang

the paddy spread out to dry ; I in the king's village px^'ddy-rice

rek-dam-po. Mo sok te-det nang

to heg am goiiig. After paddy you have spread out, you

lang-chinglu dam-ji-set-ta, lang-thak diim-ri : hi

in the stream bathe to go if ivant, up-stream go not : this etum a-hem a-longle chinglu." Ansi sbk-te-

of us two .house ground (upon) bathe. Then piaddy having det aphi hem-epi recho-arong dam-lo.

spread out his granny the vndow to king's village went. H. K. sok pbn-lo : harlo-dun-lotsi

H. K. the paddy took : having turned it over frequently

palbm-pet pe-reng-det-si sbk

in a very short time having thoroughly dried- it the paddy

oi-si lang chinglu-dam-lo.

having collected together in the stream he went to bathe.

Ansi H. K. matha-voi-phak " kopi-aj)btsi ne-phi

Then H. K. thought again — "/or %vhat reason my granny 'langthak dam-ri' pu ne-kepu-tekang-lo-ma ? Lang-thak ' up stream go not ' saying me telling went away ? Up stream nang-dam-si nang-laug-dam-ji-lang," pusi laugthak

there going I will go and see for myself : " so saying tip stream

Sok is paddy, rice in the husk ; sung is rice freed from husk and ready for cocjking; an is boiled rice ; fe, a verb, " to spread out paddy to dry."

" Hf'aio," a verl), "to turn over" (the spread-out paddy); reny, a verb, of the spread-out paddy, " to become dry " ; oi, a verb, " to collect into a heap" the dried paddy. Lang-thak nang-dam-si nung-lang-dum-ji- I'ang : in this sentence the word ?ang, which occurs thrice, has three diflerent significations: the first Uiny is a noun, "water, river"; the second is a verb, " to see, look at " ; the third Jang is an auxiliary verb, " to continue doing, or being," used here pleonastically.

HARATA KUNWAR 123

dfiralo. Ser ulaug-tlie lup alan;5tli<'' kei»luik

he went. Gold water-vessels silver vjater-vessels broken

tliek-dani-lo. " 0 lasi * langthak dani-il ' pu

he, going, saw. "Oh, that 7cas v:hij ' ui)-strcam go not' saging

ne-phi ne-ke pu-tekang-le. Ningvc neng-arju-ji,

mg granny told mewhenshcioentaioay. To-night Iv:ill a^khrr,

komat-ching a-liinglie ne." Ausi hem uang-chevoilo. whose ivatering-place it is." So home he returned.

Ansi a-phi hem-epi-ta recho-arbng-pea arni-

Then his granny the ividow-also king's village-from in the

kangsam hem uang-chevoilo. AusI a-ningve an-cho-det afternoon home returned. Then that night rice having eaten

jun-det H. K. arju-lo : " Komat-ching a-langhe ma, having drank H. K. asked : " Whose u-atering-i^lace is it,

h'l lang-thak? Ser alangthe rup fdaugthe kephuk that up stream ? Gold v'ater-vessels silver ivater-vessds broken

oi-cho." Ansi hem-epi pulo : " Langthak dam-ri pu are strewn." Then the vjidow said " Up-stream go-not saying no uang kepu-tekang : nang arju-je-det-si nang langthak / you told at parting : you not hearing (obeying) there u2)-st nam dam avi-le ? " Ansi H. K. thak-lo — " Dam-te-ma, phi : vjent surely J Then H. K. ansiocrcd — " Yes, I did go, granny : ne-than-tha, komat-ching a-langhe ma." Ansi aphi explain to me, ivhose vxdering iilace it is." Tlicn his granny

hem-epi than-lo : " Bari-the Recho a-langhe ;

the ividoio explained : " Palace-great king's watering place ;

asomiir, korte bang-ther»)k, lang-nang-kachinglu-adim : his children, sisters six, in the water bathing-place {it is) : dam-ri-nbn aparke." Ansi H. K. matha-voiphak — " Ne- go not now any more." Then H. K. considered again — My

Ser, rup, "gold, silver," see note, p. Ill, ante. Notice the rare form "neng for ne, "I" ; nasals seem occasionally to be added or dropped at will at the end of words: e.g. da and (Uim. "go"; hit(j and <7, " much, many"; lii and Unuj, auxiliary verb. Komht-cliing-a-Vunghe ne : chiug is a particle strengthening the interrt)gative komat,— " who-ever ? "' Vunghe, a ghat or watering place : ne the interrogative particle borrowed from Assamese, = mu in Mikir.

Barl-the Beclw, " king of the Great Palace " ; harl, "a large house," loan-wurd from Assamese : thi, " great."

124 HARATA KUNWAR

phi dam-ri-thu pusi, ne-pii nang-dam-thu-

granny ' ffo not again' having said, as for mc, thei'e going again

ji-lang." , Ansi langthak dam-thu-lo. Lang-

/ will continue." Then wp stream he went again. Paver

kung chipatu-joi-si nerlo-chitim Bari-the

hank (under) hiding hiinself quietly, day-middle Palace-great

Recho asomar korte bang-therbk lang-nang-chinglu-

King's children, sister's six, (in) the river f 07^ the purpose

ji-si vanglo. Nang-klo-et-jo akan

of hathing came. Descending there 'beautifully their clothes

nang-chi-bi-kbk Ling sun-phit :

there having laid aside into the water they jumped all at once :

inut akan nang-chibi-kok lang sun-

each one her clothes having laid aside into the luater jumped

phit, keme-bng cliiklo-tur-det arni tur-det lale

at once, most lovely ! moon-splendour sun-splendour (like), there

kachinglu lale kachingthi. Ansi arni ingsam-

they bathed, there they washed themselves. So the day became jin-lo. Akleng nang-pinkhat-lo : " Ai etmarli !

cool gradually. The eldest therc-admonishcd-thern : "0 my dears/ kitun apbrlo, kedang apbiio, e-vo chibeng

cooking-time it is, serving-up-time it is, our fowls to house

apbr, e-phak chibeng apbrlo : e-pi e-tampo,

time it is, our pigs to hoicse time it is : our mother us will scold,

e-po e-tampo, dam-po-nang." Ansi chinglu-tanglo, our father us will scold, let us go ! " So bathing-they finished, chingthi-tanglo : inut akan nang-chihijir-

washing themselves they finished : one her clothes shaking out

Nimg-khl-t't-jr) "there tliey descendetl beautifully"; MO, "to fall or sink down from a height" ; ht a syllable indicating beauty or charm; Mr. Stack notes that it is perhaps connected with the word etpl, ' ' yellow, golden " ; it is also used as an affectionate form of address in H-miir-ti, " my dears ! " jo, plural afhx. Kan, a ceremonious word for clothes ; the ordmary expression is pc or r't. 8un-phit: phit means "all at once," " suddenly." Tur, " the brightness, splendour " (of the moon and sun).

The syllable jin in urnl ingsam-jln-lo indicates the day (jradually drawing on to evening. Apur-Io : notice the verbal afhx -lo appended to the noun phr, " time." -B(:'<g, " to house animals for the night." Ilij'ir, " to shake out," as a bird its wings before starting to My.

HARATA KUNWAR 125

phluni-i)liluin chi-i-lok-si iiigjar-M, inut

so as to flap, having -piU on Jlcio away hcautifully, another

akiin chihijii'-phlum inffjar-i-t,

her clothes having shahen out so as to flap JJeir aiuaij hcautifuih/,

uusi akibi-si-ke aphi ingjar-et-ju,

and the youiigest of all afterwards flew away heautifully

chiklo-atur arni-atur thelfiluk. 8inin<'

riioon^ s-hrightticss sun's hrighiness just like. The heaven

lut-le-tik, lale H. K. kelang-dun puke angphim

not enter ed-until, there H. K. stood gazing so that his neck {in)

chepekek-koi. Ansi sining lutkoi-lo,

he got a crook altogether. So the heaven they entered quite,

thek-dun-de-lo : ansi hem chevoilo. H. K. aning he saiv them no more : so home he returned. H. K. in his mind

mathalo " an akeme, an akechbk, nang en-16ng-le-tik thought " so heatitiful / so lovely.' here until I can get one to wife,

nang-klm-long-le-tik hej^e until 1 can huild the wedding hotver (subaud, I will not rest) ;

ningve ne-phi nang-arju-le-po." Ansi hem le-

to-night my granny I will ask again about them." So home having

rok an-cho-det jun-det H. K. aphi arjulo : —

arrived rice having eaten having drunk H.K. his granny asked :

" Mai ! phi ! la-sbntbt akeme la-sbntbt akechbk ne thek-lbng- " Oh.' graniiy ! that-like heautiful, that-like lovely I saw got le-h\ng; kopusi ke-en Ibng-po-ma? bidi ne

never; how to take one to loife shall I attain to?- apian tome than-tha ! " Aphi pudet— " Ai H. K. ! baug-k."

explain ! " His granny answered — " 0 IT. K. ! those ones

PA?i<m-/jA/«??i, onomatopoetic adverb imitating the souiul of tiapping; i, " to put on one's clothes " : (i-rl knchi-l, " he is putting on his dhoti " ; plnl kdchi-l, " she is putting on her petticoat " ; in this sense the verb i takes Jok as its constant adverbial supplement : when it means " to lie down," "to sleep," it takes Iht. Observe how the distril)Utive force of the sentence is expressed by repeating the whole phrase. Antjphuii chepekek-koi "he made his neck (i)if/phvi)) crooked (kik-dang ov kik-Juk)'' ; koi, a particle meaning " completely, altogether." En '" take," and /.•///(, "build," both mean "to marry"; the latter implies the building of a separate house for the newly wedded couple, or perhaps the wedding bower.

126 HARATA KUNWAR

ilriiuin-aso arni-aso rechu-aso kethe-aso

god's children suns children king's children greed ones children kopusi nangke arleng-as6-le ke-en-

(are): how should yoio, vjho are hut a child of man, succeed in IbnfT-ji-ma ? " H. K. pulo — " kali, phi ! en-lbng

getting one to wife I " H. K. said — " not so, granny ! get one nanf^-ii : bidi ne th{\n-non."

to wife I must: a plan to me explain."

Thiin-the tik-tak arju-ver-si

Did net-explain (she) so-long-as {he) continuing to ask,

than-lo : " Xang ke-en-ji-pet-tangte, la lang-kimg-

she explained: " You are-hent-on-wcdding-one-if, that river-bank-

le rit pan-dam-nbn." Ansi H. K. pulo — " Me-bng-chot-lo,

on afield to clear go." And H. K. said — " Very good,

phi : menap-pen-apara pan-dam-po." Ansi

granny : to-morroio-from I will go anel clcecr it." And

adap the-ang the-ang-e lang-ding:

the morning deiwning not daivning he contimted to watch : ansi adap ing-thanglo. Ansi nopak e-pak

so (at last) the morning elawneel fully. Then a eleio one

che-pbn-si dam-lo, Le-rbk-pen do-de,

teiking with him he went. Arriving-from he waited not,

sang-se, lale kepan lale kepan, arni-si-pet

he rested not there clearing there clearing, in one day only

pan-det pi-det, ansi mam tliilo, me keilo :

he cleareel it fully (doublet), then jungle cut, fire set-to-it : lale kecho puke, abeng akbk

there it (the fire) ate it up so quickly, ei piece of tvooel, a stalk thi-rok-re cho-et. Ansi thengthe, hanjsing, nbk,

lying-not it devoured. TJien meiize, millet, sugar-cane,

Arlfmfj'Uiid : notice that here the word arling evidently means a human being-, opposed to urnam-dsu, the cliild of a divine person. J'an, " to cut down and clear the jungle for cultivation." Lang-dinf/ " continue to watch " : ding a particle of continuance (cf. keeling, tall, long). I'an-det jii-det ; here jjI has the sense of " to cut down " (a tree, or something thick): so also tlii. Mam, "the jungle." Further on, in fhl-rhk-rP, thl means " to lie " : Pist dak-le kethi-rhk-mu ? " why are you lying here?" r'ok is an adverbial supplement.

HARATA KUNWAR 127

pliingu, firche-lo, aplin-thuk-til m\v ])lick-t",

plantain he dibbled in, over and above also {name of a fiowcr),

tfido, inii-kildorapLui, ilsbn-son mir e-lo.

ivhitc lUij, marii/o/d, various Jcinds flowers he 2^l"'if''d. Aiisi Ijilri-the liechO asomar lang nang-chiuglu-

Thcii Falace-great Kind's daughters {in the) river there-to bathc- lelo : nang-klo-et-jo kerne thek-the-ong

arrived: there theij descended beaufifalh/, lovehj to iia'possibilUij puke — chiklo-le vang-phlbt, arni-le vaug-phlbt thelalak. so — moon-as-if came down sun-as-if came down just like. Absi chinglu-tangdet chingthi-tangdet,

The7i having finis] I cd bathing having finished washing themselves, H. K. ateran nang-theklo. Ansi pulo — " Mai !

H. ICs garden-plot they saw there. So they said — " Oh 1 koraat iint-ina ? me-bng-he." Akleng thak-det —

whose field is it I it is very pretty.'' The eldest answered —

" E-kbrpo H. K. ateran-le-ma."

" Our cousin (brother-in-law) H. K!s garden plot it must be." Ansi sining chingjar-thn-et-j6-lo. H. K.

Then to heaven they fiew away againbeauti fully together. H. K. " namtusi ke-en-lbng-po-ma ? " pu matha-ding,

" hoio shall I succeed in getting her } " saying continued to think, ansi aphi arju-tbu-le-lo — " Ai phi !

ajul his granny tvent and asked again — " Oh, granny ! namtu-chiug-si ke-en-lbng-apbtlo-ma ? " Aphi

when and how am I to succeed in getting one / " His granny

Arche is used of sowing or planting many things together, as liere : to sow or plant only one thing is e : thtngilic ke-<', " he is sowing maize " ; suk kc-rlk, "he is sowing rice broatl-cast "' ; shk ke-e, " he is transplanting rice." Mlr-phek-T: : mir, " flower," pliek-e, " rice-husks " : " a flower that grows out of heajis of rice-husks ; has a long narrow leaf and a flower which is red and white mixed " (Stack) ; tndo, " a kind of white lily or arum with a yellow style" (id.). Ktiiu-tlilk-the-hnii fuke : "so (juule) beautiful (kcme) excessively (hntj) as never was seen (thrk-th?).'" Vang- phlht : phlht, a particle indicating suddenness. Terhn, an individual plot, as distinguished from the rit or general field. E-khrjul II. K. ateriin- le-md : khrpo, " cousin (nn)tlier's brother's son)," also indicates the relationship between a woman and her sister's husband ; here of course it is used in the latter sense, proleptically ; it is characteristic of this story-teller that he discloses the denouement of his tale well in advance. Notice the idiom -If: -md, " it must be," an indirect (juestion = " is it not ? "

128 HARATA KUNWAR

thakdet— " La-pu-pe-loug, ilsu-po : hem-thap

answered — " That-way-not, grandson-dear : a jungle hut

chi-kim-tha." Ansi adap hem-thap kim-dam-

huild for yourself ." So in the mmming a jungle hiit he went to lo. Arni-si-pet hem-thap thepi kim-det-si hem

build. In one day only a jungle hut very hig having-huilt home

chevoilo, ansi "hem-tbip taiiglo, phi," pii

he returned, and " the jungle hut I have finished, granny," saying

than-lo. "Tangte pbngsi che-et-non,"

he explained. " TJien (in) a flute bore a hole for yourself,"

• pusi aphi pinkhat-lo. Ansi pbngsi che-

saying his granny advised him. Then flutes he hored several et-6. Ansi thengthe-apbr hanjang-apbrlo.

for himself. So maize-time millet-time it became.

Aphi pinkhat-lo — "Hem-thap chehbn-dam-ra

His granny advised him — " In your jungle hut going to watch

pbngsi but-nbn." Arit putangte, palbm-pet lale

flute blow." His field as for, in a very little time there

mir kangthn-puke, mathii thek-the-det. Ansi

flowers blossomed-so, it could not be imagined. Then

Bari-the Recho asomar lang nang-ehinglu-le-lo :

great-Palace King's cliildren in the river there to bathe arrived :

nang-ingjar-et-jo inut akan chi-bi-kbk lang

there flying beautifidly one her clothes laying aside in the river

sun-phit, inut akan chi-bi-kbk lang

jumped straight, another her clothes laying aside in the Oliver

sun-phit, lale kachinglu lale kachingthi. Ansi

jumped straight, there bathed there tvashed themselves. Then

akleng nang-pinkhat-le-lo — "Da, etmiirli, dam-po-

the eldest there advised them again — " Come, dears, let us

nang." H. K. lale pbngsi kebut puke, matha-thek- go." H. K. thereupon his flute blew so, it could not be

Pungsl, Ass. harlsl, "a flute," made of a piece of l)amboo ; H, to bore a hole. Che-et-O "he (cut and) bored holes in a number of flutes"; 0 seems to be a shortened form of hng, many : hem klm-d, " they built a number of huts" ; ne vo num-O-lo, " 1 have bought a lot of fowls."

IIARATA KLNWAR 129

th('-dct. "Mai! poiigsi-kclnii-ta ju-nu'-oiiir :

imagined. "Oh! jinte-playi/if/ indeed is veri/ qood /» Imir:

H. K. abang do-avi : du J'tniuili, iiilr cht'-liaiig-

H. K. a person it is surel// : rorar, drfir>i, flour rs fo hiy dam-si-nang " ; ansi vauglo. "]{. K., nitiim mir

let us go"; so they loent. " JT. K., vr ji.owers chilok-pon-chot-lang, chilok-pon iiiug-

for ourselves pluck take a few irisit, 2duck and take are you ke-ma, po ? " " Chilok-pon uiugke-iiul,"

ivllling that we, sir ! " " Pluck and take, I am willing certainly,"

pu, H. K. pule. Ansi abang-phii-tii mir chil()k-

sayiiig, H. K. said. So each <nv' of them jiowers having p6n-si damlo, ingjar-pbn-et-jo.

jducked and taken went away, they flew away gracefully together.

Sining lut-le-tilcttik, H. K. Ifdc kel}\ng-dnn-puke

In heaven {they) not entered so long, H. K. there continued gazing so,

amek chi-peso-koi, ano clii-pesd-koi.

Ills eyes became quite sore, his ears (i.e. eyes) became quite sore. Ansi siniug lut-koi-lo : thck-dun-de-

So the heaven they entered complete/ y : hc-could-no-longer-see- lo-pu-ansi, H. K. ta liem chevoilo. Ansi aphi

ihem-when, H. K. aUo home retiirned. Then his granny

hem-epi nang-arjulo — " Mini Bari-tlu'! Kt-cho

the loidow there asked him — " To-day great-Palace King's

asoinar nang chingki-pon-mii ? " " Chingki-pbn-te ;

children ivith you did converse ' " "Yes, they conversed;

mir-ta nu keliang-pbn-langle." Ansi

fl,owers even nic lliey asked to be allouxd to gather." Then

'Ju-iiie-'()ng, " it is very good to liear" ; Ju is shortonecl from lirjii ; the prefix «?•- is separable in this word and in tirni, "day, sun," rirlimt/ "stone," and several other words, which appear in coin])ositi<)n as /li and Ihny, etc. ; it seems probable that it is connected with the 'I'ibetan prefix r-, to wliich the Mikir relative i)article, d-, has been pretixed. Notice nituvi for itetnm, possibly by vowel-harmony with the folIowitiLj words mir and chiJhk. Cln'lok-pHi niugkc-inri : observe that this i)hrase stands both for the request and its answer — ningkr, "willing"; rtiug, " mind " ;^/?u7 is thus not only the interrogative particle, but also indicates its corresponding affirmative reply. A-in<k, d-nCi, "eyes and oars" = eyes only. Mini, mvniip {minnj)), alternative terms for pinl, 2>cnup, " to-day, to-moiTow."

K

130 HARATA KUXWAR

aphi bidi thanlo : " Menap-ta ami kerne :

his granny a plan explained : " To^morroic {is) a day good. :

Bari-the Eecho asomar lang nang-chinglu-le-ji-

Greof palace King's children in the rice r there to hafhc-arriving-

apbtke, chipatu-joi-ra lang-dun-ton-nbn. La

on-as-soon-as, hiding yourself quietly watch secrretly. Those akleng-atum kbrte bang-phbngo-ke apengnan do-angse-lo. elder (plural) sisters persons five husbands have all got.

Akibi-si det-lo, latu Mbn Eecho The youngest &nly, her M&n Rdjd (King of the vAnds) asopb-aphan kerai-dun ; hbrbbng hbrte

his son for is asking in marriage ; the heer-gourds (doublet) le-koi-lo, Bbnta la-det-lo, la-apini-le

hare all arrived. Neverrtheless her only, her petticoat (accus.)

pangthek-dun-ra lang kachinglu-aphi

having carefully singled oat, in the river tJiey-have-plunged-aftery dak van-nbn. Xe la-sbntbt apini alar-thak-po :

here bring to me. I it-just like a petticoat in exchange vjill weave : lale pbn-ra adim-thbt bi-pi-dam-thii-nbn.

that toMng in tha,t same place go and set it down again. La-apini-binbng-ke patu-joi-po-nang. Ansi alang ingiar-

Her-'petticoat-owii hide-quietly-let-us. Then she to fly away dun-thek-the-lo. Lale apini nang

vjith the others will not he able. TJiere her petticoaJ- you che-hang-lo-te, * inut-le-inut ne-do-nbn' pu-ra

she ashs for-if, ' one or other of you become my v:ife ' saying pu-nbu," "To, me-bng-chbt-lo. Phi," pu H. K. pulo. say." " Yes, ve^ry good indeed, granny^' saying H. K. saAd. Aphi labangsb abidi than-chek-pen-apara, H. K.

Kis granny that plan hacrng exploAncd.-after, H. K.'s rining arbng kedo matha-thek-the-det ; aj6-ta

mind cheerful beca.me as you cannot imagine ; the vjhole night

Do-angse-lo = do-kcn-lo, " have all got."

M'lm Recho, probably shortened for Twiiim-Itechrj ■. toraon, "wind." liai-dun, special verb for "to ask in marriage." B'img, "gourd for holding beer": ti, doublet. Ttuih, "to weave." Thhn rMk, _"■ to explain " ; du-^k strengthens verbs for impartiing information. Aning arw,gkedo: rong, "delight/' Ass. loan-word.

HA RATA KL'XWAR 131

amek jangthek-the a-no jang-thek-the matha-diug.

his eyes close he could not (doublet), but continued thinl-ing. Ansi adap ing-thanglo: an-cbodet jundet

77i':n moming fully daicned : ha ring (at':n rice having drunk aiit cbedamlo. " Namtu-cbing-si nerlo cbitim-po-ma ? " his field {to) he went. "When day middle will it he f"

pu ingbong-ding : ansi saugti-arlo chi-patu-dam-

saying h*: eontinHtd icaiting ; then Aind-btnaifh he hid hihi^lf joL Alike nerlo-cbitini Bari-tbe KecbO asomar

quietly. iSo at mid-day Great Palace king's children vanglo: nang-iiigjai--et-jo, inut akan nang-clu-

came: there they ficicdoini gracefully, one her clotlus putting bi-kbk liing-sun-pbit inut akan nang-cbi-bi-kok

asid^ plunged into the ricer, another her clothes laying asiiic

lang-sun-pbit, ansi biugkacbinglu-apbi H. K.

plunged into the river, and they had entered the icater after U. K.

tbur-joi-si la-kibi-si apini ajiso ingbu-

rising quietly that youngest one's jxtticoat striped cloth stealing pim-det-si apbi bem-epi along pon-pbit-lo.

and taking axcay his granny the icidoic- to t>Jok it straight tea i/. Ansi apbi la-sbntot tipini ajlso tliak-

And his granny it Just like a petticoat a striped cloth icore in

tbii-lo, piilom-pet tbiik-det. Ansi H. K. nan^-

ed'change, in a very short time site icove them. Then IT. IC. there

kat-tbu-voi-lo, adiui-tbbt-si pini jiso bi-dani-

ran back again, place-thcU-samt-in petticoat striped cloth putting

tbii-si, abem-tbap cbeviingsi pbngsi but-lo :

doicn in e^%'h<inge, his Jungle-hut going into, thefiute played:

lale kebut puke niatba-tbek-tbe jadi-tbek-tbe. Ansi there he played so that it could not be imagined (doublet). Then

cbinglu dor-lo, cbiugtbi-dbr-lo.

they had enough of bath ing they had enough of icash ing themselre^.

Ansi iikleng nimg-pinkbiit-le-lo — "Ai etmarli.

Tlien the eldest there admonished them again — " 0 my dears.'

Notice i^aiu uinek unO for " eyes " only.

132 HARATA KUNWAR

{l:mi-i)o-nung ; ketbk-apbr, keset-

let us go; it is {rice) pcmndAng time, it is time for the second

iipbrlo ; ketun-apbr kedang-aporlo ; kebe-

poviutiiuj ; it is cooking-time, it is setting-on time; it is time to

apor, kesbr-apbrlo." Ansi akan naiig-

hcat the heer, time to squeeze it out" Then her clothes there cbi-i-det-si pu-tlm-le-lo — "Da, mir che-hang-dam-si-nang." having 23i('t on she said again — " Come, flowers let vs go and beg." Ansi mir chelbk-dam-det anke aphrangsi akleng

Then flowers having gone to pluck thereupon first the eldest iugjarlo : ansi akibi-atum-ta ingjrir-dim-et-ju-

jlev: up ; then the younger ones also flevj up with her gracefully \o ; ansi akibi-ta ingjar-dim-lo

oil together ; then the youngest also tried to fly with them,

ingjar-dun-tbek-the-det : ingjtir-tang-te, nang-kbj-thii- hut found she i'MS unable to fly : if she flciv up, there she fell back bup ; ingjar-dun-chbt, nang-klo-thi'i-lnip.

again; if she tried to fly with them, there she fell hack again. Ansi akb'nig pulo — " Mai ! kopi-cbing apbtlo-ma ? "

Tlicn the eldest said — " Oh ! what in the world is the matter '. " Ansi akleng-atum-ta nang-cbibir-tbii-voipbak-lo, ansi

Then the elder ones also there came down again, and

H. K. along vangsi pulo — " Ai H. K., nang si H.K.'s place coming said—"0 If. K., you it is u'ho our younger ne-mu apini lar-det avi, apbt-ke

sister's petticoat have changed loithout doubt, therefore van-nbn " pu-bang-lo. Ansi H. K. tbak-det —

hring if back" saying they called out. Then U.K. answered —

" Inut-b'-inut ne-do-te." Bari-tbe Eecbo asomar

" Oi\e or other of you be my wife." Great-Palace King's children

Talc, a verb with the general meaning " to thrust, poke '' ; used jiheady above (p. 11(5) for thrusting with a spear ; here for pounding tlie rice with a hjng pestle {Ihigjnim') in the mortar (Jlmg) ; another sense is "to write " (" to poke with a pen "). Set, " to give the half-cleaned rice a second pounding." Dang, "to serve up the cooked food." Be "to heat tlie fermented rice " ; shr, " to press out tlie beer " from the grains, mixed w itli warm water, wliich have been put in tlie conical strainer of woven )»amboo, si, ])y pressing down upon them a gourd, h(mg.

HARATA K UN WAR 133

piidcl : 'Kopusi miug-kedo uputlo ? ii»"ium iir'-pi'iij^'aii said: " Hoio ijoutomarrijUltiw^sihh'! m- oi'r-Iii>sh<i,i,/s

kedo-tJing, iie-pengan kcdo-tiuig iv|.-l.\"

have got alveadij, our hn.sbands have got alnadi/ viarvial to i(n." H. K. pudet — "Tangte ne piui naiig-pi-tht-k-thr :

Jf. K. said — " Theti I petticoat goic give up cannot : iniit-leTiimt ne-do-ma-si." Aiisi Brin-thr- \U\-hn

one or other of you me must marry." Then Grcat-L\dact King's tlsomar chepulo : " Te, nung-do-uon."

children said one to another : " Sister {elder), do you marry him."

Akleiig thak-det: "KopusI nG-lo kodo-jW

The eldest answered: "How s/wuld I marry him ! ne-s6 kechsin-jai-lO." " Tangte jldak-vam, naiig-

I-ehildren several have already." " Then the next, do you le do-non." "KopusI ne kedo-thek-po ? ne

marry him." "How I should be able to marry him .' / ningke ne-sO bang-phili tang-det-le." " Adakvani-

myself also my children four have got already y " Second sistrr- adun, nung-le do-nbn tangte." "KopusI kedo-

next-to, do you marry him then." "How can I possibly

tliek-ji ? ne ningke ne-so biing-kethoiii

marry him ! I cdso my children three

tang-det-le." " Tangte adakvam-adun-le-thot, naiiglr-

hace got already" " Tlien second sister-next-to-ncxl, do yon

do-non." " Ne-ta ne-so bang-liini tang-det-le,

marry him" "I too children two have got already,

kopusi kedo-po ? " " Nang adak-vani-adim-

liow should I marry him ?- " " You^ second -sister-ncxt-to-

le-thot, nang-le do-non." " Do-tliek-tlie, ne-ta

next folloiving, do you marry him." "■ I cannot marry him, I tmt

ne-so inut tiing-det-le-ma ? " " 'IViiigte uaug

my child one have I not already ! " '' Then you

akibi-si-le do-nbu." Akibi-si thak-det —

the youngest, do you marry him." " The youngest ansvjcrcd —

liP-p seems to be a variant of rup (explained above, p. 118), ami indicates that all of tlieni have been married together. Chan-Jai, " to liavi- several children."

134 HARATA KUNWAR

" Xe-tu, ]\lbn ROchO usopo-iiphan ne kerai-dun

" As for me, Mon Rdjd Ids son-for mc is asking in marriage

tang-det-le : hor-bbng hbr-te naiig-le-koi-lo ; pusi

already : the gourds of heer there a7Tived all have ; hov)

kedo-thek-po ? " Akleng-atum pudet — " Bonta

can I 'possibly marry him !" The elder sisters said— "But

niiiig pangri-re-det-lang-le-ma : uang-le do-nbn-et I

you arc not married yet : do you marry him, dear !

Ingting-po, netum dam-po : ha hem-ta e-vo

It 70 ill he da rJi soon, ice must he going : there at home our foivls f'-phiik ingreng-jo-si-do-po ; aphii-thak-ta e-pi

our pigs ivill all he calling out for us ; moreover our mother

e-p6 nang-lang-phrbng-si-do-po. Netura-ta

our father there will he looldng out for us. We also,

vang-bbm-ji-le-ma ? " Ansi akibi-ta

shall ive not continue to come and see you } " Then the youngest pulo — " Pu lang-ma te-marli ? do-po,

said — " Wliat is to he done, sisters } I will marry him, nang-tum dam-nbn ; e-pi e-po aningthi-det-ji."

do you go ; our mother our father will he vei^y angry T

Ansi akleng-abjing pulo — " H. K., nang fchan-

Then the eldest one said — " H. K., you (our) instruction from bbm-ta arju-je-det-lo, apbtke ne-mu

time to time vjoidd not listen to, therefore our Tjoungest sister

nang-tekang-po ; bbnta aduk pi-ri alak

/teve toe are leaving; nevertheless grief give her not, trouhle

pi-ri ; ketiin toi-ri, kedang toi-ri ;

give her not ; to cool: send her not, to serve 7ip send her not ;

rfiiigrl-r7-dH-ltnig-l7i-mu ; here again two verbs each liave the negative affix, phn<irl and Vang, the hitter an auxiliary signifying "to continue to be." Puiujrl in the sense "to marry," is the causal of iii(jr'i, "to drink copiously of li(iu()r"; the description of tlie marriage ceremony at p. 18 shows the important part which is taken in it by alcoholic drinks. TiKjtiiKj-jjo, "it will be dark": observe the impersonal use of the verb, without a substantive ; Ave may say fiJCi hhngtin(j-j)dr, *' the night is very dark."

-\"7ig-lfii(rj-jjh)-oug-sl-d(i-]ju ; 2^}irhng is one of the particles nsed to indicate plurality : " they will all be looking out for {Ihng) us there (""".'/)•" Jioyi, one of the verbs indicating continuance may be rendered " from time to time."

IIARA'IA KL'WVAR 135

aphu-thiik-til Ti-ii sti-ri-tlifi, akeug su-ri-thfi." A 11 si

moreover her hand lonrh not, her foot. loncJi nut." So

a-mu che-perr'-tekring-si siiiiiig

their yomiger sister }i(iciii;j instna-ti'd and left behind to lintcni

chingjur-tliu-t't-ju-lo. Sining 1 11 1 - 1 >

they fieio tip again heautifullij together. Heaven not intend

tiktuk, L'hi-lang-dun-ding :

so-long-as, they {11. K. and his icife) eontinued yazi/iy together : ansi thek-dim-dc-lo. Pu-ansi H. K. pulo —

then they could see them no more. Then 11. K. said — "Ingting-po, t'-tum-tri di\in-po-nang." Ausi H. K.

" It is getting dark, let its also go our way." So II. A',

aning firbng do-lo, jo-arnl tliijok ke-up phak-leng

his mind joyful lived, night-and-day deer shooting ivild-jng ke-ap ii-ur kreng-kre a-rap

shooting, his platform {for drying flesh) was never dry hvi shelf

kreng-kre. vjas never dry.

Ansi ningkau isi iugtiiug-lo. " Ai phi, ur hem So a year one came to an end. " 0 granny, ' / A owe chedampo pusi ne-kepulo, kolopu-lo-ina ? " pu

I vjill go' saying I say to myself , what am I to do? " saying H. K. pulo. " Niing hem-tiing-det, naiig rit-tiing-

H. K. said. " You have your oion house, you have your own det-le-ma, cliedam-ta mO ; bonta iiang-pesO naug-che-nu- field indeed, you can go, v:cll ; hut your wife with you does me-laDg," " Bbntfi," H. K, piidet, " ningkan-isi-lo-

not get on tvell yet." ''But," IF. K. said, " a year one (whole)

A-ri su-fl-th(l, a-kt'i(fj su-rl-thn : this injunction not to touch tlu- hand or foot of the fairy jirincoss has ditterent i)arallels in other hinds; in the Celebes version referred to on p. 72 it is the Jtair that is not to be touched, re-ir, causal of n; "to be knowing, clever." Ur, a jilatforui or screen for drying flesh in the sun ; rhp includes also a shelf in the house.

Kring, to be dry, Ijears the same relation to ring, dry (ante, p. 122), as klhng (p. 09), to perceive, does to lang, to look at ; in both the prefix ke- has apparently been incorpt)rated in tlie root.

Chedhm-fd-rm " You can go if you like " : oljserve the force of uu; " well, good." C/if-riu'-i7ii':-/aiig : the verb )ne liere seems to be the Assamese mPt, "agreement," not the IVlikir word for "good.'" Observe the idiomatic expression ningkan isi-lv-Ic-ina thi, in answer to an objection :

136 HARATA KUNWAR

le-mfi-thi, i»lii." " Boutu nang clie-me-me-lu,"

it is, thouf//i, (/7'((n/ii/." " Xercrfhelc.s.'i, yoii hare not hit it off yet." AnsI " Ai tungte, tlKm-thek-tlie-King-po " H. K. pulo. Ansi TJien "Oh, then, go I cannot yet," H. K. said. Then

H. K. laic katiki laK- kanglioi purii kelong

JT. K. there vjorkiny in the field (doublet) barns-fidl getting

j)hundrir kelong, hem-epi ahem })ukr' ingkro

granary-f nil getting, the v:idonfs house so cylindrieal receptavje

ingtoDg ardung-dung, Ansi

for rice conical basket were so mcmy (i.e. tuas filled I'nth). And H. K. iiso Arnam pllo, asO iuut-lo. Ansi aphi H. K. a eJiild. God gave, a child one only. Then his granny arju-tliu-le-lo : " Ai phi ne-pi ne-po-atum si-long

Itc asked ((gain : " Oh, granny, ' my mother my father s place (to)

chedanipo-si ne kepu." Hem-epi th<\kdet : " Nang-

I will go' I say to myself ." The icidoiu ansivered : "Your peso nang cheme-me-LiDg-ti, .isupo." "Kali

wife (to) yon is not yet well reconciled, grandson dear." "Not so, phi, chemelo : ne so inut tang-det-lo-

granny, she is reconciled : me child one has she not already le-ma?" " Da tsingtr' : u.tng than-bbm-ta, nang arju-

giren rue ! " Go then : yon I repeatedly advised, you loouUl

thek-the-det-lo ; chedfim-non ; bontJi nJing-peso nang- not listen to me; go together ; nevertheless your tvifc is not cheme-me-lang de." Ansi H. K. apeso chepulo

thoroii.ghly reconciled, indeed." Then H. K. his wife (to) said "Ai nang-pi, i-li-ta e-heiu chedain-po-nang." Apeso " 0 thou dear one, ice two to our home let us go." His wife thakdet, " Da, nang ne kepbn aling-lo-he." Ansi adap- replied, -'Go, you metaling wherever you, iviliy Ho itheearne lo: iin-cho-det jun-det damlo. Tovar

morning: rice having eaten hating drunk they darted. Itoad

so one says, in reply to a retjuest for i)ayinent, iiT: nang pi-tang-det-lo- U-mu-thl "but I have paid you already! " Observe that in nang che-mT- mv-la the last syllable = ////«/ without its nasal. Asu Arnam pl-lo, " (iod gave a child" : possibly tliis i)luase is due to the narrator, who it will be reniuTiibered was a Chri.stiaii. T't, a particle = " not yet reconcilt-d." I)e, a particle of asseveration, ''indeed," pn^bably the Assamese del.

IIAKAIA K IN WAR

^17

f'-beng lelo. .Viisi risr»|iu-|»rii riiir'si't-jnu ;i\iiiii

a piece (of) they arrived. Then his eliihl und his n-ifc his irttisf.

trimpong-het-si, ItolKi-jieii

putting hetweeih waist and girdle firmh/, v:ith his Imlian

che-vam-phong-liM-l(i. Ansi clam dam dam,

he hound tvell round his hudg. So as thig vnil on their irug,

vo-har filopo iuglong nung ilikr-diit,

a jimgle-foid male on the inountnin {sidi ) there vns serntrhing,

arlok uaug-firkC'-dut mathri-tln'k-thr' jadi-tliik-llir. Aiisi the precipiec was scratching inconceivahlg (doublet). Then H. K. pulo — " Chi, vohur-filopo, kopi kricheplung-mfi { m- H. K. said — " Oh, jungle-cock, tuhat are you, doing there '. I hem kfichediim-toug tovar in" ](c'k-ni>ii."

home ain-going-in-a-liurry, the way to inc leacc free." Tlic Vohfir alopO thiikdet — " Tovfir iiang kepek-jl

jangle cock ansicered — " The vjay to you I u-ill leave free by no kali : ' mini H. K. apt'so fiso chcvau-po ' Imig

means: 'to-day H. K. his tcife his ehild will bring' so nineh

pusi akhat akhat amang amang nr nang

saying to myself, the way he is coming (doublet ) / h<re

ketbii-le." H. K. pu-voipbak — " Cbr, })ub"ni-<lil-ii ! rmfikr

amwatcliing. H. K. rejoined — "Oh, johc do not ! hen after

' H. K. ilpeso aso hem lit ebevan-ansi iir-prau

' H. K. his vjifc his child house field (to) b/inging while, my life

ne-niui damlo ' pu pupa-na." Yobrir fdopo pudi-t,

/ny soul is gone' thus do not have to say." The jungle cock so id,

" Pupe. Mini naug-ta-me ne-ta-rae." II. K.

" I do not say so. To-day either you or I {will ptrevail)." H. K.

pulo " Sakhit-ma ? " " Sakhit." " Doliai-mii \ "

said " Is that true !■ " " Yes, true." "Do you swear it .' "

Jltf,, a particle used with verl)s meaning to tie, l»iuil, in tlie sense *>f " tirnily, securely."' I)iif. a particle used with verbs of scratching <ir cutting. T(>ng, a i)article indicating luu'ry or haste. L'/iw/cr "in a little time"; mo, "space or interval of time," *'- particle of unity, as in P-jhn, e-hrng. FiUinn, " to say in Joke : jnt, '" say, ' tint, "seem, pre tend." Fran, Assamese. Fu-pn-ua " don't have to say " : ufi As-samese. iVT/H^-^i-mr", «('-<«-ynf", idiomatic, " it will be well witli you or it will be well with me," i.f. " eitiier you (U- 1 will come off the better." Jto/iai, "an oath" ; probably tlie Assamese do/u'ii, "call for justice": stmr (th<- Kliasi amai) is also used.

138 HARATA KUNWAR

" Dohai." Ausi H. K. tXthai chepaching-kangsi fibbp. " / swear" So H. K. his how having set shot him.

Ansi (lam-thfi-chbt, vo-rek filopo toviir nang-

TIlcii a little further he went, a cock pheasant the vxiy right

pfirpan-pet inglong nang-arkr-dut, ilrlok nang-

across the mountain there ivas scratching, tJie precipice there

iirkedut matha-thek-the jadi-thek-the. Ansi H. K.

was scratching in an extraordinary manner. Then H. K.

pulelo " Clii vo-rek-alopo, kopi nang-cheplang-ma ? ne hem said again " Oh, cock pheasant, what are you doing there !■ I home

kache-dam-tbng, tovar ue-pek-nbn." Vo-rek

am in a hurry to go, tlic -loay leave free for me." The code

filopo pudet — " Tovar nang kepek-ji kali :

pheasant said — " The road to you I will yield by no means :

' mini H. K. apeso aso cheviin-po-tang ' pusi akhiit ' to-day S. K. his wife his son will bring along ' saying the icay

akhat amang amang ne nang-ketbn-le." H. K. pudet — " Chi, he is coming (doublet) / am watching T H. K. said — " Oh,

pulem-det-ri ! emdke ' H. K. apeso aso chevan-ansi

dontjohel hereafter ' H. K. his vfife his son bringing-while iiC'-pran ne-niui dam-lo ' pupa-na." Vorek alopo

my life my soul departed ' dont have to say.'^ The cock-pheasant pudet " pupe." H. K. pu-le-lo— " Sakhit-ma ? "

said " I dont say so." H. K. said again " Is that true / "Sakhit." "])ohai-nia?" "Dohai." Ansi H. K. athai " True." " Do you swear ! " " / sioear." Then H. K. his bow chej)achiug-kaugsi abbp. having set shot him.

Ako dam dam dam, phak-leng fdopo kethe puke matha Fortcard as they went, a wild hoar {male) great so as could thek-the jfidi-thbk-the, angthur angni pan-lbk-phbng,

not he imagined (doublet), his snout his tiisJcs ocerlapping so, tovar nang-par-pan-pet inglbng nang-thimur-phak arlbk road there-right-aeross the mountain there was rooting the precipice nang-thimur-phak abidi thek-the-det. Ansi H. K. pulo :

there was rooting in an extraordinary way. Then H. K. said :

HAKA'JA KINWAR 139

" Chi, phuk-long ulopu, kopi iiani,^ clieiilaiig-iiiri ? Tuvar

"Oh, vAld loar, what you arc doiiuj there? Thr wai/

ne-pek-tha : ne bem kfipelO serarjik-ji." riiukli'iig filojiM leave free for me: I Iwiac nxiiU to ijcl quWldijy Tin u-ihl hom- thiikdet — " Tovfir iiaiig kepek-jl kali :

answered — "The road for ijoil I ivill tea re free hij no imnns: 'mini H. K. upcso fiso chevan-po-taiig ' ]»usi

* to-day H. K. his wife and child will briny alony,' t^ayiny to /nystlf akhat-akhiit amanci-amaag no nang ketbn-lO." H. K. itudi-L the tvay he is coming (dowhlet) I here am watching." H.K. -^aid " Chi, pulem-det-ri ! jasemot ina-pu-ma ? " Pliak-h-iig al<)i»r> "Oh, don't jest! is it true or not !" The v:i Id hoar

pulo "Jasemet." H. K. pudet — "Emoke 'H.K. a) (("so said "It is true." IT. K. said "Hereafter 'If. K. his wife

aso hem chevau-aiisi ne-prau diim-lo ne-mui dam-lo ' his son home lohilc hringiny my life is yone, my soul is gone '

pupa-na." Phakleug alopu pudet — "Pu-pe."

don't have to say." The vjild hoar said — *' / don't say so." "Sakhit-ma?" " Sakhit." " Dohai-ma ? " "Dohai."

" Is that true ! " " It is true." " Do you sicear ! " " / surar ! " " Chi, tangte " — pu a-thai chei)achiug-kangsi aboi». An.'^i "Oh, then" — saying hishov^ having set he shot him. So

hem-le-ji-dbk-dbk-lo, chilbnghe tham-therbk

(when) he had nearly arrived at his home, ivorm casts clods six

pangrum-si H. K. sainung vaidamlo. Ansi

having collected H. K. the roof {on) went and threw thna. Thi's

atepi pulo—" H. K. vanglo ! To inghoi

his elder sister-in-law said " Jf. K. has arrived ! Then the stools

kecham inghu kecham." AnsI iughoi inghu kapat kilpleng

wash the seats wash ! " So the stools seats j)lanlc^ benches

cham-lo. Ansi H. K. phakleng e-jbn vAn-si,

they washed. Then H. K. wdd-hmr one having hnmyht.

Bop, to shoot a bird or animal ; hp, U> let ofl' a bow or gun.

IToh-dhk, particles used to indicate tliat an event has ?«(i/7»/ haitpened (withy^ future affix). To. imperative particle borrowed from Khasi, and prefixed, as in that language.

I40 HARATA KUNWAR

pai-ri-iC- niing-bikJik-sI honi v<\nf,f|o. AnsI

tJic hedge heside tltere having net it duicii home came. Then

kelepen iitepi librlang horpd him

on his arrival his eldest sister-in-laia heer (doublet) hread

sang-pher nang-pi-lo. Apeso keme-bng puke, ami

parched rice gave him there. His wife very heavtifid so, su/iis

atur tht'lfilak charsap iin-e. Ausi a-ik-

splendonr lllr, he loohcd in the face could not. Then his

atumke — " paningve kopi-ching ahuu-lo-ma ? " pu

hrothers — " To-night what in the world has happened !■ " saying

ning-ri-jo. Ansi H. K. pulo : " Ne mb tovar

ivere 'perplexed. Then H. K. said " / a while ago on the way

phakso nang-abbp : jfi pai-are-si me bi-tekang-

a little pig thcrc-sliot: there heside the hedge well I placed and

kbk : lale chu-pbi dam-nbn." Ausi a-ikmar-atumke

left it: there scorch it for eating go!' Tlien his hrothers,

korte-bang-phbngo damlo ; aphak kethe-bng peklem-

the brothers five, v:cnt ; the hoar (ivas) so ve7'y hig, move it an-til uu-e : thaugta chbnghoi thek-the.

even they coidd not : anything do hy themselves they could, not. Ansi H. K. dun-lo : ari e-li()ng rum-djim-

Then IT. K. accompanied them : hand one (with) he lifted and kbk: finsi phi-si ingthan-lo, ansi

brought it aicay : then having scorched it they cut it up, cmd hern vau-lo, chu-tun-lo chOdanglo. Ansi arbng bohbng home brought, cooked it, served it up. And joy fid, noisy, chingnek chingni-si chb-lo, jun-lo.

laughing and. nn'ting inerry, they ate, they drank.

Ansi puthbt-adaplo. " H. K. apesb cbevanlo "

>S'c> next morning davned. " H. K. his wife has brought "

Pai-d-r? " beside the liedge (pai) " = jxii-n-knii;/. CliO-pJii ; the Mikirs scorch (ptii) every bird or .luimal before prepnring it for cooking. (Jhhnijlioi, reflexive form of inglioi, "to do," = "to do by theiaselves." A-rl-?-lthiig : Jihng is tlio geuei'ic chiss-word for a limb (see ante, j). 79). Iwitltiin, "to cut up fish or llesli, whether raw or cooked." CliiiKjnik reflexive of inqneic, to laugli, '' huighing together." CliitKjni, reflexive of ifigni, doublet of ingnetc ; the verb also means " to sit."

Pidltiif,-ndai>-Jo ; putliht, "next": cf. lii-tfihf in ddnlc-vhi a tl-diDt-IPthht on j>. 114 above; the time-affix -to is joined directly to ^7'/^'/^, "morning."

IIARATA KLXWAK i.ji

t;ing i.ii riijii-i;)ii<r-si fi-rat-isi u<lrl-isi

so much saijliuj liacimj (jol to linir Ihr whole munirt/sidr luing kelaiif,' cbethbr-pre iniltlia-tliik-tli.'

there to see kept coming and going as ijon ivufil not imagine judi-tliek-the. Ans! H. K. fipOso upini biubng, ujiHi)

(doublet). And H. K. his loife's petticoat own striped cloth biubng, • fisC'i- filek, pbug-ting-ke, b\ng-pbiig

ovni, gold jewels, neeJclaee, gold-drum (in a) hamhoo joint ibap nieseu-si kardfmg raklbk. Ansi

putting away carefully, {in the) piteli of tlte roof lird up. So H. K.-ke ibug-i)bu-n dauilo, rup-pbu-ri-dainlo :

H. K. the village people each, went to visit (donblot) ;

firiit fidet cbi-phii-ri (b\iu : apbi

the ryots, the country in turn came to visit him: afterivards

apeso uaug kelang vang-pre. Mfim'-kc"

his vjifc there to gaze ou they Kept coming and going. Sonic

" ui " mane-ke " neng " manr'-kr- " tO "

" aunt " some " sister-in-law " {brother's v:ife), some " ddcr uiani'-ke " pinu " pu-abaug-ta-dolo. " Vai I

sister" some " j'afernal aunt" saying each one n-as. "Oh! me-bug-te-ma ? " ]tu pasingmik-jb. Ausi

is she not heautiful, sister ! " saying they all admired. Then H. K. apeso tliak-dun-lo — "An-cbbt kali lauglie ! Xe pini H. K.'s wife ansvercd them — " So much not yet ! My petticoat binbug, lie jiso biubng, ue lek biubng, ue roi

ovm, my striped cloth own, my necklace oivn, my hracclet biubng le ue chepiudeng-lbng-te, aparta so-se-lang."

own again I to put on were to gct-if, it would not he thus only."

A-rlit, il-di't, l)oth Assamese loan-words ; rhl is raii/a(, " ryots," </</, <f<"/j, " country." Chethhr-prr, rang-jrrP, are l)oth used for "continuallj- coming and going, of many people"; the former expression indicates greater numbers and frc(iuency tlian the latter. Fhutj-tiiig,'-'' a gold drum, woni on the breast, strung in the middle of a set <>f strings on which black, coral, and gold beads are arranged in alternate rows six deep " (Stack) ; in Assamese 7utidqli. N'i,ni'iiii, ti,p'nin: see the table t)f terms of relation- ship on J). 20. Apdr-tu-so-sr-liirn/ : this sentence appears to be made up thus : (Ipdr, " greatly, much," td, corroborative particle : so, diminutive particle, negatived by .sr, /««</, auxiliary verb, "continue"; the force of it, then, would be — " the effect w(juld not be only the jioor result you see, fine though that is, but ever so much more ! "

142 HARATA KUNWAR

Ansi maue iisarpi pulo — " Chi, tangte nang pi-tha." Tlicn some old woman said " Oh, then do you give them to lier" Ansi H. K. fisarpo pulo — " Kouat-tbng la oso ingcham Then H. K.'s old father said — " Where ever {did) that hoy mad Lipikbk-lo-ne-le ? kopi athe-tang apini jiso

stow them away 'I for wha.t rea.son her I'^etticoat striped cloth binbng kepi-pe-det ? " Ansi H. K. apeso than-lo —

ovjii did he not give her ? Then H. K.'s wife explained — " Hala kardong-le kerak-chek-ke." Ansi pliri-

" That pitch of roof -in he has tied them in a hmdlc. Then having dam-si nang-pi-lo. Ansi chepindeng-

vntied there he gave her (the things). Then she put them on lo che-sum-pbt-lo. Lale keme-puke matha-thek-the-det herself (doublet) Thereupon beautiful so inconceivably chi-plang-lo. Ansi " Ai ! me-ke mesen-te-ma ! arnam-aso she became. Then " Oh ! beautiful, lovely indeed ! God's child, arni-aso pu pai-pe-lo." Ankephbng H. K.

the sun's child, ccdled not for nothing is she." Thereupon H. K.'s apeso thur-phlut-si chehijir-phlum-phlum-lo,

wife rising up her full height shook out her clothes flap-fiap, ingjar-et-dan-lo. Anke H. K.

Jlew away gra^^efully {thither ichence she came). Tlicn H. K.

ha-tovar-pen nang-chethek-dun-si, thai-pen

from a distant path there having vmtched her, bow (accus.)

jo-dun-rang-rang-lo. Ansi iipeso pu-tekang-lo,

continually kept bending. Then his wife said on leaving him, " Tha, tha, mo chiphoji." Ansi H. K.

" Wait, 'Wait, hereafter we shall meet again." Then H. K.

chiru chernap mbn-duk mbn-sa-si hem nang-le-lo. weeping lamenting sad and sorry at his house arrived.

Konht-thng = kojiat-chi/ig," wherever ? " Kojn-othe = lcopi-('i]^H)t.

Pai-pe-lo : this idiom is illustrated, by the following phrases : Jdhn- diiirt jiai-pii-Io, "he is not working gratis, for nothing"; lii nklhi<j pai- pc-lo, "he is not the elder for nothing" ; ir. he can do better than his younger brothers. lrnjjnr-H-d(in-lo : the element dhn gives the force of returning to her own place whence she came. Jfi, verb, " to bend a bow," rang, particle of continuance. T]id, " wait ! " Assamese loan-word. I'hu, verb, " to touch, arrive at," as a boat comes to the shore with t:hi, "to touch (me another, to meet" (see p. 112, lines 1 and 2).

lIAkATA KL'WVAK 143

Niiug-kelc-pcii chu-chr- .i"i»-j»' u-oso

Immediately on arrival, not eat in;/, nut drinkintj, liis ihilil nang-chi-bu-det-si lul riplii liJ-ni-r-jji alinu

hacing talxn on his had,-, lo his t/rann// the tvidoiv's house chediim-pliit-lo. Ausi dam dam dam aplii hem-Opi

he started to go. So going alung his gntn/n/ the iridoic's ahem lelo: kele-pen lair kacliiru h'di- kach('rmip

house {at) he arrived: on arriving there he vept there lie lamented matha-thc'k-tho jildi-thuk the. Ausi aphi piilo — " Haku-

as you could not imagine. Then his granny said — " From

pen ' Nang-peso nang-cheme-me-King * nang-pulo-hr- ;

the first ' Your ■v:ife is not yet united with you ' / tuld yon. verily ;

kopusi nbn-h'; nang-keh"ing-ji-L\ng ? Nang sining-le kopusi

how noiv u'illyougettoseeheragaiji! Yon heaven-to how

kedun-thekjl ? " Anke chiru-pet an-muchot

vjill you he able to follow leer J Then weeping so mv.eh the more

cho-che jun-je aphi kediim-aling dun-kri,

not eating not drinking his granny loent-ivherever followiiuf,

bar-pi bar-so4e kedam-ta hundun-kii.

outgoings-great outgoings-little-in going also lie kept dogging lor,

kethi kejaug-si kedo-po. Ansi aphi

one-dying, one-perishing {like) he remained. At last his granny pulo : " H. K, akhi h')-du-det-le cho-tha :

said : " If. K., food, leaf {in) having vjrapped up eat (imper.) : ne in5 bidi niiDg-than-ji." Ansi likhi-lu-

/ thereafter apian to you vjill explain." Then food-in-a-leaf- du him sangpher cho-lo. Ausi ilj)hi bidi

wrapped bread parehed riee he ate. Then his granny apian than-lo: "Minap-ke uaug-pesO Mon EechO asopO nJiug- explained : " To-viorroiv your wife Mou liaja's son there kachepangri-Ji vaug-pu. AkO uaug-lmpo

to marry v:ill come. Before that your father-in-law's angnar-ta uaug-lang-chinglu-ji viingpo. Lale nang elephant-also there in the river to bathe will come. There do you

Akhl'lo-du ; dkhl, "something to u:it,"' to, ''leaf," di(, " wraji u}i/" = " so much food as can be wrapped up in a loaf," a morsel.

144 HARATA KUNWAR

Si\u<nI-riilo chi-patu-dam-joi-non ; ingnar dam-ji

sand-UTiderneath go and hide yourself quietly ; the elephant to go

dokdbk-lo-te, la-arme rip-het-ra uaiig-

is-making-ready-whcn, if.s tail (to) holding on, tightly your-

poho-pen iiang-so che-vam-plibng-het-nbn. Lale

turhan-icith your child to your luaist hind firmly. There

ingnur uang-firju-lo-te, * Ne-ta ha ne-peso along iiJlng-

the elephant you asks if, ' I also to my-wife s place am going

kechedun-ji' pu-ra pu-nbn. Anke menap arni-kangsam-si

along with you' saying say. TJicn to-morrow in the afternoon

nangtum lO-po. Xangke lang-kung-le dokbk-non. Anke

youhoth will arrive. Do you the-river-bank-on wait. Then

uang-peso lang-kepanglu-ji-fiphan aban-atum

your wife with-icater-to-'bathefor-thc-purpose her male slaves

asbt-iitum lang nang-sbk-po. Anke ' oso-aphan

Jlct female slaves water v-ill-dravj-there. Then ' For the child liing-ejoi-pet ne pi-tha ' piirfi hang-dun-nbn. Anke

xijater one draught only me give' saying call out. Then

lang n<\ng-pi-lo-te thibuk-arlo nang-ser-arnan jbk-dun- water you-give-if, the ivater pot-into your-gold-ring drop

thbt-nbn. Anke nang-phan nang-hang-po : anke dun- in. Then for you there she will call : then go with

nbn : kele-pen nang-sopu o-dam-kbk-nbn ; iinke

tlteni : on arriving your child set down on the ground ; then

oso iipe-albng chedampo." Ansi adap

ihe child its mother -towards vnll go of itself. So the morning ingthang-lo : chodet jimdet H. K. ha lang-kung

dawned: ha cing eaten and drunk H. K. to the river hank damsi sangti-ilrlo chipatu-dam-joi-lo.

having gone under the sand went and hid himself quietly. Ansi ingnar lang nang-chinglu-ji vanglo. .\nke

I'licn the elephant in the river there to bathe came. Then chinglu-det damji dbkdbklo. H. K. arme rip-dun-

ho ring bathed toga it made ready. H. K. its tail holding-on-

E-joi, " one tlruught " ; joi is perliaps Ass. Jol, " water." O, verb, " to leave, set down."

HARATA KUNVVAR 145

Ibk-si, npoho-pt'ii u-so cli(^-Vi\in-i)lii)iig-dt''t-lt). Aiisi

tight-to, his turban-u-ifh ///.s rhi/d tiril Jlnuli/ to /lis mfisf. Then

ingnar ha sining ingjrir-i)()ii-lo, aiisi Ini

the elephant to hcavoi jlciv up, luliiuj him vifh him, aiid there

lang-kimg u-duui-kiMc-lo. Aiikr IMou lu'cho-atum-ta on the river hanh set Idm down. Then Mon liaja's people also H. K. fipeso-pt'ii iisopo iiaiig-kai»uiign-ji-si Bari-thr! H. K.'s 'icifc-vjith his son in order fo marry great palace li("cbo ahc'in vaiiglo. Aiisi liaii-thO Keeho aban-

King's house (to) had come. TJien great-palace King's male sXtum asbt-atum H. K. apeso laiig-kaiKiiiglu-ji-

slaves female slaves If. K.'s vnfe vnth-icatcr-to-hallti-for-thv rii»liaii laiig iiiiiig-kesbk-ji vaiiglo. Ans'i H. K. asupb-aphaii purpose ivater there to draic came. Tlien H. K. his ehild-for liing hang-pl-dun-lo : " Liing ejoi-pct iie-pl-tba

loater begged f hem to give: " Water one draught oahj give me iu"-sopo-apban, pG-rafirli." Ausi iimt-ta pi-pG

my son-fur, good mothers." Then one-even would not give imit-ta pi-pe. Aiisi apbi-sl sarpi naiig-

one-even would not give. Then at last an old woman came up <Iun-lo : ausi hang-dun-thu-lo H. K. — " Lang t"joi-p<,'t

to them : then called out again H. K. — " Water one draughl only ne pi-tba, pe-aniam-pi, nt'-sopo apban." AiisI sfirpi

me give, good Madam, my-chihl-for !' Then the old woman King })I-lo ; thibuk pberoidun pelem-peKim-si, H. K.

loater gave him ; the water-jar to touch making as though, H. K. sor arnan jok-dun-thbt-lo. Ansi H. K. slpeso L\iig-panglu- gold ring dropped into it. So H. K.'s wife they lathed with lo: a-ii a-ki'ug chain-M, :q)hi-si sarpl-

water : her arms her legs washing-beautifully after the old alang-thibuk apbii uaiig-dunglo : ser-

woman's water-jar her head {over) tliey poured there : the gold

aiiiaii nang-klo-bup. Ansi H. K. fipr'so pulo — "Ail nang ring there fell out. Then R. K.'s vnfe said — "Oh! here

Man EechO-dtum ; notice that here turn has its original sense of "company"; *'Mbn Btljas company, or following."

L

146 HAR-\TA KUXWAR

chele-duii-tanglo komatching alang-thibuk ma ? " pu has arrived to us whose in the world water-jar ] " saj/ing

bisar-lo. Ansi inut-ta — " Xe thibuk kali " inut-ta she enquired. Then out — " My jar it is not," another — " Xe thibuk kali " pulo. Ansi " sarpi a-thibuk "

'' My jar it is not" said. Then '" (it is) the old woman s jar" pu-hnr-lo. Ansi sarpi-aphan pulo — "Konatsi nang

they all said. So to the old woman she said — '' Where did ymi bangso aman kelong-lbk ? Labangso arleng en-dam-nbn I

this ring get hold of ^ That man go and fetch !

La-le nang van thek-tbe-det, tangte nang

Him if you bring cannot, then {it is a matter of) your

pran!" pulo. Ansi sarpi chiru cbemap-si

life!" she said. Tfien the old woman weeping lamenting

H. K- along dam-lo, ansi hang-dam-lo — " Xe-dun

toicards S. K. went, and called out to him — " With me he ik-nbn : kopi-apbtsi ' Lang ne pi-tha ' si pu-

pleasid to conne: for what reason ' Water me give' this having

te ne-pian ne-mui ne-kapedam-ji-le matha-thurbng-

said my life (doublet) me to cause to lose did you have it in your ma ? " Ansi H. K. aso chibu-si dun-

mind / " So H. K. his child carrying on his baclc went with lo. Kelepen «3sd 6-dam-kbk-lo. Ansi

her. On arriving the boy he set down on the ground. Ttien oso kat-tang-tang-si ape cberbak dam-krap-lo,

the boy running straightway his mother s lap (into) climbed up, ansa mbk cbn-lo. and her breast sucked.

Ansi Bari-tbe Eecho pulo: "Ai! abidi thek-

Then the great palace King said: "Oh! a thing never

Pu-hur-lo : httr is one of the particles iBdicating plurality.

Ne dun-ih-ncm : ik, " elder brother," used as a respectful form of address ; observe its place in the compound imperatire. iluthu- thurhng, lit. "you had another (tku) meaning" (viz. to make me lose my life). Notice how -si, the mark of the conjunctive participle, is aflSxed to the reported utterance of H-K. CJierVik = che-iirUik : urhak, the lap or VKKom ; also a verb : oso hlrbak. " she holds the child to her bosom." Krbp is said to be used only of a child climbing up into its mothers lap.

HARATA KUXWAR 147

the-lo ! a-so-si chi-pethe-rap-tAng-d^t-!o-le-ma ? "

-seen be/arc ! a eh ild-eren ha re they got great het x already .' ' '

Ansi 3Ion-Eech6-atimi therak-lo iaininglo :

Thai Moii-Rajiis people were a.^anu:d, were di-sgu-ited : mbn-duk mbn-sa hem chevoi-lo. Ana H, K, pen

grieved and sorry home they returned. Then (of) H. K. and

Bari-the-Eecho asopi pangri-lo pangdbn-lo.

great palace King's daughter they celebrated the xcedding.

Ansi ningkan-isi ningkan-hini do-dun-si tiki-

So year-ijne year-two living with them he laboured lo inghoi-lo, ansi puru-krehini phandar-krehini

in the fieWs and icorked, and granaries-ticeire liams-txcehe Ibng-lo. Ansi H. K. apeso aphan chipulo: "Ai

got. Then H. K. his vyife-to said prireUely : "0

nang pi ! ili-ta vo-phri asbn vo-thong asbn e-tar

my dear I ice tico also sparroics-lile dores-lile a lusst

an-ke do, e-thbn an-ke do ; apbtke chedam-

at least have, a roo-sting-plaee at least hare; therefore let us go po-nang : bnghai pen anihaf arju-nbn."

away together: father-in-laic and mother-in-law ask.' Ansi aningve H. K, apesb ape apo

So that night ff. K.'s wife a ' r her father

cherjulo : "Ai pe pen pb! niingli 0-'

asked privately : "0 mother and father ! your son- - kepu-ke : ' ili-ta vo-phri asbn vo-thung-asbn e-tar

■says : ' we two also sparrows-like dores-lil-e a tust anke do, e-thbn anke do: bnghai pen

at leaM hare, a roosting-place at least hare: father-in-law and anihai arju-nbn : chedam po-nang ' — pusi pu :

mother-in-law ask: lei us go away together' — so he says: Xangtnm kopi abida-si ne phar-dun-po-ma ? " Ansi Bari- Y'S what order me will command J " Then palaee-

Iii'jriinu used as homonym of therui, " to be "-'■ ■ • " '= " •- " to be ;vfr.ud, disturbed in mind."

CJierju-Io = cht-Jrju-lo. Prtiir, "to order" ; ... ■ .-.^ "as you order me": n^ j^ulr-iiuu p^jn^-sin-lo, ~I gave .- 1'

instructious." Bidu = Ass. hi-iai, " leave to depart."

148 HARATA KUNWAR

the-Eecho pulo — "Cliepe! lo-tliui slson

ffreat-King said — "0 daughter! k Imndle of urccns lilx,

hanthui fisbn t"boi-si iiiViic; chocliok-palar

a bundle of vegetables like, once for all go)' given atcag, or

chotheng-palar tang-det-lo-le-ma. Minap-le

in exchange {doublet) completely I have. On the moo^row

dam-tha chidun, mini-le dam-tha chidun." Ansi upo go awag together, to-dag go avmg together." Then her father

pu-thil-lo : " Kopisi nangtum kari-ma ? ban-ma ?

said again: " Wliat do gou desire of me! mcde slaves'

sbt-ma ? armo-ma ? okso-msX ? ser-ma ? riip-ma ? "

female slaves 1- ryots ''. liusbandmen ! gold / silver '^ "

Ansi H. K. che-than-dam lo : " Ai nangpo ! ne-pe pen So H. K. she went and told : " 0 my dear ! my mother and

ne-po kepu-ke — 'raini-lr dam-tha minap-le dam-tha my father say — ' this very day go avjay to-morrow go aicay

chi-dun-ta-me ; aphuthak, ban-mii ? sot-msi ? armo-ma ? together if you like ; moreover, slaves! handmaids! ryots!

okso-ma ? ser-ma ? rup-mfi ? Kopisi nimgtum kari-ma ? cultivators ! gold ! silver ! What do you desire ! '

pusi pu." Ansi H. K. pulo : " Thangta nangne." Ansi they say." Then U.K. said: "Anything I need not." So

sidjiplo. Ansi H. K. anipi pen

it became morning. Then H. K. his mother-in-lavj and

ahupO ardom-lo ardi-h*. Ansi

his father-in-lav.' saluted respcetf all g {doublet). And

ahupo pulo: "Kopisi niingli kari-ma? ban-ma,

his father -in-lav) said: "What do you desire t slaves,

sbt-mii, armo-ma, bkso-ma, ser-ma, rup-mii?" Ansi handmaids, ryots, cidtivators, gold, silver ! " Then

Che p" ; notice that ]h^, " mother," is used as an aft'ectionate term of address to a daughter, exactly as 2"'i " father," is used above to a son or grandson. LO-thui-hun-thni, "a bundle of vegetables, with a leaf wrapped round it." Chhk and thhtg mean literally "to beat," but are here jocularly used for getting rid of a person. Frddr causal of liir, " to be changed or exchanged," also apparently used jocularly of giving in marriat'e.

IIAKATA KLNWAR

149

H. K. jmlo " TliHiigtu ni\ngu«'." Ansl H. K. fituiii

H. K. i<(ii(l " J n.rcd nolhiiKi." So 11. K. inul his irif,-

pengnaiiso taugtt' asopA luiii clicdain-lo jinsi liclii

the lucdded })mr and a/so f/in'r son started for hoiar mul arrirrd chile-lo. Ii('cho chulo kethe cholo, jo-uiiii

there. A l-iiui lie heramr, a great one he became, nifjIU and

111^', Jo-anil tlir, alisi ilivclio

daijlietvashappij, ni(jhl and daif Inwas tjreat, and his kingdom

aketbe thirlo. vjas great and stahle.

ILK.-fitum: notice the plural affix used to imlicute H.K. ami Ids wij't. CIio-Jo, " he became "' ; this seems U< be a difierenb verb from chfi, ** to eat." Notice a-rccliu "liis kiiigsliij) " ; richn stands for raj as well as rdjn. Tliir, Ass. thir, "steady, stable."

Addition A I, Notes.

Divisions of time. On p. 1(5, note, the divisions of the day are t^iveii. To these may be added those of the year, as recorded by Mr. Stack. A year is niiii/-J,liii (c/'. Lushei Jciun, Sho kun, "year," and Lu.shei yii-kum, Thado innf/ki/ni, Sho yan-kuii, "last year"). A month is Chiklo, "moon"; but the Assamese niontlis, which are solar divisions of the year, not lunations, appear to be followed. The days of the month are n<jt j^enerally counted, and there is said to be no week. (This is borne out by S. P. Kay's Knglish-Mikir vocabulary, which ^ives Impfa, the Hindustani haffa,i\,s tlu; word for "week," with hl-f/irhlcai, "seven daj's, ' as an alternative. In the JMikir rHiutir published by the American Baptist missionaries in 1903, however, rui is said (p. 21) to be the word for "week.")

Kechiin(j-d2>hr (j'hittKj, to be cold) is the cold season. XiiKj-kernif (kj'('ug, to be dry) is the dry portion of winter. O/iung-phanfj-hk (clnnnj, cold ; pliang-hk, hot), is tlie spring, mei-ginj^ into sunnner. lidrla is the rainy season, followed liy (■huiaj-jir-jir ("becoming cold by degrees ') autumn. The following are the names of the months, with the corresponding Assamese names, as set down by Mr. Stack : —

Literary form.

As promt n need in Assam.

Mikir names.

Chaitra

Soit

Thangth{in<i

Vaisakha

Boihag

There

•jyeshtha

.leth

•Tangml

Ashadha

Ahar

Aril

Sra-vana

Srabon

A'osik

Khadra

lihadur

•lakhong

As win i

Alan

Paipai

Kartika

Karti

Chiti

Margasirsa

Marg

I'hn-

Paushya

P.-.h

Phaikuni

Magha

Magh

Matij6ng

Phrdguni

IMiagun

Arkoi

150 HARATA KUNWAR

According to the Mihir Primer, however, the IMikir names' (wliich agree with those given by Mr. Stack) correspond with periods earlier by at least a month, Thangthang being the equivalent of February, instead of Cliaitra (which begins at the vernal equinox), and tlie other mf>nths in ordinary sequence (There, March, JangniT, April, etc.). Thangthang is said by Mr. Stack to be called Cha/igldchhug-rhng-do, "the stay-at- home month." There is the month in which the jungle is cut and strewn to dry (this would agree well with the equivalent of the Frimer, rather than with Boihag, April-May, when the tiring Avould take place). Vosik ("sprout") should indicate the month of vigorous growth, when the rains have set in. Phaikuni seems to be borrowed from the Sanskrit Flic'dquni, but does not correspond with it. The other names are not explained.

Musical instruments. A flute, 2^^'n(is'i, cut from a bamboo, is mentioned on p. 128 : pongsl is the Assamese J>ansi, the well-known instniment of the youthful Krishna (Baiisl-d/iar'). Other instruments known to the Mikirs are rnuri, a fife ; clit-ng, a drum ; clti'iig-hrup, the small hand- drum used by the rlsOmdr to accompany their dancing at funeral feasts ; and J:um, a one-stringed fiddle. The last is made by stretching a string made from a creeper, mimgrl, across a gourd, h})ng, which provides an air-chamber. It is played with a bow, kum-dllsO (ll, a bow, so, diminutive particle) made of bamboo, the string of which is a tough fibre of bamboo. (Compare the one-stringed fiddle, pen a, of the Meitheis : Meithei Monograph, p. 56.)

VII.

AFFINITIES. The place of the Mikirs in tlie Tibeto-Buniuiu family.

Some idea of the mental equipment of the Aiiengs will have been gathered from the two preceding sections. It has l>een seen that, within the limited circle of their experience, they possess a medium of expression which may be described as adequate to their needs, well knit together in its mechanism, and copious in concrete terms, thougli, like all such languages, wanting in tlie abstract and general. Their folk-talcs are lively and effective as narratives, and the themes, though probably borrowed from the great treasury of popular story elaborated in Peninsular India, have been appropriated and assimilated to the social conditions of the Mikirs themselves. Little has hitherto been done to enlarge the resources of the language in the direction of higher culture, or to use it for the expression of ideas lying beyond the scope of the tribal life ; but there appears to be no reason to doubt that the language of the Mikirs will be found in the course of time to be as capable of development for this purpose as tlie speech of their neighbours the Khasis.*

The leading feature of the race, in contrast with other hill tribes of Assam, is its essentially unwarlike and pacitic character. Its neighbours — Khasis, Kachfiris, Kukis, Xagas — have for centuries been engaged in continuous internecine strife, and their tribal individualities have been preserved, and difitln-- ences accentuated, by the state of hostility in which each unit, however small, lived with all adjacent peoples. The ^likirs

* Reference may here be made to a summary of tlie Gospel history in Mikir entitled Birta Kem?, " Glad tidings," publislicd liy the American Baptist Mission Press, Tika, Nowgong, in l!t04.

152

THE MIKIRS

have always, at least during the last two centuries, been, as Major Stewart described them in 1855, "good subjects." Numbering some ninety thousand souls, they are extremely homogeneous, while other tribes in their neighbourhood differ in an extraordinary manner from village to village, and con- stantly tend to split up into smaller aggregates, looking on all outsiders as enemies. No such disintegrating influence has affected the Arlengs, AVhether in North Cachar, the Jaiutia Hills, Nowgong, or the Mikir Hills, their tribal institutions, their language, and their national character are identical, and they pursue their peaceful husbandry in the same manner as their forefathers, raising in ordinary lyears sufficient food for their subsistence, and a considerable amount of cotton and lac for export to the plains. In these circumstances, surrounded by warring tribes, and still nomadic in their habits of cultiva- tion, they have from time to time found it necessary to place themselves under the protection of stronger peoples. It has been mentioned in Section I. that the traditions of the race show that they were formerly subject to the Khasi chiefs of Jaintia and the eastern states of the Khasi Hills, and that they migrated thence to the territory subject to the Ahom kings.* During their sojourn in Khasi-land they assimilated much ; dress (p. 5), ornaments (p. 6), personal names (p. 17), methods of divination (pp. 34, 35), funeral ceremonies (pp. 38—42), memorial stones (p. 42), all come from the Ivhasis, who have also contributed many words to theu' common speech. Borrow- ings from Hinduism are equally manifest in their language, their folk-tales, and their religion. Assamese words are numerous in Mikir ; Arnam Kethe (p. 30) seems to be a translation of Maliddtca; Jom-drhwi {i). 28), and the ideas linked therewitli of an after-life, are strongly impressed with a Hindu stamp.

Yet they retain, together with these borrowed features, a sufficiently definite stock of original characteristics. Physically they differ much from Khasi and Assamese alike. Their social fabric is based upon clearly marked exogamous groups, with patri- archal principles of marriage and inheritance ; they call these by a Khasi name {l.ur), but have no trace of the matriarchal

* This seems to have taken place in or about 1765 a.d. See (iait. History of Assam, p. 181 .

AFFINITIKS 153

family as kii(»\vii among the Khasis. They build llicir liouscs on posts, while their neighbours, except the Kukis, build <>ii ibe ground. Their deities are of the primitive kind wliich is common to all Indo-Chinese races, well known, under the namt; of Nuts, as the object of popular worship and pn»pitiation in Jiurma.

Ever since the race has l)een studied, it has been noticed that it was dithcult to establish its exact place and aninities in the heterogeneous congeries of peoples who inliabil tbc mountainous region between India and numia. This was remarked by Iiobinson in 1841 and 184'.), by Stewart in 185,"^, by Damant in 1879. At the Census of ]881 an attempt was made to bring the Mikirs into relation with the Boro «»r Kachari stock ; but it was seen at the time that more must be ascertained regarding their neighbours before any final judgment could be arrived at. Dr. Grierson, on linguistic grounds, has classed them in the Linguistic Survey as intermediate between the Boro and the Western Nagas. It appears to the present writer, in the light of the much fuller information now avail- able, that they should be classed rather with those tribes which form the connecting link between the Xagas and the Kuki- Cliins, and that the preponderance of their affinities lies with the latter of these two races, especially those dwelling iu tbe south of the Arakan Boma range, where the ("bin tends to merge into the Burman of the Irawadi A'alley.

When Eobinson and Stewart wrote, it was still remembereil that the Mikirs had once been settled in strengtli in tlu- country (now called North Cacliar) to the immediate north <ii' the Barail Bange, and in contact with the Angfimi, the Ivachcbii, and the Kabul Nagas ; and that, exposed as they were in tliis locality to the inroads of the Angfunis and the oppression of the Ivachari kings, they had migrated westwards to the territory of the Jaintia Baja in search of protection. It was noticed in tbe Assam Census Beport of 1881 that in this region north of tbe Barfdl, where there are now no Mikirs, local names belonging to their language indicated their former presence. ANlim they lived there, they must have been in touch with tribes belong- ing to the Kuki-Chin stock, who have for centimes occupiiMl the hill ranges to the south of the valley of Cachar, and the mountains between that valley and Manipur.

154 THE MIKIRS

The institutions of co-operative agriculture by the village lads (p. 11), the bachelors' house or tcrang (id.), the former custom of ante-nuptial promiscuity {p. 19), and the traces of village taUi resembling the Naga genna, still characterizing the annual festival of the Rhngker (p. 43), all point to a connection witli the "Western Naga tribes, rather than to affinity with the Kachfiri stock. From the Kuki and Chin tribes the Mikirs are distinguished chiefly by their pacific habits, and by the absence of the dependence upon liereditary tribal chiefs which is so strong a feature among the former. The customs of both races as regards the building of houses upon posts, with a liong or open platform in front, are identical ; in Major G. E. Fryer's paper " On the Khyeng people of the Sandoway District, Arakan," published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1875 (pp. 39, 99), a Khyeng house is figured which bears a striking resemblance to the Mikir house. The insti- tutions of domestic and individual life among the Khyengs (Chins), as described by Major Fryer, especially as regards marriage, funeral ceremonies, the disposal of the dead (after copious feasting of friends and relatives) by cremation, the rules of inheritance (females being wholly excluded from succession), the treatment of disease, the propitiation of spirits, and the annual festivals in honour of the gods who preside over man's welfare, present the closest analogy to those of the Mikirs as set forth in this monograph. Like the Mikirs, the Chins are divided into exogamous groups and follow the rule of male kinship ; Init, like the Mikirs also in this, the approved, marriage is that between a man and his first cousin on the mother's side. It has been noticed already (p. 21) that the word for father-in-law (ong-hai, wife's father) in Mikir is identical with that for maternal uncle, bng, and that son-in-law, osa, also means nephew (sister's son). The story of "the r)ry)han and his Maternal Uncles " illustrates the obligation which lies on a lad to marry his mother's brother's daughter (see above, p. 53). Similarly, Harata Kuhwar, though but a mortal, calls his father-in-law the Bdrl-the Ilechd onghai (p. 147), and is spoken of by him as osa (id.), while the fairy princesses call him cousin, lorpb (p. 127). The same pheno- menon appears in the Kuki-Chin languages. In Sho or Chin

AFFINITIES 155

(Khyeng) cqm ineaus both inateirial unclu and lathcr-iii-law ; so also in Lushei, ^;m has both meanings. The f(jllowing list of words indicating relationsliip in ]\Iikir and Lushei (representing the Central Kuki-Chins) shows how closely the two languages correspond in this important part of their vocabulary : —

Mikir. Luthti.

grandfather pJnt pu

grandmother jjki -pi

grandson su-po tu-jjo

granddaughter su-pl ta-nit

father pi pd

mother pei nti aunt :

fatliers sister rrl ni

mother's sister pi-nn nu

father's brother's wife nl ' nu

Among all these tribes the most important index to racial connexion is to be found in their languages. Xo one would now assert that language, any more than religion, is everywhere a conclusive mark of racial unity ; immense masses o( the people of India to-day speak languages imposed upon them from without, and Aryan speech lias extended itself over many millions in whose blood notliiug is due to the original invaders from the north-west. Again, the piactices of a predatory state of society bring into the tribe slaves and wives from outside ; or, as among the Mikirs (p. 33), aliens may be accepted on equal terms as members, thus modifying the unity of blood. On the other hand, it would be equally unreasonable and opposed to the facts to deny that, among such communities as the Tibeto-Burman peoples of Assam, race and language do, constantly and in a general manner, coincide. I'eople who speak a tongue which is unintelligible to their neighbours are necessarily thrown together into a unity of their own. Their ancestral ideas and institutions, secular and religious, their tribal history, must tend to keep them united, and perpetuate the influence of a common origin by the fact that all outside the community are actual or potential enemies. Language, therefore, when it coincides with tribal separateness, is our chief guide in determining the relationship of the lull tribes of Assam one to another.

Here another qualification is, however, necessary. The word-stock of the Tibeto-Burman i-aces is to a large extent

156 THE MIKIRS

identical. The same methods of arranging the elements of the sentence, in other words the same general principles of grammar, prevail throughout the whole family of speech. We must, therefore, in investigating the nearer kinship of one group to another, not be misled by linguistic resemblances which are common to the whole stock to which both groups belong.

In comparing Tibeto-Burman languages it has lieen usual to choose for examination in the first place the numerals and in the second the pronouns. The vocabulary of nouns, adjectives, and verbs is liable to disturbing influences which do not equally affect the simple ideas represented by number and person. Let us begin, therefore, with the numerals. These, so far as they are necessary for our purpose, are as follows in Mikir : —

one, isi twelve, kri-hial

two, lilnl thirteen, kre-kethum

tliree, ktthhnt etc.

foul", phili a score, ing-Jcoi

five, phhiii/d twenty-one, iny-koi-rd-lsi

six, thtroh etc.

seven, (herhk-sl thirty, thom-Jcf-p

eight, nh-htp forty, pldli-kep

nine, sir-kf'p etc.

ten, kPp ;i hundred, pjharu

eleven, kn-lsl

Here the first thing to be noticed is that the three numerals between six and ten are not independent vocables, but com- pounds ; seven is six plus one : eight is ten minus two, and nine is ten minus one. In most of the other languages of the family this is not so ; the Boro, the Naga, and the majority of the Kuki-Chin languages all have independent words for seven, eight, and nine. It appears to be only in the Kuki-Chin group that we can find an analogy to the Mikir words for these three numerals. In Aiifd, a language of the Old Kuki family spoken in Manipur, seven is f('/,--si\ which seems to be identical with the ]\Iikir tlicrbl'-si ; and in Meithei (the language of the Manipuris) eight is ni-pdii/^ two from ten," and nine is ma-pan, " one from ten."

We next notice that leu is expressed by two separate words, kep (in ten and its multiples) and Ire (in the compounds from eleven to nineteen). So far as vocabularies have yet been

AFFIXITJ!:S

157

published, the ouly other tribes dl" llic Tilieto-Ihuiuan tamilv * which liave a word resembling hep for ten are Maring Xaga, one of the Naga-Knki languages, ^vhere it is cli'rp, and Sho or southern Chin, where yip is used for ten in the sequence thirty, forty, fifty, etc. {thuni-gip, thirty, mll-f/ip, forty, ngkd-gip, fifty, exactly corresponding to the Mikir fhlnn-l-ej), pliUl-l'i ji, jiliomjo- I'rp). The close resemblance of the otlier numerals in Marin" to Mikir forms is noticeable; four is fill, five fmiga, and six tkarak. The other word for ten, /,7v", strongly resembles the Angfimi Icerr or kcrru and the Kachcha Naga gdrio ; in the Central Naga group the prefix ke- has been replaced by ta- or te-, and the words for ten are ler, tar a (Ao), taro, fara, tare (Lhota), etc. In the Naga-Kuki group Sopvoma lias chird, Maram Icero, Tangkhul thard, etc. In the Kuki-Chin group Meithei tard is the same word : in the Central Chin auotlier prefix, pu-, p6-, or pd-, is used, and we have liai p'ord, IJanjogi para, Taungtha parhd. There are no Boro forms which cor- respond to hre, nor any much reseml)ling Jiep.

The Mikir word for twenty, inghvi, is made up of the prefix ing-, and koi, formerly (before the loss of the final I) lol. Kachcha Naga has the same word, engkai, Kabul choi, koi, or kof. The word also appears in Garo (koi), Tipura {kiwi), and Deori-Chutiya ijcwa), of the Boro group ; Angfimi mc-kwu, me- khi, mekko, Lhota me-kivl, mekv-il, in the West and Central Naga groups ; Maram and Sopvoma {make, makci), Tangkhul (magd), Phadeng {ma-lMi), in the Naga-Kuki group, and Singpho khun. In the Kuki-Chin languages it is very common (Meithei kul, Siyin kul, Lai po-kxil, Shonshe ma-kul, Banjogi kill, Sho [Chin] kid, goi). There does not appear to be any trace of this word for a score in the Tibetan and Himalayan languages, where twenty is invariably rendered by " two-tens." f The Northern Indian word kdri, which has the same meaning, has been compared with it ; it is difficult, however, to imagine borrowing on one part or the other.

In the series of tens, 30 to 90, Mikir prefixes the multiplier : thom-kep, phill-hep, p>hongd-k'ep, etc. The Boro group prefixes

* Words resembling hPp are found for ten in st)ino of the prpnoniinal- ized languages of the lower Himalayas of Nepal; but these do not enter into our present field of comparison.

t Lepcha lilu'i, Khaling klidl, are probablj^ the same word.

158 THE MIKIRS

tlie tens (Garo sot-hrl, 40, sot-bonfjgii, 50, sot-doJc, 60, etc.).* The Xaga group has both systems ; Angami prefixes the tens : lhl]-dd, 40, Ihl-pangu, 50, Ihl sum, 60 ; Lhota and Ao suffix them : Lhota tham-dro, 30, zii-ro, 40, roh-ro, 60 ; Ao scmur' 30, lir' 40, roh-ur' 60. In the Kuki-Chiu group the majority of dialects prefix the tens (Thado and Lushei sbm-thum 30, som-ll 40, etc.), and this is also the rule for Kachcha Naga, Kabui, and Khoirao, as well as for all the languages classed by Dr. Griersou as Naga-Kuki. But the Sho or southern Chins not only have the same collocation as the JNIikirs {thum-gip, mll-gip, nghd-gip) — an arrangement which also obtains in Burmese, — hut v.se the same words. This coincidence is very striking.

The word for a hundred, 'jiltdro, bears no resemblance to any word expressing this numeral in the Boro languages. It agrees with the Angami Icrii, Kezhamfi Irl, Sopvoma Ire, and in a remarkable way with the words used by the Southern Chins (Taungtha ta-yd = tarCi, Chinbok phyCi = jjhrd, Yawdwin prd, Sho (Chin) Imt). It will be seen that i^hd- in Mikir, /.- in the Xaga languages, and ta-, ph-, p- and /.> in the Chin dialects, are numeral prefixes, and that the essential element of the numeral is rCi (Mikir ro) or rat. It appears in this form, without any prefix, in several other Kuki-Chin languages.

Here should be mentioned a custom which obtains in Mikir of counting hj fours; a group of four is chelce or chike, wliich corresponds to the Boro zakhai (jakhai). This system is used for counting such things as eggs, betel-nuts, fowls, etc., of the same class ; e.g. vo-tl chil-e phbngd-rd e-pum, 21 eggs (4x5 + 1): chike phongo-rd pmrii-thbm, 23 eggs (4x5 + 3). Possibly one language has borrowed from the other. (This method of counting by fours is common throughout the Aryan languages of Northern India, where a group of four is called (jandd.)

Our conclusion from these comparisons is that while Mikir has few coincidences, beyond those common to the whole Tibeto-Burman family, with the Boro group, it has many with

* Other Boi'o languages borrow Aiyau Avords for higher numbers than ten.

t Llil is the relic of liir, with the preHx h dropped and the r changed toL

AFFINITIi:S

'59

As written.

A$ now ipoken in Central Tibet.

gcliig

chik

gnyi8

nyi

gsiun

HUin

i./.hi

shi

Ingfi

ngfi

drug

dhuk

bdun

diin

l)igyad

dgu

})chu

chu

the Xaga and Kuki-( 'hin groups, and especially with tlie Slid or southernmost Chins.

Before leaving the numerals, soniethin;^ must lie said ol' iht- prefixes which they exhibit throughout the Tibeto-liurman family. Taking first that member for which we have the <ildt,'st materials, Tibetan, the first ten numerals are as follows : —

one .

two

three

fuur

live

six

seven

eiglit

nine

ten

Here we observe several different prefixes, once no doubt supplied with vowels, but from the dawn of written record united in Tibetan with the following consonant, and now no longer heard in utterance ; in the first three units the prefix is ^- : in four, seven, eight, and ten it is l- : in six and nine it is d- : and in tive it is /-.

In the Tibeto-Burman languages of Assam and Burma wo find the same phenomenon of numeral prefixes ; but while some languages have the same prefix throughout the ten units, others, like Tibetan, have several different prefixes. In some cases, again, the prefixes have been incorporated in the numeral and are no longer recognized as separable, while in others they may be dropped when the numeral occurs in composition ; in others, again, the prefixes have (as in spoken Tibetan) been dropped altogether.

Of the first class the best examples are the Central Ivuki- Chin languages : —

Lai.

one

pij-kat

two

po-ni

three

po-tlifini

four

pti-li

tive

po-nga

six

po-ruk

seven

po-sari

eight

po-rye^/(

nine

pcj-kwa

ten

po-ra

aionshe.

Lu$hei.

ma-kat

pa-khat

ma-nhi

pa-nliih

nia-ton

pa-thuui

ma-li

pa-ll

ma-nga

pa-nga

nia-riik

pa-ruk

ina-seri

pa-sarih

nia-rit

pa-riat

nia-ko

pa-kua

nia-ra

shoni

i6o THE MIKIRS

Of the second class Mikir, in common witli most of tlie Assam family, is an example; in one and two the prefix ke- ( representing the Tibetan g-) has been abraded to I- and Ju- : in M /w it persists ; in these numbers the prefix may be dropped in composition, leaving si, til, and thorn remaining. In four and five \xe have the prefix plii- (for -pi-) and pho- (fory?o- or 2^a-), representing the h- of Tibetan, but now no longer separable. In six the prefix the- represents the original d-, and has similarly become inseparable. In ten, the form Iri- represents an original LcrCi, answering to the Kuki-Chin jpo-rd and ma-rd and the ^leithei ta-n'i. "We notice that in Mikir, as in the Xaga and Kuki-Chin languages, the hard consonants k, p, t {j)li, tJi) have replaced the soft g, h, and d of the Tibetan. In the Boro languages, on the other hand, the original soft consonants of Tiltetan are retained, as will be seen from the forms below : —

Jioro.

DimasCi.

Garo.

one

se, sui

shi

sa

two

ni, nui

gini

gill

three

thiiin

gataiu

jfitam

four

bre, brui

bri

bri

live

ba

bonga

bougga

six

ro, do

do

dok

In these changes ^likir follows the phonetic laws obtaining in Xaga and Kuki-Chin, not those which obtain in Boro.

It has been pointed out already (p. 78) that generic deter- minatives are iised in Mikir when numbers are joined to nouns. This practice is common to the Boro languages and to the Kuki-Chin group (as well as Burmese), but does not appear to be prevalent in the Western Xaga group. A list of the words used in Dan-ang Kachari is given at p. 13 of Mr. Endle's gi'ammar; for Garo, a list will be found at p. G of Mr. Phillips's grammar; it much resembles the Darrang list, but neither contains any forms coinciding with those of Miku' except the Garo ^?a/, used for leaves and other flat things, which resembles the ^Vlikir ^^a/.-. On the other hand, in Kuki-Chin we have in Lai ^Jifwi for globular things,* the same as in Mikir, and in Sho (Chin) we have for persons pirn, the ]\Iikir hdyig (bang in ]\Iikir and jiang in Lushei mean b(jdi/), and for animals ziin, the Mikir fon (Mr. Houghton's grammar, p. 20). Here again the affinity of the Arleng is with the Kuki-Chin group,

* Linguistic Survey, vol. III. part iii., \). 118.

AFFINITIES i6i

and especially with its southeinmo.st member, rather than with the Boro.

Turuiug now to the pronouns, the Mikir hh for the fii-st person singular finds it exact equivalent only in the two Old Kuki dialects Anfd and HirOi, spoken in Manipur, where the corresponding pronoun is ni (Anul) and iiai (Hiroi), In r.oro the form is unr/, in Augfimi (7, in Sema ngi, in Ao nl, in Lhota ('(, in Kachcha Xaga dnui. In the majority of the Kuki-Chin family another stem, Jcel or /<', is used. Here Mikir agrees with the two Kuki dialects mentioned and with some of the Naga forms, ratlier than witli Boro.

For the second person singular all the Tibeto-Burman languages of Assam have nduff, or closely similar forms.

For the third person Mikir now uses the demonstrative lo, but, as the possessive prefix shows, had formerly </. In this it agrees with Lai, Lushei, Chiru, Kolren amonu- the Kuki family, and Tangkhul and Maring among the Naga-Kuki group. "What the original Boro pronoun of the third person was is not now ascertainable ; the demonstrative hi (Darrang), hr (Lalung), ho (Dimfisa) or nCi (Garo) is now used instead. This seems to correspond with the Mikir pe-, pi-, pa- in the words mentioned on p. 80. In Angami the pronoun is similarly po, in Sema y>7, and in Ao pa. In Meithei and many other Kuki-Chin languages another demonstrative, ma, is used ; this may be connected with the Mikir mi, me, in mini, to-day, mcnixp, to-morrow (see p. 80). But, although ma is used as a separate pronoun for the third person in the majority of the Kuki-Chin group, the prefixed a- <»f relation, usual in Mikir, which (as explained on p. 76) is really the possessive pronoun of the thii^d person, is widely employed throughout the family, as a prefix both to nouns and adjectives, in exactly the same way as in Mikir. This coincidence, again, is striking ; the Boro languages seem to present nothing similar.

The plural pronouns in Mikir are formed by adding -tum to the singular. Exactly the same thing takes place in Tangkhul, a Xaga-Kuki language: /, I, i-thum, we; nd, thou, nCi-thinn, ye; a, he, a-thum, they. The plural of nouns, however, in Tangkhul is formed by other affixes, generally words meaning ■"many " (c/. the Mikir on/j). M

i62 THE MIKIRS

]\Iikir lias two forms for the pronoun of the first person plural, according as the speaker includes the person addressed or excludes him, 1-tum or ?-tum in the former and ne-tvm in the latter case. The first, it will be seen, agrees with the general word for we in Tangkhul. In Angami also two forms are used, lie-ho for we exclusive, and Ci-vo for we inclusive ; the former seems to agree in form, though not in sense, with the Mikir e-tum. The af&nity of Mikir with the Western Naga and Naga-Kuki languages seems to be exemplified here also. The Boro languages have not the double form for this person.

The reflexive pronoun or particle in j\Iikir, die (see p. 80), is represented in Thado Kuki by /./, which is perhaps the same word. Angami has the, Meithei na. Boro does not appear to possess any corresponding particle.

The interrogative particle -ma in Mikir (p. 80) is mo in most of the Kuki-Chin languages (in some -em, -am), while in Angami it is ma, and in Kachcha ISTaga me. The same particle {ma) is used in Garo and Boro for questions.

Two particles are used in Mikir as suffixes to magnify or diminish the root-word; the augmentative is -]pi (as thhuf, wood, firewood, tJiengpl, a tree; lang, water, langpl, the great water, the sea), the diminutive is -so (as hem, a house, hernso, a hut ; lang-so, a brook). Boro has -md for the augmentative, -sd for the diminutive {dui-md, great river, did-sd, brook) ; but Meithei and Thado have the same particles as Mikir, -pi and -chd (ch is equivalent to s).

The Mikir suffix -2W, feminine -jn, corresponding to the Hindi -vjald (see several examples on p. 12 ante), seems to be identical with the Meithei -hd {-pa) and -hi {-pi), though it has nothing like the extensive use in Mikir which -hd {-p)d) has in Meithei.

The noteworthy separable prefix dr- in Mikir, which is probably connected with the Tibetan prefix r- (see ante, p. 129, note), appears to occur in the Kuki-Chin languages, but does not seem to have any representative in the Boro family. The examples in the Kuki-Chin volume of the Linguistic Survey are found in Eangkliol (p. 6, er-ming, "name"), Aimol (p. 215, ra-mai, " tail," Mikir arm'e), Kom (p. 245, ra-mhing, " name " ;

AFFINITIl'S j(53

ra-ncd, " earth, ground " [nai perhaps = ]\Iikir /,- in /ij>H/./,-]), Kyaw or Chaw (p. 254), and HirOi (p. 282). All these forms of speech belong to tlie Old Kuki group, which has already yielded several other analogies with ]\Iikir.

The prefix ke- {Jci-, ha-), which plays so important a pari in Mikir (see pp. 77, 83, 84) in the formation ..f adjectives, par- ticiples, and verbal nouns, and answers td the V>uxo ya- and the Angami Ice-, has for the most part disappeared from the Kuki dialects, perhaps because it conflicts with the prelLxed pru- nominal stem of the first person, ha-. It survives, however, in tlie three Old Kuki languages, KOm, Amll, and HirGi. In Tangkhul, of the Naga-Kuki group, it is used exactly as in Mikir, to form adjectives and verbal nouns, e.g. : —

Mikir.

Tavgkhul.

to come

ke-vang

ka-va (to go)

to eat

ke-chij

ka-shai

to remain

ke-bom

ka-pam (to sit)

to beat

ke-chok

ka-sho

to die

ke-thi

ka-thi

The particles used in Mikir as suffixes to indicate tenses of the verb, with the exception of that for the completed past, fang, which appears to be identical with the Thado and Lushei /(7,do not seem to have any close analogues in the Kuki-Chin or Naga-Kuki groups; they are also (juite different from those used in the Boro group. Causative verbs, however, are in many Kuki-Chin languages constructed with the \Qvh pe or jje/.-, " to give," as in Mikir ; and the suffix of the conjunctive par- ticiple in Mikir, -si, is perhaps the same as -chU in Khoirao. In Boro the prefix Ji-, answering to the IMikir pi-, was formerly used to form causatives, as appears from verbal roots in current use; the construction now most common uses -nu, which has the same meaning (" to give ") as a su^x.

The negative verb in Mikir is formed by sufFixin"' the particle -e to the positive root, when the latter begins with a vowel. Similarly, in Boro a negative verb is formed by addin<T the particle -a. In the Kuki-Chin languages different suflixes are employed Qo, lai, loi, mdk, ri), and in a few dialects prefixes. Here Mikir resembles Boro rather than the Kuki group. But the remarkable feature of Mikir in reduplicating initial

i64 THE MIKIRS

consonants before the suffixed negative (see ante, p. 85) has no analogy in either family, unless the isolated example in Kolren (an Old Kuki dialect) quoted in the Linguistic ^urvcij, vol. III., part iii., p. 19, supplies one. It is to be observed, however, that in the construction there cited {na-pe-pel--mao-yai, " did not give "), the verb ^^e/t: has suffixed to it the negative particle j/u(o, and that the reduplication alone appears to have no negative force. Other examples seem necessary before the rule of reduplication can be considered to be established. Possibly tot and led in Kuki correspond to the separate Mikir negative l-d-ll (see a7ite, p. 86).

It remains to give some examples of correspondence in general vocaljulary between Mikir and other Tibeto-Burman languages. It has been shown above from the analysis of the numerals that prefixes play a large part in all these languages. These prefixes, which to some extent are interchangeable, and also differ in the different members of the family, have to be eliminated in order to find the roots which are to be compared. A^ain, certain changes in vowels and consonants between different languages regularly occur. Our knowledge is not yet sufficient to enable a law of interchange to be formulated ; but the following conclusions seem to be justified. In vowels, Mikir has a preference for long o where other languages have -a, especially in auslaut ; * on the other hand long a in Mikir is sometimes thinned down to e ; the word redid, answering to the Aryan riija, is an example of both processes. Long i in Mikir often corresponds to oi and ai, as well as to e and el, in the cognates. As regards consonants, nasals at the end of syllables are often rejected ; thus within Mikir itself we have 0 and bng, da and dam, ne and nmg, la and lang. Some languages (as for instance Angamif Naga) tolerate no con- sonantal endings, not even a nasal. In Mikir itself final / has been vocalised into i or dropped ; and in many Naga and Kuki- Chin dialects (as also in Burmese) final consonants have dis- appeared or have suffered great changes. As already noticed,

* Southern Chin, as will be seen from the word-lists whicli follow, agrees in this respect with Mikir against Lushei, Meithei, and other Kuki-Chin languages.

t The only exception in Angami is r, in which a few words end.

AFFINITIES 165

the surd mutes /•, p, f (sometimes aspirated) have taken the phice of the original sonants [/, I, d to a large extent in !^Iikir, though h and d (not g) still survivt; in a fair pruportiun u\' words. Boro generally retains the old sonants of Tibetan, and Meithei uses both classes according to the adjacent sounds. The palatals ch,jo^ Mikir tend to become sibilants, .s-, fs, z, in the cognate languages ; j is also often softened to // in Kuki-( 'bin. L and /■ in anlaut frequently interchange in Meithei, the interchange depending on the adjacent vowels. These letters also interchange freely in other languages of tlie family. In Burmese r has everywhere been changed to //, except in Arakan. L and n also often interchange. Initial d in Mikir seems sometimes to correspond to / in other cognates ; and it is possible that Mikir initial ,s may occasionally be representeil by li in the latter, thougli this is not quite certain. Tit and .^• often interchange in anlaut, some dialects of Ivuki-Chin showing the intermediate stage of 0, which in Burmese now everywhere replaces original s.

Lastly, it should be noticed that Tipura, an outlying member (if the Boro group, often exhibits a sound system more closely corresponding to that of the Kuki-Chin languages (whicli are its neighbours) than Boro, Dimasa, or Garo.

The resemblances in vocabulary between ^likir and the Western Naga dialects are extensive, as will be seen froni the list (due to Mr. A. W. Davis) at p. 201, vol. III., part ii., of the Liw/nlstie Survey. These need not be repeated here. The following is a list of Boro (Darrang), Dimasa, Garo, and Tipura words which seem to correspond with ]\Iikir. It will be seen, however, by reference to the columns headed Kuki-Chin and Naga (including Naga-Kuki), that in the case of nearly all these words the other two families, as well as ^Mikir, have the same roots. They therefore belong to the common stock of the Tibeto-Burman languages of Assam, and do ncjt by themselves prove any close connection of Mikir with Boro.

i66

THE MIKIRS

Xouxs.

English. JUikir.

nose nokan

eye

mek

mouth ini^-ho

tooth so

ear no

face me-

hang

belly pok

father po

son so-po

daughter so-pl

cat

Soro family. Kaki-Chin.

Garo, nukuni, Meithei niitol (n)

nakung Thado nakui

Tipura, bukung Lushei nhar

Boro megan Dlmasd niu Garo niik-ren

Boro khfi-ga Dimdsd khau Garo ho-tom,

ku-sik Boro hcx-thau Dimdsd id.

Garo nfi-chil, nJi-kal

Boro niakhang Garo niikkang Tipura muk-

hang Blmusd ho Garo ok, pl-puk Tijiura bahak

meng, meng-

kah"i ing-

chin

fa

Boro \ Dimdsd) Garo pa, bii Tipura ba

Boro f'sa Dl/iidsd pasa, sa Garo sii, pT-sa Tipura basa Dliiidtid pu-su

Garo nieng-go Tipura a-mlng

Boro shurr Dimdsd sher Garo sil, sar Tipura sir

Meithei) Thado > mit Lushei j Shij (Chin) niik Lushei ka Khdml kha 8h'6 kho

Andro sho Senginai shoa Thado I I _ Lushei) Shu haw Meithei\ . Lai ) Sho a-nho Meithei mae Lushei hmai

Meithei puk Andro puk Sho puk Lai paw T/iado wai

Lushei > pa T//a(/o J Sengmai'l Kltarui > po >S7/o j Meithei} i - -

Kliami chopo

>S7/o cho

Meitliei eha-(anu)-

Khami numpui-

cho Thado meng-cha Bauf/khol meng Sho min Andro sen, sel Jjusliei thir

Naga. Tangkhul natung Angdmi a-niki E. Naga nakong natong Aug. mhi, mhii Tangk. mik Mardm mek E. Naga mik, mek Ang. tha, me-tha Bengma mang- khong

Ang. ho, hu Sema a-hu

^/^^. nil Lhota en-no Maring ka-na

Ang. va Sema a-pfo Lhota o-pok

Ang. po Sema pa ^o ta-ba IJiota o-po

Lhota o-tsbe Maring cha llatigoria chapfi

'I'll ado)

thi

^1h^. the-zhl Yachuiui inchi Thukuini IsC-

,SAo Khami sing

AFFINITJICS

1C7

AdJKC'J'IVKS,

JUnglisli.

Mikir.

Koro family.

Knkl-CIUn.

Jf,ig<t.

big

ketliG

Boiy gadet

Any. keill

small

kibl, bi-hek

Bora galiai

MeiHiii a-plsek

bitter

kt'ho

Jloro gaklifi

MnthH khu-ba Thado n-klifi

cold

ke- cluiug

Boro gazang

Lxshci shik

beautiful

mesen, me

Boro niozany

; LuslnU moi

Vkkb.s.

eat

beat die

say

do, work think be neces- sary

diiui

cho

cliok thi

kat

pu klem matha nang

tlianti

fai

Boi't

Tlpura Boro ]>lm('tsa] Tiptira Boro za Dlnulsd jl Garo cha, sa '/'i/nira cliii Diiuihd shu Boro thoi DliiMsd ti, thei Oaro tl, si, tai Tipura thai

Boro khat Dimdm kliai Garo kat

Boro bung Boro khlani Boro iiiithi Jjoro nimg Garu nimtc

Meithci chil-ba Khami cha.

Any. ta Sopi'oma til-o Maring ta-so ^n^^. vor KwoireiKi \ . ,

Jh^. chi Kwoireuy tyu-lo

{Burmese cliil, tsa,) Tanykhul ka-shai

Meithei sl-ba Thado till jAisIiei tl Khami dei

Meithei chatpa (?)

(to go) Andro kat-e 'J'atiglihid ka-chat

Lushei ngai

Tangkhul ka-sho

(Se//«o ti Sopvonid tliiyG Mdrdiii tei-lo Tangkhid ka-tliT

Ang. pu

The above list exhibits all the coincidences which could he found on a searcli through the vocabulary appended to ^Mr. Endle's Kachuri grammar, and it will be seen that the agreement is not extensive.

The words in wliicli Tibeto-Burman languages agree most widely with one another are perhaps those for water and rillafjc ; for the former dl, tl, tui, dzii, zu, jl, chl, and other similar forms,

i68 THE MIKIRS

nil apparently identical with the Tibetan chliu and the Turki su, run through the whole family : for the latter Ichul, l-Jm, Ini (Turki l-ii, kid) are similarly widespread. It is somewhat sur- prising to find in Mikir an exception to the general rule. Water is lang, and village is rong. Searching through the tribal vocabularies, Tangkhul Xaga (a Xaga-Kuki form of speech) appears to have, in fei-ra, the corresponding word to lang (/• = /, and ta a prefix). Nowhere else in the neighbour- hood is there a trace of a similar word until we come to Burmese, where ivater is re (now pronounced yt). Similarly, it appears to be only in Burmese that we have a word for village, nod, corresponding to the Mikir rong. These coincidences, like others already mentioned, seem to point to the south for the affinities of the Mikir race. At the same time it is to be observed that Mikir appears once to have had, like the Kuki- Chin languages generally, the word t'l for water. This survives in the word for egg, vo-tl, which must mean " fowl's water," and con-esponds in sense to the Boro dau-dui, Chutiya dn-ji, Garo do-chi, Sho (Chin) a-ttd. In Angfimi and Lushei "fowl" is omitted, and the word for "egg" is merely dzii, tat, = water.*

It would be tedious to enumerate the coincidences in vo- cabulary which are found between Mikir and all the Kuki- Chin dialects. We have had reason to expect that these coincidences will be found to be most numerous with the Chin languages spoken in the Southern Hill tracts to the west of the Irawadi Valley ; and the following list of similar words will show that this expectation is borne out by the facts. In most cases the forms in Lushei, a leading language of the Central Kuki-Chin group, are added ; where they are wanting the Mikir word does not appear to have any corresponding form in that language.!

* This seems to make it improbable that-, as suggested on p. 101>, '■/(«< in vur-c/iitl and nlm-chul (to throw into water, to drown) is connected with the Tibetan cJiliu.

t The Chin words are taken from Mr. B. Hougliton's Essay on the Language of the Southern Chins and its AJfinifies (Rangoon, 1892). In transcribing them h has been substituted for ' to indicate the asjjirate, but the spelling has not been otherwise varied. The Lushei words are from Messrs. L(jrrain and Savidge's (Jrnmniur and Dictionary of the Lushai Language {I) alien dialed) (Shillong, 1898) ; here too the spelling of the original has been retained.

AFFIXITII':S

169

English. male (of man) female (of mankind) l)ody corpse face nose ear eye [tear tongue

mind, breast, heart [angry back arm

foot, leg stomach [stomach-ache hair of body bone tail

old man, chief son tiger cow

pig.

squirrel

rat

bird

kite

parrot

bat

crayfish, prawn

scale of fish

louse

land-leech

sun

moon

night

rain

tire

[a flint for striking tire

smoke steam stone rice

Norxs.

Mikir. rhiii (.s/i..).

pinso pa-tlio (Lus/ici {Hisal)

-\n suftixed -nii* suttixod (J., nu, and pui)

biUiL;- .T-piin (Jj. pau'^)

aru ayu (/>. ruang)

meliang hnioi-san (L. Inuai)

nd-kan Iniut-tri (Meil/ici na-ton, L. \\\\ii)

no a-hno

mek a-mi, mik (A. mit)

jimek-krl a-ml-khll]

de h-(/>. k'i)

ning a-mliing (L. lung)

ii-ning-kethl a-ndting-tho (L. tlii-n-luif^-sha )]

nung a-hling (/,. linuug)

phang bawn (Jj. bawn)

keng khiJn or klui (/.. ke, Jhinita<v kliyc)

pok piik

pok-kesd piik-thd]

jing-ml a-huia\v(A. hiiiul)

re-pi yo" (yy».s//t't ruli, Anfjumi t\\)

fir-me ho-mO (L. mei)

sar, sarpo hsan, lisan-bo

osd, so-po hsd (Buriiieio'. sil [ft'i])

te-ke a-kye (L. sa-kei, Jinrincst kya)

chainong hsaw-iui (Z,. sG-bawng)

phak wok, wo {JiiiriKcsc wak)

karle a-hle (L. the-hlei)

2)hiju pha-yii (/>. sa-zu)

vo wu (y>. va)

vo-mu a-hmfi (A. mu)

vo-kek a-kye (L. va-ki, Bxniu^'i- kyC-)

vo-arplak phalauA

chekung kyC'-kliiJn {L. kai-k>iang

lip lit {L. blip)

rek hek (7,. hrik)

ingphat a-wot (7.. vang-viit)

ar-ni kho-nl (/>. anni, nT)

chi-klG khlf) (L. thla)

a-jr. yan (7>. zan, jan)

ar-ve yo-d (7^. ruah, JJurmcsc rwa)

me me (L. mei) nie-cheta-long mu-kliri-liin (/.. iiiei-lung),

i.e. fire-spark spark-stone

-stone

mihi me-khii (/,. mei-klui)

hi a-hu (7-. hu)

ar-long a-llin (/.. lung)

sang saung

fire-"]

* In Mikir this root is perhaps found in^'-nw, mother's sister, nimno, a virgin, and chai-nhn;/, cow. Chainhn;/ is now used for both sexes, but the cognate languages point to chai (for dial) Iteing the original word for the bovine species.

I/O

THE MIKIRS

English.

Mikir.

Chin (S?to).

vegetables

han

awn (i. an)

house

hem

in (L. in, Burmese im)

wood, tx-ee

theng, thengpi

then" (L. thing)

leaf

16

law {Meithei lii, TJiado na, L.

hna)

fruit

a-the

the {L. thei)

seed

a,-the

se

cotton

phelo

phoi

broom

ar-phek

l^ha-phe

iron

ingchin

n'thi (J., thir)

arrow

thai

a-thaw {L. thai)

bow

thai-ll

fi-li {L. thal-ngul)

boat

te-long

hmlu or hnilii (i>. long)

earring

no-thengpi

nji-thong

basket

ton

tawng

dream

mang

niaung (i. mang)

name

men

a-niin (i. liming)

matter, affair

hormu

a-hmii {Burmese id.)

heap

bui

fi-piin {L. vung, bfim)

place

dim

awn-diin

edge, border

a-pie

il-pe

rope

a,-ri

a-yoh (Z. hrui)

handle

be

bl" (to take, seize), (L. beng

)

Verbs.

to pour out bu, bup

to put bl

to jump chong

to die thi to kill by cutting thu

to pound tok

to open ing-23u to sleep, lie down I

to hinder khang

to fall kl6, kli

to grind koi-I

to be bitter hd

to bend kekek

to tie, fasten kuk

to laugh ing-nek

to arrive, hit le

to be distant ht-l6

to get, obtain long

to lick ing-lek

to })e happy nie

to extinguish pe-mep

to smell ing-nim

to be yellow et

to speak jm

to give pT

to be full plfeiig

bank, bo (i. buaZ-,* bun)

bl (to clap, pat)

dong {L. zuang)

dii, di {L. thI)

thiik, tiik

dut"

hil

i" {Burmese ip)

kha

klauk {Burmese kra, L. tlil, tlaA;)

kluk

kho (L. kha)

kok-lok, kliii-I

khun

hlek ; also noi {Meithei nok, L. nui)

leng

hlo (L. hla)

lo-e

ni-le-e (/.. lia/r, hliao)

nioi

hmyit {L. ti-mit)

nan (L. imim)

..i (I. eng)

jtauli (a word, language)

pek (y>. pek, pe)

pie

* A final mute italicised in Lushei words indicates that it is formed with the vocal organs, but not pronounced.

AFFIX IT lies ,;,

KngUsh. Milcir. chin {Sli.i).

to reach, toucli j)]iO j,l,r> (/.. paw A, plm/.-)

to pull out ],lui J.liuk (/.. pl.oi)

to work, labour sai saiA

to Avasli chkm sliau (/>. hIiu/.)

to beat chok sho

to pierce chang shiin, lisiin {L. chhun)

to begin cheng si

to explain than hsin

to be wet, chani .sH

to know, perceive thek tliiik, tin"

to be fat ing-tu than (/,. tliao)

to itcli ing-thiik thank (A. tliak)

to rise, get up thur th(i, thii (A. tlio, tha\v/<)

to send toi tlio

to weave thak tn-tiik (/,. tali)

to rot thu thii (7.. tcih)

to be sweet dok tii-I

to cover, veil up, up iin" (L. hup)

to throw var wo" (7v. vorh)

to hear fir-ju yauk

to sell jur yi" (J., zuar)

A few words from Lushei may be added, for which Suuthoiu Chin does not appear to possess corresponding terms : —

Knglish.

bufialo

MihCr.

chelong

Lushei. cliuloi

bear

thok-vani

sa-vom, voni

deer (sdinbliar)

thi-jok

sa-zuk

snake

plii-rui

iiia-nil, ml

monkey

frog ("the jumi)er '

niostjuito

nie-sang ') chnng-ho timsik

/awng

cluuig-ii

th(j-s]iT

water-leech

ing-lit

hlit, sai-hlit

crab

chelio

chak-ai

devil

hl-I

linai

These close and numerous correspondences between Mikir and tlie Kuki-Chin family appear to warrant tlie conclusion that tlie former is intimately connected with the latter. The institutions of the southern tribes, as already pointed out, confirm this conclusion ; and it may be asserted with some confidence that no sucli extensive affinity can be proved between Mikir and the Boro family. As regards the "Western Nagas, while the institutions largely correspond, the coin- cidences in language, though more numerous than those with

* Sa in Lushei means animal, and we see that the prefix /<■- (in t'ki. tiger), thi- (in thi-jok, deer), or t/ihk- (in Ihhk-vam, bcnv) has the same meaning in Mikir.

172 THE MIKIRS

Boro, are much fewer thau those with Iviiki-Chin. The Southern Nagas, and especially the Tangkhuls, who form the group intermediate between Naga and Kuki, have a consider- ably closer affinity with Mikir. Possibly if the inquiry were pushed further into Burmese than is within the power of the present writer, more correspondences \vith Mikir might be discovered in that language.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. A descriptive account of Asavi, with a sketch of the local geography, and a concise history of the Tea-plant of Asam, to which is added a short account of the neighhovring trihcs, exhibiting their history, manners and customs, \\\ William Eobinson, Gowliatti Government Seminary: (JaleiUla, 1841. Account of the Mikirs at pp. 308-312.

The facts stated agree generally with those recorded 1»\- Mr. Stack. Tlie chief deity of the Mikirs is called Hempatin. This may be a mistranscription for Hcmphv., hut is m(»re probably a mistake due to a confusion between IMikirs and Kukis ; Tat'in (or a closely similar form) is the word for (Jod in a number of the Kuki dialects (Khoiigzai, Tliado, Luslici, Eangkhol, Aimol, Kolren, etc.). Of course if the name Hcm- patin was ever actually used by the Mikirs for their chief tribal god, this would be an additional important cvideuct' of a connexion between them and the Kukis.

2. Notes on the languages of the various tribes inhabiting the Valley of Asam and its mountain confines, by Wm. Eobinson, Inspector of Government Schools in Asam. Jaurnul of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xviii. (1849).

The Mikir language is treated at pp. 330-336. It is probable from certain indications that the Mikir words wc^-c written down for Mr. Eobiuson in Assamese characters, and transliterated by him into Eoman. There are a great many misprints. The declension of nouns, the distinctions of gender, and the position of adjectives are in general correctly exjdained ; but the important prefix a- is not noticed, nor its original force understood. The omission of the plural affix -tuni is remark- able. The numerals agree with those of the present day, save that ch is used (as in Assamese) to indicate s. The use of determinative class-words with numerals is mentioned. The personal pronouns are in jiart coirectly, but often wrongly

174 BIBLIOGRAPHY

given; the demonstrative pronouns are wrongly stated, and so are the interrogatives. The absence of a relative pronoun, and the substitute for it, are noticed. In the verbal forms there are many errors, unless the particles used to indicate time have greatly changed since 1849, which is improbable. Thus, -ye is given as the future suffix instead of -jl, and -Id instead of po. The participle in ke-, Id-, Id- is omitted, and the much-used conjunctive participle in -si is misrepresented as the present participle. There is no mention of the past in tang; dyoh (possibly a mistranscription of the Assamese) is given instead of dpbt as the particle indicating purpose. The form of the negative verb is altogether misunderstood. There is no mention of the causative in fe-, 2n-, pa-.

One interesting point in Mr. Eobinson's grammatical sketch is that words borrowed from Assamese, which now end in -i as a substitute for Assamese /, as hai for hid, tCimoi for tdmol, pltoi for pltol, are all written with /; and in the following cases final I appears in ^likir words now written with final i : —

iiKjkoJ, a score, now ingkoi ii/g/ioJ, to do, now inglioi sal (field-) work, now sal (IplieJ, afterwards, now dphi phurul, snake, now pJdrui

It seems possible that this represents a real change in pro- nunciation, since / was certainly the original ending in the borrowed words, and most probably (from the similar forms in the Kuki-Chin languages) was the original ending in the Mikir words. This vocalization of final I is quite common in the Kuki dialects, and is an additional argument for their connexion with Mikir.

3. 2 ravels ami adventures in the Province of Assam, by Major John Butler : London, Smith, Elder & Co., 1855. The Mikirs are described at pp. 126-139. Major Butler was in charge of the district of Xowgong, and visited the Mikir Hills in 1848, His notes on the Mikir people are not very detailed, but indicate that their condition sixty years ago was much the same as it is now. On the question of polygamy (see ante, p. 19), ho writes (p. 138): "Polygamy is not practised, and they reproach their countrymen of the plains for having adopted tlie Assamese custom."

BIBLIOGRAPHY 175

4, Notes on Norlluym Cacliar, by Lieut. JJ. Stcwmt. J.A.S.B., vol. xxiv. (I8r.;j), pp. 582-701. This treatise is uu excellent account of the various tril)e.s inhiibitin^,' the tract. The Mikirs are dealt ^vitll at jip. ()04-t5()7. There i.s a full and useful comparative vocabulary at ]tp. (;.'»S-G75 of more than 400 words, besides verbal and adverbial forms, in ]\Ianipuri, Hill Kacliari (Dimasa), New Kuki (Thado), Aii<,'ami Xaga, Arung Naga (or Empeo), Old Kuki (Bete), and iMikir. This is mucb the most important evidence of the state of the language half a century ago, and is superior in several respects io the materials collected a little earlier by Robinson (to which Stewart does not refer). The Mikir words are generally recognisable as identical with those of the present day, and it is noticeable, with reference to the change of final / tu /, that Stewart gives the forms now in use {pitoi, brass, ^>/tero/, snake, inglcoi, a score in{g)hoi, to do). The ^•erbs are chiefly given in the imperative, witli non (often wrongly printed not), sometimes as the bare root, and sometimes with -lo added. There arc some good measurements and otlier })liysical characters of Mikirs at pp. 6*J0-6*J3, from whi(;h it appears that in Lieut. Stewart's time most of the Mikir men shaved their heads, with the exception of a large tuft of hair on the scalp.

5. Descriptive Etlinologij of Bengal, by Col. E. T. Dalton : Calcutta, 1872. There is a brief section on the Mikirs at pp. 53-4, which however contains no information that is not in Robinson or Stewart. The race is not among those figured in the volume.

6. Specimens of the Languages of India, collected by Sir George Campbell: Calcutta, 1874. The specimens of Mikir are at pp. 205-217 ; they are full of misprints and misunder- standings of what was desired, and are worthless for linguistic purposes.

7. A Vocahularg in Uiiglish and Mikir, with sentences illus- trating the zise of words, by the Rev. R. E. Neighbor, of Nowgong, Assam: Calcutta, 1878.

A most useful publication.

8. Notes on the Locality and Population of the Tribes dwelling hetu-een the Brahmaputra and Ningthi Hirers, by G. H. Damaut. Journal of the Boyal Asiatic Society, vol. xii., 1880, pp. 228 /.

i;6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A postlmiiious work (Mr. Damant was killed in the Xaga Hills in 1879). The Mikirs are mentioned on p. 236, and there is a short vocabulary on p. 254.

9. A Statistical Account of Assam, compiled by J. S. C(jtton nnder the direction of W. W. Hunter : London, 1879. Contains an article on the Mikirs at vol. ii., pp. 188-190.

10. A Gazetteer of India, ])y Sir W. W. Hunter, London. First edition 1881, second edition 1886. Article on the ]Mikir Hills and their inhabitants.

1 1 to 13. The next occasions on which the tribe was dealt witli were in the Eeports of the Censuses of 1881, 1891, and 1901 (Assam Province): —

11. The Report on the Census of 1881 (Calcutta, 1883) con- tains a chapter (VI.) on Castes and Tribes, written by Mr. Stack. The Mikirs are described at pp. 77-82. The inquiries on which these paragraphs were based were followed by the more detailed investigations which afforded the materials for the present monograph.

12. The Report on the Census of 1891, by Mr. E. A. Gait, reproduces part of the matter of the previous report relating to the Mikirs, and adds the detailed list of lairs or exogamous divisions already referred to {ante, pp. 23 ff.). It also contains an interesting comparison of the ]\Iikir language with those of the Xaga tribes, by Mr. A. W. Davis (reproduced in the Linguistic Survey, vol. iii., part ii., pp. 198-202). At pp. 254-256 there is an account of the Mikirs in North Cachar Ijy Mr. E. C. Baker, sub-divisional officer, which states that their jnincipal deity is called " Pertart Rijie." This is correctly Firthdt Riicho, the first word being the Khasi Pyrthat, " thunder," and indicates a borrowing by the small remaining Mikir popu- lation in Xorth Cachar of the ideas of their Khasi neighbours.

13. TJic Report on the Census of 1901, by Mr. B. C. Allen: Shillong, 1902. A few remarks on the religion of the Mikirs wdll be found at pp. 46-47, which liowever require correction by the more accurate data contained in this monograph.

14. The Tribes of the Bralnnapntra Valley, by Lt.-Col. L. A. Waddell, I.M.S.: J.A.S.B., vol. Ixix., part iii., 1900. This account is cliieliy based on anthropometrical data. Tlie facts stated concerning the Arlengs at ])p. 29-35 appear to be taken

lUHLIOCiRArin' 177

rroiii Daltoii ami the Assam Census liepurls of I.SSI ami IS'JI. The measurements taken by Col. Wmldell (see (cute, j), 4) are at pp. 78-79. The tril>i> is not lii,nneil in tlio ]tlates npit<Mi(le«l to the paper.

15. Li/i(/t(islic Siii'iri/ of Jiti/ia, vid. iii., pari ii., eonij)ile<l and edited by Dr. (1. A. (Jriersnn, CaleiiUa, l!l()2. Thr Mikir langua«i:e is dealt with at p]t. :5SO-41() and 43^-448.

10. 'Alt Eiuillxli-Mihlr Viirdliiilii.r//, ii'ith Assanu'Sv Eijuini- lenfs, to ivhic/i Jiarr hern (tdiird n fen: J/////- y<///v^^r.s, by S|ard(jka J r[errin] Kay: Sbillonu, (mjvI. Tress, 1004. An extremely useful book by an educated Alikir (-cc Introductory Note, p. viii.). Sarduka was Mr. .Stack's chief authority on the Mikir language. The phrases (38.S in number) are very important illustrations of the structure of the speech. The vocabulary is an enlargement of ^Ir. Xeighbor's work (No. 7).

A Mikir-English dictionary or vocabulary is still a tle- sideratum.

The following is a list of all the publications in the Mikir language which have come under the notice of the writer. They are all due to missionaries.

1. Dhoi'oin Aniam dpkrdng ikifJidit : First Catechism, in Mikir (Assamese character), pp. 13. Auou. Silisagar, 187.'».

2. Arlhig Aldm, a Mikir Primer, by ^liss E. Pursell, 1891.

3. ArVeiui Aldm {rilpll-aUtdp)* A Mikir Prinu'r. Anon. Published by the American Baptist Mission, Tika, Xowgong, Assam, 1903.

4. Arlhi;/ Aldm, 7in(/bbii(j dkitdp. Mikir Peader, seeond liDok, by the Ilev. -T. M. Carvell ami Tlieugkur Pandit. Published by the Government of Assam, Shillong, 19(i4.

5. Rrleiiff haldklm dkitdp. Mikir Primary Arithmetic, by the Rev. P. E. Moore and the Pev. d. M. Carvell. Published by the Assam Secretariat Press, Shillong, 1904.

6. Birtd Kerne, "Glad Tidings," in :Mikir. l)y Mosendra Pandit and Missionaries to the Mikirs. Publisheil by the American Baptist Missionary Union, Tika, Assam, 1904. A summary of the Gospel history and teaching.

(All except the first are in the Poman character.)

* So called from the tiyuio <.f :v biitterHy (pfi-pH) on the cover.

TNDKX

(7-, pronoun and ptirtii'lo of rolaiion, 75,70, 161, 178

adjectives, 77

adultery, 19

aftinities, conclusions as to, 171, 172 ; speculations as to, 15:]

Ahoms, 5

Ajd-dsP, 32

dkejui, 18, 19

dh-cmt>)i, 18, 19

AUen, Mr. B. C, 176

Allen, Rev. Mr., xi., 14, 14,70-72

Amri, 15

amulets, 30

dn-bdr, 11, 31

dr-, prefix, 129, 102

drdk, 13

dvhdng, trap, 12

drjdii, shade, ghost, 28

A'rUiuj, i, 117, 126

Anidtn, God, 30, 33, 34

Artubn = do, 33

Ar)uim Kcthr, 30, 152

Anuivi phdm {pdi'u), 31-32, 43

dnubi, ring, 6

drphi'k-pd, 12

drponcj, 7

Assamese, borrowings from, 152 ; loan- words mostly in locative, 107

Bachelors' house, 11 Baker, Mr. E. C, 176 hdnjdr, 39, 40 hdrl/yn, 11

baskets, 10, 100, 103 beer, rice-, 13 betel-nut, 14 betrothal, 17 hhimrdj, feathers worn, 6 birik, red pepper, 11 l>'>t}u,U blacksmiths, 10 lioikuntho, 2S Bongnai, 23 bur, amulet, 30 Boro, resemblances to, 166-7 borrowings from Assamese, 152 ; from Khasis, 152

l)ow, 6 I brido-prieo, lalwur given for, 18, 19 I Brownlow, Mr. C, 11 ' /i/7,39, 40

burial in special cases, .37

Burmese, 168

Butler, Major John, 174

Campbell, Sir Georg.-, 17j

Car veil. Rev. J. M., 177

case (grammar), 70-77

castor-oil plant, '"/', 11

causal verbs, 80

Census reports, 1, 23, 153, 170

charms, 30

cJuhi/j, drum, 38, 1.50

cluhig-brnj), 150

cluhi(jbrnp-pi, 11

cluhigbritp-fin, 11

Chins, compared willi Mikirs, 109-171

Chins, Southern, 153

chinJuik-p'), 12

Ch'uMiuj, 15

ch'ir, spear, 0

choi, jacket, 5

clioi-dprr, fringe, 5

cholera, sacrifice for, 32

Chouuhifj = Khilsi, 23

CJiovuliuj-dsr, 32

Chomdmj-kdn, 38

c}idiuj-kcch(Ut{]iuhi, 38

clubs, lads', 11

comparison of adjectives, 78

compound verbs, 80-87

conditional phrases, 83

co-operative agriculture, 11, 12, 154

cotton, 10

Cotton, Mr. .T. S., 170

councils, village, 22

cousin, marriage witli, on mother's

side, 17. 18, 53, 154 cowries, used in divination, 34 cows, not kept, 12 creation, legend of. 70-72 crops, 10-11

Dalton. Col. E. T., 7, 175 Damant, Mr. G. H., 153, 175

179

I So

INDEX

dam-bnk, 9 I

dam-thdk, 9

dancing only at funerals and harvest- homes, 43 I

Davis, Mr. A. W., 165, 176

day, divisions of, 95 '

dead, beliefs about the, 28, 29

death from tigers, 37-38, 49, 71, 98- 99

dekas (Ass.), 11

demons, devils, 29

derrick (dur'tk), pheasant, 65

determinatives, generic, with nu- merals, 78-79, 160

Dlmusd, 3, 5

diseases, 33

distances, how computed, 14

divination, 34

with cowries, 34

vnih eggs, 35

with nukjir, 35

with rice, 35

diviners, 34, 35

divisions of time, 95, 149, 150

divorce, 20

Divaung river, 5, 33

rfo,'95

dundun, ladder, 9

doublets, 103, 113, 115

dress, 5

dried fish, 13

flesh, 13, 04

drink, 13

duhiiidl, 39, 41

DumrCdl, 16

Dundas, Mr. W. C. M., xi., 19, 23,

24-26 dyes, 10

Eating, manner of, 13

egg, mankind sprung from an, 72

eggs, used in divination, 35

hi, 95, 108, 125

Endle, Rev.S., 160,167

equipment, mental, exemplified by

language and folk-tales, 151 ('}•(, silk {pE-inkt), 6, 10 exogamous groups, 16, 23-27

Festivities, 43

fish, dried, 13

fishing, 12

fish-trap, 12, 48, 49

flesh, dried, 13, 64

folk-tales, 44-4011.

food, 12-13

Frog, story of a, 45, 40-48. 88-93

Fryer, Major G. E., 154

funeral ceremonies, 37-42

furniture of house, 9-10

r.ait, Mr. E. A., 46, 152, 176

(jCioiibura, 11, 21, 22

gender (in grammar), 75

genua, 43

girdle, vdnkuk, 6, 39

Gods, the, 30 ff . ; their worship, 30-34

gold, Tibetan word used for. 111

goldsmiths, 10

grammar, sketch of, 73 if.

Grierson, Dr. G. A., ix., 45, 73, 153,

177 groups, exogamous, 16, 23-27

Habitat, 2, 3 ; former, 153

Ju'inso, ginger, 11

lidnfJidr, 46

Harata- Kanivar, storv of, 45, 55-70,

113-149 harmony, vowel, 118, 129 harvest-home, 43 head-strap, 4 lirmai, blacksmith, 10 Hempatin, 173 mm2)hri,31, 36,70 himthdp, 50

hen, arums, colocasia, 11 lu'pl, aubergines, baihqan, 11 Hickson, Mr. S. J., 72 m-i, 29 hung, 9 hungkup, 9 liungpliurld, 9 hongpldiig, 9 }idng-t]in, 9 liongvdt-dbl, 41 Hooker, Sir Joseph, 33 lidr, hurpu, 13, 14 lior-dldng, 13

Houghton, Mr. B., 160, 168 houses, 7-9 ; built on posts, 153 house tax, 21 Hunter, Sir W. W., 176 hunting, 12

Imperative mood, 83

imprecations, 37

indigo, 10

infinitive mood, 84

ingjlr-drlo, 39, 41, 42

Inglung-pl, 31

ingtdt, 14

Tngt'i, 16

ingtok, 36

inheritance, 21

inkl, 10

institutions of Mikirs compared with

those of Kuki-Ghins, 154 institutions of Mikirs compared \\ith

those of W. Nagas, 154 interrogative pronouns, 80

Jamuna river, 3 jhuming, 11, 60

INDEX

i8i

jiiujtak, 50

jtso, woman's wrapper JCmi-drdiig, 28, 29, 37 J6m Redifi, 28, 29

G, 39

Idtuj-chting, 42 ICmg-pah, 42 irtpi'mij-hril;, Hi Lorraiu, Mr., J. II.

168

jungle-cock, 65

Luslici language Mikir, 1G9-171

com pared

Kdchdrhc, 41 (28-29) Kachilris, 23. See Boro and Dimfisa Icddibig-chinru, G kdld dzdr, 2 kdm, 7

kdm-dtJu^ngtlu'it , 9 kangtok dbdng, 3G kdn-pl, 88 kdrakl'i, 30 kdrjCmg, spirit, 36 kdsole, 40

ke; ki; kd-, prefix, 77, 83, 84, 163 Kechc — Klidsl, 23 keroi-dun, betrothal, 14 Khasi loan-words in ]\Iikir, 14, 16, 17, 79, 103-4, lOS, 114, 137, 139,

152, 176 Khasls, 3, 4, 6, 17

kim, to build = to marry, 125

kUng-dun, 11

klrng-sdrpu, 11, 39

Kopili (Kupli) river, 3, 4, 5, 14, 23

kovi:', betel-nut, 14

Kuki-Chins, compared with Mikirs,

154 Kukis, 3 kuni, fiddle, 150 kum-dllsd, fiddle-bow, 150 Kupli : see Kopili km; 16, 23-27 kut, 7 kiit-dthengthvt , 9

/ final, vocalised to i or dropped in

Mikir, 22, 164 lac (Idhd), 11 lads' clubs, 11 Lalungs, 3 ham-apUa, 33, 34 Idng, water, 168 Idng-bi'mg, gourd, 9, 10 Idngbujuj-po, 12 Ldng-kdngkmg, 33 Idnglut, 33 Idngsun, 33 Idng-te-mm, 9 idngtuk, 42 language, 73 ff. ; best evidence of

affinity, 155 li'k, necklace, 6 lAktM, 16

Ungpum, rice pounder, 132 Linguistic Survey, ix., xii., 45, 73,

153, 160, 165

ICdiH, lodetpr, 34, 35, 36 lung, mortar, 132

with

Mdduli (Ass.), ornament, 141

magic, 34

vidjd, witchcraft, 34

majd-kcldiig, 34, 3G

vumgalsud (Ass.), 34

mdnthung, 50

manufactures, 10

mdiu, 11

marriage, 17-18: age for, 17; cere- mony, 18 ; with maternal uncle's daughter, 17, 18, 53, 154 ; of widows, 20

maternal uncle responsible for dis- ease, 36; at funeral, 39, 41, 42

mauzas, 22

uu; (village council), 19, 21, 22

meals, 13

mPli'ip, fireplace, 9

mt-p'i, 22

Mikirs, the : charms used, 36 ; com- pared witli Southern Chins, 109, 171; crops, 10, 11; divination, 34; dress, 5 ; exogamoua groups, 16. 23-27; folk-talcs, 45; food and drink, 12, 13; Gods and their worship, 30 34 ; grammar, 73 ff. ; habitat, 2-3; houses, 7-9; institu- tions resembling those of Chins. 154 ; do. resembling those of Nagas, 154 ; language, 73 ff. ; manufactures, 10 ; marriage, 17-18; mauzas, 22 ; measurements, 4 : migration into Ahom territory, 5 : musical instruments, 150; names, personal, 17 ; neighbours, 3, 23 ; numbers, 1 ; numerals compared with those of other Tibeto-Burman languages, ' 156-160 ; occupations. 7 ; original abode, 4 ; ornaments, 5 ; outsiders admitted to tribe, 23 : parallels to folk-tales elsewhere, 45, 55, 72 ; physical appearance, 4 ; pronouns compared with other Tibeto-Burman forms, 161-162 ; publications in Mikir, 177 ; re- lationships, words for, 20, 21 ; do. compared with Lushei, 155 : sections, 15 ; time, how divided. 95, 149-150 ; unwarlike charac- ter, 151-2; villages, 7; village councils, 22 ; vocabulary compared with Boro, 166-7 ; do. with Southern Chin and Lushei, 169-171; weapons, 6; witchcraft. 34-36

l82

INDEX

Mikir Hills, the, 2, 15

milk not used, 12

mi-tlidngmng, spinning wheel, 10

mo, 12

monosvllabic roots, 74-75

months, 149-150

Moore, Rev. P, E., xi., 19, 26-27, 44

mo-tdii are, arvl, 12

mountains worshipped, 33

Mukrdng 31, 36, 70

miiri, fife, 150

musical instruments, 150

Nagas, institutions compared with

those of Mikirs, 154 Nagas, Western, resemblances of

language, 1G5 names, personal, 17 ndng, particle of vividness, 82, 96 ndng, verb of necessity, 83 Xats (Burma), 153 natural objects worshipped, 33 negative verb, 85

Neighbor, Rev. R. E., viii, xii, 175 night, divisions of the, 95 Nilidng, 4

nihil, maternal uncle, 39, 41, 42 NiUp, 4

nuk, sugar-cane, 13 nok, 7idkjlr, 6, 35 nuksi^k, 9, 54-5 (note), 112 no-r'ik, earring, 6 Nuruk, Hell, 28 nmnber (in grammar), 75 numerals, 78; compared with other

languages, 156-160

Oaths, 37

obokpi, 39, 41

iljhd = 7icht, 30

okbur, 31

OkldngtU), 32

opium, use of, 14

ornaments, 6

orphan in folk-tales, 45

Orphan and his Uncles, the, storv,

48-55, 95-112 outsiders admitted to tribe, 23

Pdju, rival wife, 118

pan, pang, 9

jxln-hungthu, 9

pdng-hungkup, 9

pdngri, marriage, 134

parallels to Mikir stories from Aimnl Kukis, 45; from Angami Niigas, 45 ; from Celebes, 72 ; from North Kumaon, 45, 55

Pciruk = Boro, Kacharl, 23

participles, 83

passive phrases, 84

putting, rival wife, 118

patriarchal institutions, 17, 152

pe, mother, used for daughter, 148

X)ii-urndm-pi, 34, 49, 99

Ping, 31

pe-therang, loom, 10

pliak-dphn-kdcholang, 40

phak-roi, 9

phandiri, 11

pliankrl, 11

plul.rld, spirit, 28

pherem, charm, 36

Phillips, Rev. E. G., 160

phut up, cap, 5

p'nii, petticoat, 6, 62

Pirthat Recho, 176

po, father, used for son or grandson,

99, 101, 121 po-drnain-po, 34, 49, 99 pohu, poho, turban, 5 polygamy, 19, 20, 174 X>ungsl, flute, 128, 150 pimgting, ornament, 141 possession (by spirits), 29 postpositions, 76-77 pottery, 10

prefixes, 75, 159, 164, 171 promiscuity, antenuptial, 19, 154 pronouns, 79-80 ; compared with

other Tibeto-Burman forms, 161,

162; reflexive, 80, 96, 162 ; relative,

how expressed, 80, 101

Rap, 64

re-incarnation, 29

reflexive particles and pronouns, 80, 96, 162

Bi^k-anglung, 31

relationship, words for, 20-21 ; com- pared with words in Lushei, 155

relative pronouns, substitute for, 80, 101

Rengma Nagas, 3

rice-beer, 13

rice-crop, 10; names for rice, 122; divination by rice, 34 ; rice-pound- ing, 132

rikung, dhoti, 5

nsu-kuddn't., 40

nso-mur, 11, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42

Robinson, Mr. W., 153, 173, 174

nii, bracelet, 6

rung, village = Burmese rwa, 168

Ronghdng, 15

rongker, 22, 32, 43

rongkHr-pi, 43

Rungkhang, 5

n'l, trap, cage, 12, 48, 49

Sacrifices, 30, 34 sang, cleaned rice, 122 sanglio-kerai, 11 sang-kelang-dbang , 34

-oy

12

igcs.

with /bin.

I

ASSAM SHOWING AREA OCCUPIED BY MIKIR TRIBES.

INDKX

i8

sang-rangtik, 'J

Sfirdoka Porriu Kav, viii, ix. xii, 11,

177 Mirldr, siirthe, 22 Savidge, 'Slv. F. W., 108 seasons of the year, 149 sequences in folk-talcs, 45 seroso, 39, 41 aibfi, indigo, 10

silver, Aryan word used for, llii ainmi. Lead strap, 4 sudiir ket)tr, 11 sodilr-su, 11 sdk, paddy, 122 Sd-mt))u', 32 Silt Rr-chd, 5, 15 sounds of Mikir language, 73, 74 ;

equivalents in other Tibcto-Burman

languages, 164 spirits (alcohol), 13 Stack, Edward, j)t/s.si/« Stewart, Lt. R., 153, 175 substantive verb, no separate, 81 " Swan-maidens," folk-tale, 45

TaOii, 43

tattooing of women, 6

fi'ke-rH (" tiger-skilled "), 37

t(>l-e, 39, 41

tenses of verb, 81-82

tcrang, bachelors' house, 11

Tcrang, exogamous group, 10

Ten'm, exogamous group, 16

t]uii (arrow), thai-li, bow, (i

titap, ferment, 13

fJulnnit, turmeric, 11

thiHig-roi-rai, 9

theiigthe, maize, 11

TMngthdn, 32

fJier'i, cremation-ground, 39

Th'iri^ng-vhngti'ng. 29

Tholiu'i, 17

Tlu)nti.Ni)k(t<-, 5

ti, water, in vu-ti, egg, IGH

tibiiiuj, 7

tigers, death from,37-3«, 49, 71,98-99

tilcHp, 9

time, divisions of, 95, 149-150

Timitng, exogamous group, IG

traps for fish. 12, 48, 49 ; for ligor-i, Vi

■ linn, plural utlix, 75

UchT- [djh.'i), 30, 34 nch'.pi, 39, 41, 42 nr, 04

viinkok, girdle, G, 39

verbs, 81

verb substantive, no separate, Hi

verbal particles compared with form- in other Tibeto-Hurman languages. 163

village, word for, in Tilxsto-Burman languages, 107

village councils, 22

villages, 7, 21

vocabulary of Mikir compared with Horo, 106-107 ; with Southern Chin. 168-171; with Lu-hci, 171

vo-hurlip, 9

fo-j'oi, 9

vowel harmony, 118, 129

vur-kdcfulhat, 30

Waddell, Col. L. A., xi, 4, 170 water, word for, in Tibeto-Hurman

languages, 107 weapons, 0 weaving, 10 widow-marriago, 20 witchcraft, 34, 30 worship, 30-34

Tin; KND

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