-}£ESE LLRRAFlY •

•JB-SITY OF a- ^IA.

J!!N, 14 1893

Q<7S :-•'

1

s No,

MIND IN THE LOWEB
ANIMALS

VOL. II.

MIND IN THE LOWER
ANIMALS

HEALTH A. YD DISEASE

BY

W, LAUDEE LINDSAY, M.D.

F.K.S.E., F.L.S.

HONORARY MEMBER OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

VOL. II.
MIND IN DISEASE

^ <V

J 1Y

LONDON

C. KEGAN PAUL & CO., 1 PATERNOSTER SQUARE

1879

L5

BIOLOGY

UBRARY
G

of translation ami of reproduction are reserved)

CONTENTS

OF

THE SECOND VOLUME.

MIND IN THE LOWER ANIMALS:
IN ITS ABNORMAL MANIFESTATIONS.

PRELIMINARY ENQUIRIES.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Mental Phenomena in Acephalous Animals 3

II. Defect, Disorder, and Degeneracy of Mind in Man : Mental

Condition of Idiots, Lunatics, and Criminals ... 9

MEXTAL DEFECT AXD DERAXGEMEXT.

III. General Considerations 19

SYMPTOMATOLOGY OF AXIMAL INSANITY.

IV. Forms of Mental Defect and Derangement . . . .43
V. Perversions of the Natural Affections 62

VI. Artificial Insanity 67

VII. Intoxication 81

VIII. Dreams and Delusions 04

IX. Stupidity Ill

X. Suicide ... 130

XI. Crime and Criminality 149

XII. Physiognomy of Disease 169

VI

CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER PACK

XIII. Causation of Mental Difference and Disorder. — General

Considerations . . . 183

XIV. Physical Causes of Mental Difference and Disorder. — I.

Physiological 11)2

XV. Physical Causes of Mental Difference and Disorder. — II.

Pathological 206

XVI. Physical Causes of Mental Difference and Disorder. — III.

General .217

XVII. Moral Causes of Mental Difference and Disorder . . 229

XVIII. Mixed Causes of Mental Difference and Disorder . . 243

XIX. Morbid Bodily Conditions produced by Mental Causes . . 254

XX. Individuality 27G

XXI. Sensitiveness . 291

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS:
MAN'S TREATMENT OF THE LOWER ANIMALS.

I. General Treatment 313

II. General Treatment — continued ........ 328

III. Curability and Treatment of Animal Insanity .... 345

IV. Punishment by Man 360

V. Self -Submission by Animals to Medical and Surgical Treat-
ment 371

VI. Self -Submission by Animals to Medical and Surgical Treat-
ment— continued 382

APPENDIX

ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE NATURE AND VARIETY
OF THE DATA ON WHICH THE AUTHOR'S
GENERALISATIONS HAVE SEEN BASED.

I. BIBLIOGRAPHY

II. ENUMERATION OF ANIMALS

I. Table of Species

1 1. Table of Genera

III. Table of Sub-kingdoms, Classes, and Orders ....

419

424
470
4 80

MIND IN THE LOWER
ANIMALS:

IN ITS ABNORMAL MANIFESTATIONS.

, VOL. II.

PRELIMINARY ENQUIRIES.

CHAPTER I.

MENTAL PHENOMENA IN ACEPHALOUS ANIMALS.

THE student of comparative psychology cannot too soon di-
vest himself of the erroneous popular idea that brain and
mind are in a sense synonymous ; that brain is the sole organ
of the mind ; that mind cannot exist without brain ; or that
there is any necessary relation between the size, form, or
weight of the brain and the degree of mental development.
Even in man there is no necessary relation between the size,
form, or weight of the brain and the degree of mental deve-
lopment ; while the phenomena of disease in him show to
what extent lesions of cerebral substance occur without
materially affecting the mental life.

Physiologists are gradually adopting or forming a more
and more comprehensive conception of mind, and are coming
to regard it as a function or attribute not of any particular
organ or part of the body, but of the body as a whole. Long
ago the illustrious Milton, discoursing of mind and its seat,
properly described the human mind as an attribute of man's
body as a whole. In various forms or words this view has
been expressed in recent times by Miiller, Lewes, Laycock,
Bushnan, Bastian, Maudsley, Carpenter, and others. Ac-
cording to these authors the seat of mind is throughout
the body (Miiller) ; mind pervades the body (Laycock and

B 2

4 MENTAL PHENOMENA IN ACEPHALOUS ANIMALS.

Bushnan) ; mind comprehends the bodily life (Maudsley) ;
psychical life has no one especial centre (Lewes) ; the whole
nervous system is the seat or organ of mind, the brain being
only its chief seat or organ (Bastian). The brain, then, is
only one organ of inind — the organ, it may be said, only of
special mental functions.

The old doctrine or assumption of the phrenologists, as
represented by Gall and Combe, the doctrine on which they
have so greatly prided themselves, and foolishly continue to do
so — that, namely, which regards the brain as the sole organ
of the mind — must unquestionably be given up.

We must henceforth regard the true site, seat, or organ
of mind as the whole body ; and this is the only sound basis
on which the comparative psychologist can begin his studies.
There would be the less difficulty in accepting such a basis
were it only borne in view that the muscular as well as the
nervous system, that muscular action, has an intimate relation
to mental phenomena — to ideas as well as feelings. Muscular
action is essential in certain, if not in all, mental processes —
e.g. in feeling or emotion. Outward muscular expression (e.g.
facial) and inward ideas or feelings are inseparably corre-
lated (Maudsley).

Further, certain phenomena generally referred in man to
mind are exhibited where no brain exists, where it never has
existed, or where it has been removed or destroyed — artifici-
ally or by disease. There is no brain proper in the Hymen-
optera, certain authors think, and yet its equivalent or ana-
logue executes what in man would be set down as intellectual
actions (Houzeau). Darwin points out the wonderful differ-
ence in size between what he regards as the brain of the ant
and that of man ; and yet, in many respects, that active,
intelligent little insect is man's mental superior.

But, in order to understand the nature and variety of the
mental phenomena that are compatible with the absence of
brain in the highest animals, there is no more important sub-
ject of study than the actions of headless and brainless infants
and animals. The following must here suffice as illustra-
tions : —

1, In what is known to physiologists as Goltz's croaking

MENTAL PHENOMENA IN ACEPHALOUS ANIMALS. 5

experiment (QuaJcversuch) in the frog, after the cere-
bral hemispheres have been removed, gentle stroking of
certain parts of the body, by means of the finger or any
broad smooth surface, produces a croak of satisfaction, c once
at each stroke, with machinelike regularity ; ' but if the
animals are ( touched or stroked with a sharp instrument,
they do not croak, but execute defensive movements. . . .
When any nerve-trunk is irritated they sometimes utter a
sound indeed, but it is the cry of pain and never the croak
of contentment ' (Brunton) .

2. According to Magendie, Longet, Flourens, and Schiff,
a pigeon with its cerebral hemispheres removed, if thrown
into the air, flies ; if laid prone, gets up ; shuts its eyes in
a bright light ; preens its ruffled feathers ; follows with its
head the movements of a candle ; stands on one leg and then
changes to the other, maintaining its balance or equili-
brium ; shakes its head and puts it under its wing for sleep —
in other words, it receives and responds to certain kinds of
external as well as internal impressions.

3. In Ppfliiger's well-known vinegar experiment on decapi-
tated frogs, if a drop of acetic acid be applied to one thigh
the animal wipes it off, or endeavours to do so, with the op-
posite foot or leg ; the animal, in short, makes experimental
efforts to expunge the irritant, while its legs also 'make
efforts to push away the probe with which its cloaca is being
irritated' (Carpenter).

4. Suction of the mother's teats by the brainless puppy
(Grainger).

5. The decapitated salamander swims (Dumeril).

6. The brainless rat, if a sharp noise be made, bounds
away as if alarmed (Yulpian).

7. The anencephalic infant not only moves its limbs, but
sucks and cries.

Similar actions are performed by animals that have been
not only decapitated, but dismembered or cut into sections.
Thus the segments of a myriapod walk — the capital seg-
ment avoiding obstacles — in the absence of vision (Hou-
zeau) .

Now, these actions involve the following phenomena : —

6 MENTAL PHENOMENA IN ACEPHALOUS ANIMALS.

1. Definite purpose or design, end or aim ; purposive
action, adaptive or adapted movements, adaptation of means
to ends ; actions directed to the well-being of the individual,
including self-preservation and self-defence.

2. Variety of action with variety of circumstance.

3. Spontaneity of action.

4. Choice.

5. Repetition of effort, involving experiment or trial, and
ultimate success or failure.

6. Avoidance of obstacles.

7. Perception.

3. Co-ordination.

9. Pleasure, pain, and certain of their modes of expres-
sion.

By almost common consent of physiologists these pheno-
mena, when exhibited in brainless animals, are assigned to
the category of what are variously called reflex, automatic,
mechanical, excito-motor, or sensori- motor actions, which are
supposed to be independent of, or unassociated with, intelli-
gence, memory, reason, sensation, consciousness, and will ;
but it appears to me that this assignation has been alto-
gether, or at least too much, determined by the fact that the
brain is absent, and that consciousness and volition are
supposed to depend upon the existence of a brain. On the
contrary, I hold that both consciousness and volition, in
some form or degree, are exhibited not only by animals de-
prived or destitute of brain, but even of a nervous system,
as well as by certain plants, as I have elsewhere shown.
Unless we make this concession — adopt this view of the
comprehensive character of consciousness and will — it is
obvious that mental philosophers must so re-define these
terms as to restrict their application to animals provided
with a brain and spinal cord ; and any such re-definition
will probably be difficult, mischievous, and unscientific.

Lewes and Carpenter at least appear to support the view
that consciousness is by no means limited to cerebral action,
nor dependent on the presence of a brain. Lewes affirms
that the absence of brain does not necessarily imply the ab-

MENTAL PHENOMENA IK ACEPHALOUS ANIMALS. 7

sence of all consciousness, that consciousness is only mainly
dependent on brain, and that there are other centres of
sensation and volition than the brain. Carpenter also points
out that consciousness remains after removal of the cerebrum,
and that sensations and sensori-motor actions occur inde-
pendently of it. There are other authors who regard con-
sciousness as a property of all nervous matter.

In connection with the important subjects of conscious-
ness and volition the student cannot give too close and early
attention to —

1. The functions of the spinal cord in man and other
animals. While some authors believe it to possess purely
reflex functions only, others are of opinion that its functions
include sensation and volition (Maudsley).

2. The phenomena of primary and secondary automatic
mental action in man ; the transition of consciousness into
unconsciousness ; the effects of habit and repetition on men-
tal action. Primary automatic mental action in man and
other animals is that which is simply reflex ab initio ; while
secondary mechanical mental action is that which, at first
the result of intelligence, consciousness and will, becomes in
course of time, by the repetition of action, practice or habit,
unconscious and involuntary, or at least non-voluntary. The
whole subject of unconscious cerebration in man (Carpenter),
unconsciousness in mind (Holmes), and unconscious memory
(Maudsley), is pregnant with interest.

3. The essential constituents, or nature, and the range, of
intelligence, consciousness, and volition.

Some physiologists draw what must be regarded as un-
tenable and artificial distinctions between reality and resem-
blance in conscious and unconscious mental action. They
suggest, if they do not assert, that purposive actions may
possess a false appearance of ideation, a deceptive volition ;
that they may be merely apparently purposive or adapted ;
that they are — seemingly only — directed by will and accom-
panied by consciousness — volition, consciousness, design or
intention being all in reality absent. They refer only to
apparent design in headless animals, and to reflex action,

8 MENTAL PHENOMENA IN ACEPHALOUS ANIMALS.

what they would not question appertains to conscious, intel-
ligent design in man, or in other animals possessed of a brain.
It cannot be maintained that they are here in error ; but it
is at least probable that they frequently confound reality and
resemblance, mistaking the real for the apparent, or vice
versa, and that they allow themselves to be misled in their
inferences by the mere presence or absence of a brain or nervous
system.

CHAPTER II.

DEFECT, DISORDER, AND DEGENERACY OP MIND IN MAN.

Mental Condition of Idiots, Lunatics, and Criminals.

IT is not enough for the student of comparative psychology
to be acquainted with the phenomena of undeveloped mind as
it is illustrated in the human infant or savage .adult. Not
less interesting and important, as a standard of comparison
with the psychical condition of the lower animals, are the
phenomena of —

1. Mental defect, non-development or absence of mind, in
the human idiot.

2. Arrested development in the human imbecile.

3. The mental decay of senility in man.

4. The degeneration or degradation of mind, on the
one hand, (a) in the civilised European, for instance, in the
Portuguese settlers in Malacca ; and on the other, (b) in
savage races, such as the Australian aborigines, under the
influence of prostitution, drink and disease, introduced by
the c civilised ' whites.

5. The various perversions, disorders, or diseases of mind
that constitute human insanity ; as well as

6. So-called reversions to the animal type in wild men and
beast children, including the bestial, theroid or feral habits
of certain human idiots and lunatics.

In the human idiot the following mental peculiarities
and bodily concomitants, which have been fully described by
Professor Duncan, Dr. Browne, Dr. Ireland and others, are
specially deserving of note : —

1. Defective mentalisation, intellect and morals, with their
results — stupidity and helplessness. The defect sometimes

10 DEFECT, DISORDER, AND

extends to the apparent absence of all intellect or intelli-
gence. In a case of this kind, whose picture was drawn by
Hugh Miller, he noticed, nevertheless, the existence of a few
instincts, affections or emotions, such as love, compassion,
sorrow or grief, recognition of kindness, astonishment and
terror, associated with taciturnity, melancholy, and non-
realisation of the nature of death. Ireland speaks of the
' passive intellect ' of idiots, and describes their incapability
of inference, and their want of memory.

The lowest class of idiots exhibit ' nothing beyond reflex
movement, known as excito-motor ' (Bucknill and Tuke).
They have no power of c perceiving, grouping, comparing,
separating, recalling their experiences' (Browne).

2. Non-improvdbility : incapacity for intellectual or moral
development.

3. No power of generalisation : no formation of abstract
ideas (Ireland).

4. ' No knowledge of religious truth ' (Browne).

5. No instinct of self-preservation (Browne).

6. No knowledge of the value of money (Browne).

7. No propensity to acquire property (Browne).

8. ' No spontaneity ' (Browne).

9. No /ear, in some cases (Browne).

10. The predominance of instinct over reason, or rather
the presence of instinct, or of certain instincts, in the absence
of reason (Hitchman).

11. The dominance, also, of what are improperly called
the ' animal ' propensities — the lower passions and appetites,
including the venting of rage on inanimate objects or ob-
stacles (Browne), and general irritability of temper.

12. Absence of the moral sense (Browne), incapability of
understanding right and wrong. Appreciation, however, of
rewards and punishments, while uninfluenced by higher
motives.

13. Irresponsibility — partial or total.

14. Criminal propensities, especially to theft.

15. Destructiveness and mischievousness.

16. The power of imitation, senseless or unreflecting, as
illustrated, for instance, by 'following the lead,' as sheep

DEGENERACY OF MIND IN JUAN. 11

do, even into obvious danger; or by results as serious or
as dangerous as those which so frequently characterise the
imitative pranks of the monkey (Browne) .

17. Defects or perversions of the special senses or of sen-
sation, especially of hearing, vision, smell and taste. Idiots
scarcely possess the sense or sensation of taste ; only some
of them can distinguish colours (Ireland). There is equal
non-appreciation of shape or/orw.

18. They have no notion of the qualities of external
bodies (Browne).

19. There is no sense or estimation of time or distance.

20. Nor is there any idea of order.

21. Their many physiological or pathological anomalies
include perversion of cutaneous sensibility.

22. Defective muscular co-ordination , as applied, for
instance, to the use of the fingers or legs; imperfections,
therefore, in locomotive power or motility (Duncan), and use-
lessness or awkwardness with the fingers or hands. In some
there is utter incapability of using the hands (Ireland).

23. Accompanying physical or bodily deformities, defects,
or disorders, including epilepsy and chorea, with goitre, con-
stituting cretinism.

24. Use of the teeth for vicious biting.

25. Filthy habits of person, inattention to cleanliness or
the calls of nature.

26. Peculiarities as to food consumption. Some of them
' eat and drink like beasts,' tearing raw flesh and lapping
water ; they bolt their food and gorge themselves as certain
carnivora do.

27. Morbid appetite: eating of fseces, ordure or dung —
technically known as coprophagy (Lombroso and Ireland).

28. Preference for animal society : the acquisition of
animal language, sufficient to enable them to hold intercourse
with their animal companions. Dr. Browne, for instance,
mentions the fondness of Swiss cretins for cats, and cites
Kund, ' the cat's Eaphael,' as an apt illustration.

So close and striking is the resemblance in general habits
between certain microcephalic or other human idiots and
some of the lower animals, that these idiots have been dis-

12 DEFECT, DISOEDEE, AND

I

tinctively called generally animal, brute-like, theroid or feral
— and specifically, according to the nature of the individual
resemblance, pithecoid, simian or ape-like, rabbit-like, cow-
like, sheep-like, and so forth. The Aztecs some years ago
exhibited in this country were good examples of microce-
phalic ape-like idiots. A microcephalic idiot, who died in
the hospital at Cremona, was known, from the peculiarity of
his habits, as the ' bird-man.' c He leaped on one leg, and,
before putting himself in motion, he stretched out his two
arms like wings. He used to hide his head under his arm-
pit, and chirped strongly when frightened or at the sight of
a stranger. He was said to be wanting in touch, taste, and
smell ; was dirty in his habits, and given to coprophagy.'
A paralytic, also Italian, idiot, was known as the f rabbit-
man,' or the ' man-rabbit,' from his habit of moving the
nose and lips, from being timid, and fond of green vege-
tables, such as salad and cabbage. c When he is frightened,
he stamps with his feet as rabbits do.' A third Italian idiot,
known as the ( monkey,' ' leaps with the spine bent, and
hands before him, like an ape.' . . . . e He stoops in walking
like a tamed monkey, while a brother of his rolls his eyes
quickly like a monkey, and touches everything with the
hand ' (Lombroso and Ireland). In other words, in these
two cases the general appearance and gestures, the ex-
ternal or physical characters, are of a sufficiently marked
pithecoid or simian type to impress common and casual ob-
servers.

Professor Maudsley has narrated the case of a micro-
cephalic idiot who ' resembled a goose in many things, and
had the cutis anserina ; ' while Pinel has described another
who assumed the habits of a sheep (Ireland). In certain of
these cases it has been stated that the idiots had had no
opportunity of ever seeing the animals whose habits they
nevertheless had so correctly imitated. If such was the fact,
their assumption of the habits of lower animals was all the
more significant.

Of all classes of human idiots there is none more in-
teresting to the student of comparative psychology than that
which includes wild men and beast children, — such adults as

DEGENEBACY OF MIND IN MAN. 13

Victor, the savage of the Aveyron, and such children as
Peter, the wild boy of Hanover, and the so-called wolf-
children of India. As regards the latter, it matters not at
all, for our present purpose, whether or not they were really
nourished or protected by wolves. That is a question be-
longing to the subject of foster-parentage. At present our
concern is simply with their animal habits. Though doubts
hare been thrown upon the character of their up-bringing, it
seems to be generally conceded by trustworthy authorities,
including Professor Max Miiller, Professor Seeley, Colonel
Sleeman, and the Rev. Mr. Gerhardt, that these wolf-
children were really or virtually juvenile idiots, running
wild in the Indian jungle, living the life, and assuming the
habits of, if they did not also associate with, wolves or
other wild forest animals. Their peculiarities of habit and
life included the following: —

1. The quadrupedal practice of going on all fours, com-
mon to the savage of Aveyron and other wild men or chil-
dren. This involves the use of the arms and hands as
forelegs and paws. ' The facility with which they get along
on four feet ' (hands and feet in reality) ( is surprising'
(Gerhardt).

2. The squirrel-like habit of climbing trees, as in the
well-known cases of Peter of Hanover and Victor of Aveyron.

3. Nocturnal prowling, with hiding in solitary places and
sleeping by day.

4. Lapping, or sucking water, like the ox, horse or dog,
as exhibited by the savage of Aveyron.

5. Ravenously tearing up and eating raw flesh even of
living animals ; and the devouring of offal, with the gather-
ing and gnawing of bones, as well as catching and swallowing
flies like a dog (Browne). Cannibalism is included also in
this form of feral appetite.

6. The use, as food, of raw fruits or seeds, such as acorns ;
of roots, bark, leaves, grass, and various vegetables, again
as illustrated in the cases of Peter and Victor.

7. The smelling of all food before eating it, as in the case
of Peter of the Hanoverian woods.

8. Ferocious biting. A boy found in company with a

14 DEFECT, DISCED ER, AND

female wolf and her cubs, in India, f tried to fly at children
and bite them ' (Gerhardt).

9. Absence of clothing, and repugnance to its use.

10. Absence of spoken language-, no understanding of
man's language ; nocturnal howling, yelling and whining.
Hanoverian Peter c uttered no sound,' while Victor's ' voice
was imperfect and guttural. He could not articulate, but
uttered a monotonous sound' (Browne).

1 1 . Insensibility to kindness.

12. Absence of joy and its signs, no smiles nor smiling.

13. Want of shame.

14. No fixed or proper dwelling, and incapability of con-
structing any sort of shelter for the person.

15. Incapacity for education or instruction, for mental pro-
gress beyond that possible in the case of other idiots (Brodie).

The training of Peter, the wild boy of Hanover, was
attempted by Dr. Arbuthnot in 1724, at the instance of
George I. But the lad was found to be a deaf-mute idiot, in-
capable of education. c He could not be taught to perform
the simplest manual act without superintendence ' (Browne).
Again an effort at the instruction of Victor of Aveyron was
made by Itard. But Victor, too, was proved by Pinel to be
an idiot, and was treated as such by confinement in a
Parisian lunatic asylum . ( Although acquiring a knowledge
of certain conventional signs, and of the mode of performing
a few simple duties, he continued to display the chief charac-
teristics of his original animal existence' after all the
tuitional pains expended upon him (Browne) .

One of a couple of wolf-children of Oude (India) — de-
scribed by Professor Seeley — died in the midst of Anglo-
Indian civilisation, in what to the poor boy himself was too
obviously an irksome captivity. His habits in the woods
had been those of a wolf, and notwithstanding all the efforts
at his reformation, he died as he had lived — a ' lower '
animal. But in the second case, there was a certain degree
of humanisation, though the process of improvement was
very slow and difficult. The whine was in course of time
exchanged for expressions of pleasure and gratitude; and
some other habit-changes resulted, of a kind comparable to

DEGENEKACY OF MIND IN MAN. 15

those that occur in ordinary European idiot children in our
idiot asylums.

Animal-like idiots with quadrupedal habits were sufficiently
well known even in the time of Linnaeus c to justify him in
his curious identification of such individuals as additional
species of the genus homo.9 He enumerates no less than
eleven such species, which included wild or wood boys or
girls found, or said to have been found, among wolves, bears,
wild sheep and oxen (Browne).

Many comparisons have been drawn — unfavourable to the
human idiot- -between his mental condition and that of the
dog, horse, and other animals. Thus Dr. Browne points out
the mental inferiority of the cretin to the horse, as illus-
trated by the one going round, the other stepping over, small
obstacles. Dr. Bucknill shows the psychical inferiority of
British idiots to the dog or horse ; and Dr. Hitchman their
resemblance, both physical and mental, to the anthropoid
apes. Hugh Miller drew a comparison between an idiot —
not by any means of the worst type — and the dog — the
contrast being unfavourable to the idiot. Maudsley, too,
regards human idiots as inferior in intelligence to certain of
the lower animals. And indeed there can be no doubt of the
fact that intellectually and morally the human idiot is far
below many of the so-called ( lower ' animals.

Among the occasional phenomena of human insanity,
even in the most highly civilised peoples, is the delusion
that the individual has been transformed into this or that
other animal, in which case the habits of the particular ani-
mal are assumed and imitated with wonderful, and frequently
dangerous, fidelity. Sometimes, moreover, such delusions
have become epidemic, affecting large bodies of people. Thus
one of the most noteworthy of the epidemics of the middle
ages was the singular were-woZ/'-madness, technically known
as lycanthropia. The human 'were-wolf,' — the loup-garou of
France — was common in the Jura about the years 1590 to
1600. This wolf-madness was simply an imitative form of
delusional insanity, which led its victims to betake them-
selves to the woods, and to adopt all the savage habits of the
wolf, including cannibalism. A minority of such delusionists

16 DEFECT, DISORDER, AND

believed themselves to be dogs, (cynanthropia), goats, or other
animals ; and their assumed morbid habits were correspond-
ingly various.

The other bestial phenomena of human insanity resemble
those of human idiocy, including, for instance —

1. In certain cases, the absence of all moral sense; utter
incapability of distinguishing or appreciating right and
wrong.

2. Loss of self-control, incapability of regulating the will,
absence, real or apparent, of all volition.

3. Absence of decency, modesty, chastity, with a propen-
sity to debauchery.

4. Dislike to clothing, and propensity to denude the per-
son thereof. Many insane patients in our lunatic asylums —
especially those in a state of acute mania — insist on being in
a state of nudity. In some, running naked through the streets
of towns, or on country roads — nudity as an offence against
public decency — is not unfrequently the symptom that first
attracts the attention of the public authorities to the fact of
a man's insanity, and leads to his being placed under proper
treatment. In January 1876, for instance, a young man in
a state of mania from drink presented himself at my own
door, absolutely naked, after running wildly up and down
the road leading past my house. He had stripped himself
and left his clothes in a heap on the roadside, but when he
rang my bell and presented himself before me, he was utterly
unaware that he was not in proper visiting costume.

5. Criminal impulse, for instance, to theft and homicide,

6. Cruelty to each other, to the extent of serious mutila-
tion of the person.

7. Filthy habits, such as ordure-smearing, or indifference
to personal cleanliness and the calls of nature.

8. Morbid appetite, including ordure-eating, the mastica-
tion of grass and all kinds of leaves, swallowing all sorts of
iron- ware, such as needles, pins, and nails. I have myself
had insane patients who have swallowed indiscriminately
poultices, and poultice-clothes, letters, needles, and other
metallic or fibrous indigestible and highly unsavoury sub-
stances. The materials I have collected on this subject of

DEGENERACY OF MIND IN MAN. 17

morbid appetite, in man and other animals, are sufficient
in amount and importance, however, to require a special
chapter.

9. Rumination. Houzeau speaks of ( ruminant5 men, and
I have myself had grass-eating human ruminators among
my hospital patients.

10. Imitative impulse, but to a less extent usually than in
the idiot. Imitations of animal characteristics include low-
ing like the ox, crowing like the cock, barking and biting
like the dog, and so on.

Bestial traits are developed also in certain human diseases
that do not belong to the category of insanity, though it is
really as phenomena of a secondary insanity that the said
animal peculiarities show themselves. This secondary insanity
might indeed well be called distinctively the bestial, feral or
theroid insanity, for instance, of hydrophobia. Thus in
human hydrophobia, especially in those spurious forms thereof
that are more common than the real ones, that are pro-
duced by, and probably consist of, morbid imagination act-
ing on a hyper-sensitive nervous system — the victim who
believes that he has been bitten by a rabid dog, and so has
had his whole constitution impregnated with canine pro-
clivities, barks, snaps, and bites like a dog; while if he
thinks a rabid cat has been the instrument of his torture, he
mews, hisses and scratches.

There are certain cases, moreover, in which there is no
proof of the presence of disease — mental or nervous — in which,
nevertheless, animal habits have been developed, for instance
in the case of the hermits of Mesopotamia mentioned by
Houzeau, who went on all fours, emitted cries, and herded
with cattle. The presumption is, however, that such cases
are really referable to delusional insanity.

Even in the midst of the highest civilisation, under ex-
ceptional conditions such as those of war, and even in
ordinary circumstances, what are considered animal traits
in human character are by no means uncommon. These
include, unfortunately, some of the worst qualities, intellec-
tual or moral, of human nature — some of its most degrading
vices ; such as so-called tiger-like ferocity or blood-thirst i-

VOL. II. C

1 8 DEFECT, DISORDER, AND DEGENERACY OF MIND IN MAN.

ness, fox-like cunning or craftiness, and cat-like treachery.
John Stuart Mill points out, in his volume on c Nature,' that
there are persons ( who have a real pleasure in inflicting or
seeing the infliction of pain. This kind of cruelty is not
mere hard-heartedness, or absence of pity or remorse. It is
a positive thing, a particular kind of voluptuous excitement.'
It is more also, for it is too frequently a symptom or feature
of what is known to medico-psychologists as moral insanity.
In another chapter it is shown that such qualities are less
characteristic of other animals, however, than of man him-
self, and that it would be more correct to speak of these
human peculiarities as occasionally marring the nature of the
nobler ' lower ' animals.

There is always a bestial tendency in man, however
civilised, a liability to the development of theroid instincts,
an aptitude for reversion or degeneration, in morals and
intelligence, in passions and appetites, in general habits, and
even in respect to that 6 instinct ' which is, or is supposed to
be, typical of the character of zoologically lower animals.
This proclivity is illustrated by all the mental phenomena
we have been considering in this and the preceding chapter;
that is, by the intellectual and moral conditions or pecu-
liarities of—

1. Infancy and childhood.

2. Old age.

3. Savage, or primitive man.

4. The human idiot and lunatic.

5. The uneducated, criminal, and other classes in civilised
communities.

I'Y

MENTAL DEFECT AND
DEEANGEMENT.

CHAPTER III.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

THE study of the pathology of mind in the lower animals, of
mind in its diseased or disordered states, seems to me to be
of great, though yet unacknowledged, importance, because—

1. It throws much light on the physiology of mind, on its
normal phenomena. For instance, the presence of imagina-
tion in animals is readily inferred from the existence of
delusions, which are morbid phenomena.

2. It rectifies certain popular errors — for instance, regard-
ing rabies and hydrophobia, by showing that most of the so-
called ( madness ' of the lower animals is of a totally different
kind, belonging, in fact, to the same category as human
( insanity.'

3. A study of mind, which regards only its healthy mani-
festations, is one-sided and therefore imperfect.

4. There are many phenomena belonging to the border-
land between health and disease that cannot be understood
without a due knowledge both of the pathology and physiology
of mind.

5. Health passes into disease so imperceptibly that — just
as in man — what is normal or natural in one species or indi-
vidual, may be a significant indication of serious disease in
another.

c 2

20 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

6. Mental defect or disorder in such animals as the horse,
ox, and dog is the source of much danger to human life, as well
as the cause of heavy pecuniary loss to their owners and to
society.

It is, in the first place, important to realise the fact that
there is much f madness ' in the lower animals that is —

1. Certainly not referable to rabies.

2. Only doubtfully referable to it (Fleming).

3. Or only resembles it (Ramazzini).

4. Simply the result of heat (Kamazzini).

5. Or certainly or probably due to Anthrax (Ramazzini) .

6. Referable to phrenitis, sturdy, distemper, worms, or
other bodily diseases, functional or organic.

7. Referable to insanity, as it occurs in man, or to mere
ephemeral excitement not amounting to insanity.

Just as in man, mental disorder may be primary : it may
itself constitute the only apparent or the chief disease, morbid
bodily conditions, if they exist to a demonstrable extent or in
appreciable form, being in all senses secondary. In other
words, there is decided predominance of morbid mental symp-
toms, to the comparative exclusion of those which are physi-
cal. Or on the other hand, mental disorders may be secondary
in every sense ; they may be merely concomitants or results
of, or intercurrent with, serious bodily disease of a provable
kind. In the one class of cases we speak of insanity being
idiopathicy or we restrict to that class the term insanity itself.
In the other class the mental epiphenomena are described as
symptomatic or sympathetic ; instances of which are to be
found in the sympathetic derangement of the functions of the
brain and general nervous system from digestive disorder in
the horse, or from the presence of worms in the intestinal
canal. It is quite legitimate to speak of the insanity of rabies,
sturdy, distemper, or other bodily diseases of the lower ani-
mals, as a synonym for the morbid mental phenomena which
usually or invariably accompany them in some or in all of
their stages, because these mental states are of, or in, them-
selves of sufficient consequence to require special study and
treatment. But it is certainly more convenient to restrict
the term insanity, which both in man and other animals is

INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 21

objectionable in so far as it is equally applicable to bodily as
to mental unsoundness, to cases where the mental disorder is
j_n'imary or idiopathic. Practically these two classes of mor-
bid mental phenomena — the primary and secondary — have
hitherto been confounded, a proof whereof is to be found in
the synonymy of animal ' madness,' which includes : —

1. Franticness, frenzy, fury, ferocity, furiosity.

2. Delirium and raving.

3. Kabies and hydrophobia.

4. Vice and viciousness.

In the middle, and probably also in the earlier ages, the
insanity of the lower animals was recognised; but it was as-
cribed to —

1. Demoniacal or diabolic possession, or diabolism.

2. Witchcraft or witchery.

3. Sorcery or spell- casting.

4. Or to other forms of supernatural agency.
Bewitched or possessed animals seem to have been mostly,

if not always, of a black or dark colour of skin or its appen-
dages, a circumstance associated with the nervo-sanguine
temperament, which has been described as one of the predis-
posing causes of insanity in animals — for instance, in the
Arab horse (Pierquin) .

( Possessed ' animals included especially the cat, horse, dog,
sheep, goat, pig, and cattle, and indeed almost all the do-
mestic animals (Pierquin). Of these the poor cat appears to
have been a peculiarly suspected animal, especially if black ;
and, as already stated, it was in black animals generally that
evil spirits or demons were believed to reside. Insanity in
them, in the form of possession, was considered a proof of
sorcery by man — a superstition that gave rise to many a fatal
result equally to suspected men and animals.

But in those days human insanity was equally supposed
to be a sort of demono-mania — a possession by the devil — the
result of magic, witchcraft, sorcery, incantation, or charms.
Demonology became quite a popular science. Visions of the
devil were readily and voluntarily produced by drugs, such as
mandragora, poppy, or hyoscyamus. Sorcerers' ointments,
too, were in great repute.

22 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

In certain remote parts of Scotland, even at the present
day, where primitive ideas or superstitions have not quite
died out, it is evident that some forms of mental defect, dis-
order or eccentricity are attributed to domestic animals
having been crossed by imaginary water kelpies, water bulls,
or water horses. Thus the ' Nether Lochaber ' correspondent
of the ' Inverness Courier ' refers to this superstition so lately
as 1874. 1 He remarks that horses, 'much given to shying
in the daytime without apparent cause, and a fondness when
out at grass of wading through rivers and streams, and stand-
ing in listless, meditative mood by the margin of pools, may
be confidently set down as descendants, in a nearer or re-
moter degree, of some demon-steed progenitor.' Foals which
result from a union of the fabulous water horse and our own
domestic animal, the common horse, are said to be known by
their flashing eyes and fiery spirit. e Even to this day ....
if a young heifer gives much trouble in the milking, and is
recalcitrant and reluctant to have her head bound up in her
stall .... it may be gravely suspected that she has more or
less of the old water-bull blood in her veins.'

Nowadays, however, the equally great mistake is com-
mitted of confounding all the varied forms of animal insanity
with rabies, distemper, and a number of other bodily diseases
supposed to be peculiar to the lower animals, diseases that are
regarded as contagious, and that are frequently incurable,
while they are usually dangerous to man and to other ani-
mals. Though madness is admittedly more or less common
in such animals as the dog, horse, ox, elephant, cat and
sheep, though the affected animals are popularly described
as infuriated, enraged, maddened, frenzied, crazed, cranky,
ferocious or vicious, and though we quite appropriately use
such expressions applied to the lower animals as loss of wits,
of senses, or of head, there is a singular reluctance to believe
or admit that the mental phenomena described by such
phrases are really the same in kind in man and other animals,
and that, if it is proper to apply the term insanity to the one
class of cases, it is incumbent on us to apply it equally to
the other.

1 In the number of that newspaper for November 5, 1874.

INSANITY IN THE LOWEK ANIMALS. 23

Up to the present date, it may be confidently asserted,
especially as regards Britain, that animal insanity has not
been duly recognised because it has never been properly or
specially studied. When it is so, in the same way and to the
same extent, as human insanity has attracted special notice,
it will be found in all probability to be quite as common
under similar circumstances — to be produced, that is to say,
by similar causes. And a true conception of the real nature
of the majority of cases of so-called 6 madness ' will go far to
revolutionise the present treatment of animals, both by vete-
rinarians and the general public.

At present there is a great want of recorded cases, pro-
perly observed, described, and authenticated, of certain of the
forms of animal insanity ; and the young veterinarian could
not select a more promising field of research for his maiden
investigations.

From the present absurd and inhuman practice of at once
shooting or poisoning animals that become for the moment
useless or dangerous to man ; from the comparative or utter
absence of hospital treatment for animals reputedly mad,
there is at present small opportunity of studying the pheno-
mena of animal insanity — phenomena, nevertheless, a know-
ledge of which is of the utmost importance in relation to a
proper knowledge of human insanity. And hence there is
an apparent deficiency or infrequency of various forms of in-
sanity that would probably equally show themselves in other
animals, as in man, were opportunity for their development
on the one hand, and their study on the other, presented.

At present there are hosts of points in the natural history
of animal insanity that cannot be determined in the absence
of the requisite data. Thus it is impossible to say whether
animal insanity is more frequent now than it was in the
Middle Ages. It has been asserted that it was then more
common ; but the greater frequency may have been — and
indeed probably was — merely apparent, in consequence of the
greater degree of attention then bestowed upon animals
that were reputedly bewitched or possessed. Nor can we
safely assert that insanity is absolutely more common among
domestic than wild animals, among town or drawing-room

24 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

pets, than among country-bred denizens of the farmyard.
The probability is — as is shown more fully in the chapters on
c The Etiology of Insanity ' — that the artificial luxurious life
of city pets, or the compulsory confinement of menagerie
animals, produces a much larger proportion of cases of men-
tal aberration than the free, natural life of the wild state.

In the study of animal insanity we must not forget to
make all due allowance for the disadvantage at which we are
placed by the absence in the lower animals of speech and
writing, and the want therefore and thereby of that assistance
which in man spoken and written words afford us in the
diagnosis of insanity. But, on the other hand, too much
stress must not be laid on what is or arises from an anatomi-
cal and physiological difference ; for in man himself there are
large numbers of persons — insane, imbecile, idiotic, deaf-mute,
or aphasic, as well as children and the aged — who afford no
clue to their insanity either by speech or writing, many being
unable to articulate sounds in the form of words, others being
ungifted with the power of writing, while others, again, pos-
sessing both sets of powers, make practical use of neither.

In such cases we must judge, as in animals, from the
character of action, which may appropriately include not only
gestures, attitudes, movements, gait, carriage, conduct, but
looks, and voice- sounds such as murmurs and cries. Every
physician who is experienced in the observation of the phe-
nomena of human insanity, who is acquainted especially with
its medico-legal aspects — with those cases of disputed or
doubtful insanity which so frequently become the subjects of
actions at law — knows full well the absurdity or fallacy of
basing a judgment sometimes on mere speech or writing,
conversation or letters. In truth, it happens too frequently,
both in sane and insane life among men, that speech and
writing are used to conceal, not to expound or exhibit the
real feelings or ideas. From, this and other causes it happens
that no insanity may appear in the conversation or letters of
an otherwise insane man, who has sufficient intelligence and
self-control to know the effect of unguardedly giving utter-
ance to certain opinions, of the rectitude of which he is
nevertheless quite convinced, and to guard his expressions

INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 25

accordingly. But the same individual may nevertheless,
especially when believing himself un watched, and, therefore,
off his guard, exhibit decided insanity of action ; and this may
be the only mode of its manifestation. By speech he may
betray himself only during unguarded moments, or when
self-control becomes impossible.

Now, in the lower animals we have mainly to deal with
this insanity of action, the only form in which demonstrable
insanity exists in many men. It is only the ' overt acts ' of
the latter that bring their mental condition under the notice
of the physician, and themselves under the ban of the law.
In animals we have almost exclusively their acts as indica-
tions of insanity — acts that are contrary to the usual habits,
nature or character, as well as to the interests, of the
species or individual.

But, in some exceptional cases among animals, when a
certain degree or kind of speech has been one of their ac-
complishments— for instance, in some parrots — there is veri-
table incoherence both of ideas and words. Incoherence of
speech in animals that have been taught to talk intelligently
and intelligibly, or even to repeat phrases correctly, usually
betokens and accompanies the mental decay of senility,
though it may and does occur also in more decided forms of
insanity. The application of such a term as f raving * to the
delirium or mania of the lower animals is not, therefore, so
objectionable as might at first sight appear. It becomes in-
applicable, and simply figurative or absurd, only when there
is and was no power of articulate speech.

Incongruity of action, however — in the striking want of
relation between the acts or actions, behaviour or conduct,
and the surrounding circumstances or conditions in which
the animal is placed — is an equivalent of incoherence of
vocal or articulate language.

In the diagnosis of insanity in the lower animals many
difficulties must present themselves to the student. These
difficulties include the following : that of—

1 . Drawing the line between passion or anger and mania.

The real difference — one of name merely — must frequently
be determined less by the intensity than duration of the pas-

26 INSANITY IN TEE LOWER ANIMALS.

sion. In other animals, as in man, mania is sometimes only
a chronic or protracted passion or fury, while

Ira furor brevis est.

Passion undoubtedly passes into mania, both in other animals
and in man.

Pierquin goes the length of suggesting or asserting that
certain of the lower animals may or do simulate mania, pas-
sion or fury — for instance, for the purpose of intimidating
enemies, and possibly also with a view to shirk uncongenial
work. Hence the necessity of—

2. Distinguishing between real and simulated fury, be-
tween that which is dangerous and that which is innocuous.

3. Separating the calculating or calculated violence of
mere temper from the more dangerous, blind, impulsive, un-
calculating and unpremeditated fury of disease.

4. This includes the differentiation of corrigible from in-
corrigible vice — the first a preventible temporary fault of
temper, the second the result of genuine cerebral or nervous
disease.

Thus the custodians or masters of such animals as the
horse constantly fail to distinguish between corrigible laziness
or disinclination to work, because work is uncongenial, and
that incapacity for work which is so frequently one of the
premonitory signs of insanity or other diseases, mental or
bodily.

5. Distinguishing between the eccentricity of mere indi-
viduality, which is compatible with mental and bodily health,
and that eccentricity which is the outcome of disease, mental
or bodily.

6. Separating the excitement of mere sport— of courtship,
of the race or chase, of fight or war, of rivalry or novelty—
from the mental excitement which characterises rabies, dis-
temper, phrenitis or sturdy, or which forms so common a
precursor of insanity.

7. Telling the animal that is only temporarily 'distraught '
or ' out of its wits ' from the mental confusion produced by
novel and conflicting sights and noises in the hunted dog
or ox of the city streets, as contrasted with the animal that

INSANITY IN THE LOWEK ANIMALS. 27

is normally stupid, or congenitally idiotic, or in a state of
melancholia or dementia.

8. Confounding the stupidity arising from mere unf amili-
arity with man in wild animals, with that which is the result
of the misplaced confidence of those domestic ones that have
had ample experience of his treachery or cruelty.

Even by veterinarians there is frequent confusion of other
diseases with insanity, or with each other ; for instance, of—

1 . Rabies, with certain forms of insanity, including —

a. Mania from intestinal worms in the dog, in

whom the symptoms are frequently anomalous,
resembling those of rabies (Youatt).

b. The phenomena of the incubation or inception

stages of rabies with those of insanity, which
are frequently indistinguishable.

2. Distemper with rabies.

3. Typhus with rabies.

4. Delirium, with delusion or its expressions in rabies.

5. Epilepsy with megrims in the horse.

In the diagnosis of human insanity, in its differentiation
from the diseases with which it is apt to be confounded, even
the experienced physician constantly encounters the same
kind of difficulties. Thus the professed medico-psychologist,
or the medico-legal expert, is constantly being puzzled —

1. To distinguish the mental confusion, excitement,
exhilaration, or the gait of di^unkenness from the similar men-
tal and motor phenomena of apoplexy, aphasia, hemiplegia,
paraplegia, or other diseases of the brain — a feat that has so
frequently baffled the policemen, if not also the experienced
police surgeons of London and other large cities, a patient's
life having been not seldom the penalty of the difficulty,
doubt or mistake.

2. To separate mere criminality or moral vice or vicious-
ness from insanity, especially from that form thereof known
as moral insanity — ^a difficulty which some authors get over
by regarding all vice and crime as the outcome of mental or
moral defect or disorder.

3. To differentiate the delirium of fevers, and especially
of drinking fever, delirium tremens^ from delusional mania.

28 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

4. To separate mania from other comparatively transient
conditions which resemble it.

5. To avoid the confusion of real with spurious hydro-
- phobia; or of hydrophobia, whether real or spurious, with

other diseases, such as hysteria, delirium tremens, and phre-
nitis.

6. To distinguish between hysteria — especially cataleptic
hysteria — chorea, and insanity.

7. To beware of confounding the mere sulkiness and lazi-
ness of the schoolboy, his indifference to, or disinclination for,
lessons, his refusal to learn or execute a task, with actual
mental incapacity or inability, the result of organic disease
of the brain, of congenital defect, or of acquired insanity, a
mistake — sometimes fatal — occasionally committed both by
teachers and parents.

8. To avoid in general terms confounding mental with
other disorders, or to distinguish the affections with which
insanity may be confounded.

9. To distinguish between certain premonitions, forms and
causes of insanity, as well as between exciting and predispos-
ing causes, for instance, in such cases as intense emotion or
excitement.

10. To determine the boundary line between sanity and
insanity, one which it is simply impossible to establish.

There is frequent confusion of causes with results or
effects. Thus emotion may be a cause, form or premonitory
symptom of insanity, according to its nature, intensity,
duration and sequence. The same may be said of mental
excitement. It is difficult to tell when or where it passes
into mania, to determine the kind or degree that constitutes
disease. Eccentricity again may be premonitory of, or
amount to, insanity, or it may not be referable to the cate-
gory of disease at all.

If such difficulties occur in man, in whom aid is to be
had from speech and writing, they are not likely to be less
among the lower animals, in whom no such aid as a rule is
possible. On the whole, however, it cannot be said that
there is greater difficulty in the diagnosis of insanity in other
animals than in man. In both cases the difficulties are

INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 29

of essentially the same nature. Perhaps the chief difficulty
in the lower animals is in the determination of the presence
and character of sensorial and intellectual delusions, a sub-
ject, however, that is discussed in a separate chapter.

Much to man's discredit, what he fails to detect is oc-
casionally detected by animals themselves. Thus mental
or moral peculiarities in their young that escape man's notice,
are nevertheless observed, and their significance understood,
by their own mothers — a result attributable probably to
their superior love, interest, sympathy, watchfulness, and
keenness of observation. A mother dog, horse, or other
animal sometimes detects what escapes even the veteri-
narian. Thus Houzeau tells the story of an idiot or imbecile
dog-pup whose mother had noted its peculiarity, its want of
mind, its mental inferiority to its brother pups, its incapa-
city to fend or provide for itself; and had, so recognising its
incornpetency, supplied it specially with food. In other
words, where man fails, certain of the lotver animals them-
selves form a correct diagnosis or estimation of the nature
and consequences of mental defect or derangement in their
offspring or companions.

In short, one of the most beautiful and beneficent illus-
trations of maternal solicitude as well as sagacity is this
special care taken by mothers of the imbecile or helpless.
The female dog or cat recognises in her offspring any phy-
sical or mental want or disability, when it either entirely
escapes man's notice, or long before it becomes sufficiently
obvious to attract his attention.

The method of diagnosis, the mode of studying insanity in
other animals is the same as in man. There is no single test
or criterion for distinguishing between sanity and insanity,
health and disease, unless in so far as it can be said that
the application of kindness, for instance, is a test between
sanity and insanity. If it be found impossible to correct
vices of character by persistent kind treatment, it is at least
highly probable that mental or moral defect or disorder
exists, other corroborative indications of which should then
be looked for. On the other hand such a test is so little to
be trusted that in certain cases of indubitable insanity there

30 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

is no such potent influence as kindness, none so likely to
conduce towards the promotion of recovery.

The standard by which we must judge in every individual
case is the normal or natural character, the usual mental
health and habits of the animal affected or suspected, when
the alleged insanity has been developed in adolescence,
maturity, or old age ; and the average disposition and mode
of life of the species in cases of congenital defect, or of in-
sanity occurring soon after birth. Hence the importance of
a careful study of an animal's antecedents, the history of its
previous character and habits, and if possible that also of
its ancestry, just as in man.

We must take also into due consideration points of such
importance as the absence of motive or cause for given
actions; the unsuitability of these actions to an animal's
strength or structure ; the opposition of its new or unusual
habits to the natural manners of the individual, species, genus,
or family.

The general symptoms or phenomena of mental derange-
ment in other animals are virtually the same as in man,
making all allowance, of course, for the very different struc-
ture and habits of different families, genera and species.
The special symptoms of the several recognised forms of
insanity are given in another chapter. But the general
premonitory symptoms, what are technically called the
prodromata or forewa-rnings common to all the various
forms of mental disorder, deserve and demand consideration
here. They are obviously of great importance and signifi-
cance, the more so that they are not specially diagnostic of
insanity, not confined thereto. On the contrary, they are
common to the incipient stages of many other disorders of
the brain or nervous system, of the general system, or of
other special bodily organs1. These prodromata constitute
in themselves morbid mental conditions, worthy of all atten-
tion, including as they do the following :—

1. Sleeplessness, sleep disturbance, or sleepiness with in-
capacity for proper sleep. Want of sleep is a common cause
of insanity, as in man, as well as a common premonitory sign
of insanity.

INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 31

2. The reverse condition of morbid drowsiness or somno-
lence at unusual times, or excessive in amount or degree, is
far less frequent.

3. Morbid taciturnity or silence, or the reverse states of
unusual noisiness or boisterousness.

4. Desire for isolation.

5. Irritability, or other infirmities of temper, including
passionateness, causeless passion, or anger aroused by the
most trivial causes.

6. Low or bad spirits, moroseness, sadness, or melancholy ;
or

7. The reverse condition of superfluity or exuberance of
good spirits, extreme vivacity — a common precursor of insanity
also in man.

8. Loss — partial or total — of memory, which becomes more
marked in proportion as dementia or other forms of insanity
are developed. It is naturally most familiar in senile forms
of mental decay or degeneration.

9. Loss — partial or total — of the power of will, which is
in itself a state of mental deficiency, if not of alienation.
Infirmity of purpose is commonly associated with weakness
of mind, or weakening of the mind, for instance in age. The
movements then want aim, object, design, definite idea or
method.

10. Alterations in the emotional state, including patho-
logical perversions of the natural affections.

1 1 . Confusion of ideas exists in many of the minor forms
of insanity. Derangement of the ideas, and of the process of
ideation, the development of morbid ideas occur both in
dreams and delusions.

12. Perversion or destruction of the moral sense.

13. Loss of self-possession, leading frequently to panic and
precipitate flight.

14. Loss of normal virtues, such as docility, mildness,
benevolence, caution.

15. c Silliness ' of behaviour, such as to attract the notice
of by no means specially observant human onlookers.

As might be expected, the symptomatology of insanity in
the lower animals most closely resembles that of human in-

32 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

sanity in species that stand nearest man in habits or struc-
ture, for instance, in the dog.

In other animals, as in man, insanity may be said to
exhibit two stages of development : —

1. The stage of inception or incubation — the premonitory
period — the condition of changed habit and disposition ; and

2. The more decided state of alienation proper.

The symptoms of the first stage have already been con-
sidered in the present chapter. The symptoms, on the other
hand, of insanity proper are detailed in the chapter devoted
to the forms of mental defect and derangement.

But no practical advantage results from such a classi-
fication, or separation of stages. The one group of symptoms
passes into the other, and they become variously intermixed,
so that it is impossible to draw any scientific line of demar-
cation. What is of more importance practically is that —

1. As has already been pointed out, insanity in other
animals, as in man, is sometimes preceded by S}rmptoms
common to, or resembling those of, acute inflammations of
the brain and spinal cord, or their membranes, or of other
bodily diseases ; while

2. The incidence of insanity, whether sudden or gradual,
both in other animals and in man, is sometimes most puzz-
ling and insidious, requiring all the skill and caution of
even the experienced physician and veterinarian to dis-
tinguish the true character and significance of the symptoms
by which it is marked.

The period and the circumstances of the invasion or com-
mencement of insanity are at all times difficult to determine.
At first the symptoms are usually not salient, and are ap-
preciable, if so at all, only by the expert (Pierquin). This is
the case equally in other animals and man. The early
indications, the premonitions or forecastings, of coming
mental disaster, are apt to be unobserved and overlooked.
Both subsequent progress and beginning, moreover, may be
as different in different animals, and even in different indi-
viduals of the same species, as they are in different men
under different circumstances.

The suddenness of the seizure may therefore be more

INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 33

apparent than real, for instance in cattle being driven to
market through the streets of large cities. As is shown in
another chapter, these animals have been predisposed to a
sudden outbreak of mania by a long course of previous
faulty treatment, resulting in a morbid nervous or general
condition.

The natural terminations of acute insanity in other ani-
mals, as in man, are —

1. Recovery.

2. Dementia.

3. Death ; immediately preceded or not by

a. General tremor or violent agitation of the

whole muscular system, not amounting to
convulsion.

b. Convulsions of various degrees of severity.

c. Complete or incomplete stupor or coma.

d. Paralysis in various forms and degrees.

e. General exhaustion or marasmus.

The results to man of animal insanity are of the highest
importance, involving as they do —

1. Uselessness for work and for food.

2. Danger to human life; and

3. Serious pecuniary loss.

One of the commonest results of animal insanity is use-
lessness of the affected animal to man, involving commercial
disability, marketable valuelessness. It is therefore in
this form alone costly and expensive. But paramount in
importance is the risk of injury to man, to their com-
panions, even to themselves, the danger involved in accidents
produced by insane animals, for instance by

1. Runaway horses.

2. Mad (rabietic) or otherwise insane dogs.

3. Crazed cattle.

4. Sturdied sheep.

5. Rogue elephants.

The accidents in question include—
A. In or to man, directly or indirectly : —
1. The upsetting of carriages of all kinds and the killing
of those who occupied them.

VOL. II. D

34 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

2. The fatal throwing of riders.

3. Deaths from real or spurious hydrophobia.

4. Goring to death by bulls.

5. Fatal results of loss of presence of mind in man.

6. Murder by rogue elephants.

7. Plunder or destruction of man's dwellings and crops
by the same animals.

B. In or to the animals themselves.

8. Self-destruction, sometimes wholesale in panic from
sympathy and imitation.

9. The injury of other valuable animals belonging to man,
Danger and dangerousness to man are not confined, how-
ever, to

1. Insanity, or certain forms thereof; nor to —

2. Man-eaters or slayers, such as the elephant, tiger and
lion.

It arises equally from—

3. Alarm, terror, fright, or their resultant panic.

4. The fury or ferocity of rutting, parturition, incubation,
maternity.

5. The despair of bay, the desperation and courage of
even naturally quiet, harmless animals, when attacked and
wounded.

6. The impulses, natural or morbid, of captive feral ani-
mals, a risk frequently illustrated in menageries, especially
under provocation by man.

7. Sensory defects, especially of vision.

8. Delusion.

9. Vices or peculiarities of habit of various kinds.

10. Irritability and loss of temper, and the assaults-
biting or kicking — by which it is so apt to express itself.

11. Phrenitis, or other acute diseases, attended with
morbid motor phenomena.

12. In general, all diseases accompanied by, or leading
to, change of temper or the development of vicious propensi-
ties.

Man exacts from fellow man a warranty of the physical
character of such animals as the horse. But a guarantee or
certification of its mental or moral character is at least quite

INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 35

as important as its mere bodily ( points,' inasmuch as moral
or intellectual defect or disorder is quite as frequently and as
much a source of danger or loss to man as defect or disorder
of muscle or sinew.

There are still several points connected with the natural
history of animal insanity deserving of consideration. But
they are mentioned here mainly as offering suggestions for
inquiry ; for at present we possess little or no definite infor-
mation thereanent.

For instance, Weith represents animal insanity as rare
before puberty, a statement that is probably correct. Levrat
asserts that insanity in the horse is usually developed after
the age of six.

Of the relative liability of the sexes to insanity we know
at present nothing definite. It might appear at first sight,
and without due consideration, that the female is likely to
be more liable than the male, seeing that pregnancy and
parturition are such disturbing agents or agencies. But, on
the other hand, as in man, it is the male that is the usual
bread-winner, protector, leader ; and he has cares and dan-
gers that may, and probably do, counterbalance the physio-
logical peculiarities of his mate.

As regards the relative liability of domestic and wild
animals, it is natural to conclude that the former are more
subject than the latter, for two reasons —

1. That we are much more familiar with domestic animals,
and that all their peculiarities, mental and bodily, come under
our notice ; and

2. That we know the results in man of the kind of artifi-
cial, luxurious, enervating life which is led by animal pets.

But it must be borne in mind that wild animals are sub-
ject to a series of mental strains of a kind unknown to
domestic ones living under man's protection. The struggle
for existence, especially against man, with all his wiles and
skill, is attended- with mental anxieties, with physical want
and exposure, that may well be supposed to counterbalance
the overfeeding, the want of exercise, the non-gratification of
the sexual instinct in the fat, lazy, irritable, mangy, pampered
drawing-room favourite.

D 2

36 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

In this and similar cases we require statistics of a kind
similar to those that have been so carefully collected in con-
nection with human insanity.

It so happens, however, that it remains to be determined
by proper statistics or data, whether savage or civilised man
is the more or less liable to insanity. The general belief is
that insanity is rare among savages, where mind is undeve-
loped or uncultivated ; while we know only too well how
frequent it is in civilised communities. But it may be infre-
quent in the former just because — as in the case of insane
animals — so soon as a savage becomes insane, and thereby
troublesome, dangerous, or useless, he is summarily destroyed.
From the evidence of many travellers, we know, on the one
hand, that such summary treatment is practised ; for instance,
by the Cunas Indians of Columbia, South America, among
whom f a female, who became insane, was hung from a tree
and burned ' (Brown) ; or by the Central African races, a
man belonging to whom petitioned Stanley for permission to
6 cut her head off at once ' with a drawn sword, the intended
victim being the man's own wife.

On the other hand, among certain Eastern peoples — for
instance, in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, where idiots, imbe-
ciles and lunatics are protected by kindly superstition —
these afflicted ones being invested with an odour of sanctity
—various forms of insanity or idiocy are far from uncommon,
even on the public thoroughfares, where I have myself seen
them.

But even as regards the same country the evidence of
travellers is very conflicting. Thus, as regards the Negroes
of Central Africa, some authors, such as Baker, describe
idiots and lunatics as extremely rare, if not absolutely un-
known ; while others, such as Speke, talk of them as by no
means infrequent. Nor can it be said to have been deter-
mined whether human insanity in our own country is more
prevalent in the uneducated inhabitants of rural districts, or
the highly- skilled, closely-pent artisans of crowded cities.

Hitherto popular, as well as professional, opinion has been
altogether in favour of the view that considers the evils of
city life as far more potent in the production of disease, both

INSANITY IN THE LOWEE ANIMALS. 37

mental and bodily, than those of rural existence. But recent
statistical researches, and especially those of the Scottish
Board of Lunacy, bring out the fact that more is to be feared
from ignorance than from education, even weighted as the
latter is with insanitary conditions of life not more favourable
to mental than to bodily health.

In judging of the relative liability to insanity in different
genera and species of animals, the same kind of fallacies
present themselves. We are too apt to suppose that to be
most common which simply comes most frequently within
our own ken. The susceptibility to madness is generally
supposed to be greatest in the dog, because probably—

1. He is the most intelligent and sensitive of the lower
animals.

2. He resembles his master in the artificial, unhealthy
character of his habits ; while

3. His structure is in many respects the same, or similar.
But the greater frequency of insanity in the dog may be

only apparent — because of his intimate association with man,
and his coming much more, therefore, under man's notice
than any other of the lower animals. On the other hand, in
Scotland at least, insanity is perhaps most familiar in the
ox, in the form of ephemeral mania.

It is probable —but it has yet to be proved — that mental
derangement in the lower animals bears a certain proportion
or relation to superiority of type of mind, or of brain and
general nervous organisation ; in other words, that it is to be
looked for most frequently in dogs, horses, and other animals
of high breeding and fine nervous susceptibility.

Madness, apparently of the character of human insanity,
has been described or referred to in the chimpanzee (Forbes),
horse (Levrat, Pierquin), elephant, dog and cat, cow and
bull, sheep and hen, and even in the ant (Latreille), and bee
(Figuier) . But the exact character of the ' madness ' in the
cases of these very different genera and species differs con-
siderably, though not correspondingly. In some cases it is
genuine insanity of the nature of that which occurs in man,
while in others we are left in doubt as to the precise cha-
racter of the so-called ' madness.'

38 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

Thus among beavers there are individuals known to trap-
pers as c les pa,resseux,' or * idlers,' which are more easily cap-
tured than the others, and which appear to be exiled males,
leading purposeless and somewhat lonely lives. They lose
sociality and wariness, and ( walk into traps without seeming
to know their danger ; ' while old, experienced, healthy ani-
mals at once detect traps and baits, and destroy the efficiency
of both by sinking them under water (Wood). In this case
banishment, solitude, the want of society and its conse-
quences— physical and moral— have no doubt begotten a
morbid mental condition similar to that which is much more
familiar, and much more dangerous, in the rogue elephant.

Again, s it is said by the natives of South Africa that the
gnu is a mad animal ; and the manner in which they rush

about would certainly impress you with this idea.'

With their flowing tails * they lash themselves perpetually,
whirling and rushing about in all directions from and to-
wards you' (Bisset1). But it is contrary to all analogy to
suppose that any animal species, as a species — in other words,
that all the individuals of a species are normally mad, how-
ever eccentric their behaviour may appear to be to those who
probably are ignorant of its cause or motive. A similar ex-
planation of the singular behaviour of the Tasmanian devil,
viz. that it is the subject of a chronic mania, has been offered
by the late Professor Day, of St. Andrews, but on what seem
to me to be equally untenable grounds.2 And there are no
doubt many other animals reputedly mad that are so only in
appearance, that owe their evil repute simply to some eccen-
tricity of behaviour to which man has not at present the key.

The excitement of bees previous to swarming amounts,
according to Figuier, to mental derangement, the queen set-
ting a bad example by being the first, figuratively, to lose her
head. The ' mad ant ' of the Malays is characterised by its
objectless movements (Darwin).

The range of insanity in the animal kingdom has yet to
be determined ; what species and genera are subject to in-
sanity and to what forms of insanity ; how low down in the

' Sport and War in South Africa,' 1875. P. 262.
2 ' Scottish Naturalist,' vol. iii. p. 60.

INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 39

zoological scale insanity reaches. Dunne goes the length of
asserting — incautiously and probably much too sweepingly —
that it affects, or may affect, all animals. This may be, and
probably is, going too far. There may be nothing analogous
to human insanity in the lowest animal organisms. And yet
it is an obvious inference, from all that has already been de-
termined regarding insanity and other diseases in the lower
animals, that wherever there is healthy, there may also be
morbid, sensation, emotion, memory or volition. We cannot
conceive the existence of the physiological without the
pathological condition also. We must hold then that feeling
and thought, wherever they can be shown to exist, are as
liable to be deranged in other animals as in man.

At present morbid mental phenomena have been mostly
observed — if properly observed at all — among the domestic
vertebrata or mammalia. But their study in other and lower
animals by the physician or veterinarian, naturalist or com-
parative psychologist, cannot fail to bring to light many data
of the highest interest in relation to man's knowledge of
human insanity.

The alleged greater prevalence of insanity in the Middle
Ages, which has already been adverted to, was no doubt attri-
butable to such facts as the following : —

1. That 'madness' then included rabies, distemper, and
other diseases, attended with striking morbid mental phe-
nomena of the delirium type.

2. That it probably included also forms of mere eccentri-
city or marked individuality.

3. That man's superstition attributed c possession' to
certain animals for no other reason sometimes or perhaps
than the blackness of their skin, fur, feathers or hair.

Formerly, for instance, madness is said to have been com-
mon in the Scotch Highlands, whereas now it is stated to be
rare, the difference being not one of fact, but of opinion, the
apparent or real rarity now-a-days being ascribable to the
greater freedom from superstition among the peasantry,
(McDowall).

The duration of insanity in the lower animals is extremely
variable. It may be —

40 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

1. Temporary, transient, momentary or ephemeral ; or

2. Permanent, chronic, confirmed. It may also be, in
either case, while it lasts —

3. Continuous, without a break ; or

4. Intermittent, remittent, paroxysmal or periodical, oc-
curring in fits at varying intervals, all as in human insanity.

The frequency of recurrence of the attacks ; their number
in an animal's lifetime ; the duration of the interval between
each attack ; the nature of the interval, whether marked by
lucidity or recovery, are all points on which information is at
present desiderated.

Practically the duration of animal insanity is generally de-
termined by man's habit of destroying all insane animals as
soon as their mental disability becomes apparent, and alarms
him by its supposed or real dangerousness. Thus it happens
that man's experience is confined almost entirely to recent or
acute cases — lasting, that is, not more than from an hour or
two to a day or two.

Mania in the lower animals is usually acute, ephemeral
or transitory, simply because it is not suffered by man or by
companion animals to become chronic. A dangerous animal
— and every maniacal animal is necessarily dangerous — is at
once sacrificed to man's or to the general safety. Neverthe-
less Pierquin describes chronic mania in the horse as charac-
terised by impetuosity, fury or ferocity, ungovernable temper,
general assaults on persons coming within its reach, and un-
amenability to punitive treatment, which is obviously, in such
a case, futile and out of place.

The period of development of insanity in relation to season
is another subject on which definite information is required.
Attacks of the epidemic or epizootic forms are said to occur
mostly in summer and autumn (Ecker), an assertion, how-
ever, that requires confirmation. The only epidemic form of
insanity that is familiar or common, viz. panic or stampede
in horses or cattle, is not determined by causes that have any
special or direct relation to season, though there can be no
doubt of the direct effects of solar heat and of insect plagues
— so common to the hot days of summer — in producing acute
ephemeral mania, which may simultaneously affect a number
of animals.

INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 41

It would appear as if a change of type had occurred in
animal insanity since the Middle Ages, and even since Pier-
quin's day. It would seem that there is now less furiosity or
acute mania and more of other forms of insanity. But there
is no very substantial ground for such an opinion.

That there will, however, be a most decided change of
type — when there is a change in man's treatment of the lower
animals in general, and of their insanity in particular ; when
it becomes generally known and accepted that other animals
besides man possess mind of the same kind as his ; that this
mind is subject to the same class of disorders, producible by
similar causes ; that similar treatment is called for as in the
case of human insanity — a treatment which is now generally
spoken of as the humane system ; and that humanity to sub-
ject animals is man's best policy, even for his own selfish
ends — I have no hesitation in predicting. When all those
sources of irritation or provocation are removed that are at
present the main causes of the development of furiosity, when
animals in the early and dangerous stages of mental disorder
are either left to themselves — protected from annoyance — or
gently and judiciously dealt with, I have little doubt that
acute, murderous, or homicidal mania, for instance, will be-
come less common, if it do not altogether disappear — just as
the furious mania of the Hogarthian days of the old Bedlam
of London has become infrequent in man, as the result of
the change that has occurred during the last half-century in
popular opinion concerning the true nature of man's insanity
and its proper treatment.

Of the relative frequency of occurrence of the different
forms of animal insanity nothing of a precise kind can at
present be said to be known. Mania and melancholia are
common, at least in their acute stage, because they are fre-
quently or generally suddenly developed. Other forms are
apparently or really less common, probably simply because —

1. Man does not take the trouble to look for them ; while

2. He loses no time in ridding himself of animals that, by
reason of disability, mental or bodily, have ceased to be useful
or profitable to him.

One of the many results of animal insanity — including,

42 INSANITY IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

for instance, simple imbecility in all its degrees — is incapacity
for work. While this may arise from deficient or disordered
intelligence, it is also produced by ignorance or carelessness,
indifference or dissimulation, laziness or refusal. But some
of these conditions are themselves frequently the results of
mental derangement. Certain animals make practical, often
dangerous, protests against all kinds of work, or against some
kinds only, or against overwork. Work may be congenial
or not, just as in man ; and animals, even when thoroughly
domesticated and habituated to labour, have their likings
and dislikes for particular kinds of work. While as a rule
trained animals work without difficulty, some labour with
great willingness, heartiness, or zeal, showing an obvious in-
terest in work. But inability for, or refusal to, work is only
one of the many serious results to man from animal insanity,
results that include also heavy pecuniary losses —

1. In animal property ; for instance, in the case of Kane's
Arctic dogs, and of Arctic dogs in general, when employed in
the service of exploring expeditions.

2. In damage to other kinds of property, fixed or movable,
such as crops, dwellings, fences, stable fittings ; and last, but
certainly not least,

3. Danger to, and loss of, human life.

There may or may not be demonstrable necroscopic condi-
tions concomitant with insanity in the lower animals that may
be regarded as standing in the relation of cause and effect.
The microscope or the naked eye may reveal — or be supposed
to do so — in the brain or spinal cord the presence of inflam-
mations, or their products or results. But it has not yet been
shown conclusively in human insanity that there is any necro-
scopic appearance, condition, or lesion that is peculiar to
the insane, and that might, therefore, be regarded as diag-
nostic of the presence of insanity, or of any particular form
thereof.

It is, again, one of the common errors, even of skilled
physicians, to regard human insanity as always and neces-
sarily a disease of debility, the truth being that, while it is
frequently so, it is also associated with perfect apparent
vigour of constitution both in other animals and in man.

SYMPTOMATOLOGY OF ANIMAL
INSANITY.

CHAPTER IV.

FOEMS OP MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT.

CERTAIN, at least, of the lower animals are subject to the
same forms of mental defect or want, the same sorts of de-
struction or perversion — total or partial — of intelligence, the
same kinds of mental derangement, as man. There is, indeed,
a wonderfully close parallelism, as was long ago pointed out
by Pierquin and Levrat, between the mental defects and dis-
orders of man and those of other animals, considering the
very great difference in structure and habits.

The prevalent forms of mental defect and disorder that
exist equally in man and other animals may be roughly but
conveniently divided into —

1. Those which are congenital, which appear at birth;
and

2. Those which are developed subsequently to birth,
usually in maturity.

These two great classes of morbid mental or moral
peculiarities have certain characters which place them in
considerable contrast to each other. As a rule, the defects
or disorders of the first class are life-long, confirmed, per-
manent and incurable; while many of those of the second
class are of limited duration and curable.

Congenital mental defect includes all forms of want of

44 FOKMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT.

intelligence, between mere slight imbecility, marked by in-
capacity for education or self-support, and obvious idiocy
(amentia) ; the intermediate conditions comprising what is
known in man as fatuity, feebleness of intellect or mind
(dementia), and such animals as are equivalent to what among
men are denominated simpletons, fools, or naturals.

In its extreme form or degree idiocy (amentia), that is,
an original and absolute or complete absence of mind, if such
a thing ever really exists compatibly with life either in man
or other animals, is rarely observed or studied among the
lower animals, simply because whenever it becomes evident
that a domestic animal is so far defective either in bodily or
mental power as to be useless or burdensome to man, its life
is ruthlessly and thoughtlessly sacrificed. We are as yet
apparently far from that stage of civilisation, of humanity,
and of common sense which will lead us to collect insane ani-
mals, as we do insane men, in hospitals, and so provide means
for the scientific study of the various forms of animal insanity
and their relative curability. What is called idiocy in ani-
mals is usually merely one of the minor forms of mental
imbecility, some of which minor forms or degrees may show
themselves simply as want of character, for instance in the
cat (Browne). Thus Pierquin speaks of partial idiocy and
incomplete dementia. Darwin refers to semt-idiocy in a dog,
and describes its ' senseless habit ' of rotation or gyration, a
common phenomenon of insanity in that animal.

This mental imbecility, which includes all forms or de-
grees of partial want of mind or intelligence, is of great
practical interest in connection with the incapacity for being
trained or trusted that characterises animals which are its
subjects, and with their responsibility and punishment for
mistakes or misdemeanours. There is a non-intelligence, a
normal stupidity which the poor animal cannot help, because
it is the natural outcome of imperfect or arrested develop-
ment of brain, which again is frequently the mere concomi-
tant of defective development of the general nervous system,
or of the general bodily organisation. Pierquin observes
that the various degrees of mental imbecility — including
idiocy — in the horse are usually accompaniments of small

FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT. 45

brains, or are produced by the presence of cerebral hydatids,
or by cerebral ramollissement ; that they are most frequently
associated with the lymphatic temperament, and with various
morbid bodily conditions, including vices of conformation or
structure, articular nodosities, and superficial growths. Both
he and Houzeau speak of animal idiots or imbeciles as cre-
tins, while, however, they give no evidence of the associa-
tion of goitre with idiocy.

I have elsewhere shown1 that goitre occurs in many ani-
mals; for instance, in Switzerland, where the goitrous
condition is so common in the human idiot — the cretin.
Though there is every probability of their concurrence, there
is as yet, so far as I am aware, no proof of the concomitance
of goitre and idiocy in the same animals, that is, of the
existence of cretinism proper. It is most desirable that such
a concomitance of morbid mental and bodily conditions
should be carefully looked for wherever human cretinism
exists ; and I venture this suggestion in the hope that those
who have opportunities of studying cretinism in man, will
not fail to make inquiry as to the existence of a similar con-
dition in other animals.

Mental imbecility, however — stupidity, non-intelligence —
is not associated only with physical deformity or disease ; for,
as Pierquin points out, it co-exists sometimes in the horse
and dog, just as in man or woman, with physical or personal
beauty. The incongruity, however, is as great and as un-
usual in the lower as in the higher animal.

Whether associated with physical beauty or deformity,
with health or disease, limited or defective intellect, deficient
or impaired mental power or action renders an animal use-
less for any of man's purposes.

Pierquin describes what in man would be called acute
dementia in a parrot as the result of fright or fear. It was
on board ship during a naval battle. Previously a lively
and intelligent ship pet, it showed its terror by cowering
during the fight, became insensible to the usual civilities
offered to it, acquired a dull stupid look, and made mono-

1 ' Community of Disease in Man and other Animals.' Reprint from the
' British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review ' for January 1874. P. 17.

46 FOKMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT

syllabic and unvarying replies to questions. This condition
of mental imbecility became permanent.

A certain gamekeeper at Garnkirk, near Glasgow, judged
of the mental capacity of his pups phrenologically - -by the
size and form of their heads. 'Out of a litter of blind
pointer pups, this man, by examining their heads, could
select those who could be easily trained for the field from
among those who could not. Sometimes he would pick out
what he called an idiwit, and that one to a certainty turned
out incapable of being trained at all.'1 Franconi speaks of
idiots among circus horses as incapable of being trained, and
as fit only for simple mechanical work.

This unfitness for education, this incapacity for mental
development or progress, is a very common feature of the
various degrees of mental imbecility. Another quite as
important feature is incorrig Utility, the incapacity of benefit
from correction or punishment, for to the category of im-
becility or dementia are no doubt to be referred sometimes
certain ineradicable vices. In such cases, indeed, punishment
is not only useless but cruel, and it is apt to become dan-
gerous, by leading to the development of morbid and vicious
propensities, such as biting or kicking.

Among the results or concomitants of mental imbecility
in its various forms or degrees are certain defects of temper or
character that are too apt to be regarded as mere vices, and
treated as such, including, for instance, stubbornness, idleness,
or indifference. In other cases, utter neglect of its own
immediate personal wants, obvious mental confusion or be-
wilderment, inability either to think or act, a greater than
infantile helplessness, bear evidence to the deficient cerebral
power.

And lastly, various marked eccentricities of behaviour,
such as the aimless piling up of miscellaneous and useless
objects by the dog, are referable to mental disease of the kind
we are now considering.

In some respects analogous to, and in others in contrast
with, the congenital, original, or primary imbecility of the
young, is the secondary imbecility of the old, what is tech-

1 ' Philosophy of Insanity,' p. 47.

FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT. 47

nically known in its highest degree as senile dementia. In
age, in the lower animals as in man, mental decay or de-
generation accompanies pari passu physical disability. Loss
of memory, of will, of intelligence, accompany loss of mus-
cular vigour, and a vegetative life results. But this senile
imbecility or dementia is seldom seen except in domestic pets,
such as dogs, cats, horses or ponies, and parrots, which are
occasionally allowed to die a natural death.

It is important to note here that the pathological bases
of senile dementia in the dog and in man are alike. Not
only are the symptoms the same in kind, but the struc-
tural cerebral lesions, on which they depend, or with which
at all events they are associated, also present a remarkable
similarity in the two classes of cases. Thus Dr. Major tells
us that the symptoms in the dog ' present in some respects a
remarkable similarity with those of the analogous condition
in man,' being in both cases referable to a condition of
atrophy of the 'cerebral hemispheres and degeneration of
those nerve-elements which form their most important con-
stituents.' * I have no doubt that when other forms of
mental defect or derangement in the lower animals are
compared in an equally careful way with the corresponding
conditions in man, not only the symptoms but the patho-
logical lesions and conditions will be found in other cases
equally wonderfully alike.

Dementia, however, in its different degrees between slight
weakness or want of intelligence, and absolute non-
intelligence or fatuity, is not confined to the periods of youth
or age. It is liable to occur at all stages of life, sometimes
in an acute, rapidly-developed form, but more usually it is
gradually developed as the termination of, or sequel to, other
more acute forms of insanity, especially mania and melan-
cholia. Pierquin describes dementia —

1. In the horse, from passion, blows on the head, disease
of the brain or its membranes ;

2. In the mule, from acute encephalitis; and

3. In the cat from fright.

Arboval too speaks of it as following passion, bad usage, blows

1 « Wakefield Reports,' vol. v. p. 161.

48 FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT.

on the head, apoplexy, and cerebral disturbance of any kind ;
while Franconi alludes to it as the result of an acute
cerebral affection in the horse.

Broderip mentions senile dementia as taking the form of
a kind of lethargy in the parrot. In that animal — in talking
animals in general — this and other forms of insanity are
marked occasionally by incoherence of speech, as well as by
that tendency to excessive garrulity or loquacity, to useless
and tiresome repetition of words or phrases, the result per-
haps partly of loss of memory, that is so characteristic also
of senility in man. The mental disorders that occur in
middle life in the lower animals, as in man, are characterised
generally either by —

1. General excitement, intensity and peculiarity of action.

2. Depression, with unnatural lack of action.

3. The development of delusions, especially of fear; or of

4. Morbid impulses and propensities.

Of the first group the commonest form is mania, which
has long been familiar under the terms madness, frenzy,
franticness, fury, ferocity, furiosity, or infuriation. It has
hitherto been erroneously assigned, as a mere secondary con-
dition, by various veterinary authors, to arachnoiditis, cepha-
litis, phrenitis, or other acute inflammations of the brain or
its membranes. No doubt it is true that mental excitement
of a maniacal character, sometimes or generally, accom-
panies these local disorders both in man and other animals.
But in other animals, as in man, these cerebral or meningeal
inflammations are comparatively rare, while mania in both
is comparatively common, and in both, too, it presents the
same general characters.

Mania is commonly known in its suddenly-developed,
ephemeral, acute form, for the simple reason that it is never
allowed by man to become chronic. The furious, dangerous,
maniacal animal — and, unfortunately, also the animal which
is merely supposed to be so — is shot, or otherwise destroyed
as summarily as possible. But mania is sometimes seen in
a chronic form in wild animals. Thus Baker describes what
appears to have been chronic mania in a bull hippopotamus,
of which he says: f I never witnessed such determined and

FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT. 49

unprovoked fury as was exhibited by this animal. He ap-
peared to be raving mad. His body was a mass of frightful
scars, the result of continual conflicts with bulls of his own

species He was evidently a character of the worst

description, but whose madness rendered him callous to all
punishment.'

Similar cases of chronic mania, or perhaps, rather, of what
is more properly merely recurrent, or periodic mania, are even
more familiar in rogue elephants on the rampage in India
than in the great river horse of the Nile and its tributaries.
In our own country the most usual instances of ephemeral
mania, and of the dangers to man which characterise it, are
cases of infuriated cattle, while being driven through the
streets of large towns to market, running a-muck, a pro-
cedure strictly analogous to that which is so well known
among the Malays. The newspapers teem with accounts of
such cases in consequence of the disasters or panics which
they produce, the truthfulness of the main facts being gene-
rally capable of easy substantiation.

A case of acute mania in a young short-horn bull at Ellon
(Aberdeen shire) is thus described in the newspapers. First
it became ' rather wild,' broke from its keeper and tossed a
man, ' against whom it rushed with full force.' Then 'the
infuriated bull got wilder .... and rushed madly against
a stone dyke, breaking off one of its horns close by the head.
The blood from the root of the broken horn squirted on to
the dyke. On seeing it the animal got more furious than ever
and rushed again and again at the blood-marks, literally
smashing its head and almost killing itself.' * As usual in
such cases, it was summarily despatched by the nearest
butcher.

In all kinds and degrees of mania there is a tendency to
continuous or intermittent fury or destructiveness, directed
indiscriminately against all objects, persons, or other
animals with which the affected animal may come in contact,
or which it may see or hear. A murderous impulse is fre-
quently exhibited, in which case the mental disease may be
described as amounting to, or constituting, a murderous mania,

1 ' Edinburgh Couranty March 24, 1876.
VOL. II. E

50 FOEMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DEKANGEMENT.

exactly analogous to some forms at least of the homicidal
mania of man.

Again, in paroxysms of maniacal fury, self -injury to the
extent of fracture of the skull has happened in the horse
(Pierquin) and elephant (Buff on), while other minor forms
of self-mutilation are common. Self-destruction, too, in the
form of accidental suicide in various ways, may, with various
forms of self- mutilation, of self-inflicted physical disability
from injury, be quite as serious to man, from the loss of
valuable stock, as the destructiveness of human life and
human property. The latter, however— for instance from the
maniacal rogue elephant on its rampage — the loss of man's
life, of his crops and dwellings, is sometimes very serious
in a single limited district, and as the fruit of the morbid
and wholesale destructiveness of a single animal.

As in man, mania is frequently merely exaggerated
passion, or the result thereof. Thus Maudsley mentions fatal
mania as the culmination -of irritability and anger in the
mandrill. Though melancholia is a much more usual sequel,
mania sometimes results from grief in the elephant and other
animals. According to Pierquin, grief is a common cause of
it in the dog. Youatt describes it as arising from worms in
the dog, and it is frequently produced by insect-plagues in
the ox, horse, and other animals, for instance, by the mos-
quito, tsetse, bot-fly, gad-fly, and other flies.

Puerperal mania occurs sometimes after parturition in
female animals, just as among women. Its ferocity in its
puerperally mad state leads the sow sometimes to make mur-
derous assaults on man. But a more frequent, if less unfor-
tunate, result is, as in woman, the tendency to infanticide, to
the destruction of the new-born young — a phenomenon not
confined to the sow, but exhibited also by the badger, ferret,
guinea-pig, hedgehog, brown bear, hamster, rabbit, and other
animals.

In the mania of other animals, as of man, there is fre-
quently, if not generally, a development of unnatural and
spurious strength, succeeded by corresponding nervous and
muscular exhaustion.

Of mental disorders specially characterised by depression

FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMK\

the most familiar is melancholia, which is quite as common
as mania. Just as mania is frequently an exaggerated anger,
or the result thereof, so melancholia is generally an exag-
gerated grief, or its direct sequel. Grief and sorrow, in all
their degrees, with their culmination in melancholia, are
extremely common as the result of bereavements — the loss of
master or mistress, mate or companion, or even their mere
temporary absence — the loss, above all, of young. Melan-
cholia is common also in solitary animals, from the want of
companionship or society ; and in captive animals — especially
monkeys — in whom it is probably associated with incipient
or advanced tubercular pulmonary disease (Baird) . Varying
in profoundness or intensity, it is, as in man, or rather in
woman, a frequent result also of disappointed love (Pierquin) .

One of the many kinds of melancholia is important as
illustrating a series of conditions that are sometimes causes,
sometimes forms of insanity, viz. nostalgia, or home-sickness.
It is most apt to occur in animals that show a strong natural
attachment to their home, their place of birth or up-bringing
— such as the cat, and even the dog — whose affection for
persons is supposed to be much stronger than for places.
Some dogs are as decidedly and morbidly home-sick as others
are love- sick, the victims of erotomania, or sexual insanity.
In these animals the home feeling is sometimes so strong
that attachment to a new master or abode becomes impos-
sible, a circumstance that is known to, and taken advantage
of by, the dog-stealers. According to Pierquin, nostalgia
sometimes accompanies grave cerebral lesion, in which case it
is to be regarded as secondary and symptomatic — as a result,
therefore, of disease. In other cases it would appear to be
a form or kind, and in others a cause rather, of melancholia.
Dejection, despondency, depression of spirits, is a common
effect of removal from their native forests of various monkeys
—such as the Titi (Cassell). But it does not appear that
such mental depression is of the nature of nostalgia. It
is more probably the mental accompaniment of serious or
morbid physical change.

Certain animals have been described as possessing a na-
tural proneness or predisposition to melancholia, as having a

E 2

52 FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT.

melancholy temperament or disposition, as habitually and
naturally sad or morose. Thus the loris and certain
monkeys bear such a character (Cassell and Baird), and the
orang (Huxley). The probability, however, is that the ani-
mals so described have all been menagerie captives, and that
this supposed natural melancholy was, on the contrary,
morbid, and the result of confinement and the artificial, un-
healthy conditions incident thereto.

The morbid impulse most usually developed in the course
or as the result of melancholia is not the murder of other
animals or of man, the destruction of other lives, but suicide,
self-destruction, a subject, however, to which I have devoted
a special chapter. Morbid impulse is thus a common charac-
teristic both of mania and melancholia — usually in the form
of destructiveness in both cases ; in the one, however, the
destructiveness being active, involving the life and property
of others ; in the other rather passive, leading to the sacrifice
— not necessarily intentional or deliberate — of the animal's
own life. In both classes of cases, however, the morbid pro-
pensity occupies a secondary importance, as regards, at least,
sequence, to the mental excitement or depression.

But there is a third group of mental disorders in which
the development of certain morbid propensities is a more
marked feature than either mental excitement or depression,
in which, indeed, neither excitement nor depression may be
present, or at least apparent ; in which, in other words, mor-
bid impulse is the primary condition in the sense that it is
at least the most prominent and important one. In man
the most familiar members of the group in question are —

1. -Erotomania, or sexual insanity.

2. -Kleptomania, or theftuous insanity ; and

3. Dipsomania, or drinking insanity.

All these kinds of insanity occur in one form or other
among the lower animals.

.Erotomania occurs, as in man, in the double form of
satyriasis in the male, and nymphomania in the female. It
would appear to be most common in female animals, especially
the mare, cow, bitch and cat. Sometimes nymphomania is
spoken of under the term uterine furor ; or this periodical

9

FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT. 53

erethism in the mare or other female animals passes into, if
it do not in itself amount to, what is technically known as
nymphomania. Occasionally nymphomania and hysteria are
confounded with, or mistaken for, each other; or equally
probably the two are associated in the same individual at the
same time (Pierquin). Satyriasis in the male dog has been
described by Hildebrandt, in the male mandrill and horse by
Pierquin.

The latter author speaks of nymphomania in the female
ape, and points out that among its other dangers or disabili-
ties in the mare and cow, it leads frequently to abortion. He
mentions what he calls erotic delirium in a menagerie ele-
phant, and amorous or erotic melancholia — which is obviously
what other writers describe as literally the ' consuming pas-
sion ' of unrequited or un gratified love — a bodily consump-
tion, waste or decline, a fatal marasmus, resulting from a
purely moral cause, in female animals, especially mares.

Erotomania is perhaps most familiar in animals of the
deer family at the period of the rut. But it occurs in a great
variety of other animals, especially cattle, horses, dogs and
cats, usually as the result of over-gratification or non-grati-
fication of the sexual instinct. It may be induced, however,
by a considerable variety of other causes. Thus it has been
described as occurring in a monkey as the result of fear,
caused by an eclipse of the moon ; and it is an accompaniment
of phthisis pulmonalis in the monkey and rabbit (Pierquin).
On the other hand, it may be simply an exaggerated libidi-
nousness or a morbid salacity. It may be acute and suddenly
developed, sometimes markedly so in the satyriasis of the
horse, or it becomes chronic and habitual, or breaks out only
now and then.

The term erotomania, whether as applied to man or other
animals, is misleading, in so far as it is apt to suggest the
idea that furiosity is a necessary feature of the disease. So
far is this from being the case, that, as we have already seen,
the form the disorder assumes, when most serious in its
results, is melancholia. Erotic insanity would therefore be
a better term, as more comprehensive and less misleading.
This erotic insanity, however, is more frequently accom-

54 FOEMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT.

panied by furiosity and combativeness than by inertness and
mental depression ; and it may pass into ordinary mania of
the most furious, and even of the murderous, type (Pierquin) .
Thus there is not unfrequently an unexpected and dangerous
outbreak in harness, on the part either of horses or ruares,
in which case there is imminent risk of the animals running
off at a bolt and smashing the carriage, or of their running
at full speed to the point of falling from sheer exhaustion.

Pierquin goes so far as to describe the annual spring rut
of certain animals as a periodic insanity, characterised by an
irrestrainable tendency to furiosity — as, in fact, a kind of
true mania. But this is going too far, although the physio-
logical condition in question is apt to become pathological,
the pugnacity and temper that characterise it apt to pass
beyond the bounds of control and to acquire a morbid in-
tensity. In such a case, when the ferocity and pugnacity
become somewhat chronic, and when they are uncontrollable
by the will, the condition may be fairly considered morbid,
and relegated to the category of insanity — just as much as un-
bearable, ungovernable, and dangerous ferocity of temper in
the horse and other animals may also be. Not only, however,
is the rut accompanied usually by a dangerous kind and de-
gree of mental excitement, which is apt to pass into common
mania or erotomania, but in the bitch, for instance, it is no
infrequent cause of rabies (Fleming).

Just as in man, theft occurs among other animals as a
misdemeanour, vice, or crime, in which case the motive is
obvious, the propensity corrigible, and the article stolen of
use to the thief. But there also exists, both in other animals
and man, a morbid or insane impulse or propensity to steal,
which in man is described as kleptomania, and which is dis-
tinguished from ordinary theft by —

1. The absence of conceivable motive.

2. Incorrigibility under reproof or correction ; and

3. The utter uselessness, perhaps also valuelessness, of
the objects stolen.

In ordinary or natural theft the objects of the animal's
envy or covetousness are usually articles of food, and are at
once used as such, or are stored for future use. The hungry

FOKMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT. 55

or starving dog or cat steals a piece of meat and forthwith
devours it. But in theft of the character that is to be con-
sidered morbid, the objects purloined are of the most hetero-
geneous and useless nature, bright metallic substances perhaps
predominating. Instead of being applied to any intelligible
purpose, these miscellaneous articles are piled up in hidden
hoards, to which the only parallel is the collection and con-
cealment of equally miscellaneous and useless heaps of rub-
bish by the human kleptomaniac — heaps and hoards that are
common in every large hospital for the insane. Instances
may be found recorded in ' Excelsior,' a little serial issued
for the last twenty-one years from the Murray Royal Institu-
tion for the insane, near Perth.1

Such hoards of animals or men are not to be confounded
with what may be called the 'kitchen-middens' of cave
carnivora, or of harvesting ants, which in the latter case
serve as guides to the nests of ant colonies. Still less are
they to be confounded with grain, seeds, fruits, or other
articles carefully stored away in quantities during summer
for winter's consumption.

Kleptomania would appear to be a family failing of the
magpies. They have at least an evil reputation for inveterate
theft (Baird). The Australian magpie steals, hides, and
hoards the most heterogeneous articles (Baden Powell), just
as its British representative does.

Rats are notorious as incurable thieves, purloining and
secreting in hoards — in their nests — coins and other indiges-
tible and heterogeneous articles. Many a discovery of long-
lost articles, many a hoard of once shining objects, has been
found in a rat's nest on dismantling a house or making
repairs on its floors or walls (Eassie).

The jackdaw, raven — even the monkey, dog, and cat
sometimes — steal and hide spoons, buttons, toothbrushes, and
other articles that are utterly useless to them, and of which
they never attempt to make any use. They steal and hide
apparently simply on account of the pleasure they derive from-
theft and the accumulation of property. Theft in them
appears to be in a sense involuntary ; they cannot resist the

1 E.'j. in No. 32 for 1872, p. 7, and in Xos. 23-5 for 1866, p. 8.

56 FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT.

morbid impulse ; they steal in spite of, and undeterred by,
any kind of punishment. The only difficulty in regarding
these apparently motiveless eccentricities of theffcuous ab-
straction and concealment as forms of insanity — in other
words, as equivalent to man's kleptomania — is, that the pro-
pensity seems to be a moral characteristic of certain species
or even genera, while, as in the case of the Tasmanian devil
and other animals, which, as species, are said to possess
peculiarities of temper, it is contrary to all analogy to regard
such normal and specific characteristics as belonging to the
category of insanity.

Where, however, any such morbid propensity is developed
in an animal whose natural character formerly led it to act
in an opposite way — where an animal that was formerly
honest cannot resist the propensity to steal trash, articles
utterly useless to it, and where the only result to it can be
severe punishment — there can be no difficulty in setting this
kind of theft down to the credit of kleptomania, as it occurs
in man. Just as in man, however, in cases of persistent
theft of an incorrigible kind, close observation and much
reflection may be required to determine whether or not it is
uncontrollable and purposeless — in other words, the result of
disease and in itself morbid.

The subject of theft, morbid and natural, is treated at
greater length in the chapter on ' Crime and Criminality.'

That dipsomania — a morbid craving for alcoholic or other
stimulants, or something akin thereto — occurs among the
lower animals, is shown in the chapter on ' Alcoholic Intoxi-
cation.'

Erotomania, kleptomania, and dipsomania in man, are
classed as forms of what is termed moral insanity. But there
are among the lower animals certain other forms of moral
defect, perversion, depravity, or insanity — loss of moral self-
control or equilibrium — which have their exact counterparts
in the human subject. Thus there are many individuals
among such animals as the dog and horse that are incorrigibly
vicious, or that have most uncertain or most peculiar tem-
pers, or that show no natural affection, or that display morbid
antipathies to their nearest relatives, or to those kindest to

FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT. 57

them ; who repay attention with ferocity or indifference, or
whose character is made up of a combination of bad qualities.
The human parallel to these unfortunate animals is a class
familiar to the physician engaged in lunacy practice — a class
made up largely of youths who are the betes noires — the black
sheep, the ne'er-do-wells of their families, the heart-breaks of
their parents, the shame of their friends — given to lying,
theft, drink, indolence, or debauchery, or to all of them ; in-
corrigibly vicious in short, utterly unfit to occupy or main-
tain a respectable or self-supporting position in the world.
Such human waifs are, or should be, pitied, not punished ;
they are, or should be, dealt with gently as not themselves
to blame for a faulty moral organisation.

It is scarcely surprising that the incorrigibility of moral
defect or perversion in other animals is utterly misunder-
stood by man. The most mischievous attempts are con-
stantly made to ' drive the devil out of them ' by cruelties
the most refined. The supposed mere vice — an hereditary
vice, however, of organisation — becomes more and more
serious, and the animal more and more useless or dangerous,
more burdensome and troublesome, until its career is put an
end to by the gun, the pole-axe, or poison.

Morbid or exaggerated self-esteem — amounting to what
in man is called the monomania of pride — what Pierquin terms
a monomania of ambition, is common according to him in
Arab horses, fallow deer, and apes. The kind of ambition,
however, to which in some cases at least he applies the term
' monomania,' can scarcely be regarded as morbid in its na-
ture. It is, in fact, a mere natural desire for leadership,
which urges the horse, for instance, to attack other animals
of superior rank, and carrying the costume or badge thereof.

Morbid or exaggerated alarm or timidity, amounting to
what is called in man the monomania of fear, is indubitably
much more common than the morbid exaltation of self-
esteem, pride, or vanity. Morbid fear is apt to be associated
with, or to give rise to, delusions of fear or suspicion, and to
melancholia, sometimes even to suicide. The relation of fear
to suspicion or suspiciousness, and to delusion, is most im-
portant in relation to the genesis and development of a whole

58 FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT.

group of common, morbid mental phenomena. Fear is at all
times, and especially in naturally timorous animals, in asso-
ciation with imagination, apt to exaggerate the kind or degree
of threatened danger from things, persons, or other animals,
or to create ideas of evil where no real danger or cause thereof
exists.

In many of the wild carnivora, for instance — especially
perhaps in the wolf and fox — fear frequently passes into sus-
picion, and the latter into delusion, as one of the results of
man's incessant persecution. Distrustfulness, arising in, or
consisting virtually of, an excess of caution, is common in
animals persecuted by snares — such as the glutton (or wol-
verene)— which has very good grounds or reasons for its
distrust or caution. But such distrust is always apt, in ani-
mals so hunted by man, and rendered so preternaturally alive
to the many forms in which danger may present itself and
to the necessity for avoiding all kinds of compassing perils,
to become morbid, and to be developed without sufficient
grounds, or absolutely without external grounds at all. In
short, the dread of danger is liable to become excessive, while
a morbid suspiciousness is apt to beget imaginary evils.

What, in its first stage, may be set down to mere natural
timidity, may become, in its second, a morbid terror or dread
of one specific object, sound or sight, or of a very limited
number of such objects, sounds or sights, and in the third a
veritable panphobia — a general and causeless dread of every-
thing— of every animal and person that is not quite familiar
to the affected animal. This indiscriminate kind of alarm is
most commonly met with in the horse, though it is apt to
be developed in all animals that are constitutionally timorous
and nervous, that are easily startled by the most trivial
causes. It is frequently due to or associated with sensorial
defect or perversion, such as lesions of sight and hearing.

It may arise then either entirely —

1. From an internal cause; or —

2. From one that is, in the first instance at least, external ;
or —

3. From conjoint internal and external causes, some-
times the one cause, sometimes the other taking the pre-
cedence.

FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT. 59

In its minor degree it is familiar in the form of skittishness.

In all cases imagination is highly excited, and it exag-
gerates, while the reason misinterprets, all impressions on the
senses. Panphobia, in common with all other forms of morbid
fear, is easily induced by cruel, unjust, or injudicious usage,
especially if incessant or prolonged, and this usage may
have been applied to an ancestor, rather than to the in-
dividual, the mental tendency having been transmitted
hereditarily. Sometimes it is suddenly developed from un-
expected sounds or sights, by seeing or hearing without
premonition any unusual or novel, though perfectly harmless,
object or noise. In such cases the result may be the extreme
wildness of terror, which may pass at once into reckless
dangerous fury, which again may lead to suicide or self-
destruction. Among other possible terminations of pan-
phobia of such intensity is dementia, with or without
emaciation or convulsions, which latter may, or may not, be
fatal.

In general terms it may be said that all the passions or
emotions may be so intensified, and so protracted or persis-
tent as to become, or to generate forms of what in man are
called monomania, moral insanity, mania and melancholia
(Pierquin) . Such passions or emotions are particularly grief
and joy, rivalry, jealousy and revenge.

Certain authors speak, and with perfect propriety, of
impulsive insanity in the lower animals. That is to say, a
desire of a powerful, imperious or overmastering kind, one
that is uncontrollable, ungovernable, irresistible, suddenly
arises, and it is instantly followed by action. Both the
desire and the action may appear so unexpectedly, and
occupy so small a space of time, that they seem to be quite
momentary or transient. After the act, or action, the animal
subsides into its previous condition. Whether the desire or
mental action is associated with morbid idea or delusion we
know not. Both desire and action are, so far as we can see,
independent of, or uninfluenced by, external cause, or by pro-
vocation of any kind.

The morbid impulse takes the direction usually, or fre-
quently, of destructiveness or ferocity, a thirst for the destruc-

60 FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT.

tion of life, and it is sometimes so intense as to culminate
in murderous or homicidal mania, or less commonly, in
suicidal melancholia. Impulsive ferocity of a dangerous
kind is frequent, for instance, among menagerie carnivora.

What may be considered a natural impulsiveness some-
times leads to acts of so serious a character as murder., or to
others of a minor kind, regretted by the animal in its calmer
moments. Passion, for the moment, overcomes judgment
and good- feeling, even in naturally well-behaved animals:
anger gets beyond control of the will, and hurries them
into some most undeliberate, unintended act of revenge or
punishment.

No doubt impulse — natural or morbid — is the basis of
much eccentricity of conduct that is otherwise unintelligible,
or inexplicable (Pierquin). We speak, then, correctly of
impulses in animals, of a good or bad impulse — to virtue or
vice, to right or wrong action. It is impulse that almost inva-
riably regulates or determines the action of masses devoid
of organisation — whether these masses be human — witness
the various revolutions in Paris, or animal — witness the
frequent stampedes of cavalry horses. But, as in man,
these impulses can generally be, and are, regulated and
restrained by the judgment and the will, and it is only when
they pass, by reason of their intensity, duration or other
characters, beyond, and defy, such control, that they are to
be regarded as morbid and referable to the category of
moral or volitional insanity.

Certain forms of insanity in man have been described as
volitional, the main characteristics of which are morbid will,
morbid either in its defectiveness, perversion, or exaltation.
In the lower animals, as in man, the power or force of will
is shown in every degree — of feebleness or strength — -in
vacillation or helplessness, or in the utmost determination
of purpose. As in man, the weaker will constantly becomes
subservient to the stronger, so that one animal becomes
obedient to another, just as the dog and horse become sub-
missive to man. It is by force of will that one animal
subjects another to its service : as the ape does in riding the
pig or dog, or the ant in milking aphides.

FORMS OF MENTAL DEFECT AND DERANGEMENT. 61

Enfeeblement of will occurs from fatigue of body, want of
sleep, hunger and thirst, excessive heat or cold, in short,
from all kinds of bodily privations or sufferings (Houzeau).
And it is a usual concomitant of many forms of insanity—
especially those — such as imbecility, juvenile or senile —
which are characterised by defective mental action.

It has already been shown, moreover, that the presence
or absence of will, of the power of control by its means,
determines frequently the question of insanity. There is an
obvious difference, however, which must always be borne in
mind, between feeling or emotion, which in its intensity or
nature is uncontrollable by any effort of will, and that which
is simply uncontrolled, though controllable. In the one case,
mental disorder or defect presumably exists, involving irre-
sponsibility and rendering punishment useless ; while in the
other there may be perfect mental health with corresponding
responsibility, and punishment may be not only permissible,
but desirable ; for in other animals, as in man, the power of
will may be developed, and it may be directed into proper
channels, by suitable education.

It has thus been shown — and it may be said, in general
terms — that the lower animals, or certain of them, are
subject to nearly all the forms of insanity that afflict man,
by whatever names these forms maybe designated: affective,
instinctive, emotional, volitional, impulsive, moral, as well
as intellectual, the insanity of thought as well as of feeling
and action.

The insanity of thought involves delusion — an important
subject to which a special chapter has been devoted, and it
includes even, in the parrot and other talking animals,
insanity of speech or language. The latter again implies
verbal incoherence, rambling or repetition of words and
phrases, and of the ideas which they represent: there is, in
short, utter confusion in the verbal expression of ideas.

CHAPTEE V.

PERVERSIONS OF THE NATURAL AFFECTIONS.

THE various perversions of the natural affections that are so
common among the lower animals, as in man, form a very
interesting and natural group of the minor forms of moral
defect or disorder.

Of these perversions of affection, the commonest and
most familiar is perversion of the maternal instinct, of
ordinary maternal love. It exhibits itself in the following
forms or degrees : —

1. Selfishness.

2. Indifference to offspring.

3. Active hatred or dislike.

4. Cruelty.

5. Neglect.

6. Desertion.

7. Murder of the young, equivalent to infanticide.
Affection for the young is usually predominant in the

female of all animals, including man ; so that any want of
this natural love is more conspicuous in her than in the male.
There are, however, many exceptions to the steadiness or
constancy of maternal attachment.

In illustration of mere maternal selfishness, Berkeley
states of certain wild ducks cooped up with their young,
that some cflew at, and beat themselves against the bars of
the coops, frightening and trampling to death their own
young.' They ' resisted detention even to forgetfulness of
their young.' But it is doubtful in such a case whether the
poor mothers were chargeable even with the crime of neglect
or carelessness of their young. In all probability they were

PERVERSIONS OF THE NATURAL AFFECTIONS. 63

so terrified, no less on their own account than on that of
their offspring, that they were virtually irresponsible in every
sense for the calamity narrated. A common form of selfish-
ness is devolving maternal duties on others. Certain birds,
for instance the cuckoo and yellow warbler, do not rear their
own young.

As illustrating other forms of neglect, Mrs. Mackellar
tells us of a hedgehog that neglected certain of its young
brood eso that they died,' after eating two of them. But
this was on board ship — a few days after capture — in other
words, under circumstances that were exceptional, or un-
usual.

Instead of the ordinary attention to their young there is
sometimes marked indifference, e.g., in the cow, mare, bitch,
and pigeon. Indifference may be shown only at the loss of
young, which is remarkable chiefly when contrasted with
the violent demonstrations of grief, so common, for instance,
in the dog under the same circumstances.

Many forms of cruelty are also common, but none so
much so as murder and cannibalism — especially the devouring
of their own young by mothers, usually in the puerperal state.
Indeed, this kind of infanticide is one of the usual indications
and concomitants of recent maternity, and in modified forms
this unnatural treatment of her own offspring is as charac-
teristic of the human female as of the female of certain
other animals, in the puerperal condition. Sometimes there
is an immediate or exciting cause, which, however, may be of
the most nominal kind. At other times there is no apparent
cause for what is obviously a morbid appetite or impulse,
determined by the puerperal state.

The most trifling circumstances sometimes cause mothers
to devour their offspring, e.g., in the dog and cat, as well as
in swine. Infanticidal mothers occur also among several
of the gallinacese (birds) and in the ouistiti monkey
(Houzeau) . Any disturbance of whatever kind of the female
or her surroundings, while she is in the highly excitable,
morbid condition that succeeds parturition for a time, may
precipitate or produce destruction and cannibalism of the
young. The mere sight of her young in the female emu

64 PERVERSIONS OF THE NATURAL AFFECTIONS.

begets an excitement of a dangerous character that leads, on
the one hand, to a morbid impulse to destroy them, and on
the other, to conjugal quarrels in consequence of the pro-
tective resistance of her mate (Darwin). There is sometimes
an unfortunate rivalry between a mother cat and her own un-
offending and unconscious kittens in the good graces of their
mistress, and the result involves, in the case of a greater
favour being shown to them than to the mother cat herself,
her tormenting by biting them, or otherwise, and finally
killing them by exposure to the cold, or other means. The
ouistiti monkey again bruises her young against trees when
tired of them (Houzeau).

Aversion to her own young, in the cat, sometimes amounts
to a very marked abhorrence or detestation, the very sight
of them causing shuddering and fear. Fixed or rooted
hatred to the young leads sometimes to infanticide (Pier-
quin).

Desertion of the young in various stages of their growth,
from the egg upwards, occurs in several birds, such as the
cuckoo, raven, swallow, and the house martin, as well as in
the marmozet (monkey) and other animals. Swallows and
house martins leave their offspring to perish in the deserted
nests, whenever the period for migration arrives (Darwin).
In other words, the migratory would here appear to be
stronger than the maternal instinct. The desertion of her
eggs by the cuckoo is a very familiar fact (Baird), and the
result of the abandonment of their young, by swallows —
the death of the former by cold and inanition in winter or
earlier, are equally well known (Houzeau). The crocodile,
ostrich, and other animals, also abandon their eggs.

There is sometimes a total absence of regret, or any
other natural feeling in the desertion of young (Pierquin).

In addition to permanent deficiency of maternal love,
there are also singular revulsions, or waves of feeling — ebbing
and flowing tides of affection — coldness being succeeded by
fervour, or vice versa (Gall).

If, however, there are unnatural mothers, there are also
unnatural fathers in whom there is perversion of the paternal
feelings or affections. It is one of what we may believe to

PERVERSIONS OF THE NATURAL ABFECTIOXS. 65

be the awkward and unwelcome duties of the mother some-
times to defend her progeny against the morbid voracity —
the cannibalism of their own father — for instance in the pig.
The male sow is a notorious cannibal. The female bee, too,
has to protect her young against the cannibalism of their
own father. There is a paternal indifference to the young
among male ruminants, solipeds and pachyderms.

Marital affection becomes transformed sometimes, as in
man, into marital ill-usage, and there is no reason to doubt
that the 'hen-pecked husband ' is no figure of speech among
the lower animals. We read of the marital ill-usage of a
wife by a monkey, who first decoyed, and then drowned her
— that is, committed murder (^Cassell).

Conjugal quarrels are by no means confined to man.
Conjugal indifference is, in fact, a characteristic of poly-
gamous birds (Houzeau). Perversions of the parental
feelings occur, therefore, in either, or both, parents, though
most frequently, apparently > in the female.

Filial love is equally wanting sometimes (Houzeau). We
are told, for instance, of dog-pups biting their own mother
(Gall). But this may arise from mere temper or irritation,
as well as from the irritability or indifference of disease.

The young of most animals soon acquire a sense of in-
dependence of their parents, and they display no regret at
leaving them. But it may be reckoned a perversion of filial
love, or affection, when selfishness leads them to show no pity
or compunction in robbing these parents of food, in becoming
their competitors in the struggle for life, a competition that
gives rise to unseemly combats between parents and offspring
for supremacy, or for food (Houzeau).

The most common perversion of fraternal or brotherly
love is the capriciousness, or inconstancy, of attachments,
companionships, or friendships — whether between different
individuals of a species, or between members of different
species or genera. The same kind of caprice, or fickleness,
characterises attachments to (1) man, (2) places, and (3)
things. The ready attachment of some dogs to new human
friends is familiar, as is also the sometimes rapid, easy and
unaccountable transfer of affections in their own companion-

VOL. II. F

66 PERVERSIONS OF THE NATURAL AFFECTIONS.

ships. The rupture of attachments, again, is frequently not
felt, especially by the young.

Other forms of perversion of fraternal affection are to be
found in —

1. Ferocity to each other — for instance, of dogs to
strangers of their own species in the East.

2. Cruelty — including all forms of persecution.

3. Cannibalism — as in the case of dogs in the East, kill-
ing and eating disabled companions (Cobbe and Low).

4. Desertion, forsaking, of these wounded fellows some-
times occurs, instead of cannibalism, — the latter being
determined probably by feelings — painful, or comfortable —
of hunger or satiety.

Further and fuller illustrations of the more serious per-
versions of the natural instincts, affections, or passions, are
to be found in the chapters on (1) ( Suicide and Murder,' (2)
e The Forms of Insanity,' (3) ' Mental Defect and Derange-
ment,' and (4) ' Foster Parentage.'

CHAPTER VI.

ARTIFICIAL INSANITY.

THE subject of artificial insanity — that which is producible
at will by man in other animals — is one of much importance,
no less in relation to —

1. Our knowledge of the genesis, development, and treat-
ment of human insanity, than to

2. The various forms of preventable cruelty to animals ;
and the correspondingly

3. Varying kinds and degrees of man's responsibility for
their usage.

By means quite at his control^ to begin with at least, man
can produce in other animals, or certain of them, special
mental lesions — defects or diseases— whose course he can
regulate, so that he can deliberately study the etiology and
cure of such lesions, their origin and whole progress or course.
He can generate several forms of insanity, and all degrees of
these forms ; and they may be rendered permanent, danger-
ous, even fatal, or trivial and temporary, according to his
purpose. Though the immediate or exciting cause in such
cases is wholly within man*s control, the results are not, how-
ever, always or altogether capable of his regulation. Some-
times the latter are equally unlocked and unhoped for, neither
desired nor desirable.

Thus artificially induced mania is said occasionally to lead
to the undesirable and unfortunate result of suicide (Pierquin).
In proportion as the cause is simple and single, and directly
applied, the result tends to become equally simple. But there
are so many modifying influences, partly unknown to the
experimenter, that it is difficult or impossible to control them,

t 2

68 ARTIFICIAL INSANITY.

so that the exact issue cannot safely or certainly in any case
be predicated. Thus the same toxic agent does not always or
necessarily produce the same effect in the same species, or
even in the same individual under diverse circumstances.
There may be exaltation or depression, or the exhibition or
not of this or that special propensity or passion.

There are, fortunately or unfortunately as the issue may
prove in individual cases, various means of artificially pro-
ducing different kinds or forms of mental defect or disturb-
ance in the lower animals, including especially —

1. Experimental excitation — chemical, mechanical, or elec-
trical— of or in the brain, that is, by the imitation of patho-
logical conditions (Broussais, Pierquin, Gudden, Terrier).

2. Drugging with narcotic or other poisons, or the in-
halation of narcotic or other gases, or of irritant particles
diffused through the air ; in other words, the production of
toxic insanity or toxico-mania.

3. Provocation of various kinds and to various degrees,
including —

a. The persistent exhibition of hated or loved per-

sons, animals, or things.

b. The employment of obnoxious sounds — as of

music ; colours — as red ; or sights — as of un-
familiar and terrifying objects.

4. Cruelty in many other forms, including —

a. The use of the goad, spur, whip, or other means

of producing spurious courage — that of despe-
ration—in the various sports of man.

b. The use of other objectionable instruments or

appliances.

c. Starvation.

d. The ' hue and cry ' after strayed starved dogs or

bewildered footsore cattle.

e. The infliction of injury or wound.

Of all these various forms of artificially creating mental
disturbance in some of its degrees, that which is at once the
most common, the most disgusting, and the least defensible,
is the infuriation, maddening^ furiosity or ferocity produced
in animals made to fight for man's diversion.

ARTIFICIAL INSANITY. 69

One of the best known of the ' special correspondents ' of
the London Press — Archibald Forbes, of the ' Daily News,' —
who accompanied the Prince of Wales in his Indian tour in
1875-6, speaking of the Baroda sports and of the arena
fighting of wild buffaloes, thus describes the suffering that
must have resulted from the loss of a horn close to the scalp.
' The agony must be horrible. The blood streams from the
raw pith on to the sand. But the fighting demon is rampant

and he battles madly on Dashing blindly

against the barricade, he half staggers, half crouches under

it Mad with pain and terror, he rushes out into the

open, the scared populace flying wildly from his infuriated
track.' l Eeferring to the same royal ' sports ' the ' Saturday
Review ' 2 commented on the fact that elephants were ' tor-
tured into ferocity in order to gratify a craving for excitement'
in the highest representative of the educated Englishman,
for the benefit of England's future king ! The reviewer
very properly characterises these beast-fights as ' odious and
repulsive exhibitions.'

The bull-fights of Spain and the dog-fights of England
are other and more familiar examples of the literal goading
or torturing into fury of various genera and species of ani-
mals merely for man's enjoyment.

We read of the

Young and savage Bull by salt and goading maddened

in the modern Spanish arena; while in the Coliseum of
ancient Rome red-hot goads, whips, or other instrumental
tortures, as well as starvation and the display of obnoxious
colours, were all used in the production of the desired
ferocity.

Quite as familiar in the streets of all our towns, though
having its origin more in ignorance probably than in wanton
cruelty, is the infuriation of runaway dogs or oxen by the
rough persecution of the hue and cry * mad.' The poor un-
fortunate beast is hooted, chased, pelted, and at last driven
to bay ; and it is not surprising that a dangerous furiosity
should be engendered in sheer self-defence.

Those forms or kinds of mental defect or derangement

1 'Athenaeum,' December 18, 1875, p. 831. 2 In December 1875.

70 ARTIFICIAL INSANITY.

which are experimentally produced for the purposes of phy-
siological and pathological study have at least the high aim
of improving man's knowledge of the natural history and
treatment of disease, mental and bodily. The comparative
pathologist, physiologist, or psychologist cannot justly be
accused either of ignorance or of wanton cruelty. All his
experiments are determined by definite and humane purpose,
though this purpose is not at all likely to be understood by
the general public.

In certain animals idiocy can be easily produced by various
artificial lesions of the cerebral substance. Thus the Swiss
physiologist Gudden has proved that < removal of the cerebral
hemispheres of the young animal is followed by idiocy in the
adult.' He found also that, when both eyes of a pigeon
were enucleated soon after it was hatched, ' the bird grew up
in a condition of idiocy.'1 Dr. Fothergill, of London, informs
us that ' in Dr. Terrier's experiments on monkeys, irritation
of the occipital lobes (of the brain) produced marked symp-
toms of melancholia.'*

Section of the sciatic nerve in the guinea-pig, according
to Brown -Sequard, gives rise sometimes to c loss of conscious-
ness, and a state of torpor, stupidity, and even, in a few
instances, insanity for a while, after the attack '—of convul-
sions produced or determined by tickling or gently pinching
the skin.3

Terrier found rage one of the results of electrical stimula-
tion of the brain in some of the animals on which he experi-
mented.

A great variety of morbid mental phenomena may be
produced by the administration of narcotic, irritant, or other
poisons — animal, vegetable, and mineral— in certain forms
and doses, including the following :—

1. In the solid or fluid state- —
Alcohol.
Chloral.

1 « Eeview of Recent Eesearches on the Physiology of the Nervous System,
by Professor McKendrick, of Glasgow, 1874, pp. 34-5.

2 « British Medical Journal,' December 26, 1874, p. 817.
8 'Lancet,' January, 1875, p. 8.

AKT1FICIAL INSANITY. 71

Opium and its derivatives.

Cantharides.

Corrosive sublimate.

Henbane.

Stramonium (thorn apple).

Belladonna (deadly nightshade).

Dulcamara (bitter sweet).

Indian hemp (' bhang,' or 'haschisch').

Coniurn (common hemlock).

Hellebore.
•Aconite (common wolfsbane or monkshood).

Tobacco.

Mandrake.

Lupuline and hop.

Euphorbium.

Valerian.

Catmint.

Asarabacca.

Manchineel.

Castoreum.

Turpentine.

Betel.

Chicory.

Gentian.

There are many other substances, mostly vegetable, that
are less known than the foregoing, but which, according to
Pierquin or other authors, produce similar mental effects
when administered, to wit : —

European or common hemp.

Fenugreek.

Buckwheat.

Fool's parsley.

Virginian snake-root.

Darnel-grass.

Water hemlock or cowbane.

Bryony.

The Toot plant of New Zealand.1

1 ^Ide what I have said on this subject in the * British and Foreign
Medico- Chirurgical Review ' for July, 1865, and October, 1868.

72 AKTIFICIAL INSANITY.

2. In the gaseous state —

Carbonic acid.

Laughing gas (nitrous oxide).

Sulphuretted hydrogen (privy gas).

Chloroform- vapour.

Sulphurous acid.

Tobacco fumes.

The effects produced by these or other poisons, including
temporary or permanent stupor or stupidity, necessarily vary
with —

1. The nature of the drug or poison used.

2. Its dose, and the repetition, continuance, or intermit-
tence of administration.

3. Its varying composition and freshness.

4. The diverse constitution of the animal operated on,
including its idiosyncrasy (if any), as well as its genus and
species.

Probably the most common form of toxic insanity now-a-
days artificially produced is alcoholic intoxication. But the
effects of alcoholic and other intoxicants on the lower animals
are specially discussed in a separate chapter.

In bygone days toxic mania was produced for nefarious
purposes, to aid the aims of the thief. At certain fairs in
Normandy, we are told by Pierquin, it used to be the custom
for horse thieves, by diffusing cantharides or euphorbium in
the air, to produce in horses an epizootic panic. This led to
a confusion among the owners of the horses and the attenders
of the fair — a state of matters highly favourable to the objects
of the ingenious but unscrupulous experimentalists. The
substances here used would appear to have acted as irritants
on the nostrils of the horses, and to have produced effects
resembling those caused, for instance, by the bot or gadfly.
The animals became indocile, restive, unmanageable ; broke
from their tethers or guardians and stampeded. And what
is of importance to be borne in mind by all concerned in the
custody of domestic animals, furiosity in the runaway horses
was developed in proportion to the kind and amount of man's
attempted interference with their freedom of movement. In
other words, man's best policy would have been, or was, to

ARTIFICIAL INSANITY. 73

allow the panic-stricken animals to gallop off their nasal
irritation and their epidemic alarm.

The creation of panic in any large body of highly nervous
or timorous animals, such as the horse, is at all times as easy
on man's part as it is, or may be, ruinous to his interests.
Thus the North American Indians artificially produce stam-
pedes in the prairie-feeding horses of settlers by causing
them, in unreflecting imitation or imitativeness, to follow the
false lead of their own (Indian) decoy horses — trained for
the purpose — first, however, producing panic. The aim is
the same as that of the Normandy panic-producer—horse'
stealing.

Cantharides are also said to produce in some animals
erotomania, or a morbid amorousness amounting thereto.

Opium, as might be expected, like alcohol, produces dif-
ferent effects in different animals, e.g. the rat, pig, and horse.
Passion or anger, irritability or combativeness, are common
results. But, on the other hand, it has been used as a seda-
tive or calmative to repress or diminish ferocity in menagerie
animals. Pierquin describes opium as capable of inducing,
according to circumstances, simple joyous mania, erotomania,
melancholia, or idiocy.

According to Belt, corrosive sublimate rendered certain
leaf-cutting ants mad, c so that they bit and destroyed each
other.' Sprinkling it experimentally on their track, ' as soon
as one of the ants touches the white powder, it commences
to run about wildly, and to attack any other ant it comes
across. In a couple of hours round balls of the ants will be
found all biting each other, and numerous individuals will be
seen bitten completely in two, whilst others have lost some
of their legs or antennae ' — all by a sudden development of
what must be regarded as a murderous mania or monomania,

Castoreum has an irresistible attraction for the beaver,
causing it to ' squeal with fierce excitement ' if it merely
scent it. Hence it is used by hunters for baiting beaver- traps
(Wood).

What may quite appropriately be described as maternal
affection is producible in certain male animals, artificially
and vicariously, for instance in the male castrated fowl, by

74 ARTIFICIAL INSANITY.

local external irritants (Cabanis). A factitious maternal
instinct is thus created, which leads the animal to assume
the duties of the female.

Intense mental irritation — sometimes amounting to
mania — is producible by the injection of turpentine into the
anus of dogs, an operation that is occasionally the result of
a dangerous practical joke intentionally perpetrated by house
painters. The poor animal becomes furious by 'turpentin-
ing :' it ' rushes about in the most frantic manner, howling
and yelling, tearing up the ground, until its claws are worn
to the quick, dashing hither and thither, and attacking its
own body with its teeth, or flying at any animals, or persons
ift its track;' all this being the result, apparently, of the
intolerable physical pain, produced by the local chemical
irritant. What is most important to be borne in mind is,
that ' the furious form of rabies is so closely simulated, that
this turpentine mania has not unfrequently been mistaken
for that terrible disease.' l

Pierquin suggests that the generic name of the man-
chineel plant — c hippomane ' — is based on its power of pro-
ducing erotomania in stallions and mares. The same author
ascribes melancholia to henbane, and describes the effects of
belladonna as similar to those of opium ; and he speaks of
erotomania as producible in certain birds, when fed upon
hemp seed, buckwheat, or fenugreek, or by cantharides. But
these and other statements of Pierquin's obviously require
re-investigation, before they can be accepted as provable and
proven facts.

All the plants, or their chief products, mentioned in the
foregoing list, are represented as giving rise, in certain
animals, to temporary delirium, or more permanent mania,
according to the dose and the duration of subjection to the
poisonous influence of repeated or continuous doses. The
use of many of these plants was known in ancient times,
and is recorded by classical writers. Thus fury was de-
veloped in cows, by causing them to eat poppies, and in
cats, by eating cat mint (Pierquin). Certain mineral narcotics

1 Eeview on Comparative Therapeutics in the 'British and Foreign
Medico- Chirurgical He view ' for April, 1874, pp. 405-6.

AETIFICIAL INSANITY. 75

are said to produce effects similar to those of the vegetable
ones (Chieraggi).

Mechanical injuries — such as blows on the head — are apt to
produce the same kind of mental results as in man. And it
need not be pointed out that the lower, and especially the
domestic, animals— such as those like the horse, dog, ox, or
sheep, which are the slaves of man, or minister to his daily
wants, are much more liable to such injuries — too frequently
wantonly inflicted — than is man himself. Traumatic in-
sanity in them — mental disorder arising from various kinds
of injury or wounds, most of them directly attributable to
man's cruelty — is probably much more common than is
generally supposed. It is apparently rare simply because it
is not carefully looked for.

As has been explained in another chapter, man's practice,
in such cases, is not to study the diseases — mental or phy-
sical— which he has himself created, but to thrust the
animals affected with them as speedily and completely as
possible beyond his view and ken, by the aid of his gun,
bludgeon, the butcher's knife, or poison.

Traumatic insanity in the lower animals is sometimes
described also, as ' accidental/ in the sense that it results
from injury, or wound, produced by accident, not by delibe-
ration or intention on man's part. It is not the less,
however — both artificial and preventible — the fruit of man's
ignorance, if not of his wantonness, at least in the majority
of cases.

Unfortunately much of man's bad usage is apt to be
directed to the head of his animal victim. The dog and
other animals are often stunned by blows on the head at the
hands of man ; and these blows lead occasionally to dementia,
preceded by anorexia, by loss of usual love for the chase, and
of keenness of scent, and by a series of symptoms that consti-
tute a gradual or sudden change in the animal's character
(Pierquin).

As in man, the effects of injuries or accidents may long
remain latent, and then appear suddenly and seriously.

Many animals — domestic and wild — are enraged by the
wounds — mostly from firearms, but also from whips, sticks,

76 AETIFICIAL INSANITY.

or spurs — inflicted by man. It is not at all probable that
this furiosity arises simply from the pain they suffer. In
* many cases, at least, the animals have been previously
persecuted, hunted and harassed by man: they are con-
sequently jaded, and are in a condition of double irritation —
mental and bodily.

Wounds produced in animals by each other lead to the
same sort of results as those inflicted by man. Thus we
are told of cases of collie dogs, wounded by a stag's horns,
being stupid ever after, losing all their former courage, this
mental condition being associated with epilepsy and with
paralysis of the wounded limbs (Stewart).

The use by man of instruments or appliances that pre-
vent freedom of action or vision, of respiration or the
gratification of the natural desires, or propensities, that
restrain exercise, or prevent food supply, is another direct
provocative of mental annoyance or excitement, more or
less intense. For instance, the muzzling of the dog in hot
weather is apt to produce the very evils, or conditions, it is
avowedly intended to prevent or guard against. Ferocity,
mania, rabies itself are not uncommon or unnatural results
(Pierquin). Its use is quite comparable with that of the
strait-waistcoat or jacket in man, which, though preventive
of danger to himself or others in the sufferer from mania,
delirium tremens, or the delirium of fever, would by its
limitation of freedom of action drive most sane men frantic.
The blinkers of the horse furnish another illustration of an
instrument which is not only useless, but dangerously mis-
chievous.

Passion is easily produced, or provoked experimentally
in monkeys, by man (Darwin), and it may be made to exhibit
all its degrees, between mere 'temper' and mania. But
man's usual object in the artificial excitation of anger is the
capture of the enraged animal. Thus he catches the Taran-
tula spider, of Nicaragua, by lowering into its hole a string
with a ball of soft wax at its end, 'jerking it up and down
until the spider gets exasperated so far as to bury its for-
midable jaws in the wax, whereby it can be drawn to the
surface' (Belt). The trap-door spiders of New Zealand

ARTIFICIAL INSANITY. 77

' are sometimes much fiercer and more pugnacious than at
other times. But you can always, by teasing them with a
straw, or otherwise, make them do battle' (Gillies).

There is, then, a large proportion of animal insanity
that is directly or indirectly artificially produced by man.
Whether it be the result of intention to create insanity, or
of deliberate cruelty, provocation, or ill-usage, or the out-
come simply of thoughtless ignorance, it is not the less
preventible.

It is interesting to note that the same kind of mental
effects that are producible in other animals, are producible
also in man, when the same substances have been self-
administered, a circumstance that has been known from very
early times. Thus Theocritus points out that delirium or
furiosity was equally produced in man and other animals by
certain gaseous poisons. Goats were intoxicated by the
fumes of the Delphic Grotto. Erotomania of an inter-
mittent, periodic, or continuous kind, is producible equally
in man and other animals by the same toxic agents
(Pierquin).

Homicidal mania in the East is equally producible in
man and other animals by the use of bhang, betel and opium
(Cursiter). It used to be also produced in their war oxen
by the Hottentots (Pierquin) ; but we are not informed as to
the nature of the means employed, though it was probably
some indigenous vegetable excitant.

In connection with the various forms of mental derange-
ment, artificially produced in other animals by man, it is
further of interest to consider the kinds of insanity that are
artificially created in and by man himself. His object is
usually, either in order to —

1. Impose, for his own purposes, on popular credulity;
or —

2. For the production of warlike courage, to substitute
an artificial and spurious bravery for natural, moral, or
physical courage, both of which are wanting;

And frequently the physician, physiologist, or patho-
logist—

3. Experiments upon himself, in order to the perfecting

78 AKTIFICIAL INSANITY.

of his knowledge of the mode of action of this, or that, new
drug.

In classical times and countries, priests, sybils, pytho-
nesses, oracles, sorcerers and witches, voluntarily and
artificially produced in themselves ecstasy, visions, dreams,
furiosity, and other morbid mental phenomena, by—

1. Eating narcotic leaves.

2. Imbibing narcotic fumes.

3. Swallowing narcotic draughts (Pierquin).

It would appear that man can also produce in himself
some, at least, of these minor forms of mental disturbance,
by purely mental or moral means, or by means conjointly
physical and mental. Thus the New Zealand Maoris
are said, prior to the colonisation of that country by the
Europeans, to have produced in themselves a battle-fury,1 of
the nature of homicidal mania, by dances, songs and recita-
tions. That such influences are quite as capable of giving
rise to insanity as those which act poisonously on the brain,
or nervous system, there can be 110 doubt, whether as regards
other animals, or man, as is fully pointed out in a special
chapter on ' The Moral Causes of Mental Defect and Dis-
order.'

Self -stimulation by such substances as alcohol, opium, and
haschisch, or bhang, by savages, semi*savages, or civilised
people, may amount in its minor or milder degrees to, or
may beget, the spurious and temporary courage of the kind
required by the hired bravo, for his cowardly assassinations.
Or it may become, for instance among the Malays, a homi^
cidal frenzy, or murderous mania, which can therefore as
readily be developed at will as the artificial courage of the
bravo.

The use by man of various of the narcotic solanacece9
papaveracece, umbelliferce, ranunculacece, fungi, or their pro-
ducts, to produce in himself mere pleasant stimulation^
ecstasy, semi-stupor, or anaesthesia, is too apt to lead to the
unwelcome development of frequently uncontrollable, or

1 A good illustrative plate of the Maori War Dance, and of the physiog-
nomy of artificially induced mania, is given in the late Dr. Arthur Thomson's
* Story of New Zealand,' 1859, vol. i.

ARTIFICIAL INSANITY. 79

irremediable mania, imbecility, dementia, or idiocy. And
similar results are apt to occur in the lower animals,
tinder the use of similar substances. Both in other animals
and man, what is, in its minor form or milder degree,
curable and temporary, is only too liable to become per-
manent and incurable.

The usual characteristics of artificial insanity in the
lower animals are, or include —

1. Its sudden incidence.

2. Its rapid progress.

3. Its well-defined symptoms.

4. Its limited duration; and —

5. Its curability, or the tendency to natural recovery.
Man, however, has it in his power, by the mode in which he
applies the producing cause — perhaps in some instances by
the very nature of that cause — to substitute for the usual
characteristics the opposite ones of —

1. Gradual and insidious development.

2. Slowness of progress.

3. Anomalous symptoms.

4. Protracted existence ; and —

5. Incurability, or hopelessness of recovery.

The artificial creation of fear, or fright, intentional
intimidation, for a specific purpose, whether by man, or by
other animals among themselves, fitly falls within the scope
of the present chapter.

The specific purpose, either of man or of other animals,
is usually to paralyse efforts at flight, escape, or resistance—-
to produce bewilderment, agitation, terror, immobility. And
the means employed to this end include, in the case of man,
as well as of other animals —

1. Loud discordant cries of all kinds — yells, howls, roar-
ing.

2. Grimaces, or facial contortion.

3. Inflation of various bodily appendages.

The intentional inspiration of fear, or terror, is a common
part of the policy of various animals in the pursuit of their
prey. They make efforts at intimidation, which involve a
knowledge of its value or uses.

80 ARTIFICIAL INSANITY.

The elephant deliberately frightens, or tries to frighten,
man, or other animals, by make-believe fury and pretended
charges or assaults (Pierquin). On the other hand, the
Indian shikaris, by their tom-toms, endeavour to produce
fear or fright in the tiger, or other wild forest animals.
Sometimes the motive is a mere love of fun, as in the prac-
tical joking of the parrot, mocking bird, man, or monkey,
on man or other animals.

CHAPTER VII.

INTOXICATION.

THE phenomena, and the circumstances, of alcoholic intem-
perance and intoxication in the lower animals illustrate —

1. The unfortunate fact that certain other animals are
not free from sane man's worst vices — vices which, however,
in most cases, they acquire directly from himself.

2. The suggestive fact that alcohol and other stimulants
produce the same kind of effects on the brain and mind,
nervous system and general bodily functions and conditions,
in other animals, as in man.

3. The opposite, or different effects occasionally produced
by the same drug, or poison, according to individuality and
idiosyncrasy, to sex and age, to species or genus, to physical
structure, and to habits of life, or to other modifying causes.

4. The singular perversions of appetite, the artificial
tastes, to which they are subject, or which they acquire — by
imitation, or otherwise — from association with man.

Alcoholic inebriation in all its degrees of tipsiness and
drunkenness, a decided love or fondness for malt or spirituous
liquors of almost every kind, occur in a considerable number
and variety of animals, from among the lowest to the high-
est. Thus I have notes of its occurrence so low down in
the zoological scale as among the medusa, while higher
animals include —

1. The orang and chimpanzee, the mandrill, pigmy, and
other apes or baboons, coaita, sooty mangabey and other
monkeys, the diadem, or other lemurs, and the lori — among
the quadrumana.

2. The horse and pony, ass and mule, elephant, dog, rat,
VOL. ii. a

82 INTOXICATION.

racoon, cat, cow, goat, lion, hedgehog, Malayan, sun, and
other bears, and the pig, among quadrupeds.

3. The common domestic fowl (cock and hen), turkey,
parrot, kite, starling, and certain thrushes, among birds.

In other words, most domestic and pet animals — many
menagerie ones, and many wild ones — representing the quad-
rumana, quadrupeds, and birds, in various ways acquire so
strong a liking for spirits of various kinds, that they indulge
their appetite whenever opportunity offers .

The special fluids selected for self-intoxication include
all the commoner malt and spirituous liquors, such as ale,
beer, porter and stout, whisky, brandy, rum, gin and arrack,
with various wines, such as champagne. And, as in the case
of man, while some animals appear to have a promiscuous
or indiscriminate appetite for spirits of any kind, others
have their favourite beverages, and sometimes will drink no
other. Likes or dislikes for any particular kinds of spirits
have been most frequently, perhaps, observed among the
domesticated quadrumana, from their presence at man's
table, no doubt, and the facility with which their habits at
table may be noticed. But they are by no means confined
to the anthropoid or other apes and monkeys.

A common preference would appear to be given to cham-
pagne. Thus, of a pet Malayan sun bear, that was frequently
admitted to his table, Sir Stamford Eaffles tells us : c He gave
a proof of his taste, by refusing .... to drink any wine
but champagne. The only time I ever knew him to be out of
humour, was on one occasion when no champagne was
forthcoming.' A tame diadem lemur, too, ' was very fond of
champagne, and after such a treat, his friskings and playful
tricks were beyond description funny' (Broderip). Among
the decided food preferences shown by domesticated bears is
a partiality for champagne (Cassell).

The elephant frequently manifests its love of arrack, the
spirit, no doubt, to which it has easiest access, and it is
readily intoxicated therewith. The mandrill prefers porter
and gin (Cassell). Certain monkeys and parrots are fond
of rum (Buckland), and the coaita monkey and chim-
panzee, and various apes, of wine (Cassell). Baboons are

INTOXICATION. 83

partial to beer (Brehm). The orang shows a preference for
different kinds of wine. Other monkeys have a special
liking for beer. The donkey, too, has acquired a penchant
for beer (Watson), as has the hedgehog. Wood mentions
a Newfoundland dog that regularly, after his daily swim,
called at a certain beershop for his pint of beer. Even a pet
starling became 'very fond of wine and spirits.' From
these statements it is not to be inferred that particular
species or genera of animals have a partiality for special
forms of spirits. The inference, rather, is simply that
the individual animals mentioned display a fondness for
those forms of alcohol which are of readiest access.

Illustrations of what appears to be, but may not neces-
sarily be, a less discriminating appetite for all kinds of alco-
holic fluids, are to be found in such facts as the following.
A Borneo orang, mentioned by Buffon, would ' eagerly drink
all sorts of wine, particularly Malaga.' An Exmoor pony
was a ' horrid toper, and drank all kinds of liquor with great
relish. It could drink a glass of whiskey without spilling
a drop, and was passionately fond of oatmeal plentifully
soaked in porter.' A sooty mangabey (monkey) 'had
acquired a good number of bad habits. Among these was
an ardent thirst for all manner of intoxicating drinks.' A
racoon showed ' a great partiality for intoxicating liquors,
especially those that are sweet;' while an orang also
evinced ' a great partiality for all kinds of strong drink.'

Various eccentricities of an acquired or artificial, morbid
or perverted, taste or appetite are exhibited in the form of as
striking dislikes of certain beverages, as of likings to others.
Thus a cat that was irresistibly attracted by porter refused
her more natural and innocent aliment — milk. A chim-
panzee had a liking for wine, and could judge its quality
like a human connoisseur, but it had an equal dislike for
spirits (Cassell). A dog that lived at a brewery 'was so
passionately fond of drinks that he would turn away dis-
dainfully from biscuits or sugar, but would swallow any
stimulant greedily.'

Moreover, animals are frequently bribed by what they do
relish in the way of drink to use what they do not. Thus

G 2

84 INTOXICATION.

the mandrill gets gin in order to induce it to use tobacco
(Cassell).

In all these cases the liking for alcohols of different kinds
differs in its degree. There may be mere gusto or relish for
intoxicants, obvious pleasure or enjoyment in tippling, grog
or beer drinking, just as in man. But, though in exceptional
cases animals have the force of will, or the good sense, to
stop in time, while others may, fortunately for themselves,
acquire at the very first a disgust at, instead of a relish for,
all sorts of spirits, or for some particular form of alcohol,
there is a danger in all cases of the liking becoming a
craving, and the craving becoming insatiable, irresistible,
morbid, amounting then exactly to what in man is called
dipsomania ; in short, the drink-craving is apt to become a
veritable disease. The habit of tippling, habitual intemper-
ance, is as apt to be engendered in other animals as in man,
and it is in them equally dangerous, equally liable to pass
beyond all limits of control.

The horse is represented as enjoying its ale. Fowls show
obvious satisfaction when their corn is steeped in spirits.
The tipsy ape is said to enjoy its tipsiness (Houzeau) ;
and there are many other animals that take a visible de-
light in other forms of dram-drinking.

A certain Parisian dog, we are told, < drew his half-pint
of kirsch every day, and not content with that, would go
from table to table (of a restaurant) to try for more.' A
Borneo orang drank a bottle of Malaga wine ' to the last
drop,' having himself uncorked the bottle (Buffon). Not a
few animals, then, readily become, when the temptation is
thrown in their WSLJ, habitual topers, tipplers, or drunkards.

Frequently the love of alcoholic fluids becomes inordinate
and uncontrollable. Thus we are told of a cat for which
'porter had a fascination that she could not withstand.'
Wary rats ' drink themselves dead drunk from spirit casks
whenever they get an opportunity ' (Wynter). The ape is
undeterred from a carouse by punishment or prohibition. Of
very few animals that once betake themselves to the use of
alcoholic stimulants can it be said, as was said of a certain
pet starling, that ' he knew when he had had enough '

INTOXICATION. 85

of the Avino and spirits, of which he was, nevertheless,
very fond. In the majority of cases the animal indulges its
liking till insensibility, unconsciousness, helplessness super-
vene. Just as in human dipsomania, no sort of personal
consideration prevents the gratification of the morbid appe-
tite. All the usual caution, love of life, fear of danger,
affection for young, dread of punishment, are forgotten ; all
experience of capture or of suffering goes for nothing. The
propensity becomes inveterate, incurable : it is a veritable
form of moral insanity.

One debauch usually leads to another. But there are
cases in which a single experience of the effects of alcohol is
sufficient to make an animal a teetotaller for life, by in-
spiring it with a disgust at, which leads to refusal of, every-
thing alcoholic, including ordinary articles of food steeped
in, or saturated with alcohol, experimentally by man. Such
animals have had the exceptional sense, courage, force of
will, to profit by their disagreeable experience. Thus a fox-
terrier of Mrs. Mackellar's, having had a glassful of whiskey
forced down its throat one New Year's Eve by a number of
waggish sailors, naturally became furious and dangerous for
the moment. But he never could bear even the £ smell of
drink ' again, even in men, his usual companions and play-
fellows.

In many dogs and other animals the mere sight or smell
of a spirit bottle or of alcoholic spirits inspires repugnance
or disgust — in most cases from the association of ideas
of former suffering, the result of some of man's barbarous
practical jokes. Thus in a baboon intemperance was effec-
tually cured by firing some brandy, of which it had become
fond (Cassell). In this case terror inspired by the flame,
connected ever afterwards with the sight and smell of
brandy, was probably the most efficient element in the
cure.

Dr. Murray Lindsay, of Derby, to whom I am indebted
for various interesting dog-stories, tells me that a dog of his
would not touch spirits of any kind, but was exceedingly
fond of sugar ; and that when sugar was, for experimental
purposes, steeped in whiskey, brandy, or other forms of

86 INTOXICATION1.

alcohol, and offered to it, the poor animal was distracted
between its appetite for the sugar and its dislike of the
spirit; it was hesitant and annoyed, reluctant to swallow
the nauseous sweet, equally unwilling to let it go, but finally
it preferred to lose the sugar rather than partake of the
abhorrent liquor with which it was saturated. In such a
case the probability is that the animal had on some previous
occasion experienced the disagreeable effects of alcohol,
administered alone, or disguised by saccharine or other
bribes.

Temperance, then, so far as concerns alcoholic stimulants,
is sometimes, in other animals as in man, taught by expe-
rience : a fit of tipsiness, the fruit of incautious or thef-
tuous self-indulgence, may prove a salutary lesson. Jackson
mentions the case of a dog that, once drunk, ever after-
wards refused the same kind of intoxicating liquor that
had produced what must have been felt by itself to be dis-
agreeable effects — to wit, beer — growling even at the sight
of a beer pot. In all such cases there is obviously not only
a vivid memory or remembrance of the effects of a former in-
discretion or of a master's practical joke, a profiting by dis-
agreeable experience, a proper association of ideas, but an
accurate idea of causation, of the relation of cause and effect,
and sufficient resolution, in the event of further temptation,
or experiments of a similar kind, to choose the proper course
by avoiding or resisting them.

Animals acquire a morbid taste for alcoholic liquors in
one of several ways —

1. They may acquire it for themselves directly, without
man's intervention, as in the case of rats broaching wine,
spirit, or beer casks.

2. Alcoholic stimulants may be, in the first place, ad-
ministered by man as a medicine, or for the purposes of
physiological or other experiment — as in the horse.

3. Much more commonly alcoholic intoxicants are offered
to, or forced upon, various animals by man, either —

a. f For fun,' as a practical joke, in order that he
may amuse himself with the drunken antics,
orgies, or mistakes of the poor animals ; or —

INTOXICATION. 87

b. As a bribe or reward to get them to do extra

work ; or — :

r. For the purposes of capture ; or —
d. For various nefarious purposes, including especially
theft and burglary — perhaps even murder.

In whatever way or form, or for whatever purpose, the
alcoholic liquor is originally administered — by the animal
to itself or by man — a fondness for alcoholic stimulants or
intoxicants is either gradually or at once developed.

In the case of rats broaching casks of wine, spirits, or
beer, there is probably, at first at least, no special search
or craving for alcoholic fluids. What is urgently wanted
is fluid of any kind, to quench consuming thirst, and any
accessible fluid, whatever its nature, is at once attacked.
They find out for themselves, however, that certain fluids
are unpleasant and deadly, while others are pleasant and
not necessarily fatal in their effects. And there is every
reason to suppose that rats, like so many other animals,
having once tasted alcoholic fluids, at once approve of them,
and acquire a decided taste for them, which, taste developes
into a craving in proportion to the frequency with which it
is gratified. Monkeys and apes also find out for themselves,
in their propensity to taste everything that man drinks,
what they too consider the agreeable qualities of alcohol.

It is apparently becoming more and more a practice for
veterinarians to administer alcohol to the lower animals in
various conditions of disease, just as it is for physicians to
give it to children and women — in both cases, it is to be
feared, without due appreciation of, or reflection upon, the
possible results. Thus a Natal lion, that ultimately died of
fever in the Zoological Gardens of Dublin in 1864, was
treated with 'large draughts' of whiskey-punch. C0n the
Sunday before he died, the people from Dublin came out in
large crowds to see him take his punch, which they said he
did just like a Christian.'

Among the medicinal or therapeutic applications of
alcohol among the lower animals may be included its use
by man as a stimulant of energy or activity, as a means of
developing mettle or spirit, courage or combativeness, in

88 INTOXICATION.

animals intended to figlit for man's sport. It has the useful
property of contributing courage where it did not previously
exist or would not have been exhibited, of adding to or
intensifying it when it already exists. It would appear to
generate, in other animals as in man, a spurious or Dutch
courage where real courage, moral or physical, does not
exist ; but it is always apt to do more than this — to generate
fury or ferocity of a kind that may prove as dangerous to
man as to the combatant animals that are made the unwit-
ting subjects of his sport.

Alcoholic stimulants are frequently given as bribes or
rewards for good service to man — as in the case of the
elephant with arrack. But the use of the bribe in such a
case evidently presupposes a previously acquired taste on
the part of the animal for the spirit.

Intoxication by means of alcoholic drinks is frequently
produced artificially and intentionally by man for the pur-
pose of capture — for instance, of certain monkeys. And occa-
sionally the beer or other attractive liquor used is drugged
with some narcotic, so that the stupifying effect is not wholly
alcoholic. Thus drugged beer is employed in the capture
of certain monkeys in Abyssinia (Manley and Parkyns).
The monkeys of Darfur (Africa) are inordinately fond of
beer, and avail themselves of every opportunity of making it
the means of a debauch. Under its use they readily become
victims of inebriation, and display certain follies of inebriety
that are favourable to man's schemes for their capture.
Their memory, senses, ideas, become confused ; they fail to
distinguish the negroes from themselves ; they cling stupidly
to each other, using their paws as hands, 'following the
lead ' like so many sheep ; they allow themselves, in short,
to be taken wherever their captors may desire.

Dogs, monkeys, horses, elephants, and other animals, are
not unfrequently deliberately taught to tipple by man, the
unfortunate brutes taking to the practice with a relish or
gusto that delights their senseless tutor. Thus Le Vaillant
tells us how certain baboons in this way became regular
topers ; and Watson how a certain elephant was treated to
an evening glass of spirits along with its master.

INTOXICATION. 89

The effects of alcohol on mind and body in the lower
animals are of the same kind as those in man, varying in
degree from simple transient, probably pleasurable, excite-
ment from small doses up to sudden or speedy death from
inordinate quantities. As in man, the effects vary according
not only to the dose or quantity, but according to the indi-
vidual, the species and genus, to whom or to which it is
administered. Thus from the same amount of the same form
of alcohol, given under apparently the same circumstances, one
animal may remain quiet and passive, while another becomes
mettlesome and dangerous ; one may commit only a series
of ludicrous absurdities of conduct, while another developes
a fury, ferocity, or destructiveness that are highly dangerous
to themselves, to other animals, or to man.

The more marked effects of alcohol on the economy of
the lower animals include the following : —

1. Simple passing excitement, which may, however, be
variously exhibited in the form either of good or bad
humour ; the animal may become morbidly facile, so that
capture becomes easy, or irascibility is developed, rendering
it an unpleasant or unsafe associate. In the parrot wine
developes unusual loquacity or garrulity ; in the horse,
viciousness — it becomes unmanageable by reason of its kick-
ing and biting (Pierquin).

2. The excitement may be more permanent and more
intense — for instance, in the case of elephants or other ani-
mals purposely rendered furious by wine or other stimulants
in order that they may minister to man's sports or other re-
quirements. Thus we are told that Ptolemy Philopater,
ages ago, massacred Jews in the hippodrome of Alexan-
dria by causing them to be trampled to death by elephants
rendered furious by wine and frankincense. And we have
already seen that animals intended to fight with each other
for man's amusement are endowed with the necessary
amount of courage and combativeness by the use of various
forms of alcohol.

3. Reactionary depression, mental and physical, follow-
ing excitement, constituting what is quite as really a dismal
mood or humour as in man, associated probably with such

90 INTOXICATION,

bodily feelings as headache. After drunkenness come the
dismals in the baboon as in man (Brehm), and it is possible,
nay probable, that in this condition there is frequently a
feeling of self-loathing on the part of an animal — e.g., espe-
cially in dogs that have after a single experience of alcohol
resolutely renounced its use even when offered in the most
tempting forms.

4. Stupidity in various degrees and forms, including
incapacity to provide for safety or appreciate danger. This
stupidity involves many serious, even fatal, errors of prudence
or policy, as in the case of a drunken monkey rashly attack-
ing a shark (Cassell).

5. Eccentricities of motion — in the form so common in
inebriate man — of reeling or staggering.

6. Stupor or stupefaction — of all degrees up to the con-
dition known in man as * dead drunk ' — insensibility, uncon-
sciousness, equal loss of thought, feeling, will, memory, and
motion ; a state of abject, prostrate helplessness, in which
the unfortunate animal becomes the prey of man, its other
enemies, or its own fellows.

7. The series of phenomena, bodily and mental, known
in man as alcoholism — as produced experimentally, for in-
stance, by Magnan, and including probably a condition
analogous to or approaching delirium tremens.

8. Arrestment of physical growth. Thus gin is adminis-
tered to dogs to check and dwarf bodily growth (Boss).

9. Various forms of insanity, including especially, as
already stated, dipsomania.

10. Death, more or less speedy. Thus Du Chaillu men-
tions drunkenness followed by death in a young chimpanzee
from inordinate brandy drinking ; and Biichner describes an
orang that ' died through drinking up a bottle of rum which
he had stolen, uncorked and emptied.'

Moreover, the effects of the use or abuse of alcohol in the
lower animals include the same kind of general, functional,
and organic changes as in man, the same morbid appear-
ances after death. Thus Dr. Richardson, who has so ably
and so long studied all the phenomena of alcoholism in man
and other animals, including those which are revealed post

INTOXICATION. 91

mortem, says, * In the lower animals I have been able to
witness this extreme vascular condition of the lungs,' the
result or concomitant of the first stage of alcoholic excite-
ment— that of exhilaration — a condition of congestion that is
universal throughout the body. In this first or exhilarative
stage in birds and mammals there is during life the same
rise of temperature of body that occurs in man ; while in the
third stage of insensibility there is, as in him, an unnatural
fall of temperature.

Alcoholism is virtually the same in its character — using
the term in its most comprehensive signification, as including
all the phenomena, mental and bodily, produced by alcohol —
throughout the animal series. Thus the recent experiments
of Eomanes show that even the Medusa? suffer in the same
way that man does under the influence of alcohol. ' A tipsy
jelly-fish rolled about in the water just like the staggering
of a drunken man, and this was followed by torpidity, or a
state of complete drunkenness, from which nothing could
arouse it. In the course of a few hours it began to recover,
and eventually the recovery was complete.'

Nor must we ever forget the suggestive fact that the
effects, mental or bodily, in the individual, of the use or
abuse of alcohol in any of its many forms become organised
and hereditary as certainly in other animals as in man.

The dog recognises the condition of drunkenness in man,
and appreciates its practical effects so far, at least, as
itself is concerned. Experience, no doubt, has taught it
that a tipsy man is apt to become irritable, and that his
irritability is likely to find vent on its own ribs if it does not
keep out of his way. The sensible animal avoids the only
too probable ill-usage of a tipsy master by absenting itself
from his presence so long as he is visibly under the minor
influence of drink. Thus Wood gives two anecdotes illus-
trative of the shrewdness of dogs in avoiding their masters
when tipsiness was threatened, and so long as the chance of
it continued. One of them hid itself whenever its master,
in his drinking bouts, got the length of his fourth tumbler
of toddy, ' never showing itself until the effects had passed
off, and its master was restored to sobriety.'

92 INTOXICATION.

A certain fox-terrier that had been itself rendered tee-
total by an experimental glassful of whiskey forced upon him
by sailors, if he saw these same ' seamen, to whom he was
most attached .... the worse of drink, they would not
dare to come near him ' while they were tipsy or drunk ;
for in that case, instead of avoiding them, he inflicted salu-
tary punishment, perhaps a justifiable, as it was a natural,
revenge (Mrs. Mackellar).

On the other hand, the dog recognises the helplessness
and harmlessness of utter drunkenness, in which case it not
only does not avoid its master, but either couches itself be-
side him, or seeks efficient aid for his removal or protection.

Certain animals recognise tipsiness or drunkenness also
in each other, or at least the eccentricities or the helpless-
ness to which these conditions give rise — for instance, in
and by the Indian kite. And they either punish tipsy or
drunk fellows by causing them to lose caste or by more sum-
mary measures, or they take advantage of their disability,
bodily and mental, to make prey of them.

The phenomena of alcoholic intoxication or poisoning in
the lower animals are produced also —

1. By the fruits or other substances from which alcohol
itself is prepared, such as grapes, grape refuse or grape
must ; and

2. By liqueurs in which, while alcohol is the basis, there
are superadded drugs of a narcotic character, such as ab-
sinthe.

3. By other fruits from which other forms of alcohol
than wine or brandy may be produced.

4. By the nectar of various flowers, which have an in-
toxicant effect — for instance, on bees.

Bears and asses have become tipsy from eating grapes
(Chateaubriand) ; the horse, mule, ass, turkeys, and other
animals from overeating grape refuse ; and swine from
feeding on must or wort, according to Pierquin. Self-intoxi-
cation is produced in the South African elephant by eating
the ripe fruit of the umganu tree, ' of which they are pas-
sionately fond. . . . They become quite tipsy, staggering
about, playing huge antics, screaming so as to be heard miles

INTOXICATION. 93

off, and not seldom having tremendous fights. Native
hunters fear to approach them when in this state,' because,
no doubt, of their irritability and pugnacity. The fruit in
question is capable of yielding ' a strong intoxicating drink '
to the natives (Drummond) .

Humble bees become intoxicated by the nectar of the
passion-flower, for which they have a fondness ( to excess.'
It produces on them the same sort of effects that alcohol
does on other animals, including joviality, recklessness, reel-
ing, tumbling, sprawling, and stupidity (Kirby and Spence).
That their inebriety is attended with gratification, and that
it is, frequently at least, intentional, is apparently shown by
the repetition of the act of self-intoxication.

On the other hand, drunkenness has been artificially
produced by man by the use of absinthe. For instance, when
Dr. Magnan of Paris, before the British Medical Association
at Norwich in 1874, injected it into the femoral vein of a
dog, the animal became £ dead drunk.' Fowls have also
been made the subject of man's experiments with absinthe,
by giving it by mouth, and in this, as in many other ways,
the animals have acquired man's pernicious habit of dram-
drinking. Of a cock that had a liking for this liqueur we
are told that after a dose he ' falls as if lifeless, and lies
motionless on the ground. After some moments .... he
tries to get up, but fails, and falls back, beating the air
with his wings and scraping the soil .... Yet he goes on
repeating the dose, just as though he were as stupid as a

(f^

\ U* ITT

CHAPTER YIII.

DEEAMS AND DELUSIONS.

IT is generally known that certain of the lower animals, such
as the dog, sleep in the same way-, at the same times, and
under the same circumstances as man himself does ; that is
to say, they usually sleep by night, or in darkness, and are
awake by day, or in the presence of light, natural or
artificial.

And, to a certain extent, some of the disturbances of sleep
in other animals that are comparable with those of man
have also been long recognised. By observers of animals'
habits in all ages it has been noticed, for instance, that the
dog, cat, horse, parrot, canary, bullfinch, and some other
animals, dream, and the phenomena of dreaming in other
animals than man have been described.

As regards the dog, and especially sporting dogs, such as
the harrier, the following facts have been noted, or the fol-
lowing inferences drawn. It appears to hunt in its dreams,
as was long ago remarked by Seneca and Lucretius. During
sleep movements of the tail and paws, sniffing, growling,
barking, occur. There is every reason to believe that there
is frequently during sleep in the sporting dog an imaginary
pursuit of imaginary game ; that this supposed pursuit gives
rise to actual physical and mental excitement, including, for
instance, eagerness, and panting for breath caused imme-
diately thereby ; and that this excitement sometimes causes
the animal to awake. At first it is bewildered to find its
actual position so different from that painted by a morbid
fancy — no game where it expected to be ' in at the death,'

DREAMS AND DELUSIONS. 95

itself probably on a hearth rug before the dying embers of a
library fire, or within the walls of its kennel. But it speedily
realises its error, distinguishes between fact and fancy, the
imaginary and the real, becomes aware, in short, that it was
dreaming, and again betakes itself to repose.

Here there is indubitably for a time, and in a sense,
delusion, belief in an unreality, and action determined by
that belief. But the delusion is quite compatible with,
and common in, what is assumed to be practically sanity
both of mind and body, though there cannot be dreaming
without a certain amount of disturbance, both psychical
and physical. It is, in short, a sane delusion, temporary,
corrigible, and corrected by the use of the senses and judg-
ment, and it is a sane delusion equally in man and other
animals. Were the delusion an insane one — did it exist,
that is to say, in an insane animal — the dog would actually
pursue an imaginary stag or hare. But it does so in the
case of a sane delusion of a similar kind — a mere delusion of
sleep or dreaming — only in imagination, while in a state of
comparative physical quiescence, and ostensibly asleep in its
kennel.

This distinction between sane and insane delusions is of
the highest importance in regard to man as to other ani-
mals, and the subject will be taken up again and more, fully
illustrated in subsequent parts of the present chapter.

Just as hounds or harriers chase in their dreams imagi-
nary game, collies or other dogs worry in their sleep imagi-
nary enemies, or snap presumably at imaginary flies or other
insect tormentors. In other words, in their sleep or dreams
they appear to engage in imaginary quarrels, games, pur-
suits, attacks.

It has to be noted that dreaming in the horse is cha-
racterised sometimes by shuddering, shivering, quivering,
quaking, or trembling. These phenomena are concomitants
or results in the waking state of excitement, fear, ardour,
impetuosity, or impatience. Hence it has been quite le-
gitimately inferred by Montaigne and others that the same
feelings or mental conditions are developed during sleep
and dreaming, and are likely to be associated in the race-

96 DBEAMS AND DELUSIONS

horse with imaginaiy races, as in the sporting dog with
imaginary coursing.

The phenomena of dreaming in the parrot are much
more interesting than either in dog or horse, or indeed in
any other animal not gifted with articulate speech ; for it
prattles or talks or repeats its lessons in its sleep or dreams
(Houzeau). The same will probably be found to be the case
in starlings or other birds that can speak intelligently ; and
the subject of speech, coherent and incoherent, during sleep
and in the waking state is one of such interest — as it is
illustrated by or among the lower animals — that it is greatly
to be desired that owners of speaking parrots, starlings, or
other birds would carefully note and record all the modifi-
cations of their speech that occur in sleep and dreaming, or
in old age and disease.

Bechstein has described dreaming in the bullfinch, and
it is noteworthy in his description that he points out that
the terror begotten during sleep, the result of its dreams,
which probably involved visual delusions of a horrifying
kind, was such that it required its mistress's interference to
prevent bad effects. It frequently fell from its perch in its
terror, we are told, but became ( immediately tranquillised
and reassured by the voice of its mistress."

It may, perhaps, be supposed that it is impossible to
determine the presence of dreaming among the lower ani-
mals in the absence of the power of speech and writing, of
orally or otherwise describing past ideas or sensations. But,
in the first place, we must remember that, as regards man,
infants and deaf mutes cannot describe their thoughts or feel-
ings, and there are many idiots, imbeciles, and insane persons
in the same helpless condition, who, nevertheless, we have
every reason to believe, are quite as capable of dreaming as
more favoured individuals. In some of these cases, indeed,
imagination is probably at once more morbid and more
fecund than in healthier individuals, and dreaming corre-
spondingly more common. Life in some cases among the
insane may be described as a chronic dream, of lurid or
sunny character, as the case may be.

In man the presence of dreaming and the nature of his

DKEAMS AND DELUSIONS. 97

dreams are frequently inferred simply from his facial ex-
pression, his voice-sounds, his actions or movements. As
regards other animals, there are not a few birds that talk
more intelligently than whole races of man, and whose talk
gives us a certain amount of assistance in determining the
presence of dreams, while in other animals we have the
same sort of bodily movements, of facial expressions, of
gestures or attitudes, or of voice-sounds, from which we
infer in man the existence of dreaming. Thus in both cases
we have vocal cries and muscular startings, as well as other
sounds and movements.

All the evidence we possess entitles us to infer, I think,
that the dreams of other animals resemble in their character
those of man ; that in these dreams fancy is more or less
vivid or morbid ; that eccentricities, incongruities, aberra-
tions of the imagination necessarily occur ; that the nature
of the imaginary incidents may be either pleasurable or the
reverse. We are warranted in going further and in sup-
posing that, inasmuch as dreams occur among domesticated
or captive animals, they are likely to occur equally in wild
ones, whose sleep is peculiarly liable to disturbance — for in-
stance, in those much persecuted by man or hunted by each
other ; and that, considering the precarious nature of their
lives, the character of their dreams is probably more or less
fearful, frightful, or terrifying. Moreover, it is quite proper
to add, that habitual dreaming, in which morbid imagina-
tion habitually gives rise to morbid fear, is likely to pave
the way to genuine or insane delusion, and to various forms
or degrees of delusional insanity.

Pierquin and Guer, Elam and other authors, describe
somnambulism as occurring in certain animals. It is even
said to be common, and to be most so in sickly, nervous,
timid, ill-used animals, in whom sleep is most apt to be
disturbed. There is here a further development of U7icon-
scious and involuntary bodily movement, a series of actions
resembling those of the waking state, in a condition closely
resembling it. There is, moreover, apparent vision; the eyes
are open, though the animal does not appear to see material
objects. The phenomena include puroosive action : fearless-

VOL. II. H

98 DREAMS AND DELUSIONS.

ness, perhaps of objects that in the normal state of waking
would inspire dread; firmness; and composure or coolness in
emergency — perhaps from non-realisation of the presence or
nature of danger. The somnambulistic watch-dog prowls
in search of imaginary strangers or foes, and exhibits
towards them a whole series of pantomimic actions, in-
cluding some of those which it displays in its dreams —
such as barking (Guer).

Pierquin regards, and with perfect propriety, the dis-
tinction between dreaming and somnambulism as artificial.
They are to be distinguished, perhaps, simply by the different
forms or degrees of the accompanying bodily activity ; for
we have already seen that in ordinary dreaming, certain
forms or degrees of bodily movement occur. Both are
conditions, or results, of disordered sleep.

According to Pierquin, nightmare, too, occurs among the
lower animals. As in other disorders of sleep, there may
here be murmurs, cries, gestures or actions, tremor or other
forms of motor or muscular disturbance.

Nor are the psychical phenomena of the half-waking,
half-sleeping state — of the condition in which such an animal
as the dog is placed when suddenly aroused or awakened
from thorough, or disturbed sleep, unworthy of consideration
here. The phenomena in question are in all respects
peculiar, though they vary in character with the character
of the animal, the degree of soundness of its repose, the
nature of its dreams, the suddenness of its awakening, the
nature of its surroundings on being aroused, or other cir-
cumstances. Usually there is more or less mental bewilder-
ment, with a tendency to morbid fear and irascibility. The
animal is apt to be 'roused' in more senses than one : it is
liable, or likely, to confound friend and foe, and to attack, or
flee from both, according to its natural disposition.

In exceptional cases, there is developed on the moment
a kind or degree of excitement, of the nature of delirium
or mania, or amounting to ferocity or furiosity, all more or
less dangerous to man as well as to other animals. And it is
probable that some sort of conviction that such dangers are
always liable to arise from the violent, sudden awakening

DREAMS AND DELUSIONS. 99

of a sleeping animal, has given rise to the proverb which
urges us to ' Let sleeping dogs lie.' We should never for-
get that such a dog may be dreaming at the moment of
his sudden arousing, and that while he may be revelling in
imaginary joys, the arbitrary cessation of which will give
rise to keen surprise and disappointment, he may equally be
an actor in some tragic drama, involving danger to his
own life, in which case the sudden shock of his awakening
may naturally appear as but .part of the fancied reality, and
he may show his belief in the unreality by identifying those
who actually , arouse him, with the imaginary enemies to
whom he attributes all his pains or pangs.

In short, though roused from sleep, in one sense, the
animal has not yet had time to emerge from its dreaming
state; it still confounds unreality with reality, imaginary
with actual enemies or disturbers — it has not been allowed to
use its senses and its judgment in the correction of its dream-
beliefs ; and man must be responsible for the consciences, in
action, resulting from the abnormal mental condition of the
disturbed animal.

If sudden awakening from sleep is dangerous at all
times, and under ordinary circumstances, it is specially so
when the animal is the subject of disease — mental or
bodily — considering the frequency with which ferocity is one
of the psychical results of disease, one of the most common
forms of changed character, or disposition, it produces.
Hence the obvious impropriety of interfering with the sleep
of animals affected with such disorders as mania or rabies.
Interference may, among other commoner results, develop
on the moment dangerous delusions, attaching themselves
to the human awakener, or to the nearest person, animal, or
thing.

Hitherto we have been speaking of the dreams of the
sleeping state. But dreams also occur in the waking con-
dition in the dog (Pierquin). What, however, is sometimes
spoken of as day-dreaming or reverie in the dog, or other
animals, is more probably or usually wrapt attention, self-
absorption, absence of mind, or allied mental conditions.

But the same kind of delusions occur by day as by night,

H 2

100 DREAMS AND DELUSIONS.

in the waking as in the sleeping state, with, and by the use
of, the senses and consciousness, as in their absence. This
subject reopens in the first place the difference between
sane and insane, sen serial and other delusions.

Just as in man, then, all delusions in the lower animals
are not to be regarded as necessarily insane, the result of, or
connected with, disease, mental or cerebral. On the contrary,
there are in both cases sane, as well as insane ones, the for-
mer distinguished as a rule by—

1 . Their temporary, or transient character.

2. Their corrigibility, or dissipation, by the use of the
senses and judgment ; and

3. Their not leading to insanity of action or behaviour.

4. The absence of other indications of mental dis-
turbance.

5. Their coexistence with, practically, perfect bodily
health.

The difference between the two kinds of delusion — sane
and insane, temporary and permanent, corrigible and in-
corrigible— may be illustrated by the following very common
incident, familiar to all riders on horseback. A nervous,
high-bred and high-spirited horse, while trotting quietly
along some familiar enough turnpike in the twilight, or
about dusk, all at once becomes restive, pricks his ears, stops
and looks forward with a gaze and manner that indicate to
his rider, if intelligent and experienced, the near presence
of something, or some person or animal, that inspires in
his horse suspicion, or dread, causing it to become startled.
The dreaded object proves, perhaps, to be simply a bit of
white paper, moving fitfully, and with a slight rustling
sound, before a gentle breeze.

If the rider is sympathetic, humane and judicious, as
well as intelligent and experienced, he will soothe the
frightened timid animal, encourage it, give it due time to
realise its true position, and to distinguish between real and
apparent danger. He will probably — as I myself have done
under such circumstances — at once dismount, pat the horse,
talk to it, and lead it gently and slowly up to the fluttering
piece of paper, on which he will place his foot and rub it there-

BREAMS AND DELUSIONS. 101

with, to show how harmless and inanimate it is, then allow the
animal deliberately to look at the object, sniff at it, perhaps
also kick it or trample on it, until familiarity begets a con-
tempt for it as a terrifying object — and the animal thereby
realises the fact that it has committed an error of timidity.
The result in such a case is, probably, that the horse, con-
vinced of its blunder, satisfied of the utter innocuousness
of the supposed dreadful, or of the mysterious, object, trots
briskly forward and shows no fear of the next fluttering
piece of paper, whose real qualities, or nature, it has learned
by experience to recognise or appreciate.

But now suppose the rider of the same horse, under the
same circumstances, not to be intelligent, or experienced,
sympathetic, humane, or judicious. Let us regard him,
as what he too frequently is, alas! inexperienced and un-
intelligent, some tipsy, impatient, irritable, ignorant, in-
different boor. Annoyed at the animal's hesitancy, looking
upon its shyness and shying as a mere vice of temper, to be
corrected by firmness or punishment, determined to assert
his own supremacy, he lashes and spurs the frightened brute
up to, and past the object of its terror. The animal protests
by every means in its power, rears, plunges, backs, tries to
throw its rider; but finding all these efforts fruitless,
goaded into fury by ill-usage, all but 'frightened out of its
wits ' by abject terror, or horror, the animal rushes off at
full gallop, in desperation, possibly in unconcern, almost in
unconsciousness, far past the cause of all its groundless
alarm. The next bit of paper, in this case, produces a
repetition of the scene, and the incident happens so fre-
quently, that the animal acquires a ' character ' for dangerous
skittishness, the result wholly of man's evil usage, until its
owner is glad, at any sacrifice, to part with his, perhaps once
favourite horse, on account of a supposed incorrigible vice.

If even yet, under a new proprietor, the animal is but
treated kindly and judiciously, all will, or at least may,
probably go on well : the morbid dread may be, sooner or
later, eradicated, or corrected. But under other circum-
stances, a morbid fear of moving bits of paper, or of other
white objects in motion, may possess the animal for life, and

102 DEEAMS AND DELUSIONS.

such a dread may be the cause of the most serious accidents
to human life. Not only so, but morbid fear may not be
confined to white paper, or other white objects, whether in
motion or at rest. It may gradually extend until it becomes
general, assuming that most dangerous perhaps of all forms
of insanity — panphobia.

So simple and common a series of incidents affords
matter for grave consideration, illustrating as it does —

1. The groundless, and therefore morbid, terror produced
in many animals by the most harmless inanimate objects, if
in motion, or seen under special circumstances.

2. The danger to human life arising from temporary and
trivial disabilities — mental or bodily — in domestic animals.

3. The simplicity and efficacy of judicious treatment ;
and —

4. The great influence for good which man possesses, but
so seldom exercises, over subject animals, his beasts of
burden or carriage.

The deceptions produced by the mirror, by paintings, by
stuffed animals, by representations of man or other animals,
for instance in scare-crows, furnish instances of sane delusions,
compatible with, and accompanying sanity of mind and
body in all other respects, and there are obviously hosts of
other errors of animals that are based on delusions, sensorial
or other. In truth, all the common errors of the imagina-
tion in sane ordinary animals may be considered sane
delusions.

Of special interest are sensory delusions, those connected
with the senses of vision and hearing in particular, because
among other reasons they illustrate the transition of sane
into insane delusions, with the difficulty, or impossibility
sometimes of drawing the line between them, of distinguish-
ing the one from the other. Moreover, the same kind of
delusions of sight and sound occur equally in canine rabies
and human hydrophobia. They occur, further, in the same
animal, and possibly at the same time : in which case it
may be difficult to determine whether vision or hearing,
singly, or both, are affected, and in the latter case which
was the primary, and which the secondary, affection. Thus

DREAMS AND DELUSIONS. 103

we frequently hear of dogs barking at imaginary sights or
sounds. Wood tells us of a terrier that would bark by the
hour together at some imaginary sound.

Delusions of vision may be specially studied in the horse,
in whom they are frequent and natural results of defects or
disorders of the organ of vision — the eye — or of the absurd
or vicious ways in which man prevents due vision by the
animal. We have already seen that, even with perfect sight,
in certain lights, certain horses misinterpret the character
of harmless objects, they are easily frightened or startled,
subject to groundless alarm. Their inordinately vivid or
morbid imagination creates ideas of danger where no real
peril exists, and a morbid sensitiveness and restiveness are
the result. It can readily be understood that this ex-
treme timidity, this proneness to take unnecessary alarm, to
conjure up imaginary evils, becomes much greater when
defective vision of any kind, and from any cause, exists.
According to Pierquin, sight and the eye — as well as a dis-
ordered imagination — are more commonly involved than is
supposed in the skittishness, or restiveness, of the horse — an
opinion that cannot be too carefully kept in view by all who
are called upon to deal with horses of the higher breeds,
— especially riding and carriage horses — considering the
nature and number of the serious accidents to man which
spring from such skittishness or restiveness.

Delusions of sight in animals occasionally take the form,
as in man, of phantoms or phantasms, of spectral images,
of visions, of ghosts or apparitions, of imaginary persons,
animals, or things. And, moreover, it would appear to be
the same kind of spectral images that occur in other animals
as in man, in canine rabies, for instance, as in human hy-
drophobia. Further, the same kind of visual delusions
occur to man, and other animals at the same time, and
under the same circumstances. Thus impressionable women
and their domestic pets have been represented as seeing
ghosts at the same, or about the same, moment in the same
room or house.

Wood gives the case of a lady and her cat simultaneously
seeing, and being variously affected — mentally and physically

104 t>KEAMS AND DELUSIONS.

—by seeing, a vision of an old wrinkled hag. In both,
terror was developed, though the mode in which expression
was given to it differed. The lady became the victim of
a helpless fascination, of paralysis of mobility and speech,
while the cat, on the contrary, made frantic efforts at escape.
Probably in both cases — if there be any truth in the in-
cident at all, and Wood apparently believes in its authenticity,
in the perfect credibility of his informant, the lady herself
to whom the incident occurred — we have to do with a dream
of the sleeping, or half-sleeping state; for we are told that
the event happened about bed- time, while both mistress and
pet were half-asleep before a comfortable fire.

If such a case of ' spiritualism ' is to be explained in so
simple a way, it is obvious, however, that we cannot accept
the lady's inference that her cat saw the same hag that
terrified herself. The lady and the cat were coincidently
half-sleeping, half-awake : that is described as a fact. And
the lady describes her vision as another fact. But when
she asserts that the cat saw, or must have seen, the same
vision, we have only to deal with her inference and her own
interpretation of the cat's behaviour, which admits of ex-
planation in other ways. For instance, it is quite as likely
that the cat was dreaming as the mistress, that its dreams
were of a horrific kind, and that the mental impression was
sufficiently intense and prolonged to lead to violent efforts
at escape from some fancied horrific object.

Unfortunately, in other animals, as in man, visual de-
lusions, like dreams in general, appear more generally to be
of a terrifying, or pain-giving, than of a pleasurable kind.

Spectral delusions occur in several forms of insanity, sym-
pathetic or other, among the lower animals ; for instance, in
that of rabies in the dog, of sturdy in the sheep, and of sun-
stroke in the ape. Of a rabietic dog Fleming writes :— ' It
appeared as if it was haunted by some horrid phantoms. . . .
At times it would seem to be watching the movements of
something on the floor, and would dart suddenly forward
and bite at the vacant air as if pursuing something against
which it had an enmity.'

This snapping at imaginary foes is supposed by certain

DREAMS AND DELUSIONS. 105

authors to usher in the more dangerous symptoms of rabies
— to constitute one of its marked features and stages.

A she-ape suffering from sunstroke is similarly described
by Pierquin as terror-struck by imaginary foes or sights —
and as snapping at imaginary objects. She acted as if she
had been watching and catching insects on the wing.

Auditory delusions occur under similar circumstances to,
and, indeed, they usually accompany, visual ones. Thus in
rabies a dog 'would throw itself against the wall, yelling
furiously as if there were a noise on the other side ' (Fleming) ;
while the ape above mentioned behaved as if she heard fami-
liar or strange, attractive or repulsive, sounds (Pierquin).

In man very great difficulty is experienced in distinguish-
ing sensorial delusions, which are supposed to originate ab
extra — in some impression from without, from those which
are not connected with the senses, that originate, or are
believed to do so, ab intra, and that are distinctively called
intellectual. The distinction between false notions, ideas, or
conceptions, not involving the special senses, and those
others that do implicate more or less these senses, is not
always either proper or practicable. It is arbitrary and in-
sufficient, because all sensorial delusion must involve false
ideas — morbid ideation ; while the most purely intellectual
delusion seldom leaves sensation uninvolved. In other words,
both in man and other animals, disordered sensation must
lead to disordered ideation, so that whether or not there be
such a thing as intellectual or ideational disturbance inde-
pendent of sensational, sensorial necessarily leads to ideational,
disorder.

Naturally, however, we have less clue to the ideas, normal
or abnormal, of other animals than to those of man ; and,
therefore, we have not the same means, or at least the same
variety of means, of judging of the presence in the former of
delusion, even of the sensorial kind. We are destitute of the
proofs, or at least of the aid, furnished by man's speech,
writing and printing — by his power of describing, in one
or another, his ideas or sensations.

We have, however, the same kind of phenomena of action,
look, voice, of attitude or gesture, from which we infer the

106 DREAMS AND DELUSIONS.

presence of delusion, sensorial or other, in certain forms of
human insanity ; and it is clear that if such phenomena are
to be accepted as conclusive in the case of man — and they are
so — they cannot be less so in the case of other animals. In
man, indeed, these phenomena of action afford a guide which
speech and writing fail to give us ; and there is nothing
remarkable in this if we bear in mind that the phenomena in
question constitute the natural language of man and other
animals, and that the expression of ideas and feelings by such
means may be involuntary and spontaneous ; while speech
and writing are eminently artificial, and may be used with
effect to conceal, instead of making evident, real thought or
emotion.

Of the waking delusions of the lower animals, none are
so common or so obvious as those connected with fear or sus-
picion. They occur equally in domestic and wild animals, es-
pecially, perhaps, in those habitually subjected to persecution
or other forms of ill-usage by man. Hence we find them
equally in the dog and horse, and in the fox and wolf. They
are not necessarily connected with the senses, though pro-
bably they are usually associated with visual or auditory im-
pressions. They take their genesis in morbid fear, morbid
fancy, and morbid suspicion.

The early stage is usually mere unreasonable, unfounded
dread, leading probably to excessive or unnecessary caution
in such animals as the hunted or baited fox, wolf, or wol-
verene. The development of such delusions— the liability to
delusion — stand intimately related to the constitutional timi-
dity or nervousness of an animal, and to the nature of its
struggle for life. They occur most frequently and readily in
animals that are habitually easily startled and frightened,
constitutionally timorous and nervous, and living under con-
ditions that give rise to perpetual dread of peril to life.

Fish are startled, we are told, at shadows on water
(Watson) ; and a recent describer of the habits of the Nor-
wegian lemming speaks of them as ' self-haunted fugitives '
in their migrations, and asserts that ' a mere cloud rapidly
passing over the sun affrighted them ' (Crotch).

Nor must we lose sight of the importance of the degree

DREAMS AND DELUSIONS. 10?

to which imagination is developed in the animal. A highly
imaginative animal, especially if imagination be associated
with the tendency to fear, and with physical and mental
excitability, is always liable to regard omne ignotum pro
tri'i-ifico, to 'make a mountain of a molehill,' to ascribe
to simple, harmless, inanimate objects fantastic forms and
formidable characters, to transform the bush, tree, fence,
post, or stone, that is quite familiar and undreaded in day-
light, into some hideous spectre in the defective night-light.
Hence it takes fright readily at imaginary peril ; hence the
singular effects so frequently and so suddenly produced in
certain excitable animals simply by objects that are for the
moment unfamiliar, with which the idea of possible or pro-
bable danger is almost sure to be associated.

Many nervous animals, especially horses, are frightened
inordinately simply by darkness, which imagination peoples
apparently with the same kind of hobgoblins as it does in
the case of the nervous child. It is probable that such
horses are quite as imaginative as many high-bred children
and women, or as the uncultured peasantry of such countries
as Ireland, or even as certain men of the highest culture
and refinement. The imagination in other animals than
man may not embrace the same kind or variety of subjects
or ideals ; it may not run riot quite in the same directions ;
but it certainly appears to operate in the same way, and
its disorders produce similar effects for weal or for woe —
generally for woe.

There is the same kind of difficulty that exists in man in
determining when fear, fancy, or suspicion becomes morbid.
But there can be no doubt as to the character of the extreme
forms or degrees of morbid fancy, fear, or suspicion, either
in other animals or in man.' In the former they constitute
or amount to what in man are variously known as monomania
of fear or suspicion, and panphobia — a morbid dread of every-
thing, every other animal, every man. This condition, as
well as the minor stages which lead up to it, are discussed
in the chapters on ' Mental Derangement,' it being suitable
here only to consider the morbid ideas — the delusions proper
— that are involved.

108 DREAMS AND DELUSIONS.

The condition of morbid suspiciousness, and its relation on
the one hand, to ordinary fear, and on the other to delusion,
to ordinary caution, and to unnecessary self- sought danger,
may be sufficiently illustrated by the following account given
by Gillmore of the mental condition of the old wild cock
turkey of North America. ' His whole life seems to be spent
in a state of uneasiness, seeing and dreading danger in every

breath of wind or moving object I doubt much if

a more crafty, suspicious animal can be found in the world.
.... Not unfrequently this very watchfulness leads to his
destruction, for, to avoid an imaginary danger, he runs into
a real one.' Leroy gives a similar account of the hunted
wolf.

That many animals have distinct ideas of danger, first
specialised in connection with particular forms and sources
thereof, and afterwards generalised in connection with peril of
all kinds and from all sources — with danger in general ; and
that such ideas are even more apt to become morbid than
other classes of ideas, it would be absurd to deny, unless we
are prepared to deny their existence in man. Apart alto-
gether from speech and writing, which it has been repeatedly
shown afford very feeble and fitful aid in man, we are in both
cases — in man and other animals — and in the latter as much
as in the former, entitled to infer the presence of morbid
ideas — that is of delusions — from the behaviour or action of
the man or animal. In no other way can we intelligently
explain whole series of phenomena in conduct that are
otherwise inexplicable — morbid antipathies, conspicuous
eccentricities, marked revulsions of feeling, suddenly com-
mitted crimes, suddenly developed ferocity or destructive-
ness.

There is every ground for believing, moreover, that, as in
man, delusion may be artificially and at will created in other
animals by man — for instance, by the use of certain narcotics
(Pierquin), a circumstance that is referred to more at length
in the chapter on ' Artificial Insanity.'

Delusions— sensory or other — are as likely to occur in the
drunkenness of the lower animals as in the delirium tremens
of man, and delusions of the same kind.

DKEAMS AND DELUSIONS. 109

As has been already mentioned, sane delusions are readily
producible artificially by the use of the mirror, and by other
forms of the substitution of pictorial or other representation
for reality, all as further described in one of the chapters on
' Animal Errors.'

Other forms of artificial delusion, sane or insane, are to be
found in man's deception of animals by turning day into night
or vice versa, by creating artificial light or darkness. Thus
the Korahs lead their Esquimaux dog-teams to believe that
the days are longer than they really are, so as to get a greater
amount of work from them in a given time on forced jour-
neys. Thus, too, cocks and song birds are led to believe
that night is day, and to act accordingly.

And though distinct delusion is not necessarily involved,
it is interesting here to bear in mind the singular pheno-
mena of hypnotism (mesmerism, animal magnetism, electro-
biology or Braidism) in certain animals — for instance, as the
result of the simple act of drawing a chalk or other line in
front of an attentive animal. The result in question has
been observed in animals so different, so far removed from
each other in the zoological scale, as ants and birds, in
animals wild as well as tame, the latter including the
turkey, canary, sparrow, barn-door fowls, chickens, and
cocks. Ants refuse to cross what is to man a merely
visible line drawn with a pencil or scratched with the
finger-nail.

The effect produced by the simple operations of the
so-called mesmeriser, whatever they are, is most usually im-
mobility, paralysis of will, and of the power of movement,
resembling that which so commonly arises from the varied
forms of what is generally designated fascination, or the
suddenly aroused sense of terrible danger. In other cases
the effect produced is more a sort of sleep, from which the
animal gradually rouses itself, recovers, or awakes ; or it is
merely apparently dazed for a time; or the bird's eyes may
be fixed on the chalk line, and its head appear as if glued
down to a given board, floor or table.

Morbid ideation in the lower animals, as in man, involves
the formation of erroneous inferences or conclusions; and,

110 DREAMS AND DELUSIONS.

though the operation can scarcely be said to be morbid, other
animals constantly commit the same kind of errors that man
does from jumping too hastily at conclusions. Such ideational
errors are, moreover, as varied and numerous as they are in
man.

Youatt speaks, and very properly, of the 'misconcep-
tions ' of a shying horse. Elaine tells us of the £ fanciful-
ness ' of sick dogs ; and there can be no doubt that pet and
pampered animals especially are subject to all manner of
sudden whims, caprices, fancies or fantasies.

Delusion is sometimes in other animals, as in man, epi-
demic, as I have elsewhere pointed out in describing and
analysing the mental phenomena of panic, as illustrated by
stampedes of various kinds. As in so many other cases,
there is here a groundless sense of danger, an indefinite
dread of a peril that is purely imaginary. But it is so rapidly
communicated by imitation or sympathy from one animal to
another in a flock or herd that it appears simultaneously to
affect the whole mass, and leads to a sort of common action
too usually of a self-destructive kind.

CHAPTEE IX.

STUPIDITY.

IN the countless books that have been written to illustrate
the sagacity, the intelligence, or the so-called c instinct ' of
the lower animals, much is said of their cleverness. Their
feats of skill are largely dwelt upon with the view of show-
ing sometimes how much more perfect and wonderful in its
achievements is animal instinct than human reason.

But little, if anything, is said of the stupidity of other
animals than man. And yet the alleged stupidity of certain
animals is so notorious among men as to be proverbial.
Certain supposed-to-be stupid animals are regarded as the
emblems, as well as the incarnations or embodiments, of
stupidity ; and their very names are applied by man to
brother man as bye-words for folly or foolishness. I allude es-
pecially to such animals as the booby, noddy, and goose among
birds, and the ass (or donkey) among quadrupeds. Before
discussing the general subject of stupidity in animals, it is
desirable to inquire into the real nature of the alleged stu-
pidity in the four animals just mentioned.

The poor bird that gives its name to the dunces of our
schools, to boys, by the way, who by-and-by frequently be-
come, as in the well-known case of Sir Walter Scott, burning
and shining lights in the firmament of literature, science,
or art — the booby — is simply one of the many bird denizens
of oceanic islands or rocks, little, if at all, visited by man,
that are, therefore, unacquainted with him as an enemy ;
that have not learned by experience to avoid him ; that do
not get out of his way, but remain, notwithstanding his pre-
sence, placidly on their nests and in their breeding-places, and

112 STUPIDITY.

that allow themselves to be caught and knocked on the head.
Though they see their comrades captured or slaughtered
before their eyes, the others do not profit by experience and
take to timely flight.

The noddy receives its specific designation, stolidus, from
its alleged stupidity. Like, and frequently, indeed, along
with, the booby, it is a native of remote, barren, rocky islets,
such as St. Paul's Rocks. Its tameness is of the same cha-
racter as that of the booby, and is simply ascribable to the
bird's being unaccustomed to the presence or person of man
(Wild).

This unfamiliarity and its results are better known, how-
ever — have been more frequently observed and described — as
they occur in other sea birds that inhabit lands, coasts, or
islands seldom or never visited by man. Thus the sheath
bills (chionis) of Kerguelen's Land, according to Dr. Kidder,
an American naturalist connected with the Transit of Yenus
Expedition of 1874-5, showed great curiosity instead of get-
ting out of his way, examined him carefully, staring at him in
astonishment ; and even when captured they showed no fear.
e They would scarcely get out of my way,' he says, ' and
seemed greatly interested in my movements. When I sat on
a stone, keeping perfectly still, the whole party .... came
up to examine the intruder .... and finally stopped almost
in a semi-circle for a good stare. , . . . The whole troop
started to follow me .... as if filled with curiosity ....
the birds not all flying out of range, even after the gun had
been fired Various members of the (ship's) party cap-
tured specimens by hand, all that was necessary to attract
them within reach being to remain perfectly still. After
one had been caught it served as a lure for others. When
taken home alive they still showed no fear.9

One of the guillemots bears the specific popular appella-
tion ( foolish ' from suffering itself, like so many other island-
inhabiting birds, to be taken by hand. ( Apparently there
never was stupidity equal to that of the birds of St.
Kilda,' says a correspondent of the 'Scotsman' (newspaper),
writing in August, 1875. They are easily snared by girls.
* A noose is put at the places where they congregate ; they

STUPIDITY. 113

walk into it and are hanged But the lesson is not

learned by the (hanged) bird's neighbour.' Or, with a run-
ning noose at the end of a stick or long pole, the fowler
' takes off each bird in order.' That sort of stupidity, there-
fore, which leads to easy capture by man, is not confined
to the birds of islands uninhabited or unvisited by him,
for St. Kilda is, and has long been, inhabited, while the
foolish or common guillemot frequents the coasts of Britain
itself.

Moreover, such a kind of stupidity, real or apparent, is
not peculiar to seafowl nor to palmipeds. It is to be found
in a considerable variety of land birds of the most opposite
habits and natives of the most different countries. Thus the
flamingo is frequently easy of capture, making no attempt at
escape (Watson), the result simply of its ignorance that man
is an enemy to be avoided.

The German Arctic Expedition of 1869-70 found linnets
and snow-buntings ' fearless and confiding,' seeming ' to like
the approach of man,' so that they ' almost perched upon
our noses, and in five minutes allowed themselves to be

caught three times We were much amused by the

confidence of the sand-pipers .... coming close to us,' all
in East Greenland.

Baden Powell describes the fearlessness and unsuspicious-
ness of man that characterise the wood hen of New Zealand.
Numbers are caught alive in succession with the greatest
ease — for instance, by offering to their view any glittering
metallic substance. They actually peck at it through the
noose prepared for their capture. They have as yet no con-
ception of the nature or object of traps or snares, or of false
calls. Nor, however, do they profit by observation or expe-
rience, for the cries and capture of their fellows have no
warning influence ; even the skinned corpse of one of their
companions does not act as a danger signal. All this hap-
pens in the more remote districts, where the bird is as yet
unaccustomed to man and his doings.

It can scarcely be doubted that in the progress of settle-
ment, as the whole country becomes peopled by man, and as
the animal itself becomes the subject of his sport or perse-

VOL. II. I

114 STUPIDITY.

cution, it will acquire greater general intelligence, including
the development of special caution where man or his traps or
snares are concerned. It will learn by experience to associ-
ate nooses or other traps with capture, and capture with
danger to life ; it will recognise man as its most dangerous
and treacherous enemy ; will distinguish his false or imitated
call-notes from the real notes of its own fellows ; will exercise
more carefully its senses of vision and hearing, its observa-
tive and reflective faculties ; will, in short, duly profit by the
lessons which only experience can teach. A similarly strik-
ing change of character and habits has already taken place
in other New Zealand birds since, and in consequence of, the
advent of the European settlers within the last half-century
(Buller, Potts).

Another New Zealand bird — the native pigeon — is de-
scribed as c the most stupid bird in existence, and never
seems to be much frightened at the discharge of a gun, so
long as it cannot see who fired it5 (Tinne). A third New
Zealand bird, now extinct however, is said to have been
' most stupid and sluggish.' Moas ' would quietly allow
themselves to be roasted alive without moving,' in the grass
and scrub fired by the Maoris for their capture. The Maoris,
indeed, have a proverb— e Inert as a Moa' (Judge Man-
ning).

The geese of Anticosti deserve their name (of geese), says
Rowan, on account of their stupidity. They are described
as inquisitive, and no doubt in them, as in so many other
animals, curiosity, associated with inexperience, is apt to
lead to fatal confidence in, or fearlessness of, man. As in
the case also of the Australian goose, they are thus probably
tame in the wild state from unfamiliarity with man, and so
are too easy of capture to the real sportsman, who values his
game very much according to the kind and amount of trouble
he has had in stalking it. According to Gillmore, certain
wild geese in North America sometimes showed themselves
' totally devoid of fear, either of the report of my gun or of
my presence, and flew frequently within fifteen or twenty
yards, in the most leisurely and business-like manner,' to
their own destruction.

STUPIDITY. 115

According to Gillmore also, the Brent geese of North
America hover over or about their shot comrades till they
themselves are shot, a fatal hesitancy attributable apparently
to kindly feelings of sympathy and brotherly love. The
same ' foolish want of regard for their safety ' is shown by
the plover and various wading birds ; ' sooner than forsake
their dead and wounded comrades ' they sacrifice their own
lives to the advantage taken of their emotional condition by
relentless, unsympathising man.

On the other hand, according to Houzeau and other
authors, this same wild or Canadian goose is not always 'such
a goose ' or fool in human parlance, as it appears to be. It
has the sense, at least, to know when it is well off, for instance
by joining the domestic goose for the sake of the creature
comforts — the food and protection — the latter possesses, and
by bringing its wild companions to share for a time, or per-
manently, the benefits of man's farm-yard patronage.

Houzeau also tells us of a Chinese goose that struck up
a violent friendship — at first sight apparently — with a dog ;
uttered threats of vengeance against any person or other
animal offering to interfere with its favourite; pursued a
dog that killed its mate ; and lamented its dog-companion's
temporary absences.

Watson gives instances both of good sense and good
feeling in, and of faithful discharge of duty by, the goose.
One of his anecdotes refers to a dying goose installing a
young one in succession to it as a nurse, implying a com-
munication of her own feelings and wishes, her success in
inducing the other to become her substitute, instruction
in certain duties, a sense of her own approaching death,
and of the necessity of appointing a successor. Audubon
describes the phenomena of courtship in the Canada goose,
its choice and coquetry, the satisfaction or the reverse of the
contracting parties, the shortness of the process in propor-
tion to the age of the lovers, and the retirement from the
field of the bachelors or old maids. The * Percy Anecdotes '
give instances of gratitude in the goose. Pasturant flocks
of geese in the New Forest, and each member of the flock,
know their homesteads and the proper hour each day for

12

116 STUPIDITY.

return to them. They recognise and resent the intrusion of
strangers (' Science Gossip ').

The common goose is ' possessed of great intellectual
powers,' says Wood. The gander sometimes does the duty
of a dog — as to vigilance — following its master and obeying
his commands. The goose shows striking attachment some-
times to man, as well as sympathy in and with his distress,
expressing this sympathy by scarcely taking any food during
a master's illness (Wood).

The grey lag goose forms equally strange and strong
attachments to dogs, sometimes requiring force to separate
these curious companions. They live sometimes in the same
kennel, the goose sharing the dog's food, and lamenting the
absence of a sporting dog on field duty. Geese have been
known also to punish, by persistent persecution, dogs that
have killed their mates (Montagu).

The German Arctic Expedition found that ' the stupid
Northern divers were at all events clever enough to keep be-
yond the reach of shot.'

Dr. Adams asserts that the stupidity of game birds in
North America is leading to their extermination in conse-
quence of their inability to contend with their foes. They
exhibit indifference to danger ; have no fear of firearms ; in
order to escape their enemies they smother themselves in
snow ; to avoid the sportsman they only fly to neighbouring,
perhaps the nearest, trees. He ascribes this kind of stupidity
—the frequent penalty of which is death — to defective intelli-
gence. But this is a sweeping charge to bring against whole
genera and species of animals, and it is at least most difficult
to substantiate it. How far such an explanation is satisfac-
tory will, however, be better understood after we have con-
sidered other cases of stupidity, attributable to mental defect
or disorder on the one hand, or believed to be a generic or
specific characteristic on the other.

Certain North American grouse are said to sit still on
trees quite near to, and in full view of, the sportsman, to be
shot down one after another if the hunter only fires always at
the lowest bird (Ballantyne).

In the majority of the cases already cited of apparent

STUPIDITY. 117

stupidity in birds leading to their falling an easy prey to the
sportsman, the obvious or probable cause is inexperience of, or
unfamiliarity with, man, and its result fearlessness of, and
confidence in, him: curiosity or inquisitiveness regarding
him as a perfectly novel spectacle giving rise to an over-
powering sensation of wonder, surprise, astonishment or
bewilderment. But there are certain other causes and results
of stupidity in birds that have been partly referred to and
partly remain to be considered. Thus common crossbills are
( so intent .... when picking out the seeds of the cone (of
the fir) that they will suffer themselves to be taken by the
noose being put over the head.' The common pheasant, too,
is said to be ' a foolish bird. When roused it will frequently
perch on the first tree, and is so intent upon the dogs as to
suffer the sportsman to approach very near' (Montagu).

Spalding has commented on the stupidity of chickens in
desertion of, or wandering from, their mother, the result in
part, perhaps, of want or loss of filial affection.

The siskin-parrots of New Guinea, when one is killed,
descend from their tree-perches to near the ground ; and in-
asmuch as they ' lose all caution, and seem entirely over-
come with grief .... any number might be killed with
ease.' Here we have a strong emotion overcoming natural
caution. Jays and pies forget the hiding-places of their
bean hoards, and other birds show forgetfulness of the locality
of caches of food or booty (White). Here, apparently, we
have defective memory. In certain other cases we have defec-
tive vision or hearing, or defective action of other senses
recognised by, or yet unknown to, man. Thus the night-jar
or fern-owl allows itself to be caught by day simply because
of its imperfect vision. ( Stupid as an owl ' refers, no doubt,
to the apparent stupidity of the poor bird by daylight, in
which it certainly does not show itself to advantage. The
woodcock of North America, too, is stupid apparently if
flushed by day, because of its weakness of vision in strong
light (Gillmore).

A robin had got into my own house during winter, and
was found fluttering in the parlour. The window was thrown
open for its escape, but the bird seemed unable to find its

118 STUPIDITY.

way to this means of communication with the outer air and
freedom, and suffered itself to be caught by hand and thrown
out of the window. Here its inaction, its stupidity, may
have been due to the conjoint influences of cold, starvation,
and of dazzlement with the new spectacle of the furnishings
of a well- warmed room.

Birds sometimes do not know their own eggs from those
of other species or genera, though differing both in size and
colour. So that when man experimentally places in a nest
one or more eggs of some other species, the sitting bird
hatches the whole, or perhaps only the largest and alien
ones, which absorb all the necessary heat. This is but one
of the many forms of stupidity that are to be found described
in the chapters on Error.

Hitherto we have taken our illustrations of animal stu-
pidity from birds. But the same kinds, causes, and results
of stupidity occur in other animals — both higher and lower
— including man himself.

Among the larger quadrupeds the most seriously libelled,
in all ages and in many countries, is, and has been, the unfor-
tunate ass or donkey. There are few animals that suffer to
the same extent from an evil and unmerited reputation — a
reputation which, where it is deserved, is virtually and gene-
rally the fruit of man's own treatment. Conspicuous among
the evil qualities which it occasionally possesses, and which
it is popularly supposed always and necessarily to possess, is
obstinacy, with frequently a spice of maliciousness. But
in the majority at least, of cases, this, where it exists—
for it does not always do so — is simply the direct or in-
direct result of man's own injudicious or bad usage of the
animal.

There is ample evidence to show that in favourable cir-
cumstances— that is when kindly treated, or allowed simply
to develop and exhibit its own natural gifts of mind and
heart — the donkey is not only a shrewd or sagacious, but a
sensitive and affectionate animal. William Howitt, in the
'Animal World,' describes its true or natural qualities —
moral and intellectual — qualities that, as in so many other
animals, as well as in man himself, may be brought out into

STUPIDITY. 119

relief by cultivation, just as they may be repressed or per-
verted by cruelty. Chateaubriand, too, had a high opinion
of the moral character of the donkey, and thus wrote : f I
have a prodigious liking for asses, and have for a long time
been their defender.' In the wild state the ass shows such
qualities as a sense and use of discipline ; while in domesti-
cation, when properly trained and kindly used, it displays
such powers or aptitudes as —

1. The opening of gates, including the lifting of gate or
door latches, by means of its teeth (Watson) . ' There was
not a gate about the place but he would open it/ says Wood
of a certain donkey.

2. Way-finding over unknown country.

3. Sense of danger, with due caution and precautions in
its presence.

4. Obedience, perseverance, alacrity, steadiness and re-
gularity in work.

5. General ingenuity in difficulty or emergency.

6. Patient endurance of ill-usage.

7. Affection to its master, expressed sometimes by at-
tempted caresses, by throwing its forepaws round his neck.

8. Behaviour at man's table, partaking of his food and
drink, taking tea with him (c Animal World ').

In short, it is frequently only too clever for stupid man ;
and those familiar with its aptitudes, as developed by proper
training or treatment, may be disposed to agree with Wood
that the ass really ' is one of the most intelligent animals in
the world.'

Two other familiar domestic animals of the utmost im-
portance to man share with the ass the reputation of
stupidity, to wit, the sheep and the pig. Of the argali or
mountain sheep of Central Asia, ' the Mongols told us that
if they placed some conspicuous object — such as a piece of
clothing — to attract their attention, they would remain
motionless while the hunter stalked them without difficulty.
I myself successfully tried the experiment, by suspending a
red shirt 011 the top of a ramrod, which I stuck into the
ground, and in this way arrested the attention of a
frightened herd.' Moreover, ' if one of a herd fall lifeless,

120 STUPIDITY.

its companions remain beside it, regardless of the hunter's
approach' (Prejevalsky).

In our own common domestic sheep, the most familiar,
and frequently to them very fatal, form of stupidity exhibited,
is e following the lead ' of their bell-wether, with utter ab-
sence of discrimination, reflection or consideration of conse-
quences. Thus a flock of 100 sheep 011 an Alpine pasture
in the canton of the Grisons, Switzerland, being frightened
by the appearance of some vultures, their bell-wether jumped
over a cliff and was killed. The whole flock followed, to
their own inevitable destruction, with the exception of the
last few, who escaped with their lives ' owing to the bolster-
ing formed by the corpses of their silly comrades.'1 Here
we have the effect — or an effect — of fright and panic ; and a
similar result is produced by a similar cause sometimes when
a flock of sheep get upon a railway line, and a puffing or
screeching engine approaches. Bewildered apparently by
the sudden, unexpected, unfamiliar sight or sound, or by
both, paralysed perhaps partly by surprise, partly by terror,
they fail to make the one or two steps in a direction at right
angles to the rails, that would place them in safety, and so
are cut to pieces wholesale.

The sheep, according to Baird, has no idea of self-
defence — there is utter helplessness — under attack. But he
is certainly wrong if he includes, as he must do, the male,
the ram in the wild and semi- wild state. Hogg describes
the sheep as a stupid animal, but nevertheless gives instances
in it of great intelligence, for instance in way-finding.

Youatt dwells feelingly on the mistaken character as-
signed to the poor sheep. He describes the moufflon in its
wild or natural state as intelligent, self-reliant, courageous,
even attacking the dog. Its cowardice or timidity is the
result, he thinks, of education, association with man, or
habit : it is an acquired quality, referable to its habitual
dread of the dog and of man. Even the common sheep
is capable of excitement to fierceness by the dog, and it at-
tempts to frighten or menace it by stamping and whistling.
Under the genial treatment of the Eastern shepherd, it

1 « Daily Review,' Edinburgh, July 6, 1875.

STUPIDITY. 121

obeys his call, follows his lead, shows great affection for its
young. The attachments sheep form to each other are
characterised by their steadiness or permanence.

The pig, like the ass, has a native intelligence that may
be developed by education to such a degree that there have
been 'learned' pigs, just as there are and have been learned
dogs — pigs able, for instance, to form words from, or with,
letters. Where it lives on terms of intimacy with its
master, as in Ireland, or among the New Zealand Maoris,
when it is treated and trained as a pet or companion, it
assumes the position of the dog, becoming thoroughly tame
and domesticated, showing its docility, gratitude, affection
by following its master as the dog does. Not only has it
been taught to spell, but also to point, to find and to retrieve
like a dog, and to hunt for truffles (Nichols), and in other
ways it has been and may be rendered useful — by reason of
its trained intelligence — to man.

The injustice of its evil reputation for headstrongness,
perverseness or obstinacy, as well as for personal filth, has
been pointed out by Gilpin, according to whom, if the
animal is not naturally docile, orderly and cleanly, these
qualities can at least be developed in it by proper treatment
on man's part. It profits by experience to the extent of
becoming artful, as well as sagacious (White), while certain
authors attribute to it much talent, natural and acquired.
So-called f sporting ' pigs are as fond of sport as dogs are,
and in the same way solicit to be taken out for the purpose
of enjoying it. Other pigs show great affection for their
young, conjugal fidelity, and attachment to persons, recog-
nising friends and protectors. They defend each other
resolutely. Their capacity for education and their tracta-
bility lead to their becoming useful to man in many ways,
for instance, as beasts of burden.

Pigs are sometimes anything but stupid. Thus, while so
many animals ' lose their heads ' and their lives on being
overtaken by railway trains, Jesse gives the following instance
of presence of mind, of nerve, of the soundest good sense, in
sudden and serious danger, in young pigs too. Fifteen of
them had got upon a line of rails as a train approached.

122 STUPIDITY.

Instead of scattering themselves in a stampede as sheep,
horses, deer, cattle, buffaloes and other animals do, 'they
remained .... in line and stood perfectly still till the
train had passed over them, and not one was hurt. They
appeared to be sensible of the escape they had had, by run-
ning back to the field, squeaking and capering with
satisfaction.'

In the camel, fox, certain deer, the musk ox and do-
mestic oxen, the capybara, guanaco, and others of the higher
animals, the charge of stupidity in certain circumstances
is better grounded apparently than in the case of the ass
and pig. Nor, indeed, are the most intelligent animals —
the dog, elephant and horse, even man himself — free from
well-founded charges of stupidity under exceptional circum-
stances.

Prejevalsky says : ' The intelligence of camels is of a very
low order. They are stupid and timid. A hare starting
from beneath their feet has been known to throw a whole
caravan into confusion ; and a large stone, or heap of bones,
to cause them to bolt altogether. If the saddle or load rolls
off its back, it is terrified and runs in any direction, followed
by its companions ; and when attacked by a wolf it never
attempts to defend itself, although one blow from its power-
ful foot would kill its enemy. It only cries and spits, expec-
torating the chewed food with the saliva — a proof of the
terror which takes possession of it.' 'There is no more
stupid animal than the camel,' says Baker. f Nature has
implanted in most animals an instinctive knowledge of the
plants suitable for food ; and they generally avoid those that
are poisonous. But the camel will eat indiscriminately any-
thing that is green ; and in a country where the plant exists
that is well known by the Arabs as the camel-poison, watchers
.must always accompany the animal while grazing.' I have
elsewhere shown how the same kind of errors as to food-
selection occur in the ox and sheep.1

The musk ox, when visited by the traveller, £ remains as
if rooted to the spot, staring at the strange unknown enemy '

1 < On the Toot Plant and Poison of New Zealand : ' British and Foreign
Medico- Ckirurcjical Review, July, 1865, and October, 1868.

. STUPIDITY. 123

('German Arctic Expedition5), just as the peasants of a
remote country district in Britain itself gaze at some foreigner
whose dress, manners, and tongue are strange to, and there-
fore astonish, them.

Prejevalsky speaks of * the stupidity and indecision of
the yak.' Of the chinchilla, Molina says its ' extraordinary
placidity of temper may possibly be due to its pusillanimity,
which renders it extremely timid.' The guanaco has no idea
of self-defence (Baird). They are even 'totally unable to
protect themselves when massed in the herd, becoming
' quite bewildered if attacked simultaneously from all sides '
(Darwin), circumstances under which man himself, however,
even when trained to arms, equally loses his presence of
mind. And this helplessness, as in so many other cases, is
duly taken advantage of by the astute hunter. Lamont
says that it is 'often curiosity, or the paralysis and confusion
of fear ' in the walrus that leads it to allow itself unresist-
ingly to be shot.

Belt thus comments on the stupidity of certain Nicara-
guan deer. ' It is astonishing that the deer should be so
little afraid of man as they are, after having been objects of
chase for probably thousands of years. Sometimes, when
one is encountered in the forest, it will stand within twenty
yards stupidly gazing at a man .... waiting long enough
for an unloaded gun to be charged.' In the very opposite
climate of the arctic regions, and under the very opposite cir-
cumstances of seldom or never before having been objects of
the chase, ' at the first shot a herd of approaching reindeer
will make a spring and then stand terrified The rein-
deer approaches (the hunter) at a brisk trot, full of curiosity,
to within a few steps. Indeed, sometimes they come quite
close to him.'

Another timid arctic animal behaves in a curiously un-
concerned way in the presence of his strange visitor — man.
The Greenland hare 'sits as if nailed down in its rocky

refuge, however near the hunter may pass to him

Payer once stood near a hare which was startled by re-
peated firing, but had confined its flight to a few steps . . .
nibbling the moss quietly.' According to Dr. Copeland, of

/^

V r, r*

124 STUPIDITY.

the German Arctic Expedition, this apparent indifference
to man's presence is attributable to defective hearing and
vision.

The Greenland (or arctic) fox even seeks man's society —
' in perfect innocence and without any suspicion.' Our own
common fox, usually and properly regarded as one of the
most cautious and cunning, sagacious or shrewd of four-
footed creatures, having at all times all its ( wits ' about it,
nevertheless becomes occasionally so bewildered or frightened
as to commit the most foolish actions. Thus one found
wandering in the streets of Newcastle, described as having
been ' in a state of evident indecision,' * deliberately ran into
a sack whose mouth was held temptingly open for its cap-
ture. It may be and has been frightened nearly * out of its
wits' by a steam-engine whistle, the result being that its terror
led it, as in the other case, into the very jaws of that danger
which, in ordinary circumstances, it would have been so cir-
cumspect in avoiding.

Even in the usually intelligent dog countless are the
instances that might be adduced of its stupidity. Hogg
tells us that if a turmoil arise about a farm-house from cows
getting among the corn, or hens into the garden, the highly-
bred and specially accomplished c shepherd's dog knows not
what is astir, and if he is called in a hurry (to turn out the
one or other trespasser), all that he will do is to hark to the
hill and rear himself up on end to see if no sheep are running
away.' In short, he is possessed of and by one single domi-
nant idea — the care of sheep ; and his uselessness in such a
common domestic crisis is apparently to be attributed to de-
fective education, to the cultivation of his intelligence only in
one direction ; in other words, it is a striking and suggestive
result of the evils of specialisation in educational treatment,
without due or any regard to the general intelligence, or to
the whole psychical nature, moral and intellectual.

Wood mentions a dog of his own that tore a hole in a

hedge large enough to? admit the passage of itself with a

stick carried by the middle in its teeth ; whereas a much

smaller hole and much less trouble would have sufficed to

1 ' Daily Review,' December 16, 1874.

STUPIDITY. 125

enable it to pass with the same stick pulled through end-
ways. Here we have probably simple want of reflection and
calculation.

Several sporting dogs lost themselves in a reed-bed fifty
yards broad, and were ultimately found there dead. They
had made no attempt to escape from their imaginary prison,
for escape would have been easy and must have rewarded
persistent attempts. Probably from bewilderment they were
unable to help themselves in any way — for instance, to food
supply. Hence they perished of hunger, the victims, ap-
parently, of their own stupidity. Here again probably, as
in the case of the Scotch shepherd's dog above mentioned,
we have the result of mere special, as contrasted with general,
training — the cultivation of a certain kind of aptitude, skill,
or knowledge compared with general sagacity. No doubt
the animals were as excellent sporting dogs — pointers or
setters — as the shepherd's dog may have been one of the
best of its kind. But the dogs were specially educated only
to point game ; and while they did this admirably, they were
otherwise so stupid and helpless as readily to lose them-
selves and starve to death in consequence. Such an in-
stance of way-losing in sporting dogs must be set as a per
contra against the wonderful instances of way-finding of
which we hear so much now and then.

Again, a master dropped a small parcel on a road. His
dog remained behind and watched it for hours — it might
have been for days — till it was picked up by the said master.
A simple use of its teeth would have enabled the animal to
have carried the parcel after and to its master, without any
waiting on its own part, and without having given its master
the trouble of going back to look for and recover the lost
article. But the dog probably was not trained to carry ; or
it was incapable of dealing properly with emergency ; or it
showed a want of due reflection. There was certainly an
absence of that natural and general sagacity with which the
species is credited, but which is most unequally distributed
amongst the individuals composing it.

Similar helpless stupidity is occasionally seen in another
animal of a very different kind, which is usually and pro-

126 STUPIDITY.

perly regarded as an incarnation of intelligence and industry
—the ant. According to Huber, certain Amazon ants are so
dependent for the supply of even their physical needs and
domestic comforts on their slaves, that they are reduced to
abject helplessness in the absence of the latter, ' being quite
unable to provide for their (own) comforts, even in the midst

of abundance No work whatever was done

Many had already died ' (Pouchet).

The sagacious elephant in India sometimes charges rail-
way trains, thereby mutilating itself grievously and unne-
cessarily, while the rest of the herd look on ' in a dazed and
stupid kind of a way' (Wood). But here we have again
evidently the result of inexperience and ignorance. The
animal has not yet learned in its own way that the railway
engine is an enemy of a kind with which it need not venture
to cope.

Various authors have described stupidity as a character-
istic of whole species, genera, orders, or classes — in other
words, according to them stupidity is sometimes a specific
or generic character. But it is more than doubtful whether
in any of the alleged instances the allegation is true, whether
it can be borne out by facts. All fish, for instance, have
been described as stupid ; and there are apparent grounds
for such an assertion or generalisation in certain cases.
Thus we are told that the fish of the Gulf Stream — such as
rays, bonitos, albicore, flying-fish, parrot-fish, king-fish,
Jew-fish, and sun-fish — may be caught from shipboard by
'anything' in the form of a bait, including a shred of scarlet
cloth or' a scrap of shining metal. For many kinds of large
fish a tea-spoon makes a very good ' bait ' — for instance, for
albicore, in the Pacific, by trolling astern. Sailors often fish
with a piece of wood, having tied round it a white rag,
'hanging loose to represent the wings' of a flying-fish
(c Chambers's Journal '). Here we have simply a ready lia-
bility to being deceived, to confound the imitation and the
real, to jump at conclusions without due observation or re-
flection, all arising, again, from inexperience of man's lures.

But, on the other hand, we know that many fishes, under
other circumstances, show great intelligence and affection ;

STUPIDITY 127

they possess decided moral as well as intellectual qualities ;
and it would be as erroneous and absurd, therefore, to
characterise the class pisces as psychically stupid as to do
so in the case of the species or genus dog, elephant, ass,
pig, goose, or ant.

In none, perhaps, of the many examples above given of
alleged stupidity in birds or other animals is there anything
like proof of its depending — where it exists — on low or
limited intelligence. But, considering especially what has
been said in other chapters of mental defect and its results,
there is no room to doubt that the correlation of stupidity
not only with low or limited intelligence, but with what
amounts to mental defect or disorder, occurs in other animals
just as in man. There are among dogs, horses, and certain
other animals individuals occasionally that correspond with
those individuals in man who by the Scotch peasantry are
called ' naturals ' or ' feckless,' unable to cater for or protect
themselves, and who in other countries are known as
' silly,' c fatuous,' or c imbecile,' as ' simpletons,' ' innocents,'
' noodles,' or ' ninnies.' Their mental c want ' is recognised,
though its degree may be inconsiderable. In the lower
animals such low or limited, defective or disordered, intel-
ligence renders the individual incapable of education, and
hence unfit for any kind of service to man. Stupidity is
farther a common result, equally in man and other animals,
of the mental degeneracy or decay that characterises age ; in
other words, it is a feature of, if it do not sometimes of
itself constitute, what is in man called senile dementia,
imbecility or fatuity.

Stupidity arises also occasionally from bodily disease,
and we have already seen how, and how frequently, it is
dependent on infirmities of the senses or of sensation. But
a distinction must always be drawn between mere temporary
stupor, semi-stupor, or stupefaction, however arising — as
from —

1. Sleep.

2. Keflection.

3. Intoxication — alcoholic or other.

4. Poisoning, or the action of drugs — narcotic or other.

128 STUPIDITY.

5. Cerebral or other organic or functional disease— such
as sturdy :

And more permanent and constitutional stupidity.

The stupidity of semi-stupor is sometimes produced
artificially or experimentally, for special reasons or purposes,
by other animals as well as by man. Thus the now well-
known Dr. Russell of the Times, in his letters descriptive of
the Indian journey of the Prince of Wales in 1875-76, tells
us that i there is nothing which so pleases a captive beast (a
tamed elephant) .... as to batter one of his free brethren
into such a state of stupidity and weakness that he is unable
to frustrate the arts of the snarer, who slips the rope and
chain round his legs and leads him into servitude.'

Whether and how far stupidity is improvable, remediable,
or removable depends obviously on its nature and causation.
That which is only apparent, which is confined to the
young, ignorant, and inexperienced, is probably temporary
merely, and will disappear with maturity, knowledge, and
experience; while that which depends upon old age, or
mental defect or disorder of any kind, may be unim-
provable, irremediable, hopeless, and permanent. There is,
in point of fact, however, comparatively little of it fortunately
of the latter character, and on the other hand, a great deal
that it lies in man's power to correct or remove, simply by
his own improved behaviour towards, or treatment of, such
animals as the ass.

It is of interest to note that animals recognise stupidity
not only in each other, but also in man. Parent animals
correct the stupidity of their young, which arises mainly
from errors of inexperience, ignorance, or thoughtlessness.
For when stupidity of what may be called an organic or
constitutional kind exists — when there is any mental want
in one of its offspring — a want that renders the latter less
able to fend for itself than its brethren, or unable to do so
at all — it is on this helpless member of her family that the
animal mother lavishes the wealth of her attention.

On the other hand, sporting dogs not unfrequently detect
and show their irritation at the sportsman's stupidity, his
dilatoriness or awkwardness (Adams), just as the horse so

STUPIDITY. 129

often practically protests against, and shows its disgust at,
the awkwardness of its rider.

We cannot properly omit at least a reference here to the
comparative stupidity of many and its relation to mental
imbecility, a subject that is discussed in the chapter that
treats of the mental and moral status of savages, and of
the idiotic, insane, deaf and dumb, and criminal classes of
civilised communities. Monteiro gives illustrations of the
' almost hopeless stupidity of the negro ' of Western Tropical
Africa — in regard, for instance, to the use of picks, shovels,
and wheelbarrows in mining for malachite. He refers this
incorrigible stupidity to ' retardation or arrest of development
of his intellect ' — in other words, to mental defect ; and he
points out that this mental obtuseness is associated with
* the greatest physical insensibility.' There * is an inferior
physical organisation, accompanied by a corresponding
inferiority of mental constitution.' The negro character is
distinguished by c the absence of good qualities, and of feel-
ings and emotions that we can hardly understand or realise
to be wanting in human nature.' Of the Africans of British
Guiana Dr. Donald writes, 'Natural stupidity borders so
closely on imbecility, dementia, and amentia, that it is diffi-
cult to say where a normal state ends and an abnormal one
begins.'

VOL. II.

CHAPTER X.

i

SUICIDE.

SELF-DESTKUCTION is at least as common, and occurs under
as great a variety and under the same kind of circumstances
in other animals as in man. It may be divided into two
great categories, according as it is -

1. Accidental, non-intentional; or

2. Deliberate, intentional, the result of choice and consi-
deration, or of impulse.

To the latter class alone, in which a determination to
destroy or sacrifice life is implied, the term suicide is usually
applied in man, though in man and other animals it is quite
proper and permissible also to speak of c accidental ' suicide.

Suicide proper — that which involves intention, and fre-
quently plan — occurs in the lower animals under some of
the following circumstances : —

1. The animal is almost invariably old, and this cause —
age — may be said to be the most important of all the causes
of suicide in the lower animals, operating as it does in so
many different ways and in almost all cases, either directly
or indirectly. For it is age that leads to the sense of deca-
dence of an animal's powers, bodily and mental; to the
experience of man's cruelty; to a full knowledge of the
trials or troubles of life. The young, healthy animal, like
the human infant, is full of life, and its sense of the enjoy-
ment of mere existence is of the keenest. There is no serious
drawback to its pleasures ; it knows nothing of the rough
usage, of the persecution, peril, starvation, exposure5 it may
have to encounter.

2, The animal may suffer keenly from wounded feelings

SUICIDE. 131

of various kinds. These feelings include, for instance,
simple annoyance or disappointment ; with regret or re-
morse ; despair of forgiveness by man — a despair, moreover,
that may be utterly groundless and needless ; what is called
'broken heart,' from whatever cause arising; disgust and
jealousy. Sometimes, as in man, the causes or motives are,
or at least appear to us to be, of a very trivial and dispro-
portionate kind. Thus suicide has occurred in the monkey
simply on account of correction for faults, just as happens
occasionally in the sensitive human child. Frequently the
animal has been a pet or favourite of some master or mis-
tress, who has turned it adrift when age and infirmity have
overtaken it, and have rendered it no longer companionable.
The various kinds or degrees of wounded feeling that may
prompt to so serious a step as suicide are mentioned in the
chapters on ' Sensitiveness ' and on the f Moral causes of
mental defect and derangement.'

3. The animal may suffer rather from physical than
mental agony ; it has met with some serious accident, or is
the subject of some bodily disease, attended with acute pain,
and this pain perhaps has been prolonged, and is no longer
endurable ; or without what amounts to agony, there may
be the misery begotten of long-continued and gradually in-'
creasing ill-health — a misery that in man produces a kind of
conjointly physical and mental discomfort of an utterly in-
definable kind, that too frequently becomes intolerable, and
demands its quietus ; or it may be simply blind, deaf, or
paralysed.

4. There may be conjoint bodily and mental suffering — as
in the case of beasts of burden, that are, in spite of their
protests, habitually overloaded by relentless, injudicious,
inconsiderate man. Here there are not only physical fatigue
and all the evils to health begotten of it, but also the sense
of injustice, of cruelty, of unrewarded or badly rewarded
effort.

5. The animal is perhaps at bay ; or from other causes it
is in a state of desperation, surrounded by enemies or dan-
gers threatening immediate death of a torturing kind, rrorn
which enemies or dangers escape seems hopeless.

K 2

132 SUICIDE.

6. Or it is a captive, and insurmountable obstacles are
placed in the way of the natural gratification of its imperious
instincts, appetites, or passions.

7. It may be affected with some of the forms of insanity
— especially with that mental depression, despondency, or
melancholia, that so frequently arises from grief, and so fre-
quently, in man also, terminates in or gives rise to suicide.

8. It has probably suffered for a series of years from
man's cruelty or ill-usage in some form or other, and very
probably also it feels keenly the injustice or ungratefulness
of his neglect or maltreatment.

9. Occasionally maternal affection or other kindly or
generous emotions lead to useless self-sacrifice. Thus the
stork perishes by fire rather than desert her young (Hou-
zeau), though she can do them no good by so sacrificing
herself.

Whatever may have been the original causes or motives,
the results that immediately precede and lead to suicide are
or include the following : —

1. Abrogation of the normal love of life or of self-pre-
servation.

2. Choice of a minor rather than of a major evil.

3. Formation of a plan of suicide.

4. Eesolution or determination in carrying out that plan,
involving —

a. Eepeated effort, if obstacles are interposed.
I. Eefusal of all means of help.
c. Adoption of efficient means of securing the
desired end.

5. Farewell-taking, by look or otherwise, of familiar and
loved scenes, persons, or objects.

All these and other preliminaries of suicide in the lower
animals may be illustrated by such incidents or anecdotes as
the following :

A case of suicide in the dog is given by Morris, as illus-
trative of man's pitilessness to his worn-out animal depen-
dents. The poor animal was old, infirm, paralysed, useless,
an outcast and a wanderer. Prior to its suicide by drowning
it was characterised by sadness of look. It obviously pon-

SUICIDE. 133

dered its course of action, exhibited for a time hesitancy,
but at last came to a decision, and acted upon it with
promptness and resolution. It preferred death to its expe-
rience of life, and refused to allow itself to be saved.

In another instance, cited by the same author, the dog
was old, diseased, distracted with pain. It, too, drowned
itself with the utmost deliberation, first casting a last piteous,
' longing, lingering look ' at its master, who had suspected it
of being affected by, and probably had discarded it for the
suspected, rabies.

An old collie (shepherd's dog) in Caithness, troubled with
the infirmities of age, including deafness and the loss of
teeth, in 1876 committed suicide — here again by drowning.
* Evidently age was a burden to him. The day before the
last scene in the drama was enacted, he was observed to take
a general survey of the locality he was about to quit for ever
— in a very shaky way. He then wended his way over ground
familiar to him in his hunting days to the sea- shore — a dis-
tance of about two miles — and without taking a longing,
lingering look behind he plunged into the sea and expired.
The act was witnessed by a number of persons on the
shore.' l

A Newfoundland dog ' of great age ' had its feelings
wounded by being scolded, beaten in pretence only by means
of a pocket handkerchief, and having a door shut in his
face when about to leave a room with his usual companions
— a nurse and her group of children. Soon after he was
found alive, but with his head altogether or partly sub-
merged in a ditch. He was dragged out. But now he
refused to eat or drink, and before long he was found in the
same position in the same ditch, but this time dead. He
had succeeded in this second determined attempt at drown-
ing, having failed in securing his purpose with sufficient
rapidity and directness by starvation.

A dog that had broken both his hind legs lingered on in
agony. At length, dragging his mutilated limbs along, he
' sought the nearest pond, and deliberately went into deep

1 'Northern Ensign,' July 20, 1876.

134 SUICIDE.

water until the water engulphed him. Unable to endure his
misery, the poor brute had committed suicide.' l

A small dog ' had got its head cut almost open, whether

by some malicious person or by accident is unknown

It ran about a good while, evidently in great agony, and
then deliberately walked into the middle of the river, lay
down and drowned itself.' 2 Dr. Macdonald 3 describes a
mad retriever as snapping in or at the air, or at imaginary
objects in it, uttering a melancholy howl, and walking
straight into the sea, in which it, too, was drowned. A
Havannah dog, in consequence of the irritation of a seton in
its neck, 6 rushed to the sea, swam out a little distance, put
its head under water, and was drowned ' (Wynter) .

Many other examples of dogs drowning themselves have
been published by Wood and other authors.

The dog, then, that commits suicide is generally or fre-
quently a cast-away. It has been expelled from its master's
domicile because it is old, diseased, and useless ; or it is a city
waif, a pariah. It has learned by the bitterest experience
what life is ; it infers what continued life is likely to be. It
sometimes reflects and hesitates a good deal before taking
the final step ; it may be seen, for instance, intently gazing
on the water of a pond or river for hours, days, or weeks
before it makes its suicidal plunge, just as so many human
e anonymas ' do when contemplating the last sad scene in their
unfortunate career. But when the dog has once made up
its mind, has chosen a certain and immediate death rather
than a prolonged life of persecution, hardship, misery, it
becomes blind and deaf to all offers of salvation, resolutely
using its paws if necessary to keep itself submerged.

A captive monkey that committed suicide by drowning,
prior to the act was noticed to become morose ; it refused
all companionship, bit viciously, and had a marked fixity and
vagueness — as if contemplative — of gaze (Forbes).

An American canvas-back duck used its bill to keep
itself submerged till it was drowned, seizing water-weeds

1 'North British Daily Mail,' January 5, 1876.

2 ' Dundee Advertiser,' November 1874.

3 Writing to the 'Times,' from South Wales in October 1874.

SUICIDE 135

attached to or growing from the bottom of a pond or lake
(Gillmore). ' Certain fowls were determined upon suicide,
and many jumped deliberately overboard ' — on the African
lake Albert Nyanza (Baker). Captive birds sometimes poison
themselves, apparently preferring death to confinement.

The American stag or deer commits suicide sometimes
when seized or attacked by the glutton — by precipitating
itself against trees (Pierquin and Watson).

Dr. Bidie has put upon record a very decided case of
suicide in the common black scorpion of Southern India, as it
occurs, for instance, in Madras. One was placed experimen-
tally in a glazed entomological case and exposed to the sun's
rays. ' The light and heat seemed to irritate it very much.
.... Taking a common botanical lens, I focussed the rays
of the sun on its back. The moment this was done it began
to run hurriedly about the case, hissing and spitting in a
very fierce way. This experiment was repeated some four or
five times with like results. But, on trying it once ' again,
the scorpion turned up its tail and plunged the sting ....

into its own back In less than half a minute life was

quite extinct.' Another Indian officer confirmed Dr. Bidie's
observation subsequently by asserting 'that scorpions do

commit suicide .... is a well-known fact They

turn back their tails and sting themselves to death ; ' for
instance, ' when surrounded by a circle of glowing embers,'
from which presumably they infer escape to be impossible
and death by the torture of burning imminent. Pasley's
experiments on scorpions also led to their death by suicide.

A certain trap-door spider of New Zealand combines
murder of its young with voluntary sacrifice of its own life.
' It is perfectly clear to me,' says a most intelligent observer
and describer of its habits, Eob. Gillies, C.E., President of
the Otago Institute, ' that the spider deliberately sealed its
nest and starved itself and its young to death. It evidently
could not bear to leave its home, for it could have done so
easily at any time with its young. The partial marring of
its handiwork seemed to have so disheartened it that it sealed
itself up in its own ruined house — a broken-hearted architect
and builder.'

136 SUICIDE.

Those who believe that the lower animals do not and
cannot commit suicide simply because they are lower animals
—who consider suicide one of the distinctive privileges of
man — endeavour to explain away, in such instances of self-
destruction as have just been given, all the ordinary motives
for suicide as they occur in man. They regard all such in-
cidents as cases simply of ' accidental ' death. When a dog
deliberately enters a river, the sea, a pond or lake, submerges
itself, and is drowned, we are told that it may have had a
' fit,' epileptic or apoplectic. Thus even Dr. Wynter, who
must have been well acquainted with the psychology of sui-
cide in man, suggests, in regard to the before-mentioned
case of the Havannah dog : ' It is more than possible that
the dog had some head disease which terminated in apo-
plexy, and the suicide was only a fancy of the proprietor's.'
Such an explanation is much more improbable, however,
than that deliberate suicide was committed ; so improbable,
indeed, that it cannot be seriously entertained. The sup-
position of accidental death from fits of any kind does not
satisfactorily account for the whole series of phenomena —
those which precede or lead to, as well as those that accom-
pany, the suicidal attempt.

In the case of the Newfoundland dog that died in a
ditch it is suggested that he may have lain down there to
die of ' broken heart.'

Moreover, various of the lower animals commit murder
from the same sort of motives, and with the same kind of
premeditation and preparation, that man exhibits, including
the patient waiting for favourable opportunity and the devis-
ing of appropriate means. They murder not only each other,
but man, from revenge or other obvious motives. We are
told, for instance, of the attempted murder by drowning of a
bulldog by a Newfoundland one. The latter seized the for-
mer, jumped with it into the sea, for a time c succeeded in
resolutely keeping the bulldog's head under water,' and the
latter would infallibly have been drowned had it not been
rescued by man.

A swan was more successful in executing its purpose,
seizing by the neck and drowning by submergence a dog that

SUICIDE. 137

contested with it the possession of a bit of bun (' Chambers's
Journal ') .

And it would be strange, indeed, if animals did not also
commit self-murder.

No doubt there are numerous alleged cases of suicide
among the lower animals, in which there is no proof positive
of the intention to destroy their own lives. But how fre-
quently is this the case also in man ? Notwithstanding the
absence of proof, the presumption is strong in many at least
of such cases that suicide proper was committed. Thus it is
difficult to regard such a leap as that of a buck elk over a
precipice in Ceylon — as both figured and described by Sir
Samuel Baker — otherwise than as the deliberate suicide of
an animal at bay, preferring one sort of death to another.
He looked before he leaped, and he leaped to certain death.
He was, we are told, found ' dead, as he had broken most of
his bones.'

The dog, too, and even the cat, are not unfrequently
'found dead' — usually drowned — under circumstances that
warrant the conclusion that the death was the result of sui-
cide. Thus a cat was found drowned in a pond immediately
after the death of a master to whom it had been much
attached. It had left the house on his illness a fortnight
previously, refusing to enter it again (c Animal World '). The
inference was that grief had led to deliberate self-destruction ;
but the verdict of accidental drowning is, of course, equally
permissible.

Cases are constantly occurring, again, of the sudden and
permanent disappearance from home — so that they are never
tracked or traced and never again seen or heard of — in which
the supposition of suicide is not only permissible, but its oc-
currence is probable, though not provable. Such disappear-
ances are apt to happen, for instance, in old pet dogs that
have been supplanted by younger rivals in the affections and
attentions of their masters and mistresses ; and it may be
added that, in many of these cases, the morbidly sensi-
tive and imaginative animal merely believes itself to be
supplanted, to have lost the esteem of its human patrons,
their regard being really unabated towards their former

138 SUICIDE.

favourite. Such animals, however, when a new dog, cat, or
other animal pet is introduced into a house by a master or
mistress, apparently survey their position, take a last look at
their old home, with all its contents and surroundings, and
then summarily desert it, never reappearing, never again
being seen or heard of.

Thus an old retriever, unexpectedly finding its kennel
occupied by another dog whom its master had bought — in
spite of a long-standing reciprocal attachment between it
and its said master — at once left its home; paid it, however,
a farewell visit, and then disappeared finally, without leaving
any trace of what it had done with itself, or of the direction
it had taken, if it migrated to a distance.1

We have hitherto spoken of suicide in isolated indivi-
duals, and from ordinary and intelligible motives. But it
occurs also in singular epidemic forms, affecting simulta-
neously sometimes great numbers of animals, under circum-
stances that leave us in great doubt as to the nature of the
influencing forces. That deliberation or resolution is in-
volved is proved by the fact that obstacles naturally or arti-
ficially interposed do not deter from the suicidal act. Thus
the frost-fish of New Zealand insists on running itself high
and dry upon land, even if obstacles are artificially placed in
its way — according to Eobson, who speaks of its committing
' deliberate acts of self-iminolation. : ... it seemed to have
set its mind upon landing.' He describes the barracouta as
sometimes forcing itself on shore in the same way. In the
salmon-producing countries of the North, again, salmon often
perish in large numbers by leaping ashore. In all these
cases of fish voluntarily sacrificing their lives it may be that
they are pursued by formidable enemies, and are under the
influence of terror and despair.

Captain Kennedy mentions a shoal of garfish off the
west coast of North America, pursued probably by some
dangerous fish-enemy, making f frantic leaps ' in their terror,
and at last dashing against a ship's boat, rushing headlong
on it, ' rattling on her side like a shower of grape-shot, and
leaving many of their number dead.'

1 < Dundee Courier,' June 8, 1876.

SUICIDE. 139

But no such supposition is possible in the case of the
Norwegian lemmings, which terminate their migrations,
when they survive so long, by drowning themselves in myriads
in the sea. Many insects simultaneously commit wholesale
suicide in flame of all kinds, by which they are usually said
to be ' fascinated ; ' there is a voluntary act of sacrifice, and
yet will and thought in the animals appear to be for the
moment paralysed.

Altogether peculiar in its nature is the apparent suicide,
by voluntary dismemberment, of various starfish. A corres-
pondent of ' Nature ' put about a hundred feather stars and
brittle stars into a sponge-bag. ' On reaching home I found
that both feather stars and brittle stars had converted them-
selves into a mass of mincemeat. It would have been diffi-
cult to find a single portion of an arm a quarter of an inch
long.'

All forms of suicide hitherto considered — whether epi-
demic or isolated — involve, or appear to involve, intention on
the part of the animal — a choice of death in preference to
life. But there are many other forms of self-destruction in
which there is obviously or apparently no desire to put an
end to life ; suicide is accidental or non-intentional. The
most familiar illustrations of this form of self-destruction are
to be found in the panics of horses, cattle, sheep, and other
nervous timid animals. I have elsewhere pointed out to
what extent and in what forms panic in cavalry horses, for
instance, urges them to rush unintentionally upon what is
nevertheless certain death.1 More common, however, is the
case of a flock of sheep, frightened by a dog, leaping blindly
and heedlessly one after the other, stupidly following their
bellwether, into a confined ditch, and perishing there in hun-
dreds, partly by drowning, but mostly by suffocating each
other.

Baden Powell describes the headlong rushes into, and
the consequent wholesale self-destruction by smothering in,
ravines by sheep in Australia. In all such panics we have
illustrations of epidemic suicide, but of a non-intentional

1 In the paper on ' Mental Epidemics among the Lower Animals,' quoted
in the Bibliography.

140 .SUICIDE.

kind, as well as of terror, fright, fear, alarm, in all their
degrees.

Self -starvation is a very common form of self-destruction,
especially in the dog, as the result of grief. But it does not
appear, in the majority at least of such cases, that there is
any distinct desire to destroy life ; though, on the other hand,
there is as little reason to doubt, in other animals as in man,
that in many of such cases suicide is deliberate. In most
instances grief destroys appetite; anorexia is produced that
leads to the refusal of food ; neither hunger nor thirst is felt ;
digestion becomes impaired by abstinence ; and marasmus—
frequently fatal — is the result.

Monkeys have frequently poisoned themselves — uninten-
tionally, and as the result of errors of imitation, curiosity,
greed, or indiscriminate or non-discriminating appetite.
Imitation of man's operation of shaving has also led to
accidental suicide by cut throat of the stupidly imitative
animal.

In many forms of disease, mental or bodily, accidental self-
destruction not unfrequently occurs. Thus, in the c sturdy '
of the lamb, the animal loses its ordinary power of vision ;
it wanders, becomes entangled in avoidable obstacles, spins
round and round, has no sense of danger, and no knowledge
for the moment of the significance or results of its actions ;
hence it gets itself only too readily into fatal dangers (Pier-
quin) .

There are physicians who ascribe all suicide proper in
man to insanity ; who regard the mere act of intentional self-
destruction as a proof and phenomenon of mental derange-
ment. And the same kind of arguments that apply to man
apply to other animals. No doubt from a legal view-point
it is at least inconvenient to regard all suicide as the off-
spring and indication of mental disorder. But from a
medical aspect, on the other hand, much may be said in
favour of such an opinion.

Absurd artificial criteria have been established, mostly by
jurists, separating insane from sane suicide — such criteria,
for instance, as forethought or premeditation ; deliberation
or fixity of purpose; ingenuity of plan; adequateness of

SUICIDE. 141

motive, and so forth. But in truth those who are familiar
with human insanity know that all these features may be
developed, and be exhibited, in the suicides of persons in-
dubitably of unsound mind in a medical sense. In all cases,
whether in animals or man, there is manifest derangement
of the powerful instinct of self-preservation, the strong
conservative, ever active, principle of love of life. It is a
marvellous and morbid change of character, the substitution
of weariness of, disregard for, loss of all interest in, life —
which prompts to the throwing of it away, instead of that
sense of the value of its possession which, under other cir-
cumstances, in the same animal, would urge imperiously to
all efforts for its conservation.

I have notes of what has been described as — and what
appears to have been — true suicide in a considerable variety
of animals, including the dog especially, the horse, ass, mule,
camel, llama, monkey, seal, and deer ; the stork, cock, jack-
daw, and canvas-back duck ; the spider and scorpion.

Wild as well as domestic animals commit suicide some-
times, under such circumstances as the blindness, deafness, or
helplessness of age, or when they have been tortured or per-
secuted beyond endurance, or in presence of a powerful and
relentless enemy from whom escape is hopeless, in which case
they become not only desirous but impatient of ending their
own sufferings.

The modes in which suicide is committed or attempted by
the lower animals do not vary so much as in man, simply
because their opportunities, and their knowledge of the best
means, are less. In the dog drowning is by far the com-
monest mode, if we except self-starvation — obstinate and
absolute abstinence from food.

In the case of drowning in the dog, the sagacious animal
simply selects the mode to which it has readiest access. Dogs
know full well that water will drown other dogs, other ani-
mals, and even man himself; and hence their frequent,
and frequently successful, efforts to save life by rescue from
drowning. In making such efforts the dog must be aware
of the risk he runs. It is simply a correct inference from all
his knowledge of the properties of water that, if sufficiently

142 SUICIDE.

deep, it will drown himself if lie so desire ; and lie obviously
does so desire in many cases of suicide.

Poisoning and cut throat occur only in exceptional cases.
Strangulation occasionally occurs in accidental cases — in the
frantic efforts, for instance, of stalled horses or cattle to
escape from their neck-halters or fetters in panic from fire
or other causes.

More or less connected with the subject of suicide in them
are the following phenomena in the mental history of the
lower animals : —

1. The feeling of ennui and the suffering from all forms
or degrees of the tedium vitce.

2. Sense of decadence of the mental and bodily powers,
with the results of such a feeling or knowledge.

3. Sense of approaching death, and the preparations there-
for.

4. Appreciation of death — of the distinction between life
and death — between living, dying, and death.

5. Care of the dead, including respect for them, their re-
moval and burial.

Captive animals of all kinds, including many of those
that are house pets, suffer as decidedly, as do so frequently
the mistresses of the latter, all the tortures of ennui. The
monotony of existence begets an irritable or fractious dispo-
sition that creates worries out of every trifle. In course of
time life becomes tiresome, every necessary duty irksome,
every little trial a source of irritation ; the animal becomes
dispirited; it has no aim and no hope in life, so that it
gradually ceases to value it. Pining, indifference, marasmus
are common results, and suicide an exceptional one, in cases
where depression passes into melancholia. Of a voyage on
the African Lake Nyanza, Baker writes : ( The ennui of this
wretched voyage appears to try the temper of both man and
beast. The horses, donkeys, and camels are constantly fight-
ing and biting at all around,' while the women were ' daily
quarrelling together like bulldogs.'

Unquestionably the dog, for instance, has a consciousness
of the decline of its own physical powers, and it acts in va-
rious ways upon this consciousness. Thus the old harrier

SUICIDE. 143

leaves to its young, eager, impatient, agile offspring the
pursuit of the hare, with all the involved doublings and
windings, and the exhaustion of following them up ; while it
waits patiently itself, with the sagacity begotten of expe-
rience, at the points where the game is likely, in the course
of pursuit, to cross its path or ambuscade.

Sheep-dogs, watch-dogs, and other dogs useful to man
become sensible of their physical weakness in age, of their
incapacity for the discharge of duty, of their uselessness to
themselves or others, of their burdensomeness.

The old cat enters into partnership with a younger mouser
—the teacher directing the pupil, and both sharing the pro-
ceeds. The horse, too, has a sense of loss of strength, wind,
fleetness, of the decadence of its faculties, mental and
bodily, with age ; and hence it ceases its former rivalry in
the race, or endeavours to substitute unfair trickery for fair
competition.

Many wild animals become aware of their inability to
defend themselves or to escape from danger ; they see and
feel on every hand their increasing and serious helplessness ;
they know they are ever at the mercy of the young and
strong.

Various animals show in various ways that they recog-
nise, both in themselves and others, the approach of death ;
they feel and know themselves to be dying, or they appre-
ciate the indications of hastening dissolution in their fellows
or in animals of other species and genera. A sense of the
imminence of death leads them to make timely and proper
provision for its incidence. One of the commonest of these
preparations is the voluntary seclusion or isolation of dying
animals. They retire to die, frequently having set apart
special selected localities in which to die, and in some cases
it may be to be buried. It is, indeed, a matter of general
belief, founded upon fact, that ' the wounded beast seeks the
thickest covert, where it can die undisturbed,' alone, un-
noticed. In aquaria shrimps and prawns withdraw under
stones to die. The poet Cowper illustrates this familiar
tendency of wounded or sick animals to retire to die in the
following lines, applied to himself, taken from ' The Task/

144 SUICIDE.

and most appropriately quoted on the monument to his
memory in front of the memorial church erected on the site
of the house in which he spent the last years of his life, at
East Dereham, Norfolk :—

I was a stricken deer that left the herd
Long since. With many an arrow deep infix'd
My panting side was charged when I withdrew
To seek a tranquil death in distant shades.

Some animals have regular cemeteries, to which they retire
to die. Thus the lla.ma of South America has its district
cemeteries, in or on which its bones are to be found bleaching
in great numbers.

Another not uncommon indication and result of the
feeling of coming dissolution is the farewell, in various
forms, taken by dying dogs and cats of their long and well-
loved masters and mistresses, and the bequests that some-
times characterise the said farewells.

Premonition of death in certain animals — those that are
and feel themselves old, infirm, or hopelessly wounded —
appears usually to produce a calm resignation ; a sense of
the inevitable leads to unprotesting acquiescence; no fear
of death is shown. But in other animals that are and feel
themselves in the prime of youth, or in the full vigour of
maturity and health, there is, frequently at least, developed
what seems to be a decided fear of death, and this fear leads
to very active protest against visible preparations for their
slaughter. Such a fear and protest a.ppear to be the cause
of the bellowings and struggles of cattle taken to the
shambles, where the smell of blood and the sight of other
animals slaughtered, or in the process of being so, lead the
new victims to infer what is the fate intended for themselves.
Again, when an elephant succeeds, after many efforts, in
extricating itself from a dangerous quagmire or quicksand
in which it had accidentally become immerged, it is probably
the fear of the death that seemed and was so imminent that
causes it to tremble all over, as Wood states that it does.

In a way that cannot at present be explained dogs and
cats often have a prescience of a master's intentions to shoot
or drown them ; and this sort of premonition of their pro-

SUICIDE. 145

bable fate leads them to seek safety by flight from the house
and district — leads, in short, to the kind of sudden disap-
pearance already spoken of in regard to the discarded dog.

Various animals speedily notice and watch with keenest
interest, for their own selfish ends, the indications of dying,
of approaching death, in other animals, and even in man.
Thus the vultures of the Himalayas are described as gather-
ing to the number of twenty or thirty round a dying calf or
bullock, patiently but observantly watching and waiting for
its death. Other animals, however, do not wait for the death
of their victim before they attack it. When the whale is
sick or dying he is an object of attack to all the shark tribe,
for the sake of the coveted blubber. Some animals, again,
either wait for death, or attack during life, according to cir-
cumstances. Prairie wolves at once detect accident, sick-
ness, or weakness from starvation in the bison ; and they
either watch him day and night till death occurs, to devour
the carcase, or they hamstring him in his feebleness, and
then murder the helpless brute by tearing him to pieces
(Gillmore).

Various animals recognise death itself — the condition of
being dead — in others ; and they act upon or show this recog-
nition in various ways. They distinguish life from death — at
least the living from the dead ; they recognise the physical
signs of life or their absence ; they are aware when they
have killed or only wounded their prey. And they act upon
their knowledge or convictions ; showing terror, for instance,
of a sleeping or living enemy, but none, or contempt, for the
same enemy dead.

In many cases they first satisfy themselves that death
has really occurred ; that there is no simulation, no possi-
bility of mistake. They make a regular diagnosis of death.
This is done by various kinds of test or experiment, and is
usually resorted to, in all probability, by old, experienced
animals, that are aware of the errors which may be com-
mitted, and that probably have themselves, and to their cost,
on previous occasions committed some of these very errors.
They are quite sensible of the risk of mistaking mere im-
mobility— which is frequently voluntarily assumed for the

VOL. u. L

146 SUICIDE.

purpose of deceiving and escaping or entrapping an enemy—
for the absolute powerlessness and motionlessness of actual
death ; they know that mere sleep and death have certain
features in common, especially this same feature of immo-
bility. But they have to distinguish by certain practical
tests between real and simulated death, or between sleep
and death.

The she-bear, for instance, makes use of a process of
experimentation to test the reality of the death of her cubs
(Houzeau) ; she offers them food ; leaves, and then calls
them ; touches them with her paws, and finds them cold,
rigid, motionless, indifferent ; she makes use of observation,
comparison, reflection, experiment. An ouistiti monkey, be-
reaved of its mate, caressed the body of its companion until
convinced of the futility of its caresses (Houzeau).

Various animals, in their uncertainty as to whether their
enemy or prey is really dead, make its death a matter of
certainty by various means. Thus the elephant, bull or cow,
and dog make sure of the death of a fallen foe by trampling
upon him till no chance of life remains.

In various ways certain animals show a becoming care of,
or respect for, their dead. The duk monkey carries off the
dead and wounded (Cassell). Barbary apes beg' for the
corpse of a killed companion, and they remove it, probably
for burial. Other animals also remove their dead, in all like-
lihood for the same purpose. For we know that some animals
do bury their dead, occasionally with funeral ceremonies.
Burial of the dead in bees and wasps with funeral ceremonies,
the selection of graves, committal to the earth with appro-
priate solemnity, tenderness, or solicitude, have all been
described by Watson. Funeral ceremonies of some kind
have also been described in various Chinese apes and in the
African pongo. Gorillas cover their dead (Cassell). In the
dog regular funeral ceremonials would appear also to take
place, if we are to credit such an account as the following,
given in the c Animal World,' a magazine that professes to
publish only those incidents, of the truth, genuineness or
authenticity of which the editor has convinced himself:
6 The largest and fiercest dog took the body in its mouth

SUICIDE. 147

and started for the woods. The other dogs formed into a
regular procession, and in single file followed the body.'
They dug a grave, deposited the body in it, covered it with
earth, then united in a chorus of howls, and dispersed.

Certain birds, such as the wren, we are told, sing re-
quiems or dirges over the graves of their fellows. In one
case, narrated in c Chambers's Journal,' twenty or thirty of
these birds took part, the dirge being a mournful twitter —
quite different from their usual joyous song. The fact is
represented as being so well established, though the inci-
dent itself is of rare occurrence, that such a performance is
popularly known as c The Wren's Kequiem.'

Instead of care of the dead, many animals show a stolid
and marked indifference, and this may be of such a character
as to lead to their offering every indignity to the dead, or to
their preying upon them. Such indifference has been noted
in bees by Lubbock ; in ruminants and solipeds by Houzeau.

Many animals, again, commit errors — of a kind serious
frequently to themselves — concerning the nature of immo-
bility : they confound sleep with death, or simulated death
with that which is real. Desiring to prey on certain animals,
they incautiously allow the wish to be father to the thought
that these animals are dead, when they merely appear to be
so ; they jump too hastily at desirable but inaccurate and
unfortunate conclusions.

It is obvious that many animals associate the idea of
movement with that of life, and the converse. Hence they
draw the inference — frequently erroneous — that absence of
movement indicates absence of life. This, however, is a
conclusion at which man himself frequently arrives, under
similar circumstances, as regards brother man, as well as
in reference to other animals — his ' game.' How often
does he find it necessary to call in the physician to deter-
mine whether or not a given life is extinct? And how
frequently — for instance, in cases of drowning and trance —
is even the physician apt to be deceived by rigid immo-
bility ?

In the dog, in particular, there is a frequent non-
realisation of the nature of death — non-recognition of the

£ 2

148 SUICIDE.

fact, as it affects, for instance, a fondly-loved master or his
remains ; and it shows this non-appreciation of the facts by
a variety of behaviour. Thus it sometimes resolutely de-
fends its master's dead body against all comers, however
respectful and kindly they may be ; it protests against his
burial by every means in its power ; it would scratch up the
earth of the grave, so as to exhume the corpse, if not forcibly
prevented ; it tries to feed dead masters, and rescues their
corpses when drowned, licking them in order to their resus-
citation ; it sticks to the dead body till burial, and to the
grave long after it — even for months or years — fondly but
foolishly.

CHAPTEE XI.

GRIME AND CRIMINALITY.

CERTAIN animals commit crimes or criminal acts, offences
against man's laws or their own, and these crimes are of the
same nature as those committed by man, and occur under
the same kind of circumstances, as the result of the same
sort of motives. Illustrations of such offences are to be
found especially in —

1. Theft — of property or person.

2. Destructiveness of property or life.

Theft may be conveniently considered as of two kinds, as
in man, according as the articles stolen are —

1. Useful to the thief, and of some one particular kind;
or —

2. Useless, and miscellaneous or heterogeneous.

In the one class of cases the motive is usually obvious
and intelligible ; in the other there appears to be no rational
or explicable motive. On the one hand we have to deal with
what in man is regarded as a normal vice ; on the other with
the results perhaps of mental disease — of that form thereof
known in our police and law courts as kleptomania.

Thieving or stealing is a common vice in a considerable
number and variety of animals, including, for instance —

1. The orang and siamang ; the rnona, malbrook, diana,
cebus, and other monkeys or apes.

2. The horse, dog, cat, hare, rabbit, fox, rat, mouse,
viscacha, racoon, and other quadrupeds.

3. The magpie, jay, jackdaw ; pied and other ravens ;
rook, Indian and other crows, skua and other gulls, golden-
crested and other wrens, sparrow, oriole, nut-hatch, eagle,

150 CEIME AND CRIMINALITY.

sentinel butcher bird, wood hen of New Zealand, ostrich,
cuckoo, and other birds.

4. Certain ants, bees, wasps, the death's head moth, and
other insects.

But the character of the pilfering, purloining, plundering,
robbery, piracy, that occur in animals differing so widely in
species and genera, orders and classes, structure and habits,
obviously varies greatly.

In the first place, there is the stealing of useful articles,
of food to satiate hunger, or of materials for nest-building.
The hungry dog or cat that harries the larder is in a parallel
position to the starving human beggar that helps himself
from the tempting contents of a baker's or butcher's shop.
In both cases we have the strong motives of hunger 011 the
one hand, and temptation on the other. In neither case is
the temptation ultimately or successfully resisted, and
appetite is therefore gratified. But there are many cases
in which such temptation among the lower animals, espe-
cially the dog, is successfully resisted, even at the expense
of the non-gratification of one of the most imperious of the
physical appetites — that of hunger.

Dogs are sometimes so well trained not only to know, but
to do at all hazards, the right — to refrain from doing what
they feel or know to be the wrong, in the sense that it is for-
bidden by their master — man — that even when suffering the
pangs of starvation they can, and do, abstain from touching
the most tempting food, of which they have been placed —
experimentally it may be — in charge, and of which they have
the complete command.

Theft, then, of the kind we are now considering, of ar-
ticles useful to the thief, may be prevented and corrected by
proper means. It is further to be noted that there is in
such cases a selection of suitable articles, the variety of which
is therefore limited. The hungry dog and cat confine them-
selves to the abstraction of game, milk, bread, or other
eatables and drinkables, while the nestbuildiiig bird helps
itself to wool or cotton, straws or sticks.

Nor, as a rule, do animals that steal merely useful ar-
ticles hoard or hide them : they usually apply them at once

CRIME AND CRIMINALITY. 151

to their needs, consuming the stolen viands or building into
their nests the constructive materials carried off. Neverthe-
less various carnivorous or other animals — such as the dog,
fox, wolf, jackal — conceal surplus food bj burial — a proce-
dure that has its analogue in the caches of meat among
savages. Thus the fox hides the fowls stolen one by one
from the farm-yard, and the dog buries the bones or meat-
joints it has carried off. And many other animals — such as
the beaver (Adams and Gordon) — we know, make store
depots of food for future use. Various birds, too, accumu-
late or hoard building materials for their nests (Jesse).

In marked contrast to this species of theft is another
equally common kind that is perhaps of much higher prac-
tical interest to man, inasmuch as he frequently suffers — in
reputation at least, and all that the loss of reputation some-
times brings — from the pilfering propensities of such noto-
rious thieves as magpies, rats, and monkeys. This second
kind of theft consists in the abstraction of useless articles of
an eminently miscellaneous kind, the abstraction frequently
being systematic, ingenious, and carried on for long periods
under man's very nose, but without his knowledge, until
accident reveals one of the hoards of such thieves. For
in this kind of theft hiding and hoarding are the rule, not
the exception. Large accumulations are formed, and these
accumulations are sometimes systematically arranged, some-
times thrown together without any regard to order or classi-
fication. These two kinds of hoards may be illustrated by
the occasional gatherings of the rat and viscacha.

Professor Silliman has described one of the hoards of the
Californian wood-rat. One of these rats, having formed its
nest in an empty stove in the room of a house unoccupied for
two years, the proprietor of the said house had. at last occa-
sion, in making certain repairs, to come upon the said nest,
and his report was as follows : ' I found the outside to be
composed entirely of spikes, all laid with symmetry, so as to
present the points of the nails outward. In the centre of this
mass was the nest, composed of finely divided fibres of hemp-
packing. Interlaced with the spikes were the following : —
About two dozen knives, forks, and spoons, all the butcher's

152 CEIME AND CKIMINALITY.

knives, three in number ; a large carving knife, fork, and
steel, several large plugs of tobacco .... an old purse con-
taining some silver, matches and tobacco; nearly all the
small tools from the tool closets, among them several large
augers .... all of which must bave been transported some
distance, as they were originally stored in different parts of

the house The outside casing of a silver watch was

disposed of in one part of the pile, the glass of the same
watch in another, and the works in still another.'

In this singular case, while certain articles had been
utilised — for instance, the nails and the hemp-fibre — all the
other articles so carefully stored up and classified appear to
have been utterly useless to the thief, as was also the analysis
or arrangement by the rat of the stolen goods. More par-
ticularly is the dissection and separate arrangement of the
parts of a watch here inexplicable. But the whole pheno-
mena are comparable with the hoards and doings of the
human kleptomaniac, as I have had occasion elsewhere to
describe them.1

In this rat-hoard it is desirable to remark on the prepon-
derance of bright, glittering, metallic objects. In other parts
of this book it has been shown that such objects, especially
when of silver or steel, exercise a mysterious influence over
many animals — fascinate or attract them in an inexplicable
way. For the animals do not appear to make any use of
them. They simply but sedulously pilfer and stow them
away, adding one article to another, without aim and with-
out end. It might be supposed that, in some instances at
least, articles of gold or silver, jewellery, coins, or spoons,
might become objects of ornament or amusement, playthings
to themselves or their young. But there is no evidence that,
as a rule, the articles stolen are applied to any such purpose
or to any purpose at all. On the contrary, they are usually,
like the knives, forks, and spoons in the rat's hoard, simply
stowed away, added to the pile. Possibly, nay probably, the
accumulators take pleasure in their hoards, just as the human

1 For instance, in ' Excelsior,' a publication of the Murray Koyal Institu-
tion for the Insane, near Perth, in the numbers for 1866 and 1872.

CRIME AND CRIMINALITY. 153

miser does. But the magpie or rat, in common with the
man, hoards for no rational end : and if the propensity be
regarded as morbid in the one case, it must be equally so in
the other ; in other words, the hoards of the magpie and
rat are to be attributed, like those of the human miser, to a
morbid acquisitiveness or avarice.

The most notorious thief of bright, glittering, metallic
articles among the lower animals is the magpie, the pilfering
feats of which have been celebrated in the verse of the poet
and the fiction of the novelist, as well as in the matter-of-
fact narrative of the naturalist. But there are sundry other
birds that exhibit the same propensity, and among them the
New Zealand wood-hen, which has an evil reputation with
the settlers for this class of misdeeds (Baden Powell). Here
we have an animal — a stranger to man, with his sparkling
coins, wire, tin-plate, and so forth. The bird shows the same
desire to possess itself of man's baubles, makes the same
kind of open or surreptitious efforts at their possession,
displays, it may be, the same covetousness and cunning that
many savage races of man do on first coming in contact
with their white brother. These human savages help them-
selves, if they can, to all the movables on board ship, being
fascinated by mirrors, cutlery, and jewellery. In the first
instance, at least, there is as little rational motive for the
theft as in the case of the magpie or wood-hen. No doubt
in course of time savages learn, by imitation from the sailors,
that certain of the stolen articles may be applied to certain
purposes, and they may or do so apply them, using wire,
coins, or jewels for ornamenting the person. But the mon-
key— and probably other animals — do the same.

Wood mentions a tame jackdaw that stole rings and jewel-
lery or other small movables of any kind from bed- rooms,
which it entered by the open windows — a circumstance that
should be borne in mind when maid-servants are suspected
of, or charged with, the theft or loss of coins or jewellery.
For there are many well authenticated cases of such thefts,
that were really committed by pet birds, or by rats, having
been charged against perfectly innocent servant girls, who
have lost place and pay, reputation, and even health and life,

154 CEIME AND CRIMINALITY.

all in consequence of the thievish propensity of some house-
hold animal.

The Viscacha, again, while its accumulations are as useless,
varied, and proportionally large as those of the rat, seems to
have SL preference simply for objects that are hard. Hence
there are to be found in heaps about the mouths of its bur-
rows stones, sticks, bones of cattle, hard lumps of earth and
thistle stalks (Darwin, Wood). So well known is this
theftuous habit of the animal, ' that when an article is lost
the loser always goes to the viscacha burrows to search for
it ' (Wood) ; and it would be well if man could do the same
to the hoards of the rat.

Some animals go further than merely steal articles that
are useless : they help themselves, to their own detriment, to
those that are poisonous. More especially does the monkey
frequently do so, while its inquisitiveness and imitativeness
lead it to eat or drink the stolen substance, though it should
be a paint, a poison, or a drug.

One of the striking features of the theft of useless or
mischievous articles is the frequent or usual incorrigibility
of the habit of stealing. The monkey, if it do not die from
the swallowing of a poisonous paint or other substance ; the
rat, so long as it is not captured ; and the magpie, so long as
it is at freedom in a house, go on stealing, undeterred by any
kind of punishment. They steal apparently for the sake of
stealing, not for the sake of the goods stolen. In many cases,
at least, there can be no such motive as hunger or starvation,
for the animals are duly fed by kind masters or mistresses.

There would appear to be veritable morbid impulse, which
the animal finds it impossible to resist. All that is required
to determine the operation and development of this morbid
impulse is opportunity, which gives rise to suggestion. For
as regards other animals, as well as man, we have probably
due cause to reflect — as Shakespeare has it in 'King John' —

How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds
Makes ill deeds done !

In other words, given the suitable opportunity and theft is
committed, not because the articles to be stolen are required,
or can be made use of, but simply because a morbid acquisi-

CRIME AND CEIMINALITY. 155

tiveness impels to such procedure, and in some cases such
procedure, with the aimless hoarding up of property, begets
a certain kind or amount of enjoyment.

An ineradicable propensity to theft Buckland regards as
a characteristic of monkeys as a family. A cebus monkey of
Belt's, ' when anyone came near to fondle him, never neglected
the opportunity of pocket-picking,' a form of theft in which
the mona, malbrook, and other monkeys are adepts. There
is in such cases no sense of crime, guilt, or wrong-doing.
On the contrary, like too many of our own human criminals,
the animals find their chief amusement in their nefarious
practices, and congratulate themselves on their dexterity,
quickness, ingenuity, or adroitness.

In all such cases there is the same difficulty as in man in
the diagnosis between mere vice or crime, for which the thief
is responsible, because the habit is corrigible ; and morbid
propensity or impulse, the result, or a form or degree of,
mental defect or derangement — in which the habit is incor-
rigible and the animal or man irresponsible. For, as appears
in another chapter, kleptomania — as such morbid propensity
to steal is called — is common as a form or feature of moral
insanity in man.

Langstroth remarks that c some bee-keepers question
whether a bee that once learns to steal ever returns to honest
courses ;' while Lubbock tell us ' Siebold has mentioned
similar facts in the case of wasps (Polistes).'

In connection with the mere useless accumulation of
property, it may be desirable to interpolate a few remarks
on the sense of property and possession exhibited by many
animals. They show how they value, and they defend, their
proprietary rights in a great variety of ways — for instance,
in their —

1. Competition for prizes, such as the possession of —

a. The female.

b. Food, prey, or booty.

c. The trappings or insignia of rank.

2. Territorial districts and their boundaries.

3. Nests or other dwellings, and their materials of con-
struction.

156 CEIME AND CRIMINALITY.

4. Capture of prisoners and making of slaves or servants.

5. Storage of provisions.

6. Care of females, eggs, the young, old, or helpless.

7. Claims made by pet animals on man's attentions, or
even on man's very person.

8. Charge of man's goods, including his children.

9. Knowledge and use of personal attractions, powers, or
aptitudes, including physical strength.

10. Restoration of stolen goods.

11. Detection of theft by man, and discovery and recovery
of articles abstracted by him.

12. Use of money.

Not only, however, have many animals certain rights of
property, which they assert and defend among themselves or
against man, but the dog, at least, recognises and respects
man's proprietary rights. Thus the dog that catches a run-
away pony holds the latter by the bridle only till the master
of both makes his appearance, when his lawful property is
at once resigned to him. The same occurs when a dog,
elephant, or horse guards or watches an infant ; their duty
ceases the moment the human nurse, mistress or master, is
forthcoming. Moreover, certain dogs distinguish the pro-
perty of different members of a family, as well as the belong-
ings of different parts of the person of each (Watson).

There are certain other forms of theft among the lower
animals that deserve a brief consideration here. One of the
most interesting of these is the abduction of the young of
other individuals, belonging, it may be, to other species
or genera, by bereaved or barren females. And it is a
theft, moreover, that sometimes has serious consequences to
the abducted young ; for in the case of sterile females —
bitches and mares — there is no milk- supply on which to
bring up these unfortunate foster-young, and they necessarily
perish (Pierquin).

A bereaved bitch sometimes steals the pups of some other
bitch, or the young of some other animal — for instance,
kittens — and suckles them, bringing them up as tenderly as
if they were her own. This she does obviously for the
gratification of her imperious maternal instinct. The object

CRIME AND CRIMINALITY. 157

or motive is intelligible ; the cause may be regarded as
physiological or pathological ; the result beneficent ; but the
action is nevertheless a theft. The cat and the fox have
done the same with dog-pups (Jesse), and many other in-
stances are given in the chapter on fc Foster-parentage.'

Many animals, like many men, take a mean and dishonest
advantage of the labours of others. Some, indeed, virtually
live by robbery or piracy. Thus gulls derive their family
name Laridce from their living by habitual theft (Baird), by
making other sea-birds disgorge the fish they have had the
trouble of catching. The eagle with the osprey, the sparrow
with smaller or weaker birds, act on the same principle as
the robber skua (gull)— that is, they allow other birds to take
all the trouble of capturing prey, and then abstract it by
violence from the direct or original captors (Wood).

An equally familiar form of taking a selfish advantage of
the labours of others is the usurpation by the cuckoo of the
nests of other birds, a usurpation attended usually with
forcible ejection— virtual murder — of the builders^ and con-
sequently legitimate occupants, of the said nests. The
sparrow is prone to usurpation of the same kind, as well as
to other forms of theft (Wood).

A species of ant (Pheidole) receives its specific name —
plagiaria — from its habit of plundering the nests of other
families, genera, or species (Darwin) : and various other ants
rob the ant-hills of other species or genera of their larvso or
nymphs (Figuier).

Among dogs, as among men, there are lazy, mean indi-
viduals who attempt to domicile themselves on the industrious
or well-behaved (Cobbe).

The capture and use of slaves has, as in the abduction of
young, an intelligible motive, while the result is, usually at
least, beneficent to the captured animals themselves. In
various ways they are made useful to their masters or cap-
tors. But this usefulness is not only compatible with kindly
usage, but it is in fact brought about by such treatment.
Even for their own selfish ends, for the sake of the labour,
the attentions, or the produce of the captives, the captors
find that kindness is their best policy, as it is man's towards

158 CKIME AND CEIMINALITY.

all subject animals. Ants, therefore, when they capture and
make slaves of other species or genera, and use these slaves
as nurses to their young, assist these slaves at their work,
thereby encouraging them, and join in their amusements,
thereby showing their sj^rnpathy and friendliness (Houzeau).

Ants, like the Portuguese, make slaves of black species,
genera, or races ; but the treatment of slaves by the insect
and- human master is suggestively and strikingly different.
Ants and bees also capture and keep as equivalents of milk-
cattle, for the sake of the saccharine fluid they yield, Aphides
and other insects. And here, again, the treatment of the
servant by the master is kindly and judicious. Indeed, it is
difficult to believe that under any other regime could ant-
slaves or servants be induced to do the work they do for, or
confer the benefits they confer upon, their captors, consider-
ing the many favourable opportunities they must possess for
rebellion or escape, or simply for refusal to give up, even
to secrete, their honey dew. Questions of property in, or
possession of, these aphides now and then arise, are discussed,
and rights are disputed, contending claims being determined
by the power of the strongest ; in other words, the possession
of flocks of aphides becomes sometimes a casus belli among
ants (Houzeau, Figuier).

Various animals cheat, defraud, or extort from each other
or man, as in the case of a toll-keeper defrauded of his toll
by a dog (Watson). They become traitors also to trust —
accept bribes to neglect a duty or desert a charge. Thus
the fidelity of the dog is often tempted, and successfully, by
bribes to silence — for instance, in burglary. Burglary itself
has been committed by the monkey, horse, dog, and cat.
Poaching is another form of theft not confined to man ; for
the cat, dog, and fox are sometimes notorious poachers.

Rebellions against authority — for instance, on the part of
young against that of parents or leaders, is regarded among
other animals, as in man, as a crime, and is punished as such.

Many animals, from a considerable variety of motives and
under considerable diversity of circumstances, commit mur-
der. The dog, elephant, horse, pig, and other animals
destroy their young, each other, or man, from such motives

CEIME AtfD CKIMINALITY. 159

as anger, jealousy, revenge, or from morbid impulse or appe-
tite, or other pathological causes or conditions.

Certain birds — for instance, Indian crows — peck to death
their wounded fellows (Watson). Queen bees murder their
rivals, according to Huber, who attributes the procedure to
irresistible impulse ; in other words, he considers it as mor-
bid. The queen also massacres the royal pupse. Stranger
queens are destroyed by sentinel bees. There is a pitiless
massacre of drones by workers also among bees (Figuier).

Infanticide, as in man, is not infrequent in the puerperal
female, in which case the cause is pathological. At Katty-
mar, in India, there is a particular race or breed of mares
called the ' Pirani Taj an,' ' that persistently kill their young
by refusing to suckle them,' says Mr. Fernandez, who had
charge of the breeding-stables at the station above men-
tioned (c Times of India' newspaper, 1875). But the recently-
delivered mother is not the only devourer of her own young ;
for the morbid appetite is sometimes exhibited by the male
parent — for instance, in the wild hog, lion, rabbit, and per-
haps the wolf (Low).

Animals murder each other frequently in the fight, however
the latter arises, such combats to the death often resulting
from erotic excitement, or from rivalry for the possession of
the female. Hence the common occurrence of murder
among males, and the natural destruction of the weaker by
the more powerful.

Elephants, horses, asses, dogs, and other animals occa-
sionally murder man himself, commit veritable homicide, in
revenge or retaliation, in repayment of some well-remembered
injury or insult suffered at his hands.

Animals also frequently mutilate each other in various
ways or degrees, causing all manner of disablement. Such
mutilations are usually the result of bad temper, of fits of
passion, of morbid impulse, or of other forms of moral or
mental disorder.

The elephant, horse and other animals destroy each other's
or man's property utterly, or in various degrees, most usually
as the outcome of viciousness or of certain forms of mental
derangement. Thus the wanton and wholesale destruction

160 CRIME AND CRIMINALITY.

of man's property, dwellings, crops, gardens, by the ( mad '
or rogue elephant in India is notorious. In this case, as in
many others, a propensity for the destruction of property
coexists with a proneness to the destruction of life, both
forms of destructiveness being essentially morbid in their
nature, and attributable to mental disease. This supposition
is borne out by the fact that such destructiveness is so
frequently aimless : it can serve no good purpose to the de-
stroyer, save that it affords a vent for his fury. And it is
interesting here to note that a precisely similar kind of
destructiveness occurs commonly among the human insane,
and is familiar to the authorities of every lunatic asylum.

But in other cases, destruction of property, like that of
life, is the result in other animals, as in man, of what is
called a love of sport. The wolf, dingo, collie, terrier, fre-
quently destroy both life and property, weasels or rats,
simply to gratify their love of sport, or to give vent to their
passions (Low) ; their destructiveness is gratuitous, wanton,
malicious, but it only places them on a par with the most
highly civilised men — the pigeon-murderers of Hurlingham,
for example.

Various animals such as the dog and elephant frequently
become confederates or accomplices of man in his crimes, in
crimes intended exclusively for his benefit. They co-operate
with him ingeniously, faithfully, zealously, effectively, in all
manner of theft, including shop-lifting, sheep-stealing, high-
way robbery, poaching, brigandage and smuggling, as well
as in certain forms of murder. They act as man's instru-
ments, assistants, or substitutes, as the case may be, fre-
quently playing their part in his absence and without any
immediate or direct supervision.

But in all, or at least in most, of such cases, the animal
accomplice has been deliberately trained to its nefarious
work by man, and though he, the man, ought to be re-
sponsible for all the results of such training, it will be seen
in other chapters that too frequently it is the clever animal
assistant that bears the penalty of the crime, while the more
astute, selfish and calculating master escapes. The training
bestowed develops in animal criminals a high degree of

CRIME AND CRIMINALITY. \^ 161

intelligence, of which they are constantly required to make
appropriate use. Thus they convey information to their
master by peculiar voice- sounds understood, perhaps even
heard, only by him. They communicate their own ideas
(Walsh). They understand necessarily their master's words,
even his looks and actions. They recognise mere strangers
from enemies.

This high intelligence is due, not merely to the special
education conferred, but to the close association of the
animals with man as his friend and companion, as well as
his assistant or servant. Such is the case, for instance with
the lurcher — the poacher's dog.

Sir Walter Scott and the Ettrick Shepherd have made
us familiar with the history of the sheep-stealing collie,
' Yarrow,' and of other celebrated canine sheep-stealers of
the south of Scotland, that figured in its criminal annals.
'Yarrow' avoided committing its master by bringing him
under suspicion in any way (Watson), pretending, for
instance, not to recognise him if they met in public (Scott) .

Animal criminals watch the human guardians of the law,
and take advantage of their momentary inattention : in other
words, they wait for, and seize at once suitable opportunity
for their illegal performances or practices, obviously knowing
them to be illegal. On the French frontiers dogs are em-
ployed in the smuggling of lace, as well as of tobacco.

The following case came to light in Paris in 1874.1 For
a long time various kinds of small wares had disappeared
mysteriously from a certain large emporium for the sale of
miscellaneous ornamental or fancy goods. All efforts on the
part of the quick-witted and observant Parisian detectives
had failed to discover the thief. It had never occurred —
either to any of the employes, or to the police, all of whom
were on the alert — to suspect a dog that had, nevertheless,
been frequently seen in the establishment, but which was
naturally supposed to have accompanied some customer or
customers. At length the mode of theft was discovered by
accident by an inspector of police. It proved that the wily

1 ' North British Daily Mail,' November 26, 1874.
VOL. II. M

162 CEIME AND CRIMINALITY.

and sagacious animal acted in the employ of a woman, who
waited for her canine accomplice in the street some way off.
She placed a basket beside herself on the pavement as if
fatigued by carrying it ; the dog came sauntering or trotting
up with his booty concealed in his muzzle ; he thrust his
head beneath the half open lid of the basket as if in search
of provender, and safely deposited in the basket what he
had carried in his mouth.

In other large cities, various dogs have assisted their
masters — or more frequently their mistresses — in shop-lifting.
Thus a case occurred at Memphis, Tennessee, in 1875,1 in
which a dog co-operated with its mistress, who was tried
before, and found guilty in, the Criminal Court there. The
animal had been trained to steal foods from stores and to
convey them outside to its mistress. ' Much trouble,' we are
told, and we do not doubt it, 'had been bestowed on his
education by a skilful professional thief.5

Animals co-operate also with each other in crime. Thus
they make combined or conjoint marauding expeditions,
resembling the thievish raids Highland caterans used to
make on their English neighbours.

Such an incident as the following illustrates not only
confederacy with each other, but ingenuity in the device of
means of effecting their object. Certain Indian crows were
most desirous of stealing a bone from a dog, and had al-
ready made various futile efforts to possess themselves of it.
4 At last, after a distinct consultation, one crow hopped off
with dejected mien and then unconcernedly approached the
dog from behind. Suddenly it seized him (the dog) by the
tail, and the dog at once viciously snapped backwards to
avenge the insult. In a moment the crow in front flew off
with the bone, followed by its able ally' (' Chambers's
Journal').

It is not enough, however, to show that many animals
commit crimes of the same nature as those of man, and that
they do so from similar motives and under similar circum-
stances. It must also be shown that other animals, as well

1 Described in the < Pall Mail Gazette ' of January 20, 1875.

CRIME AND CRIMINALITY. 163

as man, are conscious of the criminality, the illegality, of
their acts, are sensible of the nature and consequences of
wrong-doing — of doing, that is, what is forbidden by man.

Now, many of the lower animals show such moral
sensitiveness in a variety of ways.

1. Their criminal acts are executed in such a way as to
show that they recognise the necessity for secrecy and noise-
lessness in all their operations.

2. They exhibit their sense of guilt or shame on detection ;
they make confession of their criminality by look, gait or
otherwise.

3. They make ingenious efforts to conceal their crimes
by taking precautions against interruption, discovery, de-
tection or capture, removing or destroying the evidence of
their commission.

4. In some cases they express regret9 repentance or re-
morse, and endeavour to make reparation or atonement; or
they seek reconciliation.

The monkey, dog, cat or other expert animal thieves,
in proportion to their cultivated general intelligence and
special experience, take care that they are unobserved when
they commit their act of theft, or at least they fancy them-
selves unnoticed at the time. Hence their actions are
stealthy; they do nothing to attract attention, and every-
thing to disarm suspicion, proceeding noiselessly and looking
cautiously or furtively around from time to time, to make
sure that there are no human or other on-lookers. The
smuggler's clog conceals himself from the observation of the
human guardians of the law (Low), well knowing that it is
his business for the moment to circumvent them. A thievish
rook 'pretends to be very busy, and when she imagines that
no one is looking on,' commits her theft. CI have never
seen a theft committed openly, probably from the fear of
exciting popular indignation ' (' Chamber s's Journal '), a fact
that shows, on the one hand, that in some cases animal
thieves are as much afraid of each other, as witnesses of
their delinquencies, as they are of man, and that the nature
of the act of stealing is not only understood by many
animals, but condemned by them. The rat, too, prior to its

M 2

164 CKIME AND CRIMINALITY.

depredations, gives a wary glance round to see if it be free
from observation (Watson).

Dogs, cats, monkeys and other animals, when caught in
the act of theft, show their sense of detection or conviction
in evil doing by their abashed, or fear-stricken, sometimes
apologetic, look in man's presence: by their shrinking away
from before him, their skulking or hiding from him, their
avoidance of him in every possible way. Houzeau mentions
a siamang that, on detection in theft, stole out of the room.
An Indian crow after stealing an egg, eating it and dropping
the empty shell, * slunk away abashed, as if detected '
(' Chambers's Journal ').

The expression of shame is not always confined to the
moment of detection ; so that it is not the mere annoyance
of being found out in flagrante delicto that gives rise to the
phenomena just mentioned. For dogs at least show their
sense of shame sometimes long after the event, and when it
is only referred to orally and casually by man in their
presence.

Nor is guilt, in any form or degree, universally felt.
There are many animals, just as there are many men, that
are perfectly callous, indifferent, apathetic, non-sensitive.
They commit the most cruel crimes without compunction,
without any idea of their enormity, or of their being crimes
at all. In such cases, as is pointed out in another chapter,
there is probably a want of the moral sense or conscience, a
moral, if not also intellectual, defect, which renders the
animal or man irresponsible.

Young dogs resemble children in their enjoyment of
doing what is, and what they know to be, forbidden,
apparently just because it is forbidden. Hence they mani-
fest evident delight — self-conceit even — in their escapades,
their achievements in wrong-doing (Cobbe, Walsh). And,
just in the same way, they persist in doing what is forbidden
and in that sense what is wrong — in other words, they repeat
their offence in sheer wantonness, from a spirit of mischief
or perversity.

In order to elude detection, c Yarrow ' took a circuitous
route home with his booty by night, and other dogs exer-

CRIME AND CRIMINALITY. 165

cise similar circumspection and forethought (Watson). We
have already mentioned a pony that closed paddock gates
after itself to destroy proof of its having visited forbidden
pastures. Monkeys turn keys in doors, without noise, to
secure themselves against interruption, discovery or capture.
To remove or destroy the traces or proofs of crime, a collie
that surreptitiously worried sheep, and so had got its mouth
covered with blood, ' walked into the river, dipped his face in
the water, and shook his head backwards and forwards until
he thought that all traces of his guilt were removed.' Then
he went home to his kennel, ( and with the help of his paws
put on his collar ' (Wood). A cat stole eggs by rolling them
off a shop counter ; ' if the smash was unheard, she would
lap up the yolk, rubbing the shell amongst the sawdust to
prevent discovery ' (c Chambers's Journal ').

The stolen articles themselves are sometimes concealed
— as in the case, mentioned by Wood, of the elephant that
placed a lot of chupatties — a kind of large muffin — stolen
from a native cook, among the leaves of a tree, taking
special care that they should be completely hidden.

A dog has been known to feign sleep, in order to escape
detection (Wood), and other equally ingenious modes of as-
suming the appearance of innocence are adopted by the same
animal. Langstroth tells us, however, that ( there is an air
of roguery about the thieving bee, "VThich to the expert is
as characteristic as are the motions of a pickpocket to the
skilful policeman. Its sneaking look and nervous, guilty
agitation, once seen, can never be mistaken.5

The dog and other animals frequently deal with the
bodies of their murdered victims as man does : they bury
them carefully where they fancy they are not likely to be
looked for. Thus, a retriever who had killed a cat — had
committed an unprovoked murder — 'deliberately took the
cat in his mouth, carried it some distance, dug a deep hole
behind some bushes, and after depositing the cat therein,
carefully replaced the earth, and had he not been observed,
there would have been no evidence of the crime ' (•' Nature ') .
Again, a dog murdered a duck in a fit of jealousy ; he was
found before ' a half-filled grave, in which was deposited the

166 CEIME AND CRIMINALITY.

body of the murdered duck. His long hair had become
entangled in the thorns of a rose tree, while he was engaged
in burying his victim, and fear of detection and reproof had
caused him to remain a silent captive for so many hours'
(Wood).

In certain cases, the dog or other animals make, or try
to make, atonement for their thefts or other crimes — in the
case of theft for instance, by the restoration of stolen goods
to their proper owner; or in the case of a dog, rebuked
for greed as to food, by presenting to a starving fellow what
itself did not need (Wood). The siamang caught in theft
replaces the stolen goods (Houzeau).

There are yet sundry features in the natural history of
crime in the lower animals that require passing notice ; for
instance —

1. The deliberation and determination so frequently
evinced.

2. The ingenuity in devising means, including stratagem
or ruse, and cunning in using them.

3. The patience in waiting and watching for opportunity.

4. Intention or design to deceive or defraud, steal or
murder, as the case may be.

5. Knowledge of the consequence of crime — deserved
punishment.

6. Audacity.

7. Malice and relentlessness.

A fight between two Polar bears — male and female —
in the Zoological Gardens of Cologne, occurred in the
autumn of 1876. The female became exhausted, and was
then dragged by the male ' into the water basin in the den,
and held down till life was quite extinct. He then pulled
her out and dragged the body for a considerable time round
the den ' (c Nature '), perhaps to make sure of her death.
Precisely the same thing has been done, or attempted, by
the dog, in killing a rival or enemy by drowning : the head
of the victim is thrust under water and held there till there
can be no doubt of its death.

Certain ravens, desirous of stealing food from a dog,
adopted the following successful and simple ruse: they

CRIME AND CRIMINALITY. 167

irritated him so as to cause him to chase them to a distance,
when they literally 'flew' to his dish, outstripping him of
course, and carried off what they had coveted (Wood).

It is not a little curious — we cannot at present offer any
solution of the cause of the phenomenon — that the dog, and
perhaps other animals, both suspect and detect the crimi-
nality and crimes of man. Numerous instances have been
placed on record of dogs detecting and exposing, sometimes
capturing and punishing, human thieves and murderers,
theft or murder by man. But there is no evidence to show
how their suspicions as to the sinister designs or proceedings
of the human criminals are aroused. That such suspicions
are aroused we have ample evidence, as well as that, as in
man, they may be aroused without ground, may even be
morbid in their character, begotten by a disordered imagi-
nation. It is by no means uncommon, for instance, for dogs
to jealously watch every motion of every stranger, especially
in relation to their master's movables, objecting with surly
or angry protest to the removal of any property belonging to
a master. Wood tells us of a dog that pinned to the ground
a man who was simply and most innocently picking up from
the floor of a room a stray needle ; while another attacked a
man who helped himself to a ship biscuit. No matter the
value of the article, the dog recognised the property in both,
and in all similar, cases, as its master's, and it resents —
dangerously it may be — any interference with his property
in its master's absence.

Certain curious questions occasionally arise in connection
with the ethics of crime in dogs, cats and other animals that
exhibit singular inconsistencies of conduct. Thus a dog
has been known to guard, with the utmost honesty, its own
master's property, while it did not scruple to steal that of
other people. Mrs. Mackellar had a fox terrier that ( when
he was very young threatened to become a notorious thief of
other people's goods, though he watched ours so faithfully.'
A cat never stole anything for herself, 'but she would
always do so for any of the dogs.' Another cat stole meat
to feed a starving one that had got itself imprisoned in a
deep hole (Wood). No doubt we have here a certain kind

168 CEIME AND CRIMINALITY.

i

of generosity and hospitality, a practical and useful ex-
pression of sympathy. Nor is this kind of benevolence
peculiar to cats or others of the inferior animals, so called.
It is so common in lordly man to be generous with other
people's goods or money ! Whether, however, either in men
or cats, the end justifies the means in such forms of kind-
ness, is a subtle question we willingly leave to the moralist
or the theologian.

CHAPTER XII.

PHYSIOGNOMY OP DISEASE.

WHEN the physician speaks of the physiognomy of disease in
man he refers, not to mere facial expression, but to all those
modes of outward physical expression by which disease makes
its presence probable or obvious. This comprehensive form
of morbid physiognomy is of the utmost value in the detec-
tion or diagnosis of human disease. The mere glance at a
patient by a physician experienced in the observation and
interpretation of the outward expressions or manifestations
of the presence of internal disease, of a serious kind, fre-
quently enables him to distinguish the malade imaginaire
from the real sufferer — to suspect the existence of, by others
unsuspected, dangerous mischief The wise physician does
not, however, trust to his first impressions founded on the
mere general aspect, or on the facial character, of a patient.
He confirms his suspicion, or corrects it, by due examina-
tion with the stethoscope, microscope, and test-tube, or
other artificial aids to his diagnosis. But, in proportion to
his experience as an observer of the language of look and
gesture in man, of that language which is non-vocal, and
which so frequently characterises disease, will he find his
first suspicions abundantly confirmed. I have myself over
and over again had occasion to order to bed, for physical
examination, persons who were unaware of their own serious
condition, and whose state was never suspected by those
with whom they were in incessant contact — patients who
had none of the ordinary indications of dangerous disease,
but who, nevertheless, were in a hopeless, doomed state, life
being a matter of but a few weeks longer.

170 PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE.

The physiognomy of disease in other animals is not less
important than it is in man. More especially is it so in
reference to the early detection of those diseases which are
directly dangerous to human life— such as rabies and in-
sanity. The important and eloquent physiognomy of disease
in the lower animals has as yet met with small, if any,
attention ; whereas, if the physiognomy, for instance, of
insanity, or of other disorders, psychical or physical, in man
is important, it must be at least equally so in the case of
other animals, where the same kind of assistance in diagnosis
is not forthcoming, in consequence of the absence of speech
and writing. The whole comprehensive subject of the
physiognomy of insanity in the lower animals — the facial
expression, the facileness or ferocity of look that charac-
terise mental defect, silliness, or weakness, and all the varied
forms of mental derangement — have yet to be fully studied.
And this is but one important department of the still more
comprehensive subject of the physiognomy of disease, which
expresses itself outwardly in an infinite variety of facial or
general motor or other phenomena. In such animals as the
dog, horse, and ox the chief outward expressions of serious
internal disease — of mind or body, or both — are the fol-
lowing :—

I. Changes in look, including —

a. An indefinableness or indefinable strangeness of

the character of the eye, look, or gaze ; for
instance, in rabies (Fleming) or coming in-
sanity.

b. Vacancy and fixity of gaze or stare.

c. Brilliancy and restlessness of the eye, including

wildness, fierceness, or fieriness.

d. Immobility, impassiveness, or inexpressiveness of

feature or of facial expression.

e. The opposite condition of extreme mobility, in-

cessant feature- change ; e.g., in some forms of

insanity.
/. Unnatural gloom or gloominess of countenance ;

with the
g. Opposite state of unnatural vivacity.

PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE. 171

II. Changes in action, conduct, or habit, including —

a. Eccentric and erratic movements, such as —
Peculiarities of posturing or attitudinising.
Antics or capers.

Gyration ; e.g., in the phrenitis of the lamb
(Youatt).

6. Awkwardness or clumsiness of movement, in-
cluding a stumbling, uncertain, precipitate
gait.

c. Morbid desire for movement or muscular action,

involving —

O

Restlessness and exaggerated activity of
movement.

d. Aimlessness of action — sudden, objectless change

of attitude or place, useless bustle, and to-and-
fro hurry.

e. Indisposition to, or slowness of, action; indo-

lence or laziness, frequently with a tendency
to self-isolation.

/. Loss of the power of maintaining physical equili-
brium, e.g., during repose.

g. Various forms of automatic, mechanical, or un-
conscious action (Pierquin).

h. General violence, outrageousness, or unruliness
of conduct, including proneness to assault.

i. General mischievousness.

j. Specific forms of violence or mischief : by-
Biting, in the dog and horse ; kicking, plung-
ing, and shying, in the horse.
Tricking and worrying, in the dog ; gnawing,
in the horse.

III. Changes in the natural character or disposition,
including —

a. The development either of marked general ex-

citement or depression.

b. Temper-changes also of a marked kind, such as —

Fractiousness in petted or pampered animals.
Peevishness from many forms of ill-health.

172 PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE.

General irascibility or irritability, probably
leading to—

Pugnacity and quarrelsomeness.
Sullenness or moroseness.

c. The development of various vicious morbid pro-

pensities or impulses, including —
Morbid appetite.

d. Perversions of the natural affections.

e. The generation of natural or causeless alarm,

associated with a general ' nervousness ' ; or,
on the other hand,
/. The substitution of fearlessness, or a pathological

indifference, for natural timidity.
g. Feebleness of will, or total loss of volitional
power, involving a general loss of control over
the ideas, feelings, propensities, or actions.
IV. — Changes in the usual voice or other sounds — in the
ordinary forms of language.

V. Changes in the general bodily functions, physiological
or pathological, such as cutaneous, circulatory, nervous, and
muscular disturbances.

VI. Changes in the special senses and in the special func-
tions of sensation — in vision, smell, touch, or taste.

VII. Changes in general or special intelligence, involving
the loss or perversion of faculties or aptitudes, and the con-
sequent development of a non- protective stupidity.

Such stupidity involves —

a. Loss of the love of life.

&. Loss of all ordinary caution.

c. Loss of the power of self-defence against insect

or other plagues or enemies.

d. Loss of obedience ; non-obedience or inattention

to a master's voice, call, or order.

e. Diminished power of observation, calculation,

and attention, involving, for instance —
Non-recognition of man or master.
Non-recognition of danger.
Non- avoidance of obstacles or noxious ob-
jects.

PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE. 173

So numerous and varied are the outward expressions of
disease, as faintly sketched in the foregoing catalogue, that
it is obviously impossible, in a single chapter, to discuss
them seriatim. Nor is this at all necessary or desirable,
for two reasons : (1) that many of them have already been
referred to in other chapters, particularly those concerning
insanity, its symptomatology and etiology, and those on
language; ^2) that many others are not of a character
falling within the scope of this work to discuss, belonging
rather to comparative pathology than to comparative
psychology. But it is proper here to make further allusion
to some of the varied forms of the language of disease,
adding certain general observations of a practical kind.

The eye frequently betrays the varying shades of mental
excitement, whether such excitement occurs in the transient
form of anger, passion, rage, or fury, or in the more perma-
nent and serious condition of mania. The so-called c fierce-
ness ' of eye is frequently, if not always, a bloodshot state,
the result of sanguineous engorgement — a condition, in other
words, of local congestion. Staring, glaring eyeballs or eyes
are a frequent indication or concomitant of insanity. But
mere rage also is expressed by the glistening or glaring of
the eye — e.g., in the lizard (Darwin). The dog's eye is not
less expressive of disease or pain, mental or bodily, than of
pleasurable emotions. Youatt refers to the ' savage ' look
of the wretched, ill-used pariah dogs of Eastern cities.
Veterinarians speak of the anxious, worried, wild eye or
look of the shying horse. The eye of various animals may
show melancholy as well as ferocity : it becomes dull, dead,
sad. A ' melancholy ' look, the outcome of a corresponding
mental feeling, has been described in the dog, ape or monkey,
and many other animals. The ( look of despair ' is a pre-
cursor sometimes of suicide in the dog, just as it is in man
(Cobbe).

Sympathy with man's sufferings sometimes causes ' sad-
ness ' of countenance or look in the dog (Low) — a kind of
sadness that is begotten perhaps of sadness of thought, as
well as of mere emotion. A ' woebegone ' expression of
countenance occurs frequently after a carouse, from causes

174 PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE.

that are presumably in great measure, if not altogether,
physical. Brehm describes the c pitiable ' expression of a
baboon's face, accompanying headache, after a debauch ; as
he does also the grimaces of drunken apes. A woeful cast
of features is exhibited also in griefs of all kinds. Dr. John
Brown speaks of the ( sour ' or * glum ' look of the dog.

Gravity of look, as of demeanour, is a common indication
of disease, actual or approaching, though it is an attribute
also of mere age. It is an accompaniment of decay of the
mental and bodily powers ; and it is said, moreover, to be a
natural characteristic of certain animals. In the young,
however, it may be safely regarded as morbid — as an indica-
tion of disease, mental or bodily ; and it is a symptom or
condition always significant, even in the adult. No doubt
experience — especially that of want and persecution — of the
seriousness of life will beget it ; and where such a cause is
readily provable there need be no difficulty in accepting this
view of its etiology.

Want of expression in the face or features, impassiveness
of facial expression, has been remarked upon in the orang.
But the commentator (Buchner) adds to his statement that
the said orang's * features remained always alike .... just
as those of savages do ' — in which case it did not necessarily
point to the presence of, or arise from, disease. Grenville
Murray draws attention to the occasional want of expression
or of expressiveness in the features or facial physiognomy of
the dog, as well as to the evil expression of its countenance,
both under certain circumstances.

Biting is a habit or action that deserves special attention
in reference to its occasional pathological origin and signifi-
cance. In such animals as the dog and horse it may, as has
been shown in another chapter, be a mere act of self-defence,
as when either animal is teased by mischievous children, or
when the bitch is harassed by her own pups ; or it may be
quite innocuous, as when the toothless pup bites in play.
But, on the other hand, it may possess a serious significance,
which is either not properly understood or is perversely mis-
understood, in reference, for instance, to rabies. In the dog
it cannot be sufficiently borne in mind that the propensity to

PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE. 175

bite is not peculiar to rabies ; that biting, is not exhibited by
every rabid animal ; and that every biting animal is not neces-
sarily rabid. Biting has, therefore, no symptomatic or diagnos-
tic value per se (Pierquin), a fact that ought to be comforting to
those timorous people who regard every biting dog as neces-
sarily ( mad ' or rabid. Too frequently this tendency to bite
is the direct result of man's ill-usage, or of the fretfulness
which such ill-usage engenders.

But it is not the less to be regarded on that account.
For whatever be the cause or origin of the habit or action,
biting by the dog is at all times an important symptom, or,
a vice, in itself — one fraught with possible danger to man, in
so far as the bite of a merely angry or furious, non-rabietic
dog has been known, or alleged, to produce hydrophobia in
man (Parkinson). There is nothing either impossible or
improbable in the alleged occurrence from such a cause of so
serious a mishap, because the bite of man himself, or other
animals, in fury or mania — not in a state of rabies — is
sometimes fatal in or to other men or animals. The bite of
man himself, though it does not here quite appear whether
at the time he was hydrophobic, is said to have produced
hydrophobia in other men (Pierquin). The salivary secre-
tion both of man and other animals under rage or mania,
which may be regarded practically as merely different de-
grees of what is essentially the same condition, would appear
to be, or to become, diseased, poisonous, and virulent 'when
inoculated into or in other men or animals ; that is if it be
true, as Pierquin asserts, that a bite in either of the mental
conditions mentioned, and whether by man or other animals,
may lead to tetanus or convulsions as well as hydrophobia.

What has been called in the carnivora the biting ( in-
stinct ' becomes strongly developed in various forms of
insanity in them (Pierquin). But biting may appear under
circumstances of disease or in captivity in animals in which
it is not a natural aptitude, e.g., in rabid sheep (Pierquin).
And in such cases of course it has a special diagnostic and
prognostic significance, exhibited as it is only under abnor-
mal conditions of mind and body.

In the horse, according to Youatt, crib-biting may arise

176 PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE.

from imitation or idleness, while biting the person may be
the result of —

1 . Ferocity of temper — there being no provocation.

2. Annoyance or teasing by man — intentional irritation,
as well as mere play on his part.

3. A desire simply to attract man's attention (Houzeau).

4. Pretence or make-believe, as in the case of the dog ;
but in both cases there is the same risk of ' fun ' passing too
readily into c earnest.'

Snappishness, the propensity to snap and snarl, literally
or figuratively, is a common synonym for bad temper or
morbid irascibility, both in man and other animals.

Licking of man's face, hands, feet, or other uncovered
parts of the body, though usually innocuous, and a common
expression of affection, attachment, respect, confidence, or
gratitude on the part of the dog and cat, is nevertheless a
practice not to be too much encouraged, because, in certain
diseased states, the morbid saliva may readily gain access
to man's system through any trivial, perhaps unnoticed
scratch or cut, and may thus produce the much-dreaded
hydrophobia. It is in fact in this way — by the application
of the morbid saliva to, and its absorption by, some cut,
scratched, or otherwise wounded surface, some simple abra-
sion perhaps of man's skin — that the introduction of the
rabietic virus frequently, if not usually, takes place.

On the other hand, Houzeau regards the dog's lick as
often equivalent to man's embrace, kiss, or hand-shake ; it
is a friendly, or more than friendly, act of salutation. Lick-
ing its master's feet by the dog is quite comparable to the
Pope's foot or toe kissing by his fellow-men in the Eoman
Vatican ; in both cases it is an act of adoration, neither more
nor less. In the cat, rabbit, guinea pig (c Animal World '),
and domestic animals in general (Houzeau), in many animals
besides the dog, licking may mean or indicate sympathy or
compassion only ; or it may express one or more of many
other feelings, such as appeal, confidence, friendliness, re-
spect, submission, or fear.

Worrying is common in various forms of disease, mental
or bodily. It is, for instance, one of the concomitants or

PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE. 177

symptoms of insanity in the dog and horse, and frequently
leads in them to mutilation of person or destruction of life.
On the other hand, it may be an expression of mere temper,
or it may occur as a diversion and pretence in the puppy.
The worrying of sheep by dogs is frequently difficult of
explanation on any other supposition than that it is a
morbid propensity, the outcome of mental disorder. There
is no apparent motive; food is not required; it does not
seem mere sport; it may be gratuitous cruelty. This
absence of motive in the acts of other animals, as of man,
affords presumptive evidence that such acts are determined
by mental disease.

Proneness to assault or attack may arise from a morbid
combativeness, and thus be the result of disease. But it is
also an occasional expression of the mere sense of strange-
ness of a visitor, of suspicions, of antagonism or antipathy,
or of revenge — all, for instance, in the dog. General out-
rag eousness of conduct in domestic animals, previously noted
for their docility, is a common expression of acute disease,
mental or bodily — such as mania or rabies. Unruliness,
however, for instance, in the colt, while it may be the fruit
of disease, may also arise from simple temper or vice, from
maliciousness or mischievousness, or from fear.

General restlessness of body, incessant, objectless moving
from place to place, fidgetiness, perpetual motion, is a com-
mon result of mental excitement of whatever kind. Pawing
the ground in the horse may indicate a dangerous degree or
kind of irritability, as well as mere eagerness, restlessness,
impatience, or weariness at waiting ; or its object may be
simply to attract man's notice.

Kicking in the horse is another vice, dangerous to man,
that is too frequently produced by his own ill-usage. It is
the usual outcome of that kind of fidgetiness or irritability,
which is the natural product of habitual teasing by man.
It is, in short, one of the poor animal's natural means of
self-defence against him or other enemies or tormentors.
Plunging, jumping, prancing, rearing, flinging, all of them
dangerous to man, are common expressions of loss of temper
under a castigation that is too often injudicious, unjust,

VOL. II. N

178 PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE.

or disproportionate (Youatt). Whether indicating merely
a passing anger or fury, or from whatever deeper and more
permanent cause arising, such habits render a horse useless
for cavalry or other purposes of man's (Pierquin). The mere
shying of the horse, again, may spring from fear, cowardice,
imagination, or delusion, the newness of objects, want of
work, playfulness, the memory of ill-usage or accident ; or
it may occur in age from defective vision, and thus have an
organic cause (Youatt).

Antics, capers, or other absurdities or peculiarities of
behaviour, attitude or action, may result — and frequently do
so— from disease, especially that affecting the brain or its
membranes. But they may also arise from —

1. Love, and the desire to please or charm the female in
courtship.

2. The mere buoyant sense of life in the young.

3. The exhilaration of release from irksome duty, of the
feeling of holiday liberty, as in cart or plough horses on
Sundays.

Certain animals give emission to special sounds or noises
under nervous excitement, or strong emotion. Thus we have
the ' death-agony ' scream. The dog has sometimes par-
oxysms of 'hysterical screaming5 from terror (Cobbe). Its
f bark of despair ' has been described as one of the character-
istics of rabies. The bawl of excitement that accompanies
the furious assault or charge of maddened bullocks in our
city streets must be only too familiar. The Chillingham bull
bellows its defiance (Aylmer) ; and by bellowing the stag
challenges his rival (Darwin). In the moose, ox, and other
animals, bellowings are the fruit simply of anger, impatience
or annoyance, as well as of rivalry.

Pain is frequently expressed in other animals, as in man,
by yelling. Moaning is an equally common expression of
physical suffering and mental grief ; and the same may be
said of groaning and other equivalent sounds. Indeed, among
the kinds of cries that are most familiar are those, frequently
plaintive ones, of bodily pain or mental distress, that are
quite as common as those of joy or satisfaction — for instance,
in birds, such as the rook. Parturition in the hen begets an

PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE. 179

agitation, excitement, or fury even, all which are indicated
by her cry.

On the other hand, there may be an absence of the usual
voice-sounds ; taciturnity may take the place of noisiness.
Taciturnity is sometimes an accompaniment of melancholia ;
occasionally it is said to be a natural characteristic of a
species or individual ; or it may be both natural and morbid
in the same species or individual under different circum-
stances, as in the lori (Cassell).

The whole phenomena of mental excitement are important,
in relation especially to the incidence of insanity ; for such
excitement is often only the first stage of mania. Perhaps
the most important feature connected with it is its duration.
If protracted it is but too apt to become also intensified, in
which condition it either amounts to, or passes into, mania.

The ' wildness ' of excitement is frequently referred to by
writers. Animals are said to be, from very opposite causes,
( wild with excitement ; ' for instance, young sporting dogs
on some of their first expeditions. This wildness expresses
itself in a great variety of ways, involving especially many
singularities of conduct. £ High spirits,' including an ex-
uberant friskiness and frisking, are sometimes literally the
converse of c low spirits ' in the same animal, the two condi-
tions alternating as in man, and both being essentially mor-
bid. On the other hand, unnaturally high spirits in such an
animal as the dog may be merely the effect of exuberance of
joy. But in such a case, as is pointed out in another
chapter [on f The Moral Causes of Insanity '], there is danger
arising from the excess of the emotion.

Excitability — the liability to become excited — so common
and natural in the young, becomes, as in man, moderated in
age.

A familiar form of excitement that may be either physi-
ological or pathological, according to circumstances, and
correspondingly simply amusing or dangerous, is that of
stall-fed cattle on their emancipation in spring. Having
been confined during the long, gloomy, severe winter weather
to their byres, they are sent out to pasture on some sunny
spring day. At first they appear dazed or giddy. But

H 2

180 PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE.

gradually, as they become accustomed to the change, they
give vent to their sudden and unusual sense of exhilaration
in what is usually described as a e mad ' careering about their
paddocks, their tails flying or flashing in the air. Every
spring, wherever there are grass parks and dairy cows, such
a familiar sight may be seen. Here the effect produced—
the excitement — is partly physical, partly mental. On the one
hand there is the sudden change to fresh or pure air, with
its stimulating oxygen, as well as exposure to another physi-
cal stimulant — that of light — with the opportunity for, and
all the invigorating effects of, muscular exercise ; while, on
the other, we have the sense of freedom substituted for that
of confinement and restraint.

Instead of excitement we may, and often do, have the
opposite condition of depression as an expression of disease.
It is frequently marked by, or it leads to, listlessness, impa.s-
siveness, inertness, apathy, lethargy, or the following more
specific states or phenomena : —

1. Heedlessness of surroundings or events, or even of
the animal's own immediate interests and necessities ; equal
insensibility or non-sensitiveness to physical, mental, or
moral influences, to blows or lashes, to a master's entreaties,
caresses, orders, or scoldings, to the stings of flies or other
insect pests ; placid endurance of, or non-resistance to,
punishment.

2. Self-isolation from the society of their own species, or
man, including self-concealment, seclusion, or hiding in
strange places, e.g. by the dog.

3. Loss of appetite, abstinence from food, leading neces-
sarily to emaciation and general debility, and perhaps by
marasmus to death.

Enough has already been said in this chapter alone to show
that there is the same difficulty that exists in the case of the
language of health, in our interpretations of the physical
expressions of disease. This arises from the fact that the
same expression may be the fruit both of healthy and of
diseased conditions ; and it is not always easy to determine
whether, in a, given case, we have to deal with health or
disease.

PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE. 181

Thus the flight of a dog along the crowded streets of a
city is not necessarily attributable either to terror or insanity.
But this simple and natural action of the animal's is so apt
to be misunderstood by an ignorant, superstitious populace,
that it is usually ascribed to madness. The cry of 'mad dog'
immediately begets persecution: that produces in a timid
animal terror and despair, if they did not previously exist ;
vicious biting is developed in self-defence ; and rabies itself, or
ephemeral mania, may occasionally really result under such
circumstances (Pierquin). The shrieks or screams of rabies
may be, and probably are, attributable to delusional alarm.
But not necessarily so ; for they may spring also from mere
bodily pare.

Disease, mental or bodily, may give rise to, or be ex-
pressed by — in the first instance at least — some one group of
the changes already enumerated as constituting a sort of
language of disease — that is to say, our attention is arrested
at first, or for the time, by some one group, such as change
in look, voice-sound, or behaviour. But more usually, and
sooner or later, the groups are conjoined in various combina-
tions, so that in the course of any given disease, whether of
mind, or body, or both, we have to do with perhaps the whole
series of changes in question, which may be developed in
any order of precedence and succession.

Thus the morbid mental phenomena of phrenitis in the
sheep or lamb (Youatt) include, in the order of their deve-
lopment—

1. Change of aspect and habits.

2. Delirium.

3. Fury — variously described as, and amounting to, fero-
city, franticness or frenzy, or mania, marked by its sudden-
ness and periodicity, its paroxysmal occurrence — in fits.

The whole series of symptoms is here apt to be confounded
with those of rabies.

The morbid mental phenomena of sturdy in the same
animals, the sheep and lamb, according to Pierquin include
both motor and mental peculiarities, viz :—

1. Indifference to, or non -recognition of, the dog and
shepherd ; passing into general apathy.

182 PHYSIOGNOMY OF DISEASE.

2. Look — dull, stupid, vacant.

3. Assaults on both dog and shepherd, including a ten-
dency to bite, an obviously abnormal propensity in the sheep.

4. Anorexia.

5. Unsteadiness of gait, with gyration.

6. Death by paralysis, coma, or convulsion.

Most usually there is equal change of aspect and be-
haviour, of facial physiognomy and muscular movement, in
various forms of internal disease in the lower animals. Thus
both in rabies and certain forms of insanity wildness or
fierceness is expressed equally by eye or look, and manner or
actions.

There are certain bodily diseases that are apt to be con-
founded with insanity, from their being preceded or accom-
panied by the same kind of mental symptoms. These diseases
include the following : —

1. Acute inflammations of the brain or its membranes,
including especially—

a. Phrenitis, or < mad staggers ' of the sheep ; and

b. The c frenzy ' or ' brain fever ' of the lamb, both
according to Youatt.

2. Hydatids in the brain, which cause (e.g.) the ' sturdy '
of sheep.

3. Various functional disorders of the brain or general
nervous system.

4. Acute inflammations of the spinal cord or its mem-
branes.

5. General fevers, such as the various forms of typhus or
distemper.

6. General systemic or blood disorders, such as rabies.

CHAPTER XIII.

CAUSATION OF MENTAL DIFFEEENCE AND DISOEDEE.

General Considerations.

As a general rule, the causes of mental difference and dis-
turbance in other animals are the same in kind as, though
not perhaps equal in number to, those operative in man.
Man's peculiar, and especially artificial, habits render him
obnoxious to certain disturbing causes, from which most
other animals, living more healthy lives, are free ; while, on
the other hand, there are certain causes that are more power
fully or frequently operative in other animals than in man.

The causes productive of insanity in the lower animals
are so numerous and varied that it is impossible, in the pre-
sent work, to do more than merely catalogue them, making
comments on a few of them only in order to show their
special power or significance.

In man the causes of mental disease are usually divided
into —

1. Physical or bodily ; and

2. Moral or mental.

And the same classification may be convenient also in
regard to other animals. But in either case — in the case of
man as much as in that of other animals — such a classifica-
tion must be regarded as purely arbitrary, artificial, and one
of convenience. In the majority of cases of mental disorder
— both in man and other animals — its causes are complex or
mixed, partly physical or bodily, and partly moral or mental.
Causation is seldom simple ; the cause seldom single. Usu-
ally there is nothing more difficult in the study of the
natural history of insanity, or in the investigation of an

184 CAUSATION OF MENTAL

individual case of mental disorder in man, than to determine
the exact nature or number of its cause or causes. Fre-
quentty, if not generally, causation is obscure, uncertain,
indirect, not easy of discovery, estimation, determination, or
definition. Only exceptionally is it direct, obvious, or
demonstrable.

Superadded to an immediate or exciting cause, there is
generally a predisposing or remote one ; and this predisposi-
tion itself may be of the most complex structure or nature —
the accumulated result of qualities — both physical and riieiital,
inherited from a long ancestry. Moreover, the distinction
between predisposing and exciting causes is frequently
quite as artificial as that between physical and mental,
though both sets of terms are equally convenient expres-
sions of provisional opinions, or provisional results of
inquiry. What is a predisposing cause in one case, or at
one time, may become an exciting cause in or at another,
or vice versa.

The suddenness of the incidence of a cause has also an
important bearing on the results producible by that cause.
Thus the suddenness of any unusual noise has much to do
with the genesis of fear.

A cause may be external to an animal, and in that case
apparent or obvious to man ; or it may be internal and patho-
logical, and in this case unintelligible to, or difficult of deter-
mination by, human on-lookers, even of a specially educated
kind. Causes, however, that are apparently difficult of dis-
covery, and that are overlooked even by the veterinarian, are
sometimes sufficiently obvious if properly searched for — the
most familiar instance of which is mania from intestinal
worms in the dog (Youatt and Cobbold).

Naturally a cause may be expected to be operative in
proportion as it is prolonged or repeated — in other words, in
relation to its intensity and duration. This remark applies to
all classes of causes, whether they are physical — as exposure
to cold and heat ; mental — as grief or anger ; or mixed — as
man's cruelty or neglect.

Thus anger, in its intenser forms of rage or fury, may
be really ' a short madness,' as the Koman poet calls it. The

DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 135

mischief it does, whether temporarily or permanently, bears
relation both to its duration and intensity. Maternal affec-
tion even is sometimes violent in its intensity, but as limited
in duration as it is intense in degree. In other words, its
duration is in proportion to its intensity (White).

Given a result and a variety of possible or probable causes,
it is frequently difficult, if not impossible, to determine
which of these causes is influential, or the most influential.
The hamster, for instance, devours its own young, not from
need of food, but, as it has been ingeniously suggested by
Pierquin, perhaps from want of milk. In other words, he
suggests the possibility that the apparently morbid appetite
may be really due to an exuberance of maternal love and
caution, and not to its coldness or absence. The idea, how-
ever, does more credit probably to the heart than the head
of the ingenious apologist. It is, at least, a fair sample of
the allegation or assumption of possible causes or motives
by comparative psychologists in the attempted explanation
of puzzling phenomena. The anger roused in the couxio
(monkey) by artificially wetting its beard may or may not
depend upon its love of personal cleanliness, dryness, or
tidiness.

The multiplicity of causes in operation in a given result
may be illustrated by a great variety of familiar incidents.
Thus the fierce fighting which leads to the death of so many
animals in rut is due to a combination of the separately
powerful influences of sexual love, rivalry, and jealousy.

The fear of the Ohillinghain bull by the horse, as de-
scribed by Aylmer, may arise —

1. Merely from the unusualness of the spectacle.

2. The glowering of the equally startled and frightful-
looking bull ; or it may be —

3. A hereditarily transmitted dread of this class of bulls
in particular, or of bulls in general.

Again, the horse shows alarm at the presence or approach
of a leopard, but it does not appear whether sight or smell
is the medium through which the feeling of dread arises.
A cat being frightened by a peacock, a sort of terror-mania
was the result, involving utter loss of self-possession, fol-

186 CAUSATION OF MENTAL

lowed by a permanent timidity, that permitted the animal
to feed only in its master's presence (' Animal World'). In
this case the unfamiliar alarming object and spectacle —
especially the spreading of the gorgeous tail — was associated
with the unexpected and startling cry of the beautiful bird
in the causation of the result in the cat. In the hare, fox
or other hunted animals the effect of incessant alarm and
anxiety cannot be dissociated from that of want of food,
exposure to the weather, exhaustion of the race for life
against horse or hound. In panics during prairie, city, or
farmyard fires, terror from the glare or light, the sense of
helplessness or despair from the inability to escape from the
tether, stall, or stable, the physical pain of being scorched
or burned — all combine to ( madden ' horses, cows, or other
domestic or wild animals.

In many cases it is not easy to determine which of the
senses is the medium or channel of the impression that dis-
turbs the mind. Thus in the cat bird, frightened by a hare-
skin, either sight or smell may have been the sense affected,
or both may have been affected in equal or different degrees.

In the production of a given result there is frequently a
combination or co-operation of causes of different kinds, both
mental and physical. Thus there is both an obvious physical
cause — bodily pain, associated with a mental one, terror — in
the case of reindeer bit by lemmings, the combined result
being that the ' maddened ' reindeer plunge, bite, tread, and
stamp wildly, unintentionally killing in large numbers the
causes of their torments.

From the usual complexity of the causation, and the
multiplicity of the causes of mental disturbance in the lower
animals, the frequent remoteness and indirect operation of
these causes, their accumulation and intensification by re-
peated inheritance, the determination in them of the etiology
of insanity is attended with the same kind of difficulties as
in man.

Often there is no apparent cause of mental derangement.
Even insanity is, or appears to be, spontaneous or idiopathic
in its origin or growth ; or the cause is trivial in reality or
appearance, inadequate or disproportionate to the result.

DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 187

Thus the exciting or immediate cause of insanity in the
horse is sometimes simply the sight of the conditions under
which it has been overworked or ill-used ; while accessions
of fury in the same animal are occasionally determined by
mere touch (Pierquin), just as they are in the rabietic dog
by sights, sounds, or other sensations. It illustrates the
saying, ' What great events from trivial causes spring,' that
the rabbit, dog, cat, sow, and other animals require only the
slightest disturbance of themselves or their lairs to lead them
to devour their own young (White).

Domestic quarrels, some slight, real or supposed, the
presence of some stranger, may develop cannibalism, espe-
cially in the mother recently delivered. But in such a case
we have, along with a trivial exciting cause, a very powerful
predisposing one ; and the converse also frequently happens,
that a powerful exciting cause may suffice when the predis-
position is small, or appears to be absent. In the puerperal
state of the rabbit and other animals, as is shown in the
chapters on ' Physical Causes,' there is a morbid receptivity
of impressions on the senses — a morbid impressionability or
sensitiveness — just as there is also in rabies.

The apparent triviality of causation is frequently re-
markable in various forms of insanity, in panics or stampedes,
in all degrees of fear and of fury. The immediate cause of
abjectness of terror in a horse may be merely a piece of
white paper rolling or rustling along the road before the
wind in the twilight. But the probability is, in such a case,
that the animal is highly nervous, sensitive, or impression-
able. Soiling of their fur by young guinea pigs, we are told,
may lead to dislike to them by their own mother, and the
cause of other singular antipathies is even more trivial. The
marked liability of captive monkeys to outbursts of passion
is connected usually with trivial causation. Thus the couxio
(monkey) loses its temper, flies into a rage, at mere wetting
of its beard (Cassell). The exciting cause of panic is fre-
quently, though not in all cases, most trivial, so much so
that it may be difficult or impossible to discover it ; or when
discovered, to believe it can have had any influence in the
production of results so serious. The same piece of white

188 CAUSATION OF MENTAL

paper that startles and alarms one horse and sends it off in
a panic-flight may produce a stampede in a whole troop.
Here imitation or sympathy comes largely into play in the
epidemic diffusion of the terror, and of the impulse to flight
from an imaginary, utterly undefined danger.

Much fear, especially in panic, appears to be absolutely
causeless or groundless. Thus Pierquin refers to causeless
dread and panic in the sheep. Likings or fancies, as well as
antipathies or hatred, fright or fear, delusive panic, and all
the forms of insanity may, and do, appear without any obvious
external, assignable cause. That is to say, we cannot, or
do not, determine the probable cause or causes.

Causelessness, however, or triviality of cause may be only
apparent. It may be due to want of proper inquiry or ob-
servation, or to man's ignorance of the etiology of insanity
in the lower animals.

As in man, the same causes do not always operate in the
same way in —

a. Different genera and species ; in—

6. Different individuals of the same species ; or in —

c. The same individual at different times or under dif-
ferent circumstances.

d. They may be hurtful or operative at one time, and
innocuous at another.

e. All causes are liable to be modified by individual
peculiarities of temperament, disposition, or habit ; by
idiosyncrasies, physiological or pathological. And hence it
is that the same simple cause so frequently produces dif-
ferent results in different individuals.

In other words, the same causes may produce the most
diverse results. Thus the same poisonous agent or drug
begets different classes of mental symptoms in different
individuals, and still more in different genera and species.
The same terrifying object may produce either —

a. Stimulation of energy, increased action of the mental
faculties, leading to regulated flight ; or —

b. Confusion of ideas — a state of mental bewilderment,
ending in self- destructive follies — of precipitancy, thought-
lessness, or heedlessness ; or —

DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 189

c. Paralysis of thought and action, tending to dangerous,
perhaps fatal, inaction.

Thunder occasionally causes panic in menagerie animals,
the particular form in which fear shows itself differing in
species and genera so different as the tiger, elephant, camel,
and horse. Obstacles to the gratification of the sexual pas-
sion produce in some animals active excitement in the form
of fury, or of mania of the kind described in another chapter
as erotomania ; and in others a melancholic passivity, leading
to death by pining and marasmus, by self-starvation and
inanition. Again, the tumult of war produced in the street
dogs of Paris in 1871 a series of effects described by Gautier.
These effects included uneasiness, excitement ; the animals
were easily scared, and betook themselves to flight in abject
terror. But here many causes acted in combination — such
as unusual noises and sights ; the loss of masters, of homes,
and of food ; exposure to weather, and the casualties of a
siege. On the other hand, the greater tumult of the battle-
field has no effect — or, at least, no deterrent effect — on the
disciplined charger, or even on the officer's dog that goes
deliberately in search of its master through shot and shell,
flame and powder- smoke.

Per contra, the most dissimilar causes frequently produce
the same results — for instance, the same forms of insanity.

The same causes that produce mental, lead also to bodily,
disorder. They give rise equally to motor and mental
phenomena, to physical and mental disease — especially to
other diseases of the nervous system than insanity — includ-
ing, for instance, rabies, chorea, convulsions, paralysis, and
delirium, the form of the resultant disorder, both bodily and
mental, sometimes being determined by the age of the animal.

The fact that the same causes that lead to insanity in
the lower animals lead equally to, or are apt to do so, in part
at least, to rabies, has a special importance in reference to a
disease which inspires a greater intensity of popular terror
or horror, with a greater amount of popular error, than
perhaps any other single disease to which either the human
or animal body is subject. Though the proofs hitherto
adduced are perhaps insufficient to determine the point, it is

190 CAUSATION OF MENTAL

at least probable that rabies is occasionally primary or
spontaneous; and this probability is supported by the fact
that it can be produced artificially (Toppolin). Among the
causes — other than the bites of rabid animals — that are
stated to have produced, singly or in combination, or that
have assisted in producing, rabies in various animals, are the
following, according to Fleming and St. Cyr : —

1. Mental anxiety, agitation, or excitement.

2. Disappointments, and the emotion of grief produced
thereby.

3. The passions — of anger or jealousy especially.

4. Terror, especially if sudden, including the forcible
startling or awakening from sleep.

5. Eivalry and fights.

6. Scolds or upbraiding.

7. Nervousness, or nervous irritability, in certain breeds
of dogs.

8. Luxurious life ; confinement, with its want of exer-
cise ; and unwholesome food.

9. Sexual excitement or irritation, including excessive
or even natural sexual ardour ; non-gratification or incom-
plete gratification of the sexual instinct ; castration.

10. Physical pain — of all kinds.

It is important to bear in mind that mechanical, like
personal, restraint applied by man — e.g., the use of the
muzzle in the dog — is apt to produce, especially in hot
weather, ferocity, mania, or rabies (Pierquin).

Certain alleged causes are quite as properly to be re-
garded as forms of mental disturbance — for instance, anger,
fear, jealousy, ferocity; or they may be causes in certain
cases and forms in others. Much depends on their duration
as well as intensity. Thus in other animals, as in man,
there can be no doubt that ira furor brevis est. This state-
ment is specially applicable to the case of emotional disturb-
ance, to all extravagance, exuberance, or excess of feeling,
emotion, or passion, whether of an exciting kind, such as
joy, or a depressing character, such as grief. Even in their
ordinary degrees or forms fear, anger, or other passions or
emotions, while described as common causes of excitement

DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 191

in a great variety of animals — for instance, the cat — are
also themselves states of excitement.

The singular likes and dislikes of certain animals may
rather be said to amount than to give rise to genuine mental
disease. The cat-bird of North America has such a dislike
for the Felinae that it at once shows strong excitement in their
presence. It has no fear of the dog. But it has a marked
dread even of the skin of the hare (Dr. Adams) — a morbid
imagination probably operating to its mental disturbance.
The fear of intruders in mining wasps gives rise, or amounts,
to considerable mental excitement. It is morbid : moved by
a disordered imagination, a groundless dread, they make
repeated examination for supposed or possible intruders, a
procedure which, under other circumstances, might be de-
nounced as senseless and useless, amounting to, or indicative
of, stupidity or error (Duncan). The sexual furor readily
passes into a true love-madness ; desire or appetite gets
beyond the bounds of control, especially if its gratification
be opposed or prevented, while mania, melancholia, or
dementia may result. Maternal love sometimes amounts to,
rather than engenders, frenzy in the presence of danger to
offspring (Pierquin). Habitual suspicion or suspiciousness,
while it paves the way for delusion, is itself usually a mor-
bid mental state.

The question, in short, is very much one of degree. Thus
anger may exist in all the degrees of irritability or irasci-
bility, passionateness, or excitement : while it is just as apt,
as in man, to become excessive, pass beyond control, assume
a morbid and dangerous character, and develop or degene-
rate into ungovernable fury or ferocity, which in its turn is
but a stage short of acute mania.

Again, supposed causes may be mere results, concomi-
tants, or complications instead of antecedents. Causes and
complications, for instance, are apt to be confounded. Co-
existing bodily disorders are common, which may aggravate
insanity, though they have not originally produced it — for
instance, tubercle in the lungs or other parts of the body,
exhausting discharges, hydatids or other tumours in the
brain.

CHAPTER XIY.

PHYSICAL CAUSES OF MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER.

I. Physiological.

As in man, what are called the physical causes of mental
disturbance are, in other animals, probably on the whole the
most frequent and important (Pierquin). But the relative
frequency and importance of physical and moral causes in
them have yet to be determined ; for up to the present time
the etiology of insanity in the lower animals has not been
adequately studied.

Referable mainly to the so-called ' physical ' class of
causes of mental difference or disturbance in the lower
animals are the following : —

I. Normal or physiological bodily changes, including
those which are developmental ; such as —

Age. Rutting.

Sex. Pregnancy.

Dentition. Parturition.

Moulting. Lactation.

II. Abnormal or pathological conditions, which include —

1. Physical debility or degeneration, however aris-
ing ; such as from —

General ill-health, however induced.
Deficient, excessive, or improper aliment — food

and drink.

Exhaustion — of over-work, of shock.
Sleeplessness.
Bodily pain.

2. Specific derangements or diseases of—

The blood-supply, as to its—

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 193

Quantity,
Quality, and
Distribution.

The brain and its membranes.
Other parts of the nervous system.
Various other bodily organs or functions, in-
cluding especially —
The reproductive.
The stomach and bowels.
The skin and its accessories.
The heart and blood-vessels.

3. The results of the action of poisons and drugs,

especially on the brain and nervous system —
including the bites and stings of snakes, in-
sects, or other animals.

4. The effects of mechanical injury or irritation,

including the presence of foreign bodies,
castration, oviposition.

5. The results of consanguinity in alliances.

III. Exposure to atmospheric or climatic influences, in-
cluding—

Temperature — especially its changes, and the ex-
tremes of heat and cold.
Light — especially its absence or deficiency.
Electrical conditions.

IV. All sensorial impressions — especially certain

Colours, Smells, and

Sounds, Sights.

Examining in detail the extent and mode of operation of
some of the leading causes above tabulated, it has in the
outset to be noted that, as a general rule, they play very
much the same parts in the production of mental difference,
disorder, or decay in other animals that they do in man.

Thus old age has the same mental and physical accompa-
niments in other animals as in man. There is the same
gradual decadence of mental and bodily vigour ; the same
loss of memory and confusion of ideas ; the same loss of
mental aptitudes or accomplishments ; the same tendency to
childishness and fatuity ; the same degeneration of the

VOL. II. O

194 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

senses and of sensation; the same tendency to blindness,
deafness, muscular decrepitude and stiffness of the joints ;
the same indisposition to fatigue, bodily or mental ; the
same indifference to former pursuits and pleasures.

The decay of the mental powers — the mental degenera-
tion or weakness of senility — is observable, for instance, in
the old, worn-out horse or dog — the racer or harrier. This
mental degeneration involves the moral powers where they
have been developed to any appreciable extent. Thus in
certain old formerly well-behaved dogs there is, as in man,
a weakening of the moral sense — a yielding to, or non-resist-
ance of, temptation, an indecision of character — equally
attributable to gradual loss of will.

Not only, however, are the mental infirmities of age in
other animals perceptible to man, where he is at all ob-
servant ; they are felt also by the animals themselves. The
sense of decadence of physical strength in the horse and dog
leads to the cessation of the races or sports in which they
used to be engaged. They leave active and fatiguing
pursuits to the young, who are possessed of ardour as well
as vigour. They prefer to watch and wait rather than pur-
sue, recognising at once the necessity and advantage of
' taking things easy.' The old harrier substitutes cunning
for speed.

Age, however, is necessary to the development of the
mental powers equally in young animals and in the human
infant, though its rapidity and extent vary in different
species and genera. The acquisition of such qualities as
caution, cunning, wariness, which are obviously the result
of painful experience, is gradual, and it is one of the many
characteristics of age. The power, or at least the practice,
of reflection is developed, as in man, in proportion to age.
Attachment to the person of man, or to place, is also a
growth of or with age. There is an absence of any such
feeling, for instance, in the pup.

On the other hand, in age there is frequently a weaken-
ing or loss of the dislikes or furiosity that characterised
earlier periods of life — perhaps the greater part of its course
— while the violent forms of insanity — such as mania, which

• MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 195

appear in middle life, lose much or all of their violence, and
perhaps dangerousness, in age.

This, and certain other mental characteristics of age
among the lower animals, such as sedateness or demureness,
are advantageous both to the animals themselves, to their
fellows, and to man. But there are other equally common
and prominent features in character or disposition, begotten
by approaching senility, of which the same cannot be
said, for instance, moroseness, suspiciousness, irritability or
irascibility, savageness or ferocity, sullenness, sulkiness or
surliness, vindictiveness, distrustfulness, impatience, caprice,
ill-temper, touchiness or testiness of temper, readiness to
take offence, unsociality, apathy or lethargy, dulness or
stupidity, treacherousness, sourness of temper, discontent.
In some cases these evil qualities are only too probably the
fruits of man's ill-usage, including captivity, perhaps during
a series of years ; while in others they may be the result of
harsh treatment at the hands of younger competitors of
their own kind, in that ' struggle for life ' which is no less
keen among other animals than among mankind, civilised or
savage.

The moose is suspicious in proportion to its age, this
suspiciousness tending or leading gradually to morbid imagi-
nation and delusion (Gillmore).

The frequently marked contrast in character or disposition
in the same individual in youth and age is matter of as
daily observation in other animals as in man. Thus Baird
and other authors point out that the Barbary ape, the capped
ape, the chimpanzee, and various baboons, which in youth
are docile, gentle, affectionate to man, mild, placid, playful,
good-tempered, lively, intelligent, in age become ill-tempered,
fierce or ferocious, mischievous, sullen, morose,- intractable,
incorrigible, unteachable, untamable, obstinate, not amen-
able to punishment, dull, troublesome.

Such character-contrasts are as frequent in the dog as
in various species and genera of monkeys. The dignified
silence and repose of dogs when they grow in years contrast
remarkably with the noisy, restless vivacity of their youth.
The manners of the parrot and other pet animals, which in

o 2

196 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

youth are marked by sprightliness, in age are characterised
by sedateness or demureness. Sedateness and love of solita-
riness appear with age in the hare, in place of the friskines^
and love of society that marked its youth.

The mental characteristics of youth in other animals, as
in man, include the following good and bad qualities —

1. Good: spirit, energy, activity, agility, ardour or en-
thusiasm, intelligence, vivacity or sprightliness, playfulness
or love of sport or games, animation or liveliness, love of fun
and of society, confidence in themselves and man, versatility,
flexibility or plasticity of mind, eagerness.

2. Bad : forwardness or impudence, mischievousness and
love of mischief— including destructiveness, inconsiderate-
ness, haste, rashness or precipitancy, headstrongness, im-
pulsiveness, inexperience, excessive feeling or a tendency
thereto, thoughtlessness.

There is a most interesting and intimate connection or
relationship between mental change and the development of
physical disease, as well as between both and morbid con-
ditions of the brain or nerve- substance, observable in the dog
or other animals, as in man. This has been brought out
of late years by the experimental investigations of various
physiologists and pathologists, British and foreign. Thus
Dr. Major, of Wakefield, gives a case of the association of
irritability of temper, with loss of memory and diminished
intelligence, including failure to recognise her master, coin-
cidently with the development of fits, apparently of an
epileptic character, and with partial paralysis of the limbs,
all in an old terrier bitch, these conditions, moreover, being
coincident with senile atrophy or degeneration of the brain.
He gives a plate of the morbid appearances in the brain,
and remarks : ' In the dog, in old age, decided pathological
changes occur in the nerve elements of the brain,' and,
comparing these with similar changes in man, he goes on:
6 It cannot escape observation that the resemblance between
them is very great .... In both we find a progressive
granular degeneration and atrophy of the cells .... and
the same destruction of nerve branches, while in the
neuroglia we have evidence of a similar morbid process.'

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 197

Age, as a predisposing cause, sometimes bears an im-
portant relation to — it may determine the nature of — certain
morbid phenomena occurring from the same immediate
cause ; it may determine, for instance, whether they shall
be motor or mental. Thus in cattle, we are told that con-
vulsions are apt to occur in the young, but delirium in the
old, from the same exciting cause. In certain other cases age
has an indirect, rather than a direct, influence in modifying
character. Thus the carnivora change their food with the
state of their teeth, and the latter depends upon their age
(Houzeau), while, as will become apparent in another sec-
tion of this chapter, the nature of the food itself directly
afPects both the mental and bodily condition.

There are the same kinds of difference in intellectual
power, in mental quality or aptitude, character or disposition,
between the sexes in other animals, as in man (Darwin). In
other words, there is a sexual psychical distinction throughout
the animal kingdom, including man, a natural law or fact
that is apparently either not known to, or that is conveni-
ently ignored by, the declamatory and clamorous claimants
of woman's rights. Just as in man, there are occasional
exceptions to the general rule; certain animals assume the
duties and display the mental characteristics of the opposite
sex, either temporarily or permanently. But neither in the
case of man, nor of other animals, do such exceptions in-
validate the general law or rule. On the contrary, in both
cases these exceptions are so rare that they are striking, and
at once attract man's notice.

Both in man and in other animals, superior force or
strength of character is the attribute of the male. It is
almost invariably from the males, for instance, that animal
leaders are chosen by groups of animals themselves, and
this not on account merely of physical strength, but also of
mental capacity, of courage, fertility of resource, presence
of mind in danger, and other important qualities of mind.

Among the lower animals — notably in monkeys — the
male is bolder, fiercer, more pugnacious than the female
(Darwin). Among other alleged masculine qualities are to
be noted caution, composure, savageness, quarrelsomeness,

198 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

noisiness or turbulence, ardour, untamability, ferocity, com-
bativeness.

Ecker states that male horses are most liable to certain
forms of insanity. Eogue elephants, so frequently the sub-
jects of the most destructive and dangerous, frequently
murderous or homicidal, mania, in whom insanity would
seem to be the result of compulsory exile, are always males
(Pierquin). The dangerous rivalries and jealousies of courtj
ship are, as a rule, confined to the males (Darwin). It
would appear further that the males are the chief sufferers
at the period of the rut. In deer it is notorious that the
annual rutting produces a remarkable change of disposition,
whereby ferocity is substituted for gentleness; but it is in
the buck — the male — that this change is observed. As a
general rule, the season of the rut, the function of rutting
is attended in all male animals with irascibility and pugna-
city, frequently with furiosity or ferocity of a kind dangerous
to the life not only of their own species, but also of man.
Other obvious physiological or pathological changes of
character occur.

Not only does the timidity of the stag become transformed
into boldness or ferocity, but the dog loses its obedience and
disregards punishment, while the cat deserts home and lapses
into melancholia if confined to the kennel or room. An
irresistible impulse to gratify the sexual passion affects even
the most placid animals, e.g. the dromedary, while any ob-
stacle to such gratification is always apt to engender either
furiosity or a tendency thereto. The dromedary becomes
restless, ceases to recognise man, loses its affection for him,
becomes dangerous to him from vicious biting, these con-
ditions being accompanied by cries and anorexia, while
delirium or mania is occasionally developed (Pierquin).
Wholesale deaths of the animals engaged result from the com-
bats of the musk ox in rut (Houzeau), while those of the
Virginian stag lead frequently to entanglement of the horns,
and death by inanition. On a smaller scale the conflicts of
male nightingales in the pairing season are no doubt more
generally known.

There are certain singular sexual attractions and repul-

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 199

sions most marked again in the case of males. The mere
sight or presence of a female is frequently sufficient to
develop or determine dangerous mental excitement, some-
times so intense and so uncontrollable as to amount to
erotomania. It has been stated by Pierquin that while male
orangs admire the female sex of man, certain monkeys show
an inexplicable antipathy or hatred to woman, and are able
to detect her sex though the person is duly concealed by
dress.

Again, 'the males of almost all animals have stronger
passions than the females,' says Darwin, — a general rule
which, if established, must have, at least, many exceptions,
for there can be little doubt as to the intensity of the pas-
sions in females and the frequency of their and its display.

Feminine mental characteristics in other animals, as in
man, are supposed to include the following : affection,
gentleness, timidity, docility, goodness — whatever that may
mean — implying probably, at least, good temper, with greater
loquacity or communicativeness. Caprice would appear to
be a special attribute of the female throughout the animal
kingdom. In the lower animals it is most familiar among
the phenomena of courtship, in the female's selection of a
mate.

But, in the first place, it is more than doubtful whether
the female possesses any greater number of virtues than the
male, while it is very certain that, with the frequent assump-
tion of masculine duties, she acquires, for the time at least,
the vices that are unfairly regarded as more specially mascu-
line. The converse is equally true : that, with the occasional
assumption of feminine duties by the male, he acquires what
are usually supposed to be specially feminine virtues.

Assumption by the female of male prerogatives is illus-
trated occasionally in courtship, rivalry, battle, on which
occasions there is an unexpected display on her part of
pugnacity, boldness, fierceness or fury. And the same men-
tal qualities are frequently displayed as the result of the
change of character brought about by maternity, in the
defence, for instance, of young. The female cassowary and
other birds become pugnacious while breeding (Darwin).

200 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

Under even what appear to be ordinary circumstances,
there is occasionally a reversal of the usual sexual mental
and moral characteristics, a transposition of the distinctive
instincts, habits, dispositions and occupations of the sexes.
Thus the female emu is savage, quarrelsome, noisy : it
exhibits courage and pugnacity, while the male is docile,
gentle and good-tempered. The pugnacity of the female
Indian quail is also remarkable (Darwin). The females of
one of the Nicaraguan tanagers are bolder than the males
(Belt).

Affection for her young is usually supposed to be strongest
in the female, and probably it is so as a rule. But there are
decided exceptions in cases in which, for various reasons,
the male assumes the duty of nursing; and in such cases
paternal solicitude becomes a prominent, because unusual,
feature in his character, contrasting remarkably sometimes
with maternal apathy.

The relation of sex to work is, as a rule, recognised
throughout the animal kingdom by the animals themselves.
It is the male that has to forage for, and defend, both the
female and her young, while the female hns the immediate
care of their offspring. It is the male that is called upon to
do all work requiring superior strength and courage, as well
as composure and presence of mind. Thus the male horse
— the stallion — takes all posts of danger and protects the
female (Low). It is the duty of the male bird to serenade
the female, to cheer or charm her with his song, while it
is her prerogative or privilege to accept his loverly or marital
attentions (White).

It is noteworthy that there is an intimate correlation
between sexual mental or moral attributes and sexual physical
characteristics, equally in other animals and man. This is
best illustrated by the result of any operation whereby the
sexes are placed as nearly as possible on equal footing : by the
removal, that is, of distinctive sexual organs. Hence the
operations of castration in certain animals, and of emasculation
in certain men, are in their psychical effects most interesting.

In the horse, for instance, castration removes in great
part the physical sexual difference. But it does not do so

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 201

without a remarkable change in its mental character, and it
is in order to such a change that the operation is performed.
There is a loss of objectionable sexual furiosity or excite-
ment of the nature perhaps of erotomania, and this is what
the operator has immediately and only in view. But there is
apt to be a loss also of all the characteristic mental attributes
of the male animal. In short the animal is too apt to be-
come feminine in more than one sense, and to an extent
that was not contemplated and that is not desirable. In the
' entire ' horse there is a tendency to mental, nervous and
muscular exaltation or excitement : the animal is apt to be
impetuous, to give way to its passions, to develop vicious or
dangerous habits. In other words, it is savage, vicious, ex-
citable, irritable, destructive and violent, and hence trouble-
some or dangerous to manage. The object of castration is to
moderate impetuosity, calm the passions, eradicate vice, tame
and subdue the animal, thereby rendering it more docile and
submissive to man's service or requirements.

Even when the operation is properly performed, it is not
always successful in bringing about the desired improvement
of character, while there is always a risk of deterioration
instead of improvement. No doubt ardour or impetuosity
may be diminished, but along therewith, there is only too
apt to result a diminution of physical strength and moral
courage, while there may be a general blunting of the
animal's susceptibilities. When, on the other hand, the
operation is imperfectly or improperly performed, the effects
may be most untoward, including, for instance, the develop-
ment of dangerous viciousness (Pierquin) .

In the dog — according to Fleming — castration produces a
change in its ordinary affections : disobedience, non-amena-
bility to punishment, a desire for seclusion, refusal of food,
irritability, moroseness, and biting ; that is to say, the result
is altogether bad. And this has to be noted in connection
therewith, that these effects of a mere surgical operation have
sometimes been ascribed to the popularly dreaded rabies.
According to Pierquin, the operation in question in the dog
is apt to induce melancholia or imbecility of mind, or both,
while it begets unfitness for work by reason of developing

202 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

stupidity or lethargy. The result, however, is determined
very much according to the animal's age. Puppies are made
sulky and unhappy by the operation of rounding, says Walsh.
Lord Southesk, however, referring to the sleigh dogs of the
Indians of the Saskatchewan district of North America,
mentions that * many of the male dogs of this wolfish sort
had been emasculated to tame their fierceness and spirit
without spoiling them for their work ; ' a statement which
would lead to the inference that the effects of castration in
the dog are not always or altogether bad, as they are re-
presented to be by Fleming, Pierquin, and Walsh.

By castration, too, the vicious, unmanageable bull is
rendered docile and submissive ; and viciousiiess being
removed, all the dangers arising therefrom are equally so.
The ram, also, whose sexual excitement is intense and dan-
gerous from its aggressiveness, becomes inoffensive after
castration (Fleming). White remarks on the similar results
— in changing the natural propensities — from removal of
the tusks of the boar, a fierce and venereous animal, which
after castration loses altogether its sexual appetite.

The parallelism in character between the castrated horse
and the human eunuch has been remarked upon by Maudsley.
The stoppage of mental growth in the eunuch of the Turkish
harem, the deterioration or degeneration in him of mental
character require, therefore, only a passing reference here.

The spaying of female animals by veterinarians has as its
object to render them docile 5 and the operation acts in a
similar way to castration, by removing the organs on which
erotic furor depends.

Other forms of surgical mutilation of organs produce even
more immediate and marked mental results in other animals
— to wit, excision of the antennae in ants as practised experi-
mentally by Latreille and Lubbock. Latreille says the animals
operated on fall at once into a state of delirium or mania :
6 Je vis aussitot ces petits animaux que j'avois ainsi mutiles
tomber dans un etat d'ivresse, ou une espece de folie. Us
erroient 93, et la, et ne reconnoissoient plus leur chemin.'
Lubbock says of one that ' had lost the terminal portion of
both antennse : ' she seemed to have lost her wits ; she

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 203

remained motionless and apathetic for a whole day, and was
then found dead.

The influence of sex in the production of mental disturb-
ance is perhaps best seen in the morbid mental phenomena of
maternity and the conditions which precede, accompany, and
succeed it, in the female — that is, of pregnancy, parturition,
and the puerperal state. These conditions, which are both
physiological and pathological, or, while always the one, are
only too apt to pass into the other, render the female sex, as
in man, peculiarly liable to mental disturbance, and in so
doing they constitute sometimes a merely predisposing, at
other times an immediate or exciting, cause.

Pregnancy shows its morbid influence in many acts of
the lower animals, e.g. in the murderous propensity of the
queen bee. In her, retardation of the process of egg-lay-
ing leads to mental derangement, and thereby to blunders
and the introduction of domestic and political confusion
(Figuier). Chillingham cattle are dangerous when calving
(Aylmer). ' During the period of procreation the mother
(whale) is much fiercer and more dangerous to approach
than at other seasons, when it is a timid, harmless animal '
(Brown). At the period of parturition or whelping in the
bitch — according to Walsh — the animal becomes watchful
and suspicious, and is apt to destroy its young for the most
trivial reasons — such as the approach of strangers or the
slightest interference with its litter. Buckland also has
commented on the frequency, in various other animals, of
murder of the young by the mother while in the puerperal
state, and on the triviality of the exciting cause — the least
disarrangement of, or interference with, the cage, nest, litter,
mother, or young. And Jesse, too, refers to parturition, as
well as absence of milk, as causes of cannibalism — of the
female parent devouring her own offspring.

Female ruminants, while rearing their young, are full of
fears or suspicions (Houzeau). The tyrant shrike becomes
quarrelsome during incubation, and infuriated at the approach
of intruders (Baird). And it is common for other incubating
birds fiercely to attack even man in the neighbourhood of
their nests. Here there is probably or apparently a morbid

204 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

fear and uncalled for ferocity ; for in the majority of cases—
for instance, my own, when I have been assailed in spring by
fresh or sea-water birds on unwittingly nearing their nests or
themselves — the supposed intruder or threatener of danger
did not dream of the existence of a nest till his attention
was thus called to it by the mistaken behaviour of the ruffled
and angry mother, whose own best policy would obviously
have been to have maintained a discreet silence in hiding
beside her young.

The courage of various birds is developed or stimulated
to fury during nidiftcation, or boldness then arises in animals
that are at other times timid, such as the tern (White).
Similar mental phenomena are exhibited by certain animals
during all the stages of incubation and care of the young.
The furiosity of the hen during incubation is well known
(White). When she becomes a mother she loses her usual
placidity ; and so intense is her excitement sometimes that
she seems as if ' possessed,' and is popularly so described —
her mental condition for the moment amounting apparently
to an ephemeral mania.

Just as dentition in the young animal frequently produces
the physical state known as ' fever,' so it is also apt to give
rise to corresponding mental excitement. In the old, on the
other hand, toothache and decayed (carious) teeth are probably
no infrequent cause of mental, as well as of bodily, disturb-
ance (Crisp).

The elephant occasionally becomes ' mad with toothache,'
and is shot by man while in this state, in consequence of its
dangerousness to human life. Thus an Indian official, who
reported to his Government the death of such an animal in
the Mlghery (^Madras) district, in 1875, remarked : ' His
tusk was much diseased, and he must have suffered much
from toothache. The portion of tusk imbedded in the flesh
was much diseased, and had a knob on it as big as one's fist;'
in other words, it was possibly the seat of an exostosis or
other morbid growth.

The effects of moulting are most familiar in the change of
the singing ability of certain birds. A caged siskin, belong-
ing to &n old friend, droops equally in body and spirit.

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 205

becomes sometimes even blind, when moulting; while, in
other birds, this physiological process produces enfeeblement
of memory (Houzeau).

In so far as the female sex is exclusively liable to the
derangements — both mental and physical — that accompany
or characterise pregnancy, parturition, the puerperal state,
and lactation, it may be inferred, and naturally, that the sex
in question is necessarily more liable than the other to the
various forms of mental disorder. But this by no means fol-
lows ; for the male sex has its peculiar disadvantages, which
may or ma-y not counterbalance those of the female. As the
bread-winner, forager, protector of mate and young, as the
leader of flocks and herds, the male is much more exposed to
a variety of dangers, and is much more liable to that which
is more frequently a cause of mental disquiet and upset than
mere physical danger — viz., to protracted anxieties, or wor-
ries. And it is just possible that these anxieties and risks,
his peculiar duties, with the results they may involve, may
counterbalance maternity and its antecedent or immediately
succeeding conditions, in which case we should expect to
find the sexes, on the whole, equally liable to the major and
minor forms of insanity.

But in point of fact, the relative liability to insanity of
the sexes among the lower animals is still an open question.
At present we possess insufficient data for its determination,
and the subject is one of those which offer themselves to
the scientific and experienced veterinarian for full investi-
gation.

CHAPTER XV.

PHYSICAL CAUSES OP MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER.

II. Pathological.

THERE is no reason to doubt that lowered vitality — in all its
degrees and however brought about — is as fertile and as
inevitable a cause of mental disorder in other animals as in
man. The causes, moreover, of general feebleness of health
are the same in kind as those which operate in man, includ-
ing, as they do, —

1. All sources of physical exhaustion or fatigue, such as
that resulting from —

a. Excessive work.

"b. Serious drain or discharge from the system of
important fluids, such as the blood.

c. The injudicious, debilitating treatment of as-

thenic maladies.

d. Protracted weakening diseases.

2. Privation of food or drink, or the use of aliment that
is innutritions.

3. Undue exposure to the weather.

4. Overcrowding amidst foul air.

5. Disordered or deficient relaxation, rest, or sleep.

6. Personal uncleanliness of skin and its appendages,
arising from neglect of bathing, or from deficiency of water
for ablution.

7. All kinds of artificial and unhealthy habits, especially
those which involve defective work and exercise.

Some of these causes are more provocative than others of
nervous irritability, and of ill-health of a nervous type — in
which type of disordered health, morbid mental conditions are

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 207

most apt to be developed. Hi-health, produced by any one
or more of the before-mentioned causes — and they generally
operate in considerable combinations — is favourable to the
production of insanity in other animals as in man, when the
debilitated system is exposed to the same additional, power-
fully exciting or depressing influences. Hl-health, in fact,
constitutes a very common predisposition to, or predisposing
cause of, mental disturbance in the lower animals.

Horses too long in harness are liable to nervous agitation,
delirium, and the exhibition of mad-like actions (Houzeau) ;
so that overwork in them, as in other animals trained to
man's uses, is not only a mistake in policy, economy, and
humanity, but it is directly dangerous to human life. Closely
allied to the subject of overwork is meagre rest, want of sleep.
The necessity for the periodical renewal of energy — mental
as well as bodily — is quite as great among the lower animals
as in man ; and hence sleeplessness, especially if protracted,
begets the same kind of psychical and physical results.
Thus it is provocative of mental and bodily languor or list-
lessness. The Koraks, in the treatment of their teams of
Esquimaux dogs, show an example to many more civilised
peoples in their recognition of the need of ample rest and
sleep for hard-working animals.

All kinds of bodily suffering or pain may produce a kind
of waking temporary delirium, which is but a stage towards
mania (Houzeau). We read of the rhinoceros, elephant,
reindeer, and other large animals being 'maddened with
pain,' be it of toothache or fracture, the bites or stings of
insects, or the wounds inflicted by man. The expression, so
frequently used in reference to our domestic or menagerie
animals, of being * mad with pain ' probably describes a
furiosity that is apt to pass into, if it be not sometimes a
transient, mania.

All exhaustion of body which involves weakness of brain
is accompanied by, or leads to, certain kinds of nervous and
mental excitement.

The nature of the diet, of the food and drink, especially
the former, has a very direct and marked influence on the
mental character of the lower animals. Thus a stimulant

208 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

diet in the horse produces irritability, restiveness and
viciousness (Pierquin). Long ago it was observed by De la
Mettrie : ' Raw meat gives fierceness to animals, and would
do the same to man. This is so true that the English, who
eat their meat underdone, seem to partake of this fierce-
ness, more or less, as shown in pride, hatred, and contempt
of other nations.' There may be more truth in this remark
of our French critic than we are willing to admit. At all
events there can be no doubt of the more stimulant character
of animal than of vegetable food.

6 High feeding ' of all kinds, in animals not accustomed
to it, may beget a fatal pugnacity, e.g. in rams (Baker). In
preparing the elephant for show-fights in India — such, for
instance, as those which took place before the Prince of
Wales at Baroda, in November, 1875 — males are selected
and 'kept for months previously on a diet in which butter
and sugar are the principal ingredients, the effect of which
is to bring them into a ferocity of temper which is known as
Musth.'1

The result of the specialisation of food, and of a careful
dietetic upbringing, is illustrated in the psychical character,
as well as the bodily organisation, of the worker eggs, or
larvae, among hive bees, which are fed on royal jelly and
treated as queen larvse. They become in time perfect queens
(Carpenter). The influence of food in its minor degree is
more familiar, however, in the cat. According as its food
is mainly or entirely vegetable or animal, its natural cha-
racter and habits are intensified or modified. It becomes
either more savage on the one hand, or more docile and
gentle on the other.

Hunger leads to fretfulness of temper and anger in birds
(Adams), to irritability in the dog. It is not, therefore, only
the ' hungry man ' that is ' angry.' Hunger leads also to
combativeness and wars in bees (Reaumur). Starvation is
only too common a mode or means of artificially producing
the degree of ferocity required in the sports of tyrant man —
for instance, in the case of so-called 'fighting' beetles.

1 « Scotsman,' November 22, 1875.

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 209

Hunger, by begetting quarrelsomeness and fighting, over-
comes the results of discipline and the sense of obedience
and fear sometimes in the f happy families ' of menageries.

On the other hand, harmony is unquestionably pro-
duced by, and indeed depends upon, good feeding. An
abundant and suitable food-supply bears a striking relation
to the important mental quality — contentment ; and its in-
fluence in the production of vivacity, exhilaration, energy —
mental as well as muscular and nervous — of courage, perse-
verance, willingness to work, is well known in the case of
the horse, dog, fowl, and other domestic animals (Pierquin).

Excess in food is quite as deleterious and dangerous to
both the mental and bodily condition of an animal as its
deficiency or complete privation. The physical effects include
death from mere surfeit, from gorging, gluttony, overfeeding
or overeating to an inordinate extent.

Many birds that habitually overeat die from excess of fat
in the system, from what is technically called fatty degenera-
tion, while during life they suffer from an obesity that inter-
feres materially with progression, or with flight from, or
opposition to, an enemy (White).

Among its commoner results are semi-somnolence, stupor,
and helplessness, inability to move or defend themselves,
rendering the gorged animals easy of capture by man. Such
results of overfeeding, especially the rendering an otherwise
dangerous animal innocuous and manageable, are taken
advantage of by man in many ways. Thus, when it became
necessary to remove the boas in the menagerie of the Jardin
des Plantes, Paris, from an old to a new house, it sufficed to
overfeed them ; they then became ' as easy to handle by the
keepers as so many cables.' Morbid voracity, excessive greed
in eating, produces a kind of stupidity, and thereby leads to
facility of capture by man, in the albatross, vulture, siskin,
and other birds.

Gorged animals also minister to man's amusements, some-
times of a very cruel kind. Thus we are told that e a favourite
amusement of the native children (of New Guinea) was to
chase vultures when they had so stuffed themselves as to be
unable to fly. And it was laughable to see the ungainly
VOL. n. p

M

r- .

210 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

attempts of the birds to escape by running. They frequently
fell over, arid then the children were almost sure to effect
their capture before they could rise again' (Lawson).

Gorging with animal food in man induces a somnolence
resembling that of the carnivora (Eadcliffe).

Overeating is a common result or vice of confinement,
excess of food, that is — and especially of highly stimulating
food — in relation to the amount of exercise or work. Over-
feeding is usually associated with improper feeding among
our domestic pets — for instance, pet birds — to whom over-
indulgent and injudicious mistresses too frequently give raw
meat, bread, sweets, and, in general, portions of all the foods,
and perhaps drinks also, they themselves employ.

The result is not only the development of various forms
of bodily disease, which frequently prove fatal, but of various
marked changes of temper, irritability being very often, and
pugnacity or ferocity occasionally, induced. The same kind
of injudicious feeding is common on the part of thoughtless,
careless visitors to menageries and zoological gardens ; for
instance, to the Zoological Gardens of London, whereby the
lives of many valuable animals have been sacrificed. There
is now, and most properly, in the latter gardens, a strict
prohibition against visitors attempting to feed any of the
animals. These are simple illustrations of man's minor sins
of ignorance or thoughtlessness against the lower animals.

Berkeley describes certain kinds of food — such as putrid
horse-flesh — as occasionally producing temporary insanity in
his bloodhound Druid, ' if neglectfully or improperly given ; '
while Fleming points out that the eating of anthrax-tainted
flesh gives rise to other symptoms of blood-poisoning.

Various kinds of food are poisonous to the lower animals,
as to man, though it does not follow that the same substances
are poisonous to all classes of animals. Thus certain fish
and shell-fish (e.g. certain mussels) which, when eaten by
man, or by certain men, give rise to the development of
peculiar mental symptoms, probably produce the same result
in certain other animals, though not necessarily so. For it
has been abundantly established that some substances which
are poisonous to man, and to various animals, are quite in-

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 211

nocuous to certain other animals.1 Moreover, the same plant
may be poisonous to the same species or individuals under
certain circumstances, and innocuous under certain others.

This is well illustrated by the effects on cattle and sheep
of the tutu or toot plant of New Zealand pastures, of which
plant, in its young succulent state, both animals are very-
fond. Writing specially of the province of Otago in 1874, a
colonist thus describes the varying effects of the tutu.2 ' To
cattle reared where it grows it is innocuous, and proves fat-
tening fodder. But if a hungry bullock, unaccustomed to its
use, should browse upon its tempting leaves, it will soon be
seized with a species of mania, causing it to career and
tumble about with violent paroxysms, till the poor brute falls

exhausted and dies Sheep do not seem to become so

thoroughly accustomed to the use of it as cattle ; and those
feeding amongst it, on being dogged or driven, are apt to be
affected by it, or be, as the phrase is, tutued. I have known
of sheep feeding for weeks where the tutu grew thick and
rank, on being moved a few hundred yards to a paddock
where there were only a few straggling plants, being poisoned
by them, and begin to drop down in dozens. Whether this
was only owing to the excitement of driving, or to some
difference in the plant in the two localities, I cannot tell.
Sheep get over the effects more easily than cattle, but it
leaves more lasting results. A sheep, which has been badly
tutued and recovers, loses its gregarious habits and becomes
what the shepherds call a hermit. It also acquires an addi-
tional amount of stupidity, but yields no worse mutton'
(Bathgate).

Blood-poisoning of all kinds, as in man, is a common
cause of mental disorder in other animals. And not only

1 I pointed this out many years ago as the result of a series of investi-
gations conducted in the City Cholera Hospital of Edinburgh on (1) the
antagonisms of Drugs ; (2) the antidotes of poisons ; and (3) the non-influence
of certain poisons on certain animals. Vide the * Association Medical Journal '
for June 9, 1854.

2 Coriaria rmcifolia of botanists. As may be seen from the « Bibliography,'
I had many years previously — in 1862 and 1865 — fully described the effects
on mind and habits of this narcotico-irritant poison, both in man and in the
lower animals.

p 2

212 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

blood-poisoning, but all disorders of the blood which affect
either its —

a. Movement.

6. Distribution.

c. Quantity; or

d. Quality.

These conditions of the blood, again, are more or less
affected by every form of bodily disease ; while deteriorated
or disordered blood-supply in its turn tells upon the brain
and nervous system and their functions, including mentalisa-
tion, sensation, emotion, no less than motility. Haughton
attributes the venomous and rancorous disposition of certain
animals to imperfect oxidation of the blood ; just as dyspep-
sia, by leading to defective assimilation and improper quality
of blood, is in man an acknowledged cause of spleen and
irritability. According to the author quoted, imperfect
blood-oxidation gives rise, in other animals as in man, both
to intellectual and moral defects.

Of the causes of gradual Uood-deterioration, one of the
commonest and most familiar in other animals, as in man,
is dyspepsia, habitual indigestion. Lowness of spirits is a
frequent accompaniment or sequel in the one case as in the
other. All digestive disorders, every derangement of the
important functions of assimilation and nutrition, all diseases
of the stomach or intestines, may lead to what is usually
spoken of technically as sympathetic or symptomatic in-
sanity, just as they produce also various secondary bodily
diseases, such as convulsions in young cattle. Cerebral con-
gestion and all its causes — anaemia and plethora, ichorsemia
and septicaemia — may, more or less directly, produce morbid
mental phenomena in other animals as in man. Reproduc-
tive derangement is a common eccentric cause of sympathetic
mental disturbance. Panphobia is sometimes the result of,
or at least it is intimately connected with, organic lesions —
mostly thoracic or abdominal. Thus it accompanies heart
disease, as in man.

By some veterinarians rabies and distemper in the dog
are regarded as blood diseases. Whether they are really so or
not, in both disorders, and especially in rabies, there is a well-

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 213

marked group of morbid mental symptoms, and this group
is so important in the case of rabies that the subject of the
insanity of rabies in the dog, for its proper treatment, would
require at least a chapter for itself. I have already specially
treated of it elsewhere. The group of mental symptoms
which accompanies rabies is usually considered distinctive
and diagnostic. But this can scarcely be correct ; because
the disease itself is constantly being — even by veterinarians
— mistaken for, or confounded with —

a. Various forms of insanity — especially mania.

fc. Mere transient fury, passion, or despair.

c. The results of peripheral irritation — such as the pre-
sence of intestinal worms or mechanical impaction — the
results, in other words, of the presence of foreign bodies in
various organs.

Various poisons — animal, vegetable, or mineral — produce
in the lower animals conjoint physical and mental symptoms —
sometimes of the same kind as in man ; sometimes diverse —
the difference in their action or its results, where such dif-
ference exists, being generally, if not always, due to the very
different structure and habits of the animal affected.

Just as in man, again, all organic disease of the brain —
congenital or traumatic, want or loss of its substance,
defective, arrested, or perverted brain-growth — are apt to be
attended with, or to lead to, mental defect or disorder.
Functional disorders of the brain or general nervous system
are also accompanied by or produce the same kind of mental
disturbance as in man. Thus epilepsy, which is not uncom-
mon in the dog and other animals, is apt to beget, or to be
associated with, the same forms of mental degeneration as
in man. It has been noted as a frequent precursor of mania,
dementia, and death in certain animals. Apoplexy is another
brain disease attended with mental impairment. Brain
hydatids, which cause the c sturdy ' of sheep and cattle, give
rise to a special group of mental symptoms. Pierquin men-
tions brain hydatids and cerebral ramollissement as causes
or concomitants of idiocy in animals. Mental symptoms
similar to those of sturdy are produced by inflammations of
the brain or its meninges (Delacour), by metastasis of erysi-

214 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

pelas, of psoriasis, or other skin eruptions, or of other
inflammations ; by insect bites, and as a sequel to castration
(Pierquin) .

In short, all bodily disease or disorder, acute or chronic,
general or special, produces in other animals as in man
aberration of feeling, which may or may not pass into, or
amount to, insanity (Maudsley).

Among familiar examples of animal poisons that produce
mental, along with physical, irritation may be specially
mentioned insect bites or stings. Horses are ' maddened ' by
mosquitos (Brown). The reindeer is also described as ' almost
beside itself .... its face and head streaming with blood,'
from mosquito bites in the Kanin Peninsula of the Samoyede
country (Eae). The effect of the tsetse fly in maddening
wild and domestic animals in Central Africa has been gra-
phically detailed by Livingstone. Cattle exhibit terror even
at the distant sound of this dreaded pest (Figuier). In
Abyssinia, according to Prince, the sound of the 6 zimb '
produces similar consternation, the animals refusing food,
betaking themselves to wild flight, and death frequently
ensuing from fatigue, fright, or hunger, separately or com-
bined.

In our own country, according to Kirby and Spence,
Pierquin and other writers, the gad, bot, and breeze-flies
beget in the ox, horse, and sheep respectively agitation,
anxiety, or distress, excitement, restlessness, alarm, eccen-
tric motions or various freaks of conduct, the animals af-
fected becoming dangerous from their unmanageability. The
mere act of oviposition sometimes induces, besides physical
irritation, a frenzy or temporary madness, an ephemeral
mania. In the horse the nose-fly produces impatience,
restlessness, and torment — conditions favourable to accidents
to man; while the forest- fly sometimes renders it frantic
(White).

Irritation in distant organs, by producing sympathetic
cerebral irritation, is a common cause of mental disturbance.
One of the most familiar forms of this so-called eccentric
irritation is the presence of worms of various kinds in the
intestines. Thus cestridoe and filarics in the stomach are

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER 215

causes equally of colic and mania in the horse (Girard and
Pierquin).

The influence of entozoa as a source of cerebral disturb-
ance, including insanity, has been pointed out in this
country by Cobbold. The possible presence of intestinal
parasitic worms, of nematode entozoa, as a cause of conjoint
mental and physical disorder, is a subject deserving to be
kept constantly in mind by veterinarians ; for there can be
no doubt that the effects of their presence are frequently
mistaken for rabies or other supposed incurable forms of
madness or distemper, and the lives of valuable animals —
such as the horse, ox, and dog — are sacrificed to this pro-
fessional error. According to our first, and indeed our only,
British authority on the entozoic diseases of man and other
animals, worms in the lower animals produce the following
group of symptoms : — General cerebral disturbance ; appa-
rent bewilderment ; uncertainty of movement ; convulsive
twitchings ; deafness ; dumbness ; amaurosis ; mental im-
becility ; mania ; and paralysis — all of which symptoms
may be dissipated, the seemingly serious disease cured, by
the simple remedy of an aperient. On the other hand, how-
ever, worms in the dog may produce no symptoms at all, or
symptoms that are as sudden in their incidence as fatal in
their issue (Cobbold) .

Other foreign bodies appear to act simply as mechanical
irritants, as in the case of a dog at Macclesfield that 'was
driven mad from a pin having pierced, and become fixed in,
the stomach ' (Berkeley).

A thoroughly competent writer (Walsh) describes in-and-
in breeding in the dog as resulting, or liable to result, in the
offspring, in —

1. General excitability.

2. Uselessness for work.

3. Delicacy of physical constitution.

4. Want of mental capacity, mental imbecility, or —

5. Complete idiocy.

Gillmore mentions, as the result of breeding from a
nephew in a sporting dog, that ' the entire litter were idiots,
or at least so deficient in brains, that out of eight which I

216 MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISOEDEE.

reared not one was worth his salt.' Besides which, the pups
were subject to various bodily disorders for eighteen months,
when they were destroyed as worthless. Cross-breeding from
certain stock seems also to produce mental and physical
degeneration in the offspring. Thus in camel breeding, if
the male parent be an Arabian, and the female a Bactrian
camel, the offspring, besides being weak in body, is ' vicious
and intractable in temper' (Wood). The general testimony
of veterinary and other writers tends to show that too close
breeding is apt to beget in the offspring a morbid sensitive-
ness or nervousness, and the insane diathesis ; that it unfa-
vourably affects the constitution or temperament, producing
degeneracy or disease, both mental and bodily, as in man.

On the whole, however, it appears to me that the question
of consanguinity in the parents, as a cause of mental defect or
disorder in the offspring, cannot be said to be definitely settled
either as regards the lower animals or man. As concerns
the latter, it has been shown conclusively that, while much
mischief results in certain cases from consanguine marriage,
in certain others none can be detected. Recently the whole
question was carefully re-examined by Mr. George Darwin,
of Cambridge, son of the most celebrated naturalist of our
day. But he does not seem to have added to what was
previously known. Among other animals the influence may
be, and probably is, more pernicious in proportion as the prac-
tice is much more common than it is in man. But the exact
degree of influence remains to be demonstrated. What is
the nature of the evil result, both in man and other animals,
we know when an evil result happens. But, just as in man,
in all probability evil does not necessarily or always result.

CHAPTER XVI.

PHYSICAL CAUSES OF MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISOEDEE.

III. General*

WEATHER CHANGES, atmospheric influences, produce in
certain animals excitement, passing sometimes beyond the
bounds of control ; in others, depression of spirits, of the
character, in a minor degree, of melancholia. The feeling
of coming weather-change is expressed in some animals by
agitation, inquietude, bellowing, or other voice-sounds ; in
monkeys by excitement, characterised by, or consisting of,
laughing, dancing, and leaping, followed even by eroto-
mania, according to Pierquin, who speaks also of climatic
influences producing insanity in the dogs of Kamtschatka.

Of atmospheric influences solar heat, if prolonged or
intense, undue exposure to hot weather, causes sensorial dis-
turbance, delirium, general irritability sometimes amounting
to a kind of frenzy, even to mania, in the horse (Pierquin).
Heat of weather causes excitement, irritation, irritability, or
rage in bees (Watson, Figuier, and Lubbock), and associated
therewith a dangerous liability to sting. It is in a condition
of irascibility so produced sometimes in wasps that they,
like bees, are apt to sting human internieddlers with their
freedom. Mrs. Burton describes the heat of Syria as a
cause of madness — meaning apparently thereby ordinary
mania — in English pet dogs there ; for she expressly states
separately that 'mad dogs are here unknown' — no doubt
meaning rabid ones. In the same country and under the
same circumstances such dogs perish also of ' decline,5
without madness. One, she says, 'withered away in a

218 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

sirocco ; ' while males were c temporarily paralysed, and bred
paralysed pups with sore eyes.'

The mental effects of insolation or sunstroke seem to be
very much the same in other animals as in man. Thus the
morbid mental phenomena in a female ape included, accord-
ing to Pierquin, various marked changes in habit and
character, such as —

1. Irritability, associated with a tendency to viciousness,
a development of the biting propensity.

2. Timidity.

3. Indifference, as illustrated by negligence of its usual
caresses, and by making no distinction between men and
women.

4. Loss of gaiety or liveliness.

5. Sometimes a species of stupefaction.

6. The look becoming wandering, wild, unsettled, or the
gaze fixed.

7. Cries.

8. Perversions of taste and digestion, including loss of
appetite, or voracious and indiscriminate appetite.

9. General exalted cutaneous sensibility.

10. Loss of agility.

11. Nocturnal agitation.

12. Uncontrollable bodily movements of an irregular
kind.

13. Orthopnoaa.

14. Epileptiform convulsions.

15. Erotomania, followed by ordinary mania and de-
mentia—

The whole symptoms, mental, sensorial, and motor, suc-
ceeding each other with great rapidity.

The tendency of protracted or extreme cold is, in other
animals as in man, to produce "dulness of spirits, languor,
inertia — even a kind of stupidity or lethargy — as in Green-
land dogs. It has a perceptible effect in diminishing the
natural ardour or vivacity. In some cases, however, excite-
ment, rather than depression, would appear to be caused.
Thus we are told that cold so affects the temper of the loris
that their disposition passes from gentleness into fierceness
(Jones).

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISOEDEE. 219

It is more probably the light than the heat of the sun
which, while sought for and enjoyed by the dog when
affected by certain diseases (e.g., distemper), is avoided by
it in certain others (e.g., rabies). Apparently both solar
light and heat — perhaps especially the former — become in-
struments of intolerable pain to the hyper- sensitive rabid
dog. By some authors, indeed, but on insufficient grounds,
shunning light has been regarded a diagnostic indication of
rabies.

On the other hand, brilliant artificial light exercises a
fatal fascination on many animals; so much so that it is
made a common basis of modes of capture by man. Brilliant
light from candles, gas-jets, or lanterns is a well-known
attraction to various insects, birds, and fish, to their own
destruction. Many kinds of midges, flies, moths, and but-
terflies swarm around, and immolate themselves in, gas,
lamp, or candle-lights, as I have myself seen on a large
scale in New Zealand. So very familiar is this wholesale self-
immolation that these poor animals are popularly regarded
as emblems of human folly, of human infatuation, in the
non-resistance of dangerous temptation. Butterflies commit
this sort of self-destruction in myriads in the street fires of
Florence. Lanterns placed under water are used for the
capture of certain fish and Crustacea (Houzeau). This,
indeed, is the principle of a patent recently granted to the
Marquis of Chabannes for catching fish. His apparatus
consists essentially of a lighted lamp, sunk in the water,
surrounded by mirrors, and connected with a trap of nets
into which the fish are allured (Fennell).

The old practice of c leistering ' or spearing salmon by
torch-light, at night, in Scotland, is another ruder modifica-
tion of the same principle ; as well as the practice still exist-
ing in Fiji and elsewhere of spearing other fish by torch-light
(Boddam Whetham). The glare of artificial light or flame
is also employed by man in the capture of certain birds.
The attraction of lighted wood, or of light or flame of any
kind, for the chough leads to accidents from unintentional
or mischievous incendiarism (Baird). The woodcock in Loui-
siana is killed with poles at night when fascinated or stupified,

220 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

as the salmon is, by the glare of torches (Gillmore). Light-
house keepers in the Irish Sea and German Ocean frequently
find woodcocks dead or stunned from having dashed against
the strong glass which surrounds the lamp or lantern. The
glare which warns man only lures this and other migratory
birds to their fate. Silver-eyes (birds) in the south of New
Zealand kill themselves in great numbers by striking against
the lighthouse on Dog Island, near the Bluff (Buller). Quails
are caught after crossing the Black Sea or Mediterranean by
the use of lanterns at night held near the ground. 'The
weary birds, running towards the light, are easily caught
with the hand ' (Van Lennep). Deer seem sometimes to be
attracted by railway locomotive lights at night. A sort of
stupidity from amazement at the novel sight appears to be
produced, followed by paralysis of action or motion, and
hence the occasional occurrence of fatal accidents to the
animal on railways in America and elsewhere.

In all the animals, and under all the circumstances
above-mentioned, the fascination or infatuation which pos-
sesses the victim is obviously destructive of all power of self-
control. A kind of suicidal fury, according to some authors,
is produced by certain kinds or intensities of light, and the
animals literally rush upon their death, sometimes in count-
less numbers (Smiles).

A similar infatuation or fascination to that which is pro-
duced by bright light or flame is sometimes also inspired
by brilliant, sparkling, polished metallic surfaces or objects.

The privation of light — darkness, natural or artificial — is
equally productive of mental disturbance, though not usually
of so singular and inexplicable a kind. Certain horses have
a great dread of darkness. In them it produces a nocturnal
excitement that is at once allayed by the presence of a night
light (Youatt) — a circumstance that has its counterpart in
timid children, nervous women, and the fanciful insane. In
such sensitive animals, just as in nervous women and chil-
dren, fear is apt to beget delusion. It is in darkness that a
morbid fear of moving, heard, but unseen objects frequently
arises — a fear that utterly misrepresents to the imagination
the character of the objects, and creates ideas of danger

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 221

where no real danger exists. On the other hand, nervous-
ness, timidity, terror, may pave the way for mania instead
of mere delusion.

It would appear to be darkness that accounts ' for the
nervous state of terror in a wheatear (bird) at a passing
cloud, which, when sailing in the atmosphere above him, in-
duces the bird to seek shelter in the nearest hole' (Berkeley).
In the same way eclipses — especially of the sun — produce
fear in certain animals, causing them to seek shelter or
safety, while some birds make the mistake of roosting, as if
for the night, or they give forth their night song (Pierquin).
Darkness aud light, moreover, have an obvious relation to
ferocity or courage, and their opposites, in certain animals
— e.g., the lion.

Pierquin describes the effects of the variations in the
electrical condition of the atmosphere on the cat. A surplus
of electricity in the air, a state of high electrical tension,
produces sometimes hilarity, gaiety, noisiness, amounting
occasionally to a kind of joyous mania, a morbid exuberance
of animal spirits, especially in young animals, which are
characterised by greater nervous impressionability than
their seniors > Stormy weather, therefore, leads to sportive-
ness and general exalted activity, mental and bodily. Thun-
der, however, terrifies many animals, as it does many timid
children and women. But this may be less from the electrical
condition of the atmosphere than from the sudden darkness
and heavy rain, for certain animals have a great aversion to
rain or wet, or from the sudden, unusual, and terrifying
noise. In South American cattle coming thunder produces
excitement, amounting sometimes to madness or possession,
preceded by much sniffing and agitation ('Percy Anecdotes').

Certain colours produce a singular and rapid effect on
some animals, in certain cases this effect taking the form of
mere aversion or antipathy, but in others that of an excite-
ment or irritation that may amount to dangerous fury or
mania, or that may lead even to suicide. There is no one
colour that is an irritant to all colour- sensitive animals.
Instances are on record of mental excitement, more or less
intense, arising from white and black, as well as red-coloured,

222 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

bodies. As instances of insurmountable antipathies to cer-
tain marked colours Pierquin cites the case of a horse and of
some birds in regard to black. Baker remarks on the ob-
noxiousness of white or grey colours to the elephant and
rhinoceros. Various examples of animals enraged or mad-
dened by colours are given in the ' Percy Anecdotes.' Eodel
describes some of the dislikes of certain animals to certain
colours as amounting to a monomania. Meas in Ceylon
6 have a great fancy for settling upon anything white. Thus
a person with white trousers will be blackened with them,
while a man in darker colours will be comparatively free '
(Baker). A Madagascar bishop bird, belonging to a lady
friend of my own in Edinburgh, has a dread of white
colours, becoming excited immediately on the sight thereof.
White animals are especially liable to persecution by black
individuals of the same species — as in the case of the Faroese
and other ravens (Darwin) ; and there are other instances of
animals persecuting each other in consequence apparently of
exceptional peculiarities of colour.

The effects of red — especially of scarlet — colours are,
however, usually supposed to be those which are at once
most incontrovertible and most familiar. No simile is more
common in reference to a subject or object calculated to
annoy, than that of the alleged influence of the display of a
red rag or flag upon a bull. But curiously enough, in all my
reading and observation, in all my conversations with per-
sons familiar with the habits of wild and domestic animals,
I have met with nothing like proof that mere redness, as a
colour, is offensive to the bull. I have frequently been told
that there can be no doubt about its so being, because every-
body believes it to be true, and what 'everybody believes
must be true.' But I cannot accept mere popular belief on
such a point, or on any point in the natural history of ani-
mal mind, as equivalent to the demonstration of the accuracy
of what is alleged to be fact. If the fact is so familiar,
ample proof direct from nature should be constantly forth-
coming, and it is not.

I have specially read accounts of bull-fights in Spain in
order to discover how far the artificially produced mental

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 223

excitement of the poor animal is attributable to the redness
of the little flags used by the picadors, and I have utterly
failed to satisfy myself that without the other and more
powerful accessories, the goading with the picador's spears,
the mental confusion produced by so novel a combination of
distracting sights and sounds, the mere exhibition of any-
thing red would have produced fury or have developed com-
bativeness. Thus in the most recent account I have seen of
one of these pitiable exhibitions of Spanish ' sport,' we are
told that before the bull- victim e rushes wildly ' at the piece
of scarlet cloth held on the end of a small stick by the
matador, it is already ' infuriated ' by the barbarous treat-
ment to which it has been subjected.

So experienced a traveller as Gillmore asserts that scarlet,
( as everyone knows, has a most exciting influence upon
many animals, horned cattle in particular,' and he gives a
case of assault by a bull on an old woman habited in a red
or scarlet cloak. But here again it is not clear that it was
the colour that attracted the bull, in so far as we are told
that ' at first the animal only slowly approached her. But
the old woman, becoming terrified, bolted for the exit of
the field, and in her efforts to gain it missed her footing and
fell;' then the bull made up to and bruised her with his
horns, ' at the same time dragging her cloak off her back.'

Rats are said to be terrified or scared by scarlet, and it
would be a happy thing for many a vermin-haunted house-
hold were this the case, and were it really possible by so
simple a device as the use of this, or any other colour, to
scare away such unwelcome pests. But I have met with as
little proof of the accuracy of such a statement as in the
case of the bull. Rowan describes the effects of a red cloth
on the loon of Canada, while a correspondent of ' Science
Gossip ' says of the cassowary, ' Scarlet cloth excites its ire.'

Red proves attractive or exciting sometimes simply by
virtue of its being a bright colour, similar effects being
produced, but not so readily, by blue and white. Gillmore
mentions that tying a piece of scarlet cloth round the neck
of a domestic turkey and turning it loose on the prairies
brought all the wild ones in the neighbourhood about it to

224 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

attack it, thus affording sport to the hunter — the object of
the experiment. But it was not necessarily the redness or
the colour that produced the given result ; for curiosity at
the sight of anything new, the presence of a cat, or the
waving of a handkerchief or any other unfamiliar object
would probably have produced the same effect. This red-
collared turkey, so successfully employed as a decoy, was
simply an exceptional and remarkable sight, and as such
attracted its unwary fellows. Again, a tame magpie that
was ' excited ' at the sight of red slippers had also a special
aversion to blue, so that the sight of ' a dress in bright blue
makes him scream loudly' (' Science Gossip'). In both cases
the brightness or vividness of the colour appears to have
been the cause of the excitement.

With so many emphatic positive statements, I am not
prepared to assert that scarlet is not a mental excitant to
certain animals. The analogy of man, and especially the
recent experiments of Dr. Ponza, an Italian physician, and
of the renowned Jesuit astronomer, Father Secchi, on the
effects of colour on human lunatics, tend to an affirmative
conclusion.1 But what I desire to show is —

1. That at present we have no adequate data for deter-
mining the exact influence of colours in the lower animals ;
while —

2. The subject appears one eminently deserving of, and
suitable for, experimental investigation; and

3. The fruits of such an inquiry may prove of much
practical interest and utility in a variety of ways, for in-
stance, in scaring certain animals from gardens, fields or
houses.

Intimately connected with this subject is the influence
of novel, unusual, unexpected or unfamiliar objects, especially
in a state of motion, an influence that includes curiosity,
wonder, surprise, amusement, confidence, indifference, awe,
attention, alarm, fear and suspicion — all as we so constantly
see it exhibited in the case of the dog or cat. The want of

1 It is but proper, however, here to state that my own experiments on the
use of coloured — at least red and blue — glass in the sleeping room windows
of insane patients lead me to opposite, or negative, conclusions.

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISOKDEK. 225

motion in objects, in which the opposite condition is usual
and expected, may produce the same effects in certain timid
animals, as the sudden unexpected appearance of moving
unfamiliar bodies. In either case alarm or suspicion is apt
to be produced. That it is simply the novelty of the position
that disturbs the animal is shown by the fact that calm
observation and examination of the dreaded object, whether
in motion or at rest, sooner or later dissipates fear, and
disarms suspicion, so that what was formerly avoided as a
possible or probable source of danger may become a play-
thing to the kitten or pup, and after it has served its pur-
pose, of being, by virtue of its novelty, the plaything of the
moment, it is as apt to be cast aside as the toy of the
capricious child, the adage holding equally good in both
cases, that ' familiarity breeds contempt.'

Certain sounds — musical or other — produce deleterious
mental results in some animals. The effects of certain notes,
tones, tunes, times, of harmony or discord, on the dog,
causing it to howl its distress or irritation, are familiar.
Some dogs tremble at music as if terrified (Darwin). Similar
excitement is produced sometimes in the elephant, taking in
it the form even of erotic fury. Music is said to have been
the means of playing off dangerous practical jokes on the
menagerie animals of the Jardin des Plantes, and it is
represented as an easy mode in such animals of artificially
inducing mania (Pierquin). Clara Eossiter tells us of a pet
rabbit, which, when a harmonium was played upon by a lady,
'flew frantically at the instrument and violently scratched
the legs till she ceased from playing. If she went to the
piano and played on that, bunny was as frantic with delight
as he was before with anger. He would run round and
round the stool on which she sat, for five or ten minutes
without stopping, till he was compelled to do so from ex-
haustion, then fell down by her side panting for breath,
otherwise quite motionless. After recovering himself to be-
gin again, he rose to renew his circular race, continuing for
an hour together, if my sister, in mercy to the poor animal,
did not rise and go away from the piano.'

In mice, too, a delight, amounting to ecstasy, giving rise

VOL. II. Q

226 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF

to frantic action and ending even in death, has resulted from
mere musical sound (' Percy Anecdotes ').

Many experiments, some of them cruel in their nature, or
in the extent to which they were carried, dangerous, more-
over, in their results to human life, have been made to test
the effect on different animals of different kinds of notes or
sound. Thus Sir Everard Home found that bass created
in the lion a dangerous fury or ferocity, that has sometimes
been produced deliberately, inexcusably and maliciously also
in other menagerie animals (Pierquin).

Music is, therefore, a frequent and powerful mental ex-
citant or irritant in many animals. But it is also sometimes,
on the other hand, a depressant, and the depression may be
of such a character that were it continued by a persistence
of the cause, it would be fatal occasionally in the dog
(Pierquin). A minor degree of this influence is its calmative
action, as when it is used in calming the rage of the rattle-
snake or other serpents. ' There are most clearly proved
instances in which enraged snakes ' have been lulled to quiet
and harmlessness by the music of the snake-charmers of
India, so that they have allowed themselves to be played
with, and afterwards have nestled peaceably for days in the
charmer's turban (Miss Gordon-Cumming).

The owl is said to have an aversion to music (Mead). In
other animals, mere antipathy is apt — if the obnoxious
sounds are continued — to pass into fury. Further, music is
equally productive, sometimes, of morbid motor phenomena,
e.g. convulsions in a dog and cat, as cited by Mead.

Other sounds, not musical, have frequently a terrifying
or disturbing effect, usually, probably, from the painful ideas
or associations to which they give rise. Thus the growls or
howls, or other sounds emitted by the larger and more
powerful feral animals, such as the lion, create extreme
alarm in those which are timid, smaller or less powerful —
including especially the horse. The sound, like the sight, of
hated or dreaded persons or things, acts similarly by the
law of Association of Ideas. Thus the distant sound of the
approach of the bot-fly terrifies cattle to unmanageable-
ness, just as the mere sight of the breeze-fly produces

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 227

similar terror — general disturbance — in flocks of sheep
(Figuier).

All noises that are discordant, loud, multiform, especially
if they are in addition sudden, or sounds that are simply
sudden, startling, loud, unaccustomed and unexpected, are
apt to produce mental confusion or mental shock. And,
moreover, physical, as well as mental, effects may be pro-
duced by sounds which give rise to mental shock, as in the
case, mentioned by Sir David Brewster, of the dog that was
killed by the noise of artillery. A similar case has been
cited by Professor Adams. The animal, in the first case, was
startled from its sleep ; frightened by the unexpected sound,
it exhibited, we are told, an agony of fear, marked by tremor,
then hid itself and speedily died from the effect apparently
of combined mental and physical shock.

The ' Animal World ' tells us of a certain pet dog that
was ' so nervous and sensitive as regards sudden noises that
a clap of thunder, the report of a gun, or even a loud sneeze
made her tremble for hours.' Thunder is an occasional
cause of panic in menagerie animals, and stampedes occur
in the wild quagga and gnu of Africa from unusual, supposed
danger-betokening or dreaded sounds.

It is when, being stuck fast in a morass, the African ele-
phant is confused by the yelping of dogs, that the hunter can
venture to hamstring him (Livingstone). And it is amidst the
distracting yells of men and boys in the crowded city streets
that the poor footsore, overdriven ox first becomes bewil-
dered, and then excited, perhaps to reckless, dangerous fury.

On the other hand, animals that are habituated to certain
kinds of sounds, are apt to be startled or alarmed by their
sudden stoppage. Silence — the utter absence of sound — when
this is unusual and unexpected, may produce the same effects
as discordant or terrifying noises. Thus the absence of an
accustomed footfall, the sudden entry into a room or me-
nagerie cage of a well-known and well-loved person, whose
footfall has not been previously heard, is apt to startle,
sometimes with a serious result (Bartlett).

Certain smells are sometimes the cause or subjects of
marked antipathies on the part of certain animals, probably

Q 2

228 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER.

by virtue of the association therewith of unpleasant ideas,
of the memory of former wrongs. Several remarkable in-
stances have been recorded in the columns of ( Nature ' by
Darwin, Huggins and others of singular antipathies of dogs
to butchers and everything connected with slaughter-houses
and fleshers' shops. In some of these cases it might well
be supposed that smell had awakened unpleasant memories.
But this could not have been the case in young animals
with no experience of butchers and in whom the singular
antipathy had been hereditarily transmitted.

Johnson ascribes the cause of the aversion in dogs to
butchers to the odour of raw flesh and blood constantly
adhering to their clothes and persons. But the same dislikes
are manifested when the flesher presents himself in the un-
expected garb of a fashionable gentleman, in new clothes
free from all contamination with the smells of shop or slaugh-
ter-house, his own person being also thoroughly cleansed
by bathing. That such changes in personal identity do not
deceive the dog may be held to prove — I do not say that it
does so — simply the keenness of its sense of smell. The
smell of a butcher seems to give rise in certain dogs to a
vivid desire for the revenge of former injuries, not necessarily
or usually, however, received at the hands of the individual
who is viciously attacked.

Goldsmith asserted that the smell of blood in the horse
sometimes causes madness, and other authors have remarked
upon the irritation, marked by kicking or other symptoms,
in the same animal, arising from the same cause. Lewes
speaks of c convulsions of terror ' from certain scents in the
dog, while the 'Animal World' informs us of a bitch that
showed c frantic excitement' at the smell of kidneys, of which
she was very fond. Macaulay mentions an elephant that,
getting on the scent of a tiger in India, was at once seized
with a fugitive panic. The smell of straw that has littered
tigers and lions in menageries cannot be used for horses, in
whom it inspires instant and dangerous terror (Lay cock).
The mere smell left by a dog has been said to produce ex-
citement in cats, while the odour of the fat of the hysena is
represented as causing terror in the dog (Drake).

CHAPTER XVII.

MORAL CAUSES OP MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER.

BELONGING chiefly to the so-called £ moral ' or mental group
of the causes of mental derangement in the lower animals
are the following : —

I. All excess or exuberance of emotion or passion —
including —

Mental shock.

Wounded feelings of all kinds.

Anxiety or worry of every sort and degree.

Anger in all its degrees.

Grief.

Fright and fear.

Love in all its forms.

Joy.

Envy, jealousy, rivalry and hatred.

Despair.
II. Imitation and sympathy.

III. Novelty : the unfamiliarity of objects, especially if

suddenly presented.

IV. Imagination.

The influence of certain of the commoner passions or
emotions in producing mental excitement or depression of a
morbid kind is quite as obvious — when looked for — among
other animals, as in man. The dog and certain other ani-
mals frequently exhibit in as marked excess, as in man,
such feelings or passions as anger, grief or joy. Youatt
speaks of c excess or derangement of fondness ' in the dog,
while other authors refer to an 'overflow of love' on the

230 MOKAL CAUSES OF

part of many other animals. So total sometimes is the
absorption of interest and attention, in such animals as the
cow, bitch, mare, pigeon, by the maternal passion, that the
said passion has been described by Pierquin and Esquirol as
amounting to a monomania of love.

Undue development of the maternal instinct, however,
excessive motherly affection, sometimes proves dangerous or
fatal to the young from the recklessness or stupidity of the
mother's actions, or from morbid appetites or impulses arising
in her.

Sexual love, again, may, and frequently does, become
passionate in its intensity, and amounts to a well-marked
eroticism, whether in other animals or in man. The dog is
said to be ' warm-hearted ' to a degree that in man, or rather
in woman, would be called * gushing ' or effusive : there is in
it an exuberance or extravagance of love or affection. The
same animal is often said to be ' overjoyed,' to be f mad with
joy ' or c in an ectasy of delight ' at the mere anticipation of
some simple pleasure, such as a walk with its master. It is
capable also of profundity of sorrow, and in many other
ways it shows a capacity for excess of feeling.

Various writers speak of c tumults ' or c raptures ' of joy,
fear, surprise, or satisfaction in the lower animals. We read
of the ' fervency ' or c exuberance ' of their emotions. Dar-
win speaks of the ( agony of passion ' in birds. Now all
such excess merely requires duration or intensity, or a com-
bination of the two, to pass into a more or less permanent
and serious morbid mental state. The vehemence or violence
of the passions is frequently such that they get beyond con-
trol equally of will and judgment, and then become morbid
and dangerous ; for instance, jealousy in the monkey or dog;
rage or fury in the tiger or jackal ; sexual love in the stag
(Pierquin). Passion conquers reason, permanently or for the
time being.

But this is far from being a peculiarity of the lower
animals (Pope) ; the same thing constantly occurs not only
in children, idiots, insane persons, epileptics, and the deaf
and dumb, but even among those of the most highly cul-
tured of the most highly civilised nations, who pride them-

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 231

selves on the supremacy of their reason and the subjugation
of their mere feelings. Passion, feeling, or emotion, then,
of any kind, may become, in other animals as in man, not
only immoderate, but uncontrollable, and its intensity may
be such as to defy the power of expression otherwise than
by paralysis of motion and of mind.

The habit of anger — constitutional irritability — frequently
passes into mania, e.g. in the mandrill (Maudsley) . It is apt
to do so where it is continuous or intense, and where the
cause of provocation remains for some length of time. A
depressant effect may follow the excitant one in such a case :
it may lead to dementia rather than to mania, or to the
former through the latter.

We are told of a military elephant becoming 'frantic
with rage and disappointment' at not being allowed to em-
bark for foreign service with his regiment. 'No means
could be found to assuage the grief or to calm the anger of
this faithful creature, who so constantly mourned the loss of
his friends.' In certain monkeys and some kinds of dogs, in
the parrot also, anger is only too apt to become irrestrain-
able, to merge into a fury frightful in its intensity (Pierquin) .
It is as liable, in other animals as in man, moreover, to
occurrence in. fits, gusts, paroxysms, outbursts, or ebullitions.
Their incidence is frequently sudden, their duration short or
transient, their subsidence gradual and imperceptible, and
their causation trivial.

It would appear to be a morbid combativeness or irrita-
bility that leads the hamster to attack with ferocity every-
thing, animate or inanimate, with which it is for the moment
angry. This ferocity is marked or accompanied by utter
recklessness as to the size or nature of the offending or
offensive object. The animal shows no dread even of fire or
of red-hot bodies, turning fiercely on a bar of red-hot iron
and clinging tenaciously to it till burned to death (Wood).

In the ' heat of passion ' there is, in other animals as in
man, an absence of reflection and of the power of self-con-
trol, action being determined solely by impulse. The result
is that other animals, like man, are, in such circumstances,
hurried into acts which they afterwards probably regret, and

232 MOKAL CAUSES OF

for which they certainly have to suffer. Thus temporary
irritation, loss of temper, anger in big dogs leads frequently
to transient, blind, unreflecting impulse, and through it to
crimes of which, as soon as committed, the animals become
ashamed and remorseful, their usual magnanimity and for-
bearance having been overcome, just for the moment. It
happens therefore and thus that regret and remorse are, in
certain other animals as in certain men, the occasional
sequelse of unguarded passion or its criminal results. Such
regret and remorse again — for injustice or crime — are not
only possible, but probable occasional causes of melancholia
and suicide.

Grief from the loss of companions, playfellows, mates, or
young, masters or mistresses, of home, friends, and associa-
tions, is a common cause of melancholia, in which the suicidal
propensity is apt to be developed.

The sense of bereavement in the bitch produces a whole
series of varied mental phenomena, which include perversion
of the sense of duty, and an abrupt stoppage of ordinary
labours ; implacable fury, succeeded by despair, gradually
giving place to settled melancholia (Pierquin) ; apathy, loss
or want of interest in, or desire for, life ; and hence fre-
quently suicidal impulse.

There are innumerable perfectly authentic instances of
deaths from grief in various animals, death being usually
preceded by self-starvation and marasmus. In the dog,
mandarin duck, and other animals, such loss of friends and
friendships leads to dejection or depression of spirits, followed
or attended by refusal of comfort or consolation ; in other
words, the animal is really, as well as figuratively, * incon-
solable.' Jesse speaks of grief paralysing motion in the
swallow.

Sorrow operates, and powerfully, even in the most un-
likely animals. For instance, Houzeau records the case of a
menagerie wolf that exhibited great grief at the withdrawal
of its keeper, and that died, indeed, of grief after a third
separation from the man to whom it had contracted an
attachment.

On the other hand, c delirious with joy ' is an expression

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISOEDER. 233

as appropriate to, and represents a condition as common in
the dog as in man. In that animal, indeed, the emotion is
so intense sometimes as to be beyond the power of its ex-
pression (Houzeau). We frequently hear of its 'frantic
state of joy ' on the appearance of a long absent master or
mistress. The pleasurable excitement of sport in the sport-
ing dog, just as in the boy at his football, boating, or cricket,
is apt to become excessive, and therein or thereby morbid,
inducing, as sequelse, conjoint mental and physical evils.
Excessive joy would appear to have been the cause of sudden
and intense mental excitement, amounting to ephemeral
mania, in Berkeley's bloodhound Druid, f after the death of
a deer on the conclusion of a severe chase.' But to joy at
success in such a case must be added, in estimating the
causation of such mental excitement, the physical as well as
the mental strain, the bodily fatigue as well as the triumph
of victory.

In certain other animals there is occasionally a perfect
£ wildness of joy,' great intensity of mental excitement
from pleasurable emotions. Thus Darwin speaks of the
' madness of delight ' in a stickleback (fish), meaning, no
doubt, exuberance of joy, or uncontrollable animal spirits.
Houzeau describes the joy of the Brahminy ox at the sight
of fresh food after a sea voyage as extravagant; and the
mongoose is represented as being in a ' frenzy of happiness
at the death of an enemy. Gurney speaks of demonstrations
of exuberant joy in the horse. What Pierquin describes as
'joyous mania' may be, and probably is, what medical authors
mention as ' ecstasy ' — a mere excess of delight, a pleasurable
feeling, for the moment uncontrollable and inconveniently
demonstrative, one of the major forms of joyous excitement.

The natural timidity or tiinorousness of certain animals
has an intimate relation both to the facility with which fear
may be generated, and to the probability of such fear, when
generated, passing into suspiciousness and delusion. In some
animals timidity is extreme; and in such cases they are
usually otherwise eminently ( nervous ' or sensitive. The
nervous timidity in such cases, moreover, is usually con-
genital— has been transmitted from a line of ancestry, in

234 MOEAL CAUSES OF

whom fear has been perhaps originally acquired and then
accumulated or intensified. Their timorousness is shown by
their liability to be easily startled, frightened, or panic-
struck. These timid animals are generally defenceless, and
the favourite prey of powerful enemies. They are only too
apt to become the ' sport ' of man, in more senses than one.
Timorousness — frequently in this case, however, morbid or
unnatural in its character — is a general characteristic of
menagerie captives.

The West African elephant would appear to be morbidly
timid. ' The very sight of a fence alarms it and renders it
so nervous that, though it .... could break through with
ease, it either resigns itself to its fate, or still further renders
itself helpless in its frantic unsystematic attempts to get out
of the enclosure' (Brown), a circumstance that is duly taken
advantage of by the Fans in its capture.

Fear is at all times apt to become developed in connection
with morbid imagination or fancy ; and fear so developed is
equally apt to be unreasonable and unreasoning, giving rise
either to undue precautions for safety, or to precipitate flight
with all its dangers. Hence it is that terror is always liable
to arise from or at the sight of unfamiliar, strange, new
objects, even in usually courageous animals, such as the dog
and horse. Hence it is that what is simply unusual is gifted
with an imaginary property of dangerousness. And hence,
also, why fear is frequently exhibited by young animals, that
grow out of it in proportion as the objects, which at first
frighten them, become simply familiar.

A Newfoundland pup of Berkeley's ' was frightened at

the sight of a live rabbit The first rabbit he saw was

in a trap ; but no inducement that could offer would make
him touch it.' Sheep are very easily scared or alarmed, as
are the partridge, blackbird, and hare, by any unusual sounds
or sights (Baird). Terror is readily inspired, moreover, in
certain animals by colours, sights, sounds, or things, to which
others are indifferent, pointing to the presence probably in
the one case, and the absence in the other, of some latent
predisposition or idiosyncrasy. And further, terror attaches
itself sometimes in a singular way to special objects. Thus

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 235

a chimpanzee at the London Zoological Gardens was ( especi-
ally alarmed at the sight of a horse and cart ; ' while Darwin
mentions the terror of a chimpanzee at the sight of a human
coal-heaver.

The fear of threatened danger — even though unreal — of
some punishment, merely pretended by man, obviously in-
volves an excitable or fertile, if not morbid, imagination. In
danger real or supposed — and in the supposed quite as much
as in the real — the horse is apt to lose its ordinary trust in
its rider, and is likely to seek safety — also real or supposed
— in ignominious flight (Low). The same course of action
is followed, under similar circumstances, by the dog.

But on the other hand fear, alarm, terror, horror, in their
major degrees at least, frequently paralyse all power of self-
protective action, creating a dangerous immobility of body,
with an accompanying fixity of stare. This condition is
often described as a kind of fascination, of which the main
features are powerlessness of mind and body, with the gaze
helplessly fixed on some dreaded object — generally some
powerful enemy, such as a serpent. The spell-bound animal
is otherwise said to 6 lose its head' or ' wits' in some serious,
sudden, unexpected emergency, in which presence of mind
and readiness of action are all-important. To terror in the
victim is due the power of the rattlesnake to c charm ' the
said victim, to hold it as if spell-bound, fixed in its position
and gaze, insusceptible of flight or motion. Pierquin gives
the case of a cat in whom alarm at the sight of a dog pro-
duced a semi-stupor. Fear causes stupefaction in certain
antelopes (Campbell). Such is the dread of armed men, or
even of man's firearms, in certain baboons, that the mere
sight of a gun, or of the act of aiming one — though the
weapon be unloaded — begets sometimes paralysis of thought
and action with its consequences.

In a minor degree, fear may beget stupidity or mental
confusion, leading to injudicious or useless action ; for in-
stance, to attempted flight from enemies where escape is
obviously impossible. Or bewilderment may produce a kind
of self-destruction. Thus cockroaches, grasshoppers, and
spiders, fleeing from, and pursued by, the foraging ant of

236 MOKAL CAUSES OF

Nicaragua, ' in their confusion would bound right into the
midst of the main body of ants ' (Belt).

Fear is extremely liable to become epidemic in the form
of panic, as is illustrated by the stampedes of horses, cattle,
sheep, buffaloes, and other animals. And here once more we
have a vivid or morbid imagination at work, either exag-
gerating actual danger, or creating ideas of danger where no
real risk exists. In such cases the dread is suddenly deve-
loped— simultaneously perhaps — in a large number of indi-
viduals massed together ; or it arises in one individual, and
is rapidly communicated to others by sympathy and imitation.
In different individuals of the same species, under even the
same circumstances — and still more in different species and
genera — the resultant phenomena include—

1. Equal paralysis of thought and action.

2. Utter indifference to, or forgetfulness of, consequences.

3. An absence of the usual precautions against danger ;
or

4. Loss of all power of co-operation with man in his
efforts for their safety.

In addition to the conjunct operation of fear, sympathy,
and imitation, we have in panics the influence, to a certain
extent, of mental shock, of sudden fright, an influence which
will be considered in a separate section of the present chap-
ter. This fright is probably the original or exciting cause in
the first animal affected. But the terror produced in it so
rapidly communicates itself to other members of a flock or
herd — to the number sometimes of hundreds of individuals —
that it appears to bystanders as if the whole body of animals
were simultaneously affected.1

Morbid fears, as well as dislikes, accompany various bodily
diseases (Pierquin) ; and these unnatural fears always tend,
where they are of long continuance, to pass into what in
man are called delusions of fear or suspicion.

The influence of fright is so powerful and so well known,
that veterinarians have proposed it as a mode of —artificially
and experimentally — treating epilepsy in the sheep (Youatt).

1 Compare what I have said on 'Mental Epidemics among the Lower
Animals ' in the Jownal of Mental Science (1872).

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 237

Other animals are sometimes, like man, directly ' frightened
oat of their wits,' as in the case of a squirrel cited by Prof.
Adams. Pierquin mentions a parrot whose intelligence was
destroyed by fright ; that is to say, the animal was thereby
rendered mentally imbecile or insane. Fright sometimes
leads the dog to be ' beside itself ; ' it becomes unable to eat,
glares, growls, and pants in terror (Cobbe).

Fright, and all other kinds of mental shock, do not
operate solely by virtue of the suddenness or unexpectedness
of the sensory impression, or of the nature of this impression
itself. There must generally pre-exist in the animal a certain
predisposition or idiosyncrasy — a tendency to be readily
startled or alarmed — with an imaginative liability to exag-
gerate, or to create ideas of, danger. In other words — as has
been said also of fear — the animal, in whom fright is apt
to produce the most serious effects, is usually one eminently
nervous or timid. In such animals, and in proportion to
their nervousness or timidity, sudden startling out of sleep
or rest, for instance ; unexpected peals of thunder or artil-
lery ; all kinds of unlooked-for sights and sounds — especially
if suddenly presented or heard — are apt to produce striking
results. And they do so in animals, sometimes, that cannot
be placed in the category of those that are specially timorous.
Thus fright is very common, from unfamiliar noises and
objects, in menagerie animals in general, in which case, how-
ever, captivity has engendered a morbid timidity and fear.

The results to man of the frightening of animals with
which he is intimately associated, are sometimes fatal,
as in the case of a London coachman who was found killed
by fracture of the skull in his own stable, and whose death
formed the subject of an inquest at St. Mary's Hospital in
January, 1875. Evidence went to render it probable that he
had been kicked on the head by one of his own horses, which
he had frightened by going into the stable by night in his
night-dress and then suddenly striking a match.

Despair — the sense of hopelessness, of futility of effort —
lends a spurious courage to the poor hunted animal ' at bay,'
genders a ferocity that may amount to real mania, attended
with imminent danger to the life of its foes, including that

238 MOEAL CAUSES OF

of its arch-persecutor —man ; or leads sometimes, on the
other hand, to melancholia (Pierquin).

Rivalry — though it may be quite innocent, even playful—
is as apt, as in man, to lead to excitement of a kind, or to a
degree, that is uncontrollable and dangerous. It may lead
variously to —

1. Crime — such as murder.

2. Mental disorder — such as mania ; or to

3. All kinds of error dangerous to the animal itself,
even to death, directly or indirectly.

Rivalry may be the fruit of mutual agreement for mutual
pleasure ; there may be invitation, perhaps playful defiance,
to trials of strength, speed, or song, or to the display of
personal attractions. But at all times it is liable to beget
challenges in earnest, provocations or insults of a deliberate
kind, and resultant fights of the bloodiest character. Thus
the rivalry of male birds in courtship frequently leads to the
sacrifice or butchery of all his competitors by one successful
candidate for matrimonial favours. The rivalry of queen
bees, too, results in fight and the destruction of all competi-
tors by the strongest (Houzeau). Indeed, the mere dread of
rivals in the queen bee impels her not only to fury or furiosity
(Kirby and Spence), but to various acts of atrocity, including
murder (Figuier). The rivalry of the race -horse may be
nobler to begin with, but it is apt to degenerate, as is man's,
and to give rise to unworthy thoughts, followed by ignoble
deeds.

Eivalry almost inevitably begets jealousy ; and it is this
c green-eyed monster ' that is so apt to beget in its turn a
murderous impulse, or murderous mania in the dog or cat.
These animals sometimes assault or murder a rival — for
instance, in the favour of a master or mistress, even though
that rival should be one of their own offspring (( Animal
World3). The 'maddening' influence of jealousy in male
dogs is remarked upon by Fleming ; and Miss Cobbe refers
to the expression of jealousy by fury in the same animal.
Jealousy in lap-dogs, when supplanted by rivals, frequently
leads, on the one hand, to persecution of the successful new-
comer, and on the other, to the refusal of food by the dis-

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 239

placed animal (Low). The latter may merely imagine itself
displaced or supplanted in a master's affections ; and hence
its jealousy may be groundless. This, however, does not
render the emotion less acute, less powerful or dangerous.
The ostrich is liable to sudden fits of jealousy, begetting
domestic quarrels — sometimes fatal — or serious mutilations
of, or injury to, each other. And in other birds fierce, even
murderous, attacks on each other are the occasional fruits of
the same evil passion (Darwin).

An instructive instance of jealousy and its results in the
cat has been given by Pierquin. In various respects there
was first a marked change of character, including a gradual
loss of affection for her young, whom she at first simply
avoided. Then their approach caused anger, expressed by
biting, followed by hatred. Next she killed one favourite
kitten after another. She now became sad or melancholy,
easily frightened, full of fears, solitary in her habits, refusing
her usual caresses. And all, we are assured, apparently
from jealousy at the growing attention bestowed by her
mistress on her own kittens.

To appreciate such an incident or history, to be able to
judge of the morbidity of feeling it illustrates, one must
remember how ready the mother cat usually is to display her
progeny ; how she glories in her maternity, and glorifies her
young, as the human mother adores her babe, obviously
seeing beauties in them worthy, in her estimation, of general
admiration ; and how she takes every means of soliciting and
securing it either by bringing her kittens under a mistress's
notice in the drawing-room, or by leading her to admire
them in their litter or lair.

Jealousy is a common feature of certain male animals at
the rutting season, and it is this passion in great measure
that provokes their fury in their combats for possession of
the female.

Jealousy is important in its relation to the development
of unjust or unfounded suspiciousness or suspicions, and the
consequent punishment or revenge, as well as of delusions of
suspicion or fear.

Both rivalry and jealousy, then, which are so frequently,

240 MOEAL CAUSES OF

if they are not universally, associated with each other, often
acquire the force of violent and uncontrollable passions, that
pass into either murderous mania, monomania of suspicion,
or suicidal melancholia (Pierquin).

In other animals, just as in man, there are no more power-
ful and frequent causes of mental disorder than anxieties or
worries of all kinds, the result usually, in the cases equally
of man and other animals, of the exigencies of the great
struggle for life. These anxieties and this struggle are of
course greatest in animals systematically persecuted by man,
and least in those protected by him, though the latter are in
their turn, as has been already seen, subject to disturbing
influences of a different kind. Hence this class of factors of
mental disquietude and upset is to be looked for in such
animals as the poor hunted hare, the fox and wolf. The
incessant cares connected with the necessity for the avoid-
ance of man's multiform snares, or of more numerous and
powerful predatory animals — the anxieties of war, of famine
or destitution, of homelessness and exile, of a wandering,
uncertain life, of man's cruelty in a thousand different
forms — the excessive solicitude of the mother for her eggs
or young, of the father for the safety of his mate and their
offspring, of both parents, or of animals that have no ma-
ternal or paternal cares of their own — all tell on the animal
mind as powerfully as parallel conditions do on man's.

As in the case of so many other causes of mental de-
rangement, the influence of anxiety is determined probably
not so much by its character or source as by its duration — its
long or short continuance on the one hand, and its intensity
on the other ; which latter, again, will depend very much on
the natural temperament of the animal, or on the presence
of the co-operating influence of predisposition.

Vexations or disappointments of all kinds — in love or
affection, in hope or desire — are scarcely separable in their
influence from anxieties which, in truth, they directly pro-
duce. Wounded feelings — of pride, ambition, self-esteem,
love of approbation, longing for attention; slights, affronts,
neglect ; the sense of ill-usage or injustice ; the severance of
attachments in bereavement ; the rupture of old, cherished

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISOEDER. 241

associations, whether with persons, other animals, places, or
things, are all not infrequent causes even of suicide on the
one hand, and of murder on the other ; while their minor
effects are treated of in detail in the chapters on ' Sensitive-
ness,' and on the f Bodily Eesults of Mental Causes.' So that
what we call ' disappointments in love,' 6 disappointed affec-
tions,' ' unrequited love,' ' hope deferred,' and ' blighted
hopes,' are quite as frequent causes of mental depression
and its sequelae in other animals as in man.

Suggestion would also appear to be occasionally influential,
in conjunction with impulse, in the sudden development of
certain forms of insanity — for instance, of murderous mania.
Among other animals, as in man, it is perhaps scarcely
surprising

How. oft the sight of means to do ill deeds
Makes ill deeds done !

The sight, usually unexpected, of an enemy — -sometimes
man himself — in a state of helplessness from unconscious-
ness, sleep, inebriety, illness, accident, or disease, generates
on the moment the ideas of opportunity and revenge — ideas
that are forthwith acted upon, too probably with fatal effect.
Thus in captive feral animals — in the lions, tigers, leopards,
and rhinoceroses of our menageries — the sight of a tyran-
nical keeper off his guard, or without his usual weapon, fre-
quently suggests the dangerous impulsive spring or charge.

As has already been explained, mere novelty — of sight,
sound, or position — is frequently sufficient to induce not only
surprise or wonder, but alarm, terror, or mental shock, which,
if protracted or intense, may lead by paralysis of thought or
action to serious accidents to the animals themselves or to
man. Thus it is probably the novelty of the position in lost
city dogs that leads in them to a sort of mental paralysis, to
a degree of bewilderment that renders them eminently ner-
vous and suspicious. What is simply unexpected and unusual,
what is new or novel, what is seen for the first time, is
always apt in certain birds and in many other animals —
especially those that are young, nervous, or unaccustomed
to man — to produce a condition which, if there is action, is
usually denominated panic, and if inaction, stupidity. Thus

VOL. II. E

242 MORAL CAUSES OF MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDEE.

the siskin betrays alarm if a master or mistress is seen with
an unaccustomed dress.

The suddenness with which strange, because new, objects
are presented to an animal, and the natural timorousness of
the animal itself, have much to do with the nature of the re-
sult, with determining whether it shall be shock, terror, or sur-
prise. From this sense of strangeness arises the very common
dread or repugnance at the presence or approach of strangers
exhibited by so many dogs or other animals — a phenomenon
comparable to the suspicion, want of confidence, or dislike so
often manifested by the child under similar circumstances.

Objects that are really perfectly familiar, and that attract
no notice, or create no fear or other emotion under ordinary
circumstances, may appear unfamiliar and invested with
attributes of danger under unusual circumstances, including
darkness or twilight. Thus Houzeau tells us of the effect of
the sight of a fence on his own station on his own dog when
the animal approached it in the twilight after a fatiguing
day's work. Wild animals flee from their own companions
when dimly seen in the twilight or dark. The springbok,
oxen, and other animals in Africa show great inquietude,
• become timid and suspicious, in tall herbage, where they
cannot see clearly before and around them. They manifest
a decided preference for the open country, where they can
watch the approach of enemies, and baffle them by speed or
otherwise. The use of blinkers in the horse operates in a
similar way, by preventing due vision on all sides, stimu-
lating a vivid or morbid imagination, creating fear and sus-
picion, perhaps a series of fancied, startling or terrifying
sights or sounds, amounting to sensorial or other delusions.

It is in this way that the motion of objects inspires a
dread which the same bodies in their motionless state would
not arouse ; for instance, the very common, fitful, irregular,
sudden, eccentric movements caused by gusts of wind in
pieces of paper, straw, or other light substances. If these
movements are seen in certain lights, or under any other
exceptional or peculiar conditions, the alarm created may be
altogether disproportionate to the cause, and it may lead to
serious accidents to human life — e.g., from the horse.

CHAPTEE XYIII.

MIXED CAUSES OF MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER.

THERE are obviously certain causes of mental disturbance in
the lower animals which are of a very mixed character, and
cannot appropriately be classified under either e physical ' or
c moral.' Belonging to this mixed or composite category,
possessing characters that are partly physical, partly moral,
may be conveniently ranged —

I. Heredity and predisposition, including temperament,
diathesis, and idiosyncrasy.

II. Artificial life ; which involves —

Captivity.
Monotony.
Inactivity.
Solitude.

Repression or non-gratification of the most impe-
rious of the bodily instincts.

III. Privation, involving —

Starvation.

Homelessness.

Exposure.

IV. Man's cruelty, neglect, or injudicious treatment.

It is impossible to exaggerate, either in man or other
animals, in the etiology of insanity, the importance of that
combination of conditions known as predisposition. These
conditions may represent in a single individual a whole
series of bad ancestral influences.

Heredity is as powerfully operative in other animals as
in man ; so that insanity and eccentricity ; the nervous or
insane neurosis, diathesis, psychosis or temperament ; a con-

244 MIXED CAUSES OF

stitutional tendency or proclivity to mental derangement;
morbid mental peculiarities of all kinds themselves, vices of
temper, unnatural fears, a disposition to panic or panpliobia,
unaccountable dislikes, the mental consequences of ill-usage
or hard work, and all manner of evil habits, are transmitted
from parent to offspring. Thus we read of the hereditary
transmission of the nervous temperament in the bitch (Walsh);
of aversions or antipathies in the cat and dog ; of various
forms of vice in the horse, cow, bull, heifer ; of strong im-
pulse with feeble will; and of other indications of faulty
mental organisation. As in man, mental unsoundness is to
be regarded as the most certain of all the hereditary neuroses.
Accidents of birth or ancestry, especially what is called high
blood or breeding in such animals as race-horses or sport-
ing dogs, in whom there is an accumulation in successive
generations of the conditions summed up in the comprehen-
sive term 'nervousness,' are, as in man, among the most
fertile of the remote or predisposing causes of mental dis-
order. Among hereditary forms of mental defect or disorder,
idiocy has to be included (McBride), and it is one of the
forms that result too frequently, in an animal's ancestry, from
man's ill-usage.

It would appear, then, that the study of an animal's
antecedents, of its family history, of the mental condition of
an ancestry is quite as necessary or desirable as in man in
determining, or endeavouring to determine, the etiology of
insanity, or the power for good or evil of ancestral influences.
For a bias is given to the whole organisation, including the
nervous and mental, by heredity.

Veterinarians speak of irritable, surly, and vicious tem-
peraments or dispositions as specially conducive to the
development of insanity in the lower animals (Fleming) ;
while, as in man, we meet with the melancholic, phlegmatic,
nervous, and sanguine temperaments, with all their combi-
nations and modifications.

All forms of artificial, and especially of luxurious, life,
by reason of the unnatural, unhealthy habits involved, are
seriously damaging to mental soundness. Hence we find all
forms of mental excitement and depression, all infirmities of

MENTAL DIFFEEENCE AND DISORDER. 245

temper and defects of mental character, constitutional ir-
ritability, inertia — mental and physical, the most serious
conjunct mental and bodily diseases — such as rabies — in
menagerie and household pet animals. The unhealthy,
unnatural conditions which conspire to the production in
them of such results include—

1. Captivity — enforced confinement in various forms and
degrees.

2. The repression or non-gratification of the natural
instincts.

3. Defective air-change.

4. Deficient exercise — mental as well as bodily.

5. Overfeeding with unsuitable food.

6. Petting or pampering, over-indulgence, the non-cor-
rection of bad habits, encouragement of laziness.

Captivity — in zoological gardens, menageries, kennels,
aviaries, cages, or aquaria — operates deleteriously on the
mental character of the animals confined, not merely by the
galling sense of the loss of freedom, but in a great variety of
other ways, partly physical, partly mental. Artificial or
compulsory confinement at once affects an animal's docility :
it produces a morbid sensitiveness, both to mental and
physical influences ; it gives rise to various degrees of dis-
tress of mind, to irritability, irascibility, pugnacity, ferocity,
or fury ; it is apt to lead ultimately to nostalgia, melancholia,
suicide, and even, in specially active animals, such as the
ape, to idiocy, marasmus, and death. Excessive confine-
ment in the dog produces fierceness and intractability
(Lewes). The Aoudad sheep, which is described as naturally
of very uncertain temper, becomes morose and suspicious in
confinement. ' Sometimes he seems to be seized with an
irresistible desire for assaulting something,5 according to
Wood, who has described other effects of captivity in various
animals in his series of papers on the Zoological Gardens of
London.

Captivity aggravates a natural tendency to pugnacity or
irascibility in some animals, while it creates these qualities
in certain others ; so that a disposition to fight is frequently
exhibited on trivial provocation, as in the ruff (Darwin).

246 MIXED CAUSES OF

In confinement the orang suffers from ennui, passing into
melancholia, according to Pierquin, who describes nostalgia
as one of the commonest results of captivity in other
animals. The captive eagle is sullen and ferocious, while
mischievousness is developed in the elephant and other
animals (Watson).

Captivity involves want of mental, as well as of physical,
exercise, perversion of many of the normal functions of free
or healthy life, the non-gratification of the natural desires,
abnormal conditions of temperature and light, and frequently
monotony and solitude. Pierquin has dwelt on the influence
of confinement in modifying animal character, artincialising
and demoralising it.

But care must be taken not to overrate, as a factor either
of bodily or mental disease, the importance of that element
in captivity which consists of a sense of the mere deprivation
of liberty, of the loss of personal freedom. Tor confinement
is not in all cases enforced, involuntary, or punitive. Some
animals are quite indifferent to confinement, to the depriva-
tion of freedom (Adams) . There are cases of others which
have been liberated, or have escaped, and which, having
presumably contrasted the benefits of domestication, for
instance, with the disadvantages of the wild or free state,
voluntarily return to a pleasant captivity.

It has yet to be determined how far wild and domesticated
animals are, in proportion to their relative numbers, subject
to insanity ; and what in each class is the form, frequency,
and causation of the insanity.

Miss Buist tells us that certain cage birds prefer solitude
to society. We know that certain animals are naturally
solitary or non-social, e.g. the common hyaena and the puff
bird (Baird) ; and self-isolation, or aversion to society, is a
common feature of disease — mental and bodily — in many
animals. But, as a rule, the society of their fellows, or of
man, is necessary to their mental comfort. There are some
animals — more especially certain dogs — that care little, or
not at all, for the companionship of their own species, but
that have formed the strongest possible attachments to man.
In such animals the want of the society of a loved master

3IENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 247

or mistress, of a human favourite of any kind, produces the
same kind of effects as the absence or loss of a mate or of
3'oung in other animals. The cat, horse, dog1, and other
animals show uneasiness in the absence of their usual com-
panions (Watson) ; and some of them refuse to eat or work
alone.

The want of society is specially felt in social or grega-
rious animals (Brodie), who are accustomed to be constantly
surrounded by friends and companions ; and it is in them
that solitary confinement is most apt to lead — as it does
frequently — to dementia or other forms of mental derange-
ment, just as in man. Animals that lead a compulsorily
recluse life, such as 'rogue' elephants and deposed chiefs
among some other animals, are invariably in a morbid men-
tal condition, of which the usually most prominent and
dangerous feature is irascibility or ferocity.

According to Buckland, horses chate solitude, and are
made savage by being kept alone.' Love of company, com-
panionship, or societ}r — sociability — is indeed strongly marked
in the horse. Thus Pierquin gives a case of fury in a carriage
horse when his companion was not in harness with him ;
their affection, when together, being shown by their mutual
caresses. The effects of being kept by themselves, especially
in strange quarters, include, in many cases, the restlessness
and destructiveness of excitement; in others, the quiet of
abject terror.

The results, temporary or permanent, on the mental cha-
racter of other highly social animals, of solitary confinement
has been pointed out by White and Stirling. Unhappiness
— which is, however, the first stage towards melancholia, or
other forms of serious mental disturbance — is, in the pigmy
ape and other animals, one of the minor effects of being
left without companionship.

Monotony, as a factor of mental derangement in the lower
animals, is closely associated with, and usually inseparable
from, solitude and captivity. Other animals dislike mono-
tonous lives and occupations as much as man does ; they
suffer as much as he from want of novelty and variety ; they
have the same desire for amusement ; there is equal necessity

248 MIXED CAUSES OF

in the case of many of them for relaxation on the one hand,
and pleasant excitement on the other. Sameness has a
similar depressing influence on them as on man, whether
that sameness be of scene, surroundings, air, or food.

Young animals are as fond of play, and many mature
ones of sports, as the human infant or child and the human
sportsman are. And everything that interferes with this
requisite and natural play, sport, excitement, amusement,
novelty, or variety, is apt to pave the way for morbid mental
conditions. Dogs go in common to the same places, at the
same hours, undeterred by punishment, for their exercises
and games, according to Houzeau, who describes also the
recreations of the mother fox with her whelps, as including
the playing at c leap-frog,' or something analogous. Broderip
speaks of the evening amusements of rooks. Various pas-
times occur among other birds, and are not unknown among
fish.

But many or most menagerie animals and drawing-
room pets have no means of enjoying themselves in their
own way with their own kind : there is no variation in their
manner of life from day to day ; and hence their morbidity,
both of mind and body. Love of freshness or change — as of
companionship, exercise, excitement, freedom, play — even in
many cases of fun, is intuitive or innate ; and it must be
gratified if health — mental or bodily — is to be maintained.

Man's cruelty to, his neglect or injudicious treatment of,
subject animals operates on their mental character deleteri-
ously in a great variety of ways. He may be guilty of inten-
tional, deliberate, wanton ill-usage in the form of physical
punishment — for instance, by blows on the head ; and these
blows may be of such violence, in so sensitive an animal
as the dog, that the most serious mental or bodily disorder
directly results. Much more frequently his neglect is unin-
tentional or accidental, the result of ignorance or thought-
lessness; yet it reacts mischievously on the natural or morbid
sensitiveness of such animals as the highty-bred horse and
dog. This species of neglect includes the inconsiderate
subjecting of domestic animals to all classes of preventible
causes of mental defect and disorder.

3IENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 249

Occasionally in a literal, but more frequently in a figura-
tive, sense man ' goads ' animals into madness. On the
other hand, his persecution often extends to the death of a
poor animal in the hunt or race. He both literally and
figuratively hunts or races them to death. I refer to cases in
which death results from combined mental and physical
exhaustion. Hunting by man — by bringing to bay, or pro-
ducing desperation or despair — is, moreover, a fertile cause of
the development of sudden furiosity, apt to pass into mur-
derous or homicidal mania.

Man's persecution — for instance, of game or wild animals,
of pariah dogs, of domestic cats, frequently leads directly or
indirectly, through various degrees of -wretchedness, to their
suicide. Among the more immediate and minor results are
incessant and increasing anxiety, and a constant sense of
peril, apt to pass into morbid fear, and that into delusion.
Teasing, tantalising, irritation, or provocation of all kinds —
especially where persistent — is almost certain to give rise,
unless in morbidly placid animals, in the first instance to
loss of temper and to viciousness, with natural, but too
frequently dangerous, efforts at self-defence or revenge.

Petting or pampering animals — such as the chimpanzee
or dog — like children, has the same effect of ' spoiling ' them
as regards especially their moral character, temper, and dis-
position.

Punishment — especially if undeserved or excessive — in-
flicted by passionate, thoughtless masters, ignorant of their
own best interests, is always apt to lead, in such animals as
the horse and dog, to an outbreak of rage or fury, to sullen
obstinacy, or to concealed feelings of keen resentment, which
are gratified whenever a favourable opportunity for revenge
presents itself.

Were man but to consider beforehand the possible effects
on mind or body, or both, of animals useful to him, and on
the integrity of which mind and body his own success in
life perhaps depends, of his various forms of irritating,
tormenting, neglecting, or ill-using them, he could not fail
greatly to modify his present conduct and attitude toward
them.

250 MIXED CAUSES OF

There are certain combinations of causes that are of much
practical and public interest — inasmuch as their results are
sources of daily danger to human life in all our large towns,
while they are also preventable, though they are at present
utterly misunderstood. I allude to the subject of so-called
' razed ' or 6 crazed ' cattle, on their way through the streets
of cities to the shambles. Fatal accidents from such animals
are of constant occurrence, so that it is scarcely possible to
take up a city newspaper without finding some case or cases
of infuriated oxen — popularly called cmad' — doing serious
damage to man's life or property. I have had occasion to
make a special inquiry into the mental and bodily condition
of such animals, and into the causes of their suddenly deve-
loped dangerous fury, not only because, (1) I believe the
subject to be one of the highest public importance ; but also
because (2) some serious accidents arising from this source
have happened recently in my own neighbourhood — in one
case almost at my own door.

On the Bridge of Perth, in 1874, a young lady, daughter
of a well-known farmer in the Carse of Growrie, was crushed
to death by being butted against the parapet wall by a stot
(a young bullock) which was being driven to the slaughter-
house ; and not long after, in Dundee, another stot and cow,
that were also being driven from the Carse of Gowrie to the
city slaughter-house, tossed people in the air, butted at
them, knocked them down and rolled over" them — happily in
this latter case without fatal result. An inquiry into the
circumstances of these local accidents brought out the
following points relative to the condition of the cattle in
question : —

1. Such cattle are usually stall-fed: they are kept all the
winter in byres, deprived of exercise and air, and fed on
provender — such as rapecake, calculated simply to fatten
them for the market, not to produce either bodily or mental
health.

2. Accustomed to a monotonous, secluded life among their
own kind, incapable of much bodily fatigue from long inac-
tivity of their muscles, tender of foot, intensely impression-
able and nervous, they are suddenly driven many miles over

CENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 251

hard macadamised roads, which present the greatest possible
contrast to the soft abundant litter of the byre.

3. They soon become footsore and fatigued, and drop
down 011 the roadside from sheer exhaustion. If their drover
is humane or judicious, he allows them frequent rests, and he
drives them to and through towns at an early hour in the
morning. But usually he commits the double error of losing
his patience and temper, and of making no allowance for the
disturbing influences — on such animals— of the sounds and
sights of city streets.

4. The poor jaded animals are forced to their feet by
repeated showers of Hows, accompanied by all sorts of hoot-
ings and oaths. Exhausted and annoyed, they are driven at
midday, or in the thick of the day's traffic, through the
narrow, crowded streets of such a city as Glasgow, where
they become bewildered by the novelty of the shops, the
omnibuses, carriages, and carts, by the throngs of people,
the incessant din, and the variety of noise.

5. Naturally the animals endeavour to escape from this
confusion up bye-streets, or even frequently into shops. To
the cries of the drovers and the yelpings of their dogs
is added the hue and cry of the ignorant and excitable
populace ; the fugitive ox becomes to it a ( mad bull ; ' the
aid of the police and even of the military is invoked : the
animal is pursued not only with sticks and stones, but also
with lassoes and fire-arms, with human yells of the most
discordant and distracting kind ; and then, in certain cases
only, a—

6. Fury is suddenly developed, which may amount to
mania — and is really of the nature of ephemeral mania —
which fury is naturally wreaked on the first subject or object,
living or dead, that presents itself.

7. That the mental excitement in the hunted animal is
temporary is proved by two classes of facts, viz. :—

a. The results of the escape of such animals from

their persecutors ; and

b. The occasional judicious action of man.

The animal that caused the fatal accident (above men-
tioned) in Perth had comparatively easy access from the

252 MIXED CAUSES OF

bridge to the large, beautiful, riverine meadow called tlie
North Inch — known to fame in Sir Walter Scott's 'Fair
Maid of Perth : ' to this open space it made its way, gal-
loped to its further end, and there, espying a herd of cattle
grazing quietly on the opposite side of the river (Tay), on
the meadows of Scone Palace, and being then unharassed
by its human enemies, whom it had out-distanced in the
race, it swam or forded the Tay to its companions, was
accepted by them without objection, and began to browse as
quietly as if it had not been the hero of an ' accident ' and
the object of so much human excitement. On another occa-
sion -also in Perth — which, however, is a quiet provincial
town, whose streets are habitually nearly empty, an over-
driven, excited ox was most judiciously directed into
the courtyard of a church, where it was left fuming
and fretting only till a few quiet cattle could be driven
beside it. The result of the companionship was instant
quietude, and that it could then be led or driven in the desired
direction — probably the slaughter-house.

Now I find that farmers, or other breeders of cattle for
the butcher, are familiar both with the peculiar mental con-
dition of stall-fed cattle and with its causes. In certain
cases they act practically, judiciously, and humanely on their
knowledge or opinions : such as by slaughtering specially
excitable cattle on the farm, being afraid of the risks to
human life of driving or over-driving to market; or by send-
ing them securely led by ropes, or at such hours as would
secure transit during the greatest quiet and the least public
traffic of the day, in country as well as in town.

But in other cases, regardless of anything save convert-
ing their cattle into cash, and complying with the printed
letter of loose municipal or other regulations, their owners
or drovers simply take the speediest and cheapest means of
conveying them from their byre in the country to the
shambles in the town.

It does not come within the scope of such a work as the
present to indicate, to those whom it may most concern, how
best to obviate the present evils arising from the driving of
exhausted, excitable, or excited cattle, during the hours of

MENTAL DIFFERENCE AND DISORDER. 253

public traffic, through the most crowded streets of our large
towns. But that these evils are preventible, and ought to be
prevented, there can be no reasonable doubt. That fatal
accidents occur occasionally is matter of much less surprise
to those who reflect on their causes, than that they are not
infinitely more numerous.

CHAPTEE XIX.

MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS PRODUCED BY MKNTAL CAUSES.

THROUGHOUT this work many illustrations are given of the
influence of purely mental states, of feeling or emotion, in
giving rise to bodily disturbance of every degree, culminating
in death itself. But the physical conditions so resulting
are of sufficient practical interest, and sufficiently numerous
and varied, to demand special or separate consideration.

The most serious, and perhaps also the most common of
these physical results of intense emotion, is death, either
sudden or gradual. The former — sudden death — occurs in a
very limited number of cases. There are occasional instances
of literal heart-break, of syncope usually, but also of rupture
of the heart-tissues or walls, under sudden and intense ex-
citement or depression, passion or emotion, even when
pleasurable : under joy, anger, surprise, fear or grief, for
instance, in the dog (Pierquin). That intensity of joy which
is known as transport or ecstasy may be fatal by syncope.
A single paroxysm of rage may be fatal by the rapid and
utter nervous exhaustion it produces. Dr. Adams gives an
instance of fear causing instant death in a moose by heart-
disease, what he calls 'paralysis of the heart,' but which
was more probably mere syncope, in either case a sudden
stoppage of the heart's action. He mentions also a squirrel,
'frightened out of its wits,' that died a captive, obviously
also from sudden and intense fear, a phenomenon that is
common among small birds captured by man.

Everybody who has had any experience of bird-pets must
have met with instances of sudden death from fright in the
canary or parrot, produced by the sight of a cat, or by its

MORBID CONDITIONS PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 255

unsuccessful jump at their cage. In sucli cases, the sudden-
ness of the shock is as powerful in its physical influence as its
intensity. And further, direct bodily may be combined with
or substituted so far for mental shock, in the case, for
instance, of a clumsy servant knocking over or down a cage
with its timid occupant.

It is no part of my present duty or object to discuss the
modus operandi whereby so striking a physical result as in-
stantaneous death is sometimes produced by purely emotional
causes. What I have to do is simply to point out the indis-
putable and direct connection between the mental or moral
state and the bodily effect.

Emulation is sometimes carried to such excess even by
an animal itself, at its own instance and for its own pleasure,
for instance by the dog or horse in the race or chase, that
death suddenly puts a veto on the sport: the overstrained
animal drops down dead, even before it has reached its
goal.

' A first-rate bird will sometimes sing till he drops down
almost dead .... or quite dead, from rupturing a vessel in
the lungs' — that is, from pulmonary haemorrhage. This
excessive rivalry in song, this singing literally to death, is
confined to the males (Darwin).

We read also of animals fighting, racing, running to the
death, of fatal effects from excessive persistence or perse-
verance in hunting, racing, coursing. In such cases there
is not simply intense rivalry at work, not only inordinate
pleasure in tho sport or work, extreme eagerness to gain a
coveted end; but there is also undue and dangerous physical
strain on the nervous and circulatory systems, more especially
on the heart. Death, therefore, may result from general
exhaustion, or special (nervous) exhaustion, or from failure
of the heart's action, preceded, or not, by serious palpitation.

Similar results, including sudden death, occur in animals
hunted or persecuted to the death by man, in which case we
have at work the additional potent emotion of fear.

The shock of fright is sometimes so sudden and severe as
to cause instant death (Darwin).

Death, however, is much more frequently indirect and

256 MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS

gradual, being preceded by some, or all, of tlie following
phenomena:—

1. Simple loss of spirits, marked perhaps by uiisociability
and unamiability, with a tendency to self-seclusion, taci-
turnity, moroseness and apathy, or other sudden change
of habits, amounting to moping, sadness, listlessness or
melancholia, familiarly spoken of as drooping ; including the
development sometimes of obvious fretfulness, so marked
that the animal is said to fret itself to death. There may
also be misery or unhappiness variously expressed.

2. Agitation, restlessness and want of sleep.

3. Loss of appetite, passing into obstinate refusal of food.

4. Emaciation, gradually progressing, from inanition by
self-starvation, popularly described as pining, decline.) dwining
or wasting, and technically known as marasmus.

5. In exceptional cases some specific wasting disorder
may be superadded, developed by debility and the predis-
position it creates to inflammatory disorders from exposure.
Of these specific disorders, by far the most common is pul-
monary consumption — phthisis pulmonalis.

The physical evil may stop sh'ort, for a longer or shorter
time, at any of the first four stages.

Death, lingering or rapid, as the case may be, results
from the following emotions, mostly, though not altogether,
of a depressing kind: —

1. Grief, or sorrow, usually inconsolable, mostly from be-
reavement of some kind, though the bereavement may be of
an apparently trivial and temporary nature, the cause being
in such cases quite disproportionate to the effect. Thus the
same effect results in one animal from the simple absence for
a time of some loved friend or companion — human or other
— that in another arises from the permanent loss by death of
a mate or of young, or of a human master or mistress, or
which, in a third, is the product of removal from a home or
place to which it is attached. In all these cases there is a
severance or rupture, sometimes or generally sudden and un-
expected, of attachments to persons or localities, of affections
more or less tender or keen, of natural or artificial relation-
ships, friendships or companionships between the most diverse

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 257

species and genera of animals, including man, with a sense
of solitude and desertion.

2. Vexation or chagrin, however caused.

3. Other forms of disappointment, such as the sense of
disgrace, humiliation, wrong, shame, dishonour or defeat.

4. Kegret and remorse.

5. Rivalry and the jealousy therewith connected.

6. Homesickness or nostalgia. I

7. Joy or surprise, frequently acting in combinatio^.^

8. Sympathy with human misfortune or suffering.

9. Fear or fright, sometimes causeless.

Simple fear in the dog of a master's anger has proved
fatal, by causing it unnaturally to retain its excretions, the
poor animal having probably been severely punished for
soiling carpets, and having no proper opportunity of defse-
cating (Walsh). Here again is a suggestive illustration of
the dire results to man's animal pets, of man's thoughtless-
ness; for in such a case there was probably nothing ap-
proaching intentional cruelty on the master's part.

10. Death has even been ascribed to despair at the impos-
sibility of taking the benefit of an ' embarras des richesses '
of prey (Eassie).

These emotions or mental states are influential in pro-
portion as they are intense on the one hand, and protracted
on the other; in relation, that is, to their quality and duration,
while suddenness and unexpectedness of incidence are not
less — are probably even more — powerful attributes.

In certain cases there is a conjunction of physical with
mental or moral causes, for instance in the common case of
unrequited or disappointed sexual love, in which mere grati-
fication of an imperious physical appetite is involved ; or in
that equally common one of captivity, in which the grati-
fication of the healthy love of freedom in the form of physical
exercise is interfered with.

Death, gradual or sudden, direct or indirect, from emo-
tion more or less intense, occurs in a great variety of animals,
and in various stages of their growth, in youth and age, and
in both sexes, particularly perhaps the female ; including the
following : —

VOL. II. S

258 MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS

1. Among the quadrumana : the chimpanzee, the ouistiti
and other monkeys.

2. Among quadrupeds : various breeds of the dog, the
horse, elephant, cat, pig, deer, wolf, mouse, sheep, cow.

3. Among other mammals : the seal and dolphin.

4. Among fish : the devil fish ; and

5. Among birds : the common fowl (cock and chicken),
turkey, pheasant, blackbird, linnet, piping bullfinch, canary,
various larks, parrots and parroquets.

Some of these animals, it may be noted, are most unlikely
subjects for intense emotion, especially of the softer kinds —
for instance, the wolf, devil fish, pig and dolphin, and yet
our chapter on animal 'Eeputation' shows how much the
real character of the animal is belied and misunderstood.

Of the various forms in which death occurs among the
lower animals, as the result of certain mental conditions,
— intense or protracted — none is of greater interest, none
more human-like in its character, than what is commonly
described as broken heart or heart-break. It is obviously
very common among a great variety of animals and under
a great variety of circumstances. Thus we are told that
sporting dogs become 'heart-broken' by cruel treatment
(Walsh).

The dog frequently dies of broken heart from the loss of
its whelps by drowning or otherwise, or on the death of its
master ; but it does so also, and suddenly, from the shock of
joy and surprise acting conjointly, as in the case of a pet
dog whose master returned unexpectedly to it while it was
asleep. When it awoke and found him in his usual position
in his own arm chair, it ' gave one long look, sprang into his
lap and died' (' Animal World'). The bullfinch dies also
of broken heart at separation from its master or mistress,
as was long ago recorded by Buffon.

When the bird-catcher takes a nightingale from its mate,
it rarely survives — dying speedily of broken heart (Houzeau) ;
and the same has happened with the linnet and many other
cage birds. Even in the pig, death is recorded from broken
heart as resulting from the loss of a mate or companion
(Watson). A piping bullfinch that only fancied he had lost

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 259

the love of his mistress, a male chocollito (a South American
parrot), distressed by the conjugal infidelity of his mate, a
pet bull dog from jealousy of a rival, all died of heart-break
(Wood).

* Found dead ' is very common in the lower animals, for
instance in pet birds, and many of these cases of sudden
death — unexpected by man — are no doubt the result greatly
of emotional causes. But, as in man, there are also many
physical causes of sudden death among the lower animals,
and we must not therefore set down all cases of animals
6 found dead ' to heart-break or other emotional disorders.

The popular belief in the connection between cardiac
conditions and emotional states is variously illustrated as
regards the lower animals. We speak, figuratively of course,
but quite legitimately, of soreness or sickness of heart in
such animals as the dog, horse and elephant. A lost dog is
properly said to be heart-sore from the severance of the ties
of affection, while if it be at all sensitive, it is ' disheartened '
by rebuffs of all kinds. And, on the other hand, while emo-
tion produces cardiac disturbance, the converse holds equally
good — that cardiac disturbance produces abnormal emotional
states. Thus Pierquin has pointed out the relation between
cardiac derangement or heart-lesions and the development of
morbid fear of every degree up to panphobia.

Cardiac disorders would therefore appear to be both
causes and effects of mental excitement and depression. The
relations of cardiac to mental derangement in the lower
animals are not, however, at present well known, and I
venture to suggest them, as an admirable subject for ex-
perimental investigation equally to, and by, physicians and
veterinarians.

We have already seen, moreover, that the expression,
' broken heart,' is not always or necessarily figurative, whether
in the lower animals or man, in so far as various organic
lesions of the heart, including rupture of its walls, occur
occasionally as the result of intense passion or emotion.

Further, various functional disorders of the heart's action,
connected no doubt in many cases with organic changes in
its structure, are not uncommon, as the fruit of emotional

s 2

260 MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS

excitement or depression in certain animals. These func-
tional derangements include especially —

1. Palpitation, inordinate heart-beating, the condition or
sensation known as ' fluttering ' at or of the heart ; and

2. Fainting, to various degrees short of death, technically
known as * syncope.'

3. Derangements of the pulse, without either palpitation
or fainting.

4. Congestion of various parts of the body, active hyper-
cemia, sudden reddening to a marked degree, of the eyes
for instance. Or on the other hand equally distinct—

5. Pallor from ancemia, removal of blood from any given
visible part of the body.

Some of these conditions involve the general circulation
as well as its central organ, the nerves as well as the
blood-vessels and heart, the latter indeed necessarily through
the nervous system. Hence it is that so many of them occur
in other animals, as in man, in proportion as they are ner-
vous, sensitive, highly-bred, delicately organised, luxuriously
brought up. Nor must we forget that the condition known
as —

Nervousness — a highly excited or excitable condition of
the whole nervous system — is begotten by emotional shock, a
condition that in its turn begets a tendency to alarm or fear,
a facility of being readily startled.

Palpitation — fluttering of the heart — from fear, must be
familiar to all captors of small birds. In the case of cap-
tured animals, and however captured, manifest heart throbs,
or throbbing, are frequently visible or audible, because violent
palpitation results or may result, partly from over-exertion
of a physical kind, in ineffectual efforts at escape or extri-
cation. Heart-fluttering is probably as common an indication
of emotion in certain birds as it is in certain nervous or
hysterical women, girls or children. A very minute degree
of fear or surprise, or mental shock of any kind, puts bird
and woman ( all in a flutter' — a condition of cardiac palpita-
tion of a nervous and temporary kind, its degree being
usually disproportionate in such supersensitive individuals
to the cause of the mental excitement. Panting is also

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 261

probably a cardiac effect of fear in the first instance in
many cases, gradually or suddenly involving the lungs.
Panting, as well as inability to eat, occurs in the dog from
fright (Cobbe).

Veritable fainting, or syncope, occurs occasionally under
fear or from the shock of surprise or joy, just as in man, in
the same sort of individuals and under the same kinds of
circumstances. Thus we are told of a parroquet fainting on
again seeing a loved mistress after an absence (Davies) ; but
in this case the weakness of abstinence from food coexisted
with the shock of joy. Miss Cobbe speaks of regular swoon-
ing or fainting fits in the dog as the effect of mental shock.
Darwin describes monkeys, as well as canaries and robins,
as fainting under fear or terror, and fainting is common in
timid nervous animals captured by man, such as squirrels
and small birds.

Low remarks on the effect of harsh language on the
pulse of the horse. The effect of emotion on the condition
of the pulse in this and other animals is a legitimate and
interesting subject for man's observation and experiment, for
at present we have almost no information on the subject,
and the acquisition of information of a trustworthy and
useful kind is obviously easy.

Hypersemia and ansernia are virtually synonymous with
the marked colour changes in the skin or various of its
appendages, which form so common an expression of emotion
in many animals. Hypercemia is synonymous with determi-
nation of blood and its result — reddening or flushing — of
this or that conspicuous part of the body. Congestion of
the eye, leading to fieriness or fierceness of expression, is a
common result of anger or annoyance in many animals, in
whom the glaring, staring, blood-flushed eyeballs warn man,
or other animals, or its prey, of an animal's temper. Darwin
states that certain monkeys redden under the influence of
passion, while they become pale or pallid under fear.

Pallor, anaemia or blanching of the face from fear may be
seen especially in certain barefaced monkeys (Sutton), while
exciting emotions, such as passion, produce in them redden-
ing, flushing, suffusion — indeed all the degrees of hypersemia.

262 MOKBID BODILY CONDITIONS

Lee asserts that even the embryo in ovo of the octopus
becomes flushed with anger afc disturbance, a statement that
would scarcely be accepted without ample confirmation from
a less known naturalist. And he adds, that the same thing
happens to the adult octopus under provocation.

Colour-changes under excitement — from passion or anger,
provocation or irritation, for instance — or as produced by
such various emotions as surprise, fear, or sexual love —
changes of the hues of the skin or its appendages, are of a
varied kind. They have been chiefly studied, and are best
known in the chameleon (Darwin). But they have also been
observed in the mandrill, the stickleback (Houzeau), the bis-
cobra (Darwin), the sporting fish of Japan, and certain
other animals. In the sporting fish in captivity in the
Jardin d'Acclimatation, Paris, hatred, developed at or by
the sight of another individual, causes its naturally grey
colour to change to black, while the tail and fin become
phosphorescent, and the eyes gleam, furiously. These fish
fight for man's sport, ' until one of them returns to its
original grey colour, which shows that he has had enough
of it.' In many birds the excitement of sexual love causes
change of colour in various appendages of the head and
throat (Darwin). Other instances of colour-change under
emotion, as well as of many other physical modes of ex-
pressing mental states, are given or described in the chap-
ters on Animal Language.

In interpreting the causes of such colour-changes, how-
ever, we must bear in mind that they are produced also
by influences that are not purely mental, or that are not
mental at all — a circumstance that is well illustrated in the
case of the chameleon. c Briicke and others have shown
that in the chameleon the changes of tint may be produced
by .... the excitements of anger and sexual passion, by
illness and by local irritants and nerve- stimulation ' (Francis
Darwin) .

A whole most interesting series of motor disorders, having
their seat immediately in the muscular apparatus, but pro-
duced through the influence of the nervous system, springs
from emotional causes. These disorders range in their

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 263

degree from fatal epilepsy or convulsions to mere scarcely
perceptible muscular tremor or quivering, and they include
paralysis or loss of motive power.

Epilepsy occurs both, directly and indirectly from fright :
directly in the parrot, where fright is habitual from the
practice of throwing things at its cage to prevent its scream-
ing (Buist) ; indirectly in the dog pup, from milk poisoned
by rage in the mother. In certain cases, where the affection
itself, or the tendency thereto, was not produced by mental
causes, the fits are, nevertheless, determined by mental ex-
citement— as in a fatal traumatic case in a dog, in which
the disease was produced by a blow on the head (Wood).
Elaine mentions among its causes in the dog — for it results
from many causes, bodily or mixed, as well as mental —
passion or anger, fear and irritability. The latter, however,
is quite as likely to be an effect as a cause, considering the
frequency with which epilepsy, however arising, produces
mental disturbance or temper- change of various degrees.

Convulsions, non-epileptic in their character, are some-
times quite as serious as epilepsy itself; while there is every
probability that simple and epileptic convulsions are com-
monly confounded with, and mistaken for, each other. Nor
is the eiTor of much practical importance, because the causes,
results, and treatment are, or ought to be, the same. Buffon
mentions an instance of convulsions in a bullfinch from fear
and an unpleasant association of ideas at the mere sight
of some beggars. Blaine speaks of convulsions in the dog
from joy, on the one hand, and from the angry words of a
master on the other. Convulsions have been caused, too, in
the dog by mere reproof from a master (' Animal World ').
Bosquillon gives a case of convulsions in a dog placed on a
lion's skin ; but though morbid or vivid imagination, giving
rise to fear, was here probably involved, there may have co-
existed physical as well as mental causes — for instance,
strong olfactory impressions. Convulsive startings occur in
the dog and other animals, both during sleep and in the
waking state, probably connected, in certain cases at least,
with morbid imagination.

A minor form or milder degree of motor — muscular and

264 MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS

nervous — disturbance is to be found in tremor or trembling,
either general — of the whole body — or only of special portions
thereof, as of the lips or teeth. Tremor varies in its intensity
and duration, the mildest form and degree consisting of the
mere transient nostril or lip-quiver in the high-bred, restless
horse, or the teeth-chattering of apes and monkeys. Alarm,
fear, or fright produces general tremor, trembling, or quiver-
ing in the young turkey and in various small cage birds.
The bot-fly in cattle begets a terror that is expressed by
general tremor (Figuier). Tremor is the result of restrained
ardour in the harrier that is prevented by the leash from
following the hare (Pierquin) . Tremor of the leashed deer-
hound in presence or sight of a deer arises probably from
a combination of feelings or emotions, ardour or eagerness,
impatience, expectation, and general mental excitement.
Tremor in its various degrees is producible by different
mental causes, of which the principal are —

1. Fear, fright, or terror in all its degrees.

2. Excitement, ardour, eagerness, impetuosity, impatience,
longing, expectation — also of all degrees.

3. Happiness, physical and mental sense of enjoyment.

4. Mental suffering of all kinds.

Here again, as in so many other instances, the same or
similar results are producible by purely physical causes, or
by influences conjointly and variously bodily and mental ;
and it is frequently difficult or impossible to distinguish
the psychical from the physical causes, or the degree in
which the one or the other kind of influence has been ope-
rative in a given result.

The liability to tremor or general tremulousness or shaking
of limbs is commonly spoken of as shaken nerves ; and no
doubt there is for the moment, and it may be more perma-
nently, a generally disordered nervous sensibility. Tremu-
lousness, indeed, is apt to occur in proportion to the nervous
sensitiveness of animals, and hence it is commonest in high-
bred dogs or horses endowed with extreme muscular and
nervous irritability.

The most familiar instances of tremor from fear occur
in the horse — for instance, in presence of the lion or of any

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 265

other much dreaded enemy ; sometimes even in presence of
objects really harmless and inanimate, but which a morbid
imagination leads it to regard as dangerous and living, as
has been shown in the chapter on ' Delusions.' Instances of
emotional tremor in the camel, dog, kid and other animals
have been given in the c Percy Anecdotes ' by Gall, Bonar,
and other writers. In the race-horse tremor is the result
of the excitement of emulation ; in the mule and ass it is the
fruit frequently of a sense of imminent and serious danger
(' Percy Anecdotes ') . In the high-bred horse, too, there is
the mere quiver of the mobile lips or nostrils in impatience, or
under other forms of emotion, and that of the lower jaw,
from the excitement of sport, in the pointer (Baker) . These
apparently insignificant lip, jaw, or nostril movements are
frequently a very delicate sign of mental agitation or emo-
tion in the horse ; and to a less extent in the dog, simply
perhaps because in it the nostril and lip are much smaller
and less mobile. In the lamb there is the general thrill of
happiness, and in the cat, of content or satisfaction.

There may, however, be a coincidence of mental and motor
phenomena, arising from a common cause ; they may not
stand to each other in the relation of cause and effect. Thus
Pierquin notices the concomitance of sudden terror and
tremor in an ape affected with the insanity of sunstroke.

There are certain other kinds of violent or disordered
movement that result from emotional causes, and that are
not included in the categories of epileptic or other convul-
sions, or of the various forms of tremor. They include
various eccentricities of motion, such as gyration, staggering,
and rocking movements of body or head.

Much better marked, however, and more common, is im-
mobility— motionlessness, incapacity, or inability to move —
paralysis of motile power or of action — a familiar result of
fear in the horse and other animals. It occurs, for in-
stance, in darkness in the horse (Pierquin) ; in which case
a morbid or vivid fancy has doubtless much to do with the
generation of fear. This common effect of terror of all kinds
frequently leads to non-resistance to an enemy, to easy cap-
ture by man. Thus a dog was so terrified — on shipboard —

266 MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS

at the sight of the islanders of Kapa, that all power of
self-defence, of escape, was paralysed, so that it tamely
submitted to be captured by them (Houzeau).

What may be called a paralysis of fear — that is, caused
by fear, and involving thought as well as will, apparently
all the bodily and mental functions, for the time being — is
familiarly exemplified in all animals overtaken by unusual
and generally misunderstood, and therefore exaggerated,
danger — such as fire, railway trains, or steamboats. Thus
we are told that various animals were so paralysed with fear
at the approach of a mass of burning lava during an erup-
tion of Mauna Loa in the Sandwich Islands, after a terrible
series of earthquakes in 1868, that they made no attempt at
escape (Boddam Whethani). Books, pheasants, partridges,
and other birds dash themselves against railway trains, or
into the carriages, through the windows, open or shut, or they
are knocked down by railway locomotives (Jesse). Sheep,
cattle, buffaloes, deer, hares, and many other animals that
might easily escape an approaching train by the slightest
divergence at right angles to it or the line, perish in large
numbers by their stupidity in standing still or in scampering
in front of the engine until overtaken by it — their stupidity
being the obvious result of their sudden and intense surprise
and alarm. They lose all their usual power of self-preser-
vation, making no attempt whatever to escape the on-coming
danger.

The phenomena of what is called fascination — for in-
stance, by snakes or other animals — of their prey also in-
clude familiar examples of paralysis of effort or energy, both
bodily and mental, causing the poor victim, as if patiently
and resignedly, to await its doom.

No doubt sudden fear is the real cause sometimes of
otherwise unaccountable, sudden immobility in riding or
carriage horses, the sudden refusal in hitherto and usually
tractable animals to proceed on their journey.

The effect of fear in paralysing motion — including the
vocal muscles and voice — has been observed in chickens by
Spalding : the animals become at once motionless and dumb,
as do so many others under similar circumstances. In other

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 267

cases the respiratory muscles are affected : respiration is
suspended ; there is inability to breathe as well as to utter
sounds of any kind — for instance, in the cat (Pierquin). Loss
of voice — silence instead of barking — may be caused also by
exuberance of feeling of any kind in the dog (Cobbe).

The paralysis resulting from /ear, fright, or other emo-
tions, though usually of a general, may also be of a special
character, confined to a limited group of muscles. Thus one
of its forms is relaxation of the sphincter muscles, and involun-
tary escape of various evacuations.

We have not yet done, however, with the motor pheno-
mena resulting from emotional disturbance.

1. One of the most singular of the physical effects of
emotion is the falling to pieces of the ophiocoma, one of the
so-called brittle stars, and the dismemberment of other star-
fish, such as the spiny star, the casting of their rays or limbs
under sudden alarm or irritation, as may be seen in the
Brighton or other aquaria. Hartwig dwells on the ( facility
with which the Crustacea cast off their legs, and even
their heavy claws, when they have been .... alarmed at
thunder.' Somewhat similar seems to be the case of the
porcupine, in which, c if strongly excited when the quills are
loose and ready for moulting, the violent jerks with which
it manifests anger have the effect of dislodging the most
loose among them, and they are then mechanically thrown
to some distance from the animal ' (Sclater).

2. A more familiar motor phenomenon is the erection of
the frill of the neck or head, of feathers, or of other ap-
pendages of head, neck, or throat, under fear, fright, anger,
fury, or the desire to fight — a phenomenon considered in the
chapter on ' Non-vocal Language.' The bristling of the hair
in the cat belongs to this category.

3. Another motor form of physical effect is to be found
in vomiting, as exhibited by the palmiped birds, such as the
sea-maw (Houzeau), the frightened canary, and other ani-
mals under fear or fright. And intimately associated there-
with, and provocative thereof, is nausea — sickness which is
manifested now and then in exceptional cases — from grief,
joy, or other forms of excited or depressed feeling. Various

268 MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS

gulls disgorge the contents of the stomach on being alarmed
(Montagu). The dog is sometimes 'violently sick5 from
mental shock or from joy (Cobbe).

4. Morbid motor phenomena include, further, various
aimless, frequently violent, movements, such as flying to and
fro in small cage birds under fright or fear — movements that
involve dashing against all manner of obstacles, and that
lead thereby to self-injury, frequently of a fatal kind. The
kicking, rearing, plunging, of terror-stricken horses belong
to this category. So does the very different restlessness of
the terrier, accompanied by tail-shakes and whines, when he
intimates discovery of a rat and expresses his satisfaction
and eagerness.

5. Brunton refers to movements of the lowels as signifi-
cant of, and produced by, love in parrots, and it is probable
that emotion acts in the same way on their peristaltic action
as it does in man.

6. The development or evolution of electricity — for in-
stance, from the bristling hairs of the cat under the excite-
ment of anger or fear. The animal or its fur becomes
6 charged ' with electricity. It is probably under similar
feelings — of annoyance at being handled or touched, which
the animal may construe into indications of danger or at-
tack— that the gymnotus and malapterurus discharge their
electricity ; for, as regards at least the gymnotus, we know
that it has its battery quite under control, and that it does
not use it when it is tamed and handled by its master.

Of non-motor phenomena, among the most common are —

1 . Various cutaneous exudations, including especially per-
spiration or sweating ; and

2. Strong odours of various kinds, mostly of a disgusting
character, attached or not to cutaneous exudations.

3. The evolution of light or luminosity, especially in the
form of so-called phosphorescence.

Profuse sweating under terror, and sometimes even under
various ordinary forms of excitement, is not uncommon in
the horse, while it occurs even in so unlikely an animal as
the rhinoceros (Darwin). Tristram tells us that at the sight
of the horned snake of Syria the horse not only trembles,

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 269

but perspires in every limb. Perspiration is a ph}rsical effect
of the excitement of swarming in bees (Huber). Various
poisonous cutaneous exudations are the result of irritation
in certain animals.

The development of disgusting smells under alarm or
irritation is exemplified in snakes (Jesse), the pigmy shrew,
and certain other animals.

Foaming or frothing at the mouth in fury or rage occurs
in the dog ; and indeed the expression ' foaming with rage '
is sometimes more applicable to other animals than to man.
It must, however, be distinguished from the mouth-foaming,
the saliva-churning of disease, such as epilepsy.

Starting, protruding eyeballs are various expressions of
terror, hatred, ferocity.

To man practically the most important of the physical
effects of emotional or mental disturbance are the —

1. Vitiation of the quality, changes in the chemical com-
position, of various of the principal solid and fluid consti-
tuents or secretions of the body of an animal — to wit, the
blood, flesh, and milk especially — those solids and fluids that
are so largely used as human food ; and

2. Diseased general conditions — such as feverishness — or
specific diseases in great variety, many of them dangerous
to man, or involving great pecuniary loss to him.

None of the animal secretions is so important economi-
cally to man as the milk of the cow, goat, and certain other
animals. Now, in the first place, milk may be given up or
refused according to the humour or temper of an animal,
according as it is angry, sulky, revengeful, or pleased, con-
tented, happy — according as its usage has been kind or cruel,
its owner, master or attendant judicious or the reverse.
Cows and goats have a wonderful control over the secretion
of milk, and over the giving up of that secretion. They
refuse to give it up to, to allow themselves to be milked by,
strangers or persons they dislike. They are easily irritated
or excited, and when so, refuse to be milked (Pierquin).

This unwillingness to yield their usual milk-supply to man
is sometimes overcome by him by the use of various expe-
dients, and some at least are of such a character that their

270 MOKBID BODILY CONDITIONS

success is importantly suggestive. Livingstone tells us that
certain African cows refuse to give milk, save to their calves,
and that the natives resort to the following more successful
than elegant expedient to compel them to yield their milk
to man also. They smear the teats with some of the cow's
own dung. The calves are too disgusted to suck these dung-
smeared teats. The result is milk-fever from the milk not
being drawn off at all, and the resultant discomfort or pain
leads the animals ultimately to succumb to the herdsman for
the sake of physical relief,

On the other hand, a more elegant and equally successful
mode of accomplishing the same end is, or was at one time,
employed in the Scottish highlands, according to Miss Gor-
don Gumming, who says : ' The only thing I ever saw prevail
upon a sulky cow to give her milk was to sing to her some
mournful but sweet air whilst soothingly rubbing her udder.
Two of the real orthodox songs for such airs ' are mentioned
by her as apparently still in use. ' I know that they have
often, when plaintively sung, been known to overcome a
cow's unwillingness to give her milk when all other means
fail .... I have seen cows not give a drop when their
calves were being weaned from, them, or even if they were
for a time deprived of any luxury in the shape of corn or
potatoes they have been accustomed to at milking time.
. . . Eefusing the milk is the revenge a cow takes if in
the sulks.'

The temper of the animal also frequently determines the
quantity of the milk it yields, if it gives milk at all. But
much more important is the change of quality, the develop-
ment of noxious or poisonous properties, in the milk-yield
under the influence of such passions as anger, rage, fury.

This influence of passion in altering the chemical compo-
sition of various secretions is, however, more familiar in the case
of the saliva of the dog in rabies. There is no good ground
for doubting that rabies itself is sometimes produced, and
the saliva of the dog rendered specifically poisonous — so as
to induce rabies or hydrophobia in other animals or in man
when bitten by it, and the saliva thus inoculated — by the
influence especially of the exciting passions, such as anger

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 271

in all its degrees. And herein again may be pointed out the
serious responsibility incurred by those who provoke dogs to
fury. Dr. Eichardson of London, with whom I corresponded
on comparative pathology a quarter of a century ago, and
who was one of only two or three men in Britain — physicians
or veterinarians — who at the time had any appreciation of
the importance of that still new and little known science,
writes : ' In the dog suffering from rabies it is, I think,
beyond dispute that the poison in the saliva is developed in
some cases spontaneously through the influence of rage or
fear.'

Not only the milk, saliva, and other secretions, but the
blood and the flesh of certain domestic animals, especially
the ox, acquire deleterious or poisonous properties when the
animal has suffered intensely or protractedly, either men-
tally or physically. Thus the flesh of tortured, overdriven
cattle produces various forms of disease — usually more or
less temporary and trivial fortunately — in those human
beings who eat it as food. These diseases include various
skin eruptions, gastric disorders and febrile phenomena, the
cutaneous affections arising also from mere contact with the
flesh or blood — mere handling it, for instance, by butchers.
Deterioration or loss of flesh and fat, emaciation and inferior
quality of the meat as food, with liability to actual and
specific disease of the said flesh or fat, are the result of the
excitement of being incessantly hunted, in Australian cattle
(Baden Powell). In all these cases there is an obvious com-
bination of mental and physical influences : it is impossible to
separate the effect of mental excitement, of irritation, anger,
fear, worry, from physical exhaustion, the result of intense
muscular and nervous strain.

Such considerations — that milk and flesh used as food by
man may be vitiated, even rendered poisonous to him or his
children ; or that in the saliva of the dog there may be
developed a highly dangerous communicable specific poison,
by the action on the nervous system of the cow or dog of
such passions or emotions as rage or fear — bring us back to
remark on the obvious economy and policy of man's kind or
judicious treatment of domestic animals, especially of those

272 MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS

which supply him with food. We have shown the evil effect
of bad usage in developing evil passions, which in their turn
give rise to demonstrable vitiation of flesh, blood, milk, saliva,
and other solids and fluids — demonstrable by the morbid
physical phenomena produced in man or other animals using
such solids or fluids as food. For we have seen that the
poisoned milk of an angry bitch may produce in her own
pup effects more serious in degree than — though of the same
kind as — those produced in the human infant by the poisoned
milk of the angry cow.

Per contra, it is at least equally desirable to remind the
reader of what has been elsewhere said in this work of the
effect on animal health and happiness of man's efforts to
amuse, cheer, encourage, soothe, satisfy domestic animals-
such as the cow and sheep. In the cow, for instance, such
efforts tell at once and most favourably on the milk- supply-
both as regards its quality, quantity, and the readiness with
which it is given up ; while they tell, also — less directly, of
course, but not less satisfactorily — on the quantity and
quality both of flesh and fat. Other things being equal, the
well treated, happy cow is plump and comely, its flesh and
fat are of first-rate quality, free from all disease and abundant
as to quantity, while the milk-supply is unexceptionable. On
the other hand, the ill-treated, wretched individual of the
same species is lean and feeble, its flesh and fat are in sparing
quantity and of inferior quality, vitiated perhaps or diseased ;
while the milk is also limited in amount, bad in quality, and
the irritable or sulky animal may refuse to give it up,
such as it is.

Unquestionably then it must ' pay ' man to bestow some
care upon producing content, happiness, good humour in
his cattle, and in warding off all chances or sources of
anger or fear. In other words, it has been abundantly
proved — and those specially interested should never lose
sight of the fact — that mental states artificially producible
by man conduce to bodily health, and thereby to the suit-
ableness and soundness of animal flesh and milk as human
food. Thus that mere sociality — companionship — has a dis-
tinct relation to the fattening of cattle was long ago pointed

PKODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 273

out by the observant White. Hence music, kindness — in
short, all influences that tend to mental composure or
serenity, to an easy mind and contented spirit, to personal
happiness or pleasure, tend also and thereby to bodily
soundness, to the healthy condition and the most nutritive
quality of milk and flesh. Even then, when he is merely
breeding the ox or pig for the meat-market, it is man's best
policy, in a money point of view, to deal with them gently
and kindly.

What may properly be called the psychological or moral
treatment of food-animals for the sake even of their food —
which is only one, however, of the good objects to be gained
—cannot be said yet to have attracted attention in this or
other countries. Nevertheless enough has been said, it is
hoped, to show why it deserves notice, and how it may prove
efficient in money- saving and in health-giving.

Pierquin gives a suggestive case of a cow in which sale
to a new proprietor, involving removal from its master, pro-
duced at once a series of marked physical and mental effects,
including sadness, passing into melancholia, food-refusal, and
consequent muscular or bodily wasting. The animal's market
value had already become materially diminished, when timely
and judicious means were adopted for its recovery, simply by
re-selling and returning it to its former owner. With the
restoration of happiness that resulted, flesh, strength, spirits
and no doubt milk-giving quality — all speedily returned, an
important, though typically common, illustration of the
simplicity of treatment indicated or required in so many of
the mental and physical disorders of animals — the removal
namely of the obvious cause of disorder and restoration to
the status quo.

An interesting class of physical effects of mental states —
of imagination on the one hand, and of the shock of fright
on the other — is to be found in the impression created on
pregnant mothers, and by them transmitted to, and organised
in, their offspring. This is a wide and suggestive subject,
one that does not appear to have been studied with the same
care, or to the same extent, among the lower animals as in
man. But that the same kinds of impressions are produced

VOL. II. T

274 MORBID BODILY CONDITIONS

under the same kinds of circumstances there can be little
doubt. Daniell, for instance, shows how a mere passing
fancy for — a glimpse at — some dog, on the part of a pointer
bitch, so impressed her memory and imagination that she
transmitted this impress in a physical form to her progeny.

Among other singular maternal impressions and their
results may here be noted that masculine bodily attributes
have been acquired by female animals from shock to maternal
love — for instance, in the hen.

There are, again, numerous ordinary bodily ailments —
including a variety of specific diseases — that are among other
causes producible by purely mental states, purely emotional,
or purely nervous, influences, though such states or influences
seldom act per se. Thus Miss Buist tells us that ' terror,
neglect, and cold are the causes of half the bird complaints
known.'

Of all these specific diseases none is so formidable as
rabies. In the dog inconsolable grief sometimes produces
( sickening ' and c dumb madness,' or other forms of rabies
(c Animal World ') ; and the same terrible disease appears
also to be the fruit of emotions of an opposite kind — such as
anger, however aroused, especially if either sudden, and in-
tense or protracted. It is producible also by terror.

Thus Fleming tells us that a very small toy-terrier of his
own, which was travelling with him by railway, was suddenly
terrified by an engine whistle. Rabies, that proved fatal in
a few days, was at once developed. In all such cases every
effort is made to connect the rabies with the bite of some
other dog that may be presumed, if it cannot be proved, to
have been rabid : an effort that is frequently futile, and that
owes its being made at all to the popular conviction that
rabies never arises spontaneously. There is sufficient evi-
dence, however, to show that it is developed spontaneously
in the dog, just as hydrophobia sometimes is in man — under
the influence of powerful emotion — in the dog's case grief,
terror, anger ; in man's, fear and imagination.

Physical exhaustion is of importance, moreover, as a pre-
disposing cause of serious results from emotion. Thus the
shock of joy, which might not prove fatal to the healthy dog,

PRODUCED BY MENTAL CAUSES. 275

is so to an animal that lias performed a long, weary journey,
destitute of food, and exposed to all weathers, before it sees
once more the master whom it loved and longed for so much.
Hence the occurrence every now and then of dogs reaching
their masters, mistresses, and homes only to see them for a
moment and die of a consuming joy (Cobbe, Watson). Not
only does the pregnant bitch sometimes lose her own life
from joy, but the same exuberant emotion produces abortion
— causes the loss of her whole litter of puppies (Cobbe).

T 2

CHAPTER XX.

INDIVIDUALITY.

ONE of the many absurdities committed by man, in his effort
to create artificial or arbitrary differences or distinctions
between man and other animals, is the allegation that the
lower animals possess no individuality, one dog or horse being
believed to be just like another in its character or disposi-
tion. The contrary, however, is the fact. Individuality is
quite as strongly marked frequently in other animals, or
certain of them— such as the dog, cat, and cage birds — as
in man. There is both the strongest force and the strangest
peculiarities of disposition, of both moral and intellectual
constitution ; and the behaviour may be so quaint or striking
that a dog, horse, cat, or parrot may be, quite as truthfully
as many men are, spoken of as itself a 'character' — an
oddity by reason of its mental or moral peculiarity. These
peculiarities include remarkable differences in —

1. Temperament and temper, amounting to idiosyncrasy;
and in

2. Behaviour, feeling, thought, amounting to eccentricity;
as this is illustrated by—

a. Singular likings and dislikes, attachments and

aversions.

b. Other forms of whim or caprice.

3. Their special aptitudes — including the capacity for
education and for the practical business of life.

4. Action in emergency.

We are referring at present to peculiarities of mental or
moral character that distinguish individuals of the same
species, whether these individuals be —

INDIVIDUALITY. 277

1. Members of the same family, as of the same litter of
puppies or kittens ; or

2. Of the same breed or race.

In the first place, just as in man, there are individuals
that are to be considered —

1. Geniuses, gifted with conspicuous talent for song or
•with other accomplishments ; or

2. Conspicuously the reverse — distinguished for their
stupidity and their inability to learn, to profit by experience,
to take care of themselves ; while the majority are

3. Mediocrities — distinguished in no way, but quite able
to take their own part in the struggle for existence.

Individual linnets excel* in song (Bechstein). Particular
dogs become 'learned' as performers on the stage, as co-
operators with man in his various ' exhibitions,' or in his
crimes. Certain horses distinguish themselves in a similar
way in the circus, as do also special elephants, pigs, and
many other animals that manifest a genius or talent for this
or that kind of feat, involving exceptional, high and cultivated
intelligence. Such animals are quick, equally in perception
and action, susceptible in a high degree of training by man.
Marked cleverness on the one hand, and stupidity on the
other, have been noted in individuals, even of the same hive
among bees, and among hares (Buckland). Of humble bees
some are builders, simply useful; while others are artists,
gifted with the faculty of ornamentation (Figuier). Of bull-
finches taught to pipe, only a few distinguish themselves
(Stanley). Of horses selected for circus-training only a few
possess the necessary mental ability.

The general phenomena of individuality are most familiar
— as they are most easily studied — in the dog. They are
well illustrated frequently in the dogs belonging to the same
master, exposed, therefore, to the same circumstances of life
and treatment. Wood tells us of one that was ' a perfect
aristocrat. Nothing would induce him to consort with vulgar
people, to enter a kitchen, or descend the area stairs. He
perfectly understood the importance attached to a large
house and handsome furniture.' He was ' perfectly miserable'
in shabby lodgings, while travelling in summer. He per-

278 INDIVIDUALITY.

sisted in rushing into handsome lodgings, pretending to
have made a mistake as to the place ; and his f dignity was
soothed ' when his owner moved into apartments to his (the
dog's) taste. Another dog liked carriages, but objected to
cats.

On the other hand — and this character-contrast occurred
in the property of the same master — one dog was as vulgar
as another was aristocratic. The former is described as a
' thorough vulgarian in mind. He prefers bad company,
lives by choice in the kitchen, is rude and unmannerty,
never barks at a beggar, and delights in a general row or
fight over a bone ' (Wood) .

A retriever of Berkeley's showed a detestation of labour-
ing men as a class. A terrier belonging to a clergyman is
described as a ' queer, faithful, blundering dog,' full of in-
dividuality, if not eccentricity, with a tendency to morbid
peculiarities of temper and mind. It had a marked antipathy
to its master's clerical costume of orthodox black ; perhaps,
it is suggested, because of having been 6 accustomed to the
light costumes of India.'

Much more probably, in such cases of morbid indivi-
duality, such phenomena of aversion are not mere matters or
results of habit — present or former — but are the outcome of
disease, involving the brain and general nervous system, the
effect of climatic influences, such as sunstroke. The very
same kind of changes in temper and thought, the same sort
of irascibility, antipathies, delusionalness, or suspiciousness,
arise quite commonly in men who are exposed, in the civil
or military services, to the climate of India and of the tro-
pics generally.

Singular — apparently causeless — unaccountable aversions,
dislikes, or distastes, constitute one of the commonest forms
of what may be considered a morbid individuality or eccen-
tricity. Unaccountable ones, we say, because there are many
others that are quite accountable and intelligible, that merely
prove, in the animal exhibiting them, a memory of wrong
suffered, with perhaps an associated desire for revenge. There
are certain kinds of antipathy that are of a very marked cha-
racter, and that are transmitted from generation to generation,

INDIVIDUALITY. 279

the original causation of which is problematical. Of such
a nature is the rooted aversion so frequently shown by certain
dogs, even while quite young, and utterly void of any experi-
ence of ill-usage — towards butchers or fleshers, their shops,
clothes, and everything belonging to them that can literally
smell of the shop, themselves, or their peculiar work. As
has been fully shown by Huggins, Darwin, Eansom, and
others, dogs express their feelings of detestation of butchers
and their shops by —

1. Avoidance of both — passing on the other side of a
street, or not at all entering a street, containing a butcher's
shop, or the shop of some particular flesher.

2. The display of all manner of anger, rage, ferocity, and
excitement, perhaps culminating in, or leading to, dangerous
assaults upon man's person.

This special form of dislike and antagonism of dogs to
butchers, with the ferocity to which it gives rise, sometimes
pervades a whole breed of dogs. Of similar character
appears to be the antipathy of dogs to vivisectors.

Dogs exhibit strong and strange dislikes in many other
ways, of many other kinds, some of them explicable, others
not. Thus certain dogs show a decided repugnance to, or
hatred of, dog-stealers or of killers of stray dogs, regarding
such men — and very properly so — as their enemies (Low).
Here the cause or motive is intelligible ; the antipathy may
naturally arise from the fate the animal has seen befall its
comrades, its mate, or offspring ; possibly it may itself have
escaped from the clutches of the thief or slayer.

But the equally frequent and decided dislike to strangers,
simply as such, is not so easily explained. No doubt — in
this and many other cases— a cause may be assigned and
accepted ; for instance, that the suspicious animal fears
rivalry in the attraction of its master's attention or affec-
tion. At present, however, we have nothing to do with the
causation of animal peculiarities ; we have simply to note
the fact of their existence.

Dogs exhibit antipathy to Indians, as horses also fre-
quently do, in North America. The terrier shows a hatred
of weasels and rats (Low). A female bull-pup of Mrs. Bur-

280 INDI VIDU ALITY .

ton's had a singular dislike to Jews in Syria, taking a sly
bite at their probably bare legs when it had the chance.
Other dogs have shown marked aversion to particular articles
of dress (Berkeley), or to its colours, or to certain colours in
general, as well as to particular sounds.

Striking antipathies are far from being confined to dogs.
I have been informed, by the proprietor of both animals, of
the singular dislike of a pony to a particular horse ; and it
has to be noted in this case, as in many others, that a marked
repugnance in one direction may co-exist with as decided a
preference or partiality in another. This same pony exhibited
a strong liking for certain other animals — especially a calf—
of which it made a companion, to the great annoyance and
jealousy of its own mother (cow). Cavalry horses frequently
show special aversions to individual men (Houzeau) ; while
Mongol horses resent the interference of all strangers — a
fortunate circumstance that assists in the prevention of
horse-stealing among the Mongols. A certain pet green
linnet declines to pay his usual court to his mistress ' if she
has anything on which he dislikes, especially anything of a
red colour' ('Animal World '). Causeless hostility to parti-
cular persons has been noticed in the racoon, and aversion to
children has been described in a lori (Cassell).

Quite as striking and strange frequently as certain
antipathies are certain apparently unreasonable predilec-
tions, partialities, likings, preferences, attachments — giving
rise to companionships and friendships of a remarkable
kind.

Thus a singular attachment is mentioned by Belt between
a young jaguar and the dog that had captured it : to the
latter it became ' greatly attached,' living with it in harmony
as a companion. And this is only a type of many similarly
strange and harmonious friendships between the most unlikely
animals. A local newspaper of high standing — well known
to me — describes a sitting hen as hatching her young in a
watch-dog's kennel (or couch). ' The two seem to under-
stand each other so well that, on the hen leaving or entering

the couch, the dog rises and makes way Any attempt

to abstract the eggs in the absence of the hen meets with the

INDIVIDUALITY. 281

immediate disapprobation of the dog,'1 as signified by a
growl. Again, a tame rook was very fond of two dogs, one
a bulldog, ' being specially given to riding on their backs '
('Animal World'). Military and other horses show as
special likings as dislikes — for instance, to particular men.
They have their favourite masters or grooms, by whom alone
they are manageable, refusing to permit any other persons to
mount or approach them (Nichols, Youatt, Houzeau). Unac-
countable friendships occur even among geese (Lloyd) ; and
instances of causeless attachments, as of antipathies, of
other birds to man are not uncommon (Darwin).

Among the commonest illustrations of the likings and dis-
likes of the lower animals are those connected with their taste
or appetite for food and drink — and especially for the foods
and beverages of man. One of the most frequently exhibited
tastes for special articles of food is that for saccharine solids
or fluids — not necessarily or only sugar or similar sweet sub-
stances prepared by man. Ants, for instance, show a strong
liking for honeydew, as secreted and excreted by aphides.
For sugar, however, as prepared by man, fondness amounts
sometimes even to a passion in the dog (Cobbe), and may,
if un gratified, beget fury in the horse. In such cases, as in
the more common and more harmful partiality for the alco-
holic beverages of man, taste or appetite may be described
as not only acquired and artificial, but as morbid. Thus it
must surely be a morbid appetite that leads the siamang to
drink ink (Cassell).

And this morbid appetite in the lower animals is a subject
of such extent and importance that it would require at least
one chapter to itself to do it anything like justice. Here we
can but refer to it en passant. One of its most serious forms
—in connection with the development of morbid antipathies
that lead, again, to other kinds of cruelty to their young — is
cannibalism of offspring, devouring their own fledgelings or
offspring, by ravens, and many other birds and other ani-
mals.

' If a parrot be presented with a piece of bread and jam,
he will eat the jam and drop the bread,' just in fact as so

1 < Dundee Advertiser,' May 28, 1875.

282 INDIVIDUALITY.

many children do (Wilks). And here it so happens that the
taste of the bird agrees with that of the child, and is there-
fore intelligible on the supposition that in both cases the
sensation produced by the sugary material is pleasurable.
But other instances of equally decided food-tastes among the
lower animals cannot be so easily accounted for, if accounted
for at all. Thus, as an illustration of the oddities of taste in
certain animals, a correspondent of ' Science Gossip ' writes
of a cat : ' She would never under any circumstances drink
milk, nor, if she could help it, clean water; but would
greedily lap soapy water in which one's hands had been
washed, seeming to prefer this to any other drink.' On the
other hand, a pet hedgehog on board ship was c very fond of
milk,' and raw fresh meat was her favourite food. c She
would not taste any fruit except raisins, of which she was
very fond ' (Mrs. Mackellar). The chimpanzee has a special
liking for roast meat, milk, wine, and sugared articles (Gas-
sell). The camel has a marked predilection for garlic.
Other animals show a preferential appreciation of tea or
coffee, tobacco or other substances, solid or fluid, to which
they are utterly unaccustomed in their natural or wild state.

Distaste for certain foods and drinks, natural or artificial,
may be, and frequently is, as marked, as singular, as unac-
countable, as is the taste for certain others. And in some
cases, as in that of certain tastes, the cause is, or appears to
be, obvious and intelligible. Thus Belt mentions a theftuous
monkey that stole a bottle of turpentine, uncorked it, smelt
it first with one nostril, then with another, and returned the
bottle without tasting its contents, but making a wry face,
as if in disgust, to the person from whom it was stolen.
And here it is worthy of note that the animal showed
unusual sagacity and caution in judging by smell and re-
fraining from tasting the pungent liquor. But there was a
curious incautiousness and injudiciousness apparently in its
voluntary proclamation of its theft.

Belt also mentions a tame white-faced monkey that
would never eat heliconii (a kind of butterfly). A certain
spider of Nicaragua had the same food-aversion : it c used
to drop them out of its web when I put them into it,' he

INDIVIDUALITY. 283

says; whereas another spider seemed to be fond of them,
as were also a wasp and a monkey. Again, the lampyridtB
among beetles are distasteful to insectivorous mammals and
birds. 6 They were invariably rejected by my monkey, and
my fowls would not touch them.' Again, we are told of
fowls and ducks refusing a certain Nicaraguan frog. A
young duck that snatched up one inadvertently, ' instead of
swallowing it .... instantly threw it out of its mouth,
and went about jerking its head as if trying to throw off
some unpleasant taste ' (Belt). But in such statements it
is necessary to distinguish individuality in different animals
of the same species or family from the characteristics or
peculiarities of different species and genera.

It frequently happens that in the same individual there
is a remarkable conjunction of likings and dislikes. This is
most commonly illustrated in regard to articles of diet. The
utia, for instance, has a repugnance to animal food, but a
partiality for wine (Cassell). But such character-contrasts
in the same animal at the same time extend also to its
attachments and animosities to persons, and to many other
features in its disposition and habits.

Reverting to individuality in the dog, some dogs may be
characterised as matter-of-fact or prosaic, compared with
others that are fanciful or imaginative, full of whims, vaga-
ries, or crotchets. The latter animals take singular c fancies,'
exhibit marked caprice, form unaccountable attachments,
indulge in eccentric habits of various kinds. Wynter tells
us of a Newfoundland dog that attended every funeral in
the neighbourhood, assuming, moreover, the place of chief
mourner; and of a terrier that swallowed any number of
crooked pins, but only crooked ones. ' He would bend them
with his teeth before swallowing them.'

Dogs, again, show marked differences in mettle, in
courage, moral or physical, or both ('Animal World').
Milan poodles are described as naturally serious, solemn,
and steady, or as giddy and frolicsome (Watson) — a dif-
ference, however, that is frequently determined, even in the
same individual, simply by age.

Breeds of dogs are distinguished by special mental, as by

284 INDIVIDUALITY.

physical, characteristics. Thus the bull-dog is characterised
by ferocity, determination, tenacity of purpose, courage ; the
Irish setter by wilfulness and want of steadiness ; the fox-
hound by precipitancy or dash ; the poodle by intelligence,
the wide range of its educational capabilities, love of appro-
bation, gravity ; the beagle by pertinacity, pluck, endurance
(Low).

Cats, like dogs, frequently exhibit a kind or amount of
individuality that amounts to eccentricity. Thus Wynter
mentions a cat of his own that selected blotting paper on
which to sit or lie. Clara Rossiter describes another as
regularly pulling all the pins from a pincushion and laying
them out on the table ; ' and when the last was taken out,
looking up into our faces with a most comical expression, and
making us understand she wanted them replaced. However
many times we stuck the pins in, she would as frequently
pull them out.' Another peculiarity of this cat was her
partiality for cut flowers, which she devoured one by one,
removing them by means of her mouth from the vases in
which they were contained. Wood tells us of a torn cat that
was quite as aristocratic in his notions and habits as certain
dogs already mentioned, ' Nothing would induce him — not
even milk when he was hungry — to put his head into the
kitchen, or to enter the house by the servants' door.'

Horses differ greatly in their tempers, fearlessness, or
courage; some being fiery, while others are gentle and
timid ; some being confident and brave, while others start
or hesitate, exhibit tremor or shying, at every unusual object
(Low). In Nicaraguan mules, 'just as in man, there is every
variety of disposition and ability. Some are easily led, others
most obstinate and headstrong; some wise and prudent,
others foolish and rash5 (Belt).

There are great differences also in the disposition of
squirrels; some being grave, others gay; some gentle, others
fierce; some familiar, others sullen; some tractable or obe-
dient, others the reverse (Cassell). The private dwellings of
beavers bear marks of individuality of taste or otherwise in
their construction (Houzeau).

Great variations exist in the character of common

INDIVIDUALITY. 285

domestic poultry. Thus while some cocks and hens are
plodders, others are idlers, loungers or loafers ; whereas
some are peace-loving, tolerant, or submissive, others are
bullies, tyrannical, pugnacious, quarrelsome, insolent, chas-
tising and otherwise oppressing the weak, defenceless, or
submissive ; while some are restless, others are contented
and domestic; whereas some are careless of their eggs or
young, others show them excessive devotion ; while in some
there is keen intelligence in attending to their own interests,
in others there is a kind or degree of stupidity that leads,
among other results, to self- starvation ; whereas some are
timid, others show great courage — in maternity, desperation,
or even under ordinary circumstances. Combe also refers to
the differences of disposition among poultry brought up in
the same farm-yard ; for instance, the carefulness on the one
hand, and the carelessness on the other, of the mother for
her young.

Parrots and other pet birds, including the blackbird,
canary, and linnet, have amiable dispositions or the reverse,
peculiarities of temper or habit, special accomplishments or
capabilities, whether of a good or bad kind, as their custo-
diers soon learn, to their cost or their delight, as the case
may be. Every cage bird has its peculiarities of character,
which deserve careful study by its custodier, says Miss Buist ;
and Eengger points out the sometimes striking diversity of
mental character in different members of the same species
of songbird. A certain green linnet that is kept in a
library, ' being apparently of opinion that the volumes by
which he is surrounded are his own property, always mani-
fests signs of anger when any of them are displaced, on
one occasion literally flying in my face for touching one.'
It also shows ( a nice discrimination as to any change ' in
the dress of his mistress, or even of her ornaments (' Animal
World ') . Wood, who had thirty canaries, knew all of them
by sight, and was so familiar, moreover, with their indi-
vidual characters that he ' could anticipate how each bird
would act under certain circumstances.'

Lubbock observed the differences as to intelligence in lees
of the same hive, and Wallace, too, has pointed out the iin-

286 INDIVIDUALITY.

portaiit diversity that exists in the intellectual power or
capacity of bees. Lubbock also gives what he himself calls
e interesting illustrations of the individual differences exist-
ing between ants,9 asserting, for instance, 'that there are
priests and Levites and good Samaritans among them as
among men. ... It is remarkable .... how much indivi-
dual ants appear to differ from one another in character.'

There are in other animals as in man certain tests of
individuality — certain circumstances that bring into promi-
nence the peculiarities of disposition or character of one
animal as contrasted with another individual of the same
species. These test-circumstances or conditions include the
following : —

1. The condition of being placed at lay, involving despe-
ration or despair.

One animal at once perceives the vainness of all efforts
or attempts at escape ; it therefore makes none, but quietly
resigns itself to its fate. A second is too weak in will or body,
or too much paralysed by fear or fright, to be able to resist or
escape. A third magnifies the nature or extent of the danger,
and it, too, becomes helpless. But in a fourth there is a
development of courage and fury, even though the animal
be naturally timid ; it makes the most persistent and deter-
mined efforts at resistance or escape, however little the
chance of success in either. Thus we may have courage or
cowardice, fear or fury, submission or resistance, developed
at the same time under or by the same circumstances in
different members of the same herd, nock, body, or family.

2. Failure or discomfiture in effort — determines a great
variety of action, according to temperament and character.

In one animal there is only stimulation to further effort, a
repetition of attempts till success is achieved — resolution,
courage, perseverance, hope, are developed ; while another is
at once and hopelessly depressed, becomes despondent, makes
no further effort in the same direction, perhaps even becomes
a coward as regards all other extraordinary action, however
nearly such action may or might affect its own physical
welfare.

3. Ikreavement, again, produces in one female animal

INDIVIDUALITY. 287

apathy ; in another suicidal melancholia ; in a third renewed
energy, exhibited perhaps in a speedy re-mating ; in a fourth
the development of kindly vicarious maternal feelings in the
practical form of foster-parentage.

4. Annoyance or irritation.

One dog shows a silent contempt or indifference under
the persistent petty worries to which it is subjected by others
that are both literally and figuratively ' curs ; ' while another
at once loses temper, resents the annoyance, and angrily
punishes the tormentor. Here it is of interest to observe
that there is, frequently at least, a correlation of good humour
with size of body, the largest dogs being usually those that
are most magnanimous and even-tempered, and the smallest
those that are figuratively, as well as literally, the most
* snappish.'

5. Education — at once distinguishes the clever from the
stupid, those that are capable from those incapable of im-
provement by instruction.

6. Disease of all kinds, bodily and mental, such as rabies,
distemper, and insanity.

To morbid conditions, physical or psychical, are undoubt-
edly due many of the otherwise unaccountable and singular
eccentricities of the lower animals. In many cases these
conditions do not manifest themselves at the time by any
other outward expression ; but in others there is a consocia-
tion of the eccentricity with some marked morbid condition,
such as epilepsy. Thus the remarkable behaviour of certain
dogs and cats is in all probability due to the same morbid
condition of brain or nervous system that in them gives rise
also to epileptic c fits.'

Hitherto we have been speaking of psychical peculiarities
of individuals of the same species, of members of the same
family, brood, flock, or herd. But it is proper here to note
also that there exist correspondingly more marked and
equally important mental and moral differences in different
species, genera, classes, and orders ; these differences, as a
rule, which, however, has striking exceptions, being greater —

1. As we rise in the zoological scale.

2. In domesticated animals ; and

288 INDIVIDUALITY.

3. In those most intimately associated with man.

Thus monkeys and apes, as a group, are characterised by
their vivacity, cleverness, mischievousness, impetuousness,
inquisitiveness. Some genera or species thereof, however,
possess what may be termed a negative character, in so far
as there is a conspicuous absence of the mental or moral
peculiarities of the great group to which they belong. Thus
Baird points out that even some of those monkeys usually
supposed to be vivacious, and rapid equally in their ideation
and action, are in reality slow in both. They are slow in
understanding a thing — in realising their own position, for
instance, in reference to danger — and equally slow, perhaps
fatally so, in taking proper action even when they do realise
their peril. Some of them, no doubt — and this is certainly
true of many other animals — may be ' slow, but sure ' — slow
in order to be sure, thinking and acting deliberatel}7, action
being characterised by caution and propriety when there is
a conviction of its necessity. There is said to be an absence
of the usual curiosity, attachment to persons, and gratitude
of the tribe in the Tamarin monkey, and of the habitual
petulance and malice in the marmozet (Cassell).

According to Professor Mower, the Indian and African
elephants, two different zoological species, have different
mental as well as physical characters, the African being
e bolder, quicker, and more obstinate ' than the other. Here
we have an illustration of the adoption by a zoologist of
a psychical character as an aid in the diagnosis, descrip-
tion, and nomenclature of a species. It is not by any means
a good illustration, inasmuch as mere degrees of boldness
and obstinacy are not characters of a very definite value.
But it is an admission that mental characters may in some
cases take their place alongside of, or subsidiary to, struc-
tural ones in zoological classification. Dr. Baird, too, speaks
of the different dispositions that characterise different species
of the same genus — for instance, in the gayal and buffalo.

Ant-genera, and species differ as remarkably in intelli-
gence, including their power of rapid intercommunication of
ideas, as do many animals much higher in the zoological
scale ; and their comparative superiority or inferiority in this

INDIVIDUALITY. 289

respect gives tliein advantage, or places them at disadvan-
tage, in the struggle for life. Thus polyergus rufescens,
though smaller than formica sanguined, usually beats it in
the fight, because the former understands its fellows more
quickly and easily (Forel) ; and hence also certain ant-
genera or species are habitual masters, while others are
habitual slaves. Kirby and Spence draw a contrast as to
temper and temperament between the humble and hive
lee.

Not only, however, do animals possess mental peculiarities
of their own, but they recognise them in each other, as well
as in man, and take practical advantage or make due use of
them.

Thus as regards the recognition of each others' peculiari-
ties, whether mental or bodily, or both, a collie sometimes
knows each sheep in a large flock so well that it will ' single
out and bring home any particular sheep ' (Wynter). Dogs
distinguish friends from foes among other animals as well
as among themselves ; they recognise kinsmen or those be-
longing to the same community. Ants recognise old com-
rades or soldiers of the same army.

As regards the recognition of human individuality or
personality, dogs frequently know not only all the members
of a human family, but their names, ranks, and belongings.
They distinguish friends from enemies among their masters'
visitors, and act accordingly. The horse, too, frequently
takes advantage of its rider's timidity, ignorance, inex-
perience, inebriety, weakness of will, or other defects of
character, which are very speedily discovered by the animal.

Diversity of mental or moral endowments or aptitudes in
different individuals is, or ought to be, the basis of all proper
education or training. The kind and amount of education
should be adapted to the capacity of the pupil, whether in man
or other animals. It is a folly to expect the same results from
the same mode of training in different individuals of the
same species, or members of the same family, litter, or
brood ; and still more, of different species and genera. Thus
timid dogs, like timid children, require encouragement,
while forward ones demand repression or check; the dull

VOL. II. U

290 INDIVIDUALITY.

or slow must have easier and fewer lessons than the quick
and clever. In short, in order to produce the same or the
desired results, the greatest variety of treatment is neces-
sary ; and it is in the proper variation of his treatment, the
due accommodation of the means to the end, in each indivi-
dual pupil, that the teacher or trainer exhibits his com-
petency, intelligence, ingenuity, temper, and tact.

CHAPTER XXI.

SENSITIVENESS.

WHAT is called sensitiveness in man occurs equally in other
animals, and in them it is a subject of the highest impor-
tance in relation to man's treatment of them. Many of
man's errors of treatment, much of his ill-usage of subject
animals, unquestionably depend on his belief that other
animals have not the sensitiveness of man, that they do not
even feel physical pain. It is, therefore, of the utmost
importance to show that the lower animals, like man him-
self, are sensitive — frequently highly or morbidly so — to
impressions or influences that are either —

1. Simply physical.

2. Purely moral or mental ; or

3. Conjointly physical and psychical.

Of such influences, the most important in reference to
our present subject are those that are mainly or exclusively
psychical. They include, however, so long and varied a cate-
gory that it is only possible and proper to give illustrations
of their character and of their modus operandi.

Sensitiveness to mental or moral influences occurs in
many animals in whom it would certainly not be looked for
by those ignorant of the true characters or capabilities of
the lower animals. Thus Pierquin mentions a tame wolf
that felt much its mistress's absence — to such a degree, indeed,
that it refused food, while at or on her return it exhibited an
ecstasy of joy so intense that it proved fatal. Houzeau, too,
has cited a case of the death of the wolf from grief.

In the dog and elephant especially, all sorts of ridicule,
including sarcasm or satire, are keenly felt and often clan-

TJ 2

292 SENSITIVENESS.

gerously resented : they have the same kind of dislike that
the human child has of being laughed at, of being made a
fool or butt of, for instance, in or by the practical jokes of
man. The siamang is indignant under ridicule (Cassell).
Of one of his fighting dogs Berkeley says, ' Nothing hurt
him more than to pretend to laugh at him.'

Of a Skye-terrier, Eomanes says, ' Nothing that could
happen displeased him so much as being laughed at, when
he did not intend to be ridiculous : ' for dogs and other ani-
mals perform many of their tricks with a special view to
man's amusement, in which case his laughter is accepted as
the expected expression of his commendation, the wished for
indication that their efforts at pleasantry are successful.
' The signs of dislike,' in this terrier, ' were unequivocal.'
If ridiculed when unsuccessful in catching flies on a window
pane, he was ' evidently much annoyed.'

Similar wincing and anger under ridicule were exhibited
in another Scotch terrier, which worried by mistake an imi-
tation toy cat and was laughed at for his pains by his mis-
tress and her visitors (Wood). In such a case a dog may
be sensitive enough to feel the additional affront of being
laughed at by a mistress in the presence of strangers : it
may consider itself affronted * before company,' as a child
would.

Many other instances are on record of dogs hating to be
mocked or in any way made mere game of by man. Of one
we are told that he could not bear to be laughed at. 'If
a stranger laughed at, or even pointed to him in fun, he
felt insulted' ('Animal World'). In this and in similar
cases, a dog will suffer a master to do what a stranger must
not dare. He may regard the one as privileged to make fun
of, as well as with, him if he will, and he takes it in good
part, or at least passively. But the very same action on the
part of a stranger may be fiercely, and even dangerously,
resented, and he will be wise who accepts the first furious
growl of the indignant animal as a danger-warning.

Again Darwin remarks, ' Several observers have stated
that monkeys certainly dislike being laughed at ;' to which
Eomanes, who lives in the neighbourhood of the Zoological

SENSITIVENESS. 293

Gardens, London, and is familiar with their animal occupants,
adds, c There can be little or no doubt that this is true of
monkeys.' A tame Siamese ape was much annoyed when
persons, with whom he sat at table, burst out laughing at
any of his ludicrous contretemps, and he would express his
indignation equally by look and voice-sounds (Wood).

In the elephant the results are sometimes serious to the
poor animal itself, for man's sarcasm, irony, satire, ridicule,
applied it may be experimentally, have led it to attempt
work utterly unsuited to its strength ('Percy Anecdotes').
Verbal taunts of cowardice or laziness are peculiarly galling
to a high-spirited animal, that probably feels, moreover,
how undeserved such insinuations are (Watson).

Such appreciation of man's sarcasm, conveyed as it neces-
sarily is in man's words and phrases, involves, of course, a
knowledge or understanding, to a certain extent at least, of
man's language. And the same remark applies to numerous
dogs and cats that take offence at what man says, not what
he does. As is shown in the chapter on the c Understanding
of Man's Language,' dogs and cats — or certain of them —
are quite aware when their masters are speaking of, though
not to, them, and can distinguish between disparaging re-
marks and those of an opposite kind.

In regard to a certain cat, c to laugh at him was an insult
which he could not brook,' and if laughter at his expense
was persisted in, he would sometimes slowly march out of the
room with every mark of signal displeasure (Wood).

Sensitiveness to ridicule may indeed be said to be com-
mon among the domestic animals, and more especially among
high-bred dogs (Wood).

They have equal dislike to be imposed upon : they detect
and resent imposture of various kinds, as practised especially
by man, and they give vent to their outraged feelings in
various ways, according to their individuality and to the
species and genus of animal deceived.

Affront, insult or indignity of all kinds, or what they
may so consider, even when it is not intended, for instance,
by man, is keenly felt by many sensitive dogs and other
animals. They become passionate, angry, furious, under

294 SENSITIVENESS.

insult, and can readily be rendered so experimentally by man.
In various ways they resent it. The dog treats insult as
man does, in the most opposite ways, either by contempt or
punishment (Cobbe). The horse is apt to repay it with
revenge (Low). In the preacher, Guereza and other monkeys,
intentional or experimental insult by man gives rise at once
to various degrees and exhibitions of rage or passion (Darwin).
Birds insult each other (White) ; and the camel deliberately
offers insult to man by that most unmistakable of all
modes used by man himself to brother man — spitting in his
face.

On the other hand, animals have a sense of personal dig-
nity, and in a certain way they assert or exhibit it. Thus the
military horse shows in its gait and general behaviour the
sense of its own rank, which is involved in an appreciation
of that of its master, while dogs and other animals illustrate
the dignity of parental authority.

Of certain of his setters and pointers, Berkeley says ib
is ' offensive to their sensitive minds to call in extra assist-
ance ' in picking up game : it is felt to be a slur upon
either their capacity or willingness to discharge their duty.

The sense of degradation, disgrace, humiliation, failure
in or futility of effort, non-success, ignominy, dishonour, ser-
vitude, manifests itself in diverse forms, in deposed chiefs,
in animals that have suffered defeat or discomfiture in the
fight, in others condemned to slavery or to labour which
they consider unworthy or undignified. Pliny long ago
pointed out that elephants deprived of their insignia of
rank in pageantry are apt to die of chagrin or melan-
cholia.

In song birds beaten in rivalry, silence is a significant
expression of their sense of inferiority, their mortified pride
(' Percy Anecdotes '). The feeling of being superseded caused
a dog to refuse food, and no persuasion or inducement could
prevent his leaving his home at once and for good (Watson).
The wild horse shows its sense of disgrace when punished
by its fellows (( Percy Anecdotes'), and punishment produces
the same effect in other animals. A common result of defeat,
a frequent expression of the sense of defeat, is dejection

SENSITIVENESS. 295

(Watson), accompanied usually by self-seclusion, surliness or
sulkiiiess, and other changes of character or temper.

The feeling of shame is expressed under a great variety of
circumstances in such animals as the dog and cat, connected
with a sense of guilt, of having committed offences against
man's commands of one kind or another. Certain highly
sensitive animals, specially apt to be pricked by the stings of
conscience, may be said to be, just as certain sensitive chil-
dren are, ' shamefaced,' showing their shame readily and
unmistakably. The cat, for instance, is frequently shame-
faced under consciousness of a fault. Failure in the discharge
of a duty, self-conviction of a fault, the feeling of being a
culprit, all beget, or are at least apt to beget, shame.

Sense of wrong, injury or injustice, as inflicted especially
by man, manifests itself in various ways in working and pet
(domestic) animals — in those, for instance, that are over-
burdened or over-worked. This sense involves what man's
drudges feel to be man's naisjudgments, as well as man's
ingratitude.

Many animals — especially the dog — are susceptible to
praise and blame from man : they are cheered or encouraged
by the one, disheartened by the other. They are easily
annoyed, their feelings are readily hurt if praise is simply
withheld when it is looked and longed for. Praise, especially
when it can be honestly awarded, is of the utmost consequence
in the education or training of the lower animals, and in the
encouragement to their peculiar work of those that are man's
servants. It may be given in a great variety of ways, by look,
word, gesture, as well as by substantial rewards or bribes.

The love of approbation, the craving for commendation,
is as strong in the dog, horse and mule as in the child.
They show practically their gratification at man's approval,
however that approval may be expressed. It is this love of
man's approval or praise, as well as their longing for his
affection or attention, that leads pet dogs to seek restitution
to man's favour, when, for any reason, they have lost it.
They make all efforts to re-ingratiate themselves, and rein-
statement causes immediate and visible elation of spirits
(Cobbe).

296 SENSITIVENESS.

Dogs and other animals have an equally keen sense of
man's disapproval, as expressed by rebuke, reprimand, re-
proof, reproach or any .other form of Uame, especially if this
blame be merited on their part. Scolding in all its forms
produces a remarkable, immediate and sometimes even a
serious effect. Distress may be extreme and disproportionate,
for instance, in sporting dogs. Things only said of a dog by
a master, if his expressions take the form of blame, at once
produce sometimes shame or dejection (Watson). His re-
proving looks are equally well understood. Some dogs are in
misery so long as they feel or see themselves under a master's
displeasure. In other words, just as pleasure is the result of
man's approval, pain is the effect of his disapproval. Man's
blame may be conveyed in specially offensive and irritating
ways, in taunts or upbraidings, associated with ridicule or
sarcasm, in which case the moral result is much more serious
than in ordinary reproof. Sarcastic taunts are only too apt
to sink deeply into, and to rankle in, the minds of highly
sensitive animals.

A lady writer in the ' Animal World ' tells us that her
dog e dreads words of displeasure even more than the whip,'
and this appears to be the case with many other dogs. In
other words, moral reproof or punishment is frequently felt to
be more severe than that which is simply or directly physical;
and what may appear to be a purely bodily punishment
has its moral effect, being regarded even by the animal
culprit as an expression of man's displeasure. Highly
trained dogs, that are intimately associated with cultivated
man, have a great and salutary dread of his reproach, ver-
bal or other.

As has been already stated, encouragement is of the highest
importance in the training and treatment of animals useful
to man, and it is important to note how simply, with how
little trouble to man, in how many different ways this can be
accomplished. There are very few animals that do not
require to be, or that are not, at least, the better for being
cheered in various ways in the execution of tasks or work
that must be most uncongenial. The necessary or desirable
kindly cheering can be effected equally well, in different cases,

SENSITIVENESS. 297

by look, voice, caress, conversation or music. The peasants
of Cornwall used, about the beginning of the present century,
to cheer their plough oxen 'with conversation, denoting
approbation and pleasure ' conveyed in a sort of chant, ex-
pressive of tenderness and affection, says the Eev. Eichard
Warner, of Bath (' Animal World '). And numerous are the
recorded instances of the beneficial effects of music, vocal or
instrumental, 011 cattle, sheep, goats, horses, elephants and
other animals. Encouragement is required in the use, as in
the training, of sporting dogs (Walsh). The horse is readily
cheered by the voice of its rider or driver (Low).

On the other hand, discouragement, or the simple want
of encouragement, begets peevishness ; and punishment,
especially when habitual, cruel and unjust or dispropor-
tionate, produces results of a much more serious kind. In
the young horse, especially if high-bred, punishment is apt
to produce dejection or broken spirits (Pierquin). Castiga-
tion, particularly if habitual, produces nervousness, frequently
intense in degree : even the mere fear of this or other forms
of punishment may produce the same result (Youatt).
Forming apparently, as does also the dog, strong opinions as
to the propriety or justice, impropriety or injustice of the
punishment inflicted on it by its tyrant — man — it protests,
like the dog, against unmerited chastisement (Youatt).

So fond are they of notice or attention on man's part,
that many pet animals suffer for, and from his mere neglect
or indifference, and they are apt to construe into slights a
simple want of attention caused by pre-occupation or non-
consideration. The spaniel and other dogs petition for man's
regard. Man's neglect may lead to mental depression, even
of a permanent and serious kind, in the dog (Cobbe), which
keenly feels what he considers non-appreciation by his
master ('Animal World'). Slight or neglect from him,
whether real or imaginary, preys on its mind (Blaine) —
such is the longing or hungering for his love ; just as it
does in children that crave, in the same way, perpetual
caresses or other signs of regard. Many pet dogs and other
animals find it impossible to endure insignificance (Helps).
* Aut Caesar, aut nullus,' seems to be their feeling : they must

298 SENSITIVENESS.

either be the pet of the house, or no pet at all. The sense
of the temporary absence of a master's love, or of its nsual
expression, is shown sometimes by a grief quite as extrava-
gant or violent in its manifestations as in the child. On
the other hand, the sooty mangabey and other monkeys
obviously feel flattered by man's attentions (Cassell).

Connected with man's neglect is the transfer to other pets
of affections that were once exclusively their own. Partiality,
real or supposed, of a master or mistress at once begets
jealousy, and there is no passion that burns so fiercely in
either the animal or human breast, none that leads to more
avoidable unhappiness and crime. Horses, dogs, song-birds,
elephants and other animals feel all the pangs of rivalry; and,
as has been shown in other chapters, this emotion may lead
even to death itself — directly or indirectly. They suffer also
all the tortures of suspense.

Certain menagerie or other captive animals show a decided
dislike for publicity, to being stared or looked at, to being
made a show of. Thus the male hog-deer of India is highly
nervous in the presence of visitors. When forced out of its
house in the London Zoological Gardens it betrays immediate
and considerable excitement, dashing c about the enclosure
as if frantic, leaping high in the air' (Wood). And such
behaviour is not to be wondered at in the case of many
animals that, in a state of nature, go forth only at night, or
that are naturally solitary and unaccustomed to the disturb-
ing sounds and sights of menagerie life. Possibly, in some
cases, their sense of personal modesty is shocked, or their
love of domestic privacy is violated ; or there is simply an
aversion to strangers, depending upon a natural or morbid
shyness or coyness. Baboons and other animals resent the
intrusion of strangers, jealously guarding the privacy of
their homes (Cassell).

On the other hand, just as is the case with so many chil-
dren, the sooty mangabey, and other monkeys, manifest ac-
tive delight at the sight of strangers (Cassell), a circumstance
based no doubt on the necessity that exists, in other animals
as in man, especially in the stage of youth, for novelty and
variety of scene and companionship.

SENSITIVES;- 299

This love of change, again, is closely related to love of
excitement and amusement. The titi monkey requires as con-
stant amusement as the human child does, becoming restless,
mischievous, troublesome otherwise (Cassell). Other monkeys
tire as readily and rapidly as a child does of toys, show the
same kind of fickleness in their amusements (Baird).

Various animals, especially those accustomed to the society
of refined, cultured man, appreciate highly his courtesy or
politeness, respect or deference. They thoroughly understand
these sentiments, as expressed by his tone of voice, manner,
look, behaviour. Thus the manner in which man declines or
accepts an animal's thank or peace-offering, the mode in which
he himself bestows a favour or attention of any other land, the
way in which he meets his dog's efforts at reconciliation — all
simple little niceties of politeness — tell at once on the keen
feelings of the observant animal. They appreciate even the
semblance of courtesy, as expressed, for instance, in man's
practical jokes, and they illustrate it themselves on the
stage.

Man may wound or gratify — he may make an enemy or a
friend for life, by some small difference of look or tone. This
appears more evidently, however, from the effects of man's
temper on his animal pets, especially of his anger — and of
anger conveyed merely in a word. In different animals —
dogs for the most part — an angry word from a loved and
respected master has produced the following results among
others : —

1. Convulsions, fatal or not.

2. Desertion of home, frequently permanent.

3. Loss of all esteem and affection for their master.
Berkeley says of certain of his pet dogs : ' If I give these

dogs a hastily angered word in my room, though they have
never been beaten, they will, with an expression of the most
dejected sorrow, go into a corner behind some chair, sofa, or
table, and lie there ' till told they are forgiven (Wood) . Here
apparently the fault is entirely one of temper on the master's
part : the poor dogs have committed no misdemeanour, yet
are led to believe that they must have done so, or at least
that they have incurred their lord's displeasure.

300 SENSITIVENESS.

On the other hand a gentle word, or even a kindly look,
has frequently a remarkable effect on the pariah dogs of the
East, accustomed only to harsh usage, but nevertheless highly
sensitive to the beneficent influence of kindness, however
expressed (Watson). An Irish terrier was 'exalted to the
skies by a kind word,' just as he crawled ' on the ground in
utter abasement if scolded' (Wood).

There can be no doubt that dogs read or interpret cor-
rectly and rapidly man's harshness or passion alike in his
looks, manner, tone, as they understand it also when em-
bodied in words, and thereby they form estimates of the
degree of his displeasure. A single angry word from a
master has caused convulsions in a young dog (Elaine). The
dog takes offence, also, at a harsh, unfriendly tone, or angry
word, and shows its sense of offence in various ways ; for
instance, by desertion of its master (Watson, ( Animal
World').

Certain dogs and other animals appreciate and punish
what they consider, and what is, impertinence or impudence,
whether in their young, their fellows, in other animals, or
man. Birds, such as the sparrow, recognise and resent or
punish impertinence — for instance, in courtship; and the
larger breeds of dogs frequently chastise the impudence of
little curs.

Certain animals give evidence in various ways of the
possession of pride or vanity ; and wounded pride or vanity,
where it occurs, is of the same character and leads to the
same results as in man. These results in the lower animals
include even insanity.

Necessarily associated with personal pride is the love of
admiration in such birds as the peacock, Whydah bird, bird
of paradise, or turkey. They look for admiration — man's, as
well as that of females of their own species ; feel that they
deserve and can command it ; exult in it when bestowed ;
and suffer from its being withheld. Many brilliantly-plu-
maged birds take and show pride in their personal beauty,
in their plumage, or in their power of song.

Military horses, elephants, and mules have a pride in
their rich caparison, their insignia of rank, in the pomp of

SENSITIVENESS. 301

procession, or war (Youatt). The cat is proud of her kittens
and the bitch of her pups. The hen is equally proud of her
maternity.

Under this head a passing reference may be made to self-
esteem or self-respect — the sense of personal honour or in-
tegrity— that are as apt to be wounded in the dog as in man
(Watson).

The sentiments of disgust and contempt are feit and ex-
pressed by various old sporting dogs, under such circum-
stances as these : —

1 . Their efforts being rendered futile by the precipitancy
of the young.

2. The sportsman missing his aim, or giving other evi-
dences of his incompetency.

3. The stale or putrid condition of food (Walsh).

4. The presentation of food that is simply unpalatable.
Thus sporting dogs have summarily deserted a sportsman

in disgust at his non-success as a marksman, his missing
fire or not hitting his game ; his trifling, dilatoriness, or
stupidity in the loss of opportunity, or his other indications
of incapacity (Watson).

A dog of Monteiro's freely showed her contempt for the
natives (Negroes) of Angola, as so many European masters
do. The dog, too, shows disdain on being deceived by man
(Watson) .

A fighting dog of Berkeley's Svas so disgusted if any one
danced before him that he went and sat down with his head
concealed beneath a tablecloth or sofa-cover.' Even chickens
show disgust at unsuitable food (Spalding) ; and the same
emotion has been expressed by the pike (White).

The sympathy of the dog for human suffering or trouble
sometimes begets suffering in the animal itself: it cannot
see a master or mistress ill, confined to bed, without itself
becoming depressed or unhappy ; and this misery may con-
tinue during the long illness of its human friend and com-
panion. The very keenness of its sympathy with human
emotion becomes sometimes a source of mental disorder.

In connection with sympathy may be noted the capacity
or incapacity for giving, as well as receiving, consolation — for

302 SENSITIVENESS.

instance, in the dog. On the one hand, in various kindly,
considerate ways, it offers consolation to human sufferers ;
while, in its own griefs, it is sometimes inconsolable, discon-
solate— refuses every kind of sympathy or consolation.

Many animals show every shade of annoyance or displea-
sure. A feeling of mere displeasure will cause a pet and
petted dog to refuse food (Watson). The dog, or other ani-
mals, in proportion to their natural or morbid irascibility,
are annoyed, moreover, at trifles. In other words, they are
easily provoked, and the provocation may be altogether dis-
proportionate to its immediate or exciting cause.

The irritability of the parrot — its susceptibility to being
teased — is well known to its admirers ; and the same may
be said of elephants, monkeys, and other menagerie ani-
mals, in whom such irritability is the result partly of cap-
tivity, partly of their habitual subjection to irritation from
man.

Many animals suffer keenly from disappointment or mor-
tification of all kinds. Thus they show their disappointment
when thirsty at not finding water (Houzeau), or at the non-
gratification of other appetites, wants, or desires (Watson).
Birds, dogs, cats, and other animals manifest chagrin at
errors of all kinds committed by themselves, more especially
probably when they are by man detected in a fault, or are
otherwise by him convicted.

So many examples have been given in other parts of this
book — for instance, in such chapters as those on * The Bodily
Results of Mental Causes,' and on ' The Moral Causes of
Mental Disorder ' — of the influence of such emotions, feel-
ings, passions as grief, terror, fright, anger, revenge, jealousy,
in all their degrees and forms, that it is unnecessary here to
recapitulate, further than simply to remind the reader that
their results include —

1. Death.

2. Disease of various kinds — mental as well as bodily.

3. Sudden paralysis of thought and action.

4. Eemarkable changes of character or disposition.

5. Temporary or permanent colour-changes.

6. Motor derangement.

SENSITIVES;' 303

In the present, and in certain other chapters, sufficient
evidence has probably been given of —

1. The intensity, acuteness, degree, quality, or kind of
emotion or feeling that are frequently shown by the lower
animals.

2. The physical or other results of emotion in them.

3. The variability of emotion — the changes of mood to
which other animals are as subject as man.

4. The singular revulsions of feeling that are as apt to
occur in other animals as in man.

5. The vivid, tenacious, or retentive memory or remem-
brance of affront, neglect, or injury, as well as of kindness or
benefit — for instance, in monkeys, elephants, dogs, horses
(Watson).

6. The natural, and sometimes morbid, love of excitement
and amusement.

7. The greater impressionability of —

a. Young and old animals.

b. Females, especially when pregnant or parturient.

c. The sick or diseased — for instance, those suffer-

ing from rabies or sunstroke.

8. The epidemicity of emotion, and the results of the
rapid communication of feeling by sympathy, imitation, and
imagination.

9. The demonstrativeness or display of feeling, and the
power of control that is, or may be, exerted over its outward
expression ; and

10. The various modes of its expression — a subject that
belongs to the chapters on ' Language.'

Emotion, as we have seen, is sometimes so intense as at
once to cause death. Of the quality of feeling, the most
noticeable feature is what in man is called refinement of feel-
ing, which is sometimes observable in dogs accustomed to
the society of cultured man, as in certain pet dogs described
by Berkeley. The fine feelings of many a dog are both easily
and deeply wounded ; how easily and deeply none, however,
but a man or woman himself or herself possessed of refined
feeling, can appreciate or understand.

304 SENSITIVENESS.

Among the results of emotion that have not been other-
wise specially described are —

1. Proneness to take offence — frequently at trifles, or
where no offence is intended — a vivid or morbid imagination
attaching ideas of offensiveness to the actions of man or
other animals, a phenomenon treated of in the chapter on
' Delusion and Dreaming.'

Some dogs are quite as ready to give, as others are to
take, offence (Houzeau, Cobbe). The dog takes offence at
things merely said of him by man, and sometimes never
either forgets or forgives them (Watson). The cat takes
offence by refusing to eat, and indulging in prolonged, sulky
indignation (Watson) .

This readiness to take offence is usually associated with
irritability of temper, and with a tendency to suspiciousness.
It has been noted in a considerable variety of animals, in-
cluding the parroquet (Davies), dog, elephant, the tocque
and other monkeys (Cassell). Such animals are naturally or
morbidly touchy or testy — what in man is called ' thin-
skinned.' And what is of practical importance to man, this
touchiness is only too apt to lead to retaliation — the repay-
ment of offence, real or fancied, by offence, perhaps of a
serious kind.

2. The resentment of wrong on the one hand, and the
forgiveness or endurance of injury on the other.

3. Not the least important of the results of sensitiveness
to moral influences is the remarkable susceptibility shown,
especially by dogs, to those forms of remedial treatment in
which moral influences predominate, or which consist exclu-
sively of such influences.

The efficiency of what is called in man moral treatment is
discussed in the chapters on ( The Treatment of Insanity,'
' The General Treatment of other Animals by Man/ ' The
Moral Causation of Insanity,' and 'Education.' Moral treat-
ment is as frequently, and in the same way, conducive to
recovery from disease — bodily as well as mental — in other
animals as in man; in other words, gentle usage, kind
words, looks, and actions are more efficacious frequently
than any boluses or drenches .

SENSITIVENESS. 305

The dog especially, but also the monkey, elephant, horse,
cat, and other animals, show the same changeability or capri-
ciousness of mood, humour, temper, that children, and even
mature men so commonly do. And these changes occur as
suddenly and unexpectedly, follow each other with the same
rapidity, and are marked by the same singular contrasts^
f from grave to gay,' or otherwise, as in man.

Thus in the dog, under ill-usage, but even without any
apparent cause, love and confidence may turn all at once
to hate and fear (Cobbe). In the titi and other monkeys
pleasure, indifference, disgust, rapidly succeed each other,
as in the child (Cassell). Passionate fondness is succeeded,
gradually or suddenly, by the opposite feeling in certain
birds (White). Notorious fickleness of temper occurs in the
horse, as in Sir Walter Scott's ' Daisy.'

These marked changes amount, therefore, frequently to,
or they include, complete revulsions of feeling.

The condition of emotional excitability — what is frequently,
though not quite correctly, spoken of both in man and other
animals as nervous sensibility — though the first condition
usually or invariably includes the second — is produced or
determined by —

1. Certain processes of breeding. Thus it is greatest in
high, least in low, breeds of the dog. V.C

2. Certain forms of disease — mental or bodily — or con-
jointly physical and psychical.

For instance, sick dogs are notoriously so hypersensitive
that their illness, of whatever nature, is apt to be seriously
aggravated by man's harsh or unkind tone, look, manner ;
and it is in such a condition of hyper sensitiveness from
disease that man's anger is so apt to produce the most pre-
judicial results, even to the extent of convulsions.

3. Certain artificial and unhealthy forms or conditions
of life, including especially captivity, as illustrated in me-
nageries or zoological gardens, or in caged pets, and in
domestication.

The morbid general nervous excitability of female ani-
mals in the pregnant or puerperal state is illustrated by the
common fact that the simplest or smallest disturbance of
VOL. n. x

306 SENSITIVENESS.

themselves, their nests, or their eggs, in incubating birds, is
resented as a serious molestation, and may lead to such
results as cannibalism of the eggs or young.

The epidemicity of emotion is illustrated by many forms
of panic, elsewhere mentioned in this volume. In a flock of
Moufflon sheep the mere parting of a friend or companion
causes, in some individual, distress, and even alarm — feelings
that spread by sympathy so as to become general throughout
the flock — and panic results (Youatt).

Of mixed or conjunct influences, physical and psychical,
that in various combinations powerfully affect the lower ani-
mals, none are so important as those involved in the good or
bad usage, kind or unkind treatment, of subject animals by
man. For it generally happens that the same man who
meets his dog or horse with a kind word and a gentle caress,
treats him well physically, abstains from blows or other forms
of unnecessary and undeserved chastisement, sees to its food,
lodging, and general comfort and health. The natural result
in the animal is general happiness, good temper, willingness
to be of service, readiness to repay kindness, and to display
gratitude, leading to pleasant relations with all men and
other animals, with whom it comes in contact.

On the other hand, the same man that is irritable, cruel,
injudicious to his horse or dog in word is too likely to be
equally so in deed ; the angry oath is too certainly accom-
panied by the savage kick or whip-blow. Food, shelter, and
other requirements are probably unattended to, even when it
is man's own selfish interest to give them every attention.
And the natural result in this case is not only unhappiness
and ill-health in the animal- victims, but viciousness, apt to
become, by habitual ill-usage, incurable — a viciousness that
includes all manner of infirmities of temper, with all prac-
ticable modes of revenge or retaliation, and consequently all
sorts of dangers to man's own life and property, as well as
to the lives of the ill-used animals themselves, and all other
animals with whom they may chance to be associated.

Of influences that are usually regarded as more particu-
larly, or as exclusively, physical are —

1. Ordinary bodily pain, however caused.

SENSITIVENESS. 307

It is one of man's popular and serious errors regarding
other animals that they are either insensible to ordinary
physical pain, or at least that they are much less sensitive
to it than man is. In other words, by man the sufferings
of other animals from pain are either unknown, misunder-
stood, ignored, or underrated. The fact, however, is that
other animals — in proportion probably to the elaborateness
and delicacy of their nervous organisation — suffer pain in
the same way that man does, and express their suffering,
as well as their fear or dread of it, in many of the same
ways. The dog does so, for instance, in rheumatic fever
(Cobbe).

2. Weather changes of all kinds ; but especially those
connected with —

a. Humidity — as to rain and thaw.
Z>. Temperature — as to cold and heat,
c. Electricity or electrical tension.

3. Sensorial impressions, including especially —

a. Sound — particularly that which is musical.

&. Colour and form — involving what is called in

man sesthetic taste.

Such influences, however, can scarcely be considered purely
physical, because sensation is intimately connected with both
thought and feeling ; and even in man the perception or
appreciation of -beauty, of form, colour, sound, is generally
regarded among the intellectual tastes.

Many animals are so susceptible to atmospheric influences
that they are sometimes supposed to be gifted with a sort of
prescience of coming weather changes — such as rain, wind,
cold, heat, or thunder. They are popularly regarded as a
kind of weather-prophets, forecasters or prognosticates,
superior in some cases, it is averred, to the barometer itself.
Among sensitive animals of this kind are to be mentioned
the common crow (Baird and Houzeau) ; robin of England
and Canada, and the blackbird of England (Adams); the
porcupine (Adams) ; South American cattle, dolphins, and
spiders (c Percy Anecdotes ') ; the swallow, duck, seamaw,
heron, common fowl (cock), and other birds (Houzeau) ; the

x 2

308 SENSITIVENESS.

cat (Houzeau), tortoise (White), dog, swine (Forster), and
monkeys (Pierquin). The prairie dog, Gillmore assures us,
is superior to a barometer.

There would appear to be the same kind of exhilaration
and depression — mental and bodily — from climatic influence,
in other animals as in man. They simply feel before, because
more acutely than, man does the changes that herald further
changes.

Ample illustrations have been given in other parts of this
work of the influence of music, vocal or instrumental —

1. As a gentle calmative in states of irritation or excite-
ment.

2. As a mild excitant in conditions of depression.

3. As a dangerous irritant in certain morbid states of
mind or body, including the part it plays occasionally in the
development of insanity.

4. As a stimulant to work of an uncongenial kind — to
endurance, perseverance, strength, and energy, in ordinary
domestic life, of courage and ardour in the war-horse or
elephant.

5. As a means of refinement in animals whom man thinks
it worth his while to subject methodically to its power. In
other words, music is to be considered in other animals than
man one of the fine (or refining) arts, one of which man
might well make much better and more extended use in his
training of them.

It is not, therefore, necessary or desirable here to reca-
pitulate— the more especially that the subject of music, in
reference to the lower animals, would require, to do it any-
thing like justice, at least a chapter to itself.

In some animals, as in man, —

Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast, —

while in others it begets intolerable agony. In all ages
shepherds have sung or piped to their sheep, goats, cattle, in
order to encourage them in their work, of whatever nature,
including that of feeding and digestion, and so to render
them contented and happy. In all ages, too, music of some
sort has been employed as a means of producing docility,

SENSITIVENESS. 309

placability, subinissiveness ; for instance, in the processes of
taming and charming.

The subject of cesthetic taste — the appreciation of physical
beanty, in form and colour — fell more naturally to be con-
sidered in the chapter on ' Courtship and Marriage ; ' for it
is chiefly in connection with mating, and the inter-relation
of the sexes prior to that event, that beauty of person is
displayed by the male and admired by the female. Here
it must suffice to say that pleasure and pain are derived
from the contemplation of colour and form, as from the
impressions of sound, just in other animals as in man
(Darwin).

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS:

MAN'S TREATMENT OF THE LOWER ANIMALS.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL TREATMENT.

IF, as Las been shown in other portions of this book, the
lower animals, or, at least, certain of them —

1. Possess both feelings and ideas akin to our own.

2. Are highly sensitive, not to physical only, but also to
moral, influences.

3. Are as capable as we are of the sensations of pleasure
and pain, mental, as well as bodily.

4. Are subject to the same kind of diseases produced by
the same kind of causes ; and, in especial,

5. Are liable to mental disorders of the same character
as those of man, and generally described as insanity.

6. Are subject, moreover, to bodily ailments of various
kinds, resulting from purely moral or mental causes.

7. Possess moral, as well as intellectual, faculties, as
capable of cultivation as those of man.

8. Are endowed with virtues and vices that may be
developed or repressed by association with, or instruction by
man.

9. By imitation, or otherwise, are so influenced by man's
character as to become a reflex thereof, adopting his vices as
well as his virtues ; while

10. The results of good or bad education, fortunate or
unfortunate experience, are hereditarily transmissible —
it must be confessed that man's treatment of subject ani-
mals leaves much to be desired. Those who have perused
the preceding chapters of this book must be prepared for
the admission, that man's attitude towards his animal slaves

314 GENERAL TREATMENT.

or servants is very far from being what it should be, and
what in all probability, it is to be hoped, it will yet be.

There is perhaps a much greater prevalence of injudicious
treatment, or of neglect of proper treatment, than of delibe-
rate ill-treatment. Many a man, when his errors in treat-
ment are pointed out, may quite honestly exclaim in the
words of Hood —

It never was in my soul to play so ill a part,

But evil is wrought by want oftliouglit as well as want of heart.

Man's errors in treatment arise in all probability much
less frequently from —

1. Intentional cruelty: a delight in witnessing torture
and in the infliction of pain, involving a callousness to
suffering ; from selfishness, or cupidity ; momentary passion,
loss of temper, for instance in grooms, riders or drivers ;
wilfulness or wantonness ; tyranny, or the iniquitous use of
superior power ; than from

2. Mere ignorance, for instance of the fact that other
animals are sensitive to bodily pain.

3. Thoughtlessness or inadvertence, want of consideration
or reflection as" to the possible results of certain actions.

They also arise from

4. Prejudice or superstition, including foolish, groundless
terrors, such as those relating to the ' madness ' of dogs ; or
from

5. Mere want of sympathy between the higher and the
lower animal, between man and his animal servant or slave.

6. Contempt for all lower animals, the result of a morbid
or misplaced pride, an overweening idea of man's place in
the zoological scale and of his importance as a moral and
intellectual being.

7. InjudiciousnesSy often well-meant errors of judgment.

8. Carelessness or neglect, unintentional or unwitting.
Of all these causes of the popular errors that lead to so

disastrous results in man's management of inferior creatures,
by far the most important, prevalent, and powerful is igno-
rance of the natural history of the lower animals, and
especially of their moral and intellectual endoiuments. For,

GENERAL TREATMENT. 315

with the single exception of natural cruelty of disposition
in man, which must be looked upon as morbid, it is this
ignorance, in all likelihood, that begets all the other causes
or sources of error. Man's ignorance as a cause of his
cruelty is well illustrated in Italy, where, we are told, the
inhumanity with which animals are treated 6 arises from a
belief that they have neither soul nor feeling.'1

A thorough knowledge of the true mental and zoological
status of other animals, a realisation even of what is man's
own interest or policy in the treatment of subject animals,
would probably develop sympathy, dissipate prejudice, and
lead to carefulness, consideration, and humanity. Hence the
desirability, by all means, of dispelling ignorance and sub-
stituting knowledge of the rudiments at least of comparative
psychology, and of inculcating lessons in humanity to animals
as man's own best policy.

The following are illustrations of man's errors or absur-
dities in treatment, errors based on ignorance, or produced
by the other causes already specified: —

1. The destruction of dogs or oxen reputedly 'mad,'
which is tantamount to the premature or unnecessary
slaughter of great numbers of innocent valuable animals.

2. The destruction of these or other animals whenever,
from any reason, they become in appearance or reality un-
serviceable.

Such forms of injudicious butchery include, for in-
stance : —

3. The poisoning of dogs when worms produce — as they
frequently do — cerebral and paralytic, mental and motor,
symptoms, and when the simple use of purgatives would
probably restore to health and usefulness valuable animals
(Cobbold) ; or for

4. Mere biting, probably under the absurd belief that all
biting is, or may be, the result of rabies ; or for

5. Mere infirmities of age or temper. No doubt there is
specious ground for such Spartan practice — the destruction
of the old or feeble, wounded or decrepit. It is beneficial in
its result, 'the survival of the fittest.' But the same argu-

1 « Graphic,' November 14, 1874, p. 474.

316 GENERAL TREATMENT.

ment applies with equal force to man, or, at least, to whole
races and classes of men.

Apart altogether from those higher considerations that
are usually dwelt upon by clergymen in their sermons on
* Humanity to Animals,' there can be no doubt that there is
a true economy in a kindly considerate treatment by man of
those domestic or other animals that are subject to his
dominion. The motto of all who have any property in,
or care over the lower animals should unquestionably be,
' Humanity is the best policy.9

In order to show this clearly, it is desirable to draw cer-
tain contrasts between the relative nature, causes, and results
of man's —

1 . Cruelty, on the one hand ; and

2. Kindness , on the other, in the management or train-
ing of animals.

The present volume teems with illustrations of both
these antithetic forms of treatment : nevertheless it is proper
here to introduce certain specific comparisons.

We take up first the subject of cruelty, its forms, causes,
and effects, because it is unfortunately much more frequent
or prevalent than its opposite — kindness. Nor is this com-
monness to be wondered at, considering the nature and
extent of man's ignorance of the moral and intellectual
constitution of the lower animals. In general terms then it
may be safely said that cruelty evokes all the worst moral or
mental qualities of an animal. It changes its character for
the worse, frequently ruins it irretrievably. It produces
such unfortunate changes in disposition, temper,, or charac-
ter, as dishonesty, sullenness, moroseness, cunning, deceit,
.treachery, undue wariness, ferocity, idleness, which amount
to the substitution of vices for virtues.

In such animals as the dog and horse, on which man is
so dependent for his enjoyment or welfare, cruelty, bad usage
of all kinds, develops the following serious disabilities :—

1. General irritability, quarrelsomeness and capricious-
ness of temper.

2. Various vicious propensities, such as dangerous biting
and kicking.

GENERAL TREATMENT. 317

3. Nervousness, in various degrees of intensity.

4. Unnatural fear, timidity, suspiciousness, with delusions
of the senses — leading to. shying and bolting.

5. Mental excitement, frequently amounting to mania, as
well as other forms of mental disease.

6. Rabies, or other forms of nervous disorder.

7. Stubbornness or obstinacy, resentment, and revenge or
retaliation.

8. Crimes — such as theft and murder.

Many, if not all, of these morbid mental conditions con-
stitute what veterinarians term 'vices,' which not only
interfere with an animal's usefulness, rendering it unsaleable
or depreciating its market value, but too frequently involve
the utmost danger to human life.

Maltreatment of the cow produces not only viciousness of
temper, refusal to be milked, including angry kicking over
the milk-pails, but it causes loss or vitiation of the milk
itself, ruining perhaps both its quality and quantity. Ill-
usage of cattle leads to diseases of the flesh as well as of
the milk, rendering the animals unsuitable for food, and
hence unsaleable, or saleable only for their hides. Inju-
dicious usage — not necessarily of the nature of intentional
cruelty — begets fatal murrains and other diseases, epidemic
or otherwise, that destroy large numbers of valuable stock.
This subject, however, is more fully discussed in other chap-
ters : for instance, those which treat of (1) the morbid bodily
conditions produced by moral or mental causes; (2) sensi-
tiveness ; and (3) the causes of insanity.

Pierquin ascribes the caprice and malice of apes to
captivity and bad usage. Crossness of temper, a fractious,
cross-grained state of feeling is sometimes a characteristic of
all the horses bred by a particular master (Pierquin). In
the dog, utter demoralisation is too frequent a result of man's
evil influence, in cases, for instance, where it is taught to
steal, smuggle, deceive. The pariah dog of the East, where
he is treated as a nuisance and a scavenger, is gloomy,
spiritless or broken- spirited, as the result of man's systematic
persecution or neglect ; or he is savage and bloodthirsty, with
a morbid appetite for human flesh (Poiret and Denon).

318 GENERAL TREATMENT.

It is scarcely necessary to cite instances of the various
forms of man's cruelty to the domestic or other animals.
They are given, in infinite variety, in the Annual or other
Eeports of the Eoyal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals, and of similar societies or branches of it or them
throughout the civilised world. In our own country it is
scarcely possible to peruse a newspaper without the dis-
covery, if we look for them, of illustrations of ill-usage by
man of the horse, donkey, ox, dog, or cat. These, however,
are only the glaring instances that have attracted notice
and become public. They represent only those exceptional
cases which are made the subject of legal trial, decision, and
punishment. Of the much larger numbers that do not ob-
trude themselves before public courts of justice we can only
form a guess. But it may be desirable just to enumerate
some of the prevalent forms of man's cruelty that are obvi-
ously inimical to his own pecuniary interests, that illustrate
his c penny- wise and pound-foolish ' policy, when any sort of
policy can be said to exist at all in his treatment of those
domestic animals whose welfare is really so bound up with
his own.

1. The transit of cattle or other animals, without water
or proper food, c cribbed, cabined and confined ' with no
reference either to health or comfort, involving the injurious
succession of long railway journeys.

2. Over-driving on hard roads and through towns, in
glare and heat, of footsore and fattened oxen, including the
injudicious use of the goad, spur or whip, of sticks or stones,
to jaded animals, in whom, though the spirit may be willing
enough, the flesh is hopelessly weak.

3. Unhealthy confinement in hot, close, dirty, unventi-
lated or ill- ventilated byres, stables, kennels, styes, with
utter disregard of the quality of the food and water supply.

4. Over-loading of beasts of burden, including the injus-
tice and futility of punishment of the practical protests of
over-burdened animals.

5. Man's sports, as illustrative of the wantonness of his
cruelty, for instance in the battue-shooting of pigeons, now
so common among our own aristocracy, including his de-

GENERAL TREATMENT. 319

s traction of c game ' animals during the pairing or breeding
seasons, and his artificial creation in them of ferocity or
mania.

6. The training of certain animals as decoys, involving
the use of darkness, starvation, and putting out the eyes.

It should not require to be pointed ont and insisted upon
that, for man's own sake, the kind and amount of work
imposed upon domestic animals ought to be carefully suited
to their age, natural aptitudes, and varying mental, as well
as physical, character or constitution. It needs, however, to
be borne in mind, that what is suitable for one animal may
be quite the reverse for another, and that there is great
danger, either to the animal's own life or to human safety,
in efforts at compulsion where it is unwilling, though able-
bodied, or willing but feeble-bodied. The combination of
too willing a spirit with too weak flesh or strength when
stimulated injudiciously, suddenly or severely, is apt, as so
often happens in the case of poor cab or dray horses, to lead
to a signal breakdown, both physical and mental.

Over-work, combined frequently as it is with hunger and
thirst, and involving great bodily fatigue, induces, if con-
tinued, a general loss of power, a general debility — both
mental and bodily. Thus in the dog, and certain other
animals, this mental debility is marked by delirium, and by
a stupidity which leads the poor animal to knock against,
instead of avoiding, obstacles (Houzeau).

Beasts of burden such as the llama, camel, horse and ass,
when they have a sense, mental, moral or physical, of
being over-burdened, frequently resent and protest against it
in a very practical and effectual way. They lay themselves
down and refuse to proceed on their journey, showing perhaps
an utterly incorrigible obstinacy, in and for which all kinds
of punishment fail. The obvious, common-sense treatment
is to lighten the load, showing kindness and consideration
as to its size or weight and position. No doubt some of
these animals have a natural or acquired dislike to laborious
occupations and are given to rebellion against any attempt
to render them subservient, as bearers of burdens, to man's
uses. They may rebel under a load that is not in itself

320 GENERAL TREATMENT.

excessive, against any load-bearing at all. But in such
cases the repugnance has probably been begotten by the
memory of former over-loadings, and it may probably be
got over by the judicious application of that heal-all remedy
- both in man and beast — persistent kindness.

Nor need it be further dwelt upon that much of man's
cruelty may be said to be of a negative kind, consisting as it
does of mere neglect, for instance, of attention to the shelter of
animals, to their proper food and drink, their personal clean-
liness, their due opportunities for exercise, and the gratifi-
cation of their natural and healthy appetites or passions.
This neglect springs too frequently from misapprehension as
to the necessity for such attention to the mental and physi-
cal well-being of animals ; and this misapprehension brings
us back to the subject of man's ignorance, and the desirability
of his engaging in a proper study of the mental and moral
constitution of his animal friends, pets, or servants, both in
disease and health.

The uselessness or impolicy of cruelty, then, must become
apparent to anyone who, with the necessary knowledge and
experience of animal habits, gives himself the trouble of
reflection.

On the other hand, kindness may be said, as a rule to
which there are certain exceptions, to educe all the better
qualities of an animal's nature ; to develop good temper,
gentleness, docility, confidence, obedience, and all the other
virtues which are so essential to its usefulness to man.
The beneficent influence of kindness is in fact incalculable.
Frederica Bremer speaks, and properly, of the possibility of
man's creating 'an ennobled race of animals' by better
treatment. At all events, as Helps remarks, animal happi-
ness is capable of infinite increase by man's kindness. Else-
where in this volume it has been shown how sensitive the
lower animals are to human kindness, how keen their memory
of it, how important it is in all kinds of their education or
training, including, for instance, lion- tarn ing.

Among the results of man's kindness as regards —

1. The pig; it becomes a domestic pet, taking the place
of the dog, acquiring new habits, such as swimming, and

GENERAL TREATMENT. 321

following its master. In Ireland it is made a member of
man's household, both literally and figuratively.

2. The horse of the Arab also lives in family with its
master, having, like the pig, equal privileges with other
members of the family, and it is even more petted than its
companion — man. The great secret of horse-tamers such as
Rarey, Sullivan, and Jumper, was the judicious administra-
tion of kindness, and so imparting confidence. This confidence
is all-important on the part of the horse towards or in its
rider, master or trainer, at once begetting, in the majority
at least of cases of ordinarily unruly animals, calmness,
quietude and submission.

3. The dog of the Scotch shepherd, which is its master's
trusted friend and loved companion, as well as his intelligent
and useful servant, and which in this case too shares his
dwelling and his food, is, again, a veritable member of his
family or household — is a very different animal from the
street dog of a Turkish city.

4. Even the ox becomes man's associate, companion, and
favourite — for instance, among the Hottentots, who treat
their cattle with great gentleness and consideration (Watson
and Pierquin).

5. The elephant, when tamed and trained in India, stands
in the most intimate and friendly relationship to its ' mahout.'

6. The very wasp, the emblem of the acme or essence of
ill-nature in man, has lately shown, in the hands of Sir John
Lubbock, the power of man's patience, forbearance, and
humanity in rendering it as tame, as placable and mild, as
our various domestic animals.

Not only, however, does kindness bring out all the animal
virtues, but it represses the animal vices. It is not only edu-
cational, but remedial. It softens, calms, soothes, or subdues
surliness, ferocity, and fury ; it corrects a multitude of vices
of temper.

There are exceptions, however, to the generally beneficial
or beneficent influence of kindness. There are every now
and then, every here and there, individuals of various species
and genera that are unamenable to its usual influence —

VOL. n. Y

322 GENERAL TREATMENT.

cases in which it signally fails to produce any effect what-
ever, or where the effect is the reverse of what is desired.
Assuming that there is no fault on the part of the operator,
that the kindness offered is genuine and judicious, such ex-
ceptional cases that resist the power of kindness almost
invariably indicate the existence of some kind or degree of
moral or mental perversion or defect : the animals in ques-
tion are either idiotic, imbecile, or insane. Non-response to
the influence of kindness may, no doubt, be attributed to
singularities of constitution, moral, mental or physical ; to
eccentricity, idiosyncrasy, or individuality ; but it is not
the less to be regarded as a morbid and exceptional pheno-
menon.

Man's kindness to domestic or other animals in disease
or health, unfortunately, even when his intention is to do
good, when benefit is earnestly desired, and he makes every
effort thereat in accordance with his preconceptions, is not
always judicious, and therefore not always beneficial.

In the first place, it may be, and is often, overdone : it is
injudicious in its excess. For instance —

1. The Arab or military horse may be so much made of
that its sense of personal importance leads to the acquisition
and display of airs, affectation, pride, or vanity of a kind, or
to a degree, that may become troublesome, if not also danger-
ous, to man.

2. The pet dog of the luxurious boudoir is proverbially
fractious and ill-natured, while it indulges sometimes also in
dangerous, vicious biting.

3. Even the timid tame hare becomes impudent in
attracting its master's notice, in assertion of its supposed
claims on his time and attention. Jealousy, exclusiveness,
or selfishness are here, as in so many other cases, the result
of too much petting, too great indulgence.

Favouritism of all kinds, shown by man to his domestic
pets, is in fact apt to produce the same kinds of evils as in
children — to evoke jealousy, envy, covetousness — to provoke
revenge, to wound feeling, to beget peremptoriness in de-
mand or command, to produce sulkiness or surliness.

Over-petting, then, over-indulgence, apparent or intended

GENERAL TREATMENT. 323

kindness of the type of that mentioned by Shakespeare in
4 King Lear,' in which a master

In pure kindness to his horse, buttered its hay, —

may be a real dis-service, may amount to virtual cruelty ;
while, on the other hand, true or real kindness may con-
sist in firmness, severity, non-indulgence, even apparent
harshness ; it may require more of the fortiter in re than of
the suaviter in modo, just as so frequently happens in the
training of the human child.

In the wayward animal, as in the self-willed child, chas-
tisement may be requisite and beneficial, provided it is rational
and appropriate. But, in the hands of the passionate man,
it is only too apt to be immoderate, unjust, or inappropriate.
As has been pointed out in another chapter, some animals
themselves distinguish between merited and unmerited
punishment. Certain dogs, for instance, at once see through
man's passion, cruelty, injustice, appreciating the true nature
of the cause in relation to the effect ; and the moral effect of
such passion, cruelty, or injustice, and of punishment result-
ing from it, is as bad as it would be under similar circum-
stances in the child. Both dog and child lose confidence and
respect, become sulky and revengeful, and perhaps never
altogether forget or forgive the injury or affront.

To be productive of such a result as tractability, even
kindness may require to be persevering and discriminative.
That which is non-discriminating is apt to be mischievous.
Thus man's, or more frequently woman's, attentions, if not
cautious and judicious, lead to jealousy, rivalry, and crime
among pet dogs. Hence there is always a danger of having
more than one animal pet at a time.

In general terms, the treatment of the kwer animals by
man is to be conducted on the same principles as that of his
fellow man, or of the child by his parent or instructor. This
is the only rational system or mode of treatment, the prac-
ticLil application of the golden rule, regarding other animals
as our fellow creatures, possibly our fellow immortals as they
ure our fellow mortals.

y 2

324 GENEEAL TREATMENT.

The proper treatment of subject animals requires in par-
ticular that man should be well informed of the disposition,
character, and habits of the individual pupil. In other
words, just as a schoolmaster, in order to the benefit of
each of his pupils, must make himself acquainted with, and
make due allowance or provision for, their separate and
special individualities, so must the trainer or custodier of
an animal which is to be a servant or a pet, in order to its
greatest usefulness and happiness in either capacity, first
make a study of the individuality of his charge. His treat-
ment should be appropriate to the individual, and to the
varying conditions or surroundings of the individual. It
should both be well-timed and properly applied.

A good master should have sympathy with the animals in
his possession or keep. He should have perfect control over
his own temper, and he should possess the patience and for-
bearance, the good sense and good feeling requisite to make
all allowance for the disadvantages under which his subject
creatures labour. There should be in him a due combination
of gentleness and firmness, just as in the treatment of the
child. Man, as a master, behoves to be not only sympa
thising, compassionate, merciful, and slow to anger, but he
must also be just ; he must himself set a good example,
for lower as well as higher animals, live

Eseemplo plus quam ration e.

A mutual understanding must be established between
master and servant, in such cases as the dog, horse, and
elephant ; they must be on good terms with each other,
stand in amicable relationship, entertain mutual confidence
and respect. Loss of temper on either side, in proportion to
its frequency and severity, becomes destructive of comfort
if not also of safety, in the mutual relationship, for instance,
of the horse and his rider. Reciprocity of affection and
attentions between man and other animals influences bene-
ficially the character of both.

Errors of, or in, kindness on man's part there may be, and
frequently are.

An urijust supremacy is not unfrequently bestowed by man

GENEEAL TREATMENT. 325

on the lower animals : he prefers them to his brother man
in nnmerous instances in which he gives precedence to —

1. The objects of his superstition, as in India ; or to

2. The instruments of his pleasures or profits — his race-
horses or sporting dogs —

on whose dwellings, food, and drink, training and persons,
he sometimes lavishes an amount of care and money that
he never dreams of spending upon his fellow- man. Many a
'highly respected' wealthy landowner places his horses and
dogs, his poultry, pigs, and game, before his labourers, treat-
ing the latter as if they were in reality the 'lower/ and
the others the higher, animals. The stables and kennels,
pens and preserves, of the one are, beyond any proper com-
parison, excellent in contrast with the ruinous hovels of the
other.

Man's superstitions often lead to too great licence, to the
mischievousness of certain species of monkeys for instance,
and to the increase of certain kinds of noxious insect-vermin
in the animal temples or refuges of India — the one being
permitted to go unpunished, the other not being empha-
tically * stamped out ' as a nuisance to man. It is super-
stition, too, that leads, or has led, to all the absurdities
connected with the deification of animals in all times and in
all countries.

The same kind of superstitious feeling, however, which
gives rise to the deification of real or imaginary animals is
frequently beneficent in its tendency, if not in its actual
operation, leading, for instance, to the public or general
protection of animals that are useful to man, or ornamental
to his dwellings or their surroundings, or that are both.
This kind of protection, which may be careful and deliberate
— as illustrated by the provision of shelter, food, nests, or
nesting-places — or which may amount to simple immunity
from torment, irritation, or provocation, gives rise in the
animals in question to perfect fearlessness of, and confidence
in, man ; they obviously regard him as a friend and not an
enemy, as animals in general have too much and too good
reason to do.

Thus in Holland or other countries where the white stork

326 GENEKAL TREATMENT.

is protected by humane public feeling or sentiment, it walks
the city streets fearlessly, stalking about the very market
places, as I have myself frequently seen in Dutch towns ;
while the more valuable eider duck in Iceland sits on its
eggs undisturbed by the presence of man. I have walked
among large colonies of the said ducks sitting on or in their
nests on the Island of Eidey, in the Bay of Eeykjavik,
stepping over and among them without causing them the
least concern. In such cases as the stork, which acts as a
scavenger, and the eider duck, which yields its valuable
down, a sense of the animal's value or use to man may
mingle with a feeling of superstitious veneration. But if it
do so, it must be very far from being so influential as mere
unreasoning superstition ; for the sense of the dog's or
horse's usefulness does not of itself, among the most highly
civilised nations, give rise to the same kind of humanitarian
and beneficent public feeling and practice.

The sacred ibis in Egypt and the sacred monkey in India
are other familiar examples of animals protected by man's
superstitions.

Dr. Leitner gives, as ' among the evidences of the high
state of civilisation of the inhabitants of that Central Asian
region to which he has given the name Dardistan, their love
and charity to animals.' * If such love and charity are really
or properly to be regarded as f among the evidences of a high
state of civilisation ' in man, we cannot say much for the
* state of civilisation ' of the leading nations of the Western
World — of Western Europe at least !

It has been supposed and pointed out that man's treat-
ment of subject animals is determined in great measure by
the nature of "his food on the one hand, and of his religion on
the other. It is at all events a coincidence that the gentlest
treatment not only of domestic, but of certain wild and even
noxious animals, is, by or among the vegetarian Mohamme-
dan nations or peoples of the East. The ' mild ' Hindoo in
his behaviour towards the sacred monkey and other animals,
the Syrian shepherd in his dealings with his sheep and

1 Nature, September 23, 1875, p. 466.

GENERAL TREATMENT. 327

lambs, the nomad Arab in his affection for his steed, stand
in strong and strange contrast to the conduct towards the
horse, dog, and sheep of the carnivorous Christian peoples of
the highly civilised West. Ample and suggestive illustra-
tions of Mohammedan humanity to animals on the one
hand, and of Christian cruelty on the other, are to be found
in the ' Animal World.'

328

CHAPTEE II.

GENERAL TREATMENT (continued).

THE lower animals, and especially those which man domes-
ticates, have specific and strong claims on man's attention
and consideration, on his sympathy, on his sense of justice ;
all on such grounds as the following :—

1. They are unquestionably our fellow-creatures and
fellow -mortals. Colonel Hamley calls them, generally, our
6 poor relations,' while Landseer applied the same term more
specifically to monkeys. In the same sense — which is not
altogether a figurative one — they are entitled to the appel-
lation of ( brethren.'

2. It may be that they are also, as many good and great
men — including eminent clergymen, from Bishop Butler to
the Kev. J. G. Wood — have thought, our fellow -immortals,

3. They are our servants and slaves, ministering in in-
finite ways to our requirements.

4. They are our own or our children's pets, companions,
or playthings ; and as such are frequently simply invaluable,
rescuing many a life, especially among educated and refined,
but vestal, women, from ennui and the morbid mental con-
ditions which spring from it.

5. They are often the protectors and saviours of our lives
and property, displaying, in the succour of distress and the
defence of a master's goods, qualities that are by no means
too common in man himself.

6. They are frequently also friends in the truest sense ;
friends compared with whom Byron, and many another who
has experienced the hollo wness and hypocrisy of human
friendship, has held man himself to be the ' lower ' animal.

7. They are prototypes, or emblems, of man's own virtues

GENERAL TREATMENT. 329

and vices, enjoying "with him a community of moral and
mental constitution.

8. Their vices are too frequently the direct or indirect
product of man's neglect or bad usage.

9. Their diseases, mental as well as bodily, which resemble
in their nature those of man, arise from causes that are in
great measure preventible by him.

10. They confide in and look up to him as a superior
being ; a being of greater power, with the ability to afford
protection or assistance in time of need.

11. They are both inoffensive and dependent.

They have, therefore, as Bentham, Helps, and other
authors have pointed out, their decided rights and wrongs at
man's hands, while man has a still more distinct responsi-
bility and duty as regards his relation to and treatment of
them. To many of them — for long and faithful service — he
is under heavy debt or obligation.

To a certain extent, but only to a comparatively most
limited extent, man has fitly exhibited his recognition of
the claims or rights of subject animals, and of his own duty,
responsibility, debt, or obligation to them. He has done so
in a multitude of ways which it seems desirable to enu-
merate, mainly with a view to give them publicity, in order
that they may be imitated on the larger scale until they
become general. Man has paid public or private testimonies
or tributes of respect to animal virtues; he has signalised their
length or fidelity of service, or the peculiar character of their
service ; he has marked his own gratitude, inter alia, in the
following ways, or by the following means : —

1. The provision of refuges or homes, retreats, asylums,
for the hosts of stray, cold, homeless, hungry, destitute dogs
that frequent the streets of our large cities. There is one
such well-known ' home for lost dogs * at Battersea, London.
There is also a ' shelter ' for dogs in Philadelphia, U.S. ;
and there is an asylum for houseless cats at Florence ; but
there should be at least one such shelter, for one or more
animal species, in every large town.

2. The provision of similar asylums for the aged and
helpless, the infirm and decrepit, the old pet dogs, horses,

330 GENERAL TREATMENT.

cats, canaries, parrots, or other animals that have so well
subserved our purposes, but can do so, it is supposed, no
longer.

It may be argued that the greatest kindness that can
be shown to our worn-out favourites or servants is to put
them to the speediest death ; and an additional argument in
favour of this policy or procedure is to be found in the profit
that may yet be made of their skins or bones. No doubt
there are cases, or circumstances, in which it may be well
to take the summary measure of a painless and immediate
death, rather, for instance, than subject them to inevitable
cruelties and ignominy, to spin out their weary lives in suf-
fering and sorrow. Not a few humane military men or
sportsmen have had such an affection for their old chargers
or hunters, that they have made express stipulations in their
wills for the shooting of the said favourites immediately after
their master's demise, simply to prevent the possibility of
their falling into the hands of a cruel cab-driver, coachman,
or groom. And it is impossible not to sympathise with the
feeling which dictated such post-mortem arrangements.

But there is no good reason why, if it be desirable or in-
cumbent to maintain aged men and women in comfort in their
declining years, we should not do the same with certain
animals whose only fault is the decrepitude of age — who have,
while in the vigour of youth, been the joy of a master's or mis-
tress's life, or who have borne the heat and burden of what
is, in nine cases out of ten, a very arduous day. And there is
decided advantage in establishing asylums for the old, in that
it gives the veterinarian or physician due opportunity of
studying the diseases of age, mental and bodily, the phe-
nomena of gradual decay. Such opportunities are no trivial
matter ; for every addition to our knowledge of the infirmi-
ties of other animals may be turned to profitable account in
our acquaintance with, and treatment of, those of man.

3. So far as I am aware there are no orphanages for animal
foundlings, where they may be brought up by foster parents.
Such institutions, among other advantages, would furnish a
desirable opportunity of studying the genesis of mind and

GENERAL TREATMENT. 331

morals, in different animal-species and genera, under different
forms of education.

4. There are many cases in which wealthy philozooists
have made due provision in their wills for the kind main-
tenance of their four-footed or feathered companions during
the remainder of their lives. At present, however, the
devising of legacies or bequests of any amount to the lower
animals by way of annuity, superannuation allowance or
otherwise, is too apt to be regarded as an evidence on the
part of the benevolent donor of testamentary incapacity,
in other words of morbid eccentricity or insanity. On this
ground, or on other grounds equally frivolous, wills, contain-
ing such legacies, are generally contested by the relatives of
the testator, by those who would, were such legacies declared
invalid, become the beneficiaries ; and there seems to exist a
strong tendency on the part both of judges and juries, in
such cases, to side with the human beneficiaries, by render-
ing such wills nugatory so far as concerns the animals so
obviously intended to receive benefit.

A disputed case of a cat's inheritance was the subject of
a well-known law plea at Vienna, in 1874, a wealthy lady
having left the whole of her fortune to her pet cats, twelve
in number, to their ( legitimate ' offspring, and to the custo-
dians of both the original pets and their future progeny. I
have notes of a similar case that occurred in America.

While, however, the rich are in a position to make
proper provision, testamentary or otherwise, for the life-long
comfort of their pets — the poor, whose pets are quite as
intelligent and amiable, quite as much esteemed as com-
panions or friends, quite as much thought of and made of
in the heyday of their youth and maturity, are not in a
position to make any provision whatever to take effect after
their own demise. In the case of these animal pets of the
poor, there is ample room for private bequests and charitable
institutions, to which nominations might be made, as in the
case of our asylums for the indigent-old (Young).

5. Schools for the training of piping bullfinches and other
song-birds exist in some parts of Germany. There is no
reason, but the contrary, why the admirable principle and

332 GENERAL TREATMENT.

practice of these German academies should not be extended
to other animals, or why seminaries for the regular and sys-
tematic training — moral, mental, and physical — of animals
which are intended in any way to be serviceable to man,
should not exist in or near all our large towns.

6. Protective legislation. Much has been done in the
form of government enactments or statutes for the public
protection of certain classes of animals. But much more
remains to be done, and we Britons have a great deal to learn
from other nations, both ancient and modern. The earliest
human laws recognised kindness to and protection of de-
fenceless animals as man's duty ; and these early laws were
much more liberal, in their spirit at least, than those of
modern times. The laws of Moses expressly inculcate
humanity to animals. We read of an Athenian being pun-
ished for the non-exhibition of mercy to a sparrow ; and of
the Areopagus punishing the wanton cruelty of children.

7. The public honours that have been conferred on what
may be called 'celebrated' animals have been of a very
varied kind; including for instance —

a. Civic honours, such as the presentation of the

freedom of the city ; the bestowal of denizen-
ship or citizenship upon a couple of dog-com-
panions in San Francisco, an honour that has
its parallel among the lower animals them-
selves ; for instance, in the case of the street
dogs of Constantinople conferring the freedom
of their quarter or district for some act of
signal bravery on an enemy. (Watson.)

b. Public funerals or burials.

c. Monuments in squares, streets, or cemeteries ; of

which one of the best known is that erected
by the Baroness Burdett-Coutts, in Edinburgh,
to the memory of ' Greyfriars Bobby.'

d. The presentation of collars, or other badges, with

suitable inscriptions — one of the ante-mortem
honours of the same well-known and much-
praised animal, 'Greyfriars Bobby.' This
fortunate animal indeed, or its memory, its

GENERAL TREATMENT. 333

fidelity during life and after death to its mas-
ter and its master's grave, have been honoured
not only by a —

1. Monument in the shape of a drinking

fountain, bearing a Latin inscription
from the pen of the genial and versatile
Professor Blackie, of the University of
Edinburgh.

2. A collar, also with an inscription, the gift

of one of the most distinguished Lord
Provosts of Edinburgh, Dr. William
Chambers, the head of the well-known
publishing firm of W. & R. Chambers,
the pioneers of cheap and good popular
literature in Scotland and in Britain.

3. Photographs and engravings of itself and

its monument.

4. Endless eulogies in print (c Animal

World,' and Macaulay's 'Plea').

5. Exemption from the dog-tax.
Presentation collars, with the attendant cere-
monials, are by no means uncommon in the
case of what may be called public dogs, such
as the policemen's or firemen's dogs of our
large towns, or the pets of our regiments. Nor
is the offering of collars as gifts for life-saving
uncommon (Watson). We read, for instance,
of a farmer's gratitude to his dog for saving
his life being expressed in the form of (1) A
collar; (2) Maintenance as an honoured pen-
sioner during the remainder of its existence.
There can be no doubt that such testimonials
or presentations are much more sensible and
becoming than the majority of those made by
the members of mutual admiration societies in
man.

e. Public blessing of animals by the Pope is an an-
nual and familiar ceremony at Rome ('Ani-
mal World '); and Italy is certainly a country

334 GENERAL TREATMENT.

in which the domestic animals have much need
to be k blessed' in more senses than one.

8. The provision of due periodical rest and relaxation for
working animals. A sabbath, or day of rest, once a week, was
enjoined by Scripture for all working animals ; and science
points to the desirability of obeying this salutary and humane
injunction, both in the spirit and letter. The Sunday gam-
bols of cart or plough horses, the result of a joyous sense of
freedom from their week-day toils, must be as familiar as they
ought to be suggestive. Work animals, indeed, not only
require and deserve regular and occasional holidays — sab-
bath and others — -as much as do working men, but they are
likely to make a much better use of them. We know, only
too well, how common it is for well-paid artisans in our large
towns to devote their now abundant holidays to the grossest
self- intoxication and debasement.

9. A common form of honouring or perpetuating the
pleasant memory of an animal pet of the smaller sort, such
as a dog or cat, parrot or canary, is to have recourse to the
taxidermist's art ; the animal itself is c preserved ' by means
of what is popularly called c stuffing.' In this form I have
frequently seen the favourite poodle or lap-dog, reclining as
was its wont, carefully preserved in a glass case in the place
of honour in a master's library, or a mistress's boudoir, or in
some public museum to which the ' specimen ' has been pre-
sented. This is both the most prosaic and poetic form of
monument, that which most vividly recalls the aspect and
deeds of the departed favourite.

10. Arrangements for the boarding out of pet animals,
either —

a. Temporarily, during the summer or holiday ab-

sences of families, or —

b. Permanently, in cases where there are objections

to retaining them at home — that is, in their

master's or mistress's houses —

are very much wanted. Certain animals themselves, for
example the cat, have the sense to board out their young
under certain circumstances ; they quarter them on human
families in whose tender mercies they have confidence. But

GENERAL TREATMENT. 335

in their annual migrations to seaside or highland quarters,
our city families give little care or attention to the poor cats,
or other domestic animals whom they leave behind. This,
indeed, is one of the common and flagrant forms of cruelty
of or by neglect. There is no reason why every large town
should not have its nursery for cats, dogs, and feathered
pets, as for human infants.

11. Special or separate cemeteries for domestic animals
may be considered an unnecessary refinement of man's hu-
manity to subject creatures. Nor are they necessary if man
does not object to give deserving animals, his old favourites
and pets, honourable sepulture beside himself, in a sepa-
rate partition if required of his own roomy modern ceme-
teries. But we are told that such things as special cemeteries
exist, and their existence or establishment is to be com-
mended and encouraged. Thus a cemetery for pet animals—
horses, dogs, and cats — is to be found at Dangsten, Sussex ;
and it is chronicled that not long ago a votive tablet was
erected in it, bearing an epitaph in blank verse c from the pen
of one of the most distinguished statesmen of the English
Cabinet.' 1

Epitaphs on the tombs of cats, dogs, and other animal
pets, whether in cemeteries, or more usually in the gar-
dens or grounds of their human proprietors, are by no
means uncommon. They are various in their character —
poetical or prosaic, punning, pathetic, amusing, or simply
descriptive of gratitude or long service. Many epitaphs
commemorative of animal virtues are to be found quoted in
the 'Animal World'; and there are some with which all
readers of classical English are, or are supposed to be, familiar,
such as that of Byron on his dog ' Boatswain's' tomb at
Newstead Abbey.

12. In elegies, odes, or sonnets of all kinds and of every
degree of excellence, poets and versifiers have celebrated the
good qualities or the good services, the heroism in life-
saving or life- sacrifice, the better than human fidelity or
friendship, the real nobility of character, of such animals
as the dog. Cowper's addresses to his tame hares, ' Puss '

1 • North British Advertiser,' March 20, 1875.

336 GENERAL TREATMENT.

and ' Tiny,' and to his spaniel, are illustrations of the testi-
mony of the poet to animal excellence.

13. The novelist has done, perhaps, more than even the
poet, by the frequency of his references to, and the fidelity of
his descriptions of, the moral and intellectual character of
certain animals, to draw man's attention to a, deserving and
neglected class of his fellow-creatures. Sir Walter Scott's
affection for his f Maida ' and other dogs, and his descrip-
tions of the ' Dandie Dinmont ' terriers are equally well-
known wherever English literature is read or studied. His
' Helvellyn/ like Greyfriars Bobby* was equally honoured in
life and death. The late Lord (Bulwer) Lytton graphically
depicts dog-character in several of his novels ; while George
Eliot, George Macdonald, ' Ouida,' and several other well-
known writers of different types do the same in theirs.

14. Other writers who are neither poets nor novelists
have given us, sometimes in memorial editions de luxe,
life histories, purporting to be autobiographies, of favourite
animal-companions. Such a volume is the autobiography of
' Fido,' a pet dog of Dr. William Chambers, formerly Lord
Provost of Edinburgh, whose name has already been honour-
ably mentioned in connection with the story of c Greyfriars
Bobby ' and its honours.

15. The painter has not been behind either poet or novel-
ist in his truthful delineation of animal character, making
such animals as the dog, cat, monkey, horse, almost speak
from the canvas. The wonderful fidelity to nature of the
animal-painting of Landseer and Eosa Bonheur among living
artists, and of Vandyke, Knud— ' the Cat Kaphael,' and
others, among those of bygone ages, is familiar to all lovers
and students of pictorial art.

16. Scarcely inferior to the painter is the sculptor, in his
plastic representation of certain animals and their physiog-
nomy ; who again has invoked the aid of the architect in the
erection of the memorial monuments of all kinds which the
sculptor's art does so much to adorn.

17. The provision of public water-troughs for both the
larger and smaller domestic animals — horses and cattle on
the one hand, dogs and sheep on the other. Here, again,

GENERAL TREATMENT. S3 7

Eastern humanity to the lower animals is conspicuous. In
the streets of Cairo and other Eastern towns, according to
Lane, such water-troughs have long existed. They are for-
tunately common now in our own towns, frequently as the
gift of private individuals, sometimes in fit connection with
memorial or monumental fountains for man's use ; occasion-
ally, as in London, as the result of the systematic efforts of
a public association. Such public provision of an ample supply
of pure water equally to man and other animals cannot be
too strongly commended, or too widely imitated.

18. The public or private distribution of food either in the
streets, squares, or other special localities of cities, in the
farmyard, or on the window sill. By benevolent persons,
especially ladies, whose hearts overflow sometimes with ( the
milk of human kindness,' much bounty, in the form of bread-
crumbs from the breakfast or dinner table exposed on the
window sill, is distributed to many a large clientele — for in-
stance, of sparrows and other city birds. In certain Eastern
towns we learn that charitable persons, full of sympathy for
all classes of their fellow-creatures, ' may be seen daily en-
gaged in distributing in the streets their surplus food to dogs
and birds ' (' Animal World ').

If, as has been already shown, it be ignorance that is
really at the root of the contempt, neglect, or cruelty that
characterise man's treatment of subject animals, it is ob-
viously the duty, and it should be the privilege, of the edu-
cated or cultivated classes to disseminate as widely and as
speedily as possible among the uneducated or imperfectly
educated classes a proper knowledge of animal character, and
of the grounds on which humanity to our lower fellow-
creatures is to be commended or enforced. Information of a
suitable kind may be diffused, the systematic teaching of
man's moral duties towards other animals may be inculcated,
in a great variety of ways, including the following : —

1. In infant and other schools.

2. In school books for these and higher schools.

3. In all classes of schools between ordinary schools and
universities.

4. By public lectures in all towns and villages.

VOL. II. Z

338 GENERAL TREATMENT.

5. From the pulpit, in the shape of sermons.

6. By offering public prizes for

a. Essays ; and for single

fe. Acts of kindness, or for habitual humanity, to
particular kinds of animals.

7. By public meetings.

8. By animal shows of all kinds.

9. By the multiplication of societies for the prevention
of cruelty and the dissemination of the principles of humane
treatment.

10. By taking advantage of general literature, in the
varied shape of books, periodicals, pamphlets, tracts, or other
forms of publication, including : —

11. The circulation of all suitable books in all classes of
libraries, from those of infant or Sunday schools up to those
of universities or free libraries for the people.

12. The prominent exhibition of pictorial placard-
mottoes at or in railway stations, market-places, stables,
kennels, slaughter-houses, byres, race-courses, riding schools,
and cab-stands.

13. The most extensive gratuitous circulation of attrac-
tive pictorial cards, almanacs, serials — such as the ' Animal
World ' — or tracts among all classes of the less educated,
those classes who have more immediate charge of our do-
mestic animals.

It is perhaps too much to expect any radical change in
opinion and practice in the present generation regarding
the treatment that animals have a right to expect at man's
hands. Our hopes naturally centre in the rising generation,
in the proper education of the young of both sexes in the
principles and practice of humanity to animals, in the appli-
cation of the grand old golden rule of Scripture to all living,
sentient creatures. What our children have to learn, what
they should be carefully taught, is that other animals, or at
least those with whom we have most to do, think and feel as
we do ; are affected by the same influences, moral or physical;
succumb to the same diseases, mental or bodily ; are elevated
or degraded in the social scale according to our treatment ;
may become virtuous and useful, or vicious and dangerous,

GENERAL TREATMENT. 339

just as we are appreciative, sympathetic, kindly disposed to-
wards them.

Whenever a child or youth learns, thinks, sees, knows, or
feels all this, it will follow almost as a necessary conse-
quence or corollary of his knowledge that he will thence-
forth treat his fellow- creatures, of whatever grade, with
a new and higher consideration. If he do not, there is
probably some error or defect in his own moral and intel-
lectual nature, calling for the serious attention of his parents
or teachers.

By proper education of the young in the natural history
of the lower animals, and especially in a knowledge and
appreciation of their moral or mental character, there could
not fail gradually to arise a more healthy and happy tone
of public teaching concerning the rights and requirements of
these zoologically inferior creatures, and this would infallibly
in its turn lead to or culminate in a much more humane,
kind, or judicious, and at the same time wise or politic,
treatment. Man himself would share in the benefit in a
thousand different ways, of which at present he has small, if
any, conception. Not only would his own moral nature be
improved, but we should hear much less of hydrophobia,
and stand little in dread of it, knowing, as we then should,
how rare real rabies is on the one hand, and real hydro-
phobia on the other, and how large a part is played, in re-
gard to the latter most horrible of all the disorders to which
poor human flesh is heir, by a morbid, or ill-regulated
imagination.

There are many ways of introducing the subject of the
natural history of the lower animals, as well as of man him-
self, into our schools of every grade ; many modes of incul-
cating the principles and practice of humanity to our 'poor
relations.' In the first place, there should either be special
school books, containing only stories or statements illustrative
of zoological facts, of animal sagacity and habits ; or, what
would be less of an innovation, such stories, anecdotes, de-
scriptions should be introduced here and there into text-
books of the existing kind.

Among books specially adapted for the young is a series

z 2

340 GENERAL TREATMENT.

of ' Publications for the Promotion of Kindness to Animals,'
issued by Messrs. Partridge & Co., of London. The volumes
are copiously illustrated by Harrison Weir, and other artists,
and the authors include the well-known names of the "Rev.
F. 0. Morris, the Rev. Prebendary Jackson, Mary Howitt,
Mrs. S. C. Hall, Mrs. Bray, Shirley Hibberd, and Harland
Coultas. Equally specific in its character is ' The Humanity
Series of School Books ' — a set of six, published by Messrs.
Murby, also of London, and edited by the Rev. F. O. Morris.

But it is important that children be taught no nonsense
about zoology ; that their attention be rigidly confined to
what is true and capable of verification by themselves ; to
facts of observation, or to such fair or obvious inferences from
these facts as their own intellectual power enables them to
think out or deduce for themselves. I urge this strongly ;
because I have had occasion to examine many English read-
ing books used in the very best public academies of Scot-
land, including those both of Edinburgh and the provinces,
and I have been alarmed and disgusted at the kind and
amount of mischievous nonsense that is introduced in the
form of supposed zoological fact. Hence I think that such
school-books should either be drawn up or revised by our
most philosophical naturalists — men like Huxley and Hooker,
who do not decline the humble but important task of pre-
paring school 'primers.' It has become obvious to me that
neither do the compilers of current school-books know any-
thing of natural history, nor do the teachers, for the latter
fail to call attention to the glaring errors in question.

In short, it is an essential and inseparable part of any
system of tuition of the young in zoological knowledge that
the teachers themselves should first be taught. Notwith-
standing all the certificates and grades of the present public
or government educational system in this country, we have not
yet produced, except here and there — rari aves in gurgite vasto
— competent teachers possessed of a knowledge of even the
rudiments of natural history, zoology, physiology, psychology;
and until we do possess such teachers, it is hopeless to expect
proper instruction of their pupils.

In the second place, much may be done in the form of

GENERAL TBEATMENT. 341

prizes, pecuniary or others, offered not only in schools, but in
colleges ; not only to pupils, but to teachers ; prizes, in short,
open for competition to all ages and both sexes. But the
object of such prizes should be not a homily, sermon, or
essay of the hackneyed kind, on ' humanity to animals,' based
on, and consisting of, Scripture references, or quotations
from theologians and poets, with comments thereon, by way
of padding. Such rewards should subserve the several pur-
poses of —

1. Developing the observative faculties of the young, by
calling upon them to confine their illustrations of animal
intelligence to what they have themselves seen, to describe the
mental peculiarities, habits, eccentricities, of their own cats,
dogs, canaries, parrots, and so forth.

2. Directing their attention to moral, mental, or physical
sensitiveness ; to the influence of education ; to the mighty
power of kindness ; to the higher mental faculties — thought,
reflection, generalisation — rather than to the common virtues
of courage and fidelity.

3. Leading them to experiment on animals in a perfectly
harmless and legitimate way, involving no vivisection, or
even suffering of any kind ; to test an animal's powers of
observation, thought, inference, its capacity for progress.

4. Contrasting, in boys and girls, the relative powers of
observation, inference, narrative, diction, or composition.

5. Creating or developing natural history tastes of a kind
that necessitate healthy out-door work-, establishing resources
that may be of the utmost consequence in after years, as a
substitute, in girls, for instance, for the trashy ' fancy work,'
to which they devote so much time that, properly employed,
might become, and be termed, valuable ; as a substitute, in
boys, for pipes, beer, billiard-rooms, theatres, and the other
debasing 'enjoyments' (Heaven save the mark!) to which
they too frequently devote their business leisure.

Much has been done in the way of prize-offering for
essays on humanity to animals by the Baroness Burdett-
Coutts, through the medium of the London ' Eoyal Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ; ' and on a greatly
minor scale, by those offered to the schools of Edinburgh by

342 GENERAL TREATMENT.

the Scottish Society of the same kind. But, judging from
the published extracts from the prize essays given in the
annual reports of the Edinburgh Society, I do not think
that at present such prizes realise their object, for the simple
reason that the stipulations, or conditions, which I have
above described as desirable, have not been laid down or
attended to. The offerers of the prizes seem to me to have no
proper idea of the aim they would set before the competitors.
6 Humanity to animals ' is a very vague term ; and inasmuch
as Sermons on the subject are perhaps at once the most
easily accessible, and most familiar literature on the subject,
it is not surprising that the resultant essays should be
virtually compilations from this ready, though not satis-
factory, quarry. For clergymen, as a rule, as well as teachers,
require instruction in natural history ; indeed, there is no
class of men more given to take — even in subjects quite
beyond their ken, a < preacher's licence ' (which is as bad as
much of the ' poet's licence,' or as many a ' sailor's yarn,'
or 'village tale'), than the occupants of our pulpits; no
class is more in the habit of using simile, metaphor, fable,
parable, fiction; none more apt unwittingly to confound
fiction with fact, dogma with inference from fact.

Some years ago I made an effort to carry out my own
views anent the objects to be set before school children
in prize competition for essays on ' Kindness to Animals,'
in Edinburgh — a city long famed in this country for the
excellence of its educational arrangements. Among others
of its educational institutions, there is a whole series of
schools, under the patronage of the Merchant Company,
four or five large, handsome, in some cases university-like or
palatial, buildings, in the city and its suburbs, accommoda-
ting about 5,000 young people of both sexes, and of all ages,
from three or four up to eighteen or twenty, representing,
moreover, the poorer or lower, as well as the richer, middle,
and higher ranks of society, not only from every part of
Scotland, but probably also of the three kingdoms. Deem-
ing these Merchant Company Schools a suitable field for the
experiment, I submitted my proposal to the Master of the
Company at that time in office, a gentleman of high cul-

GENERAL TREATMENT. 343

ture, who had distinguished himself by the prominent part
he had taken in the organisation of the scholastic system in
question. I would myself, if necessary, have been at the
expense of a prize or prizes, and of the publication of a pro-
gramme of recommendations or suggestions to competitors.
In other words, I asked for no grant of funds, but simply for
a field for what I regarded, and continue to regard, as an im-
portant educational experiment. Unfortunately, however, my
proposal was not entertained.

I mention this little piece of experience for the purpose
of urging others, with more time, means, and authority to
support their benevolent and enlightened projects, to make
efforts of a similar kind in other quarters. Undoubtedly,
somehow or other, sooner or later, success will attend them ;
and not only so, but what is at present unknown or excep-
tional will by-and-by, I believe, be the common practice of
public schools, including those of the Merchant Company
of Edinburgh.

In 1876, the professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philo-
sophy in the University of Oxford, H. W. Chandler, M.A.,
of Pembroke College, delivered a series of academical lectures
on ' The Duties of Men as regards Animals.' This is an ex-
ample worthy of all imitation in other universities. But there
is no less reason why such a subject should be selected for dis-
course or exposition before more popular and larger audi-
ences, before those crowds of intelligent persons of the
middle and artizan classes that crowd the lecture halls of
our mechanics institutes, athenseums, people's colleges, and
similar establishments every winter. Such a subject only
requires to be introduced to become popular ; it admits of pic-
torial and anecdotal illustration ; and there can be little doubt
that a few years hence f animal character,' and ' man's duty
to his poor relations,' will become types of the kind of sub-
ject that will supplant much of the historical or biogra-
phical matter that has become in such arenas so flat and
stale, if not also unprofitable.

Nor does the Pulpit duly fulfil its duties in relation to the
dissemination of a feeling of humanity to the lower animals.
No doubt sermons on the subject have been preached by

344 GENERAL TREATMENT.

Dr. Chalmers and other eminent divines, some of whom,
such as Dean Stanley, the Rev. J. G. Wood, the Eev. F. 0.
Morris, and the Rev. Prebendary Jackson, have also pub-
lished interesting works well calculated to produce such a
feeling, or state of public sentiment. But the clergy as a
whole do not realise — or if they do, certainly do not perform —
duties that would come so appropriately from clergymen, by
the delivery of discourses that would be so suitable to the
pulpit. Their failings in this respect have been most properly
and most temperately pointed out by Sir James Coxe and
other competent critics of the present dogmatic and pole-
mical, non-convincing and non-converting,. character of our
church oratory.

There is still a most promising field for the exertions,
there is much room for an extension of the operations, of all
kinds of Societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals ;
much remains to be done by them, in some of the ways already
pointed out, in the dissemination, in all our great centres of
civilisation, of a knowledge of animal character, capacities,
habits, and requirements. What has already been done in
this and other ways in the diffusion of information of a
desirable kind, and what may still further be accomplished,
may be found pointed out in the interesting pages of the
6 Animal World.'

It is much to be desired that the branches of such a
society as the London ' Royal Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals' should be spread all over the three
kingdoms, as well as throughout our colonies ; or that some
equivalent societies, similar in their aims and operations,
should be established in lieu of such multiplication of
branches. Remembering, however, that union is strength,
and the advantages of co-operation, more is perhaps to be
expected from the extended and extensive operations of a
single influential society with widely-spread local branches,
than from a host of minor societies having different names,
objects, and interests.

CHAPTER III.

CUBABILITY AND TREATMENT OP ANIMAL INSANITY.

IN general terms it may be said that animal insanity is
curable or incurable, under the same circumstances as is that
of man ; that is to say, that acute cases of short duration, or
in their early stages, are, as a rule, curable, while in con-
firmed cases the chances of recovery diminish with the dura-
tion of the mental disorder. In other words, the treatment
of insanity in other animals, as in man, as was long ago
explained by Pierquin, is hopeful in proportion to its acuteness
or recentness. Thus, as in man, acute ephemeral mania is
the most readily curable form of insanity, so much so that
in a sense it cures itself — the natural tendency being towards
spontaneous recovery if the animal is simply let alone. Were
this fact borne in mind, understood, or realised by drovers of
cattle, there would be no injudicious pursuit of so-called
crazed or infuriated cattle in our city streets ; no striking
of them when overtaken and brought to bay. In such cases
it is man himself, who by the absurdity of his conduct pro-
duces, maintains, or exaggerates in the animal the very
condition which he so much dreads, viz. the development of
furiosity of a maniacal type.

Curability then is in proportion to acuteness, which again
implies recentness of attack. In cases where insanity de-
pends upon, or is determined by, lesions of the senses,
such as sight or hearing, or by organic disease of the brain
or its membranes, the curability of the mental disorder will
obviously depend on the curability or removability of its
physical cause.

Animal insanity is in great measure curable : a statement
having an important practical bearing on the public dread-

346 CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY.

of rabies, which, according to the majority of veterinarians,
is virtually incurable. These two facts — the curability of
insanity and the incurability of rabies — have to be con-
sidered in relation to this third fact, the comparative fre-
quency of insanity and infrequency of rabies.

Recovery sometimes occurs from ordinary forms of in-
sanity when unlocked for, even, for instance, when the disor-
der appears to have become chronic, confirmed, or permanent :
a circumstance of importance in stimulating all efforts at
cure, and in giving ground for hopefulness as to the result.
Thus Gall gives an instance of sudden recovery in a bitch
from melancholia of two years' duration. Pierquin records
instances of recovery from mental imbecility marked by in-
ability to learn. But it is just possible these may have been
cases simply of improvement with age, or by kind treatment,
to the extent of docility, or capacity for education.

It is important to distinguish between cure and recovery.
The former implies efforts on the part of man and the success
of his efforts ; while the term recovery does not necessarily
involve man's agency at all. Eecovery is the natural ten-
dency of mania and other forms of insanity. Man may assist
recovery, or may hasten it, by judicious protection or treat-
ment. But it will also take place spontaneously — perhaps
in the majority of cases — if the animal is simply left to itself.
The very different results of meddlesome interference on the
one hand, and of simple non-interference on the other, is most
frequently seen in the case of cattle that suddenly become
maniacal while being driven to the shambles through the
streets of our large cities.

Animal insanity is, therefore, by no means incurable, as
a rule, though certain forms of it are so. When it has
become incurable, where recovery is hopeless, the reason has
frequently or generally been, either that no treatment was
attempted, or that the treatment attempted was improper.
It is quite as important to realise the incurability of certain
forms, as the curability of certain other forms of mental or
moral defect, peculiarity, or disorder.

Congenital mental defect belongs necessarily to the in-
curable category, though, just as in man, amelioration is

CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY. 347

possible under judicious treatment. The incurability or in-
corrigibility of certain ineradicable bad habits, of certain
forms of vice or viciousness, of stupidity or temper, in such
animals as the horse and dog, if only realised by their mas-
ters or custodians, would convince them of the equal futility
of severity or kindness, punishment or menace.

The treatment of animal insanity is to be conducted on
the same general principles as that of man, the principles,
to wit, of common sense and of kindness. The first most
obvious step to be taken is to remove the cause, if discover-
able, of the mental disturbance ; and this of itself is fre-
quently sufficient to effect a cure, to lead to recovery. For
instance, in the case of animals restrained by the nature of
their artificial life from the natural gratification of the
sexual passion, and in whom melancholia, or other forms of
insanity, have directly resulted — restoration to freedom of
life, to liberty of action, to the society of their species, may
at once bring about recovery. There are again various forms
of secondary or sympathetic insanity depending, for instance,
on the presence of worms in the intestines, or of poisonous
and irritant foreign bodies in the stomach, in which cure is
brought about by simple emesis or catharsis — vomiting or
purging — artificially produced by drugs. In mad bulls, whose
madness is the result of, or consists in, sexual excitement of
a kind or degree that renders the animal vicious and un-
manageable— recovery, usefulness, and safety are procured
by means of the operation of castration.

Sometimes it happens that while the diseased condition
which produced the insanity is removed, the mental disorder
is left behind as a permanent and serious sequela — more
serious perhaps than the cause which gave it origin. Such
was the case in a horse of Franconi's, mentioned by Pierquin,
who also gives an instance in a cat, showing that the
mere removal of the cause is not always sufficient to remove
also the consequent mental disturbance.

Where this is the case, when the insanity becomes some-
what permanent, various modes of treatment may be had
recourse to — moral, mental, physical, hygienic, dietetic,
surgical, medical, or medicinal.

348 CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY.

Moral means are sometimes quite sufficient and efficient,
as in the case of a cat restored to its mistress's favour, men-
tioned by Pierquin. The important influence of kindness in
the treatment, however otherwise varied, of almost every
form of insanity, illustrates forcibly the utility and success
of moral measures, e.g., in the mania of the cow and horse.
Indeed, it may become important above or in addition to all
other measures of whatever kind, or it may prove a satisfac-
tory substitute for them.

Kindness should be applied by man in order to the de-
velopment of confidence and attachment on the part of the
animal patient. It is a remedy that is equally applicable,
in one form or other, to the treatment of all morbid states,
whether of mind or body.

Fears are sometimes, in their early stages, easily calmed,
for instance by a master's voice ; whereas if unattended to,
they are only too apt to pass into mania on the one hand, or
melancholia on the other, with or without delusions. Even
in the abject terror of rabies, confidence or re-assurance
is frequently at once produced by the soothing sounds of a
kind master's voice.

In certain cases in the horse, as in man, change of
air and scene, involving travel, and novelty of residence,
associates, associations and guardians, is often efficacious
(Pierquin), consisting as it does of conjoint moral and physical
treatment.

Air, moreover, acts as a natural calmative to the mental
excitement of bees in swarming.

In other cases, as has already been shown, drugs and
drugging are indicated, for instance, in insanity from intes-
tinal worms, when purgatives at once effect a cure. In such
a case there is an intelligible, demonstrable, single cause ;
and the cure, with its modus operandi, is equally intelligible,
demonstrable, and direct.

Purgative treatment, therefore, is always desirable to
begin with; for instance, when a dog is suspected of (1)
rabies ; (2) cerebral disease ; or (3) permanent organic para-
lysis; inasmuch as the alarming symptoms or phenomena,

CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY. 349

motor or mental, may thus be proved to be merely functional,
temporary, and removable.

In other cases again, the use or application of tartar
emetic as a calmative or depressant ; of narcotics or other
calmatives ; of counter-irritation by cauterisation or blisters ;
and of the trephine, the latter in traumatic cases, has been
advocated, but, it must be added, mainly by authors belong-
ing to the ' old school.'

Nowadays, prevention ought to be regarded as better
than cure, and protection as more important than drugging.

Animal insanity may be practically divided into that
which is —

1. Natural, and presumably non-preventible ; and that
which is —

2. Artificial, and therefore as certainly preventible.
The latter category, again, includes cases in which —

a. Insanity has been intentionally or deliberately

produced by man — for instance, by narcotics or
otherwise — for the purposes of experimental
study ; as well as those in which—

b. It results, unintentionally or accidentally, from

man's ill-usage in some of its varied forms.

In all cases of active treatment, time, as an element in
recovery, must always be kept in mind.

Thus the artificial insanity, produced in horses by fraudu-
lent purchasers, by poisons of the narcotic class is, as a rule,
detectable by time, along with isolation, observation, and
the prevention of tampering (Pierquin).

The importance of simple isolation and quiet, as the
obvious rational plan of treatment, is conspicuous in the
case of ephemeral insanity, of momentary or passing morbid
impulse, of transitory furiosity or mania. In relation to
such cases the adage holds especially good, that ' time tries
all.' Had man only patience and common sense in such cases,
a correct diagnosis would be formed, and there would be no
ground for public dread— the fruit of public ignorance.

All the foregoing remarks are obviously condemnatory of
the present unjust and barbarous, impolitic and absurd treat-
ment of animal insanity by man — of the poleaxe, shooting,

350 CUKABILITY AND TEEATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY.

or poison. In every respect such rash treatment is erro-
neous : for a little patience, a little trouble, a little common
sense or reflection, a little sympathy or humanity, would
serve to convince the owners or custodians of valuable
animals, such as horses and cattle, that what appears to
be the most dangerous and most hopeless of all forms of
animal disorder or disease — the dreaded ' madness ' — is really
one of the most curable, hopeful, and innocuous — under proper
management, be it always understood.

Pierquin points out the wholesale poisoning of dogs that
in his day took place in Prussia and France, not only of ani-
mals under suspicion of rabies, but simply as a preventive
measure, to forestall the possible future development of the
dreaded disease. These slaughtered innocents were the vic-
tims of popular alarm and ignorance, of a mere possibility,
of a contingency that might never happen. Watson, on the
other hand, calls attention to the summary shooting of horses
for ferocity of temper and all sorts of vices, real, alleged, or
supposed.

Such a summary disposal of suspected or affected animals
is attended with many serious disadvantages, including the
following : —

1. No opportunity is allowed for recovery; the result of
which is the loss of large numbers of valuable animals,
especially horses, cattle, and dogs.

2. No opportunity is afforded, subsequent to its origin
or development, for the study of animal insanity, and the
diseases with which it is apt to be confounded. The re-
sult of this is gross ignorance of the natural history of the
diseases in question; which ignorance again produces the
serious errors in treatment that have already been adverted to.

There is much need of a rational treatment, not of insanity
only, but of many conditions of the senses or of the mind, of
the temper, propensities, passions, or appetites, that consti-
tute technically, among veterinarians, 'vices' — such as blind-
ness, nervousness, shying, timidity, alarm, stupidity, biting.

During the reign of human and animal demonology, the
cruel treatment resulting from unjust suspicion and mis-
chievous superstition on the part of man was directly

CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY. 351

provocative of the most furious forms of insanity. But such
absurdities of treatment were not confined to the middle
rages. They are quite as common and quite as mischievous
in our own country at the present day, in the form, for
instance, of the ' hue and cry ' of the city populace after
some poor bewildered and belaboured, frightened and fugi-
tive, dog or ox.

As a general rule, it may be asserted that the same kind
of treatment will produce the same kind of results in the
insanity of other animals as in that of man. And it is an
important practical fact that the treatment suitable for
insanity is pro tanto also proper for rabies and other diseases
with which insanity is so frequently confounded, some of
which are more serious than insanity itself. For both classes
of cases, the following procedure is plainly indicated : —

1. Isolation, in some cases with modified light, or in
the dark; solitary confinement, so that harm to other
animals, as to man, may become a physical impossibility.

2. Close observation, especially in the early stages, or in
suspected or doubtful cases, with patient waiting for the de-
velopment of symptoms of a kind that will determine the
diagnosis.

3. Perfect tranquillity.

4. The removal of all causes of mental or physical
excitement ; for instance, of terror, in the form of disturbing
sights and sounds, persons or things.

5. Proper nursing, housing, food, and drink, including
temperature, or warmth.

6. Such medical, medicinal, or surgical treatment as may
be necessary, including the judicious use of drugs.

There is the same danger in other animals, as in man,
however, of overdoing medical or surgical treatment. There is
such a thing as meddlesome or mischievous medicine and sur-
gery. The ease and rapidity with which animals frequently
or usually recover from serious illnesses or wounds, when
placed in favourable circumstances, afford strong presump-
tive evidence of the value of what is called the expectant
treatment, both in medicine and surgery ; that is, the patient
watching of nature, aiding her by following her indications

352 CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY.

in the form of judicious nursing, the supply of proper diet
and warmth, and protection from all sources of physical 01
mental disturbance.

In other animals, as in man, the evils or errors of fussy
nursing, or of continuous attentions, soon become patent.
The slightest disturbance sometimes of animals that have
recently become mothers, leads them not only to desert their
nests or young, but even to devour the latter. In such cases
the very simple and sensible treatment is to leave the poor
animals alone, to c let well alone.'

Among other advantages of solitary confinement of the
animals, with patience and observation on the part of man,
in such cases as madness, suspected or reputed, would be the
important discovery —

a. That many reputedly rabid or rabietic dogs labour
really under temporary forms of ordinary in-
sanity, or of mere transient and removable
mental excitement ; and

Z>. That such animals are quite harmless if properly
dealt with, speedily recovering composure and
good-temper under the genial influences of
quiet and kindness, of good feeding, and other
attentions to their creature comforts.
And the result of such a discovery would be the salvation
of much valuable dog life on the one hand, and the preven-
tion of, or recovery from, many cases of human hydrophobia
on the other. The innocuity of most cases of reputed mad-
ness in dogs, and the equal injustice, impolicy, and absurdity
of destroying animals merely suspected of rabies, cannot be
too soon or too fully made public, especially in districts
where hydrophobia is, or is said to be, prevalent in man.

In a case of panphobia in a cavalry horse, cited by
Pierquin, the animal regained calmness and confidence on
becoming free : a circumstance that points to the propriety
or importance, in certain cases at least, on the one hand, of
not tethering, or confining, and on the other of inspiring
confidence, or of making all due attempts thereat, in the
treatment of those forms of insanity in which morbid fear
is a characteristic. For instance, in cases of fire in stables,

CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY. 353

byres, or menageries, the feeling of captive helplessness,
superadded to the terror of the stalled or tethered horses or
cattle, or of the caged animals, and to the physical influence
of the heat or glare, very literally ' madden' the poor brutes,
while by setting them free, sending them away from the
causes which gave it birth, panic would gradually subside.

Music, as a remedial means, is not utilised, at least to
the extent of which it is capable, whether in the treatment
of the various forms of insanity, of the various degrees of
excitement, irritability, anger, fury, or of depression, grief,
despondency, despair ; and there can be no doubt of both its
calmative and stimulant effects under different circum-
stances. Any kind, or all kinds of music may act as a
calmative, soothing the ' savage breast ' of other animals, as
they do that of man ; or certain musical notes, or sorts
thereof, may bring about a perfect calm, as certainly as others
do a dangerous fury.

The soothing effect may be immediate, and extraordi-
nary ; more usually it is gradual, though decided. The
effects of music as a modus medendi in other animals are
analogous to those that result from its use in man. In
our domestic sick rooms, in our hospitals, both for insane
and sane, music is constantly being rendered useful in in-
ducing sleep, calming excitement, developing pleasurable
feelings. For upwards of twenty years, I have myself had
occasion to employ ifc largely, in various forms, as a medicine
partly psychical, partly physical — including public, and
domestic or chamber, practice, in concerts, balls, classes for
vocal music, rehearsals, or otherwise — in the moral treatment
of the inmates of the Murray Eoyal Institution, a hospital
for the insane of the higher classes, near Perth ; and my ex-
perience there led me, many years ago, to recommend its
similar adoption in general hospitals for the sane, and
especially in their convalescent departments.

As a soothing agent music frequently becomes in man's
hands a means of bringing about submissiveness and inno-
cuity in obstreperous animals (Pierquin) ; or it enables him
to capture them for his various purposes. As a stimulant, it
cheers and encourages to work and to perseverance therein.

VOL. II. A A

354 CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY.

6 There can be no doubt that the serpent-charmers (of the

East) possess the power of soothing and taming

the snakes, so as to render them harmless to themselves,'
by means of the ' shrill sounds of the flute' (Houghton). In
India a special class of musicians are sent for by the tenants
of houses infested by snakes. These ' snake-charmers,'
properly so-called, lure the dangerous serpents from their
hiding-places, produce in them a pleasant humour, in which
they become indisposed for the moment to use their poisonous
fangs, and even allow themselves to be handled with impu
nity. Here the very practical and important result of the
power of music, in the capture and subsequent destruction
of highly poisonous animals, becomes obvious.

The old familiar drum or trumpet call stimulates and
revives the youthful spirit of the old military horse. Sing-
ing or piping to cheer the spirits and quicken the action of
their flocks and herds, has, from time immemorial been, and
still is, a common practice among Eastern shepherds.

In abstinence from food, even when it leads to death by
self-starvation, it does not appear that veterinarians resort
to the means used by man in similar circumstances in human
insanity — to the use, that is, of any form of artificial
alimentation.

I quite agree with Pierquin in thinking it most desirable
and becoming that all forms of animal insanity should be
studied and treated in proper animal hospitals. There can
be no doubt that regular hospital treatment, similar to that
which is now bestowed in all civilised countries on the human
insane, would save much valuable life, both of man and other
animals, less directly than indirectly, perhaps, by the improve-
ment of our knowledge of the phenomena of animal insanity,
and by conviction of our errors, ignorance, and prejudices. A
due knowledge of the facts and phenomena of causation and
curability of animal insanity must obviously underlie, as a
basis, all systems of treatment. What is specially desirable at
present on the part of man is knowledge, and on that of animals
protection by and from man. It is ignorance, for instance,
that leads to those futile and mischievous attempts at the
cure of bad tempers or ill-nature — the fruit of cerebral dis-

CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY. 355

turbance — attempts that are frequently one of the worst
forms of man's ill-usage or cruelty.

At present there is not, so far as I am aware, a single
hospital in any part of the world that either devotes itself or
one of its departments to the treatment of the mental diseases
of the lower animals, or indeed that recognises in them
insanity at all. For the ordinary bodily ailments to which
domestic animals are liable there are here and there well-
appointed public hospitals or infirmaries ; for instance, those
attached to the veterinary schools of France and Germany.
In our own country there is only one such hospital, and it
is of recent establishment — the Brown Institution, London,
which, however, is doing excellent scientific work of an
experimental character, under the auspices of Prof. Burdon
Sanderson and Dr. Klein. There is also in London a canine
hospital, of a private character, however, and on a most
limited scale. In Paris there are canine hospitals or infir-
maries, according to Fleming, and he thinks that canine
infirmaries should be attached to or connected with all
veterinary schools, wherever situate. But there is equal
argument, surely, in favour of equine, feline, and bovine
infirmaries, as well as of separate hospitals for poultry and
cage birds.

Much more appears to have been done in supplying
the lower animals with hospital succour and shelter, in
age, accident, injury, infirmity, sickness, disease, by Eastern
nations in former times than by Western nations of late
years. Thus there were hospitals for cats, dogs, mon-
keys, horses, or other animals in India, Egypt, China, and
Turkey. In Ahmedabad, the capital of Gujerat, there were
in 1839 no less than three hospitals where sick and lame
monkeys were cherished. Some, at least, of these Eastern
establishments, however, were not infirmaries for the treat-
ment of disease so much as mere homes for the maintenance
of a certain number and variety of animals. Thus the
monkey temple at Benares, which still exists, and which was
visited by the Prince of Wales in 1875, is said to c be re-
markable for a whole colony of Durga monkeys, which are
held most sacred by the Hindoos, and which are maintained

A A 2

356 CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY.

by the offerings of the visitors, who always bring a supply of
parched peas and sweetmeats to feed them with. ' l Nor was
the general philanthropy that dictated the foundation, en-
dowment, and support of such institutions sufficiently dis-
criminative. It admits of doubt, for instance, whether it.
was prudent or proper, in what was apparently a regular
vermin ward or department of the animal hospital at Surat,
to maintain such noxious insects as bugs, fleas, and lice, by
the provision of human mendicants, male and female, as
food supplies for them !

There can be no doubt that public provision for sick and
disabled animals, and especially for those which are the
useful servants of man, is not what it ought to be, even in
the most highly civilised countries. Hospitals furnished
with all proper appliances for their medical and surgical
treatment, possessed of convalescent accommodation and
ample exercise ground, are required in all our large cities or
centres of population. And such hospitals should include
wards or departments for the observation or study, on the
one hand, and the treatment, on the other, of all animals spe-
cially dangerous to man ; for instance, of those reputedly mad
or insane ; that have been convicted of serious biting, kick-
ing, worrying, or assault ; or that have otherwise been the
cause of accidents to man. Special attention should be
given to morbid mental phenomena. Every veterinary school
should have its properly-equipped hospital for the study and
treatment of all forms of disease, mental as well as bodily,
in all species and genera of at least the ordinary domestic
animals, such as the horse, dog, cat, and ox. In our largest
cities, moreover, such as London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and
New York, there should be hospitals of a public, metropolitan,
or national character for particular species of domestic ani-
mals, such as the horse, dog, cat, ox, song birds, and poultry.

Proper maternity hospitals, again, for the larger and more
important of our domestic animals, would not only provide
homes for suffering mothers at a critical period in their lives,
would not only save many mothers and even more offspring,
but would enable us to study thoroughly the disorders of

1 ' Graphic,' January 5, 1876, p. 123.

CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY. 357

pregnancy and parturition in different species and genera.
Such hospitals, or at least homes, are not altogether unknown.
We are told, for instance, that ' kennels are often provided in
Egypt and Turkey for homeless female dogs, in which they
may bring forth and nurture their little ones, and frequently
legacies are left by humane persons to provide these necessary
refuges, as well as food for them ' (c Animal World ').

Even animal reformatories, if not prisons, should not be
considered altogether Utopian, when it is remembered how
many offences animals commit which need not be committed ;
which, in other words, are corrigible by systematic treatment,
as they have been produced simply and solely by man's mal-
treatment. There are numerous troublesome or dangerous
vices of valuable animals, such as the horse and dog, that
may be eradicated by patience and perseverance, in alliance
with sympathy and kindness.

Attached to every zoological garden and menagerie also
there should be a sanatorium for the sick. But, in point of
fact, our zoological gardens and menageries, so far from
possessing or being hospitals for the cure of disease, are
establishments for its production. Captivity in a limited
space, with artificial temperature in many cases, and unna-
tural artificial life in all, contribute to the production of a
series of disorders, both of mind and body. The insanitary
conditions of such establishments include :—

1. Uncleanliness of the cages or dens.

2. Imperfect aeration or ventilation.

3. Scarcity of clean running water for bathing.

4. Want of exercise, or of gymnastics, which would be an
artificial substitute.

5. Overcrowding in a limited area.

6. Imperfect drainage.

7. Imperfect or artificial light.

The scrofula or tubercular disease, so fatal to monkeys
in all zoological gardens and menageries, is pre-eminently
an artificial product, and perhaps not less so is the paraplegia
to which captive carnivora are so liable.

Among the recommendations made by Miss Buist for
the treatment of an invalid cage bird, she suggests that it

358 CUKABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY.

should be afforded as much amusement as possible ' by hang-
ing its cage where it sees people passing, and hears plenty of
noise and bustle.' She advises also change of air and scene ;
for instance, the use of a new cage in a strange room.
These sensible recommendations, the principle of which is
obviously directed in the first place, towards the psychical
condition of the patient, acknowledge the great importance
of variety, change, novelty, amusement; the necessity of
breaking up monotony or sameness of life, and of gratify-
ing the natural love of society, of their own species as well
as of man.

Change of treatment — including change of the person who
treats — is frequently desirable, at least as an experiment ;
for instance, in the case of the grooms of horses where harsh-
ness or bad usage is suspected. The results are sometimes
as important as they are remarkable, as regards the corre-
sponding change of character and habits in the animal. So
simple an expedient is often sufficient to bring about a
radical reform of what were supposed to be ineradicable vices :
to convert a dangerous and useless animal into a valuable
and useful one. The value of even a change of dress, in the
attendant upon a shying horse, is remarked upon by Pier-
quin. In such cases, where the animal associates a parti-
cular dress with a particular person, and both dress and person
with well- remembered cruelties ; or where the mere change
of dress causes the unobservant animal to mistake a groom's
identity, this difference in apparel may make a wonderful
difference in an animal's temper and tractability.

An immense amount of mischief is done to horses by the
irrational, erroneous, usually secret treatment of grooms,
who are not necessarily cruel, who may not dream of in-
flicting cruelty, but who are, nevertheless, possessed of the
idea, as so many schoolmasters are, that corporal punish-
ment is the proper corrective of bad habits of all kinds ;
and who, moreover, frequently themselves lazy, tipsy and
irascible, inflict, sometimes systematically and for long
periods, punishment that is unmerited, indiscriminate, in-
ordinately severe. The result of such treatment is too apt
to be a thorough upset of the nervous system of the poor

CURABILITY AND TREATMENT OF ANIMAL INSANITY. 359

horse, which is perhaps ruined for its master's use. An
argument, this, for masters looking personally to the comforts
and good treatment of their horses, dogs, and cattle, and
for not deputing a trust so liable to abuse to underlings of
any kind.

Fortunately the same general, and even to a certain ex-
tent, the same special treatment is applicable to other morbid
conditions than insanity. It is pro tanto suitable in the
case of —

1. Rabies, distemper, and many other bodily diseases ; as
well as of —

2. Many vices, such as shying, bolting, restiveness, morbid
timidity, and the physical conditions on which these dis-
abilities so frequently depend ; and, moreover, it is desirable
in the case of —

3. Animals merely suspected to be labouring under this
or that disease, mental or bodily, or under the prodromata
thereof, for instance of animals reputedly mad or rabietic.

Animals themselves treat mental defects in their offspring
very much as man does, showing on the one hand the same
tenderness and thoughtfulness ; and on the other, committing
the same kind of mistakes. Thus, the bitch that recognises
mental imbecility in her pup, sometimes gives it special
attention by providing for its wants in the most considerate,
loving, self-sacrificing way. But, on the other hand, simple-
tons among young foxes are apt to meet with treatment of an
opposite, harsh, and injudicious kind, though not the result of
any intended cruelty. The object of the parents is obviously
to sharpen the dull wits of their stupid cubs, an object which,
by reason of mental defect, it is impossible to accomplish.
But the same sort of error is common to man, to parents
and teachers alike, in the attempted education of the incor-
rigible dullard, whose incapability or incapacity arises from
the same cause as the stupidity of the mentally imbecile fox->
cubs — congenital and permanent mental defect.

CHAPTER IV.

PUNISHMENT BY MAN.

THE history of the punishments inflicted by man on the lower
animals possesses many features of great interest.

In the first place, assuming apparently the moral respon-
sibility of certain animals, their equal culpability with man
for the same kinds of offence or crime, they have been put
through the same forms of public trial, and subjected to the
same forms of public punishment. More especially was this
the case in the earliest ages— in scriptural days, in classical
times, those connected with the history of ancient Greece
and Rome in the climax of their prosperity, and in the
Middle Ages. But though such trials are seldom or never
now heard of, such punishments are by no means unknown,
even in our own times, and in our own country. The
old Mosaic Law (as set forth in Genesis, ix. 5, and Exodus,
xxi. 28) provides for the equal punishment, on the ground
of equal responsibility, of certain animals with man. Thus,
the ox that killed a man was liable to death-punishment,
' just as if it had been a man who had murdered any of his
fellows ' (Wood). An ox was accused of homicide by Moses ;
a goat and ass were condemned to burning, as recorded
in Leviticus. The primitive laws of Moses, of the ancient
Hebrews, were followed by similar jurisprudence or legisla-
tion in ancient Athens and Rome. The Greeks and Romans of
the classical era had regular legal procedure concerning, passed
formal judgments upon animal offences, real and supposed —
procedure that has been described by Dernocritus, Domitian,
and other classical writers. The well-known laws of Draco
and Lycurgus made provision for the formal and public trial
of animal criminals. In Athens a special court, called the
Prytanseum, was established for the hearing of law-suits to

PUNISHMENT BY MAN 361

animals or tlieir offences gave rise. The ingratitude
of the lion was punished. The ox was regarded as man's
fellow- workman and equal, as deserving similar blame and
similar respect, according to circumstances.

In the Middle Ages, especially in France, in or about
the fifteenth century, the judicial punishments of the lower
animals, as described by Pierquin, were both frequent and
singular. In some cases there was formal arrest of the ani-
mal-culprit— or a formal summons to court — followed by
accusation, conviction, condemnation, and execution of the
sentence ; the whole judicial proceedings being held in the
same courts and guided by the same legal authorities as were
the criminal trials of man. There was regular pleading and
defence, an official advocate being appointed, from a whim-
sical sense of justice, by the court on behalf of the accused
animal. It was his duty to defend the prisoner at the bar.
But while we hear of many convictions, we have not been
made aware of any acquittals. Indeed it is to be feared that
condemnation was a foregone conclusion, and the whole pro-
ceedings a judicial farce.

Nor was the farce confined to legal courts. Quite as
frequently animal criminality came for trial and condemnation
before ecclesiastical courts, so that, while the legal courts pro-
nounced sentence of death by the gibbet, the ecclesiastical
courts fulminated their anathemas and issued their letters of
excommunication or proscription, uttered their imprecations,
or merely and mildly administered censure. Both classes of
courts had their laws and ordinances specially applicable to
animal crimes and criminals ; both issued their edicts with
all the pomp and usage of the day proper to human trials.

The animals accused and punished, the crimes of which
they were accused, and the forms of punishment adminis-
tered, were alike curiously varied. The animals included the
bull, cow, dog, cat, horse, swine, rabbits, geese, cocks, pigeons,
and even caterpillars. The offences with which they were
charged were usually the causing fatal injury or accident to
man, endangering his personal safety, destroying his pro-
perty, or disobedience and insubordination. In France, a
cock was charged with and punished for sedition. Bulls,

362 PUNISHMENT BY MAN.

cows, and dogs were suspended on the public gibbet by the
public hangman. Caterpillars when they became trouble-
some were declared accursed, and were solemnly excommu-
nicated.

In what is now complacently designated a ' superstitious
age,' at a time when a belief in witchcraft, sorcery, magic,
and diabolic art was rife, and was consigning innocent old
women to the stake or to the mill-pond, it is not surprising
that innocent animals should have been cruelly punished
for purely imaginary offences. Black cats and horses, black
animals in general, and perhaps in proportion to their mere
blackness, were supposed to be possessed by, or instruments of,
or connected in some way with, the devil ; and short and sharp
was their shrift accordingly. A cock was accused of, and
condemned to, death by burning, for having — it was said or
supposed — laid an egg : a phenomenon that was so obviously
out of the ordinary course of nature, that it was ascribed to
the agency of the supernatural, to witchcraft, or satanic in-
fluence. Bees were condemned to death by burning for
various crimes, such probably as stinging a child or a man.
Houzeau mentions the judicial punishment of a horse for
supposed magic, which was really only a sort of dancing, or
other eccentric motor phenomenon in the animal.

Capital punishment was inflicted for various forms of theft
— as it was for sheep- stealing by dogs in our own country in
comparatively recenb times. * Yarrow/ for instance, was tried,
condemned, and executed as particeps criminis with its master
in sheep-stealing. Swine, rabbits, pigeons, geese were pro-
scribed en masse or individually, while letters of excommuni-
cation were issued against caterpillars and field mice ; or
caterpillars, when they became a nuisance, were declared
accursed, as well as solemnly excommunicated. In times of
public calamity, when human life was destroyed in a whole-
sale way — probably as the natural penalty of some of man's
transgressions of physiological or sanitary law — casting
about for a cause of calamity, and it may have been also for
some sort or measure of propitiatory sacrifice, an ignorant,
superstitious, priest-ridden populace has been too apt to find
vent for its distress by sacrificing the harmless domestic ani-

PUNISHMENT BY MAN. 363

mals that might otherwise have continued to minister to
man's comforts.

Let us pause, however, before we congratulate ourselves
that these days of superstitious ignorance have gone by — that
such sacrifices of devil-possessed cats or dogs are things of
the past, characteristics of the ' dark ' ages. In England
so lately as 1829, it is stated that there was a trial by jury
of a horse that had been the cause of a fatal accident to its
master. The trial of ' Yarrow ' and its master in Scotland,
as described or referred to by Sir Walter Scott and the
Ettrick Shepherd, must have happened about the same time,
and one of the notes to ' Waverley ' relates to the trial of a
cow for ale-tippling and tipsiness.

So lately as November, 1876, only two months subsequent
to one of the congresses in that city of the ' British Associa-
tion for the Promotion of Science' — a congress that had,
however, in its discussion on c Spiritualism,' exposed to
public view the morbid credulity even of men of undoubted
scientific attainments — Glasgow, collegiate and wealthy, that
prides itself on being the second city of the British Empire,
by means of its police massacred no less than 1,200 dogs.
And for what reason ? Because it was feared that some of
these poor animals might become rabid ; that if they became
rabid they would bite man ; that if man were so bitten he
would inevitably be affected with hydrophobia ; and that hy-
drophobia is a certainly fatal and horrible disease. The im-
mediate cause of the slaughter was the fact that three men
had died of so-called * hydrophobia ' in the Royal Infirmary
of Glasgow, within a period of a few weeks.

But the popular panic was based on a series of false as-
sumptions, and therefore of false fears. For rabies is rare in the
dog, at least in Scotland, so much so that very few practi-
tioners, veterinary or medical, ever saw a genuine case ;
hydrophobia in man is equally rare there ; and both in Scot-
land, and elsewhere, when hydrophobia does occur in man
there is seldom proof of the rabidity of the dog that bit, or
that was supposed to have bitten, the patient. The peculiar
phenomena of the disease are, in the majority of cases at

364 PUNISHMENT BY MAN.

least, ascribable to morbid imagination.1 In short, the hue
and cry of ' mad dog ' is as little rational as the belief in
diabolic possession ; and the wholesale massacre of innocent
animals, on the ground of mere possibilities of being affected
by this or that disorder, is as cruel and indefensible in the
one case as in the other.

It has already been stated that in the superstitious
ages the excitement or passion of the persecuted cat or dog
was ascribed to diabolic possession, just as the epilepsy or
mania of man was attributed to satanic or demoniac agency.
And the treatment was in accordance with the popular be-
lief. But it is doubtful whether, in these dark ages, there
was any such ruthless sacrifice to man's stupidity or morbid
fears as the massacre of the dogs of Glasgow by its magis-
trates in the winter of 1876.

Various animals then are or have been punished by man-

1. For their own offences.

2. For possible or supposed offences.

3. For offences to which they were urged and for which
they were specially trained — by man.

The latter category includes the punishments inflicted on
sheep-stealing dogs and of other dog-accomplices of man in
the various forms of theft.

In order to be serviceable or salutary as a deterrent or
corrective, punishment of other animals by man must be
judicious. It ought to be —

1. Well-timed.

2. Proportioned to the

a. Nature of the offence.
6. Age and character of the animal,
c. Special circumstances of provocation or otherwise :
while man himself should ever —

3. Maintain his own temper or composure, and possess a
strict sense of justice.

In order that the idea of punishment or penalty may be
associated with that of offence in the dog, cat, or other ani-
mals, it is desirable that they should be, if possible, caught

'I have elsewhere specially discussed this subject. Fide 'Bibliography'
No. Ixxxii.

PUNISHMENT BY MAN. 365

in the act, in JJagrante delicto, and punished on the spot, in
view of the proofs of the offence.

Man frequently commits the error of exercising undue
rigour or severity in his punishments — of not adapting their
form or degree to the nature of the offence committed. And
he forgets, or he is ignorant of, the efficiency of mere moral
punishments in many cases — the tone, look, or gesture of re-
proof, or even of mere disapprobation.

Nor does man make allowance for the age of the offender ;
for the opportunity it has had of acquiring knowledge; for
its degree of experience or education ; for its power or
want of self-control ; for its natural aptitudes or tempera-
ment.

And equally little does he think of the peculiar circum-
stances under which offence has been committed ; how far,
for instance, it has been due to provocation, ill-usage, faulty
education, or neglect by man himself. Eash, unthinking
man is only too apt to inflict punishment in the heat of pas-
sion, during which he is careless of what he does, careless
of a poor animal's feelings, careless of the result either to
himself or the animal.

Nevertheless, all these sins of man's — whether of omission
or commission, of ignorance, superstition, stupidity, or cruelty
— tell at once on the behaviour, perhaps permanently on the
character, of the animal punished. For, in the first place,
the dog and other animals recognise the justice or injustice
of their punishments ; they feel or know whether or not
they have deserved them; and they act accordingly, meekly ac-
cepting what they have deserved, but angrily resenting what
has not been deserved. The consciousness of having com-
mitted a fault not unfrequently begets not only expectation
of, but preparation for, punishment, in the horse (Youatt),
dog, cat, monkey, elephant, and other animals ; they antici-
pate retribution at man's hands as the natural or inevitable
fruit of the transgression of some of his unwritten, unspoken
laws.

Hence the necessity, in punishment as in education, for
the study of an animal's individuality in determining the

366 PUNISHMENT BY MAN.

form or degree in which punishment ought to be applied, or
perhaps its advisability at all.

The results or effects of man's punishments of subject
animals may be divided into those that are —

1. Beneficial.

2. Prejudicial ; and

3. Useless.

The first class includes the systematic punishments of
education — those that are as necessary in the case of the
young animal as of the human child — guided, however, as
they ought to be in both cases by the firmness and kindliness
of a judicious, sympathising, intelligent teacher. As admi-
nistered by such a man, what may appear to be severity may
be quite compatible with the greatest humanity of disposi-
tion on his part. Nay, it may probably be the highest
humanity to the animal itself.

Beneficial results include the conversion or convertibility
of a pilfering dog into an honest and honourable guardian of
the most tempting larder or food, into an animal strong, both
of wish and will, to resist temptation. This is but one of the
many triumphs of man's patience, perseverance, kindliness,
and judiciousness in the systematic and thoroughly reforma-
tive moral education of the lower animals. This desirable
cure, or curability, of vicious habits is sometimes brought
about in a comparatively simple way. Thus Mrs. Mackellar
tells us of a certain fox-terrier that was for a time a ' noto-
rious thief.' ' It was only by letting him see his thefts re-
stored to their proper owners that he was cured of the
habit ' of stealing. And here, be it observed, there was no
punishment, unless it was a moral punishment habitually to
give back before his eyes what it had cost so much trouble,
probably, to abstract.

But such beneficent results, springing from man's kindli-
ness, sympathy, intelligence, and judiciousness as a trainer,
are rare compared with the prejudicial or mischievous effects of
his evil temper or loss of temper ; his inaptitude for self-
control; his ignorance of animal character and of the prin-
ciples of animal education; his superstition or prejudice.
In many cases, punishment not only defeats its own end,

PUNISHMENT BY MAN. 367

which is usually supposed to be, the correction of some fault,
or bad habit, but it begets a dangerous feeling of antagonism,
or antipathy, both to man and to the work to which he de-
votes this or that animal injudiciously punished. When a
master is angry ; when he is absurdly or cruelly severe in the
form or degree of punishment administered ; when punishment
is inflicted on an innocent animal ; when the punisher is a per-
son whom the punished animal hates ; when the animal is
naturally irritable, or has been rendered unnaturally so by
continuous ill-usage; and, finally, when punishment is im-
properly administered to animals labouring under various
kinds of disease, mental or bodily, it is but natural that
viciousness in the man should beget viciousness in the animal ;
that the latter should acquire a dislike, perhaps permanent,
both to its work and its master ; that its character should be
vitiated by the development of rancour, resentment, mo-
roseness.

In the case of punishment judiciously conducted for dis-
ciplinary purposes, the dread of punishment inspired by an
experience of its discomforts, positive or negative, has a
powerful influence in regulating action. It leads, for instance,
to submission to man's superior will and superior intelligence;
to exercise of the animal's own will in self-control, in the
restraint of impetuosity, mischievousness, appetite, desire,
passion of all kinds. This is a salutary and normal dread of
punishment by man.

But in other cases, such a dread becomes morbid. Acted
on by imagination, it begets suspicion and delusion, or
ferocity and aggressiveness, and hurries the animal into acts
dangerous either to itself, to other animals, or to man. This
sort of morbid fear of man and his punishments, is the result,
in nine cases out of ten, of man's cruelty, injustice, or thought-
lessness, in punishing animals that are innocent, that are
conscious of having committed no offence against him ; of
his exercising undue severity, of not proportioning the form
of punishment to the sensitiveness of the animal ; or of his
not taking into account its individuality.

Punishment is more or less useless or ineffective in many
forms of mental defect or disorder ; and there is a parallelism

368 PUNISHMENT BY MAN.

in the human pupils of our schools, the criminal classes of
civilised populations, and certain savage races of man. In
such animals, or men, there is a perversion, or a want, of the
moral sense, associated with a very low degree of general in-
telligence, if in some cases intelligence can be correctly
spoken of at all. They are equally unconscious of the
criminality of their acts, and indifferent to punishment for
their offences. In other words, in such cases, the endeavour
to eradicate bad habits, or to develop goodness, is simply
useless.

The will appears to become, or to be ab initio, powerless
to resist certain morbid impulses, for instance, to theft, in
some monkeys. No punishment, no threats, no consideration
of any kind, apparently, will suffice to prevent repetition of
the same kind of offence.

In Eskimo dog teams, the injudicious correction of one
by means of the whip leads the whipped animal to worry its
neighbour, which in turn vents its anger or annoyance on
the next, till the whole team is in a state of uproar, misrule,
and unrule; and progress is stopped until rule is re-esta-
blished, equanimity and harmony restored. Or, the animals
'dodge' to avoid the whip, entangle the traces, and, perhaps,
upset the sledge. So that the policy of the human driver,
if he has sense and profits by his experience, urges him at
length to trust the team to the rule of the dog-leader, and
the obedient following of its fellows (Parry).

In some sensitive dogs, or even breeds of dogs, no
severity can be used in training : punishment of any kind
renders them broken-spirited, produces inertness 6r apathy.

Dogs, and other animals sometimes deprecate man's wrath,
try to avert expected punishment, by making efforts at con-
ciliation or propitiation ; in effect, they make eloquent appeals
for mercy. They bring various peace-offerings to a master, and
in various other ways express their regret, and their desire to
make amends.

The dog and other animals also occasionally intercede
between men, or with man, in order to the prevention of
threatened punishment. Thus, a mastiff seized a master's
arm to prevent him striking a terrier that had chased a pet
cat (Wood).

PUNISHMENT BY MAN. 369

On the other hand, various animals feel and express
delight at the punishment by man of other animals that have
ill-used or terrified them, or that are their natural enemies.
Thus, a man killed an adder that had attacked a robin's
nest. The parent bird perched itself on the man's left arm
and ' watched, with unmistakable and intense delight, every
blow inflicted by his right arm upon her merciless and dis-
pirited enemy ' (Wood).

The forms of punishment inflicted by man on other
animals are not very varied. They are divisible into the (1)
corporal or physical; and the (2) moral. The former include
all kinds of kicks, blows, stripes or lashes. They are only too
familiar. But a penalty that is perhaps less familiar, though
even more severe and equally common, is the simple with-
holding of food, or in other words, starvation. This mode of
punishment is common in the training of various animals,
such as courier-pigeons, song-birds, sporting dogs, and per-
forming animals in general, and it may therefore be designated
educational. The crucifixion of lions is, or was at one time,
common among the Arabs — the object being apparently
punitive and deterrent (Pierquin).

Of the moral forms of punishment, the withholding of
this or that coveted privilege, such as access to a room, or
accompanying a master in his walks or sports, or the use of
sarcasm and rebuke, are sufficient illustrations; and it has
been already pointed out, more than once, that punishment of
such a character is frequently more efficient in the dog, just
as it is in the human child, than any merely corporal chas-
tisement. In proportion, moreover, as man's attention is
given practically to the moral education of the lower animals,
the development and cultivation of their moral nature, moral
means of punishment or correction will no doubt take the
place of the revolting blows, bruises, kicks, or lashes, which
at present create little public surprise, indignation, or pro-
test, because man's own moral education is a subject to
which he very seldom gives the slightest attention.

Many animals, such as the dog and cat, have a perfect
understanding of the nature and object of penalties or pun-
ishments. They know that when they commit some for-

VOL. II. B B

370 PUNISHMENT BY MAN.

bidden act — something that man dislikes and prohibits — be
it stealing from the larder or soiling a sofa, chastisement
will or may follow in the form of a kick, or a blow, or the
deprivation of some privilege ; and they know, moreover, in
such a case, that they have fairly earned some expression of
a master's disapprobation or anger. They sin with a fall
fore-knowledge of the consequences. They know what is
their sin, for what it is they are to be punished.

The doctrine of the metempsychosis, so prevalent among
certain nations of the East, has had a wonderful influence in
preventing the deserved punishment of various animals re-
garded as more or less sacred. It leads the Brahmins indeed
to the absurd extreme of the deification of troublesome, if not
noxious or dangerous, animals ; to the harbouring or protec-
tion— feeding and consequent multiplication — of several that
are usually regarded by ourselves as vermin of the most ob-
jectionable kind ; a sort of ultra-humanitarian protection that
is most inimical to cleanliness of person or to good general
health in man. Before, however, we smile at or denounce
such humanitarianism as Quixotic, let us remind ourselves
that the tendency of the age in our own and other civilised
countries is mischievously to do away with desirable punish-
ment in man, the practical result of which is the holding
forth of premiums for the increase, to an extent dangerous to
our nationality, of various forms of social disease and vice
— of drunkenness, criminality, and insanity.

CHAPTER V.

SELF-SUBMISSION BT ANIMALS TO MEDICAL AND SURGICAL
TREATMENT.

CERTAIN animals, including especially the dog, horse, mule,
elephant, and cat ; but also the chimpanzee, orang, various
apes, or monkeys ; the pike, or other fishes ; sheep, and
other animals, not unfrequently become voluntarily patients —
and sometimes notably patient, or submissive, quiet, and un-
complaining, as well as intelligent patients — of the physician
or surgeon. Not only so, but having themselves experienced
the benefit of man's medical or surgical skill, they bring
their young, or their fellows, as patients to him, and they co-
operate with the physician or surgeon in his treatment,
either by showing the patients what to do, or by compelling
their acquiescence in man's arrangements for their behoof.
As medical or surgical patients, moreover, some of the lower
animals stand in most favourable contrast to man — in respect,
for instance, to their sagacity, self-control, fortitude, grati-
tude, or other virtues that are brought into prominence by
suffering and its relief.

There are many instances of war or regimental elephants
in India going regularly, day after day, of their own accord,
to military hospitals to get wounds dressed, usually after
having been taken there once or twice by their mahouts.
They submit themselves to any necessary operations ;
understand the surgeon's object and co-operate with him ;
express pain, and relieve themselves by plaintive groans,
though obviously regarding the infliction of pain as a neces-
sary or unavoidable part of the operation; prepare themselves
for suffering by drawing in the breath as man does ; recog-

B B 2

372 SELF-SUBMISSION BY ANIMALS TO

nise and put confidence in the surgeons' voices and persons
as those of friends (Watson).

Of an adult male elephant we are told, ' that the surgeon
might operate he readily extended himself on the ground,
and bore with patience the application even of burning
caustic. The acuteness of the pain would sometimes force
from him a plaintive groan. But, to the doctor who, by in-
flicting momentary torments, sought to accomplish his cure,
he expressed the liveliest emotions of gratitude.'

The different effects of physical pain, the power of con-
trolling its expression and of quietly enduring it, are well
illustrated respectively in old and young animals — the latter
becoming frantic and ungovernable, while the former bear
patiently, unresistingly, and as quietly as may be. The result
of the experience of personal benefit is shown in the mother's
treatment of her young one when it comes to require operative
interference by man ; she acts at once as assistant to the
surgeon, and as nurse to her offspring, the patient. The
mother elephant requires only to be instructed by man as to
what is desirable, in order forcibly to hold her offspring to
have its wound dressed, just as a judicious, strong-minded,
affectionate mother would treat her child under similar cir-
cumstances. The mother elephant has the sense to prefer
ultimate relief to temporary pain and inconvenience ; she
shows wonderful courage and self-control in the discharge of
maternal duty.

Dogs frequently become surgical patients of man's, also
exhibiting remarkable endurance of pain, remaining motion-
less during operation, and allowing themselves to be confined
to bed during the tedious healing of wounds or repair of
fractures (Low). Moreover, all this endurance, patience,
docility, are not unfrequently exhibited by the most irritable,
unamiable individuals.

A bull-dog that had broken one of its legs was placed on
a sofa, where he lay quietly, although naturally fierce and
unmanageable. When the fractured bone was pulled into
position, ' he closed his eyes with the pain, but did not other-
wise move.' When, in process of reunion of the fractured
ends, his limb was re-examined, he laid himself 011 his back

MEDICAL AND SUEGICAL TKEATMENT. 373

and put up his leg. He broke his leg a second time, and
underwent the same operation, c with the same quietness and
patience, though it must have been more painful than before '
('Animal World').

Another bull-dog, that had seen a broken arm of its
master's repeatedly dressed by a surgeon, brought to the
doctor's surgery a companion dog with a broken front leg,
obviously introducing it as a patient. It gained admission
by pawing or scratching at the door, and when the door
was opened, the wounded dog held up its broken fore leg
to show what was wanted. The fracture was set with splints
just as was done in the case of the bull-dog's master. Here
the bull-dog, an animal, by the way, not usually credited
with sagacity, must have carefully watched the operations
on its master's arm, must have understood their object, must
have appreciated the result, and must have drawn the in-
ference that what proved successful in its master's case
would prove efficacious in its own, or in that of a fellow. A
second canine patient presented itself at the door of the
same surgery — in this case a single dog standing on three
legs, the fourth limb having a pin sticking painfully in it.
Here admission was gained by yelping, and the foreign body
was extracted.

A well-known Manchester fire-dog occasionally, like the
firemen, got wounded, and like them he submitted to be
bandaged, poulticed, and plastered till he felt himself again
able for duty, or was reported off the sick list by his (veteri-
nary) surgeon (' Science Gossip ').

A dog, whose temper is described as e infernal,3 having
got his leg broken, became quite docile under surgical inter-
ference, 'allowing his limb to be set and laid in splints
without showing the least anger, and being evidently grateful
for the services rendered. . . Afterwards, when he happened
to injure a paw, he went of his own accord to the surgeon,
held up the damaged limb, and asked for help as plainly as if
he had possessed human language ' (Wood).

There are many dogs and other animals that will not
suffer themselves to be meddled with, perhaps even ap-
proached, when in a state of health, which nevertheless

374 SELF-SUBMISSION BY ANIMALS TO

submit themselves quietly and gratefully to man's ministra-
tions when they feel themselves ill. An old, feeble, asthmatic,
withal irritable, pugnacious or fierce, terrier, will allow its
mistress to bathe it and wrap it in blankets, and even to give
it stimulants or drugs, without a growl, or even with faint
and ungainly attempts by its looks or tail-wags at the exhi-
bition of approval or gratitude.

In some cases man has to create in himself a fictitious
example for his dog to follow; he has to mimic injury to
himself, and the consecutive steps of its successful treatment,
in order to induce a cautious or stupid dog to submit itself
for real injury to similar surgical treatment. This was the
case with Chabet's famous Eskimo dog, Tire-king,' that
broke its leg after having been sold for 2001. Its master
took it to a veterinary surgeon, himself pretended to have
a broken leg, got it dressed, and by-and-by walked about on
it as if it had quite recovered its strength. The dog then
voluntarily submitted itself to a similar series of operations,
' occasionally licking the hand of the operator, but betraying
no sign of impatience or pain.' It did so day after day till
a satisfactory cure was effected, but never seemed to have
detected its master's kindly and judicious ruse (Wood).

The endurance of pain without visible sign has been re-
marked upon as one of the characteristics of the shepherd's
dog. And yet that and other dogs, as well as many other
animals, suffer and fear pain as much as man does. To bear
bodily pain without flinching, as the typical Eed Indian, of fic-
tion if not of fact, bears it, is indeed one of the Spartan virtues
taught by animal parents to their young (Low). This en-
durance involves sometimes fatal mutilation of the most
torturing kind.

During the Crimean War, Colonel Stuart Wortley's cat
visited the doctor's tent to get a bayonet wound in the foot
examined and bandaged. She was found by the colonel
wounded after the capture of the Malakoff, and was by him
taken daily for a time to the regimental surgeon to have the
wound dressed. But when he became himself ill, and unable
to take her as usual, she went herself, and ' sat quietly down
for her foot to be examined, and have its usual bandaging.'

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 375

Another cat having a sick kitten apparently dying, after
doing all she could for it without avail, at last laid it in her
mistress's lap, the result being its ultimate restoration to
health, and the mother cat's gratitude therefor (Wood).
Incidents of such a kind — the seeking of ivoman's aid in the
nursing of sick puppies or kittens — are by no means un-
common in mother dogs and cats. Nor is it unusual for
bitches to bring their pups for man's inspection or admira-
tion : maternal solicitude operating in the one case, maternal
pride in the other.

A cat having been cured of diarrhoea by her mistress,
brought her kittens for similar treatment for the same com-
plaint, * the cat standing by, evidently with full faith in
my healing powers,' while the corrective food was being
administered. Another cat having been cured of mange,
brought others affected with the same disease to be similarly
treated ('Animal World ').

A fourth cat that had accidentally poisoned itself, e came
in a pitiful state of pain to seek its mistress's help. The fever
and heat were so great that it dipped its own paws into
a pan of water, an almost unheard-of proceeding in a
water-hating cat' (Wood). Here we have an illustration
of self-treatment in fever ; but this subject of self-treatment,
medical, surgical, and obstetrical, falls to be discussed
in the following chapter, as does also the recognition by
various animals of the diseases to which they are themselves
liable.

There are many instances of military, or other horses,
ponies, and mules betaking themselves of their own accord
to blacksmiths' smithies for the purpose of having their feet
re- shod, or nails extracted, or to hospitals for the treatment
of wounds. Thus, we are told of a pony that had cast a shoe
galloping to a blacksmith's forge with its rider on its back,
and in spite of said rider (Wood). In most, if not all, of
such cases, the animals had previously been in the habit of
being taken to the ' smiddy,' or hospital, by their grooms or
masters ; they must have known why they were so taken, and
they must have reasoned on the connection between losing a
shoe, getting a nail impacted, or suffering a wound, and then

376 SELF-SUBMISSION BY ANIMALS TO

going to a farrier's forge, or veterinary hospital, for the proper
remedy.

A wounded cavalry horse in India went direct to the sick
horse stables : in other words, and in his own way, went to
hospital and reported himself sick (Wood). At home, ordi-
nary working horses frequently go voluntarily of and by them-
selves to the farrier's (Watson). Of one we are told that he
* trotted alone into a smithy where the day before he had
been shod. He was lame, and on pulling off one of his shoes,
it was found that a cruel nail had been driven into his foot.'
Mrs. Burton tells us of a Syrian mule that eloquently
appealed to her to get a two-inch nail removed from its foot.
She told its cruel drivers, who had not noticed the animal's
lameness, ( You are greater brutes than the mule. He knows
better than you do, and he came and told me himself ....
' He hobbled up to me with his load, holding up the foot he
could no longer set upon the ground, with an expression of
mute, patient pain, which plainly said, e You are my last hope,
can you do nothing to save me ? ' ;

A monkey at Berlin, mentioned by Lady Verney, having
a tumour requiring medical or surgical treatment, ' sub-
mitted patiently to the very painful remedies, swallowing
quietly unpleasant physic, as if content to believe that its
master knew best. The German report mentioned gravely
how ' polite ' (hoflich) it was in its manners when it was ill ;
and how it ' shook hands with its master before it died, with
an apparent knowledge that it was going away.'

According to De la Brosse, a French navigator, who
visited Angola in 1718, a chimpanzee being seized with sick-
ness ' made the people attend him as if he had been a human
being. He was even bled twice in the right arm, and when-
ever afterwards he found himself in the same condition, he
held out his arm to be bled, as if he knew that he had for-
merly received benefit from the operation ' (Wood). Biich-
ner mentions an orang that died of alcoholic poisoning*
' During his illness his pulse was often felt. Every time his
master came to his bedside he stretched out his paw to him.'
Watson cites the case of a pike, in which fractured
skull produced great pain, leading to fury and suicidal at-

MEDICAL AND SUKGICAL TKEATMENT. 377

tempts. After successful surgical treatment by a humane
surgeon, it showed its recognition of the services conferred
by gratitude to its benefactor. The robin redbreast submits
itself voluntarily to surgical operation by man ('Animal
World'). . Even in the intractable eagle Watson gives a case
of patient submission to a surgical operation, and of judi-
cious behaviour during convalescence. It tried or tested
the use or usefulness of its wounded limb gradually, ex-
perimentally, by e moderate and reasonable exercise.'

All such incidents, illustrative of sick or wounded ani-
mals submitting themselves voluntarily to man's remedial
treatment, involve the possession and exhibition by the said
animals of the following among other mental qualities :—

1 . Confidence in man ; in his power, as well as willing-
ness to assist ; in the superiority of his power to their own
or that of their fellows : respect, therefore, for his superior
wisdom and power.

2. The memory of benefits conferred, and the expectation
of further and similar good service.

3. Self-control in repressing the natural expressions of
pain, in subduing their natural distrust of, or enmity to, man.

4. Vivid appreciation of physical evil, and of the means
necessary for overcoming, averting, or removing it.

5. Preference of temporary severe remedies to permanent
or prolonged disablement or suffering.

6. That form of general intelligence known among men
as good sense.

7. Understanding of man's object and the means of attain-
ing it.

8. Patience, perseverance, fortitude, endurance.

9. G-ratitude — permanent or temporary — for relief from
suffering.

10. Imitation, which is sometimes largely operative.

11. Co-operation with man for their own good.

12. Profiting by experience.

13. The drawing of practical inferences or conclusions.

14. Sense of bodily illness; of recovery; and of the
means by which the latter was brought about.

15. Sense of failure, of personal helplessness, of physical
or other inability to compass certain ends.

378 SELF-SUBMISSION BY ANIMALS TO

So far from submission or submissiveness to remedial
treatment, so far from voluntarily seeking his professional
aid, there is probably a much more frequent violent strug-
gling against man's interference — however kindly and well-
intentioned, however much the animal may stand in need
of it, however much such interference may be for its imme-
diate or ultimate good. Such resistance to, instead of co-
operation with, man arises generally, if not always, from a
misunderstanding of man's motive or intention; and this
misunderstanding, again, is usually the natural fruit of
disease or defect, mental or bodily, including all the forms of
stupidity.

Such misunderstanding is frequently associated with
morbid fear of man as an enemy; and man has himself
mainly to blame for the creation of such fear, not neces-
sarily in the individual animal or by the individual man.
If, in resisting animals, surgical or other interference is
attempted, the struggles of the protesting animal may be so
violent as to be much more dangerous to life than the
diseased condition which is the subject or source of the ill-
advised attempt.

Unfortunately, moreover, the same fears or misunder-
standing, the same irritability and pugnacity that cause
many animals to resist to the utmost all man's efforts for
their benefit, when they stand in need of his assistance,
lead them to oppose his efforts to benefit their young
or their fellows. Thus the mother hippopotamus shows a
dangerous ferocity in her refusal of man's aid or attentions
to her young. Such unfortunate misunderstandings may
lead, not only to refusal of man's aid in any form, but to
repayment of his offered and intended kindness by assault.
Thus a Turkish cock gave blows with his beak, and so re-
sented what he probably regarded as unwarrantable inter-
ference with his personal prerogatives.

There are certain forms of what may be considered medi-
cal treatment by man to which dogs or other animals sub-
mit themselves most unwillingly. Dogs, for instance, suffer
themselves to be victims — voluntary in one sense, involuntary
in another — of certain cruel experiments by man, with the re-

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 379

suits of which they are by experience familiar. In the so-
called Grotto del Cane, near Naples, dogs are the subjects of
demonstrational asphyxia for the gratification of tourists.
These poor animals have an idea of alternation, a knowledge
of their turn or time about, a distinct perception of man's
object, and of the results of what — having been repeated so
frequently — does not deserve the name of an ( experiment.5
They do not, however, conceal their disgust or dislike at the
sort of confederacy in which they are engaged, at the dan-
gerous part they are required to play. The slouched tail and
hanging ears when their turn comes abundantly testify to
the state of the feelings in these martyrs to popular science
and popular curiosity (Buckton).

The lower animals do not betake themselves to man only
for medical or surgical treatment. They appeal to him for
assistance in all kinds of difficulty with which they feel or
find themselves unable to cope. In a variety of most effec-
tual, and frequently most pathetic ways, they present to
him their petitions, prayers, entreaties for his aid or pro-
tection in their extremity, suffering, distress. Though not
in words, the dog, horse, cow, even so really timid and re-
putedly stupid animals as the sheep and goose (or gander),
virtually ask his assistance or services.

Thus many animals — some of them naturally very timid,
and all of them more or less afraid of man as an enemy —
seek his protection against enemies among themselves : and
in doing so a major terror seems to overcome a minor one,
they prefer possible safety to certain destruction. The
robin redbreast, skylark, and many other small birds, flee at
once for shelter to man's dwelling, or man's person, when
pursued by their natural enemies, the larger birds of prey.
A hare when hard pressed by dogs, has taken refuge under
a woman's petticoats on the public highway. A pigeon
chased by a hawk twice sought shelter in the bosom of the
same young lady, while driving in a carriage (Jesse.)

Animals flee to man for succour in —

1. Bereavement ; thus the mothers of abducted young
appeal to man by their cries, coaxings, and caresses, to dis-
cover or restore their lost offspring. This includes the selec-

380 SELF-SUBMISSION BY ANIMALS TO

tion of man as a foster-parent for the upbringing of orphaned
young. Thus a dying St. Bernard dog, on her death-bed,
gave over her puppies as an obvious bequest — to a much
loved and much trusted master (Wood).

2. Danger of all kinds, including extrication from en-
tanglement, pitfalls, and other positions of difficulty; as
where a tame rat awoke its master in order that he might go
upstairs with it, and replace one of its young that had fallen
from its cage ; or where a gander used a similar means for the
extrication of some of its young from a mill race (Wood).

3. Hunger : which leads the robin red-breast, for in-
stance, to frequent man's dwellings in bad winters — or
which led Dr. John Brown's terrier * Mpper ' to beg the
assistance he could not himself render, to a starving pointer
bitch, and her litter of five pups.

4. Despair : where man's protection is the only hope.

5. Prey or food catching or conveying, as where the cat
begs its master to assist it in mouse-catching, young
swallows appeal to man for aid in food-catching (Jesse), or
Eskimo dogs ask man's aid in the conveyance of a dead
reindeer (Wood).

Man's assistance is requested by certain animals, not only
for behoof of themselves, their young, or their fellows, but
also of his fellow man ; and herein they frequently render
the highest service to their masters or mistresses, or to the
children, relatives, or property of these masters or mistresses.
Thus, a dog, whose mistress is subject to epileptic attacks,
whenever she has one runs to the nearest house for human
assistance, seizing some woman's dress and dragging her
away. If one refuses to accompany him, he seizes another
and another, till his obvious and urgent invitation or demand
is complied with (f Animal "World'). Another dog brought
timely aid to an aged nurse, affected with rheumatic fever,
who had fallen from an arm-chair into or upon the fire, when
nobody was present or at hand to come to her assistance.
'Without the dog she must have been burned to death3
(Wood) . In many instances, helplessly drunk masters have
been, by their dog's intervention, saved from the consequences
of their folly — from death, for instance, by exposure.

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 381

A pleasing and common result of man's good service to
other animals is the development and exhibition of lively
gratitude. Distinct recognition of benefit conferred by man is
exhibited even by the bee. The form that the exhibition of
it takes varies greatly, including many bizarreries of conduct.
One of the most frequent forms of the manifestation of grati-
tude is attachment to man's person, an attachment that leads
wild animals, for instance, to renounce their freedom and
become domesticated. Thus a rook that had a wounded wing
and was nursed by man till it could use its wing freely again,
though set at liberty hovered about the house of its bene-
factor, obeying his call, coming to be fed in preference to
foraging for itself, and following him from place to place, as
a dog would do (Wood). A delicate chicken that had been
carefully tended by a humane mistress until its restoration
to health f attached itself vehemently to its nurse, and used
to follow her over the house, calling her anxiously until seated
in her lap.' A short-tailed field mouse having been relieved
from ticks, with which it was infested, ' did not try to escape,
and on the very first day took food from the hand of its
benefactor' (Wood).

Another common mode of expressing gratitude for benefits
received and appreciated, is the presentation of various kinds
of goodivill offerings to a master or mistress. In such cases,
the grateful animal makes frequently, if not usually, what
unthinking man may consider a most singular and unfit
selection ; as where cats bring a mouse — dead or alive — as
their offering. But a little reflection will show us that in
such a case the animal makes offering of what to her appears
most valuable, and she does so at great self-sacrifice, involving
what is probably dearer to her than her own life — the com-
fort or well-being of her progeny. For when offering a cap-
tured mouse to a mistress, the poor cat may not only be
hungry herself, but she may have a famished litter of expec-
tant, clamorous kittens. She, therefore, literally brings forth
her best gift and places it on the altar of her gratitude.

CHAPTER VI.

SELF-SUBMISSION BY ANIMALS TO MEDICAL AND SURGICAL

TREATMENT — continued.

WHEN the lower animals, or certain of them, are ill, or dis-
abled, are in difficulty or danger, they do not necessarily
resort to man for assistance, even though human aid is at
hand and can be readily commanded. They not only treat
themselves — but also each other, their young and their fellows
— medically or medicinally, surgically and obstetrically.

As regards, in the first place, medical or medicinal self-
treatment, certain animals, especially dogs and cats, use, for
their own benefit, and in their own way, various natural
medicines. They physic themselves — and much more ration-
ally, it must be added, than the majority at least of civilised
men or women do. The commonest forms of medicines so
employed are emetics and purgatives in the shape of various
grasses and other common native plants.

Several grasses get the credit of being eaten, or chewed
simply, by dogs for the sake of their emetic action; and two
at least apparently derive their specific names from this use
of them by the dog — agrostis canina and triticum caninum.
George E. Jesse describes a so-called ' dog-grass ' — cynosurus
cristatus — as the natural medicine of the dog, acting both as
an emetic and purgative and used when it suffers from indi-
gestion or other forms of illness. Porteous describes another
6 dog-grass ' — triticum caninum — as among the Lowthers in
Scotland, f a quick vomit for, and eagerly eaten at times by,
dogs ; ' and he adds that sheep are fond of it in a snow
storm, but that ' it has not the same effect upon them.'
That pet dogs eat grass if they have opportunity is an every-

SELF-SUBMISSION TO MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 383

day occurrence, notorious to every intelligent observant
child.

Berkeley refers the morbid appetite of swallowing wood,
straw and garbage by the dog to its desire for a vomit. But,
though this explanation may possibly satisfactorily apply to
certain cases of morbid appetite in the dog, it does not apply
to morbid appetite in general in other animals, or even in the
dog. And Berkeley himself points out as inexplicable that
the dog does not avail itself of its power of vomiting, almost
at will, in order to get rid of poison administered to it by
man : a circumstance the more remarkable that certain other
animals — as will immediately appear, have a knowledge of
the use not only of certain poisons, but of their antidotes.

Cats are represented as extremely fond of eating or
chewing the roots of valeriana officinalis or other species
of valerian — roots whose properties are in cats stimulant
and intoxicant. They are also said to be very partial to what
is in consequence called ' cat-mint ' — nepeta cataria — though
it does not quite appear that, either in this case or that of
valerian, the plant or any of its parts is used as a medicine.
In some cases, the animal would appear to revel in its mere
scent or perfume. This, for instance, seems to be the reason
why cats are as passionately fond of nemophila and marjoram
as of valerian. ' They no sooner scent it than they throw
themselves upon it and roll over and over with the greatest
sense of enjoyment/

Gillmore points out as regards the dog, and Stables in
reference to the cat — when domesticated, and especially in
proportion as their liberty is restricted — their life luxurious
and artificial, and the bowels constipated — the importance of
allowing them access to their own natural remedies — aperients
or emetics — grasses of various kinds or other plants. Were
this done, there would be small need for the veterinary
surgeon in the treatment of the luxury-bred ailments of the
dog or cat, small need for the drenching and drugging to
which at present these animals are so injudiciously sub-
jected.

Various animals again use salt or certain saline substances,
partly as aperients, partly as tonics, partly as indispensable

384 SELF-SUBMISSION BY ANIMALS TO

ingredients or constituents of food. Thus the buffalo ' used
to lick greedily,' for the animal is now rapidly disappearing
before civilisation, the saline incrustation deposited on the
borders of salt lakes in various parts of North America (Grant).
Mongolian camels eat pure salt if they cannot get at a similar
saline efflorescence that covers the marshes and often exudes
from the soil on the grass steppes of Central Asia. On
them salt, in whatever form, acts ' as an aperient, especially
if they have been long without it' (Prejevalsky).

Porteous says of hemlock — conium maculatum — that its
( roots are eaten by cattle when unwell.'

Certain animals are acquainted with the action of certain
natural poisons, and act upon their knowledge either by
using these poisons themselves, or by applying the appro-
priate natural antidotes when they find themselves unavoid-
ably poisoned. Thus some birds poison their captive young,
apparently regarding their death as preferable to imprison-
ment.

On the other hand, the Indian mongoose, poisoned by
the snake which it attacks, uses — appropriately as to time
and otherwise — the antidote to be found in the mimosa
octandra. ' Its value both as a cure and as a preventive is
said to be well known ' to it. ' Whenever, in its battles with
serpents, it receives a wound, it at once retreats, goes in
search of the antidote, and having found and devoured it,
returns to the charge, and generally carries the day, seeming
none the worse for its bite ' (Miss Gordon- Gumming). Again,
a toad, bit or stung by a spider, repeatedly betook itself to a
plant of plantago major and ate a portion of its leaf, but
died after repeated bites of the spider, when the plant had
been experimentally removed by man (' Science Gossip').

Poison-bearing animals are, some of them at least, aware
of the effect of their own stings on their prey : for the scorpion,
for instance, sometimes deliberately uses its own sting upon
itself for suicidal purposes.

It must be remembered, however, that plants or other
substances that are medicinal or poisonous to man or to cer-
tain animals, are not necessarily so to other animals. So
little may this be the case, that reversing the proverb that

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 385

applies to man, as to one man's meat being another man's
poison, what is poisonous to man or to certain animals may
furnish a favourite and harmless food to certain others, as I
have elsewhere pointed out.1 Thus the common goat eats
with impunity hemlock, henbane, and digitalis, which are
either distasteful or deleterious to other ruminants (Prof.
Bell), and are deadly poisons to man.

Whether or not any intention be involved, whether there
is any definite conception of an object, or the means of its
attainment, whether cleanliness be adopted as a sanitary pre -
caution, it is nevertheless a fact that various animals take
better means to secure the healthiness of their persons and
dwellings than man, even when highly civilised, generally
does. We may point, for instance, to —

1. The careful removal of excrement from nests or lairs
by birds and quadrupeds (White) ; or

2. The ingenious provision sometimes made by other
animals for —

a. Ventilation.

6. Warmth, by exposure to the sun.

c. Protection from cold, rain, and wind. \A/
The most familiar forms of surgical self-treatm
animals are the gnawing off, or otherwise sundering im-
prisoned limbs, in order that the rest of the body may escape
capture — that life itself may escape sacrifice by ruthless man.
Thus the rat, caught in a trap, gnaws off its own limb, or it
is assisted to do so by some one or more of its fellows (Jesse) .
It makes a voluntary and deliberate sacrifice of a limb to life
and safety.

There is another class of surgical operations of a very dif-
ferent kind also performed, however, on animals by them-
selves : those to wit which are the result of imitation, as in the
monkey. They are frequently fatal in consequence of the
injudiciousness of the imitation, the inability of the animal
properly to execute in duplicate the performances of its
master, the misunderstanding by the monkey of the opera-
tion itself, its object, or the means of performing it.

1 Vide Bibliography.
VOL. II. C C

386 SELF-SUBMISSION OF ANIMALS TO

A third and still more interesting class of cases is repre-
sented by the chimpanzee, soko, or other anthropoid apes,
staunching by means of their hands or fingers, or of leaves, turf,
or grass stuffed into them or otherwise, and acting as compres-
sants, absorbents, or styptics, their own bleeding wounds,
produced by man (Livingstone).

Many animals lick their own or each others' wounds, and
there is evidence, not sufficient however either as to quantity
or character, to show that this operation has a therapeutic
effect. Thus bears lick the wounds of their cubs.

Somewhat allied to surgical operations are the efforts
of various animals, such as the horse, dog, cat, ox, sheep,
monkey, to free themselves of vermin or of the itchiness
usually caused by vermin, by the use of their paws or teeth,
in picking, biting, or scratching, or by simply rubbing the
body or parts thereof against trees, walls, fences, or rails.

While many animals thus deal with themselves medically,
medicinally, or surgically, the value of co-operation, the
need of assistance, is usually recognised, and hence the
frequency with which they seek and obtain surgical, medical,
obstetrical, or other aid. Such aid is offered also without
its being sought for, as in the case of mothers with their
young, or of the able-bodied with the helpless or the or-
phaned. Monkeys clear the skin from vermin in the dog, cat,
and parrot ; and the bitch does so in her puppies, just as
baboons are hired out to do such a service for man himself
(Houzeau) .

Various animals gnaw through the umbilical cord of
their offspring. Obstetrical assistance is given to each other
by cats. A species of frog has the distinctive or specific
appellation obstetricans — it is known as the ' obstetric frog ; '
and a similar designation might be fittingly applied to cer-
tain ants. A mother cat employed a nursemaid in the person
of a half-grown kitten, placing her in charge of her litter
(Wood). A greyhound also, 'having a larger litter than
she could well bring up herself,' hired a wet nurse in the
form of a common collie bitch, ( who came at regular stated
times, and was rewarded for her services by having served
out to her by the mother a supply of meat and bones ; *

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 387

' literally the fact,' says the narrator (Wynter), and there
is no good reason to doubt that it is so.

A dog performed a surgical operation on a cat — excision
of its tail, which had been nearly cut in two by a tin kettle
tied to it. The end portion of the tail was simply bitten off
by the dog, to the cat's immediate relief, and a loving com-
panionship was the result — a fact significant to those who
erroneously apply the term e cat and dog life ' to unseemly
human squabbles. The same dog, when a kitten that he
was in the habit of teasing got scalded, and had her sores
dressed, gently licked them — a common mode of treating
sores by and among the lower animals. By and by a tumour,
which proved ultimately malignant and fatal, appeared on the
kitten's neck. She got the dog to lick it as he had done
her other sores, 'touching him with her paw when she
wished to be licked, and again when she wished him to desist : '
and holding up her head in order that he might properly
reach her neck (Wood).

The oxpecker — so called — extracts the larva or caterpillar
of the troublesome bot from the backs of cattle in Africa —
from the swellings caused by these bot-larvse and known as
' worble,' ' an operation seemingly conducted with gentleness
and skill, and apparently relished as a relief from pain by
the subjects of the operation, the oxen evincing no uneasiness
or objection consequent on the attention of these birds.' Of
a similar kind are all operation for the removal of parasitic
vermin, such as lice, fleas, bugs, ticks, and the larvae of bot
and other flies, from each other's skins, furs or feathers. In
all such cases a double advantage is usually gained — the
relief of suffering on the one hand, and the use of the captured
vermin as food on the other. Starlings in this country do
for sheep what the oxpecker does for the ox in Africa — rids
them of troublesome larvae. The monkey searches for and
eats the lice or fleas of dogs, and ants eat up the parasitic
mites of drone bees (Houzeau).

The lower animals give each other important aid in
various ways that do not belong to the category of what is
medical, surgical, or obstetrical, and yet are allied to this cate-
gory. Thus the phenomena of foster-parentage, described in

c c 2

388 SELF-SUBMISSION OF ANIMALS TO

another chapter, abound in instances of the most careful
nursing from birth upwards of all manner of orphaned or
deserted young. And there are many other instances of
various forms of nursing the sick or wounded — the young
or aged — or of assisting in such nursing. In such cases there
is a voluntary assumption of what cannot fail to be, in some
respects, an irksome duty. There is a regular caste of nurses
among ants. Those that are a little ill, or that have been
slightly wounded, are carefully tended by their companions
within the nest: while those dangerously ill are carried out-
side to die (Forel and Elvard).

Gratitude requires that we should not forget the extent
to which, and the singularly faithful, tender, self-sacrificing
manner in which certain animals — especially the dog,
elephant and horse — nurse human infants or even adult men.
This nursing involves a great variety of tender services in-
dicative of much consideration, sagacity and sympathy.

Nursing the sick implies, of course, caution or care to
avoid hurting or paining them, and this is frequently ex-
hibited by the elephant, horse, dog, and cat. Thus a dog
has been seen supporting the broken leg of another (Wood).
A dog scalded by a kettle suddenly ( boiling over ' on a kitchen
fire, carried an unharmed companion kitten to a place of
safety (Jesse) — another instance of the virtues — not the vices
— of real ' cat and dog life.' A terrier watched over a sick
cat, preventing disturbance by intruders. Another terrier
acted as nurse to kittens in their mother's absence, defend-
ing them in the same way against any meddlers — resigning
his charge, however, immediately on the mother cat's reap-
pearance (Wood). A ferocious bull-dog carefully picked up
a kitten that had fallen from a height of three storeys, getting
thereby so much hurt and crushed ' that even its own mother
would not go near it : ' he took it to his kennel, licked it
clean, and nursed it tenderly till it died (Wood).

On the other hand, though not so frequently and not to the
same extent,nor in the same useful practical way, the cat some-
times pays its attentions to the sick or disabled dog. Thus,
a turnspit having had a ' fit ' (probably epileptic) and being
unable to move for some hours, a companion cat 'came

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 389

frequently to inquire for him and greeted him with a kiss '
(Wood).

A spaniel shared its food with an unpopular cock that
was tyrannised over and ostracised by the other poultry in a
certain poultry-yard/ The cock was 6 not allowed to have a
share of what was going, but was punished severely whenever
he made an attempt to get any food.' The dog stood on
watch, while the cock ate a portion- of the meals so charitably
allotted to him: and if necessary to secure him against
annoyance, he was fed in the dog's kennel. Notwithstand-
ing all this kind attention the cock was ultimately c found
dead' in the dog's kennel, a 'case' probably of 'broken heart'
—the result no doubt of physical illness brought on by worry,
by perpetual bullying, and by all manner of ill-usage. It is
affecting to note that the dead cock when discovered was
' lying closely pressed to his only friend' (Wood).

A weasel inspected another that had been injured by a
horse's hoof — paralysis from spinal injury having apparently
resulted, and then carried it to the side, from the centre, of
a public road (Wood). Not unfrequently, certain of the
lower animals render similar service to drunken men or to
helpless children that are in harm's way on the public high-
road. Thus elephants and horses have, by means of their
trunks or teeth, gently lifted and placed aside and in safety
prostrate men or toddling infants that would otherwise have
been crushed under their hoofs and those of their followers
in a procession or cavalcade.

A certain cat was barren after losing by death one kitten,
while her mother continued prolific. Whenever the grand-
mother left her kittens longer than her daughter considered
prudent, ' she would call her and drive her ' to them : ' giving
her an unmistakable box on the ear and a scolding for her
neglect.' When these well and ill-tended kittens became
too large and heavy for the grandmother to carry alone,
their elder (step-) sister assisted to bear the burden — the one
relative taking the neck and the other the hind-legs of each
kitten (Wood). In another case a strong cat helped a weak,
delicate mother (cat) to carry her kittens from place to place.

Rescue and resuscitation from drowning may also fitly be

390 SELF-SUBMISSION OF ANIMALS TO

mentioned here. Even a bee in a state of insensibility from
partial drowning has been recovered by its fellows and re-
suscitated, and the same has been noted among ants (Figuier).

An old disabled torn cat made a bargain with a young
active one to catch mice for him, the young assistant being
paid or repaid with bones, and cats' meat, the compact being
honourably carried out on the part of both (Wynter).

A sheep, whose lamb was entangled in a briar hedge, went
to a flock for a ram, who returned with her, and by means of
his horns freed the captive. Another sheep got a cow to
raise a fellow sheep that had so fallen on its back as to be
unable to get up without help : the cow's horns at once did
what was necessary (Macaulay). A well-bred shepherd's dog
gently assists a fallen sheep ; while he is recognised by the
flock he tends as a friend and protector, to whom therefore
its members willingly submit themselves in emergency
(Trimmer). Here, as in so many other cases, individual
superiority, mental or physical, or the two conjoined, is prac-
tically and readily recognised.

It is common for small dogs to seek the aid of large ones
for the punishment of their foes, and instances are on record
of both seeker and sought-for having gone long journeys
for this purpose — of executing vengeance.

An old lioness, well known in the Zoological Gardens,
Dublin, which died there in 1876, being prostrated with
chronic bronchitis, and too feeble to help herself, was much
annoyed by rats nibbling at her toes. To destroy the rats
the authorities of the gardens most judiciously made the
experiment of introducing into the lioness's cage a good
ratting terrier. The dog was received, and naturally, with an
angry growl ; but as soon as the lioness saw how her com-
panion treated his first rat, 4 she began to understand what the
terrier was for,' to what important service he was applying
himself, and immediately her behaviour towards him was
changed. She now c coaxed him to her side, folded her paws
round him, and each night the little terrier slept at the
breast of the lioness, enfolded with her paws, and watch-
ing that his natural enemies did not disturb the rest of his
mistress.'

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 391

Animals seek the same protection from each other, the
weaker from the stronger, that they sometimes do from man.
Thus a Danish dog always rushed for protection to the
kennel of a bloodhound if threatened with punishment
(Wood).

Man himself sometimes seeks from the lower animals
that sort of protection which he cannot expect, or at least
so readily obtain, from fellow-man ; as when a tipsy sepoy
gets beneath the body or between the legs of an elephant as
a shelter and defence against a picket of his fellow soldiers.
From such a covert they find it impossible to dislodge the
delinquent; for the kindly and sagacious animal, having
a favour for the man who so confidently commits himself to
its more than hospitality, is ready to defend him to the death
against any attempt at his capture.

All such incidents — all illustrations of self-submission
by animals 1/o medical or surgical treatment by man ; of
self-treatment, medicinal, surgical, or obstetrical ; or of co-
operation or assistance in sickness or disablement of whatever
nature — bring into prominence the following among other
mental qualities that deserve consideration : —

1. Sympathy with every kind of distress or difficulty
suffered by others — sympathy of that practical kind, more-
over, that leads at once to the efficient assistance or relief of
those who obviously require help, whether they be other in-
dividuals of the same species or of other species and genera,
including man himself.

This sympathy is not unfrequently expressed in the most
delicate way, for instance by cats and dogs to masters or
mistresses. Thus two terriers took upon themselves to
watch, if they could not otherwise nurse, a sick master. If
one left the sick-room the other always remained behind :
the invalid was thus never during his illness left alone by
his canine friends. In another case c a dog always slept
at his master's bedroom door when he (the master) was from
home, as if to protect his mistress .... This he did at no
other time ' (Jesse). Wood gives the case of a dog whose
mistress having become ill, went of its own accord to summon
her parents to her bedside. Again, a lamb, when its mistress

392 SELF-SUBMISSION OF ANIMALS TO

was ill, ' left its usual place of abode, lay beneath her bed,
and refused all food, although the milk was offered from the
usual bottle' (Wood).

It is sympathy in great measure that leads so many birds
•and other animals to become foster parents, by adopting and
bringing up the lost, deserted, or orphaned young of other
individuals or species, as well as to give thank-offerings
comparable with those already spoken of as the fruits of
gratitude.

What is of interest, moreover, animals not only feel and
offer, or express, but solicit sympathy in illness, ill-health, or
bereavement; they obviously feel its value and necessity.
Thus we are told of a cat that solicited sympathy on and for
the death of her first grandchild, and of other animals that
did the same in the course of their own illnesses (Wood).

The practical expression of sympathy involves charity,
benevolence, generosity, and other virtues.

2. Recognition of the helplessness or powerlessness pro-
duced by illness or injury.

The result of such recognition is not necessarily sympathy
for, with or without assistance to, the helpless animal : on
the contrary, it is quite as common probably for the able-
bodied animal to take immediate advantage of the weakness
of its disabled fellow, for instance, by making prey of it.
This kind of heartless selfishness is extended not only to other
species and genera, including man himself, but to other in-
dividuals of their own species, in such forms as cannibalism.
In such cases the tyrants know their power, while their cap-
tive or diseased victims feel, with what anguish we cannot
gauge, their being at the cold mercy of the relentless strong.

The recognition of helplessness involves that of all manner
of defect and ailment, mental as well as physical, and the recog-
nition is sometimes more speedy in other animals than in
man himself. Thus not only does an animal mother recog-
nise in her progeny physical or mental defect of a kind or
degree that escapes the observation of man, or before it has
attracted man's notice ; but she lavishes her affection — as does
so frequently the human mother — on that member of her
family that obviously stands most in need of her ministrations.

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT. 393

Maternal affection among birds, deer, and other animals is
frequently bestowed mainly on the weakest of a brood or
family: mothers feed and tend their weaklings with con-
spicuous assiduity (Jesse). Just so does the human mother
tend her diseased, deformed, or idiotic child.

In the camel herd of Warburton, in his journey across
Western Australia, when, on a critical occasion, the master
bull had poisoned itself, and was consequently ill and tempo-
rarily helpless, the young bulls became aware of the fact
almost before it was apparent to the camel-men — with this
practical and serious result, that these young animals at once
showed signs of insubordination both to their own leader —
the master bull in question — and to their human masters ; in
other words, they took immediate advantage of circumstances.

The sense of helplessness includes further the sense of
futility of effort, of the vainness, hopelessness of further at-
tempt at defence or escape ; and it begets, therefore, despair,
with all its results of whatever kind. These results are
of a very opposite kind, for despair begets in one animal a
condition of fury or frenzy, urging it to behaviour of an
immediately self-destructive character, and in another a
paralysis of thought and effort, or a morbid indifference, that
bring about its doom with equal certainty, and perhaps with
greater torture, though not so speedily. • This sense of per-
sonal helplessness, of want of power or ability to compass
some desired end, is associated with the sense of difficulty
or danger and of need for other help than their own.

On the other hand it is quite as common for animals not
to perceive the uselessness of their sacrifices or labours, a
subject treated of in the chapters on c Errors.'

It is important to bear in mind that, just as certain
animals are keen and ready at observing, and sometimes at
taking advantage of physical impotence or disability in each
other, they also appreciate man's infirmities, both of mind and
body. In some cases they make kindly allowance for them.
Thus we are told that Sir Edwin Landseer's terrier ( Tiney,'
when it begged from Mr. Charles Landseer, who was deaf,
' invariably barked in a much louder note than when ad-
dressing any other member of the family ' (Macaulay). And

394 SELF-SUBMISSION OF ANIMALS TO

it is notorious that even captious dogs make ample allowance
for the thoughtlessness and helplessness of human infancy.

3. A clear perception of the nature and extent of danger,
and of the different kinds of danger, including—

a. Sometimes a decided preference of one (minor) to

another (major) risk.

b. A consideration of the various means whereby danger

may be avoided or escaped from. They discriminate
between a certain enemy, or danger, and a possible
friend, or safety.

4. The ready conveyance of intelligence of events, the com-
munication to each other of their desires or wants, the ar-
ranging of plans, bargains, or compacts.

5. Willingness to help each other ; good nature in bestow-
ing aid where and when asked and required ; the rendering
of mutual assistance appropriate as to time and character.

6. Knowledge of the use or object of emetics and purga-
tives, as well as of the nature of wounds, and of remedies and
their action, whether medical, medicinal, or surgical.

Possibly the dog and other animals recognise or understand
the nature, or at least the dangerousness, of some of their
own diseases — a knowledge which leads, for instance, to avoid-
ance of diseased fellows. They would appear to be acquainted
with the fact of the contagiousness of certain diseases ; that
contact with, or contiguity to, animals showing certain
symptoms may develop like bodily disorder in themselves.
At all events, we are told that hounds, for example, fre-
quently show very decided fear of their rabid companions
(Fleming) ; and that a sheep, when affected by a fatal form
of dysentery locally known (in the southern highlands of
Scotland) as c breakshugh,' ' instantly withdraws from all the
rest, shunning their society with the greatest care. It even
hides itself, and is often hard to be found ' (Hogg) .

Here, then, are two cases of an opposite kind ; the hounds
avoiding the diseased individual, and the diseased sheep
isolating itself from the sound members of the flock. This
avoidance or isolation — if and where it exists — may very
readily and naturally arise from the biting or other dangerous
or singular habits of their companions. But from what we

MEDICAL AND SUEGICAL TKEATMENT 395

know of the keen observation of facts connected with physical,
and even mental conditions in their young, their mates, their
companions, their leaders, even in man, there is no room for
doubt that notice of the symptoms of disease, and inference
as to the dangerousness of given diseases, falls quite within
the powers of the dog, cat, and many other animals. They
readily read the signs of suffering in man, the signs of cha-
racter, even ; they can follow man's moods or feelings, in-
terpret his feature-play with such nicety as apparently to
foresee and forestall his very intentions ; and there is, there-
fore, nothing strange in the supposition that they can equally
well read the signs of disease in each other.

Nor, indeed, is there good ground for doubting that
animals can communicate to each other their morbid as well
as healthy feelings. Why should we believe for a moment
that the free and full intercommunication of ideas, feelings,
wants, wishes, is confined to their normal condition or ex-
pression ?

APPENDIX

ILLUSTRATIVE OP

THE NATURE AND VARIETY OF THE DATA ON WHICH

THE AUTHOR'S GENERALISATIONS HAVE

BEEN BASED.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

THE main objects of the following catalogue of works — of all kinds —
which illustrate the statements made in the preceding text, are

1. To point out the kind of published sources, other than personal
observation, from which the author derived the facts that formed the bases
of his generalisations ; and

2. To indicate to the reader, who may desire to supplement the fruit of
his own observation or research by comparing it with the result of the
inquiry of other labourers in the same field, the sort of guides who may
lead him to a continuance of his research in any given direction.

The following list does not profess to be complete or exhaustive. It is
simply typical, being confined to works consulted by the author, and for the
character of which he can personally vouch. It gives but a general idea of
the number and variety of printed works from which assistance may be
sought by that class of students who are fonder of bibliographical research
than of the direct investigation of nature. The list of books is confined
almost exclusively to those published in Britain and in the English language.
But similar works probably abound in every one of the leading countries
and languages of the world. They are at all events numerous in Germany
and France, and in the German and French languages. So numerous and
varied are they in the English language that they might be cited to a per-
plexing and wearisome extent.

The following selected list of works has been alphabetically arranged,
according mainly to the names of authors, whose scientific designations,
where they possess any, have been added. The object in so doing has
been simply this. It is presumable that a Fellow of such learned societies
as the Royal Societies of London or Edinburgh, or of the Linnean or Zoolo-
gical Societies of London, is competent both to observe and record facts in
Natural History ; more competent at least than the uneducated or un-
skilled popular writer or compiler. The same remark applies, in a minor
degree, to all men of university training and possessed of university degrees —
such as those of M.A., M.D., LL.D. and D.D. But whether or not such
persons are to be considered absolutely trustworthy as the observers and
reporters of what they have themselves seen in animated nature, they are

400 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

still known gentlemen of position, to whom application can at any time be
made* for the verification of facts stated by them, inasmuch as all our
learned societies and universities keep annually printed lists of the addresses
of their fellows or graduates.

Were any further guarantee required than such learned designations as
F.R.S. or F.L.S. of the competency of their bearers to address the public
with authority on matters of fact, the author might add this — that several of
the gentlemen or ladies whose names occur in the following bibliography
are or were personally known to him, in so far as (1) he has either merely
met them, or (2) has known them more or less intimately for a series of
years, while (3) with others he has had correspondence.

Reference may be made also for designations of, and comments upon,
many of the books mentioned, to the Bibliographies appended to the Author's
papers on —

o T^e Physiology; and |ofMind>1

2. The Pathology J

ENUMERATION OF SOME OF THE WORKS CONSULTED BY THE

AUTHOR.

I. ADAMS, Andrew Leitb, M.B., M.A. and F.R.S., formerly Surgeon of

H.M. 22nd (Cheshire) Regiment, now Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.

-1. ' Field and Forest Rambles of a Naturalist in New Brunswick : with
Notes and Observations on the Natural History of Eastern
Canada.' Illustrated; 8vo. London, 1873.

• 2. ' Wanderings of a Naturalist in India, the Western Himalayas and
Cashmere. ' Illustrated ; 8vo. Edinburgh, 1867.

3. 'Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley and Malta.' Illustrated;

crown 8vo. Edinburgh, 1870.

4. 'The Intellectual Powers of Birds,' Popular Science Review for

July 1873.

II. AGASSIZ, The late Professor Louis, of Harvard University, Cambridge,

Massachusetts (U.S.A.).

' Outlines of Comparative Physiology,' edited by Dr. Wright. London,
1867. There is a chapter (p. 89) on 'Intelligence and Instinct.'

III. ANDERSON, John, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Curator of the Imperial

Museum, Calcutta.

' Mandalay to Momien ; a Narrative of the two Expeditions to Western
China in 1868 and 1875,' of both of which he was the scientific
officer. Illustrated ; 8vo. London, 1876.

IV. ANDEESSON, the late Charles John, a Swede and distinguished South

African traveller and hunter.

1. 'The Lion and the Elephant,' edited by L. Lloyd, himself both a

traveller and sportsman. Illustrated ; 8vo.' London, 1873.

Besides giving the results of Andersson's own observations, the work con-
tains a summary of those of such celebrated African travellers or sportsmen
as G6rard, Gordon Gumming, Harris and Moffatt, as well as of the Editor.

2. ' Notes of Travel in South Africa,' also edited by Lloyd ; demy 8vo.

London, 1875.

1 Vide present Bibliography, No. LXXXIII.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 401

V. « ANIMAL WORLD, The,' a monthly illustrated serial, the organ of, and

'issued by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals.' Published in London.

VI. 'ANTHROPOLOGICAL REVIEW, The,' an occasionally illustrated 8vo

quarterly; begun in 1863 and continued till 1873, when it was
succeeded by the « Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain and Ireland.'

VII. ARGYLL, The Duke of.

' Animal Instinct in its relation to the Mind of Man.' Contemporary
Review for July 1875.

VILT. AUDUBON, the late John James, the celebrated American Ornithologist.

' Life and Adventures of,' by Robert Buchanan ; 3rd edition. London,
1869.

IX. BAIRD, the late William, M.D., F.R.S., of the Zoological Department of

the British Museum, London.

' Cyclopaedia of the Natural Sciences.' Illustrated ; 8vo. London,
1861.

X. BAKER, Sir Samuel W., M.A., F.R.S., otherwise and sometime ' Baker-

Pasha ' of the Egyptian service.

1. ' Ismailia,' 2 vols ; 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1874.

2. « The Albert N'Yanza, Great Basin of the Nile and Exploration of the

Nile Sources,' 3rd edition, crown 8vo. Illustrated. London,
1876.

3. ' The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia and the Sword Hunters of the

Hamram Arabs,' 4th edition. Illustrated ; crown 8vo. London.

4. ' Eight Years in Ceylon,' 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1874.

Contains a special chapter (9) on ' Instinct and Reason ' in the lower
animals.

XI. BATES, Henry W., F.L.S., Assistant Secretary of the Royal Geographical

Society, London.

1 Records of a Naturalist on the River Amazons during eleven years of
Travel and Adventure,' 3rd edition. Illustrated ; crown 8vo.
London, 1873.

XH. BELT, the late Thomas, F.G.S., Mining Engineer of the Chontales Gold
Mining Company, Nicaragua, from 1868 to 1872.

'The Naturalist in Nicaragua; with Observations on Animals and
Plants in reference to the Theory of the Evolution of Living Forms.'
Illustrated ; post 8vo. London, 1874.

Xm. BENNETT, George, M.D., F.L.S., of Sydney, New South Wales.

1. ' Wanderings in New South Wales, Singapore and China,' 2 vols. ;

8vo. London, 1834.

2. « Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia : being Observations prin-

cipally on the Animal and Vegetable productions of New South
Wales, New Zealand, and some of the Australasian Islands.' Illus-
trated ; 8vo. London, 1860.

XIV. BERKELEY, The Honourable Grantley F.

1. 'Fact against Fiction; the Habits and Treatment of Animals prac-

tically,' 2 vols.; 8vo. London, 1871.

2. ' The English Sportsman on the Western Prairies.' Illustrated ; royal

8vo. London, 1861.
VOL. II. D D

402 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

XV. BRODIE, The late Sir Benjamin C., F.E.S.

1 Psychological Inquiries ; in a Series of Essays intended to illustrate
the Mutual Relations of the Physical Organisation and the Mental
Faculties,' 2 vols. 8vo. ; 3rd edition. London, 1862.

XVI. BRODERIP, The late W. J., F.R.S.

« Zoological Recreations.'

Several editions have been published, of which the most recent is as one of
the volumes of « Beeton's Boys' Own Library,' 8vo. London, 1876.

XVII. BROUGHAM, The late Lord.

' Dialogues on Instinct,' one of « Knight's Weekly Volumes.' London,

1845.

Contained also in all editions of Lord Brougham's works, of which the
latest and best is that of Messrs. A. and C. Black, of Edinburgh,
1872-3.

XVIII. BROWN, John, M.D., F.R.S.E., of Edinburgh.

'Horse Subsecivse; '7th edition; 8vo. Edinburgh, 1861.
Contains 1. 'Rab and his Friends ; ' and 2. < Our Dogs; ' of both of which
several editions of separate reprints have been published.

XIX. BROWN, Robert, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

' The Races of Mankind ; a popular description of the Characteristics,
Manners, and Customs of the principal Varieties of the Human
Family,' 4 vols. Copiously illustrated. London, 1873-6.

XX. BROWNE, W. A. F., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., formerly one of H.M.'s Com-

missioners in Lunacy for Scotland.

1. Articles in * Chambers's Encyclopaedia' relating to the Natural History

of Human Idiocy, Imbecility and Insanity.

2. ' Dreams of the Dawn and Sundown of Philosophy,' being a pamphlet

consisting of a series of reprints from the Dumfries and Galloivay
Standard ; small 8vo. Dumfries, 1875.

3. « Stories about Idiots,' a similar reprint from the Dumfries Conner.

Dumfries, 1873.

XXI. BiiCHNER, Dr., of Darmstadt, Germany.

' Man in the Past, Present, and Future,' translated into English by W.
S. Dallas, F.L.S. ; 8vo. London, 1872.

XXII. BUCKLAND, Frank, M.A., F.R.S., Editor of Land and Water.

1. < Curiosities of Natural History,' of which there are several editions,

the last being the ' People's Edition,' 4 vols. ; fcap. 8vo. Illustrated,
London, 1872-4.

2. « Logbook of a Fisherman and Zoologist,' 8vo. Illustrated. London,

1875.

XXHI. BUIST, Miss K. A., daughter of the late Dr. George Buist, of Bombay,

a well-known Indian litterateur.

' Birds ; their Cages and their Keep ; being a practical Manual of
Bird-keeping and Bird-rearing.' Illustrated. Crown 8vo. London.
1874.

XXIV. BULLER, Walter L., D.Sc., F.L.S., of Wanganui, New Zealand.

1. 'History of the Birds of New Zealand,' beautifully illustrated by

Keulemans; 4to. London, 1872-3.

2. 'On the Structure and Habits of the Huia (Heterolocha Gouldi):

Transactions of tlie New Zealand Institute, vol. iii., 1871; as
well as

3. Numerous other papers, in the same Transactions, on Bird-habits that

evince the possession of Mind or Reason.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 403

XXV. BURTON, Capt. Richard F., sometime H.B.M. Consul at Damascus and

Trieste.

* Two Trips to Gorilla Land and the Cataracts of the Congo,' 2 vols.
8vo. Illustrated. London, 1876.

XXVI. BURTON, Mrs. Isabel, wife of Capt. Burton.

'The Inner Life of Syria, Palestine, and the Holy Land,' 2 vols.; 8vo
Illustrated. London, 1875.

XXVII. BUTLER, Major W. F., C.B., F.R.G.S.

1. ' The Wild North Land : the Story of a Winter Journey with Dogs

across Northern North America ; ' demy 8vo. Illustrated. 4th
edition. London, 1873.

2. ' The Great Lone Land : an account of the Red River Expedition

of 1869-70; subsequent Travels and Adventures in the Manitoba
country ; and a Winter Journey across the Saskatchewan Valley to
the Rocky Mountains;' 6th edition. Illustrated. Crown 8vo.
London.

XXVHI. CARPENTER, Wm. B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., one of the ex-Presidents
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

1. 'Principles of Mental Physiology; ' 8vo. London, 1874.

2. ' Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 4th edition ; 8vo. London,

1854.

3. 'On the Doctrine of Human Automatism,' Contemporary Review,

February 1875.

4. ' On the Hereditary Transmission of Acquired Psychical Habits,'

same review, January and April 1873.

5. ' On the Physiological Import of Dr. Ferrier's Experimental Investi-

gations into the Functions of the Brain.' Reports of the West
Ridinp Asylum (Wakefield, Yorkshire), vol. iv., 1874.

XXIX. CASSELL'S ' Popular Natural History.' Abundantly illustrated ; last

edition in 2 vols.; crown 4to. London, 1871.

A compilation by various authors, illustrative of the Habits of Mammalia,
Birds, Reptiles, Fishes and Insects.

XXX. CHADBOURNE, P. A., M.A., M.D., LL.D., President of the University

of Wisconsin ; formerly Professor of Natural History in Williams
College, Williamstown, Conn., and of Natural History and Chemistry
in Bowdoin College, New York.

1. 'Instinct: its office in the Animal Kingdom, and its relation to the

Higher Powers in Man ; ' being the Lowell Lectures of 1871,
delivered before the Lowell Institute, Boston ; small 8vo. New
York, 1872.

2. « Lectures on Natural Theology,' delivered before the same Institute ;

small 8vo. New York, 1867.

XXXI. CHAMBERS, Messrs. W. and R., of Edinburgh, a well-known Scottish

Publishing Firm.

1. 'Kindness to Animals; illustrated by Stories and Anecdotes; a Book
for Home and School Reading,' compiled and partly written by
William Chambers, of Glenormiston, formerly Lord Provost of
Edinburgh ; being a volume of the well-known < Chambers 's
Educational Course.'

Not only does it give illustrative anecdotes in prose, and many tributes to
animal virtues in verse, but it contains also a most useful and interesting
account of —

a. ' Laws concerning Animals ' and their Treatment in the United
Kingdom.

P P 3

404 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

b. The History and Doings of the ' Royal Society for the Prevention of

Cruelty to Animals.'

c. The Operations of the « Brown Institution,' and of the

d. 'Home for Lost and Starving Dogs,' both in the same suburb of

London.

e. The Feats of the Truefitt Parrot (of Edinburgh), now dead.

f. The History of < Greyfriars' Bobby,' (also of Edinburgh) and of the

Public Honours conferred upon him.

If this is not also one of the most attractive, it is at least one of the most
important of the admirable series of class books issued by the Messrs. Cham-
bers, entitled to rank, for instance, with their valuable ' Moral Class
Book.'

2. ' Chambers's Encyclopaedia ; a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for

the People,' edited by Andrew Findlater, M.A., LL.D. ; 10 vols. ;
8vo. Illustrated. 1860-8.

The articles on « Mind,' ' Reason,' « Instinct,' and allied subjects are by
Prof. Bain, of Aberdeen; those on Human Idiocy and Insanity, by Dr.
Browne, of Dumfries ; some at least of those on Zoological subjects by the late
Prof. Day, of St. Andrews ; those on Veterinary Matters, by Prof. John Gamgee,
formerly of the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh, and editor of the Edin-
burgh Veterinary Review.

Among other articles that deserve careful perusal are those on * Cruelty to
Animals ; ' ' Worship of Animals ; ' ' Fascination by Serpents ; ' * Tame
Animals ; ' ' Transmigration ; ' ' Consciousness ; ' ' Emotion ; ' Rabies ; Hydro-
phobia ; Dog, Horse, Elephant, Cat, Camel, Ant, Bee, Spider.

3. 'Chambers's Information for the People;' also illustrated; last
edition, 1873-4.

Vol. i. contains articles on the Dog, Horse, Sheep, Honey Bee, on Cage
Birds, Poultry, and other domesticated animals.

4. Chambers's < Miscellany of Useful and Entertaining Tracts ; ' also

illustrated ; last edition, 1869-71.

Contains special numbers, sections or chapters, entitled : —
a. ' Select Poems on Birds.'
&. „ „ on Insects.'

c'. 'Anecdotes of the Horse.'

d. „ of Dogs.'

e. „ of the Cat.'

f. Elephants.

g. Ants.

h. Spiders.

i. (Human) « Children of the Wilds.'
j. « Peter the Wild Boy.'
k. ' Victor — the Savage of Aveyron.'
1. « Caspar Hauser.'
m. « Mademoiselle Leblanc.'

5. « Chambers's Journal ; ' a weekly serial.

Abounds in articles illustrative of the character and habits of the lower
animals. Some of these articles are written by William Chambers,
LL.D., F.R.S.E., present head of the firm which issues the works
above-mentioned, and so many others that are known wherever
English literature has penetrated ; while other writers include
men of standing as Clergymen, Medical Men, Naturalists, Tra-
vellers or Sportsmen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 405

A good illustration of the articles in question is the most instructive
account given of a well-known Edinburgh parrot in the monthly part of the
Journal for October 1874, under the title of 'The Talking Bird.' Possessing
a different kind of interest are such papers as that on ' The (Human) Gesture
Language in Southern Italy,' in the part for April 1871.

XXXn. CLAYTON, Captain :

* Scenes and Studies : ' 8vo. London, 1870.

Contains a chapter on ' The possible Future Existence of the so-called
Brute Creation.'

XXTTTT. COBBE, Miss Frances Power, of London.

1. 'False Beasts and True : Essays on Natural and Unnatural History,'

crown 8vo. A volume of * The Country House Library.' London,
1875.

The chapters of which it consists originally appeared as review articles,
viz. : that on

a. 'The Consciousness of Dogs' in the Quarterly Review for October

1872.

b. 'Dogs whom I have met,' in the Cornhill Magazine for December

1872.
?. ' Animals in Fable and Art,' in the New Quarterly Magazine for March

1874 ; and I

d. f The Fauna of Fancy,' in the same Magazine for October 1874.

2. ' Studies on Subjects New and Old, Ethical and Social ; ' consisting of

a series of articles reprinted from Praters Magazine] post 8vo.
London, 1865.
Contains a chapter on ' The Rights of Man and the Claims of Brutes.'

XXXIV. COMBE, the late George, of Edinburgh, the celebrated Phreno-
logist.

' System of Phrenology,' 2 vols. ; 5th edition. Edinburgh, 1853.
Contains chapters or sections (in vol. ii.) on

a. ' Comparative Phrenology ; ' and

b. ' The Language of Animals.'

XXXV. COOPER, the late T. T., F.R.G.S., sometime H.B.M. political agent
at Bhamo.

' The Mishmee Hills.' London, 1874.

XXXVI. GUMMING, Lieut. -Colonel Gordon.

' Wild Men and Wild Beasts.' Edinburgh ; demy 4to. 1871.

Contains a chapter on the ' Intellectual and Moral Characteristics of the
Wild Beasts of India.'

XXXVII. GUMMING, Miss Constance F. Gordon.

'From the Hebrides to the Himalayas,' 2 vols.; 8vo. Illustrated.
London. 1876.

XXXVUr. CUNNINGHAM, Rob. O., M.D., Professor of Natural History in
Queen's College, Belfast, and Naturalist to the Surveying Voyage of
H.M.S. 'Nassau,' in 1866-9.

'Notes on the Natural History of the Strait of Magellan and West
Coast of Patagonia ; ' 8vo. Illustrated. Edinburgh, 1871.

XXXIX. DARWIN, Charles, MA., F.R.S., D.C.L.

1. 'The Descent of Man; and Selection in Relation to Sex.' Last
edition (8th) ; crown 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1874.

Contains two chapters on the ' Mental Powers of Man and the Lower
Animals,' instituting a comparison between them.

406 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

2. < The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals ; ' last edition

(10th) ; crown 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1874.
XL. DODGE, Lieut.- Col. Richard I., of the United States Army.

' The Hunting Grounds of the Great West ; a description of the Plains,
Game, and Indians of the Great North American Desert.' Illus-
trated. 8vo. London, 1877.

Quite as interesting as his description of the mental peculiarities of game
animals is the account he gives of the low moral status of the Indians — the
supposed * Noble Red Men.'

XLI. DRUMMOND, The Honourable W. H.

'The Large Game and Natural History of South and South-east
Africa ; ' large 8vo. Illustrated. Edinburgh, 1875.

XLII. EDWARDS, Professor Milne, of Paris.

' Manual of Zoology,' adopted by the Council of Public Instruction in
France. English translation by the late Robert Knox, M.D., the
celebrated Edinburgh Anatomist. London, 1856.

Contains a chapter on ' Intelligence and Instinct,' with a special section on
the 'Faculties of the Understanding in Animals.'

XLIII. * FIELD, THE,' a London weekly illustrated folio newspaper, edited

successively by Walsh and Francis.

Abounds in articles and paragraphs illustrative of the mental peculiarities
of the lower animals ; especially of sporting dogs and horses, and of game
animals — abroad and at home.

XLIV. < FIELD QUARTERLY, Magazine and Review, The,' another folio serial,
for some time published in London in connection with The Field
newspaper, edited by Nichols. Only 3 vols. were issued.
Like The Field, it abounds in papers, but of a fuller and more scientific
character, illustrating animal reason as contrasted with instinct.

XLV. FIGUIER, Louis, of Paris.

1. ' Primitive Man : ' a popular account of the prevailing theories of the

descent of man as promulgated by Darwin, Lyell, Sir John Lubbock,
Huxley, E. B. Tylor, and other eminent Ethnologists.' Translated
from the last French edition, and revised by Tylor ; demy 8vo.
London.

2. ' The Insect World,' 3rd English edition by Prof. Martin Duncan,

F.R.S. London, 1872. Illustrated.

XLVI. FITTIS, Robert Scott, of Perth; a Scottish Novelist (author of
'Gilderoy'), but better known as a Scottish Historical and Anti-
quarian Litterateur.

' Historical and Traditionary Gleanings concerning Perthshire ; ' 8vo.
Perth, 1876.

Contains two chapters on ' The Cat's Opera Man,' being a biography of
Samuel Bisset, of Perth, the famous animal trainer of last century. An
interesting general historical account is also given of the training of animals
for the performance of feats before the public.
XLVII. FROST, Thomas :

1. 'The Old Showman and the Old London Fairs;' 8vo. London,

1874.
Contains biographical or other notices of —

a. Celebrated Animal Trainers ; including —

b. Macomo, Macarthy, and other ' Lion Kings.'

c. Van Amburgh, Wombwell, Fairgrieve, and other menagerie pro-

prietors, well known in Britain.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 407

d. Jamrach, of London, and other noted dealers in foreign wild

animals.
2. < Circus Life and Circus Celebrities ; ' 8vo. London, 1875.

Contains many references to, or descriptions of, the feats of performing
animals, especially the horse.

XLVIII. ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Journal of the ; a thick 8vo.
volume issued annually for the last forty-eight years, its publication
having been begun in 1830. Copiously illustrated with maps.

A perfect treasury of authentic accounts of the original exploration of
new lands and islands; including a description of the mental status of
primitive races of man in all quarters of the globe.

XLIX. GILBERT, William, the well-known English novelist.

'Man at His Lowest: Some Facts for Mr. Darwin,' Day of Rest for
February 1875.

Compares performing monkeys with idiotic and deaf-mute children : espe-
cially in regard to the possession of a religious sense — ' The Understanding
of the Existence of a Deity.'

L, GILLIES, Robert, C. E., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., one of the Ex-Presidents of the

Otago Institute, New Zealand.

' On the Habits of the Trap-door Spider ; ' illustrated. Transactions of
the New Zealand Institute, vol. viii. (1876).

LI. GILLMORE, Capt. Parker, better known perhaps, as a traveller and sports-
man, under his twm de plume ' Ubique.'

1. ' Prairie and Forest : a description of the Game of North America ; '

8vo. Illustrated. London, 1874.

2. ' Prairie Farms and Prairie Folk,' 2 vols. Illustrated. Crown 8vo

London, 1872.

LII. GOODSIR, the late Professor, of Edinburgh.

* Anatomical Memoirs,' 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1868.
Contains chapters on

a. « The Nature of Animality.'

b. ' The Essence of Humanity ; ' and

c. ' Life and Organisation : ' including a long and important note on

* Psychological Science.'

TJTT. GREENWOOD, James, the well-known « Amateur Casual ' of the London

press.

' In Strange Company ; ' the experiences of a Newspaper Correspondent,
the newspaper being the London Daily Telegraph : 2nd ed. ; crown
8vo. London, 1874.

Is of interest from very different points of view —

a. In so far as it represents graphically the human savagery, and the

mental condition of the human savages, that exist in the midst of
civilisation in England ; both in the cities, such as London, and in
the country, such as North Devonshire.

b. The chapter on ' The Art and Mystery of Song- Bird Torture,' shows

the use made by man of the passions or propensities of the lower
animals — of love, jealousy, rivalry and pugnacity ; with their
successful deception by man's imitations of their notes or calls, and
by stuffed inanimate individuals of their own species.

LIV. HAMERTON, Philip Gilbert, editor of the « Portfolio,' a well-known

English artist and art-critic.
« Chapters on Animals.' Illustrated ; 8vo. London, 1873.

408 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

LV. HAMLEY, Colonel E. Bruce, R.E.

' Our Poor Relations : a Philozoic Essay,' originally published in Black*
wood's Magazine in 1870. Illustrated. 8vo. and 12mo. editions.
Edinburgh, 1872.

LVI. HARTSHORN E, Bertram F., of the Indian Civil Service.
« The Weddas ' of Ceylon ; Fortnightly Review, March 1876.

LVII. HARTWIG, Dr. George, of Heidelberg, the well-known German Popu-
lariser of Natural Science.

1. « The Sea and its Living Wonders,' translated from the fourth German

edition. Illustrated. 8vo. London, 1860.

2. < The Tropical World,' 8 vo. Illustrated. London, 1863.

LVIH. HAYES, Isaac J., M.D., the well-known American Arctic Navigator.
' The Land of Desolation,' being a personal narrative of adventure in
Greenland ; ' 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1871.

LIX. HELPS, the late Sir Arthur, K.C.B.

* Some Talk about Animals and their Masters,' 3rd edition ; crown 8vo.
London, 1874.

LX. HIBBERD, Shirley, of London.

1. 'The Moral Faculties of Brutes,' and —

2. « What is Instinct ? '

Papers in the Intellectual Observer, a London illustrated monthly, vol.
iii., 1863.

LXI. HOGG, the late James, famous as a biographer, contemporary and friend
of Sir Walter Scott, and otherwise in Scottish literature known as
< The Ettrick Shepherd.'
< Works of the Ettrick Shepherd : Tales and Sketches ; ' edited by the

Rev. Thos. Thomson. Illustrated. London, 1866.

By far the most important chapter in relation to comparative psychology is
that on « The Shepherd's Dog,' in « The Shepherd's Calendar,' which gives an
account of the feats of his dogs * Sirrah,' < Hector,' ' Lion,' and others. The
chapter on ' The Sheep ' stands next in interest ; while some of his ' Tales '
include or embody authentic anecdotes of the sagacity of the dog; for
instance, that entitled « Duncan Campbell : story of a faithful Dog and
neglected Child.'

LXII. HOLLAND, the late Sir Henry, M.D., F.R.S., of London.

1. ' Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 2nd edition. London.

2. « Medical Notes and Reflections,' 3rd edition. London.

LXIII. HOUZEAU, J. C., Membre de 1'Academie de Belgique and Director of

the Royal Observatory of Brussels.

' Etudes sur les Facultes mentales des Animaux comparees a celles dc
I'Homme ; ' 2 vols. ; 8vo. Mons (Belgium), 1872.

This important work, one of the most important that has ever been
written on the subject of Comparative Psychology, was put together in
Jamaica, where the author for a time resided. The materials on which it is
based, however, were collected mainly in the wilds of Texas and Northern
Mexico, where indeed the idea of the book seems to have suggested itself.
The author modestly terms himself a ' Voyageur-Naturaliste,' and he is an
excellent type of a class to which belong such men as Darwin, Huxley, Wal-
lace, Bates, Bennett, and Belt, Like the works of these distinguished
Naturalists, Houzeau's volumes are valuable as containing the facts and
fruits of personal observation : in his case during six years' residence on
the prairies of the 'Far West' of North America, where, as he himself

BIBLIOGEAPHY. 409

wrote me in 1873 : * I had to live in the open air, in the constant company of
domestic animals, and in close proximity to wild ones.'

LXTV. HUME, the late David, the famous Scottish philosopher and

historian.

' Inquiry concerning the Human Understanding,' 1752; or constituting
vol. iv. of his ' Philosophical Works,' 1825.

Contains a chapter (ix.) < On the Reason of Animals ' which, however, is
short and of little importance.

LXV. HUXLEY, Professor, of London, the celebrated Naturalist.

1. 'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature ; ' 8vo. London, 1863.
Has a section (ii.) on ' The Relations of Man to the Lower Animals.'

2. « The Hypothesis that Animals are Automata and its History : ' an

address at the British Association meeting in Belfast in August
1874 ; subsequently published in the Fortnightly Review for
November 1874.

LXVL IRELAND, Wm. W., M.D., Physician to the National Institution for
Idiot Children at Larbert, Stirlingshire (Scotland) : author of a stan-
dard treatise on ' Idiocy and Imbecility. '

1. ' An Inquiry into some accounts of Children being fostered by Wild

Beasts : ' referring to the so-called wolf-children of India. Journal
of Mental Science for July and October 1874.

2. * Report of some cases of Microcephalic Idiocy and Cretinism ; ' a
reprint from the Ediiibwrgli Medical Journal for August, September
and October 1875.

LXVII. JAPP, Alex H.

' For Bird and Beast,' in Good Words for August 1874.

Gives an excellent history of the origin and development of the English
' Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,' and of its organ,
The Animal World, as well as of protective legislation in England.

LXVHI. JESSE, the late Edward.

1. * Scenes and Occupations of Country Life, with Recollections of

Natural History ; ' one of the volumes of ' The Golden Library ; '
square 16mo. London, 1875.

A new edition merely of his « Scenes and Tales of Country Life,' small
8vo. 1845 : in which re-issue he has been induced, he says, ' to add very
considerably to that portion of it which comprised facts and circum-
stances in natural history, omitting the Tales of Country Life.' The book is
dedicated to, as it was written for the use of, the young ; and it is calculated,
as it was intended — like so many other popular natural histories of the class
to which belong such works as White's ' Selborne,' Buckland's ' Curiosities,' or
Broderip's * Recreations ' — to create and stimulate in youth a love of animals,
and of a study of their habits.

2. ' Gleanings in Natural History, with Anecdotes of the Sagacity and

Instinct of Animals.' Last edition (llth) fcap. 8vo. Illustrated.
London, 1872.

LXIX. JESSE, George R., of Henbury, Cheshire.

' Researches into the History of the British Dog, with Original Anecdotes
and illustrations of the Nature and Attributes of the Dog ; ' two vols.
illustrated, 8vo. London, 1866.

Chapter v. gives a synopsis of the mental attributes of the dog.
LXX. JOLY, Henri, Professeur & la Faculte des Lettres de Dijon (France).
' P. \vchologie comparee ; L'Homme et 1'Animal ; ouvrage couronne par
1' Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques ; ' 8vo. Paris, 1877.

410 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

LXXI. KENNEDY, W. R., Capt. R.N., of H.M.S. 'Reindeer.'

* Sporting Adventures in the Pacific ; ' 8vo. illustrated. London, 1876.

LXXIL KIRBY, the late Rev. Wm., M.A., F.R.S.

' The Instincts, History, and Habits of Animals ; ' one of the ' Bridgewater
Treatises : ' edition by Professor Rymer Jones, F.R.S. ; two vols. illus-
trated. London, 1853.
Vol. ii. contains a chapter on the general subject of ' Instinct.'

LXXm. KIRBY, the late Rev. Wm., in association with the late Wm. SPENCE,

F.R.S.

'Introduction to Entomology, or Elements of the Natural History of
Insects ; ' 7th edition, crown 8vo. London, 1859.

Contains a special chapter on their ' Instinct,' by Spence.

LXXIV. KNOX, A. E., M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

'Autumns on the Spey ; ' post 8vo. illustrated. London, 1872.

LXXV. KOLDEWEY, Capt.

'The German Arctic Expedition of 1869-70; ' English edition by H. W.
Bates, F.L.S. : 8vo. illustrated. London, 1874.

To the naturalist the most interesting chapter is that on ' Hunting, and
Animal Life in East Greenland,' by Lieut. Payer and Dr. Copeland.

LXXVI. LAMONT, James, M.P., F.G.S., and F.R.G.S.

' Yachting in the Arctic Seas ; Notes of Five Voyages of Sport and Dis-
covery in the Neighbourhood of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya.'
Demy 8vo. illustrated. London, 1876.

LXXVII. ' LAND AND WATER,' a London weekly folio newspaper, similar to
' The Field,' to which it is a young and ambitious rival, and of
which it may be considered an offshoot; edited by Frank
Buckland, author of the ' Curiosities of Natural History ' and
other works.

LXXVIII. LAYCOCK, the late Professor, of Edinburgh.

' Psychological Inquiries : ' a review in the Journal of Psychological
Medicine and Mental Pathology ;' vol. vii., 1854.

Contains references — as do others of the numerous psychological works,
major and minor, of this author— to the subject of Community of Mind between
Man and other animals.

LXXIX. LEE, Henry, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S., Naturalist of the Brighton

Aquarium.

' The Octopus, or the Devil- Fish of Fiction and of Fact ; ' illustrated
crown 8vo. London, 1876.

LXXX. VAN LENNEP, Rev. Dr. Henry J., a well-known American missionary

in the East.

' Bible Lands : their Modern Customs and Manners ; ' illustrated 8vo.
2 vols. London, 1875.

LXXXI. LEROY, the late Charles Georges, one of the Rangers of the Forests
of Versailles and Marly, near Paris, about the middle of last century.
' The Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals from a philosophic point
of view ; with a few letters on Man ; ' post 8vo. London, 1870.

This appears to be a translation into English — with certain additional
chapters— of a series of 'Lettres Philosophiques sur 1 'Intelligence des Ani-
maux,' written originally under the nom de plume of 'The Naturalist of
Nuremberg.'

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 41 1

LXXXH. LEVESON, the late Major H. A., of the Indian Army ; long well
known as a sportsman and writer on sport, under the name of H.
A. L., « The Old Shekarry.'

< Sport in Many Lands ; ' 2 vols. demy 8vo. copiously illustrated.
London, 1877.

LXXXIU. LEWES, George Henry, Editor of the Fortnightly Review.

1. ' The Physiology of Common Life ;' 2 vols. small 8vo. Edinburgh,

1859-60.

2. « Problems of Life and Mind.' Vol. 1 : demy 8vo. London, 1874.

LXXXIV. LINDSAY, Dr. Lauder, Physician to the Murray Royal Institution
[for the Insane] near Perth, Scotland.

1. * The Physiology and Pathology of Mind in the Lower Animals ; '

8vo. pamphlet, printed for private circulation. Edinburgh, 1871.

Object : To show that, both in disease and health, mind in other animals
exhibits the same kind of phenomena, possesses the same attributes, that it
does in man. A mere outline, however, of the subject.

2. ' The Physiology of Mind in the Lower Animals ; ' Journal of Mental

Science (London), for April, 1871.

Object : To show, more in detail, that the lower animals possess mind of
the same character as that of man — liable to be affected by the same causes
of derangement.

3. ' The Pathology of Mind in the Lower Animals ; ' Journal of Mental

Science for April, 1877.

Object : To show that other animals are subject to the same (1) causes and
(2) forms of insanity that affect man.

4. * Insanity in the Lower Animals ; ' British and Foreign Medico- Chirur-

gical Review (London), for July, 1871.

Object : To illustrate the parallelism that exists between other animals
and man as regards the kind of mental defect and disorder to which they are
subject.

5. ' Madness in Animals ; ' Journal of Mental Science for July, 1871.

Object : To show that (1) much of the so-called madness — hitherto ascribed
to rabies or hydrophobia — really belongs to the category of insanity as it
occurs in man ; while (2) genuine rabies or hydrophobia, is a comparatively
rare disease, whether in the dog or in man.

6. « Mental Epidemics among the Lower Animals ; ' Journal of Mental

Science for January, 1872.

Object : To show that the panics of certain animals are referable to the
category of epidemic mental disorders, as they occur in man.

7. ' The Causes of Insanity in Arctic Countries ; ' British and Foreign

Medico- Chirurgical Review for January, 1870.

Object : To show the equal influence of climate and its constituents, and
of the peculiarities of Arctic life, in the production of mental disease in the
dog and in man.

8. * Community of Disease in Man and other Animals ; ' British and Foreign

Medico- Chirurgical Review for January, 1874.

Object : To show that other animals are liable to the same kinds of cere-
bral, nervous, and other diseases as man ; that certain of man's disorders —
mental and nervous— are artificially producible in other animals ; and that the
etiology of disease — whether mental or bodily— is the same in other animals
as in man.

412 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

9. * The Transmission of Disease between Man and the Lower Animals ; '

Edinburgh Veterinary Review and Annals of Comparative Pathology
for July, 1858.

Object : To show that various diseases are communicable from man to the
lower animals, and vice versa.

10. ' Experiments on the Communicability of Cholera to the Lower Ani-

mals ; ' Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, April and October,
1854 ; and Gazette Hebdoinadaire de Medecine et de Chirurgie
(Paris), for November 24, 1854.
Object : To afford experimental proof that certain other animals are subject

to the same kind of cholera, producible by the same causes, as in man ; and

that it is directly transmissible from man to them.

11. * Choleraization in Animals ; ' Lancet (London), December 1, 1866.

Object : To demonstrate the means whereby cholera may be artificially
produced in the lower animals ; with the difficulties or fallacies of certain
modes of experiment.

12. ' Clinical Notes on Cholera ; ' a series of papers in the Association

Medical Journal (London), for 1854.
Contain observations on —

a. ' Epizootics in Domestic and Wild Animals.'

b. ' The Natural Influence of Cholera on the Lower Animals ; '

and

c. ' Diseases of the Lower Animals during Epidemic Cholera '

(pp. 1110-1).

Object : To show the common influence of certain epidemic and endemic
aerial and terrestrial poisons on other animals, as well as on man.

13. ' Suggestions for Observations on the Influence of Cholera and other

Epidemic Poisons on the Lower Animals ; ' Edinburgh Medical
Journal for July, 1857.

14. ' The Cattle Plague in some of its Aspects ; ' Lancet, May 16, 1857.
15 ' The Toot-plant and Poison of New Zealand ; ' British and Foreign

Medico- Chirurgical Review for July 1865, and October 1868.
Object : To show the equal influence on other animals, as well as on man,
of certain narcotic poisons.

16. 'Belladonna as an Antidote to Opium in Animals; ' and the 'Non-

Susceptibility of certain of the Lower Animals to the Influence of
certain Poisons ; ' Association Medical Journal for June 9, 1854.
Object : To show the idiosyncrasies of individuals, species, and genera of

the lower animals in comparison with man, in relation to the action of poisons

and their antidotes.

17. ' Microscopical and Chemical Characters of the Cholera Evacuations

in Man and the Lower Animals ; ' illustrated by lithographs and
wood-cuts ; Edinburgh Medical Journal for February and March,
1856.

Object : To show the identity of human and animal cholera, and allied dis-
eases, as regards their morbid anatomy.

Similar details are given in the sections treating of the vesical, gastric,
and intestinal excretions or ejections in the 'Clinical Notes on Cholera,'
already quoted (No. 12), which are also illustrated by wood engravings.

18. ' Illustrations of Animal Reason and its Derangements ; ' a series of

papers in the ' Scottish Naturalist ' for 1875 and 1876.
Object : To supply attt/icntic anecdotes of animal sagacity, and to point out
the difficulties of establishing the authenticity of published anonymous anec-
dotes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 413

19. ' Mind in Plants ;' Journal of Mental Science, January, 1876.

Object : To show that certain carnivorous and other plants, in common
with the lowest animals, exhibit certain phenomena of purposive action that
are in man usually considered mental, or at least that are associated with
current popular conceptions of mind.

20. 'The Artificial Production of Human Diseases in the Lower Animals ;'

a series of six papers in the Lancet, vol. i. for 1878.

Object : To show how readily certain mental, nervous, and other disorders
of the same character as those of man are by him producible in other animals :
and what is the kind or degree of his responsibility in the production of
these preventable disorders.

21. ' Spurious Hydrophobia in Man : ' Journal of Mental Science for
January and April, 1878.

Object : To show the rarity of genuine hydrophobia : and the frequency of
the spurious forms that are begotten of morbid imagination.

22. ' Spurious Hydrophobia in the Lower Animals : ' Journal of Mental
Science for January, 1879.

Object : To show the rarity of canine rabies : and the frequency of con-
ditions that are confounded with and mistaken for it.

LXXXV. LIVINGSTONE, the late Dr. David, the famous African Missionary-
Traveller.

' The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa ; ' by the Rev.
Horace Waller, F.R.G.S., Rector of Twywell, Northamptonshire; 2
vols. : illustrated. London, 1874.

LXXXVI. Low, Lieut., of H.M. Indian Navy.

« The Land of the Sun ; Sketches of Travel ; ' 8vo. London, 1870.
Has a chapter on the ' Andaman Islands ' and their inhabitants.

LXXXVII. Low, The late Professor David, of Edinburgh, an eminent writer

on agricultural science and practice.

' The Domesticated Animals of the British Islands ; ' 8vo. Edinburgh,
1845.

LXXXVm. LUBBOCK, Sir John, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., Vice-
Chancellor of the University of London.

1. 'The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man; the

Mental and Social Condition of Savages ; ' 3rd ed. ; 8vo. Illustrated.
London, 1874.

2. ' The Social and Religious Condition of the Lower Races of Man.'

Report of the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, U.S.A.), for
1869.

3. Several series of Experimental Observations on the Habits of Ants,

Bees, and Wasps. Journal of Linnean Society (Zoology), 1874 —
1878 ; Nature, 1874—1878; and Fortnightly Review, 1877.

LXXXIX. MACAULAY, James, M.A., M.D., editor of the Leisure Hour.

1 A Plea for Mercy to Animals.' One of the publications of the ' Religious
Tract Society.' Imperial 16mo. London, 1875.

XC. MACGAHAN, the late J. A.: Eastern correspondent of the New York
Herald.

1 Under the Northern Lights/ a narrative of the Arctic cruise of the
Pandora steam yacht in 1875. Illustrated ; 8vo. London, 1876.

Contains chapters on (</.) ' Our Dumb Companions,' the shipboard pets of
sailors ; (&.) ' A Tragedy,' which gives the history of a leader Eskimo dog

414 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

that, being brought to England, betook itself to the woods of Hampshire, and
was shot there as a supposed ' wolf ; ' and (c.) ' A Pet Bear.'

XCI. MACKELLAR, Mrs. Mary, of Edinburgh, a Highland poetess, of whose
life and labours a notice is given by Professor Blackie in his ' Lan-
guage and Literature of the Scottish Highlands.'

As the wife of a ship captain she has travelled a great deal, and has made

the best use of her opportunities of observation, equally abroad and at home.

Letters on ' The Reasoning Powers of Animals,' in the North British

Advertiser and Ladies' Journal,* one of the best known newspapers of

Edinburgh — for January 1875.

As a weekly serial this newspaper has always been honourably distin-
guished for its literary character ; and, while containing original articles,
such as those of Mrs. Mackellar and Miss Clara Kossiter, it also abounds in
quotations from all current sources illustrating the sagacity of animals.
XCII. MAUDSLEY, Professor, of University College, London, lately editor of
the Journal of Mental Science, a well-known quarterly.

1. 'The Genesis of Mind; ' Journal of Mental Science for January and

April, 1862.

2. ' Body and Mind ; ' crown ; 8vo. London, 1870.

Originally a series of ' Gulstonian Lectures on the relations between
body and mind, and between mental and other disorders of the nervous
system,' delivered at the Royal College of Physicians, London.

XCIII. MENAULT, the late Ernest, of Paris.

1. ' Wonders of Animal Instinct ; ' 8vo. London, 1872.

2. ' The Intelligence of Animals,' with illustrative anecdotes. Translated

from the French ; 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1869.
XCIV. MOGGRIDGE, the late J. Traherne, F.L.S., of Mentone, France.

'Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders; Notes and Observations on
their Habits and Dwellings ; ' 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1873. With
a ' supplement ' published in 1874.

XCV. MONTAGU, the late Colonel George, a Devonshire sportsman-naturalist,
who has been held in the highest esteem by successive generations of
British naturalists.
' Dictionary of British Birds,' edited by the late Edward Newman,

F.L.S., F.Z.S., editor of the Zoologist ; 8vo. London, 1866.
Originally published in 1802 and 1813 as the ' Ornithological Dictionary.'

XCVI. MONTEIRO, the late Joachim John, Associate of the School of Mines,

London, and Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society of

London ; a competent Portuguese traveller-naturalist, long resident in

Western Tropical Africa.

'Angola and the River Congo; ' 2 vols. 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1875.

XCVII. MiiLLER, Professor Max, of Oxford, the distinguished philologist.

1. ' Lectures on Darwin's Philosophy of Language.' Frascr's Magazine

for 1873, and Contempoiwy Review for 1875.

2. ' R6sum6 of all that is known of Indian Wolf -children.' Academy for

November, 1874, and Journal of Mental Science for January, 1875.

XCVIII. MURRAY, the late Andrew, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., of London, the eminent

entomologist.

' Geographical Distribution of Mammals ; ' 4to. ; copiously illustrated
by coloured maps. London, 1866.

X.CIX. ' NATURE,' an illustrated London weekly magazine, edited by J. N.
Lockyer, F.R.S., the well-known astronomer ; assisted by sub-editors
in the various departments of natural science.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 415

Is under the patronage of the most advanced naturalists of the day, and
abounds in well-authenticated illustrations of animal reason.

C. NEW, the late Rev. Charles, of the Livingstone Search and Relief Expe-
dition of 1872.

' Life, Wanderings and Labours in Eastern Africa ; ' 8vo. Illustrated.
London, 1873.

CI. NICHOLS, Arthur, F.R.G.S., formerly editor of the 'Field Quarterly
Magazine and Review,' who has had much experience of bush life and
bush animals in Australia.

' Do Animals think ? ' a series of articles in the said Field Quarterly
for February, August, and November, 1872.

Oil. ' PEECY ANECDOTES,' the : Chandos edition by Timbs, in 2 vols. ; 8vo.

London, 1868.

Contains a special section entitled 'Anecdotes of Instinct,' illustrating a
considerable variety of the mental aptitudes of the lower animals.

CUE. PIERQUIN, the late Dr., physician to the Charit4 Hospital, Paris.

' Traite de la Folie des Animaux, de ses Rapports avec celle de I'Homme ; '
2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1839.

An important work, far in advance of its day, and even yet not known
and appreciated as it well deserves to be. It contains chapters treating of
such subjects as —

a. The history of the development of the science of comparative psychology.

b. The moral sentiments of animals.

c. The physical signs or expressions of passion, emotion, and intelligence.
The work abounds, moreover, in anecdotes — from classical times down-
wards— illustrative of animal sagacit}'.

CIV. POMPELLY, Professor, of Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. (U.S.A.).
' Across America and Asia ; ' 8vo. London, 1870.

CV. POTTS, Thomas H., F.L.S., of Canterbury, New Zealand.

A series of papers illustrative of the habits of the birds of New Zealand,
published in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute ; an annual
illustrated 8vo. volume, printed in Wellington, New Zealand.

CVI. POUCHET, the late F. A., M.D., Corresponding Member of the Institute

of France, and Director of the Museum of Natural History, Rouen.
' The Universe ; or the Infinitely Great and the Infinitely Little ; ' 4th

English edition, copiously illustrated. London, 1876.
Contains chapters on 'The Intelligence of Insects.'

CVII. PREJEVALSKY, Lieut.-Colonel N., of the Russian Staff Corps, and

Member of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society.
' Mongolia, the Tongut Country, and the Solitudes of Northern Tibet ;
being a Narrative of Three Years' Travel in Eastern High Asia.'

Translated from the Russian by E. Delmar Morgan, F.R.G.S., with intro-
duction and notes by Colonel Henry Yule, C.B., R.E. ; 2 vols. 8vo. Illustrated.
London, 1876.

CVHI. RAMSAY, the late Sir George, of Bamff, Bart.

'Instinct and Reason; or the First Principles of Human Knowledge.'
Post 8vo. London, 1862.

Has only one short chapter (of three pages) on ' The Reason of Animals.'
CIX. ROMANES, George J., M.A., F.L.S.

1. ' Instinct and Acquisition,' and other contributions to comparative

psychology in Nature.

2. 'Conscience in Animals.' Quarterly Journal of Science, April 1876,

416 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

CX. BOSSITER, Clara.

'Anecdotes of Pets,' relating to the Cat and other animals, in the North
British Advertiser (of Edinburgh), for 1874.

CXI. SCHEVE, Gustav, of Dresden.

1 Phrenologische Bilder ; ' 8vo. Leipsic, 1851.

Contains a chapter ' Der Mensch und das Thier,' pointing out the psycho-
logical resemblances and differences between man and other animals.

CXII. SCHWEINFURTH, Dr. Georg, an accomplished German botanical

traveller.

' The Heart of Africa ; ' 2nd English edition. Illustrated. 2 vols. ; 8vo.
London, 1874.

CXIII. ' SCIENCE GOSSIP,' Hardwicke's ; ' an illustrated medium of inter-
change and gossip for students and lovers of nature.' A London
monthly journal of natural history of a thoroughly popular character ;
formerly edited by Dr. Cooke, the eminent fungologist, now by Dr.
Taylor, F.G.S., of the Ipswich Museum.

CXTV. SMILES, Samuel, now of London, formerly a Scotch country surgeon.

'Life of a Scotch Naturalist: Thomas Edward, A.L.S.,' curator of the
Museum, Banff. Illustrated 8vo. 3rd edition. London, 1877.

The valuable part of the work, in connection with our subject, is Edward's
own description of the habits of wild birds.

CXV. SMITH, the late Kev. Sydney, the famous English humourist or wit.
1 Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy,' 8vo. London, 1850.
Contains two chapters on ' The Faculties of Beasts,' as compared with those
of man.

CXVI. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, U.S.A., Annual Eeports of
the Board of Regents of the ; begun in 1847, and continued up to the
present date.

These annual volumes abound in papers illustrative of the manners and
customs — which embrace the moral and religious condition, the psychical
status — of the aborigines of many different parts of North America ; papers
that are particularly valuable as showing the negative or defective character,
especially as to morals and religion, of many native races.

Nor are these reports less valuable from containing, besides, the results of
the researches of the most eminent British anthropologists, such as those of
Lubbock and Tylor [e.g., the volumes for 1867 and 1869].

CXVII. SOUTHESK, the Earl of, Kt., F.R.G.S.

' Saskatchewan and the Rocky Mountains : a Diary and Narrative of Travel,
Sport, and Adventure during a Journey through the Hudson's Bay
Company's Territories in 1859 and I860,' 8vo. Illustrated. London,
1875.

CXVin. SPALDING, the late Douglas A., of the Middle Temple, barrister-at-
law, London.

1. 'Instinct, with Original Observations on Young Animals.' MacmUlari's

Magazine for 1873.

2. ' Instinct and Acquisition.' Nature for 1875.

CXIX. SPENCER, Herbert, the eminent English psychologist.

' Principles of Psychology ; ' 2nd ed. 8vo. London, 1872.
CXX. THOMPSON, Edw. P.

1. 'Note Book of a Naturalist,' 8vo. London, 1845.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 417

These Notes of a Traveller-naturalist in Europe embody chapters on the
a Physiognomy, 1 of the lower animals in general, and on what is
*;Sr } specialised
(L Instinct — in dogs.
2. 'The Passions of Animals,' Svo. London, 1851.

An unfortunate title for a book that is an excellent compilation, including
as it does, such subjects as Imagination, Dreams, and Mistakes.

Refers to the ' Andeutungen aus dem Seelenleben der Thiere,' of Dr.
Schmarda, on which indeed Thompson's volume seems to be based.

CXXL TYLOB, Edward B., LL.D., F.R.S.

1. ' Researches into the Early History of Mankind, and the Development

of Civilisation.' 2nd. ed.; Svo. London, 1870.

2. « Primitive culture : Researches into the Development of Mythology,

Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom.' 2nd ed.;
2 vols. Svo. London, 1874.

3. 'Wild-men and Beast- children.' Anthropological Review, vol. i.

1S63.

4. ' On Traces of the early Mental Condition of Man.' Report of the

Smithsonian Institution, U.S. A. far 1867.

CXXII. VERNEY, Lady.

1. ' Bees in the Past and the Present.' Good Words for 1873.
'2. ' Monkeys.' Good Words for 187"-.

CXXIII. 'VESTIGES of the Natural History of Creation.' llth ed. (which

is the last) ; illustrated. London, 1860.

Contains a chapter on ' The Mental Constitution of Animals :' regarded
from a phrenological point of view.

CXXIV. VINCENT, Frank, Junr., an American Traveller.

'The Land of the White Elephant,' a Record of Travel in 1871-2, in
Burma, Siam, Cambodia and Cochin- China.' Svo. Illustrated.
London, 1873.

CXXV. WALLACE, Alfred 11., F.R.S., F.L.S.

1. 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection.' Crown Svo.
London, 1870.

Contains a chapter on the 'Intellect of Savages and of Animals compared.'
'2. ' The Malay Archipelago : the land of the Orang-utan and the Bird of
Paradise : a Narrative of Travel, with Studies of Man and Nature.'
5th ed. crown Svo. Illustrated. London, 1S72.

3. 'Introduction to a Catalogue of the Aculeate Hymenoptera and
Ichneumonidae of India and the Eastern Archipelago.' Journal of
Linnean Society, Zoology, vol. xi. 1873.

CXXVI. WAEBURTON, Colonel P. E., Companion of the Order of St. Michael
and St. George, formerly of the Bombay Army, and now of Adelaide,
South Australia.

'Journey across the Western Interior of Australia.' Svo. Illustrated.
London, 1875.

CXXVII. WARDEOP, The Rev. John, U. P. Minister of Craigend, near Perth
(Scotland).

'Animal Psychosis:' a series of Papers in the Scottish Xaturalist for

!>:.-; and 1876.

Regards from a metaphysician's and theologian's point of view what he
believes to be the specific diversity of mental phenomena in man as com-
pared with other animals.

VOL. II. E E

418 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

CXXVIII. WATSON, The Rev. J. S., M.A.

' The Reasoning Power in Animals.' 8vo. London, 1870.
Many of the anecdotes given are hackneyed, and require confirmation, or
rather replacement by others of more modern date and of a more precise
kind.

CXXIX. WEST WOOD, Professor J. O., F.L.S., of Oxford.

'Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects.' 2 vols. 8vo.
London, 1840.

The more specially interesting sections are those which treat of the Habits
of Bees, Ants and Wasps.

CXXX. WHETHAM, J. W. Boddam.

'Pearls of the Pacific.' Being a Narrative of Travel in the Sandwich,
Samoan, Fiji and other Polynesian Islands. Demy 8vo. Illustrated. London,
1876.

CXXXI. WHITE, Adam, F.L.S., late of the Zoological Department of the

British Museum, London.

' Popular History of Mammalia.' One of Lovel Reeve's series of illus-
trated popular Natural Histories. London, 1850.

CXXXII. WHITE, the late Rev. Gilbert, M.A., of Selborne.

' The Natural History of Selborne.' Edited by the late Sir Wm. Jardinc,
of Applegarth, Bart., editor of the well-known ' Naturalist's Library,'
and by the late Edward Jesse, author of the ' Gleanings,' and other
works in Natural History : containing numerous notes by the editors
and other distinguished naturalists. One of the volumes of ' Bohn's
Illustrated Library.' 8vo. London, 1851.

Especially valuable as an example of what may be accomplished by
country clergymen or doctors in the scientific observation and record of
Natural Phenomena.

CXXXIII. WOOD, The Rev. J. G., M.A., F.L.S.

' Man and Beast, Here and Hereafter, with illustrative Anecdotes.' 2nd
ed. post 8vo. London, 1876.

The Anecdotes, which are said to be original and modern, amount to
upwards of 300, 'all being authenticated by the writers, and the documents
themselves remaining in my possession,' says the author. Many of • the
anecdotes in question, however, are certainly neither original nor modern.
Not a few I have met with in different forms in books of very different
characters and dates, and the probability, therefore, is that not a few of his
correspondents have drawn upon their memory and imagination, and have
reproduced, unwittingly, no doubt, various ' old stories ' sometimes of little
or no value.

The want of an INDEX is a serious defect in this and certain other similar
volumes that treat of Animal Intelligence.

ENUMEBATION OF ANIMALS.

ENUMERATION OF THE ANIMALS WHOSE CHARACTER AND
HABITS FORM THE BASIS OF THE AUTHOR'S GENERAL-
ISATIONS.

The following catalogue is the result of the conviction that it is
desirable to show the exact nature, variety and extent of the bases
on which the generalisations contained in the body of this work are
founded. In general terms and in round numbers it may safely
be affirmed that the conclusions referred to have been based on the
character and habits of about 1,250 animal species, representing —
though necessarily unequally — all zoological classes and orders, from
the Protozoa up to the Quadrumana. Of these species I have been
able seriatim to catalogue only 930 ; while, in the case of at least 300
others, the species, for various reasons immediately hereinafter to
be described or explained, have been indeterminable. Of the 300 in-
determinable species about 100 are birds, another 100 insects, while
the third hundred are mammals, fish, or other animals.

. The appended catalogue has involved an immense amount of
labour — incommensurate, perhaps, with the result ; much of it
fruitless, unrepresented and unrepresentable. I can honestly
affirm, indeed, that the compilation of this section of the Appendix
has cost me infinitely more trouble — comparatively — than the other
investigations on which the body of this book has been based;
while, notwithstanding all the pains bestowed, it cannot be con-
sidered accurate, complete or satisfactory.

The catalogue makes no pretence to be regarded as exhaustive
or even precise. I had no sooner begun to draw it up in the form
in which it appeared desirable to present it to the general reader,
than I found insuperable difficulties in rendering it at all complete,
on the one hand, or accurate on the other. As a warning to future

420 ENUMERATION OF ANIMALS.

writers — of whatever kind — on the mental endowments of animals,
I do not think it a waste either of time or space to point oat shortly
the nature and causes of the chief difficulties so encountered.

I. The use by authors of all kinds only of what is, or is sup-
posed to be, the common English name of the animal, whose habits
form the subject of their comments ; a designation frequently so
vague that it may embrace not only many species, but many genera
and even orders. Thus, when a writer describes the habits of an
ant in this or that country, without giving its scientific or zoological
name, we are at a loss to determine to what one of many species
and genera, or even, perhaps, to which of two orders, the animal
belongs ; for while the true ants belong to the extensive and im-
portant order of the Hymenoptera — which includes also bees and
wasps — the wliite ants belong to the smaller and less important
order of the Neuroptera. The consequence, then, of numerous
authors speaking simply of ' ants ' instead of designating the
genus and species, is this, in so far as concerns such a table as
ours, — that the said table omits all the instances in which the generic
and specific names are not supplied ; in other words, in this single
category of ants, the omissions are infinitely more numerous than
the species scheduled.

The number and variety of both genera, and species that may
be included in a single general common English name may be illus-
trated by such cases as these : among

1. Coelenterata — sea anemones.

2. Annuloida — starfish, hydatids.

3. Annulosa — spiders, worms, crabs.

4. Insects — bees, wasps, beetles, butterflies, moths, flies.

5. Mollusca — snails, slugs.

6. Fish — sharks, salmon, rays.

7. Amphibia — frogs.

8. Reptiles — serpents, snakes, vipers, boas, lizards, tortoises.

and turtles.

9. Birds — waterfowl, sparrows, albatrosses, ducks, vultures.

kingfishers, pigeons and doves, crows, gulls, parrots and
parroquets, eagles, falcons and hawks, grouse, larks,
thrushes, owls, swallows, swifts and martins, partridges
and pheasants.

10. Mammals — apes, monkeys, baboons and gibbons, deer,
antelopes and goats, rats and mice, whales and seals,
bears, bats, marmots.

Ignoring then the fact that the same common English name may
and does refer, in different localities or countries, frequently to

ENUMERATION OF ANIMALS. 421

different species and genera, it is a serious error of omission in those
authors who give themselves no trouble to ascertain and record,
along with their observations or comments, the Latin name of the
species whose habits they are describing. It is only by the use
of these convenient binomials that the animals referred to 'can be
identified by readers, even if they be naturalists, of different
nationalities.

In the case of such animals as the dog, horse, ass, mule, sheep,
cattle or common fowls, comparatively little harm is done by the
omission of the Latin or scientific name of the species ; because, as
a rule, there is a single genus with few species, and the circum-
stances of the animal's life, when these are recorded, its native
country, its being domestic, tame, captive or wild, will or may lead
the experienced naturalist to the determination of the species. But
not necessarily ; for under the heads of dog and sheep, for instance,
in the following catalogue, I have retained some of the old sub-
specific names that are still considered distinctive. Even when we
know both genus and species, such a general designation as dog
leaves us in ignorance of the breed — a matter of moment to the
Comparative Psychologist, considering the remarkable psychical
differences that so frequently characterise both breeds and indi-
viduals.

II. The exclusive use of other classes of popular names — whether
colonial, native or foreign ; designations that are just as vague and
objectionable when standing alone as common English designations.

III. The non-use of ilie Latin, scientific or zoological, specific
and generic name of every animal. With the exception of scientific
traveller-naturalists, of the class represented by Darwin, Wallace,
Houzeau, and Belt, there are very few authors of any kind who
give the modern or current Latin names of the animals whose
character they portray.

It so happens that, in certain cases, the proper scientific name
cannot yet be assigned, because the animals described by travellers
have not yet been examined by zoological experts. And this is the
case unfortunately with certain animals of the highest interest in a
psychological point of view — for instance, in that of the Soko of
central tropical Africa, mentioned by Livingstone in his " Last
Journals," and which is probably a species of Troglodytes — a gorilla
or chimpanzee.

Unfortunately, most waiters are equally careless in giving the
other, obviously very necessary, details specified in the other
columns of the following table.

IV. Where Latin names are given they have sometimes been

422 ENUMEKATION OF ANIMALS.

borrowed second-hand from a succession of popular writers, and
are hence old and obsolete. In which case it is only the accomplished
zoological specialist, versed in the superabundant literature of his
subject, who can correctly assign the proper modern designation or
synonymony.

V. Moreover, we have constantly to encounter in popular works
on Natural History egregious mis-spellings by writers obviously
equally ignorant of Latin and Zoology — including, for instance, an
utter disregard of any agreement as to gender between substantive
and adjective. A defective Latinity in book-writers, even of a
scientific class, is a fertile source of sometimes gross errors in
zoological nomenclature.

VI. The incessant changes that are taking place in zoological
nomenclature and classification. This continuous and perplexing
changeability arises from or is connected with —

a. The prevalent love of novelty and fashion both in names,
in name-giving, and in systems of arrangement.

b. The mania for elaborate species-making and splitting, and the
consequent multiplication of unnecessary names.

c. The much greater attention given to the discrimination of
trivial differences than to the discovery of broad or general re-
semblances.

d. The capricious conversion of varieties into species or vice
versa ; the finical sub- division of genera ; the transfer and re- transfer
of genera from one order into another.

No doubt changes — both in nomenclature and classification —
maybe and are rendered necessary by the rapid acquisitions of zoology
— by the numerous additions that are constantly being made from
all parts of the world — to those ' new species ' in which zoological
systematists so greatly delight. But changes that are necessary and
desirable, that are the natural or legitimate fruit of accepted
additions to zoological knowledge, are to be carefully distinguished,
if it be possible to do so, from those that are neither necessary nor
desirable — that are, in short, attributable to mere zoological dog-
matism, caprice, novelty or fashion. The convenient doctrine of
necessary change will not account for all the numerous instances in
which the name of some single common species of animal is in-
volved in a complex and puzzling synonymy, in which a single
well-known animal has become the unfortunate subject of two or
three dozen very different but equally curious Latinised designa-
tions.

In endeavouring to determine the species of animal whose
habits arc described by such writers as those whose works are

ENUMERATION OF ANIMALS. 423

enumerated in the Bibliography, and to fill up the other details given
in the following catalogue, it became necessary for me, in the absence
of scientific libraries or books in a provincial town and in a country
residence, every now and again to have recourse to the assistance
of zoological specialists in different parts of the three kingdoms.
To all of these gentlemen I am under obligations for the readiness
with which they consulted works of reference on my behalf. But
my acknowledgments are specially due to Prof. Alfred Newton,
of Cambridge ; Prof. Macalister, of Dublin ; and Dr. Buchanan
White, editor of the Scottish Naturalist, for the pains they took
in supplying me with as full information as was under the circum-
stances procurable.

Among other advantages of such catalogues as the following is
this — that they exhibit the number of animals whose specific
designations have been based wholly or partly on their mental
qualities. Illustrations are to be found in —

Canis sagax. A. agricola.

C. latrans. Arvicola economica.

Passer stultus. Formica indefessa.

Megalopterus stolidus. Termes bellicosus.

Lepus timidus. Eciton predator.

Galeodes intrepida. Pheidole plagiaria.

Macropodus, Machetes, and Birgus latro.

Semipodius pugnax. Bufo obstetricans.

Ursus ferox. Mimus polyglottus.

Atta providens.

Most or all of these specific designations — based on psychical
peculiarities — are at least quite as appropriate and descriptive as
the term sapiens applied to the single known representative of
the genus Homo.

It is a pity that a much larger number of animal species have
not derived their distinctive appellations rather from marked
psychical diameters than from those that are obscure, variable and
physical. In other words — mental features, powers or endowments,
might very appropriately form to a greater degree than at present
specific characters in zoological nomenclature and classification ;
mind, where it is conspicuously exhibited, might itself become or
furnish a zoological character in systematic diagnosis and arrange-
ment.

424

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GENERAL ANALYTICAL INDEX.

MUCH experience of books, especially of such as abound both in
facts and inferences, has led me to regard a full general index as
one of their most important features or one of their greatest wants.
Such an index offers the means whereby the reader who has little
time or inclination to peruse the whole of a bulky volume, or of a
series of volumes, may, almost at a glance, satisfy himself of the
general scope or aim of any given work, or may guide himself to
any section of it that may exclusively have an interest for him.

Such an index is, I think, especially necessary in a work which
must be regarded as the condensation of four or five volumes into
two, and which contains, as one of the results of selection of material,
numerous references, scattered throughout its pages, to subjects
that, for reasons specified in the introduction to the first volume,
cannot be treated otherwise than by passing mention. And yet
these references are necessary to the completeness of the catalogue
of the mental endowments of animals — necessary to a general view
of the subject of ' Mind in the Lower Animals.'

There is every probability, moreover, that the present work will
be read by persons of the most opposite habits of thought and life ;
by physicians and metaphysicians, by travellers and naturalists, by
sportsmen and veterinarians, by theologians and moral philosophers,
and by critics of all kinds, as well as by members of that unlimited
heterogeneous class, the general public, each of them being interested
in some particular department of the general subject. To students
so various in their views and requirements a full general index will,

VOL. II. K K

498

INDEX.

it is hoped, afford the means of discovering at once what are the
sections or chapters to them of greatest interest.

I have, therefore, devoted several months to the compilation of
the following copious index to the general or special topics discussed
or referred to in the two volumes of which this work consists, and
of which work I regard it as an essential feature.

The numerals are to be thus read : i. 2 signifies vol. i. p. 2.

ABA

A BASEMENT and its expression,
A ii. 300
Abashment and its expression, ii.

164
Abduction of young and its causes,

i. 412, 483, 508; ii. 149, 156, 157,

379

Abjectness, i. 227
Ablution, i. 301, 412, 413, 417, 418
Absorption, mental, i. 382
Abstract ideas, presence in animals,

i. 103, 106, 107, 141
absence in man, i. 106, 141,

174, 181, 210 ; ii. 10
Absurd or ridiculous, sense of the,

i. 317
Abuse, man's terms of, i. 11

— of each other, i. 77, 300, 302, 304

— sensitiveness to man's, i. 542
Accidents to animals and their causes,

i. 499, 500, 501, 506, 509, 510, 511,
520, 530, 538, 543; ii. 21, 33, 34,
50, 53, 63, 75, 121, 130, 147, 208,
220, 241, 250, 368, 385

— to man and their causes, i. 198,
200, 201, 272, 495, 497, 510, 542 ;
ii. 11, 21, 33, 34, 50, 54, 102, 103,
214, 219, 241, 242, 250, 252, 253,
356, 361, 363, 389

— feigning of, i. 525

— forms of, ii. 136, 138, 142, 250,
254

— sense of, ii. 145

— prevention of, i. 279 ; ii. 253,
389

— profiting by, i. 278 ; ii. 241

— results of, ii. 131, 133, 134, 178
Accomplices, animals as man's, i. 181,

195, 199, 346, 376, 394, 533; ii.
160, 162, 364

Accomplishments, mental, i. 74, 77,
82, 83, 242, 243, 245, 260, 261, 265,

ADA

275, 280, 303, 304, 532, 533 ; ii. 25,

124, 277, 285, 300
Accuracy, i. 182, 246, 301, 455, 461,

462, 529, 533
Accusations, judicial or other, i. 326,

343, 402

— man's against animals, ii. 360
Acephalous animals, purposive action

in, i. 4, 7, 71 ; ii. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 70
Acquiescence in man's arrangements,
i. 376 ; ii. 371

— in each other's arrangements,
i. 383

— in fate, ii. 144

Acquired as contrasted with innate
mental qualities, i. 130, 134, 135,
173, 230, 234, 272, 277, 282, 286,
336

Acquisitions, mental, i. 245, 246, 251,
336, 353, 452, 487 : ii. 86, 87, 93,
120, 121

— accumulation of, ii. 234

— transmission of, ii. 234
Acquisitiveness, natural and morbid,

i. 131, 136, 158, 159, 489 ; ii. 153, 154

Activity, mental, i. 87, 480 ; ii. 196,
245

Actors and acting, animal, i. 532

Acumen, mental, i. 398

Adams, observations of Prof. Leith,
i. 146, 505, 525 ; ii. 116, 128, 151,
191, 208, 227, 237, 246, 254

Adaptiveness, general and special,
i. 52, 53, 55, 56, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,
67, 70, 71, 73, 76, 77, 87, 89, 97, 111,
127, 133, 134, 139, 190, 233, 234,
250, 253, 255, 256, 259, 262, 266,
275, 278, 295, 296, 298, 303, 304,
319, 327, 336, 338, 341, 342, 348,
350, 351, 352, 357, 358, 359, 361,
362, 363, 364, 366, 367, 368, 369,
370, 373, 374, 375, 380, 384, 388,

INDEX.

499

ADA

390, 391, 392, 393, 397, 405, 406,
407, 409, 410, 412, 413, 414, 416,
417, 418, 419, 420, 422, 423, 424,
425, 426, 427, 428. 431, 433, 434,
435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 441, 442,
445, 449, 452, 453, 456, 462, 463,
464, 469, 472, 486, 497, 524, 526,
527, 528, 529, 530, 534, 535, 536,
538, 540, 541, 542 ; ii. 5, 6, 38, 64,
79, 83, 91, 92, 101, 109, 119, 120,
122, 132, 133, 134, 136, 141, 142,
145, 155, 156, 161, 162, 163, 164,
165, 166, 167, 188, 194, 225, 239,
241, 266, 268, 279, 282, 283, 289,
365, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376,
377, 379, 380, 386, 387, 389, 390,

391, 393, 394, 395
Adaptiveness, want of, i. 395, 488 ; ii.

25,30

— spurious, ii. 7

Addresses, paying, accepting, evading
and refusing, i. 73, 468, 478, 479,
519

Adhesiveness, i. 131, 137

Administrative ability, i. 120, 386,
397

Admiration, causes of, ii. 309

— love of, and necessity for, i. 73,
469, 476, 477, 540; ii. 239, 300,
375

— feeling of, i. 61, 85, 251, 470, 475 ;
ii. 199

Adoption of young, i. 183, 482, 483,

484, 485, 486, 487 ; ii. 392
Adoration in animals, i. 59, 66, 119,

221, 222 ; ii. 176, 239

— in man, i. 207, 211, 212 ; ii. 239
Adroitness, i. 70, 97, 275, 358, 398,

414, 419, 528 ; ii. 155
Advantage and disadvantage, sense

of, i. 135, 189, 340, 374, 469, 470,

471, 472, 473, 534 ; ii. 115, 241, 246,

387
Advantage-taking, of circumstances,

i. 336, 362, 366, 371 ; ii. 241, 246,

393
— of each other, i. 358, 359, 361,

362, 365, 369, 382, 389, 465, 532 ;

ii. 92, 157, 241, 289, 392, 393
of man, i. 465, 532 ; ii. 161, 241,

289
by man of animals, i. 252,

253, 265, 500, 542 ; ii. 51, 88, 115,

123, 209, 234, 318
Advice, giving and receiving, i. 313,

335, 337

Advocacy, i. 326, 343, 402
Affectation, i. 531 ; ii. 322

AGE

Affection, absence of natural, i. 84,
89, 94, 269, 485, 487 ; ii. 56, 64, 65,
85, 117, 159, 185, 194, 200

— presence of natural, i. 27, 41, 42,
55, 56, 61, 64, 71, 85, 86, 87, 97,

- 120, 121, 131, 188, 189, 191, 363

— attributes of, i. 221, 222, 224, 480,
485

— difference between human and
canine, i. 224

-expressions of, i. 315, 411, 416,
469, 474 ; ii. 119, 176, 372

— errors of, i. 489, 506

— changes in, ii. 201, 239

— fraternal, ii. 65, 66

— coldness of, ii. 64, 185

— conjugal, ii. 65

— disappointed, i. 87, 478 ; ii. 66,
240, 241, 256

— duration of, ii. 185

— filial, i. 487 ; ii. 65, 117

— intensity of, ii. 64, 185, 256

— longing for, i. 95, 228, 229 ; ii. 137,
279, 295, 297

— loss of natural, ii. 117, 239
of acquired, ii. 198

— maternal, i. 136, 137, 138, 190,
294, 340, 341, 417, 482, 506 ; ii. 62,
63, 64, 65, 73, 121, 128, 132, 156,
186, 200, 230, 375, 392, 393

— mutual, i. 60, 91, 94, 296, 487 ;
ii. 247, 387

— parental, ii. 65

— paternal, ii. 64, 65

— perversions of, ii. 31, 62, 64, 65,
66, 172

— weakness of, ii. 64

— natural, in man, absence of, i. 41,
42, 167, 168

— man's for animals, i. 42 ; ii. 327,
330, 336

Affectionateness, ii. 118, 119, 126,

195, 199,256
Affront, sensitiveness to, i. 76, 304,

542 ; ii. 240. 294, 303, 323
Age, mental characteristics of old,

i. 323, 467, 503, 543 ; ii. 127, 174,

193, 194, 195, 196, 204, 303, 315,

330, 372, 390

— errors of, i. 490

— sense of, i. 197 ; ii. 144

— in relation to the acquisition of
knowledge, i. 242, 300, 464

to the formation of attach-
ments, ii. 194

to the exercise of authority, ii.

158

to behaviour, ii 174

K K 2

500

INDEX.

AGE

Age, in relation to the faculty of cal-
culation, i. 467

to the exercise of caution, i.

543 ; ii. 38, 145

to the formation of character,

ii. 195, 196, 197, 202, 283

to delirium, ii. 197

to the action of drugs, ii. 81

to the forms of disease, ii. 189,

300

to the curability of insanity, ii.

346

to education, i. 85, 86, 91, 240,

274, 275

to endurance, ii. 372

to the acquisition of expe-
rience, i. 278 ; ii. 38, 194

to fear, ii. 234

to excitability, ii. 179, 303

to the power of governing, i.

380, 382, 383, 386, 390, 493

to insanity, ii. 30, 31, 35, 46, 47,

48, 192, 194, 197

to mental development, i. 70,

115, 124, 141, 164, 271 ; ii. 194

to mental decay, ii. 127, 174,

193, 194

to play, i. 280, 297, 319

to punishability, i. 402, 403,

406

-to reflection, i. 128, 141; ii.
194

— — to the power of self-manage-
ment, i. 486

— to rivalry, ii. 143
to stupidity, ii. 128

to suicide, ii. 130, 131, 132,

133, 134, 138, 141

to sensation, ii. 178

to usefulness, ii. 143

to suspiciousness, ii. 195

— to tamability, i. 85, 91, 271
to treatment, ii. 355

to the development of vice, ii.

178
to work, ii. 319

to moral development in man,

i. 163, 173

Aged, treatment of the, ii. 156, 388
Aggressiveness, i. 92, 197 ; ii, 74, 171,

177, 178, 182, 202, 203, 204, 223,

224, 228, 231, 238, 239, 241, 245,

279, 356, 367, 378
Agitation of feeling, i. 177, 294, 298,

402 ; ii. 79, 165, 179, 190, 207, 214,

217, 218, 221, 227, 256, 265
Agony, mental, i. 294, 301, 413, 538; ii.

131, 133, 134, 135, 227, 230, 308, 392

ALL

Agreeable, sense of the, ii. 87
Agreement-making, i. 390; ii. 115,

238, 390, 394
Agriculture in animals, i. 59, 110, 111,

112, 459

— absence of in man, i. 44, 110, 111
Aid, sense of need of, i. 227 ; ii. 386,

387, 393

— non-appreciation of need of, ii.
378

— refusal of, ii. 294, 378
Aid-giving to each other, i. 55, 60, 61,

66, 73, 154, 190, 344, 359, 362, 363,
365, 370, 374, 393, 395, 408, 417,
422, 424, 440, 463 ; ii. 158, 385,
386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 392, 394

— to man, ii. 160, 328, 380, 391
Aid-offering to each other, ii. 386
Aid-seeking from each other, i. 294,

298, 313, 324, 326, 335, 362, 370,
393, 408, 457, 463, 484, 503 ; ii. 92,
386, 390, 394

from man, i. 73 ; ii. 371, 372,

373, 375, 376, 379, 380, 382

Aim, precision of, i. 415, 425, 461,
462, 466

Aimlessness of action, i. 97, 298, 378 ;
ii. 31, 38, 46, 49, 74, 122, 152, 155,
160, 171, 177, 202, 225, 231, 268

Alacrity, i. 275, 539 ; ii. 119

Alarm, causation of, i. 484, 503, 516,
521, 525, 541, 543 ; ii. 5, 34, 57, 58,
73, 140, 185, 186, 188, 214, 224,
225, 226, 227, 234, 235, 241, 242,
260, 266, 267, 306

— treatment of, ii. 350

— liability to, ii. 237

— results of, ii. 264, 266, 267, 268,
269

— habitual, ii. 106

— groundless, ii. 101, 103, 172, 181,
234

Alarm-giving, i. 364, 389
Alcohol, aversion to, ii. 85, 86

— fondness for, i. 542 ; ii. 56, 81, 82,
83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 281, 282, 283

— effects of, ii. 70, 72, 73, 81, 86, 89,
90, 91, 92, 376

Alertness, i. 60, 275, 352, 364, 437

Allegiance to man, i. 473

Alliances, formation of, i. 70, 390;
ii. 162, 193

Allowance-making .by animals for
wind, tide, currents, distance, re-
fraction of light, and movements
of bodies, i. 278, 462, 464

for man's infirmities, ii. 393,

394

INDEX.

501

ALL

Allowance-making by man for absence

of speech and writing in animals,

ii. 24, 28, 96, 105, 106, 108, 170

for age, ii. 365

for power of self-control, ii. 365

for disadvantages, i. 119, 195,

197; ii. 324
for difference in structure and

habits, i. 9, 339, 397, 474; ii. 24,

30, 37, 43, 81, 105, 150, 213, 265

— of species, ii. 189
in degree and kind of edu-
cation, i. 198 ; ii. 365

of experience, ii. 365

of ill-usage, ii. 365

— of provocation, i. 198 ;

ii. 364, 365
for individuality, i. 198, 265 ;

ii. 324, 365, 367

for nature of offence, ii. 365

Alphabet, knowledge and use of

man's, i. 305, 313
Alternation in work, i. 377
Amazement, i. 85 ; ii. 220
Amazons, i. 378, 481, 501
Ambiguity of technical terms, i. 16,

17, 140
Ambition, i. 132, 379, 382; ii. 57,

240
Ambuscade, use of, i. 60, 362, 373,

392 ; ii. 143
Amentia, ii. 44
Amiability, i. 94, 120, 121, 269, 270;

ii. 285, 331
Amicability, i. 474
Amity, i. 530
Amorousness, natural and morbid, i.

478 ; ii. 53, 73
Ammunition, use of, i. 77
Amphibia, mental characteristics of,

i. 70
Amusement, feeling of, i. 73, 301,

321, 538 ; ii. 224

— love of, and necessity for, i. 231,
537 ; ii. 247, 248, 272, 299, 303

— sources of, i. 76 ; ii. 152

— co-operation with man in, ii. 158

— of animals by man, i. 514 ; ii. 272

— of young by parents, i. 524, 531

— as a means of treatment, ii. 358
Amusement-giving to each other, i.

303, 320, 420

to man, ii. 292

Analogy, uses of, i. 9, 10, 519 ; ii. 38,

56, 224
Analysis, faculty of, ii. 152

— by man of animal thought and
action, i. 10, 81, 132, 533

ANN

Anarchy and its causes, i. 378

Ancestral influences and their im-
portance, ii. 30, 59, 244

Ancient naturalists, evidence of, i.
26, 55

Anecdotes of animal sagacity, au-
thenticity of, i. 18, 21, 22, 24, 27,
86, 144, 402, 502 ; ii. 104, 146, 147,
153, 232, 262

— confirmation desirable, i. 303,
402, 447, 453, 487, 495, 502, 511,
515, 517

— classical, i. 55

— educational uses of, i. 28 ; ii. 339,
343

— superabundance of, i. 74, 144, 222,
502 ; ii. 232

-- truthfulness of apparently in-
credible, i. 502, 515, 517

Anger, i. 59, 294, 301, 304, 386, 412,
413, 469, 478, 506, 510, 511, 516,
532, 539, 542 ; ii. 25, 26, 31, 50, 51,
60, 73, 76, 159, 167, 173, 175, 178,
184, 185, 190, 191, 204, 208, 223,
225, 229, 231, 232, 239, 285, 287,
373

— causes of, ii. 31, 239, 279, 292, 293,
294, 317, 365

— deprecation of man's, ii. 368

— effects of, ii. 47, 50, 159, 190, 229,
231, 232, 254, 262, 263, 267, 268,
269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 302, 365

— expressions of, i. 510; ii. 159, 173,
187, 231, 239, 261, 262, 267, 368,
390

— duration of, ii. 231, 274

— intensity of, ii. 25, 26, 68, 281,
254, 274

— non-control of, ii. 231

— repression of, i. 511 ; ii. 226, 231,
353, 364, 367, 373

— in relation to mania, ii. 25, 26, 68

— effects of man's, ii. 367
Animal society, man's partiality for,

ii. 11

— language in man, i. 286

— faculties, i. 12

Animality of man, i. 285, 286 ; ii. 9,
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17

Animation, i. 57, 66, 461 ; ii. 31, 195,
196, 209, 218, 288

Animosity to each other, i. 378, 393,
407, 530

— to man, ii. 283

Annoyance, feeling of, i. 77, 294, 322,
366, 407, 484, 510, 516, 543 ; ii. 41,
86, 131, 164, 174, 176, 178, 251,
287, 292, 295, 302

502

INDEX.

ANN

Annoyance, causes of, ii. 222, 280,
292, 293, 302, 390

— expressions of, ii. 261, 268, 368

— effects of, ii. 176, 268, 287

— prevention of, ii. 389, 390
Annoyance-giving to each other, i.

99, 343, 366, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407

Annoyance-receiving from man, i.
406, 543

Announcement-making, i. 313, 326,
456

Anonymous authors and their state-
ments, i. 19, 22, 23, 24

Antagonism, feeling of, ii. 177, 279,
367

— of mental and physical qualities,
i. 398

Antennse, uses of, i. 306, 309, 313,

360, 410, 419

Anticipation, pleasures and pains of,
i. 70, 340, 352, 472, 484 ; ii. 230,
365

— of man's intentions, ii. 395
Antics, animal, i. 307, 318, 469, 477,

480; ii. 86, 88, 89, 92, 122, 171,
178

— in man, i. 45, 253
Antipathies, causes of, ii. 187, 188,

227, 228, 278, 279, 367

— causeless, i. 474, 479 ; ii. 56, 199,
224, 278, 279, 281

— forms of, i. 71, 91, 137, 139, 156,
157, 294, 435, 460, 468, 495, 523;
ii. 56, 177, 279

— hereditary transmission of, ii. 278

— insurmountable, ii. 222

— morbid, ii. 236, 281

— singular, ii. 228, 276, 278, 279, 280

— results of, ii. 226, 269

Ants, true, mental characteristics of,
i. 58, 63, 68, 77, 78, 79, 111, 114,
121, 135, 138, 187, 188, 249, 254,
270, 275, 277, 280, 291, 293, 306,
309, 313, 334, 335, 337, 344, 360,

361, 362, 363, 364, 366, 368, 371,
372, 373, 378, 379, 388, 390, 391,
393, 399, 418, 419, 463, 464, 492,
493, 499, 500, 501, 530; ii. 4, 37,
38, 55, 60, 73, 109, 126, 127, 150,
157, 158, 202, 281, 286, 288, 289,
386, 388, 390

— white, mental characteristics of,
i. 59, 68, 112, 313, 378, 419

Anxiety, feeling of, i. 61, 277, 298,
480, 491 ; ii. 35, 173, 186, 190, 205,
214, 229, 240

— causes of, ii. 240, 249, 381
Apathy, i. 84, 86, 297, 378; ii. 164,

APP

180, 181, 195, 200, 203, 232, 256,
287, 368

Apathy, in man, i. 105, 166, 169, 183,
200

Apes, mental characteristics of, i.
245, 262, 270, 271, 276, 301, 305,
308, 311, 315, 317, 321, 324, 354,
361, 364, 374, 391, 398, 399, 402,
405, 410, 411, 412, 413, 420, 425,
426, 427, 435, 441, 453, 537, 539 ;
ii. 53, 57, 60, 81, 82, 84, 87, 104,
105, 146, 149, 173, 174, 195, 218,
245, 247, 264, 265, 288, 293, 317, 371

— anthropoid, general moral and
intellectual characteristics of, i. 31,
36, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 113, 114,
122, 238, 239, 249, 305, 380, 427,
440 449, 450 ; ii. 386

— human-like behaviour of, i. 76, 77,
113, 261, 266, 270, 309, 324, 355,
375, 410, 411, 412, 413, 426, 434,
435, 530; ii. 82

— education, moral, i. 78, 238, 260

— mental potentialities, i. 78, 239,
260

Ape-men, mental status of, i. 41, 443
Aphides, mental characteristics of, i.

60, 270, 344, 360, 361, 419
Apiaries, uses of, i. 31, 34
Apology-making, i. 312 ; ii. 164
Apparent and real, distinction be-
tween the, ii. 7, 8
Apparitions, i. 223 ; ii. 104
Appeal-making, i. 227, 431 ; ii. 176,

284, 295, 368

Appearances, judging from, i. 405
Appetite, acquired, i. 262, 449, 471 ;

11. 83, 86, 87, 88, 93, 119, 281

— eccentricities of, i. 523, 542 ; ii.
81, 83, 85, 86, 281, 282

— errors of, i. 490, 509

— gratification and non-gratification
of, i. 510, 511; ii. 82, 85, 87, 93,
150, 281

— control of, i. 75 ; ii. 92, 367

— indiscriminate, i. 509 ; ii. 82, 83,
122, 140, 218

— insatiable, ii. 84, 218

— loss of, ii. 140, 180, 182, 198, 218,
237, 256, 261

— morbid, i. 65, 136, 372, 510 ; ii. 11,

12, 13, 16, 17, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88,
140, 159, 172, 185, 218, 230, 281,
282, 283, 284, 317, 383

— sexual, i. 131 ; ii. 202

— morbid, in man, i. 40, 446, 447,
448 ; ii. 11, 13

Applause, appreciation of, i. 540

INDEX.

503

APP

Application, faculty of, i. 242

Appointments, official, i. 379, 383,
384, 388, 389

Approbation, love of, i. 81, 175, 176,
192, 265, 340, 469, 540; ii. 240,
284, 295, 297

Appropriateness of behaviour, i. 87,
229, 232, 233, 247, 348, 349, 350,
352, 355, 356, 357, 374, 385, 388,
409, 435, 438, 453, 454, 458, 459,
460, 461, 463, 527, 535, 536, 540;
ii. 146, 148, 161, 376, 377, 384,
391, 394

— of remark and reply, i. 21, 72, 77,
348

Apprenticeship-serving, i. 242
Aptitudes, mental, loss of old, i. 270 ;
ii. 172

— development of new, i. 270 ; ii. 175

— perversions of, ii. 172

Aquaria, use and abuse of, i. 31, 32,
34, 55, 69 ; ii. 143, 245, 267

Ardour, i. 469, 478 ; ii. 95, 194, 196,
198, 200, 218, 264, 308

Aristocrats, animal, i. 268 ; ii. 277,
278, 284

Aristotle, confirmation of the obser-
vations of, i. 26

Arithmetic, rudimentary, in animals,
i. 258, 261, 451, 452, 453

— in man, i. 44, 451, 452

Arms, uses of the, (or their equiva-
lent limbs,) i. 122, 324, 410, 411,
414

Armies, behaviour of, i. 362, 363, 382,
391, 504

Arrangement, faculty of, i. 305, 486 ;
ii. 151, 152

Arrogance, i. 267

Art, industrial, i. 52, 56, 57, 73, 113,
132, 134, 245, 266, 280, 359, 361,
362, 392, 410

- constructive, i. 367, 368, 444, 445,
463, 464, 498, 504, 528, 529; ii.
135

— decorative, i. 368, 475, 476

- military, i. 362, 363, 366, 369, 386,
391, 392, 402, 406, 410, 412, 413,
419, 421, 422, 423, 425, 426, 436,
453, 530

— absence of in man, i. 44, 112, 113,
'443, 444; ii. 14, 123

Artfulness, i. 533 ; ii. 121
Articulation in song, i. 306

— man's difficulties in, i. 286
Artifice, use of, i. 77, 259, 358, 527,

529, 533
Artificial distinctions, man's, ii. 7, 98

ATT

Artificial life and its effects, i. 31,
473, 488 ; ii. 24, 35, 37, 52

Artists, delineation of animal char-
acter by, i. 275, 312

Ass, mental characteristics of the, i.
14, 93, 94, 121, 374, 380, 381, 386,
394, 399, 422, 434, 436, 457, 461,
472, 474, 502, 527 ; ii. 81, 83, 92,
111, 118, 119, 121, 122, 127, 128,
141, 142, 159, 265, 319

Assemblies, convention of, i. 73, 155,
306, 326, 335, 343, 359, 392, 400,
401, 402, 456, 458, 469

Assiduity, ii. 393

Associations, formation and rupture
of, ii. 232, 241

Assumption, errors of, in animals, i.
73, 263, 540

— in man, i. 125, 234, 287 ; ii. 363
Astuteness, i. 230, 359, 364, 434
Astonishment, i. 484 ; ii. 112, 117
Atheism, human, i. 202, 215, 216
Atmospheric influences and their

mental effects, ii. 193, 217, 221, 246
Atonement-making, i. 178, 228, 229,

491 ; ii. 163, 166, 368
Atrocity, ii. 238

Attachment to man, i. 62, 83, 84, 86,
87, 88, 131, 144, 155, 156, 157, 190,
221, 224, 226, 228, 244, 267, 270,
342, 351, 381, 473; ii. 51, 65, 92,
116, 119, 121, 132, 133, 137, 138,
144, 148, 176, 194, 195, 231, 232,
233, 246, 247, 281, 283, 288, 291,
292, 348

— to places, i. 83, 87, 88, 131, 144,
147, 427 ; ii. 51, 65, 132, 194, 256

- to things, i. 427 ; ii. 65, 132

— eccentricities of, i. 474, 486 ; ii.
276, 280, 281, 283

Attachments, mutual, i. 64, 85, 91,
131, 155, 156 ; ii. 116, 121

— severance of, ii. 259, 273
Attack, modes of, i. 55, 60, 62, 362
Attention, faculty of, i. 232, 233, 237,

246, 277, 350, 438, 485, 507 ; ii. 99,
109, 117, 128

— means of attracting, i. 297, 301,
327, 359, 365, 370, 391, 416, 419,
421, 422, 433, 456, 457, 477, 481,
531 ; ii. 119, 156, 176, 177, 204, 239,
279, 322, 380, 389, 391

— distracting, i. 243, 366, 438,
503, 525, 527, 533

— absorption of, i. 506 ; ii. 230

— errors of, i. 489, 496, 507
Attentions, mutual, i. 55, 62, 155, 362,

363 : ii. 57, 388, 389, 390, 391

504

INDEX.

ATT

Attentions, craving for man's, i. 228,
340, 477, 478 ; ii. 239, 240, 279, 295,
297, 298, 299

— rejection of, i. 478 ; ii. 378
Attention-paying to man, ii. 391
Attractions, knowledge and use of

personal, i. 359 ; ii. 156, 198, 199,

238

Audacity, ii. 166
Audubon, researches of, i. 30
Authority, exercise of, i. 259, 382,

385, 397, 398

— rebellion against constituted, i.
382, 387, 399, 403 : ii. 158

— recognition of constituted, i. 58,
65, 120, 377, 379, 387, 399 ; ii. 294

Authors, opposite opinions of, i. 517
Automata, animals as, i. 186
Automatic mental action, i. 7, 128,

263 ; ii. 6, 7, 171
Avarice, ii. 153
Aversion and its expression, i. 60, 93,

137, 157, 294, 340, 342, 516 ; ii. 64,

68, 69, 198, 221, 226, 228, 244, 278,

280
Aviaries, use and abuse of, i. 31 ; ii.

245
Awe, feeling of, i. 222, 223, 232 ; ii.

224
Awkwardness of manner and its

causes, i. 83, 275, 296, 402, 405,

505 ; ii. 171

— in man, i. 415, 465 ; ii. 11

BABOONS, mental characteristics
of, i. 262, 270, 310, 311, 361, 391,

405, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415,

426, 436, 440, 474, 477, 511, 587; ii.

50, 53, 81, 82, 84, 85, 88, 90, 174,

195,231, 235,262,298, 386
Baits, use of, i. 359, 413, 529
— knowledge of the nature and

modus operandi of man's, ii. 126
Baker, observations of Sir Samuel, i.

204, 206, 235, 447, 459, 463 ; ii. 36,

48, 135, 137, 142, 208, 222
Banishment and its effects, i. 403,

404; ii. 38, 132, 134, 145, 198, 389
Baptism of animals by man, i. 194
Bargain-making, i. 430, 431, 432 ; ii.

390, 394

Barking in man, i. 286
Barricades, use of, i. 407, 434, 435
Barter, use of, i. 75, 184, 430, 431,

432

Bashfulness, i. 185
Battle, laws and order of, i. 73, 363

BEN

Bay, mental phenomena of, i. 436,
453 ; ii. 34, 69, 131, 137, 237, 249,
286, 345

Beaks, uses of, i. 256

Bears, mental characteristics of, i. 14,
83, 86, 87, 269, 324, 349, 369, 370,
417, 424, 425, 428, 449, 462, 511,
532, 543 ; ii. 50, 82, 92, 146, 166,
386

Beast-men, mental characteristics of,
i. 444, 447, 449 ; ii. 9, 12, 13, 14, 15

Beauty, appreciation of, i. 61, 66, 73,
110, 132, 247, 251, 280, 296, 469,
470, 475, 477 ; ii. 300, 307, 309

Beaver, mental characteristics of the,
i. 84, 92, 121, 444, 488, 505 ; ii. 38,
73, 151, 284

Beds and bedding, use of man's, i.
76, 266, 371, 410, 412, 420, 429,
435, 436, 440, 441, 442, 508

Bee-lines and their rationale, i. 145,
147, 150, 501, 503

Bees, mental characteristics of, i. 61,
80, 84, 96, 97, 109, 121, 134, 135,
138, 144, 145, 151, 249, 250, 251,
277, 278, 296, 306, 313, 334, 335,
337, 366, 368, 369, 378, 379, 386,
389, 391, 399, 406, 419, 422, 441,
445, 453, 464, 476, 490, 491 ; ii. 37,
38, 65, 92, 93, 146, 1 47, 150, 155, 158,
159, 165, 203, 208, 217, 238, 269,
277, 285, 286, 289, 348, 362, 381,
390

— errors of, i. 498, 499, 500, 503, 517,
518

Beetles, mental characteristics of, i.
59, 60, 63, 406, 420, 500, 525; ii.
208

Begging for their own behoof, i. 260,

413, 430, 431 ; ii. 146
— for man's behoof, i. 75, 91, 259,
263, 354, 431

Belief determining action, i. 356,

526, 535 ; ii. 95, 145, 163, 165
- false, ii. 95, 99, 109, 163, 299

Beliefs, peculiarities of man's, i. 101,
102, 127, 205, 206, 207, 215, 218,
223 ; ii. 222, 362

Bell-ringing, i. 370, 424, 429, 433, 437,

438

Belt, observations of the late Thomas,
i. 32, 63, 68, 335, 354, 360, 361,367,
368, 371, 413, 414, 472, 473, 500,
501, 502, 505, 523, 526, 529 ; ii. 73,
76, 123, 155, 200, 236, 280, 282, 283
Benefit, sense of personal, i. 132, 155,
189, 340 ; ii. 115, 116, 246, 303, 371,
372, 373, 376, 377, 381

INDEX.

505

BEN

Benevolence, i. 119, 131, 138, 175,
225, 374, 471 ; ii. 31, 115, 167, 168,

388, 392

Bequest-making by animals, ii. 144,
380
— by man, ii. 331, 357

Bereavement, mental effects of, i. 59,
136, 222, 254, 323, 407, 480, 483,
484, 485, 519, 526 ; ii. 51, 146, 156,
232, 240, 247, 256, 286, 287, 379,
392

Bestiality of man, i. 11, 126, 127, 447,
448, 449, 511 ; ii. 9, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18

Bewilderment, feeling of, i. 375, 484,
503, 512, 526; ii. 46, 68, 79, 94,
98, 117, 120, 123, 124, 125, 179,
188, 215, 227, 235, 241, 251, 351

Bias in man, necessity of freedom
from, i. 3, 8

Bibliography and its uses, i. 19, 22,
30

Birds, mental characteristics of, i. 72,
73, 74, 77, 79, 152, 239, 250, 251,
253, 256, 257, 276, 277, 279, 280,
304, 305, 318, 322, 335, 340, 341,
343, 344, 350, 363, 364, 365, 366,
367, 368, 370, 373, 374, 380, 388,

389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 400,
401, 402, 403, 405, 406, 408, 419,
421, 422, 423, 427, 439, 444, 445,
454, 456, 457, 458, 460, 462, 466,
470, 471, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477,
478, 480, 482, 483, 484, 485, 491,
495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 504, 505,
506, 507, 508, 510, 513, 514, 515,
516, 519, 520, 521, 522, 525, 526,
527, 529, 531, 532, 533, 537, 538,
539, 541, 543 ; ii. 5, 62, 63, 64, 65,
70, 73, 74, 80, 82, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96,
97, 109, HI, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,
117, 118, 127, 134, 135, 136, 141,
145, 147, 149, 150, 151, 153, 157,
159, 178, 191, 200, 203, 204, 205,
208, 209, 210, 219, 220, 221, 222,
223, 230, 232, 234, 238, 239, 241,
242, 245, 246, 248, 254, 255, 258,
259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 266,
267, 268, 274, 276, 277, 280, 281,
282, 283, 285, 294, 298, 300, 302,
305, 306, 307, 357, 358, 369, 377,
378, 379, 380, 381, 384, 387, 389,
392, 393

Bisset, the animal trainer, and his

achievements, i. 260, 261
Biting and its significance, i. 5 ; ii. 174,

175, 176, 181, 182, 190, 193, 198,

201, 207, 214, 218, 239, 270, 274, 315,

316, 322, 363, 394

BUR

Biting in man, i. 1 14 ; ii. 13, 14, 17, 175
Blame, sensitiveness to, i. 347 ; ii. 99,

361

Blandishment, i. 336
Blind, treatment of the, i. 420, 426
Bloodthirstiness in animals, i. 70, 83,

84, 85, 86, 89

— in man, i. 166, 172 ; ii. 17
Blows on the head, mental effects of,

ii. 263
Blushing and its significance, i. 113,

114, 310, 311
Boarding-out, mental phenomena of,

i. 486, 487 ; ii. 334
Boldness, i. 84, 96, 340, 365, 383, 390,

460, 520; ii. 197, 198, 199, 200,

204, 288

Boundaries, use of, i. 70, 405 ; ii. 155
Boxes, opening and shutting i. 370,

414, 415, 419, 421, 422, 429
Braidism, mental phenomena of, in

animals, i. 59, 288 ; ii. 109
Brain, effects of diseases of the, ii.

45, 47, 48, 51, 68, 70, 128, 178, 182,

191, 193, 196, 207, 212, 213, 214,

215, 278, 287, 345

— development of, in relation to
mental development, ii. 3, 45, 213

— defective development of, and its
mental results, ii. 44, 46, 213

— not the sole organ of mind, i. 4 ;
ii. 3, 4, 7, 8

— not necessary to all classes of
mental phenomena, i. 7

Bravado, use of, i. 466, 480

Bravery, i. 14, 83, 84, 96, 191, 384,
391, 408, 467 ; ii. 332

Breeding, high, mental effects of, ii.
37, 100, 103, 124, 159, 190, 244, 248,
260, 264, 265, 293, 297, 305, 390

— in-and-in, mental effects of, ii. 193,
215, 216

Breeds, mental characteristics of, i.

82, 84, 138 ; ii. 258, 279, 283, 305,

368, 421
Bribery, use of, i. 190

— by man and its effects, i. 199, 543 ;
ii. 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 158, 295

Bridge -making, i. 391

Brutality of man, i. 11, 49, 89, 104,

121, 122, 205
Buckland, observations of Frank, i.

71, 94
Bull-dog, virtues and vices of the, i.

88, 89, 266, 269
Bullyism, i. 361, 408
Buoyancy of spirits, ii. 178
Burdens, bearing each others', ii. 389

506

INDEX.

BUR

Burdensomeness, sense of personal, ii.

143
Burglary, detection of human, i. 417

— commission of, ii. 158

Burial of the dead, i. 59 ; ii. 143, 146,
147, 165, 166

— of food,, ii. 151

Business, transaction of, i. 120, 184,

312, 431 ; ii. 124, 163
Bustle, ii. 163, 171
Butterflies, mental characteristics of,

i. 61, 81, 500, 518 ; ii. 219
Buying from man, i. 75, 260, 429, 430

CACKLING in' man, i. 285
VJ Cajolery, i. 303, 363
Calculation, faculty of, i. 64, 71, 247,

255, 258, 262, 463, 464, 498; ii.

125, 172

— errors in, i. 465, 466, 489, 505

— of curve, i. 463

— of distance, i. 64, 356, 366, 367,
461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467,
489 ; ii. 116

— of elasticity, i. 464

— of momentum, i. 462, 463, 464

— of movement, i. 462, 464, 489

— of resistance, i. 463, 464

— of size, i. 462, 463, 465, 489

— of strength, i. 380, 463, 464, 466,
467

— of height, i. 461, 463, 466, 467,
489, 505

— of weight, i. 370, 374, 463, 464,
465

- of time, i. 454, 457, 458, 459, 460,
461, 462, 489

— of numbers, i. 451, 452, 453

— of quantities, i. 449

— of position, i. 489, 505

— want of in man, i. 443, 451, 452
Call-giving to each other, i. 326, 334,

335, 336, 337, 350 ; ii. 389

to man, i. 457, 458

Callousness, ii. 164

Calls, understanding man's, i. 61, 72,

81, 95, 271 ; ii. 121, 381
Calmative influences and their uses,

ii. 226, 308, 348, 349, 353, 354
Calmatives, moral, ii. 321
— medicinal, ii. 73
Calmness of mind and its expression,

i. 262, 472 ; ii. 60, 144, 225, 321,

352, 353
Camel, mental characteristics of the,

i. 294, 308, 324, 380, 381, 386, 463,

465, 509 ; ii. 122, 141, 142, 189, 216,

265, 282, 294, 319, 384, 392

CAT

Campaigns, undertaking, i. 154
Candidature, mental phenomena of,

i. 468, 480 ; ii. 238
Cannibalism in animals, i. 13, 65,

136, 151, 478, 508, 510 ; ii. 63, 65,

66, 185, 187, 203, 281, 306, 352,

392

— in man, i. 40, 166, 167 ; ii. 13, 15
Capacity, mental, i. 79, 240, 277
Caprice, i. 156, 468, 470, 479; ii. 65,

110, 195, 199, 225, 283, 299, 305,
316, 317

Captiousness, i. 543 ; ii. 394

Captivity, mental effects of, i. 135,
223, 243, 272, 279, 323, 325, 392,
421, 478, 488, 504, 505, 506, 543 ;
ii. 24, 34, 51, 52, 62, 63, 128, 132,
134, 135, 142, 157, 175, 179, 302,
305, 317, 318, 352, 353, 357, 384

— certain effects of in man, ii. 14

— voluntary, i. 137, 471, 473, 514 ;
ii. 166, 246

Capture, means of avoiding, ii. 163,
165

— of man, ii. 167
Card-playing, i. 247, 257, 349, 429,

453
Care and its effects, i. 55, 59, 62 ;

ii. 35, 240
Carefulness, i. 76, 259, 361, 436, 476,

491, 531 ; ii. 55, 114, 152, 163, 165,

285, 388, 394
Carelessness, i. 453, 473 ; ii. 42, 285

— man's, and its effects, ii. 210, 335,
365

Caress, i. 60, 77, 81, 85, 87, 249, 294,
309, 317, 416, 422, 474, 485, 508,
515 ; ii. 119, 146, 218, 247, 379, 390

Carousing and its mental results, ii.
173

Carnivora, mental characteristics of
the, i. 80, 272, 424, 461, 465, 511 ;
ii. 11, 55, 58, 60, 151, 175, 197, 210,
357

Castration, mental effects of, ii. 390,
193, 200, 201, 202, 214, 347

Caste, loss of, i. 406 ; ii. 92

Castes, existence of, i. 138, 293, 377,
379, 393, 394 ; ii. 388

Cat, mental characteristics of the,
i. 13, 83, 84, 87, 88, 153, 177, 178,
250, 251, 255, 275, 276, 277, 308,
309, 316, 319, 320, 340, 350, 361,
363, 365, 370, 390, 391, 399, 404,
406, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 422,
428, 432, 433, 434, 437, 438, 454,
457, 474, 482, .483, 484, 485, 487,
502, 513, 515, 521, 530, 531, 534, 537,

INDEX.

507

CAT

539 ; ii. 21, 22, 29, 37, 44, 47, 51,
52, 53, 55, 63, 64, 74, 82, 83, 84, 94,
103, 104, 137, 143, 144, 149, 150,
157, 158, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168,
176, 185, 186, 187, 191, 198, 208,
221, 224, 225, 226, 228, 235, 238,

239, 244, 247, 249, 258, 265, 267,
268, 276, 282, 284, 287, 293, 295,
301, 302, 304, 305, 334, 347, 348,
361, 362, 364, 365, 369, 371, 374,
375, 380, 381, 382, 383, 386, 388,

389, 390, 391, 392, 395

' Cat and dog life,' real and supposed,
i. 12, 84, 90, 91, 194, 538 ; ii. 387,
388

Caterpillars, mental characteristics
of, i. 61

Causation of mental phenomena in
animals, difficulties in the deter-
mination of, ii. 76, 132, 138, 178,
184, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191, 220,
279

— community of, in relation to mental
and physical phenomena, ii. 265

— complexity of, ii. 185, 186, 189,
190, 250, 255, 257, 274

— intelligible, ii. 174, 279, 282

- intensity of, ii. 59, 184, 190, 217,

240, 258

— duration of, ii. 59, 184, 190, 217,
226, 231, 256, 258, 319, 349

— triviality of, ii. 31, 58, 63, 102,
106, 135, 142, 186, 187, 188, 203,
231, 245, 256, 260, 302, 304

— physical, ii. 61, 174, 186, 206, 259,
263, 264, 345, 348

— remote, ii. 186, 191, 249, 263,
272

— immediate, ii. 63, 191, 203, 249,
263, 272

— pathological, ii. 157, 159, 206
Cause and effect, appreciation of the

relation of, i. 107, 358, 472, 490,
491 ; ii. 375

— ignorance of the relation of in
man, i. 206

Causes of mental phenomena : excit-
ing, ii. 187, 197, 203, 236; pre-
disposing, ii. 187, 274, 305

Causelessness of mental phenomena,
apparent, ii.49, 58, 59, 63, 131, 172,
188, 199, 257, 305

Caution, exercise of, i. 59, 87, 132,
234, 251, 255, 275, 276, 358, 380,

390, 431, 432, 453, 470, 472, 489,
491, 520, 539 ; ii. 31, 58, 106, 108,
114, 119, 124, 163, 194, 197, 282,
288, 374, 388

CHA

Caution, want of, ii. 85, 86, 117, 172,

236
Celebrated animals, i. 83; ii. 161,

332, 333, 335, 336
Cemeteries, use of, i. 185 ; ii. 144
Censure, sensitiveness to, i. 531
Ceremonies, use of, i. 59, 73, 359,

469 ; ii. 146

— taking part in man's, ii. 283
Certainty, modes of attaining, ii. 146
Chagrin, i. 320, 323, 491 ; ii. 257, 294,

302
Challenge-giving and accepting, i. 73,

327, 383 ; ii. 178, 238
Championship, i. 408
Change, love of, ii. 248, 299, 348, 358
Character, moral and intellectual,

i. 82, 83, 195, 351, 523 ; ii. 34, 35,

315, 339

— force of, i. 177, 387 ; ii. 197, 276

— formation of, i. 99, 226, 265, 340

— change of, i. 70, 265, 469 ; ii. 30,
32, 56, 75, 99, 114, 171, 182, 194,
195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201,
202, 204, 208, 218, 239, 246, 286,
295, 302, 305, 316, 358, 365, 372, 390

— contrasts in, i. 65 ; ii. 195, 196,
276, 278, 2-80, 282, 283, 305, 372

- defects in, i. 97, 201 ; ii. 44, 46, 57,
101, 288

— diversity of, i. 74 ; ii. 197, 276,
284, 285, 286

— deterioration of, ii. 201, 246, 316,
367

— improvement of, ii. 201

— peculiarities of, ii. 276, 280, 282,
284, 285,. 286

— reading each other's, ii. 29, 395

— man's, i. 75, 247, 352 ; ii. 289,
323, 395

— animal, delineation of by man,
ii. 336

necessity for a study of by man,

i. 240 ; ii. 285, 324, 337, 343, 344
dissemination of a knowledge

of, ii. 343, 344

as a reflex of man's, i. 226 ; ii. 367

as a subject for trial in human

law courts, i. 195
Characters, psychical, in zoological

classification, ii. 288, 423

— of species, real and supposed,
i. 523

Charade-acting, i. 531
Charity, i. 119, 131, 138, 175, 183,
225, 226 ; ii. 389, 392

— want of in man, i. 165

— certain forms of man's, ii. 337

508

INDEX.

CHA

Charming, mental phenomena of, i.
71, 96, 327, 359 ; ii. 178, 200, 235,
309

Charms, sense of possession of per-
sonal, i. 96, 470, 476, 477, 478, 479 ;
ii. 300, 309

Chastity, i. 120, 165, 175, 185

— absence of in man, i. 171, 172 ;
ii. 16

Chatter, its nature, i. 539

Cheerfulness, means of promoting,
ii. 272, 308

Cheering each other, i. 72 ; ii. 200

Chelonia, mental characteristics of
the, i. 71

Chemical results of mental causes,
ii. 270

Chiefs, government by, i. 77

Child, moral and intellectual status
of the human, i. 7, 37, 38, 39,
48, 107, 119, 124, 140, 141, 163,
167, 170, 173, 174, 182, 185, 191,
200, 202, 213, 215, 228, 339, 440 ;
ii. 9, 18, 24, 230, 242, 248, 282,
292, 295, 297, 298, 299, 305, 322,
323, 324, 332, 338, 339, 340, 368,
394

— cultivation of the sense of right
and wrong in the, i. 170, 185

— development of abstract ideas in
the, i. 170

— instinct in the, i. 38, 140, 170

— absence of sympathy in the, i. 170,
200

— education of the, i. 140, 170, 240,
242, 245

— language in the, i. 38, 283, 284,
349 ; ii. 96

Childishness of savages, i. 49, 358, 360,
374, 417, 422, 435, 490, 495

Children as playfellows to animals,
i. 530

— treatment of by animals, ii. 394

— treatment of, by their parents, use
of rewards and punishments, i. 170,
181

— behaviour of to parents, i. 167
Chimpanzee, mental characteristics

of the, i. 261, 262, 266, 270, 301, 315,
316, 317, 323, 324, 355, 410, 411,
412, 413, 423, 426, 4S4, 436, 437,
438, 441, 444, 449, 450, 474, 511 ;
ii. 37, 81, 82, 83, 90, 195, 235, 249,
258, 282, 371, 376, 386
Choice, i. 52, 53, 55, 60, 64, 67, 72,
128, 176, 181, 182, 184, 187, 191,
193, 251, 375, 379, 383, 384, 389,
390, 405, 408, 409, 430, 431, 438,

COB

439, 468, 470, 471, 472, 473, 479,
509 ; ii. 6, 82, 86, 115, 130, 132,
278

Chuckling, i. 316, 321
Church-attendance, i. 229, 230, 231,

232
Church-services, taking part in, i. 232,

233

Circumspection, ii. 124, 165
Circumvention of man, i. 340 ; ii. 163
Circus performances, i. 353
Civilisation or its equivalents, i. 77,

119, 238, 261, 266, 268, 270, 490

— resemblances to human, i. 77

— man's incapacity for, i. 104, 205,
235, 236

— effects of, on man, i. 173, 205, 444,
448, 449 ; ii. 9, 14, 15, 17, 18, 36,
160

Civility, i. 373, 435

— want of in man, i. 45
Claim-making, i. 385, 386, 387 ; ii.

156, 158, 322
Claims of animals on man, ii. 328,

329

Clamour, i. 403
Clannishness, i. 394
Classification of mental phenomena,

difficulties in the, i. 141

— faculty of in animals, i. 241 ; ii.
151, 152

— scholastic, of animals by man,
i. 241

— defective faculty of in man, ii. 10
Claws, uses of, i. 55, 419, 428
Cleanliness, i. 98, 120, 245, 276;

ii. 121, 185, 358, 360, 374, 385, 417,
422, 435, 490, 495

— want of, ii. 16, 121, 206

in man, ii. 16

Cleverness, i. 357, 442, 458, 494, 502,

503, 528, 532 ; ii. Ill, 116, 119, 160,

277, 287, 288, 290
Climatic influences, mental effects of,

i. 367 ; ii. 193, 217, 278, 308
Clothing, use of man's, i. 113, 266,

413, 415, 435, 440, 441, 442

— manufacture of, i. 440

— absence of in man, i. 40, 113, 172,

440, 442 ; ii. 14, 16
Coalition-forming, i. 393
Coaxing, i. 60 ; ii. 379, 390

Cobbe, observations of Miss, i. 40,
103, 107, 121, 188, 221, 222, 223,
318, 320, 322, 335, 503, 505, 523,
531, 539; ii. 157, 164, 173, 178,
237, 238, 261, 267, 275, 281, 294,
295, 297, 304, 305, 307

INDEX.

509

COI

Coincidence in Telation to causation,

i. 152, 153
Coins, use of man's, i. 431, 463 ;

ii. 55
Cold, mental effects of, ii. 193, 218,

274, 307

Coldness of manner, i. 83, 86
Coleoptera, mental characteristics of

the, i. 59
Colonisation, mental phenomena of,

i. 59, 392
Colour, appreciation of, i. 61, 251, 368,

475, 476
Colour-change and its significance, i.

66, 113, 114 ; ii. 261, 262, 302
Colour-sense, absence of in man, i. 43 ;

ii. 11
Colours, mental effects of, ii. 21, 39,

68, 69, 193, 221, 222, 223, 224, 234,

280, 309

Combats and their causes, ii. 239
Combativeness, natural and morbid,

i. 62, 89, 91, 98, 131, 137, 480, 490,

497, 506, 530, 539 ; ii. 49, 54, 65,

73, 93, 142, 159, 177, 198, 208, 231,

245, 262, 267, 278

— in man, i. 43

— stimulation of, ii. 223, 238, 239
Combination-forming, ii. 162
Comical animals, i. 320

Comfort, sense of personal, i. 72,

131, 147, 188, 341, 374, 425, 427,

432, 463, 470
Command, exercise of, i. 58, 259, 262,

301, 302, 327, 335, 336, 379, 380,

381, 382, 385, 387, 388

— obedience to, i. 263, 264, 347, 348,
381

— positions of, i. 384, 385, 387, 388,
398

Command-giving to man, ii. 322
Commendation, craving for man's, ii.

292, 295

Commendation-giving, i. 277
Comment-making, i. 304, 306
Commerce, absence of in man, i. 44
Commissions, execution of, i. 81
Common cause, making, i. 73, 393,

394, 402
Common meaning of technical terms,

i. 17

Commonweal, interest in the, i. 380
Commonwealths, i. 379
Communication of f eelings or wishes,

i. 190, 335, 337, 347, 354, 362 ; ii.

115, 176, 292, 387, 395

— with man, modes of, i. 72
Communicativeness, ii. 199

COM

Communities, social, and their or-
ganisation, i. 379
Community of interests, i. 393

— of disease in man and other ani-
mals, ii. 81, 313, 329, 330, 338

— of purpose, i. 534
Compact -making, i. 377
Companionability, i. 64, 87, 89 ; ii.

131

Companionship, effects of, i. 92 ; ii.
122, 146, 247, 252, 272, 373, 388,
389, 390, 394

— eccentricities of, ii. 280, 389, 390

— necessity for, ii. 298

— closeness of, ii. 116, 120

— want of, and its effects, ii. 51, 247

— of man with animals and its
effects on man, i. 244 ; ii. 13, 14,
15, 17

— loss, of, ii. 232, 247, 256, 258,
306

— with man, i. 87, 89, 226, 238, 239,
240, 244, 257, 262, 265, 266, 267,
268, 269, 271, 272, 381 ; ii. 301,
321, 336, 369

Companionships with each other, i.
66, 85, 91, 92, 155, 156, 157, 184
244, 336, 344, 361, 363, 374, 405,
408, 416, 417, 432, 471, 487; ii.
65, 66, 115, 116, 280, 332, 387

— with adult man, i. 25, 29, 84, 86,
346, 349, 355, 424, 435, 459, 461,
474, 504 ; ii. 11, 85, 88, 121, 161,
321, 328, 331, 392

— with children, i. 411, 420, 422,
530 : ii. 133

Comparison, faculty of, i. 66, 141,
237, 255, 256, 357, 375, 464, 468,
471, 472, 491 ; ii. 29, 132, 137, 146,
246

defective in man, ii. 10

— of animals with adult man, i. 40,
44, 45, 49, 78, 83, 96, 101, 102, 103,
104, 107, 117, 118, 123, 124, 125,
128, 133, 141, 165, 167, 168, 170,
173, 181, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191,
192, 198, 205, 220, 229, 234, 243,
256, 277, 279, 280, 282, 284, 285,
288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 296, 297,
300, 304, 311, 312, 315, 317, 318,
321, 323, 325, 334, 338, 340, 341,
342, 352, 361, 362, 363, 365, 367,
369, 374, 375, 383, 387, 393, 394,
395, 397, 398, 400, 406, 407, 409,
410, 411, 413, 414, 415, 416, 418,
419, 420, 423, 425, 427, 429, 432,
433, 434, 435, 438, 439, 440, 441,
442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 449, 450,

510

INDEX.

COM

Comparison of animals with adult

man — continued

452, 465, 468, 470, 472, 474, 475,
477, 478, 480, 481, 482, 485, 486,
487, 488, 489, 492, 493, 499, 500,
509, 510, 511, 513, 514, 515, 518,
523, 524, 532, 534, 537 ; ii. 4, 7,
8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22,
23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,
36, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 50,
51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63,
65, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86,
87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97,
100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
108, 109, 110, 111, 118, 119, 122,
123, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 134,
136, 137, 140, 141, 142, 147, 149,
150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157,
158, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 167,
168, 169, 170, 173, 174, 176, 177,
178, 179, 183, 186, 188, 191, 192,
193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200,
202, 203, 206, 207, 208, 210, 212,
213, 214, 216, 218, 220, 221, 222,

224, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 236,
237, 238, 240, 241, 243, 244, 247,
248, 259, 260, 261, 268, 269, 272,
273, 274, 276, 277, 278, 284, 286,
289, 291, 294, 298, 300, 301, 303,

304, 305, 307, 308, 309, 313, 316,
320, 321, 323, 324, 325, 328, 329,
330, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338,
341, 345, 346, 347, 348, 350, 351,
352, 353, 354, 356, 359, 360, 361,
368, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 376,
377, 382, 385, 387, 391, 392, 393,
423

- with children, i. 39, 49, 107, 119,
170, 178, 182, 185, 228, 237, 242,
269, 274, 277, 279, 283, 284, 298,
300, 301, 302, 316, 320, 324, 349,
352, 354, 374, 413, 477, 493, 500,
511, 523, 530, 534, 537, 543 ; ii. 4,
5, 28, 107, 130, 131, 164, 220, 221,

225, 230, 242, 248, 249, 260, 272,
282, 289, 292, 295, 297, 298, 299,

305, 322, 323, 324, 335, 366, 369
with women, ii. 220, 221, 230,

239, 260

- of man with animal species,
genera and classes :

— with birds, i. 302, 370, 456, 475,
476, 477, 478, 480

— with ants, i. 124, 125, 270, 360,
361 ; ii. 4. 158

— with anthropoid apes, i. 124, 239,
375, 426, 443 ; ii. 12, 15

COM

Comparison of man with the car-
nivora, i. 169, 446 ; ii. 11

— with the dog, i. 121/124, 125, 128,
220, 221, 223, 224, 225, 228, 229,
231, 232, 251, 355, 447, 448, 460;
ii. 13, 15, 17

— with other mammals, i. 68

— with monkeys, i. 121, 169, 182,
239, 447, 515 ; ii. 153

— of man with man :

— of different ages, i. 49, 122, 124,
292

sexes, i. 122, 123, 124

stages of culture, i. 49, 122,

123, 124, 205, 287, 292, 338, 339,
444, 457

conditions of health and

disease, i. 122, 292, 339

of morality and immo-
rality, i. 122

— of different divisions of the
animal kingdom with each other :

— of the invertebrata and verte-
brata, i. 58, 67, 69, 72, 77

— of different sub-kingdoms of the
invertebrata, i. 67

— of insects and mammals, i. 67,
68

— of different orders of mammals,
i. 80

Comparative psychology, pleas for
the study of, i. 141, 339, 354, 355,
491, 494, 518, 533; ii. 170, 188, 215,
315, 320, 330

problems in, i. 9, 17, 29, 118,

141, 142, 143, 146, 148, 150, 159,
181, 192, 339,494 ; ii. 23, 25, 27, 28,
29, 116, 168, 170, 185, 186, 192, 205,
215, 216, 224, 246, 259, 261, 273,
330

future fields of study, ii. 4, 7,

9, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 67,
70, 75, 96, 103, 170, 173
— method of study, i. 9, 10, 11,
37, 80, 339, 354 ; ii. 3, 30, 41

— philology, defects of, i. 290
Compassion, i. 119, 131, 137, 175, 183,

189; ii. 176

Competency of authors, i. 24
Competition arfcd its results, i. 64, 71,

327, 379, 382, 384, 468, 469, 485,

486, 502, 529, 530 ; ii. 65, 137, 143,

155, 195, 238, 239
Complacency, i. 476, 516
Compliance, i. 348
Compliment-paying, i. 362
Composure, ii. 98, 197, 200, 273, 352

INDEX.

511

COM

Composition of words and phrases, i.

299, 305, 313

Comprehension, faculty of, i. 182
Compulsion, exercise of, ii. 319, 371,

372, 389

Compunction, want of, ii. 65, 164
Concealment of stolen articles, ii. 1 65

— sense of need of, i. 524

— of thought and feeling in man, ii.
106

Concentration, faculty of, i. 246, 362,

393

Concern, feeling of, i. 484
Concert-singing, i. 60, 258, 261, 279
Concerted action, i. 62, 70, 242, 260,

261

Conciliation, efforts at, i. 189
Conclusions, drawing correct, i. 246,

256, 353, 535

— drawing false, ii. 109, 147
- jumping at, ii. 110, 126, 147

— fallibility of man's, i. 401
Condolence -offering, i. 352, 525
Condemnation, judicial, i. 343, 402

— by man, sensitiveness to, i. 347
Condescension, i. 400
Confederacy with each other, i. 391,

392, 394, 534 ; ii. 162

— with man, i. 75, 533 ; ii. 160, 162,
277, 379

Confession making, i. 295, 192
Confidence, feeling of, i. 70, 226, 244,
249, 270; ii. 117, 224, 242, 305, 323,

324, 325, 329, 334, 352

— in each other, i. 380, 389, 390,
526

— in man, i. 138, 267, 348, 352, 381,
390, 457; ii. 117, 176, 196, 235,
371, 372, 377

want of, i. 396 ; ii. 377

— errors of, i. 489, 496, 542 ; ii. 27,
113, 114

— effects of, ii. 321, 325, 334

— promotion of, ii. 320, 321, 324,

325, 348, 352
Confinement, sense of, ii. 180

— mental effects of, i. 31, 61, 71, 86 ;
ii. 187, 190, 195, 198, 204, 210, 234,
237, 243, 245, 246, 247, 254, 257,
258, 262, 298

Conflicts of opinion among authors,

ii. 36
Confusion, mental, i. 96, 97, 389,

395; ii. 26, 46, 61, 88, 123, 223,

235, 236

— domestic and political, ii. 203

— by animals of imitation and
reality, ii. 99, 109, 126, 147, 292

CON

Confusion of friend and foe, ii. 98

— by man of effects and causes, ii.

191, 259, 263, 265

— of effects and coincidences, i. 231 ;
ii. 191

— of fact and fiction, ii. 342

— of dogma and inference, ii. 342

— of insanity and other diseases, ii.
350, 351

— of rabies and insanity, ii. 213,
215, 352

and furiosity, ii. 213

and the results of mechanical

irritation, ii. 213, 215

and phrenitis, ii. 181

Congeniality of pursuit, i. 244, 470
Conjectures, man's, i. 10, 343
Congenital mental defects or peculi-
arities, i. 494; ii. 27, 30, 43, 46,
233, 346

Conjugal offences and their treat-
ment, i. 95, 405, 406, 480 ; ii. 64,
65, 259
Consanguinity, parental, mental

effects of, ii. 216

Conscience, development of in ani-
mals, i. 75, 103, 173, 175, 176, 178,
179, 185, 193, 471, 530 ; ii. 295
absence of, ii. 164

— eccentricities of, ii. 167

— in man, i. 209, 219

absence of, i. 163, 16

Conscientiousness, natural and

bid, i. 175, 179, 182, 183, 184
Consciousness, i. 7, 10, 16, 38,

103, 128, 176, 178, 180, 186, 187,

192, 295, 296, 304, 342, 386, 395,
454, 464, 476, 491, 492, 494, 530,
533, 534, 539, 541; ii. 6, 7, 142,
163, 295, 365, 367

— absence of, real or apparent, i. 71,
128 ; ii. 5, 6, 7, 70, 100

Consequences, knowledge of, i. 70,
128, 176, 181, 193, 194, 358, 530;
ii. 29, 163, 166, 370, 379, 394

— disregard of, i. 183, 187, 191 ; ii.
120, 140, 236

— dread of, i, 191, 193

— man's ignorance of, i. 543
Consequentially, i. 295, 385
Considerateness, i. 128, 187, 375, 468,

472 ; ii. 130, 302, 388

— absence of, i. 466 ; ii. 120
Consolation, refusal of, ii. 232, 302

— giving and receiving, ii. 301, 302
Constancy of affection, i. 95, 469,

480, 485 ; ii. 62
Consternation, i. 541 ; ii. 214

512

INDEX.

CON

Constraint and its results, i. 297
Constructiveness, i. 132, 134, 490

— errors in, i. 498
Consultations, mutual, i. 94, 326, 390,

400, 402, 503 ; ii. 162
Contagiousness of feeling, i. 266
Contemplativeness, i. 190 ; ii. 134,

309
Contempt, feeling of, i. 222 ; ii. 101,

145, 225, 287, 294, 301

— sensitiveness to man's, i. 347

— man's, for other animals, i. 11, 89,
100, 289 ; ii. 314, 337

Contention, ii. 158

Contentment, feeling of, ii. 5, 209,
265, 269, 285

— promotion of, ii. 272, 273, 308
Contingencies, provision for, i. 528
Contrast-making, ii. 246
Contrition, i. 178
Contrivance, i. 357, 370
Control, exercise of, ii. 172

— loss of power of, ii. 231, 233, 238
Controversy, unsatisfactoriness of

human, i. 9, 457
Convenience, sense of personal, i.

372

Conventionalities, i. 297, 523
Conversation with each other, i. 72,

77, 233, 306, 313, 355

— with man, i. 290, 300, 303, 346, 348,
355

— understanding man's, ii. 297, 304

— man's with other animals, ii. 11,
100, 297

— without words or sounds, i. 306,
355

— incapacity for, in man, i. 45, 285
Conviction, sense of, i. 326, 402, 491,

531 ; ii. 101, 164

Cooked food and cookery, use of, i.
113, 266, 450

non-use of, by man, i. 40, 112,

113; ii. 13

Coolness of demeanour, i. 67, 259,
262 ; ii. 98

Co-operation with each other, i. 58, 60,
66, 75, 94, 98, 121, 154, 155, 335,
365, 366, 368, 370, 374, 377, 390,
391, 392, 393, 400, 402, 407, 408,
419, 432, 433, 463, 464, 486; ii.
386, 387

— with man, i. 110, 181, 199, 319,
346, 353, 376, 390, 394, 395, 438,
533, 534; ii. 158, 361, 362, 364,
371, 372, 377, 391

— want of, and its results, i. 395,
396 ; ii. 236

COY

Co-operation, sense of the advantage
of, ii. 386, 387

Coquetry, i. 73, 469 ; ii. 115

Cordiality, i. 262

Correlation of mental and physical
conditions, i. 312 ; ii. 45, 89, 95, 97,
98, 100, 102, 129, 131, 196, 200, 204,
207, 213, 214, 218, 226, 227, 233,
236, 245, 265, 273, 287

— of mental and bodily disease, ii.
45, 47, 51, 53, 59, 63, 70, 76, 95, 196,
204, 212, 215, 216, 236, 245, 256,
259, 287

— of pathological and physiological
conditions, ii. 39, 54

— of goitre and idiocy, ii. 45

— of organisation and intelligence, i.
75, 78, 87, 113, 114, 117, 164

— of speech and intelligence, i. 78

— of structure and the expression of
emotion, i. 114

— of structure and habit, i. 114

— of mental and physical causation,
ii. 257

— of temperament or temper and
bodily size, ii. 287

— of cerebral and mental develop-
ment, ii. 44

Corrigibility in relation to responsi-
bility, ii. 29, 54, 155, 366

Councils, i. 326, 392, 402

Counterfeit, use of, i. 59, 301, 303,
336

Counterpoise, use of, i. 464, 532

Country, contrasted with city, life, i.
503

Courage, i. 57, 62, 70, 84, 85, 98, 136,
188, 221, 222, 239, 358, 363, 365,
373, 380, 390, 465, 467 ; ii. 34, 120,

197, 200, 204, 209, 221, 234, 283,
284, 285, 286, 341, 372

— loss of, i. 378, 382 ; ii. 76

— moral, ii. 85, 88, 283

— physical, ii. 283

— respect for, i. 85, 469, 470

— spurious, ii. 68, 88, 237

— stimulation of, ii. 308

— in man, want of, ii. 77

— spurious, ii. 78
Courtesy, appreciation of man's, ii.

299

Courts, holding of, i. 401, 402
Courtship, mental phenomena of, i.
62, 64, 70, 73, 95, 96, 327, 392, 401,
468, 471, 480, 481 ; ii. 26, 115, 178,

198, 199, 238, 300, 309
Covetousness, i. 419, 432, 486, 489 ;

ii. 145, 153, 257, 322

INDEX.

513

cov

Covetousness in man, i. 166

Cow, mental characteristics of the, i.
248, 324, 337, 366, 385, 386, 390,
394, 400, 405, 434, 437, 464, 477,
485 ; ii. 22, 37, 52, 53, 63, 74, 82,
146, 180, 186, 230, 244, 258, 269,
270, 271, 272, 273, 280, 317, 348,
361, 362, 379, 390

Cowardice, i. 15, 35, 84, 96, 191, 198,
ii. 120, 178, 286, 293

Crabs, mental characteristics of, i. 54,
55, 418, 427, 497, 525

Craftiness, i. 529 ; ii. 108

Cravings, ii. 84, 87, 297

Craziness, i. 45 ; ii. 33, 250, 345

Credibility of anecdotes and authors,
i. 144

Credit, enjoyment of commercial, i.
430, 431

Credulity, human, and its results, i.
6, 49 ; ii. 77, 363

Creeds, recitation of man's, i. 302

Cretins, animal, ii. 45

Cries, significance of, i. 38, 77, 284,
286, 287, 288, 289, 300, 301, 305,
321, 322, 324, 325, 335, 336, 337,
354, 521, 539, 541 ; ii. 5, 24, 79, 97,
98, 122, 178, 179, 198, 379

Crime, commission of, i. 75, 98, 180,
193, 194, 195, 199, 259, 260, 346,
394, 490, 533: ii. 54, 108, 149, 153,
157, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 360

— concealment of, i. 75, 98, 178, 179,
180, 359, 434, 435, 530 ; ii. 56, 162,
163, 165

- forms of, ii. 158, 161, 162, 163, 164

— genesis of, ii. 232, 238, 298, 317,
323

— motives to, ii. 154, 162, 323

— pleasure in, ii. 55, 155

— punishment of, i. 194, 343, 401, 402,
403 ; ii. 158, 160, 161, 163, 357, 360,
361, 362

— responsibility for, i. 194 ; ii. 155,
161, 360

— results of. ii. 157, 161, 232

- trial for, i. 343, 392, 401, 402
Crimes, participation in man's, ii. 160,

277, 362

— detection of man's, i. 394; ii. 160,
167

— supposed, i. 402, 405 ; ii. 362
Criminality, sense of, i. 180, 193, 195,

251, 395; ii. 155, 161, 163, 167
Criminals, human, mental status of,
i. 48, 49, 163, 165, 171, 174, 181,
191, 196, 198, 202, 214, 236, 339,
448; ii. 9, 18, 155, 368

DAN

Crows, mental characteristics of, i.

343, 366, 367, 372, 400, 401, 405,

421, 436, 453, 460, 462, 520, 538 ; ii.

149, 159, 162, 164, 307
Cruelty to each other, i. 83, 86, 88,

131, 154, 194, 319, 343, 404, 405,

407, 485, 524, 537, 538 ; ii. 62, 63,

64,66, 164, 177,281,389
— pleasure in, i. 39, 88, 405,

538

— man's, to other animals, and its re-
sults, i. 35, 42, 87, 88, 90, 93, 95,
156, 157, 172, 183, 199, 200, 201,
221, 265, 387, 445, 542 ; ii. 27, 47,
57, 59, 67, 68, 69/70, 74, 75, 76, 77,
86, 88, 91, 92, 97, 101, 106, 118, 119,
130, 131, 132, 159, 173, 181, 184,
207, 240, 243, 248, 249, 251, 258,
306, 315, 316, 327, 330, 337, 358,
367

- forms of, i. 231 ; ii. 318, 319, 320,
323, 335, 355, 362, 364, 365, 367

— prevention of, ii. 330, 338, 341,
344

— unintentional, ii. 257, 314, 317,
323, 337

— causes of, ii. 350, 362

— repayment of, i. 224, 406 ; ii. 332

— man's, to man, i. 39, 42, 49, 166, 167,
169, 170, 172, 180, 197; ii. 16, 18,
36

Culpability, sense of, i. 542 ; ii. 360
Cultivation of the general intelli-
gence, i. 234, 237; ii. 121, 124, 313

— of the moral qualities, ii. 119, 313

— of special aptitudes, ii. 125, 313
Culture, man's incapacity for, i. 43
Cunning, i. 52, 55, 56, 70, 96, 287, 358,

362, 367, 369, 529 ; ii. 124, 153, 161,
162, 163, 166, 194, 316

— in man, i. 166 ; ii. 18
Cupidity, i. 509, 524, 530 ; ii. 54, 167,
Curiosity, i. 46, 77, 137, 190, 246, 251,

253, 277, 294, 344, 421, 489, 512,
513, 542 ; ii. 112, 114, 117, 122, 123,
224, 288

- errors of, i. 509, 536 ; ii. 140

— in man, i. 39, 46

— want of, i. 513; ii. 288
in man, i. 105

DAMAGE doing to man's property,
i. 200

Dancing, or its equivalents, i. 62, 71,
245, 258, 261, 279, 307, 335; ii. 217
Dandyism, or its equivalent, i. 469

VOL. II.

L L

514

INDEX.

DAN

Danger, to each other, sources of, i.
199, 200, 371, 472, 478, 496, 497,
501, 504, 505, 506, 510, 511, 530,
538, 540, 542 ; ii. 21, 22, 33, 35, 38,
64, 76, 84, 88, 89, 98, 99, 108, 110, 114,
115, 116, 122, 138, 140, 147, 156,
175, 179, 189, 191, 198, 199, 201,
202, 209, 210, 214, 215, 219, 221,

225, 230, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238,
239, 247, 254, 255, 293, 306, 308,
319, 351, 367, 378, 394

— to man, sources of, i. 16, 94,

196, 199, 200, 201, 267, 272, 301,
425, 472, 478, 497, 504, 505, 540,
542, 543 ; ii. 11, 20, 21, 22, 33, 35,
38, 40, 42, 46, 48, 49, 50, 54, 57, 59,
60, 69, 74, 84, 85, 88, 89, 93, 98, 99,
101, 102, 107, 167, 170, 175, 177,
198, 199, 201, 202, 204, 207, 217,

226, 227, 237, 241, 249, 250, 252,
269, 271, 279, 291, 292, 304, 306,
308, 316, 317, 319, 322, 338, 347,
351, 356, 357, 358, 361, 367, 389

— sense of, i. 53, 54, 65, 67, 132, 138,
154, 189, 242, 250, 253, 254, 255,
256, 278, 296, 322, 327, 335, 336,
337, 340, 341, 342, 355, 389, 391,
392, 393, 471, 472, 473, 501, 506,
524, 525, 526, 527, 534; ii. 109, 119,

122, 131, 141, 191, 249, 265, 377,
379, 393

— estimation of, i. 276, 277, 364, 375,
436, 535, 536, 539 ; ii. 100, 200, 265,
266, 286, 394

— avoidance of, i. 53, 60, 71, 73, 87,
93, 152, 153, 157, 158, 177, 179, 242,
250, 251, 274, 276, 278, 296, 340,
341, 342, 344, 348, 352, 353, 359,
375, 390, 449, 462, 465, 472, 501,
526 ; ii. 91, 92, 122, 124, 225, 394

— escape from, i. 67, 71, 150, 386, 424,
525,526; ii. 121, 144, 394

— fear of, i. 343 ; ii. 58, 63, 85, 108,
235

— variety of action in presence of, i.
59, 151, 250, 335, 363, 423 ; ii. 189,

197, 200, 266, 288, 377, 380, 382

— non-realisation of, i. 151; ii. 11,
38, 90, 98, 108, 112, 113, 114, 116,

123, 124, 140, 143, 172, 189, 219,
231, 236, 266, 288, 377

— imaginary, i. 62, 65, 223 ; ii. 58,
100, 103, 107, 108, 110, 188, 204,
220, 225, 227, 234, 235, 236, 237,
242, 265, 268

Dangers, comparison of by animals, i.

472, 473 ; ii. 379, 394
Dangerousness of animals and its

DEC

causes, ii. 203, 221, 227, 228, 230,

238, 239, 247, 249, 394
Dangerousness of objects, supposed,

ii. 234, 242

— prevention of, ii. 202, 351, 356, 357,
358, 370, 389

-protection from, i. 62, 326, 386,
422, 424

Daring, i. 136

Darkness, mental effects of, i. 56, 223,
248 ; ii. 187, 193, 220, 221, 237, 242,
265, 319, 351

Darwin, observations of Charles, i. 49,
63, 96, 173, 249, 280, 289, 294, 312,
315, 316, 323, 325, 352, 426, 471,
475, 481, 509, 514 ; ii. 4, 38, 44, 64,
76, 123, 154, 157, 173, 197, 198, 199,
200, 222, 225, 228, 230, 233, 235,

239, 245, 255, 261, 262, 268, 279,
281, 292, 294, 309

Darwinism in comparative psychology,

i. 63, 129
Days, distinction of week or other, i.

230, 454, 455, 456, 457, 459, 460,

461
Dead, care of the, i. 25, 59, 76, 185,

222, 343 ; ii. 142, 146, 147, 148

— indifference to the, i. 407; ii. 147

— in man, i. 42, 166
Deaf-mutism, mental characteristics
of human, i. 78, 119, 288 ; ii. 14, 24,
96, 129, 230

Death from mental causes, i. 70, 89,
95, 183, 184, 191, 222, 229, 383, 477,
478, 481, 485, 497, 504, 543 ; ii. 53,
159, 180, 198, 203, 214, 226, 227,
232, 238, 245, 249, 254, 255, 256,
257, 258, 259, 274, 275, 291, 294,
298, 299, 302, 303, 389

— simulation of, i. 59, 366, 524, 525,
526, 527, 532, 538; ii. 145, 146, 147

— preparation for, ii. 143, 144, 388

— preference of, i. 471 ; ii. 133, 134,
135, 137, 139

— premonitions of, i. 153 ; ii. 142, 143,
144, 145, 213, 376, 380

— diagnosis of, ii. 145, 146

— dread of, ii. 131, 144
Debate, i. 326, 335, 402 ; ii. 158
Debauch, ii. 174

Debility, mental results of physical,

ii. 42, 206, 207
Debts of man to other animals, ii.

329
Decay, sense of, i. 382 ; ii. 130, 142,

143, 194
Deceitfulness, i. 531 ; ii. 316

— human, i. 166, 169, 184

INDKX.

515

DEC

Decency, sense of, i. 103, 120, 132,
165, 185

— want of in man, i. 41, 165, 168,
170, 171 ; ii. 16

Deception of each other, i. 65, 73,
181, 259, 287, 292, 296, 297, 304,
336, 350, 353, 358, 362, 366, 484,
501, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528,
529, 532, 533, 534, 540, 541 ; ii.
146, 158, 166

— of man, i. 298, 301, 350, 353, 437,
493, 526, 527, 529, 530, 531, 533,
541 ; ii. 158, 161, 162

— by man, i. 184, 256, 421, 436, 458,
484, 494, 496, 519, 520, 534, 535,
536, 542; ii. 86, 109, 112, 114, 126,
235, 301, 374

- liability to, i. 57, 421, 436, 458,
484, 496, 498, 499, 500, 508, 512,
513, 515, 516, 520, 521, 539 ; ii. 126,
374

— detection of, i. 70, 184, 262, 430,
431, 494 ; ii. 38

Decision, forming a, i. 64, 193, 326,

358, 375, 468, 472 ; ii. 133, 134
Decisions, judicial, ii. 158
Declamation, i. 72, 185, 258, 299, 402,

532

Decorative art, i. 359, 442
Decorousness of behaviour, i. 229,

232, 261
Decoy, use of, i. 73, 336, 353, 527,

533 ; ii. 65

- by man, i. 85, 496, 519, 533 ;

ii. 73, 224, 319
Defeat, sense of, i. 295, 362, 363, 383 ;

ii. 257, 294
Defence of each other, i. 62, 180 ; ii.

121, 199, 200, 205, 388

— of dwellings, ii. 203, 204

— man's property, i. 88, 259, 269

— man,'i. 93, 180, 259, 269 ; ii. 148,
391

Deference to each other, i. 85, 222,
387, 399

— want of, i. 403, 405, 412

— appreciation of man's, ii. 299
Defiance, i. 71, 321, 365, 412, 413,

466 ; ii. 178, 238

Definition, difliculties in psychologi-
cal, i. 16, 17, 51, 103, 107, 118, 123,
124, 125, 129, 132, 138, 139, 140,
141, 142, 175, 186, 191, 192, 203,
207, 209, 215, 218, 219, 220, 221,
223, 281, 318 ; ii. 6, 131

Degradation, sense of, i. 323, 383 ; ii.
294

— in man, i. 105, 122, 168, 16'J

DEM

Degree, mental difference between

man and other animals, one of, i.

116, 123, 124, 126
Degrees of intelligence, i. 63, 68, 69,

74, 77, 78, 80, 116, 117, 118, 123,

124, 126, 140, 141, 175, 192; ii.

197
Deification of animals by man, ii. 325,

355, 370
Dejection, ii. 162, 232, 294, 296, 297,

299
Deliberation, i. 120, 121, 128, 139,

151, 176, 186, 187, 190, 193, 194,

357, 366, 372, 375, 400, 468, 470,

471, 472, 473, 479, 523, 533, 537, 540;

ii. 52, 80, 124, 130, 133, 134, 136,

137, 138, 140, 165, 166, 189, 238,

288, 294, 385,
Delight, i. 86, 229, 322, 476, 533, 538,

539, 540 ; ii. 84, 164, 225, 230, 233,

278, 298, 368
Delirium and its causes, i. 97, 304 ; ii.

21, 25, 27, 39, 53, 74, 77, 90, 98,

108, 181, 189, 197, 198, 202, 207,

217, 232, 319
Delusion, liability to, i. 59, 223, 304,

477, 490 ; ii. 19, 27, 31, 34, 48, 94,
• 95, 100, 102, 106, 108, 109, 110, 134,

137, 188, 242

— causes of, ii. 99, 106, 191, 195, 220,
221, 233, 242, 249, 278, 348, 367

— corrigibility of, ii. 95, 100

— diagnosis of, ii. 95, 105

— dangerousness of, ii. 99

— duration of, ii. 95, 100

— results of, ii. 100, 178, 181

— in man, ii. 15, 17

Delusions, sane, ii. 95, 100, 102, 109

— insane, ii. 95, 97, 100, 109

— sensorial, ii. 29, 57, 96, 100, 102,
103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 242,
317

— intellectual, ii. 29, 57, 59, 61, 105,
107

— artificial, ii. 108, 109

— epidemic, ii. 110

- of fear, ii. 57, 58, 97, 106, 236, 239

— of suspicion, ii. 57, 58, 106, 236,
239

Demand-making, i. 294, 327, 477 ; ii.

322, 380
Dementia, ii. 27, 31, 33, 44, 45, 46,

47, 48, 59, 75, 127, 191, 213, 231

— precursors of, ii. 213, 218, 231, 247
Demonology, animal, i. 194 ; ii. 21,

23, 39, 57, 350, 362, 363, 364
Demonstrativeness of emotion, i. 86,
87, 297, 318, 475 ; ii. 63, 233, 303

516

INDEX.

DEM

Demoralisation by man, i. 378; ii.

246, 249, 317
Demureness, i. 229, 232, 251, 385,

530 ; ii. 195, 196
Denunciation, i. 185
Dependence on each other, i. 132,

360 ; ii. 126

— sense of in man, i. 209, 211, 219
Deposition from office and its effects,

i. 377, 382, 383 ; ii. 247, 294
Depressants, mental, ii. 226, 248, 349
Depression, mental, i. 70, 229 ; ii. 31,

48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 68, 89, 132, 142,

171, 180, 212, 218, 244

— causes of, ii. 207, 226, 229, 231,
232, 241, 259, 286, 297, 301, 308

— effects of, ii. 259, 260, 267

— intensity of, ii. 226, 244, 254

— treatment of, ii. 308, 353
Derision, power of, i. 313, 317, 321,

540

— sensitiveness to, i. 320
Descriptive power, absence of, ii. 105

in man, ii. 96

Desertion of young, i. 89, 471, 483,

485, 487, 507 ; ii. 62, 64, 132, 352,

388, 392
- of home, ii. 137, 138, 198, 294,

299, 352
mates, i. 95, 469, 480

- — masters, i. 340, 342 ; ii. 300, 301

parents, ii. 117

trust, i. 97, 184

each other by men, i. 166, 168

the wounded and dead, ii. 66,

115

— by man, i. 340 ; ii. 131, 132

— sense of, ii. 257

Deserved, sense of the, ii. 296, 300

Design, i. 357, 366, 528; ii. 6, 7, 8,
166

Desire, i. 60; ii. 60, 153, 162, 166, 178,
191, 240, 245, 255, 278, 302, 367,
368, 383

Despair, i. 57, 94, 229, 294, 323, 324,
407, 413, 418, 497 ; ii. 34, 131, 135,
138, 173, 178, 181, 186, 213, 229,
232, 237, 249, 257, 286, 353, 380,
393

Desperation, ii. 34, 68, 101, 131, 249,
285

Despondency, ii. 132, 286, 353

Despotic rule, i. 385

Destructiveness, general, i. 131, 136,
197, 369, 419, 422, 424, 490, 495,
506, 538 ; ii. 34, 49, 50, 52, 59, 73, 89,
108, 130, 196, 198, 201, 250

— causes of, ii. 247, 250

DIF

Destructiveness of life, ii. 160, 186,
238, 250

— of property, ii. 159, 160, 250, 361

— in man, i. 170, 440 ; ii. 10
Details, notice of, i. 251
Detection in delinquency, sense of, i.

179, 180, 531 ; ii. 163, 164

— avoidance of, i. 524, 533 ; ii. 164

— dread of, i. 493 ; ii. 166
- effects of, ii. 164

— of man's deceptions and crimes,
i. 75, 153, 158, 194, 256, 298, 535,
536, 542 ; ii. 38, 156

— of disease, ii. 29
Determination, i. 52, 62, 110, 149,

230, 248, 255, 361, 495, 530 ; ii. 60,

130, 132, 133, 135, 138, 166, 284,

286
Detestation and its expression, ii.

278, 279
Development, mental, actual and

potential, compared, i. 79, 80
Deviations from routine, i. 61, 133,

135
Devices, i. 56, 94, 296, 340, 342, 357,

370, 374, 462, 529 ; ii. 136, 162, 166
Devotedness, i. 222 ; ii. 285
Devoutness, i. 229, 232, 233
Dexterity, i. 415 ; ii. 155
Diagnosis, powers of, in animals, ii. 29

— by man, difficulties in, ii. 155, 1TO,
175, 213

— means of, ii. 169, 170, 175
Dialects in animal language, i. 293
Diathesis, influence, of, ii. 243
Differences, discrimination of, i. 66,

145, 303, 320

— psychical, between man and other
animals, 122, 124, 125

- possible, i. 116, 117, 338, 339
— nominal, not real, ii. 25

— not in kind, i. 78, 268 ; ii. 22, 23

— in structure and habits between
man and other animals, results of,
i. 311, 339

— psychical in man, i. 122, 123, 124,
209

— of opinion among authors, i. 295,
296, 338, 400

Differentiation by man of the human
and animal mind :

— difficulties in, i. 100, 101, 103, 116,
117, 118, 123, 125; ii. 27, 28, 29,
32, 102, 105, 107, 180, 184, 264, 276

— groundlessness of, i. 3, 9, 49, 79,
100, 118, 124, 126, 176, 186, 187,
205, 234, 239, 281, 284, 286, 338,
409, 440, 446, 523; ii. 140

INDEX.

517

DIF

Differentiation by man of the real
from the apparent, ii. 26, 28, 33,
37, 38, 39, 100, 103, 114, 117, 146,
147, 169

— of causes from effects, ii. 28

— of fact from opinion, ii. 39

— of cure from recovery, ii. 346

— of the corrigible from the incor-
rigible, ii. 26, 54, 55, 153

— of the dangerous from the harm-
less, ii. 26

— of the preventible from the non-
preventible, ii. 26

— of healthy from diseased mental
conditions, ii. 26, 29, 58, 129, 174,
179, 180

— of responsibility from irresponsi-
bility, ii. 155

— by animals of friends from foes,
i. 157, 247, 248, 249, 516 ; ii. 161,
289

— of death from life, sleep and im-
mobility, ii. 142, 145, 146, 147

— of ranks in man, i. 249
the sexes in man, ii. 218

certainty from possibility, ii.

394
Difficulties, modes of overcoming, i.

56, 70, 312, 358, 370, 380 ; ii. 119,

379, 380, 382, 390, 391
Difficulty, sense of, ii. 379, 380, 390,

393

Diffidence, i. 503
Dignity, real or apparent, i. 83, 84,

96, 385, 386, 532 ; ii. 195, 278, 294
Dilatoriness, i. 480
Diligence, i. 120, 121, 237, 255, 277
Dimension, estimation of, i. 71
Diplomacy, i. 363
Direction, sense of topographical, i.

131, 143, 149, 298
Disablement, behaviour in, ii. 382,

384, 386, 390, 391, 392

— treatment of, ii. 66, 92, 388, 390,
392

- feigned, i. 525, 527, 533, 534
Disadvantages, linguistic, i. 397
Disagreeable, sense of the, i. 155,

183, 359, 366, 486, 524 ; ii. 26, 85,

86, 87
Disappointment, feeling of, i. 71, 95,

176, 294, 316, 323, 351, 465, 477,

478, 484, 493, 503, 542 ; ii. 51, 99,

131, 190, 231, 238, 240, 241, 257,

302
Disapprobation and its expression, ii.

281
Discernment, i. 71

DIS

Discipline, mental effects of, i. 58,

139, 188, 196, 264, 265, 267, 377,
385, 403, 489 ; ii. 119, 189, 209

Discomfiture, sense of, ii. 286, 294
Discomfort, sense of personal, ii. 131,

270, 367

Disconsolateness, ii. 232, 302
Discontent, ii. 195
Discouragement and its causes, ii.

135, 297
Discovery of lost persons or property,

i. 75, 130, 158, 259, 353

— of murders, i. 75, 153, 158

fires, i. 359, 364

Discreetness, ii. 204

Discretion, i. 146, 358, 375, 376, 489
Discrimination, i. 197, 247, 262, 320,

358, 430, 489, 507, 509 ; ii. 120, 285,

394

Disdain, i. 478 : ii. 83, 301
Disease produced by mental causes,

ii. 175, 269, 271, 274, 302, 317

— animal, treatment of, by man ;
ii. 236, 304, 355, 356, 357, 359,
367

— mental effects of, i. 135, 141, 159,
173, 197, 284, 304, 311, 387, 422,
440, 467, 490, 504 ; ii. 3, 4, 9, 19,
20, 26, 34, 65, 96 98, 99, 100, 110,
127, 128, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136,

140, 149, 160, 169, 171, 176, 177,
178, 182, 192, 193, 204, 206, 212,
214, 219, 287, 303, 305, 378, 394

— dread of, ii. 394, 395

— feigned, i. 525

- language of, ii. 169, 170, 173, 174,
175, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182

— means of recovery from, ii. 273,
304

— recognition of the nature of, by
animals, ii. 375, 394, 395

— production of, by man, ii. 209, 210,
274, 357

Disgrace, sense of, i. 179, 383, 403 ; ii.

257, 294

Disguise, use of, i. 501, 529
Disgust, feeling of, i. 70 ; ii. 84, 85,

129, 131, 270, 282, 301, 305, 379
Dishonesty, i. 96, 175 ; ii. 155, 157,

316

— detection of man's, i. 430
-in man, i. 166, 169, 172
Dishonour, sense of, ii. 257, 294
Disinterestedness, i. 14, 120, 137, 175,

189, 191, 221, 224, 225, 227, 342,
445, 483, 485

Dislikes, natural and morbid, i. 61,
156, 188, 191, 352, 375, 415, 471 ;

518

INDEX.

DIS

Dislikes, natural and morbid, ii. 42,

62, 82, 83, 191, 222, 228, 242, 244,

278, 279, 281, 292, 293, 298, 319,

320, 367, 379
Disobedience, i. 59, 136, 139, 375, 376,

387 ; ii. 201, 361
Disorder and its causes, i. 386
Disparagement, sense of, ii. 304
Displacement, sense of, ii. 239
Display, love and use of, i. 96, 155,

280, 295, 296, 304, 468, 476, 477,

478 ; ii. 238, 239
Displeasure and its manifestations, i.

294 ; ii. 292, 293, 302

— sensitiveness to man's, i. 347, 531
Disposition, differences in, i. 61 ;

ii. 276, 284, 285, 286, 288, 324

— changes in, i. 270, 469 ; ii. 218, 249,
302, 316

- bad, ii. 212, 218, 244

Disputes, i. 399

Dissatisfaction and its expression,

i. 463, 486, 511

Dissection, anatomical, use of, ii. 152
Dissimulation, i. 525 ; ii. 42
Dissolution of animal societies and

its causes, i. 378
Distance, absence of sense of, in man,

ii. 11
Distaste and its expression, ii. 278,

282, 292
Distraction, mental, its causes and

effects, ii. 223, 227, 251
Distress, mental, i. 301, 336, 412, 525,

539 ; ii. 178, 214, 225, 245, 296, 306

— appreciation of man's, ii. 116, 328
Distrust, its causes and effects, i. 253,

491 ; ii. 58, 195, 377
Disuse, loss of faculties by, i. 135,

282, 304

Diversion, means of, i. 530 ; ii. 177
Docility, i. 71, 87, 240, 260, 262,

264, 267, 271, 543; ii. 31, 121,

177, 195, 199, 200, 202, 208, 245,

372, 373

— promotion of, ii. 308, 320, 346
Dog, moral and intellectual charac-
teristics of the, i. 13, 40, 50, 74, 75,
77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 89, 90, 91,
108, 110, 119, 121, 127, 128, 138,
139, 144, 145, 146, 153, 154, 156,
157, 158, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179,
180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 188, 190,
191, 192, 194, 195, 197, 199, 220,
221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228,
229, 230, 232, 237, 239, 241, 242,
243, 244, 249, 250, 251, 254, 256,
259, 260, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267,

DOM

268, 269, 273, 275, 276, 278, 289,
290, 291, 294, 296, 297, 298, 299
301, 305, 306, 308, 311, 312, 313,
315, 316, 318, 319, 320, 322, 325,
335, 336, 340, 341, 342, 346, 347,
348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354,
355, 356, 359, 361, 363, 364, 365,
370, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 379,

381, 383, 384, 385, 387, 390, 391,
394, 395, 397, 398, 399, 403, 404,
406, 408, 416, 418, 419, 422, 423,
430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 437,
438, 439, 442, 449, 452, 453, 454,
458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 464, 465,
466, 467, 472, 473, 474, 482, 485,
487, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495,
496, 501, 502, 503, 508, 509, 511,
512, 515, 516, 517, 520, 521, 523,
524, 525, 527, 529, 530, 531, 532,
533, 535, 536, 537, 540, 542, 543;
ii. 5, 15, 20, 21, 22, 26, 29, 32, 33,
37, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52,
53, 54, 55, 56, 60, 63, 65, 66, 69,
74, 75, 76, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88,
90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 103,
104, 105, 106, 109, 110, 121, 122,
124, 125, 127, 128, 132, 133, 134,
136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143,
144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150,
151, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161,
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 170,
171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,
179, 180, 181, 184, 187, 189, 190,
194, 196, 198, 201, 202, 203, 207,
208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 215, 216,
217, 218, 219, 224, 225, 226, 227,
228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234,
235, 237, 238, 241, 242, 244, 245,
246, 247, 248, 249, 254, 255, 258,
259, 261, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268,
269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276,
277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 283, 284,
287, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295,
296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302,
303, 304, 305, 307, 308, 314, 315,
316, 317, 319, 321, 322, 323, 324,
325, 332, 333, 335, 336, 346, 347,
348, 351, 352, 355, 357, 359, 361,
362, 364, 365, 366, 368, 369, 371,
372, 373, 374, 375, 378, 379, 380,

382, 383, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390,
391, 393, 394, 395

Dog-madness in man, ii. 16

Dogmatism, man's, and its results,
i. 6

Domestic animals, mental charac-
teristics of, i. 348, 355, 399 ; ii. 21,
23, 27, 35, 39, 42, 47, 72, 75, 82, 97,

INDEX.

519

DOM

102, 115, 119, 141, 176, 177, 186,
207, 209, 246, 248, 287, 293, 295,
305, 308, 321, 322

Domestic animals, man's treatment
of the, ii. 271, 272, 316, 318, 319,
324, 326, 328, 334, 335, 336, 338,
356, 362

— utensils of man's, use of, i. 350
Domestication, mental phenomena

of, i. 60, 94, 95, 135, 136, 144, 226,
260, 269, 270, 271. 272, 435, 441,
457, 458, 473 : ii. 47, 75, 119, 121,
239, 246, 282, 285, 320, 321, 381,
383

— incapacity for, i. 86

— of animals by each other, i. 270,
344, 360, 361

Dominance of certain mental facul-
ties, i. 251, 252

— of certain kinds of motive, i. 340,
341

— of mind, i. 374

— of certain emotions, i. 407 ; ii. 60

— of power, i. 398

Doors and gates, opening and shut-
ting, i. 350, 363, 368, 414, 415, 420,
4i% 423, 424, 429, 432, 433, 434,
435 ; ii. 119

Doubt and its expression, i. 34, 312,
358, 375, 503 ; ii. 166

Doves, mental characteristics of, i. 84,
95, 96

Dramatic ability, i. 73, 258, 261, 304,
353, 390, 531 ; ii. 98

Drawing, art of, i. 108

Dread, i. 222, 223, 484, 493

Dreaming, i. 490 ; ii. 31, 94, 95, 96,
97, 98, 99, 104

— in man, ii. 96, 97

Dress, recognition of man's and its
effects, i. 461, 495; ii. 242, 279,
280, 285, 358

— use of man's, i. 76, 113
- love of, i. 441, 442

Dressing and undressing themselves,

i. 414, 415, 441
Drinking, methods of, i. 412, 417, 435,

436, 437, 449 ; ii. 84

— fits, and habits of, ii. 85, 93

— methods of in man, i. 447
Drooping spirits, ii. 256

Drugs, mental effects of, ii. 68, 70,
71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 81, 86, 87, 88,
89, 108, 127, 188, 193, 348, 349,
351, 382, 383, 394

— use of, ii. 351, 382, 383, 394
Drums, construction and use of, i.

410

EAR

Drunkenness, liability to, ii. 81, 84,
85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 108, 174

— and death, confusion of, i. 500

— recognition of man's, ii. 91, 92
Dulness of intellect, ii. 289

— of spirits, ii. 173, 195, 218
Dumbness of animals, supposed, i. 15

— in man, effects of, i. 119

Duty, sense of, i. 59, 70, 75, 81, 119,
155, 175, 182, 183, 184, 188, 191,
193, 197, 359, 382, 389, 395, 471 ;
ii. 156, 232

— sense of, capacity for, ii. 373
incapacity for, ii. 143

— discharge of, i. 182, 183, 184,
259, 269, 273, 359, 382, 395, 408 ;
ii. 65, 115, 156, 372

— evasion of, i. 97, 136, 183, 191, 359,
366, 389, 403, 486, 524 ; ii. 63, 232,
295, 389

— assumption of alien, i. 73, 91, 136,
182, 183, 359, 373, 408, 469, 483,

484, 485, 486, 487 ; ii. 74, 197, 199,
200, 388

— specialisation of, 386, 387, 388,
389, 390, 391 ; ii. 200, 205

— delegation of, 183 ; ii. 115

— man's to other animals, i. 196,
200, 238; ii. 329, 332, 337, 338,
343, 344, 359, 361

— sense of in man, i. 219

— no sense of in man, i. 48, 165,
167, 171, 174

Duties, maternal, i. 413, 415, 484,

485, 486, 487 ; ii. 63, 65, 372, 389
- parental, i. 183, 388, 393 ; ii. 65,

128, 374

Dwellings, construction of, i. 55, 59,
71', 113, 120, 410, 427, 442, 444,
445

— use of man's, i. 76

— use of artificial, i. 429

— non-use of fixed, by man, L 113,
428, 442, 443, 444 ; ii. 14

Dying, sense of, ii. 142, 143, 144, 145,

178
Dyspepsia, mental effects of. ii. 212

— treatment of, ii. 382

TUGERXESS, i. 66, 183, 312, 469,
JJ 478, 489, 496, 504 ; ii. 94, 143,

177, 196, 255, 264, 268
Eagles, mental characters of, i. 15,

84, 96
Earnest, discrimination between fun

and, i. 318, 530

520

INDEX.

EAR

Earnestness, i. 94, 221, 227, 298, 491 ;

ii. 238
Ease of mind and its production,

ii. 273

— sense of personal, i. 471
Eccentric irritation and its effects,

ii. 214

Eccentricities of behaviour, i. 149,
156, 180, 196, 227, 298, 342, 468,
471, 472, 479, 482, 484, 540 ; ii. 22,
38, 39, 46, 48, 56, 60, 83, 88, 89, 90,
92, 108, 116, 154, 170, 171, 178,
179, 191, 214, 218, 225, 243, 265,
276, 278, 281, 282, 283, 284, 305

Eccentricity, causation of, ii. 187,
207, 214, 265, 279, 287, 381

— results of, ii. 322, 362, 394
Ecstacy, its nature and causation,

ii. 225, 230, 233, 254, 291
Education of animals by each other,
i. 244, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278;
ii. 143, 374

— of animals by man, fruits of, i. 13,
21, 32, 40, 61, 75, 77, 78, 85, 86, 87,
88, 89, 93, 108, 117, 118, 119, 127,
136, 139, 181, 182, 185, 195, 196,
199, 226, 233, 234, 237, 239, 240,
241, 242, 244, 257, 260, 261, 262,
263, 264, 266, 268, 269, 270, 271,
272, 273, 292, 301, 305, 316, 342,
346, 352, 353, 355, 381, 390, 394,
399, 419, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439,
452, 457, 458, 487, 501, 525, 532,
533 ; ii. 25, 37, 42, 61, 73, 88, 119,
120, 121, 124, 125, 150, 160, 161,
162, 207, 277, 287, 289, 290, 296,
313, 317, 319, 321, 331, 341, 366,
371

— forms of,i. 236, 237, 243, 269, 274 ;
ii. 331

— moral, i. 79, 238 ; ii. 150, 332, 366,
369

— physical, i. 237, 280 ; ii. 332

— intellectual, i. 238 ; ii. 332

— reformatory, ii. 150, 366

— criminal, i. 194, 195, 197, 199, 533 ;
ii. 88, 160, 162, 317, 364

— technical, i. 196, 237, 240, 268,
301, 394, 399, 437, 438, 439, 502,
532 ; ii. 332

- principles of, 39, 193, 239, 240,
241, 242, 243, 264, 265, 267, 271,
272, 276, 349, 502 ; ii. 289, 366

— influence of system in, i. 241, 263,
269, 275, 502, 533 ; ii. 88, 289, 332,
366

of adaptiveness, i. 265, 269, 502 ;

ii. 289, 290

EFP

Education, influence of kindness and
cruelty, i. 265, 271, 272 ; ii. 319

of fear and love, i. 241, 267,

272

— of rewards and punishments,
i. 107, 241, 265, 403 ; ii. 366, 369

of man's companionship and ex-
ample, i. 266, 268, 269

— possibilities under, i. 93, 105, 271,
355

— utilitarianism in, i. 269, 272, 273,
399, 437

- faultiness of, i. 196, 197, 199, 269,
273 ; ii. 124, 125, 359

— elements of success in, i. 239, 243,
271

— of man, necessity for, i. 38,
174, 185, 213, 282, 452; ii. 337,
338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 369

— fruitlessness of, i. 123, 235, 236

— of man and animals, conjoint,
i. 244

— capacity for, i. 70, 72, 182, 234,
236, 239, 240, 241, 242, 354, 394 ;
ii. 46, 121, 276, 277, 284, 287, 289,
346

— incapacity for, i. 236 ; ii. 44, 46,
127, 195, 277, 287, 346

— man's incapacity for, i. 43, 49, 173,
204, 235, 236 ; ii. 14

— of animals, necessity for, i. 274,
276, 500, 509 ; ii. 369

— specialisation of, ii. 46, 121, 124,
125, 161, 332

— economic value of, i. 269, 272, 273

— in relation to instinct, i. 127, 133,
138, 139

to heredity, i. 78, 109

Effect, estimation and use of, i. 73,

96, 251, 280, 295, 304, 359, 409, 410,

424, 439, 469, 476, 477
r— disproportionateness of in relation

to the cause, ii. 296

— diversity of, from the same cause,
ii. 308

Effort-making and its objects, i. 73,
95, 120, 228, 242, 246, 255, 275, 278,
298, 320, 325, 393, 427, 433, 469,
477, 478, 491, 493, 499, 504, 505,
514 ; ii. 5, 79, 93, 101, 104, 119, 120,
131, 132, 141, 142, 144, 148, 153,
162, 163, 166, 210, 234, 235, 249,
251, 260, 286, 292, 299, 368

— repetition of, i. 73, 228, 255, 427,
463, 466, 512 ; ii. 6, 132, 133, 286

— paralysis of, and its causes, ii.
266, 286, 393

— want of, i. 494 ; ii. 79. 125, 266, 393

INDEX.

521

EFF

Effort, sense of futility of, i. 505 ; ii.
101, 131, 162

Elephant, moral and intellectual
character of the, i. 34, 77, 80, 108,
114, 121, 139, 182, 183, 185, 241,
242, 249, 255, 259, 261, 263, 264,
279, 308, 323, 324, 325, 334, 345,
353, 354, 364, 375, 380, 385, 387,
390, 394, 395, 399, 400, 403, 405,
407, 423, 424, 426, 427, 432, 437,
442, 445, 449, 461, 462, 463, 485,
487, 492, 496, 513, 525, 532, 533,
537, 539, 540, 542, 543 ; ii. 22, 33,
34, 37, 38, 49, 50, 53, 69, 80, 81, 82,

88, 89, 92, 122, 126, 127, 128, 144,
146, 156, 158, 159, 160, 165, 189,
198, 204, 207, 208, 222, 225. 227.
228, 231, 234, 246, 247, 258, 259,
277, 288, 291, 293, 294, 297, 298,
300, 302, 303, 304, 305, 308, 321,
324, 365, 371, 372, 388, 389, 391

Emblems of human virtues and vices,
animals as, i. 14, 15, 63, 83, 84, 88,

89, 90, 92, 95, 96, 97, 295, 472 ; ii.
Ill, 126, 219, 321, 328

Embrace-giving and receiving, i. 71,
77, 410, 411, 416, 417, 418, 419, 424,
469 ; ii. 176

Emergency, action in, i. 59, 67, 120,
135, 278, 359, 363, 364, 366, 367,
369, 376, 380, 387, 393, 423, 501,
503, 526; ii. 98, 119, 121, 131,
276

— non-action in, ii. 125
Emigration, mental phenomena of,

i. 509

Emotion, intensity of, ii. 28, 59, 61,
117, 184, 230, 231, 233, 239, 254,
257, 258, 259, 298, 303

— duration of, ii. 28, 59, 184, 257,
258

— expression of, i. 77, 86, 323; ii.
4, 178, 230, 260, 261, 262, 264, 265,
303

— repression of, i. 60, 292, 296, 297,
327, 525, 526, 527 ; ii. 374, 377

— results of, i. 53, 62, 64, 87, 237 ;
ii. 229, 236, 239, 254, 255, 256, 257,
259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 267,
268, 269, 271, 274, 298, 302, 303,
304 '

— simulation of, i. 292, 525, 532

— diffusion of, ii. 188, 236, 303, 306

— disorders of, ii. 39, 190, 212, 259,
267, 269, 298

— excitement of, ii. 31, 115, 305

— appreciation of human, i. 347

— in man, ii. 10, 28

ERO

Emotion, absence of in man, i. 105»

171 ; ii. 129
Emotions, combinations of, i. 177,

323 ; ii. 236, 257, 258, 264

— exciting and depressing, ii. 256,
261, 298

Emulation and its results, i. 278 ; ii.

255, 265
Encouragement of each other, i. 275,

276, 277, 363, 393 ; ii. 158, 354

— by man, its necessity and effects,
i. 347 ; ii. 100, 272, 289, 296, 297,
308, 353, 354

in relation to education, ii.

295, 296, 297

to work, ii. 296, 297, 354

Endearment and its expression, i.

469, 474
Endurance, i. 93, 363; ii. 119, 131,

134, 141, 180, 284, 308, 372, 377
Enemies, treatment of, i. 183, 225,

407, 482, 495, 516, 527, 541 ; ii. 26,

95, 98, 99, 104, 120, 122, 123, 126,

145, 146, 166, 172, 177, 209, 233,

235, 240, 241, 242, 265, 332, 369,

379, 390
Energy, mental, i. 62, 66, 87, 97, 263,

363, 368, 383; ii. 188, 196, 207,

209, 287, 308

— loss of, i. 378 ; ii. 266
Engasrement-making and keeping, i.

354» 469

Enjoyment, sense of, i. 195, 303, 478,
539 ; ii. 84, 121, 130, 248, 264, 383,

— sources of, ii. 155, 164, 248
Enmity, i. 345

Ennui, liability to, i. 110 ; ii. 142,

246

Enterprise, i. 380, 383
Enthusiasm, ii. 196
Entreaty, ii. 379
Envy and its causes, ii. 229, 322

— in man, i. 166

Epidemic mental disorders, i. 97, 151 ;

ii. 60, 72, 73, 188, 236, 303, 306

in man, ii. 15

Epilepsy and its effects, ii. 213, 263,

269, 236, 287

— in man, ii. 230

Epitaphs in honour of animals, ii. 335
Epithets based on animal character,

i. 11, 83, 88, 89, 90, 92, 478 ; ii. 269
Equality and inequality, sense of, i.

464
Equanimity and its promotion, i. 87 ;

ii. 368

Equitation, i. 270, 271, 276, 361, 398
Erotomania, i. 136

522

INDEX.

ERR

Error, liability to, i. 54, 57, 65, 95,
96, 97, 127, 133, 150, 157, 460, 465,
488, 493, 496, 500, 535, 536 ; ii. 95,
99, 126, 145, 278

— realisation of, i. 491, 492, 493, 494 ;
ii. 101

— correction of, i. 57, 65, 193, 237,
257, 280, 300, 316, 492, 512, 534,
491, 493, 494, 498, 499, 501 ; ii. 95,
99, 128

— non- correction of, i. 493, 494

— causation of, i. 490, 494, 495, 496 ;
ii. 203, 221, 238

— confession of, i. 491 ; ii. 302

— concealment of, i. 493

— avoidance of, i. 493, 498

— repetition of, i. 494, 505

— penalties of, i. 493, 522 ; ii. 154
Errors of animals, i. 182, 183, 301,

345, 382, 403, 405, 411, 416, 436,
444, 453, 457, 466, 470, 478, 479,
484, 488, 489, 491, 493, 494, 497,
498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504,
505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511,
512, 515, 516, 517, 520, 521, 522,
534, 535, 539; ii. 44, 58, 59, 86,
88, 90, 95, 99, 101, 102, 109, 110,
112, 118, 122, 128, 147, 148, 154,
191, 203, 204, 266, 319, 358, 359,
393

— classification of the, i. 489, 490,
491

— of man in regard to other animals,
i. 3, 6, 11, 12, 15, 27, 87, 90, 91, 93,
96, 108, 114, 116, 126, 127, 134,
141, 145, 181, 188, 191, 192, 198,
234, 238, 281, 282, 301, 302, 338,
341, 409, 440, 442, 446, 460, 466,
498, 502, 506, 509, 510, 511, 515,
518, 523, 529, 542; ii. 3, 8, 19,
21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 33, 39, 40,
42, 48, 53, 57, 74, 76, 87, 88, 120,
125, 126, 127, 147, 181, 189, 207,
210, 213, 215, 251, 252, 263, 274,
276, 291, 307, 314, 315, 319, 320,
324, 340, 349, 354, 358, 359, 362,
363, 364, 365, 370, 381, 387

observation and correction

of by other animals, i. 491, 492,

494, 514 ; ii. 354
Escape-making, means of, i. 434, 504,

524; ii. 116, 210, 234, 235, 251,

260, 286, 385

— incapacity for, ii. 117, 125, 131,
266, 286

Esprit de corps, i. 393, 394
Esteem, appreciation of man's, i.
347 ; ii. 137

EXC

Estimation of human character, i.
352, 465 ; ii. 300, 301

— of physical properties of bodies, i.
56, 59, 64, 71 ; ii. 319

Etiquette, attention to, i. 398, 399
Eulogies by man of animal virtues,

ii. 333
Eunuchs, mental character of human,

i. 164
Events, observation of the succession

of, i. 455
Evidence, valuation of, i. 343, 405;

ii. 163, 165
— • destruction of, ii. ] 65

— non-appreciation of by man, i. 6,
125, 223

Evils, selection of minor, ii. 379, 394
Evolution of mind in animals, irre-
gularities in the, i. 69, 71, 74, 79,
80

— in the invertebrata, i. 51, 67

vertebrata, i. 69

Exaggeration, faculty of, ii. 236, 237,

266, 286

Exaltation, feeling of, i. 312 ; ii. 57,
68, 201, 300

Examination, faculty of, i. 55, 71,
222, 246, 253, 255, 352, 364, 419,
421, 466, 468, 491 ; ii. 112, 191, 225

Example, force of, i. 77, 238, 243,
244, 266, 313, 320, 354; ii. 38

Exasperation, feeling of i. 407 ; ii. 76

Excellence, appreciation of moral or
mental, i. 469, 470

of physical, i. 469, 470

Excess in emotion, and its dangers,
i. 223, 225, 317, 325, 403, 469, 478,
483, 485, 504, 506, 510 ; ii. 58, 103,
117, 179, 185, 187, 190, 191, 196,
229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 255, 257,

258, 260, 291, 296, 298, 305

— in food and drink, and its effects,
i. 510 ; ii. 84, 85, 90, 93, 209

— sexual, and its penalties, ii. 190,
230

Exchange -making, i. 75

Excitability, i. 98; ii. 63, 107, 179,
201, 215, 235, 252, 260, 305

Excitants, mental, ii. 224, 226, 308

Excitement, mental, causes of, i. 516 ;
ii. 190, 199, 204, 207, 214, 217,
218, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225,
227, 228, 229, 233, 238, 247, 252,

259, 260, 279, 298, 317

forms of, 200, 298, 304, 352, 378,

384, 420, 422, 478, 513, 514, 516 ;
ii. 20, 28, 38, 48, 52, 54, 63, 73, 74,
89, 91, 94, 95, 98, 159, 171, 178,

INDEX.

523

EXC

179, 180, 189, 191, 201, 230, 231,
233, 238, 244, 252, 269, 352

Excitement, mental, effects of, i. 16,

57, 61, 66, 97, 158; ii. 177, 178,

190, 211, 233, 259, 260, 262, 263,

264, 265, 267, 268, 269, 271
intensity of, ii. 74, 89, 120, 179,

202, 204, 214, 221, 228, 233, 238,

254
— treatment of, ii. 201, 220, 308,

348, 351, 353, 364
duration of, ii. 89, 173, 179,

251
- love of and necessity for, ii.

248, 299, 303

expressions of, ii. 178, 262, 264

Exclamation, i. 303

Exclusiveness, i. 386, 485, 486; ii.

298, 322, 389
Excuse-making, i. 524
Executioners, animals as man's, i.

259
Exercise of mental faculties, and its

effects, i. 243, 279, 280, 304, 305 ;

ii. 180, 377
want of, ii. 190, 206, 245,

246

— physical, love of and necessity for,
ii. 248, 250, 257, 357

Exhaustion, mental effects of phy-
sical, ii. 206, 207, 233, 249, 251,
252, 255, 271, 274, 275

— mental, and its causes, ii. 254, 318
Exhibitions of animals, and their

uses, i. 31, 239, 240, 260, 271, 390;
ii. 338
Exhilaration, feeling of, ii. 91, 178,

180, 209, 308

Exile, mental phenomena of, ii. 38,
240

Existence, sense of, i. 131, 228

Expectancy, i. 70, 81, 102, 265, 500,
507, 542 ; ii. 94, 264, 292, 365, 377,
381

Expediency and its applications, i.
176, 190, 191, 471

Experience, profiting by, i. 61, 65,
109, 127, 242, 244. 245, 252, 262,
274, 278, 279, 298, 337, 347, 358,
431, 436, 449, 462, 472, 473, 487,
492, 498, 501; ii. 85, 86, 90, 101,
114, 121, 174, 194, 235, 279, 313,
367, 371, 372, 373, 376, 377, 379,
390

- not profiting by, i. 494, 505, 521 ;
ii. 85, 112, 113, 277

— acquisition of, i. 278, 279, 491,
493 ; ii. 87, 101, 128

FAG

Experience, accumulation and here-
ditary transmission of, i. 109, 129,
130, 279

— value of, i. 279, 380, 390, 391, 470,
493, 501, 503; ii. 38, 85, 86, 90,
111, 130, 163

— applications of, i. 128, 130, 222,
277, 278, 507, 526, 534 ; ii. 27, 87,
90, 91, 133, 134, 143, 145

— in relation to instinct, i. 130, 134,
148, 149

— uselessness of in man, ii. 10
Experiment-making by animals, i.

59, 64, 71, 127, 237, 246, 254, 255,
256, 275, 277, 364, 369, 370, 417,
491, 512, 513; ii. 5, 6, 145, 146, 377

— by man on other animals, i. 8, 29,
32, 34, 35, 36, 142, 159, 350, 357,
368, 378, 405, 453, 455, 484, 499,
502, 507, 517, 518, 519, 531, 535,
542 ; ii. 4, 5, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74,
76, 77, 79, 80, 85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92,
93, 108, 118, 128, 135, 138, 150,
196, 201, 202, 224, 226, 261, 262,
293, 294, 341, 343, 349, 355, 358,
378, 379, 384, 390

Experimental study of comparative

psychology, i. 350
Expertness, i. 358 ; ii. 163
Explanation-asking and receiving, i.

182, 347, 354, 512 ; ii. 185
Exploration, i. 246, 253, 254
Expostulation, i. 294
Expression of the emotions, forms of,

i. 281, 282, 284, 288, 290, 291, 292,

293, 313, 322, 327, 393, 537; ii.

4, 6, 173
in man, i. 284, 292

— facial, i. 114, 286, 311, 312, 315,
322; ii. 4, 79, 169, 170, 174, 182,
282

— inhibition of, i. 292, 296, 297

— assumed, i. 296, 297, 532

— want of, i. 311; ii. 174, 231, 233

in man, i. 45

Expressiveness of animal language,

i. 281, 288, 289, 292, 293, 294, 312,

326, 327

Extortion, ii. 158
Exuberance of emotion, ii. 179, 185,

190, 221, 229, 230, 233, 267, 275
Exultation, i. 312, 317, 322, 477, 537,

539 ; ii. 300 •

FABLES anent animal character, i.
24, 25, 26, 27, 55, 95
Facileness of disposition, ii. 89, 170,
284

524

INDEX.

FAG

Fact and inference, distinction be-
tween, i. 30, 401

— and fancy, distinction between, i.
502 ; ii. 95

— stranger than fiction, i. 24, 486,
502

— necessity for the establishment of,
i. 29, 30, 153, 486 ; ii. 222, 340

Facts, observation and interpretation
of by animals, i. 22, 23, 28, 30

Factions and their feuds, i. 393, 394

Factitious character, i. 98

Faculties, loss of mental, ii. 218

Faintheartedness, i. 403

Failure, sense of, i. 71, 95, 182, 278,
320, 362, 363, 369, 370, 374, 382,
395, 465, 466, 478, 493, 502, 503;
ii. 115, 133, 286, 292, 294, 295,
301, 302, 377

Fairness and unfairness, sense of, i.
359, 392, 393

Fame, i. 82, 83

Familiarity with man, ii. 284

— with objects and its effects, i. 222,
474 ; ii. 101, 107, 225, 234

Families, "Happy," i. 31, 32, 271,

469; ii. 209
Family history, importance of a

knowledge of, ii. 244
• — relationships, i. 131
absence of in man, i. 165, 173

— failings, ii. 155
Fancies, singular, ii. 283

Fancy, morbid, i. 159 ; ii. 94, 97, 99,

106, 107, 110, 234, 274
Faith of animals in man, ii. 375,

376, 380

— peculiarities of man's, i. 209, 214,
215, 219

— absence of in man, i. 203, 206,
207

— of in animals, i. 95
Fallibility of reason, i. 141
Falsehoods, acted, i. 523

— detection of man's, i. 185
Farewell-taking, ii. 132, 133, 138,

144, 376

Farming, i. Ill, 360
Fascination, mental phenomena of, i.

60, 252, 295, 327, 469, 496, 497;

ii. 109, 112, 113, 120, 126, 139, 152,

219, 235, 266

— in man, ii. 153
Fashion, love of, i. 475, 476
Fastidiousness, i. 468, 479
Fate, previsions of, ii. 144
Fathers, behaviour of, i. 485 ; ii. 64,

65, 240

FEA

Fatigue, mental, its causes and effects,
ii. 214, 227, 233, 242, 251, 319

Fatuity, mental, ii. 44, 127, 193

Faults, commission of, i. 478

Favour, loss of man's and its effects,
ii. 238, 239, 295

— restitution to man's, ii. 295, 348,
368

— appreciation of man's, i. 476, 477 ;
ii. 296, 299, 368

— bestowing on man, ii. 391
Favouritism, i. 435, 471 ; ii. 115, 239,

247, 281, 391

— man's, and its effects, ii. 138, 298,
321, 330, 334, 335, 336

Fawning and its significance, i. 86
Fear, general phenomena of, i. 52, 53,
54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 85, 129, 132, 137,
153, 191, 222, 223, 265, 294, 295,
296, 319, 323, 340, 348, 352, 375,
407, 490, 495, 503, 506, 516, 526,
532, 541, 542 ; ii. 45, 48, 53, 57, 58,
59, 62, 64, 80, 95, 97, 107, 108, 120,
122, 123, 135, 140, 164, 166, 176,
185, 189, 190, 209, 234, 236, 237,
239, 266, 286

— morbid, ii. 97, 98, 101, 102, 106,
204, 220, 236, 237, 244, 249, 259,
317, 352, 367, 368

—of man, i. 129, 130, 138, 249, 250,
252, 436, 462; ii. 163, 235, 257,
305, 367, 378, 379

— of each other, ii. 163, 185, 238,
265, 279

— causation of, ii. 100, 184, 187, 188,
221, 222, 224, 227, 233, 234, 237,
242, 257, 259, 260, 263, 265, 296,
307, 317, 378, 394

— causelessness of, ii. 188, 191, 203,
235, 244

— effects of, ii. 177, 178, 220, 226,
227, 229, 233, 235, 236, 254, 255,
260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266,
267, 268, 271, 286, 348

— intensity of, ii. 227, 230, 234, 254

— absence of, i. 70, 89, 92, 138, 151,
272, 457, 460, 473, 513; ii. 101,
112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 123, 172,
191, 231, 284, 325, 326

— treatment of, ii. 225, 272, 348,
352

— in man, natural and morbid, i. 46,
204, 213, 214, 219, 223; ii. 274,
363, 364

absence of, i. 39, 46

Feats of sagacity or skill, i. 10, 21,
82, 89, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 263,
264, 279, 302, 320, 377, 416, 437,

INDEX

525

FEE

457, 458, 474, 502, 525, 532, 541 ;
ii. Ill, 153, 277, 292
Feebleness, sense of, ii. 390

— advantage-taking of, ii. 145
Feeding each other, i. 360, 372, 373,

421

— hours, knowledge of, i. 54, 57, 62

— high, mental effects of, ii. 208
Feeling, good, ii. 115, 132
Feelings, expressions of the, i. 52,

64, 159 ; ii. 4, 106, 254, 293, 303,
305, 313, 379

— intensity of the, ii. 130, 132, 231,
249, 267, 293, 297, 299, 301, 302,
303

— wounded, ii. 130, 131, 133, 229,
240, 293, 295, 299, 301, 303, 322

— want (real or apparent), of the, i.
86 ; ii. 66, 315

— revulsions in the, ii. 64, 108, 303,
305

— control of the, i. 523 ; ii. 249, 303

— communication of the, ii. 303, 306,
395

— disorders of the, ii. 39, 214, 267

— assumed, i. 532 •

— combinations of, ii. 280

— in man, supposed subjection of
the, ii. 231

absence of the, ii. 129

Feet, uses of the, i. 108, 255, 301,
391, 410, 419, 420, 424, 463

Feigning and use of feints, i. 62, 296,
366, 391, 462, 524, 525, 531, 532,
533, 534 ; ii. 165

Felinas, mental characteristics of the,

' i. 428, 478

Fellow-feeling with man, i. 6

Females, psychical peculiarities of, i.
60, 62, 76, 95, 96, 209, 211, 405, 410,
441, 468, 469, 470, 471, 476, 477,
478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 485,
506, 507, 508, 513, 519 ; ii. 35, 50,
51, 52, 53, 62, 63, 64, 65, 73, 156,
159, 178, 199, 200, 203, 205, 230,
239, 257, 273, 274, 286, 303, 305,
309

— acquisition of male attributes by,
ii. 274

— as a casus belli, ii. 239
Ferocity and its expression, i. 60, 62,

83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 95, 151, 269, 378,
481, 530, 535 ; ii. 21, 22, 34, 40, 48,
50, 54, 57, 59, 60, 66, 68, 69, 73, 76,
77, 88, 89, 98, 99, 108, 120, 170, 173,
176, 181, 182, 190, 191, 195, 197,
198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 218, 221,
231, 239, 247, 261, 269, 284, 388

FIS

Ferocity, causes of, ii. 204, 208, 210,
218, 226, 231, 237, 245, 246, 247,
279, 292, 367, 378

— artificial, ii. 208, 226, 316, 319

— repression of, ii. 73, 321, 350, 372,
374

— in man, i. 172, 173; ii. 13, 17
Ferrier, experiments of Professor, i.

291, 306

Fervour, i. 531 ; ii. 64
Fetichism in animals, i. 103, 222, 228

— in man, i. 205, 207, 211, 212, 220,
227

Fickleness, i. 468, 478, 479 ; ii. 65,

299
Fiction, confusion of with fact, i.

18, 24, 25, 27

— delineation of animal character in,
i. 27, 95

Fictitious, detection of the, i. 532
Fidelity, general phenomena-^f, i. 14,
27, 70, 84, 119, 175, 184, 227, 269,
395, 461; ii. 115, 278, . 329, 338,
335, 341 ^>^ ^

— to man or his memory, i. 222, 452 ;

11. 388

— to trust or work, i. 119, 182, 184,
227, 461 ; ii. 150, 160, 167

— trials of, ii. 158, 231, 333

— errors of, i. 489, 495

Figures, appreciation of patterned,

i. 258
Filthy habits of man, i./41 ; ii. 11,

12, 16

Finery, love of, i. 76, 435, 441, 442,

475, 476
Fingers, or their equivalents, uses of,

i. 76, 113, 313, 410, 414, 415, 418,

419, 432, 435, 540; ii. 84, 90,

282, 386

— uselessness of the in man, ii. 11
Firearms, dread of man's, i. 429, 436,

462 ; ii. 235

— use of, i. 436, 449

— indifference to, ii. 112, 114, 116,
123

Fire-heat, uses of, i. 412, 417, 422,
437, 449

— regulation of, i. 76, 112, 259, 262,
266, 437, 449, 450

— non-use of by man, i. 40, 112, 446
Firmness, i. 67, 273, 357 ; ii. 98
Fish, mental characteristics of, i. 69,

70, 71, 81, 350, 461, 462, 466, 496,
504, 510, 513, 520, 527; ii. 106,
126, 127, 138, 145, 219, 233, 248,
258, 262, 301, 371, 376
Fists, uses of the, i. 301

526

INDEX.

FIT

Fittest, selection of what is, i. 72

Flattery, appreciation of, i. 477; ii.
298

Foibles, i. 265

Folly, i. 511 ; ii. 88, 148, 219, 284

Fondness, misplaced, ii. 148

Food, abstinence from, and its signi-
ficance, i. 71, 509 ; ii. 116, 125, 133,
140, 141, 150, 180, 201, 214, 238,
247, 252, 261, 273, 283, 291, 294,
302, 304, 354, 392

— aversions, i. 301 ; ii. 282, 283, 301

— partialities, ii. 92, 93, 211, 228,
281, 282, 283, 384

— gorging, i. 92, 122, 138, 509, 510 ;
ii. 35, 92, 192, 209, 210, 245

in man, i. 41, 92, 93, 122, 448 ;

ii. 11, 210

— search, i. 54, 59, 64, 66, 145, 150,
274, 419, 421

- selection, i. 130, 274, 275

— errors, i. 274, 501, 509, 510 ; ii.
122, 154, 192, 206, 210, 245, 250,
272, 318

— burying, i. 372, 419

— in relation to disease, ii. 197, 207

to exercise or work, ii. 210

Foods, effects of poisonous, ii. 210,

272

of animal, ii. 208

of stimulant, ii. 207, 208, 210

— use of cooked, i. 449, 471 ; ii." 282

— use of man's, i. 76, 261, 262, 435,

446, 449, 471, 542 ; ii. 87, 119, 210,
281, 282

— preparation of, i. 372, 446, 449,
459

— preservation of, i. 371, 372

— non-preparation of by man, i. 446,

447, 448; ii. 13

— of savage man, i. 446, 447, 448
Food-animals, man's treatment of, ii.

272, 273
Foolery, i. 469

Forbearance, i. 120, 191, 197 ; ii. 232
Forbidden, sense of the, i. 182, 191,

195, 198, 399, 435; ii. 150, 163,

164, 165, 370

in man, i. 191

Forgiveness, i. 119, 224, 225 ; ii. 323

— appreciation of man's, i. 228 ; ii.
131, 299

Forgetfulness, i. 97, 243, 393 ; ii. 117,

323

Fortitude, i. 60, 89 ; ii. 371, 377
Foresight, i. 59, 102, 120, 121, 152,

153, 154, 189, 190, 278, 358

— want of, i. 5

FRI

Foresight, want of in man, i. 41, 121
Forethought, i. 59, 61, 121, 489; ii.

140, 165
Form, appreciation of, i. 71 ; ii. 107

— non-appreciation of by man, ii. 11
Fortification, skill in, i. 362, 363
Forwardness, i. 402, 404, 478 ; ii. 196,

289
Foster-parentage, mental phenomena

of, i. 73, 95, 136, 183, 197, 244, 276,

336, 419, 421, 444, 482, 486, 487,

507, 519, 535 ; ii. 13, 63, 156, 157,

287, 330, 387, 388, 392

in man, i. 42, 487

Foster-young, behaviour of, i. 487

to animals, children as, i. 487

Fox, mental characteristics of the,

i. 144, 319, 405, 462, 525, 529 ; ii.

58, 106, 122, 124, 149, 151, 157, 158,

186, 240, 248, 359
Foundlings and their treatment, i.

487

Fractiousness, ii. 142, 171, 317, 322,
Franticness, i. 504 ; ii. 21, 48, 74,

104, 138, 142, 181, 214, 225, 226,

228, 231, 233, 234, 298, 372
Fraud, ii. 158, 166
Freaks of conduct, ii. 214
Freedom of action, necessity for, i. 136,

473 ; ii. 72, 76, 180, 245, 246, 248,

257, 334, 347, 352, 353

— voluntary surrender of, i. 190 ; ii.
381

Frenzy, i. 16, 317 ; ii. 21, 22, 48, 181,
182, 191, 214, 217, 233, 393

Fretfulness, ii. 175, 208, 256

Friendliness, i. 312, 408, 499 ; ii. 158,
176, 389

Friendships with each other, i. 55,
64, 85, 91, 119, 157, 344, 346, 408,
479, 487 ; ii. 65, 115, 247, 280, 281,
389, 390

— with man, i. 189, 340 ; ii. 161, 321,
328, 331, 335, 391

— rupture of, ii. 231, 232, 256, 306
Fright, liability to, i. 85, 197, 271,

319, 323, 354, 423, 490, 529, 541,
543 ; ii. 34, 45, 47, 62, 97, 100, 101,
103, 106, 107, 114, 119, 120, 122,
123, 124, 139, 140, 185, 186, 189,
234, 239, 260

— causes of, ii. 80, 188, 214, 227, 236,
237, 257, 351

— effects of, ii. 229, 236, 237, 254,
255, 261, 263, 264, 267, 268, 273,
286, 302, 351

Friskiness, i. 131, 307, 461 ; ii. 82,
179, 196

INDEX.

527

FRO

Frog, reflex and mental phenomena

in the, i. 71, 145, 521 ; ii. 5, 386
Frolic, love of, i. 319, 537, 538, 542 ;

ii. 82, 283

Frugality, i. 120, 436
Fruit-gathering, i. 112
Frustration of man's efforts, i. 353,

369, 396, 421, 436, 535; ii. 284,

378

— of each other's efforts, i. 506
Fun, sense of, i. 71, 294, 316, 317,

318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 524, 530,
536, 537, 540, 541, 542; ii. 80,
196, 248, 284, 292
- non-appreciation of by man, i.
297

— from earnest, discrimination of, i.
347

— passing into earnest, ii. 176
Funeral ceremonies, i. 59 ; ii. 146, 147
Fungi, cultivation of, i. Ill, 112
Furniture, use of man's, i. 435, 436
Fury, general phenomena of, i. 16, 70,

198, 378, 382, 407, 478, 495, 511,
530, 535, 543 ; ii. 21, 22, 26, 34,
40, 41, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 59, 68,
69, 72, 74, 76, 80, 85, 88, 89, 98. 101,
105, 160, 173, 175, 178, 179, 181,
184, 187, 189, 191, 194, 198, 199,
201, 202, 203, 204, 207, 213, 220,
221, 231, 269, 286, 349

— causes of, ii, 231, 232, 238, 245,
247, 249, 250, 251, 376, 393

— artificial, ii. 77, 85, 88, 89, 223,
225, 226, 227, 230, 239, 249, 250,
271, 281, 286, 292, 293, 294, 345,
353

in man, ii. 78

— effects of, ii. 267, 269, 270

— repression of, ii. 321, 349, 353
Futility, sense of, i. 227, 460, 464,

465, 477, 508, 538; ii. 135, 141,
143, 146, 237, 286, 294, 301, 375,
393

Future, provision-making for the, i.
102, 111, 190, 278, 359, 371, 372,
430, 471 ; ii. 54, 143, 372, 377

— sacrifice of the, to the present, i.
191, 193, 471

of the present to the, ii. 377

— forecasting the, i. 358 : ii. 307

— no idea of a, in man, i. 203, 204,
205, 207

nAIETY, ii. 218, 221, 284
U Gallantry, i. 469, 480
Games and their enjoyment, i. 76, 87,

GOO

110, 190, 244, 280, 524, 529, 530 ; ii.
95, 121, 177, 196, 248
Games, part -taking in man's, i. 87,
110, 258, 320, 354, 395, 413, 429,
530

— understanding man's, i. 347, 492,
494

Gasteropoda, mental characteristics of

the, i. 62
Gate-opening and shutting, i. 434,

435 ; ii. 119, 165
Generalisation, faculty of, i. 65, 106,

141, 526, 534; ii. 108, 341

— incapacity for in man, i. 44, 106,
141 ; ii. 10

Generalisations, bases of the author's,

i. 19, 25

Genera, mental characteristics of, i.82
Generosity, i. 87, 88, 138, 187, 188,

189, 221, 445, 485, 489 ; ii. 132, 166,

168, 389, 392

— absence of, in man, i. 165
Genius, ii. 277

Gentleness, i. 89, 273, 312 ; ii. 195,

198, 199, 200, 208, 218, 284, 320,
387, 389, 390

Gesticulation, theatrical, i. 532

Gesture-language, i. 76, 178, 227, 281,

289, 290, 291, 295, 307, 334, 349,
354, 431, 474, 524, 532 ; ii. 97, 98,

105, 106, 108, 163, 164, 165, 171,

174, 178, 181, 182, 217, 225, 241,
300

— in man, i. 282, 283, 285, 286, 288,
352, 354, 355, 381, 451; ii. 169,
295, 297, 299, 304

Ghost-seeing, i. 223 ; ii. 103, 107
Gift-offering and receiving, i. 91, 412,

424 ; ii. 299, 381, 392
Glitter, effects of metallic, ii. 113,

126, 152, 153, 219, 220

— in man, ii 153
Gloom, mental, ii. 317
Gluttony, i. 510 ; ii. 209

— in man, i. 92

Goading and its effects, ii. 68, 69,

101, 249
Goitre, ii. 45
Good nature, i. 315, 532 ; ii. 287, 394

— humour, i. 538 ; ii. 1^7

— feeling, i. 120, 303 ; ii. 60, 209

— behaviour, i. 262

— sense, i. 177, 393

Goodness, moral, and its development,
i. 84, 120 ; ii. 199, 368

Goose, mental characteristics (real
and supposed), of the, i. 14, 318, 319,
3i'2, 406, 482, 486, 537, 539, 543 ;

528

INDEX.

GOE

ii. Ill, 114, 115, 116, 127, 281, 361,

362, 379, 380
Gorilla, mental characteristics of the,

i. 25, 300, 305, 315, 380, 413, 415,

426, 444 ; ii. 146
Government, forms of, i. 66, 77, 97

120, 377, 385, 387, 397, 399

— monarchical, i. 377, 379, 386, 399

— republican, i. 378, 379, 399

— patriarchal, i. 380, 399

— by chiefs, i. 379, 385, 386, 399
parents, i. 387, 399

— absence of in man, i. 44
Grain-drying and gathering, i. Ill,

112, 459

Grammar, use of man's, i. 492
Gratification, feeling of, i. 176, 320,

386, 471, 514, 516; ii. 93, 295,

299
Gratitude and its expression, i. 70,

132, 155, 294, 312, 340, 489 ; ii. 115,

121, 176, 306, 371, 372, 373, 374,
375, 377, 381, 387, 392

— absence of, ii. 288

in man, i. 43, 165, 166, 167,

170
Grave, respect for a master's, i. 222,

343 ; ii. 148, 333
Grave-making, ii. 146, 147, 165
Gravity of look or conduct, i. 76, 303,

385 ; ii. 174, 284
Greed and its effects, i. 88, 275, 496,

509, 520; ii. 90, 140, 166, 209, 257

— in man, i. 166.
Greetings, mutual, i. 313

— absence of, in man, i. 45
'Greyfriars Bobby,' story of, i. 27,

222, 343 ; ii. 332, 336

Grief and its effects, i. 64, 70, 77, 89,
222, 229, 294, 322, 323, 412 ; ii. 50,
51, 59, 63, 117, 132, 137, 140, 174,
178, 184, 190, 229, 231, 232, 254,
256, 267, 274, 291, 298, 302, 353

Grievance, sense of, i. 154

Grimace and grinning, i. 311, 315,
316, 321, 438, 539 ; ii. 79, 174

— in man, i. 41, 285

Groans and groaning, i. 300, 325 ; ii.

371, 372
Grunting and growling in man, i. 284,

285, 286
Guardianship of each other, i. 158,

389, 390, 416, 486 ; ii. 124, 386

— of property, i. 75, 88, 89, 93, 225,
259, 269, 273, 298, 382, 388 ; ii. 156,
167, 366

— of children, ii. 156
Guess-making, i. 347

HAR

Guidance of each other, i. 313, 382,

420, 426

— of man, i. 93, 259
Guide-dogs, accomplishments of, i.

259

Guilelessness, i. 84
Guilt, sense of, i. 75, 178, 179, 180,

192, 228, 295, 297, 312, 347, 400,

434, 435, 530 ; ii. 155, 163, 164, 165,

166, 295, 300
Gymnastics and their enjoyment, i.

261, 280

HABIT, influence of, i. 196, 240,
263, 264, 265, 385, 458, 489 ; ii.
83, 120, 154, 188, 206, 227, 231, 278,
347, 375

— corrigibility of, ii. 155, 358

— incorrigibility of, ii. 154, 155

— genesis of pathological, ii. 263

— individual peculiarities of, ii. 34,
285

— in relation to instinct and reason,
i. 43, 129

— to education, i. 264

mental action, ii. 7

insanity, ii. 30

work, ii. 42

Habits, bad, and their treatment, i.
196, 403 ; ii. 34, 83, 84, 85, 88, 93,
154, 155, 176, 201, 244, 245, 347,
358, 366, 367, 368

— unhealthy, ii. 206, 244

— change of, and its causes, i. 244 ;
ii. 114, 181, 194, 200, 208, 211, 218,
239, 256, 358

— acquisition of new, i. 230, 244,
487 ; ii. 30, 83, 93, 206, 320

Hand-shaking, or its equivalent, i.

412, 416

Hands, uses of the, i. 76, 113, 255, 266,
301, 309, 391, 405, 410, 411, 412,

413, 414, 415, 425, 426, 432, 435,
436, 438, 439, 441

— xiselessness of the, in man, i. 41,
415, 416, 448 ; ii. 11, 13, 129

Happiness and its sources, i. 94, 312,
344, 469, 486 ; ii. 233, 264, 265, 269,
272, 306, 308

— promotion of, ii. 272, 273, 306, 308,
320, 324, 353

Harangue-making, i. 306, 402

Hare, mental characteristics of the, i.

84, 92
Harmlessness, i. 85, 87, 540 ; ii. 174,

203, 226, 353, 354

— recognition of man's, ii. 92

INDEX.

£29

HAR

Harmlessness, estimation of, i. 222 ;

ii. 101, 103, 107
Harmony in life, i. 12, 13, 66, 98,

271. 388; ii. 209, 280, 368

— appreciation of musical, i. 475
Harshness, man's, and its effects, ii.

358
Harvesting, i. 59, 111, 112, 344, 371,

372. 459 ; ii. 55

Haste and its effects, i. 470, 480, 489,
. 499, 513, 520, 535; ii. 60, 110,

171, 196
Hatred, i. 62, 156, 393, 508 ; ii. 62, 64,

68, 188, 199, 226, 229, 239, 262,

269, 279, 305, 367
Hauteur, i. 266, 268, 385
Head, uses of the, i. 114, 275, 309,

410, 423, 463

— effects of injuries to the, ii. 75,
248

Headaches and their causation, ii.

90

Headstrongness, ii. 121, 196, 284
Health, attention to, i. 116, 359
— in animals, promotion of by man,

ii. 27^. _7
Heart-break and its causes, ii. 131,

135. 136. 254, 258. 259, 389
Heartiness, i. 182, 221, 316, 317, 396 ;

ii. 42

Heartlessness, ii. 392
Heat, mental effects of, ii. 135, 190,

193, 217, 219, 307, 353
Hedgehog, mental characteristics of

the, i. 28, 93

Heedlessness, ii. 139, 180, 188
Height, calculation of, i. 64. 427
Help, refusal of, ii. 132, 133
Help-seeking from man, ii. 284
Helplessness and its causes, i. 509,

510; ii. 46, 60, 85, 90, 92, 120, 123,

125, 126, 128, 145, 209, 234, 235,

241, 286

— feigned, i. 527, 531

— sense of, i. 389, 470, 497 ; ii. 141,
143, 144, 186, 353, 377, 390, 392,
393

— treatment of, i. 365, 372, 420; ii.
29, 156, 386, 389, 391

— of man and its estimation by other
animals, ii. 9, 92, 96, 394

Hemiptera, mental characteristics of
the, i. 60

Hen, mental characteristics of the
common, i. 14, 294, 336, 370, 380,
405, 407, 419, 421, 459, 478, 482,
4*4. 4*i*,. 507, 535 ; ii. 37, 82, 178,
204, 274, 280, 285, 301

VOL. II. M

HON

Heredity in relation to mental acqui-
sitions, ii. 244, 313, 378

— to mental organisation, i. 71, 77,
91, 109, 129, 130, 132, 133, 135, 156,
197, 407 ; ii. 59, 244, 273, 274

— to predisposition, ii. 184, 243, 244

— to education, i. 243, 266, 279 ; ii.
313

— to experience, i. 129 ; ii. 313

— to instinct, i. 135 ; ii. 228

— to insanity and eccentricity, ii. 30,
57, 59, 184, 186, 243, 244

— to nervousness, ii. 233, 244

— to imagination, ii. 273, 274
Hero-worship, i. 221
Heroism, i. 119, 187, 225 ; ii. 335
Hesitancy, i. 54, 358, 375, 436, 468,

480, 503, 513 ; ii. 86, 101, 115, 133,

134, 284
Hiding objects, i. 359, 422, 431 ; ii.

55, 117, 150, 151, 155
- themselves, ii. 180, 204, 227, 394
Hilarity, ii. 221
Hints, accepting and acting on, i. 347,

351, 353
History, importance of a knowledge

of ancestral, ii. 30

— absence of, in man, i. 44
Hoards and hoarding, i. 94, 98, 136,

158, 431, 509 ; ii. 46, 55, 117, 150,

151, 152, 153, 155

Hogg ('the Ettrick Shepherd'), ob-
servations of, i. 268, 351, 355, 394,

484, 519; ii. 120, 124, 161,394
Holidays, appreciation of, i. 459, 461 ;

ii. 178, 334
Home-breeding and its results, i. 269,

270, 394
Home-finding, mental phenomena of,

i. 501, 503
Home-love, i. 144, 147, 248, 250, 342,

501, 514 ; ii. 51, 135, 138, 275
Home-sickness (Nostalgia), i. 144,

147 ; ii. 51, 245, 246, 257
Homelessness, ii. 232, 240, 243, 329,

357
Homes for domestic animals, ii. 329,

330, 334, 335, 355, 356, 357
I Homicide by animals, i. 201, 542 ; ii.

34, 41, 49, 50, 52, 60, 77, 159, 360
j Homing pigeon, feats of the, i. 501
! Honesty, i. 76, 120, 175,182,238,262,

523 ;"ii. 56, 155, 167, 366

— want of in man, i. 165, 181, 201
Honey-dew, fondness for, i. 60

— yielding of, i. 60

Honour, sense of, i. 120, 269, 362, 395,
464: ii. 301, 332, 366,390

530

INDEX.

HON

Honour, absence of in man, i. 165,
172, 173, 201

Honours conferred by man upon ani-
mals, i. 27 ; ii. 332, 333, 334, 335,
336

Hope, i. 70, 81, 102, 107, 176, 188, 340,
375 ; ii. 286

Hopelessness, i. 378 ; ii. 131, 141, 142,
237, 240, 241, 380, 393

Horns, uses of, i. 434

Horror, ii. 96, 101, 104, 235

Horse, moral and intellectual charac-
ter of the, i. 80, 121, 145, 147, 153,
182, 183, 185, 198, 223, 240, 241,
244, 249, 250, 254, 256, 267, 268,
276, 278, 279, 299, 301, 311, 317,
319, 323, 334, 337, 348, 349, 353,
355, 361, 374, 379, 381, 383, 385,
386, 387, 388, 390, 394, 395, 399,
400, 405, 419, 420, 422, 423, 424,
434, 436, 437, 442, 445, 453, 459,
461, 463, 464, 465, 474, 487, 491,
497, 502, 511, 530, 532, 533, 537,
542, 543 ; ii. 15, 20, 21, 22, 26, 27,
29, 33, 35, 37, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48,
50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 60, 63, 72,
73, 74, 75, 81, 83, 84, 86, 88, 89, 92,
94, 95, 96, 100, 101, 103, 106, 107,
110, 122, 127, 128, 139, 141, 142,
143, 149, 156, 158, 159, 165, 170,
171, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 185,
186, 187, 188, 189, 194, 198, 201,
202, 207, 208, 209, 214, 215, 217,
220, 222, 226, 228, 230, 233, 234,
235, 236, 237, 238, 242, 244, 247,
248, 249, 255, 258, 261, 264, 265,
266, 268, 276, 277, 279, 280, 281,
284, 289, 294, 295, 297, 298, 300,
303, 305, 308, 316, 317, 319, 321,
322, 324, 325, 334, 347, 348, 349,
350, 352, 353, 354, 357, 358, 361,
362, 365, 371, 3?5, 376, 379, 388,
389

Hospital treatment, ii. 354, 355, 371,
375, 376

Hospitality among animals, i. 190 ; ii.

168

— seeking man's, i. 352
Hospitals for domestic animals, ii. 23,

44, 330, 354, 355, 356, 357
Hostility, feeling of, ii. 280
Hours, knowledge of man's, i. 230, 455,

456, 457, 458, 459; ii. 115, 248
Houzeau, observations and opinions
of J. C., i. 33, 36, 37, 49, 52, 53, 54,
57, 63, 73, 76, 78, 105, 109, 124, 174,
208, 245, 284, 289, 305, 312, 334,
336, 337, 349, 350, 351, 354, 356,

HUN

368, 369, 373, 382, 386, 410, 411,
413, 420, 422, 423, 426, 434, 436,
437, 438, 442, 443, 447, 449, 451,
454, 457, 459, 462, 463, 472, 476,
482, 492, 495, 500, 505, 508, 513,
530, 536 ; ii. 4, 5, 17, 29, 64,
65, 84, 96, 115, 146, 147, 158, 164,
166, 176, 177, 198, 203, 205, 207,
219, 232, 233, 238, 242, 248, 258,
266, 280, 281, 284, 291, 302, 304,
307, 319, 362, 386

Hubers, researches of the, (father and
son), i. 29, 32, 33, 36, 97, 134, 378,
498, 499, 530; ii. 126, 159, 269

' Hue and cry,' its causes and effects,
ii. 251

Human attributes in other animals,
i. 100, 103, 104, 124, 203, 238, 268,
284, 314, 318, 338, 339, 440, 442 ; ii.
136, 258, 338

— society, behaviour in, i. 76, 238, 261

— mind, necessity for a knowledge of
in comparative psychology, i.3

Human-like conduct, i. 76, 238, 261,
262, 266, 269, 270, 300, 324, 325,
355, 410, 411, 426, 434, 435, 437,
441, 449, 474, 493, 530; ii. 81, 82,
83, 84, 85, 293, 321, 376

Humanity in animals, i. 72, 121, 173,
343, 344, 359, 417

— to animals, policy of, ii. 207, 315,
316, 321, 325, 326, 339, 350, 358,
359

inculcation of, ii. 315, 316,

332, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342,
343, 344

forms of, ii. 325, 327, 330,

337, 355, 356, 357, 366, 377

— in relation to man's civilisa-
tion, ii. 326, 355

mistaken, ii. 370

— contrasted with animality, i. 12,
174, 186

Humiliation, sense of, i. 383 ; ii. 257,

292, 294

Humility, i. 93, 267, 289, 532

Humour, good and bad, i. 269, 318,

352, 354 ; ii. 82, 89, 269, 272, 305,

354

Humorous, sense of the, i. 317, 318,

319, 320, 321, 322

Hunger, mental effects of, i. 64, 131,

137, 138, 139, 151, 177, 179, 271,

277, 300, 339, 340, 354, 419, 473 ;

ii. 54, 61, 66, 68, 69, 125, 140, 150,

154, 174, 192, 206, 208, 209, 211,

214, 240, 243, 275, 318, 319, 380,

381

INDEX.

531

HUN

Hunting, absence of in man, i. 44
Hurry, mental effects of, ii. 124
Huxley, observations of Professor, i.

103, 119; ii. 52
Hyaena, mental characteristics of the,

i. 83, 86
Hydrophobia, human, errors anent, i.

5 ; ii. 19, 21, 339, 363

— mental phenomena of, i. 16 ; ii. 17,
34, 102, 103, 175, 176, 270, 274, 352,
363

— man's dread of, ii. 339, 363
Hymenoptera, mental characteristics

of the, i. 58, 68
Hypnotism, mental phenomena of, i.

59, 288 ; ii. 109
Hypocrisy, i. 251, 315, 363, 523, 524,

531

IDEAL, worship of the, by man, i.
211

Ideality, want of in man, i. 206
Ideals in animals, i. 59
Ideas, association of, i. 251, 299, 302,
325, 349, 350, 352, 358, 456, 461 ; ii.
85, 86, 92, 107, 114, 144, 147, 187,
226, 228, 263, 354, 358, 364

— intercommunication of, i. 61, 282,
306, 313, 334, 337, 355, 419 j ii. 4,
61, 106, 161, 288, 395

— confusion of, ii. 31, 88, 188, 193

— erroneous, ii. 110

— morbid, ii. 31, 61, 105, 108

— limitation of, ii. 31, 124
in man, i. 206, 451

— dominance of special, i. 222 ; ii.
108, 124, 241

Ideation in animals, nature of, i. 338 ;

ii. 7
Identity, errors as to personal, i. 489,

494, 495, 514, 515, 535 ; ii. 88, 99,

358

— of mental constitution in man and
other animals, i. 116, 126, 141, 187,
279, 288, 291

Idiocy in animals, general phenomena
of, ii. 27, 29, 44, 45, 46, 70, 73, 213,
215, 244, 245, 322

• — in man, mental phenomena of, i.
7, 49, 106, 122, 123, 163, 170, 171,
173, 174, 181, 191, 202, 213, 236,
285, 286, 339, 440, 444, 448 ; ii. 9,
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 36, 129,
230

Idiosyncrasy, influence of mental, i.
325 ; ii. 72, 81, 188, 234, 237, 243,
276, 322

IMA

Idleness and its causes, i. 57, 96, 319 ;

ii. 46, 176, 285, 316
Idolatry and its objects, i. 103, 207,

221, 222, 224, 228

— in man, i. 27, 209, 211, 212, 213,
220, 223, 227

absence of, i. 203, 205, 207

Ignoble thought and action, ii. 238
Ignominy, sense of, ii. 294, 330
Ignorance and its penalties, i. 99, 272,
274, 341, 402, 403, 405, 466, 484,
489, 509, 532, 542; ii. 42, 111, 113,
126, 128

— feigned, i. 297, 524, 525

— man's concerning other animals,
i. 3, 6, 14, 15, 20, 39, 52, 67, 68, 99,
104, 105, 108, 124, 128, 140, 142,
143, 145, 150, 154, 186, 187, 201,
235, 238, 239, 281, 288, 289, 290,
292, 296, 401, 451, 453, 454, 455,
465, 515, 543 ; ii. 23, 24, 35, 36, 37,
38, 40, 41, 42, 57, 59, 69, 70, 75, 77,
101, 174, 181, 188, 197, 210, 224,
248, 249, 251, 258, 259, 261, 273,
274, 289, 291, 306, 307, 314, 315,
316, 337, 339, 340, 342, 345, 347,
349, 350, 352, 354, 362, 363, 365

in relation to his treatment of

them, ii. 291, 320, 347, 365, 366,

369

Iguanas, mental character of, i. 72
Illegality, sense of, i. 180, 181, 198,

199, 395 ; ii. 161, 163
Ill-feeling, i. 485
Ill-health, its causes and effects, ii.

131, 192, 206, 207, 215, 241, 303,

305, 306, 376

Ill-nature and its treatment, ii. 321,

322, 354
Ill-usage of each other, i. 343 ; ii. 195,

389

— by man and its effects, i. 406, 474 ;
ii. 132, 175, 177, 178, 187, 195, 244,
248, 249, 271, 272, 291, 300, 305,

306, 314, 316, 317, 318, 329, 349,
355, 367

— sense of, i. 323, 340, 407, 408 ; ii.
240, 369

Illness, sense of and behaviour in, ii.
372, 374, 375, 376, 377, 382, 384,
388, 391, 392

— feigned, i. 527, 530

— recognition of in each other, ii. 392,
393

in man, ii. 391, 392, 393

Images, effects of mirrored, i. 512,
513, 514, 516

— effects of spectral, ii. 103, 104, 107

532

INDEX.

IMA

Imaginary, discrimination between
the real and the, ii. 95

Imagination, influence of the, i. 59, 62,
65, 90, 141, 223, 237, 345, 436, 489,
506, 512, 513, 519, 521, 527, 531,
532, 534; ii. 19, 58, 59, 94, 95, 96,
99, 107, 163, 165, 178, 188, 220, 229,

235, 236, 237, 239, 242, 258, 263,
265, 273, 274, 283, 303, 304, 367

— morbid, and its results, i. 62 ; ii.
97, 98, 103, 104, 105, 107, 110, 125,
134, 137, 167, 188, 191, 195, 220,

234, 235, 236, 242, 263, 265, 297,
299, 304

— errors of the, i. 495, 508, 514 ; ii.
102

— in man, natural and morbid, i. 27,
515 ; ii. 17, 96, 274, 339, 364

• — absence of in man, i. 141

Imbecility, general phenomena of
mental, ii. 29, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47,
61, 127, 201, 215, 237, 322, 346, 359

in man, i. 171, 286, 314, 339 ; ii.

9, 24, 36, 57, 96, 129

Imitation, errors of, ii. 73, 140

— faculty of and its exercise, i. 72, 77,
132, 136, 138, 187, 189, 194, 230,
232, 237, 243, 244, 245, 266, 268,
276, 277, 299, 301, 304, 313, 316,
320, 336, 350, 416, 419, 435, 438,
441, 442, 449, 450, 461, 465, 487,
628, 529, 533, 534, 540, 541 ; ii. 34,
81, 82, 87, 110, 154, 176, 188, 229,

236, 303, 313, 374, 377, 385

— in man, i. 38, 39, 44, 60, 245, 282,
286; ii. 10, 12, 15, 17, 153

— confusion of the reality with the,
i. 520, 521

Immobility and its causes, i. 501, 510,
525, 526? ii. 79, 93, 109, 116, 119,
122, 123, 145, 146, 147, 203, 209,

235, 265, 266, 372

Immorality in man, i. 165, 166, 172
Immortality, supposed, i. 101, 102

— in man, i. 102
Impassiveness, ii. 174, 180
Impatience, i. 57, 294, 484, 489, 543 :

ii. 95, 141, 143, 178, 195, 214, 264,

265, 374

Imperiousness, i. 477
Impertinence, i. 267, 365, 404, 405 ; ii.

300
Impetuosity, i, .504, 542,- ii. 40, 95,

201,264,288, 367
Impetus, use of mechanical, L 423,

425, 427, 439, 463
Implacability, ii. 232
Importunity, i. 95, 490

IND

Impossible, attempts at the, ii. 235
Imposture, i. 484, 494, 532 ; ii. 293

— detection of man's, i. 535 ; ii. 293 '
Impotence, sense of personal, i. 538 ;

ii. 235, 377, 379, 380, 393
Impressionability, mental, i. 240, 265,

481 ; ii. 103, 187, 221, 250, 273, 274,

303
Improvability, i. 65, 72, 104, 127, 129,

139, 141, 234, 235, 237, 238, 241,

246, 268, 280, 355, 476 ; ii. 287

— absence of in man, i. 104, 105 ; ii.

10, 14
Improvidence, i. 151

Impudence, i. 179, 402, 499 ; ii. 196,
300, 322

Impulse, influence of, i. 128, 137,
139, 140, 150, 177, 179, 187, 188,
466, 489; ii. 34, 56, 59, 60, 130,
154, 155, 159, 171, 188, 196, 198,
231, 232, 241, 244, 368

— morbid and its results, i. 151, 159 ;

11. 26, 34, 41, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 54,
56, 59, 60, 63, 64, 154, 155, 159,
172, 230, 232, 238, 349, 368

— in man, ii. 60

Inaction and its causes, i. 472, 510 ;

ii. 118, 189, 241, 243, 250
Inadvertence and its results, ii. 283
Inanimate, recognition of the, ii.

101, 107
Inattention, its causes and effects, i.

97, 350, 363, 366, 503, 525 ; ii. 172
Incapacity, mental, and its results,

ii. 172

Incautiousness, ii. 147, 282
Inclinations, conflicts of, i. 177
Incoherence of ideas and words, i.

304 ; ii. 25, 48, 61, 96
Incompetency, sense of personal, i.

408 ; ii. 29, 379, 380, 393
Inconsiderateness, ii. 196
Inconsistencies of conduct, i. 179 ;

ii. 25, 167

— man's, i. 126

Inconsolableness of sorrow, ii. 232
Inconstancy, ii. 65
Incorrigibility, real and supposed, ii.

46, 54, 56, 57, 85, 101, 155, 154,

195, 319, 347, 359
Incredibility (apparent) of facts, i.

24, 25, 27, 417
Incubation, mental phenomena of, ii.

34, 203, 204, 306

— errors of, i. 506, 507, 508 ; ii. 118
Incurability, real and supposed, ii.

85, 306, 347, 358, 359, 368
Indecision, ii. 123, 124, 194

INDEX.

533

IND

Indifference, i. 155, 382, 461, 479,
485, 539 ; ii. 42, 46, 57, 62, 63, 65,
85, 120, 124, 142, 147, 164, 172,
181, 194, 218, 224, 234, 287, 305,
393

Independence, sense of, i. 375, 376 ;
ii. 65

Indignation, i. 70, 185, 542 ; ii. 163,
292, 293, 304

Indignity, sense of, ii. 293

Indiscretion and its penalties, i. 382 ;
ii. 86

Individuality, general phenomena of,
i. 34, 58, 65, 74, 82, 109, 140, 182,
198, 239, 248, 269, 279, 292, 296,
325, 342, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388,
391, 392, 474, 494, 501, 502, 507,
520, 523, 528, 542 ; ii. 19, 2*6, 38,
39, 56, 68, 72, 81, 83, 89, 98, 125,
127, 157, 174, 179, 188, 234, 236,
240, 243, 276, 277, 278, 283, 284,
286, 287, 289, 293, 306, 319, 322,
364, 365, 390, 393, 421

— necessity for the study of, i.
239, 240, 241 ; ii. 324, 365

— in relation to education, i. 269,
272, 277 ; ii. 289, 290, 365

to general treatment, ii.

321, 322, 324

— recognition of man's, ii. 289
Indolence, i. 378, 403, 405 ; ii. 171
Industry, i. 56, 57, 84, 92, 98, 120, 121,

262, 275, 363 ; ii. 126, 157, 285

— absence of in man, i. 44
Inebriety and its effects, ii. 241
Inertness, mental, ii. 54, 180, 194,

218, 245

Inevitable, recognition of the, ii. 144
Inexperience, effects of, i. 274, 278,

402, 403, 489, 492, 496, 501, 509,

513, 542; ii. 114, 117, 126, 128,

130, 196, 228

Inexpediency, sense of, i. 393
Inexplicable mental phenomena, i.

129, 142

Infallibility (supposed), i. 466
Infanticide and its causes, ii. 50, 62,

63, 64, 159

— in man, i. 167

Infatuation, its forms and causes, i.

469 ; ii. 219, 220
Inference, place of in comparative

psychology, i. 3
- incapacity for, in man, i. 44, 106 ;

ii. 10

— fallibility of, in man, i. 30, 338,
341 ; ii. 8

Inferences, power of forming, i. 154,

INQ

246, 251, 256, 347, 352, 354, 455,

456, 461 ; ii. 94, 95, 97, 104, 105,

108, 134, 137, 141, 144, 147, 341,

373, 377, 394, 395
Inferences, errors in, i. 54, 402, 405

416, 489 ; ii. 99, 109, 110, 147
Inferiority, comparative moral and
intellectual, i. 15, 118

— mental, of man, i. 39, 46, 48, 49,
79, 121, 122 ; ii. 15, 18

— sense of, ii. 29, 295
Infidelity, conjugal, i. 405.
Infirmity, sense of, ii. 144, 145, 194

— effects of, ii. 131, 132, 133
Information giving and receiving, i.

61, 109, 256, 297, 298, 306, 313,
326, 334, 335, 362, 437
Infuriation, artificial, ii. 69, 345
Ingenuity, i. 19, 40, 52, 56, 60, 61,

63, 64, 86, 87, 94, 120, 121, 134,

234, 255, 287, 303, 340, 342, 357,

361, 364, 365, 366, 367, 370, 372,

374, 380, 391, 398, 407, 414, 416,
418, 419, 420, 421, 423, 427, 433,
486, 490, 492, 494, 501, 526, 527,
528, 529, 532, 534, 535, 540 ; ii.
38, 119, 140, 151, 155, 160, 162,
163, 165, 166, 385

— absence of in man, i. 44
Ingratitude, ii. 361

— sense of man's, ii. 132
Inhumanity, man's and its effects, i.

14, 16, 173, 268 ; ii. 23
In judiciousness, i. 506; ii. 235, 282

— man's, ii. 314, 315

Injury, sense of, i. 180, 394, 406, 510,
511, 542 ; ii. 228, 295, 303,304, 323

— effects of physical, ii. 75, 76

— feigned physical, i. 525
Injustice to each other, i. 96, 99, 359,

485

— man's and its effects, i. 14, 89, 92,
95, 128, 195, 198, 201 ; ii. 121, 350,
352, 367, 387

— sense of, i. 75, 180, 184, 387,
531; ii. 131, 132, 232, 240, 295,
323

Innate mental qualities of man, i.

173, 174, 181,213,216,452
Innocence, i. 84, 95, 345, 405, 407; ii.

124, 127, 238

— feigned, i. 251, 297, 524, 525 ; ii.
165

— sense of, ii. 367
Innocuousness, perception of, i. 94,

520, 521 ; ii. 101, 209
Inoffensiveness, ii. 202
Inquietude, mental, ii. 217, 242

534

INDEX.

INQ

Inquiry-making, i. 254, 294, 303, 312,

405, 491 ; ii. 389
Inquisitiveness, i. 189, 251, 253, 520 ;

ii. 154,288
Insanity in animals, difficulties in

the study of, ii. 29, 32 37, 56, 70,

183, 184, 186, 188
necessity for the study of, ii.

23, 24, 35, 39, 44, 70, 192, 205,

246, 350, 354
necroscopic conditions, ii. 42,

47

terminology of, i. 16

general phenomena of, ii. 19, 20,

21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 30, 31, 32, 35,

36, 37, 43, 44, 47, 53, 75, 79, 100,

104, 106, 140, 170, 173, 175, 177,

181, 182, 218, 246, 350, 352

want of statistics of, ii. 36, 355

physical concomitants of, ii.

53, 61, 70, 191
conditions that simulate, ii.

182, 213, 215, 350

comparison with that of man,

ii. 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 36, 37,
39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 50,
55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 67, 70, 76,
77, 78, 79, 84, 85, 102, 105, 106,
108, 152, 155, 160, 345, 354, 364

causation of : general phe-
nomena, ii. 20, 23, 30, 36, 37, 38,
41, 42, 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 58,
61, 63, 67, 68, 75, 76, 78, 79,

183, 189, 191, 192, 207, 241, 347
physical, ii. 90, 131, 183,

184, 192, 207, 210, 212, 215, 217,

243, 308, 345, 347, 348
physiological, ii. 192

- pathological, ii. 206, 207,
212

- moral, ii. 78, 131, 183, 184,
192, 229, 237, 243, 300

mixed, ii. 78, 131, 183, 184,

243

— complexity of, ii. 183, 186

— triviality of, ii. 187

— absence of, real or apparent,
ii. 186, 188

predisposing causes, ii. 21,

33, 37, 51, 184, 197, 203, 205, 207,
216, 243, 244

— exciting causes, ii. 184, 187,
203

— forms of, ii. 22, 23, 25, 30, 32, 40,
41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 50, 51, 56, 57,
59, 61, 67, 102, 104, 190, 194, 212,

244, 347, 349, 351

— artificial, i. 199; ii. 67, 68, 70,

INS

72, 74, 77, 79, 108, 222, 244, 250,

349, 350, 351
Insanity in animals, preventible, ii.

75, 77, 244, 248, 349, 351

traumatic, ii. 47, 48, 75

sexual, ii. 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,

56, 73, 74, 77, 189, 191, 198, 199,

201, 217, 218, 225

theftuous, ii. 52, 54, 55, 56,

149, 152, 155

— drinking, ii. 52, 56, 84, 85,
90

- moral, ii. 56, 59, 60, 61, 85,
155

— toxic, ii. 68, 72, 77, 90, 108,
347

insanity of action, ii. 24, 25,

38, 61, 100, 104, 105, 106, 207

of thought and speech, ii. 61

epidemic, ii. 40

delusional, ii. 97, 100

— duration of, ii. 26, 39, 40, 43,
67, 74, 79, 184, 210, 214, 345, 346,
347, 349

— acute cases, ii. 33, 40, 41,
45, 47, 48, 53, 67, 79, 345

chronic cases, ii. 40, 46, 48,

53, 54, 67, 79, 346

ephemeral, ii. 26, 40, 74, 79,

349

congenital, ii. 30

continuous, ii. 40, 49, 77

intermittent, ii. 40, 49, 50, 53,

54, 77

— diagnosis of, ii. 24, 25, 27, 28,
29, 30, 42, 54, 56, 170, 349, 351

physiognomy of , ii. 170, 173

premonitory signs of, i. 171 ;

ii. 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 105, 179,

213, 214, 247

— incidence of, i. 65, 199 ; ii. 32,
40, 53, 59, 67, 73, 75, 79, 179, 186,
241, 247

— terminations of, ii. 33, 47, 59

— frequency of, ii. 22, 23, 35, 36,
• 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 51, 57, 75, 183,

192, 198, 203, 205, 246, 313, 346

— curability of, ii. 30, 33, 43, 44,
67, 79, 215, 345, 346, 347, 348,
350

— incurability of, supposed and real,
i. 5 ; ii. 43, 55, 79, 215, 345, 346,
350

— treatment of by man, ii. 41, 204,
273, 345, 347, 348, 349, 353, 354,
355, 356, 358, 359, 364

— results of, to the animals them-
selves, i. 196 ; ii. 33, 42, 54, 59, 67,

INDEX.

535

INS

132, 140, 177, 181, 195, 287, 322,
351

Insanity, results of, to man, ii. 33,
42, 46, 67, 68

— change of type in, ii. 41, 195

— of animal-species, ii. 37, 38, 55,

56, 68

- of rabies, ii. 20, 104, 105, 213

— of sunstroke, ii. 104, 105

— of sturdy, ii. 104

— in man, certain phenomena of, i.
7, 45, 122, 163, 170, 174, 181, 191,
202, 213, 339, 440, 448; ii. 9,
15, 16, 17, 18, 36, 96, 129, 141,
220, 224, 230

bestial, i. 12, 45, 127 ; ii. 17

artificial, ii. 21, 77, 78, 79

moral, ii. 18, 155

delusional, ii. 15, 16, 17

Insects, mental attributes of, i. 34,

57, 58, 61, 64, 66, 67, 68, 138, 249,
251, 271, 313, 369, 371, 441, 476,
496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 516, 518,
526; ii. 4, 139, 150, 158, 219,
235

— errors of, i. 499, 500, 516, 518,
519

Insect -pests, mental effects of, ii. 50,

72, 95, 214
Insensibility and its causes, i. 510 ;

ii. 45, 85, 90, 91, 180, 390

— feigned, i. 525, 530
Insignificance, intolerance of, ii. 297
Insincerity, i. 272

Insistance, i. 192, 298
Insolence, ii. 285
Inspection-making, i. 254, 476, 512;

ii. 389
Instinct and reason, inter-relations of,

i. 3, 103, 108, 124, 126, 127, 129,

131, 139, 140, 141, 142, 153, 188,
247, 488, 498 ; ii. Ill

Instinct, supposed attributes of, i. 3,
4, 32, 57, 63, 64, 72, 96, 127, 129,

132, 133, 147, 149, 150, 151, 188,
234, 274, 488, 498, 500, 501, 503,
504, 506, 509 ; ii. Ill

-- as a provisional term, i. 127, 129,
141, 186, 188

— fallibility of, i. 92, 97, 127, 132, 135,
147, 457, 466, 484, 488, 490, 498,
500, 503, 504, 506, 508, 509, 535 ;
ii. 122

- variability of, i. 127, 132, 133,
134, 135, 138, 357, 358, 362, 367,
507

— development of, i. 127, 130, 138,
484

INS

Instinct, perversions of, i. 133, 136,

137, 507; ii. 53, 62, 66, 141, 180,
230

— man's errors regarding, i. 127,
442

— of cruelty, i. 39, 538

— of food-seeking, ii. 122

— of fear, ii. 234

— of self-defence, ii. 175

— maternal, i. 183, 482, 483, 484,
506, 507, 508, 535; ii. 62, 64, 74,
156, 230

— sexual, i. 136, 183 ; ii. 53, 198

— migratory, i. 504 ; ii. 64

— in man, in relation to reason, i.
38, 43, 45, 46, 68, 112, 126, 139,
146, 153, 166, 171 ; ii. 10, 18

Instincts, acquired and their de-
velopment, i. 31, 71, 129, 130, 132,

133, 134, 135, 136, 272 ; ii. 74

j — congenital, i. 130, 131, 132, 133,

507 ; ii. 228, 234
| — loss of old, i. 31, 133, 135, 137 ; ii.

38, 75, 76, 85, 132, 172, 180

— antagonism of, i. 133, 137 140, 188

— dominance of certain, i. 133, 137,

138, 139 ; ii. 64

— gratification of the, and its re-
sults, i. 137, 270, 538, 540 ; ii. 53,
156, 248, 257

— non-gratification of the, and its
results, i. 137, 270, 482, 483, 484,
485, 504 ; ii. 35, 53, 76, 132, 189,
190, 191, 198, 243, 245, 246, 264

— simple and compound, i. 132, 138

— physical, i. 137

— moral, i. 138

— number of, i. 138, 140

— transposition of, i. 133, 136, 140 ; ii.
200, 201

— latency of, i. 133, 135, 136, 151

— uselessness of certain, i. 135

— supposed unknown, i. 143
Instruction, capacity for, i. 127

— by man, i. 347 ; ii. 372
Instruction-giving to each other, i.

381 ; ii. 371

Instruction-seeking, i. 503
Instructions, waiting for, i. 312
Instruments, use of natural, i. 409,
412, 413, 417, 419, 421, 422, 424,
433, 439, 444, 456, 462, 464; ii.

134, 386, 390

— use of man's, i. 258, 259, 261, 262,
266, 409, 412, 413, 414, 415, 422,
423, 429, 432, 434, 435, 437, 438,
439

— conservation of, i. 409, 428

536

INDEX.

INS

Instruments of punishment, recogni-
tion of, i. 429

— man's primary, i. 426
Instrument-makers, animals as, i.

410, 426
Insubordination, i. 136, 382, 386 ; ii.

361, 368, 393
Insult-giving and receiving, i. 73, 97,

321, 365, 540 ; ii. 162, 238, 294

— feigning, i. 530

— sensitiveness to, i. 75 ; ii. 133, 292,
293

Integrity, i. 120, 175 ; ii. 301
Intellectual ability, i. 238; ii. 116,
161, 313, 314, 316, 336, 368, 371

— in man, appreciation of by ani-
mals, i. 226

— defect, ii. 35, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47,
116, 122, 127, 196, 212, 368

— disorder, ii. 35, 42, 43, 105, 127,
164, 172

Intelligence in relation to instinct, i.
141, 142, 147, 148, 153

— range of, in man and other ani-
mals, i. 73, 104, 105

— .general, i. 21, 23, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58,
62, 63, 72, 74, 79, 80, 86, 87, 89, 92,
93, 101, 120, 121, 126, 129, 144, 146,
154, 182, 217, 237, 256, 267, 268,
298, 302, 352, 356, 370, 381, 390,
394, 395, 502, 503, 512, 535, 536 ;
ii. 4, 7, 8, 25, 37, 45, 111, 119, 120,

121, 122, 124, 126, 163, 195, 196,
284, 285, 321, 331

— special, i. 24, 147, 149, 232, 236,
239, 240, 241, 248, 350, 352, 354,
394, 494, 501, 502 ; ii. 96, 97, 124,
161, 163, 277, 377

— development of, i. 53 ; ii. 4, 114,
161, 163,277

— loss of, ii. 6, 10, 47, 237

— value and uses of, i. 271, 373, 380 ;
ii. 161, 371

— communication of, i. 154 ; ii. 161,
394

— individual differences in, ii. 285,
286

— specific and generic differences in,
ii. 288

— in man, low development of, i.

122, 285, 286, 451 ; ii. 9, 10, 11,
15

Intemperance, alcoholic, ii. 84, 85
Intentions, definiteness of, i. 52, 64,
194, 275, 342, 343, 344, 357, 366,
469, 498, 526, 533, 540 ; ii. 52, 79,
93, 130, 137, 139, 140, 142, 166,
238, 385

INV

Intentions, absence of definite, i.
534 ; ii. 7, 60, 219

— intimation of, i. 326

— concealment of, i. 287, 523

— prevision of man's, i. 230, 247, 250,
254, 264, 347, 351

Intentness in occupation, real and

feigned, i. 232, 525, 529
Intercession, i. 189, 445 ; ii. 368
Intercommunication, means of, i. 154
Interest-taking in each other's affairs,

i. 190, 342, 384, 402, 486; ii. 29,

145

— in man's affairs, i. 190 ; ii. 112

— in work, i. 190, 244 ; ii. 42

— in passing events, i. 71
Interests, concern for personal, i. 470 ;

ii. 230

— indifference to personal, i 472 ; ii.
232

Interference and its effects, i. 385,
413, 435, 495, 506 ; ii. 99, 167, 203,
217, 280, 306, 346, 349, 352, 378

Interpretation of man's character and
language, i. 75, 154, 251, 348, 351,
536 ; ii. 300, 395

— errors of, i. 54, 489, 492. 534, 536 ;
ii. 59, 103

— of animal character, difficulties in
man's, i. 30, 96, 181, 187, 189, 190,
289, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296,
306, 317, 321, 328, 338, 339, 341,
342, 343, 344, 345, 372, 379, 397,
400, 401, 416, 453, 455, 456, 459,
461, 474, 475, 485 : ii. 62, 104, 105,
136, 137, 139, 140, 146, 152, 159,
160, 169, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178,
179, 180, 181, 185, 262, 383

Interrogation, i. 312, 416
Interruption, prevention of, ii. 163,

165
Intimation-making, i. 294, 322, 421,

480
Intimidation, use of, i. 77, 259, 284,

327, 362 ; ii. 26, 79, 120
Intolerance, man's, i. 6
Intoxication, alcoholic, i. 12, 406,

471, 490 ; ii. 72, 81, 82, 88, 89, 90,

91, 92, 93, 127, 363, 383

— non-alcoholic, ii. 77, 88, 92, 93,
127

Intractability and its causes, ii. 195,
216, 245, 377

Intrusion and its treatment, i. 408,
412, 413, 420, 435; ii. 116, 124,
191, 203, 204, 298, 352, 388

Intuitive mental qualities, ii. 248

Inventiveness, i. 120, 524, 534

INDEX.

537

nrv

Invertebrata, mental characteristics

of the, i. 51, 63, 04, 77, 79
"Investigation, faculty of, i. 66, 127,

237, 246, 252, 255, 256, 277, 390,
464, 491, 512, 513, 520

Invitation-seeking, i. 354

— accepting, i. 347, 348, 354, 461,
477, 534; ii. 238

— giving, i. 297, 312, 313, 335; ii.

238, 380

Involuntary action, ii. 55, 97, 106
Irascibility, natural and morbid, i. 17,

84, 512 ; ii. 89, 98, 172, 176, 191,

195, 198, 217, 245, 247, 278, 302
Irresistibility of desires, ii. 73, 84,

231

Irresolution, i. 375, 468, 472, 479
Irresponsibility, i. 197, 198 ; ii. 155,

164

— in man, i. 197, 198
Irritability, natural and morbid, i.

17, 71, 89, 90, 97, 98, 137, 478, 513,
538, 542, 543 ; ii. 31, 34, 35, 50, 65,
73, 93, 142, 172, 177, 190, 191, 195,
217, 218, 231, 244, 245, 272, 367,
372, 378

— treatment of, ii. 308, 353, 367,
374

Irritants, mental effects of chemical

and mechanical, i. 199 ; ii. 72, 74,

226, 308, 347
Irritation, mental, and its effects, i.

61, 294, 322 ; ii. 74, 76, 142, 217
— physical, and its mental etfects, ii.

73/76, 267, 269, 271

— feeling of, i. 510, 543 ; ii. 5, 41,
65, 128, 167, 221, 225, 228, 232, 249,
262, 269, 287, 296, 308

— practice of, ii. 167, 176
- by man, ii. 249, 296, 302

Isolation in treatment, ii. 349, 351

TEALOUS Y, general phenomena of,

J i. 55, 62, 268, 345, 405, 469, 478,

481, 485, 490, 508, 513 ; ii. 59, 64,

131, 159, 165, 167, 185, 190, 198,

229, 230, 238, 239, 257, 298, 322

— causes of, ii. 238, 280, 298, 322,
323

— effects of, ii. 238, 239, 259, 302
Jeering, i. 304

Jesse, observations of the late Edward,
and of George, i. 70, 88, 89, 95 ; ii.
121, 157, 203, 232, 266, 269, 379,
380, 382, 385, 388, 391, 393

Jest and earnest, discrimination be-

KIN

tween, i. 327, 354, 355, 411, 530,
535, 542

Jest, passing into earnest, i. 530, 538

Jilting each other, i. 478

Jokes, practical, and their enjoy-
ment, i. 73, 91, 99, 194, 233, 304,
316, 318, 319, 327, 343, 366, 404,
405, 412, 524, 533, 537, 538, 539,
540, 541 ; ii. 80

of man, i. 223, 318, 320, 492,

535, 540, 541, 542, 543 ; ii. 74, 85,
86, 92, 225, 292, 299

Joviality, ii. 93

Joy and its expression, i. 70, 71, 72,
77, 86, 294, 298, 316, 317, 323, 325,
352, 378, 461, 516, 539, 540, 543 ; ii.
59, 73, 147, 178, 179, 229, 230, 254,
257, 258, 275, 291

— causes of, ii. 233, 275, 334

— effects of, ii. 233, 254, 258, 263,
267, 268, 274, 275, 334

— absence of, in man, i. 170; ii. 14
Judges and juries, alleged use of, i.

326, 343, 388, 400, 401, 402
Judgment, faculty of, i. 67, 145, 226,

237, 256, 273, 357, 358, 359, 362,

375, 382, 400, 465, 491, 534 ; ii. 60,

95, 99, 100
- errors of, i. 405, 489, 491

— loss of, ii. 60, 230

Judicial proceedings, real or sup-
posed, i. 59, 73, 155, 343, 392, 400,
401, 402

of man, i. 194, 200, 395

Judiciousness, i. 470; ii. 158
Justice, sense of, i. 103, 175, 184, 392,
393 ; ii. 297, 365

— administration of, i. 388, 392, 393

— absence of in man, i. 106, 165, 181

"T7EYS, use of man's, ii. 165

JjL Kidnapping each other, i. 41 1

Kind, mental differences in, between

man and other animals, i. 116, 123,

124

Kindliness, ii. 302
Kindness to each other, i. 344 ; ii. 158,

168

— to man, ii. 302, 391, 393

— appreciation of, i. 67, 86, 267, 487;
ii. 303, 320

— insensibility to, i. 87 ; ii. 56, 321,
322, 347, 378

in man, i. 43, 165, 170 ; ii. 14

— man's, to other animals : its forms,
ii. 323, 330, 331, 332, 334, 335, 336,
337, 338, 339, 340, 342, 347

538

INDEX.

KIN

Kindness, man's, its effects, i. 35, 88,
93, 94, 97, 115, 135, 147, 381 ; ii.
29, 30, 101, 118, 119, 157, 273, 296,
300, 304, 306, 316, 319, 320, 321,
322, 323, 339, 341, 346, 348, 352,
357, 381

— • — its relations to education, i. 86,
240, 242, 265 ; ii. 320, 321, 323,
366

to punishment and refor-
mation, ii. 321, 366

— errors in, ii. 322, 323, 324, 370

— its policy, i. 86 ; ii. 157

— repayment of, i. 86 ; ii. 378
Kinship, avowal and disavowal of, i.

93, 381

— man's to other animals, i. 6, 228
Kissing and its significance, i. 71, 77,

469, 474, 475 ; ii. 176, 389

Kleptomania, i. 136, 159

Knowledge, acquisition and applica-
tions of, i. 61, 130, 222, 237, 241,
244, 246, 248, 254, 255, 256, 358,
370, 526, 528; ii. 128, 141, 145,
150

— love of, i. 106, 189, 246, 252, 253,
277

— value of, i. 374, 535, 536 ; ii. 101,
112, 130, 150

— specialisation of, i. 182, 353, 358,
380 ; ii. 125

— in man, no love for, i. 105, 189
no systems of, i. 44

of animal character and its

effects, i. 51 ; ii. 339, 354

LABOUR, division of, i. 58, 59, 97,
138, 155, 275, 377, 387, 388,
390, 391, 392, 486; ii. 194, 200,
388, 390, 391

— economisation of, i. 359

— on man's behalf, i. 259, 262

— sense of value of, i. 184, 192, 229,
395, 476 ; ii. 294

Lacertilia, mental character of the, i.
72

Lamentation, ii. 115, 116

Landmarks, use of, i. 143, 147, 148,
149, 247, 248, 502, 503

Language in animals : its expressive-
ness, i. 114, 178, 179, 227, 281, 289,
311, 312, 352, 400, 401, 431, 494 ;
ii. 170, 376, 379

its intelligibility, i. 58, 60,

65, 108, 282, 288, 289, 290, 297,
334, 335, 337, 355 ; ii. 289

LAN

Language in animals : its forms :
attitude, i. 232, 288, 289, 290, 291,
295, 307

look, i. 227, 281, 285,

288, 289, 290, 291, 306, 311, 312,
322, 354, 400, 431, 494, 524, 532 ;
ii. 97, 105, 112, 132, 133, 134, 138,

163, 164, 165, 170, 173, 174, 181,
182, 218, 293, 374, 376

action, i. 291, 306, 309,

312, 313, 401, 419; ii. 24, 97, 98,
171, 374

— sound, i. 58, 60, 281, 289,
290, 291, 295, 299, 300, 301, 306,
315, 335, 349, 354 ; ii. 97, 98, 105,
16], 178, 181, 217, 218, 226, 293

odour, i. 336

forms of in general, i. 154,

281, 282, 289, 290, 293, 297, 299,
306, 307, 311, 313, 325, 327 ; ii. 267

substitution of one form for

another, i. 282, 286 ; ii. 172

its applications, i. 326, 327,

431

its diversity, i. 291, 292

— of appeal, i. 431 ; ii. 284, 373, 376,
379

— of approval, ii. 374

— of emotion, ii. 63, 303

— of gratitude, ii. 374

— of guilt, i. 297, 307, 401, 465, 531 ;
ii. 163, 164, 165

— of deceit, i. 532

— of innocence, i. 530

— of intimidation, ii. 79

— of joy, ii. 122, 258

— of grief, ii. 147

- of fear, ii. 45, 101, 104, 122, 144,

164, 237

— of despair, ii. 122

— of pain, i. 539 ; ii. 371

— of protest, ii. 101, 144

— of farewell, ii. 132, 133

— of love, i. 474, 485

— of abuse, i. 304

— of excitement, i. 304

— of hypocrisy, i. 287

— of salutation, ii. 176

— of temper, i. 34 ; ii. 86

— of health, ii. 180

— of disease, mental and physical,
ii. 38, 61, 169, 170, 173, 178, 180,
395

— acquired, i. 58, 290, 291, 292, 304,
316; ii. 106

— intellectual, i. 108, 282, 284

— natural, i. 58, 291, 288, 293; ii.
106

INDEX.

539

LAN

Language, universal, i. 287, 288

— verbal, i. 281, 282, 284, 286, 289 ;
ii. 2«J5, 296, 297

— necessity for man's studying that
of other animals, i. 63, 154, 282,
287, 289, 290, 291, 292, 295, 311,
328

— that of man, i. 282, 334

— of species and genera, i. 334, 336,
337

— acquisition of that of other species
and genera, i. 336

— of that of man, i. 257, 303, 304,
353

— loss of faculty of, i. 304, 336

— in man, general phenomena of

that of savages, i. 168, 204, 206,

281, 282, 284, 285, 289
its unintelligibility, i. 283, 285,

286, 287, 334 ; ii. 14
expressiveness of non- vocal

forms, i. 283, 284 ; ii. 395
its forms, rudimentary, i. 106,

167, 216, 284, 285, 290, 300, 451
- animal, i. 284, 285; ii. 11,

17
action, i. 281, 282, 283,

285, 286, 288 ; ii. 299, 300, 305, 365
feature, i. 283 ; ii. 169,

295, 296, 297, 299, 300, 304, 305,

365, 395

vocal, ii. 297, 299, 300,

305, 365

— emotional, i. 282, 284, 287

conventional, i. 287

without words, i. 283,285,

286 ; ii. 14, 96, 169, 299
without writing or print-
ing, i. 108, 284, 288

— of the deaf and dumb, i. 282, 283,
288

dominance of certain

forms, i. 287
its absence, real or apparent, i.

15, 45, 284, 289, 290

— its limited applications, i. 287

— understanding of man's by other
animals, i. Go, 75, 80, 81, 93, 108,
144, 179, 230, 268, 299, 300, 318,
319, 346, 347, 348, 350, 351, 352,
353, 354. 355, 381, 395, 437, 535 ;
ii. 116, 161, 164, 293, 295, 296,
299, 304, 348, 365, 381, 395

by man of animal, i. 72, 74,

185, 233, 290, 292, 293, 295, 354,
355, 397, 399 ; ii. 161, 165, 176

— comparison of human and animal,
ii. 106, 170, 373

LES

Language of the dog, i. 178, 227,
291, 297, 298, 312

— of the cat, i. 291

— of birds, i. 291, 336

— of ants, i. 291, 293, 306, 313
Languishing, ii. 207, 218
Languor, mental and bodily, i. 57
Latency of mental aptitudes, i. 143,

234, 235, 268
Latrines, use of, i. 185
Laughter, or its equivalents, i. 77,

86, 110, 288, 314, 315, 316, 317,

320, 321, 322, 323, 325, 541 ; ii.

217

— appreciation of man's, i. 320, 493,
536 ; ii. 291, 292

— absence of in man, i. 45, 314
Laws, codes of, i. 73, 107, 120, 176,

379, 397, 398, 400; ii. 149

— defence of, i. 397

— transgression of, i. 397, 400, 403 ;
ii. 149

— knowledge of and transgression of
man's, i. 181, 399 ; ii. 149, 161, 365

— of man anent other animals, i.
194, 195, 196, 199, 200, 201, 221 ;
ii. 332, 360, 361

— absence of in man, i. 44, 108
Laziness, i. 14, 92, 403, 404, 501, 524 ;

ii. 26, 35, 38, 42, 157, 171, 245, 293
Leaders, government by, i. 77, 120,
130, 145, 366, 373, 378, 379, 380,
381, 389, 390

— behaviour of, i. 145, 146, 149, 327,
334, 366, 373, 381, 383, 385; ii.
57, 247, 368

— behaviour to, ii. 158

— qualifications and duties of, i. 383,
384, 386, 387, 405, 465; ii. 35, 197,
205

— necessity for, i. 386, 389, 390
Lead-taking, i. 382, 383, 384, 385,

386

— following, i. 380, 381, 383 ; ii. 10,
73, 88, 120, 121, 122, 139, 147

" Learned " animals and their feats,

i. 108, 257, 305, 313, 494 ; ii. 121,

277
Legs, uses of the, i. 410, 416, 417,

418, 430
Lemming, mental peculiarities of

the, i. 149, 150, 151; ii. 106
Lepidoptera, mental character of the,

i. 61
Lesson-learning, i. 183, 237, 239, 240,

241, 242, 244, 248, 279, 280, 305,

336, 382 ; ii. 86, 96, 114, 126, 290

— giving and receiving, i. 275, 276

540

INDEX.

LES

Lessons, systems of, i. 241, 275, 502 ;
ii. 290

— to man from animal virtues, i. 35,
36, 95, 98, 110, 121, 200

Lethargy, mental, ii. 48, 180, 195,

202, 218
Letters of the alphabet, use of, i.

108, 109 ; ii. 121
Liberties, taking, i. 415
Libertinism, i. 95
Liberty, love of, i. 132, 135, 137, 342,

471, 510; ii. 178
Licking and its significance, i. 308,

364, 474, 515, 543; ii. 176

Life, love of, i. 131, 136, 137, 138, 188,
340, 341, 342; ii. 85, 130, 132, 141,
172, 178, 232

— indifference to, and its causes, ii.
141, 142, 232, 330

— artificial, and its effects, ii. 190,
243, 244, 245, 250, 260, 282, 305,
322, 347, 357, 383

— unhealthy, and its effects, ii. 245,
250, 257, 282, 305, 318, 357

— struggles for, ii. 130, 174, 240

— duration of, in relation to mental
development, i. 167

- saving, i. 89, 128, 137, 176, 188,
192, 225, 259, 341, 342, 359, 395,
416, 422, 424, 437, 464; ii. 141,
328, 333, 335, 380, 385, 390

— sacrifice, ii. 136, 141, 149, 215, 219,
220

Light, mental effects of, i. 56, 496,
502 ; ii. 5, 117, 180, 186, 193, 219,
220, 221, 351

Likings, singular, i. 61, 91, 294, 375,
449, 468, 471, 510, 542 ; ii. 82, 83,
84, 86, 93, 188, 191, 222, 276, 278,
280, 281, 282, 283, 382, 383

Lion, mental character (real and
supposed) of the, i. 15, 83, 84

Listening to man's conversation, i.
350, 351, 352

Listlessness, mental, ii. 180, 207, 256

Liveliness, ii. 195, 196, 218

Livingstone, observations of the late
Dr., i. 208, 235, 316, 324, 344, 374,
411, 412, 413, 414, 440; ii. 214,
227, 270, 386

Lobsters, mental character of, i. 55

Locality, knowledge of, i. 70, 73, 131,
143, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 185,
229, 230, 250, 297, 298, 351, 362,

365, 380, 384, 388, 392, 393, 398,
400, 404, 405, 426, 427, 430, 456,
457, 458, 459, 462, 463, 466, 469,
471, 476, 490, 501, 503, 505, 508,

MAG

528, 529; ii. 83, 115, 117, 133, 143,

144, 146, 155, 248, 256, 278, 332
Locality, non-recognition of, i. 249
Locks, use of man's, i. 434, 435 ; ii.

165

Logic, use of, i. 461, 472
Longings, and their expression, i.

312 ; ii. 264, 275, 297
Long-buffering, i. 407, 543
Look, peculiarities of, ii. 218, 235
Loquacity, i. 305 ; ii. 48, 89, 199
Loss, appreciation of, i. 56 ; ii. 86

— of mental faculties, its causes and
effects, i. 467 ; ii. 90

Love, sexual, mental phenomena of,
i. 61, 64, 70, 84, 95, 339, 393, 468,
469, 476, 477, 479,480, 481, 490;
ii. 185, 191, 230, 257, 262

— maternal, i. 131, 136, 294, 485,
487, 506, 508 ; ii. 29, 156, 185, 191,
230, 240, 274, 379

— fraternal, ii. 65, 115

— filial, i. 131

— conjugal, i. 96

— of man, i. 119, 406 ; ii. 305

— general attributes of, i. 221, 222,
224, 225, 228, 289, 307, 469 ; ii. 230

— necessity for, i. 131, 189, 228, 473 ;
ii. 259

— disappointments in, i. 294 ; ii. 51,
53, 68, 240, 241, 257, 274

— derangements of, ii. 51, 191, 229

— appreciation of man's, i. 221

— in man, absence of, i. 167, 168, 208
— peculiarities of, i. 224

Lovers, treatment of, i. 478
Lubbock, Sir John, observations of,

i. 67, 361, 476, 499, 500; ii. 147,

202, 217, 285, 286, 321
Ludicrous, sense of the, i. 318, 541
Lures, use of, i. 527, 533

MADNESS in animals, nature and
forms of, i. 5, 16, 90; ii. 19, 20,
21, 22, 23, 26, 33, 37, 38, 39, 48, 49,
50, 69, 73, 134, 160, 175, 178, 180,
181, 184, 186, 190, 204, 207, 214,
215, 217, 221, 222, 228, 230, 233,
238, 250, 251, 314, 315, 347, 350,
352, 353, 356, 359, 364

— causes of, ii. 217, 221, 228, 230,
233, 238, 249, 250

Magnanimity, i. 84, 85, 120, 175, 188,
191, 406, 464 ; ii. 232, 287, 332

Magpie, mental character of the,
i. 99, 537, 538 ; ii. 55, 151, 153,
154, 224

INDEX.

541

MAJ

Majesty of demeanour, i. 83, 96
Major and minor evils, comparison

of, i. 472, 473
Male animals, mental characteristics

of, i. 60, 62, 65, 95, 96, 380; ii. 240,

255, 274, 300, 309
Malice, i. 72, 91, 94, 194, 260, 537,

538, 539; ii. 118, 160, 166, 177,

288, 317

Malingering, i. 403, 404
Maltreatment by man and its effects,

i. 99 ; ii. 132, 317, 357, 358
Mammals, mental characteristics of,

i. 74, 77, 79, 80, 315, 318, 476;

ii. 39, 65, 91, 258, 283
Man as the deity of other animals,

i. 103, 221, 224, 226 ; ii. 131, 329

— as a superior, i. 73, 226 ; ii. 367,

368, 369, 371, 375, 377, 380

— as a ruler, i. 381, 387, 395 ; ii. 368

— as a law-giver, i. 181, 226, 399 ;
ii. 163. 164, 295, 332, 360, 361, 364,
365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370

— as a patron, i. 477, 478, 505

— as a benefactor, ii. 371, 372, 373,
374, 375, 377, 378, 381

— as an aid-giver, ii. 270, 284, 329,

369, 371, 377, 379, 380, 382

— as an example, i. 136, 313 ; ii. 91,
313, 324, 373, 374, 385

— as a protector, i. 365, 473 ; ii. 96,
115, 121, 122, 186, 329, 337, 346,
369, 379

— as an oppressor, i. 387, 445, 465,
542 ; ii. 5, 26, 27, 58, 59, 75, 76, 106,
181, 238, 241, 297, 314, 319

— as a leader, i. 380, 381, 387 ; ii. 121

— as a master, i. 261, 264, 271, 297,
298, 313, 347, 349, 352, 353, 354,
355, 359, 376, 385, 387, 406, 424,
434, 438, 441, 442, 449, 450, 452,
457, 461, 465, 474, 487, 492, 493,
495, 533, 535, 536, 542 ; ii. 26, 37,
60, 64, 72, 76, 86, 87, 92, 100, 101,
102, 103, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121,
125, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 137,
144, 150, 154, 156, 157, 160, 161,
164, 167, 172, 175, 177, 186, 201,
235, 238, 242, 245, 246, 249,251,257,
263, 268, 269, 270, 285, 292, 295,
296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 304, 305,
306, 313, 314, 316, 317, 318, 320,
321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 329, 330,
331, 332, 335, 336, 337, 338, 345,
346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 357,
358, 359, 361, 365, 367, 368, 373,
374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 380, 391,
393, 3U5

MAN

Man as a proprietor, ii. 166, 272, 273,
316, 337

— as a teacher, i. 136, 241, 242, 243,
260, 265, 268, 269, 271, 272, 276,
347, 349, 354, 381, 394, 501, 502,
532, 533 ; ii. 88, 124, 160, 290, 308,
313, 316, 317, 321, 324, 325, 331,
338, 357, 358, 364, 366, 369

— as a task-master, ii. 131, 319

— as a tormentor, i. 462, 465, 535,

540, 541, 543 ; ii. 34, 59, 174, 177,
293, 294, 302

— as an enemy, i. 417, 436, 460, 463,
473, 492, 496, 510, 525, 535, 543 ;
ii. 35, 111, 112, 113, 114, 117, 120,
123, 126, 150, 199, 235, 241, 252,
279, 280, 299, 305, 325, 367, 377,
378, 379, 385

— as a deceiver, i. 494, 534, 535, 536,

541, 542 ; ii. 27, 126, 293

— as a captor, i. 535, 543 ; ii. 88, 90,
113, 115, 128, 157, 209, 210, 219,
220, 234, 254, 260, 261, 265, 266,
353, 354

— as a sportsman, ii. 88, 106, 117,
119, 120, 123, 128, 224, 227, 248,
271, 301, 318, 319, 330

— as a friend, ii. 121, 299, 321, 325,
336, 372, 379

— as a companion, i. 424, 435, 459,
473, 494 ; ii. 124, 246, 321, 336

— as an equal, ii. 321, 336, 361

— as a protege, i. 445 ; ii. 92, 391

— as a victim, i. 365, 540, 542, 543 ;
ii. 99, 159, 392

— as a physician, surgeon, or nurse,
i. 226 ; ii. 86, 87, 346, 349, 350, 351,
352, 358, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375,
377, 381

— as a foster-parent, ii. 334, 380

— as an experimenter, i. 543 ; ii. 5, 67,
70, 72, 73, 76, 79, 80, 85, 86, 201

— as a creator of disease, ii. 67, 72,
73, 75, 77, 78, 79

— as a sympathiser, ii. 303, 337, 366

— as a novelty, ii. 123

— as an animal, i. 12, 89, 104, 108,
121, 122, 168, 205 ; ii. 9

— as a student of comparative
psychology, i. 354 ; ii. 75.

— association with, and its effects,
i. 136, 226, 318, 394, 395, 415, 435,
436, 441, 449, 450, 474 ; ii. 37, 81, 82,
113 114, 120, 121, 144, 161, 288,
296, 299, 300, 303, 313, 321, 380

— attachment to, i. 340, 355, 406,
412, 416, 424, 471, 474; ii. 116,
121, 124, 275, 298, 299, 301, 302,

542

INDEX.

MAN

321, 333, 358, 368, 369, 376, 380,
381, 391, 393
Man, fearlessness of, i. 536 ; ii. 117

— avoidance of, i. 492 ; ii. 113, 164,
180

— influence of, on other animals, i.
77, 134, 135, 185, 221, 226, 230,
238, 239, 243, 257, 264, 265, 266,
267, 268, 271, 320, 347, 357, 394,
395, 435; ii. 128, 306, 313, 338,
358, 364

— beneficial influence of, ii. 96, 100,
102, 299, 303, 313, 320, 321, 324,
337, 357

— evil influence of, i. 11, 12, 14, 89,
90, 91, 93, 94, 98, 99, 145, 195, 196,
197, 198, 199, 201, 238, 266, 269,
313, 342 ; ii. 81, 88, 91, 106, 118,
299, 300, 313, 316, 317, 322, 323, 325

• — responsibility of, for animal cha*
racter and conduct, i. 98, 194, 195,
196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 226, 238,
243, 265, 313

— moral and intellectual status of,
i. 80, 141, 119, 235, 284, 427, 428,
443, 444

— mental attributes supposed pecu*
liar to, i. 174, 186

— animals made in the image of, i.
266

Man's materials and instruments, use
of, i. 76, 134, 367, 368, 370, 372,
375, 392

— dwellings, use of, i. 133, 134, 138

— instruments, animals as, i. 76, 112 ;
ii. 160, 161, 162, 372

— guests, animals as, i. 76 ; ii. 119
Manageability, production of, ii. 209
Mania in animals, general phenomena

of, i. 345 ; ii. 25, 26, 33, 47, 48, 49,
50, 51, 52, 54, 59, 60, 67, 99, 173,
175, 177, 179, 181, 191, 194

— causation of, ii. 27, 33, 76, 98,
181, 184, 190, 191, 198, 202, 207,
211, 215, , 217, 218, 221, 237, 238,
240, 241, 251, 317, 319, 345, 346,
348

— forms of, ii. 68, 73, 74, 189, 191
artificial, ii. 72, 73, 74, 76,

77, 225, 319, 349

— acute, ii. 40, 41, 48, 191
chronic, ii. 38, 40, 48, 49

— ephemeral, i. 45, 97, 304 ; ii.
37, 40, 48, 49, 181, 204, 207, 214,
233, 251, 345, 349

— murderous, ii. 77, 198, 238,
240, 241, 249

joyous, ii. 221, 230, 232, 233

MAT

• Mania, forms of, toxic, ii. 211
puerperal, ii. 50

— effects of, ii. 231

— precursors of, ii. 207, 213, 218,
221, 231

— conditions confounded with, ii.
213

— curability of, ii. 346, 348, 349

— supposed simulation of, ii. 26

— treatment of, ii. 348, 349

— in man, certain forms and pheno-
mena of, i. 45 ; ii. 78, 79

Manners, good, i. 76, 258, 260, 268
Manoeuvres, practice of, i. 55, 280,

362, 524, 526
Manual dexterity, i. 262
Manufactures, i. 426
Marasmus and its causes, i. 478 ; ii.

33, 53, 142, 180, 189, 217, 232, 245,

256, 273

Marauding, ii. 162
Marches of armies, i. 362, 363, 389,

405
Marriage, mental phenomena of, i. 95,

359, 468, 470, 480

— absence of in man, i. 165, 173
Martyrs, animal, ii. 379
Masculine mental attributes, i. 14,

76, 380, 382, 383, 389, 405, 468, 469,
470, 471, 478, 479, 480, 481, 483,
485, 527 ; ii. 35, 38, 52, 53, 64, 65,
73, 120, 159, 197, 198, 199, 200,
201, 202, 205, 208, 238, 239

transposition of, i. 91 ; ii.

274

Massacres and their causes, i. 151 ; ii.
159

Masterfulness, i. 276, 361, 386

Masters, animal, and their behaviour,
i. 344, 360, 373, 379 ; ii. 289

— human, attachment to, i. 67, 71,
86, 88, 89, 92, 119, 144, 147, 176,
180, 188, 222, 224, 244, 250, 267,
298, 343, 411 438, 466; ii. 230,
232, 239, 256, 261, 273, 299, 333,
329, 358

indifference to, i. 178, 267 ; ii.

180, 299

- treatment of, i. 298, 341, 417,
431 ; ii. 161, 180, 278, 328, 333

recognition of, i. 157, 158

— non-recognition of, i. 157 ; ii.
196

effects of loss of or separation

from, ii. 256, 258, 273, 291

change of, and its causes, ii. 358

Material, man's belief in the, i. 206,
207, 215

INDEX.

543

MAT

Materials for work, use of suitable, i.
505, 528

errors as to, i. 498, 504, 505

accumulation of, ii. 150, 151

Maternity, mental phenomena of, i.
H, 61, 87, 136, 137, 165, 190; ii.
34, 63, 65, 156, 199, 203, 205, 230,
274, 285, 287, 352, 375

Maternal affection, defect or per-
version of in man, i. 167

Mates, selection of, ii. 199

— protection of, ii. 205

— loss of or separation from, ii. 256,
258

— behaviour of, ii. 259

Maturity, mental phenomena of,
i. 115 ; ii. 195

Meanness, i. 192 ; ii. 157

Means to an end, adaptation of, ii.
377

Measurement, i. 71, 255, 417, 454,
455, 466

Mechanical properties, knowledge
and use of, i. 56, 64, 70, 86, 139,
254, 255, 256, 278, 364, 370, 372,
373, 374, 391, 409, 417, 418, 419,
421, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 429,
432, 433, 435, 436, 437, 461, 463,
464, 498 ; ii. 141, 142

-r- mental action, i. 4 ; ii. 6, 7, 171

— injuries or irritation, mental effects
of, ii. 75, 193, 213, 214, 215

Mediation, i. 180, 189

Mediocrity, mental, and its advan-
tages, i. 394

Meekness, real and supposed, i. 84, 93,
224, 390, 531 ; ii. 365

Melancholia, general phenomena of, i»
294, 323, 478 ; ii. 27, 31, 41, 47, 50,
51, 52, 53, 57, 59, 60, 132, 173, 179,
189, 191, 198, 232, 240, 287, 346

- precursors of, ii. 247, 256, 273

— causation of, ii. 142, 198, 201, 217,

232, 238, 239, 245, 246, 247, 294,
347, 348

- artificial, ii. 70, 73, 74

— suicidal, ii. 240, 287
Memorials of animal virtue, ii. 336,

337

Memory, general phenomena of, i. 64,
57, 63, 64, 109, 143, 144, 146, 147,

233, 237, 246, 248, 264, 277, 313,
323, 337, 542; ii. 6, 7, 86, 159,
178, 228, 274

— loss of, and its causes, ii, 31, 39,
47, 48, 117, 193, 196, 205

— retentiveness of, ii. 159, 303, 304,
320, 323

MEN

Memory, errors of, i. 489, 491

— respect for and fidelity to a, i. 221,
222, 343 ; ii. 148, 333

Menace, i. 71, 327, 354 ; ii. 120

Menagerie animals, mental peculiari-
ties of, i. 239, 271, 272, 492, 542,
543 ; ii. 24, 34, 52, 53, 60, 73, 82,
189, 207, 209, 210, 225, 226, 227,
228, 232, 234, 237, 241, 245, 248,
298, 302, 305, 353

Menageries, use and abuse of, i. 31,
264 ; ii. 245, 357

Mendacity, i. 105, 304

Mental defect, general phenomena of,
i. 137, 163, 184, 198, 279, 494 ; ii.
19, 20, 22, 29, 30, 31, 35, 43, 44, 45,
46, 47, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 116, 127,
128, 155, 170, 194, 215, 244, 322,
346, 359, 378

causation of, ii. 216, 245, 248,

359

recognition and treatment of

by animals, i. 197 ; ii. 128, 359,
392

in man, ii. 9, 18, 129

— degeneration, general phenomena
of, i. 80; ii. 25, 31, 47, 127, 194,
213, 216

causes of, ii. 216, 245, 248

in man, i. 10, 120, 168 ; ii. 9,

18, 202

— derangement, general phenomena
of, i. 213, 216, 236, 378, 494, 538 ; ii.
19, 20, 22, 29, 31, 35, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43,
46,47, 48, 50, 52, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 75,
77, 78, 95, 100, 102, 107, 116, 127,
128, 140, 155, 159, 170, 177, 191,
212, 244, 313, 322

causation of, i. 270, 343 ; ii. 186,

189, 191, 203, 2Q4, 206, 207, 211,
212, 213, 214, 216, 220, 225, 229,
238, 240, 243, 244, 247, 248, 263,
301, 317

effects of, i. 297, 489 ; ii. 269

— development, general phenomena
of, i. 72, 79, 80, 260, 265, 267, 269,
270, 274, 280, 444 ; ii. 330, 331

in man, i. 245 ; ii. 202

— differences and their causes, ii.
197, 243, 277, 284, 287, 288

— accomplishments and their loss, ii.
37, 193, 241

— activity and its stimulation, i. 259 ;
ii. 188

— confusion, i. 503 ; ii. 227

— shock and its effects, ii. 227

— results of physical causes, ii. 118,
182, 244, 259, 315

544

INDEX.

MEN

Mental causes of physical results, i.
56 ; ii. 254, 262, 264, 313, 317

— health and its requisites, ii. 30,
248

— peculiarities, recognition of each
other's, i, 465 ; ii. 289

recognition of man's, i. 465 ;

ii. 289

— impressions, character of, ii. 104
Mercantile transactions, i. 430
Mercy and its appreciation, i. 175,

227 ; ii. 368

— want of, i. 161, 199, 406, 407, 481,
485 ; ii. 392

in man, i. 165, 169, 170, 200 ;

ii. 332
Merit and demerit, sense of, i. 176,

178, 184, 186
Message-going for each other, i. 76,

306, 362, 432
for man, i. 184, 258, 261, 263,

423, 471
Metallic instruments, use of, i. 112

— substances, fascination by, i. 112,
158

Metals, non-use of by man, i. 113
Meteorological prescience, errors in,

i. 499
Method in work, i. 182, 377, 417 ; ii.

31
Methods of study in comparative

psychology, i. 7, 9, 38, 80, 101, 192
Mewing in man, i. 286
Might, rule of, ii. 238
Migration and emigration, mental

phenomena of, i. 131, 136, 138, 148,

149, 150, 151, 392, 503, 504 ; ii. 64,

106, 139, 220
Mildness of disposition, ii. 31, 195,

321
Military organisations, i. 58, 362, 385,

392, 393, 395, 400, 405

— exercises, i. 258

Milk, poisoned, and its causes, ii. 270,

271, 272, 317
Milk-supply in cows regulated by

mental states, ii. 269, 270, 271, 272,

317
Milking each other, or its equivalents,

i. 26, 60
Mimicry, general phenomena of, i.

280, 301, 336, 343, 489, 512, 527,

530, 531, 539, 540, 541 ; ii. 299

— in man, i. 286

Mind without brain, ii. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8

— as a bodily attribute, ii. 3, 4

— physiology and pathology of, ii.

MON

Mind, bases of, i..7, 8, 38, 51, 63, 71

— general attributes of, i. 63

— genesis of, i. 37, 38, 339

— absence of, real or supposed, i. 10 ;
ii. 44, 47, 99

— range of in the zoological scale, i.
7, 31, 51, 53, 59, 69, 71, 104

— as a zoological character, ii. 423

— methods of study of, i. 7 ; ii. 19

— artificial destruction of, ii. 70

— paralysis of, ii. 266

— change of, i. 468

— in man as a standard of com-
parison, i. 7, 9, 10, 68

— undeveloped, ii. 9, 36

— in plants, ii. 6

Mirrors, mental effects of, i. 344, 512,
513, 514, 515 ; ii. 102, 109, 219, 220

on man, i. 46, 514, 515

Mirth, i. 318, 322

Miscalculation, i. 466 ; ii. 266

Mischievousness, i. 194,294, 304, 316,
366, 369, 403, 524, 537, 538, 539,
540; ii. 11, 164, 171, 177, 195, 196,
219, 246, 288, 299, 325, 367

Misconceptions, ii. 110, 268, 297, 304

Misdemeanours, i. 538 ; ii. 299

Miserliness, ii. 152, 153

Misery, mental, and its causes, i.
401 ; ii. 131, 134, 256, 277, 296,
. 301

— feigned, i. 531

Misfortune, premonitions of, i. 153
Missiles, use of, i. 77, 301, 409, 412,
413, 415, 425, 426, 436, 462

— knowledge of man's, and their
range, i. 356

Missionaries, opinions of, i. 203, 204,

205, 239

Mistake-making, i. 21 ; ii. 278, 292
Misunderstandings of or with man,

i. 396, 542 ; ii. 297, 304, 378, 385
Mockery, i. 316, 343, 540, 541
Models, mental effects of, i. 520
Modesty, i. 114, 120, 132, 165, 175,

185 ; ii. 298

— absence of in man, i. 168, 170, 171,
173; ii. 16

Moggridge, observations of the late

J. T., i. 26, 32, 56, 372, 419, 434,

492
Mollusca, mental characteristics of

the, i. 61
Momentum, use of mechanical, i. 427,

463
Money, use of, i. 75, 184, 260, 359,

423, 429, 430, 431, 432 ; ii. 156

— non-use of by man, i. 44 ; ii. 10

INDEX.

545

MON

Money, earning and saving, i. 430,
431, 432

Monkeys, mental characteristics of, i.
182/189, 254, 255, 259, 266, 278,
2!»4, 301, 305, 308, 309, 311, 313,
315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 321, 323,
354, 361, 366, 374, 380, 388, 391,
:!'.'4, 399, 405, 410, 411, 412, 413,
414, 415, 416, 420, 422, 425, 426,
:. 435, 437, 438, 440, 441, 444,
44'.», 477, 488, 496, 509, 516, 520,
521, 523, 530, 537, 538, 539; ii.
11, 51, 52, 53, 55, 63, 64, 65, 70, 76,
80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 88, 90, 131, 134,
140, 141, 146, 149, 151, 153, 154,
155, 158, 163, 164, 165, 173, 185,
187, 195, 197, 199, 217, 230, 231,
258, 261, 264, 282, 283, 288, 292,
293, 294, 298, 299, 302, 303, 304,
305, 308, 325, 355, 357, 365, 368,
371, 376, 385

Monomania, forms of, ii. 57, 59, 73,
107, 222, 230, 240

Monotony, evils of, i. 231; ii. 142,
243, 246, 247, 250, 358

Monteiro, observations of the late G.
J., i. 157, 166, 168, 170, 205, 235,
415 ; ii. 120

Monuments, public, to animals, i.
222; ii. 332, 333, 334, 335, 336.
337

Moods and their changes, i. 240, 327 :
ii. 303, 305

Moping, ii. 256

Moral character, i. 82, 96, 221, 200;
ii. 119, 124, 127, 249, 336, 339

— virtues, i. 120, 175, 185, 225, 238

— vices, i. 195, 199, 238

— courasre, i. 176, 177; ii. 201
-status, i. 174, 175, 176, 189, 190,

193, 235 ; ii. 323

of man, i. 107, 121 ; ii. 129

— responsibility, i. 40, 103, 181, 193,

194, H»5, 197, 198,199; ii. 360

— merit and demerit, i. 186, 187, 191,
192, 344

— irresponsibility, i. 198
— in man, i. 38, 198

- potentialities, i. 79, 185
-suffering,!. 177, 178, 179, 184: ii.
163

— education and its results, i. 177,
178, 182, 185, 238, 260, 269 ; ii. 238,
296

of man, necessity for the, i. 213,

214

— punishments and their effects, ii.
296

MOT

Moral results of physical punish-
ments, ii. 296, 323, 348

— causes of disease, ii. 229, 255, 302,
313, 317

— qualities, appreciation of, i. 226,
465

Moral sense, the, in relation to intel-
ligence, i. 217

defects of, ii. 29, 31, 35, 43, 56,

57, 164, 194, 212, 322

definition of, i. 192

as an instinct, i. 174, 175

as an acquisition, i. 173

development of, i. 173, 215, 235,

237, 238, 244, 268; ii. 330, 331,
369

general phenomena of, i. 75, 79,

80, 85, 101, 103, 120, 121, 130, 163,
185, 225 ; ii. 314, 316

cultivation of, ii. 119, 124, 313

— perversions of, i. 173 ; ii. 29, 31,
35, 43, 56, 57, 119, 159, 194, 201,
232, 249, 322, 368

in man, absence of, i. 38, 43,

48, 49, 80, 103, 110, 121, 163, 165,
166, 171, 174, 198 ; ii. 10, 16, 368
- defects of, i. 166, 167, 170,
171, 181, 196, 197; ii. 9

degeneration of, i. 163, 170,

172

perversions of, i. 96, 120,

163, 171, 172

development of, i. 80, 163,

172,213; ii. 10

Morbid mental phenomena and their
causes, i. 159, 343, 469, 478, 479,
501, 507 ; ii. 19, 20, 21, 30, 31, 38,
39, 43, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 70,
71, 89, 95, 99, 101, 102, 107, 108, 109,
110, 137, 141, 153, 159, 160, 171,
174, 176, 179, 181, 187, 191, 197,
203, 206, 209, 212, 213, 218, 221,
229, 230, 232, 233, 239, 244, 247,
248, 252, 278, 287, 303, 305, 317,
322, 349, 356, 393, 394, 395

treatment of, ii. 308, 348,

349, 359

— propensities, ii. 46, 48, 50, 52, 53,
54, 56, 60, 63, 68, 73, 85, 353, 15:,.
160, 172, 175, 176 177, 182, 198,
202, 203, 218, 232

Moroseness and its causes, ii. 31, 52,
134, 172, 195, 201, 245, 256, 316,
367

Mothers, behaviour of, i. 411, 471,
483, 484, 485, 486, 495, 506, 507,
519, 527, 535, 543; ii. 29, 50, 62,
63, 64, 65, 128, 146, 159, 187, 200,

VOL. II.

N N

546

INDEX.

MOT

203, 204, 230, 239, 240, 248, 285,
352, 372, 375, 378, 379, 380, 386,
388, 390, 392, 393
Mothers, treatment of, ii. 356, 357
Motive, actuation by, i. 67, 81, 107,
128, 134, 144, 150, 186, 190, 191,
195, 229, 231, 267, 287, 290, 296,
340, 342, 344, 353, 358, 383, 384,
387, 388, 416, 434, 471, 473, 483,
485, 525, 526, 533, 537; ii. 136, 149

— absence of, real or apparent, i. 155,
159, 514 ; ii. 30, 38, 54, 55, 56, 149,
152, 153, 177

— adequateness of, ii. 140, 149, 150

— inadequateness of, real or appa-
rent, i. 494, 495 ; ii. 131, 149, 153,
185

— intelligibility of, i. 339, 340, 473,
477, 523, 527 ; ii. 54, 80, 136, 138,
149, 153, 157, 279, 282, 292, 367

— unintelligibility of, i. 473

— nature of, i. 341 ; ii. 95, 131, 136,
149, 154, 158, 159, 164, 282, 292

— difficulties in determining, i. 96,
186, 188, 189, 339, 341, 524 : ii. 132,

136, 149, 153, 158, 185

— comparison of human and animal,
i. 486

— man's interpretation of animal, i.
190, 191, 229, 231, 287, 290, 292,
295, 338, 339, 342, 343, 344

Mourning and its causes, i. 59 ; ii.
147, 231, 283

Mouth, uses of the, i. 373, 375, 391,
410, 422, 423, 430, 432, 437, 438,
439, 463, 474; ii. 146, 162, 165,
284

Mule, mental character of the, i. 84,
93, 121, 145, 249, 276, 324, 374, 380,
381, 383, 385, 386, 394, 453, 457,
461, 463, 472, 491 ; ii. 47, 81, 92,
141, 265, 284, 295, 300, 371, 375,
376

Murder, general phenomena of, i. 136,

137, 151, 401, 403, 405, 406, 407,
408, 424, 462, 478, 542 ; ii. 34, 41,
49, 50, 52, 54, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66,
73, 135, 136, 166

— of each other, i. 13, 179, 195, 197,
260, 343, 366, 394; ii. 136, 158, 159,
165, 203

— of man, i. 199, 260 ; ii. 136, 159,
198

— motives for, ii. 158, 159, 238, 241,
317

modes of, i. 359, 366, 537 ; ii. 65,
136, 145, 146, 157, 159, 160, 166,
360

NES

Murder by man, certain phenomena

of, i. 42, 45, 166, 167, 173
Murdered, treatment of the, ii. 165
Muscular action in relation to mental

expression, ii. 4
Music, appreciation of, i. 56, 61, 66,

71, 346 ; ii. 307, 308

— effects of, i. 71, 294, 390 ; ii. 68,
225, 226, 270, 273, 297, 308, 353,
354

— accomplishments in, i. 77, 258, 259,
261, 421, 424, 429, 437, 492

Mutilation of each other, i. 260; ii.
159, 239

— mental effects of, i. 164 ; ii. 201,
202

Mysterious, sense of the, ii. 101

in man, i. 208, 223

Myths, real and supposed, anent ani-
mal character, i. 27

NAMES, knowledge and use of pro-
per, i. 299, 303, 306, 346, 349,
350, 351 ; ii. 289

— ignorance of in man, i. 43
Narcotism, ii. 68, 70, 74, 75, 88, 92,

108, 127
Natatore.s, mental characteristics of

the, i. 74
Naturalists, value of the observations

of, i. 30, 31

— errors of, i. 25, 29, 30
Necessity, feeling and influence of, i.

135, 136, 277, 340, 358, 386, 393,
439 ; ii. 371

Negatives and affirmatives, under-
standing man's, i. 347

Neglect, effects of man's, i. 75, 88, 99,
200, 201, 225, 301, 474 ; ii. 132, 184,
187, 243, 248, 249, 274, 297, 298,
317, 329, 346

— forms of, ii. 298, 314, 320, 335,
346

Neighing in man, i. 286

Nervousness, general phenomena of,
i. 267 ; ii. 37, 58, 73, 97, 100, 103,
106, 107, 139, 165, 178, 187, 221,
227, 233, 234, 244, 250, 264, 297,
298, 305, 350

— causes of, ii. 172, 178, 187, 206, 207,
216, 241, 244, 297, 298, 317

- effects of, ii. 190, 221, 237, 250, 260,

261
Nest -building, certain phenomena of,

i. 133, 134, 476, 527 ; ii. 204
- variation in, i, 367, 368, 421, 479,

504, 528, 529

INDEX.

547

NES

Xest-building, errors in, i. 501, 504,

505

— in man, i. 443
Xests, use of artificial, i. 134
Neuroptera, mental characteristics of

the, i. 59, 68
Xew mental faculties, acquisition of,

i. 234, 235, 245
News-asking, giving and receiving, i.

306, 335, 347, 351
Xichols, observations of Arthur, i. 33,

45, 71, 72, 147, 376, 440, 441, 444,

452, 474, 475 ; ii. 121, 281
Xightmare, ii. 98
Xobility of character or conduct, i. 84,

121, 183, 188, 192, 225, 407 ; ii. 238,

335
Xoise, mental effects of, i. 85 ; ii. 5,

221, 227, 229, 237, 251, 267, 274
Xoiselessness, ii. 163, 165
Noisiness, ii. 31, 179, 195, 198, 200,

221

Nomenclature based on mental quali-
ties, ii. 157

Xon-recognition of masters or ene-
mies, ii. 181, 196, 198
Non-resistance and its causes, ii. 180,

L'0.3, 372

Xotation, faculty of, i. 108
Notice, fondness of, i. 301, 534
Notorious animals, i. 201
Novelists, portrayal of animal charac-
ter by, i. 27 ; ii. 336
Novelty, love of and necessity for, i.
. 231, 246, 252, 254, 475 ; ii. 247,

248, 298, 348, 358
- effects of, ii. 26, 117, 118, 178, 179,

220, 221, 223, 224, 225, 234, 241,

242, 251

Numbers, power of and its use, i. 453
Numeration, faculty of, i. 75, 108, 258,

451, 458

— absence of in man, i. 44, 451
Nursing each other, i. 89, 91, 98, 138,

187, 189, 360, 384, 388, 410, 482,

486 ; ii. 115, 158, 200, 372, 375, 386,

388
-children, i. 76, 259, 411, 487; ii.

388

OATHS, use of man's, i. 300, 302, 304,
347

Obedience, general phenomena of, i.

61, 65, 80, 93, 120, 121, 130, 139,

188, 225, 260, 261, 262, 264, 267,

:, 278, 335, 348, 349, 380, 381,

387, 489 ; ii. 284

OFF

Obedience to each other, i. 380, 399 ;
ii. 60, 368

— to man, i. 301, 347, 350, 353, 375,
399, 438, 452, 466 ; ii. 116, 119, 121,
209, 320, 381

- want of, ii. 172, 180, 198, 209

Objection-making, ii. 167

Obligation, sense of, i. 59, 480

Obligations to other animals, man's,
ii. 329

Obnoxiousness, feeling of, ii. 222, 226,-
231, 294, 296, 304

Obsequiousness, L 84

Observation, faculty of, i. 28, 29, 30,
32, 52, 54, 55, 61, 109, 149, 154, 237,
246, 247, 248, 250, 251, 256, 277,
346, 347, 354, 390, 453, 455, 456,
458, 459, 460, 461, 463, 466, 502,
517 ; ii. 114, 146, 225

— closeness of, i. 30, 66, 251, 304, 382,
416, 529, 536 ; ii. 29, 145, 299, 341,
373, 393, 394, 395

— defective, i. 97, 127, 142, 143, 145,
146, 405; ii. 113, 126,358

— errors in, i. 157, 489, 491, 496, 497,
499, 500, 503, 519, 520, 521, 522,
535, 536

— supposed unconscious, i. 143

— in relation to instinct, i. 148, 149

— behaviour under, i. 251

— in man, necessity for and direc-
tions of, i. 3, 8, 28, 29, 30, 35, 146,
147; ii. 75, 261, 341, 349, 351, 352,
356, 392, 393

Obstacles, various effects of, i. 149,
150, 151, 275, 358, 359, 424, 479;
ii. 5, 6, 15, 132, 138, 140, 189, 191,
198, 264, 268

— non-avoidance of and its causes, ii.
172, 268, 319

— to progress in comparative psycho-
logy, i. 129, 142

Obstinacy and its results, i. 14, 84, 88,
89, 261, 490 ; ii. 118, 121, 141, 195,
249, 256, 284, 288, 304, 317, 319

Obtrusiveness, i. 93

Occupations, knowledge of the nature
of their professional, i. 395

Octopus, mental character of the, i.
61, 506 ; ii. 262

Odours, mental effects of certain, ii.
73, 85, 193, 227, 228, 263

Offence-giving, i. 95 ; ii. 304, 357, 360,

361, 368, 370

— taking, i. 386 ; ii. 293, 300, 304,

362, 364

Office, love of, i. 382

— installation in, ii. 115

N N 2

548

INDEX.

OFF

Office-holding, i. 379
Officiousness, i. 478
Operas, performance of, i. 258, 261
Ophidia, mental character of the, i.

71
Opinion, formation of and guidance

by, ii. 297

— human, in relation to fact and in-
ference, i. 30

Opportunity, recognition and seizure
of, i. 60, 148, 183, 358, 386, 391, 526,
531, 532, 542 ; ii. 82, 84, 88, 154, 155,
161, 241, 249, 382, 393

— watching and waiting for, ii. 136,
143, 145, 161, 166

Opportunities of study by man, i. 69

Oppression, sense of, i. 387, 408 ; ii.
285

Orang-utan, mental character of the,
i. 249, 255, 261, 270, 294, 301, 316,
320, 322, 323, 324, 325, 375, 410,
411, 412, 413, 414, 425, 426, 434,
435, 436, 441, 442, 444, 449, 457,
474, 514, 530, 537, 540 ; ii. 52, 81,
83, 84, 90, 149, 174, 199, 246, 371,
376

Orderliness, i. 73, 75, 84, 98, 377, 382 ;
ii. 121, 151, 152

— want of in man, ii. 11

Orders, giving, i. 299, 301, 302, 303,
305, 313, 327, 334, 382

— obedience of, i. 80, 81, 264, 301,
352, 375, 382, 438, 452, 461, 474,
477

— action without, i. 351

— understanding man's, i. 61, 65, 347,
348

Organisation, faculty of, i. 58, 63, 121,
359, 365, 366, 377, 382, 385, 395;
ii. 60

— absence of in man, ii. 60
Originality, faculty of, i. 357, 375

— absence of in man. i. 44
Ornament, love and use of, i. 442, 475,

476 ; ii. 152

Orthography, rudimentary, i. 108, 492
Orthoptera, mental character of the,

i. 60

Ostentatiousness, i. 531
Ownership, sense of, ii. 166
Ox, mental character of the, i. 84, 93

FGEANTRY, love of, ii. 294, 300
Pain, certain phenomena of, i.
61, 64, 131, 177, 294, 296, 307, 317,
323, 324, 539 ; ii. 131, 313, 374

PAR

Pain, supposed insensibility to physi-
cal, i. 4 ; ii. 307

— sensitiveness to physical, ii. 6, 09,
74, 76, 141, 270

— dread of, i. 188, 190, 255, 278,
340 ; ii. 374

— endurance of, ii. 372, 373, 374,
376, 377

— causes of, ii. 104, 219, 226, 296,
309

— effects of, ii. 131, 133, 134, 141,
186, 190, 192, 207, 270, 372

— expressions of, ii. 5, 173, 178, 181,
371, 372, 376

— relief of, ii. 307, 371, 387

— in relation to reflex action, i. 4.
Pain-giving, avoidance of, ii. 388
Pains-taking, i. 242, 298, 382, 408,

476, 478, 538
Painters, representations of animal

character by, ii. 336
Pampering by man, mental effects of,

i. 137, 534 ; ii. 24, 35, 110, 131, 171,

245, 249, 322
Panic, liability to, i. 97, 150, 197,

199, 264, 383, 389, 395, 490, 495,

542; ii. 31, 40, 60, 72, 73, 110, 122,

186, 188, 234, 236, 244, 306, 353
- causes of, ii. 73, 120, 122, 142, 187,

188, 189, 227, 228, 241, 306, 353

— effects of, ii. 34, 72, 120, 139

— treatment of, ii. 73
Panphobia, general phenomena of,

ii. 58, 59, 102, 107, 212, 244, 259,

352

Pantheism in man, i. 212
Paralysis of thought, feeling, and

action, i. 371, 378, 506, 520, 526;

ii. 33, 46, 79, 109, 123, 139, 189,

215, 218, 220, 231, 232, 235, 236,

241, 263, 265, 266, 267, 286, 302,

393

Pardon-seeking, i. 178, 179, 227, 228
Parents, behaviour of, i. 95, 274, 275,

276, 277, 485 ; ii. 29, 128, 159, 240

— treatment of, ii. 158
Parliaments, supposed, i. 155, 400,

401

Paroxysmal mental phenomena, ii.
231, 254, 263

Parrots, mental characteristics of, i.
15, 20, 73, 77, 78, 82, 91, 99, 158,
185, 194, 232, 233, 239, 240, 242,
249, 257, 290, 294, 296, 299, 301,
302, 303, 304, 305, 316, 318, 319,
321, 350, 351, 419, 421, 477, 491,
492, 512, 513, 514, 516, 524, 531,
532, 533, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541;

INDEX.

549

PAR

ii. 25, 45, 47, 48, 61, 80, 82, 89, 94,
96, 117, 195, 231, 237, 254, 258,
259, 261, 263, 268, 276, 281, 285,
302, 304

Part-takincr, i. 73, 196, 242, 258, 320,
:;:;-, 354, 377, 388, 390, 391, 392,
H'.IO, 486, 532; ii. 98, 147, 160, 399

Partialities, and their influence, i.

171. 476; ii. 280, 281, 284
Participancy, sense of, i. 395 ; ii. 115,

143
Partnerships, ii. 143

•nateness, i. 301, 382; ii. 31,

159, 191, 201, 293
— in man, and its results, ii. 323
Passions, development of the, i. 59,

f,l. 64, 70, 412, 413, 422, 469, 481,

530; ii. 173, 174, 187, 190, 191,

199, 213, 239, 270, 272

— dominance of, i. 469 ; ii. 60, 230,
232, 240

in man, i. 49, 166, 171 : ii.

10

— control of, i. 393 ; ii. 179

— intensity of, i. 179, 542 : ii. 25,
59, 175, 184, 185, 230, 231, 254,
259

— excitement of, i. 407 ; ii. 73, 76,
185

— simulation of, i. 532 ; ii. 26

— duration of, ii. 25, 26, 59, 178,
184, 185, 213

— gratification of, ii. 160, 249

— combinations and conflicts of, i.
177; ii. 240

Passiveness, i. 480; ii. 189
Past, memory of the, i. 109
Pastimes, ii. 248

Paternal duties, and their discharge,
ii. 200, 240

— neglect of in man, i. 165
Pathological mental conditions, ii.

172, 174, 179, 184, 188, 192, 196,
198, 203

Pathos, and its expression, i. 312
Patience, i. 52, 55, 76, 84, 148, 182,
237, 276, 354, 358, 363, 507, 526,
5i2: ii. 119, 136, 143, 145, 166,
266, 371, 372, 373, 376, 377
Patriotism, i. 119
Patronage, acceptance of, i. 365
Patterns, appreciation of man's, i.

258, 475

Paws, uses of the, i. 91, 94, 179, 255,
257, 261, 262, 309, 324, 350, 369,
391, 403, 404, 410, 416, 417, 418,
420, 425, 426, 427, 430, 431, 432,
433, 438, 439, 449, 496, 512; ii.

PER

88, 119, 134, 146, 165, 375, 376,

386, 387, 390
Payment -making and receiving, i.

184, 190 ; ii. 386, 390
Peacefulness, ii. 226, 285
Peace-offerings to man, i. 178, 229

ii. 299, 368
Peacock, mental character (real and

supposed) of the, i. 13, 84, 96, 295,

345, 476

Peculiarities, mental, ii. 35
Pecuniary loss to man, sources of,

ii. 269, 273, 315, 317, 318, 350,

32
Peevishness, and its causes, i. 294,

301, 323; ii. 171,297
Pensioners, animals as man's, i. 456,

457
Perception, faculty of, ii. 6, 307

— defects of in man, ii. 10
Peremptoriness, ii. 322

' Performing ' animals, and their feats,
i. 10, 21, 82, 89, 237, 240, 247, 257,
258, 261, 263, 264, 303, 313, 320,
349, 352, 353, 355, 370, 390, 421,
430, 437, 452, 472, 474, 516, 532,
541 ; ii. 277, 369

Periodicity of mental action, i. 155,
458, 459, 461 ; ii. 40, 49, 50, 53, 54,
77, 187, 231

— supposed sense of, i. 455, 457
Permission -seeking, giving or with-
holding, i. 347, 385

Persecution by each other, i. 478 ; ii.
66, 116, 222, 237, 238

— by man, i. 402, 404, 406 ; ii. 26, 58,
68, 69, 76, 97, 106, 108, 130, 134,
141, 174, 181, 186, 240, 249, 251,
252, 255, 271, 317, 364

Perseverance, i. 52, 56, 64, 71, 76, 84,
97, 110, 120, 121, 182, 237, 246, 255,
263, 276, 354, 357, 363, 368, 380,
395, 490, 501 ; ii. 56, 116, 119, 209,
255, 286, 308, 353, 377, 380

— want of, ii. 125

Persistency, i. 62, 120, 188, 298, 404,

406; ii/164, 255, 286, 287
Personal appearance, pride in, i. 73,

96
Personality, recognition of, i. 56, 62,

71, 72, 93, 95, 194, 247, 248, 249,

346, 350, 424 ; ii. 228, 289

— non-recognition of, i. 249 ; ii. 172
Persuasion, use of, i. 70
Pertinacity, i. 59, 60, 84, 88, 149, 298,

366, 374, 490, 500, 501 ; ii. i'>4
Pertinence of remark, i. 299, 302
Perversity, ii. 164, 121

550

INDEX,

PET

Pet animals, mental peculiarities of,
ii. 82, 83, 84, 103, 104, 110, 121,
131, 137, 138, 142, 153, 154, 156,
171, 195, 210, 217, 225, 227, 245,
248, 249, 254, 257, 258, 259, 280,
282, 285, 295, 297, 298, 299, 302,
303, 305, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324,
328, 331, 333, 382

— treatment of, i. 86, 271 ; ii. 329,
330, 331, 334, 335, 336, 369, 370

— uses of, i. 482 ; ii. 341
Pet-making of each other, i. 411
Petition-making, i. 59, 294 ; ii. 379
Petulance, ii. 288
Phantom-seeing, ii. 103, 104
Phosphorescence, and its significance,

i. 66

Phrenitis, mental phenomena of, ii.
181, 182

Phrenology in relation to the diag-
nosis of insanity, ii. 46

Physical results of mental causes, ii.
94, 175, 254, 255, 259, 260, 261,
263, 265, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271,
272, 273, 274, 275, 299, 300, 302,
303, 305, 308, 313, 317, 389

— expressions of mental states, ii.
262

— debility in relation to insanity, ii.
192

Physiognomy, representations by man
of animal, ii. 336

— of health and disease, i. 311, 312,
313 ; ii. 169, 170

— reading man's, i. 347, 352
Physiological passing into pathologi-
cal conditions, ii. 203

— effects of mental conditions, ii. 269

— conditions in relation to insanity,
ii. 192, 198, 203, 205

Pictures, appreciation of man's, i.
258, 512, 515, 516, 517, 518, 536

— deception by, i. 536 ; ii. 102, 109
Pierquin, opinions of the late Dr.,

i. 49, 124, 199, 304, 345, 410, 495,
508, 514, 515 ; ii. 21, 26, 32, 37, 40,
41, 43, 44, 45, 47, 50, 51, 53, 54, 57,
59, 60, 64, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75,
76, 77, 78, 80, 89, 92, 97, 98, 99,
103, 105, 108, 135, 140, 156, 175,
178, 181, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191,
192, 198, 199, 201, 202, 208, 209,
214, 215, 217, 218, 221, 222, 225,
226, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 237,
238, 239, 240, 246, 247, 254, 258,
265, 267, 269, 273, 291, 297, 317,
321, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350,
352, 353, 354, 358, 361, 369

PLI

Piety, or its equivalent, i. 232, 304
Pig, mental characteristics of the

common, i. 260, 268, 390, 436, 437 ;

ii. 21, 50, 63, 65, 73, 92, 119, 121,

122, 127, 158, 159, 187, 202, 258,

277, 308, 320, 321, 361, 362
Pigeons, courier, and their feats, i.

143, 241, 248, 249, 258, 277, 501,

502, 503; ii. 369
Pining, and its causes, i. 71, 383; ii.

142, 189, 204, 217, 256
Pioneering, i. 254
Pity, i. 131, 224, 416

— absence of, i. 405, 407 ; ii. 65, 151)

in man, i. 165, 170 ; ii. 18, 132

Placability, and its causes, i. 407 ; ii.

309, 321
Placidity, and its causes, i. 95 ; ii.

Ill, 123, 180, 195, 198, 204, 226, 249
Plaintiveness, i. 312, 527 ; ii. 178, 371,

372
Plans of action, formation of, i. 128,

154, 190, 193, 197, 326, 335, 358,

362, 375, 472; ii. 130, 132, 133,

140, 394

— communication of, i. 337

— understanding man's, i. 353
Plasticity of character, ii. 196

Play, and its enjoyment, i. 39, 85, 87,
91, 92, 131, 275, 277, 280, 318, 420,
422, 506, 512, 513, 521, 530, 539 ;
ii. 82, 174, 178, 195, 196, 238, 248,
284, 334

— in relation to education, i. 277

— feigned, i. 525, 530
Playfellows of children, animals as,

i. 71, 85, 197, 269, 320 ; ii. 85
Playthings, use of, ii. 152, 225
Pleasantry, and its objects, ii. 292
Pleasure, feeling of, and its expres-
sion, i. 61, 64, 71, 110, 131, 177,
190, 294, 301, 315, 316, 317, 318,
486, 514, 534; ii. 6, 55, 84, 173,
194, 248, 254, 255, 269, 296, 305,
313

— sources of, ii. 104, 128, 130, 152,
233, 296, 309

— desire to give, i. 73, 81, 312, 316,
320, 469, 478 ; ii. 178

— comparison of pain and, i. 190,
193

— sacrifice of to duty, i. 184

- love of and its results, i. 340, 471 ;

ii. 255, 269, 273
Pleasure -taking by man in animal

suffering, i. 166, 169, 170
Pliny (the elder), confirmation of the

observations of, i. 55

INDEX.

551

PLU

Pluck, ii. 284

Poaching, i. 335, 394, 523, 533; ii.

158, 160, 161
Pocket-picking, i. 414 ; ii. 155

. portrayal of animal character

by, i. 27 : ii. 335, 336
Poisons and their antidotes, use of,

ii. 135, 383, 384

— mental effects of, ii. 68, 70, 72, 74,
77. 78, 92, 127, 188, 193, 210, 211,
213, 214, 263, 347, 349, 350, 383,
385

— produced by mental causes, ii. 263,
270, 271, 272

Polarity, supposed sense of, i. 149
Police, animal, i. 399
Policy, guidance by definite, i. 344,
471, 487, 489 ; ii. 90, 194, 204

— absence in man of definite, i. 44

— man's best, in the treatment of
other animals, i. 145, 269 ; ii. 271,
273, 368

Politeness, i. 76, 121, 238, 258, 268,
523 ; ii. 376

— appreciation of man's, ii. 299
Polytheism in man, i. 206
Pomp, love of, i. 385

' Popular ! science, and its results, i.

20, 27

Popularity and its loss, i. 383
Portraits, recognition of painted, i.

515, 516, 517

Porterage, usefulness in, i. 393
Possession, sense and love of, ii. 153,

155, 156, 158, 159, 162, 239

— mental phenomena of supposed
diabolical, ii. 21, 23, 204, 221

Potentialities, mental, i. 78, 79, 103,
104, 234, 235, 238, 260

— limitation of in man, i. 39, 46, 104,
109, 123, 234, 235

Pouting, and its significance, i. 308
Power, supremacy of, i. 271, 345, 365,

373, 374, 379, 383, 384, 385 ; ii. 157,

158, 159, 235, 238, 392

— worship of, i. 132, 220, 226, 382 ;
ii. 329, 377

by man, i. 204, 207, 208,

209, 211, 212, 213, 219

— sense of, i. 58, 66, 73, 226, 408,
527, 535, 536, 541 ; ii. 156, 293, 392

Powerlessness, sense of, i. 227, 356,

365 ; ii. 235, 319, 392
Praise by man, appreciation of, i. 184,

192, 228, 347 ; ii. 295
Prayer-offering, i. 226, 227, 232; ii.

379
Prayers, attendance at man's, i. 233

PEE

Prayers, peculiarities of man's, i. 212,

227
Precaution-taking, i. 71, 132, 154, 253,

343, 362, 363; ii. 119, 163, 164, 234
Precedence in rank, appreciation of,

i. 385, 386, 392, 398, 399
Precipitancy of action, i. 407, 473,

499 ; ii. 31, 188, 196, 231, 234, 284,

301, 367

Precision of aim, i. 385
Predilections, i. 71
Predisposition, and its influence, ii.

184, 187, 197, 207, 234, 237, 240,

243, 244
Preference-showing, i. 61, 93, 471,

472, 473, 479, 482 ; ii. 82, 83, 86,

154, 194, 242, 280, 282, 372, 377,

379, 381, 384, 394
Pregnancy, mental phenomena of, ii.

273, 274, 275, 303, 305, 357
Pre-historic man, mental status of,

i. 46, 47, 122, 63
Prejudices, human, and their results,

i. 3, 6, 11, 100, 108, 116, 140, 186,

201, 289 ; ii. 197, 314, 315, 354, 366
Prematurity of action, i. 465, 506,

507, 535

Premeditation, ii. 136, 140
Pre-occupation, mental, real and

feigned, i. 94, 525, 530
Preparation-making, i. 366, 371, 382,

506, 532 ; ii. 136, 142, 143, 365, 371
Prescience, real or supposed, i. 151,

152, 153, 154, 250; ii. 144, 145, 307,

395
Presence of mind and its loss, i. 59,

120, 465, 526 ; ii. 38, 121, 123, 197,

200, 235

Presentiments, i. 57, 153, 247
Presidents of communities and their

behaviour, i. 386, 387
Presumption, i. 365, 404

— human, i. 125, 281

Pretence, i. 366, 404, 415, 493, 524,
527, 529, 530, 531, 532 ; ii. 80, 133,
161, 162, 163, 176, 177, 278, 292

— man's and its detection, i. 347,
355, 356, 542; ii. 235, 292, 29'.',
374

Prevention of contingencies, i. 372,

373, 389
Prey-capture, mental phenomena of,

i. 52, 53, 55, 64, 66, 86, 97, 131,

274, 275, 327, 359, 363, 364, 365,
366, 367, 371, 372, 373, 391, 393,
405, 413, 415, 424, 461, 462, 463,
465, 466, 526, 527, 529; ii.

92, 104, 105, 157, 266, 392

552

INDEX.

PRI

Pride and its display, i. 14, 73, 84,
91, 93, 94, 96, 132, 192, 249, 294,
295, 296, 312, 381, 383, 385, 386,
395, 400, 441, 476, 477, 507 ; ii.
57, 239, 300, 301, 322

— wounded and its results, ii. 240,
294, 300

— man's and its results, i. 125, 128,

289 ; ii. 314

Principles of conduct, i. 269, 383,
407

— absence of in man, i. 105, 204
Print, reading man's, i. 109
Prisons for animals, ii. 357
Prisoners and their treatment, i. 344,

400, 402, 473 ; ii. 156

Privacy, appreciation of, ii. 298

Privileges, possession and apprecia-
tion of, i. 231, 232, 381, 395, 403,
476 ; ii. 200, 321, 369, 370

Prize- winning, ii. 155

Probabilities, calculation of, i. 10, 128,
177, 190, 358, 471, 528

Problems in comparative psychology,
i. 235, 455, 496, 518

Processions, mental phenomena of,
i. 59, 385, 400; ii. 147

Professional occupations, i. 120, 190,
240, 352

Profitable, appreciation of the, i. 177,
190

Profligacy, i. 469, 480

Prognosis-making in mental disease,
ii. 175

Progress, capacity for mental, i. 234,
236, 275 ; ii. 46, 114, 341

— incapacity for mental in man, i.
43, 170, 205, 235, 236 ; ii. 14

Prohibition by man and its effects, ii.

84
Projectiles, knowledge of the range

and effects of man's, i. 462
Promises, understanding of man's, i.

347, 348

Promotion, systems of, i. 97, 377
Promptitude in action, i. 81, 188,

350, 358, 438, 532, 542 ; ii. 59, 133,

235
Proof in comparative psychology,

difficulties in obtaining, i. 10, 101,

102, 118, 132, 187, 295, 296, 453,

455, 518; ii. 37, 105, 116, 127,

137, 189, 222, 223, 274
Propensities and their regulation, ii.

87, 202
Property, sense of, i. 60, 90, 165,

229, 250, 295, 346, 360, 373, 481,

486 ; ii. 155, 156, 158, 166, 285

PUB

Property, accumulation of, i. 131, 158,
190, 372, 431, 501 ; ii. 55, 149, 151,
152, 154, 155

— recognition, recovery and guardian-
ship of man's, i. 250, 495 ; ii. 156,
167, 289, 328, 380

— absence of personal, in man, i. 44,
165 ; ii. 10

Propitiation, i. 81, 95, 179, 228, 229 ;
ii. 368

Propriety, sense of, i. 165, 185, 261,
523 ; ii. 288, 297

Prostitution, practice of, i. 469, 480

Prostration of body and its signifi-
cance, i. 307

Protection, sense of, i. 365, 473 ; ii.
115

— of each other, i. 386, 392 ; ii. 35,
64, 65, 200, 390

-of man, i. 87, 138; ii. 92, 328,
391

— by man and its results, ii. 35, 41,
240, 325, 326, 332

Protection -offering and giving, i. 85,

87
Protection-seeking, i. 61, 73, 138, 470;

ii. 379, 380, 391
Protest-making, i. 192, 294, 376 ; ii.

42, 101, 129, 131, 144, 148, 167,

297, 318, 319, 378
Prototypes of man, animals as, ii.

328
Proverbs based on animal character,

i. 90, 511, 540 ; ii. 99, 111, 114, 117,

322
Providence, i. 59, 120, 121, 190, 358,

371, 489, 499, 500
Provocation, general phenomena of,

i. 407, 512 ; ii. 34, 41, 59, 68, 76,

77, 165, 167, 176, 302

— of each other, i. 73 ; ii. 238

— by man, i. 90, 98, 197, 198, 200 ; ii.
249, 262, 271, 292, 322

— effects of, ii. 174, 231, 262

— duration and degree of, ii. 231,
245, 249, 293, 302, 304

Prudence, i. 148, 152, 341, 343, 344,

358, 489; ii. 90, 284, 389
Prudishness, i. 441
Publicity, aversion to, i. 367, ii.

298
Public animals, i. 402, 405 ; ii. 333

— business and its discharge, i. 120,
387, 397, 402 ; ii. 161

— good, consideration for the, i. 187,
363, 388, 392, 393, 397 ; ii. 163

— trials, i. 402 ; ii. 360, 361, 362

— celebrations, i. 362

INDEX.

553

PUB

Public feeling in man, improvement

of, i. 32
— honours from man, ii. 332, 333

— trial and punishment by man, ii.
360, 361, 362, 363

Puerperal mental phenomena, i. 343,
484, 490, 508; ii. 34, 35, 50, 63,
159, 178, 187, 192, 199, 203, 205,
303, 305, 357

Pugnacity, i. 55, 60, 67, 84, 88, 137,
469, 500, 513, 542 ; ii. 54, 77, 93,
172, 197, 198, 199, 200, 208, 210,
245, 285, 374, 378
Pumps, use of man's, i. 436, 437
Punctuality, i. 354, 455, 457, 4G1
Punishment of each other : general
phenomena of, i. 59, 73, 154, 155,
178, 179, 180, 190, 244, 277, 326,
343, 366, 382, 392, 397, 399, 400,
402, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 412,
478, 480, 493, 537 ; ii. 92, 116, 239,
294, 369, 389, 390

— of young by parents, i. 402, 403,
404, 405, 414, 417 ; ii. 300

— by man : general phenomena of,
i. 194, 195, 196, 200, 244, 493 ; ii.
44, 101, 180, 248, 249, 297, 306,
323, 365, 366, 368, 370

— of man by animals, i. 259, 267,
395, 399, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406,
416, 424, 431, 462, 540, 542, 543 ;
ii. 167, 294, 300

— of man by'man, i. 99, 198, 199, 200,
201, 208 ; ii. 92, 332

— necessity for, i. 407, 478, 480,
490; ii. 61, 287, 294, 300, 323,
325, 361, 364, 365, 366, 367

— forms of, i. 343, 366, 382, 399, 400,
402, 403, 404, 405, 407, 408, 414,
416, 537, 540, 542: ii. 92, 101,
116, 297, 318, 361, 362, 365, 366,
367, 369 370

moral, ii. 365, 366, 369

— physical, ii. 358, 369

— effects of, i. 107, 177, 178, 179,
184, 195 ; ii. 131, 133, 257, 294,
323, 366, 367, 368

-- fear of, i. 139, 188, 191, 195, 267,
276, 323, 340, 351, 405, 493; ii.
85, 235, 297, 367

— indifference to, i. 178, 191, 230,
231 ; ii. 40, 46, 49, 54, 56, 61, 84,
85, 101, 154, 180, 195, 198, 201, 248,
318, 319, 347, 358, 366, 367, 368

— sense of desert in, i. 178, 179, 180,
181, 184, 191, 192, 193, 195, 199,
347, 351, 352, 406; ii. 166, 365,
369, 370

QUE

Punishment, undeserved, ii. 46, 101,
249, 297, 318, 323, 358, 362, 365, 367

— excess in, ii. 249, 297, 323, 358,
365, 366, 367

— evasion of, 192, 230, 359, 524
ii. 368, 391

— adaptiveness in, i. 406, 407 ; ii.
323, 358, 364, 365, 366, 367

— errors in, ii. 358, 365, 367
Pupils, behaviour as, i. 277
Purchase, i. 184, 423 429, 430, 431,

432,
Purity of life, i. 221, 224

— absence of in man, i. 165, 169
Purpose, guidance by definite, i. 58,

60, 61, 64, 70, 71, 73, 76, 88, 98,
99, 120, 134, 155, 190, 230, 255,
260, 275, 277, 297, 316, 326, 335,
342, 344, 357, 358, 359, 366, 371,
372, 375, 377, 390, 392, 393, 403,
407, 408, 409, 422, 427, 431, 432,
433, 434, 437, 438, 457, 460, 469,
472, 476, 477, 481, 501, 504, 526,
527, 528, 529, 531, 533, 534, 537,
538; ii. 6, 54, 60, 79, 132, 133,
134, 136, 137, 140, 152, 153, 157,
162, 284, 385, 390

— absence of, apparent or real, i.
128, 158, 159, 187, 477, 524 ; ii.
31, 38, 55, 56, 142, 152, 153, 160

— understanding of man's, i. 192,
353, 354, 369, 395, 396, 461, 477;
ii. 371, 373, 375, 377, 379, 390

Purposive action and its significance,

i. 7, 52 ; ii. 5, 6, 7, 97
Pusillanimity, ii. 123
Puzzles to animals, mental, i. 453,

484, 503, 512

rvUADRUMANA, mental character-

\£ istics of the, i. 76, 78, 79, 80, 114,
270, 312, 316, 323, 380, 410, 411,
414, 415, 416, 418, 419, 426, 433,
435, 437, 474 ; ii. 81, 82, 258

Quadrupeds, mental characteristics of,
i. 318; ii. 82, 111, 118, 149, 258,
385

Quality of flesh and secretions de-^
termined by mental causes, ii.
270, 271, 272, 273

Quarrelsomeness and its results, i.
77, 84, 89, 90, 91, 98, 393, 401,
480, 486, 532, 538; ii. 95, 172,
187, 197, 200, 203, 209, 239, 285,
316

Queens, behaviour of, i. 378, 406, 499 ;
ii. 38, 159, 203, 238

554

INDEX.

QUE

Queens, government by, i. 97, 378,

381, 386

Questioning, i. 59, 299
Questions, understanding man's, i:

349, 350
Quickness in perception and action,

ii. 155, 277, 288, 289, 290
Quietude, natural and unnatural, i.

98; ii. 226, 247, 252, 321, 349,

352, 371, 372, 373, 374, 376

RABIES, man's errors anent, i. 5,
16, 90, 196; ii. 19, 20, 21, 22,
39, 74, 133, 189, 201, 274, 315,
345, 346, 350, 352

— general mental phenomena of, ii.
26, 33, 74, 99, 102, 103, 104, 105,
170, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 182,
187, 212, 213, 219, 270, 287, 303,
348

— causation of, ii. 54, 76, 181, 189,
190, 270, 271, 274, 317

— treatment of, ii. 348, 350, 351,
352, 359

— diagnosis of, ii. 27, 74, 170, 213,
219, 352, 359, 363

— rarity of, ii. 217, 245, 339, 346,
363

— fear of by man and other animals,
ii. 363, 394

Kafts, use of, i. 44

Eage and its manifestations, i. 59,
198, 378, 466, 530, 532 ; ii. 22, 70,
75, 76, 173, 175, 184, 187, 217,
222, 226, 230, 231, 249, 254, 263,
269, 270, 27], 279, 294

Eancour and its causes, i. 393 ; ii.
212, 367

Eange, calculation of, i. 247, 425,
426, 436, 462, 529, 538 ; ii. 112

Eank and its insignia, appreciation of,
i. 58, 59, 247, 377, 378, 385, 388,
399, 400, 442; ii. 57, 155, 294,
300

— recognition of man's, i. 303, 304,
319, 385, 400, 442 ; ii. 278, 289,
294

Eapacity, i. 83, 86

Eashness, i. 84, 137, 179, 187, 466 ;
ii. 90, 196, 284

Eationality of conduct, i. 470, 473

Eats, mental characteristics of, i. 94,
99, 158, 324, 365, 391, 418, 420,
426, 525 ; ii. 5, 55, 73, 81, 84, 86,
87, 149, 151, 152, 154, 163, 223,
380, 385, 390

Eavens, mental characteristics of,

KEF

i. 392, 393, 421, 436, 460, 530, 539 ;

ii. 55, 64, 149, 166, 222, 281
Eaving, or its equivalent, i. 15 ; ii. 21,

25, 49

Eeadiness, i. 120
Eeading human character, i. 250,

251, 290, 306, 317, 319, 320, 325,

346, 347, 351, 352, 353, 355, 465,

535, 536 ; ii. 167, 395

— each other's characters, i. 465

— the clock, i. 258, 261, 458

— cards, words, or letters, i. 258,
349

Eeal and ideal, contrast between the,
in man's estimate of animal cha-
racter, i. 83

Eeality and imitation, confusion of,
i. 256

Eeaping, i. Ill, 112

Eeason, faculty of and its exercise,
i. 63, 64, 139, 141, 246, 491, 493,
498, 526, 528 ; ii. 375

— in relation to instinct, i. 129, 141,
142, 338 ; ii. 230

— absence of (apparent or real), in
animals, i. 493 ; ii. 6, 234

— in man, supposed supremacy of, i.
29, 43 ; ii. 231

absence of, i. 140, 141 ; ii. 10

Eeasons for action, i. 393, 402, 470 ;

ii. 58, 106, 185
Eebellion against authority, i. 59 ; ii.

158, 319, 393
Eebuke-giving and receiving, i. 300,

303, 417

Eecitation-giving, i. 233, 299, 302
Eecklessness and its causes, ii. 5'.),

60, 93, 101, 227, 230, 231
Eecognition, mutual, i. 66, 312, 313,

335, 417, 495

— of friends and foes, i. 66, 67, 516 ;
ii. 121, 289

Eecollection, i. 141

Eeconciliation, i. 77, 178, 179, 227,
228 ; ii. 163, 299

Eeconnoitring, i. 54, 77, 246, 251,
254, 466

Eecovery from illness, mental pheno-
mena of, ii. 101, 351, 352, 377,
381

— of lost persons or goods, i. 188,
298, 422, 423 ; ii. 125, 156

Eecreations, i. 392 ; ii. 248
Eefinement of manners, i. 238, 268 :
ii. 308

— in cruelty, i. 537, 538
Eeflection, faculty of, and its exer-
cise, i. 107, 109, 120, 121, 128, 139.

INDEX.

555

KEF

141, 142, 187, 246, 255, 256, 304,
346, 347, 354, 355, 358, 370, 375,
472, 489, 491, 496, 501, 526 : ii.
114, 127, 134, 146, 194, 341

Reflection, want of, i. 278, 405, 466,
496, 503, 520, 536 ; ii. 73, 90, 125,
126, 231, 232

in man, i. 30, 141, 187 ; ii.

10, 87, 381

— of man's character in other ani-
mals, i. 226, 265, 266, 267, 320,
352

Reflex mental action, i. 4, 7, 63, 71,

128, 317 ; ii. 5, 6, 7, 10
Reformation of character, i. 196, 236 ;

11. 366

Reformatories, animal, i. 238 ; ii. 357
Refractoriness, i. 402
Refuge-seeking, giving, or taking, i.

423, 445 ; ii. 379
Refusal, i. 248, 294, 376, 386, 387,

432, 464, 465, 478, 479, 495, 509;

ii. 42, 85, 86, 90, 109, 133, 134, 137,

140, 159, 247, 266, 269, 270, 272,

281, 317, 319, 320
Regard, appreciation of man's, i. 478 ;

ii. 297, 299
Regret, i. 178, 179, 294, 323 ; ii. 60,

04, 65, 131, 163, 231, 232, 257, 368

— absence of in man, i. 165
Regularity, i. 98, 120, 182, 229, 231,

232, 262, 280, 368, 377, 454, 455,

457, 459, 461, 463 ; ii. 5, 83, 84,

119, 248, 371, 386
Rehearsals, i. 279
Reinforcements, use of, i. 361, 362,

393
Relationships, severance of, i. 222 ; ii.

256

Relaxation, necessity for, ii. 248, 334
Relays in work, use of, i. 393
Release, sense of, ii. 178, 180
Relentlessness, i. 199 ; ii. 100, 101,

103, 166, 392

— in man, i. 169
Relics, respect for, i. 222
Relief, sense of, ii. 377, 381
Relief -giving, i. 58, 393, 461

— seeking, ii. 270

Religion, elements of comparative, i.
219

— definitions of, i. 219, 220, 211

— nature of, i. 220, 225, 231

— germs of, i. 203, 207, 208, 209,
213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220,
232

— in man, equivalents of, i. 207, 212,
218

REP

! Religion, peculiarities of man's, i.
. 202, 212, 214, 215, 216, 218, 229

— of fear in man, i. 213, 214, i

— of love in animals, i. 224, 225

— comparison of human and animal,
i. 220, 225

Religious barriers to free inquiry in
comparative psychology, i. 6, 129

— sense, or its equivalent, i. 75, 101,
102, 103, 120, 193, 202, 203, 213,
214, 217, 218, 224, 225, 229, 232

— absence of in man, i. 38, 43, 48,
102, 106, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206,
207, 208, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217,
218 ; ii. 10

— instinct in man, i. 202, 203, 218,
220

— insanity in man, i. 213, 214
Reluctance, i. 465 ; ii. 86
Remark, appropriateness of, i. 72, 77,

233, 290, 299, 303
Remedies, use of suitable, ii. 376,

377, 382, 383, 384, 386, 394
Remorse, i. 178, 179: ii. 131, 163,

232, 257

— absence of, in man, i. 165 ; ii. 18
Rendezvous, i. 362, 476
Renunciation, ii. 90

Repair of injury, i. 56, 134, 278, 359,

368, 392

Reparation-making, ii. 163
Repayment of kindness, i. 86, 97,

420 ; ii. 306, 378

— of evil with evil, i. 406

— of good with evil, i. 406 ; ii. 378
in man, i. 166

— of evil with good, i. 120, 224, 22. "5

— of injury, ii. 159
Repentance, i. 178, 470 ; ii. 163

— absence of in man, i. 165
Repetition of effort, i. 7, 61, 71, 1C5,

242, 246, 255, 366, 368, 531 ; ii. 7, 61,

93, 101, 164, 191, 286, 379, 380, 384
Reply-making, i. 72, 77, 299,327,334,

335, 349 ; ii. 46

Report -making, i. 254, 297, 390
Reprimand of each other, i. 77, 185,

275, 277, 404 ; ii. 389
Reproof, sensitiveness to, i. 178,347 :

ii. 54, 166
Reptiles, mental characteristics of, i.

94
Repugnance, ii. 85, 242, 279, 280,

320

Repulse of civilities, i. 405, 478
Reputation, general phenomena of,

i. 4, 13, 74, 82, 84, 86, 90, 92, 95, 97,

98, 295, 381 ; ii, 152, 153

556

INDEX.

HEP

Reputation, deserved, ii. 55, 101, 122,

152, 153, 158
— undeserved, ii. 23, 38, 69, 101,115,

116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 199,

321, 373, 379, 387, 388

of man, i. 98

Request -making, i. 154, 227, 294, 298,

327 ; ii. 380

Requiem-singing, ii. 147
Rescue of each other, i. 94, 188, 392,

404 ; ii. 148, 389, 390
Resemblance and reality, confusion

of, i. 489, 493, 496, 498, 499, 500,

507, 508, 512, 515, 516, 517, 519,

520, 521, 522, 535, 543

— identification of, i. 515, 516

— distinction between, i. 532

— and identity in comparative psy-
chology, i. 10 ; ii. 7, 8

Resemblances and differences, com-
parison of, i. 246

— between man and other animals, i.
118

Resentment, feeling of, i. 62, 180,
197, 542 ; ii. 42, 116, 167, 249, 291,
292, 294, 298, 300, 304. 306, 317,
319, 365, 367, 378
Reserve forces, use of, i. 393
Resignation to fate, i. 176, 179, 271 ;
ii. 144, 234, 266, 286

— of trust, i. 373 ; ii. 388
Resistance, i. 301 ; ii. 286
Resolution, i. 110, 128, 357; ii. 86,

90, 121, 132, 133, 134, 136, 138,

148, 286
Resourcefulness, i. 61, 72, 120, 134,

319, 340, 357, 393, 465, 501, 526,

533 ; ii. 197
Respect for each other, i. 59, 278, 362,

380, 381, 387

— for man, i. 93, 262, 385, 489 ; ii.
176, 323, 324

— for superiority, i. 85, 278, 385,
387, 399, 470

— mutual, want of in man, i. 165
Response-making, i. 232
Responsibility, moral, i. 98, 180, 181,

184, 197, 198, 382, 484, 493, 538 ;
ii. 61. 155, 160, 360

— assumption of, i. 197, 263

— of man for animal character and
conduct, i. 98, 181, 200, 266, 466 ;
ii. 67, 99, 118, 128, 153, 160, 201,
226, 249, 271, 272, 313, 318, 319,
323, 329, 338, 345, 357, 360, 364,
367, 378

Rest, recognition of a necessity for,
i. 393

ROM

Restlessness and its causes, i. 61, 71,

83, 86, 298, 308, 386 ; ii. 208, 247,

256, 264, 268, 285
Restoration of stolen articles, i. 179 ;

ii. 156, 166, 282
Restraint, mental effects of, ii. 180,

190, 264, 347
Results, anticipation of, i. 347, 395,

484
Resuscitation, efforts at, ii. 148, 389,

390
Retaliation, i. 406, 413, 539, 540,

542 ; ii. 159, 294, 304, 306, 317,

369

Retreat-covering, i. 425
Retribution-making, i. 267, 540, 542
Revenge, spirit and practice of, i. 57,

97, 154, 177, 180, 184, 190, 194,

260, 359, 406, 407, 422, 471, 524,

542 ; ii. 59, 60, 92, 136, 159, 177,
• 239, 241, 249, 269, 270, 278, 294,

302, 306, 317, 322, 323
Reverence, sentiment of, i. 223, 232,

412
— absence of, in man, i. 203, 212,

219, 232

Reverie, ii. 99, 134
Rewards, appreciation of, i. 81, 107,

176, 177, 181, 184, 188, 190, 191,

192, 193 ; ii. 131, 295
Reward-offering to each other, i. 190,

277
Rhizopoda, mental phenomena in the,

i. 52
Ridicule, sensitiveness to, i. 318, 320,

493, 531
Riding upon each other, i. 114, 245,

261
Right and wrong, sense of, i. 103, 175,

176, 177, 181, 182, 185, 190, 191,

193, 398, 471 ; ii. 150

— absence of sense of, in man, i.
106, 165, 169, 171, 181, 210 ; ii. 10,
16

Rights, vested, and their defence, i.
192, 373, 398, 399, 400, 403 j ii.
155, 156, 158

Rites, ceremonial, i. 222, 232

Rivalry, its causes and effects, i. 55,
60, 62, 327, 345, 365, 378, 384, 403,
434, 464, 469, 477, 480, 481, 512,
513,516, 530; ii. 26, 59, 64, 137,
138, 143, 159, 166, 178, 185, 190,
198, 199, 229, 238, 239, 255, 257,
259, 262, 279, 294, 298, 323

Robbery, i. 96, 260; ii. 157, 160

Roguery, ii. 165

Romanes, observations of G. J., i. 33,

IXDEX.

557

EOD

316, 320, 336, 419, 420, 421, 484,
507, 531, 535 ; ii. 91, 292
Roughness of manners, i. 83, 86
Routine, force of, i. 265
— deviations from, i. 375, 461
Royalty, government by, i. 66, 97,

388

Rules of action and their infringe-
ment, i. 378, 379, 387, 397, 398, 399,
400, 434 ; ii. 368

Ruses and their objects, i. 54, 340,
362, 366, 404, 524, 525, 527, 531 ;
ii. 166

SADNESS and its causes, i. 294,
312, 323 ; ii. 31, 52, 132, 173, 239,
256, 273

Sagacity, manifestations of, i. 18, 22,
40, 74, 81, 87, 93, 121, 145, 190, 238,
239, 263, 267, 268, 342, 347, 360,
364, 367, 368, 370, 373, 376, 380,
390, 398, 408, 424, 432, 433, 434,
437, 438, 452, 462, 465, 470, 492,
536, 542; ii. 29, 111, 118, 121,
122, 124, 125, 126, 128, 141, 143,
162, 165, 282, 284, 371, 373, 375,
387, 388, 390, 391

Safety, sense of personal, i. 73, 190 :
ii. 115, 235, 236

— seeking, i. 340, 341, 358, 374, 382,
392, 393, 462, 525, 526, 536; ii.
145, 221, 234, 235, 379, 385, 388,
389, 394

Salutation, modes of, i. 258, 260, 261,
262, 266, 299, 308, 309, 312, 352,
412, 424, 474 ; ii. 176, 389

— certain modes of, in man, i. 285,
475

Salvation, acceptance and refusal of,

ii. 133, 134

Sameness, mental effects of, ii. 248
Sanatoria, animal, ii. 357
Sanity, mental phenomena of, ii. 95,

102
Sarcasm, sensitiveness to, i. 321, 347J

— use of, i. 233, 321

Satiety, feeling of, and its results, ii.

66

Satire, sensitiveness to, i. 300, 303
Satisfaction, feeling of, i. 55, 60, 192,

294, 317, 321, 378, 419, 438 : ii.

5, 84, 115, 122, 178, 230, 265/268,

272
Savage man in his primitive state,

moral and intellectual status of, i.

40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 104,

105, 106, 107, 109, 111, 112, 119,

SEL

121, 122, 124, 125, 140, 163, 164,
165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173,
174, 181, 191, 198, 202, 203, 204,
205, 206, 207, 208, 211, 213, 215,
216, 217, 220, 221, 235, 236, 245,
272, 284, 285, 289, 297, 339, 415,
416, 423, 426, 427, 440, 441, 442,
443, 445, 446, 447, 451, 452, 475,
493, 510, 511, 514, 515; ii. 9, 18,
36, 78, 129, 151, 153, 174, 195, 368

Savage man in his civilised state,

moral and intellectual status of, i.

48, 118, 122, 169, 172, 205, 212, 213,

214, 236, 444, 448 ; ii. 13
Scaffolding, use of, i. 369
Scarecrows, rationale and effects of,

i. 519, 520 ; ii. 102
Scavenging, i. 359
Schemes of action, i. 94
Schools for animals, i. 241, 244 ; ii.

331, 332
Scientific method in comparative

psychology, use of the, i. 9
Scolding each other, i. 303 ; ii. 389
— by man, sensitiveness to, ii. 133,

190
Screams and their significance, i. 300,

301, 322, 405, 520 ; ii. 92, 178, 181,

224

Scrupulousness, i. 175
Scrutiny, i. 253
Sculpture, representations of animal

character in, ii. 336
Seals, mental characteristics of, i. 388,

389, 449 ; ii. 141, 258
Search-making, i. 61, 66, 150, 246.

253, 254, 298, 351, 392; ii. 87,

189, 384, 387
Secrecy of action and its causes, i.

180, 230, 251, 347, 352, 353, 523 :

ii. 163
Secretion governed by mental states.

ii. 269, 270, 271
Security, sense of, i. 460
Sedateness, i. 230 ; ii. 195, 196
Sedatives, effects of medicinal, ii.

73
Seduction of each other, i. 276, 405.

469, 480

Sedulousness in work, ii. 152
Seed-sowing, i. Ill, 112
Selection-making, i. 133, 134, 190.

247, 262, 274, 305, 357, 359, 364,

365, 367, 471, 472, 478, 483, 4SI,

509, 528, 529, 542; ii. 82, 141.

143, 146, 150, 284, 380
— errors of, i. 501, 504, 505, 508 ; ii.

122, 381

558

INDEX.

SEL

Self-admiration, i. 344, 513, 516

— ablution, i. 412

— appointment to office, i. 383, 483,
486

— approbation, i. 176, 192

— amusement, i. 110, 194, 231, 319,
420, 524, 530, 531, 533, 539 ; ii. 152,
155

— abasement, i. 227

— assertion, i. 267

- absorption, ii. 99, 230

— annoyance, ii. 86

— betrayal, i. 297 ; ii. 295

- blame, i. 178, 491, 492

— absence of in man, i. 165, 171

— comparison, i. 464, 467, 468

— control, i. 32, 40, 60, 67, 75. 87,
109, 120, 128, 165, 179, 184, 191,
193, 195, 197, 242, 260, 262, 271,
292, 296, 354, 358, 380, 393, 471,
489, 525, 526, 527, 532; ii. 84,
85, 92, 150, 268, 269, 282, 303,
367, 371, 372, 377

— want or loss of, i. 197 ; ii. 16, 25,
54, 56, 59, 60, 61, 84, 172, 191
199, 217, 218, 220, 230, 231

— confidence, i. 365, 541 ; ii. 196,
284

— congratulation, i. 304 ; ii. 155

— concealment and its causes, i. 230,
307, 352, 460, 466, 520; ii. 91,
163, 164, 180, 301

— conceit, i. 265, 295, 296, 477 ; ii.
164

— correction, i. 237

— convenience, regard for, i. 361

— consciousness, i. 103

— clothing, i. 441

— defence, i. 131, 184, 275, 362, 365,
366, 422, 426, 524 ; ii. 5, 6, C9,
120, 174, 177, 181, 249

— incapacity for, ii. 122, 123, 172,
209, 234, 235, 265, 266, 285

— destruction, forms and causes of, I
i. 149, 150, 151, 380, 466, 495, |
496, 497, 500, 504, 508, 509, 520 ;
ii. 34, 50, 52, 59, 110, 114, 116,
120, 124, 130, 136, 137, 138, 139, |
140, 142, 177, 188, 219, 220, 231, j
235, 266, 267, 268, 393

— deception, forms of, i. 470, 477,
508, 509, 512, 519, 534 ; ii. '102,
109, 147

— in man, ii. 7, 8, 147

— depreciation, i. 267

— decoration, i. 476

— denial, i. 139, 165, 177, 190, 224,
225, 260, 262, 276

SEL

Self-devotion, i. 87, 187, 189, 191

— esteem, i. 477 ; ii. 57, 240, 301

— exhaustion and its causes, i. 504 ;
ii. 54

— extrication, modes of, i. 364, 414,
415, 420, 422, 424, 494, 496 ; ii.
144, 260

— forgetfulness, i. 224, 225

- help, i. 414, 415, 422 ; ii. 294

- improvement, i. 242, 279, 476

— importance, i. 295, 312, 385, 386 ;
ii. 322,

— injury, i. 467, 511 ; ii. 50,268

— intoxication, ii. 82, 86, 92, 93,
383

- invitation, i. 303, 352, 499

— imprisonment, i. 473

— interest, regard for, i. 5, 176, 344,
347, 353, 360, 438, 470, 523, 526 ;
ii. 6, 91, 145, 285

— disregard for, ii. 180, 285, 286,
378

— isolation, i. 492 ; ii. 31, 143, 144,
171, 180, 201, 211, 246, 256, 295,
299, 394

— indulgence, i. 340 ; ii. 86, 246

— immolation,! 151 ; ii. 138, 219

— introduction, ii. 373
— loathing, ii. 90

— love, i. 295, 341

— mutilation, i. 53, 56, 136, 504 ; ii.
49, 62, 74, 126, 177

- poisoning, i. 509 : ii. 135, 140, 142,
154, 375, 376, 393

— possession and its loss, i. 358, 375,
526 ; ii. 31, 185

— preservation, capacity for, i. 5, 131,
132, 136, 138, 139, 341, 342, 363,
366, 419, 420, 421, 425, 426, 427,
444, 462, 470, 489, 524, 526; ii.
6, 141, 132, 276, 385

incapacity for, ii. 44, 90, 123,

127, 128, 172, 277
in man, ii. 10

— praise, i. 303

— reliance, ii. 120

— respect, ii. 301

— sacrifice, capacity for, i. 40, 59, 70,
75, 87, 88, 119, 128, 136, 184, 186,
187, 188, 189, 224, 225, 231, 232,
341, 342, 363, 445, 471, 485, 489,
506, 507, 508 ; ii. 115, 130, 132,
135, 139, 335, 359, 381, 385, 388

— submission to medical and sur-
gical treatment, i. 419, 422 ; ii.
375, 382, 383, 385, 386, 387, 391,
394

— starvation, i. 95, 497, 507, 509 : ii.

INDEX.

559

SEL

125, 133, 135, 140, 141, 189, 198,

. 256, 285, 354
Self-satisfaction, i. 176, 192, 470

— sufficiency, i. 375, 376

— survey, i. 470
stimulation, ii. 383

tuition, i. 244, 246, 274, 279, 280,
2'.'2, 304, 320, 346, 370, 437

- torment, i. 496, 513 ; ii. 142

- worship, i. 303

Selfishness, i. 5, 67, 83, 88, 131, 176,

177, 187, 189, 194, 268, 270, 340,
341, 342, 344, 359, 360, 361, 374,
386, 432, 470, 471, 483, 485, 489,
506, 537, 539; ii. 62, 65, 115, 145,
157, 298, 322, 389, 392

— in man, i. 39, 166, 172,195,208,
257, 269; ii. 314, 330

Senility, mental phenomena of, ii.
:$1, 46, 47, 48, 96, 127, 193, 194,
195

in man, ii. 9, 18, 24, 61, 127,

128, 143, 193

Sensation and its relation to thought,
i. 17, 38, 54, 63 ; ii. 7, 34, 39, 58, 59,
. 102, 105, 106, 127, 282, 307

- disorders of, ii. 6, 11, 97, 100, 212,
217, 218, 242

•. common, and its manifesta-
tions, i. 17, 38, 54, 302, 304, 341,
402, 465, 496, 503, 505; ii. 44,
84, 85, 91, 115, 121, 191, 372, 377

s, acuteness of the, i. 120, 143,
153, 157 : ii. 228, 307, 308

— in man, i. 43, 45, 148

- uses of the, i. 127, 143, 146, 157,

256, 491 492, 512, 513, 516 ; ii. 95,
99, 100, 101, 114, 185, 186, 228,
242, 282, 307, 308

by man, i. 148, 207, 215

— errors of the, i. 489, 492, 497, 500,
512, 516, 522, 534 ; ii. 95, 103

— defects and disorders of the, ii. 70,

103, 105, 107, 117, 124, 127,
131, 133, 140, 172, 178, 193, 205,
346

— in man, ii. 11, 12

— supposed additional, i. 143, 146 ;
ii. 117

Sensitiveness, natural and morbid, i.
17. 294, 493, 536; ii. 37, 103, 118,
i:;i, 132, 133, 137, 164, 180, 187,
201, 216, 219, 220, 233, 245, 248,
. 264, 291, 295, 296, 305, 307,
313

— to psychical influences, i. 75, 86,

178, 320, 536: ii. 195, 240, 245,

257, 261, 263, 291, 292, 293, 294,

SEE

295, 296, 297, 299, 300, 304, 305,
313, 317, 320 323, 338, 341, 348,
365, 367, 369, 370
Sensitiveness to physical influences
generally, i. 57, 66, 67, 153, 154,
294 ; ii. 221, 227, 245, 291, 296, 306,
307, 308, 313, 338, 341

— to physical pain, ii. 291, 306, 307,
3H

— to man's kindness, ii. 295, 296, 300,
320, 365

— to man's harshness, i. 536 ; ii. 261,

299, 300, 305, 317, 323, 367

— to man's words, i. 536 ; ii. 261,
263, 291, 292, 293, 295, 296, 299,

300, 365, 369

— results of, ii. 260, 299, 300, 304,
368

Sensorial impressions and their men-
tal effects, i. 56, 131, 136, 243 ; ii.
73, 187, 193, 237, 242, 307

Sentences and their execution, i.
400, 402

Sentinels and their duties, i. 55,
155, 249, 254, 335, 337, 362, 366,
384, 388, 389, 390; ii. 159

Seriousness, i. 298, 531, 539, 543 : ii.
238, 283

Serpent-charming, rationale of, ii.
226, 354

Serpents, mental characteristics of, i.
71, 72, 81, 94, 510, 525; ii. 209, 226,
235, 269

Servants to each other, acting as, i.
59, 60, 267, 277, 358, 360, 361,
398; ii. 158

— to man, acting as, i. 112, 114, 238,
258, 261, 472 ; ii. 75

Services to each other, i. 73, 88, 91,
95, 190, 260, 270, 271, 277, 344,
360, 361, 363, 374, 414, 432, 486 ;
ii. 60, 158, 386, 387, 389, 390

— to man, i. 73, 75, 76, 87, 89, 112,
114, 128, 130, 180, 182, 184, 195,
224, 225, 238, 250, 258, 259, 260,
261, 262, 263, 266, 267, 269 271,
272, 273, 324, 348, 349, 353, 359,
364, 373, 394, 395, 399, 411, 420,
422, 423, 424, 430, 431, 432, 436,
437, 438, 439, 445, 449, 450, 457,
458, 459, 463, 472, 487, 533 ; ii.
88, 119, 121, 143, 156, 157, 201,
207, 209, 306, 308, 329, 330, 332,
335, 380, 386, 388, 389, 391

— estimation of value of, i. 184
ii. 335

Servility, i. 84
Servitude, sense of, ii. 294

560

INDEX.

SEX

Sex, no respect for in man, i. 168

— in relation to insanity, ii. 192,
198, 203

Sexual excitement and its results, ii.
198, 199, 201, 202, 347

— mental attributes and their uses,
i. 469, 471, 476, 478, 482 ; ii. 197,
200, 203

Shadows, mental effects of, i. 512,
513, 521 ; ii. 106

Shame, sense of, i. 75, 103, 114, 129,
179, 295, 312, 351, 383, 465, 491,
492, 520, 531 ; ii. 163, 164, 232,

257, 295, 296

— absence of in man, i. 165, 168,

170, 172 ; ii. 14

Sheep, mental characteristics of, i.
14, 349, 380, 381, 388, 390, 420,
484, 495, 502, 504, 509, 519, 530,
540; ii. 10, 21, 22, 33, 37, 75, 88,
104, 119, 120, 121, 122, 139, 140,

171, 175, 181, 182, 188, 202, 208,
211, 213, 214, 227, 234, 236, 245,

258, 265, 266, 272, 297, 306, 308,
371, 379, 382, 390, 394

Shelter, use of natural by man, i. 443,
444, 445

— non-use of by man, i. 40, 113 ; ii.
14

Shelter-making and using, i. 25, 56,
113, 131, 138, 410, 422, 425, 427,
440, 442, 445, 490; ii. 221, 379,
385

Shock, mental, its causes and effects,
ii. 99, 192, 227, 229, 236, 237,
241, 242, 255, 258, 260, 261, 268,
273, 274

Shouting, i. 300, 301

Shrewdness, i. 93, 154, 264, 287,
297 ; ii. 91, 118, 124

Shyness, its causes and effects, i.
70, 296, 530 ; ii. 101, 298

Siamang, mental character of the,
i. 301, 305, 380, 411, 413, 441),
530 ; ii. 149, 164, 166, 281, 292

Sick, treatment of the, ii. 388

Sign-language in rcan, i. 381 ; ii.
14

Signal-giving, i. 76, 153, 154, 313,
327, 334, 335, 337, 355, 362, 419,
457

Signals, understanding man's, i. 70,
72, 93, 247, 347, 349, 352, 353,
381, 437, 438, 456, 460, 466

— use by man of animal, i. 153, 355
Silence, natural and unnatural, i.

543 ; ii. 158, 166
Silliness of mind, ii. 31, 170

SOC

Similes based on animal character,

ii. 222
Simple in comparative psychology,

study of the, i. 38
Simpletons, animal, ii. 44, 359
Simplicity of character, i. 221
Simulation, i. 65, 73, 258, 524, 532 ;

ii. 26

Simultaneity of emotion, ii. 236
Sin and its penalties, ii. 370
Sincerity, i. 221, 224, 227, 480
Size of body or brain, supposed re-
lation of intelligence to, i. 4, 14
Skill, artistic, mechanical, or other
forms of, i. 84, 97, 98, 120, 132,
134, 234, 257, 259, 261, 262, 263,
266, 273, 358, 359, 475, 476, 498,
528; ii. Ill, 125, 277, 387
Slang, use of man's, i. 300, 303
Slavery, mental phenomena of, i.
60, 130, 270, 344, 358, 360, 361,
362, 398; ii. 126, 157, 158, 281),
294

— in man, i. 43, 105

Sleep, mental phenomena of, i. 350,
389, 525, 530 ; ii. 94, 95, 96, 98,
99, 109, 127, 165, 190, 263

— derangements of, their causes
and effects, i. 490; ii. 30, 31, 01,
94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 104, 192, 206,
207, 256

— diagnosis of, ii. 145, 146

— rousing from and its effects, ii.
227, 237, 258

Slowness of ideation and action, and
its causes, ii. 171, 288, 290

Smartness of character and conduct,
i. 55

Smiling, or its equivalent, i. 315,
316

— absence of in man, ii. 14
Smuggling, mental phenomena of, i.

352, 353, 379, 394, 533 ; ii. 161,

163, 317
Snappishness, literal and figurative,

i. 71, 90 ; ii. 176

Snares, avoidance of man's, ii. 240
Snarling in man, i. 286
Sobbing, i. 110, 322, 323, 324, 325
Sobriety, i. 120

— and insobriety, recognition of
man's, ii. 91

Sociability, i. 66, 116, 120, 131, 185,
190, 270; ii.38, 195, 247, 272

Society, necessity for and love of, i.
93, 131, 134, 190, 231; ii. 124,
180, 196, 246, 247, 298, 347, 358

— want of and its effects, ii. 38, 246

INDEX.

561

soc

Society, aversion to and avoidance

of, ii. 211, 246, 394
— behaviour in man's, i. 238, 251,

— partiality to man's, i. 471, 473 ;
ii. 190. 831, 24«J

— discrimination between good and
bad human, i. 93

Soko, mental character of the, i. 122,

316, 322, 323, 324, 410, 411, 412,

413, 414, 440 ; ii. 386
Solemnity of character and conduct,

i. 233 j ii. 146, 283
Solicitation, modes of, i. 70, 227, 322,

408, 474, 477, 480, 481 ; ii. 121,

Solicitude, i. 137, 506; ii. 29, 146,

200
Solitude, mental effects of, ii. 38, 51,

L'4i>. 243, 246. 247, 257

— uses of, ii. 351, 352

- love of, ii. 196, 239, 246

— aversion to, ii. 247
Somnambulism, ii. 97, 98
Somnolence and its causes, i. 510;

ii. 209, 210

Song in birds, significance of, i. 60,

7i'. . 233, 240, 245, 258,

2SO, 2-.H, 299, 303, 305, 306,

336; ii. 147, 200, 204, 238, 255, 277

— love of, i. 469, 470, 480

— cultivation of, i. 243, 245, 276 : ii.
331

Sorcery, supposed results of, ii. 21
Sorrow, i. 61, 86, 312, 324, 540; ii.

51, 230, 232, 299, 330
Soul, probable existence of, i. 101,

102

— no idea of in man, i. 102, 106, 205
Sound, or its absence, mental effects

i. 60; ii. 68, 103, 105, 120, 186,
. 189, 193, 214, 223, 225, 226,
7, 241, 242, 251, 280,
308, 309, 351

— in relation to language, i. 288
Spalding, observations of the late

Douglas A., i. 36, 109, 127, 132,
r'.»2; ii. 177,266, 301

Species, psychical characters of, i. 58,
82, 125, 260; ii. 19, 30, 81, 89, 116,
12.% 126, 127, 179, 188, 189, 194,
236, 257, 283, 287, 288, 289, 293,
331

Specific n;: I on psychical

character.-, i. H2, 125; ii. 386, 423

Spectatorship, or its absence, neces-
sity for, i. 265, 476, 477, 540; ii.
163, 164

STA

Speculations, man's, and their fruits,
i. 6, 101, 144, 145, 155, 343

Speech, faculty of, i. 21, 72, 74, 77,
78, 108, 185, 233, 257, 261, 281,
282, 284, 289, 290, 299, 301, 302,
304, 305, 306, 316, 336, 474, 492,
514, 524, 532; ii. 25, 96, 97

— equivalents of, i. 291, 305, 306,
312

— absence of and its effects, i. 532 ;
ii. 28, 96, 106, 108

— derangements of, ii. 48, 61, 96

— in relation to intelligence, i. 78,
285

— in man, absence of, i. 108, 119,
285, 286 ; ii. 14, 24, 96

Spelling, feats in, i. 108, 257, 261 ; ii.
121

Spell-bound condition, ii. 235

Spiders, mental characteristics of, i.
56, 57, 121, 134, 365, 420, 427,
434, 464, 478, 501, 525, 527, 528,
529, 536 ; ii. 76, 77, 135, 141, 235,
282, 283, 307

Spies, use of, i. 45, 254, 384, 388, 390

Spinal cord, certain functions of the,
i. 7 : ii. 7

Spirits, high and low, ii. 31, 142, 179,
196, 202, 212, 256

— loss and recovery of, ii. 273, 295,
2'.'7, 317, 354, 368

Spitefulness, i. 13, 83, 88, 97

Spitting and its significance, i. 308

Spontaneity of action, i. 263, 304,
316, 351, 353, 357, 373, 375, 432,
452, 458, 459, 463, 483; ii. 106,
160, 371, 373, 374, 375, 376, 391

Sport, love of, i. 110, 131, 244, 318,
354, 389 ; ii. 26, 121, 160, 196, 221,
233, 248, 255, 265

Sport-making of each other, or of
man, i. 361, 365, 540, 541

Sports, cruelties of man's, i. 91, 110,
170, 172, 541 ; ii. 68, 69, 86, 88, 89,
160, 176, 208, 209, 223, 234, 262,
318

Sprightliness, ii. 196

Spurious and real, discrimination be-
tween the, i. 534

Stacking grain, i. 112

Stages in education, i. 241, 242, 263,

Stampedes and their causes, i. 264,

278
Staring and its significance, ii. 112,

122, 123, 134, 173, 235, 261, 269
Starling, mental characteristics of

the, i. 158 ; ii. 82, 83, 84, 96

VOL. II.

0 O

562

INDEX.

STA

State organisations, i. 378
Steadiness of character, i. 280, 507 ;

ii. 119, 121, 283, 284
Stealthiness of action, i. 83, 88, 297 ;

ii. 163

Step-mothers, behaviour of, i. 485
Sterility, mental effects of sexual,

ii. 156
Stimulants, use of alcoholic and

other, ii. 56, 83, 87, 383
Stimuli, mental and physical, and
their effects, i. 64, 363, 465 ; ii. 81,
180, 188, 208, 308, 319, 353, 354
Stolidity, i. 84, 297 ; ii. 147
Storage of articles, i. 59, 77, 111, 190,
359, 371, 372, 423, 430, 459; ii. 54,
55, 151, 152, 156

Stories anent animal sagacity, and
their value, i. 18, 21, 24, 25, 27, 28,
88

Strain, mental, and its results, ii. 233
Strangeness, feeling of, ii. 177, 234,

242, 247

Strangers, treatment of, i. 248, 249,

390, 441, 495 ; ii. 66, 98, 116, 122,

123, 159, 167, 177, 187, 203, 242,

269, 279, 280, 292, 298

Stratagem, use of, i. 55, 73, 358, 362,

363, 524, 527, 531; ii. 166
Strong, rule of the, ii. 392
Stubborness, i. 93, 99 ; ii. 46
Student of comparative psychology,
qualifications of the, i. 7, 9, 10, 163
Study, faculty of, i. 246, 280, 352,

354, 355, 469
— of animal character by man, i. 110,

535 ; ii. 356

Stuffed animals, effects of exhibi-
tion of, i. 512, 519, 520 ; ii. 102
Stupefaction and its causes, i. 371,
510; ii. 33, 72, 75, 88, 90, ]27, 128,
209, 218, 219, 235

Stupidity, general phenomena of, i.
14, 74, 84, 86, 89, 94, 95, 96, 97,
149, 150, 151, 188, 198, 243, 249,
253, 269, 279, 341, 342, 360, 380,
389, 395, 396, 402, 404, 405, 438,
466, 472, 489, 493, 494, 495, 496,
497, 499, 500, 501, 503, 504, 505,
506, 507, 509, 521, 536 ; ii. 27, 38,
42, 44, 45, 46, 70, 72, 76, 88, 90, 93,
108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117,
118, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126,
127, 128, 139, 140, 148, 154, 156,
172, 180, 181, 182, 188, 191, 195,
196, 202, 204, 209, 211, 219, 220,
231, 234, 236, 265, 277, 287, 288,
347, 350, 359, 374, 378, 379, 385, 393

SUD

Stupidity, causes of, ii. 117, 118, 127,
128, 211, 218, 231, 235, 236, 241,
242, 265, 266, 268, 319, 359

— effects of, ii. 117, 118, 230, 265,
266, 285, 319

— certain forms of, ii. 242, 266, 268,
319

— in man in relation to his know-
ledge of animal character, i. 16,
43, 99, 104, 105, 109, 204, 226,
268, 301, 302, 387, 415, 444, 451,
465, 466, 511, 515, 518, 519, 542,
543 ; ii. 9, 10, 14, 24, 29, 57, 75, 87,
88, 99, 101, 111, 199, 122, 123, 129,
151, 174, 181, 227, 237, 242, 249,
251, 252, 273, 301, 306, 318, 345,
347, 349, 350, 357, 362, 364, 365,
369, 370, 376

— recognition of each other's or
man's, ii. 128, 129

Sturdy, mental phenomena of, ii. 128,

140, 181, 182, 213
Subjection of the weak to the strong,

i. 58, 270, 358, 360, 361, 379, 386 ;

ii. 60, 157, 308, 321
Submissiveness to each other, i. 227,

240, 361, 380, 386 ; ii. 60, 176, 285,

286, 390
- to man, i. 197, 227, 271, 272, 387 ;

ii. 60, 88, 201, 202, 266, 308, 309,

319, 321, 353, 367, 371, 372, 373,

374, 375, 376, 377, 378

— to authority, i. 120, 380, 386

— to suffering, i. 176, 177, 224 ; ii.
374

Subordination, sense of, i. 387
Substitutes for each other or man,

acting as, i. 195, 233, 238, 533 ; ii.

115
Success, sense of, i. 192, 255, 304,

312, 316, 321, 362, 383, 395, 531,

533, 537, 539 ; ii. 233, 292

— results of, i. 380 ; ii. 238
Succession of events, knowledge of

the, i. 75
! Successors in office, appointment of,

ii. 115

Suckling of animals by women, i. 42
Suddenness of feeling, thought,
action, or events, in relation to
their effects, i. 526, 529 ; ii. 32, 33,
59, 73, 75, 79, 98, 99, 107, 108, 109,
110, 120, 121, 137, 171, 181, 184,
190, 215, 221, 225, 227, 229, 231,
232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 239, 241,
242, 249, 250, 251, 254, 255, 256,
257, 258, 259, 265, 266, 267, 274,
302, 305, 319, 346

INDEX.

563

BUI

Suffering, mental effects of physical,
i. 525 ; ii. 61, 131, 173, 178, 207,
264, i'7i, 301, 307, 330, 371, 377,
379

— enjoyment of each other's, i. 72,
319

— relief of, ii. 371, 377, 379, 387,
391

Suggestion, influence of, ii. 63, 85, 86,
144. 1.54, 187, 199, 241

— making to each other, i. 337
Suggestions, acting upon man's, i.

7, 34:8, 353, 376

Suicide, general phenomena of, i. 53,
57, 136, 137, 341, 471 ; ii. 52, 57,
59, 60, 67, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134,
135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,
142, 173, 220

— causes of, i. 57. 110, 341 ; ii. 130,
131, 132, 133, 140, 141, 173, 221,
232, 241, 245, 249, 376

— modes of, ii. 133, 134, 135, 136,
140, 141, 142, 220, 384

— epidemic, ii. 138, 139, 220

— accidental, i. 509 ; ii. 50
Suitability, estimation of, i. 409, 410,

-. 439, 445, 463, 464, 465, 468,

501, 505, 528, 529, 532, 542; ii.

1 .50
Sulkiness, i. 248, 320, 363, 461 ; ii.

195, 202, 269, 270, 272, 295, 304,

322, 323
Sullenness, i. 87, 466; ii. 172, 195,

246, 249, 284, 316
Summons-giving, i. 298, 326, 335,

450
Sundays, knowledge of and behaviour

on, i. 230, 231
Sunstroke, mental phenomena of, ii.

105, 218, 265, 278, 303
Superciliousness, i. 268
Superiority, sense of, and its results,

i. 130, 212, 219. 226, 227, 270, 377,

384, 464, 465, 469, 527 ; ii. 57, 197,

390

— recognition of man's, i. 75, 209,
219; ii. 371, 375, 376, 377

Supernatural agency, supposed results
of, ii. 21

— sense of the, i. 132, 223
Superstition, i. 222, 223

— in man and its results, i. 5, 201,
205, 207, 209, 212, 214; ii. 21, 22,
36, 39, 181, 314, 325, 326, 350, 362,
363, 364, 365, 366

Supplication, i. :

Supposition, and its errors, i. 490,
4M.5

ST.M

Supremacy, mental, of animals, real
or supposed, i. 37, 40, 49, 50, 56,
57, 93, 94, 101, 109, 110, 113, 114,
117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 145,
153, 168, 169, 173, 185, 187, 189,
193, 220, 221, 224, 231, 250, 263,
289, 298, 302, 365, 367, 375, 376,
442, 443, 444, 445, 449, 465, 470,
475, 535; ii. 4, 29, 97, 119, 128,
151, 158, 324, 325, 328, 334, 335,

356, 368, 371, 376, 380, 382, 385,
391, 392, 393

— of man, real or supposed, i. 5, 6,
12, 15, 37, 40, 67, 68, 117, 118, 111),
121, 125, 141, 165, 166, 167, 168,
271, 272, 339, 341, 393, 399, 442 ;
ii. 60, 101, 367, 368, 377

— moral and intellectual, and its
effects, i. 373, 374, 379, 380, 383,
384, 385, 387, 398; ii. 197, 200,
289

— physical, and its effects, i. 361,
377, 380, 382, 383, 386, 387, 397,
398, 404, 469; ii. 143, 197, 200

— contentions for and maintenance
of, i. 378, 382, 383, 384, 386, 387 ;
ii. 65

— female, i. 378, 381, 485
Surliness, ii. 167, 195, 244, 295, 322
Surplusage, treatment of, ii. 151, 166
Surprise, feeling of, i. 294, 484 ; ii.

99, 117, 120, 224, 230, 241, 242,
254, 257, 258, 260, 262, 266

— taking by, i. 362, 363, 365. 366,

367, 389 ; ii. 266
Surreptitious action, i. 492, 524 ; ii.

153, 165
Survey-making, i. 66, 150, 246, 254,

357, 392, 466; ii. 133, 138
Suspense, feeling of, ii. 298
Suspicion, general phenomena of, i.

35, 70, 132, 137, 250, 256, 266 ; ii.
57, 100, 108, 167, 177, 191, 195, 203,
279, 304

— morbid, i. 490 ; ii. 57, 100, 106,
108, 167, 203, 317

— causes of, ii. 100, 167, 224, 225,
233, 241, 242, 245, 278, 317, 367

— causelessness of, i. 405 ; ii. 58,
167, 203, 239

— in man, and its results, ii. 163,
225, 274, 350

Swallows, mental characteristics of,
i. 316, 380, 390, 407, 485, 503, 504,
505 ; ii. 64, 232, 307, 380
! Syllogism, use of the, i. 472
I Symmetry, appreciation of, i. 73, 98,

368, 480; ii. 151

o o 2

564

INDEX.

SYM

Sympathy, necessity for, i. 8, 272,
320, 473, 540; ii. 100, 324, 328,
350, 366, 392

— with each other, i. 72, 91, 128,
131, 138, 188, 190, 224, 262, 270,
477, 532 ; ii. 29, 115, 176, 302

— with man, i. 317, 320, 348, 352,
416; ii. 116, 173, 176, 257, 301,
302, 388, 391, 392

— modes of expressing, i. 323, 325,
334, 416 ; ii. 116, 158, 168, 257, 301,
302, 375, 380, 390, 391, 392

— effects of, i. 86, 88, 266, 272 ; ii.
34, 110, 188, 229, 236, 303, 306, 324,
337, 339, 357

— physiological and pathological, ii.
110, 303

— in man, want of, i. 6, 165, 169,
200, 263, 339, 505 ; ii. 303, 314, 315

System, and its absence, i. 280, 377,
392 ; ii. 151, 234

rpABLB, behaviour at man's, i. 87,
JL 113, 114, 258, 261, 262, 266, 269,

270, 355, 435, 436; ii. 82, 119,

293
— utensils, use of man's, i. 113, 414,

429, 435, 436
Taciturnity, natural and morbid, and

its causes, ii. 31, 179, 195, 204, 256,

267, 289, 294
Tact, i. 76
Tactics, use of and their nature, i. 61,

362
Tails, uses of, i. 255. 275, 306, 391, 405,

410,412,420,421; ii. 162,268
Talent, i. 73, 237, 304, 531 ; ii. 121,

277

Talking animals, i. 305
Taming by man, general phenomena

of, i. 61, 85, 86, 95, 97, 239, 240, 271,

272 ; ii. 202, 266, 268, 309, 320, 321,

354
Tameness, forms of, ii. 112, 114, 121,

266
Taste, assthetic, i. 66, 73, 98, 110, 120,

359, 471, 475, 476, 506, 528 ; ii. 82,

83, 278, 284, 307, 309
in man, peculiarities of, i. 43,

110, 475

— absence of, i. 475
Taunts, sensitiveness to man's, i. 183,

465
Tear-shedding and its significance, i.

94, 110, 322, 323, 324, 325
Teasing each other, i. 361, 365, 366,

405, 406, 539 ; ii. 167, 174, 387

TER

Teasing by man, i. 540, 542, 543 ; ii.
77, 176, 177, 249, 302

Technical terms, unnecessary multi-
plication of, i. 51, 52

Teeth, uses of the, i. 364, 404, 408, 410,
422, 424, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432,
434, 436, 437, 438, 439 ; ii. 119, 125,

283, 386, 389

— in man, i. 114, 446, 447, 448 ;
ii. 11, 13, 14

Telegraphy, use of, i. 154, 362
Temper, good and bad, general phe-
nomena of, i. 61, 65, 84, 87, 89, 90,
96, 98, 196, 201, 260, 270, 327, 354,
380, 393 ; ii. 142, 177, 208, 245, 261,
269, 270, 287, 289, 373

— good, ii. 195, 199, 200, 287, 306,
320, 352

- bad, i. 403, 490, 500, 510 ; ii. 26, 40,
54, 65, 101, 159, 176, 195, 196, 208,
216, 354

— control of, i. 87, 393, 532 ; ii. 373

— loss of, i. 87, 513, 539, 543 ; ii. 34,
76, 177, 187, 232, 249, 287, 324

— changes of and their causes, ii. 34,
56, 171, 210, 218, 263, 278, 295, 305,
316, 358, 373

— infirmities of and their causes, ii.
31, 46, 56, 176, 244, 249, 278, 304,
306, 315, 316, 321, 347

— individual peculiarities of, ii. 276,

284, 285

— in man, and its effects, i. 171 ; ii.
366

Temperament, influence of, ii. 188,
216, 231, 240, 244, 276, 286, 289

— in relation to insanity, ii. 21, 45, 52,
106, 128, 243, 244, 245

Temperance in eating and drinking,

ii. 86
Temptation and its results, i. 122, 136,

139, 176, 177, 179, 191, 340, 489,

543

— avoidance of, i. 177 ; ii. 86, 279

— resistance of, i. 177, 184, 260, 269 ;
ii. 85, 86, 90, 150, 282, 366

- yielding to, i. 177, 253, 276, 496 ;
ii. 84, 124, 150, 158, 194, 211, 219

Tenderness, i. 94, 98, 410, 424, 485,

487 ; ii. 146, 359, 388
Terminology, faulty, i. 6, 11, 14, 15,

16, 17, 58, 116, 123, 126, 139, 142,

191, 272, 281 ; ii. 53

- difficulties in, i. 51, 101, 103, 108,
132, 138, 140, 186, 327, 328, 379; ii.
6, 20, 21, 22, 25, 130, 305

Territorial rights and their defence,
i. 365

INDEX.

565

TER

Terror, general phenomena of, i. 130,
L'23, 520, 525 ; ii. 34, 45, 58, 59, 63,
68, 69, 79, 96, 97, 101, 102, 104, 105,
120, 122, 123, 124, 138, 140, 145,
185, 186, 268, 269, 274, 379

— causation of, i. 272 ; ii. 79, 85, 187,
214, 221, 223, 225, 227, 228, 234,

5, 237, 241, 242, 264, 265, 353

— diffusion of, ii. 188, 236

— effects of, ii. 178, 181, 189, 190,
221, 247, 261, 264, 265, 268, 274,
302, 379

— treatment of, ii. 348, 351
Testiness of temper, i. 543 ; ii. 195,

304

Tests, use of, i. 56, 59, 64, 70, 71, 246,
254, 255, 256, 364, 417, 421, 468,
473, 491, 512; ii. 145, 146, 282,
377

Thank-offerings, ii. 299, 392
Thanksgiving, i. 312, 408, 412
Theatrical performances, i. 472, 524,

527, 530, 531, 533

Theft, general phenomena of, i. 87, 94,
98, 99, 158, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181,
11>2, I'.'o, 196, 197, 238, 251, 254,
260, 363, 366, 378, 391, 392, 394,
402, 414, 418, 421, 422, 431, 435,
437, 452, 462, 483, 509, 513, 530;
ii. 54, 55, 56, 65, 86, 90, 149, 151,
154, 155, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165,
166, 167, 282, 317, 364, 368, 870

— forms of, ii. 149, 150, 151, 152, 153,
154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161,
162, 163, 164

— treatment of, i. 194, 195, 196, 269,
404, 405 ; ii. 362, 366

— in lower man, i. 48, 49, 166, 169,
171, 173 : ii. 153

Theology, elements of comparative, i.

219

Thirst, mental effects of, ii. 87, 1 40
Thoroughness in work, i. 221, 244,

491

Thought, faculty of, i. 63, 64, 141, 159,
8, 281, 282, 358, 369, 375, 437,

528 ; ii. 132, 173, 238, 278, 341, 359

— derangements of, i. 159 ; ii. 39, 139,
238, 266

— concealment of, i. 287
Thoughtlessness, i. 403, 466, 489, 503 ;

ii. 128, 188, 196
- in man, i. 6, 43, 99, 197, 409, :> \'2 :

ii. 210. 248, 249, 257, 314, 365, 367,

381, 394

Thoughts, divination of man's, i. 347
Threat -making, i. 365, 404, 405, 412:

ii. 115

TOR

Threats, estimation of the value of
man's, i. 347, 355, 356, 535, 536,

Tickling, certain effects of, i. 317

Tiger, mental characteristics of the,
i. 83, 84, 85, 86

Time, knowledge of, i. 54, 57, 62, 73,
75, 229, 230, 233, 258, 351, 362, 388,
392, 393, 395, 400, 421, 454, 455,
457, 458, 459, 469, 500, 506 ; ii. 115,
248, 386

— in relation to thought and action,
i. 466, 495 ; ii. 100, 101

to education, i. 38, 115, 242

— to disease and its treatment,
ii. 349

— keeping in music, i. 71, 75, 437,
455, 492

— ignorance of in man, i. 44 ; ii. 1 1
Timidity, general phenomena of, i. 14,

60, 70, 84, 85, 92, 137, 188, 223, 2G7,
312, 340, 390, 503 ; ii. 57, 58, 73, 97,
100, 101, 103, 106, 120, 122, 123,
139, 172, 181, 186, 198, 199, 203,
204, 218, 221, 225, 226, 233, 2:54,
•1 12, 284, 285, 286, 322, 350, 379
_ causation of, ii. 233, 237, 242, 255,
317

— effects of, ii. 261, 289

— morbid, ii. 234, 237, 317, 359
Tittering and its significance, i. 316

| Toad, mental characteristics of the, i,

71, 81, 95, 418, 521 ; ii. 384
| Toilet -making, i. 476

Tolerance, ii. 285

Tombs erected by man in honour of
animals, ii. 335

Tool-keeping in working order, i. 428

Tools, use of natural, i. 41, 59, 66, 110,
113, 255, 256, 350, 359, 364, 369,
373, 409, 410, 424, 428, 438; ii,
165

— use of man's, i. 76

— animals as man's, i. 198, 259

— non-use of by man, i. 41
Toothache, mental effects of, ii. 204,

207

Topographical knowledge and its ap-
plications, i. 230, 350, 356, 367
Torpor, mental, i. 94 ; ii. 70
Torment, sources of, ii. 64, 214, 287
Tortoise, mental characteristics of the,

i. 71

Torture by man, i. 200, 471, 535 ; ii.
69, 141, 271, 314

— of man by man, i. 42, 166, 169,
170

— sense of, i. 471 ; ii. 69, 131, 135,
141

566

INDEX.

TOR

Torture of victims, enjoyment in the,

i. 39, 88, 319, 538, 539"
Toys, use of, i. 512, 520 ; ii. 299
Tract-ability, ii. 121, 266, 284, 323,

358
Tradition or its equivalents, i. 109

— absence of in man, i. 44, 109, 207
Tranquillity, mental, and its causes,

ii. 96, 351

Trap-doors, use of, i. 56
Trapping each other, i. 60, 392
Trappings of rank, appreciation of the,

i. 379, 398, 442
Travel, mental effects of, i. 25 ; ii.

348
Traveller-naturalists, evidence of, i.

25
Travellers' tales and their value, i. 25,

447
Treachery, i. 83, 88; ii. 158, 195,

316

— in man, i. 43, 166, 542 ; ii. 18
Treatment of animals by each other,

ii. 359, 372, 382, 383, 385, 386, 387,
390, 394

by man : judicious, ii. 96, 100,

101, 102, 120, 207, 220, 251, 252,
269, 271, 273, 296, 306, 308, 316,
319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 339,
346, 347, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353,
354, 358, 374, 383, 390

injudicious, ii. 59, 75, 76,

101, 103, 118, 131, 177, 206, 210,
227, 243, 245, 248, 249, 250, 306,
314, 315, 317, 318, 319, 322, 323,
325, 329, 345, 346, 349, 350, 351,
352, 356, 358, 370, 383

— humane, ii. 41, 100, 101, 119,
120, 128, 251, 252, 269, 271, 272,
273, 296, 300, 304, 315, 316, 317,
321, 325, 326, 329, 330, 331, 339,

351, 355, 356, 370, 374

— cruel, ii. 59, 118, 131, 132, 177,
181, 223, 249, 269, 308, 317, 349,

352, 362, 364

— specific errors in, ii. 33, 41,
48, 57, 128, 178, 207, 249, 291, 306,
313, 314, 315, 322, 325, 349, 350,
351, 352, 354, 356, 357, 358, 364,
370, 378

— results of, ii. 190, 249, 269,
271, 272, 296, 300, 306, 316, 317,
318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 329, 338,
346, 347, 350, 352, 354, 358, 366,
370

— improvement in, ii. 23, 41,
128, 314, 320, 338, 339, 345, 347,
350, 352, 354, 356

TRU

Treatment of animals by man :

absence of, ii. 346, 352, 353, 354
policy in, ii. 41, 128, 271,

272, 273, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319,

320

changes in, ii. 358

general principles of, ii. 323,

326, 327, 347, 351, 357, 358, 368
simplicity of, ii. 273, 296, 345,

346, 347, 348, 352, 358, 366

difficulties in, ii. 322, 378

uselessness of, ii. 23, 40, 41,

44, 322, 354
special forms of, ii. 323, 337,

354, 370, 374

remedial, ii. 236, 321, 347,

351, 353, 354, 377

— medical, ii. 347, 349, 351,

355, 356, 371, 375, 378
medicinal, ii. 86, 87, 206,

347, 348, 349, 351

surgical, ii. 347, 349,

351, 355, 356, 371, 372, 373, 374,

376, 377, 378
mental or moral, ii. 96,

100, 273, 304, 347, 348, 353, 358
physical, ii. 347, 348, 349,

353
expectant, ii. 345, 346,

351

preventive, ii. 349, 350

protective, ii. 349, 352,

354
reformatory, ii. 321, 358,

366, 367

— co-operation with man in, ii. 371

— resistance to, ii. 378

Tremor and its causes, i. 57 ; ii. 64,
95, 98, 144, 215, 225, 227, 263, 264,
265, 268, 284

Trial-making, i. 71, 72, 255, 327, 370,
502, 529 ; ii. 6

Trials, judicial, i. 73, 326, 343, 398,
400, 401, 402

Trickiness, i. 201, 537, 538, 539, 540,
541 ; ii. 82, 143

Triumph, sense of, i. 362, 478, 539 ;
ii. 233

Troublesomeness, its causes and treat-
ment, i. 403, 404, 417, 433, 434, 478,
537 ; ii. 57, 195, 201, 299, 322, 325,
357, 362, 370

Trust, sense of, i. 75, 470; ii. 158,
388

Trustworthiness, i. 145, 176

Truth, perception of, i. 185

— as an aim to the student, i. 8

— stranger than fiction, i. 20

INDEX.

567

TRU

Truthfulness of anecdotes and their

authors, i. '20, '21, '22, 24, 25, 27,

i-
Tumult and its causes, i. 97, 378, 382,

402

Tune, sense of, i. 71, 75, 258, 303
Tunes, imitation of man's, i. 316
Turbulence, ii. 198
Turkey, mental characteristics of the,

i. 295, 345, 405, 476, 483, 485, 525 ;

ii. 82, 92, 108, 109, 223, 224, 258,

264, 300
Turn-taking in work, i. 58, 393; ii.

379
Tyranny of the strong, i. 190, 385,

*3s7, 398, 408; ii. 285, 389, 392
— of man, i. 197, 204

•px AMIABILITY, real and supposed,
U i. 95, 97 ; ii. 256, 372
Unattractiveness, personal, and its

results, i. 479
Unceremoniousness, i. 480
Uncertainty and its results, i. 503 ; ii.

146, 215 "

Unchangeableness of affection, i. 224
Unconcern, i. 356, 462, 536 ; ii. 101,

123, 162, 325
Unconscious mental action, i. 128,

244, 472, 531 ; ii. 5, 6, 7, 94, 97,

101, 171
Unconsciousness and its causes, i. 499,

510 ; ii. 85, 90, 91, 94, 241
Uncontrollable passions, ii. 238
Uncultured man, mental status of, i.

214, 339 ; ii. 18, 36, 107
Undermining, literal and figurative,

i. 369
Understanding, mutual, i. 98, 334,

335, 355 ; ii. 280, 306
— with man, i. 243, 270, 355 ; ii.

161, 306, 324
— man, his character, action, look,

or purpose, i. 154, 244, 263 ; ii. 161
Undeserved, sense of the, ii. 293
Undoing man's work, i. 369
Uneasiness, mental, and its causes, i.

157, 386 ; ii. 108, 189, 247
Unexpected, mental effects of the, ii.

59, 120 186, 224, 225, 227, 235,

237, 241, 256, 257, 258, 305
Unexplained mental phenomena, i.

129, 134, 138, 140, 142, 143, 145,

148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154,

155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 235, 335,

342, 351, 372, 401, 454, 455, 456,

458, 468, 470, 473, 479, 490, 491,

UNU

494, 495, 496, 499, 504, 508, 514;

ii. 38, 60, 138, 139, 144, 149, 152,

167, 177, 185, 199, 220, 244, 266,

278, 279, 282, 287, 383
Unfairness of behaviour, i. 361 ; ii.

143
Unfamiliarity with man and its

results, ii. 27, 241
I — of objects and its results, i. 46,

130, 222, 223, 252, 253, 256, 272,

312; ii. 58, 68, 100, 107, 111, 112,

113, 114, 117, 120, 122, 126, 186,

224, 225, 227, 229, 234, 237, 242,

298

Unforgetfulness, ii. 304, 323
Unforgiveness, ii. 304, 323
Unhappiness, personal and domestic,

i. 84, 87, 91, 469 ; ii. 247, 256, 298,

301, 306
Unimprovability in man, i. 170, 205,

235, 236
Union giving strength, i. 66, 365, 368,

377, 384, 390, 393, 400, 402, 408,

464
Unknown, dread and study of the, i.

223, 246

— worship of the in man, i. 223
Unlearning of error by man, i. 7
Unmanageability, its causes and

treatment, i. 417; ii. 72, 89, 171,

177, 201, 202, 214, 226, 281, 321,

347, 353, 368, 372
Unnatural behaviour and its causes,

i. 485, 486 ; ii. 64, 65, 83, 159, 200,

306, 388

Unobserved action, ii. 163, 164, 165
Unoffending, treatment of the, i. 510,

511

Unpleasant, sense of the, ii. 263
Unpopularity and its results, ii. 389
Unreal, belief in the, ii. 95, 99
Unrelentingness, i. 151
Unsatisfied desires, i. 177
Unseen, dread of the, i. 223
Unselfishness, i. 88, 340, 342, 445 ; ii.

115, 167

Unsociability, ii. 256
Unsuitable, selection of the, i. 505,

508, 509 ; ii. 30, 293
Unsuspiciousness, i. 366, 367, 425,

492,529, 542; ii. 113, 124
Untamability, real and supposed, i.

83, 85, 86 ; ii. 195, 198

— of man, i. 43

Unusual, mental effects of the, i.
250, 252, 461; ii. 102, 184, 185,
186, 189, 221, 224, 227, 234, 237,
241, 242, 247, 266, 284

568

INDEX.

UNW

Unwariness and its consequences, i.

496, 497, 519, 522, 526, 529, 534,

536, 543; ii. 224
Unwillingness, i. 465 ; ii. 86, 269, 270,

319, 378
Use and disuse of mental faculties,

effects of the, i. 243
Use-making of each other, ii. 387
Usefulness of objects, sense of the, i.

253, 501 ; ii. 46, 54, 55, 56
- to man and its promotion, i. 73,

273; ii. 320, 321, 324, 325, 326,

328, 338, 347, 358
Uselessness to man and its causes, i.

273; ii. 33, 45, 57, 124, 127, 131,

132, 134, 178, 215, 216, 315, 317,

358, 359
_ of action, i. 505, 508, 571 ; ii. 46,

132, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 171,

191, 235, 393
— of man, i. 43 ; ii. 368
Usurpation and its treatment, i. 361,

371, 407, 499, 506 ; ii. 157
Utilitarianism in animals, i. 270

"T7 AC AN CY of facial expression and
V its significance, ii. 152
Vacillation, i. 468, 472 : ii. 60
Vagaries, ii. 283
Vagrant classes of civilised man,

mental status of the, i. 214
Valour, i. 480
Valuation of work, i. 184, 192, 229,

395, 476 ; ii. 294

— of rights, ii. 54, 155

Vanity, real and supposed, i. 84, 93,
96, 265, 295, 345, 469, 477, 514 ; ii.
57, 300

— in man, certain forms of, i. 216
Vantage-ground, selection and use of,

i. 362, 365, 389

Variation of action with circum-
stances, i. 56, 70, 246, 255, 256 ; ii.

6
Variety, love of and necessity for, i.

132, 231, 475 ; ii. 247, 248, 298,

358
Vehemence of the passions, ii. 230,

240

Veneration, i. 107, 222
Vengeance, i. 345, 382, 400, 405, 407,

408, 511 ; ii. 115, 390
Ventilation, attention to, i. 359, 368,

422

Ventriloquism, i. 72, 533, 541
V.enturesomeness, i. 520
Versatility, ii. 196

VIS

Vertebrata, mental aptitudes of the,

i. 65, 69, 79

Veterinarians, errors of, ii. 87
Vexation and its effects, i. 301 ; ii.

240, 257
Vicarious action, i. 345, 408, 469

— office, i. 408, 481, 483, 485, 487 ; ii.
73, 74, 197, 199

— siiffering, i. 407, 408, 465 : ii. 287
Vices, acquisition of man's, i. 14, 88,

196, 199, 200; ii. 93, 313, 329

— of the sexes, ii. 198, 199

— of youth, ii. 196

— of organisation, ii. 57
Viciousness, general phenomena of,

i. 67, 82, 199, 201, 511, 513 ; ii. 21,
22, 26, 29, 34, 46, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60,
81, 89, 101, 103, 118, 134, 149, 159,
162, 172, 175, 177, 181, 195, 196,
198, 199, 201, 202, 208, 216, 218,
228, 244, 249, 313, 316, 317, 347

— causation of, i. 88, 196, 197; ii.
306, 317, 329, 338, 347, 367

- treatment of, ii. 313, 321, 350, 357,
358, 359, 368

— incurability of, real or supposed,
ii. 46, 306, 347

— in man, i. 1G3, 171, 173; ii. 17,
367

Victory, sense of, i. 362, 478 ; ii. 233
Vigilance, i. 62, 189, 250, 358, 362,

364, 367, 370, 37], 388, 389; ii.

116, 145, 156, 161, 167
Vigour, sense of, ii. 144, 194
Vindictiveness, ii. 195
Violence of conduct and its causes,

ii. 225, 230
Virtues and vices, association of, i.

89, 98, 189
collision of, i. 65, 137, 177

— predominant over vices, i. 40, 184,
185

— substituted for vices, i. 31 ; ii.

198, 316

— acquisition of man's, ii. 313

— absence of in man, i. 203

— of the sexes, ii. 197, 199

— of youth, ii. 196
Virtuousness, general phenomena of,

i. 27, 67, 82, 83, 89, 118, 119, 120,
321, 165, 175, 203, 225 ; ii. 60, 196,

199, 313, 341, 371, 374, 388

— development of, i. 238 ; ii. 313,
320, 321, 338, 392

- loss of, ii. 31, 198

— commemoration of by man, ii. 335,
336

Vision-seeing, i. 223 ; ii. 104

INDEX.

569

vis

Visit-paying and receiving, i. 298
Vitality, exalted or depressed, and

its effects, ii. 206, 221
Vitiation of milk and meat by mental

causes, ii. 261), 270, 271, 272, 317
Vituperation, i. 77, 300, 302, 304
Vivacity, i. 57, 66, 461 ; ii. 31, 195,

11)6, 209, 218, 288
Volition, exercise of, i. 64, 237, 473,

471) ; ii. 6, 7

— derangements of, i. 71 ; ii. 7, 39,
60

— absence of (real or apparent), in
man, ii. 16

Voluntary action, power of, i. 193,
195, 197, 483, 526; ii. 138, 139,
145, 246, 282, 371, 374, 376, 377,
378, 385, 388

Volunteering, i. 363, 391

Voracity, natural and morbid, i. 84,
86, 92, 138, 509, 510 ; ii. 65, 209

Vulgarity of manners, ii. 278

WAITING an opportunity, i. 148,
248, 262, 278, 344, 350, 358,
370, 371, 449, 456, 458, 542 ; ii.
194

— on each other, i. 362

— on man, i. 312, 350, 364
Wallace, observations of Alfred R.,

i. 297, 301, 363, 372, 413, 421, 441,
444, 451, 453, 500, 521 : ii. 285,

Wantonness in mischief, i. 524 ; ii.
159, 164, 177

Wants, communication of, ii. 395

— gratification of physical in man,
i. 38, 41

Warfare, certain phenomena of, i. 60,
358, 361, 362, 363, 389, 392, 393,
453 ; ii. 26, 158, 208, 240

— co-operation in man's, i. 48, 259,
395

— certain phenomena of man's, i. 43,
172, 449; ii. 17

Wariness, i. 54, 472, 535, 536 ; ii. 38,

84, 164, 194, 316
Warning-giving and receiving, i. 154,

278, 322, 327, 334, 335, 337, 344,

389, 412, 413, 438
Washing themselves, or each other,

i. 301,412, 413, 417, 418
Waspishness, literal and figurative,

i. 1)7
W;isps. mental characl eristics of, i.

84, 86, 97, 134, 151, 364, 368, 371,

379, 388, 397, 499, 500, 502, 529;

ii. 146, 150, 135, 191, 217, 283, 321

WHI

Waste of life, i. 501, 502, 504, 505,
506, 508; ii. 138, 139

— of material, i. 498, 506

— prevention of, i. 436
Watchfulness, natural and morbid, i.

56, 66, 86, 89, 93, 139, 225, 248,
250, 278, 344, 535, 540 ; ii. 29, 105,
108, 125, 194, 203, 242, 389, 390,
391

Watchwords, or their equivalents, i.
306

Way-finding, general phenomena of,
i. 93, 120, 131, 138, 143, 144, 145,
146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 230, 242,
247, 458, 489, 501, 502, 503; ii. 119,
120, 125

— errors of, i. 97, 147, 148, 150, 248,
502

in man, i. 45, 146, 147, 148

Way-losing, i. 294, 386, 403, 404, 405,

489, 499, 502, 503, 504 ; ii. 68, 125,

140, 202, 241, 259, 329
Way-showing, i. 298, 313, 327, 344,

364

Waywardness, ii. 323
Weak, treatment of the, i. 345, 398,

493 ; ii. 60, 159, 285, 393
Weakening of the passions, ii. 194
Weakness, sense of physical, i. 368,

464, 498, 295 ; ii. 143, 261, 391

— sense of mental or moral, i. 177

— in man, or in each other, percep-
tion of, i. 254, 279, 362, 365, 465 ;
ii. 145

Weapons, man's primary, i. 426

- use of natural, i. 76, 275, 359, 409,
410, 412, 413, 419, 421, 422, 423,
424, 426, 428, 438, 439, 462

of man's, i. 76, 436

Weapon-making and keeping in
working order, i. 410, 426, 428

Weariness, feeling of, i. 341 ; ii. 177

Weather-wisdom, i. 57, 60, 131, 152,
489 ; ii. 217, 221, 243, 307

Wedges, use of, i. 427

Weeping and its significance, i. 77,
288, 301, 314, 322, 323, 324, 325

Weight, calculation of, i. 424, 426,
427, 433, 540

Whining in man, i. 285, 286 ; ii. 1 4

Whim and its indulgence, i. 323, 342,
468; ii. 110, 276

White, observations of the late Rev,
Gilbert (of Selborne), i. 30, 71, 95,
295, :;K;, :;i7, :;is, for, 451, 482,
495, 505, 50(5, 530; ii. 117, 121, 185,
187, 200, 202, 204, 209, 214, 247,
273, 294, 301, 305

570

INDEX.

WIL

Wild life, and its mental effects, ii.

24, 35, 48, 58, 82, 97, 108, 114, 119,

120, 141, 159, 183, 227, 242, 246,

249
Wild-men, psychical characteristics

of, i. 443, 447 ; ii. 9, 12, 14
Wildness of look or manner, and its

significance, ii. 173, 179, 182, 186,

214, 223, 233

Wilfulness, i. 376 ; ii. 284
Wiliness, i. 481, 527, 529 ; ii. 161
Will, exercise of the, i. 52, 54, 109,

110, 120, 127, 151, 186, 242, 248,

270, 344, 357, 361, 373, 379, 489 ;

ii. 60, 61, 84, 85, 244, 366, 383

— freedom of the, i. 188, 190, 193

— derangements of the, i. 151, 159;
ii. 6, 31, 47, 54, 60, 61, 90, 109, 139,
154, 172, 191, 194, 230, 244, 266,
286, 368

— in man, i. 171 ; ii. 16

— submission to man's, i. 399
Willingness, i. 120, 182, 183, 242. 263,

277, 390, 396, 486 ; ii. 42, 269,' 272,
306, 318, 319, 394

Wishes, communication of, i. 190,
335, 337, 344, 354, 362 ; ii. 176, 292,
387, 395

— understanding man's, i. 230, 319,
347

Wistfulness, i. 312

Wit,' or its equivalent, i. 318

Wits, loss of, ii. 202

Witchcraft, alleged results of, ii. 21,

23
Witnesses, animals as, i. 194 ; ii. 163

— effect of presence or absence of, i.
177, 297

Woe and its expression, ii. 173, 174
Wolf, mental characteristics of the,

i. 83, 86, 271, 276, 391, 392, 420 ; ii.

58, 106, 108, 145, 151, 159, 160, 232,

240, 258, 291
Wolf -children, psychical peculiarities

of, i. 26, 86, 170, 236, 285, 286, 440,

444, 447, 448, 487 ; ii. 13, 14

— madness in man, ii. 15
Wolverene, mental character of the,

i. 369

Woman's influence on animal cha-
racter, i. 268

Wonder, faculty of, and its absence,
i. 107, 137, 222, 252, 344, 513; ii.
117, 224, 241

Wood, anecdotes quoted from the
Rev. J. G., i. 77, 88, 113, 319, 385,
301, 399, 401, 416, 417, 418, 431,
433, 434, 437, 464, 474, 476, 477,

WOR

486, 493, 520 ; ii. 38, 83, 91, 103,
104, 116, 119, 124, 126, 144, 154,
157, 165, 166, 167, 216, 231, 245,
259, 263, 277, 278, 284, 285, 292,
293, 298, 299, 300, 360, 368, 369,
373, 374, 375, 376, 380, 381, 386,
387, 388, 389, 391, 392
Words, use of man's, i. 108, 109, 144,
145, 185, 257, 264, 299, 301, 302,
304, 305, 313, 336, 348, 474, 490,
492 ; ii. 48, 61, 121

— understanding the meaning of
man's, i. 185, 242, 282, 299, 301,
302, 305, 346, 348, 349, 350, 351,
353 ; ii. 161, 164, 293, 296, 299, 300,
304, 306

— in man, non-use of, i. 106, 206,
286, 451 ; ii. 24

thought and speech without, i.

206, 216, 227, 282, 283
— abuse of, i. 287

difficulties in the articulation

of, i. 282, 285
Work, knowledge of the nature of, i.

182

— congeniality and uncon geniality
of, i. 5, 183, 263 ; ii. 26, 42, 209,
247, 255, 308, 319, 320, 367

— incapacity for, ii. 26, 42, 126, 157,
201

in man, i. 43

— avoidance of, i. 183, 359, 403, 404,
501, 524 ; ii. 26, 206, 232, 247, 319,
320, 501

— intelligent execution of, i. 354,
375 ; ii. 119, 158, 160, 386

— necessity for adaptiveness in, ii.
163, 319, 334, 353, 368

— excess in, and its mental effects, ii.
42, 87, 109. 187, 192, 200, 206, 207,
244, 295, 318, 319

— deficiency of, and its mental
effects, ii. 178, 206

— exaction of from each other, i.
184

Worry, mental, and its effects, ii. 271,

389
Worship of man by other animals, i.

59, 66, 75, 103, 220, 221, 222, 223,

225, 226, 229

— attendance at man's, i, 229, 232,
233

— of relics and memories, i. 221, 222

— in man, absence of, i. 202, 203,
204, 205, 206, 207, 214

certain peculiarities of, i. 102,

207, 211, 212, 213, 219, 220, 221,
223

INDEX.

571

WOR

Worship of man by man, i. 204, 207,

8, 209, 210, 211, 215, 216
— of other animals by man, i. 207,

212
Wounded, treatment of the, i. 89, 95,

374; ii. 66, 146, 159, 383
Wounds, feigning of, i. 527, 531, 532

— knowledge of the nature of, ii.
394

— treatment of, ii. 386, 387

— mental effects of, ii. 68, 75, 76,
134, 207

Wretchedness, mental, and its effects,

i. 527; ii. 240, 272
Writing, rudimentary, i. 103, 257, 261

— absence of, and its effects, ii. 28,
106, 108

in man, ii. 24, 96

Wrong-doing, sense of, i. 177, 178,

179, 180, 191, 192, 198, 530; ii.

150, 155, 163, 164, 232

— suffering, sense of, i. 176, 323,
399; ii. 228, 257, 278, 295, 304,
320

Wrongs, redressing each other's, i.

— and rights of animals at man's
hands, ii. 329

TTELLIXG- or howling, and its sig-

J. niticance, i. 300, 322

— in man, i. 235, 286 ; ii. 14

Young, mental peculiarities of the,

i. 38, 39, 307, 319, 332, 383, 386,

387, 402, 403, 404, 406, 412, 471,

478, 489, 503, 521, 526, 529, 530,

534, 537, 538, 543 ; ii. 29, 46, 47,

61, 65, 66, 70, 121, 128, 130, 137,

143, 144, 152, 158, 164, 167, 174,

ZOO

178, 179, 194, 195, 196, 197, 204,
212, 221, 228, 234, 241, 24*, 26">,
298, 300, 301, 303, 330, 331, 359,
372, 380, 390, 3'J3
Young, affection for the, i. 137, 341,
4si\ 434, 487, 507; ii. 62, 239, 240,
285, 301, 379, 392

— indifference to the, ii. 62, 63, 64,
65, 132, 239, 281, 285, 352, 381, 388,
gc).>

— care of the, i. 372, 373, 410, 411,
412, 415, 419, 422, 483, 484, 435,
436, 487, 506, 524, 525, 527, 531 ;
ii. 29, 63, 65, 85, 128, 132, 156, 158,
199, 200, 203, 204, 205, 230, 248,
334, 359, 372, 374, 375, 379, 380,
386, 388, 392, 393, 395

— destruction of the, i. 500, 506, 507,
508 ; ii. 50, 62, 63, 64, 135, 158, 159,
185, 187, 203, 230, 238, 239, 281,
306, 352, 384

— loss of and its effects, i. 484 ; ii.
51, 63, 232, 247, 256, 258

Youth, errors of, i. 490, 493, 496, 501,
503, 509

ZEAL in work, i. 182, 237; ii. 42,
160

Zoological classification, use of psy-
chical characters in, ii. 288, 423

— gardens, use and abuse of, i. 31,
239, 271 ; ii. 210, 245, 305, 357, 390

— scale, evolution of mind in the,
i. 31, 38, 51, 63, 64, 69, 72; 74, 75,
77, 78, 79, 80, 116, 121, 127, 205,
209, 249, 251, 369, 386, 398 ; ii. 18,
38, 39, 81, 91, 109, 118, 127, 197,
199, 287, 288

man's place in the, ii. 314

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Kegan Paul, Trench, & Co.'s Publications. 33

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34

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