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MINERALOGY AND CHEMISTRY:

ORIGINAL RESEARCHES /

——

beves iy ROB, fee SENCE ae ee

OF LOUISVILLE.

LOUISVILLE, KY.:
PRINTED BY JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY.
1873.

CON EEN is:

PAGE
IWiema@nm © 1imMne ia Ahsh)) banesenssooqde soso ssosueubce qonaneeseoq scresonsesoseosocusseroe 5
Hmery Mine of Chester, Mass., 1866...............4.. Magee ee cess Snaees enue moaciee 42
Minerals of Chili, 1854......... bal Se Abe Bi ECAR NORE ACH GO Rane CREE RR Hen en amr E rc 54
iVingsmiell Vivensems Ge Veena, Jute, 1s hs ee escocs soccer cou <oseocqucece Jesbed seuse unc 87
Re-examination of American Minerals, 1858..............0ssscseeee cee eceeee eee 109
Two New Minerals—Liebigite and Medjidite, 1848................::c000000e 166
Oxide of Cobalt and Magnesian Opal, 1846...............c.ce cesses eneceeeeeers 170
evel sae@mim aislolleyg, Irav@ies Sa tObs ites (Gy kedxne boseas 200 cecksce duaeue boenoo ee oaoeo ose le
pounceson Migeorime in Wossil Bones, 184625. ....2122.sncossadccnsmecrs ccnescenm ons 175
Chrome and Meerschaum of Asia Minor, 1848..............c000sceeesssceceees 178
We semivenoin © Mester CMMs ghee ts.ccsarciscsctessieasccer ose asaeessaneloncertianee: 180
Tetrahedrite, Tennantite, and Nacrite, from the Kellogg Mines, Arkan-

SAG SO Ol eens da ctw otiocilnsissisaie wait smn Bese Racer anees ea etn was croc sinatene 182
Notes on Corundum of North Carolina, Georgia, and Montana, 18738.. 185
hewartesian Well at Wouigville Woy.) [S69 cre csec. 1ncte.c--ccmcenneoscorces. 192
emearkseon the Allkalies;in: Weueite, US7Or 5c. isvses ae sannscescnssnee eases 198
Onmihes Composition of —\Wiarwickite,) 1858.2... ce tece-cence-cees -<+-eeeaeeenns 199
Determination of Alkalies) im Mimerals, 1858. ..52.....-.s00ssc0ssssconseeesees 200

Conversion of Sulphates of the Alkalies into the Carbonates, etc., 1872. 222
Action of some of the Alkaline Salts upon the Sulphate of Lead, 1844. 225

Composition and Products of Distillation of Spermaceti, 1842............ 225
Calcarimeter—An Instrument for estimating the Quantity of Carbonate
Of ime in Caleareous Sulbstamces, 1844s ccc cesececvececssosscedecse 250
Action of Nitric and Oxalic Acids on the Chlorides of the Alkalies, etc.
MESES cae eee ia ee se alte sea tae sn icte sta cianeelesee on gecld acide se Maan dewineaisesissine twee 256
Chromate of Potash, a Re-agent for Baryta Salts, 1889.............ccceeeseeeee 259
Bisulphate of Soda as a Substitute in Analysis for Bisulphate of Potash,
ESL) eramearacteie aes eateie ese co sce dee ar dete a ccindatcd sodideres coset sinstajaseee yoderistens 262
INCLONLORrotach on Clrolesterime, | S44.% hon. Secacicss cd acnisecccusesscccmaneess 263
Neutral Alkaline Phosphates; Action on Carbonate of Lime, 1844....... 268
Removal ical am moniaesim Amal sis lGOd ...osseusse- «- seers dascecen selene =e 271
Memoir on Meteorites; Five New Meteoric Irons; Composition and
Oxrieany Of Meteorites: ASH se nsess Kossacenie so deu2aaeedetgagieecece+=svoesesses 272
Earrisom, County Meteorite: fell March, US59) ...... 0.2. sensscsscessseesccenrces 3138
Description of Three New Meteoric Irons, 1860.................0.005 Seacouaaeae 317

Guernsey County Meteorites, fell May, 1860............cesecoses:oenecscotcoes oo 318

4 CONTENTS.

Lincoln County Meteorite, fell August, 1865, and Two New Meteoric

ROMS’ Laicocessccesasc siencledeimeweseieciisiee cate <ltetdelneneleeeeieen cee ee aaa 302
Wayne County Meteoric Iron, and a New Atacama Meteorite, 1865...... 336
Newton County Mieteorite e130 0% .c.me. tesa ner teeae secre enter eee see jesee OOD
Colorado: Meteoric: Irons, 1864.00.00. .... soos secs acme een eect e ees eeeee 343
Wohahuila Meteoric Irons, 1S68.22.c-c.cs or necaseeeenteesneeeeaee eee ae ee Cee eeeeee 346
Wisconsin Meteoric Irons, E869... icc. ca. constianee-cdcaeeaee etree cece ne eee eereee 349
Franklin County Meteoric Iron, and the Presence of Cobalt and Lead

in Meteoric Irons, 1867... 22.26.22... scscmeciissescseseneeesnene sens eee eee dol
Stewart County Meteorite, fell’ October, 1S00 renee. cc. ccsmn ee ceaaee teen 307
Danville Meteorite, fell November, W868i.2-5.. J...02). 2. 22-celssen ee eee eee eeeeee 363
Searsmont Meteorite, fell May, 1871.25.00 2.0% s.eo.cese somes seseeenee see eee 367
Meteoric Trons of North Mexico, VSTi iesecccccectecenectece ects es cee cece eee 869
Victoria Meteoric Iron, fell in 1862, with Remarks on Enstatite and

Chiadmite, USi20 cor. sce sconcsccsncuss ease yenaec te seeeatae) sce ats ee eee 378
Inverted, Microscope, 1851%..:.:..cs0s:csatessas-esemneecmee eeacesosasee tects seen 377
Flame-heat in the Chemical Laboratory, 18 722....5...-1. seas eee <o- setae 387
Freezing Water by the Air-pump without Desiccating Agent.............. 391
Supplement to the Determination of Alkalies in Minerals, 1872............ 398

MEMOIR ON EMERY.

Communicated to the Academy of Sciences-of the French Institute, July, 1850. -

PART FIRST.

ON THE GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY OF EMERY FROM OBSERVATIONS MADE
IN ASIA MINOR.

‘Of all the mineral substances employed in the arts few
have offered so little opportunity for geological examination as
emery, and conseqnently our knowledge of it in this particular
is very limited. ,

Aware of the importance of the study of this substance in
situ, both in a scientific and practical point of view, I did not
lose the opportunity afforded by my late position under the
Turkish Government to develop certain facts that came under
my notice the latter part of the year 1846. Prior to that
period emery (which term is here used, as in the arts, to ex-
press that mixed granular corundum employed for abrasion),
although known to exist in many places in greater or less
abundance, was supplied to the arts almost entirely from the
island of Naxos in the Grecian Archipelago. So true is this
that the proprietors of the mines in that island controlled
completely the price of this mineral. The emery from Naxos
frequently went under the name of Smyrna emery, from the
fact of its coming to us from that port, where it is originally
carried from the island for future exportation.

Prior to 1846 the existence of emery was not remarked in
Asia Minor or any of the contiguous islands except that of
Samos, which fact is alluded to in Tournefort’s travels in the
seventeenth century. In the latter part of 1846 I arrived in
Smyrna, and was shown specimens, which I recognized as emery,
that came from a place about twenty miles north of Smyrna;

9 :

6 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

they had been first discovered throngh the agency of a knife-
grinder of the country, who had been in the habit of using it
to charge his wheels with. The importance of this circumstance
to the Turkish Government, as well as to the arts (emery being
at that time sold at a most exorbitant price), induced me to
return to Smyrna in the early part of 1847 for the purpose
of examining the supposed locality of this mineral. On this
second visit other localities were made known to me that an
English merchant by the name of Healy had succeeded in
bringing to lght. |

The first locality toward which I directed my examination
was that of Gumuch-dagh, a mountain about twelve miles east
of the ruins of Ephesus. Before, however, arriving there I
discovered this mineral imbedded in a calcareous rock in a
valley twenty miles south of Smyrna, called Allahman-Bourgs.
The position not being very favorable for the study of the
geology of this substance, my route was continued to the
place originally fixed upon. Obtaining guides at the village
of Gumuch, I commenced the examination of the mountain,
which is composed of bluish marble resting on mica-slate and
gneiss. On the very summit of the mountain the emery was
found scattered about and projecting above the surface of the
soil. After examining the extent of the formation and satisfy-
ing myself that it was there in situ, I returned to Constantinople
and made a report to the Ottoman Government. Although I
gave no notice to the scientific world of the result of my exami-
nation, the editor of the Journal de Constantinople inserted a
small note in his journal, in May, 1847, to the following effect:
“Tt is some time since M. Lawrence Smith, American min-
eralogist, discovered at Magnesia, near to Gumuch-Kuey, an
emery-mine, of which he brought specimens to Constantinople.
The government have sent to the place a commission composed
of Mr. Smith and some of the officers of the imperial powder-
works to examine thoroughly into the importance of this mine,
and according to the report that will be made the government
will decide on the steps to be taken with reference to it,” ete.

This circumstance, unimportant in itself, has subsequently
become of great value to secure to me the priority of the dis-
covery and examination of emery in situ in Asia Minor, and
also to show that I have been instrumental in the development

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 7

which has been subsequently given to this emery in a commer-
cial point of view. Since the first discovery other localities
have been ascertained by me, all of which will be alluded to
in this memoir.

LOCALITIES OF EMERY IN ASIA MINOR AND THE NEIGHBORING
ISLANDS.

Gumuch-dagh.—In going from Ephesus east to Gouzel-
Hissar (the ancient Tralles) we pass by the ruins of the ancient
city of Magnesia on the Miandre, and near to this latter is a
beautiful valley, celebrated for its figs, in which is situated the
village of Gumuch at the foot of a mountain bearing the same
name. It was here that the emery formation was first examined.
All the rocks of the surrounding country appear to belong
to the old series; the limestone is entirely devoid of fossils and
metamorphic in its character; it rests on the older schists,
of which mica-schist appears the most abundant, and this
again farther to the north was traced in contact with gneiss.
The limestone is of a light-blue, passing into a coarse-grained
marble, and on the south side the rock by its decay leaves in
many places precipices of considerable elevation that add
much to the picturesque appearance of the region.

The emery is found in different places in the Gumuch
Mountain; the place, however, to which it is traced in greatest
abundance is on a part of the summit about three miles from
the village of Gumuch, and some fifteen hundred or two
thousand feet above the level of the valley; it overlooks the
magnificent plain of the Miandre, whose curiously tortuous
course is seen as if traced ona map. The emery lies scattered
on the surface in the greatest profusion, in angular fragments
of a dark color, and large masses of several tons’ weight are
seen projecting above the surface; in penetrating the soil the
emery is found imbedded in it, and a little farther down it is

come to in the rock. In fact, by breaking the marble that

projects above the surface at this spot, we are sure to find
nodules of the mineral.

Sometimes the emery forms almost a solid mass several
yards in length and breadth. One of these places, opened for |
the purpose of exploring, is about ten or twelve yards square,
and all the rock taken out is emery; the spaces between the

8 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

- blocks are filled with an earth highly charged with oxide
of iron. In some places the masses are consolidated by car-
bonate of lime of infiltration, which must not be confounded
with the emery in its original gangue (the marble), in which

. itis found in nodules sometimes round and at other times

fissured so as to represent angular fragments. In no place
does it present any thing like a vein, nor has it signs of strati-
fication. The largest mass at this locality that I saw unbroken
must weigh from thirty to forty tons.

Attached to this mineral, more especially in the fissures and
on the surface, are several minerals that will be alluded to
hereafter.

Kulah. — This locality of emery is the second in importance
in Asia Minor. It isa town situated about a hundred and fifty
miles from Gumuch and twenty miles from the ancient. city
of Philadelphia (one of the seven churches). It is near the
river Hermes, and on that interesting volcanic district of Asia
called Catacecaumene, or the burnt country, resembling in
many respects the voleanic region of Auvergne. The rocks
forming the base of this region are of the older metamorphic
series, covered to a greater or less depth by lava of different
volcanic periods, which has flowed from the numerous craters
that form the prominent feature of this region. The most
common rocks in the mountain ranges about Kulah are white
granular limestone, mica-slate, hornblende-schist, gneiss, and
granite; the last four are seen more conspicuously in the
mountain two or three miles to the south, which have not
been subjected to volcanie action; the limestone overlies these
rocks. |

Before arriving at the place where I examined the emery
(about two miles to the northeast of Kulah), an outcropping
of gneiss was seen and subjected to the closest scrutiny without
discovering the slightest trace of corundum; and I will here
remark that although I have found several thin layers of mica-
schist engaged in the marble, in no instance was there any
trace of corundum in it.

The marble in this region is very compact, of great hard-
ness, and I may also add of great purity. I can not say
whether this hardness is traceable to a greater depth than that
to which it has felt the influence of the superimposed lava.

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 9

Here again the emery was found on the surface, but not in
such abundance as at Gumuch-dagh, and moreover the soil is
not as deep as in the latter place. The emery as seen in the
marble at Kulah is capable of being studied with the greatest
satisfaction, particularly as two or three places in the rock —
have been quarried.

Adula.— Not far from this town, which is about twelve or
fifteen miles east of Kulah, I have also discovered emery; only,
however, in very small quantity.

Manser.— About twenty-four miles north of Smyrna emery
is found in small quantity in the soil. In this, as well as in the
former place, white granular limestone is found.

Island of Nicaria, Grecian Archipelago.—I1 have also been
able to examine thoroughly the emery of this island, which
promises to be of importance to the arts. It is only within
about twelve months that it has been brought to ight. The
mineral of this locality presents some peculiar features, which
will be alluded to hereafter. The geology is the same as that
of the other localities already alluded to; namely, when found
in contact with the rock it is always with limestone.

Island of Samos. — This locality has furnished me with only -
a few nodules imbedded in the soil, with a little caleareous rock
attached to the surface.

Island of Naxos.—This old and well-known locality is here
alluded to simply because it has furnished me with specimens,
the examination of which forms a part of this memoir. It is
found in large blocks mixed with a red soil and also imbedded
in white marble. It is taken principally from the north and
east sides of the island; the best comes from Vothrie, nine
miles from the shore, and is embarked at Sulionos. Another
good locality is at Apperanthos, seven miles from the shore,
and it is embarked at a small port called Moutzona. In
the south of the island it is found near Yasso. It is in such
abundance on this island that, notwithstanding the immense
quantity carried off, it is not yet found necessary to quarry
it from the rock.

CONCLUSIONS WITH REFERENCE TO THE GEOLOGY OF EMERY.

The localities at Gumuch-dagh and Kulah are those which
afforded me the best means of studying the geology of emery,

10 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

although in every instance I have found it associated with the
old limestone overlying mica-slate, gneiss, ete.

It is imbedded either in the earth that covers the Hmestone
or in the rock itself, and exists in masses from the size of a pea
to that of several tons’ weight, generally angular, sometimes
rounded, and when in the latter form they do not appear to
have become so by attrition.

The masses in the soil possess but little interest for the
geologist, as they may have been left there by the decomposi-
tion of the rock or been transported from other positions; still
the latter is difficult of supposition in reference to what is
found at Gumuch-dagh, for here it is only on the summit and
not on the sides of the mountain that the emery has been
traced. But having had the means of studying the emery and
rock in contact, | have come to the firm conclusion that the
emery has been formed and consolidated in the limestone in which
it is found, and that it has not been detached from older rocks,
as granite, gneiss, etc., and lodged in the limestone at the period
of its formation. My reasons for so thinking are the following:

1. In no instance could the closest investigation of the older
rocks of these localities that are below the limestone furnish
the shghtest indication of the existence of emery there; and
moreover the masses of emery in the limestone never had
fragments of another rock attached to them. A few thin
layers of mica-slate were found in the limestone, but they
were not in contact with the emery nor contained any traces
of corundum. I dwell thus much on this point because in my
specimens the calcareous rock in connection with the emery is
under two forms—that of the original rock, and that formed by
the infiltration of caleareous water in the fissures which exist
near the surface.

2. The limestone immediately in contact with the emery
differs almost invariably in color and composition from the
mass of the rock, and at Kulah, where the marble forming the
rock is remarkably pure (as evinced by analysis), the part in
contact with the emery is of a dark-yellow color, resembling
spathic iron, and contains a large portion of alumina and oxide
of iron. The thickness of this interposing coat between the
emery and the marble is variable; but what is certain, it passes
gradually into white marble, so that their crystalline structures

MEMOIR ON EMERY. ACT

run into each other, showing that they are one and the same
rock. Had the masses of emery been broken from an older
rock and imbedded in the marble at its formation,,there is no
reason why the contact should not always be direct and imme-
diate without this transition from ferro-aluminous limestone to
pure marble. What we see is just what should be expected
in ferruginous and aluminous minerals forming and separating
themselves from a limestone not yet consolidated.

This kind of separation between the emery and the marble
has been highly useful in the facility that it has indirectly
afforded for exploring this mineral. It has been stated that
at all the localities under consideration, but principally at
Gumuch and Naxos, the emery exists in great abundance, de-
tached from the rock, in a red earth; now this earth is simply
the result of the decomposition of this heterogeneous calcareous
envelope, which from its nature is easy of disaggregation by
the influence of atmospheric agents. Had the emery been in
immediate contact with the marble, we could hardly have ex-
pected this spontaneous separation in so great a quantity. I
have in some instances seen small nodules of emery in small
cavities in the rock, but perfectly detached.

3. The immense mass alluded to as covering several square
yards of surface is another evidence of the emery having been
formed in the limestone, for this mass does not consist of a
single piece, but of a number of different sizes, not lying to-
gether irregularly, but with their contiguous surfaces more
or less parallel, although removed a little distance from each
other; in fact, it is just what we would expect in a large
mass that for some cause or other had been fissured in various
directions.

4. Yet another circumstance to be remarked in connection
with this part of the subject is that in the examination of the
surface of contact between the emery and the rock we do not
always see it marked by a distinct outline; but the minerals
constituting the emery, as well as those associated with it, are |
more or less disseminated in the limestone at the point of
contact. The value of this argument is better understood on
examining the specimens in my possession.

Enough having been said to prove that the emery under
consideration was formed within the limestone in which it is

12 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

found, I will allude to the process of segregation which has
given rise to this formation.

It would appear that the substances eliminated from the
calcareous rock were silica, alumina, and oxide of iron, and
that these three, in the exercise of homogeneous and chemical
attractions, have given rise to the minerals which constitute
and are associated with emery. In my collection there is a
specimen exhibiting this fact in a remarkable manner. It is
a nodule, showing emery in the center, with two concentric
layers, the inner of chloritoid and the outer of emerylite; the
latter was in contact with the limestone.

Eimery—Mixture of corundum (alumina a little hydrated) and oxide
of iron.

Chloritoid—Silica 24, alumina 40, oxide of iron 28, water 7.

Emerylite—Silica 30, alumina 50, lime 18, water 5.

It is seen that in commencing from the external surface, in
which direction we must regard the consolidation of the nodule,
the larger portion of silica eliminated has combined with a large
portion of alumina and some lime to form a peculiar mineral;
next, the remainder of the silica combines with an additional
quantity of alumina and considerable oxide of iron to form
another mineral; and finally, the remaining alumina and oxide
of iron crystallize separately. Facts of this kind in geology
are not infrequent, but they are always highly interesting and
worthy of remark.

In concluding the geological considerations of emery with
reference to the localities in Asia Minor and the neighboring
islands, I would remark that at some future time, when the
observations become extended, it will doubtless be found that.
the emery forms the geognostic mark of extensive calcareous
formations in that part of the world, just as the flints do in
the chalk of Hurope.

MINERALOGICAL POSITION OF EMERY.

Emery is considered by some as corundum; others suppose
it represented by some rock or other, not always the same, in
which corundum is disseminated in greater or less quantity ;
others again consider it a mixture of corundum and oxide
of iron. I am of opinion that the latter is the most correct
manner of regarding this substance.

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 13

Emery, properly speaking, is not a simple mineral, but a
mechanical mixture of granular corundum and oxide of iron,
in which the former usually predominates. It has not the
aspect of corundum disseminated in a rock, for it is found in
distinct masses of different dimensions and of great hardness,
and when broken giving way in the directions of fissures,
which exist commonly in the mass. Most frequently there is
no other evidence of the presence of corundum in emery but
its hardness. The oxide of iron present is always under the
form of magnetic oxide more or less mixed with oligiste;
sometimes it is titaniferous. There are other minerals asso-
ciated with the emery, all of which will be described hereafter.

The aspect of this substance differs more than is supposed,
for until lately the emery brought from Naxos has been the
criterion by which to judge others. The localities that I have
discovered furnish me with specimens showing considerable
difference not only as regards color, but also in the structure.

The Naxos emery is of a dark-gray with a mottled surface,
and with small points of a micaceous mineral disseminated
in the mass. It frequently contains bluish specks or streaks,
which are easily recognized as being pure corundum.

The Gumuch-dagh emery is commonly of a fine grain, and
dark-blue bordering on black, not unlike certain varieties of
magnetic iron-ores. With this variety we frequently find pieces
of corundum of some size... The interior of the mass is toler-
ably free from the micaceous specks found in that of Naxos.

The Kulah emery is usually coarse-grained, and much darker
than that of Gumuch-dagh, its external surface resembling
sometimes that of chromate of iron.

The Wicaria emery in many instances presents a schistose or
lamellated structure to a very remarkable degree, so much so
that certain specimens might pass for gneiss. The color is
dark-blue and somewhat mottled, like that of Naxos. There
is also much that is quite compact found in the same locality.
The lamellated variety contains an abundance of a micaceous
mineral, which in this instance appears to have determined its
structure.

The Samos emery, as yet found only in small quantities, and
in the form of nodules, is uniformly of a dark-blue color, some-
times of a coarse-grained and at other times of a fine-grained

14 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

structure, not unlike certain varieties of very compact blue
limestone. \

Fracture—tThe fracture of emery is tolerably regular, and
the surface exposed is granular, of an adamantine aspect; it is
exceedingly difficult to break when not traversed by fissures or
not of a lamellated structure, as much of that from Nicaria.
When reduced to powder it varies in color from that of a dark-
gray to black. The color of its powder affords no indication
of its commercial value.

The powder examined under the microscope shows the distinct
existence of the two minerals, corundum and oxide of iron,
which appear inseparable, as the smallest fragment contains
the two together.

Magnetism.—As it is natural to suppose, all specimens of
emery affect more or less the magnetic needle; in some the
magnetism is barely perceptible, in others it amounts to strong
polarity.

Odor.—Emery when moistened always affords a very strong
argillaceous odor—even the most compact varieties.

Specific gravity.—The different varieties do not vary much
in their specific gravity, it being always in the neighborhood
of 4. The specific gravity of various specimens will be given
on a following page.

Hardness—The hardness of emery is its most important
property, as to it is due the value of this substance in the arts.
For this reason I have devoted much time and attention to the
determination of it. In a mineralogical sense, its hardness is
not difficult to determine; for if we try different varieties of
emery by scratching agate or other hard substance, the effect
will naturally be very nearly the same, for in every case it will
be some point of corundum that has produced the scratch. If,
however, we happen not to rub a point of corundum against
the agate, no efiect will be produced on the latter, but the
emery will yield. As this method leads to no practical result,
I have sought out another, which may properly be called one
for determining the effective hardness of emery and corundum,
and is as follows.

Fragments are broken from the piece to be examined, and
crushed in a diamond mortar with two or three blows of a
hammer, then thrown into a sieve (the one employed had four

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 15

hundred holes to the square centimetre); the portion passing
through is collected, and that remaining on the sieve is again
placed in the mortar and two or three blows given, then thrown
into the sieve; the operation is repeated until all the emery
has passed through the sieve. The object of giving but two
or three blows at a time is to avoid crushing any of the emery
to too fine a powder.

Thus pulverized, it is intimately mixed and a certain portion
of it is weighed (as I operated with a balance sensible to a
miligramme, the quantity used never exceeded a gramme).
To test the effective hardness of this, a circular piece of glass
about four inches in diameter and a small agate mortar are
used. The glass is first weighed and placed on a piece of
glazed paper; the pulverized emery is then thrown on it little
by little, at each time rubbing it against the glass with the
bottom of the agate mortar.

The emery is brushed off the glass from time to time with
a feather, and when all the emery has been made to pass once
over the glass it is collected from the paper and made to pass
through the same operation, which is repeated three or four
times. The glass is then weighed, after which it is subjected
to the same operation as before, the emery being by this time
reduced to an impalpable powder. This series of operations is
continued until by repeated weighing the loss sustained by the
glass is reduced to a few milligrammes. The total loss in the
glass is then noted, and when all the specimens of emery are
submitted to this operation under the same circumstances we
get an exact idea of their relative hardness.

The blue sapphire of Ceylon was pulverized and experi-
mented with in this way; it furnished me with a unit of
comparison by which to compare the results obtained. This
operation is long but certain, and for the harder varieties of
emery it is necessary to repeat the rubbing six or seven times,
and it requires nearly two hours for completion.

The results that I have obtained are interesting, and have
furnished me with the means of forming conclusions that I
could not otherwise have come at.

Glass and agate have not been chosen for this experiment
without a certain object, as experiments were first made with
two pieces of agate, with two pieces of glass, and with metal

16 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

and glass. The agates were found too hard, as they crushed
the emery without producing hardly any abrasive effect; the
others were found not to crush the emery sufficiently, making
the experiment tedious and long. With the glass and agate we
have a hard substance which crushes the emery, and in a cer-
tain space of time reduces it to such an impalpable state that
it has no longer any sensible effect on the glass, and on the
other hand the glass is soft enough to lose during this time
sufficient of its substance to allow of accurate comparative
results. In the employment of this method in the arts it
would not be necessary to go to the sapphire for a standard of |
comparison; any good emery would answer the purpose quite
as well.

It must be understood that this method of coming at the
abrasive effects of emery does not furnish the mineralogical
hardness of this substance, by which we understand the hard-
ness of any individual particle, as evinced by its effect on a
substance of less hardness, without regard to the molecular
structure of the mineral. Two minerals possessing the same
hardness but differing in structure, one being friable and the
other resisting, will be found very different in their abrasive
effects; for instance, break a piece of quartz in two, subject
one of the pieces to a white heat, and after cooling compare
the two by rubbing the point against some hard substance ;
both will be found to scratch equally well. Then try the two
in a state of powder by rubbing them between two pieces of
glass that have been weighed, and the difference of their abra-
sive effects will be found very great, because the one subjected
to the fire is exceedingly friable and becomes readily crushed
to an impalpable powder. This fact is eminently true with
reference to emery, many specimens of which containing the
same amount of corundum differ somewhat in their effective
hardness, owing to the more or less compact structure of the
corundum. |

By the method with the agate and glass I have found the
best emery capable of wearing away about one half its weight
of the glass (that used was the common French window-glass).
The sapphire under the same circumstances wears away more
than four fifths of its weight. A tabular view of the results
will be given a little farther on.

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 17

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EMERY.

This substance consisting of a mixture of corundum and
oxide of iron in various proportions, it is easy to see what its
composition must be. Yet the chemical examination of this
mineral, taken in connection with other properties, is not de-
void of interest.

For the purpose of analysis the emery was reduced to a
state of powder, in the manner alluded to in speaking of its
hardness, with a diamond mortar and sieve. This powder was
dried for twenty-four hours over sulphuric acid; a gramme
was then weighed in a small platinum crucible of about one
fourth of a cubic inch in capacity, fitted with a cover that
adapted itself well to it. This small crucible was placed in
another of earth, and the space between the two filled with
pulverized quartz which also covered the smaller one to the
depth of half an inch. Common sand was not used, because
during the heating some particles might adhere to the platinum
crucible by a semifusion; nor was powdered charcoal employed,
because it protected the mineral no better than the pulverized
quartz from contact with the air, at the same time a_little risk
was run in decomposing a small amount of the iron.

Thus arranged, the crucibles were heated to a bright-red for
from thirty minutes to one hour. After cooling the platinum -
erucible was carefully withdrawn and weighed. The loss fur-
nished me with the amount of water in the emery.

It requires a continued red heat to drive out all the water, a
circumstance which is true for a number of minerals, particu-
larly for those containing a large amount of alumina, as dias-
pore and the micas, which will be spoken of in this paper.

The powder, of which the water has been estimated, was
next submitted to levigation in a large agate mortar placed on
a surface of glazed paper; and when completed it was carefully
detached from the mortar, placed in a platinum capsule, heated
gently to drive off any hygrometric moisture, and weighed.
The increase of weight furnished the amount of silica taken
from the. mortar.

The levigation of one gramme was accomplished in two
operations, each requiring about twenty minutes; and by using

18 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

a mortar of convenient size and the extremity of a feather or
a small brush it is possible to lose but an insensible quantity
of the mineral, and to estimate with sufficient precision the
amount of silica abraded from the mortar.

Another method by which I accomplished the levigation in
some of the analyses was in a steel mortar of the same form as
the agate mortar; and when completed the powder was placed
in a glass with nitric acid diluted with thirty times its weight
of water,.and left in it for one hour, agitating it occasionally.
The iron taken from the mortar was dissolved, and no part of
the mineral attached. The next thing was to filter, and con-
tinue the analysis with the substance thus freed from the iron
of the mortar, without any second weighing.

Of these two methods I preferred to employ the first for the
emery, as it is more expeditious and almost if not quite as
exact as the second. There are, however, occasions in which
the steel mortar should be resorted to.

The substance once reduced to an impalpable powder, it was
necessary to render it completely soluble, and my researches to
arrive at this were long and tedious. In trying the various
known methods the most successful was found to be that with
a mixture of carbonate of soda and caustic soda heated to
whiteness for one hour; nevertheless I could not obtain a com-
plete decomposition. The decomposition might probably be
completed if the levigation was made more thoroughly; but it
is easy to understand that with a large number of analyses of
the same substance to make, it was a desideratum on my part
not to consume the best part of a day in the levigation of a
single gramme, particularly as I did not wish to confide this
operation to another, as much care was required to lose noth-
ing during the levigation. Mixed with carbonate of baryta
and heated in a forge, the decomposition of the mineral was
far from being complete; the same may be said for the treat-
ment with the caustic alkalies in a silver crucible.

The bisulphate of potash decomposes it almost entirely by
a single operation, but unfortunately a double salt of potash
and alumina is formed which is almost insoluble in water or in
the acids, and it is only by a solution of potash that it is first
decomposed and afterward redissolved. I will not stop to
detail all the disadvantages attending this method, but will at

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 19

once speak of the method which gave me very easily the most
accurate results.

It is by means of the bisulphate of soda that all my analy-
ses of emery, of corundum, and of several aluminates were
made. I believe that I am the first who has shown the great
advantage of using this double salt in the decomposition of
certain substances insoluble in the acids; and very probably it
will replace in most cases the use of the bisulphate of potash
in analytical chemistry. At present all the advantages that
may arise from the substitution of the soda for the potash salt
can not be mentioned; all that I will say is that the former, in
giving a decomposition at least as complete as the latter, fur-
nishes a melted mass quite soluble in water, and in the future
operations of the analyses there is no embarrassment from a
deposit of alum.

The bisulphate of soda was prepared by adding an excess
of pure sulphuric acid to the pure carbonate or neutral sul-
phate of soda, and heating it in a capsule until all the water
had been expelled and sufficient of the acid to allow of the
mass becoming solid on cooling. That obtained in commerce
is not sufficiently pure.

The pulverized emery is placed in a large platinum crucible
with six or eight times its weight of bisulphate of soda, and
the mixture is heated over a lamp in the same manner and with
the same precautions as are employed when using the bisul-
phate of potash. From fifteen to thirty minutes suffice for the
operation. The mass is allowed to cool, and water with a few
drops of sulphuric acid are added to it, and the whole heated,
when it soon dissolves, with the exception of a little silica that
renders the solution milky, and a small quantity of undecom-
posed mineral that is readily detected by rubbing a glass rod
against the bottom of the capsule. The liquid is now filtered,
and the filter is washed once with a little water; then with its
contents it is placed in a platinum crucible, burnt completely,
and the residue is heated with a little bisulphate of soda, which
completes the decomposition; and when treated with water
and a drop or two of sulphuric acid all except the silica is dis-
solved. ‘The liquid which passes the filter in this case is added
to the first and the analysis continued. The silica obtained is
diminished by the quantity taken up from the mortar in order

20 MEMOIR ON EMERY. :

to arrive at what is actually contained in the mineral. The
filtered solution is heated with a little nitric acid to convert all
the protoxide of iron into peroxide; then treated with an
excess of caustic soda and a little carbonate of the same alkali;
this redissolves the alumina first precipitated, and thus sepa-
rates it from the oxide of iron and a trace of lime. The iron
and lime are separated in the ordinary way; the alkaline solu-
tion of alumina was acidulated, and the alumina precipitated
with carbonate of ammonia. |

Thus analyzed, the emery from different places gave the
following results:

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION,

Pp of RD
No. LocaLitiss. amen : & S = me a 2 o
egsjiw| @ | 2 | Seo) oaaaies
S14 2 : fs} 2 5
al Ro cama ne = = : :
AU AR a ates Aes Se ecoamen 57 |4,28/1.90] 68.50 | 83.25 |0.92/1.61/101.18
Del Samos: asancecees aeaseee 56 |8.98/2.10] 70.10 | 22.21 |0.62/4.00) 99.03
ING Coa Waiihh Sane UbaA sc nacasacir: 56 |8.75|2.58] 71.06 | 20.82 |1.40,4.12) 99.43
AES uallealhitees cesta tac commences 538 |4.02/2.36/] 68.00 | 80.12 |0.50|2.386|) 98,34
Se Ganon clan sane tact erceee 47 18,82/8.111 77.82] 8.62 /1.80/8.13) 99.48
6.“ INvax@siresaesse cusses teense 46 |3.75|4. 72] 68.53 | 24.10 |0.86'3.10/101. 31
TOMN GAR ae te ose cseanceoees 46 |8.74/8.10) 75.12 | 18.06 |0.72)6.88] 98.88
Su IMI acOSS cles veto ce enero 44 |8.87|5.47| 69.46 | 19.08 |2.81/2.41| 99.23
Ql Gammel cc oseare detceetenaces 42 |4.31|5.62) 60.10] 83.20 |0.48)1.80/101 .20
LOmMKGiilalne Fate Pe comet 40 |8.89/2.00) 61.05 | 27.15 |1.30)9.63/101.13

I ought to mention that the analysis afforded other sub-
stances in small quanties in some of the emeries, as titanic
acid, oxide of manganese, oxide of zirconium, and sulphur (ex-
isting ‘in pyrites); but these substances are unimportant in the
composition of emery, and are in such minute quantities that
it is necessary to operate on a considerable quantity of the
mineral to obtain satisfactory results concerning them.

The analyses marked 6 and 8 were made by decomposing
the emery as it came from the sieve, without pulverization in
the agate mortar. It was by accident that it occurred, and I
was not aware of the neglect until it was fused with the bisul-
phate of soda; but, not wishing to lose the analysis, the opera:
tions were continued as in the other cases, only using a little
more of the bisulphate in the second decomposition; and some-
what to my surprise the decomposition was quite as perfect as
in the other cases. I had nearly completed all my analyses

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 21

in the manner detailed when this fact became known, so that
I have but these two cases to report. It will simplify the
analysis of corundum if pulverization in a diamond mortar be
found sufficient, and I propose examining specially into this
question.

The water which was found in the emery comes from the
corundum, a fact which will be shown when the analysis of
pure corundum is given, which will be in the second part of
the memoir. A very minute quantity of what has been esti-
mated as water might be a little oxygen lost by the oligist
which is sometimes found in emery. Those emeries which
contain the least water, every thing else alike, are the hardest,
as instanced by that from Kulah, notwithstanding the quantity
of iron it contains. The silica existing in emery is most often
in combination with alumina or the oxide of iron, or with both.
For this reason we must not always regard the quantity of
alumina as an indication of the quantity of corundum in the
emery. |

$

ANALOGIES.

Hmery at first sight may be confounded with several ores
of iron, aS magnetic iron, certain varieties of oligist, and some-
times with chromate of iron; but the fracture of emery is stony,
which differs from these ores of iron, and besides the surface
exposed is of a lighter color. From the numerous observations
made I may set it down as a general rule that any blackish or
dark-blue rock of a strong argillaceous smell, that scratches
agate well, with a specific gravity in the neighborhood of 4, is
sure to be emery.

THE MINING OF EMERY.

The mining of this substance is of the simplest character.
The natural decomposition of the rock in which it occurs facili-
tates its extraction. As has already been mentioned, the rock
decomposes into an earth in which the emery is found imbed-
ded. The quantity found under these favorable circumstances
is so great that it is rarely necessary to explore the rock. The
earth in the neighborhood of the blocks of emery is almost
always of a red color, and serves as an indication to those who
are in search of the mineral. Sometimes, before beginning to

3

22 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

excavate, the spots are sounded by an iron rod with a steel
point; and when any resistance is met with the rod is rubbed
in contact with the resisting body, and the effect produced on
the point enables a practiced eye to decide whether it has been
done by emery or not.

The blocks which are of a convenient size are transported
in their natural state, but most frequently they are required
to be broken by means of large hammers. When they resist
the hammer they are subjected to the action of fire for several
hours, and on cooling they most commonly yield to blows. It,
however, happens sometimes that large masses are abandoned
from the impossibility of breaking them into pieces of a con-
venient size, as the transportation either on camels or horses
requires that the pieces do not exceed one hundred pounds.

At Kulah the quantity of emery detached from the rock was
not very considerable, as it had been protected from decompo-
sition by the beds of lava that cover it. Here the marble was
quarried to get at the emery, which was done in the early part
of 1847 with profit, although the transportation from Kulah to
Smyrna is over a distance of one hundred and ten miles on the
backs of camels. Since the diminution of the price of emery
this mine has been abandoned; for the quarrying into the
marble is attended with the greatest difficulty, as the tools used
for boring, etc., are thrown out of use in a very short time by
the pieces of emery which are encountered at every instant.
At present all the emery sent from Asia Minor comes from
the mine at Gumuch-dagh, twelve miles from the ruins of
Ephesus.

COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATION OF EMERY.

The use of emery in the arts is of very ancient date, a fact
proved by works on hard stones that could not have been exe-
cuted except by emery or minerals of that nature. It is very
probable that emery coming from the localities which have
been mentioned was used in former ages by the Greeks and
Romans. for example, the locality of Gumuch-dagh is imme-
diately by the ancient Magnesia on the Miandre, and between
Ephesus and Tralles, twelve miles from each of these cities and
the same distance from Tyria. Im all of these cities the arts
flourished, and none more than that of cutting hard stones,

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 23

if we are allowed to judge from the specimens of their skill in
this art that have come down to us.

Nevertheless, the quantity of emery formerly employed was
insignificant in comparison to the quantity now required, more
particularly within the last twenty years, since the use of plate-
glass has been extended. The annual consumption at the
present time is about fifteen hundred tons.

For various reasons the island of Naxos furnished for sev-
eral centuries almost exclusively the emery used in the arts, as
much from the facility with which it was obtained as for the
uniformity of its quality. The emery exists in very great
abundance on this island, and notwithstanding the quantity
already extracted there still remain immense deposits of it.

The price of this substance at the end of the last century
was from forty to fifty dollars per ton, and between 1820 and
1835 it was at times even less. About this period the monopoly
of the Naxos emery was purchased from the Greek Government
by an English merchant, who so regulated the quantity given
to commerce that the price gradually rose from forty to one
hundred and forty dollars per ton, a price at which it was sold
in 1846 and 1847. It was at this time that I commenced exam-
ining and developing the emery formations of Asia Minor, until
then unknown. And after making a report to the Turkish
Government the monopoly of the emery of Turkey was sold to
a mercantile house in Smyrna, and since then the price of this

article has diminished to fifty and seventy dollars per ton,

according to the quality. I speak of the prices in the English
market.

The different. mines explored are those of Naxos, of an an-
cient date; of _Kulah, commenced in 1847, and now abandoned
for those nearer the sea; of Gumuch-dagh, commenced in 1847
and worked largely ; and of Nicaria, commenced in 1850. From
all these different places the emery goes to Smyrna, and from
there principally to England, the vessels taking it at a very
low price, as it serves for ballast.

The various mines belong to the Turkish and to the Greek
governments. ‘The Greek Government now sells its emery in
lots of several tons. The Turkish Government sells the entire
monopoly of its mines, and consequently its operations are
controlled by a single interest; but in all probability this

24 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

monopoly will be done away with in virtue of a commercial
treaty existing between Turkey and the other powers. If this
takes place, the price of emery will be still further diminished.

Of the different varieties of emery employed in the arts
that of Naxos is still preferred, and with reason, as it is more
uniform in its quality than that coming from Kulah and
Gumuch; nevertheless, if the best qualities of that from the
island of Nicaria are found in abundance, and that only sent
into market, it will prove at least equal if not superior to
that of Naxos.

PART SECOND.

ON THE MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH EMERY: CORUNDUM, HYDRARGIL-
LITE, DIASPORE, ZINC SPINEL, PHOLERITE, EPHESITE (A NEW SPECIES),
EMERYLITE (A NEW SPECIES), MUSCOVITE, CHLORITOID (A NEW VARIETY),
BLACK TOURMALINE, CHLORITE, MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON, OLIGIST IRON,
HYDRATED OXIDE OF IRON, IRON PYRITES, RUTILE, ILMENITE, AND TITAN-
IFEROUS IRON.

Now that it has been shown that emery is found in consid-
erable abundance in certain parts of the world, occupying
almost the position of a rock, it is useful to mention the
different accidental minerals, or minerals of elimination, that
are found with emery, and what new facts have been observed
with relation to them. Corundum may be first mentioned.

CORUNDUM. .

Although emery is constituted principally of corundum, the
examination of this substance in its pure state, or rather in the
form of those prismatic crystals which I have sometimes found
in contact with emery, has brought to light several new and
well-established facts that could not have been satisfactorily
ascertained from a mixed mineral like emery

At Gumuch-dagh it is not difficult to find large pieces of this
mineral, pure or mixed with a little diaspore and emerylite;
sometimes the crystals are very distinct under the form of six-
sided prisms. The small crystals found in the cavities are
sometimes terminated by a summit of six faces. The color
of the corundum found in the different places alluded to in

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 25

this memoir is blue, except that of Kulah and of Adula, which
is of agreenish-gray. » All that I have to add to what is already
known of this mineral relates to its composition and effective
hardness ; the latter was ascertained in the way already de-
scribed in speaking of the emery, and it has been found to vary
with the composition of the mineral. The analyses were made
in the same manner as those of the emery, and the results which
I have obtained are as follows:

CoRUNDUM. CoMPOSITION.
eee ey Gen el ee | Ge ie
Loca. ities, ee es S > = 203 : = =
ree Ge | a BS enl a Ie 5
Ed alta ae es g
Sy a le # °
pappuime of India......2-.-..--.-.- 100 |4.06)...... Eek ces ene eee ORSOi Soccss
Islay 0b LEWC Uie SARS Scnbae suceedocdeee S sian (RN, ee DE So eI0o ee: bs fo eke
Corundum of Asia Minor....... 77 \38.88/1.60) 92.39 |1.67/1.12/2.05] trace
Corundum of Island of Niearia| 65 |3.92\0.68] 87.52 |7.50/0.82/2.01]).........
Conuna@nn of AStal. . 000. cccee 60 |3.60)1.66)] 86.62 |8.21/0. 70/3. 85).........
Conandum of Endia...i........886 58 |8.89/2. 86) 93.12 |0.91/1.02/0. 96).........
Sormndune Of Asid...c..d.cc...000 He OroUlomCLinot ooon both O02. Gil ees...
Corundum Of Enda. c.ccc.<..... 55 |3.91/38.10) 84.56 |7.06|1.20/4.00) 0.25

The most remarkable fact ascertained by these analyses
is the presence of water in variable quantity in all varicties
of the corundum except the sapphire and ruby. To me this
fact has a certain value in proving that the corundum and
the sapphire are formed under different circumstances and do
not belong to the same geological formation. The different
structure of these two species of corundum might make one
suspect a difference in the condition of their formation; and
this is somewhat confirmed by the results of the beautiful
experiments of M. Ebelmen in making artificial corundum by
subjecting alumina and borax to the heat of a porcelain fur-
nace for many hours—circumstances under which he always
obtained crystals under some of the modifications of hyaline
corundum, and never as prismatic corundum. In addition to
this I remark that in my most thorough examination of the
localities of emery not the slightest trace of sapphire or ruby
was found.

The quantity of water found to exist in corundum coming
from different localities is variable, and it would appear that,
all other things being equal, those containing the least water

26 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

are the hardest. I will not insist on the slight difference
between the hardness of the sapphire and ruby, having made
only one experiment upon each of these minerals.

The two varieties of corundum are so evidently united by
their system of crystallization that I would not undertake to
separate them on account of the presence of water in one
of them, and that in variable quantity; nevertheless, the fact
is important, as it explains to a certain extent their differences
in structure and hardness. I would remark that great pains
were used to ascertain whether the water might not be due to
the presence of diaspore or some other hydrate of alumina;
but after the most careful and repeated examinations this has
been decided in the negative.

HYDRARGILLITE.

Hydrargillite is rarely met with. I have one specimen with
this mineral forming the external coating of a crystal of corun-
dum, and also a hexagonal prism of the same mineral. It was
not analyzed, but its physical properties and its reactions under
the blowpipe served to prove its identity with this mineral.
The specimen in my possession comes from Gumuch-dagh.

DIASPORE.

This mineral up to the present time has not occupied a very
important position in mineralogy, and has been found only in
two or three localities. In the course of this article I hope to
show that it plays a somewhat important part in the emery
and corundum formations. Before my attention was drawn to
the minerals, first discovered by M. Lelievre, it was studied by
M. Dufrenoy on that coming from Siberia, and by M. Haidinger
on the diaspore of Schemnitz. Before going farther I would
remark that the gangue of the latter, which has been described
as analogous to steatite, was found by me not to be such, but a
hydrated silicate of alumina, similar to one found with the
emery of Naxos.*

To the localities of diaspore already known I have to add

* The gangue of the Schemnitz diaspore has been examined by Hutzel-
mann (see Pogg. Ann., LX XVIII, 575), who makes it to contain three dis-
tinct hydrates of alumina; but this fact can not be considered as sufficiently
established. One of these hydrates is named Dillnite, and another is near
Agalmatolite.

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 27

those of Gumuch-dagh and Manser in Asia Minor, and the
islands of Naxos, Samos, and Nicaria in the Grecian Archi-
pelago; and there is reason to believe that this mineral will be
found in almost every corundum locality. JI have already
found it on crystals of corundum from China.

In examining the emery formations one of the first things
that struck my attention was the existence of diaspore and
corundum together, then observed for the first time. The same
year M. Marignac discovered it in the limestone of St. Gothard,
along with the well-known crystals of corundum that exist
there. Having found the diaspore under these new circum-
stances, it has been examined with much attention.

At Gumuch-dagh the diaspore is found in flattened and
rounded prisms, with the surface streaked with lines that afford
by reflected light an iridescence. Crystals with perfect sum-
mits are rarely found, and during two or three days’ examina-
tion on the place I found only five small crystals with one of
the summits perfect; they were, however, very beautiful, and
finer provably than any yet known. Not wishing to lose so
favorable an occasion to verify the crystallography of diaspore,
I requested M. Dufrenoy to undertake the measurement of the
angles, and it is to this able professor that we are indebted for
the crystallographic results here given.*

The crystals are elongated needles crossing each other in
all directions, like an acicular variety of aragonite from the
Vosges. They resemble small crystals of topaz in luster and
in the disposition of the vertical striz on the faces g. Their
color is yellowish-white. They are strongly dichroitic; the
summits under certain inclinations appear black, as if the hght
was completely polarized. The cleavage is very easy parallel
to the face g', and it is this cleavage that gives a lamellar
structure to that diaspore which is not in the form of needles.
This cleavage, notwithstanding its facility, does not expose
surfaces that reflect with great accuracy ; it is the only angle
which offers the difference of a half degree; repeated measure-
ments of the other angles never varied more than four minutes.
The pearly luster of the cleavage in connection with its striated

* Three of the crystals measured are in the Cabinet of the School of Mines
and Garden of Plants at Paris. The second crystal above is nearly as thin
as the first, although represented thicker, in order to show well all the planes.

28 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

character are the causes of this difficulty, which at first sight
would not appear to exist, only becoming evident when the
angle is examined.

2G.
OS

The crystals, very much flattened, parallel to the face g' are
represented by figures 2and 3; the face g' does not exist, being
replaced by three series of faces g, the angles of which could
not be measured; but the almost absolute identity of these
crystals with those of St. Gothard, which M. Marignae first
described, authorizes one to suppose that they are represented
by the crystallographic signs g? and gs. The faces M and those
of the summit have a very bright luster. The primitive form
of the diaspore is undoubtedly a right rhombic prism of 130° 2’;
the fact that the base is horizontal is shown by the identity of
the angles of the faces b' on the anterior faces M and the faces
b' on the posterior faces of the same. This position is verified
in seeking for the angle of the edge b' on M, which ought to be
a right-angle; in fact the calculation of a spherical triangle
composed of the faces M, b', and g', of which all the angles of
incidence were measured, gave for this edge 90° 2’ 30”, which
differs from a right-angle by only two minutes and a half.

The following table is made up of the measurements of the
angles of the diaspore of Gumuch-dagh (near Ephesus) by M.
Dufrenoy, of that of St. Gothard by M. Marignae, and of that
of Schemnitz by M. Haidinger; also the measurement of some
angles of the hydrated peroxide of iron of Cornwall by M.
Dafrenoy, which are here given to show an interesting connec-

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 29

tion, first pointed out by M. de Senarmont, and which consists
in the isomorphism of diaspore and the hydrated oxide of iron.
Thus, while the peroxide of iron or oligist iron is isomorphous
with alumina or the corundum, the hydrates of the same oxides

are isomorphous.

~@! | mol | psf | gost
0 Oo 2 pe Ova aoa.
ot =o De Bae &
Bea | 256 | S888 | e283
eee | Bao | Bae s | S55
: Qo 0g 30 Drop oe © = Slo.
aS ®n4 | 2Eao | 4a6
cae se Ae eng Gla 2. =O
men dh 7s 8 Gl eine e pe
UPN ects eh nck crcfe nag sdaese vataealressais! 130° 202 O44 AS OCT 27 SOS. oil”
ZL 8 Tike eS Be, Releinds Oo Sets MB ali Pm eeeratiem| ASME Rinne nite pine ee SS Ld Ss See
MN Dee VOSHSTAOU LACES ) 0... <sses saceaanasi ale] 02 -dadeurs| Vor sans teens om Slr eo sca Na
BVO GR See oS i cysts a sine Gh ann swe eaiiveces 4 IMLS? sae 9 benceenn cee ACROSS soresne!
Pearse ie sot sl Sai dce ied stas casted dete se OAC COGN et escees TOA Von lies ae vee an
EOI areeecc et ca cae. casts eeanvati sis eeacnaess. HUSTED BOC STU BG | TIO 835 See edocaae
lol 2 [DIS (GO@SIGIRTIOP TRNCEIS | 6p pcaopocHiodos phesedellecdes oeencuo|areaaaceoece 151° 837] 151° 347
DE OMA (Opposite TAGES). o...p0....< sess score INOS SSA sete ccc ates ISG OURS A erasure nse
NMOS cee ete bisa tig cs aratetstieisele users cis (Suieiow s awinese NG iipeae Od leno cma ae
Gill G2 CSR Ae NSe ono Races BORO BAE Cnt Santen Cn ane WEEE AER Beton ind bac anres hope lseomeee Ao oes
ee Be ees ro aneish clue Sai eia nie aeloiasosotelsa es << AOA AN ia rhent olddata taalleatesten Soman
HR MINER eRe co Sena seceis Nese wacseness scat LOST acs weet Iieamiene cca WAG ANA
MeN a ih ots Serals sa nisisiho 3's 5 sn soninys clots o's SRG! SOM Ms eae tear acon ener LUG Sy"
CEC e sae oe bainieigs saca se ogee MPI AOA ee aha s Ssee ct acidone aly/2 Key

I have found crystals of diaspore in hydrated oxide of iron,
the needles traversing the oxide in all directions. There isa
specimen in my possession composed of a-small crystal of dias-
pore, surrounded by a kind of scabbard of crystallized géthite.
One of the summits of the crystal is exposed. In breaking
the oxide of iron which contains these crystals they become
detached, leaving on the oxide an impression with a very bril-
hant surface.

The diaspore of Gumuch-dagh is also found, of a lamellar
structure, but very rarely; that of Naxos, Nicaria, and Samos
are all lamellar. Yet of all the specimens that I have collected
none offer so much interest as those composed of diaspore im-
bedded in corundum. Here we see the two minerals passing
one into the other, without being able in many places to dis-
tinguish the line of separation, so imperceptible is the grada-
tion. After what has been said in respect to corundum it is

* The values of these angles are just as given by the goniometer, without
any correction by calculation.

30 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

not astonishing to see this connection of alumina more or less
hydrated with a hydrate of alumina of definite composition.

After a knowledge of this fact one might seek to explain
the existence of water in corundum by the intimate mixture
of diaspore with this mineral. If this be the case, the crystal
of corundum from the Carnatic, which gave me three per cent.
of water, must contain twenty-three per cent. of diaspore, al-
though neither the eye nor the microscope could detect its
presence.

As to the properties of diaspore, I have nothing to add to
what has already been published on the subject, except that
the specimens I examined do not decrepitate to the same extent
as that of Siberia. Its specific gravity is 3.45, and hardness
above 7. The following analyses were made, the mineral
being attacked with the bisulphate of soda. They afford the
formula Al H.

cre ee Sere Se pe = =

= S SI et S| eee = =

LocaLitigs. 2 2 o 2 2 5 S

ee : a =
Gumuch=daghta wwe ee ee '0.67| 82.20] 0.41 |1.20] trace. | 14.52
Chum che diamine cee ee ees eae 0.82; 88.12] trace. |0.66) trace. | 14.28
INA ROS Tz.C. ico tecanean soso ote etme 0.26) 82.94/03: }1..06)/scceeeee 14,81

ZINC SPINEL.

I possess a single specimen of this spinel in chloritoid on a
piece of emery from Gumuch-dagh. It is in octahedral crystals
agglomerated, of a dark emerald-green color. The quantity
being small, I have been prevented from making an exact
analysis. The quantity of oxide of zine appears to be from
thirty to forty per cent.

PHOLERITE.

A mineral resembling pholerite in composition has been
found with the emery of Naxos associated with emerylite. It
is white, lamellar, and somewhat crystalline, sometimes gray.
It is soft to the touch like steatite, infusible before the blow-
pipe, and when heated with nitrate of cobalt becomes strongly
colored blue. It is scratched with the nail, and has a specific
gravity of 2.564. Its composition is identical with the pholerite
of Guillemin, also with the mineral forming the gangue of the

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 31

diaspore of Schemnitz. For analysis it was decomposed with

carbonate of soda. It afforded:
.Pholerite of | Gangue of diaspore

Guillemin. of Schemnitz—Smith.
SC awe occ eanec) sa nacs vec 44.41 42.93 42.45
PAGINA) cisco seen. oanete 41.20 42.07 42.81
NEMA e a oot cee ae Sales 1a trace and mag. trace.
AVAL Glos acrstus semen fan sete 13.14 15.00 12.92

This corresponds to the following formula, Si Al+21; but
it is a question whether or not we should consider the water as
existing in any definite proportion, and whether or not they
did not all contain more water when first taken from their
localities. These hydrated silicates of alumina are numerous,
and bear various names; but it is doubtful if many of them are
entitled to much consideration as distinct species.

EPHESITE (A NEW SPECIES).

This silicate is found with the emery of Gumuch-dagh, and
occurs On specimens of magnetic oxide of iron. It is of a pearly-
white color, and lamellar in structure; cleavage difficult. It
scratches glass easily, and has a sp. grav. of from 3.15 to 3.20.
Heated before the blowpipe it becomes milk-white, but does
not fuse. At first sight it might be taken for white disthene.
It is decomposed with great difficulty by carbonate of soda,
even with the addition of a little caustic soda. I used also
very successfully in the analysis the bisulphate of soda, either
in attacking the mineral from the commencement or in oper-
ating first with carbonate of soda, and then acting on the part
not decomposed with bisulphate of soda. The alkahes were
separated by means of hydrofluoric acid. |

ISHULIG AL” Besar arid Se atde oatets velista «inoael ciciiesioc sels 31.54 30.04

PAW anna na ae tame seas cara black carcfels aac coe aheento ues 57.89 56.45
| LATER seer aa sR ame yg 1.89 Pat AL
TPROLOKAGCS. Of, IM OM s.00 sos asses simeeeaterge ten 1.34 1.0 |
Dodi a Mile OLAS I... ss.geatdcatawchy le ssc 4.41
TAINS SOB ge BAS es ree ee ie a tc seh ea onl 3.06

This corresponds very nearly to the formula R? Si+-Al2 Si-+-4ft.

ATOMS. AUS WEIGHT. PER CENT. OXYGEN RATIO.
SOG nn teceeecches 2 (OMe Grs 7.08 1
Sullicala nea aaeee hs 6 3400 2 30.77 9
MNAMTNOMINA ves see ale « 10 6416.2 58.08 15
\WUGUGh eS eee eae 4 450.0 4.07 2

32 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

This mineral has been designated ephesite because of its
occurrence at the emery locality near the ancient city of
Ephesus.

EMERYLITE (A NEW SPECIES).

This mineral, which I have designated by the name of emery-
lite, is a new species belonging to the family of micas. I have
already published a note indicating its existence,* but have
reserved for the present time a complete description of it.

I first discovered this mineral with. the emery of Gumuch-
dagh in Asia Minor, and subsequently in that of Manser, the
islands of Naxos and Nicaria, and also with the emery of Siberia.
Its connection with all the emeries that have come under my
observation, except that of Kulah, induced me to call it emery-
lite. When I announced this discovery to Prof. Silliman, jr.,
he hastened to examine the minerals coming from the corun-
dum localities of the United States, and has succeeded in find-
ing the emerylite with the corundum of several localities. The
specimen from Siberia on which I found this mineral is in the
collection at the Garden of Plants at Paris, and I have also
reason to think that I have found it with the corundum of
China.

The emerylite is lamellar, like mica; the plates are easily
separated, and possess a little elasticity. Sometimes it is in
the form of a mass composed of very small pearly scales, which
are very friable, resembling some species of tale. The plates
are commonly convex and concave, grouped in such a manner
as to form a triangular prism. I have also found it massive,
with a micaceous structure, Dut with an irregular fracture.
The aspect of this variety is waxy; it comes from Gumuch-
dagh. The crystalline form of this mineral is difficult to deter-
mine; but if we are permitted to judge from the streaks on the
surface, and the imperfect cleavage in two directions, it would
appear to belong to an oblique rhombic prism.

Its color is white and luster silvery. The hardness taken
on a specimen from the island of Nicaria is from 4 to 4.5.
The sp. grav. taken on ten specimens varies from 2.80 to 3.09.
This difference is not remarkable in a lamellated mineral.

*See Amer. Jour. of Science and Art, 2d ser., VII, p. 285, 1849.

MEMOIR ON EMERY. oer

That which gave me the greatest specific gravity contained
some small specks of titaniferous iron visible to the eye. Its
optical properties have not been examined, for the want of a
transparent piece of sufficient size and thickness. This mineral
is not attacked by the acids. Heated before the blowpipe, it
emits a bright light, and melts with great difficulty on the
edges, which assume a blue color if touched with the nitrate
of cobalt and reheated. Heated in a tube, it furnishes water
frequently having an acid reaction due to fluoric acid.

The composition of several specimens subjected to analysis
is as follows:

Ss = Sega |e eee lhe

LOCALITIES. 2 z ° g = 5 Bo. a of

: » : 2 oe : & : : =
Gumueh-dagh.....2..2| 29.66)|'50.88)| 13.06 | 1.78 | 0.50 | 1.50)3.41)2........
Island of Nicaria..../ 30.22 | 49.67 | 11.57| 1.38 | trace.| 2.31 |5.12).........
Island of Nicaria....| 29.87 | 48.68 | 10.84) 1.63 | trace.| 2.86 |4.32).........
Island of Naxos......| 30.02 | 49.52 | 10.82} 1.65 | 0.48 | 1.25 |5.56).........
Island of Naxos....../ 28.90 / 48.53 11.92 | 0.87 [inatea. | inated, [5-08] ..------.
Island of Naxos......| 80.10 | 50.08] 10.80 |potest | « ry a5 lesen
Gumuch-dagh.........) 830.90 | 48.21} 9.53) 2.81 ae Cee AS ONL ese ee
Gumuch-dagh......... 31,93 | 48.80) 9.41} 1.50 e 2.31 |3.62|trace.
Sil cak ere een oe ee 28.50) ON NO2NEEP Oo) Tams |i OCs Ih OMe...

The oxide of iron may be regarded as an impurity which
exists between the plates of the. mineral. The composition
of the emerylite is represented by

ATOMS, AT. WEIGHT. PER CENT. OXYGEN RATIO,
ADO ees aatoer 2 700.0 13.48 2
SMC ar ae. Sse uee 3 1700.1 Soe AD ie 9
A lumina: 5.02. << 4 2566.5 49.44 12
NVacibere peat wee ooo 225.0 4.34 2
5191.6

Formula: R2 Si-+2412 Si+2H.

As is seen, the specimens examined came from four distinct
localities, and were all taken under different circumstances ;
yet their analyses accord perfectly, and also agree with those
of the United States coming from Village Green and Union-
ville of Pennsylvania and Buncombe County, North Caro-
lina.

:

34 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

™ ( iz I
LOCALITIES. S = ® oe g.2 ol
is = . @) Sailor one
° > . a2) z .
: $9 cater
Walla cerGmeenmrcen-messn: 32.31 | 49,24} 10.66 |0.30; 2.21 15.27) =100 Craw.
Walls exGme en rennecesct 31.06 | 51.20} 9.24 10.28) 2.97 |5.27) —=100 Craw.
Village Green.............. +| 31.26 | 51.60] 10.15 j0.50) 1.22 |4.27) —100 Craw.
WillageiGreen:...::.--..--- 30.18 | 51.40 | 10.87 }0.92) 2.77 |4.52) —100.46 Craw.
(Whevkoyayailllte reeds saseoanned abe 29.99 | 50.57 | 11.381 |0.72} 2.47 |5.14) —=100.10
Unionville -..c.seccoseccenes 32.15 | 54.28 | 11.86 |0.05/20%¢S4-|9 50|#e trace. Hartshorne.
1.24; 6.15 |3.99|/HF 2,03 —100.80)Silliman, Jr.

Buncombe County.......| 29.17 | 48.40| 9.87

My analyses were made in the ordinary way, only with
more carbonate of soda than is usually employed. The alka-
lies were separated either by means of hydrofluoric acid or by
carbonate of lime, which is preferable to the carbonate of baryta
for the decomposition of the silicates. |

It is seen that potash and soda are present in small quan-
tities in all the specimens. The composition of this mineral is
remarkable for the large proportion of alumina present; but
when we look at its origin it is not astonishing to find a silicate
of alumina with a small amount of silex.

I regard emerylite as a mineral of elimination from emery,
the result of an effort by which the corundum in its formation
purifies itself. It is not remarkable that from the mass in
which the corundum crystallizes the silica, finding itself in
presence with an excess of bases, combines with as large a
quantity as its affinity admits of. In speaking of the formation
of emery I have already alluded to a nodule in my possession
that exemplifies this in a very exact manner.

Notwithstanding the recent discovery of emerylite, there is
no other species of mica that can be considered so well estab-
lished as this mineral or so constant in its composition.. Up to
the present time this mineral has not been found except with
emery or corundum, which frequently contain it in the interior
of the mass as well as on the surface. Some emeries contain it
in such quantity that it has the aspect of gneiss, as I have
already said with reference to certain specimens from Nicaria.

The most beautiful specimens of emerylite come from Naxos,
and as the blocks of emery from this island frequently contain
it there will be no difficulty in procuring specimens for cabinets.
It is often mixed with diaspore.

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 35

MICA. (MUSCOVITE?)

This mica is found on all the emeries which I have exam-
ined, but especially on that coming from Kulah. It is always
in small plates on the surface of the emery. The analyses
of four specimens are as follows:

=A eZ

Z as iS ee = PSS) = a

= Ss =i a & mS © o 2

; x 2 - c+ =
LOCALITIES. 3 5 ® 3 5 ne ec oe
: = : @ One : us

: = q wm 2 B G

° e Seyi 50s bere e

Gumuch-dagh ......) 42.80 | 40.61 | 3.01 | 1,30 | trace. notesti-| 5 62 | trace.

mated.
Menathiete 5.0: .-,.. 43 .62| 38.10] 0.52 | 3.50 | 0.25 | 7.88 | 5.51 | trace.
HUH os es. os. BOG eid (lee 32 idee Pe. | bye | crace,

Island of Nicaria..| 42.60 | 37.45 0.68 | 1.70 | trace.| 9.76 | 5.20 | trace.

The composition is very nearly that of the muscovite or
Muscovy glass, and until further examination I shall retain it
under that species, as particular care should be exercised in
making new species among the micas.

CHLORITOID (A NEW VARIETY OF THIS MINERAL).

it is found with the emery of Gumuch-dagh in considerable
abundance. Its structure is lamellar, cleaving without much
difficulty, and the surfaces exposed are always very brilliant.
In thin fragments it transmits the light and appears of a dark-
green color. The powder is greenish-gray. Its hardness is 6
and specific gravity 3.52. Heated in the flame of the blowpipe,
it loses water and becomes brown from the absorption of oxygen,
but does not melt. When heated without being in contact with
the air it loses its brillancy and acquires the aspect of scales
from the blacksmith’s forge.

This mineral is attacked by the strong acids, but is only
completely decomposed by sulphuric acid. Melted with four or
five times its weight of carbonate of soda, it is rendered easily
soluble in hydrochloric acid. Great precaution was taken to
see that nothing but perfectly pure chloritoid was submitted
to analysis, and the possession of well-crystallized specimens
enabled me to do this without much difficulty.

- The method of analysis was to break the mineral in small
fragments, to place it in a small platinum crucible, which was
introduced into an earthen crucible and surrounded by pulver-

36 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

ized quartz; in one word, I pursued the same method as that
for estimating the water in emery. For the other ingredients
a new portion was taken, pulverized finely, and attacked either
by concentrated sulphuric acid or melted with carbonate of soda,
and afterward dissolved in hydrochloric acid with the addition
of a little nitric acid evaporated to dryness, and treated with
dilute hydrochloric acid. The liquid separated from the silica
is treated with an excess of caustic soda, and the filtered liquid
is neutralized by hydrochloric acid and the alumina precipitated
by carbonate of ammonia.

The contents of the filter, which are essentially peroxide of
iron, are placed in a capsule, dissolved by hydrochloric acid,
heated and precipitated by ammonia, and thrown on a filter.
From the filtered solution the lime and magnesia are separated
in the ordinary way. ‘The peroxide of iron remaining on the
filter, after being well washed and dried, is weighed and decom-
posed in a current of hydrogen gas. ‘To the oxide thus reduced
nitric acid diluted with thirty times its weight of water is added,
and digested at 100° to 120° C. for about an hour, stirring fre-
quently, when, if the iron has been thoroughly reduced, it. will
be taken up by the acid, and a little alumina left, which is
weighed and added to the first portion. Ordinarily I never
have found more than from one to two per cent. of alumina
with the oxide of iron. Care must be taken to decompose the
iron completely, as otherwise the iron will not be entirely taken
up by the acid. The mineral thus analyzed afforded as follows:

R a ta

= Sie 2a oot alpavee 5 39 O-> Oe Tee
2 5 Soot @ o 5 a2 aS ao
= Se ° BP pe ne e
° ‘ : eae re :

Aa Pe eos : 5 | ee

Decomposed by 1s Hectelnoneana oy Aa
9, ‘ z not esti-|/not esti-|not esti-|not esti
sulphuric acid 24,10:39.8 /27.55'6.50 mated. | mated. | mated. | mated. 0.30

Decomposed aes 23 94139 .52|28.05)7.08] 0.45 | 0.80 | trace.| 0.52 |......
carb. soda......

Decomposed b bya pie
Anh. ce 23.20 40.21/27.25/6.97| 0.83 | 0.95 | trace. niateal gee

These analyses correspond to the following composition :

ATOMS, AT. WEIGHT. PER CENT.
STL Gas ssn eae ee aes 2 1133.40 23.87
AM NITIAy shes t ee tea: 3 1925.88 40.57
Provoxide On M@m wees s. see 3 1350.00 28.44 .
SYS ACs Vf 29 gegen a mines aR Aca 3 337,50 Ee

The most probable formula is Al? Si+-Fe? Si+8H.

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 37

The minerals which are brought under this species are the
chloritspath or chloritoid of the Ural, the Sismondine of St.
Marcel, and the Masonite of Rhode Island; their analyses and

formulas are as follows:

2) © ©) S o) (eo)

» » » A x »

I Get pases Wletege se Poet fie) ream West c Vi laceilioe Valen lias

5 2 s 5 g ANS

RUM Araceae soewccs <0 DEAS eho 242 40N 2 24rallls P28 e 27a hG 2. LS 5.) 23) 9 2
PNONUTANTTN A ets ose <i = « 35.37 |6| 45.17] 3 |44.2/15) 32.16 | 6 | 33.61] 6 | 39.52/13
1 eae ooh 3| 30.29 | 1 |28.8) 4| 38.72|3 | 35.31/3/ 28.05] 1

AQNIESIA.......00¢ 4,29

IW ateR jac-s s.cccec (ches 6 (Oe oi ft | Ca eee Gisl a00 | Qi aaese he 708i T

I. Chlorite spar or Chloritoid of the Ural by Bonsdorff. (Fe, Mg)?Si+
Al2 Si+3H.
II. Chlorite spar of the Ural, Erdmann. Fe? Al-+-241 Si.
III. Sismondine of St. Marcel, Delesse. Fe+ Si8+5Al] H.
IV. Masonite of Rhode Island, Whitney. Fe? Si+Al? Si+2H.
V. Chlorite spar according to Rammelsberg requires 8R? Si+2A1? Si-+6H.
VI. Chrilotoid of Asia Minor, J. L. Smith. Al Si--Fe? Si-+-3H.

This mineral is found very abundantly with the emery of
Gumuch-dagh; it covers the surface of the blocks, and some-
times enters largely into the substance of theemery. It is easy
to see from the composition of this mineral that it is formed by
elimination from the mass of emery at the time of its consoli-
dation, which by this means tends to purify itself. The nodule
of which I have already spoken under the head of emery and
of emerylite goes to sustain this view of the question.

On the emery of the other localities I have not found this
chloritoid. Its composition is not in perfect accordance with
the known varieties of chloritoid, and differs from Sismondine
(which it approaches most in composition) ty” its imperfect
solubility in hydrochloric acid.

BLACK TOURMALINE.

This cinieead is found abundantly with the emery of Naxos,
and also in small quantities with that of other localities. It
appears to have replaced the chloritoid that is found so abun-
dantly with the emery of Gumuch-dagh.

The crystals are found agglomerated on the surface, and also
disseminated in the interior of the emery. This mineral, like

3

38 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

the last, is strongly basic, containing a little more than thirty
per cent. of silica.

CHLORITE.

With the emery of Gumuch-dagh we find a chlorite. It
is in compact masses, composed of an agglomeration of small
crystalline plates, and contains octahedral crystals of magnetic
oxide of iron. Analysis gives as its composition:

SUC Aie cS declaw srceted cae Gos sic ae oe oR tr a ae 27.20
PASHMINA hf iis incase ace eee een 18.62
IProtoxdderOl Me ONGscs geoscece st pete e oe ee ee DA
IM Bio ME SIa eset. Gea ca ese acts onic etuceeatc ecole ne doetiee ase tenet 17.64
WA TCT kemacccbale ice noses ana eatecieale ae elias See oa te eee 10.61

It is identical with the chlorite of Mont des sept-Lacs which,
gave M. Marignac

SST TAC at Te Ba ccags ns ehertecte ates ca ators a rte Cea ete coro 27.14
Alumina... eee Te eer EMER ones ea eee ONG
Protoxide oe THOME ese ees EN a eA CERREN ERO re a 24.76
IMIBYOIIOEIE ccoocetosaveddanss29 aasosas300s8G5s0ude asubocde 95 1420s 16.78
Wiatericaei take Re Re Bieta UE eee 11.50

It is the same as the chlorite of St. Christophe and the
ripidolite of Rauris and of St. Gothard.. The formula given
by von Kobell is 2Mg Al+3(Mg Fe)? Si+6H.

MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON.

This is found with the emery of every locality. It enters
into the composition of the emery itself, and is also found on
the surface in regular octahedral -crystals. We find it fre-
quently massive and of strong polarity. That of Gumuch-
dagh contains a trace of titanic acid.

OLIGIST IRON.

It is associated with all the emeries, and sometimes enters
into their composition. It is also found in detached masses,
either amorphous or as crystallized specular iron. .

HYDRATED OXIDE OF IRON.

This oxide of iron is not unfrequently found with emery,
covering the surface. It is found with pyrites having resuited

from the decomposition of this mineral.

MEMOIR ON EMERY. 39

IRON PYRITES.

Pyrites is found principally with the emery of Gumuch and
Nicaria. At the latter locality it is in small crystals in the
interior of the mass. At Gumuch it is principally on the sur-
face, but much less abundant than at Nicaria.

RUTILE.

This oxide of titanium is found with the emery of Gumuch-
dagh and of Kulah, where I obtained some large detached
crystals. I have also a specimen with it in small crystals on
diaspore attached to emery from Gumuch-dagh.

ILMENITE.

It has been found on the gangue of the emery of Kulah in
minute crystals of the usual form of this mineral.

TITANIFEROUS IRON.

Titaniferous iron is found with almost all the varieties of
emery that I have examined, but I have analyzed none but
that associated with the emery of Nicaria. Care being first
taken to see that it was anhydrous, one gramme of it was
calcined in a current of oxygen and it augmented .019, which
indicated the presence of .171 gramme of protoxide of iron,
and corresponds to .190 gramme of peroxide of iron; the
same portion then decomposed by a current of hydrogen gas,
and: the loss sustained was equal to .222 gramme of oxygen,
which corresponds to .740 gramme of peroxide of iron; de-
ducting from this the quantity of peroxide equal to the pro-
toxide (.171) contained in the mineral, we have 550 gramme
for the quantity of peroxide present. The mass reduced by
hydrogen was treated with hydrochloric acid, and the part not
dissolved (.230 gramme) was titanic acid with a little alumina.
The acid solution contained .010 lime and a trace of alumina.
_ The titanic ‘acid was examined as to its purity and was found
‘to contain no silica and only a trace of alumina. The result
of the analysis is

He OGO XG Ca OlmaleO Mees sk Moes cijs sinc cease tock cused « alae ceeeeees 17.10
ZSL OME Ofp IE OM ais cdea cise vow « 30 fute Suctus costde seam metetremeees 55.00
UPR LCL rae wie cones ost cdeGae ah cu oe stoeseneeee ee 23.01
TORRONE Hh Sas ie Bee LA BASSO RTE NE MC RM RT: ct ge OO 1.00

40 MEMOIR ON EMERY.

This titaniferous iron corresponds in composition to the
Washingtonite of Prof. Shepard analyzed by M. Marignac, and —
to the titaniferous iron of Arendal analyzed by M. Mosander.
Its sp. grav. is 4.78.

There are still two or three minerals that I have found as-
sociated with emery, but their specific characters have not
been well established on account of the difficulty of obtaining
enough in a state of sufficient purity for analysis.

The study of these accidental minerals in contact with
emery has led to several general conclusions which have been
mentioned under the description of the different species; and
now I risk little in saying that the hydrates of alumina, as
diaspore—as well as the silicates, as emerylite, chloritoid, and
tourmaline—and the minerals of iron, as magnetic, titaniferous
iron, etc., will be found almost every where with the emery and
corundum.

My labors on this subject are thus terminated, and it is to
be hoped that the examination of the emery of Asia Minor has
served to elucidate the geology and mineralogy of this sub-
stance, until now but little known except in its uses. |

| MEMOIR ON EMERY. 4]

RAPPORT

Sur un Mémoire de M. LAURENCE SMITH, ayant pour objet U étude du gisement
del émeri del Asie Mineure, et des minéraux qui y sont associés.

Commissaires, MM. CorpiErR, ELIE DE BEAUMONT, DUFRENoY rapporteur.

CONCLUSIONS.

“Tl resulte de exposé sommaire que nous venons de donner
du travail de M. Smith, que ce géologue a fait connaitre:

“1°. La nature precise du gisement de l|’emeri dans |’ Asie
Mineure et dans |’ Archipel grec.

“2°. Quil a décrit la maniére d’étre et les propriétés des
mineraux qui lui sont associés, notamment du diaspore et de
P émerilite; ce dernier minéral forme, par |’ identité de sa com-
position dans les divers gisements ot |’ auteur l’a étudié, un
mica constituant une espéce nouvelle et bien déterminée.

3°, Enfin, quil a donné un moyen pour déterminer les
qualités de l émeri, ainsi que leur valeur commerciale; ce pro-
cédé, éminemment pratique, offre en outre de l’intérét sous le
point de vue scientifique, en ce qu'il permet d’apprecier la
difference de ténacité de minéraux de dureté égale.

“Ces recherches de géologie, de minéralogie et de chimie
analytique constituent, par leur ensemble, ainsi que par les
_faits nouveaux qu’elles fournissent a la science, un travail du
plus haut intéret. Vos Commissaires vous proposent, en conse-
quence, de remercier M. Smith de la communication quil en a
a faite a l’Académie, et, vu l’importance de ce travail, d’en
ordonner |’ insertion dans le Recueil des Mémoires des Savants
etrangers.”

Les conclusions de ce Rapport ont ete adoptees.

For the Report in full see Comptes rendus des séances de
Academie des Sciences, October 28, 1850.

EMERY MINE OF CHESTER,

HAMPDEN COUNTY, MASS.,

WITH REMARKS ON THE NATURE OF EMERY AND ITS ASSOCIATE MINERALS.

Considerable interest is attached to the recent developments
of an extensive deposit of emery in Chester, Hampden County,
Mass., by Prof. C. T. Jackson; and my name has been asso-
ciated in various ways with it, without my having had any
thing directly to do with it. Sundry communications have
also been received by me from various parties These com-
munications are best answered by the facts embraced in this
article, some portion of which it has always been my intention
to publish, without reference to the special interest of any one
in the matter.

Prior to 1846 emery was simply known as a mineral, coming
to us from a few remote localities, and was used in the arts
without our having any knowledge of its true geological posi-
tion or its mineralogical relations. About that period circum-
stances favored my commencing those geological and mineral-
ogical discoveries in relation to emery that were afterward
embodied in two papers presented to the Academy of Sciences
of Paris in 1850, in which the subject was thoroughly discussed,
and I might say almost exhausted. The light in which those
discoveries were considered will be seen by the conclusions
of the report of the committee of the Academy, consisting of
Messrs. Dufrenoy, Elie de Beaumont, and Cordier, viz. :

“Tt results from the review just given of the labors of Dr.
Smith, that he has made known—l. The precise nature of the
geology of emery in Asia Minor and the Grecian Archipelago.
2. That he has described the properties of the principal min-
erals associated with it, and the manner in which they occur,
especially diaspore and emerylite; this last mineral forms, by
the identity of its composition in the different formations that

EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS. 43

the author had occasion to study, a mica constituting a new
species, and one well determined. 3. Finally that he has
given a means for determining the qualities of emery, and
consequently their commercial value. This process, eminently
practical, offers besides an interest in a scientific point of view,
inasmuch as it permits of determining the difference in the
tenacity of minerals of equal hardness. These researches of
geology, mineralogy, and of analytical chemistry constitute a
work of the highest interest, both as a whole as well as from
the new facts they promise to science. Your committee con-
sequently propose to thank Dr. Smith for having communicated
them to the Academy, and in consideration of the importance
of the work, to order the insertion of his paper in the Receuil
des Memoires des Savants étrangers.”

At that time I had discovered six new localities of emery in
Asia Minor and the Grecian Archipelago. Those localities
were far removed from each other, and furnished so many
different places for the study of emery and its associate min-
erals in addition to the old locality of Naxos; and consequently
many points of general interest were brought out, besides others
connected with the line of study. Those who may feel inter-
ested in the subject will find the investigation and results
there arrived at in the American Journal of Science and Arts,
Vols. X. and XI., 1850 and 1851; they embrace the geology, |
mineralogy, chemical composition, manner of mining, commer-
cial considerations, associate minerals, ete.

The study of the associate minerals I considered of great
importance, as they would be guides in future explorations in
other parts of the world; and even prior to completing the
researches on the subject I wrote to Professor Silliman and
asked him to examine the American corundum localities for
these minerals, one of them in particular, which he immediately
did. With the corundum from the locality in Chester County,
Pennsylvania, and Buncombe County, North Carolina, he “soon
found the mineral indicated,’ and communicated the same to
the American Journal of Science and Arts, November, 1849,
pp. 379 and 383.

Nothing further came to my notice in relation to emery
until I received from Prof. C. T. Jackson a letter dated October
9, 1864, containing what follows: “ You discovered emerylite

|

|
44 EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS.

or margarite in Asia Minor as an associate mineral with emery.
On the 22d of October last, 1863, I discovered, while surveying
an iron-mine in Chester, Mass., some beautiful veins of the
margarite, from half an inch to two inches wide, and of a fine,
delicate rose color, or ight-pink. The nature of this mineral
I did not discover until my return to Boston, but at first
supposed it was lepidolite; on analysis it proved to be mar-
garite, and from that I ventured to predict the occurrence of
emery; but no attention was paid to this prediction by the
owners of the mine, who were more intent on the iron-ore. A
few weeks since I saw Dr. Lucas, one of the owners, resident
in Chester, and called him into my office, and explained to him
the great value of emery, and told him how to detect it, and he
promised to make the search I required, and took exact direc-
tions from me. The next day after his return to Chester he
found the emery, a big vein nearly six feet wide, which had
been mistaken by him for iron-ore, it being very magnetic.
I write you this to show you the importance of your discovery
of the emerylite or margarite (for this appears to be identical)
as an associate of emery, and also as an interesting case of
deduction from scientific memoirs.”

Accompanying the letter he sent me a paper giving me a
summary of a communication he had made to the Boston
Society of Natural History on the subject, concluding by
remarking that “had not the occurrence of emerylite and
chloritoid called his attention to the probable existence of
emery at this locality, it would have been overlooked to this
day, and no one knows how much longer. The fact was men-
tioned as an example of the real uses of supposed useless
minerals; and the Doctor took occasion to express his obliga-
tions to Dr. Smith of Louisville for his valuable contributions
to our knowledge of the associate emery minerals of the Grecian
Archipelago and Asia Minor.”

These statements are sufficient to show how far my geological
observations served as a guide to Prof. C. T. Jackson in his
deductions with reference to the existence of emery in Chester,
and with what diligence Dr. H. 8. Lucas followed up the latter’s
directions, resulting in the valuable development of emery.

I have since visited the locality, having done so in the month
of March last. The geological character and position of the

EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS. 45

rocks was not as well made out by me as might have been done
in a more favorable season; but as my observations accord, as
far as they go, with those of Dr. Jackson and Prof. Shepard, I
prefer inserting their observations, rather than my own, in
describing the geology of the emery locality.

“The mine is situated nearly in the center of the Green
Mountain chain as it traverses the western border of the state,
at a point not far from half way between the Connecticut and
Hudson rivers. It is included in the metamorphic series of
rocks, here consisting of vast breadths of gneiss and mica-slate,
with considerable interpolations of talcose slate and serpen-
tine. The general direction of the stratification is N. 20° H.
and 8. 20° W., the relation to the horizon varying from vertical
to a dip of from 75° to 80°, sometimes east, sometimes west.

“The immediate vicinity of the mine presents a succession
of lengthened rocky swells with rather precipitous sides, having
summits between seven hundred and fifty and one thousand
feet above the level of the principal streams by which the hills
are traversed. The longer axis of the elevations generally
coincides with the directions of the strata.

“The emery-vein traverses in an unbroken line the crests of
two of these adjoining mountains, and scarcely deviates as a
whole from the magnetic meridian. Hach mountain is esti-
mated to have a length of two miles, thus giving four miles
extent to the metalliferous stratum, for such it may be truly
called, consisting as it does so largely of the metals iron and
aluminum. The Westfield River, here a small stream about
four rods in width, flows directly across the northern end of
the vein, dividing it into two equal portions. The height of
each mountain is estimated at seven hundred and fifty feet.

“The emery-vein, whose average width may be taken at four
feet, is situated at the junction of the great gneiss formation
constituting the western flank of the mountains, with the mica-
slate forming the eastern slope. To speak more exactly, how-
ever, 1t lies just within the gneiss, having throughout a layer
of this rock of from four to ten feet in thickness for its eastern
wall. Nor does the mica-slate advance quite up to this outside
layer of the gneiss; but in place thereof an extensive intrusion
of talcose slate occurs, having an average thickness of twenty
feet on the south mountain, and widening out at the north

46 EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS.

mountain to a breadth of nearly two hundred feet as it reaches
the terminus of the vein, in the bed of the Westfield River.

“The gneiss, more especially in the vicinity of the vein, is a
very peculiar rock. It abounds in thick seams of a coarse-
grained, very black and shining hornblende, and where this
is not found, it is much veined and penetrated by epidote. The
stratification is much contorted also; and when the surface
of the formation happens to be weathered or water-worn, its
basseting edges strikingly resemble in color some of the ser-
pentine marbles. It is also noticeable that in it quartz is
every where singularly deficient. ‘T'races of a white calcareous
spar (calcite) are now and then visible upon the joints of the
gneiss, with occasional specks of yellow copper, together with
malachite stains; but no corundum, emery, or magnetite par-
ticles have thus far been detected as constituents of the gneiss.
It is quite otherwise, however, with the taley rock exterior
to the wall of gneiss; for that formation in all its different
varieties of talcose slate, soapstone, chloritic aggregates (with
included seam of indianite), taley dolomite, ete., which together
constitute the stratum separating the gneiss from the mi¢a-
slate, contain here and there disseminated grains of either
emery, corundum, or magnetite; but, like the gneiss again, are
strikingly free from quartz or uncombined silica in any of its
forms. Indeed, this generally abundant substance is altogether
wanting, not only in the emery vein, but in the talcose forma-
tions constituting its eastern boundary.

“Tt makes its appearance, however, in abundance in the
mica-slate as soon as the talcose rocks are passed—showing
itself not only as the usual constituent of the slate, but in more
or less continuous seams, from a few inches thick up to above
six inches, and sometimes a foot, in width. Where the seams
are thin and discontinuous, the included masses thin out at
each end before disappearing, the sharp edges being curved in
opposite directions, so as to form frequent white patches upon
the surface of the rocks in the shape of the letter 8.”

MINERALOGICAL CHARACTER AND COMPOSITION OF THE CHESTER
EMERY.

It resembles more nearly that from Gumuch-dagh (near
Ephesus) than any other that I know of. It is of a fine grain,

EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS. AT

and dark-blue bordering on black, not unlike certain varicties
of magnetic iron-ore; with it there are frequently found pieces
of corundum of some size. The interior of the mass is free
from micaceous specks, such as are found in the emery of
Naxos. Its powder examined under the microscope shows the
distinct existence of more than one mineral, which are often so
inseparably connected that the smallest fragments contain them
together. The two predominating are corundum and magnetic
oxide of iron. 7

Several specimens were submitted to chemical examination
from those most largely impregnated with magnetic oxide of
iron to those that appeared to contain the least. They all
consisted essentially of alumina and oxide of iron; but I in-
variably found a little titanic acid and silica, and most com-
monly a minute quantity of magnesia. No. 1 was an inferior
specimen ; No. 2, the better quality of rock; No. 3, the emery
rock erushed and prepared for market in the form of emery ;
No. 4, the same, and called emery crystals.

1 2 3 4
PAM UAT ec locisle eslaes hoes 44.01 50.02 51.92 74,22
Magnetic oxide of iron 50.21 44.11 42.25 19.31
SMMC A to slaceises sttsascanoa nes 3.18 3.25 5.46 5.48

I examined a specimen of No. 2: grain fine, and treated
repeatedly with hydrochloric acid and water over a water-
bath; a great deal of oxide of iron and a little alumina were
dissolved; the residue on analysis proved to be nearly pure
corundum, giving

JA JUICY. oocck abyosooot cere eunOo bapBoo- ChE en sade J cnocSGAeGonaoor 84.02
INGEN CRIGIE Oi SIXT ME pegedogso5 <r acer coosesedcaenocoBepeoe 9.63
'SHDUIGE oc ao bbe be ebogeaH eae Hear ABBBD EE Usnc idoce CSo Nn SEES Ee 4.81

All the chemical and physical examinations made go to show
that the emery of Chester is, like all other emeries, a mixture
of corundum and oxide of iron—a fact that will be reverted to
again a little further on.

Prof. Jackson analyzed two specimens, after digesting them
with nitro-muriatic acid, and has given as the composition

il 2
PMI UAUAIMIINAD eee Reis te AeA ss oo diate sees ce 60.40 39.05
PAE OUOMACE? OM EUGOM ine foe decks vise cekeecateesees 39.60 40.95

* No attempt was made to estimate the water.

48 EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS.

and then goes on to state, ‘from which it would appear that
protoxide of iron is an essential chemical ingredient in emery,
and not an accidental admixture.* Dr. J. Lawrence Smith’s
experiments lead to the same result, but be considers the oxide
of iron to be an irregular mixture with the alumina and not a
regular chemical constituent. In either case I think emery
ought to rank as a separate species, and not as a granular
variety of corundum, from which it differs so in physical
characters.”

I would here remark that Dr. Jackson’s conclusion would
be correct in the first state of the case, were the iron an essen-
tial chemical ingredient; but in the latter it would be erroneous,
and introduce inextricable confusion into the science of min-
eralogy by admitting mere mechanical mixture as a specific
distinction. |

Prof. C. U. Shepard, writing on the same point, says: “ His
conclusions (Dr. Jackson’s) would obviously be acquiesced in
were it not for the strong resemblance in strive and cleavage
between the emery and common corundum, making it impos-
sible for us to separate the substances crystallographically
from one another. Nothing like a perfect crystal of emery has
yet been found at the mine; but it is quite remarkable that the
mineral is here generally coarsely massive, or in large separate
individuals often of the size of kernels of Indian corn, whose
cleavages are perfect, and which present on their planes the
delicate strize so characteristic of corundum from the Carnatic.”
Yet Prof. Shepard is for making emery a new mineral species
and calling it Hmerite, with the formula Fe Al.

If the views of Profs. Jackson and Shepard are to be taken
as correct, the question as to the mineralogical position of
emery is easily settled without resorting to any new mineral
species. It is simply a massive iron-spinel (hercynite) with
the anomaly of having a hardness equal to corundum.

IRON-SPINEL. EMERIES.
Jackson. Shepard.
JNIMCD COMEDY Sob dco ncomahond 58.75 60.49 \ ene
Protoxade anon ncss-.-. 41.25 39.60

I would say at this point that if the mineral of Chester is to

——

* An examination of my analyses in 1850, which it is supposed are the
ones referred to here, most certainly do not sustain the conclusion.—J. L. S.

EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS. 49

be regarded as an aluminate of iron, the rock called emery
coming from Naxos and other well-known localities is not that
compound, and that if one is emery the other is not. But as I do
not take their view of the matter, J consider the Chester mineral
as true an emery as that of Naxos.

As there seems to be some mistake and incorrect quotation
in regard to my analyses of emery and corundum, I reproduce
the tabular statement of the analyses and effective hardness,
referring the reader to the original paper for a correct view of
what is understood by the effective hardness.

rely. me CoMPOsITION.

Se, <g E:
No. LOCALITY. Bee te cas, bee ee |e

ogc]: 2/ €| 8 | Bas] ® | 8

Bes Ss : 5) oo :

Sava lsare. to: = 8,0"

EMERY
HIP a, eee SS Ao scans wena nce de 57 |4,28]/1.90) 638.50 | 82.25 |0.92)1.61
PUMA SEMIN OS) denlare ness dcisteles snie dtie's seals eins 56 18.98/2.10) 70.10 | 22.21 |0.62/4.00
BMNII@ atl Ans .d feos acicu sozeveSenc sess 56 |8.75|2.53] 71.06 | 20.32 |1.40/4.12
Pima Gta Secktincsacscncwcstscecceraase es 58 |4.02/2.36) 63.00 | 80.12 |0.50/2.36
EINAK@OSP strc its ts cia see cslcwalse nc Lee 46 |8.75|4. 73) 58.538 | 24.10 0. 86/3.10
Gi INIT C Ha te se tases cera cin setiar cacedecoe 46 |3.74/3.10| 75.12 | 12.06 |0.72/6.88
MMM INI ROSPES orcs Afisce seek ovcavcumesace. 44 |3,87|5.47| 69.46 | 19.08 |2.81/2.41
GPIBIOMCSUG A sce can stesv-caenecon dba seen 42 |4.31/5.62| 60.10 | 33.20 |0.48)1.80
Qa sGuilalieck oon eee ee te vacn toa Seatac 40 |8.89/2.00| 61.05 | 27.15 |1.30/9. 63
CoRUNDUM.
i Sapphire of Tadia.... 00... i.0.+- TOO) 14 -06)..-... Oral rl ON ecees 0.80
Deakvelbiva OLsUMG taste jagoscssqeao SOP eels. Tez. LAOS) ser. zal
Sun Conundumi INIGatia. sccecnccce ea - 77 |8.88/1.60) 92.389} 1.67 /1.12|2.05
4 |Corundum, Asia Minor.......... 65 |8.92\0.68] 87.52} 7.50 |0.82/2.01
Sei Conrumdum, Asiais.cssc-.- soon. 60 |3.60/1.66] 86.62] 8.21 |0.70/8.85
Ge Corundum,, Pndiaye. cs cacecccrsace 58 18.89|2.86| 98.12} 0.91 |1.0210.96
en Conumewin, “Asia; jcso)-.s2.c8. 2. 57 18.80/38. 74) 87.82] 8.12 /1.00/2.61
87) |Corundume, India i...5 0.6.7.0. 55 |3.91/8.10| 84.56 | 7.06 |/1.20/4.00
EMERY.

1 |Chester, Massachusetts............ DO ae eees st 44.01 | 50.21 |...... 3.13
2 |Chester, Massachusetts............ AOS: ee srnileee cen 50.02 | 44.11)...... 3.25
3 |Chester, Massachusetts............ Be heeeor erie 51.92 | 42,25 |...... 5.46
4 |Chester, Massachusetts.........++. Aiello tere (ee ae CE DON OC ONs eae 5.48
5) ,|Chester,. Massachusetts. c:-.....] ccvecstocesee|-<o<+- 84.02] 9.63 )...... 4,81

By the above it will be seen that the magnetic oxide of iron
in the emery of Naxos, Ephesus, etc., varies from 13 to 33 per
cent., the water from 1.9 to 5.0 per cent., the silica from 1.6 to
9.6 per cent. All of these ingredients form minerals apart from
the corundum, which is represented by the principal portion of

30 EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS.

alumina. Some of the alumina found in the analysis is associ-
ated with the above ingredients to form associate minerals
which have been fully studied. This last will serve to explain
why it is that emeries having the same amount of alumina may
have different degrees of effective hardness. Thus: Nos. 9
and 4, both Kula emeries, containing about the same amount
of alumina, have effective hardness in the proportion of 40 to
53; but it will be seen that No. 9 contains 9.6 per cent. of
silica, which doubtless appropriates a portion of the alumina,
thus reducing the alumina attributable to corundum; so that
were it possible to ascertain the exact amount of corundum
present in 9 and 4, it would doubtless be in proportion to their
effective hardness. So again, if we compare Nos. 8 and 1, the
effective hardness will be found in the proportion of 42 to 57,
while their amounts of alumina vary only as 60 to 63; but if
we regard the amount of water in the two, it is as 5.6 to 1.9,
much of this water coming from diaspore that is intimately
mixed with the corundum; and in several specimens I possess
the two minerals shade into each other so completely that it is
impossible to tell where one begins and the other ends. The
above facts were all well examined when my first memoirs
appeared on this subject, which accounts for the following
remark then made: ‘‘ Those emeries which contain the least
water, every thing else alike, are the hardest, as instanced by
that from Kulah, notwithstanding the quantity of iron it con-
tains. The silica existing in emery is most often in combination
with alumina or the oxide of iron, or both; for this reason we
must not always regard the quantity of alumina as an indication
of the quantity of corundum in emery.”

In concluding this part of the subject I would state that
while I do not consider my opinions infallible in this matter,
still all my experience and research gathered from such varied
sources point to the conclusion that emery is a mixture of
several minerals, principally corundum and magnetic oxide of
iron, the former being the effective agent in the mechanical
abrasion to which it is applied; the oxide of iron is not to be
considered as an unimportant ingredient, it serving by its
presence to destroy to some extent the harsh cutting action of
‘the corundum.

Bx f!

EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS. 51

MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH THE EMERY OF CHESTER.

Oorundum.—This mineral, as might naturally be expected, is
found with the emery, sufficiently distinct and separate to be
at once recognized, sometimes in thin seams, massive in its
character, but more commonly in flattened crystals of small
dimensions.

Diaspore.—Very excellent and beautiful specimens of this
hydrate of alumina have been found at this emery locality ; it
is often in distinct and separate prismatic or bladed crystals,
quite colorless and transparent.

Emerylite or Margarite——Some of the finest specimens of
this mineral that are known have been found at this locality.
It will be seen by referring to my former papers on emery that
I first discovered this mineral associated with emery ; its com-
position showed it to differ from any other then known mineral.
I compared it subsequently with margarite, which had been
discovered before, and suspected the identity of the two min-
erals; but as the analysis made out and accepted as the com-
position of margarite did not accord with that of emerylite,
T undertook to re-examine margarite, when I found that its
composition had been erroneously determined, and that it was
in fact the same mineral with emerylite, which last name has
had to yield to the priority of date of the other.

I have analyzed the margarite from Chester and find its
composition as follows:

PopilineieePannnives Sum Mean aU van, Co Lame ea Re came teens ak ae SOA
JANCLIIGATIO EOL ad 5 05 Si ORGS Bea aA ee ge te a eC ae Ae 48.87
TEAS RIG spenesGd SABC Ee oo RET a Sn PIER e ae Mela Urine Fy tea sere ate Se 10.02
OSGi LE THC TAs (SR eR an ie Satan ath ea eae Ot ae NN Roa 2.50
AVIRA MES CL Aen Memecnas asi see wotan MonR Gasman oA esena/Acetees M cna .20
Magnesia.. BERG Con Grn Saas eC ae as irae eae
Soda and little le potash... Soe sche occ Yo dee SH OAR UOM Econ ered ieee |
Lithia.. : Fe si RR NER ee ee he Rl a! ERD

There is a little t titanic acid with the oxide of iron that I
did not estimate.

Chlorite—This mineral as found with the emery is the so-
ealled corundophilite of Shepard. On examination it proves to
be, both chemically and physically, a chlorite of the variety
ripidolite.

Biotite—In examining a specimen of dark-green micaceous
mineral which I took to be chlorite (the corundophilite of

52 EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS.

Shepard) and from its purity expected to get a very accurate
idea of its composition, but in the very commencement of the
examination it was discovered to be well-characterized biotite.

This mineral occurs on the surface of a white rock that
Professor Shepard calls indianite, but which I have not had
time to examine. It is in small thin micaceous crystals per-
pendicular to the surface of the indianite; in the mass it is of
a dark-green color, so dark that at a little distance it looks like.
lamellar plumbago. A careful analysis gave the following com-

‘position:
Sil iain st eh eee eta SG ete eat td ee neces 39.08
Pe Wibhoany qt; Mere AaRANNGE NA or carry orton” ddotnacao pints Anatase bede 15.38
AU Nen deste cagasabnonnccondosbeaoce auicnesoonoboosodes ubocseuapidoce ss 23.58
eroxi devo iLO eee ee eee Raete c tie snake ata etd eae 7.12
MAMGRINCSE iio. cos. cacieteer srt tele ener sate sioner neater eeeete 31
POtASTS hic ee ee eee etna ratte Sree a RoR 7.50
SOM cde ccadulns de cereus gaara eg betes eters cesar ate ieee rer eee 2.68
WY ater 2: sou cec ees he eee a to moe, een baa eet ena Sie 2.24
UU WOPLINe Pie nto se eae ee eter ae oiler ee eae 76

98.60

This corresponds with the composition of the biotite from
Monroe County, New York, as made out by Prof. Brush and
myself in our re-examination of American minerals several
years ago.

Corundophilite proved to be a Chlorite—About the time I pub-
lished my memoirs on emery in 1850 and 1851, Prof. Shepard
made the announcement of a new mineral (American Journal
of Science and Arts, 1851, XII, p. 211), stating that it “ occurs
with corundum near Ashville, in Buncombe County, North
Carolina, in imperfect stellate groups, and also spreading out
in lamine between the layers of corundum; color leek-green,
etc.’ An analysis afforded silica 34.76, protoxide iron 31.25,
alumina 8.55, water 95.47, making a loss of nearly 20 per cent., a
portion of which he attributes to alkalies; neither lime nor mag-
nesia were detected. He operated on one hundred and forty
milligrammes. This mineral was considered a new one, and
Prof. Shepard called it corundophilite. Supposing that I had
observed the same mineral in certain specimens of emery and
emerylite from Chester, Massachusetts, I inclosed a fragment
of the specimen to Prof. Shepard to ascertain if this was the
mineral he called corundophilite; he returned the specimen
announcing that it was. I then analyzed the same and found

EMERY MINE OF CHESTER, MASS. 53

it to be, both chemically and physically, a chlorite, identical
no doubt with the chlorite I found associated with the emery
of Asia Minor. Both the Asia Minor and Chester varieties
eceur in compact mass, composed of an agglomeration of small
crystalline plates—identical with the chlorites of Mont des
Sept-Lacs and of St. Christophe, and the ripidolites of Rauris
and St. Gothard. In the following analysis I do not pretend
to furnish that of the pure mineral, as from the thinness of the
layers in the specimens at my disposal it can not be separated
in that state of purity I am in the habit of seeking for in all
minerals that I examine:

SCA neers Neches (UN AL Sade eC inte noisy oll 8 25.06
JAN UOT ONT ec So Beh 9 he atk ls tot Aba 30.70
BEBO LOX ERO lee dle OM ase ese os cis Soe atelt ciate saw atete oislewianios catd sccslare 16.50
IMAGES acto susactoch salen ed 953-39 sandusuer sdcceaodopscono sage 16.41
VYCGEGIE a8 FR AE SN eae el I SU pr nie Res a eC 10.62

99.29

The optical characters were not examined, there being no
means at hand.

I may remark that the alumina and magnesia were sepa-
rated by resolution and reprecipitation three times.

Tourmaline.—This mineral is also found with the emery of
Chester in the same manner as with the emery of Naxos.

Titaniferous tron (ilmenite) —This is found principally in
flattened crystals in the margarite.

Oxide of titanium (brookite or rutile.)—With the diaspore
we found some beautiful flattened hair-brown crystals. The
specimen in my possession does not furnish the face of the
crystals so as to enable me to make out what form of titanium
oxide itis. Prof. Shepard thinks he has sufficient evidence to
pronounce it to be brookite.

Magnetic oxide of tron—This ore of iron is found in great
abundance associated with the emery, and is worked for the
manufacture of iron; it contains a little oxide of titanium.

The above, as well as some other associated minerals of less
importance, justify the concluding remarks of my paper on
emery fifteen years ago, viz.: “I do not risk much in saying
that the hydrate of alumina or diaspore, as well as the silicates,
as emerylite, chlorite, and tourmaline, and the minerals of iron,
as magnetic, titaniferous iron, etc., will be found almost every
where with the emery and corundum.”

5)

MINERALS OF CHILE.

The minerals collected by the United States naval astro-—
nomical expedition were almost exclusively those of silver and
copper. The specimens of the ores of these two metals, taken
in connection with all authentic accounts, would lead one to
believe that Chile hardly has a parallel in any region in the
globe for the abundance as well as purity of these ores. Were
it not for the physical difficulties connected with the surface of
the country, and the scarcity of water and fucl, the wealth
accruing to Chile from the working of these mines would be
far greater than it is now.

Although the expedition furnishes no geological report of
the country, it is thought proper, before describing the min-
erals in detail, to give some general idea of the geology of the
country, more especially as connected with the minerals col-
lected; and for this purpose recourse is had to the labors of
M. Domeyko and M. L. Crosnier, as published in the “Annales
des Mines.”

A general idea of the geological structure of Chile is readily
formed, although we might be led to suppose otherwise from
the great disturbing forces that have operated in that part of
the world in the form of injected masses of igneous rock, as
well as from the present changes produced by existing volcanic
action, and the gradual elevation of the whole country, with
daily recurrence of earthquake action. These disturbing forces
do not, however, in any way interfere with our study of the
general geology of the country, while of course it renders the
investigation of the geology of any particular region exceed-
ingly embarrassing.

The great chain of the Andes extends parallel to the coast
of Chile at a distance of from ninety to one hundred miles.
On the eastern side it descends by gradual slopes toward the
immense plains of the Argentine Republic. On the western

MINERALS OF CHILE. 5D

side, where the upheaving force appears to have concentrated
all its energy, the slopes are abrupt, and transformed frequently
into vertical precipices of considerable height. The mountains
appear heaped confusedly one on top of the other, and the first
impression is that in the midst of so much confusion it is vain
to seek for the primitive condition of the surface of Chile.
Stratified rocks disappear entirely from north to south for the
mean width of forty-five miles—from the desert of Atacama to
Valdivia. These rocks, although they once existed, are now
profoundly altered or entirely melted by contact with the
enormous masses of granite. The clay-shales, which doubt-
less constituted the mass of the original stratified rocks, are
now transformed into porphyries of every shade and of the
most varied composition, alternating in some parts with beds
of compact quartz. Even when the rocks are seen stratified,
far removed from the masses of granite, and in beds sensibly
horizontal or little inclined, still the numerous injected veins
which traverse them and ramify in all directions prove that
hardly any where have the rocks escaped the modifying force
of igneous action.

Two immense granite elevations appear to have disturbed
Chile in its entire length parallel to the coast. One is imme-
diately on the coast, with an average breadth of forty-five
miles, while the other is one hundred miles east in the midst
of stratified rocks. The first range plunges into the sea, hav-
ing valleys in various parts of it filled with tertiary deposits.
As regards the respective ages of these two ranges there ap-
pears to be a difference of opinion; some supposing that the
range on the coast was first upheaved, and at a subsequent
period the inner range, while others suppose them to have
originated at the same time. But whichever one of these
suppositions is true, the general characters of the rock of the
two ranges are the same, as well as the metalliferous veins
and accompanying vein rocks. Associated with the granite
of these ranges are hornblende rocks of the greatest variety,
porphyries of all shades, containing crystals of feldspar some-
times of considerable size. Besides these, there are other
compact rocks which can not be properly classified.

The principal masses of secondary rocks that lay between
the two ranges of mountains are composed of metamorphic

56 MINERALS OF CHILE.

porphyry of a great variety of shades of color. Sometimes
the porphyry is entirely altered; it then contains well-formed
crystals of feldspar, and appears to have been melted where it
now rests; and at other times it is earthy, as if the transfor-
mation had been incomplete. Large masses of reddish, yellow,
-and violet quartz alternate with the porphyry in certain
points; also calcareous beds, sometimes fossiliferous. These
stratified rocks are elevated on the flanks of the Andes, and
form some of the most prominent peaks of this range. These
strata are so completely pierced and elevated in every direction
by the masses of granite as to modify in every possible manner
their direction, inclination, and mineralogical character.

Besides the secondary stratified rocks just made mention of,
there are other stratified rocks which are horizontal, having
been deposited since the elevation of the mountain-chains.
They are all, however, of recent origin and of small extent,
disseminated along the coast, with the exception of the sandy
plain that extends between Huasco and Copiapo, having a length
of from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and thirty
miles, with a variable width. This plain has, however, been
elevated since its formation; in fact, M. Domeyko has deter-
mined three distinct terraces of successive and gentle elevation.
There are also alluvial deposits now going on in some of the
valleys of the elevated portions of the mountains, consisting
of a fine clay, transported there by the mountain streams.

According to the observation of M. Crosnier, he has en-
countered but one formation that appears to be of lacustrine
origin, and this is situated in the cordilleras of Chillan, forty-
five miles north of Lavederos.

The tertiary deposits subsequent to the elevation of the
Andes contain in many parts lignite. Some of these places
are worked. The principal mines are situated to the south of
Biobio, some twenty miles distant from the mouth of this river,
on the sea-shore. The mines are called Lota and Lotilla.

Some of the departments of Chile have been examined with
minuteness by M. Domeyko, more especially that of Copiapo;
which, although little else than a vast desert, is the richest
department of Chile in mines of every description, there not
being a single mountain where the veins are not of sufficient
importance to be worked. And it is worthy of remark that

MINERALS OF CHILE. 57

no mines are found higher than four thousand five hundred
feet above the level of the sea; and this peculiarity I believe
pertains to all parts of Chile.

Taking the Bay of Copiapo as a starting-point and going
east, we find the underlying rock of the country granite, the
surface being covered with tertiary deposits of very modern
origin, the same that is found at the mouth of all the Chilean
rivers. These deposits form two and three terraces, and con-
sist principally of sand mixed with shell and gravel. At
about six miles from the sea solid calcareous beds show them-
selves, containing species of crustaceze now found living on the
shore. The granite of this coast is fine-grained, having the
same aspect as that in the neighborhood of Coquimbo, and is
the same as that of the mountains of Carrisal, San Juan, and
La Aliguera, celebrated for their copper-mines. Granite-hills
project frequently above the tertiary planes that extend to and
rest on the first chain of granite-rocks which are low and
rounded. It is in these rocks wherever seen, whether on the
coast or projecting above the tertiary planes, or, when still
further east, projecting through secondary strata, that the
copper and gold are found. A good example of this is the
Cerro del Cobre mountain, which elevates itself at the bottom
of the valley of Copiapo. This mountain is composed of an
elevated mass of porphyritic diorite, traversed by veins of iron
and copper ores, containing considerable quantities of magnetic
iron and ferruginous oxide of copper, copper pyrites, ete. It
forms a species of granitic island in the midst of stratified
porphyritic and other compact rocks more or less calcareous,
and preserves all the characters of the coast rocks, even to the
nature of the veins that it contains.

Further east, overlying the granite and dioritic rocks, are
stratified porphyries; and here, at a height of two thousand
two hundred and fifty feet above the level of the sea, as at
Ladrillos, commence the indications of silver, disseminated in
extremely fine particles of chloro-bromide; but on excavating
this indication soon disappears, and it is not until we reach
a more elevated point that silver is found very abundantly,
and where the stratification becomes more perfect. Above the
stratified porphyries there are, calcareous and schistose rocks,
more or less disturbed from their original position.

58 MINERALS OF CHILE.

What is here said of the geological structure of the country
east of Copiapo is true of many other parts of Chile from the
coast eastward. From these general views of the geology of
Chile I next pass to the consideration of the minerals collected
by the expedition, accompanying the mineralogical discription
of them with an account of the manner of their occurrence.
For the latter I am also indebted to the geologists already
made mention of.

NATIVE GOLD.

The specimens of this metal were contained in quartz-rock,
exhibiting all the usual characteristics of. auriferous quartz.
The gold contains silver with but a trace of copper. In Chile
this metal is found in veins as well as in the drift; the whole
granite of the country is traversed by quartz containing more
or less gold associated with the peroxide of iron, and at some
depth from the surface with iron pyrites; sometimes with
cupreous pyrites, arsenical pyrites, blende, galena, and sul-
phuret of anatomy. These veins by their decomposition fur-
nish auriferous deposits of considerable extent, that are now
worked.

Mention is made by M. Crosnier of a number of gold de-
posits irregularly disseminated in the midst of decomposed
granite and red clay, which contains a large quantity of per-
oxide of iron, and which appears not to have originated from
the decomposition of regularly-formed veins. ‘This fact is
apparent in the neighborhood of Valparaiso. It is also stated
that gold is found in clay more or less ferruginous, arising
from the decomposition of the granite in the most elevated
portions of certain mountains; consequently in a situation
where it should not have been carried by water.

It is supposed that the gold came up with the mass of
granite at the time of the elevation of the latter, and not by
subsequent injections of veins; and in most instances iron
pyrites is regarded as its original associate. This character of
auriferous formation 1s of course the exception, as in most
instances the gold is traceable to regular veins, or to the de-
composition of these veins. Although gold seems to be quite
generally distributed through Chile, but few of the deposits
remunerate exploration; the most extensive are on the flanks

MINERALS OF CHILE. 59

of the Andes, about forty miles east of Chillan, where it exists
to the depth of thirty-five feet, in a very fine yellow clay
mixed with black sand. The yield of gold is not very great.

NATIVE COPPER.

This is very commonly found in all the copper-mines of
Chile. In one specimen from Andacollo (Coquimbo) it was
found erystallized in modified octahedrons; it is very com-
monly associated with the red oxide of copper, as beautifully
showa by a specimen from Illapel (Coquimbo). It is also
found in quartz at Andacollo (Coquimbo). Others of the speci-
mens came from San José, San Pedro Nolasco, Hinchado,
Higuera, and Aconcagua.

RED COPPER.

This mineral is found beautifully crystallized in octahedrons
more or less modified. The most beautiful specimens of this
description are from Coquimbo; other specimens are massive
and granular.

Its hardness is 3.5; specific gravity 5.9. Its color is vari-
ous shades of bright-red, and the crystals are transparent,
although from the exceeding intensity of their color they
must be examined by a strong light.

This mineral is quite brittle, and is composed of

Womens eccrs macomos ees ssid stihesacesacerangectaeesss 88.88
OSSF ESM gsoc caasane op anodogsaossy sadans wo bosdecebo bapuaeondandeoE 11.12

Formula is Cu? O. 100.00

It sometimes forms veins coated with green and blue sili-
cates of copper in the mines of Camarona and Cortadera, in
the province of Coquimbo. In the Andacollo mine it is found
pure and abundant below the oxysulphuret, resting on metallic
copper, with which it is very commonly mixed. Aconcagua
also afforded specimens. At Illapel it is found containing
native silver.

CAPILLARY RED COPPER.

This beautiful form of the oxide of copper is found in fine,
delicate rhombohedral crystals. It was found in the cavities
of massive specimens of the red copper from Aconcagua. The
crystals are as small as the finest hair, and sometimes half an

60 MINERALS OF CHILE.

inch in length. Its color is crimson-red; specific gravity 5.8.
Its composition is the same as the last described mineral.

TENORITE OR BLACK OXIDE OF COPPER.

This is found massive, almost always mixed with other min-
erals of copper. It has a black metallic luster, and when pure
contains

Copper vecscs ince scale satigee nie daneini dae beanies ae aeiiem seston eee 79.86

Its formula is Cu O.

ATACAMITE.

This mineral was first discovered in the sands of the desert
of Atacama, and hence its name. It is crystallized in modified
rectangular prisms and rectangular octahedrons. Its color is
of a dark emerald-green, almost black at times. It is translu-
cent; has a hardness of from 3 to 3.5, and a specific gravity of
about 4. It consists of water, chloride, and oxide of conn
and contains, according to analysis of Ulex—

CHNOTING ss jdicacdanoneesensceesceciiecoesete tacts sachets Casaee 16.12
Oxadevor Cop perree taeda -aucshen- dota ccuernartencseecs cree 56.23
ARI e ie Saanccae see be RobEnS Hododocba bopoeaSoaqed “8-8 s0e gocéuo 11.99
Coppers. eases denies soscciee ele oadielae atelectasis asi inerethloeetonsee ones 14.56
Salcaye eee cateee shen ie). eae uammee ntiays tric ohh a talaa ctetnete eee 1.20

100.00

Corresponding to the formula Cu Cl+3 Gu--3 FH.

This mineral is also found in the district of Tarapaca. It
is ground up in Chile, and is used as powder for letters under
the name of arsenillo. .

COPPER GLANCE.

The specimens of this mineral examined were all massive,
of a black metallic luster, soft, and easily cut with a knife,
having a specific gravity of 5.7. It commonly has green
and blue carbonate disseminated through the mass. . It is
composed of

(Ole) Soc MBRENTHA SeracCHAdIoND ROME Cpt ano ah664%0..000 sau.cocorgnbooonbecadc 79.8
Sal OW UT s..isadss sepioeiesalse cels/sltetet « nisenemmate teen sartieiel-foj Retails 20.2
100.0

MINERALS OF CHILE. 61

Tt is most abundant in those mines furthest from the coast,
existing in secondary stratific porphyry, and sometimes con-
taining a notable amount of silver. It is also found abun-
dantly in the mines of Chile that are near the coast, and are in
dioritic and porphyritic rocks; but in them it is rarely found
pure, being almost always mixed with the black oxide of cop-
per or the oxychloride. The specimens examined were from
Copiapo, although there are numerous localities. It is remark-
able that at San Antonio this mineral is associated with native
silver, and yet often contains hardly more than one thousandth
of this latter metal. Specimens of pure sulphuret of copper
are found, in which metallic silver is imbedded in the form of
grains or little plates; and the same sulphuret contains grains
and plates of native copper entirely separate from the silver.

ERUBESCITE OR PURPLE COPPER.

This is one of the most abundant of the minerals of copper
found in Chile. It is procured in large quantities at the mines
of Tamaya, in Coquimbo, Los Sapos, and Higuera. No crystals
were seen. It is massive, of a purplish, variegated color, with
a metallic luster. It is brittle, and not very hard. When the
surface is freshly broken it is of a brass color that very often
tarnishes, acquiring a purplish hue. The massive varieties of
this mineral always vary more or less in their composition.
- The specimens examined contained from fifty-five to sixty-
five per cent. of copper. Three specimens, that have been
thoroughly analyzed by M. Domeyko, gave

Tamaya. Los Sapos. Higuera.
Coppers cestescear. deci sestns. 66.7 56.1 59.5
HON eee seat awe searts ccsde ates 8.9 Nile 18.2
Syl oa eta aloe cena cclenise eeiha's 22.8 Zoe 20.5
A) WARE Zea te mecenaiaere nokoe one oe 1.6 3.1 1.8
99.8 100.0 100.0

The formula is Fe S+2 Cu? S.

This mineral furnishes a great deal of the copper produced

in Chile. ;
COPPER PYRITES.

This is the most abundant copper-ore of Chile, and is found
in immense quantities in the province of Coquimbo. Some
of it, as that from Tamaya, contains .0025 per cent. of silver,
while that of another mine contains gold. All the specimens

62 MINERALS OF CHILE.

were massive, of a brass-yellow color, metallic luster, fresh
fractured surfaces tarnishing readily. In fact it possesses all
the known characteristics of this mineral as found elsewhere.
Its composition when perfectly pure is

SU PMU P sibs Resid set bandesereceenecetan rceuiccate sameeren a oee tas 35.05
COP POP seaaedesinsad ies o Sade stants Sawen sata nae ela emmemtnastne 34.47
| BY CroNA Brose mn Se coarac naacdee ch ncocoasa kde cd oe sad bon abchaabaqsocdee 30.48
100.00
Several specimens examined gave
1 2 3 4
SUI) MNP So6 cee 33.05 Bd sad (AY vchveceay hi, 0 ene
Copper yn.s.csen 36.60 33.67 31.02 35.01
1B so) Th ROR PaaA A 29.33 ZS DO po as oie ata
98.98 99.45

Its formula is Cu? S+Fe? S°.

This mineral is rarely found in granite, but often in horn-
blendic and porphyritic transition rocks, accompanied by iron
pyrites, magnetic iron, asbestos, quartz, and various species of
clay; very rarely with carbonate of lime. The most important
mines yielding the copper pyrites are Carrisal, Atacama, and
Higuera, Brillador, Tambillos, ete., in Coquimbo.

ARSENICAL GRAY COPPER,

Gray copper appears not to be found very abundantly in
Chile. There are, however, three varieties of it; one of which
contains quite an amount of mercury, another having the com-
position of ordinary gray copper, while a third abounds in
arsenic. They all three possess the ordinary physical charac-
ters of gray copper; namely, a steel-gray and iron-black color,
with metallic luster, rather brittle; hardness, 3 to 4, with specific
gravity varying from 4.5 to 5. No specimen of this variety
was obtained. It is found at San Pedro Nolasco, and its com-
position, as made out by M. Domeyko, is

COP Per sek atecontte natin sedioton Ne sa eeae Ree gare LiAscn. eco memeae 48.5
BE oy eee ne Seta teeter eso. a A ae ATE. 4.8
ZANG 9 .sanet hereon oscar Scho ee ee Dents aioe eee saotnea nee
SST WOT ai x. de ackesereteeere nics Scictoioies Sacer eR RE ENS rae lek Se ere eee Ca
APSOIAG 5\ acd sdedotsns donde d sab et eee Sas ace ee 11.4
ANSUUMDONO SI econo doh. -25- «Slot ondathek NR Rare SAIC aks theca en 6.4
Sel plur’ cor cccperelieaseon steele orem eee ete cia geist eee 26.1

MINERALS OF CHILE.

MERCURIAL GRAY COPPER.

This is found in some of the mercurial mines of Chile in
small amorphous masses, disseminated in a quarter gangue,
accompanied by the blue carbonate of copper and a red earthy
substance of deep-red color, apparently an antimoniate of mer-
cury. This also has been analyzed by Domeyko, with the
following result:

JSMIDNENO TAG 6-6 Soan9¢ pa sko8ar9 cennnosab sus 320560 seg ae sae EEs spas0cNcH 20.7
DESC Oe Ota Seth MOE Br ae a CME Re TNE oT MO RAY Peer Oy tee
EINER SR TG Se LN hs AMEN Hie en RCRA MHEG. Wlgt Ae ered hiss trace
(COl DDS P seen one bar bd be Ag ORUn BBS COnED Breiman Ubsia ce sencrriaal Bamimce rey 39.6
IMI@IRCWIA eromosnde ac concer foddenodedsn fogee dob cone dosdso psreeueuoose 24.0
SIUM OIA dee doBaebey socmnaodtadodanas dae du caceddtud oe aresadoapmoke Ae,

100.0

ANTIMONIAL GRAY COPPER.

This is the common form of gray copper, and several speci-
mens were brought home by the expedition.
a small amount of silver, as seen by the following analysis:

PSU OINONTEE. cceieclats cyaide lors saemuistioidasistactii eccamieceeane ses eustyar 26.83
PASC ITINOMviertatsetsnalere ca actlsseeeasse\cassatecniogtdasaniswaenoeecdtou2Onik
ANTESELENG@ Gacsac BANE DU Ae tee Se Rita chore cine re caicak eee Mars mE toni ah 3.05
WO OCI elect cnselade Ces omesnssctloncne sane cectla asus qual tsarsercie tse 36.02
TLIRON RN SAG RSE Cea hs er ea ale AEs RR gL ER A 2.36
IRDC SS, Soo C ACA OBES SOC EEE SCE EA AC ty nee Re ie eee 452
SHIA Te tas See cera EER Seca oa caren ec va Ei Se othars sale snares 3.41

99.40

The formula of gray copper is represented by—

(4 Cu?, Ag, Fe, Zn) S+(Sb As) S3.

Besides the above species of gray copper, others are found
which, whether arsenical or antimonial, contain only a few
thousandths of mercury. These varieties are almost invariably
destitute of silver.

DOMEYKITE, ARSENICAL COPPER.

This mineral is massive, of a tin-white color, with a metallic
luster, and specific gravity of 4.5.
copper pyrites.
it furnished

PES CIA Coe c te te aterm he felts « oivnts Seisasiepesiadle Velie taicjocicee state 22.08
(CX0) 0) OT actiabacio Aj dhOuDOC A Qe S CARER ESRB cca Sa eee EB aR Enema Bears 72.41
Mien eee tele cre seem eereticractac cass Cn rsa! sicetes atc fare Jota cle meee cia ae 3.22
SU NUN Pre sate serarc dsiiee Sas cfs Voss wiveie weceiatyaieie’s se@aloe sicseneem tenets 2.01

It contained but

It is about the hardness of
The specimen examined was not a pure one;

64 MINERALS OF CHILE.

Perfectly pure specimens, according to Domeyko, contain

ATS ONC Gatien seuss d aead span ata ese Aeterna aise 28.36
LOG) O) eit senocespoceaqnoc a sbenns cbbncotae nboabonetnoaenn aduoséaneoss 71.64
Which give the formula Cu? As. 100.00

It is found pure, without any admixture of sulphuret, near
Illapel, in the same veins which near the surface yield red cop-
per with native silver. It is also found in some of the silver-
mines of Atacama, particularly in those of San Antonio.

It is almost always mixed with copper pyrites in varying
proportions, and sometimes with the oxide and amorphous
green arseniate of copper.

Besides this species, there is found in the cordilleras a kind
of white native copper, containing from 3 to 5 per cent. of
arseniuret of copper, and resembling native silver.

OLIVENITE, ARSENIATE OF COPPER.

It always accompanies the arseniurets, and is amorphous,
with a compact earthy structure, green color, with varying
shades, and is always mixed with carbonate and silicates of
copper. This mineral, it appears, is never found perfectly
pure in Chile; but when pure, as found elsewhere, it contains

JSVIESEONIGEVONG linn aban débadanantticc ood iobsadodonlasedon 805060000 3178
JENS) DII@IIO BVENC ko can se choodooudbodsopue> a606a5 oaseo00g6 000 460% 6.57
Oxiderots copperscrsnucnsdsnchenaseseeeoselocsene cet ects 58.34
WAVOL. sala ee csc onseden shine sala auatine setae eutese nt tec aebioites Peo} 3:

And the formula is Gut (As, P) +H

CHRYSOCOLLA, SILICATE OF COPPER.

This is very commonly found in all the copper-veins of Chile
always massive, sometimes in the form of mamillary coatings
and concretions. It is of various shades of green and blue,
and sometimes of a dark and almost black color. Its specitic
gravity is 2.2. It is easily crushed. It is not an easy matter
to find the chrysocolla perfectly pure. The specimen that
furnished the material analyzed was a mass of copper pyrites,
covered with a mamillary coating of the silicate, which was
detached with much care. It furnished

Oxide of meee Bh istisnuied « suisisieds soap Meaeenmece tas nelleris atelier 42.51
PMG Atel IES 10 tau Pt a i Sn ray NCC NA
Wiater. SAPP Oe ann Mie BR Bhs os coc OC RR OMB ARR OA TION WoO Zee2
Oxidetof: Irons heheh eee ee ee reneien ioc etree: 1 iy

ATMA woe tes cn Ooeie ate CRT ee a cians 2.82

MINERALS OF CHILE. 65

Corresponding very nearly to the formula, Cu Si?+6H. Other
specimens were found to contain oxide of copper varying from
twenty to fifty per cent.

The name Llanea is given by miners to a silicate of differ-
ent shades of green and blue, which very often accompanies
the copper minerals, especially the oxysulphurets, forming the
envelope of some veins, constituting masses in which. native
copper, red oxide, carbonate, and at times sulphurets of copper,
are found. Most of the copper-veins in Chile abound in these
silicates near the surface. The basic silicate found in many of
the copper-mines of Coquimbo are always in the upper parts
of the veins, forming narrow seams, between red oxide and
green and blue Llanca. It is frequently mixed with the black
silicate. La Higuera and San Lorenzo furnished the specimens
examined.

AZURITE, BLUE CARBONATE OF COPPER.

This occurs both crystallized and massive. Among the speci-
mens was one, crystallized on copper pyrites, from Andacollo.
It possesses all the common characteristics of this mineral as
found elsewhere, and is composed of

Oral Genoa COEF aaesne dacs. o asus csessecccensonciesnadeso acer: 69.09
Osos EU ea rnise sowone cinta ssonls Saclame dbavesaecisouewummerenaae 25.69
RUA EOE rse) See crclen, GuGait scetg cosas ioreeeea Cane Saelecn RRs OLED

100.00

The formula representing it is 2 Cu ©-Cu H.

It is found in many localities associated with the ores of
copper.

MALACHITE, GREEN CARBONATE OF COPPER.

This mineral exists abundantly in Chile, but is not found in
those large compact masses (such as are procured from Siberia
and other places) out of which ornaments are made. It has
ne peculiar properties in which it differs from the malachite
of other localities. Crystallized specimens were procured from
Tortolas and Tamaya. Other specimens came from Tarienta,
San José, etc. Its composition is

Wai WomMie elCiCleeehe cuca dic capes eaten cheaen Acacabeae sarees 20.00
Onclde On COPE leoacissac cc sckasceccaateness cece ce tonctnaene 71.82
AUR TORNC a7 on tec a ee a Su SE aOR GE 8.18

100.00

Formula is Cu2 C-+H.

66 MINERALS OF CHILE.

BLUE VITRIOL, SULPHATE OF COPPER.

This salt is found, associated with the sulphate of iron ane
alumina, at Tierra Amarilla, in the valley of Copiapo. It
arises from the decomposition of copper pyrites. It is consti-
tuted of

Oxide of ‘copper. ic Sisco. eins. ben seiuss tonto ace 32.14
poles CONG BSAA HERG HABE RU ana eee otontnadaseheanncn sont 31.72
Water... Jeicineishc sera Ueltebubeices saniaee-coatans’s stceni hater de tains aed

Its formula is Cu $+5 Ti. 100.00

VOLBORTHITE, VANADATE OF COPPER AND LEAD.

This rare mineral was first noticed in Chile by M. Domeyko,
in the Mina Grande, about six miles from the silver-mines of
Arqueros. It is an amorphous substance, porous, heavy, and
of a dark-brown color. It lines the cavities of an arsenio-phos-
phate of lead. At first view it would be confounded with the
hydrated oxide of iron, from which it differs, however, by its
great fusibility and ready solubility in nitric acid. There
were no specimens sufficiently pure for analysis. Those exam-
ined by M. Domeyko gave

1 2

Oxiderotvlead: 3255 Secs foe ee 54.9 51.97
Oxidelofacop pennies. create ercekccetenner 14.6 16.97
Wi ATIC IGRAC TOs essccneeeceeee nee cree ceamee cee 13.5 13.838
PATSOTLI GE AGIO sos fumassanubeeenee ote estn ce aoateee 4.6 4.68
hos phonieracidievac stone wesiacee astm 6 68
Chicridenotleadis. tke se ee eee 2 ron
Silica (?).. ef S98 Pea SLi oa rte 1.0 ese
A Dah 10 apie ok ee Gt ante RE PR IRS, SPIES PO i 5) 58
Oxide of: iron and alumimna...c.2.:22-.<...<4 3.0 3.42
TEVA Ny TUSSLE ee goodm egg saodsaccauncaosbeD ont 1.0 1.52
TOSS. bay M@at Gna. ns hou. clscoriuederbicsenseacleccnes DET 270

97.20 97.55

Giving for its formula Pb§ V+Cué V.

This differs somewhat from the formula furnished by the
analysis of the volborthite, as found in the copper -mines
between Miash and Katherinenberg, Russia; but as the Chile
variety has not yet been found crystallized, the differences may
be due to impurities.

REMARKS ON THE COPPER MINERALS.
The minerals of copper have been described after gold,
from the fact that the great mass of them occur in Chile in the
same geological formation as the gold. It is the granite that

MINERALS OF CHILE. 67

is most commonly traversed by copper-veins, sometimes of a
considerable size. Along the coast it is found in the form of
copper pyrites alone, or associated with two varieties of iron
pyrites, and also as péacock or purple copper. Galena and
blende are rarely found in them, and scarcely ever gray copper.
Native copper, red oxide, oxychloride, oxysulphuret, green car-
bonate, and hydrous and anhydrous silicates of copper of a great
variety of colors are also abundant, especially at the upper part
of the veins. The silicates sometimes line the walls of the veins,
and penetrate to some distance in the inclosing rock, which be-
comes unequally colored blue or green. The numerous veins of
copper are disseminated very irregularly in the granite, and
their value is equally variable; sometimes the veins have a
breadth of from six to nine feet, as at Tamaya, near Coquimbo,
where at the depth of six hundred feet there is a daily yield of
from eight to ten tons of an ore yielding seldom less than fifty
and oftentimes as much as seventy-five per cent. of copper.

NATIVE SILVER.

This is found in more or less abundance in the various
silver-mines of Chile. Most frequently it is associated with
dolomite, calcareous spar, sulphate of baryta, and some of the
minerals of cobalt. Much of it is found in the form of thin
sheets, as at San Pedro Nolasco; at Calabaco (Illapel) it is in
small, irregular grains; and at various mines in Copiapo it
exists in the form of threads, along with native arsenic and
other arsenical minerals. At Chafiarcillo it occurs associated
with the chloro-bromides, in dendritic forms; and at San An-.
tonio and some other mines it is found in both small and large
grains in arseniuret of copper and arseniuret of cobalt. At
Illapel it is found in red oxide of copper.

SILVER GLANCE, SULPHURET OF SILVER.

This mineral occurs in all the mines of silver, although in
no considerable quantity, and is rarely if ever crystallized. It
is of a black-lead color, of a metallic luster, having a specitic
gravity of 7.3, and is readily reduced, on a piece of charcoal,
by the action of the blowpipe. Its composition is

DUlVSliersan cases ens cnteic hoa ss sia, eiseolearm elena Benieatacbatsiae oalce cienersiae oe 85
SUMO MUR eexcansagucndeeament snc sawdeey ster eeeaegs aac cemesiete cee = 15
100

Its formula is Ag S.

68 MINERALS OF OHILE.

SULPHURET OF SILVER AND COPPER.

This compound is made mention of by M. Domeyko as
existing in the mines of San Pedro Nolasco and Catemo. His
analysis gave the following as its constitution :

San Pedro Nolasco. Catemo.

aa om Ts Pe
DLIVEl cf de kiokecrseomas 28.8 24h 16.6 WI
Copper i caseccceere 53.4 53.9 60.6 64.0
TG OTN ee are ee 0.0 Del 2.3 2.5
RWI OUNIB Se docuobae cotoco WKS 19.9 20.5 21.4

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

From the variable nature of its composition I should con-
sider it merely a mixture of silver and copper glance.

RUBY-SILVER.

It occurs both crystallized and massive, possessing a very
dark crimson-red color; the color is commonly so intense that
the mass appears black except when examined by transmitted
hght in thin pieces; it is easily cut with the knife, and fur-
nishes silver under the blowpipe when heated on charcoal.
Its most constant companions are native arsenic, arseniuret
and sulpho-arseniuret of iron, arsenical cobalt, blende, calca-
reous spar, silver glance. It is sometimes found crystallized
in metastatic dodecahedrons; at other times it is in masses
disseminated in the midst of different spars and argillaceous
gangues. It is found in microscopic crystals in the cavities
and crevices of native arsenic and of arseniuret and sulpho-
arseniuret of iron. ‘The principal sources of it are at Chanar-
cillo in the lower part of the veins, and in other mines in the
province of Atacama.

There are two distinct compositions to the dark and light
ruby-silver; the former being a sulphuret of antimony and
silver, and the latter a sulphuret of arsenic and silver.

Dark Ruby-Silver.

Sil Verena ded eneciertela senate seals Su aaM Reus eM eret Male vine. Mtoe eam 58.98
Fae MAb OLO 0 Menenncnica> dotancoheerAdonocbos: no Eas dob ARanodeadaconss | 24a 4ie
Sulphur’ icc seeaeasaseowice sie alormeaaetenenenlsiss/]atas ec Aseeeaee 17.56

100.00

The formula of this is 3 Ag S+Sb S?.

MINERALS OF CHILE. 69

Light Ruby-silver.
Ua tS eee ee etre ere ciae mimeo lat ee wis oae clnielalehida Gusielesice ana 65.38
TAGES ORIEN ch css reed cae Oncautincotedd atone anes ato cad 19.46
UN PMUE oobi sce. cs ese cerns taseneaearcctividsscnaseanccecsacens 15.16
100.00

The formula being 3 Ag S-+As 83.

The latter is the most common variety in Chile; one speci-
men, analyzed by M. Domeyko, furnished

SNR RR eer a rer oeistcl hc eicteiaarate co steer ara eis lcsnaiald Suse go olanalaaues 63.85
TISEOROT Sesh As Ce een RnR te ne Mee ORS SRI = a 96
Gal tesa eerie se cece seat cic eee ue atan sioasodenteseceeccteeds 19
PANTISO MIG ieee ett ctactasioa abit noice Kine Ob can eiee aaa o clase < abeee sles 13.85
Antimony ........... NAS SRO ESE ee On ESRB ASEE SEE TAPP iene SAE 4 .70
SIO TOMBE sedge senconauasis6 5660p SRA GSU Ne ANI ee pee boa hema ee 18.00
(SENINEU.G enc: Soadeanypan detodybansAesemen acer OeescDosaBon ssanenEneas 1.60

99.15

ANTIMONIAL SILVER.

It is found both massive and crystallized near Coquimbo ;
it does not exist abundantly, is of a tin-white color with
metallic luster, having specific gravity of 9.5. This mineral
is frequently mixed with arsenical and native silver; when
pure it contains

NS Nlays TREE eR cet ese c rot oes Li ets ae tab ctawicle cia ae stars tie dips we. 17
ANDI IDOUIRT oS crocedon odoa oad osSbbqgDonSBbdocoopgnBogDenecrUBacésonc 23

Having for its formula Ag* Sb.

POLYBASITE.

Found in considerable quantity in the province of Atacama,
massive, of an iron-black color, and a specific gravity of 6.2;
it is composed of

SIY Slikob add Ro gganc BD Ne Hoobs OGECMRE nn edtocc oc On Cab aC oSReErES ae 66.25
WO CE vecscsecesustesne sis. saad cvncsesceiquesensscduddeosttecsass 4.08
JBNIERIETIUNG cocdeuooob ogoveOsO OR BORNE apHOb Hp SyoocuEob Socbne-sDe aobeanoee 5.22
ANTM EMTTROTWYVo00 oe so 1pcsocbooe ponadeebacéonogede codec bonSDoASbeuere 2.56
IORI soosscqcpadeé cheaes epee luo CEE Ren bone: cpcdne Cocsoudene caBBeAsad 2.34
SUMPOMUIEH <sssmecsse-tclesesceroacesceec cs sveneetodseens save area eos 18.68

99.13

Its formula is considered to be 9 (Ag Cu?) S-++(Sb As) S3.

BISMUTH-SILVER.

In the mines of San Antonio, in the province of Copiapd, an
alloy of silver and bismuth is found; its color is tin-white,
6

70 MINERALS OF CHILE.

high metallic luster. The only analysis we have of this variety
of bismuth-silver is one by M. Domeyko; the following are the
results:

SD bh 12) ge ae en Rea eR Fh SOs Shite a doo nasSeedsamanie 60.1
BiSmoutle i ssci las Paka we ieee reece ae eee ne sr oat 10.1
OO) Oy OeNe dononcocucsooouasao sooo scadsobconeshosood AdsonasbaeesgS009 7.8
WATSON GES cnb cde dou donenaeeacerensenseie ae tees ae ee eeee Me em ener ae 2.8
GaN Ue scc..svscene’ sau dsedesecsenecess dossecatemace: someesee ee eeee 19.2

100.0

HORN-SILVER, CHLORIDE OF SILVER.

This is one of the most abundant silver minerals in Chile,
as it is found there in quantities far exceeding any thing that
is elsewhere known. It is commonly massive, resembling wax
of a grayish color, when the surface is freshly broken; but
soon tarnishes on the exposure to light, acquiring a purplish
tint. Sometimes it is of a greenish tint. Its luster is resinous ;
easily cut with a knife; specific gravity 5.4. It possesses all
the properties of the artificial chloride. Its composition is

Formula, Ag Cl. 70000

Several very fine specimens were brought by the expedition
from the Chanarcillo, Valenciana mines, in Atacama, and other
localities.

BROMIC SILVER.

This compound of silver is likewise found in Chajfarcillo,
and in many respects resembles the chloride; its color is
greener, and it never occurs in such masses as the chloride.
It is equally soft, having a little higher specific gravity—5.8.
Composition when pure:

STEVI a Be EA itso le bo ate wicieloe oUe RMR RESTO MINS Eee log Grell bee ee eee 58
EPTOTINITRS ia sia tae elo eae eee ere ee Re traeae ele ote cre ore te 42,
100

Formula, Ag Br.

EMBOLITE, CHLORO-BROMIDE OF SILVER.

This mineral is found both crystallized and massive in
several of the mines of Chile, in the provinces of Atacama
and Coquimbo. It is less abundant than the chloride, although
more so than the bromide. Externally it is greenish, internally

MINERALS OF CHILE. yell

a sulphur-yellow. It has the same luster as the chloride; it
is, however, harder than the latter; its specific gravity is the
same as the bromide. The composition of it is

SINR pee eck eine decent cnn ttc coitwuid dapat mmictn ecient 66.96
(CA MIG TOTNES Ge SEER Seite neat ea A REE AP 2S ener Aik Dk ae 13.20
J BTEC TITAN ae en ea ce tHE a an ert Ee 19.84

100.00

Formula is Ag (Cl Br).

IODIC SILVER.

This beautiful and rare mineral has been found in some
little quantity in the silver-mines of Algodones, province of
Coquimbo. The mineral is of a pale sulphur-yellow color,
very fragile and soft, having a specific gravity of 5.5. One
specimen that I saw had crystalline faces, indicative of a
rhombic dodecahedron. It is commonly lamellar, and M. Do-
meyko has recognized in some small pieces three rhomboidal
cleavages; two of the cleavages appear quite perfect, having a
pearly luster. It is more brittle and more fusible than either
the chloride or the chloro-bromide. The presence of iodine
and silver are readily recognized by the ordinary tests. Its
gangue is composed partly of carbonate of lime and partly of
a brick-red fine clay. In the Carmen mine a considerable
amount of iodide was found in the first part of the vein; at
the depth of twelve varas (thirty-three feet) it disappeared,
and chloro-bromide made its appearance in identically the
same gangue; and at a still greater depth the latter mineral
disappeared, and was replaced by the chloride, accompanied
with the sulphuret of silver. It has also been found in small
quantities at one of the mines of the Chajiarcillo district.

This interesting mineral has the same atomic constitution
as the other natural haloid salts of silver, as originally shown
by M. Domeyko; although, in referring to certain works on
mineralogy, Domeyko is quoted as giving for its composition
one atom of silver and two of iodine, while the chloride and
bromide of silver are alluded to as constituted of atom and
atom, forgetting that the I’ used (as is frequently done) corre-
sponds to I commonly used by American and English chemists,
making the formula as given by Domeyko Ag. I, which formula
is sustained by my analyses, as well as those made by M.
Domeyko.

72 MINERALS OF CHILE.

The results I obtained are as follows:

1 2

ME OUIMG: sc ecccace Maw oe ene 52.834 538.109

Sil Vers ii. oh ess kk ae se ee 46.521 46.380
Chlorine........... PE Tee eu piid tons Cia A trace. trace.

CO PPE pass aden sickhisee sate endace sence eneteee trace. trace.
99.455 99.489

The formula Ag. I gives as percentage—

LOGINS Ae ee ee ae ee caeatne Sey ss to ee een 58.85
SIV OT 2 ois ok SiR el See e Sorc te Set A Thy: era ee 46.15
100.00

ARQUERITE.

This mineral is found in great abundance at the mines of
Arqueros, near Coquimbo; in fact it is the ore of those mines.
It is quite like native silver in appearance, with, however, a
little more greasy luster. It is disseminated through a calca-
reous rock. Several specimens examined furnished different
proportions of silver and mercury, the proportions of silver
varying from eighty-three to ninety-two per cent. M. Do-
meyko, who has had opportunity of examining a greater
variety of specimens, gives the following fixed composition:

LIVER Se cccireisesls ciohtina’s osteae aiosane oot seenc Mach eaemtiemanceae nes 86.49

The formula is Ag.® Hg. 100.00

In all likelihood there is a definitely constituted silver amal-
gam at Arqueros, but in most instances is altered by admix-
ture with native silver.

REMARKS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE SILVER-ORKES.

In speaking of the copper and gold veins it was remarked
that they traversed the granite and other old unstratified rocks.
M. Domeyko thinks that he has established a law in the distri-
bution of the metalliferous veins of Chile. It is that gold and
copper veins, exempt from arsenic, antimony, and silver, abound
in the granite-rock; while all the silver-veins, without refer-
ence to the associates of the silver, belong to the stratified
rocks; and also that the copper-veins found in stratified rocks
are very frequently argentiferous. M. Crosnier, however, points
out two exceptions to this rule in the province of Copiapo, viz.,
the Pampa Larga and Garin mines. The Pampa Larga veins

MINERALS OF CHILE. 73

traverse compact feldspar, a portion of which near the surface
is transformed into kaolin. The upper portion of the vein
contains chloride and sometimes native silver; but at a certain
distance from the surface the entire mass of the vein is com-
posed of compact native arsenic, in which we find occasionally
sulphuret of antimony, realgar, arsenio-sulphuret of silver
(sometimes in very beautiful transparent crystals). Arsenical
pyrites and calcareous spar are also found.

The Garin and Pampa Larga mines are the only two excep-
tions pointed out to the general law first mentioned.

The best method of furnishing a correct idea of the miner-
alogical and geological relations of the different kinds of silver-
ores is to give an account of how they occur in one or two of
the principal mines.

Some of the most remarkable mines are those in the Cha-
fiarcillo Mountain, which is from twenty-five to thirty miles in
a direct line from the coast. This mountain is composed of cal-
careous rocks, more or less argillaceous. Some of the calcareous
rocks are dolomitic, while others are without magnesia. The
stratification is regular and almost horizontal. The argilla-
ceous matter in the rocks are of two kinds—a white clay, and
another composed of a silicate of alumina and iron.

This locality has been thoroughly examined by M. Domeyko,
and he finds no organic remains in those parts of the mountain
where the metal veins are found. The same geologist has,
however, been informed that an ammonite was found in the
rock of Reventon Colorado at some distance beneath the sur-
face. In other parts of this mountain organic remains are
abundant in the calcareous rocks, especially the Turritella
Andii and Terebratule.

From the summit of the Chafiarcillo Mountain to the lowest
workings of the mines is a little less than one thousand feet,
and in that space there can be distinguished something like
three distinct divisions in the formation of the rocks.

The plane at the summit of the mountain is composed of a
dolomitic rock, having in some places a thickness of one hun-
dred feet; it consists of about one third clay. The rock is
split in all directions, and the surface of the fissures covered
with small crystals of calcareous spar. In some places it is so
much split that it looks more like a mass of broken rocks piled

U4. MINERALS OF CHILE.

together, the interstices being filled with an earthy matter as
pulverulent as chalk, and composed of one third carbonate of
lime and two thirds clay. It is in these fissures of the upper
layer that very considerable masses of chloro-bromide of silver
have been found.

The second division of the rocks differs but little in char-
acter from the last, being an argillaceous limestone; it is,
however, more regular and not so much fissured; at the same
time the metalliferous veins traversing it are much poorer.
The thickness of this division is over three hundred and twenty
feet; and here commences the third division, where the lime-
stone contains less clay and but a little trace of magnesia. The
color of the rock is a bluish-gray mottled with yellow; of a
compact structure and conchoidal fracture. This rock contains
the principal wealth of the Chafiarcillo mines, and in it seems
to be the principal deposit of chloro-bromide of silver. The
thickness of this bed is estimated at nearly four hundred feet.
Below this again les another bed, where the calcareous rock
is again more argillaceous and the veins poorer. In this por-
tion of the mountain porphyritic rocks are found at the lowest
depths to which the workings have gone.

Numerous metalliferous veins traverse this mountain in
every direction. The materials constituting these veins (and
mixed with which the silver-ores are found) are the carbonates
of lime, iron, and magnesia, zinc and manganese, and the sul-
phate of baryta, which, however, exists in less quantity in
these mines than in those in other parts of Chile. The metal-
liferous portions of these veins are composed principally of
chloro-bromide of silver mixed with native silver and a small
portion of sulphuret and sulpho-arseniuret of silver. The
chloro-bromide does not show itself in equal abundance at all
depths of the productive calcareous bed already mentioned, it
is, particularly in the upper, one or two hundred feet; below
this depth the gangue becomes less and less calcareous and the
mineral changes its nature. At first it is the pure chloride or
little mixed with sulphuret; then the proportions of sulphur,
antimony, native arsenic, and ruby-silver commence to increase ;
so that at three hundred feet depth hardly a trace of chloro-
bromide is found, the silver being associated with sulphur,
arsenic, and antimony.

MINERALS OF CHILE. 75

These are the general features of these famous silver-mines,
and as here described some general idea can doubtless be formed
of their geological character. Although the general character
of the mines resembles those just described, still the minerals
and the containing rock frequently differ. Thus in the San
Antonio mine, in the valley of Potrero Grande, the rock of the
country is porphyry, regularly stratified, and the gangue rock
of the veins a dark ashy-gray argillaceous rock of an earthy
fracture. It is oftener found impregnated with calcareous and
pearl spars, which form veins and nodules in the midst of the
gangue. The iron found in these veins is in the form of pro-
toxide, while that at Chafarcillo is in the form of hydrated
peroxide. Again, the mines of this latter locality abound in
chloride and chloro-bromide of silver, while on the sulphuret
of the San Antonio mine there is arseniuret and native silver.
Taking the chloride and chloro-bromide as a distinguishing
mark between the mines, they may be divided into two classes ;
those like Chafiarcillo and Agua Amarga abounding in these
two minerals, and those like San Antonio, San Lorenzo, San
Pedro Nolasco, ete., the prominent minerals of which are the
sulphuret and arseniuret of silver, with barely traces of the
chloride.

CINNABAR.

This mineral of mercury occurs in no great masses in Chile.
It is usually found in the granite formation near veins of gold
and copper, a8 in Coquimbo and Aconcagua ; also in a vein of
quartz, in some stratified porphyry, near the gold mines of
Andacollo. The gangue accompanying cinnabar is quartz,
with micaceous and hydrated oxide of iron. The composition
of the cinnabar is

Witeree Ditayarenmer scares cnetiaitactknrs int el an eaanihs «Sta ate 86.2
TS PMMUNUNG MeMer RRs Ae ea sacee ssc dacdamlaceetes ee mctnss vsiosh dee 13.8
The formula is Hg 8.

GALENA.

It is found in some parts of Chile, commonly associated
with the sulphurets of other metals. Composition:

GTO a RS cS 2 tel Ac alle ee tle ASRS RR, ie 3 86.66

Formula, Pb 8.

76 MINERALS OF CHILE.

MIMETENE, CHLORO-ARSIENATE OF LEAD.

This compound of lead has been found in an impure state at
Mina Grande, east of Arqueros, mixed with the vanadates of
lead and copper. The analysis of a specimen by Domeyko
gives

Chloride ‘of, Wead i054... 50-< eset sanavacestoaseeptiesessemerece.* 9.05
Oxide of Tad’. 62. cose wos ces ectinsemecscigdeiee desu sialeeiseisine 58.31
Oxide! of) Copper a sassgss ch. ceca cesace orn Sates oe sence aioan 92
Arsenic Acid. |c.-acusy. ence seclesdncee ewes seeoetisssocntscces 11.55
ie KOS] O1AKOIA EE EKG Gls dcooesbn csagoonsbosbend ponboraDg asaodoonoebado 5.13
VW amadie Gch, . iid litd icc ioe seots seteaae se adecseriebe seis batetais 1.86
GIT Ey, ses 0d i gorse Soret ated et trols earaetlon Hatem eee nem eee 7.96
Almmina and peroxide Of ATOMeye.nm-yenertneeceist---/-n- eles)
CIES MEAIB Roh cn ccocadtnuoaseBocde any pbnlosa noo ponano oso caN¢uaadoconh sy ea.Ull)
TPR IGEGIE seineih se sie iee he gdiaae outers dive dcse| -seladsiacete ene veaiescaaniench ummm

99.00

Mimetene when pure has for its formula
3 (Pb, Ga) 8 (As B)+Pb Cl.

VANADINITE.

This is found at the same locality as the last mineral, and
mixed with it and vanadate of copper and lead. It has not
been discovered crystallized, nor has it been separated in a
state of purity from the accompanying minerals.

WULFENITE, MOLYBDENATE OF LEAD.
It is found in the province of Coquimbo, in orange-colored
octahedral crystals; also in lemon-yellow plates, with the usual

composition :
Oxide of lead.. Te ddades ddoaes wdetas dodmad tecitndbesaaaaeet dO UTOM
Molybdic acid .. wcosedteies ncivis cae ss oa OORLO

Having for its formula a Pb Mo.

Domeyko gives the analysis of a specimen where lime ap-
pears to replace part of the lead. It is as follows:

Oxadevot ender ds ities cnc sce aetna eee ioe Ree ere ey ene OED)
Molybdic acid... F iichen See IRAE RAPE ie cakcidi de sso een
HBF cy v= Wee erent cA ey aut RR aoa) OS ral nme AIRE A 6.3
Porode a A iron . + cas od cRNA RUE Vclatet mozoisle aide aa ar oes 8.5

100.0

METEORIC IRON.
This is found scattered in some parts of the desert of Ata-
cama, in pieces from the size of a small nut to lumps weighing
fifty pounds and more. It is of a porous nature, the pores

MINERALS OF CHILE. We

being filled by a yellowish and greenish olivine, sometimes the
olivine constituting one fifth the mass. We have no account
of the falling of these meteoric masses. One specimen that
was examined gave

Iron... 90.08
EN GO iets eta aassdesuuneuceseceusinssencieismice elas aasenoece(see 9.12
WW OWalliiredsacesessssrsetcesccaeagoensTacthsdevanentaceses eas aintene .39
AU Dele crest aontosean cscs cicisnasuysaieciesiaca/alsasuiaNinmads +s onelacene 03
MINOSJOIN@IPUS cos bbSodsbo noboeabone ood dncuoacocmuounonDh cosboucabods 18

99.75

The olivine accompanying was also analyzed :

Pulverulent Olivine. Compact Olivine.

Silay cor catenins cea cessancssateosuces 40L00 39.51
PePFORIdE OF WOM J. .csccn acces dossees 11.54 13.38
IIB VEIESI Ey soho mag eanano boy ao benbed Suondes Gabel 47.37
NVI GATOS Cleese adsiesel-crtiesecs = aieiociase 30 .16
Repu OP meiosis Seo sseres Peace seaes trace. trace.

98.80 100.42

MAGNETIC OXIDE OF IRON.

Found in veins of copper at Higuera and various other
parts of the provinces of Coquimbo, Copiapo, and Chillan. Its
constitution is

Formula, Fe #.

MICACEOUS OXIDE OF IRON.

It is abundant in Higuera and Punitaque, where it accom-
panies minerals of copper, gold, and mercury. Its most con-
stant companion is gold. Small veins of carbonate or silicate
of copper are frequently contained between the scales, and
occasionally red oxide of copper. Its composition is

BT Ole eee eet ISR Baoan cnc 'c anveite oe ne Ree Men CES IGS ec ohienas 70
Oxygen 30
The formula is #. 100

GOTHITE.

Commonly found in scales or plates, disseminated or grouped,
and is sometimes mistaken for cinnabar. It is also found in
the form of geodes, particularly in Topocalma and Valdivia;
in the geodes marine shells (turritella) are frequently found
of very modern alluvial formation, like that in which the

78 MINERALS OF CHILE.

lignites of Concepcion and Colcura are found. Breithaupt
called a prismatic crystalline variety of this mineral from
Chile Chileite, without, however, any just grounds of separating
it from the gothite proper. The analysis of the Chileite, as
given by Breithaupt, is

Peroxide lol Io#n vee eee eee ee ee Ree eae 838.5
WEST sa shicecol desk saiatiec cee tote OE EAC APEC Emcee 10.3
COPPeN, sviciesecacennectuee tase dente sececes meBelemecen coee cea wee 1.9
Ne FC Gr2 ene SP i MR re LI St PNA Se a 4.3
Formula, #e H. 100.0

PYRITES.

The different varieties of iron pyrites are found in all parts
of Chile. They sometimes contain an appreciable amount of

gold.
COQUIMBITE—WHITE COPPERAS.

The Tierra Amarilla, near Copiapo, is a seam, of pyrites
that crosses compact feldspathic rocks, and from its decompo-
sition several minerals result. The one in question occurs in
regular hexagonal plates of a yellowish-white color and pearly
luster. It has a strong astringent taste, and is quite soluble in
water. It is a neutral sulphate of iron, as shown by Rose’s

analysis :
IP-CVOX1G © OLAIT OM est oe ceases cee cen cle a eee 24.11
SulpHurie acid. ecw lsiesw oes niccsmestiveaaaccearttee sec Mice Oe
BU eh cak hat: pe Aeterna Mee ines amar ar SSE Arse ae Bis 92
a Dit 81: Phage ae a Rt ae A Se eA SE AR Go 73
IME A OAM S UA Ui riciecialeyc ose see eenio ee coe sacaelonc em ae meee nme nee 32
RSL Kez hea See nt eee en a AL A eH ah ava I Sana Oo 5 “al
Water.. Re een eee eee Rana 30.10

Its formula is # S3-+-9 FH. 100.04

COPIAPITE—YELLOW COPPERAS.

This occurs associated with the last, and is most commonly
found in fibrous masses, of a beautiful silky luster when the
fracture is fresh; it, however, soon becomes of a rusty color.
It is not so soluble as the last, and is a basic salt. Its specific
gravity is 1.84. The analysis of a fine upsumnen ee me

Sulphuniceid yer. sicbecs ss scenes resesese. 30.25 30.42

Peroxide lOLAironeccoarcaccxcocsu eee eee eee Sle ie) 30.98

IW ater 3s. Ace cee ee heeee eee Een OOO ;

Waudissolved2:chcwcucceecmece eee eieneres 54 not estimated.
100.74

MINERALS OF CHILE. 719

ARSENIURET OF IRON.

This mineral is of metallic luster, of a silver-white color.
Specific gravity, 7.3. It is found in several of the silver-mines
of Chile, especially those of Carriso, where it is accompanied
by mispickel, iron pyrites, blende, native antimony, ruby-silver,
and native silver. A specimen analyzed by M. Domeyko fur-
nished

BNWIES CUNT Cee Ree ears ote core tral aia Meds ncrste naiare Mataareloe sit tloalesiee slersiew’ess 70.38
ee@ eee te Ree Reo a) i pcraie yc huts aimed shaiserataneSesaieeaed's | RIG
SUT OINUS sh cc ohesopuognebinatogs sodoodsueacnognroneucnenoacae Saat 11
STITRy2 oe Sere re ce nine ees ONO dated ohana ciara clei t slsisialsiesn stale Dy

99.2

The formula is Fe As.

MISPICKEL.

Is found with copper and cobalt minerals near Coquimbo,
with copper and tungsten near Illapel, and with ruby-silver,
antimonial silver, and native silver in the mines of Chafiarcillo,
in the lower part of the veins; also near to Carriso. A speci-
men examined gave

AR TRRBIOTIO Rea ROR RR Berea OS Ree ICA EERE MEAT PG Ane Erne 44.30
SUMMON, scoceentenarosdosbe soubbSonnsscooesguSneoebSeosdendcosatKe 20.25
NIGTseraeree eer MR Phy San Mere an a Net Dae eae cig Seale 30.21
CG No ees rae ene race ociniars alee eile giare cinie pia wie dase 5.84

100.60

The formula of mispickel is Fe As+Fe S?, with cobalt re-
placing the iron to a greater or less extent.

CARBONATE OF IRON AND MANGANESE.

This is described as a distinct mineral by M. Domeyko, but
in all likelihood it is merely a mixture. It accompanies the
sulphuret of copper and gray copper in the silver-mines of San
Pedro Nolasco, in a formation of secondary stratified porphyry.
This species is of a dark blackish-gray and semi-metallic luster ;
its structure is foliated in their lamine, diverging and grouped
together in such a manner that the whole forms globular con-
cretions, covered with small crystals of pearl-spar. The min-
eral is soft; the powder is attracted by the magnet. It dissolves
readily in cold acids, and according to M. Domeyko’s analysis
consists of

80 MINERALS OF CHILE.

QOxide-Of ALON eon. .0 cue nedetmeceeseseregneare sete aanes ds 32.10
Oxide’ of maneanede... sap ioe cesneeree teenie cas weeece 30.50
TTHING coals ca ase jatobee emer icie cee sete ela eRe ne ial sete 2.75
Dy Ee Veo ath 2 NEN specie nega dconibpodocsorccedse suc ccoaoesenRsoBsete trace.
Carbonic acids: iisnca-tne-osase am asie iceaseeenemmeen cscs cels 32.80
INot dissolvieds.. .-. 2. crneacsseceseesectuaasemserscenscn ts enlace 35

98.50

OXIDE OF MANGANESE.

This is found at Arqueros, near the silver-veins in secondary
porphyry. The varieties that appear to exist there are psilom-
elane and pyrolusite.

SMALTINE—ARSENICAL COBALT.

This mineral of cobalt is found in Atacama, in transition
and secondary formation, often accompanying ruby-silver, na-
tive arsenic, and arsenical nickel. It occurs both crystallized
and massive, possessing all the properties peculiar to this min-
eral. The composition of the specimen examined was

PMIEE SION panto sec poschot ce voboceceancoretopaceccAibpsoceesooee5+-- 70.85
OL CEM Goseuosecnd ohana sccobno deb oc6 Dbbchoctoonndootanonddaonssecs 24.18
ROM So sioisnie' slo sccusse pesto coeectsoeseassadenee seca cacseecnacecete 4.05
COPPer as nue es case ceesimcesaanetacien Was ancsouyiatnee teaecemae de Al
INT CKO) icic.n sbakie notte sun scmente meena caaaeapetl aeons cen 1.23
Suillus eet ieee wacaeu Saceen cmeacemeossesineteaecauaniaeee 08

100.75

The formula of the mineral is Co As, part of the cobalt
being frequently replaced by other metals.

COBALTINE—SULPHO-ARSENICAL COBALT.

This is found in Coquimbo, in small, brilliant octahedra]
erystals, with truncated corners. It is also found granular and
massive, in pieces of considerable size. The specimens from
the mines of Volcan and San Simon are of a steel-gray color,
imperfect foliated structure, metallic luster, hard, amorphous,
accompanied with arseniuret of copper. It is also found asso-
ciated with copper pyrites ; and there is one vein of it running
parallel to a vein of copper pyrites. Its composition is

ALTSOITO Wisccae coe cdeton Sac oe sa et EERIE oe bs eteriet tenner: 44.23
Saal bitte Geo Lie tint cnict. acapanansonaeeeemrene «oc aascegeeeeeete 19.82
Cobalt: siectctieceans alae sacee nen eee ee eee ols tose Chae eae ean 34.12
TLOW oi sv ace saw eee ee Spore dese ewe ERE ian a tele Monee eee 8.01

The formula is Co! S?+Co As.

MINERALS OF CHILE. 81

COBALT BLOOM—ARSENIATE OF COBALT.

It is found in all the veins containing the arseniurets of
cobalt, and also in most of the silver veins, but never in any
considerable quantity. At Arqueros it is found with the native
amalgam, and with native and horn silver, in the mines of
Argua, Amarga, Chaiiarcillo, Punta Brava, Tunas, etc. It is
crystallized in radiating crystals of a peach-blossom color, and
consists of

PASTS TCA CLO cee cokers ovisecinn ate nacheten csduatls Sis acemes 38.21
CONICET OLN OD Ulibsmcm cn weet oeesacia a richie Moar cueniateltecaiseostes 35.92
OAM ero ClkKely. ee onc sek Una de boeenacie dashes calsceclenweacoes .08
OcIGLOMO bia O Mee eed otek care care ba niee nie erste be scale oie Gaisiossbre Dries
STi Rese a an Bettas etait: oa date hay a dahaisieatolee sista deesies pete 32
PAE IE NG reek Ett apne aie SAAS asco SO Na he asl Noted c'sleleiovene<'sonels 23.16

The formula is Go? As+8 H.

NICKEL GLANCE—ARSENICAL NICKEL.

This is found in Atacama. It is of a steel-gray color; freshly
broken surfaces soon tarnish. No analysis was made of this
mineral from the above locality; and we know of none that
has been made. When pure its constitution should be

PARTE TIC Meet wae se ec ue wate leniaca pita wtlomea clas wed al « 45.16
Sul yallatetoe mec len decent geese ei dusiantdve seecaebouiae sch cad eeiseatre 19.33
TNGIGIR GT OSA Nese Grae a ei c De DAMOUR Oe NED aR Ree 35.51

100.00

Its formula is NiS’+Ni As. Other metals, especially iron,
frequently replace the nickel to some extent. |

NATIVE BISMUTH.

This is found, alloyed with silver, in the San Antonio mine,
Atacama. The mineral has already been described, under the
head of the silver minerals. It commonly contains from four-
teen to fifteen per cent. of bismuth.

NATIVE ANTIMONY.

This is found in considerable quantity in the silver-veins in
the mines of Carriso. It is disseminated in small irregular
veins, and in lamine, like galena. The most constant compan-
ions of it are native silver, ruby-silver, gray antimony, gray
copper, etc. The gangue is carbonate of lime and heavy spar.

82 MINERALS OF CHILE.

WHITE ANTIMONY

Accompanies the last-mentioned mineral in several of its local-
ities. It has been found massive; is of a snow-white color,
with sometimes a reddish hue. We have no analysis of this
mineral from any of the localities in Chile. It is an oxide
of antimony, and when pure should consist of

ADLIMOBY s.)..s scenes smocons sno mist ceseee eebceeeeee eerste ce 84.32
OXY SCM. awelea. teceacnen else ence ne see eetn cer aE ncmaae celta 15.68
Its formula is Sb O38. 100.00

ANTIMONY GLANCE.
This is also found in the localities furnishing native anti-
mony, with all the ordinary properties of this well-known
mineral. Its composition is

AMMbIMOMY (sacl, oases ceo esate semen seh atane eeneannesc eres 72.89
Spl play sacs aseetsswass ten cohce e-csvet casaen awe ceeceeeee sence 27.12
Its formula is Sb S3. 100.00

NATIVE ARSENIC.

This substance occurs abundantly in the provinces of Ata-
cama and Coquimbo. It is of a tin-white color that soon
tarnishes; it is volatilized completely by the action of heat,
and possesses all the other peculiarities of this metal. It often
contains a little antimony and iron. It accompanies ores of
silver, particularly ruby-silver, antimonial and sulphuret of
silver, native silver, arsenical cobalt, arseniuret and sulpho-
arseniuret of iron. Iam not informed of the existence of any
other arsenical minerals in Chile, but presume the oxide and
sulphuret must also be found.

BLENDE—SULPHURET OF ZINC.
This ore of zinc is found near the Leona mine in Rancagua.
Specimens examined by M. Domeyko contained a notable
amount of iron; one of his analyses is as follows:

ZANIG scone becatacomen asec dons setae eee actems stasis. eheen een amen 43.0
BB 6) (Nese nsre Son nee eR ORR rao ba ss oaccdo 7 SSaaandubasaaasunasnesscocn 12.4
RoJWU WO) CUT eae en oc BOC RRRAR asc 140502 S soca aacEbenDamDEeos actioatae: 28.6
Ce aU y5As54 snag uneesUdenadadoI6 2 sas sears Janaaunepangsosc- S292 14.7

97.7

Its formula is Zn S, with iron sometimes replacing a portion
of the zine.

MINERALS OF CHILE. 83

Besides these minerals described, there were a few others
of a non-metallic character collected by the expedition, which
will be simply enumerated.

LAPIS LAZULI.

This beautiful mineral occurs in no inconsiderable quantities
in the province of Coquimbo. Carbonate of lime runs through
the mass, in small veins, and iron pyrites is intimately mixed
with it in small crystals. It being impossible to separate the
two last-mentioned minerals from the lapis lazuli, no analysis
was made of it. A specimen of the mineral from the Andes
was analyzed by Mr. T. Field with the following results:

STUPID? aah aS eee Se eee a On Se enh fy Sk 37.60
| SISSIES SR Se GAS ne ey EZ
yen PMU eae wotecnenats eens ek coker ce<cac te secheesonnae ssehadas 1.65
TRO TT 5d ee SSRs ee Dt ty meee en lps SC Mey er aed MOPS ie a .08
ILA ESTIGSI Remedi aeons Quon ORC CUO CAEE REO Ue AaDOSENL EMER ine an 36
SOC Sn SSeS SRC Bae Rare Le eR aS SR a DD 9.66
JUN TTT (SARI 2 A ne a Rn te See ee en eS 24.10
We OMe AGIO ae ass ae Gee Se sation hams ced teed eecbloabbedeas 15.05

99.71

Although this analysis differs somewhat from the mineral
procured from other localities, still the difference may be
accounted for by the unavoidable impurities.

CALCAREOUS SPAR.
This is found in all parts of Chile, and is one of the most
common gangue-rocks of the silver-ores.

DOLOMITE.

This is also a common mineral in Chile, forming in many
places beds of immense thickness.

HEAVY SPAR
Exists in the silver veins forming ore of the gangue-rocks.

ASBESTOS (GREEN).

A specimen was brought from the copper-mines of Coquimbo,
and another from Tambillos.

TUNGSTATE OF LIME.

This mineral is found in the copper-mines of Llamaco, near
to Chuapa, and contains about three per cent. of oxide of copper
in its constitution.

84 MINERALS OF CHILE.

LIGNITE.

This variety of coal has been found in some little abundance
at Concepcion, and is worked to some extent. These lignites
ordinarily form but one seam that is thick enough to repay
exploration; it is often accompanied by a second thin seam
and one more irregular. It is seldom that the seams are found
more than six or nine feet above the level of the sea, and most
always dip to the west beneath the ocean. It has been found
on the shores of Concepcion, of Valdivia, and on the shores
of the island of Chiloe. The mines that have been worked are
one near Penco, another near Lirquen, the mines of Talcahuana,

of Las Tierras Colorados, of Lota and of Lotilla; the two last
mines are considered those of most importance.

M. Crosnier gives the analysis of several of these lignites
as follows:

Lota. Lotilla. Penco.
OOkcear aed cc hrcencees attene noone 52.3 42.7 39.9
iWiolatilesmattermoccnscseere -secceee 44.6 54.3 51.8
DAS sR NONE Neri TR AC onn, en wei 3.1 3.0 8.3

100.0 100.0 100.0

The coke is ight and porous; it is sufficiently solid when
well burnt. ee
MINERAL WATERS.

Five specimens of mineral waters were submitted to ex-
amination; but as there was only about one pint of each, the
analyses can not be considered as satisfactory as it is desirable
that they should be.

No. 1. From the baths of Apoquindo, east of and about five
hundred feet above Santiago, in the first range of the Andes.
When the water was collected its temperature was 74°, the air
being 57°. The specific gravity of it is 1.00226. -

Solid contents in one litre 2.743 grammes, composed of

Chloride<ofcaleium.. . i eceeree ene esno a-ak steeceeteee 1.665
Chloride‘otesoditimci.y.s <ssqatetmataerrenceadenis od ieee escer 1.008
Chioride of mas mesiiilncemeeeeee eerie ence reece reenter trace.
Sulphate Of imme. jcc eauamtoneenea- seek hgeadelielsi Scape meneee .0382
Oxide-Of ‘imonewrssaasssesies aavsanecemeceesessix-pas dor amen asca .018
Organic Matter ccns-ssteaeoeneee mens eesscr tact se ce ne seeeeeee trace.

SUITCA. a ccieice ont ce ebeerce stam mdueruteeeaseeeiteesemacstelel cece mentees temas .020

MINERALS OF CHILE. 85

No. 2. From the baths of Colina. The temperature of the

- water at the source is 895° Fahr.; specific gravity 1.00053.

The amount of solid contents in one litre are 0.428 gramme,
composed of

GRAM,
uuillyolmenwe, Oil Wkaale sy andns asponuong wrneronno ausode AEC ASsnncnaBeate st 20
SuIlONAwS Ole SOC Ssadconcbnanc ba deoooussuspucodASqdee ioaeite aust .089
Wllorsalero ta leuuiacceccccencen cccascnceescueteenieeiesssseeuues O77
WilmMoridero lus dinuiptis. ise oican ce deed deresccct oleterew ae veel votes ere 142
(COSRTGIGS TORE ATCO UTICE F nthe rs he eR ene Vie ok Re ay ee Re trace.
(OPS MIG TOE NIETR AG Gccigc Honsccndoenaneoqeacea ose Heccanpes 355802006 trace.
SULIT SS Ue 5 Tetac a Bere ees tn en ST PO MSE oe OR ee ad trace.

No. 3. This is also from the baths of Colina, and when
collected was 79° Fahr.; sp. grav. 1.00045. The composition
of the water is the same as the last. Solid contents in one
litre 0.435 gramme, composed of

Sulpliate Ot limiey.-cs- 2 -ee. BUDS SURISC OBO B ae SeROEECdcan Son Anne aa 118
SmoabecOk Sodan ts hes. ce eacepmene a: scdebcatitecatioss cass nancies tec .094
C@inlonicer Ob aCaleuumlcsscgsecee rece co seek gee cites dee clacneacs 087
@lnilonidies Gx SOC IAs ee stick cs ew hh eae Vettes oe Ua sheesh anieets .136
(QAICIES Oth, THO AGRE ARE BAC USER RR Beis oes oS Reape eine ie trace.
ORO AINNG WALLER eect cenicsten desi pesindis eSecaiey cise wawciies viele denon trace.
Silber celine oasetbaesnes ER CS ei aa ON les AR A Sig trace.

No. 4. From Cauquenes Zibia bath; sp. grav. 1.00270; solid
contents in one litre 3.3032 grammes, composed of

SUMMA e Ole NMAC a cars eiietanciaicen semieemnastevneaueacesese .0600
MP MAVC ROL SOMA deme tte Nes Meee eclnctesctmce Swaine reieaecnos’ 0320
Chalorndevotscalenuiiirn cose scesaessaseeBeeserescde ateccsice 2.1682
Cimloniglerors sodas 750). 525.) dow don ecsedoaactsens Cove awie's 1.0310
Clilonide or wa eMesiUIU.scosesees seecmeceees ees selincs acon | HIHZIGE.
Opal lO MO te OM ee tiles soe1 asec haan smsclacsnntie ences sa nace’ .0020
OS AMIC AMA GLOLY tote dadssiewlataccss baeden sniiee eon cnsmaaes ceeds. trace.
SHUN Care eet actos Ro idescheemacescaserecausse atin jen neces sedissiacs 0100

No. 5. Cauquenes Pelambre bath; sp. grav. 1.00283. It is
constituted the same as the last. Solid contents in one litre
3.3923 grammes, composed of

SOMA ber Olas retacaceats <aacets danesnaetoanes seaet ncdcacas es .0630
Sulla beyOLmcOl ar sncs tees ccvcsccsoucercteencac derives weds .0410
Clallorncle sor cal cilmminsce. v\s25. ce guaseceeneace ea racer aces 2.1751
C@hilomidlevor sodipuines 2. 1255.5. Cecss easgeehe ete oscsee- ace. INOW
Oiilonicdesotemia emesis... ee tee ese eect esse soecee trace.
OxaGe j01 IKONS ante. os tokens oa cenasetet es hcotabesbesenceed trace.
Oiememier maa bet eects = o's. Sn uens uegsadaduewscnesedaee cca trace.
SUC at eles omer ose REINS a oat ic akcaakec aoe eedenendagnaredurnenes .0120

86 MINERALS OF CHILE.

ANALYSIS OF WATER BROUGHT FROM THE RIO DE MENDOZA BY
LIEUT. MACRAE.

The bottle contained a large amount of mud sediment. The
clear water, on evaporation, gave 540 grammes of solid matter
to the litre, composed of

Carbonate-of imme ..57. cece ects nots code tics eens 110
Carbonatevol maomesia sn csseoncccemeessecse seen nesees O72
Sulphatevof limetien cor cacscecnenesesmennten neat ee maiceaaee: AUS
Sullphateroiamarmesiazsnsscscesccsaeccassse sedans 108
STU POLE NIE) Oli OC esa cogeab0 nocécbon > odkonstds ssnouasad bau son enone 192
Sulphate of viromews acess essenaccswace alesse Me nceeee se .036
Chloride of Sodium. ca.cendscsre oss seoscusemeeateacaraissenreee 228
STLi@a s:Vendes cans aneghcec use etvema rami acme mie em ence neeeee AN2

Oi GANIE, WTB VEI sc ceosoncs ooceoqsc0 coaeo. Con HedansoRa nnassnaey CODES: 150

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

THE THERMAL WATERS OF BROOSA.

There are few countries where thermal waters are so

numerous and cover so extensive a surface as in Western
Asia Minor; many of them still bear marks of the estimation
in which they were held by the ancient Romans and Greeks
for the purpose of supplying their baths.
- Owing to the difficulty of obtaining proper vessels or corks
at or near the springs, coupled with the risk of breakage by
the necessary transportation on the backs of horses over
rough and mountainous roads, travelers have been deterred
from collecting these waters for the purpose of analysis. In
my travels through certain parts of this country I took along
with me bottles and corks, and collected between twenty and
thirty specimens of different localities, some of them in con-
siderable quantity; and of that number fifteen or sixteen have
arrived safely at my laboratory, where most of them have
been already examined.

In my remarks upon them I will first allude to the thermal
waters of Broosa or Prusia, which are the most important at
the present day, and the most accessible from Constantinople.
The spot itself is hallowed by many interesting historical
associations. The city was founded by Hannibal during a
friendly visit which this great Carthaginian general made to
Prusias, the king of Bythinia, whose name was given to it.
Like all other cities of so ancient date, 1t has gone through
many changes, passing successively into the hands of the
Greeks, Romans, and Turks. Since 1326 the Turks have
continued masters of this part of Asia Minor, it having been
conquered by Osman just prior to his death, for many years

88 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

after which event it remained the capital of the Ottoman
Empire.

Broosa is readily reached from Constantinople by a steamer
that goes from this latter place to Modania, on the gulf of the
same name, about seventy miles from Constantinople. From
Modania a ride of about twenty miles on horseback brings you
to Broosa, at the foot of the Bythinian Olympus. The warm
baths of this place have been celebrated from the earliest
epochs, and the visit of Constantine with his wife in 797 is
recorded in history as having resulted favorably in restoring
the latter to health. And ata still later period Sultan Soleman
the Great visited these baths on account of an attack of gout,
and to commemorate his cure he had a large dome constructed
over the source to which he attributed the beneficial effects
derived by him; the dome still stands.

As it is not my object to enter here into the details of baths
well known to all travelers in this part of Asia Minor, I shall
at once proceed to the description of the sources. The sources
of thermal waters near Broosa are seven in number, all situ-
ated in a little valley which separates Mount Olympus from
Mount Katairli, and they are comprised within the distance
of a mile and a half. In the immediate neighborhood of some
of these sources, and sometimes in direct proximity, are sources
of cool and delightful water that serve to regulate the tempera-
ture of the water used in the baths, of which there are as many
as twenty private and public. These sources furnish waters
of two descriptions, the sulphurous and the non-sulphurous,
and I shall commence with a description of the former.

THERMAL SULPHUR WATERS.

There are two sources of this class of water near Broosa,
or rather two places near to each other where it flows out
of the*mountain, for my examination goes to prove that they
are the same water. Their names are Kukurtlu and Bademli-
Baghtsche.

KUKURTLU SOURCE.

The name of the source signifies sulphur. It flows rapidly
from the side of the mountain near to its base, through a bed
of calcareous tufa, furnishing upward of twenty gallons a

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. 89

minute, which, along with the water from a cold spring near
by, is made to flow through the baths. There is a very sen-
sible odor of sulphureted hydrogen proceeding from the water
of this source, more especially as it issues forth from the moun-
tain; for there is a large amount of gas bubbling through the
small reservoir into which the water rises, accompanied with
a larger amount of vapor. As the water flows it leaves an in-
erustation of carbonate of lime, more or less colored with some
organic matter. This source is held in particular veneration
by the Greeks of the country, who usually assemble here twice
a year to commemorate the martyrdom of St. Patrice, which
was ordered by the proconsul of Broosa, and executed by his
being thrown into this almost boiling spring.

The country is geologically made up of the older rocks, as
granite, gneiss, limestone, etc., a siliceous variety of the latter
overlying the other two; in some parts, however, the lme-
stone is remarkably pure, and has doubtless furnished to these
waters that carbonate of ime so extensively deposited at the
base of this part of the mountain in the form of tufa, which,
for a mile or two of extent, rises several hundred feet above
the plain at the foot of the mountain.

Physical Properties—The water as taken from the source is
perfectly clear and transparent, and remains so when kept in
well-corked bottles, but otherwise a yellow deposit is soon
formed, which is probably crenate of lime. A slight odor of
sulphureted hydrogen, not perceptible when the water is cold.
The taste of the water when cold is in no way peculiar, and it
is very pleasant to drink. Specific gravity 1.00118. Tempera-
ture (atmosphere at 66° Fah.) 182° Fah., which varies but a
few degrees with the seasons.

Chemical Composition.—The gas which escapes from the source
was collected in inverted bottles, well corked and sealed, and in
one thousand parts was found to contain

WaT Onid CRANE Sesser So wena 0s, shed sti lace dotetise shoes baa deaiiua ses 886
IN TRORGE 228. oc CoOke ec Chee ceees he ceoon ede redeog Deseeeesopaece 99
ray ea ete een ee eo sachin s= sul ssa ce en tystm ee cucel Rates sve <c0 setae Teed
Sl PUT CLM YOELOPION...).,5 002.4 casenascoenteaser «access Somaeeienn +

Solid contents in one litre of the water, 0.970 gramme. The
water is alkaline, and when concentrated to one third its bulk
gives a very sensible alkaline reaction with reddened litmus

90 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

paper. It is found to contain the following ingredients in one
litre:

Grammes. Grammes.
Carboniclacid; free* :..).-. ..c.csen. sO420 oi LaNC aeragaeetsn secs s-- 3 6. eee eee 1415
Carbonic acid, fixed.. iiceiesour LO2O MA OMIOSTA kes cocci ore ose ose eee eee 0142
Hydro-sulphurie a Agia caine aes OOLD Athuamailnaeesnccke cscs siceceee eee .0012
Sulphuric acid .. Ecol date fos ti DUAO PE SUT C are irencclate coe oe cans vetlel ee
Gi ilkeyeit a Vevey ease eae A OU OSes ROMS ata ec eas Lee ood aun trace
SOdA..2....5....0..sec00ssncsecernenen 2000 Organic matter (crenic acid)ame0sa0
ELOY RG IS) pee AE Ae RGM anc TBARS .0110

These acids and bases may be represented as combining in
the following manner:

Bicarbonate of soda.............++. .4100 Sulphate of alumina............... .00438
Bicarbonate of lime ............... .1880 Chloride of sodium ............... .0170
Bicarbonate of magnesia......... .0460 Hydro-sulphate of soda........... .0033
Sulphate of soda -.2...'..:..2...-0-. 1900) “Carbonatelof iron'...)...¢.-ca-semenaece
Sulphate’of potash’... h20.- 0. JOZ02) Silica ye. .kcsaaptnsss scene eee aD
Sulphate ots lume me seacanseeseeaane lua!) Organic matter. sessse sees 0842

The incrustation from this spring was next examined. One
gramme of a beautiful crystalline portion was analyzed and
found to contain
Carbonate ofmimlercrs ccs san sole Sultans 2 adiejecle wnorelsoleste steel gama ieeemn Oss

Carbonate of magnesia ............ .016 Organic miatber sci eae trace
Sulphate of lime... .......:..:....... -008 -Mluoride of calcium...--5---3 see bhace
(Peroxide ofsinoneeccs.5 sneer COLL

There are some portions of the incrustation richer in or-
ganic matter than this, but then the mixture is sensible to the
eye, and does not represent the pure crystalline deposit of the
spring. :

The Kukurtlu source supplies two baths with, water, one

called the Buyuk Kukurtlu and the other. the Kutschuk
Kukurtlu.
The other source of sulphur thermal water is called.

BADEMLI-BAGHTSCHE.

This source is about three hundred feet from the latter, and
flows from three or four openings in the tufa. On my visit to
it the entrance to the sources was closed up with masonry, and
the door could not be opened by the Turks from some super-
stitious motive. I was, however, enabled to procure the water
a few feet from the source as it flowed through an open gutter.

* What is here meant is such of the carbonic acid as can be expelled in
boiling the water.

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. oh

Gas is said to escape abundantly from the source, just as in the
Kukurtlu source.

Physical Properties.—It is clear and transparent, remaining
so in well-corked bottles; exposed to the air, it gradually be-
comes cloudy, and deposits a yellowish sediment. Has a slight
odor of sulphureted hydrogen when warm. Specific gravity
1.00116. Temperature (atmosphere at 67°) 184° Fah.

Ohemical Composition.—Solid contents 0.978 gramme in one
litre. The water when concentrated reacts strongly alkaline.
In one litre there are the following ingredients in grammes:

WOM HACTC yAPCC Cnc tcsss tees eo 2O D0) | TUTTO. wis seuss ccceist nares ceeeerersoee «LOLS
Pe MOUIe ACTOS MMC e cs sacsnsa LOMO) | MIASMESIAN NS. wteecsccd .eeseddssscscaaee -OL6O
Hiaydiro-sal pauric acidi:..........-. .0010) “Alumina. 000.... 02s. ssne ese cce-e--- -OO0D
STI DINU PXGIG| bop can sso enaeboo doocoom alll) | TSIBles) ABA ASGeadosé cae scocuneeediecoooacoe Al A010
SENOS ores c saw cn ciene siecejaes abe dee AAI DR saD OWE Asc ae ea btec aval secrosnwlen SOLACE
OMe reer erase ess aas-e scenes | -2000.. Organic matter (crenic.acid ?)- 0402)
SOURIS Pare act saeite sy ace fos duiccowe tact aes .0130

The combination of the acids and bases may be represented
in the following manner:

Bicarbonate of soda................ .4070 Sulphate of alumina............... .0020
Bicarbonate of lime.................1/90 Chloride of sodium .............:. .0192
Bicarbonate of magnesia......... .0520 Hydro-sulphate of soda.......... .0019
Suipliate or soda)... \.....+..........,.2000, Carbonate of Irom ..5. 20 cices cee. trace
Sp MAL CROMePOLASU sve caclccecaciesss O22 | NOMIMCEH savas cadisvs soecnsianesrine seeeuce ooe L LOO
SMM ALC Of MMIC vc. soeccienwace oo. LOOO) OTSANIC MIALTET..-ccicevencon cease 0402

Two baths are also supplied from this source, the one called
Yeni-Kaplidja and the other Kainardja. |

It will be seen that in physical properties and chemical
composition the water of this source is identical with that
of Kukurtlu; at which fact I was at first somewhat surprised,
as an approximate analysis, made some years ago by Dr. Ber-
nard, led me to look for a difference in the composition of these
waters; and it was not until my analysis was completed that I
became convinced that the waters of the Kukurtlu and Bademli-
Baghtsche sources were the same, making its way through dif-
ferent openings in the tufa. I would merely remark here that
the analysis made by Dr. Bernard must have been quite crude,
as among other things he gives to a litre of the Kukurtlu
water 0.332 gramme of sulphureted hydrogen, water which
when cold has no hepatic odor, and has hardly a sensible
effect on lead-water.

92 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

None of the other sources near Broosa evolve a trace of sul-
phureted hydrogen, and contain less solid matter; they are all
alkaline, and give an alkaline reaction when concentrated.

THERMAL ALKALINE WATERS.

Of the alkaline waters I have examined three sources,
situated at some distance from each other.

The Kara Mustapha source is about two hundred yards from
the Kukurtlu, and almost on the border of the plain of Broosa;
it supplies a bath bearing the same name.

Physical Properties—Clear when taken from the source and
kept in well-stopped bottles. As the opening in the mountain
from which it escapes is bricked over, it was impossible for me
to ascertain if there were an abundant escape of gas. Tem-
perature 127° Fah. Specific gravity 1.00094.

Chenical Composition.— Solid contents in one litre (¢.541
gramme, and the same quantity of the water contains

Carbonic acid, -free.. 2... 2.22... .00 7104 Times. 25. 203.05 ocd 3.0 cones Urea meme
Carbonic acid; fixed......5..2....2... N50 - Magnesia... c.0 s.r... stances ees
Sulphuric Acid 22... cases. ecncnesenes SOOGM MTOM ce snare cee eke eaten sate eee ene
CHIOTING 2. 5 o2).c5,okscisee aselapse oeemoanze! SOs NOTINCA, ccnceen ene lecpfens s<-cr-\e-taeen eee’
SO0S --c.6 20 ces teedas mc co eatee neces’ Lon Organic matter not estimepedr

The combinations of the acids and bases may be represented
as follows in grammes:

Bicarbonate Of SOdA..-<.cn..:.<--.. -2600) “Chloride of sodium. en eee .0084

Bicarbonate of lime............... .2880 Carbonate of iron.................. trace
Sulphate of sodap.. ‘s0..dic0¢ 000. (0452) “Silay cs. 2.0 ec nas aneee convene eee
Sulphate of lime................... .0670 Organic matter not estimated.
Carbonate of magnesia........... trace

Incrustations of carbonate of lime are deposited from this
source, but not so abundantly as from the two first mentioned.

TSCHEKIRGHE SOURCE.

The Tschekirghe source is about a mile and a half from
Broosa, and supplies four baths: those of Boigusel, Vani,
Tschekirghe, and Yeni-Han.

Physical Properties.—Clear, and does not readily deposit a
sediment; the incrustation much less than at the other sources.
No gas escapes from it as it flows from its source. Tempera-
ture (air at 72° Fah.) 113° Fah. Specific gravity 1.00068.

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. 93

Chemical Composition.—Solid contents in one litre 0.550
gramme; the same amount in the water contains

Carbonic acid) trees... 22... 0.0.6 SOA OP AU IMION. Oe sect aeweaes nee nals ox'acstadag? 168
Carbonic acid) fixed.-.... 6:60... BOOZ SMO IMCSIA! Nacemmear se ascta dae sina aan aie trace -
iS Dillje lapse: YC as oeteca dence coeecore LAP y MP OM) geen terns eat aiias elias Soave tv's trace
ROIMOMIME eecceccneiiess sce csrnie'sansies EEACC ne UINCAC a tars Cesnee stn neceduees ce nncsueas .040
RAG aR ee ate ece nnn aasemivewlascaessis .0389 Organic matter not estimated.

Combined as

Bicarbonate of lime............... 2000 Sul Mabe rOns litiNCmwaqee =. cece .2190
Carbonate of soda................+ .0480 Chloride of sodium................. trace
Carbonate of magnesia......... traces iliCd-seerereeseeerreeseesteteecesares .040
Carbonate! of imon..............3 Organic matter not estimated.
Sulphate of soda............ Scisiees .0250

The last source that I shall allude to is a very small one,
near to the Kukurtlu, and not connected with any bath; it is,
however, used by the natives for the treatment of diseased eyes.

GUEUZAYASMA SOURCE.

The Gueuzayasma source rises slowly in an excavation in
the side of a rock, no gas whatsoever escaping from its surface;
an incrustation is formed from it, that is in some places cov-
ered with a thin green coat resembling some of the salt of
nickel or copper; it is, however, entirely of a vegetable char-
acter, and exhibits under the microscope a beautiful lace
structure.

Physical Properties—Clear and transparent. Temperature
113° Fah. Specific gravity 1.00122.

Chemical Composition.—Solid contents in one litre 0.901
gramme. One litre of the water contains

@arbonie acid, free........5.e.se- 22ND GWM Seem oerh Coctse a mar notbeccunewans 175
Carbonic acid, fixed.......:....... SHO) Mag ome sae ts cesta sssseses: ee trace
PS MMGOMMMETIC ACTA, 52. niet occ ee esie oe =2ltow Mironyameealhomatials ceeecan sacs: trace
Rey eeet eldest Sink wale celatcsvicleinmere way Le We Su Ca Cee aetna Sake wes cietececacian nese ok vte 114
OAS genes oils! sas chk alec adeeb ea genes .006 Organic matter not estimated.

Combined as follows:

Bicarbonate of soda.............. 2405 — Sulphate joi limiey.225 tei c.scaceuce .2370
Bicarbonate of lime..:....i.:-.-. .2249 Sulphate of alumina............... trace
Bicarbonate of mag- Boies @arbonate Of 10M... ...se.ceac.eos trace

nesia \ ue. Salteamre rs, scc ae eee .1140
mulplnatio: Of SOda .s..iactnssaceetenes .1160 Organic matter not estimated.
ulphate of potash.......:.:...00+ .0110

The incrustation of the spring contains ninety-seven per cent.
of carbonate of lime; the remainder is composed of carbonates

94 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

of iron and magnesia and the sulphate of lime, without a trace
of fluorine.

These various springs, it will be seen, suppl nine public
baths, which vary in their size and iereninconcs that of Yent-
Kaplidja being the largest and most beautiful. They are con-
structed on the usual plan of the Eastern baths, and consist of
three parts.

First, a large hall, with an elevated platform all around, two
feet high, and sometimes galleries attached. It is on the plat-
form that one disrobes himself prior to entering the bath, and
it is also here that the bather reposes on a couch in retiring
from the bath. This apartment is frequently ornamented with
considerable luxury; it is well lighted, and there is sometimes
in the middle a fountain, the faling of whose waters in the
basin produces a freshness, and at the same time invites to
slumber. This apartment is called by the Turks Djamekian
(Vestiarium). ? |

The next division in the bath is the Soouklouk, where one
begins to experience the temperature of the inner bath, and
where he reclines on a marble slab, and is either shampooed
or places himself in the hands of the barber to be Seat
cupped, or bled.

The third division is the Hammam, or bath properly speak-
ing, where there is an atmosphere of 105° to 110° Fah., filled
with the vapor of water arising from the heated marble floor.
Here there are various recesses, with small marble basins, in
which streams of hot and cold water are allowed to flow; and
once seated by one of them, an attendant of the bath takes
possession of you and puts you through a series of operations
that can be better felt than described. The baths at Broosa
have usually in the Hammam a large basin of hot water, into
which the bathers can plunge; the one in the Yeni-Kaplidja is
about five feet deep by thirty in diameter.

There is in some of these baths a small room called the
Boghoulouk (Sudatorium), where the temperature is from 120°
to 130° Fah. Once through the various operations of the bath,
one returns to the first room, reclines on a bed, and cndalees
for a half hour or more in the Hastern luxuries of smoking and
drinking coffee or sherbet.

This is a hasty sketch of the operations that the bather

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA. MINOR. 95

usually undergoes at these baths; but as numbers of invalids
visit them, arrangements are made by which they can bath in
whatsoever way they may think best or the physician pre-
scribe, for there are private apartments attached.

These thermal waters are in great repute in Turkey, and
their effects are said to be most marked on chronic irritation
of the abdominal organs, chronic rheumatism, gouts, chronic
irritation of the mucous membrane of the intestines, diseases of
the bladder, of the skin, and of the eyes, etc. . These waters are
also recommended to be taken internally when cold.

_In the calcareous incrustation of three of these springs
that were examined, I found the remains of two or three va-
rieties of siliceous infusoria after the lime had been dissolved
out by an acid.

THERMAL WATERS OF YALOVA.*

The shortest way of reaching the springs of Yalova is by
landing on the south side of the Gulf Nicomedia, near to Angori
(three hours distant from Constantinople by steamer), and pro-
ceeding along a beautiful plain, that gradually narrows until
terminating in a valley closely shut in by hills. The springs
in question are situated in this valley, about six miles from the
sea; they are at the foot of a hill, which on the south-west
ase: in the valley of Yalova, and are known in the country
by various names, as Couri-Hamam, Dagh-Hamam, etc. —

On the road that approaches the springs there are extensive
remains of the foundations of old Roman and Grecian build-
ings, and still nearer the remains are more perfect in the form
_ of arches, aqueducts, baths, etc. Their extent gives evidence
_ of the celebrity they enjoyed in former times. The styles of their
architecture belong to different periods. The remains of the
brick edifices are evidently of the period of the Lower Empire,
for on many of the bricks are to be found an impress of the
cross and Latin words written in Greek letters. To judge
from the form of these letters, particularly the epsilons, sig-
mas, and omegas, one is led to believe that they date from the
Justinian age. The massive stone arches which support the

* The locality of these waters is described very fully, as it is little known,
being seldom visited by travelers. . .

96 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

vault under which the waters rise seem to have been con-
structed by the Romans. Their structure presents nothing
which opposes the idea received by the inhabitants of the sur-
rounding villages—namely, that they were constructed during
the reign of Constantine the Great. And what seems to sustain
this hypothesis is the popular legend that the mother of Con-
stantine was indebted to these waters, at one period of her life,
for her restoration to health; and from this fact (according to
the authority of the celebrated archeologist, the Patriarch of
Constantius) Yalova was formerly called Helenapolis.

In want of more exact data we cite as sustaining this sup-
position the custom of the Greek villagers of the neighborhood,
kept up for many centuries, of assembling at these baths on
the anniversary of the fétes of St. Constantine and St. Helena
to celebrate the virtue of these waters. Von Hammer, in his
history of the Turkish Empire, alludes to this place in the
following words: “Some leagues from Cara-Mursal, on the
south side of the Gulf of Nicomedia, there exist the baths of
Yalova (ancient Sergla or Trepanon), This place was adorned
with a great number of palaces and hospitals by the Empress
Helen, whose father had kept an inn there. This place was
afterward raised to the rank of a city by Constantine, the
founder of the Byzantine Hmpire, and called Helenapolis in
honor of his mother. It was to this place that the first army
of the crusaders, conducted by Peter the Hermit and Gautier
sans-avoir, took refuge after being routed near Nice. It was
here also that the Saracens constructed pyramids and towers
with human bones. Helenapolis has been at all times cele-
brated for its thermal waters. Near their source is to be seen
the tomb of an Abdal—that is, an enthusiastic dervish—who,
armed with a wooden sword, undertook at the head of a body
of Mussulmans to conquer this city.”

There are several ancient authors who allude to these
springs, among whom are Ammianus Marcellinus, Mela, and
Anna Comnena.

Yalova, which is now but a small village, was formerly the
place of debarkation for the inhabitants of the celebrated cities
of Nicomedia, of Nicea, and of the numerous cities of Bithynia,
who visited these springs. The port of Couri, whose antiquity
is indicated by several Greek inscriptions, was probably, as

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. OF

now, frequented by those coming from Constantinople and
other cities of the Propontide. ;

After the fall of the Roman Empire these baths went to
ruin, and were almost forgotten; nevertheless the reservoirs
and aqueducts remain as in the time of the Lower Empire. It
is only a few years since an Armenian banker purchased the
place and constructed houses for the reception of the sick.

These waters have at least nine sources. They flow from
the sides and bottom of a hill, rising through a sandy bottom
accompanied with bubbles of gas, and differ but little in their
temperature and composition. The character of the surround-
ing rocks is not easily made out; I am inclined to refer them,
from my observations higher up the gulf, to the older tertiary.
The waters in their course leave not the slightest deposit, so
that the ancient aqueducts have never become obstructed.

According to the accepted classification, the mineral waters
of Yalova belong to the hot sulphurous waters. They have at
their source a very shght odor of sulphureted hydrogen, but
the quantity is so small, either in the water or the gas, that it
could not be estimated. The temperature of the waters is from
151° to 156° Fah., and varies but little with the changes of the
atmospheric temperature. The water is limpid and trans-
parent, and has the specific gravity 1.00115. The gas which
escapes at the source gave, on analysis,

INGER OOM ete teclniscacis ak 2.350 coaklewen saeiratey ack erode 97 per cent.
Oxo SOU ccreeete sepa reco St ce seas oes alteatna el dnsiamk seemsete ener) 7) Oo 78

One litre of the water gave 1.461 gramme of solid matter.
The same quantity of water contains in grammes

SMM MUBT CsA Clem ccteceic rea, sews 222, C090” Magnesia, .si ie. ince adevsdees «os «3-002
OE Oa en SOS) 2 Aton reac cen eek seeceo os scewes UAC
Soda.. Mee Maras one si aarees SOOO) ALLICA yeast mad ste onto ownedicces GORD
bine. :...---. ee .208
Eeuimed i in ee following manner :
Sulphate of soda.. seis .807 Sulphate of magnesia............ .005
Sulphate of thine oe os 414 ea Olea: 224).00 00. cece trace
Chloride of sodium........ .072 Silica.. 2 ite coh ne tae tas RS
Chloride of calcium ........ .068

The composition of ites waters resembles that of the Bath
waters of England; the latter, however, not being of so high a
temperature. They act powerfully on the nervous system and
on the secretions and excretions, particularly those of the skin,
which renders them so efficient in rheumatism, gout, ete.

98 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

THERMAL WATERS OF HIERAPOLIS.

The ruins of the ancient city of Hierapolis are among the
most interesting in the south-western part of Asia Minor. The
place is situated about six miles from Laodicea (one of the
seven churches), and about one hundred and ten miles from
Smyrna. The site is seen for many miles before it is reached,
as it rises abruptly from the north side of an extensive plain,
and the sides of the hill are covered with an incrustation of
dazzling whiteness for upward of a mile in length, and from
this it has received its eetane name, Pambuk- BES ‘(cotton
castle).

This place was much admired in former times, if we are to
judge from the inscriptions still to be seen on different parts
of the ruins, to the following effect: ‘ Hail, golden city,
Hierapolis; the spot to be preferred before any in wide Asia;
revered for the rill of the nymphs, adorned with splendor.”
The people, in some of these inscriptions, are styled “the most
splendid” and the senate “the most powerful.”

It is a place well known to travelers in this part of the
world, and therefore I shall confine myself strictly to what
concerns its thermal waters, which have ever been its prin-
cipal object of note, as evinced by the extensive ruins of baths.
In fact, the very hill upon which the city stands owes its
formation to the deposition of carbonate of lime from these
waters, and it now rises upward of a hundred feet above the
plain, with a width of about six hundred feet. Immediately
behind the city rises another set of hills of calcareous rock,
from which flow the waters in question; they first enter a large
pool in front of the theater, and from this the water flows in
numerous little streams that course in channels made by in-
crustations from the water. The amount of water is very
great, and it is so highly charged with carbonate of lime as to
incrust all bodies that it comes in contact with, and it takes
place so rapidly that the concretion does not possess great
solidity, and frequently has a granular form, resembling driven
snow.

It is this incrustation, as I before said, which gives to
the immediate site of the city its remarkable character. In
some places, as the waters flow over the steeply-inclined

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. 99

sides of the hill, it forms a succession of terraces at regular
distances, that require but little effort of the imagination to
liken to an amphitheater with its marble seats. At other
places it flows over the precipitous sides sixty or seventy feet
high, and one or two hundred feet wide, incrusting the preci-
pice with a snow-white sheet, which might be likened to a
consolidated cataract; and what adds to the delusion, at the
base the incrustations have accumulated an irregular mass not
unlike foam. This petrified stream extends several hundred
feet into the plain. It has formed walls and dikes, and incrusts
the grass and vegetation that it flows over, and many of the
tufts of grass, in perfect verdure, are thickly incrusted near
the roots with this white carbonate of lime.

The channels that conduct the water through the city are
made by deposits from these waters; many of them are very
deep and almost arched over. The incrustations in and about
the city have elevated the level of it some fifteen or twenty
feet since its destruction. Strabo tells us that in his day the
people of this city conducted these waters into their gardens
or other places where they desired to form a wall, and in a
short time they obtained fences of a single stone, so rapid was
the deposition. The road which leads from the plain to the
city is a causeway which is formed entirely from the water.

Physical Properties—The water is of remarkable transpa-
rency, and remains so after being kept for any length of time.
Having lost my thermometer the day before arriving at this
source, | was unable to ascertain its exact temperature. I
judged it to be about 130° Fah. Specific gravity 1.00143.

Chemical Properties.— Solid contents in one litre 1.934
gramme. One litre contains in grammes:

Pr inpemneraceld vee sae fata. 6 8. 2002) Potash roe ss sasce teste ned tes one scviece: STHECE
Meanommeraciie, WKxOdh cone. -css.-) 402) AMICK Sts isesncsae tense -sojedecucets OOO
SMEG ACIC .7--c- os se.cccons ses =6- 204” Mae mesia ne .ccnacat see <c« <gemac kOe
MPMMVENNG sco s.-kicansatsocosedqeec-scse-«-O12. SilICA cosectes ts Livsttlatocnuet OOS
ROE ceca cc eincledaccecses bicees ene 182 Phosphoric acid... stat oaton O05

The combination of acids and bases may be repr esented 1 in
the following manner :

Bicarbonate of soda .......... 00.66 078 scSulphaterot- Name wsce. cee.) 119
bicarbonate of lime:...........2:+. 1.368 Sulphate of Hee ate Sah neee eee 431
Bicarbonate of magnesia......... .041 rene of lime.. ieee UI
Chloride of calcium................. -020 Silica.. nae sob oss conoscdue ano Aiba

ple Ol SOGA..........00600 00-2. 841

100 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

The incrustation of the spring was analyzed; it is remark-
ably white, and almost pure carbonate of lime. The composi-
tion is as follows:

Carbonate Of MMe ca sece a ecenceedesene reteset ans TOOLS

SIUC Gy ARBRE Ar naaee nak sauce oorouc soa asuosnhbeabnecobieaebers mall

Misia Wesiame-eaneeteeeaee

Phosphate of an ba qeoegeedccthatectesta ee —— iO ew
Fluoride of calcium

At the present day these waters are not used, and the
neighboring country is quite deserted, with the exception of
a miserable village of some half dozen huts. In former times,
however, besides the use of this water for the baths, it was
greatly in repute among the dyers in a purple color made from
a kind of root; and owing to the remarkable adaptation of this
water for that purpose, the tint obtained is said to have rivaled
the more costly purple, and to have constituted the principal
source of riches to the city. The company of dyers is alluded
to in the inscription on a square building among the sepul-
chers. These waters also seem to have possessed medical
virtues, if we are to judge from some of their medals, on which
you find Apollo (the tutelar deity of Hierapolis), with Hscu-
lapius and Hygeia.

Strabo alludes to a circumstance connected with these waters
that I inquired into while there, but without success. It is the
existence of what that author calls a plutonium, described as an
opening about the size of a man in the side of the hill, with a
kind of inclosure of half an acre in front of it; from the
opening there issued constantly a dark vapor that filled the
inclosure in front of it. He states that all animals entering
this inclosure became suffocated, but that the sacred eunuchs
who attended in the temples could enter with impunity.

I sought to discover this plutonium, but without success; it
was doubtless an opening in the rock, from which issued a
mixture of carbonic acid and vapor of water, that had subse-
quently become obstructed.

THERMAL WATERS OF ESKI-SHEHR.

Eski-Shehr is the ancient Doryleum, the plains of which
are very extensive. It is mentioned by the Byzantine writers
as the field of the first battles between the soldiers of the Hast-

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. 101

ern Hmpire and the Turks. It is situated on the river Pursceck
or Thymbius, which empties into the Sangarius, that flows into
the Black Sea, and is equidistant from that sea and the sea
of Marmora, being a little over one hundred miles from each.
Kski-Shehr is a city of some importance to the Turks, and
it is from here that Europe derives the greater portion of that
mineral called meerschaum, used in making pipes.

In a certain quarter of this city, by excavating to the depth
of a few feet, hot water is obtained, which is a matter of great
annoyance to the inhabitants, as they can have no wells of
drinking-water. It is in this quarter that are situated the
celebrated hot baths, doubtless used for more than two thou-
sand years, with such change in structure as time and the
habits of the people required. There is here a large excavation
sixty or eighty feet square, closed in with stone and roofed
over; its depth I did not measure, but am told that it is twelve
or fifteen feet. The water arrives from many sources at the
bottom of this reservoir.

The reservoir was made by the Greeks and repaired some
years ago by the Turks. The amount of water furnished is
very great, and forms half the water used in turning a mill in
the neighborhood.

The water is allowed to flow from the great reservoir into
a large Turkish bath, as well as from different hydrants for
the purpose of washing dyed stuffs, ete.

Physical Properties—This water is clear and transparent,
and when cold it is very agreeable to the taste; no gas escapes
from it, nor is there any deposit, even after very long repose.
Temperature 119° Fah. Specific gravity 1.00017.

Chemical Composition—The solid contents in one litre 0.260
One litre of the water contains in grammes

gramme.

Warbomic acid, free... ... 22. s...0++0 118

Warponice acid, fixed .2......0.../.. 195

STMPMNTEUC'ACTC 0.0: 2.5ccsken cesses. 080

MORIN. coc ce vee ose soncewen. ee see tPACe
Combined as follows:

Bicarbonate of soda... .......s6000 29

Bi-carbonate of lime...............
Slate OF SOME... .....-c00 see cneee

As is seen by the analysis,

Soda with a little potash....... Settee a lal)
BE AINA CRE lee et cee tea tae Say ge .040
PSNI UNOT vs nualsne Stn eee eee .008
Sulphaterote lime... 5c skeeaes-esn O29
Chloride of calcium................ trace
STH UKEE Wer Oe eRe sr Ali aa .008

this water is remarkably free

from solid matter, nor is it supposed by the inhabitants of the

8

102 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

country in its neighborhood to possess any other than the or-
dinary properties of water.

The geological character of the contiguous country has
nothing in it that would induce one to suspect the existence
of such abundant sources of warm water. The plain of Hski-
Shehr appears to be one of those extensive lacustrine regions
so common in the western portion of Asia Minor; the deposits
consist of a consolidated breccia. Imbedded we find the rocks
of the neighboring mountains, as well as the meerschaum or
silicate of magnesia, so extensively worked for exportation.
Thermal waters are obtained in numerous parts of the. plain
as well as at Eski-Shehr.

THERMAL WATERS OF TROY.

Near the plains, in which are supposed to have been situated
the ancient city of Troy, are numerous sources of thermal
waters, of several of which I procured specimens; only two,
however, have been analyzed, the others not having arrived at
my laboratory. These springs are those alluded to by Homer,
and they have enjoyed more or less reputation from the time
of the Trojans to the present date. The two that I have ex-
amined are saline and their sources near each other. Analysis
shows them to be identical. The physical properties will be
alluded to when the other waters from this locality have been
examined.

Chemical Composition.—One litre contains of solid matter
21.301 grammes. The same quantity of water has in its com-
position

Carbonic acid, fixed............ 0595 - Wtime 0... k. sees) onsen ere eee 1.4000
LUNI C) MBUENS KONE oan soksonddeeagooes 0680 —Magnesia.........0.. .cscuasie iam
lil Orine eee aes eee ec ctese 1278000" Oxide of iron:csc:. cts eee trace
Bromine erence cee nies dese. tTACE, | STACI. si e.ces laos sce ean ce eee ae eaeeeee .0600
SOdai tz. cet eee eee ass: 9.2110

Combined as follows:

Carbonate of lime............... .1225 Chloride of magnesium........... 7081
Ul PHALELOL SO aeeentepeaere .0607 Bromide of magnesium........... trace
Sulphate of limes aces: secre: 0540" (Chioride of Iromepeeenes sss sce trace
Chloride of sodium.............. V7 AAS OM USUI. as5c.tens nv seetey act win ee eteem .0600

Chloride of calcium............ 2.5078

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. 103

THERMAL WATERS OF MITYLENE.

On this island, the ancient Lesbos, there are several warm
springs, and much of the geological structure of the place is
volcanic. I visited two of the springs; the first is near to the
village of Mitylene, and immediately on the shores of the gulf
of Olives; it is called Kelemyeh Oulinjah, and there are two
baths attached to it.

KELEMYEH OULINJAH SOURCE.

The water is clear and flows without leaving a deposit. Its
temperature is 102° Fah. (atmosphere at 77°), and when cold
there is nothing marked in its taste.

Chemical Composition—There are 1.250 grammes of solid
matter in a litre of the water, which contains the following
ingredients in grammes:

Carbonic acid, free................. MS eS OM ac matce ease an setters Sch ees 278
Carbonic acid, fixed........./..... BGs) oma Olas seer se trait oan he tueatas 152
SU ONUELC) AEM 2. sacs oe 5-0 cioseeone 1040 teMiaomesiaceit cs udienscrlsusaciesscens 070
Whilorines soi c....0004- jiseeeeeeenees CO OUELC Re rere erate n tes Na ne onieseceses O15
Combined as follows:

Bicarbonate of lime......... .... .2450 Chloride of calcium............... .0865
Sulphate Of SOdA...........6..c6000 0857 Chloride of magnesium........... 1628
Sulphate of lime................. OS SO SUC al ceae ten stle cnn’ Joes cceak autice. .0150
Chloride of sodium................. .6510

The other source visited on

the island of Mitylene is about

six miles north of the village, and is called Touzla; there are
baths attached to it, and the waters are strongly saline.

TOUZLA SOURCE (SALINE).

Physical Properties—The water does not flow clear, being
more or less tinged with yellow produced by some organic
acid in combination with lime. This deposit is:seen to mark
the course of the water as it flows down the beach into the sea,
which is very near to it. Temperature of the water 117° Fah.
(atmosphere at 76°). Specific gravity 1.0263.

Chemical Composition.—There are 34.520 grammes of solid
matter in a litre of the water, which contains the following in-
gredients in grammes:

104

Carbonic ae 1b. 16 (ep .050
Sulphuric acid.. 1.648
Chlorine.. RA 18.440
Bromine, minute ‘quantity, not esti-
mated.
Combined as follows:
Carbonate of lime............... .0912

Sulplabetor coda. ceaerces
Sulphate of lame... 5. cc... sane
Sulphate of alumina............
Chloride of sodium.............

0.0221
28.0260

THERMAL WATERS

OF ASIA MINOR.

TAM Cs vececiee osc acces a chet ee ee
MB OMOSTA... o01..5,<c0 edeeee ee eee 110
Alumina...... .012
PTO ei assis vod cc ose eR .008
PS 1OYe Che en TL! SS
Chloride of calcium.............. 2.0040
Chloride of magnesium......... .2028
Warbonate of Irom......2scesseee .0038

Bromide of magnesium, minute quan-
tity.

There are several other sources of thermal water in various
parts of this island; the one reputed to have the greatest tem-
perature is about eighteen miles from the latter, and called
Fezilkeh ; this source I could not visit, and can therefore say
nothing of it from personal examination. There is yet one
other source that I will allude to—the

TIBERIAD THERMAL WATERS.

-The source of these waters is on the border of the sea of
Galilee and within a mile of the city of Tiberias, of the solid
structure of which repeated earthquakes have left but little.
The surrounding country shows marked evidence of extensive
volcanic action.

There are several sources at the place I visited, but they
seem to vary little from each other. They flow into Turkish
baths, and from them pass into the sea, on their way leaving a
shght yellow deposit, which is doubtless, as in a of these
waters, a crenate of lime.

Their temperature was not accurately ascertained for want
of a thermometer, but I should consider it about 120° Fah.

Chemical Composition.—In one litre 23.540 grammes of solid

matter. The same quantity of water furnished in grammes
Carbonie acid, fixed.............. 006. Wuimes..... 0.00.5 on Bceence cee eee
Sulphuric: acidi.ic2... sds s.sj.004 | ADT), Mipemesiay....-\a-1-ceeeemee te are eerie
Chilorine.. saat den toe tetacsts: key Gre\s) Ss VIhWC2 eames see . .006
Sod... hyve te age deteeseinto.se! LOOM
Combined as follows:

Sulphate of soda......... sc... .0620 Chloride of calcium............... .7800
sulphateror dime-soc.neecessst .0386 Chloride of vee . .1850
Sulphate of magnesia............. .0151 Silica.. Sete .. .0060
Chloride of sodium:...:.:....... 22.2330 Carbonate of lime.. . .0106

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. 105

The quantity of water brought away was too small to ex-
amine for the presence of bromine.

This is the last of the thermal waters of Asia Minor which
have been examined; there are a few others that may yet
reach me, when the composition will be made known as soon
as examined.

CAUSE OF THE THERMAL WATERS IN WESTERN ASIA MINOR. |

The cause of the abundance of warm springs in this quarter
of the globe (in all formations from the alluvial to the oldest
rocks) is doubtless owing to the extensive igneous action within
no great depth beneath the surface of the country; a fact
evinced by the frequency of earthquakes, but more especially
by their extent; for they almost invariably extend from one
end of it to the other, as well as to the neighboring islands.

_ Neither time nor change of government has contributed so
much to the destruction of the hundreds of magnificent cities
which once covered this country as the desolating influence of
the earthquake, and many are the cities that now exist which
have been prostrated over and over again and rebuilt, each
time in diminished splendor, until at last they are little better
than collections of huts when contrasted with their original
condition. All the country at the present day seems to be as
much subject to them as formerly.

The only part of Western Asia Minor where phenomena are
seen strictly analogous to those of active volcanoes is in the
Catacecaumene, or burnt district, situated in Lydia, about one
hundred miles east of Smyrna. Numbers of volcanic cones
exist in the neighborhood of Koola, the craters of many of
which are quite distinct, especially the one called Kaplar Alan,
which has a perfect crater about half a mile in circumference,
and two or three hundred feet deep. The extent of this re-
gion is some twenty miles long by eight broad. We have no
record of any activity in these volcanoes, and Strabo described
them in his day quite as they are now, and the Turks give to
Satan the full credit of having created such a black, parched-up
district. My object at the present time is merely to mention
this district, as a full description of it enters into a paper on
the earthquakes and volcanoes of Asia Minor, that I propose
publishing at some future time; it is brought forward now

106 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

merely to show what this volcanic center has to do with the
thermal springs just described.

REMARKS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF NITROGEN IN THERMAL WATERS.

The only substance connected with these waters that I shall
allude to is the nitrogen contained in the gas accompanying
many of them, and in some instances constituting almost the
entire gaseous product, as in the case of the springs of Yalova.
This singular fact attracted my attention several years ago
while examining into the gaseous products of various springs,
and I then ascertained that the gas was found especially with
warm springs; the nitrogen, when found accompanied with
oxygen, existed in proportions much greater than in the at-
mosphere, and in numerous instances it was almost pure. The
question naturally arises, whence comes this nitrogen? and as
we know of no other natural source of nitrogen than the at-
mosphere, it occurs to the mind that there is a source of the
gas in the thermal waters, which before they pass to the heated
substrata absorb a certain amount of air; the oxygen of the air
contained in the water combines with the rocks and minerals,
or is taken up by some deoxydizing agent in the waters, which
as they return to the surface naturally bring the nitrogen
of the air freed of all or most of its oxygen.

This explanation, which appears so natural, does not, how-
ever, account for the fact, and I have been obliged to abandon
it. Did the nitrogen in these waters occur in such small quan-
tities as we might suppose to have been absorbed by water,
the explanation would hold good; but the fact in the case of the
springs at Yalova and many other sources is that the gas,
which is nearly pure, bubbles up in great abundance. Again,
if the nitrogen evolved by springs be simply such as the water
absorbs before penetrating the surface of the earth, how does
it happen that this gas escapes from springs of ordinary tem-
perature? For it is reasonable to suppose that the water
having once taken into solution a gas, will not give it out
except by heat or the presence of a large amount of saline
matter, neither of which occur to explain the evolution of ni-
trogen gas from certain springs.

Feeling thus satisfied that the nitrogen in the gaseous
products of springs is not owing to its absorption from the

THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR. 107

atmosphere, its origin has been sought for elsewhere, but
without success, and I am constrained to believe that nitrogen
is one of those elements stored up in the interior of the earth,
in more or less abundance, either pure or combined, and fre-
quently finds its way to the surface through those fissures by
which mineral waters are conducted. Its more frequent occur-
rence with thermal waters is doubtless owing to the greater
depth from which the latter come.

After all, however, that has been said, we must acknowledge
the explanation imperfect, and as only furnishing another evi-
dence of the difficulty of learning any thing of the origin or
uses of this singular substance, nitrogen, in its elementary state.

ON THE ANALYSIS OF THESE WATERS, PARTICULARLY WITH REFER-
ENCE TO THE SILICA AND. ALKALIES.

The general method of analysis adopted differed but little
from that usually employed, and the construction of the salts
out of the acids and bases has been made entirely from the
dictates of my judgment in the matter.

The examination of the silica attracted considerable atten-
tion, from the fact that we are in the habit of always estimating
it as uncombined silica, even when found in alkaline waters.
Although my researches are sufficient to prove to my mind the
inaccuracy of this, still I have not thought proper in this paper
to deviate from the rule generally adopted, leaving it to more
extended research to decide the point.

In the analysis of the waters of Broosa, nearly all of which
are alkaline, the following fact has been observed: that on
concentrating a considerable quantity of the water to a small
bulk all the carbonate of lime is precipitated and a portion
of the silica (whether in combination with lime or not is not
yet decided); but a large portion of the same still remains in
solution, as well as some lime, although the water is alkaline
with an excess of carbonate of soda. The silica is in such quan-
tity that it could remain only in solution in combination with
an alkali; in fact, there is a silicate of soda and lime present.

The question here arises whether the silica was in a state
of combination before the water was concentrated, or is it a
result that has taken place during the evaporation ; this ques-
tion can only be decided by more extended investigation.

108 THERMAL WATERS OF ASIA MINOR.

The observation of the above fact has led me to adopt the
following method of estimating the silica in mineral waters:
Take a certain quantity of the water, evaporate almost to dry-
ness, add hydrochloric acid, a little more than is required to
saturate the carbonates present; continue to evaporate to
complete dryness, and then add water acidulated with a little
hydrochloric acid; filter and wash the silica that remains on the
filter ; in this way we are sure to have the silica perfectly free
from any silicate.

The method adopted for estimating the alkalies will be
mentioned in a few words, as more details of it will be given
in a paper devoted especially to that subject; the method has
particular reference to the separation of the alkalies from
magnesia.

SEPARATION OF THE ALKALIES FROM MAGNESIA.

Take the solution filtered from the silica, evaporate to
dryness to drive off the excess of acid, add a little water to
redissolve, then add pure lime-water and filter, when the
chlorides of the alkaline metals and calcium with excess of lime
will pass through, the magnesia, alumina, oxide of iron, etc.,
remaining on the filter. Separate the lime with carbonate
of ammonia, or still better with oxalate of ammonia, evapo-
rate to dryness, and heat to drive off the ammoniacal salts,
when nothing but the chlorides of alkaline metals will be left,
which can be separated in the ordinary way.

This completes the description of all the thermal waters
of Asia Minor which have as yet come under my notice, with
the observations that the investigation have given rise to.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS,*

In the investigations which will be detailed we have en-
deavored to clear up the doubts due to imperfect analyses and
descriptions that exist respecting several American minerals.
Hvery care has been taken to procure the best specimens, and
our results have been tested by several analyses of each. We
are under obligations to several mineralogists of this country
who have placed their cabinets at our disposal for this inves-
tigation, and among those to whom we are more specially
indebted we take pleasure in mentioning Messrs. L. White
Williams and W. W. Jeffries, of Westchester, Pa.; T. F. Seal,
of Philadelphia; and Mr. Theo. 8. Gold, of West Cornwall, Ct.

1. EMERYLITE IDENTICAL WITH MARGARITE.

Emerylite was originally found by one of us on the emery
of Asia Minor, and also on the same mineral coming from the
Grecian Archipelago, Siberia, and China; it was subsequently
traced by Prof. Silliman, jr., in connection with the corundum
occurring in various parts of this country. Its constant occur-
rence with emery and corundum (forming one of the minerals
of elimination in their formation) suggested the name emery-
lite as most appropriate, its composition having been found to
be different from that of any known mineral.

It was justly considered an interesting species, on account
of its accompanying the various forms of corundum wherever
observed; and it may be safely said that no mineral has been
proved to be as widely distributed in so short a time after the
first announcement of its connection with the emery of Asia

*In the first half of this re-examination I was assisted by my friend,
George J. Brush.

110 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

Minor, and the suggestion that it might be found with the
corundum of other localities.

The analyses which were immediately made of this mineral
by different chemists, on specimens coming from various parts
of the world, showed a uniformity of composition most re-
markable in a micaceous mineral, and so it was considered by
a committee of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, who reported
on this subject.* This fact is most clearly seen by reference to
the following table of analyses made in 1850:

Locaritres. | Si | Al | Ca | Fe | Mg |K&Nal HH] Mn

Gumuch-dagh....... 29.66 | 50.88} 13.56} 1.78 00 1.50) |3. 41) el deelae month
Island of Nicaria...| 30.22! 49.67 | 11.57] 1.33 trace Deeils |iaie IZ s. =
Island of Nicaria...| 29.87 | 48.48 | 10.84] 1.63 trace 2.86) SIAS32| ie eee

Island of Naxos....| 30.02 | 49.52|10.82) 1.65 -48 VS25 7 4 Dn00| eee

Island of Naxos....| 28.90 | 48.53 | 11.92 .87 | notest.| not est. |5.08) ............

Island of Naxos ...|: zs A D2 Ne snehaeseeee
Gumuch-dagh....... e AS Olle
Gumuch-dagh....... -: 2.31 |3.62) trace

BIDET Accesses ee ees = notest.}5.04] ..........5. ae
Village Green, Pa..| 32.: 30 PAPAL S NOFA esccocsmass W. J. Craw.
Village Green, Pa. . 28 PAT NOI PATA sect cocene =
Village Green, Pa..| * 50 bein see alll | hecemoncaos

Village Green, Pa.. 72 210) >| 4-02 Perec ceces =
Buncombe Co., N.C. 1.24 6.15 |3.99)H F 2.03)Silliman, jr.
Unionville, Pa....... 29 62 2AT: - Oda ees coe W. J. Craw.
Unionville, Pa....... AU HAVRE SHS || 510) | coceoncesuc- Hartshorne

It was suspected by us, at the time the species was made,
that it might prove identical with margarite; but not having
the latter mineral at hand, we had to proceed on the known
analyses of it, which we here give. The first is by Dumeril;
the second by the Géttingen Laboratory, on the authority
of Hausmann.

Si Al #e Ca Na H
i bs 37.00 40 50 4.50 8.96 1.24 -1.00—93.20
Fe Mn Mg

2. 33.50 58.00 0.42 7.50 0.08 0.05—99.50

These analyses differing so materially from those of emery-
lite, fully justified the formation of the species.

As soon as margarite could be procured it was subjected to
analysis, and the inaccuracy of former analyses proved; but
we had not at that time sufficient of the mineral to complete
the investigation as desired. In the mean time Hermanny re-
analyzed it, found a different composition from any previous

* Comptes Rendus de l’Académié des Sciences, Oct. 28, 1850.
7J.f. pr. Chem., iii, 1.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 111

one, and concurring with the one that had been made by us,
as well as with those more recently made, which are here given.
Si #1 Fe Ca Mg Na K H
ieee oO 8:65 62150) O70) 18%" trace. 5.00. 99.26

—— —S
2.. 28.64 51.66 12.25 0.68 2.01* 4.76=100.00
These correspond to the formula R* Si+-3A12 Si+3H.

\ Atoms. At. weight. Per cent. Oxygen ratio.
SLICE eee peter es t 2309.24 30.58 +
FARINA! .scscee 6 3850.8 50.99 6
MEMES Soacace sees 3 1054.5 13.96 il
WWWalteD sane csctstewe 3 337.5 4.47 if

The specimen of margarite examined was received from
Dr. Krantz, of Bonn, and came from Sterzing in the Tyrol, the
original locality.

By these analyses it will be seen that margarite and emery-
lite are identical, and the former name having priority of date
(although the composition of the mineral was not made out
until lately), it must doubtless replace the latter, unless its
geological appropriateness can sustain it.

2. EUPHYLLITE.

This mineral was first analyzed by Crooke, but the analysis,
having been made by a fusion with carbonate of baryta, was
found to be incorrect. It was re-analyzed by Erni and Gar-
rett.t Dr. Erni’s analyses gave the formula R? Si+11R Si+-3H.
Garrett found no water; his analyses give the same formula as
Erni’s, minus the water.

Our results differ essentially from those heretofore obtained,
as is seen by the following analyses:

1 2 3 4
SUIT CE Ae i a eer 40.29 39.64 40.21 40.96
PACINTTIUITAR io S85 Sewanee Se 43.00 42 40 41.50 41.40
Peroxide of iron...... 1.30 1.60 1.50 1.30
LATA Tae a ph a a 1.01 1.00 1.88 ia a!
VRAIS MEST aias.\cucces coe .62 .70 .78 70
SOG AG Pac ase ner elawcet 3.94 3.94 3.25 3.25
OAS? ssaeetec esses 7 D.16 5.16 4.26 4.26
RUWatertes see ki oneves ces 5.00 5.08 5.91 6.23

100.382 99.52 99.29 99.21

* By the difference. _

7 Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, viii, 382; Dana’s Mineralogy,
3d ed., p. 362.

112 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

No. 1 was from a specimen in our own collection. No. 2
was from the original specimen in Prof. Silliman’s cabinet.
Nos. 3 and 4 were specimens received from Messrs. Williams
and Jeffries, of Westchester, Pa. Specific gravity Nos. 1 and
2, 2.83. The analyses give the formula R Si+# Si2?+2H.

Atoms. At. weight. Percent. Oxygen ratio.
SHINGE) pconge ono 366 3 1781.98 39.63 9
IWIN oe5000096 3 1925.40 44.05 9
SOO Biosnsadcss 501-09 z 193.60 4.43 1
Potashliec gcc ois 394.42 6.74
Whatebiecssa soe 2 225.00 5.15 2

This mineral in its most beautiful form is of rare occurrence
(analyses 1 and 2 are of this variety); there is, however, an-
other variety, not differing essentially in physical characters
or in chemical composition, which is found in considerable
abundance at the locality. 3

In all probability the mineral alluded to as Muscovite (?) in
the memoir on the minerals associated with emery* is this
mineral; and when we are able to get at certain specimens
from Asia Minor, containing this mica in a pure state, this
point will be investigated. It is of much interest toward
tracing out its geological connection with corundum forma-
tions widely separated, in which respect it may resemble
emerylite.

3. Mica FRomM LiTcHFIELD, Conn.

This mineral is associated with the kyanite of Litchfield.
In general appearance it resembles margarodite. Hardness=
3.35; specific gravity 2.76; almost colorless, having a faint
tinge of green; transparent; luster pearly. The results of
two analyses gave i |

Si Bley ¥e Me) Sani aiing a uiNia, 0K Fl.) eh

1. 4460 386.238 1.84 0.87 0.50 trace 4.10 6.20 trace 6.26

—_——

2. 44.50 37.10 undet. undet. ...... 4.00° 6.90 ccke 5.16
These correspond very closely with Liebnerite, as well as
with Damourite and some analyses of margarodite. Annexed
are the analyses for comparison:
Si eA) he" ys Mier co IK. | > sae

inebnerite:,.. 044.06 moore Nae) leeeree 1.40 9.90 0.92 4.49 Marignac.
#e
IDyminvojuetdeyoon Lia Ble WENO cabsoo” suoode L200 ee 5.25 Delesse.

Margarodite. 46.23 33.08 8.48 trace 2.10 8.87 1.45 4.12 Delesse.

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, xi, 62.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 113

The silica and peroxides* in these analyses are identical;
but, in common with many of the micas, it is extremely difficult
to deduce any one formula that would be a correct expression
of their chemical constitution, owing to slight differences in
the protoxides. This is rendered more obvious by comparing
their oxygen ratios:

Beet Won
REE Cate COMIC As darcesoataasoneriee weielmcact cos Ie (ee OTK)
PR MOIE TROTNGCM. 2 ccckacdes poten ws cer eecmacy aeeeey ete 1: 6.88: 9.48
Ome AMNAOU ILE see sede scredciceeescaists sieic baewae cies cs 1: 9.85: 12.00
ANAT CAT OCIS teacaisac sce csemeeeane seeeeeeereeeee 1:6.16: 8.95

The striking similarity of these species would lead us to
suspect that if new analyses were made of specimens from the
original localities, they might prove identical. In all physical
characters, except structure, there is a complete correspondence.

4, UNIONITE, IDENTICAL WITH OLIGOCLASE.

This mineral was described by Prof. Silliman, jr., in the
Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, viii, 384. The follow-
ing are its characters: In general appearance it resembles a
soda spodumene; it has a very distinct cleavage in one direc-
tion; luster vitreous; color white; hardness 6; specific gravity
2.61. It is found with euphyllite at the corundum locality
near Unionville, Pa. The results of three analyses are as
follows:

Si Xl Fel > Ga. (Me, \ Na Ke, -ign,
1. 6409 21.45 trace 0.86 069 10.94 1.86 1.02—100.41

2. 64.45 20.97 trace 0.77 0.46 10.94 1.86 1.14—100.09
Gee nyeaeaee ZleiOn tracer. O;857) OAGY s vaeces btiues 1.02

The third analysis, owing to an accident, is incomplete; the
constituents determined are given for comparison. The oxygen
ratio of these analyses is very nearly 1:3: 9, which gives the
formula RSi+Al1Si2. This is the formula of oligoclase; the
analyses correspond with that species, and the physical char-
acters being the same, there can be no doubt as to the identity
of unionite and oligoclase.

It is believed that this is the first time that olieoeluae has
been observed in the United States.

* Considering the iron in Liebnerite as peroxide.

114 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

5. KerouitE oF UNIONVILLE, PA., A HYDRATED SILICATE OF
ALUMINA.

Associated with euphyllite and unionite, there occurs a
peculiar amorphous mineral, which has been circulated among
some of our American mineralogists under the name of kerolite.
In our examinations of the minerals from this locality we
thought it of sufficient importance to ascertain its chemical
composition.

In physical characters it resembles kerolite; hardness 2.25 ;
specific gravity 2.22; color yellowish-white; brittle; crumbles
to pieces when thrown in water. Analysis gave

Si Al Mg Mn Na &K H
44.50 25.00 7.15 trace trace 22.39—99.64

Of the water 1.04 per cent. was lost by twenty-four hours’
desiccation over sulphuric acid, 8.81 per cent. by heating to
212°, and the remainder at a red heat.

In chemical composition it is near halloysite. It is an imper-
fectly formed mineral, and consequently is not homogeneous:
it passes into euphyllite and feldspar.

6. BowENITE, IDENTICAL WITH SERPENTINE.

This mineral occurs at Smithfield, R. I., and was described

by Bowen* as a variety of nephrite. His analysis gave
Si Mg Ca Fe Al Mn H
44.69 34.63 4.25 1.75 0.56 trace 13.42

This composition differed so much from nephrite, and cor-
responded so closely to the formula 2(Mg Ca)? Si+3H, that Pro-
fessor Dana felt himself justified in noticing it as a distinct
species.

The following are the physical characters of the mineral :
Hardness 5 (it will scratch glass if rubbed with a little force
against its surface; it first gives way, but ultimately scratches
the glass); specific gravity 2.57; color, in large masses, bright
apple-green; highly translucent; structure granular, and ex-
ceedingly tough. We give analyses of three specimens. No.

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, Ist series, vi, 346.
+ Dana’s Mineralogy, 3d edition, p. 265.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 115

1 was from the cabinet of Professor Silliman, jr.; No. 2 from
the mineralogical collection of Harvard University, received
from Professor Cook; No. 3 from the Lederer collection in
Yale College.

Si Al Mg Fe Ca H
uD 42,20 trace 42.50 1.56 trace 13.28—99.54
De 42,56 trace 43.15 OI Sie MTN acces 12.84—99.50

3. 42.10 trace 41.28 1.11 1.90 2 oO

These analyses give the oxygen ratio 4:3: 2, and the for-

mula 2Mg? Si2++3Mg H?, which calculated is
Si Mg H
43.5 43.8 WA.[/

This is the composition and formula of serpentine, and the
fact of its identity with that species is also borne out by its
physical characters.

The large amount of lime obtained by Bowen was doubiless
due to the limestone and tremolite with which it is often very
intimately associated; much care is required to separate these
substances entirely from the Bowenite, but the mineral so
purified contains no lime.

7. WILLIAMSITE, IDENTICAL WITH SERPENTINE.

We notice that this species is considered distinct by Prof.
Shepard in the last edition of his mineralogy, notwithstanding
it has been shown to be serpentine by Hermann,* and previ-
ously from an analysis made by one of us, published in Dana’s
Mineralogy, page 692. In this analysis referred to, 3.35 per
cent. of alumina and iron were obtained. We have since exam-
ined the relative proportions of these substances, and find that
the amount was due to iron with but a trace of alumina. Two
analyses made from very pure specimens gave

Si XI Mg Fe Ni H
is 41.60 trace 41.11 3.24 0.50 12.70—99.15
2. 42.60 trace 41.90 1.62 0.40 12.70—99.22

It is evident from these analyses that the mineral is identical
with serpentine, and affords the same formula as the mineral
last mentioned. It may be well to remark that great care was
taken to see that no magnesia accompanied the oxide of iron
in its precipitation by ammonia; not satisfied with adding an

* J. f. pr. Chem., lili, 31.

116 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

excess of sal ammoniac to the solution before the addition of the
ammonia, we redissolved the precipitate, added sal ammoniac,
and reprecipitated the oxide of iron; this was done even a
third time, before the last traces of magnesia were got rid of,
or that we were sure that the amount of iron would not be in-
creased by containing magnesia—a circumstance in which
sufficient precaution is not always used. What is here said
of oxide of iron is equally true of alumina.

8. LANCASTERITE, A MECHANICAL MIXTURE OF BRUCITE AND
HyDRO-MAGNESITE.

While on a mineralogical excursion to the localities near
Texas, Pa., a few months since, in company with Mr. W. W.
Jeffries, we observed at Wood’s Mine a peculiar magnesian
mineral, somewhat resembling lancasterite; a chemical exam-
ination showed it to be hydro-magnesite. The composition of it,
as well as its strong resemblance to some specimens of lancas-
terite, led to a re-examination of the latter species.

Laneasterite is described as occurring “foliated like brucite,”
but sometimes in crystals “resembling somewhat stilbite or
gypsum.” As we desired to see whether these forms were
identical in chemical composition, a portion of the foliated
mineral was carefully selected and the amount of carbonic acid
determined. It was buta trace; the magnesia and water being
estimated gave the same amount as is found in brucite; there
was also a trace of manganese and iron.

Some of the small crystals “resembling stilbite or gypsum ”
were then examined; analysis showed them to have the same
composition as the hydro-magnesite of Kobell.

These results go to prove that lancasterite is not a dis-
tinct species, but a mechanical mixture of brucite and hydro-
magnesite. In Dr. Erni’s analyses of this mineral (made in
the Yale Laboratory) we are aware he found great difficulty
in obtaining a constant composition, and it was only after a
series of analyses that he obtained any concordant results.
The specimens he examined were both crystallized and foliated,
the folia in some cases overlying the crystalline portion.
With this explanation the composition he obtained is easily
understood.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. rw 7 /

The following are the results of our analyses. Nos. 1 and
2 were foliated; Nos. 3 and 4 were of the radiated variety:

ali 2 3 4
IEAM peaaieeme nena see ice 66.30 66.25 42.30 44.00
Protoxide OrPUON ss sceeeeens 50 1.00 See nee
Protoxide of manganese.. trace
Carbomie acid ct.ss..sccdenc. LO trace 36.74 36.60
‘GTS Ie ate a 31.93 SDT 20.96 19.40
MMI RCCHLGCTERMUIMALION: OLS WALCT 1. «ac sdes scree cco wessncctives sce 20.10

The foliated variety gives the exact composition of brucite.
In two determinations of loss by heat the numbers 34.30 and
35.67 were obtained; great difficulty was found in obtaining
the brucite perfectly pure, owing to its intimate association
with the hydro-magnesite.

The radiated variety (as before stated) gives the composition
of hydro-magnesite, and to show that the original analyses were
made from a mixture of these minerals we give Dr. Hrni’s re-
sults* for comparison :

Mg Fe C H Total.
50.01 1.01 21.0% 21.60 99.69
50.72 .96 26.85 21.47 100.00

9. HYDRO-MAGNESITE FOUND CRYSTALLIZED.

The hydro-magnesite above mentioned is extremely beau-
tiful, and in appearance resembles very much the thomsonite
from Kilpatrick in Scotland. Its structure is highly crystal-
line, and in some instances forms distinct crystals, which have
been considered as monoclinic (?) (Dana); the diagonal cleav-
age is very distinct; hardness 3-3.5 (scratching calcite with
ease); specific gravity 2.145-2.18. It occurs at Wood’s Mine,
Texas, Lancaster County, Pa., in seams which are sometimes
half an inch in thickness, and at Low’s Mine in veins generally
from one tenth to one fifth of an inch wide, having a beautifully
radiated structure. ‘The results of two analyses of a specimen
from Wood’s Mine are as follows:

1 2
Misomesia; J.cts oc)... 43.20 42.51
Carbonic acid........... 36.69 35.70
IWiaitenk 2. Jaacceseets<ces 20.11 21.79
Iron and manganese.. trace trace

* From Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 213.

118 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

A direct determination of the water gave 19.83 per cent.
These analyses give the oxygen ratio 2: 3: 2, and the formula
3(Mg 6+H)+Mg H which calculated gives

Mg C H
44.68 30.86 19.46

The composition and formula are the same as obtained by
Kobell and Wachtmeister for hydro-magnesite from Negro-
ponte and Hoboken. We are not aware that this species has
_ heretofore been observed with a crystalline structure.

10. SupposreD MAGNESITE OF HOBOKEN SHOWN TO BE ARAGONITE.

In connection with the foregoing investigations it was thought
that an examination of some of the anhydrous carbonates of
magnesia might be interesting. For this purpose a specimen of
magnesite from Hoboken, N.J., was submitted to analysis (the
variety referred to is that which occupies seams and cavities in
the Hoboken serpentine, having an aggregated fibrous structure,
and not unfrequently occurring in delicate needle crystals). A
careful qualitative examination of the needle crystals showed
them to be carbonate of lime, with scarcely a trace of magnesia ;
they have the form of aragonite. Specimens from Staten Island
and the vicinity of Westchester, Pa., were examined, with like
results. The crystals from the serpentine quarry near West-
chester are frequently transparent, and are among the most
beautiful specimens of crystallized aragonite that have been
observed in this country.

11. CHESTERLITE, IDENTICAL WITH ORTHOCLASE.

This mineral occurs in implanted crystals on dolomite near
East Bristol, Chester County, Pa. In physical characters it
resembles orthoclase, but it has been considered triclinic, and
Erni’s analysis* gave soda as the alkali. The crystals occur
frequently as twins, and are often very much distorted—in
specimens we have examined the angle T on T’ varies from
121° to 127°—rendering it extremely difficult to determine the
normal value of the angle; some of the measurements would,
however, lead to the conclusion that it is monoclinic, since the
angle of cleavage is by our measurements near 90°. So far as

* Dana’s Mineralogy, 3d ed., p. 678.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 119

our opinion is concerned—based on both its chemical and phys-
ical character—we unhesitatingly pronounce it an orthoclase.
Two analyses gave

1 2

Salle eto Ne eae caacaiclate oheoah caincahe meee. 64.76 65.17
DRUM UATAMININEAa APP a ee sheytsracarar ale dislaerersl sis ae cle alee 17.60 17.70

» Peroxide of iron..... Bra RM ny Fiala eacceass .50 .50
WRIT Re ee ese Sac oe sa cn orcas cominnalsasmends .65 56
TRU AYA OSTIE Ripe Ge Be aes Sees Ae a a ae .o0 25
Gece eae nce te iakies Nie nia ocwneaateule alive 14.18 13.86
RSV GIANTS Ae EE ER ote oe ear ctoe Sieca tals oi Nauiieuleae Nes 1.64
HFoyrnns OTR aie koe ag altace Wu ain a atetas delete 65 65
100.39 100.33

These correspond to the composition of orthoclase, and chem-
ically the mineral is identical with it; if it shall be proven that
the crystalline form is triclinic, it will be a potash albite, and
as such an interesting species.

The specimens examined were received from Messrs. T. F.
Seal and William S. Vaux, of Philadelphia.

12. LoxXocLASE, IDENTICAL WITH ORTHOCLASE.

The feldspar, associated with pyroxene at Hammond, N. Y.,
has been named as a distinct species by Breithaupt.* Its crys-
talline form, hardness, specific gravity, and other physical
characters are the same as orthoclase, and the reasons for
forming a new species of it are based upon its cleavage and
chemical constitution. The latter Plattner found to be

Si Alte) -dheryha.Cale 3 Meu Naw H

Ge0) 3 20:29 ~ 10:67 O22 ey ACE Osi amio.0901 1250070

We have examined two varieties of it. Analyses | and 2 are
from specimens taken from a large crystal, and were not per-
fectly pure, owing to intimate association with a lime pyroxene;
analyses 3 and 4 are from a very pure crystal.

1 2; 3 4
Sir SIG OA eee 65.40 65.69 66.09 66.31
PAS UMIVIING whch vies 19.48 18.23
Peroxide ofiron. 1.25 20.72 19.15 67
1 LA Dea eae ee PONG) 2.36 94 1.09
Maonesia .......5- .20 25 21 30
NOGA 5. csc.cd cco 2.76 2.36 4.35 4.35
SOCIEIN GR ea ERC EE aman (2d 7.98 7.81 7.81
Roman gtOMe o25- + 23 76 76 .20 .20

99.34 109.12 98.75 98.96
* Pogg. Ann., lxvii, 419.

120 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

It will be seen at a glance that the only difference between
this mineral and orthoclase is the large amount of soda, and in
analysis | and 2asmall amount of lime, this last, most of which
is doubtless an impurity, alters somewhat the oxygen rates.

Doha Meer Sait cl Samer cognia niacin rod earceanso, arenas Io alOr min
INOS Disko | ee Ce aecwatenenti oc aiteaneine arta sn cians 1:3: 10.60
INO) Gp Py Sbosceedibene te acne Baan ae ee st 1: 2:90 03
IN(0. A eects a enue atte eae ohecet nyse eeceme reais 1: 2.74: 10.83

This slight difference in the ratio (produced by the presence
of a considerable amount of soda) is not uncommon in ortho-
clase. In that from Hohenhagen, Schnedermann found 4.15
potash and 7.53 soda; the flesh-red feldspar from Bathurst,
Canada, gave Hunt 6.36 potash, 5.37 soda; and Gmelin found
in the feldspar from Laurvig 6.55 potash and 6.14 soda, and in
that from Fredicksvarn 7.03 potash and 7.08 soda. These
numbers affect to some slight extent the oxygen ratio, but the
correspondence of the minerals in physical characters denotes
their identity with orthoclase. Moreover, the identity of loxo-
clase with orthoclase is made obvious when we take the ratio
between the silica and alumina, which in the purer varieties
(analyses 3 and 4) is as 4:1, and analysis 4 gives the ratio
12: 3.04: 1.11, or RSiI+# Sis.

The specimens examined were received from Professor Sil-
liman, jr., and Mr. Samuel W. Johnson.

13. DanpurY FELpsPARs: 1. OLIGOCLASE; 2. ORTHOCLASE.

1. Oligoclase.—The feldspar in which the danburite occurs
has so strong a resemblance to the oligoclase from Sweden that
we have been led to analyze it; the results of our examination
prove its identity with that species. The analyses gave

SIGH ce cele Ocean eee 64.03 63.50
Mlb ag ho ¢2 pee ease tern oh GrciiccORee MPT 22.75
IR2LORIGEe OL MLON Ie ase peer eee ners trace trace
ATIC Bee S55 obser cate eee.) aeRO 3.28
WIESE) SoG oaneec ban sonido oso noo sneey IRENE trace
Sodas eies ied aces acta oe eee eeiaee FL OX06 on
Potash te 55st Ee ences: .60 .50
Temiti@ieess oc ical .00 Pall

100.27 99.61

These give the oxygen ratio 1:3:9 and the formula R Si+Al Si2, which
are the ratio and formula for oligoclase. .

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. HG

2. Orthoclase.—There is also associated with danburite a
potash feldspar not unlike the soda feldspar just mentioned; in
some cases it is so intimately associated with it as to require
great care in selecting for analysis. So far as our observa-
tion extends, we have been able to identify the oligoclase by
its occurrence in masses with a broad cleavage surface, and
another less smooth, meeting at the angle 93°-94°; in ortho-
clase this angle is 90°, and most frequently it presents at this
locality small cleavage faces, and is sometimes of a granular
structure.

The following analyses are of the latter variety, which
doubtless contain a little oligoclase that it is impossible to
separate.

1 2

Sl eseracone cara. ictecet. ca nece sedesies, OSLOO 63.95
PACU Teele vous oeticete Sotac sect fnacos toe) LO.9O 19.05
JE GRG RAR i a ee ee eer 80 61
IWkaieam CSAs sso sae Gee case enise o stelypniasa ce .20 .20
os eats hohe coerce Suaet tose es vee DL IGAS 10.95
SS OCT ae Snare aseasbeides Se tro eee SOO 3.69
TES2THIT SOO aa eae ee Pe RPE aR 380 50

9929 98.95

The specimens examined were taken from the locality by
one of the authors.

14. HappAm ALBITE, IDENTICAL WITH OLIGOCLASE.

Associated with the iolite at Haddam, Conn., there occurs a
glassy feldspar which has heretofore been called albite. Its
composition is that of an oligoclase, as will be seen by the fol-
lowing analysis:

f 2

DUliC aches! eee eee ued. decue: OOLOE 64.64
SNGMUITINIM po oe eer terse ccs tocee 221,02 21.98
JOTIDDG bec sahOBiCea Biern ot Seki pre mma 2.17
Wino mesilate ae athe eee e sats «c.2sn5-) 2. DEACE trace
DOCH csi arrestee eke tied aes zicee LORS 9.80
HAOUAG DR 8 Socios Se amemse s een Shes acc'sas es 50 .50
MOMS NOM vase med cess ee riee Gale vot ous 29 20

98.80 99.38

The specimens examined were received from Professor
Dana.

We have examined the moonstone feldspar, from Mineral
Hill, Delaware County, Pa., which is also oligoclase.

2 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

15. GREENWOOD Mica—BIorTITE.

The chemical constitution of only a very few American
biotites has been examined. In fact, von Kobell’s* analysis
of a mica from Monroe, N. Y., is the only one that has been
published; unfortunately, even in regard to this there is some
doubt as to its locality, for biotite is found in more than one
place near Monroe.

The specimens we have examined are from Greenwood Fur-
nace, Monroe, N. Y.; the mineral occurs in large crystals of a
dark olive-green color, and the results of the analyses are such
as to lead to the supposition that the specimens examined Py,
von Kobell were from this locality. He obtained

Si Al Fe Me K HF a H

40.00 16.16 7.50 21.54 10.83 0.58 0.20 3.00—99.76

The results of our analyses are.

1 2
SU Gar Aussie aoe cere ee eee 39.88 89.51
AM TMAI Mae Gace nee eat teem catenen aes 14.99 Leal
IZEIROSRIGKE) Ge TWO pGosccnacadonaoscoonoc 7.68 7.99
Mig omesty cosets cesses reckteeneee ee 23.69 23.40

Potashed eee a Sy ene 9.11

SOM Gitar et co cee eae aD 10.20
WVater eee okes eon se ce Coma Reese 1.30 1.85
SBulWMOrInle We esos eee ee ees 95 .95
Chlorines.. Fer eee ee eee 44 44
99.16 98.95

These give the oxygen ratio ‘s

Rk B Si
Det aresinise «She sae des cteinnsh see eee ee aneepeser er 113139 30 20R
Di Sd hae eo st s OhM co ene IN Ie CR eae 11.20: 9.45: 20.58

or very nearly 1:1:2, which corresponds to the formula
R* 8i+#Si. A small portion of the oxygen in the mineral is
replaced by fluorine and chlorine.

The specimens examined were received from Mesaee Jenkins

& Horton, of Monroe, N. Y.

16. BriotirE oF Putnam County, N. Y.

In appearance this mineral resembles talc, having a wavy,
lamellar structure and a soapy feel. Its color is brownish-

* J. f. pr. Chem., xxxvi, 309, and Dana’s Mineralogy, third edition, p- 360.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 123

green in mass, and pale yellowish-green by transmitted light.
Hardness 2-2.5; specific gravity 2.80. The lamine are en-
tirely devoid of elasticity. It has been called pyrophyllite by
some mineral collectors, but upon what grounds we are igno-
rant, as it does not possess the remarkable property of exfo-
liating and swelling up by heat, so peculiar to pyrophyliite.
Analysis shows its composition to be identical with biotite.

if 2
Slice soe ning caas rita man cnes tages 39.62 39.49
PAM RIINET Asso cee nev en sncokbameee soatcbas £7.35 17.06
Peroxide Or MLO. asscees coacecee eae 5.40 5.21
Mei SINGS) - coeeceqnassecopuccdou tenon Hoe 23.85 23.65
PO GAS IM perth bee feet akh sseceueeeee oO ST Be aaa Wenn Vag soe
S\GG le Reta oS ON BNE sera ae ED Die ao ok Neale oe
N/E tA I I re AUSTEN Ye Ne NG Ban a ea
MH VIGGEINNC ears eenace sere veer eee cate teae fal 74 Ue ee ac ae
(OUINGHETI OVE Gea Gaines iP eps ere =p SOFT aM Oe Saas shitty anak
99.06

Analysis 1 gives oxygen ratio R 11.22: #9.73: Si 20.58, or 1:1: 2;
and the same formula as for the mineral last mentioned,
R3 Si+8 Si.

The specimens examined were received from Mr. Silas R.
Horton, of Craigville, New York.

17. MARGARODITE.

This mineral occurs at Lane’s Mine, Monroe, Conn. It has
been analyzed by W. H. Brewer,* but owing to some impurities
in his specimens he obtained an excess of silica.

Specimens very carefully selected, to avoid the fluor spar
and other minerals with which it is associated, gave

1 2

Sleeps sere renee eee Makioet dvicaccn bier 46.50 45.70
NCTM eye See Siac oe ccc seals 33.91 33.76
ReromiGeronuirOmee.ceco cee cc cscs seccse 2.69 aeael
IWR TNESIB) cet soo cost sanodonuenBSROBeEESe .90 1.15
MRO GAG II sateen eee oe eck < ke'cc webs (ew 7.49
SOLS WR OSes Guia dS sth) < ek ae ee es 2.70 2.85
VV FAG GI uch cee es cscs ca decs S85 4.63 4.90
IESLWLOBINIC Seecodeao ee ee see ocr ore ge ceeeses .82 82
CMORIMe s.ceseee cet te andet once seece ol Fol

99.78 100.09

* Dana’s Mineralogy, third edition, p. 359.

124 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

These correspond to the analysis of margarodite from St.

Etienne, in which Delesse found
Si 1 fe Me Na K H Fl

46.23 . 33.08 °§ 3:48-. 2.10." 1-45 8.87. 4.12.” trace=_Joise

In a former paper we have mentioned the difficulty of ob-
taining a correct formula from the analyses of margarodite,
owing to slight differences in the protoxides. The relation
of the oxygen of the silica to that of peroxides in most of the
analyses is as 3: 2,

The specimens examined were received from Professor
Silliman, jr.

18. THe CHESTERLITE TALC—A MICA.

Associated with the chesterlite a micaceous mineral is found,
which has been called tale. It occurs in implanted crystals, in
minute tuft-like aggregations on dolomite; there is frequently
an iron stain upon the surface, due to the decomposition of some
of the minerals with which it is associated; the crystals are
seldom over a line in diameter. Its chemical composition is
that of a mica; but owing to the small amount examined it is
impossible to say positively whether it be muscovite or mar-
garodite, although from its association we are inclined to
consider it muscovite.

TTI@A i. o4 nocd eacisabeec eee meee ee I sca ceeetea et oaee eee 45.50
A JOmiInia? eedias s hese reece ce Mee eee an ene 34.55
Peroxide.of ION nts568 eee eee trace
DuliM@ S ssa Sects ace tere chee cee ee eee ee ee te eee Dal
Mao nesiar sae 5s sci capernnte wt ehge oeeeee eee eaachoee croatia Renee 1.08
POPASHL. 85.60 5c ode dtoete Soe Stn Ee eee Deeeee 8.10
SO 8 iid oe sinaiae'ed 0 aiatane thence Senne ee en eee Ee ee eee Deo
Waterand carbonic acide cee ere eee 5.40

99,29

A large portion of the lime and magnesia is doubtless due
to the dolomite with which it is associated. The specimen was
received from Mr. Thos. F. Seal.

19. RHODOPHYLLITE, IDENTICAL WITH RHODOCHROME.

The violet-colored mineral which occurs at Texas, Pa., and
was circulated among mineralogists as ‘‘violet talc,’ has been
analyzed by Dr. Genth,* of Philadelphia, who found for it a

* ProcAcad: Nat.SemePhik, wvi,-122)

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 125

distinct composition, and gave it the above name. Its physical
characters correspond with rhodochrome and kammererite, but
as there had been no analysis published of the first, and as Dr.
Genth’s results did not agree with those obtained for kammer-
erite, he doubtless felt himself justified in considering it a new
species. A short time after his results appeared an analysis
of rhodochrome was published by Hermann; its identity with
those of rhodophyllite induced us to re-examine the latter.
The results on two analyses are:

1 2
Siilit@deereretcateseiectmctoastakaas ceeds a.) oar26 33.30
PAULINA Meee ces ew camace a aeemaceitccs dates 10.69 10.50
Sesquioxide of chromium........... 4.78 4.67
IPGIRESRIGIEV OE WAG Aa oarouseeeecos Rea 1.96 1.60
WIA BINGO), sobsonssoocnbaedsnonocekodenbee 35.93 36.08
Soda and potash. ........ 2... cs... .85 35
VINA N Oe, che Soca eae Cac een Renic Aaa 12.64 138.25

99°61 99.75

These will be seen to correspond with the analyses (1, 2)
of rhodophyllite by Dr. Genth, and the analysis of rhodo-
chrome (3) and chrome-chlorite (4) by Hermann.

See em Cuma Nt eNom iCal sduliNa ae.) Ef

ee
———————— ss

1. Texas, Pa. 33.41 18.15 trace 35.86 trace 0.28 0.10 12.79
2, Mexas, Pa, 32:98 11.11 1:43 6.80 trace 35.22 trace 0.28 0.10 13.12
8. L. Itkul... 34.64 10.50 2.00 5.50 ...... DOAN ate cess sneak! aateees 12.08
4 Texas, Pa. 31:82 15.10 4.06 0.90 0.25 85.24.22... cece. ceeeee 12.75

Our analyses give the formula 4R* Si+R? Si+10H.

Dr. Genth gives the same formula minus one atom of water.
The amount of oxide of chromium varies in different specimens,
and to this is due the various shades of color. Dr. Genth in-
forms us that he observed a like variation in the specimens he
examined. The chrome-chlorite examined by Hermann was
undoubtedly one of the hght-colored varieties.

Nickel as well as lime is found in some specimens, but both
are impurities. The nickel is due to small particles of sul-
phuret of nickel which occur at the same locality, and in
many instances are disseminated through this mineral; in
some specimens these impurities are not readily detected by
the eye. In all probability the carbonate and silicates of nickel

found on the Texas chrome iron proceed from the decomposition
of this sulphuret. |

126 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

Mr. T. H. Garrett* has recently given an analysis of this
mineral. His results differ materially from those obtained

above.
20. CUMMINGTONITE — A HORNBLENDE.

This mineral was described by Dewey,f and analyzed by

Muir.{ The latter obtained for its composition
Si Fe Mn Na H
56.54 21.67 7.80 8.44 3.18=97.63

Authentic specimens for examination were procured from
the Lederer collection in Yale College. Its structure is fibrous,
resembling anthophyllite; luster silky; color ash-gray. It
occurs in mica slate at Cummington, Mass. ‘Two analyses gave

1 2
Sil Caer ecce oshdacte steer sob aemeene ce 51.09 50.74
ATUIMING 52 sce seen cateomeneeeeeteneee 95 .89
Protoxide of iromeaeecee cere 32.07 33.14
IMMER XSSTEY Sboagsooa.couocoOsGsdooodascaxcaC 10.29 10.31
Pe MMiameaM sey cmc esesnceceecieetesceers 1.50 1.77
DB cae mere ee ena NOs nat SARS ance nien trace trace
ROLL: PRM RE er BUM eam ine abs 38 15 54
PROtASH «Jace Tete ce os semen eee ETACE HI) yeh! gt thee
DW Bterisc. SUS Deters ee eae ce mcmama 3.04 3.04
99.69 100.43
These give the formula (Fe Mg)4 Sis=R? Si2+R Si.
Atoms. At. weight. Per cent. Oxygen ratio.
UliCA Bee. cickemickcanee seemaneeee 3 1781.98 53.59 3
IETOLOxAG gio la ses eee eee 2% 1125.00 34.80 1
Mapnesiavscscesc cs ces iF 375.00 11.61 3

This is the chemical constitution of hornblende, and from
its physical characters it was long since referred to this species.

21. Hyprous ANTHOPHYLLITE—AN ASBESTUS.

Thomson gave this name to an asbestiform mineral, which
is found associated with chlorite on New York Island.§ His
analysis gives

Si Mg Fe Mn K rad H

54.98 13.38 9.83 1.20 6.80 1.56 11.45—99.20

We have received undoubted specimens of this mineral from
Messrs. Vaux, of Philadelphia, and Silas R. Horton, of New

* American Jour. of Science and Arts, May, 1853.

+ Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, 1st series, viii, 59.
{ Thomson’s Mineralogy, i, 498.

7 Thomson’s Mineralogy, i, 209.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 127

York. The asbestiform mineral, carefully freed from the
chlorite and other impurities, gave on two analyses

1 2

Sii@amenie hme Ae A er 58.20 58.47
MWIBIBNNESIA,” 2” pAeoaenodaqoasonoseceqceun DSA Oo as 29.71
IPrOLOxiGle OMOlLOMssteserea se ceccese.s 8.46 9.06
SOC Ree ins hoki cores esceuae see wae .88 .88
PGS! dV heey eR eA oHE ce ena trace trace
JIG SNGOTN, ekocheocae gosecaS bob coopeanbecaL 2.26 2.26
PRONTO Ae si: sides Seicotas oe Sewescawceecees trace trace

98.76 100.88

These correspond to the formula R4 Si® or B3.Si2--R Si.

Atoms. At. weight. Per cent. Oxygen ratio.
UMC Aston euaowcasecissesierotits 3 1732.00 61.16 3
Magnesia........ Ded ae 34 875.00 30.90 ie
eTOtoxddle OteitOlencsm 2 220.00 7.94

This is the formula given for the last mineral, and the com-
position is that of an asbestus or magnesian hornblende.

22. MONROLITE, IDENTICAL WITH KYANITE.

This mineral was described by Professor Silliman, jr.,* as a
hydrous silicate of alumina resembling weerthite. Professor
Silliman, however, observes that the water varied in several
specimens examined from 3.09 to 1.84 per cent.; subsequent
examinations t made by one of us showed that the water in
the pure mineral was not over 1 per cent. |

In the analysis recently made we find that the silica and
alumina are the same as in kyanite, and that the high silica
obtained by the analyst quoted was undoubtedly owing to the
impurity of the mineral, as a careful examination with the
magnifier shows plates of quartz interlaced with almost every
specimen. The results of analysis on specimens carefully
selected to avoid the quartz gave

. 1 2
PSC At asee es tae Biase aise Meciaicee heme nee 37.20 37.03
pNalinnmilincin re eeeye ees c's sec codices 59.02
IReroxideroliromced.0+--<<c-<0e-+ eee 2.08 To
We mitlOMyce eee ve taseccten « «loses ace 1.08 85
99.33 99.78

These correspond to the formula Al Si?.

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, viii, 385.
} Dana’s Mineralogy, third edition, p. 317.

128 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

23. OZARKITE, AN AMORPHOUS THOMSONITE.

This mineral was described by Prof. Shepard as a new
species.* It occurs in irregular veins and masses in elzolite
at Magnet-cove, Arkansas.

We are indebted to Mr. Markoe, of Washington, for a large
quantity of the eleolite, from which we were able to obtain
the mineral in a pure state. Its color is white; structure gran-
ular to compact; hardness 5; specific gravity 2.24 (Shepard),
gelatinizes with hydrochloric acid. ‘Two analyses gave

1 2
SiliGal.t jcc astousseeee Cee eens 36.85 37.08
RG banhh se PPPPRRE AH SH phe a nndacad 29.42 3118

IReroxide) of drone seseteeeee ee eeeeeee L.55 :
| Wik ca\s WR REE ests) arn aa 13.95 138.97
Soda vescadeccihase see Cee ee eereeee 3.91 Sue,
IW ater fone bcoconbac serene eee eee eee 13.80 13.80
99.48 99.70

This is the composition of thomsonite, and the mineral is a
massive variety of that species. _ |

The analyses give the formula R Si+3A1 Si+7H=silea 37.8,
alumina 31.5, lime 13.00, soda 4.80, water 12.90.

Special examination was made for phosphoric acid, but in
the pure mineral none could be found, although in some im-
pure specimens that one of us had previously examinedy it
existed in the form of apatite in considerable abundance, and
the specimens examined were pronounced a mixture of apatite
and a zeolite.

This mineral was first referred to the zeolites by Mr. J. D.
Whitney,f who on a qualitative analysis found it to be a
hydrous silicate of alumina and lime, with a little soda.

24. DYSYNTRIBITE, A Rock OF INDEFINITE COMPOSITION.

The substance to which the above name was given by Prof.
Shepard § occurs in large masses in the northern part of the —
state of New York. It is of a green color, sometimes mottled
with red. It resembles serpentine, but has a strongly argil-
laceous odor when moistened. |

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, ii.

| Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, ix, 430.
{ Jour. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1849, p. 42.

7 Rep. Amer. Assoc. Advan. Sci., vol. iv, 311.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 129

Having reason to suspect that the substance was not per-
fectly homogeneous—from our first analysis not agreeing with
Prof. Shepard’s—various specimens were examined. ‘The cor-
rectness of the supposition will be seen. by comparing the
following results :

i 2 3 4
SCA. ees « 44.80 44.77 44.94 46.70 46.60 44.74 44.10
Alumina..... 384.90 35.88 25.05 81.01 35 15 20.98 20.64
I Bete) ate oa ee S Olean 3.00 3.69 ; 4.27 4.08
Manganese.. 30 80 trace trace trace GTACEs wi ascs
TINE seh aoe oe .66 [5 8.44 trace trace WAS AB
Magnesia.... 42 5o 6.86 .50 .50 8.48 8.57
NZ ObASSA-aoee: GEST, ashen 5.80 11.68 11.68 Sey a Oy
WOO ars decane SOO secs trace GLACCH Ge LACE ose
Water:..:..< Katey 0 abn 6.11 5.80 5.30 4.86 6.80

99.94 100.53 98.88 99.138 99.96 99.90

There is a remarkable agreement in the percentages of silica.
The mineral was found to lose about two per cent. of water by
desiccation. Some specimens showed the presence of a small
amount of phosphoric acid. Nos. 1 and 4 were received from
Mr. S. W. Johnson; No. 2 from Mr. Silas R. Horton, and the
exact locality of it is Diana, N. Y.; No. 3 was received from
Prof. Hume, of Charleston, who obtained it from Prof. Shepard.
The original analysis by Prof. Shepard gave

Si #1 Fe H Ca Mg
47.68 41.50 5.48 4.83 traces

This substance bears a close relation to agalmatolite, which
from the variable proportion of its constituents can not be
considered a mineral, but is a rock. Some of the specimens
of dysyntribite give the composition of pinite, but it is reason-
able to suppose that a mineral varying so much in its alumina,
magnesia, lime, and alkalies, may in different masses furnish a
resemblance to a vast number of minerals.

25. GIBBSITE.

Gibbsite was first described by Dr. Torrey * as hydrate
of alumina. This composition, confirmed by Dewey and
Thomson, was considered correct until Hermann 7 announced
the discovery of over 37 per cent. of phosphoric acid in it, and
that. the mineral was a hydrous phosphate of alumina. To

* N.Y. Med. and Phys. Journal, i, 68.
TJ. f. pr. Chem., xl, 32.

130 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

satisfy all doubts in this matter, Prof. Silliman, jr.,* examined
it with direct reference to the occurrence of phosphoric acid,
and in none of the specimens examined could he find more
than a trace. Subsequently Mr. Crossley,f of Boston, analyzed
it, and his results confirmed the previous analyses of American
chemists; meanwhile Hermann? re-examined it, and found the
phosphoric acid to vary in different specimens from 37.62 to
11.90 per cent., showing that he had not obtained a homo-
geneous mineral. :

Considerable pains have been taken to obtain a number
of authentic specimens for examination, some of which are
direct from the locality, and others from our own collection.
The results show that the mineral is a hydrate of alumina,
(Al T1?), with but a trace of phosphoric acid, and in some speci-
mens not even a trace existed. Two analyses gave

1 2

PW ivbaat bits RaeOE Msn AH AP Ia ha ae |S 64.24 63.48
Peroxide vols wrollesssseeeet eee eeee trace trace
WW ab Or Ek jeedokee cea ecco eee 33.76 34.68
Silte@atcnc-2 ys. iapnotdokso nesssonos0n3505 1.33 1.09
Phosphorictaciditesssneassee see eet 7 trace
Miciom Csliitrenccesscce semen sectieeeeneets 10 05

100.00 99.30

The phosphoric acid was determined by molybdate of am-
monia; the small amount of silica is due to the intimate
mixture of the mineral with allophane. From the results of
these examinations we are confident that Mr. Hermann has
not at any time analyzed pure Gibbsite. )

26. EMERALD NICKEL.

We notice in the last edition of Phillip’s Mineralogy that
Professors Miller and Brooke place this species among the
doubtful ones, without, however, giving any reasons for so
doing. ‘To ascertain if any good reason existed for this doubt
we have re-analyzed it, and find the same composition as given
by Professor Silliman, jr., which was

Oxide nickel. Carbonie acid. Water.

58.81 11.69 29.49

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, vii, 411.
tAmer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, ix, 408.
tJ. f. pr. Chem., xlvii, 1.

5

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 131

We obtained

Oxygen.

Oxiderotemiekellscc. 1. -csnecsecsces noes 56.82 12.10

MicjeMESIaos.ceaeecse <eeena na eeonaee nae 1.68 67

Wabomncereldescteseeeeceaecessccce ace 11.63 8.46

VN H Tecra ote ce ca croseeicstacciccisa teicwes cea 29.87 26.56

which gives the formula Ni? C-+-6H.
Atoms. At. weight. Per cent. Oxygen ratio.

Oxide of nickel......... 3 1408 59.72 3
Carbonic acid ...........- if 275 11.66 2
WVAELB CT ee are ei eee eeecare 6 675 28.62 6

We would prefer expressing its formula by an atom of car-
bonate of nickel plus two atoms of the hydrated oxide of nickel.
This is rendered probable from the fact that whenever it is
attempted to form a carbonate of the protoxide of nickel by
‘precipitating a protosalt with an alkaline carbonate, a carbon-
ate is obtained containing a certain amount of the hydrated
oxide. For these reasons we would express emerald nickel
by Ni€+2(NiH,). It is without question a distinct species and
a most beautiful and interesting mineral, both from the richness
of its color and its association with cbromic iron.

Since completing our examinations of this mineral we have
observed an analysis of a mineral called emerald nickel by
Mr. T. H. Garrett. The mineral examined was of a very
impure description, and was supposed by the analyst to be a
mixture of emerald nickel, meerschaum, and augite; of course
it is impossible to furnish any correct idea of the composition
of pure emerald nickel from results on such impure specimens.
This mineral is often associated more or less intimately with a
nickel serpentine or gymnite; but with an abundance of the
mineral to select from, a hydrous carbonate of nickel can be
obtained of a uniform composition. A quarter of an ounce
of selected fragments sent by Mr. L. White Williams furnished
us with about one gramme of the pure mineral.

27. DANBURITE.

This mineral has as yet been found in only one locality—
Danbury, Conn. It was first described by Prof. C. U. Shepard,*
and considered by him a hydrated silicate of lime and potash.
Still later it was examined by Dr. H. Erni,+ and boracie acid

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, Ist series, xxxv, 129.
tAmer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, ix, 286.

132 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

was found to be an important ingredient in its constitution ;
in his analysis, however, a large amount of alkalies is indi-
cated. As the results of our analyses show but a trace of these
substances and no other base but lime, it is possible that Dr.
Erni’s alkali determination was made through mistake on some
of the feldspar accompanying danburite, as it not unfrequently
happens that the granular portions of the feldspar resemble the
lighter varieties of danburite. This supposition appears rea-
sonable, as the silica and lime of his determinations agree with
those about to be stated. The composition as given by the
authorities mentioned are
Sy Cag eal)

56.00 28.38 1.70 Y?0.85 K (with Na?) and loss 5.12 H8.0 —100. Shepard.
49.74 22.80 Mg 1.98 #eand Al2.11 K 431 Na9.82 B9.24—100. Erni.

The results of the analyses just made are as follows:

1 2 3 4

SU KGr yaa ENA 48.10 AS 2000 Ree
SAliinmiinaye eee. 30

Peroxide of iron... \ : DO2) 7 aiken ene

Manganese ......... .56

TING eee eens 22.41 22.33 UVa Deh Papal

Migiomesia Senses... 40 undeterm=s. J s5s.68204) eee

Boracic acid ........ Dien QHD NO ee a kN ae

ARNRKOIN Seo5000009900 .00 LOO ie Serie aa. nee

100.00 99.20

This corresponds to the following constitution :

Per cent. Oxygen ratio.
4 atoms silicaysc.oscenede ce eee eee 49.42 4
B) wer) HOTACTeTACIOR ee cece aanaeee neers 28.02 3
SECs Te WbO O(n EM GAUSS Oia haat 22.56 1

It is not easy to decide upon the formula by which danburite
is to be expressed. The same difficulty occurs here as in the
case of datholite, Berzelius considering the lime only as acting
the part of base, while Rammelsberg regards the boracic acid
also as performing the part of a base. The formula for dan-
burite under these views would be expressed by

20a Si2+Ca B? or Ca? Si2-+B3 Si?.

We are in favor of regarding the latter as representing the
true formula.

If danburite be examined in its relation to datholite, it will
be found to differ from the latter in having just one half the
number of atoms of lime minus three atoms of water.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 133

Caé Si2+B? Si2+3H—Datholite.

Ca? Si2-+B3 Siz —Danburite.
This mineral forms then the second natural borosilicate of lime.
Its physical characters have been fully described elsewhere.

The results of the analysis somewhat surprised us, as we
confidently expected to find alkalies; of course much care was
directed to the settling of this question, which from the sim-
plicity of the composition of danburite was easily done in
the following manner: to one gramme of the mineral strong
hydrofluoric acid was twice added, the mass carefully heated
and evaporated nearly to dryness on each addition; finally
sulphuric acid was added in excess, the whole evaporated to
dryness and ignited; the residue weighed 563 milligrammes,
of which 544 were sulphate of lime, the remaining 19 being
composed of alumina, iron, manganese, and magnesia. The
044 milligrammes of sulphate of lime, correspond to 22.44 per
cent. of lime in the mineral used, proving clearly that the
remainder was all volatilized under the action of hydrofluoric
acid; which, according to previous experiments, was shown to
consist of silicic and boracic acids. Three repetitions of the
above experiment gave perfectly concordant results: in fact no
more beautiful proof could have been had of the absence of all
other bases but lime in any very sensible quantity. Moreover,
the amount of lime thus indicated agrees perfectly with that
obtained by the direct method of analysis.

The boracic acid was estimated by first ascertaining the
exact amount of silica by a soda fusion, and then deducting
this quantity from the entire loss of a given quantity of the
mineral under the action of hydrofluoric acid.

The specimens examined were among the finest that have
ever been found, and were procured by Mr. Brush at the
locality.

28. CARROLLITE, A CopPER LINNAITE.

This mineral occurs at Finksburg, Carroll County, Maryland,
and was described as a new species by Mr. W. L. Faber.* He
gave as its chemical composition

S Co ‘Ni Cu Fe As Si
27.04 28.50 1.50 32.99 5.31 1.82 2.14
Formula 2CoS+ Cu? 8.

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, vol. xiii, 418,

10

134 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

Our attention was first called to this mineral from the
unusual relation of the sulphur to the metals in its composition,
it being, we believe, the first example of a natural subsulphuret
that had been observed, the relation being R*S*.

Having been furnished, through the kindness of Prof. Dana,
with an abundance of the mineral to select from, which he had
procured from original specimens in the hands of Prof. Booth,
it was carefully separated from the copper pyrites with which
it is associated. A re-examination of it gives the following for
its physical and chemical characters: Hardness 5.5; sp. grav.
4.85;%* luster metallic; color steel- gray; fracture uneven,
without sufficient indication to make out clearly the nature
of its cleavage. ‘The results of three analyses are

il 2 3
SHUUNOL OURS codeno0 o55950550 065000005 41.93 40.94 40.99
Cobalt:cus aivaceseenc eens 37.25 38.21 37.65
COppelsrcnsencendecnseeeceaaert 17.48 17.79 19.18
INTGKel 7 aaaieenoea creer 1.54 1.54 1.54
Tron eketer Fo eee 1.26 1.55 1.40 —
APSON 1 ess 5 tassancte ce cee eeeeeoe trace trace trace

99.46 100.03 100.76
These correspond to the general formula RS+ R?S%, as will
be seen by comparing the amount of sulphur required for the
metals indicated in the three analyses with the quantities found.
1 Sulph. 2 Sulph. 3 Sulph.

Cahaliaerees 37.25 27.00 38.21 27.68 87.65 27.21
Cope... 1748 1165 17.79 11.88 19.18 12.78
Nickels wee Ey SE AB. ie GA LD
Leone akh ae 1.96 = 298° 155). 1s) do) anne

40.70 41.83 “42,14

Substituting cobalt for the copper, iron, and nickel, the entire
amount of the cobalt would be represented in the three an-
alyses by 56.37, 57.92, and 58.50 per ct. The formula requires

Atoms. Pr. ct.
ov |) 6) cl Caer E Aenean Cr cls. uAnbochpsobde 4 42.06
Cobaltg eas ~als SSCS eR a tS 3 57.94

This is the formula and constitution of linneite, and the min-
eral in question is a copper linneite similar in composition to
the one from Riddarhythan, Sweden.

*It may be well to remark that there is a typographical error in the

statement of the sp. grav. of linnwite in Dana’s Mineralogy; it is never
above 5.00.

f Only one estimate of nickel made.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 135

The composition of this mineral is interesting, as it furnishes
the only example in the mineral kingdom of the isomorphism
of copper and cobalt, where the latter may be replaced to a
greater or less extent by the former. Among artificial pro-
ducts exhibiting this replacement, we have the cupro-sulphate
of cobalt with 10 and with 7 atoms of water, the latter crystal-
lizing in oblique prisms, like the sulphate of cobalt with the
same number of atoms of water, which is also the form of green ~
vitriol.

29. THALLITE, IDENTICAL WITH SAPONITE.

This mineral was originally described by Dr. D. D. Owen,*
by whom it was found on the north shore of Lake Superior,
diffused in the amygdaloidal traps of that locality. At the
time it was first noticed it was supposed to contain a new
element, which was called thallium; the mineral itself was
named thallite. Through the kindness of Dr. Owen we were
furnished with some of the mineral,.which was subjected to
most careful analysis, the result showing nothing in its com-
position by which it differs from saponite; and all attempts to
isolate a new earth from it were vain. A second portion
of the thallite with some of the supposed thallia was sent us
by Dr. Genth, of Philadelphia, which was labeled “not quite
pure ;’ its composition, however, differed from the first prin-
cipally in containing less water, as it was allowed to dry for a
greater length of time—it being a common thing for saponites
to lose more or less of their water by desiccation in the air.

The result of the examination of the thallite was given in a
note in the last number of the American Journal of Science
and Arts. Many of the reactions contained in the original
description of thallite and thallia we have been unable to recog-
nize, among them the evolution of chlorine by the action of
hydrochloric acid, and the precipitation by a neutral solution
of succinate of ammonia. The pea-green color of the concen-
trated hydrochloric acid solution of the thallia, prepared in the
way mentioned by Dr. Owen, is easily explained by the presence
of an exceedingly minute quantity of the chloride of chromium,
as the smallest trace of this last metal will, under the circum-
stances, produce that color. The results of our analyses are as
follows :

* Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ii, part 2d, 1852.

136 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

1 2
STTtGaccacs een casts eee en es 45.60 48.89
AVI IT Bi <b wc ceased Ree etic 4.87 te
Oxide Or HYODE Ac. cheers 2.09 2.46
pMianieanese sj-.-25-eeepece eee recess trace trace
Bit cat: Peaeen ee nes Ret tu a ROR OO a
MIP Ter eS on och hbton scan code 25508 sas 24.10 24h
Soda
Oe esl Wada Neeltak aot ee Ao eee 45 81
WV aber esc col bbe eee i taeee earn aeee 20.66 15.66
98.84 99.22

The specimen No. 1, as already stated, came directly from
Dr. Owen; No.2 from Dr. Genth. The original analysis of Dr.
Owen, with the exception of the new earth, does not differ very
materially from the above, when we consider that the saponites
vary more or less in their composition. It is as follows:

Si Al ¥fe newearth Mg K Mn H
42 4.6 1.5 10-12 20.5 0.8 trace 18

If then the existence of a new earth in this mineral can not
be established, it is clear that it must be a saponite, with which
mineral it is identical in physical properties.

30. HupsonivrE, A PYROXENE.

This species was described by Prof. L. C. Beck.* It has
since been shown to be a pyroxene in which a portion of the
silica is replaced by alumina. Beck and Brewer obtained for
its composition

Si Xl Fe Mn Mg Oa
36.94 122 36.03 DDA PI eA seas 12.71= 99.14. Brewer.+
37.90 12.70 BOS80 7 eae 1.92 11.40 = 100.72. Beck.

A recent examination of some specimens has shown the
presence of a considerable amount of alkalies. The mineral
was received from Mr. Silas R. Horton, and is the same as was
sent by him to Prof. Beck. The results of two analyses are

1 2

SL Caiasvcie'saie i Socetere ecendeeeeeeeereee 39.30 388.58
Adnan, 2 .cgs5 50 ikst hee eeeeeeeeeee 9.78 11.05
Protoxide Of ifon:.-csscseaee eee 30.40 380.57
Protoxide of manganese.....,.-+++. 67 52
Tl sd cacodas'sesaddesceeeceeeeeememer ose 10.39 10.382
Map mesigic.accsses- 20st tteeraeenee cers 2.98 3.02
Potashcieicscces oc. cccss See eens 2.48
Soda cuscles salsa es 1.66 foe
Temition iw. ceesai bec dence eee ene 1.95 1.95

99.61 100.17

* Mineralogy of New York, p. 310.
{1 From Dana’s Mineralogy, 3d edition, p. 267.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 137

Considering the alumina as replacing silica, these give the
oxygen ratio of pyroxene and the formula R: (Si, Al)?.

31. JENKINSITE.

The green mineral that occurs in velvety coatings on the
magnetite of O’Neil’s Mine, in Orange County, New York, has
been described by Prof. Shepard,* as a new species. Its in-
timate association with magnetite renders it somewhat difficult
to obtain it perfectly pure; but by placing the fine particles
of jenkinsite in a vessel of water, and stirring the mass with a
clean rod of soft iron that passes through an electro-magnetic
coil in connection with a battery, every particle of magnetic
iron is removed. Two different portions thus purified, pro-
cured at different times from Mr. Silas R. Horton and Mr. John
Jenkins, gave

1 2
Rilieatemene cence ceaeio scedcccaatwteslawese 38.97 37.42
IRFOtOxGerOF ITO. .c.c0-5..0cee026-3- 19.30 20.60
Protoxide of manganese............ 4.36 4.05
IWIGKETAGT CT: Sheep aneandescroadoe wet acEeee 22.87 22.78
PAM GIUND Ase vette s SoinS tools nace ocee acts ae 58 98
WV VPERGGEL tens degek et ceisdges <exnuaemmnsecen' 13.36 13.48
99.39 99.28

From these we obtain the mean oxygen ratio for silica and
protoxides, and water, 19.84: 14.50: 11.92—4:3:2%, and the

formula R® Sit+-7H.
Atoms. At. weight. Per cent.

SCG eh ea a ee 4. 2309 38.83

RUB SIDS ce scser ceasane ses cee suse goer 6 1500 25.23

POFOXICE: Os IRON: ncescsscce «dccs-s =i 3 1850 22.70

TAY TH WOR ato CaO e SEEN Ren eee ae a 788 13.24
5947

The mineral is similar in composition to serpentine with one
atom more of water, and the magnesia replaced in part by
protoxide of iron and manganese. It also has a strong resem-
blance to hydrophite, both in chemical and physical properties.

32. LAZULITE.

This species occurs in considerable abundance in Sinclair
County, North Carolina, at present the only American locality.
It is of interest to compare its composition with the Huropean

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, xiii, 392.

138 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

varieties, and for that reason the examination was made. The
specific gravity was 3.122. ‘Two analyses gave

Oxygen. Oxygen.

Phosphoric acid .............+. 43.38—24.31 44.15—24.74
PAN ITIOIEN A, Posies see seeeeneae 81.22 14.59 82.17 15.03
JERONCEUEIO OF WO aco sotcostoce: 8.29 1.84 5.96 .095 179) 5 80
Magnesia «3:06 eee 10.06 4.02 \ 10.02) SOs
AWVBILBIP gosas8eo9 docdos93sc003d0002 5.68 5.05 5.50 4.89
SUM eascetaenemeetene heen ersceite ate 1.07 1.07

99.70 100.96

No. 1 has the oxygen ratio=24.90 : 14.94: 6:5.16, or very
nearly 25:15:6:5. No. 2 has=25.56:15.54:6:5.04. From
these we deduce the formula

2 (Mg, Fe)? B+A1l> P3+45H.
Atoms. At. weight. Percent.

hos phonic acid iencesteetesee tenes 5 4460 44.02
A Miia eaters ce teee ee eee 5) 38209 “23 1G
‘Protoxidevoraroneercees hee eee e eee 2, 900 8.88
Magnesia ........ SAHA Rea Sea A 4 1000 9.87
Wiatere ts ee eee 5 563 5.56

The formula differs from that of Rammelsberg by one atom
less of alumina and of water; calculated by his formula, it
would give the alumina much too high for our analyses. The
phosphoric acid was separated from the alumina by fusing the
mineral with carbonate of soda and silica, this being the most
perfect method, in fact the only one to be safely relied on. It
appears to be identical in specific gravity and composition with
the variety from Gratz examined by Rammeisberg.

33. KYANITE.

Associated with the lazulite just described is a very beau-
tiful white kyanite. Its composition is

SUT sind « daidicre sb cieusciciare ta eee Rae eee ee TS Re yee ee Rt 37.60
VA JUIN ines vole a dhe es Dene e ET eons cote ee 60.40
‘Peroxide’ Of 1rotiscsccs Saeco enon 1.60

99.60

This corresponds to the formula 41? Si? =silica 37.47, alumina
62.53.
34. ELMOLITE.

The eleolite of Magnet-cove in Arkansas passed under the
name of ‘“‘flesh-red feldspar” until recognized by Prof. Shepard.*
It has the following physical and chemical properties: Hard-

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, ii, 252.

9

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN: MINERALS. 139

ness 6; specific gravity 2.65; color flesh-red; luster greasy ;
structure massive. Chemical composition:

SHIdlse CON ceo seed VE Nearest cake a tae Siva visaamee edmmnataes Ne 44.46
PAWI pera Ree <a ie esilse arn eearces NiLiU citi urs wm gia ates eae oele one. o's 80.97
BELO EA OteION sare otro dei ha tae sdceaies foes oneee seemac 2.09
NID Tan ce asrsteete tara clots claruicltin eloceus eater alaiea tales onto cata vleteibits aia'e e 66
SGI otic a A ene PA ee nee at ae 15.61
1 OVER IE] Dhabi an OS is at REC EA ae CER RN En A Aap a 5.91
TI @yOUWO a sue 486 oda noa Secs Eerabe Dan ceoirick OnUDE Een cade sconce abc 95

100.65

From this we have the oxygen ratio for the silica, peroxides,
and protoxides, 9: 6: 2, and the formula R? Si+2A1 $i. The min-
eral examined was furnished by Mr. Markoe, of Washington ;
it is the one alluded to in our last paper as containing the
compact thomsonite, under the name of ozarkite. Since pub-
lishing the analysis of the latter we have procured a specimen
of the eleolite containing the thomsonite in handsome radiated
erystallizations.

35. SPODUMENE.

Several analyses of this species from Norwich and Sterling,
Massachusetts, were given by Mr. Bush in vol. x of American
Journal of Science and Arts.

In these analyses the alkalies were determined as sulphates,
and from the amount of sulphuric acid the relative amount
of alkalies was calculated. Since these examinations it has
been found that this process is liable to great inaccuracy ; and
we have consequently made a re-examination with direct refer-
ence to this point ; it has been made altogether on the variety
from Norwich, which occurs in beautiful crystals. The results
of the re-examination show that the lithia and soda determi-
nations in the analyses referred to are erroneous. The method
used in this instance is that recommended by Rammelsberg —
the separation of the chloride of lithia from the chlorides of
potash and soda by a mixture of alcohol and ether. These

analyses gave ‘ 3 E
SHINE yanmeeeerncn bbacrsecee mee 64.04 63.65 63.90
ACOA Seeaaaeeneascssnt 27.84
Peroxide of iron.......... 64 aot 2800
TRACES ac ececeetinned oe os 34 ol .26
MIREINESIEY, soooscoconoce seb trace trace trace
HW GLANS Mace ocasuee Resaneee see es 5.20 5.05 4.99
OMe erase. sclessgsemeasee vce .66
EZ OVASS Ales uanhaadenestemene ss 16 \ oe 20
MAELO. oc eaewaronetgne sis vs .50 50 .60

140 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

From these is deduced the oxygen ratio for the protoxides,
peroxides, and silica, 1:4:10, and the formula R3 Si2-+-4A1 Si2,
corresponding with the results recently obtained by Rammels-
berg* for the composition of the spodumene from Uton and
the Tyrol. The silica, however, is somewhat lower than that of
the European specimens, which is probably owing to the greater
purity of the American mineral, it being found in crystals.

Since completing the above examination of the spodumene
from Norwich, we have noticed a recent examination of the
variety from Sterling, Massachusetts, by Rammelsberg, in
which he states his having found 4.5 per cent. of potash, and
a ratio nearer 1:5:12 than 1:4:10. This difference is ac-
counted for by that author on the ground that the mineral is
somewhat decomposed, and that the original ratio was 1:4: 10.
The fact is Rammelsberg did not examine the pure spodumene
from Sterling, as will be seen by his own account of the
specimens analyzed. They were white, yellowish, or bluish
gray in color, possessing little luster, penetrated with small
fissures, and in these fissures, as well as in. many places on the
surface, were scales of mica with yellow flakes of oxide of iron ;
the specific gravity was 3.073. Now the spodumene, as we
have procured it perfectly pure from Sterling, Massachusetts,
is of a greenish-gray color, fine luster, and very compact,
cleaving with perfection, a specific gravity of 3.182, and with
a composition according perfectly with the requirements of the
ratio 1:4:10, containing even a lttle more lithia than the
variety from Norwich. In an early examination by Brush,
published several years ago, the silica was given too low, he
not having separated the small amount of silica always asso-
ciated with the alumina. A recent analysis gives as the com-

position of this spodumene :
Oxygen ratio.

SEE erste Oo a Gan 64.50 83.41 or 10.66
Dello anh a2 Weer Ese 5 25.30
Peroxide of iron........... 5 )5) 12.54 or 4
oii Cee cee cetaceans 43 )
MigemicSia teres. ievess sneer .06
Titian en otal 5.65 3.43 or 1.09
Potash andssoda. ct 1.10
Loss by ignition ........... 380

99.89

* Pogg. Ann., lxxxv, 544.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 141

It will be seen that this forms no exception, and when
examined pure has the same composition as spodumene from
other localities. In fact, so far as the American spodumene is
concerned, we believe that the specimens from Norwich are the
most beautiful that have been found any where, and we shall
take pleasure on some early occasion in furnishing Rammels-
berg with good specimens from both Norwich and Sterling.

36. PETALITE.

In connection with the analyses of spodumene it was thought
interesting to examine the American petalite. or this purpose
a specimen from Bolton, Massachusetts, was selected. The re-
sults of analyses are:

1 Oxygen. 2 Oxygen.
Sii@amseteeckt ce aes 77.95 40.50 77.90 40.47
BAM UETIN TINA. cece ceeees 16.638 ial 7.95 15.85 7.41 756
Peroxide of iron... 62 is} ; 51 15 ;
MINORS eee een tcc GACH Tai LT mesekies CRACCRGE, Wr eateus
UMaine sia) ce. dewe-= 21 08 .26 10
ENG MV At eatccon a Seecece 3.14 2.07 joa Soe 1.94 | 2.18
SOAR ciaiessc: wakes eke 48 A 5S 14 ;
ZO GAS aressenccecasece GGACCu ere tpetsce: ERACCS teeth ai es
LI GTONTNOTM coscsaneoosee SO OMIA wel casss BOT ts iiacsics's

100.238 99.37

No. 1 gives oxygen ratio 20 :3.92:1.12; No. 2 gives oxygen
ratio 20: 3.74: 1.08, or quite nearly 20:4:1, from which we
have the formula R3 Si4+441 Si4=silica 78.37, alumina 17.44,
lithia 3.40, soda 0.79.

AQ

37. BOLTONITE, IDENTICAL WITH CHRYSOLITE.

Boltonite was first described as a new species by Professor
C. U. Shepard. He made the specific gravity from 2.8 to 2.9.
It was subsequently examined by Professor Silliman, jr., who
found 3.008 as its specific gravity, with a hardness of from 5 to 6.
His analysis gave for its constituents

SI Craters eee cee eis « ok scsi onein Ga alee Mam eewheles Lents 46.062
PNSUUT UAT Nah eae eee Rice erg Ses cccsa cai nace nantomn Rge teeta ae ocbheabice 5.667
IMA OTC SIM erases eaida's << icus noe, sa anor geenausssleleres ances 38.149
ROEO XU CLErO Len OMMer eee saslsnsics = cu vc Danae etogee sees < uatseeiecs 8.632
JLATEDG “Reem Sac Bsc.ce Sik Sel Nem a me eerie re Pro a a ae Nae 1.516

With this knowledge of the mineral I undertook its exam-
ination on specimens in the gangue furnished me by Professor
Shepard. Hxamination of different portions separated mechan-

142 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

ically from the gangue made it very evident that the mineral
was more or less mixed with other substances which had es-
caped observation, for no two analyses agreed; and it was soon
discovered that it was impossible (from the specimens in my
possession at least) to separate boltonite in a state of purity
without the aid of other means than had been adopted.
Boltonite, as is well known, occurs at Bolton, Mass., dissem-
inated in irregular masses and grains in a white limestone.
If a piece of the mineral in its gangue be placed in cold dilute
hydrochloric acid, the limestone is readily dissolved and a mass
left which is seen to consist of asbestus, dolomite, a little mica,
small crystals of magnetic iron, and a greenish or yellowish-
green mineral; if the acid be now heated, the dolomite will be
entirely dissolved with a little of the last-mentioned mineral.
In order to obtain the boltonite as pure as possible for
analysis the following method was adopted. Pieces were sepa-
rated by the hammer as thoroughly as possible from all other
substances; these were subsequently placed in dilute hydro-
chloric acid and boiled for some time; the acid being washed
away and the substance dried, it was crushed in a mortar to
fragments from the twentieth to the tenth of an inch in diam-
eter; these were again introduced into dilute acid and heated
for a short while; the acid was thoroughly washed away and,
the mineral dried. The small fragments (now lke coarse
gravel) were placed on a piece of glazed paper, the hand laid
flat upon it, and the mineral rubbed so as to grind the parti-
cles against each other for the purpose of ridding their surfaces
of a little cohering silica arising from its partial decomposition ;
with a small gauze sieve the finer particles are separated, and
from that remaining in the sieve we are enabled with the aid
of a glass without any difficulty to pick out the pure boltonite.
This method requires a little patience, but no extraordinary .
care; and, however unpromising the original specimens may
have been, there is no difficulty in obtaining a material the
results of whose analysis are constant. From a larger selec-
tion of specimens than that used there doubtless could be
obtained pieces, perfectly pure, of some size. After being
satisfied with this method of obtaining the pure mineral,
three different portions were prepared and examined, the
first two being of the greenish variety and the third of the

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 143

yellow variety, which color is doubtless due to a peroxidation
of a minute quantity of the protoxide of iron entering into the
constitution of the mineral. Mr. L. Saemann, in a communi-
cation made to the American Association some time since,
attributed this change to magnetic iron undergoing decom-
position; but this, however, does not appear to me to be the
case, for the reasons that crystallized magnetic iron is a min-
eral difficult of decomposition, and the color is not in fissures,
as would be the case if the peroxide arose from a substance
foreign to the composition of the mineral, but enters into its
most intimate structure.

The hardness of boltonite is found to be, as already stated,
between 5 and 6. The specific gravity was taken on three
specimens; Nos. 1 and 2 on a gramme each of fine particles;
No.3 on a piece of 0.150 gramme, all possible precautions being
used to arrive at correct results.

INOm Ieee carr 3.270 ING 2) ecenss 3.208 INIORiSis secs sna 3.328

No. 3 is to be regarded as by far the most reliable, as in
taking the specific gravity of fine grains it is almost impossible
to detach the last particles of air, and consequently the specific
gravity they indicate is below the true number. The analyses
of three portions gave

1 2 3
SHIINGR) oes oe Aee eco ScocresUeseceendtS 42.56 41.95 42.41
IEGIESTIELE- sono: Kscadanon codncnas 51.77 51.64 50.06
JETRO ORGIES Ohi TKO) GeAbapenoseocs 2.35 3.20 3.59
2 JUMTMD Bloc phen r ceesuonouso ososbeos 10 .25
HOSS, Diya bi ssctacsil loco ta. dose 2.22 1.58 not estimated.
99.00 98.62

Nos. 1 and 2 were the greenish variety, No. 3 the yellowish.

The oxygen ratios of the silica and protoxides are
1 9

SU Galea eee eee ee peace cence 4 PPA Tale Tete 22.03
IMIg oH eST Ane aweteteiiecss meso .6.e8- 20.385 20.30 19.67
IProtoxide Of (Wom...<c.-.--..- O2 sfal 75

This being as 1 to 1 within a small fraction, the formula
therefore is (MgFe)? Si, or of the general form R* Si, which
of course proves it to be chrysolite, a fact sustained in every
respect by its physical characters.

38. LopIDE OF SILVER.

In this re-examination of American minerals it was not origin-
ally designed to include those of South America, but my recent

144 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

examination of the minerals obtained by Lieut. Gilliss, of the
U.S. Chili Expedition, has afforded an opportunity of analyzing
certain minerals that it was well to investigate, and among these
were one or two fine specimens of iodide of silver. A re-exam-
ination of this mineral is especially interesting, from the fact
that its composition is still in doubt, owing to the discrepancy
between the original analysis of Vouaeln on the mineral from
Zacatecas in Mexico and that of Domeyko on the mineral from
Chajiarcillo in Chili.

Vauquelin. Domeyko.
lodineg...Ac ee eee 22.6 46.89
Silver? la ere ee © 5495 “8-1.

The constitution of the native chlorides and bromides of
silver would lead to the supposition that Domeyko’s analysis
was the correct one, and this is strengthened by its resem-
blance to the artificial iodide of silver.

The specific gravity was found to be 5.366, being a little
lower than that given by M. Domeyko. The analysis of an
exceedingly pure specimen gave me |

il 2
TOdING 2. feo eee ee 52.934 538.109
Silver ea. wce hk cak ec oe eee eee 46.521 46.380
Chiorines:) 42 ieee eee: trace trace
Copper. s.3.5 hose eee trace trace
99.455 99.489

clearly showing its constitution to be Ag. I= Iodine 53.85
Silver 46.15 = 100, leaving no doubt of its perfect analogy to
the natural chloride and bromide of silver. The other prop-
erties of this mineral are not mentioned, as they are all fully
stated in all works on mineralogy.

38. COPIAPITE.

This mineral was also furnished me by Lieut. Gilliss, it
having been brought from Chili. It consists of most beautiful
silky fibers or fibrous masses of a pearly luster. Its color is
white, with a very fine tinge of yellow. From the specimens
in my possession there was no difficulty in picking out a por-
tion in a state of great purity. Its specific gravity is 1.84.
Examined under the microscope its form appears to be a hex-
agonal prism. Cold water has but little action on it, merely
causing the crystals to separate and the mass to swell out to a
very much increased bulk. If the water be boiled, decom-

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 145

position ensues, with a deposition of the oxide of iron and the
formation of a soluble sulphate. On analysis it’afforded

1 2
Sul OMT CHACTC tenes enerecscncsesec 30.25 30.42
IRERORAGeCHOU ALOM 2c <ccncseseseecce se! aleve 30.98
Ce aes fet Fe A UE Ae Santee end gees 38 a ot estnatod:
100.74

The analyses correspond to the formula #e§?+11H. This is
the same formula as that obtained by Rose, with an additional

of iron was looked for, but none found.

40. OWENITE,* IDENTICAL WITH 'THURINGITE— WITH AN AN-
NOUNCEMENT oF A New LOCALITY.

Owenite was first described by Dr. F. A. Genth as a distinct
Species, who gave a minute and accurate analysis in the Amer-
ican Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xvi, 2d series, page 167.
It was found on both sides of the Potomac River, near Har-
per’s Ferry. The physical characters being already fully and
accurately given, it is needless to repeat them here, merely
remarking that its specific gravity as taken by me is 3.191.
It is readily soluble in hydrochloric acid; notwithstanding,
analysis No. 2 was made by fusion with carbonate of soda.
Results of analyses as follows:

it 2 Genth.

SUN CA ey eesgamcducedsssc age ces 23.58 28.52 23.21
JESIRORACIS OLE TROL GHaccosecoe VASO MS Crass cs 13.89
p Nel iOntva), Asean ecaecae\les soc. 16.85 16.08 15.59
POFOxIGle =O) ION cscs. 33.20 32.18 34.58
Protoxide of manganese.. SOOM Mian ee ene se trace
JIB ROAST), Doroceeorse GAC HanEB EAE 1.52 1.68 1.26
AIT Css an ees attire sesetssaes. . sowseeusen owls ene .36
ISKOCIE ns ade anno cd cen Snonneaeerenes POG tk ae Cee es i 4]
OAC UP acess cence oes. onsen CRACC BR see easel. 08
NI ENS IBist ob bocbceSosoncee neeeee 10.45 10.48 10.59
100.50 99.97

_ After this examination it was rendered strongly. probable
that owenite and thuringite were similar if not identical
minerals, yet in the analysis of thuringite by Rammelsberg
alumina is not mentioned as one of its constituents. This

* The identity of these two minerals had already been announced by me
in a letter to one of the editors of the Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, xvii,
131, but no details were then given.

é

146 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

view was sustained by the apparently perfect accordance in
the physical characters of the two minerals, coupled with
the fact that the amount of silica and water in the two, as
already examined, was the same, and also the sum of the
oxides of iron and alumina in the owenite were equal to the
sum of the oxides of iron in the thuringite. To settle the
question, it became necessary to re-examine thuringite, of
which I obtained a specimen from Mr. Markoe, coming from
the original locality; it was slightly altered by the action of the
air, but this could interfere only with the correct estimate of the
protoxide of iron. Its specific gravity was 3.186, and its com-
position |

SSP Ca, as oate o,aiaig SARE rs PI an Si arc Ve A eeOge R 22.05
Peroxide*of arom eee ee eee eee ce aan 17.66
PMiGhagbhO PRA NRO Ga Nap Cre AAA OMAR Mtn ae de dun oat Dey Beg 16.40
PrOtoxside Of motes tal eas eee ae Soar eee 30.78
Mao Mesias IS amends dosamele cect reek necaes ane ee ae 89
Soda 14
Potash [ccc meeeeseeeeeeeeessetteeeeeeeeseseeesecenere ees
AWW EG Tae cia c ascrecetete srercre tr le coher ete nar eT ran 11.44
99.36

The peroxide of iron is a little higher and the protoxide
a little lower than in the analysis of owenite, but this arose
from the partial decomposition of the specimen. The correct
analysis of thuringite is that first given, and the formula de-
duced by Mr. Genth from it is to be looked upon as the correct
one—namely, 2R* Si+#* Si;+6H, corresponding to the oxygen
Tpione) (ore astaisth Jl TL 6 1) 8 LA aL |

In looking over some minerals placed in my hands by Mr.
Markoe, I have found a specimen of thuringite coming from
the Hot Springs of Arkansas. Its identity is made out without
the shghtest difficulty, as all its physical characters correspond
most perfectly with the thuringite, its specific gravity being
3.184 and composition

SSL C Al io ciate a taibe a ciecare e ecsere Gran Oe eee Cee eer ET Reich, steGiccte sao 23.70
Peroxide of aron joy. os ee ene see aes 12.138
ATT Bee abe ia ge SA NR a ee ares 3 en 16.54
ProtoxiGehOEATon aise: seconde ene eres escent 83.14
AV IEVosnlefSi) Gado cdoacigacaosodobboroecocn 10429794 90ad9d00Ndadc:G2c000 Peso
Manganese it ei ih. emscs sense een eeeenebecnsenassccneneenete 1.16
Soda 39
Potash CHOOSE SHEETS SHOTS HHOSHEHHESESHOHSHHHHSESHEHTHE SHEESH HSEeSeeeeeeeneee e

Wate vieciseieos sachin buen s Galles se ete REE Le os Gan dene een 10.90

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 147

An interesting fact connected with this mineral, as shown by
this investigation, is, that although not crystalline, or at least
very obscurely so, yet coming as it does from three localities so
widely separated as Thuringia, the Potomac, and Arkansas, it
is nevertheless found quite unmixed with any other mineral,
as the analyses indicate.

41. XENOTIME OF GEORGIA.

In examining, a few years ago, some of the residue of gold
washings from Clarksville, Georgia, in the possession of Prof.
Gibbes, of Charleston, I observed some small octahedral crystals
associated with zircon, titaniferous iron, and kyanite. ‘T'wo or
three of the most perfect were selected ; and, having no goni-
ometer at hand, they were sent to Mr. Teschemacher, who
referred them, after a partial examination, to zircon. Prof.
Gibbes subsequently examined their form, and pronounced them
xenotime (Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, 2d series, xiii, 143).
Since then, from material that had been placed in my hands by
that gentleman, nearly a gramme of the substance has been pro-
cured, and upon that the following examination has been made.

Some of the crystals are exceedingly short prisms, sur-
mounted by four-sided pyramids, but most of them are without
the prism, the summits coming together forming a flattened
octahedron. The measurements made were: over the pyra-
midal edge 123° 10’; over basal 81° 30’; face of pyramid on prism
131° 40’. The above measurements can be made with perfect
accuracy ; not so the faces of the prisms on each other; and, as
far as I could make it out, I am inclined to think that they are
‘not square prisms, but rhombic prisms of 93°. Its hardness is
4.5, specific gravity 4.54, and the physical characters those
given for xenotime.

It was decomposed by fusion with carbonate of soda and
silica, and analyzed with the following results:

JEG (s) 0) MOTI 2 C11 | cho AURA HEENERIBPE Seo cHdb6 Uc cHOcOAGEE HNENBEE 32.45
PYSSERIA oecmcte ese ce eres oes te iduonegamees Be eee sin eias asl 54.13
Oxide of cerium (with a little La and D)............... 11.08
Osseo vORie ROMs ss c's sees e'seosstidn Gas edsinne seceeee see 2.06
RUC Ayers ers soe PE REET es ojais cies ono Sanieatindelsucaelvcvinase ao malstat .89

100.56

This analysis will be seen to differ from that of the xeno-
time of Hitteroe, Sweden, by Berzelius, in that a portion of the

148 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

yttria is replaced by the oxide of cerium; the formula repre-
sented by the analysis is, however, the same, namely : (y, Ca)®P.

Great care was taken in the separation of the oxide of cerium,
which after being peroxidized by heat yielded but little to dilute
nitric acid, indicative of the presence of but a small quantity
of the oxides of lanthanum and didymium.

42. LANTHANITE.

This mineral was first observed in America by Mr. W. P.
Blake, and described in the American Journal of Science and
Arts, September, 1853; it was obtained by Mr. Blake from
Bethlehem, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, where only one
specimen had been found. It was handed to me for exami-
nation, and ascertained to be carbonate of lanthanum; the
analysis made was given in the original description of the
mineral. Since then I have made another analysis on a portion
remaining in my possession ; and, although not differing from
the former one, it is thought proper to insert it in this paper.

eek 2
Water dec deesesecke coccepias engeslcse sueclneneetsecee serene ceeuese eeeeeme 24.21 24.09
Carbonie acid i... os thse es catee daseshcete tector auiesiisetenllceenseaas 21.95 22.58
Protoxide of lanthanum (with some oxide of didymium)..... 55.038 54.90

101-19) 1ORa7

No. 2 is the analysis already published in the paper before
mentioned. In both instances there was an excess, owing to
the peroxidation of a portion of the lanthanum—a circum-
stance that can not be avoided, nor do we know how to allow
for it in our calculation. This mineral has the same formula
as the artificial carbonate, namely, La C+3H=carbonic acid
21.11, oxide of lanthanum 52.94, water 25.95.

The only other known locality of this mineral is Bastnas in
Sweden; it is there found only as a coating to cerite, and
doubtless was not obtained in a perfectly pure state by Hisinger,
who gave as its formula La*?C+3H. I have no doubt as to the
minerals being identical, and that whenever the Bastnas variety
is obtained crystallized it will prove to have the same compo-
sition as the Bethlehem variety.

43. MANGANO-MAGNESIAN ALUM FROM UTAH.

This alum was observed a few years ago by Dr. Gale among
specimens brought from the Salt Lake, in Utah, by Mr. Stans-

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 149

bury. It occurs at a place called Alum Point, and was con-
sidered altogether a manganese alum, of which Dr. Gale gave
what he then stated he considered an imperfect analysis (Amer-
ican Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xv, 2d series, 434) :
§ 18.0 Mn 8.9 Al 4.0 H 73.0

Being desirous of having it more carefully analyzed, Dr.
Gale placed in my hands the specimen which is the subject
of the present investigation. It was not received as it occurs
at the locality, but had been recrystallized, and consisted of
delicate needle-shaped crystals, adhering in small masses. It
dissolves very readily in water; in fact so soluble is it that
it is difficult to decide the amount of water requisite for its
complete solution. It crystallizes from solution in the form
of delicate crystals, with a plumose aggregation. On analysis
it furnished :

MAMI UIA ITN. arc wclaisl Gate seks som edeare moses 10.40 10.65
MAO MCSIG/..% sales sane cvedaseecuedsgsxees 5.94 5.65
MRAM AMCSE) seve alaiseacertseceteieatoee see Dal 2.41
SU PAUILG TACTIC s<deoctacesea sesse coed ors 35.85 35.92
OsaGevOl AVON csc. cecnet ohoeacececens NS .09
GRO aslitans, dei eReceh coe audkeoadeds 20 20
RVPAC OIE rcs dees ate Cawaniceds che soe seas 46.00 46.75

100.66 101.67

This analysis shows an amount of protoxides a little too
high for the requisites of the formula of alum; but this, how-
ever, is of frequent occurrence in the natural alums, owing to
admixture of impurities. This variety of alum has been be-
fore observed by Stromeyer, and was brought from a cave in
Southern Africa. Its formula is (Mg, Mn) S+Al1 $3+2471.

44, APOPHYLLITE.

The specimen of this mineral examined came from Lake
Superior. It is eminently lamellar in its structure, and was
placed in my hands as being possibly diaspore ; its luster is,
however, much more pearly than this latter mineral. Its
specific gravity is 2.37 and its constitution

SULA SABER ene ceciGob doo GAC SUE C HEHE ESS Bett rte near a eae 52.08
STEWS. 2 ech Gs Saree TRE BA does Sled. dacie sidd oeticuemeaentowas la dea aware 25.30
CROs eee ae sae te eee acsicigicciaisk a arsje dais Gee eh abaies ontapsae sine 4.93
BHM reper teaver cee atte eae cialayesoieicin.c.d 0 vin vib chacesommewoniontcmnuaielnee 96
Water ...... Cera ee OMe lee daicde oo, coawiddethet ec oBae eMtnonannn ebm 15.92

99.19

150 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

45, SCHREIBERSITE (OF PATERA).

This meteroic mineral occurs in the American meteorites in
more abundance than has usually been supposed, as was fully
shown in a communication made to the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, in April, 1854; and as that
memoir will be published in full in the American Journal of
Science and Arts, nothing farther than the mere statement
of the analysis of this mineral is here given. G.=7.017..

1 2, 3

1 ikd) OSPR Ree EE DR Rn A S| Pape 56.04 56.53
ING kel re aha eaten 25.82 26.48 28.02
Cobaltwcidisscind hats tenes Foe 41 28
@opperysesasere: ~-.bTACC MOL CStae | 1) Messen | os femenmeee
MOS MOUUS.sseemeecoarcoes LG We PAs RN Pe Ose 14.86
SUC Anusett ans nascecemeneee 1.62)
/Vhohnanid Wa donsrcweoscgs conse 1.638 | :
I Byhoakseanereresa scadecte trace not est. r not estimated.
Chilonine Saree eeseseeeess: 138 J

100.66 99.69

Nos. 1 and 2 were separated mechanically from the meteoric
iron; No. 3 chemically. The silica, alumina, and lime were
almost entirely absent from No. 3; and in the other specimen

it is due to a siliceous mineral that I have found attached in.

small particles to the schreibersite, and of which I have pre-
served one or two small specimens. The formula of schreiber-
site I consider to be Ni? Fe* P.

Per cent.
Phosphorus, 1 SNOB coacose se2ae> eaabanc sstosaaoaoanoacnden: 15.47
Nickel, 2. S42 Scheie ches emtaa ence meme see ania comet 29.17
Iron, BA Bae ike scaled eesiasenn ceases ances ecenes 95.36

Further particulars of this mineral will be found in the paper
already referred to.

46. PROTOSULPHURET OF IRON.

This sulphuret.is the one found in the meteoric irons of this
country. The specimen examined came from Tennessee ; its
specific gravity is 4.75. Its composition is different from that
of magnetic pyrites, although some authors consider the mag-
netic pyrites a protosulphuret, an inference not sustained by
analysis. The mineral in question afforded me

Tig OMessee eater peenacre 62.88 Wop pelics..- secretes trace
Sulphur. cscesesssee ss 35.67 SHUGKGE Sa sppegein 25000503 06
ING cline sossedpaediee-s 32 GUNG es co semcsieeinacie .08

ees

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 151

The formula FeS requires sulphur 36.36, iron 63.64=100.
Further remarks on this mineral will be found in the paper on
meteorites.

: 47. CUBAN.

This variety of copper pyrites was first noticed by Breithaupt
as occurring among the copper-ores of Cuba. Desiring to re-
examine it, specimens were obtained from Prof. Booth; they
were massive and not perfectly pure, furnishing an insoluble
residue consisting of silica and oxide of iron, which are very
probably combined. Its specific gravity was 4.180, and its

composition 4 5 2
JETRO TWA SRSA GP Assen UREA EA SishO Aire Cy ae ewe ae ea Sh
Woe lentes isce -ndttacbacte dauciioss tees 18.23 19.10 19.00
SNORT: BensPaei a URR beanie aanen on eeiaEne 39.57 39.20 39.30
Decides (sited aMdvOxIde Of ITOM) <4 V/4.23) 9 9 ceesea ween

99.13

This seems to substantiate the formula already received
(agreeing with the analysis of Professor Booth), CuS+ Fe? $*,
pyrites being Cu?S+Fe?S*=sulphur 42.28, copper 20.82, iron
36.90.

MINERALS OF THE WHEATLEY MINE, PENNSYLVANIA.

Before describing the minerals of this mine it is well to say
a word with reference to its location, and also to quote some
remarks on the geology of the surrounding country by Prof.
H. D. Rogers. Although this is departing from the plan
usually adopted in this series of papers, still the occurrence
of all the minerals here described at one locality can not but
render the geology of the place interesting to mineralogists.

This mine is situated in Chester County, near Phenixville,
Pennsylvania, and is one of several interesting developments
of a thorough and very able exploration of this region by
Mr. Charles M. Wheatley. At the request of Mr. Wheatley,
Prof. Rogers made a geological examination of the metalliferous
veins of this district, and the following remarks are taken from
his report: .

‘These veins belong to a group of lead and copper-bearing lodes of a very
interesting character, which form a metalliferous zone that ranges in a general
east and west direction across the Schuylkill River, near the lower stretches
of the Perkiomen and Pickering creeks in Montgomery and Chester counties,
and bids fair to constitute at no distant day a quite productive mineral region.

152 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

‘The individual veins of this rather numerous group are remarkable for
their general mutual parallelism, their average course being about N. 31°—
35° E. by compass, and not at all coincident with that of the belt of country
which embraces them. They are true lodes or mineral injections, filling so
many dislocations or fissures transverse to the general direction of the strata
which they intersect. The metalliferous belt ranges not far from the boundary
which divides the gneissic or metamorphic rocks of Chester County from the
middle secondary red shale and sandstone strata.

“This vein varies in thickness from a few inches to about two and a bale
feet, and we may state its average width at not less than eighteen inches. It
is bounded by regular and well-defined, nearly parallel walls, the prevailing
material of which is a coarse, soft granite, composed chiefly of white feldspar
and quartz.

“Tt would seem to be a pretty general fact that such of these veins as are
confined entirely or chiefly to the gneiss bear lead as their principal metal;
whereas those which are included solely within the red shale are character-
ized by containing the ores of copper. But the zinc ores—viz., zinc-blende
and calamine—prevail in greater or less proportions in both sets of veins,
existing perhaps in a rather larger relative amount in the copper-bearing
lodes of the red shale.

“The gneissic strata of the tract embracing this group of leadtnenae
veins seem to differ in no essential features from the rest of the formation
ranging eastward and westward through this belt of country. Here, as
elsewhere, they consist chiefly of soft, thinly-bedded, micaceous gneiss; a
more dense and ferruginous hornblendic gneiss; and thirdly, a thicker
bedded granitic gneiss, composed not unfrequently of little else than the
two minerals, quartz and feldspar.

“ Penetrating this quite diversified formation are innumerable injections
of various kinds of granite, greenstone-trap, and other genuine igneous rocks.
The granites, as throughout this region generally, consist for the most part
of a coarse binary mixture of quartz and opaque white feldspar, tending
easily to decomposition. This rock abounds in the form of dykes and veins,
sometimes cutting the strata of gneiss nearly vertically, but often partially
conforming with its planes of bedding for a limited space, and then branching
through or expiring in it in transverse or tortuous branches. A not uncom-
mon variety of granitic dyke is a simple syenite composed of quartz, greenish
semi-translucent feldspar, and a smaller proportion of dark-green hornblende.
A soft, white, and partially decomposed granite is a very frequent associate
of the stronger lead-bearing veins, particularly in their more productive
portions; but this material belongs, in all probability, not to the ancient
granitic injections of the gneiss, but to those much later metalliferous
intrusions which filled long parallel rents in that formation with the lead-
ores and their associated minerals.

“The gneissic strata and their granitic injections throughout this district
display a softened, partially decomposed condition, extending in many places .
to a depth of twenty fathoms.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 153

“Of the dozen or more lead and copper lodes of greater or less size brought
to light in this quite limited region of five or six miles length and two or
three miles breadth, the greater number are remarkably similar in their
course, ranging N. 32°—385° EH. and 8. 32°—35° W.; and, what is equally
worthy of note, they dip with scarcely an exception toward the same quarter,
or south-eastwardly, though in some instances so steeply as to approach the
perpendicular.

‘There is no marked difference in the general character of the vein-stones
of the several mineral lodes, nor any features to distinguish as a class those
of the red shale from those of the gneiss.”

The minerals found in these veins are quite numerous, and
among them there are specimens of species hardly equaled in
beauty by those coming from any other locality. Professor
Silliman, in his report on the minerals of this mine exhibited
at the Crystal Palace, says that the specimens of sulphate and
molybdate of lead are the most magnificent metallic salts ever
obtained in lead-mining, and unequaled by any thing to be seen
in the cabinets of HKurope.

48. ANGLESITE.

This mineral is found abundantly and in beautiful crystals’
at this locality. The magnificence of many of the specimens
can only be realized by seeing those in Mr. Wheatley’s cabinet.
The erystals are remarkable for their size and transparency—
in some instances they weigh nearly half a pound, being as
transparent as rock crystal in nearly every part. Crystals with
terminations at both ends have been obtained five and a half
inches in length by one and a half in thickness; perfectly
limpid crystals an inch in length are quite common.

The following are some of the forms:

1.—0, w, 1-a

2.—0, 4-H, o0-%, 1, w, 1-2, 1-%, 0-%
3.—0, 4-3, 4-H, 0, 1-2, 2-4

4.—0, 3-06, 00-6, 3-3, 1, w, 1-2, 2-4, 1-8

Sometimes the crystals of this mineral are full of cavities,
and of a milk-white color; but these do not differ in composi-
tion from the colorless and transparent forms. It also occurs
in circular crystals.

It is sometimes colored. There is a black variety produced
by the more or less perfect admixture of the salphurets of lead
and copper (containing traces of silver) in the mass of the

154 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

crystals, whose form is not altered. There are crystals of a
delicate green color arising from carbonate of copper, and
others of a yellow color due to oxide of iron.

The transparent and colorless variety is remarkably pure.
Its sp. grav. is 6.35. On analysis it afforded

1 2
Sulphuric) acid, <-to.5 Cccsees seeseceee 26.78 26.61
Oxideyot lead accmcesrmecee cee ee 73.31 73.22
SHIDO, ssonea0000 SonbosnaAdoacbbdodnuboosto6 COUPE Re Yo oot eae eee
(100.29 99.88

according very precisely with the formula Pb§8.

I would call attention to the method of analyzing this
sulphate, as described in another paper, for it was analyzed
in the moist way by dissolving it first in citrate of ammonia.

The anglesite of this mine is found variously associated. It
is common to find it in geodic cavities in galena, the cavities
being lined with hematite varying in thickness from 55 to 4 an
inch or more, and often this hematite contains anglesite inti-
mately mixed in the mass. It may occur in crystals occupying
a portion of the geode, or it may fill its entire capacity, assum- —
ing the form of the cavity. It is also found compacted in the
galena without the appearance of any cavity or the presence
of any other mineral; acicular crystals occur diffused through
the galena. Observed also on copper pyrites, with a thin layer
of hematite intervening betweeri the crystal and the pyrites—
on crystals of zinc-blende in quartz—on quartz associated with
pyromorphite—on galena with crystals of sulphur—on cale-
spar without any associate. One very interesting specimen
consists of a flattened crystal an inch square, having a delicate
crystal of cale-spar over an inch and a half in length perfo-
rating the center and around which the sulphate appears to
have formed. It is also found on fluor-spar without associate.

Some of the most beautiful specimens are where large crys-
tals of anglesite are covered with crystals of carbonate of lead,
these latter frequently penetrating the anglesite.

49, CERUSITE.

The crystals of this mineral, though not as large as those
of anglesite, are yet exceedingly beautiful, both in size as well
as transparency. The twin crystals are often two inches broad,
transparent, and presenting the appearance of the spread wing

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 155

of a butterfly. Some of the single crystals are an inch in length
and half an inch thick.

A transparent crystal weighing five grammes gave a specific
gravity of 6.60, and on analysis furnished

ee ean | PO
100.14

It occurs in hematite, coating galena in a manner similar to
the anglesite, and associated with it; also in connection with
pyromorphite, which often colors the entire body of the crys-
tals of cerusite. It is found on galena without the association
of any other mineral; on green and blue carbonate of copper;
on pyromorphite, which often covers the entire surface of the
cerusite crystals, imparting to them an opaque yellowish-green
color; on oxide of manganese, in snow-white crystals, without
any other associate; on hematite in a similar manner. Mammil-
lary masses of the hematite sometimes pass through the crystals.
Some few specimens have been found consisting of crystals of
galena, with a number of very fine hemitrope crystals of ceru-
site on the surface. The cerusite is occasionally covered with
an exceedingly thin coat of oxide of iron, giving the crystals
a dark-red appearance; and some of them again with a very
thin layer of pyromorphite, as delicate as if it had been put
on with a brush. . —

The cerusite is sometimes colored—black, green, and yellow—
in a manner similar to that mentioned under anglesite.

50. WULFENITE..

This mineral is found in small crystals of every shade of
color from a light-yellow to a bright-red. It has been found
in some abundance, forming, from the’: |
manner of its occurrence, very beautiful oo eN
specimens. The crystals present a variety
of modified forms, tabular and octahedral,
one of which is here figured.

Other forms are 0, 1. ss

ie Fs 0, 1, 1. Fig. 1.
biaite G83 0,75, 0-0. (Fig. 1.) Specific gravity of a
dark-yellow variety, 6.95.

‘The composition of both the yellow and red varieties was
mined. The difference of color is due to the presence of

156 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

vanadic acid in the red varieties, and the intensity of color is
proportional to the amount of vanadic acid, which in no in-
stance is much more than one per cent.

The analyses afforded

Yellow variety. Red variety.
WOR ee it® AVGIC keanadsoocreaca seossaues 38.68 37.47
Wid MAGIC AGIA cacausec cme sammeseece seams totes 1.28
Oxide of lead...........ssesseeeeeeeees. 60.48 60.30
99.16 99.05

The second corresponds very nearly to 97 per cent. of molyb-
date and 3 per cent. of vanadate of lead. As the last substance
varies in quantity, it can not be regarded as giving a distinct
specific character to the mineral. This mineral has been de-
scribed as a chromo-molybdate of lead, but by the most careful
examination only a trace of chromium can be detected. In
fact, the quantity is so minute as to require further examina-
tion in larger quantities to place the matter beyond a doubt.

Wulfenite occurs alone on crystallized and cellular quartz,
or associated with pyromorphite, whose beautiful green color
is often very much enhanced by the contrast of the yellow and
red crystals on its surface. :

Sometimes the wulfenite forms the mass, and crystals of
pyromorphite are sparsely disseminated over the surface. It
is also found in decomposed granite——-on carbonate of lead and
oxide of manganese—also associated with vanadate of lead.

51. VaNnapATE OF LEAD (DESCLOIZITE?).

This species has never before been remarked among Ameri-
can minerals, although the chloro-vanadate (vanadinite) was
first discovered in Mexico. This adds another to the list of
curious minerals from the Wheatley Mine. It was noticed
about a year ago in the form of a dark-colored crystalline
crust, covering the surface of some specimens of quartz and
ferruginous clay associated with other minerals. Observed |
with a magnifying glass, it is seen to consist principally of
minute lenticular crystals, grouped together in small botry-
oidal masses. The crystalline structure is perfect. Thus seen,
the color of the mass is of a dark-purple, almost black. When
seen by transmitted light, the color is dark hyacinth-red and
translucent. The streak is dark-yellow. From the difficulty
of obtaining any quantity of sufficient purity, nothing accurate

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 157

can be stated with reference to its specific gravity and hard-
ness; and for the purpose of analysis I was obliged to use ma-
terial which, although containing pure crystals of the vanadate,
was yet mixed with crystals of molybdate of lead and other
impurities.

‘The chemical analysis is an imperfect one, yet the best that
can be made from the mineral as it has been found. It is as
follows:

DV AMO OCHA CIOL AGE Seem ciao tle erste mis saw cau este oom ee bunmase 11.70
MVOC CE Ness «105 26.85 Siro tin) idleneiepisesiais etd sis elale'eisinisio worn 20.14
Oxide OIE. WSR Laie Aig Re ae ities BIC OU I gE da 55.01
Oxides of iron and manganese. QO csae 5.90
Js\ Tear ae aR PR GA a a ea oe
ORIG ETOMCO MPC Wes toscaeie skgacccieiwessisee slaclscianete os ctlusaie 1.18
NSEC se SE SiO OCs BOCES SSE BaD DETER rests cara eres IES (renin 2.2
AW) BIBS TR ce aces LETRA aAH OTA RPA a ree af Oy rier ie em 2.94.
99.03

If we subtract the amount of oxide of lead requisite to form
wulfenite with the molybdic acid present, we have left 22.82
per cent., which is combined with 11.7 of vanadic acid, making
a compound corresponding to: vanadic acid, 66.1; oxide of lead,
33.9= 100. ;

This result is not considered precise. It corresponds, how-
ever, more nearly with the composition of descloizite, as given
by Damour (Pb? V=V 29.3, Pb . . . 70.7), than with dechenite by
Bergmann (Pb V=V 45.34 Pb 54.66).*

The composition of descloizite can not be considered as
having been fairly made out; for Damour’s results are deduced,
as mine have been, from a very impure material, and may on
future examination prove to be Pb? V2; corresponding in com-
position to the chromate of lead called melanochroite. This
mineral has as yet been found only in small quantity at this
mine, associated with oxide of manganese and wulfenite, the
erystals of this latter substance being more or less covered
with minute crystals of the vanadate.

52. PYROMORPHITE.

There are several shades of color belonging to this mineral ;
a green so dark as to be almost black, olive-green, pea-green,
leek-green, greenish yellow, and all intermediate shades. It

* Descloizaux has since verified this view by its crystalline form.

158- RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

is a very abundant ore at the Wheatley Mine, and large quan-
tities of it are smelted. Specimens of great beauty are found
occurring in botryoidal masses, with columnar structure, in
perfect hexagonal prisms, with the summits more or less modi-
fied. Crystals are found one half inch in diameter. Some of
the crystals are hollow, with only a hexagonal shell. Some-
times the crystals are agglomerated in a plumose form.

A dark-green variety gave a specific gravity of 6.94. No
analysis was made of this mineral, as it will be embraced in an
examination of the American pyromorphites.

It is found in decomposed granite, on quartz crystals, occa-
sionally covering their entire surface; in cellular quartz with
molybdate of lead; in large masses of grouped crystals with
small crystals of yellow and red molybdate inserted on crystals
of sulphate and carbonate of lead, and forming a coating to large
surfaces of galena.

53. MIMETENE.

The specimens of this mineral that have been found, although
few in number, are remarkable for their beauty of crystalliza-
tion. Some of the crystals are nearly colorless and perfectly
transparent; others of a lemon-yellow, either pure or tinged
with green. The form is that of a perfect hexagonal prism,
the edges of the summit most commonly truncated, often to
such an extent as to terminate the crystal with a hexagonal
pyramid. The crystals are sometimes as small as a hair, and a
quarter of an inch or more in length, and again they are so
broad and short as to form hexagonal plates half an inch across. —

A specimen of the lemon-yellow variety was examined ; it
gave a specific gravity of 7.32, and was found to contain

IA TSOTNEC "ACI cca dis iasis Seats net ERE seers tisese s veeen or tamer 23.17
CHIOrine ieee easier ee i car deo tent enneee 2.39
Oxiderof lead iesie sac ccs es eee epee eee edo 6 oles Bracle esnerontocen tm GURUS
Bet 6 late ky A PR RR a SR NN ae A SHEEN 6.99
Teo OVINE ZVCIC | chantapa nasa bnchoscoodvoruaSedeloonoUnSECHONOS 14

99.74

corresponding to arsenate of lead 80.21, chloride of lead 9.38=

Pb? As+-Pb Cl. ee ba |
This specimen of mimetene is seen to be almost free from

phosphoric acid, containing only about one tenth of a per cent..

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 159

in this respect resembling that from Zacatecas as analyzed by
Bergmann.

This mineral is found in granite or quartz. It is also asso-
ciated with pyromorphite, and sometimes the two run together
so as to present no distinct line of demarkation between them ;
some of the specimens consist of the two minerals, the pyro-
morphite occupying one entire surface, and mimetene the
opposite surface, and between various shades of the mixture.
It has been found with galena and carbonate of lead. |

54. GALENA.

The compact, fibrous, and crystallized varieties of galena
occur at this mine. Fine crystals are found, either a perfect
cube, cube with modified edges and angles, octahedron and
rhombic dodecahedron often very much flattened out and occa-
sionally rounded to an almost globular form; these rounded
crystals are usually covered with pyromorphite. The galena
is sometimes cellular, arising from partial decomposition, the
exterior portion presenting a black drusy appearance, the inte-
rior of a bright steel color; this variety is particularly rich in
silver, and also contains crystals of sulphur.

The galena is argentiferous, giving an average yield of thirty
ounces to the ton. It is found associated with quartz, calcite,
and fluor-spar, frequently inserted in the crystals of these sub-
stances; it is also.a.common associate of all the minerals of this
inealbise Some of the cubical crystals have their surfaces partly
decomposed and covered with a layer of crystals of carbonate.
Specimens are found of very large cubical and octahedral crys-
tals, forming slabs several square feet in surface, completely
covered with a layer of leek-green phosphate. The cavities
of the ealena frequently contain sulphur. |

55. COPPER.

Native copper is found only in delicate films on hematite or
quartz crystal, and forms an interposing layer between the
hematite and copper pyrites.

56. Copper PYRITES.

Copper pyrites is found in some cases in sufficient quantity
to be worked as an ore; some of the masses are of considerable

160 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

size, weighing three or four hundred pounds. Fine crystals
are obtained, both tetrahedral and octahedral. It affords on

analysis
SUN OLN UEO scepnoug coset eo 30086 bo 43500 unaneoehone oeobeee seal sasceed3 36.10
(COO DEI cbaadsgedoerichiassqeciade sdotoghanédoooobe vkeshoegobarsagann 32.85
IG Roi Asis bs Ses asadand dap esb0a con dodno5U0 7 sqcA9S nth sodadapenppadsod 29.93
JUNC Ba sAcenoonusicodaoseanobuckonduondce. osnsoubteqobuenbeeeaseaso 85

99.23

It occurs alone and associated with the other sulphurets.
It is found in various parts of the vein, there being no special
point of deposit.

57. MALACHITE.

Malachite occurs in small reniform masses, consisting of
fibrous crystals, and of a bright-green color; also in silky tufts
of a very light-green color, which are associated with azurite
and carbonate of lead. Its specific gravity is 4.06. An analysis
gave

Carbonic aeidicescsds ict eee eee tienen eaee cee 19.09
Oxidevol Coppert Vacca sconces Caeinaccs denote metres T1AG
WV iHOT EAR Pasta ici hed ha bts tie ee Seta deer nyo eb een en 9.02
Ode: Of MTOM a csse cous cae cee oe Soe aoe eee ee a

99.69

affording the formula CuC+CuH. It is associated with the
various ores of copper and lead of the Wheatley Mine, and
sometimes so thoroughly diffused through the sulphate and
carbonate of lead as to give them a uniform green tint. It is
not found in any quantity.

58. AZURITE.

This mineral, although rare, is found in beautiful crystals,
some measuring from one fourth to one half inch across, of a
deep-blue color, and highly polished faces. Its specific gravity
is 3.88. An analysis gave

Car bGmievaeia ss sicaibcsscccwoee eee cee es foe se « cee eeenenee 24.98
Oxiderommcoppen, cerns: ance eee reece ete ciate = nic -elaceteat ees 69.41
TW eter 2 ees eect ceie ecb ols acces eR CINE ce bieleicle: ces eb oes 5.84

100.23

giving the formula 2Gu0+6uH. This species occurs in similar
associations with the malachite; it is, however, rarer.

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 161

59. ZINC-BLENDE.

Blende is found in considerable quantity, both massive and
crystallized. Some of the crystals are exceedingly beautiful
and of large size, being three or four inches in diameter, and
with very brilliant surfaces. The colors are dark hair-brown
and black, the brown being transparent. The specimens from
this locality are hardly surpassed by those from any other
mine. A specimen that was analyzed gave the following
results :

Sally MUNI sok cle ce saeinesmanerawacs cacic ass cesesismorenee saeaeusias 338.82
JEING scare cose OP ARECEU EROS DROS CORTE Oe eR EE eas 64.39
CHORIN TTON TOT AOS See nes eS <r as Se mane tie Sears Rie SN 98
WOM MER r enteet on satanic nila Hocse sloeabencuic/entigdcebiene Seen ciesioes 32
JUG EIC Linde SoSS ARSE SEC Te TAGE SHORE CERCA ean en tian renee 78

100.29

It is proposed to examine yet other specimens, to see if there
may not be larger amounts of cadmium contained in some of
them.

This mineral occurs in fluor-spar, calc-spar, and quartz, more
or less mixed with the other sulphurets. In some instances it
is very peculiarly interlaced in the rocks; thus we have speci-
‘mens consisting as it were of four layers; namely, granite,
then compact crystallized quartz three fourths of an inch
thick, then the blende an inch thick, on that a layer of crystals
of cale-spar, and on this last fluor-spar.

60. CALAMINE.

Calamine is found in delicate crystals of a silky luster,
forming in some instances snow-white tufts on fluor-spar,
blende, and carbonate of lime. It is also found on cellular
quartz. Some of the specimens are quite handsome, having a
blue and yellow color from the presence of carbonate of copper
and oxide of iron. No analysis was made of any of the speci-
mens.

61. BRown HEMATITE.

This ore occurs in concretionary masses of a dark liver-color
and compact structure, associated with nearly all the minerals
of this mine; it very commonly forms a lining to cavities in
galena, in which are found crystals of anglesite and cerusite ;

162 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

sometimes it lines cavities in the rock that are completely filled
with cubical galena. Acicular concretions of the hematite are
found traversing crystals of anglesite and cerusite. A specimen
of the purest hematite gave for its composition

BReroxidesol ALOU see eee ete aa eee uoes 80.382

Oxidesor ‘copper -acecceene ecweceeee aoe aanes PAs dion rselaal 94
Oxidevor lead scccccscte semen oe meena soca asteie cde 1.51
WiAGOries.sohee sce eee eeu eee eee EEL MEU EY, Crees kta ae 14.02
Sith Cates see cose calor oe hak see Roo eea ee ioe niece tase aoe 3.42

100.21

62. FLUOR-SPAR.

The remarkable feature of the fluor-spar of this mine is the
absence of color, all the specimens yet found being colorless and
transparent. The crystals are very perfect and beautiful, yet
small; it is sometimes in globular concretions of crystalline
structure radiating from the center. The cube, which is the
more common crystalline form, is sometimes very much modi-
fied by the truncation of the edges and angles. A specimen
that was examined gave a specific gravity of 3.15 and the
following composition :

PIMOTIMC ae. ss iescesssstccnadaseetednciscncscenm nested cemen soca 48.29
Gallon’. 5 t-te Steers ous dates dnice belle stiaselmbicisincsactedeet 50.81
Phosphate of lime ............seceseeeeeeececeecseeeseeeeeeees trace

| 99.10

It-is associated with cale-spar, and in some instances in a
remarkable manner, mentioned under the head of calc-spar:
Galena and blende are interspersed through it. Its occurrence
in the mine was first noticed at the depth of three hundred
feet, and since then it has been found abundantly.

63. CALC-SPAR.

There are a variety of interesting forms and associations
of this mineral. The two most common are the dog-tooth
spar and the hexagonal prism with a three-sided summit, and
occasionally the hexagonal prism with flattened summits like
aragonite. Sometimes slabs of this mineral are found, with a
surface of eight or ten square feet completely covered with
prismatic crystals an inch or two in length, and from half an
inch to an inch in thickness; they are mostly vertical, but
occasionally horizontal with double terminations. These crys-

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 163

tals are sometimes of a remarkable character, being eight or
ten inches in length and only a quarter of an inch in diameter,
preserving a tolerably perfect hexagonal shape throughout the
entire length; again, these slender forms are built up of small
hexagonal prisms, their faces projecting from the side. It
sometimes happens that these slender crystals are crossed by
one of the same diameter and less length, firmly attached in
the manner of a cross.

But of all remarkable crystallizations is one where the
small prisms are so arranged as to form a perfect double spiral
arranged around an
axis (fig. 1). The spec-
imen is three inches
in length and three
eighths of an inch in
diameter, with the space of one fourth of an inch between
each turn of the spiral. The spiral arises from one small
prism crossing another at middle at a small angle of diver-
gence (40°-50°), and so on in succession. These slender crys-
tals are sometimes curved in a very remarkable manner.

Another thing to be remarked in connection with the calcite
of this mine is its singular associations; thus, we find groups
of hexagonal prisms where a small cubical |
crystal of fluor, about the one twentieth of
an inch, is inserted in a small pit in the
summit of almost every crystal (figure 3)
without the occurrence of fluor-spar on any
other parts of the crystal. These crystals
appear to\have been formed by successive
crystallizations. Dog-tooth spar seems to
have been first formed with these small
crystals of fluor-spar on their extremities,
and then by a subsequent process the calcite
has closed around the dog-tooth spar in the form of a hexagonal
prism with a three-sided summit. The summit never closes
entirely at the center, the fluor-spar remaining visible on one
side; and where there is no crystal of fluor-spar the extremity
of the dog-tooth spar is frequently seen. |

Other groups of calcite crystals have minute crystals of iron
pyrites in the three faces of the summit, arranged near and

164 RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS.

perfectly parallel to the alternate edges, as seen in figure 4.
Every crystal in the group is thus furnished with a set of crys-
tals of pyrites.

In another group of crystals the pyrites, in equally small
crystals, are found in three lines on the summit of every crystal

running from the apex toward the edges, exactly bisecting each
face, as seen in figure 5.

In this instance, as well as in the former, the pyrites are
inserted entirely beneath the surface of the crystal, which is
perfectly smooth.

The calcite is found in large crystals in dolomite, and is
associated with most of the ores of the mine. It sometimes
gives rise to pseudomorphs of molybdate of lead and carbonate
of lead. These pseudomorphs are mere shells, however, retain-
ing the form of the calcite.

64. SULPHUR.

Sulphur occurs in the form of small pale greenish-yellow
crystals. They are transparent and disseminated through
cellular galena, which appears to have undergone partial de-
composition. The galena in which it occurs is frequently
associated with copper and iron pyrites, and in some rare
instances with carbonate and phosphate of lead.

The other minerals occurring in the Wheatley Mine are
finely crystallized quartz, oxide of manganese, iron pyrites, sul-
phate of baryta, indigo copper, black oxide of copper, and dolomite.

Of the other mineral veins in this region none have yielded
the beautiful mineral species furnished by the Wheatley vein.
The Perkiomen vein, five miles from the Wheatley vein, has
furnished fine capillary copper, indigo copper, fine acicular crys-
tals of sulphate of baryta, crystallized copper, and some crystals

RE-EXAMINATION OF AMERICAN MINERALS. 165

of sulphate, carbonate, and yellow molybdate of lead; but these
last were small, and bear no comparison to those described,

It was hoped that something might be learned concerning
the formation of the minerals of this vein; but the difficulties
and uncertainty attendant upon the study of questions of this
kind make it prudent to postpone any views that might be
suggested. It may, however, be well to remark that in open-
ing the vein, and descending from the surface for the first
thirty feet, the phosphate of lead was very abundant, with
some galena and carbonate. A. little lower down the phos-
phate was less and the carbonate more abundant. Wulfenite
and anglesite began to appear at one hundred and twenty feet.
The phosphate and carbonate still continued with the galena,
with fine large crystals of anglesite and considerable wulfenite.
At one hundred and eighty feet phosphate very much dimin-
ished; carbonate and sulphate in fine crystals. Arsenate was
found here. At two hundred and forty feet blende, calamine,
and fluor-spar appear with considerable dolomite and but little
phosphate of lead, galena forming almost the whole lead-ore.
Anglesite is found, but in smaller crystals. These observations
may hereafter lead to some conclusions as to the manner of the
formation of these minerals, but at present I prefer dismissing
the subject: without further remarks.

12

TWO NEW MINERALS.

MEDJIDITE (SULPHATE OF URANIUM AND LIME)—LIEB-
IGITE (CARBONATE OF URANIUM AND LIME).

The minerals here alluded to were found associated with a
specimen of pitchblende from the neighborhood of Adrianople,
Turkey; it was quite impure, and a portion of it contained
crystals of copper pyrites. On the surface of the pitchblende.
besides the two minerals in question, there existed crystals of
sulphate of lime and a little oxide of iron.

MEDJIDITE (SULPHATE OF URANIUM AND LIME).

This mineral is of a dark-amber color, transparent, of 1m-
perfect crystalline structure, fracture vitreous, although the
surfaces exposed are sometimes of a dull-yellow color, arising
from the loss of water. It is found on the surface of the pitch-
blende associated in some places with crystals of sulphate of
lime. Hardness about 2.5; specific gravity not known.

Chemical Characters—Heated gently it loses its water, be-
coming of a lemon-yellow color. Heated to redness it blackens
(being converted into oxide of uranium and sulphate of lime).
It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in the smallest
quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid ; (in this way, had it been
necessary, I might have separated it from any adhering sul-
phate of lime.) The acid solution gives a tolerably abundant
precipitate with hydrochlorate of baryta, and a red-brown
precipitate with ferrocyanuret of potassium; bicarbonate of
ammonia forms a precipitate that is redissolved by an excess
of the ammoniacal salt; oxalate of ammonia added to this
solution demonstrates the presence of lime. Farther exami-
nation detected no other substance.

So far as the small quantity at my disposal enabled me to
make out its composition, it would appear to be a salt similar

TWO NEW MINERALS. 167

to the following one (liebigite) with less water, and sulphuric
instead of carbonic acid, the acid being derived from the de-
composition of the pyrites associated with the pitchblende.

een 008

This mineral is called medjidite in honor of the reigning
Sultan of Turkey, Abdul-Medjid, who exhibits a most decided
patronage of both the arts and sciences, certainly much more
than any of his predecessors.

LIEBIGITE (CARBONATE OF URANIUM AND Lime).

This mineral is not found crystallized, but occurs in the form
of a mammillary concretion, having an apparent cleavage in
one direction. It is of a beautiful apple-green color, transpa-
rent, with a vitreous fracture. Hardness between 2 and 2.5;
specific gravity not ascertained.

Chemical Characters—The mineral admits of ready separa-
tion from the pitchblende, and owing to its color and trans-
parency is easily freed from the smallest portion of foreign
matter. Heated gently, it loses water, acquiring a yellowish-
gray color; heated to redness, it blackens without fusing, and on
cooling returns to an orange-red color; heated strongly before the
blowpipe, with or without charcoal, it blackens, and on cooling
remains so; with borax it gives a yellow glass in the oxidizing
and a green glass in the inner flame. Its property of black-
ening when heated to redness, and assuming an orange-red
color on cooling, made me suppose that it might contain van-
adic acid; but, as will be seen a little farther on, its reactions
proved this not to be the case. As yet I believe that this prop-
erty is not known to belong to any other natural combination
of uranium.

The mineral dissolves readily in dilute acids and with violent
effervescence, affording a yellow solution that gives a yellow
precipitate with ammonia and its carbonate; but the latter in
excess redissolves most of the precipitate, and what remains
is found to be carbonate of lime. The carbonate of ammonia
solution when boiled redeposits a yellow precipitate. In a
neutral solution sulphureted hydrogen produces no precipitate,
but the hydrosulphate of ammonia furnishes one of a brown
color, and the ferro-cyanuret of potassium one that is reddish-
brown.

168 TWO NEW MINERALS.

The above properties show the presence of water, carbonic
acid, lime, and uranium ; farther examination gave no evidence
of the presence of any other substance.

The amount of this mineral in a state of purity was too —
small to allow me to make as minute a quantitative analysis as
I should desire ; but, owing to the simplicity of its composition,
the true nature has been very nearly if not exactly made out.
The water was estimated by heating it to 400° Fah. ; the car-
bonie acid by what was lost in dissolving it in hydrochloric
acid in a small apparatus properly arranged; to the acid so-
lution bicarbonate of ammonia was added, which redissolved
all the precipitate first found ; oxalate of ammonia when added
to this precipitated the lime (which was afterward estimated
as a sulphate) ; the solution filtered from this precipitate was
boiled and the uranium deposited itself as a double salt that
was heated to redness, and the oxide estimated in the form
of olive-colored oxide. (Peligot’s atomic weight for uranium
was the one employed, 750; oxygen 100.)

The mean of two analyses, one of 85 and the other of 65
milligrammes, is :

Atoms. Calculated.
WW Tice one sek teeta eaoes 45,2 20 45.5
Garbomic Acids..css.ssssees 10.2 2, 11.1
TUNIC assets cose eae ens 8.0 1 tee
Peroxide of uranium.... 38.0 1 36.3
101.4 100.0

The composition of the mineral is represented by U €+Ca 6
+20H. The pitchblende upon which the liebigite is found was
analyzed, and at some future time I may have occasion to al-
lude to this analysis with some remarks upon the salts of
uranium ; for the present suffice it to state that the pitchblende
contains lime associated with the oxide of uranium, a circum-
stance that, along with the tendency of oxide of uranium to
form double salts, accounts for the formation of both the lieb-
igite and medjidite.

I have thought proper to give this double carbonate the
name of the distinguished chemist of Giessen, as a demonstra-
tion of the high value I set upon his memoirs and important
contributions to the science of chemistry in general.

Liebigite I have also found in one of the European locali-
ties of pitchblende —namely, Johanngorgenstadt. The first

ee

TWO NEW MINERALS. 169

specimen I found was in the cabinet of the School of Mines at
Paris; there is another in the Yale College cabinet, and a third
in Prof. Shepard’s collection. It exists as a thin yellowish,
apple-green coating, semi-transparent, easily detached from the
surface of the pitchblende, and is instantly recognized by heat-
ing it on a piece of platinum foil, when it loses water, blackens
at a red heat, and on cooling becomes orange-red. It also effer-
vesces violently with the strong acids, furnishing a test of
uranium and lime. A Huropean locality being now known,
there will not be much difficulty in obtaining specimens. I
also think that I have found the medjidite from specimens
of the same locality; but, not having such a marked test for
this mineral I could not decide on the little I obtained from a
specimen which is in the cabinet of the Garden of Plants.

OXIDE OF COBALT AND MAGNESIAN OPAL.

OXIDE oF COBALT FROM SitveR Buurr, S. C.

The existence of this oxide was first brought to my notice
by Prof. Ellet. It is accompanied by the oxide of manganese,
and with it stains a coarse gravel found in the primitive region
of this state. These stains are in the form of streaks, varying
in length and breadth. The sand has the appearance of coarse
gunpowder, and arises from the disintegration of mica granite.
Hydrochloric acid readily dissolves this black matter with an
evolution of chlorine. The solution is of a pinkish color, and
affords a green salt when evaporated to dryness, from which it
is evident that it must contain both the oxides of manganese
and cobalt. It is perfectly free from iron, arsenic, and nickel;
but at the same time it is impossible to obtain a solution of it
free from iron, owing to the presence of ferruginous matter in
the sand from which it is derived. This black matter has
evidently originated from the disintegration of cobaltiferous
oxide of manganese, minute particles of which are still to be
traced, mixed with the sand. The relative proportions of the
oxides are not always the same. One analysis gave

Oxidevof cobalt ...0.....--.cueeWeetes teas et ce cos ce eeeeD
Oxide lofvman ranese, «6. ee eeeeeeoicieccecisles coco «keen 76.00
100.00

The method by which these oxides are separated is that
recommended by Prof. Liebig, and one that deserves the notice
of all analytical chemists engaged in the separation of the oxide
of cobalt from other oxides. I allude to the method with the
cyanide of potassium. The locality where this is found is one
of the two or three in this country where cobalt is found under

OXIDE OF COBALT AND MAGNESIAN OPAL. 171

any form whatsoever, and the only one where it exists in the
form of an oxide free from arsenic.

SS MAGNESIAN OPAL FROM NEAR HARMANJICK, AstA MINOR.

I obtained for the composition of this opal, which occurs
with serpentine and carbonate of magnesia, silica, 92.00; water,
4.15; magnesia, 3.00. It occurs also on the island of Mytilene.

MARL FROM ASHLEY RIVER, S. C.

The composition of this marl is remarkable for the large
amount of phosphoric acid contained in it. The epoch to
which this formation of marl is referable is not yet fully de-
cided, but it probably consists of beds of different ages, the
newest being as old as the eocene of Virginia and Maryland.
It has been explored to the depth of three hundred and nine
feet in boring a well. Specimens from depths varying from
one hundred and ten to three hundred and nine feet have been
sent to Prof. Bailey, of West Point, who has already subjected
them to microscopic examination, and a short account of his
results will be found in the accompanying note.* A fuller

*Hetract of a Letter from Prof. Bailey to J. L. Smith.—“ Charleston is
built upon a bed of animalcules several hundred feet in thickness, every
cubic inch of which is filled with myriads of perfectly preserved microscopic
shells. These shells, however, do not, like those beneath Richmond and
Petersburg, etc., belong to the siliceous infusoria, but are all derived from
those minute calcareous-shelled creatures called by Ehrenberg polythalamia,
and by D’Orbigny the foraminifera. You are aware that Ehrenberg proved ©
chalk to be chiefly made up of such shells; and you will doubtless be pleased
to learn that the tertiary beds beneath your city are filled with more numerous
and more perfect specimens of these beautiful forms than I have ever seen in
chalk or marl from any other locality. The following are some of the results
I have obtained:

‘““], The marls from the depth of one hundred and ten to one hundred
and ninety-three feet are certainly tertiary deposits, for I have found them
to contain polythalamia of the family plicatilia of Ehrenberg (agathestegens
of D’Orbigny), which family, as far as is yet known, occurs in no formation
older than the tertiary.

“2. The beds from the depth of one hundred and ninety-three to three
hundred and nine feet contain so many species in common with the beds
above them, that although I have not yet detected the plicatilia, I yet be-
lieve they must also belong to the tertiary formation.

‘3. The forms found in these beds agree much better with those detected
by me in the eocene marls from Panumkey River, Va., than they do with
miocene polythalamia from Petersburg, Va., and I am consequently inclined
to believe that they belong to the eocene epoch.

MARL FROM ASHLEY RIVER, S&S. C. 173

detail may be expected from him at some future time; and
when it does come it will no doubt be a rich feast for the
naturalist of this country, prepared, as it will be, by a skillful
hand.

Organic remains are quite abundant in this marl, although
in an imperfect state. Its composition is somewhat peculiar,
and a knowledge of it may be of some general importance.
It varies in the proportion of its ingredients, but seems to
be constant as regards their character. From among several
analyses the following is selected as being an average one:

War bOm Aeron MIME rare sccwne sas nec-nessdeenacgeeiaccerecceencesels 65.8
Warbomate OL MMASMESIAN. «506d c.cdeswecevecedepeesastescec see 2.4
pM Ge Aermar racing unto sass guiacthadad atin sas aicasiie hou t's oeuidb utes 15.6
PAU IITA EAH essencts ae Se ette sicgisisd- nwacieiidanterecidenicieh she siacisSeicitaste’« 10.0
Phosphate of lime with a small quantity of phosphate

Gulp OUEST AS esi sees asoctyc mien iseGaswy-euisasiocs aentns sede

Phosphate of iron.... |
Fluoride of calcium.. |

Crenate of iron... .... 12
Crenate of lime Ree p seeceeoececeoeeeeeseseseseeeceeseeecseee .
/GAMTAOLONE Varsone stone os

Organic matter........ J

“4, All the marls to the depth of two hundred and thirty-six feet present
the polythalamia in vast abundance, and in a state of surprising preservation.
The most delicate markings of the shells are perfectly preserved, and some
of the forms are so large that they may be easily seen with a common
pocket-lens.

“5, The lithological characters of the marls from two hundred and thirty-
six to three hundred and nine feet differ from those above; and although the
polythalamia are still abundant, and many of the species appear to be the
same as in the strata above, yet they are less easy to observe on account of the
greater compactness of the marls, and the adherence of crystalline calcareous
particles to the shells.

“6. The marls which you sent from the Cooper River, thirty-five to thirty-
eight miles above Charleston, also abound in polythalamia; and so many of
_the species are identical with those found beneath Charleston that they most
probably belong to the same formation. This place on the Cooper River
may be the outcrop of the very slightly-inclined beds which exist under
Charleston. [In this conclusion Prof. Bailey is correct.—J. L. 8.]

“7, The polythalamia, to whose labors South Carolina owes so large a
portion of her territory, are still at work in countless thousands upon her
coasts, filling up harbors, forming shoals, and depositing their shells to record
the present state of the sea-shore, as their predecessors, now entombed be-
neath Charleston, have done with regard to ancient oceans. The mud from
Charleston harbor is filled not only with beautiful polythalamian shells, but
is also very rich in siliceous infusoria.”

174 MARL FROM ASHLEY RIVER, S. 0.

The proportion of phosphate of lime is large, and may be
owing to the impalpable remains of animals that must have
frequented these early seas in myriads, or it may be peculiar to
the little shelly remains of polythalamia that form such a large
portion of this bed. The fluoride of calcium, which I believe
is here pointed out for the first time as existing in marls, does
not owe its origin to any spicule of bony matter present in
the specimen examined, at least none that the microscope could
detect; so we must attribute it either to osseous matter tritu-
rated to an impalpable powder, or, what is more probable, sup-
pose that it forms a part of the calcareous covering of those
animaleule just alluded to, the remains of which form the
foundation of the city of Charleston. The ammonia is held
mechanically in the pores, associated perhaps with carbonic
acid, and is easily rendered apparent by dropping caustic
potash on the marl. This has been found present in all the
marls I have examined, and the fluoride of calcium in several.

~

SOURCE OF FLUORINE IN FOSSIL BONES.

The analyses of fossil bones communicated by MM. Girardin
and Preisser to the Academie des Sciences, October, 1842, afford
the only well-detailed numerical results of the composition of
this class of bones that we possess. The authors appear to
have bestowed considerable care upon their research, and their
estimate of the proportion of fluoride of calcium present was
as follows:

Per cent.

A metacarpal bone of a bear from the cavern of Mialet... 1.09
MS kaofeamiue ephiait-conscscnac secede secon se nmcssieAnen tinessensceine 2.64
Mertens of ayplestosauiusa. ..ces sce es anise ee se arene see aeee ce 2.11
The great bone of the pekilopleuron bucklandii............ 1.50
Tstl) OLE 2 TGlah) TN CSENDIES. congeequsehouoeeasHonacuec aba seoUnuaso ssc a5 1.02
Eeadvontiessamen chtliyosamnus::..05--s.s-s-ocr2se-eeesne~ce ree 1.65
Bone of the lamentin from the tertiary formation in the

EMMUEONSTOL sViAlOE MES a cwe .cacaaecviee sien eme(esee see eels ineeeie= 9.12

This fluoride would appear to form a distinguishing mark
oetween fossil and recent bones, although Berzelius has found
it to exist in these latter, and Marchand, in some recent experi-
ments, mentions the same fact; still many other chemists have
not succeeded in detecting it. MM. Girardin and Priesser sup-
pose that it was owing to some accidental circumstances that
Berzelius was enabled to discover it in the cases that he ex-
amined, they having in no instance found it, although care-
fully sought for. My experience tends to confirm Berzelius in
his statement, having in several cases obtained most decided
evidence of its presence in recent bones, but in very minute
quantity. In many instances I failed to detect it, and attribute
the failure more to the minuteness of the quantity than to the
total absence of it.

I would here remark that in examining for fluorine in the
' ordinary way, by testing the effects of the hydrofluoric acid
(liberated by the action of sulphuric acid) upon waxed glass
with characters traced out, the process requires some precau-
tion when the quantity present is supposed to be very small;

176 SOURCE OF FLUORINE IN FOSSIL BONES.

for I have been able in several instances to obtain a perma-
nent delineation of the characters traced without the presence
of fluorine. In these cases it is caused by the action of the
vapors of either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid upon certain
kinds of glass that contain a large quantity of metallic oxides,
or upon glass the surface of which has been altered by the
action of the air. There is, however, no apparent corrosion in
these cases.

The existence of fluorine in fossil bones, and its doubtful—
or, a8 some say, absolute—non-existence in those of recent
animals, have induced MM. Girardin and Preisser to conclude
that it did not belong originally to the bones of fossil animals,
but has found its way there by infiltration after their death;
and they appear to have come to this conclusion without hay-
ing examined the chemical character of the formations from
which the various bones were taken.

I have had an opportunity of throwing some light upon
this subject from the examination of two bones taken from the
same calcareous deposit and within two feet of each other, the
one cellular and the other compact. The cells of one of these
bones were filled with small concretions of calcareous matter,
evidently arising from the infiltration of some of the material
forming the bed in which they he. These concretions, it would
seem, ought certainly to contain a portion of whatsoever matter
had been infiltrated, as all infiltrations must have passed in
together. These concretions, carefully detached from the bone,
were examined especially for fluorine, but not the slightest
trace was found; while on the contrary a very small quantity
of the compact part of the same bone gave decided indications
of the presence of this substance. This fact must certainly
lead to the conclusion that the fluoride of calcium in the body
of the bone was not infiltrated; for had it been otherwise it
would have been associated with matter known to be infiltrated,
as the calcareous nodules. :

The same cellular bone was examined as a whole—that is to
say, without detaching the calcareous matter—in comparison
with the compact bone from the same locality; and in the
former there was found less fluoride of calcium than in the
latter, contrary to what would have been the case had this
fluoride been infiltrated.

SOURCE OF FLUORINE IN FOSSIL BONES. 17ers

Per cent.
Compact bone, fluoride of calcium........2.....0....00002 2.45
Cellular bone, te CO TR» durcoescomsernteate aes oes 2.00

The deposit from which these bones were taken was ana-
lyzed, and fluoride of calcium detected, pertaining to mollusca
or vertebrated animals; and were it necessary to suppose that
it could have existed in only one of these, I should unhesita-
tingly attribute its origin to the vertebrated animals, particu-
larly on account of their abundant provision of phosphates.
Bones were also examined that contained fluorine when the
deposit from which they were taken showed no traces of this
element.

Dr. Daubeny has lately examined the question of the ex-
istence of fluorine in recent bones, and decided it in the
affirmative.

It is not surprising that we should find the phosphates and
fluorides associated in the animal kingdom; for in the mineral
kingdom fluorine is a very common attendant upon the phos-
phates, as for instance in the apatites, wagnerite, wavellite,
uranite, etc.; and I think if we search the mineral kingdom
we shall not find so constant an association of any two elements
as fluorine and phosphorus. All the phosphates of the alkalies
and earths contain fluorine.

If then this element is associated with the phosphates, they
must exist together in the soils arising trom the disintegration
of the rocks containing these minerals, and the plants grow-
ing upon these soils would upon taking up the phosphates >
naturally. appropriate the accompanying fluorides, which two
classes of salts would subsequently pass to the same portion of
the animal feeding upon these plants—namely, to the bones.

The reason why the existence of fluorine in recent bones is
doubtful may be owing to the fact that the great mass of the
phosphate of lime originally in the soil has from various causes
disappeared, and with it the fluoride of calcium; and that the
portion of this latter still remaining is so small that notwith-
standing the double condensation that it undergoes through
the agency of plants and animals, it is not in sufficient quantity
to come readily within the reach of our tests.

CHROME AND MEERSCHAUM OF ASIA MINOR.

Ge

In my journey to the south of Broosa (Anatoly, Asia Minor)
T crossed a formation of serpentine and other magnesian rocks
of considerable extent. Fifty miles from this city I discovered
chromate of iron disseminated in these rocks; and ten or fifteen
miles farther south (near the city of Harmanjick) there is an
abundant deposit of this mineral. A circumstance worthy
of remark is that this chromate of iron (the first that has been
discovered in Asia Minor) is found in serpentine as elsewhere.
This important fact can explain to a certain extent the forma-
tion of this chromate. It is well known that serpentine con-
tains all the elements of chromate of iron, which during the
consolidation of this rock might separate themselves by the
force of segregation, so well known to operate in many geo-
logical phenomena. Two facts which seem to confirm this
supposition are ; first, the existence of the chromate of iron in
masses and not in veins; and secondly, the pale color of the
serpentine associated with the chromate. One small specimen
that I have consists of a white rock composed principally
of carbonate of magensia, in which small specks of chromate
of iron are visible. It is possible that this carbonate is the
result of the decomposition of the serpentine at the surface by
the action of water containing carbonic acid. It is only at
this locality that I found crystals of the chromate octahedral,
but very small.

This discovery is of great importance to the arts and to the
Turkish Government, which proposes exploring the mine.

In quitting the locality of chrome and going north-east, I
traversed in several places the serpentine containing veins
of carbonate of magnesia, quite pure ; and this occurs until we
arrive at the plains of Eski-Shehr. It is from different parts
of this plain that comes the meerschaum most esteemed in the
arts. Its geological position is very different from what I had

CHROME AND MEERSCHAUM OF ASIA MINOR. hag

expected. The plain in which it is found is a deposit of drift;
a valley filled up with the debris of the neighboring mountains,
consolidated by lime in which I found no fossils.

The meerschaum is found in this drift in masses more or less
rounded ; the other pebbles are fragments of magnesian and
hornblende rocks.

IT have examined with care the neighboring mountains which
surround the plain, and have found that the rocks are of the
same nature as the pebbles in the plain, except those of the
meerschaum; but on the other hand I found carbonate of mag-
nesia in the mountains which is not to be found in the plains.
And this makes me suppose that the meerschaum owes its
origin to the carbonate of magnesia of the mountains decom-
posed after its separation by water containing silica.

If this supposition be true we should naturally find meer-
schaum which not being completely altered contains the
carbonate of magnesia. A chemical examination of several
specimens has served to establish this fact. Some of the
specimens, taken at the depth of ten feet, when placed in
hydrochloric acid, give rise to an effervescence that will con-
tinue for some time; the piece will not change its form, it only
absorbs the acid; the solution will be found to contain chloride
of magnesium nearly pure. Another proof that the meer-
schaum probably owes its origin to the carbonate of magnesia
is that I have found attached to the meerschaum serpentine
similar to that found in contact with the carbonate of magnesia
of the mountains. __ |

The meerschaum of Eski-Shehr differs completely from
several other specimens that I have seen, coming from other
localities, and which exist in the fissures of rocks; it is certain
that the quality of the first is most esteemed.

LESLEYITE OF CHESTER COUNTY, PENN.

AND ITS RELATIONS TO THE EPHESITE OF THE EMERY
FORMATION NEAR EPHESUS, ASIA MINOR.

Several years ago a small amount of mineral from Chester
County, Penn., was handed to me for examination by Dr. Isaac
Lea, of Philadelphia. The specimen was too impure to warrant
any conclusion upon analysis. Its character and associates,
however, led me to suppose that it was the same mineral
described by me as associated with the emery of Asia Minor,
and to which I gave the name LHphesite. In the mean time
Dr. Lea described his mineral as a new species, calling it
Lesleyite; and in a recent number of the American Journal
of Science and Arts, 8. P. Sharples has given an analysis of it
that at once brought to my recollection my original opinion
that it was close to Ephesite, and on recurring to my examina-
tion of this mineral, making due allowance for the impurities
contained in it, the opinion was confirmed.

I then obtained from Dr. Lea another specimen of his min-

eral, and proceeded to analyze both it and the Hphesite for

mutual comparison. Much labor was bestowed in selecting the
pure mineral from each, the greater part of a day having been
consumed in procuring the necessary quantity for analysis.
They are similar in their associations and identical in color
and luster and general physical properties. They are both
very difficult to decompose by carbonate of soda, even when
aided with caustic potash ; so that in both analyses the silica
obtained was fused a second time, and much alumina separated
from it.

My original description of the mineral will be found under
Emery, in the American Journal of Science and Arts, 2d series,
vol. x, 1850, as follows:

“Tt is of a pearly-white color, and lamellar in structure; cleavage difficult.
It scratches glass easily, and has a specific gravity of from 3.15 to 3.20

-

LESLEYITE OF CHESTER COUNTY, PENN. 181

Heated before the blowpipe, it becomes milk-white but does not fuse. At
first sight it might be taken for white disthene. It is decomposed with great
difficulty by carbonate of soda, even with the addition of a little caustic soda.”

The lesleyite has identically the same properties. On an-
alysis the two minerals were found to be composed as follows:

Ephesite. Lesleyite.
SG aleenee sees ns Muse sihisvale ones siiectae 30.70 31.18
PNUlnTANaN Ame sence cs coe value co csume ene 55.67 55.00
TASTING Honeeoode tee ee pe IAe CEA OnE nara aeons 2.55 45
SOC ee ees ee peo ndteels adibee geome 5.52 1.20
TEVOTGNS] a1 ax ako a As EN a ee nen 1.10 7.28
AW PARIS a et ACRE nelle ea eh ee 4.91 4.80

100.45 99.91

The alkalies in the two varieties are reversed, the Hphesite
containing principally soda and the Lesleyite potash.

This close relation of the two minerals is an interesting fact
as regards the associate minerals of corundum found in different
parts of the world.

In regard to the reddish variety of Lesleyite examined by

-Roepper, the analysis can not be considered as giving very

satisfactory results, for the mineral may have been impure, and
the difficulty in decomposing by the soda fusion may give very
erroneous results in a silica determination.

13

TETRAHEDRITE, TENNANTITE, AND NACRITE,

OF THE KELLOGG MINES OF ARKANSAS.

A short time since Prof. KE. T. Cox, of Indiana, sent to me an
antimonial copper-ore containing silver, one fragment being
the termination of a crystal having a number of small but
beautiful faces; another was a minute crystal of a different
form. In the hands of Prof. Cox a blowpipe analysis had
given about five per cent. of silver in some of the mineral.

The crystalline fragments were first examined, and they
enabled me clearly to trace out tetrahedrite in one and ten-
nantite in the other. The faces on the tetrahedrite were small,
but beautiful and very numerous; from the number on the
fragment examined there would not have been less than from
sixty to seventy had the crystal been perfect. It corresponds
very nearly to the crystal figured in Dufrenoy’s Mineralogy,
plate 124, fig. 441, which he speaks of as coming from Moschel-
landsberg, a locality that I am not able to discover. Good
measurements were made on a few of the faces.

P on P 70°: P on 62 159° 80’; P on a2 144° 307.

Specific gravity of different specimens varied from 4.78 to
5.08; the latter was the specific gravity of the above crystal.
The analysis of two specimens, No. 2 being a part of the

crystal, gave ‘ :

FARA MIMO Y (actsels = 22's selena eee rne erase 26.50 27.01
DUNT... .ces ocuiesaases aera e tear 26.71 25.32
OD POL ieisaciscin spas cena sasoese Rea Es 36.40 33.20
| UST cgosSnocsosnenceedaaseondo isso: s scocs8: 1.89 82
ENING 45h space Ono ep OBE EB AnEce69 233055 4.20 6.10
SOM Ol secs cenete cle’ sub doses eee 2.30 4.97
PASTSENIEC pee seen. aaa - ones nee eee 1.02 61

99.02 98.03

The quantity of No. 2 analyzed did not exceed three hun-
dred milligrammes.

There are two minerals, consisting of minute micaceous
scales, on the quartz containing this gray copper. One of them

TETRAHEDRITE, TENNANTITE, AND NACRITE. 183

I could not obtain in sufficient quantity for examination ; from
an imperfect examination I conclude that it is muscovite. The
other mineral—a soft, unctuous, talc-like mineral—is nacrite,
composed as follows:

SRE rEae Mees deol s ek iicd dodo Rauwed vests Sgweetced abana emeedes 65.02
PAN ip RIAN TEP en. = Sethe: . Sao woe ais asiaee sacasmrecaecoanendeeeos 26.11
OER OIE OMG So. cco lhc coc kta bac aseackiet vecOesedsessloccbane oct 2.20
OMS INBETOSS. socngbase ane < Gonce es deaceceedecaobos suoacesee se Saence trace
ZORASH RGU S OAS 5.08) cue ake we a cdvascebsdoecod des thawetencheute 1.18
VAP SEGIE 3p SHG a Ri SEER SRE SP a pe eo ie tae ene 4.98

99.49

These minerals came from an exceedingly interesting
mine in Arkansas that is as yet almost unexplored. I have
obtained a description of it from Professor Cox, and I think
it would be well to give it here; for, besides being likely to
prove of considerable commercial value when properly ex-
plored, there will doubtless be found many interesting mineral
species there.

The Kellogg mines are situated ten miles north of the city
of Little Rock, in Pulaski County, Ark. The country in the
vicinity is rolling; the highest hills are about two hundred and
seventy feet above the water-level of the neighboring streams.
The surface rocks are thick, and thin beds of sandstone alter-
nating with shales occupying the base of the coal measures.
The rocks are but little disturbed, and are for the most part
horizontal. There are no metamorphic rocks showing them-
selves at the surface nearer than Little Rock, on the south side
of the Arkansas River. Innumerable veins of milky quartz
are seen traversing the sandstones and shales.

About seventeen years ago lead-ore was discovered at these
mines by Mr. Kellogg; companies were organized and mining
operations carried on extensively for about one year, when the
flattering accounts of the gold discoveries in California caused
the miners to leave, and the work, which had been badly con-
ducted, was abandoned. Many tons of the ore, which is an
argentiferous galena (containing sixty to two hundred ounces
of silver to the ton), were extracted from the mine, and finally
the greater part was shipped to England and sold at a good
price. A smelting furnace has been erected on the grounds,
but for lack of skill the proprietor never succeeded in working
the ore profitably ; consequently the impression was produced

184 TETRAHEDRITE, TENNANTITE, AND NACRITE.

that the ore could not be smelted, but there is no good reason
for such an opinion.

Since the mines have been abandowea the old shafts, ranging
in depth from fifteen to seventy feet, are all filled in, and the
country has become covered with a dense icra of brush
and briars. About one year ago Prof. Cox revisited these
mines for a company who had iin view the lease or purchase
of them ; it was during this visit that the gray copper above
referred to was discovered. This ore had previously escaped
the observation of others who had explored these mines. It is
impossible at present to see the ore in place, and those who
previously worked the mine give conflicting statements as to
the manner in which the ore is found.

The vein-rock and associated minerals with the galena are
white quartz, spathic iron, zinc-blende, copper pyrites, gray
copper, tennantite, and nacrite. |

The mines are now in the hands of a new company, and the
latest information from.their operations is that matters look
well; the vein now being worked is nearly three feet wide,
principally lead-ore, the balance being zinc-blende; twenty
hands are at work, and the shaft is down forty-five feet. My
opinion is that.in time this mine will become of considerable
importance, and lead to further developments of argentiferous
galena in that region.

gee,

eb le ee oe a st

Be Tver
7 re

ee. aS

NOTES ON THE CORUNDUM OF NORTH CARO-
LINA, GHORGIA, AND MONTANA,

WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE GEM VARIETY OF THE CO-
RUNDUM FROM THESE LOCALITIES.

The corundum formations in North Carolina and Georgia
are the second in importance in the United States that have
been brought to my notice; and the one in North Carolina is
by far the most interesting in this country, and perhaps of any
yet known, in the extent of the formation, the distribution
of the corundum, and the purity of the mineral.

This mineral was first discovered in North Carolina in 1846—
about the time I was engaged in developing the geology of
emery in Asia Minor and the Grecian Archipelago; and upon
communicating to American geologists my discoveries in re-
lation to the associate minerals of the emery in Asia Minor, and
directing them to search for the same in connection with the
corundum found in different parts of America, the same asso-
ciates were discovered in connection with the North Carolina
corundum. as well as that from other localities.

At this time there had been discovered but one detached
block, but no other specimen could be discovered in that lo-
cality. There the matter rested until 1865, when C. D. Smith
(to whom I am indebted for valuable information contained
in this paper), assistant of Prof. Emmons, geologist of North
Carolina, had brought to him by one of the inhabitants of the
country west of the Blue Ridge Mountains a specimen of rock
which was recognized as being corundum, and on visiting the
spot this geologist discovered the corundum in situ, and a
number of specimens were collected. Since that time public
interest has increased in relation to this substance, and it
has been discovered in such quantities as to make it an ob-
ject of interest to the arts as a substitute for emery, and very

186 NOTES ON THE CORUNDUM OF

rapidly other localities were brought to light along a distance
of forty miles.

The colors of the corundum as found along this zone of
outcrops are blue, gray, pink, ruby, and white. Sometimes it
has broad cleavage faces, and then again it occurs in hexagonal
prisms. One hexagonal prism weighed over three hundred
pounds. There is a difference in the cleavage and the associate
minerals at different localities.

In the development in North Carolina the corundum occurs
in chrysolite or serpentine rocks, and outside of serpentine it
has not been found. These chrysolite rocks belong to a regular
system of dikes, which have been traversed for the distance
of about one hundred and ninety miles. This system of dikes
lies on the north-west side of the Blue Ridge, and has a strike
parallel to the main mass of the ridge, and has an average dis-
tance from the summit of the ridge of about ten miles. It
continues this strike to the head of the Little Tennessee River,
say from Mitchell to Macon County, one hundred and thirty
miles. Here the ridge curves around the head of the Tennessee
and falls back about ten miles to the north-west. In conformity
with this elbow in the ridge the disturbing force shifts to the
north-west and re-appears at Buck’s Creek, having relative
position to the Blue Ridge.

The serpentine appears at intervals along this whole line
of one hundred and ninety miles. There is a corresponding
system of dikes traversing the southern slope of the Blue Ridge,
but not so regular and compact as the system on this north-
west side, nor are the outcrops so frequent. The main mags of
the ridge bears no evidence of having been disturbed at all, at
least none have been found. From Mitchell County to Maron
the serpentine is usually inclosed in a hard crystalline gneiss-
rock, which bears rose-colored garnets, kyanite, and pyrite.
After its shifting to the right it occurs in hornblendic beds and
gneiss. At Buck Creek and thence south-westward the horn-
blend beds assume very large proportions, and instead of com-
mon feldspar have in them albite, making an albitic syenite.
At Buck Creek (which is named Cullakenih) the chrysolite
covers an area of about three hundred and fifty acres. One or
two observers have fallen into the error of confounding the two
dike systems, whereas they have no connection whatever.

— ae

NORTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA, AND MONTANA. 187

According to them the northern system cut through the Blue
Ridge at right-angles, and then turn back on the opposite side
of the ridge. .

Now there is no such phenomena connected with these
outcrops. They evidently belong to separate systems. The
outcrops along the northern system occur at intervals ranging
from one to fifteen miles. The belt or zone along which these
outcrops occur never exceeds four miles in width on the north-
ern side of the ridge. On the opposite side the system is not
so well defined, and the outcrops are rarer.

Upon these serpentine beds there exists chalcedony, chro-
mite on some of them, chlorite, talc, steatite, anthophyllite, tour-
maline, emerylite, epidote on some of them, zoisite, and albite,
with occasionally asbestus and picrolite, as also actinolite and
tremolite. The corundum at some places seems to occur mostly
in ripidolite in fissures of the serpentine. At Cullakenih the
corundum with its immediate associates is in chlorite, except
the red variety, which is in zoisite, containing a minute quantity
of chrome.

Throughout all the range of rocks for the great extent re-
ferred to corundum forms a geognostic mark of this chrysolite-
rock just as it does of the calcareous rock bearing corundum
described by me in Asia Minor. They belong to the same
geological epoch, and overlie the gneiss, ete.

The closest investigation shows that the chrysolite in North
Carolina takes the place of calc-rock in Asia Minor; that these
are invariably the gangue rock in the two different quarters
of the globe; but, as remarked above, the contiguous rock
shows them both.to be of the same geological period, over-
lying directly the primary rocks; and both of them are also
identical geologically with the Chester emery formation of
Massachusetts.

While all the localities of corundum and emery I have ex-
amined exhibit certain marked and prominent characteristics
common to them all, and evince unmistakable evidence of geo-
logical identity, yet each locality has its peculiar character-
istics. In all cases, however, the masses of corundum give
evidence of having been formed by a process of segregation,
as described in my memoir on the Asia Minor emery.

In Asia Minor the Gumuch-dagh emery has but little black

188 NOTES ON THE CORUNDUM OF

tourmaline associated with it, and instead chloritoid in crystals
or lamelle; also its diaspore is rare, but when found is pris-
matic, affording the finest perfect crystals yet seen, from which
M. Dufrenoy made his last study of the crystallography of this
mineral; and the emery is associated with calcareous rock
overlying gneiss. The Kulah emery from the same part of the
world is equally in calcareous rock, and has very little chloritoid
or chloritic mineral associated with it.

The Naxos and Nicaria emery of the Grecian Archipelago is
also in connection with calcareous rock, but has no chloritoid
associated with it, but in its place black tourmaline is abundant.

While in the above localities the rock bearing the corundum
is calcareous, that in Chester, Mass., is in talcose slate, and
saponite with hornblendic gneiss immediately on one side of
the vein, and is accompanied with a large amount of magnetic
oxide of iron. Tourmaline also abounds in this corundum, and
like the Asiatic variety contains rutile, ilminite, ete.

In the localities forming the subject of this memoir the a
lowing minerals are deserving special notice.

CORUNDUM.

This mineral occurs in finer and more beautiful variety
than in any yet known locality. The masses in many instances
are very large, weighing six to eight hundred pounds, having
fine large cleavages, and are remarkably free from foreign ingre-
dients. The crystals are also fine, and in some instances of great
size and beauty. Two of them discovered by M. Jenks, and now
in the possession of Prof. Shepard, have been described by him.
They are respectively three hundred and twelve and eleven and
three fourths poundsin weight. Thelargest is red at the surface,
but within of a bluish-gray. The general figure is pyramidal,
showing, however, more than a single six-sided pyramid, whose
summit is terminated by rather an uneven and somewhat unde-
fined hexagonal plane. The smaller crystal is a regular hexag-
onal prism, well terminated at one of its extremities, the other
being drusy and incomplete. The general color of this crystal
is a grayish-blue, though there are spots, particularly near the
angles, where it is of a pale sapphire tint. Its greatest breadth
is six inches, and its length over five. Some of the lateral
planes are coated in patches with a white pearly margarite.

=

NORTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA, AND MONTANA. 189

The smaller crystals are often transparent at their extremi-
ties. It is, however, in color that the corundum of this locality
excels. It is gray, green, rose-color, ruby-red, emerald-green,
sapphire-blue, and all intermediate shades to colorless. Many
pieces of the blue and red have been cut and polished, pre-
senting very good characters as gems, without being of the
finest quality.

DIASPORE.

While this mineral is found so abundantly with the corun-
dum of Chester, Mass., I have not been able to find it associated
with these localities. Several specimens of supposed diaspore
have been submitted to me, but on close examination it was
found to be colorless kyanite.

CHLORITE.

This mineral abounds in this locality, and, as has been stated,

is the gangue-rock of the corundum; it not only surrounds the

corundum, but permeatesit. ‘There are several varieties, vary-
ing in color from a yellowish-green to a dark-green, and differing
a little in composition. Two specimens from the same locality
were composed as follows:

Large plates. Friable.
RSM Ay ctes aes cecvehe oe Sevacuieramctser me bianic ein 27.00 - 29.15
\ONUDTON OE REA SOsaOet ASGAD EEOC ERE Cre eere 21.60 10.50
ONAGeOMmLGMeercngechenes occsdesewcaces 16.63 23.50
Noon Csi parse setae actaceinn cnicihisavicie wvetalse 22.00 25.44
INV ER Te cya Ss sR rae a I et 12.30 10.04

MARGARITE (EMERYLITE).

This curious mica—curious so far as that since my first
pointing it out as a characteristic of the emery formation in
Asia Minor and the Grecian Archipelago—has been found
wherever corundum is, and in the case of Chester emery was
the means of leading to its discovery. At the present localities
it is abundant and mixed with the rocks and the associate
minerals of this locality. Chemical analysis was made of the
specimen with the following result:

Ril nce Ape eee ae tera EC Ri oss sini d neice deka matlorsisls aralaetovisioate 32.41
COMI enteritis oe cscs sc ise aisae alewin teens seed actereteots 51.31
HUE ISfaT oars ee sce ates A Got chose eso sicia/alandle oreiale'e clarsic de mreintiains Swrantee 10.98
PGT GH Mee Re ee eee eI ole ciaisss. aoc o.ccenidisibsiets o ove manele t cio Sica mene 2.43

190 NOTES ON THE CORUNDUM OF

ZOISITE.

This mineral occurs in two forms—a black variety and a
light-green variety. These minerals have been called by some
_Arfverdsonite, but neither of them have the composition of that
mineral. ‘Their compositions were as follows: Green variety
is of a very pale chrome-green, containing and compared with

that from Lake Geneva
Light green. Lake Geneva. Black variety.

SuiiGa sees oo raeee ree ae 45.70 43.59 45.90
JA lignite tea sotan Senor eee eee 24.01 AT 13.34
Peroxideiof iromis.cescnasescees 4.56 2.61 11.46
bBo 1s RRM: Po vane es MR as Me 13.44 21.00 12.20
NWA OMCs eh eile act ene ears eae 8.08 2.40 Tos
SOE sia. Rak eerte ce arc nat nauonss 2.91 3.08 8.39
WV iaitter sc Rose ora oden noslcik ee wtols OOS CE yess .66
Oxidevof<chromesse..- cece BO Sania 2
ANDESITE.

This mineral occurs mostly in a granular form. Its com-
position-is
SLATE ae BAC. a CAMB ear ec HANNE SSeS a 64.12

SASH UT TAT TYAS occniasecsicco cate Goss Seis SSC OO ee ee Eee 24.20
SO ca Ricci Gere aves eee Seaton ah nantes ae GIRS Cn Sie eo 9.28
APA 45 craps als Sees Saved rah ira iata eras ee ere aati o sion cleats lo iaeclel PSone 2.80
Oxad eon OMe ssc see cae ae ene ee ei WRT aed ata rs 3 f 14

The other minerals associated with this emery formation
are magnetic oxide of iron, chrome iron, rutile, asbestus, talc,
actinolite, black tourmaline, chalcedony, anthophyllite, spinel,
albite, and picrolite.

ON THE EXISTENCE OF THE RUBY AND SAPPHIRE IN NorRTH
CAROLINA AND MontTANA TERRITORY.

The corundum locality that I have described in North
Carolina furnishes masses of corundum from which small
pieces can be detached, of good blue or of ruby color, perfectly
transparent, and nearly free from flaws. When cut and pol-
ished they are gems Of no mean value. I have not seen the
most perfect of them that have been cut, but I have some
polished specimens of fine color but with many flaws.

The question naturally arises, what may be the prospects
of obtaining the gem from that locality in sufficient quantity
to warrant exploration? Up to the present time its occurrence
is so different from those in known localities in the Hast Indies

NORTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA, AND MONTANA. AOE

that we are rather inclined to the opinion that it will only be
occasionally that pieces of corundum will be found of sufficient
purity and beauty to be of much value as gems; for it is well
known that very small defects, if they do not destroy alto-
gether the value of the gem, depreciate its value to a very
great extent.

About a year ago a quantity of rolled pebbles were sent to
me from the territory of Montana, which upon examination I
found to consist principally of corundum; they were like the
rolled pebbles from the ruby localities in the East Indies, each
one being a little crystal in itself, more or less abraded on the
angles, and being of a compact, uniform structure. They were
flattened hexagonal prisms with worn edges. They were either
colorless or green, varying in shade from a light to a dark-green ;
some were bluish-green, and there were not any red ones among
them; there were some red pebbles, but on examination they
eared to be spinel.

These pebbles are found on the Missouri River near its
source, about one hundred and sixty miles above Benton; they
are obtained from bars on the river, of which there are some
four or five within a few miles of each other. In the mining
region of this territory on these bars considerable gold is found,
being brought down the river and lodged there, and are now
being worked for the gold. The stones are found scattered
through the gravel (which is about five feet deep), and upon
the bed-rock in some of the claims they are abundant and in
others scarce. Occasionally they are found in the gravel and
upon the bed-rock in the gulches from forty to sixy feet below

the surface, but they are very rare in these localities. The

greatest quantity of them are found upon the Eldorado bar
situated on the Missouri River about sixteen miles from —
Helena; one man could collect on this bar from one to two |
pounds per day.

I have had some of the stones cut, and among them one
very perfect stone of three and a half carats, and of good green
color, almost equal to the best oriental emerald.

My opinion is that this locality is far more reliable to look
for the gem variety of corundum than any other in the United
States I have yet examined.

REPORT ON DUPONT’S ARTESIAN WELL AT
LOUISVILLE.

This work was commenced in April, 1857, from the bottom
of a well that had a depth of twenty feet; the boring tools
employed made a hole five inches in diameter to the depth
of seventy-six feet from the surface; the boring was now re-
duced to three inches, and thus continued to the bottom of the
well. The depth of well is two thousand and eighty-six feet,
flow of water three hundred and thirty-thousand gallons in
twenty-four hours, rise above the surface one hundred and
seventy feet.

The rock struck, which geologically belongs to the Devonian
series, is for thirty-eight feet shell limestone, then for forty
feet coralline limestone, at which depth the Upper Silurian is
reached. Without being able to make out with any degree
of certainty the amount of Upper Silurian passed through, we
suppose it to be over twelve hundred feet. At the depth of
sixteen hundred feet a sandstone was reached, doubtless of the
Lower Silurian, and ninety-seven feet deeper was encountered
the first stream of water which reached the surface. This
flowed out abundantly and with much force. The quantity
not being sufficient, the boring was continued. After this it
was unnecessary to use the bucket to take out the material
detached by the borer, the force of the water bringing up the
fragments very readily. The water increased in quantity in
going deeper, the increase being more marked at eighteen
hundred and seventy-nine feet, and still more at nineteen
hundred feet, where pieces of rock weighing an ounce or two
came up with the water. The water increased every ten or
twenty feet to the depth of two thousand and thirty-six feet;
here a very hard magnesian limestone was encountered six feet
in thickness, after which the sandstone re-appeared, and for the
next fifty feet there was no increase of water.

The following table exhibits the series of rock as far as it

DUPONT’S ARTESIAN WELL AT LOUISVILLE. 193

is possible to make it out by the fine fragments taken out at
different depths, beginning at the top:

76 feet—sand and gravel.
100 feet—tolerably pure limestone, with fragments of fossils.
12 feet—soft limestone mixed with clay.
52 feet—tolerably pure limestone mixed with fossils.
5 feet—limestone with ferruginous clay.
81 feet—gray limestone.
157 feet—limestone mixed with clay.
149 feet—tolerably pure limestone with many portions quite white.
.18 feet—clay shale with little calcareous matter.
207 feet—limestone with a little blue clay shale.
33 feet—same, little darker and more shale.
Next 94 feet—pure, very white limestone with fossil alternating with very
dark limestone, color probably from organic matter, with some dark shale.
26 feet—shaly limestone.
40 feet—very light and hard pure limestone.
1 foot—white clay.
546 feet—gray limestone, alternating hard and soft.
41 feet—sand rock, white.
4 feet—same, very fine and hard, with little limestone.
60 feet—same, with more lime.
72 feet—same, less limestone.
308 feet—same, sandstone with but little lime.
6 feet—magnesian limestone, very hard.
50 feet—sandstone again.

At the urgent request of many citizens of Louisville the
boring was now stopped to give a fair test of the medical vir-
tues of the water that was pouring forth at the rate of two
hundred and thirty gallons per minute, or about three hundred
and thirty thousand gallons in twenty-four hours. The water
by its own pressure rises in pipes one hundred and seventy
feet above the surface. The boring was accomplished in sixteen
months, and the depth reached is two thousand and eighty-six
feet. In order to conduct the water to the surface and prevent
its passing off into the gravel beds below, a tube five inches in ©
diameter leads from the surface to the rock, a depth of seventy-
six feet, into which it is driven with a collar of vulcanized
gum-elastic around it. No tubing is found necessary for any
other part of the boring.

When the size of the bore (three inches in diameter) and its’
depth are considered, the flow of water from the well is un-
equaled by any other artesian well yet constructed that flows
above the surface; for although the Grenelle well at Paris
delivers six hundred thousand gallons in twenty-four hours,
it has at the bottom an area six times as great as the Dupont
well, and a few hundred feet up seven times as great. A cor-

194 DUPONT’S ARTESIAN WELL AT LOUISVILLE.

responding diameter to Dupont’s well would, according to just
and reasonable calculations, furnish about two million gallons
in twenty-four hours; also the elevation of the water above
the surface is greater than that of any other artesian well, and
it is only exceeded in depth by the St. Louis well, and that to
an extent of one hundred and thirteen feet.

The water comes out with considerable force from the five-
inch opening, and a heavy body thrown into the mouth of the
well is rejected almost as readily as a piece of pine wood. By
an approximate calculation its mechanical force is equal to that
of a steam-engine with cylinder ten by eighteen inches, under
fifty pounds’ pressure, with a speed of fifty-five revolutions per
minute, a force rated at about ten-horse power. The top of the
well is now closed, and the water conducted about thirty feet
to a basin with a large jet d’eau on the center, from which there
is a central jet of water forty feet in height, with a large water-
pipe, from which the water passes in the form of a sheaf. -When
the whole force of water is allowed to expend itself on the cen-
tral jet, it is projected to the height of from ninety to one
hundred feet, settling down to a steady flow of a stream sixty
feet high.

Temperature of the Water.—The water as it flows from the
top of the well has a constant temperature of 764° F., and is
not affected either by the heat of summer or the cold of winter.
The temperature at the bottom of the well is several degrees
higher than this, as ascertained by sinking a Walferdin’s regis-
tering thermometer to the bottom, which indicated 823° F.
Taking as correct data that the point of constant temperature
below the surface of Louisville is the same as at Paris—namely,
53° F.—at ninety feet below the surface we have an increase
of one degree of temperature for every sixty-seven feet below
that point. The increase in Paris is one degree for every
sixty-one and two tenths feet. The temperature of the water
is sufficient for comfortable bathing during most of the year—
a circumstance that will be of considerable importance if it
ever be turned to the use of baths. The reason of the differ-
ence of six degrees between the water at the bottom of the well
and at the top is that the iron pipe leading from the surface to
the rock passes through a stratum of water sixty feet thick,
having a temperature of fifty-seven degrees.

eS

DUPONT’S ARTESIAN WELL AT LOUISVILLE. 195

The Source of the Water.—The question naturally arises, if
the vein of water supplying this well has a connection with
some distant source higher than the surface of Louisville,
where is that source? From all that we have been able to
learn of the geology of this county, taking Louisville as a
center, the first rocks encountered corresponding to the sand-
stone (in which the water of the artesian well was struck) are
in Mercer, Jessamine, and Garrard counties, near Dix Creek,
to the east of Harrodsburg. The rocks there are said to be
cavernous and water-bearing. The elevation is about five
hundred feet greater than Louisville, and about seventy-five
miles in a straight line from this city. |

This being the most probable source of the water, whence
come its mineral constituents? These are obtained from the
rocks through which it percolates in its way from its source to
the point below Louisville where it has been tapped, and where
it will doubtless flow in undiminished quantity for centuries to
come, aS wells having such deep sources as chi are usually
inexhaustible.

Nature of the Water.—The water is perfectly limpid, with a
temperature, as already stated, of 765°, which will be invariable
all the year round. Its specific gravity is 1.0113. The solid
contents left on evaporating one wine gallon to dryness are |
9154 grains, furnishing on analysis

Grains.
Chloride of sodium (common Salt)..........cs.0ssee0 621.5204
Wlloride ie (Cal Oni, <ses2365-. 0. scald ses reat betas eesceces 65.7287
Chloride of magnesium.............. AAsiidleeietges Seat oia Catal 14.7757
Whiloride vot OrASSiUIM. 5. cacweisoceecsme sence corium-weene 4.2216
CMloride on auMMIMU NA 6.2.0.6... o wanseasendesceessces bs NS)
Chloride ot AiG wiias-s2..2 sist seed eit nt oon eases ees 1012
SUM MeROL SOMA can ass. d ccbedoee? He, ccleistercnsmtet ele picoinates 72.2957
SUL ICENI®: Olt UNCON He Coe cob eee ABeSEOMeRBEoc So nRSHOn Sa cee anon ea me ur tie 74
Sul phere Of MASMESIA. 0.2 ..0.0c400d se vscteseesovicaveseee 77.8382
SL Mare MO Ne MUNN. .cai ian as coe Kocsktocasaesescecs dace 1.8012
SWINE Ol [ODOURS cosceb sep eneiseo onda Jeu aeobeobodcs6 apes 3.2248
BiGaTrOnate Ol SOG so. cies. coe oe Sab ebabe teclearewndsteoes 2.7264
Bicawbonate Of Mime. ....2.. ie. veces ccseeeemmisvecsaceoens _O.99L8
Dilearponabe Ol Ae MSI al... 2... 92s errisee oeeere mae ele 2.7558
IBICALDOMALC KOM MOMs peice... .os:ss va ceeeesalsenens ccm ses => 8518
hospice Of SOM aia. se seeces ccc ssa eacrctiepene oe nav atee ve 1.5415
TYodide of magnesium............. G8dsc uo coop deeecuansees 8047
BROMO MUASMESTNNA :..5..5.0.0ecscececscers vans cccess 4659
SUIMCAY. fotack .godeo oe gee cer Aeon anes wap Beesd Seay tapi de nee Oe tae 8857
ONGOING TM HIGTE, conceces pe aapBNEND pep eodI50005 nee eveadrons0S- 7082
Loss in analysis... soe gnbgoaeshbodecicon CnliAgill
Chlorides of rubidium and cosium...csscscscesesen traces

915 4582

196 DUPONT’S ARTESIAN WELL AT LOUISVILLE.

GASES IN ONE GALLON.

Sulphureted hydrogen. ss .j-cecs.-se eee seeee as ces eee Ma
Car Domic;acidinc nies segs Heer te deta ee een ale a
Nitro Sen). sia's cdeead pole oe dtaeebesistnoete ne eee ee Rerme Hasse: sac eS SO

The analysis was performed by the usual methods; but as
chloride of lithium was sought for and found, it may be of in-
terest to detail the method of research in this particular, as a
guide to similar investigations of other mineral waters in this
country. Ten gallons of water were evaporated to about two
pints (there was an abundant deposition of salts); to this was
added one gallon of ninety-five per cent. alcohol; it was then
thrown on a filter, and the salts on the filter washed with
alcohol of the same strength, the filtered liquor was evaporated
nearly to dryness; in the present instance the residue consisted
of a few ounces of a thick, syrupy liquid; to this was added
one pint of absolute alcohol; additional salts were precipitated ;
the liquid was again filtered and evaporated nearly to dryness;
to it were added eight ounces of distilled water and two ounces
of milk of lime (pure lime made by igniting carbonate of hme
prepared by carbonate of ammonia); the lime was added for
the purpose of precipitating the magnesia and alumina; again
filtered and washed; the filtered liquid was somewhat concen-
trated, and while warm carbonate of ammonia was added to
precipitate the lime; it was then filtered and evaporated to
about a fluid-ounce and treated with a little ihme-water and
carbonate of ammonia alternately, to insure the absence of the
last traces of magnesia and lime.

Before going further it would be well to state that the treat-
ment of alcohol separates the great mass of salts that are held
in solution by the water, and which interfere with the detection
of so minute a constituent as the lithium salt; by the alcohol
we reduce the salts to small amounts of chlorides of magnesium,
aluminum, calcium, sodium, potassium, and lithium; by the
lime the first two are got rid of, and by the carbonate of am-
monia the lime is precipitated.

The solution, now containing the chlorides of sodium, potas-
sium, lithium, and ammonium, is evaporated to dryness, and
the residue heated to dull redness, by which the ammonia salt
is expelled and a little organic matter destroyed; the residue
is next dissolved in water, and a drop or two of the liquid tested

DUPONT’S ARTESIAN WELL AT LOUISVILLE. 197

for a sulphate; should this be present it must be got rid of by
exact neutralization with chloride of barium (a slight excess
of the chloride of barium will not interfere with the other steps
in the analysis). In the examination of the water in question
no trace of sulphate was found at this stage of the process; so
it was again evaporated to dryness in a small capsule over a
water-bath; there were now a few grains of residual matter.
To this was added an ounce of a mixture of equal parts of pure
ether and absolute alcohol, the capsule was covered with a small
receiver and allowed to stand for eighteen hours, the liquid was
then thrown on a small filter, and the filter washed with a little
of the mixture of ether and alcohol. The alcoholic ether solu-
tion, evaporated to dryness, furnished the chloride of lithium,
recognized by its well-known characteristics. Although this
process requires considerable time and some careful manipu-
lation, its results are both accurate and satisfactory. The
evaporation of two hundred gallons of the water, and the
examination of the concentrated mother-water, enabled me to
detect rubidium and cesium by the aid of the spectroscope.

The water of this artesian well has very valuable medical
properties, and those readers who are curious to examine into
these points will obtain all the required information by sending
to Louisville for the medical report.

14

REMARKS ON THE ALKALIES

CONTAINED IN THE MINERAL LEUCITE AND ON THE COM-
POSITION OF WARWICKITE.

In examining recently many of the silicates containing
alkalies my attention has been called to leucite, and it is on
that mineral especially that I would now remark, reserving for
another time my observations on the other silicates.

The specimens of leucite examined came from four localities,
Vesuvius, Andernach, Borghetta, and Frescati. They were
about as good specimens as are obtained from those localities.
although all of them were not equally pure. The alkalies
found in each calculated as potash were

WIGS UIVAITS Sete A wate ec oaks ee Pe AN RC ae 21.85
JAMA OTM AGIA Jaiesteweeavs nc duds tere eelsaee aoe ede ee ee 20.06
Borg hettaln. cc.cuseser «pp acsauaseennesce niece sectete eepcreckee 20.68
A Mrigetsore hn Sao ae eR Ne Enea ape rniterr Retires Wee WA sperma adine x 20.38

The specimen from Andernach was analyzed for the silica,
etc., and found to contain silica 54.75, alumina 23.08, and 1.55
of oxide of iron; this last seemed to be mechanically dissemi-
nated through the crystals. |

I say above in relation to the alkalies “all calculated as pot-
ash,’ for the reason that there is a notable quantity of rubidium
and cesium present in all the specimens above mentioned. In
fact, by the method adopted in testing for these alkalies, abun-
dant indications are obtained of the presence of rubidium and
cesium (the last not so readily) even when operating on but
half a gramme of the mineral. I am now engaged in working
out a method of estimating quantitatively rubidium and cesium
in the presence of other alkalies; by this method, not yet
perfected, the quantity of these alkalies in leucite is found to
be about nine tenths of one per cent. of the entire mineral.

Of course it is not at all remarkable that the potash in the
different specimens of leucite should be the same; but it is a

REMARKS ON THE ALKALIES. 199

matter of interest to know that from whatsoever locality it
comes this minute quantity of rubidium and cesium occurs
with it. On some future occasion I hope to be able to bring
together certain generalities in this connection of more or less

interest to mineralogists.

I have also detected rubidium in half a gramme of margaro-
dite and Warwick mica, and have failed to detect it in apophyl-
lite, thomsonite, pectolite, eleolite, chesterlite, cancrinite, and
other silicates.

W ARWICKITE.

This interesting compound has been known for some time
to American mineralogists, having been first described by Prof.
C. U. Shepard under the name of warwickite, and considered as
a hydrated silico-titanate of magnesia, iron, and alumina. It
was afterward described by Mr. T. 8S. Hunt under the name
of enceladite, and in his analyses (Amer. Jour. of Science and
Arts, 2d series, xi, 352) considered a trititanate of magnesia. ~

In the re-examination of American minerals, in which Mr.
Brush and myself were engaged, this mineral came up in turn
for examination, and to our amazement it is found to contain a
large amount of boracic acid, doubtless upward of twenty per
cent. Approximative analyses are already made, but owing to
the difficulty of obtaining it of sufficient quantity in a perfect
state of purity, its final examination may be delayed for some
time ; and it is for that reason thought advisable to publish the
present note on the subject. It is essentially a borotitanate
of magnesia and iron; the metallic acid, however, has some
anomalies about it not yet cleared up. This is the first boro-
titanate known, and as such highly interesting; the smallest
portion of it when acted on with sulphuric acid will give the
strongest indication of the presence of boracie acid.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.”

1. In the examination for alkalies in the class of minerals
alluded to in this article it is usual to devote a separate portion
of the mineral to their special determination, without having
reference to any of the other ingredients contained in the min-
eral. This method of proceeding naturally recommends itself,
because a fusion with carbonate of soda is so greatly superior
for the determination of all other ingredients that even the
attempt to control the result of the soda fusion by making use
of the one for the aikalies, to arrive at the other substances
as well as the alkalies, will in many instances embarrass the
analyst as to his results.

2. It is only in cases of absolute necessity that one portion
of the mineral should be used to estimate all its constituents,
and this condition of things will be alluded to in another part
of this paper, as reference is now had to the quantitative deter-
mination of the alkalies, discarding whatever else the mineral
may contain.

3: In the determination of the alkalies in silicates not soluble
in acids three important points present themselves:

I. The means necessary to render the silicate soluble.

II. The separation of the other ingredients from the alkalies, —
more especially magnesia.

III. The removal of the sal ammoniac unavoidably acecumu-
lated in the process of analysis.

In all three of these the processes adopted will be found to
differ essentially from those now in use, and they are made
known only after much experience by the author, in which
their advantages have been most fairly tested, comparatively

* This memoir embraces many important points connected with mineral
analysis. The minute practical details for laboratory use are given in another
article in this collection of papers, and one written after twenty years’ experi-
ence with the method.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. 201

with methods already employed. In order that these processes
may serve equally well in the hands of others, they will be
given with some detail. |

I. METHOD OF RENDERING THE SILICATE SOLUBLE.

4. To render the silicate soluble various plans have been
proposed, all of which have their objections. Among the
agents used for the purpose are baryta and several of its
compounds; viz., the nitrate, carbonate, and chloride.

5. The first of these is undoubtedly the best decomposing
agent of the four, could we use a platinum crucible to heat the
- mixture of it and the mineral; as it is, a silver crucible is neces-
sary, and this is not always capable of standing the requisite
heat. According to Rose, “the silver crucible must be very
strong, for if thin the action of a red heat might crack it, and
a portion of the fused mass would ooze out through the crey-
ices.’ It also may happen that a heat higher than the point
of fusion of silver is necessary to a complete decomposition
of the mineral.

6. All that is here said of caustic baryta is equally appli-
cable to nitrate of baryta.

7. The chlorides of barium and calcium have been lately
proposed by Prof. Henry Wurtz, but its decomposing properties
are very feeble, as the chlorine in combination with the barium
is not liberated at a white heat, and few silicates are able to
produce the decomposition. It may succeed with some of the
feldspars, but decomposes very imperfectly even the micas. So
it is rather a risk to employ it with an unknown substance.

8. The carbonate of baryta is the compound of baryta most
generally employed for silicate decompositions; still this is
attended with much difficulty, owing to the infusibility of this
salt and the impossibility of driving off the carbonic acid by
heat alone; and even if this latter were possible, the objection
pertaining to caustic baryta would then arise.

y. The following extract from Rose’s Analytical Chemistry
(translation by Normandy, in a note by the translator) pre-
sents fairly the difficulties attending this method of decomposing
the silicates:

‘The heat applied is so intense that some precautions must be taken.
The platinum crucible containing the mixture should be exposed first to the

202 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

heat of an argand lamp, and when the mass begins to agglutinate the crucible
should be closed and its cover tied down with platinum wire, then placed in
a Hessian crucible closed up also; the whole is placed upon an inverted
crucible and submitted to the action of the blast of a wind-furnace, begin-
ning first gradually with a red heat, piling on more coke, so as to fill up the
furnace, and increasing the heat to the highest possible pitch, until the Hes-
sian crucible begins to soften. It is absolutely necessary to the success of the
operation that the Hessian crucible should be closed as well as possible, which
is best done by luting the cover with fire-clay; the Hessian crucible and its .
cover, having fused together, can not be separated except by breaking, etc.”

It will be seen in reading this extract that the heat required
is not ordinarily at the command of most chemists; in fact, no
other variety of furnace than a Sefstroem can be depended on
for a complete decomposition.

10. Caustic lime and its salts have also been recommended
and long used for the more imperfect decomposition of silicates,
as for obtaining lithia from spodumene and lepidolite. Lime
or its carbonate, well mixed with many silicates finely pulver-
ized, will decompose them completely at a white heat, but no
one salt of lime is capable of meeting the demand of the entire
range of alkaline silicates. | |

11. In consideration of these difficulties Berzelius proposed
the use of hydrofluoric acid, and this method, when applied
with the numerous precautions required, will serve to decom-
pose all silicates; still, according to Rose, there are siliceous
compounds that can not be completely decomposed by hydro-
fluoric acid. Besides, this acid is a most disagreeable one to
. manipulate with, whether we employ Brunner’s apparatus or
Laurent’s method, or, what is always the best, the concentrated
acid previously prepared. I may also add that the necessity
of using sulphuric acid after the decomposition is made is
another objectionable feature in this process.

12. The above furnishes a hasty review of the methods we
are now possessed of for decomposing the silicates in order to
determine their alkalies; their merits can be contrasted with
those of the method about to be described.

13. The decomposing agent which I present as a substitute
for all others, and as capable of meeting the demands proposed
in the commencement of this article, is a mixture of carbonate
of lime and fluor-spar. |

14. Carbonate of lime I have used for more than six years

er ae

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. 203

for decomposing certain of the alkaline silicates, and more
successfully than carbonate of baryta; still in numerous in-
stances the decomposition was far from complete, and the
method unsatisfactory. Notwithstanding these failures, I felt
convinced that lime was the most powerful decomposing agent
that could be conveniently employed for this purpose, as it could
be used in its caustic state in a platinum crucible without in-

juring the latter, although exposed to the highest temperature.

When its carbonate is used a red heat sufficed to drive off the
carbonic acid and bring the mineral under the action of caustic
lime—a circumstance that does not take place with carbonate —
of baryta; and it is well that it does not, for otherwise the
platinum crucible would be seriously injured.

15. It was evident that the only obstacle in the way of lime
decomposing the silicates as thoroughly as caustic potash was
the impossibility of fusing the mixture, and thereby bringing
the pulverized mineral and lime intimately in contact. This
difficulty overcome, I felt confident of success. Without de-
tailing the various methods resorted to, it will suffice to state
that the object in view was to use some flux along with the
mixture of the silicate and lime, which would render the mix-
ture fluid at a bright red heat. The two substances which
recommend themselves after many experiments are the fluoride
and chloride of calcium, neither of which have any marked
decomposing action on the silicates; in fact, their action is
simply that of fluxes, which enable the lime and silicate to
come in contact in a liquid state, effecting nothing beyond
that. It is with the fluoride of calcium that we have to do in
this part of the paper, leaving the details on the use of the
chloride of calcium until further experiments are made to test
fairly its value. |

16. The manner in which I proceed is as follows: Pulverize
the silicate to a sufficient degree of fineness; it is not required
that the levigation be carried to any great extent; mix inti-
mately in a glazed porcelain mortar a weighed portion of the
mineral with one part of pure fluor-spar and four or five parts
of precipitated carbonate of lime ;* introduce it into a platinum

* The fluor-spar used is the transparent variety, free from all impurities.
It is easily and abundantly procured in this as well as in all other countries.
The carbonate of lime is made by dissolving calc-spar or pure marble in

204. - DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

crucible capable of holding three times the bulk of mixed pow-
der. The platinum crucible should then be placed in one of
earthenware, with a little magnesia on the bottom. (I always
prefer the crucible made in France, called Beaufay’s crucible, to
inclose platinum crucibles when heated in a furnace, as their
form and cleanliness make them superior to the Hessian crucible
for this purpose.) The crucible may then be covered and intro-
duced in any form of furnace where a bright red heat can be
procured.

17. I have been using a common open portable furnace,
heaping charcoal over the top of the crucible; and so easily
does the effect take place that in no instance has there been
a failure of complete decomposition with as simple a means
of heating as the above; and I have ascertained that an alco-
holic lamp with a large circular wick, such as Jackson’s lamp,
urged with a bellows, will answer for making a complete de-
composition of zircon in twenty-five minutes. This circum-
stance is not stated to recommend the use of a lamp for every
mineral decomposition when a simple portable furnace and
charcoal are so accessible, and their effects so much more to
be depended upon than a lamp. From thirty minutes to one
hour’s exposure to the heat is recommended.

18. It was an important point to test first how far this
mixture could decompose the silicates without distinction as
to their containing alkalies; for it was a very simple couclu-
sion that if those silicates most difficult of decomposition, and
containing no alkalies, were completely decomposed by this
process, all others must naturally give way under its action.
The silicates experimented on were zircon, kyanite, beryl, topaz,
spodumene, margarite, margarodite, and feldspars of different de-
scriptions. All were readily decomposed by the method just

hydrochloric acid (the common acid may be used), adding an‘excess of the
carbonate; lime-water or milk of lime is then poured on the solution until it
is alkaline. By this means any oxide of iron, alumina, or magnesia will be
thrown down. ‘To the hot filtered solution a solution of carbonate of ammonia
is added, and the precipitate washed several times with distilled water. It is
best to prepare one’s own carbonate of lime, for as a general rule little reli-
ance can be placed on the carbonates of lime, baryta, strontia, etc., sold as
being precipitated by carbonate of ammonia, for in more than one instance I
have found the carbonate of baryta, sold as a carbonate of ammonia precipi-
tate, to contain soda.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. 205

described, and without any particular care in levigating them.
One gramme of the zircon, for instance, after being crushed
in the diamond mortar, was rubbed up for fifteen minutes in
a large agate mortar, and used. Its complete decomposition
was not only shown by its solution in hydrochloric acid, but
by the amount of zirconia obtained, which was 64.8 per cent.,
with little iron. This concludes the first point to be consid-

‘ered in this article—namely, the means necessary to render

the silicates soluble. The next point is the separation of the
alkalies.

If, SEPARATION OF THE OTHER INGREDIENTS FROM THE ALKALIES.

19. The platinum crucible, with its fused contents, is laid
on its side in a capsule of platinum or porcelain. The latter
can be used with perfect safety to the accuracy of the result.
A quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into the cap-
sule, one part of acid to two of water. The whole is heated
over a lamp, when the contents of the crucible are. rapidly
dissolved out; the crucible is taken out and washed over the
capsule; the contents of the capsule are then evaporated to
dryness over a sand-bath; and, if thought necessary, it may be
completed over the lamp without danger of the spitting which ,
occurs in the soda fusion. This evaporation to dryness is not
absolutely necessary; but the advantage of it is that any great
excess of hydrochloric acid is got rid of, and the precipitate in
the next operation is less bulky than it otherwise would be.

20. To the dry mass a little hydrochloric acid is added, and
then three or four ounces of water, or more, as the occasion
may require It is then boiled for a short time in the same
capsule, allowed to cool down a little, and then a concentrated
solution of carbonate of ammonia is slowly added until there
is an excess of the same. The solution becomes at first quite
thick with the precipitate, but in a short time (especially with
a little warming over the lamp) the precipitate accumulates in
a more or less granular state, and afterward occupies less space
in the filter than the alumina it might contain (in a feldspar,
for instance) were this latter precipitated separately by am-
monia; and this circumstance is of much importance in dimin-
ishing the length of the operations and the amount of water
accumulated by filtering it from several precipitates.

206 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

21. It will be seen that thus far the operations have been
carried on in the capsule in which the fusion was dissolved.
The contents of the capsule are now thrown on a filter; but
before doing this it is well to pour on a little of the solution
of the carbonate of ammonia, and see if the clear part of the
liquid be rendered turbid; in other words, ascertain if sufficient
carbonate of ammonia had been originally added.

22. The solution that passes through the filter contains much.

sal ammoniace, the alkalies of the mineral, and a little lime. If
magnesia be one of the ingredients of the silicate examined,
some of this is also present; and in still rarer instances some
of the earths soluble in carbonate of ammonia. This latter
complicates in no degree the remaining steps in the analysis.
It is best to let the filtrate pass into a glass flask. The washings

- of the filter are collected in another vessel and concentrated to:

a small bulk, added to the first filtrate, and the whole boiled
for some time to drive off the carbonate of ammonia.* When
no great haste is required in the matter the whole filtrate (first
portions as well as the washings) are collected in a beaker and.
concentrated over a sand-bath. What remains now to do is to
separate from the alkalies the substances above alluded to. I
commence by getting rid of the sal ammoniac, and this brings
me to the third part of this paper.

Ill. THE REMOVAL OF THE SAL AMMONIAC UNAVOIDABLY ACCU-
MULATED IN THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS.

23. This is probably one of the greatest annoyances to the
analyst in his examination of minerals: first, from the manner
in which the salt creeps up the sides of the vessel in which
the evaporation to dryness is carried on; and secondly, from
the great difficulty of preventing loss of the chlorides of the
fixed alkalies during the volatilization of the sal ammoniac.
A better idea is formed of this by an experiment with a known
quantity of the alkalies mixed with sal ammoniac. An array
of the precautions requisite to be taken can be seen in Rose’s
last edition (German), pages 6 and 7. Owing to these difficul-
ties, which my experience has often led me to contend with,

* What remains in the filter is silica, alumina, fluoride of calcium, oxide
of iron, carbonate of lime, etc.

\

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. 207

the method about to be mentioned was contrived. It recom-
mends itself both on account of its simplicity and certainty
of operation. 74

24. Having some time back noticed the decomposing effect

produced by heating sal ammoniac with nitric acid, the nature

of the decomposition was investigated to see how far it could
be made use of to decompose entirely the sal ammoniac. The
result of the investigation was that the sal ammoniac could
be completely decomposed at a low temperature into gaseous
products, and it was immediately adopted in my analytical
process with the greatest satisfaction, both as to accuracy of
results as well as economy of labor.*

* Formation of almost pure Protoxide of Nitrogen by the action of Nitric
Acid on Sal Ammoniac.—The experiments made with the nitric acid heated
with sal ammoniac to test the character of the decomposition have resulted

in the discovery of a new method for procuring protoxide of nitrogen with

the aid of a very low temperature. Among the experiments the following
were quantitative. Two grammes of sal ammoniac were placed in a glass
flask, and half an ounce of nitric acid poured upon it; the flask was connected
with a small wash-bottle containing a little water, and from this latter a tube
passed into a pneumatic trough filled with hot water; heat was applied to
the flask, and before the temperature reached 140° Fah. a gas began to be
given off, and at 160° it came off rapidly, and continued to do so after the
lamp was withdrawn. A small amount of red fumes appeared in the flask
that were condensed in the wash-bottle. The gas that passed over was col-
lected in a receiver, and measured one thousand and eight cubic centimetres.
The gas smelt of chlorine. The flame of a candle burnt with an increased
brilliancy when introduced in it. The candle was reignited when extin-
guished if a burning coal remained on the end of the wick. No red fumes
were formed when it came in contact with the air, and the gas was absorb-
able by cold water. The properties were those of protoxide of nitrogen.
In another experiment the gases were collected at different stages of the
process, in vials over hot distilled water, and a solution of caustic potash
introduced and shaken up for some time. This latter was subsequently ana-
lyzed for the chlorine it absorbed, and in three different portions, collected
at the beginning, middle, and end of the process; the proportions of the
chlorine to the whole bulk of the gas were one fifty-seventh, one twenty-
ninth, and one sixteenth. The amount of protoxide of nitrogen due to the
ammonia in two grammes of sal ammoniac and its equivalent of nitric acid
is eight hundred and eighty-seven cubic centimetres. The gas freed from
chlorine, on being shaken up with cold water for some time, was found to
be almost entirely absorbed by the water. What remained was a mixture
of nitrogen and a little air. Some nitrous or hyponitrous acid forms during

208 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

25. The manner of proceeding is as follows: to the filtrate
and washings concentrated in the way mentioned (22), and
still remaining in the flask, pure nitric acid is added—about
three grammes of it to every gramme of sal ammoniac sup-
posed to exist in the liquid. A little habit will suffice to guide
one in adding the nitric acid, as even a large excess has no
effect on the accuracy of the analysis.

26. The flask is now warmed very gently, and before it
reaches the boiling-point of water a gaseous decomposition
will: take place with great rapidity. This is caused by the
decomposition of the sal ammoniac in the manner described
in the note. It is no advantage to push the decomposition
with too great rapidity. A moderately warm place on the
sand-bath is best adapted for this purpose. With proper pre-
cautions the heat can be continued and the contents of the
flask evaporated to dryness in that vessel; but it is more judi-
cious to pour the contents of the flask, after the liquid has
been reduced to half an ounce, into a porcelain capsule (always

the whole process if concentrated nitric be used. If, however, it be diluted,
little or none is formed, and the gas is readily given off at about 212° Fah.

In all my experiments the protoxide of nitrogen constituted from seven
eighths to twenty-four twenty-fifths of the gaseous products, and when
‘washed from its chlorine by a little lime-water or soda possessed all the
properties of pure protoxide of nitrogen; and I would recommend it as a
convenient way of forming this gas, especially when not required for
respiration.

The character of the decomposition which takes place is somewhat curious
and unexpected. At first I supposed that the decomposition resulted in the
formation of equal volumes of NO, Cl, and N; but it appears that such is
not the case, and that all but a very small portion of the ammonia, with its
equivalent of nitric acid, is converted into NO, the liberated hydrochloric
acid mixing with the excess of nitric acid. A little of the sal ammoniac
and nitric acid does undergo the decomposition first supposed, and in this
way only can the small amounts of chlorine and nitrogen be accounted for.
At the time this method was first tried I also tried the decomposing effects
of nitrate of ammonia on sal ammoniac, that has been shown by Mauméné
(Comptes Rendus, October 15, 1851) to result in the formation of chlorine
and nitrogen; but the difficulty of controlling the decomposition once com-
menced, the puffing-up of the mixture, and the necessity of having the salts
dry to begin with, render this method (which was proposed by the author
for forming chlorine) useless in processes for removing the sal ammoniac in
analysis.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. 209

preferring the Berlin porcelain) of about three and a half to
four inches diameter, inverting a clean funnel of smaller diam-
eter over it, and evaporating to dryness on the sand-bath or
over alamp. I prefer the latter, as at the end of the operation
the heat can be increased to four or five hundred degrees.

27. By this operation, which requires no superintendence,
one hundred grammes of sal ammoniac might be separated
as easily and safely as one gramme from five milligrammes
of alkalies, and no loss of the latter be experienced. What
remains in the capsule occupies a very small bulk. This is
now dissolved in the capsule with a little water (the funnel
must be washed with a little water), small quantities of a solu-
tion of carbonate of ammonia added, and the solution gently
evaporated nearly to dryness. This is done to separate what
little lime may have escaped the first action of the carbonate
of ammonia, or may have passed through the filter (22) in
solution in carbonic acid. If any of the earths soluble in car-
bonate of ammonia existed in the mineral, those now become
separated along with the lime.

28. A little more water is now added to the contents of the
capsule, and the whole thrown on a small filter ; ; the filtrate as
well as washings are received in a small porcelain capsule.
The liquid contains only the alkalies (as chlorides and nitrates),
mixed with a minute quantity of sal ammoniac. This is evapo-
rated to dryness over a water-bath, and then heated cautiously
over the lamp to drive off what sal ammoniac may have formed
(27), which is exceedingly minute if the process as pointed out
be closely adhered to. It is not absolutely necessary to heat
the capsule over the lamp to get rid of the sal ammoniac, for
the little sulphate of ammonia which may be formed in the
next step is easily removed in the final heating in a platinum
vessel.

29. On the contents of the capsule, as taken either from the

water-bath or as after being heated over the lamp, pure dilute
sulphuric acid is poured (1 part acid, 2 water), and the contents
boiled for a little time, when all the nitric acid and chlorine in
combination with the alkalies will be expelled ; the acid solu-
tion of the alkalies is now poured into a platinum capsule or
crucible, evaporated to dryness, and ignited. In order to in-
sure complete reduction of the bisulphates into the neutral

210 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

sulphates the usual method must be adopted of throwing some
pulverized carbonate of ammonia into the platinum capsule or
crucible, and covering it up so as to have an ammoniacal
atmosphere around the salt, which will insure the volatilization
of the last traces of free sulphuric acid. The alkalies are now
in the state of pure sulphates, and may be weighed as such.
The manner of separating the alkalies from each other will be
mentioned further on.

30. Thus far the mineral has been supposed to contain no
magnesia. If this alkaline earth be present, we take the res-
idue as found in the capsule (26), dissolve it in a little water,
then add sufficient pure lime-water* to render the solution
alkaline ; boil and filter; the magnesia will in this simple way
be separated from the alkalies. The solution which has passed
through the filter is treated with carbonate of ammonia in the
manner alluded to (27), and the process continued and com-
pleted as described (28, 29).

Summary.—Fuse one part of mineral with one of fluoride
of calcium and four to five of carbonate of lime; dissolve out
the contents of the crucible with hydrochloric acid ; evaporate
to dryness and redissolve; precipitate with carbonate of am-
monia; filter, boil, and concentrate the filtrate; add nitric
acid; heat and evaporate to dryness; dissolve the dry mass in
a little water and treat with carbonate of ammonia; filter and
concentrate; then add sulphuric acid; boil for a little while;
pour in a platinum crucible, evaporate to dryness, and ignite.
If magnesia be present, treat with lime-water prior to the last
application of carbonate of ammonia.

CONVERSION OF THE SULPHATES INTO CHLORIDES.

31. In continuation of the subject, the next point to be con-
sidered is the conversion of the sulphates of the alkalies into
chlorides. The method ordinarily adopted to accomplish this
change is to precipitate the sulphuric acid by means of chloride
of barium, care’ being taken to avoid the slightest excess of the

* Tf lime-water be made, it is well to make it of lime of the best quality,
and the first two or three portions of distilled water shaken up should be
thrown away as containing the small amount of alkalies sometimes present
in lime.

Ki is
~

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. adil

latter. The annoyance attendant upon this exact precipitation
is familiar to all who may have had occasion to make the trial.

32. Instead of the chloride of barium the acetate of lead is
used; a solution of this salt is poured in excess upon the so-
lution of sulphates; warming the latter slightly, the sulphate
of lead readily separates; the whole can be immediately thrown
on a filter and washed.. A drop or two of the acetate of lead
should be added to the filtrate to insure there being an excess
of the lead-salt.

33. The filtrate is then warmed and sulpureted hydrogen
added ; care must ke taken to see that there is an excess of sul-
phureted hydrogen, a test most readily performed by means
of a piece of lead-paper. The lquid is thrown on a filter to
separate the sulphuret of lead; the filtrate containing the
alkalies as acetates is evaporated, and when nearly dry an
excess of hydrochloric acid is added, and the whole evaporated
to dryness over a water-bath, and finally heated to above 500°.
A hot solution of the chloride of lead can be used instead of
the acetate, rendering the addition of hydrochloric acid un-
necessary.

34. It needs but little experience to convince one of the
superiority of this method over that by the chloride of barium
for converting the sulphates into the chlorides, its principal
recommendation being the indifference with which an excess
of the lead-salt can be added to precipitate the sulphuric acid,
and the subsequent facility with which that excess of lead can
be got rid of. It may be well to state that experiments were
made to prove the perfect precipitation of the sulphuric acid
from the sulphates of the alkalies by the salts of lead, and it is
only after numerous comparative results that it is now recom-
mended.

To DISTINGUISH THE ALKALIES FROM EACH OTHER WHEN MIXEp.

35. To distinguish potash, soda, and lithia when mixed is
attended with more or less difficulty, according to the propor-
tions in which they are mixed; of the three, potash is the most
easily recognized, next in order is soda, and lastly lithia; the
presence of which, mixed in small amount with proportionally
large quantities of the other alkalies, it is almost impossible to
decide on with any accuracy without direct separation.

2 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

36. In the analysis of many minerals, the characters of which
lead to the supposition of the presence of the alkalies, it is
useless to precede the quantitative determination by one of a
qualitative character, especially as the steps to be followed to
separate the alkalies are the same in both cases, and to proceed
in this way is economy of time. From my own experience
concerning the constitution of the silicates there are doubtless
but a very few of them without an appreciable quantity of al-
kalies in their constitution; and an easy method to examine
with certainty the composition of such small quantities of al-
kaline chlorides must add to our analytical knowledge. With
a little experience the method about to be described will be
found very available.

37. To ascertain the nature of the alkalies present in the
chlorides before proceeding to separate them we abstract a
quantity so small as not sensibly to affect the weight of the
mass. The smallest piece of the dried mass, that need not
exceed one fiftieth of an inch in diameter, is placed on a slip.
of glass, and to it is added a drop of a watery solution of very
pure chloride of platinum,*
not too concentrated, and the
plate gently warmed; if pot-
ash be present, a yellow de-
posit soon takes place, which
by the microscope will be
seen to consist of octahedral
crystals of the double chloride
of potash and platinum; the
evaporation should be con-
tinued very gently with a
heat not exceeding 120° to
130° until the liquid begins -
to dry on the edge; if this be now examined under the micro-
scope and soda be present, beautiful needle-shaped crystals will
be seen, both formed and forming, with an oblique angle of
termination, the crystals frequently having re-entering angles,
as represented in the figure. The border of liquid on the glass
is the place to observe these crystals, and that while the pro-

* The alcoholic solution does not give perfect results and should not |
be used.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. 213

cess of drying is going on. When the amount of soda is very
small it is best to allow the solution on the glass to dry in the
slowest possible manner. Should the quantity of soda be still
smaller or the nature of the crystals doubtful, resort may be had
to polarized hght, when the prismatic crystals of chloride of
platinum and sodium will be at once rendered visible by their
beautiful colors, as they possess polarizing properties, whereas
the crystals of chloride of platinum and potassium, besides dif-
fering in form, do not polarize hght.

38. This method of detecting a small quantity of soda in the
presence of potash I have employed since June, 1850, while
engaged in the examination of the collection of urinary calculi

‘belonging to the Dupeytren Museum at Paris; at that time it
was employed daily in the laboratory of Messrs. Wurtz and
Verdeil; the special reason for devising it was to examine the
nature of the trace of alkali almost invariably found in the uric
acid calculi after combustion.

39. The reason for making special reference to the date of the
original employment of this method is to claim priority in its use,
as Mr. Andrews announces it in a late number of the Chemical
Gazette asanew method. Were not the method so well known
and so constantly employed in the laboratory of Wurtz and
Verdeil at the period above mentioned, I should not now set
up any reclamation in the matter.

40. The amount of soda that can thus be detected is ex-
ceedingly small, as the liquid can be concentrated to the very
smallest bulk. When the amount of potash is proportionally
large compared with that of the soda it is better to put the
chloride of platinum in a drop of the solution of the alkaline
chlorides placed in a watch-glass, allow the potash-salt to settle,
take a little of the clear liquid, place it on a slip of glass, evap-
orate slowly, and examine in the way already mentioned.
We should avoid the use of alcohol as a solvent for the salts
employed.

41. For the full appreciation of this method it requires some
experience, and on first trials the extreme results will not be
readily obtained; too much care can not be taken with refer-
ence to the evaporation; sometimes, if the evaporation be a
little too speedy, no indication of the presence of soda will be
evinced; so in all doubtful instances the glass should be la‘d aside

15

214 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

for an hour or two, when the excess of the chloride of platinum
will attract moisture from the air and afford an opportunity for
the chloride of platinum and soda to crystallize regularly. For
the most perfect success in very minute quantities of soda too
great an excess of chloride of platinum should be avoided.
Those engaged in mineral analysis, who will employ this means
of detecting the presence of the alkali, will find it of great
assistance in facilitating their labors, especially when directed
to very minute accuracy in their results, for I have reason to °
believe it rare to find in minerals any one of the alkalies per-
fectly free from one of the others.

42. When the chloride of lithium is present it interferes
materially with this method of detecting small amounts of
soda; for, owing to its very deliquescent nature, it abstracts
moisture from the air, and dissolves the double chloride of so-
dium and platinum, or prevents altogether its formation into
recognizable crystals. These investigations have not added
any thing to what is already known concerning the detection
of lithia mixed with soda and potash; the plan invariably
adopted is to treat the mixed chlorides with a solution of
alcohol and ether, and examine the part dissolved by the blow-
pipe. Details as to the manner of using the alcohol and ether
solution are given under the next head.

SEPARATION OF THE ALKALIES FROM EACH OTHER.

43. Under this head I have nothing to add to what is already
known on the subject. It may be well, however, to mention
the manner in which Rammelsberg’s method of separating
lithia has been employed, as it has not yet been fairly tested
in this country. His method, it is well known, is based on the
solubility of the chloride of lithium in a mixture of equal parts
of absolute alcohol and ether, neither of the other chlorides
being dissolved by this menstruum. <A number of experiments
were made on known quantities of the alkalies, and the results
of some of them are as follows:

(a) Five hundred milligrammes of chloride of potassium
treated with the mixture of ether and alcohol, ten grammes
of the latter being used, yielded only three tenths of a milli-
gramme to the liquid. |

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. 215

(b) Five hundred milligrammes of chloride of sodium treated
in the same way yielded one half of a milligramme to the liquid.

(c) A mixture of chlorides of potassium, sodium, and lithium,
-in which the latter constituted two per cent. of the mass, was
acted on by the ether and alcohol, filtered and evaporated to
dryness; the residue was equal to 2.53 per cent. The quantity
used was Cl K and Cl Na each 200 milligrammes, Cl Li 0.8
milligramme.

(d) A similar mixture containing 18.10 per cent. of chloride
of lithium furnished a residue of 17.65 per cent.

(e) A similar mixture containing 67.20 per cent. of chloride
of lithium gave a residue of 68.40.

44. By these results it may be seen that this method of sep-
arating lithia from the other alkalies may be perfectly relied
on. It only remains to detail the precautions to be taken in
order to insure accurate results.

45. The solution of alcohol and ether must be made of abso-
lute alcohol mixed with its volume of pure ether. The chlorides
must be dried thoroughly at 212° or a little above; if they have
at any time been heated much higher, a drop or two of hydro-
chloric acid must be added to the chlorides, that are subsequently
dried at the temperature just mentioned. The desiccation is
best carried on in a small-sized capsule. To the dry mass a
small quantity of the mixture of alcohol and ether is added
and stirred with a small glass rod; the chlorides soon disinte-
grate; the capsule and-its contents are placed on a glass plate
and covered with a small bell-glass (a common tumbler answers
the purpose very well, especially if the edge be ground); this
is left to digest for twenty-four hours, and then thrown on a
filter and washed with the alcohol-ether solution; the chlorides
of sodium and potassium remain on the filter. These last can
be dissolved off the filter by means of water, and separated in
the ordinary way.

46. The alcohol-ether solution of chloride of lithium is evap-
orated to dryness, converted into sulphate, and weighed. The
results thus obtained far exceed in accuracy those of any other
method for separating lithia. The indirect method, by ascer-
taining the quantity of sulphuric acid contained in the mixed
sulphates, is the next best, but like all indirect methods of an-
alysis should never be employed except when it is absolutely
necessary.

216 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

47. When the alkalies are presented in the form of chlorides
before their quantity has been estimated in some other form it
is best to proceed first to the separation of lthia, afterward
weigh the chlorides not dissolved by the alcohol-ether, and lastly
separate the potash-chloride from the soda-chloride, if both be
present, by means of the bichloride of platinum. Experiments
were made with a mixture of alcohol and chloroform, the re-
sults of which were not as satisfactory as those afforded by the
alcohol-ether.

SUBSTITUTION OF ©HLORIDE OF AMMONIUM FOR FLUORIDE OF
CALCIUM, TO MIX WITH CARBONATE OF LIME TO DECOMPOSE
THE SILICATES.

48, It was mentioned in the previous paper on this subject
how carbonate of lime could be rendered as powerful in its
decomposing agency on the silicates as caustic potash, the
effect being due to the use of some flux, fluoride and chloride
of calcium being used for that purpose. I have since tested
more carefully the merits of the chloride of calcium, and for
various reasons prefer it to the exclusion of the fluoride. In
the first place, it introduces chlorine instead of fluorine into
the analysis; and secondly, the fusion is more easily detached
from the crucible and dissolved by hydrochloric acid.

49. The manner of introducing the chloride of calcium into
the mixture of mineral and carbonate of lime was a point of
some little importance, as from the deliquescent nature of that
compound it was inconvenient to weigh and mix it with the
carbonate of lime and mineral. These difficulties are obviated
by employing chloride of ammonium to form indirectly the
chloride of calcium. |

50. The process, which appears to leave hardly any thing to
desire, is to take one part of the finely-pulverized mineral, five to
six of carbonate of lime, and one half to three fourths of chloride
of ammonium,* mix them intimately in a glazed mortar, intro-

*The chloride of ammonium is best obtained in a pulverulent condition
by dissolving some of the salt in hot water and evaporating rapidly; the
greater portion of the chloride of ammonium will deposit itself in a pulver-
ulent condition; the water is poured off, and the salt thrown on bibulous paper
allowed to dry; the final desiccation being carried on in a water-bath, or in
any other way with a corresponding temperature.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. yey

duce the mixture in a platinum crucible, heat to bright redness
in a furnace* from thirty to forty minutes.

51. There is no silicate which after having undergone this
‘process is not easily dissolved by hydrochloric acid. For the
action of the lime to have been complete it is not necessary that
the mass should have settled down in a perfect fusion. The con-
tents of the crucible are dissolved, and the analysis continued
as pointed out in 19, 20, 21, ete.

52. This method insures the obtaining of every particle
of the alkalies in the mineral examined, requiring no more
precaution than any good analyst is expected to take in the
simplest of his processes, and not the least of the advantages is
the ready method of separating all the other ingredients and
the small accumulation of water arising from the little washing
necessary. ’

A MORE SPEEDY METHOD OF SEPARATING THE ALKALIES DIRECTLY
FROM THE Lime FUSION FOR BOTH QUALITATIVE AND QUANTI-
TATIVE DETERMINATION.

53. As soon as the fusion with carbonate of lime and sal
ammoniac gave evidence of the mineral being so thoroughly
attacked, the question naturally arose as to the condition the
alkalies were in after the fusion, and the possibility of dis-
solving them out by the agency of water alone, at least for
the purpose of qualitative determination. Hxperiments directed
to this object soon made it evident that the alkalies might be
obtained from any silicate without resorting to the use of acid
as a solvent for the fusion.

54. The mass as it comes from the Ae aie. is placed in a
capsule with water, and then heated in a sand-bath or over
a lamp for two or three hours, renewing the water from time
to time as it evaporates. The mass disintegrates very shortly
after being placed in the water. The contents of the capsule
are next thrown on a filter, and the water passes through con-
taining the chloride of the alkalies, a little chloride of calcium
and caustic lime. All else that the mineral may have contained

* An ordinary portable furnace with a conical sheet-iron cap from two to
three feet high answers the purpose perfectly well, all the requisite heat
being afforded by it.

218. DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

remains on the filter, except baryta and strontia, if they be
present in the mineral; but as these oxides are of rare occur-
rence in silicates no allusion will be made to them here. .

55. To the filtrate add carbonate of ammonia, and boil for
some time, when all the lime will be precipitated as carbonate ;
add a few drops of a solution of carbonate of ammonia to the
hot solution, to be sure that all the lime is precipitated. Should
this be the case, filter; the filtrate will contain the chlorides
of the alkalies and chloride of ammonium. It is evaporated
to dryness over a water-bath in a small platinum capsule; the
capsule is carefully heated to expel the sal ammoniac, and
finally warmed up to 700 or 800° F. It is then weighted with
its contents, and the chlorides, if mixed, separated in the way
mentioned (45 and 46). The amount of sal ammoniac to be
expelled is quite small, not equaling the weight ‘of mineral
originally employed.

56. Nothing in analysis can be simpler or more speedy than
this process. Its constant accuracy still lacked some little to
render it perfect, as usually an amount of alkali remains be-
hind, represented by from two tenths to one per cent. of the
mineral used; certainly a small amount, but still too much to
be omitted in an accurate analysis. This also must be arrived
at, and it can be accomplished in the following manner.

57. After the fused mass has been treated with water filtered
and washed as in 54, the filter and its contents are dried; the
latter are detached from the filter and rubbed up in a glazed
mortar with an amount of sal ammoniac equal to one half the
- weight of the mineral, and reheated in a platinum crucible
exactly as in the first instance, treated with water, thrown on
a filter and washed, the filtrate added to that from the first
fusion, the whole treated with carbonate of ammonia, and com-
pleted as in 55.

58. This second fusion complicates the method but little,
as the residue on the filter readily dries in a water-bath into
a powder that is easily detached from the filter, and the small
portion adhering to the latter may be disregarded, as the alka-
lies remaining rarely exceed more than one five-hundredth
of the whole mass, and in most instances not more than one
thousandth. In many analyses made one fusion. sufficed for
the entire extraction of the alkalies; but as a few tenths would

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. 219

occasionally remain behind, we preferred the additional fusion
to get at that small quantity, and to entitle it to rank as a
method by which all but the merest trace of the alkalies could
be extracted from the insoluble silicates.

59. The proportion of sal ammoniac added to the carbonate «
of lime as here recommended is arrived at after numerous
experiments. By increasing the sal ammoniac, and thereby
augmenting the amount of chloride of calcium formed, the
mass fuses more thoroughly, but the water does not disinte-
grate it as completely as when the ammoniacal salt is less;
also the accumulation of this latter at the end of the process
is less, an object not to be disregarded. The advantage of thus
estimating the alkalies in insoluble silicates is obvious. The
long routine of separating silica, alumina, lime, etc., is done
away with; the accumulation of chloride of ammonium is very
trifling; and lastly, the alkalies are obtained directly in the

_form of chlorides. The method will vie in accuracy with any

other, including the one already mentioned in the first part
of this paper; and at the same time it is unequaled in simpli-
city, speed of execution, and constancy of results.

60. In examining for alkalies qualitatively, one fusion will
of course be all that is necessary, and the action of the water
need not be continued more than thirty minutes before filtering.
This method answers even when boracic acid is present in the
silicate. The manner of proceeding in such a case will be
mentioned in a future paper on the determination of boracic
acid in mirferals.

61. There is nothing new in the attempt to dissolve out the
alkalies by water from a silicate that had been heated with
lime. M. Fuchs used the method for procuring lithia from
lepidolite; but of course his efforts were entirely directed to
procuring the lithia from the mineral, and not to estimating
its quantity, as the method he followed could not have furnished
such results. I have also lately learned that Mr. A. A. Hayes,
of Boston, proposed. and employed a mixture of chloride of
calcium and caustic lime to decompose alkaline silicates, heat-
ing over a lamp, and subsequently treating the mass with
water to extract the alkalies or chlorides. As little has been

heard of this process, I presume the author found it defective.

If we are correctly informed, the proportions used were three

220 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS.

parts of chloride of calcium and one of caustic lime. Expe-
rience proves that, however readily such a mixture may reduce
. the feldspars, it fails when tried on kyanite, zircon, micas, and
other silicates difficult of decomposition. This arises from
the fact that the chloride of calcium has but little decom-
posing effect on the silicates, its action being simply that of
a menstruum in which the lime can act conveniently on the
mineral.

62. The use of lime or its carbonate mixed with chloride of
calcium or chloride of ammonium, for the purpose of effecting
the decompositions alluded to, would be considered by me of
questionable utility if the mixture were not so proportioned
and employed as to decompose the most difficult silicates, if
necessary; for unless this. be done we can at no time be cer-
tain that the decomposition is complete. As a general rule
for decomposing silicates by lime or soda, it is far better to
use a charcoal fire than the flame of a lamp, as it is better to .
heat too high than not to heat sufficiently the mineral to be
acted on.

COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF AN INSOLUBLE SILICATE ON ONE PORTION
OF THE MINERAL.

63. The effort to accomplish an analysis of this description
deserves no encouragement, from the almost invariable inaccu-
racy attending the results. If we havea given quantity of any
one of the silicates alluded to requiring analysis, we had better
subdivide it, however small the entire quantity may be, ascer-
tain one set of ingredients by the soda and the other by the
lime fusion; for the results thus obtained may be relied on as
more accurate than those furnished by an analysis of the whole
quantity through the agency of baryta or hydrofluoric acid.

64. Should it be desired to undertake the analysis on a single
portion, I would recommend the silicate to be attacked with
carbonate of baryta mixed with the chloride—three to four parts
of carbonate and two of chloride. This mixture can be made
to decompose all silicates at a much lower temperature than
when the carbonate alone is used, but its action is not near so
powerful as the carbonate of lime and sal ammoniac.

65. This terminates an account of my labors in the deter-
mination of the alkalies in insoluble silicates. The conclusions

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN MINERALS. Weft \|

have been arrived at from more than two years’ experience
and over.a hundred alkali determinations by myself and others
made.on minerals of the most varied composition. In my
laboratory an accurate alkali determination is one of the most
simple and speedy analytical processes now conducted, and

the presence of magnesia in no degree complicates the result.

A little experience will no doubt bring others to the same
conclusions. Many singular decompositions of salts have been
noticed in the course of these researches; but as they do not
bear directly on the object of this article they will be made
known on another occasion.

Many analytical processes mentioned in this article can be
applied when operating on soluble silicates.

CONVERSION OF THE SULPHATES OF THE
ALKALIES

INTO THE CARBONATES, TARTRATES, &c., IN THE
MOIST WAY. .

Having had occasion more than once to convert small
quantities of the sulphates of the alkalies into carbonates, I
have for several years employed a process that has been found
both certain and convenient; in some recent investigations it
has been used, and as it has never been described it may not
be unimportant to explain the nature of the process and its
results. The agent used to produce the conversion is carbonate
of baryta, made by precipitation; where precise results are
required the carbonate should be prepared by carbonate of
ammonia. The manner of producing the decomposition is as
follows: Dissolve the sulphate of potash in water, using about
twenty or thirty grammes of water to every gramme of the
sulphate, and saturate the solution with carbonic acid by
passing a current of carbonic acid into it; or, what is better,
dissolve in the beginning the sulphate in water already satu-
rated with carbonic acid; now add to this solution precipitated
carbonate of baryta, in the proportion of about one and a half
of the carbonate to one part of the sulphate. It is always best
in adding the carbonate to rub it up in a mortar with a little
water, so as to form a thick cream, for by so doing it mixes
well in the solution.

This operation is performed in a bottle that can be well
corked with a cork or gum stopper; now agitate the bottle
frequently, or, what is still better, attach it to a piece of ma-
chinery that will agitate the bottle. Many laboratories have.
such, and it is a very useful one in many experiments. In
a longer or shorter space of time the decomposition will be
completed; pour the solution into a capsule and heat to the

CONVERSION OF THE SULPHATES OF THE ALKALIES. 223

boiling-point; the solution will then contain only carbonate
of potash. |

The reaction is readily understood; the carbonic acid in the
water dissolves a little carbonate of baryta, which is imme-
diately precipitated in the form of sulphate, carrying down
a portion of the sulphuric acid of the soluble sulphate, and
replacing the same with carbonic acid; this is rapidly repeated
through the agency of the free carbonic acid, until the decom-
position of the sulphate is complete.

Among many experimental results I will give the following:
Five grammes of the sulphate of potash dissolved in carbonic-
acid water, to which was added seven grammes of precipitated
carbonate of baryta, after four and a half hours’ shaking (being
attached to a suitable piece of machinery), on testing showed
not a trace of sulphuric acid, care being taken to wipe the neck
of the bottle near the end of the stopper before pouring out the
liquid.

Other experiments, varying in proportion, gave similar re-
sults. I tried to. substitute the natural for the precipitated
carbonate of baryta, but with very unsatisfactory results.

DIRECTIONS FOR CONVERSION OF THE ALKALINE SULPHATES INTO
TARTRATES, OXALATES, ETC.

As the tartrate and oxalates of baryta are but very slightly
soluble in water, we can not form the alkaline salts of these acids
by direct double decomposition of the sulphates of the alkalies
and the tartrate, etc., of baryta, as in forming the alkaline chlo-
rides from the sulphates; but it is easily done by the following
indirect process.

Add to the alkaline sulphates in solution, in a porcelain
capsule, carbonate of baryta rubbed up into a thick cream in
the proportion of about five of the sulphate to seven of the
carbonate of baryta; heat the mass and add little by little the
requisite quantity of tartaric or oxalic acid; solution of the
baryta and precipitation of the sulphuric acid take place rap-
idly, and the decomposition is soon completed.

I have used this process in forming the bitartrates in the
process of separating potassium, rubidium, and cesium, that
were in the form of sulphates.

224 CONVERSION OF THE SULPHATES OF THE ALKALIES.

The carbonates of the alkalies can also be formed by first
forming these organic salts from the sulphates, evaporating
the solution to dryness and burning the residue; in fact, I fre-
quently find it more convenient to convert the sulphates of the
alkalies into their carbonates by this last instead of the first
process. And finally I would remark that where magnesia
is present with the sulphates this is also separated from the
alkalies.

ACTION OF SOME OF THE ALKALINE SALTS
UPON THE SULPHATE OF LEAD.

It has been for some time known that certain neutral salts
possess the property of dissolving to some extent the sulphate
of lead, which properly belongs neither to the acids nor bases
constituting these salts. By referring to Berzelius’ Chemistry
it will be found that the acetate and nitrate of ammonia are
among the number. ‘One part of the sulphate was dissolved
in 47 parts of a solution of the acetate of specific gravity 1.036,
and in 172 parts of a solution of the nitrate of specific gravity
1.144.” In the Annalen der Chem. und Phar. (vol. xxxiv, 235)
will be found the following statement under the head of Reac-
tionen: ‘Sulphate of lead is easily dissolved, and in a large
quantity, by a solution of neutral tartrate of ammonia; a con-
centrated solution forms after some time a stiff jelly like silica.”
This last is no doubt a double tartrate of lead and ammonia.

I had also observed some time previously that a solution
of the citrate of ammonia, when poured upon the sulphate
of lead and allowed to stand, altered the character of the sul-
phate, and this, with the other fact above stated, led to the
examination of what was really the action of these as well as
other ammoniacal salts in general upon the sulphate in ques-
tion, and it was found that in every case it was decomposed.

Citrate of ammonia.—If a solution of citrate of ammonia be
poured upon the sulphate of lead and shaken together, the clear
solution will be found to contain the sulphate of lead, as shown
by hydrosulphuric acid, and a salt of baryta (taking care in
testing with the baryta to acidulate first with pure nitric acid,
to prevent the formation of the citrate of baryta.) If they be
allowed to remain several weeks in contact, the solution will be
' found to contain more lead, the sulphate having undergone
decomposition, sulphate of ammonia and a double citrate being
the result; as this latter salt is not very soluble, a large portion
of it remains in the form of a precipitate. The rapidity of this

226 ACTION OF SOME OF THE ALKALINE SALTS.

change is in proportion to the concentration of the solution
of the citrate. If instead of performing the experiment in the
cold we boil a tolerably concentrated solution of the citrate
with the sulphate of lead, a very large quantity of the latter
will be dissolved, and the solution become perfectly transpa-
rent; if it be set aside and allowed to cool, in the course of a.
few hours an abundant white precipitate will be formed, and
upon testing the clear solution sulphuric acid, ammonia, citric
acid, and oxide of lead will be found present. The precipitate
when washed affords citrate of lead and ammonia. I was at
first inclined to think it simply a citrate of lead, attributing
the ammonia present to some of the citrate not washed out;
but from itS possessing certain characters which do not belong
to the simple citrate I consider it a double citrate of lead and
ammonia. It contains not the slightest trace of sulphuric acid.
It was not analyzed, from the difficulty of obtaining it perfectly
pure, as the water used to wash it decomposes it, and as yet
this difficulty has not been surmounted. So then the result
of the action of the citrate of ammonia upon the sulphate of
lead is first to dissolve it, and subsequently to decompose it,
forming the sulphate of ammonia and citrate of lead and
ammonia.

Tartrate of ammonia —If a solution of this salt be added to
the sulphate of lead and shaken with it in the cold, the clear
solution will be found to contain both lead and sulphuric acid,
and if set aside for a few weeks the precipitate will have changed
its character, having assumed a crystalline nature; the solution
will no longer contain lead, but the quantity of sulphuric acid
present will be found to have increased. The precipitate now
consists of tartrate instead of sulphate of lead, which is com-
pletely soluble in dilute nitric acid, affording no precipitate
with a salt of baryta. If the mixture of the tartrate and sul-
phate be boiled, this change takes place more rapidly and in a
manner somewhat different from the case of the citrate; the
sulphate will not be dissolved in such large quantities, and
moreover, by continuing to boil the solution after the sulphate
has been completely dissolved, the tartrate forms during the
ebullition and is precipitated in little shining crystals. If the
ebullition be continued .a sufficient length of time, the whole
of the lead previously dissolved will combine with the tartaric

ACTION OF SOME OF THE ALKALINE SALTS. D5

acid. This is different from what takes place with the citrate,
which when boiled upon the lead-salt dissolves it, and no length
of ebullition will produce a precipitate. The action of the
tartrate is first to dissolve the sulphate, decompose it in part.
and form a double tartrate of lead and ammonia, which last
salt is subsequently decomposed by continued contact with
water, or still more rapidly by its solution being boiled.

Acetate of ammonia.—This salt also‘dissolves to some extent
the sulphate of lead, but not so readily as either of the above
salts. If the solution be boiled and evaporated to dryness.
erystals of sulphate of ammonia are obtained, and an uncrys-
tallizable salt of lead, probably an acetate of lead and ammonia;
from the difficulty of separating the sulphate of ammonia from
it, it is impossible to pronounce positively whether it is a double
salt or simply an acetate of lead. We see in this reaction the
existence of a soluble salt of lead and the sulphate of ammonia
_ simultaneously in the same solution, without a precipitate being
formed.

Oxalate of ammonia dissolves but slightly the sulphate of
lead, owing no doubt to the impossibility of forming a double
salt; but it will nevertheless cone largely, the sulphate
Panichins the oxalate of lead.

Muriate of ammonia, if boiled with the sulphate of lead, will
decompose it ingens furnishing ue chloride of lead nad sul-
phate of ammonia.

The nitrate of ammonia does the same, forming nitrate of lead
and sulphate of ammonia.

The carbonate and succinate of ammonia produce similar
effects.

The action of most of the corresponding salts of potash and
soda was examined, and with very similar results. The fact is
it would appear that those alkaline salts which dissolve the
sulphate of lead decompose it without reference to the time
occupied in the solution, as in the case of the carbonate of am-
monia, which decomposes the sulphate at the very instant of its
solution; and it is impossible to detect at any one time other
than a trace of lead in solution, whereas the Qe many of sul-
phurie acid is constantly increasing.

The explanation is clear: the sulphate of lead is a salt with
a strong acid and feeble base; the alkaline salts used contain

228 ACTION OF SOME OF THE ALKALINE SALTS.

feebler acids and stronger bases; they dissolve the sulphate,

thus affording an opportunity for the acids and bases to act

upon one another under favorable circumstances, and to follow
a natural law in chemistry: the stronger acid combined with
the stronger bases, and vice versa.

From the foregoing facts some important hints might be
afforded to analytical chemistry, for it will be at once seen that
‘the presence of any of the alkaline salts in a solution from
which it might be wished to precipitate lead in the form of a
sulphate would affect the accuracy of the result. What is true
of the sulphate of lead may be found also true for other in-
soluble salts. Moreover, this,shows the importance—in the
analysis of mineral waters, for instance—of weighing well the
relative strength of the various acids and bases therein found,
in order to ascertain what salts are present, and not to be con-
tented with evaporating the water to dryness, and considering
such salts as remain to be those existing in the water, for many
of them may be formed during the evaporation. It is not at
all improbable that before many years the examination of min-
eral waters will .be based as much upon calculation as upon
analysis, the former of course being guided by the latter and
by certain laws not yet developed.

es

COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF DISTILLA-
TION OF SPERMACETI,

WITH SOME FEW REMARKS UPON ITS OXIDATION
BY NITRIC ACID.

Of all the fatty bodies that have been examined there is
perhaps not one whose composition has been so imperfectly
arrived at as that of spermaceti, and it is a little remarkable
that Chevreul, with the accuracy which distinguishes his re-
searches upon the fats, should not have ascertained more nearly
its true composition.

Chevreul made the examination of spermaceti in the same
way as he did that of other fatty bodies, by digesting it with a
solution of an alkali, and examining the products that combined
with the alkali and those that did not. Im the case of sperma-
' ceti he obtained a solid substance that did not combine with
either soda or potash, resembling strongly in its external char-
acters the fats, and upon analysis with bioxide of copper gave

(OP TDOUL CBee ge ttob scongnbcdibed. conch SaBenBe Sac Bnac AEP BSOnEDnE D Ceaan 79.76
JEG IRC BGI srostcd- cocsodnddocco do acEsecee See BC nUDe abr aaUCopHe 13.95
(DSATB EID, spccnauobr. dob onecHE St oto, oBseDnbe pede E duce JucenporaGeene 6.29

100.00

From this he calculated its formula (C32 H33; O+HO), and
this substance he called, from some peculiarities in its compo-
sition when compared with that of alcohol and of ether, athal,
or rather hydrated athal.

That part of the spermaceti which combined with the potash
Chevreul considered to be composed of margaric and oleic
acids, without apparently any strong grounds for so doing. He
gives us no analyses of these acids, and the following is all that
is said concerning them:

“The margaric acid of spermaceti is fusible at from 131°
to 132° Fah., crystallizes in little radiating needles, is insipid
and inodorous ; at 140° Fah. it dissolves in all proportions in
alcohol of 0.820, the solution reddening strongly litmus.

16

230 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

“T treated the margarate of potash with alcohol to see if I
could obtain margaric acid fusible at 140° Fah. I submitted
a portion of the same salt to five successive treatments, and
obtained, first, a portion of the salt whose acid was fusible
at 113° Fah.; and secondly, a portion whose acid was fusible
at 132° Fah. This last portion, treated again six times with
alcohol, gave, first, an acid fusible at 131° Fah.; and secondly,
an acid fusible at 122° Fah. From this I conclude that it is
margaric and not stearic acid which manifests itself in the
saponification of spermaceti.”

Chevreul gives the following analyses of the salts of this
acid, to which I have affixed the atomic weight of the acid that
each indicates, and which differ considerably one from the
other.

Salt. Atomic weight of acid.
Potash-salt ......... Lee seca 7 eae Soaoo! 265.12
Barytarsaltioneme{ Base. ci ang free 216.86
Strontia-sltwrnee { Base. oT 20.36 fr 255.02
Lead-salt bibasiew {pice 0 TTT Tap00 fee 26240

What was considered to be oleic acid could not be entirely
separated from the supposed margaric acid, and consequently
it was impossible for Chevreul to study accurately its prop-
erties.

The elementary analysis of spermaceti, according to Chev-
reul, is

(CRNA DOT cstadbadosn0s06 Sbodbodtenonecode oss dengan dogsnonsdonscdsods 81.66

Te FCW OY REN ep jgoonncn ane coces + pajosce6 n-ss00"=h Scodecae Re dcasa9 12.86

LOS (S100 PBR NB Pee BEA Baer OLIN SE NCHaGnccrcdoaatrscensamemar itso = 5.48 \
100.00

Dumas and Peligot, considering the base of spermaceti to be
athal, and its acids margaric and oleic, have proposed the fol-
lowing formula. |

S ( 2 ats. margarate { 2 ats. margaric acid..(C34 H3z O3 )2

@ 8 & ;

S | of athal. 2 atoms athal.......... (C32 H33 O )2

= 4 1 atom oleic acid......(C44 H39 O4 ) } C20s Heos O14*
Be Gees Olbateol | tea o(keaeanele (Css Ha 9 |

wal 1 atom water.......... (2° SOR)

* The formula for margaric and oleic acids are those that have lately been
given by Varrentrapp.

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. 231

The athal here mentioned as the base is now considered
as composed of a substance called cetyl, or ceten, and water.
This cetyl, or ceten, is obtained from athal by the action of
anhydrous phosphoric acid; it is a substance of an oily nature,
and consists of equal equivalents of carbon and hydrogen.

VEY Gil. (CC1e)) See te Poeee) estat eeaeeeee C32 H32

PAHO Minne LON Re sowck'= webb baielsa denn ckaloiadadots obadddees HO
Matom-anityarous athal:........J....ccesscesesoucese Cs2 H33 O
HBO TNE VRE IOS nose sh lenint eas b veces cawdawtescd vcle odeaeesee H O
Makompbydrated athall.....2...ccscecsnsesced weodsseas C32 H34 O2

Taking ceten as being the probable base of spermaceti,
Dumas has also proposed the following formula:

Beane 2 atoms margaric acid..(C34 Hs33 Os ) }

3 | 2 fee Z AtLOMS CCLEN jecmesccscc.s (C32 Hse el

3 ; 2 atoms water............ H LE) AG Hone On
= 1 atom oleic acid.........(C44 Hs9 O4 ) ent an puree
@ | 1 atom oleate of} 5 4, t 6s i

2. rey ALOME CbEMK-. s.r we ccncss (C32 Hee )

2 | F ato WAGER <....0..0.06 ( H

But it will be seen that neither the percentage indicated by
this nor by the last formula agrees with Chevreul’s analysis
of spermaceti.

208 atoms carbon............ 1272* 80.06 |
205 atoms hydrogen........ 205 12.90
14 atoms oxygen .......... 112 7.04 | Analysis of Spermaceti
by Chevreul.
1589 100.00 | Carbon..........ccece 81.66
Hydrogen ........0... 12.86
208 atoms carbon............ 1272 80.51 Ory metic coos ee 5.48
204 atoms hydrogen ........ 204 12.95
13 atoms oxygen........... 104 6.54 100.00
1580 100.00 |

What has been stated thus far is a short account of all that
was known concerning the nature and composition of sperma-
ceti previous to my attention being attracted to this subject,
and what follows is a detail of my investigations.

Having undertaken some time since, at the suggestion of
Prof. Liebig, to examine the products afforded by the distilla-
tion of spermaceti, I arrived at certain results which lead me
to believe that the composition of this body was not properly
made out, and therefore I undertook an examination of it after
the most recent methods for the investigation of fatty bodies.

* The atomic weight here taken for carbon is that of Berzelius (6115), as
Chevreul’s calculation is made with the same.

232- COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

The examination was directed to two points in particular ;
first, to the ascertaining whether spermaceti contained oleic acid ;
and secondly, whether the solid acid obtained by Chevreul in his
researches upon this body was margaric acid.

The saponification of the spermaceti being the first step neces-
sary in this examination, it was of some importance to make
use of that method which would bring about the change the
most easily. Chevreul digested the spermaceti with a strong
solution of potash for a number of days to effect this change;
but Dumas, in speaking of the easiest manner of obtaining
athal from it, recommends that it should be saponified by fusing
it with one half its weight of potash, and as by this latter
means the process is completed in about one hour, it seemed to
me the more preferable, and was consequently adopted.

Two ounces of spermaceti was fused with one half its weight
of powdered potash, care being taken that the temperature did
not rise above 230° Fah.; the mass soon became solid; it was
then allowed to cool, and afterward treated with boiling water,
which dissolved that portion of it which consisted of the acids
arising from the saponification in combination with potash ; the
other portion, consisting of athal and undecomposed sperma-
ceti, was held in suspension.. To the fused mass, treated as
just mentioned with boiling water, was added hydrochloric
acid, which decomposed the soap in solution and liberated the
acid which it contained, and this acid, being fusible at a tem-
perature much below that of boiling water, melted and arose

to the surface along with the athal and undecomposed sperma-
—ceti. This mixture upon cooling was again fused with pulver-
ized potash, for the purpose of acting upon that part of the
spermaceti which was not yet decomposed. After this seconu
fusion it was again dissolved in hot water, which solution,
holding athal in suspension, was treated with a solution of
chloride of calcium, and by double decomposition a combination
of the acids resulting from the saponification of spermaceti and
lime was obtained, which though was mixed with athal.

The water was filtered away from the mixture of the hme,
salt, and athal,and the mass, being dried, was treated with warm
alcohol of 0.820, which dissolved the athal, and by repeatedly
washing the lime-salt upon a filter with warm alcohol, and
lastly with ether, until the liquid that passed through gave

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. Dae

upon evaporation no residue, it was obtained perfectly free
from athal. By this process a small portion of the lime-salt is
dissolved, which can subsequently be obtained by treating the
athal, from which the alcohol has been evaporated with ether,
which leaves undissolved the lime-salt, and this is added to
what remains upon the filter.

The lime-salt was dried, and decomposed by dilute hydro-
chlorie acid, which furnished me with the acids arising from
the saponification, and like most of the fat acids it floats about
the water in flakes, which melt and collect at the surface if the
water be heated.

Having now the acids free.from undecomposed spermaceti
and athal, the first part of the examination—that is to say, the
examination for oleic acid—was carried on as follows.

Examination for oleic acid in spermaceti.—A portion of the
acid was digested with water and the protoxide of lead, at a
temperature of 212° Fah., and in the course of a short time a
lead-salt was formed, which after being perfectly dried was
treated with cold ether, that dissolved no portion of the salt—
a circumstance that could not have occurred had the oleate of
lead been present, as this salt is soluble in ether, and it is one
of the means used to separate oleic acid from other fatty acids.

The above is the most direct way that we have of deciding
upon the presence of oleic acid, and the indication which it
affords in the present case was of too positive a character to
admit for a moment the existence of this acid in the substance
examined. But this single evidence, although sufficient of itself,
has other indirect proofs to support it.

Redenbacker,* in his examination of the products of the
distillation of oleic acid, observed the fact that if this acid
or any substance containing it be distilled sebacic acid is in-
variably formed. To this test spermaceti has been subjected
by both Redenbacker and myself, with similar results; that is
is to say, that in the products afforded by the distillation of
spermaceti no trace of sebacic acid is to be found.

The products furnished by the oxidation of spermaceti by
nitric acid is another proof of the non-existence of oleic acid

* Redenbacker, properly speaking, was the first to generalize this fact, for
it has been a long while since it was observed.

234 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

in this substance. Laurent and subsequently Bromeis have
shown that when oleic acid is oxidized by nitric acid suberic
acid is one of the most abundant products of this decompo-
sition. Now if spermaceti be oxidized by nitric acid, no trace
of suberic acid is furnished. .

Having then the support of both direct and indirect evi-
dence, I do not hesitate to affirm that spermaceti contains no
oleic acid.

A question necessarily arising from this fact was, what was
the acid that Chevreul had taken for oleic acid? To decide
this the following steps were taken: That portion of the acid
obtained from the lime-salt which had not been digested with
the oxide of lead was treated with carbonate of soda, this
forming a soda-salt, which, being dissolved in hot water, was
decomposed by tartaric acid. The fat acid thus liberated from
the soda was dissolved in warm alcohol, and upon allowing the
solution to cool a considerable quantity of the acid crystallized
out. The alcohol was poured off this crystalline deposit and
concentrated by evaporation, from which another portion of
the acid was allowed to crystallize. The alcohol was decanted
a second time, concentrated, and allowed to cool, and by re-
peating this four or five times, and at last evaporating all the
alcohol away, there was left a small quantity of a solid fatty
mass, which evidently still contained a considerable portion
of the same acid that had been crystallized from the alcoholic
solution. This acid had a melting point of 68° F., and consisted
of a mixture of a fluid and solid acid, but it was impossible to
obtain the former in a state of purity, and as consequently no
accurate examination of it could be made none was undertaken.

The fluid acid that composed a portion of this mass was in
too inconsiderable a quantity to be considered an essential con-
stituent of spermaceti, particularly too as its presence can be
plausibly accounted for. Spermaceti as it exists in nature is
mixed with an oil, from which it is separated by pressure for
domestic use; now it is impossible that by simple pressure we
should be able to deprive the spermaceti completely of this oil;
but in Chevreul’s analysis, as well as in mine, the spermacetr
of commerce was treated with hot alcohol of 0.820; still there
are many reasons for supposing that even by this means it is
impossible to extract all the oil, either from the fact that the

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. 235

oil is not more soluble in alcohol than the spermaceti, or that
the attraction that the oil and spermaceti have for one another
is too strong to be overcome by this means. Of the truth of this
latter supposition we have many similar examples, particularly
among the fats—a circumstance which renders their examina-
tion to the present day incomplete and imperfect. At some
future time my attention will be directed to the examination
of spermaceti prepared in a different manner from that pursued
in the present case, particularly with the object of ascertaining
whether spermaceti can not be so purified as that its saponifi-
cation will give rise to no fluid acid.

Thus then, as regards the existence of a fluid acid in sperma-
ceeti, all that can be said is that from the small quantity found,
and from other reasons just stated, there are strong grounds for
believing that it contains none, and that what has been found
is due to an impurity which is not removed by alcohol of 0.820.

Solid acid resulting from the saponification of spermaceti.—I
come now to the second part of the examination, and by far
the most interesting—that of the solid acid obtained from the
saponification of spermaceti; for it is this and athal that are
the essential products resulting from the action of potash upon
spermaceti.

The solid acid obtained in that part of the examination
which was directed to ascertaining the presence of a fluid acid
in spermaceti, and which was crystallized out of alcohol, was
found to be nearly in a state of purity. This was dissolved in
a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether, and allowed to
crystallize out. This operation was repeated two or three
times, and the crystalline deposit was then thrown upon a
filter and washed with cold alcohol of 0.820. The acid thus
obtained was pure, and possessed the following properties.

It melted at 130° F., and upon cooling crystallized in small
needles, diverging from a number of centers, and when cool is
white; it resembles somewhat in appearance wax, it being
slightly translucent. It was dissolved in all proportions by
alcohol of 0.820 at 140° F., and upon cooling crystallized out
in small needles, which collected together in the form of moss
and sometimes in that of cauliflower; from this the alcohol can
be poured so as to leave it almost perfectly dry. Out of ether
this acid crystallized with difficulty, owing to its excessive solu-

236 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

bility in this menstruum. When heated to a high degree it
volatilizes without leaving a residue. The alcoholic solution
reddens litmus.

The physical properties of this acid will be seen to differ
from those of margaric acid, which it has been supposed to be;
but there is no’ striking difference between these two bodies
in composition, as will be seen in the results afforded by the
analysis of this body.

Exp. 1.—0.2815 gramme of the acid burnt with the bioxide
of copper gave* 0.7725 gramme carbonic acid and 0.320 gramme
water.

Exp. 2.—0.2325 gramme of the acid burnt with the bioxide —
of copper gave 0.637 gramme carbonic acid and 0.261 gramme
water.

Exp. 3.—0.328 gramme of the acid burnt with the chromate
of lead gave 0.890 gramme carbonic acid and 0.3685 gramme
water.

These three analyses furnish the following proportions of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in 100 parts of the acid: |

War Om reece sees see sale 75.44 75.31 74.64 75.18 T

Fy GTOSien tasaeeseerin= 12.60 12.47 12.46 12.51
CEG VBE s2-c550- nuaoo? 12.96 12.22 12.90 12.36

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Having thus found the relative proportions of the elements
contained in this acid, it was necessary to examine one of its
salts to ascertain its atomic composition, and for this purpose,
as in most cases, its combination with the oxide of silver was
chosen; but to form this salt it was necessary first to form its
soda-salt.

Soda-salt.—A portion of the acid was digested with a solution
of carbonate of soda until a complete combination had taken
place, which is easily known by the acid no longer floating on .
its surface, it having all united with the soda, forming a salt
soluble in water. The solution of this salt, which contained

* All my calculations are made with the atomic weight of carbon gfven
by Liebig and Redenbacker (75.85 oxygen being considered 100, or 6.068
hydrogen being taken as unity).

t+ Composition of margaric acid after the analysis of Varrentrapp: Carbon,
75.35; Hydrogen, 12.83; Oxygen, 12.32.

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. DOE

an excess of carbonate of soda, was evaporated to dryness in a
water-bath, and the dry mass pulverized was treated with abso-
lute alcohol, which dissolved the soda-salt and not the carbonate
of soda; from this the alcohol solution was separated by filtra-
tion, and this last, evaporated to dryness, furnished the salt
perfectly pure.

Silver-salt—This salt was formed by a double decomposition
of the salt just described and nitrate of silver. The soda was
dissolved in water, and to this was added a solution of nitrate
of silver, which produced a white fiocculent precipitate, the
salt in question. This precipitate was thrown on a filter and
well washed with warm distilled water, and dried at 212° in
the dark. This silver-salt when burnt in a porcelain crucible
gave the following results :

Exp. 1.—0.332 gramme silver-salt gave 0.098 gramme silver.
Exp. 2.—0.389 gramme silver-salt gave 0.117 gramme silver.
Exp. 3.—0.5765 gramme silver-salt gave 0.1705 gramme silver.

Out of these the following percentage of silver and oxide
of silver in the salt was calculated.

Exp. 1.—-29.56 silver; 31.75 oxide of silver.
Exp. 2.—29.39 silver; 31.57 oxide of silver.
Exp. 3.—29.59 silver; 31.77 oxide of silver.

From the same analyses the atomic weight of the anhydrous
acid was calculated to be from

Exp. 1.—250.00
Exp. 2.—-261.52 f Mean

Exp. 3.—249.36

The silver-salt was now analyzed with bioxide of copper to
ascertain the quantity of carbon and hydrogen that it contained.

1.—0.4735 gramme silver-salt burnt with the bioxide of cop-
per gave 0.910 gramme carbonic acid and 0.3595 gramme water.

2.—0.483 gramme silver-salt burnt with the bioxide of copper
gave 0.934 gramme carbonic acid and 0.3705 gramme water.

From these analyses we find in 100 parts of the salt:

1 2 Mean.
CoD OM! Kanaencaneeteneeee scvascnss 52.84 53.15 53.00
liv POP CMe crcnecetta acts s+... 8.42 8.52 8.47
Oey CN cence te eeeenect nesses. 7.04 6.63 6.83
Mraide: Of SU Vetere ances... cas 31.70 31.70 31.70

100.00 100.00 100.00

238 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

Out of this the following formula is calculated:

In 100 parts.
Atoms. Atomie weight. Calculated. ~~ Found.
Od) CATO \cccccco ness 4s 194.18 53.16 53.00
31 Hydrogen............. 31.00 8.48 8.47
3) ) Ope FRE sasoonneebogsse 24.00 6.57 6.83
1 Oxide of silver...... 116.18 31.79 31.70
365.31 100.00 100.00*

The anhydrous acid is constituted as follows:

Atoms. Atomie weight. In 100 parts.
SAL AC AT DOM sicils ss adoks eerie eapeammaads 194,18 Teg2
Oily ELON OR CMe. ccceuinccese soe nastoatseoaces 31.00 12.44
it MO KAVAREMIS So ost iach Rooaedulai siete eteteleins 24.00 9.64
249.18 100.00

The atomic weight of this acid, found by burning the silver
salt, was 250.24. The acid not in combination with a base,
contains one atom of water, and has for its composition :

In 100 parts.
—

Atoms. Atomic weight. Cpien shed. Torna.
OOO AT DOMES seaenys caeaeeoeece 194.18 15.21 75.18
2) ebay AE OP CN caeemses ccc: 32.00 12.39 12.51

AE OX COT aeatectsaiceiscmeiseeiars 32.00 12.40 12.36
258.18 100.00 100.00

After the results afforded by these analyses it is impossible
to confound this acid with margaric acid, and particularly too
as its composition agrees with that of another acid, described
by Dumas and Stass under the name of athalic acid, and which
they obtained by acting upon athal with potash at a temperature
of from 390° to 410° Fah. The acid then which has just been
described, and which was obtained from the saponification
of spermaceti, is athalic acid.

The athal that Chevreul mentions as being the base of sper-
maceti, and related to it as glycerine is to the other fats, was
found to be of the same nature that he describes it to be.

Atoms. In 100 parts.
* Margarate of silver, 34 Carbon..............000+ 206.31 54.57
83 Hydrogen ............00 33.00 8.65
3 OR VG OU eeaceeetoeicis snc 24.00 6.30
1 Oxide of silver........ 116.13 30.48

379.44 100.00

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. 239

Conclusion as regards the Composition of Spermaceti considered
as a fat——Before coming to this conclusion a resumé will be
made of the results that have been arrived at in the different
steps of this investigation. As regards athal, or what is con-
sidered the base of spermaceti, nothing has been brought to
light to change in any way the statements made concerning
its nature. Oleic and margaric acids have been proved not to
exist in spermaceti. From the saponification of spermaceti,
prepared as it was for these experiments, a small quantity of a
fluid acid was obtained, but for reasons before stated considered
as an impurity. The acid product arising from the saponi-
fication of spermaceti was found to consist almost entirely of
athalic acid.

From these facts spermacti, considered as a fat (I make this
qualification, as a little farther on it will be attempted to be
shown that it is not, properly speaking, a fatty body), is com-
posed of one acid and one base, the former being athalic acid
and the latter athal, and it is therefore an athalate of athal, con-

sisting of Atomic weight.

One atom anhydrous athalic acid.. Cszg Hs1 O3 249.18
One atom anhydrous athal .......... C32 Hs3 O 235.18
One.atom spermaceti.......J....5.00 Cos Hos O4 484.36

That this is no doubt the true composition of spermaceti
will be seen by the results afforded by the analysis of this sub-
stance prepared by crystallizing it out of absolute alcohol.

Exp. 1.—0.306 gramme spermaceti burnt with the bioxide
of copper gave 0.8945 gramme carbonic acid and 0.370 gramme
water.

Exp. 2.—0.2385 gramme spermaceti burnt with the bioxide
of copper gave 0.691 gramme carbonic acid and 0.282 gramme
water.

Exp. 3.—0.408 gramme spermaceti burnt with the chromate
of lead gave 1.198 gramme carbonic acid and 0.486 gramme
water.

Exp. 4.—0.314 gramme spermaceti burnt with the bioxide
of copper and oxyen gave 0.913 gramme carbonic acid and
0.370 gramme water.

Exp. 5.—0.212 gramme spermaceti burnt with the bioxide
of copper and chlorate of potash gave 0.625 gramme carbonic
acid and 0.252 gramme water.

2A COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

Comparing the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
afforded by these experiments with that given by the supposed
composition of spermaceti (Cg He, O04 ), we have in 100 parts:

Found.

Atoms. At.wght. Calcul. < ihe 2. ie 3. 4, ere
Carbon......... 64 888.36 80.18 80.36 79.66 980.70 79.91 81.08
Hydrogen.... 64 6400 -1322 18:58 13812 13.230 1340giaeem
Oxygen... .:... 4 32.00 6.60 6.11 1.22 6.07 6.69 Osta

484.36 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Distillation of Spermacetti—The products furnished by the
distillation of spermaceti were examined some time since by
Bussy and Lecanu ; but they appear to have fallen into the same
error with regard to them as was committed in the analysis
of spermaceti, for they state that oleic and margaric acids were
among the products.

To make a correct examination of the products of the dis-
tillation of spermaceti it was necessary that the substance
should be in the greatest state of purity, as the presence of
the smallest quantity of tallow, sometimes used as a means of
adulteration, would serve to lead one into error. The manner
of purification here employed was to dissolve the spermaceti
in a mixture of two parts of alcohol of 0.820 and one part of
ether, allowing it to crystallize out, and washing the crystals
with boiling alcohol of 0.820.

If some of the spermaceti purified as just mentioned be
placed in a small retort, and this last in mercury heated to
its boiling-point, the spermaceti will be found to distill over
slowly; and in fact this appears to be the lowest temperature
at which the distillation takes place—a temperature of about
600° Fah. The matter distilled, possesses no longer the prop-
erties of spermaceti; its melting is at a temperature somewhat
lower, and it has a strong acid reaction upon litmus-paper,
as well as a peculiar smell, which though is not at all-that
of acroleine.*

*Tf tallow be heated until it distills, it will be found to possess an odor
which irritates both the nostrils and eyes, and the substance to which this
odor belongs is called acroleine, and is a product of the decomposition of
the glycerine in the tallow. It has been found that all fatty bodies that
contain glycerine, when heated sufficiently high, give the same odor, and it
has therefore become the test for the glycerine in them.

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. 241

If the products afforded by the distillation be digested with
water, and this water be examined, it will be found not to
possess the slightest acid reaction; a fact of considerable im-
portance, and one that has been mentioned in a former part
of this article as an evidence of the non-existence of oleic acid
in spermaceti; oleic acid or any of its compounds always fur-
nishing by distillation sebacic acid, an acid soluble in water.
The water, moreover, will be found to have taken up nothing,
it having simply acquired a slight odor resembling that of the
mass with which it was digested.

The steps taken to ascertain the nature of the products were
the following. The mass obtained from the distillation was
digested with a solution of potash for an hour or two, and to
this, placed in a convenient vessel, was added ether, and the
two agitated together, and then allowed to repose. The ether
arose to the surface, containing in solution certain products.
This was drawn off and a fresh portion added, and the agita-
tion repeated. This operation was carried on until nothing
remained that was soluble in this menstruum. :

The ether was evaporated and a residue obtained consisting

of an oily fluid holding spermaceti in solution. The separation
of the oil from the spermaceti was attended with considerable
difficulty; but by the aid of pressure at a very low tempera-
ture, and careful distillation, a small quantity of the oil was
obtained tolerably pure.

0.222 gramme of the oil, burnt with the bioxide of copper,
gave 0.688 gramme carbonic acid aud 0.282 water, and this in
one hundred parts gives

ODOM tee tea aaic of oeic hes nadigates’s Somectian meseee els aaeias 85.04
ENGR OS OMe mec teehecesis« «sss ne aisle oweadelaseee sencesersoes sa 14.12
99.16

These numbers show it to be a carbureted hydrogen, com-

posed of equal equivalents of carbon and hydrogen; and this,

together with such of its physical properties as I had been
able to examine, led me into the belief that it was ceten, the
carbureted hydrogen already spoken of as the supposed base
of athal. Considering this oil to be ceten, its composition is
represented by

re

242 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

In 100 parts.

A.

Atoms. Atomie weight. Calculated. Found.
Sop OALDOM a onan ceatecee 194.18 85.85 85.04
30° Hiydwogen.........ccc- 32.00 14.15 14.12

226.18 100.00 99.16

The solution which had been treated with ether was now
perfectly transparent, and contained potash in combination
with the acid products resulting from the distillation. To this
was added a solution of chloride of calcium, by which means
an insoluble compound of the acids and lime was formed, and
this, being decomposed by hydrochloric acid, furnished the’
acids for examination.

Although it was evident from what had been before done
that no oleic acid could be present, yet to prevent any doubt I
made a direct examination for this acid by digesting a portion
of the acid mass with water and oxide of lead, and then treat-
ing the lead-salt thus formed with ether, which dissolved no
portion of it. The portion of the acid product not digested
with the oxide of lead was found to consist of a solid acid,
mixed with a very small quantity of a fluid one, which I con-
sidered to be the same that has been before mentioned, as a
probable impurity of spermaceti, and for the same reasons then
stated it was impossible to make any examination of it.

The solid acid, which was obtained pure by repeated crys-
tallization out of alcohol, exhibited the same physical proper-
ties, as well as chemical composition, as the acid obtained from
the saponification of spermaceti, and which has been shown to
be athalic acid.

0.2715 of the acid gave 0.739 gramme carbonic acid and
0.306 gramme water, making in one hundred parts

\

Hydrated athalic acid.

(CEDTORTT, aan soepacoHepaseonnosnes sccd0s009% 75.00 75.21
ISIS /ON@OCIN" Sendcosee ee naceens des. d6eo¢ 860 12.52 12.39
Osean rea aalesrraiele sion crs siasla sieetshatenee 12.48 12.40

100.00 100.00

0.8625 gramme of the silver-salt, when burnt, gave 0.254
gramme silver, which indicates in one hundred parts 29.44
silver, 31.61 oxide of silver, and an atomic weight of 250.

0.481 gramme of the silver-salt burnt with the oxide of
copper gave 0.932 gramme carbonic acid and 0.368 gramme

’

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. 243

water. The percentage afforded by this will serve to show

the identity between it and athalic acid.
In 100 parts.

A

Athalate of silver. Atoms. Atomic weight. Calculated. Found.
Carbon «.........- 32 194.18 53.16 53.28
Hydrogen....... 31 31.00 8.48 8.50
OXYGEN «22.2000. 3 24.00 6.57 6.61
Oxide of silver... 1 116.13 31.79 31.61
365.31 100.00 100.00

In the distillation of spermaceti there are other products
found than those just mentioned; but they appear only toward
the latter end of the process, and result from an elementary
decomposition. They are water, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide,
and gaseous carbureted hydrogen, carbon being left behind
in the retort; and these products are very small in quantity,
except when the vessel is very deep and the heat strong.

If proper care be taken, spermaceti can be distilled almost
completely, there being left behind an exceedingly small black
residue. A circumstance which facilitates this complete distil-.
lation is having kept the spermaceti for some time at the tem-
perature of about 550° to 600° Fah.

The results of the investigations upon the distillation are,
first, that it is impossible to distill spermaceti without more
or less of it undergoing decomposition; and secondly, that
the products of this decomposition are ceten and athalic acid;
which fact serves to substantiate the correctness of the formula
already taken for ee thus:

One atom ceten .. ssoscpecocas OR) 18's)
One atom hydrated athalic acid sess... C32 Hs2 O4
@ne atom of spermaceti....................000 Ces Hes O4

NATURE OF SPERMACETI.

From the foregoing researches I feel somewhat prepared to
speculate upon the true nature of spermaceti; for although it
may be difficult to arrive at any positive conclusion with regard
to it, still we should not be deterred from forming a judgment
upon probabilities.

‘For many reasons spermaceti would appear not properly to
belong to the class of fatty bodies, and consequently not com-
posed of an acid and a base. The fats, properly speaking, are

244 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

known to be composed of acids, more or less different in their
nature, in combination with glycerine; and when Chevreul
found athal, as in spermaceti, accompanied with an acid, he
considered athal as the base in this case, as well as making it
the great mark of distinction between spermaceti and the fats.

Before going on to state the reasons why spermaceti should
not be considered a fat, it would be well to mention what I
suppose to be its proper position among the organic bodies.
Spermaceti ought properly to be classed with cholesterine and
athal, although approaching nearer to the fats than either of
these substances; and that both the athalic acid and athal
resulting from the saponification are simply products of de-
composition brought about by the action of an alkali, neither
of them existing ready formed.

The first reason for so believing is based upon the extreme
difficulty with which spermaccti is saponified, it requiring to
be digested for a number of days in a strong solution of potash
or soda, or to be fused with the same alkalies at a temperature
of from 212° to 220° Fah. before this change takes place. Now,
from the experiments of Dumas and others, it will be seen
that the action of hydrated potash upon organic substances,
at a temperature more or less elevated, is to decompose them
by changing their molecular arrangement, and that among the
products formed acids play the most conspicuous part. The
atom of water in the alkali is often important in bringing
about this change by furnishing oxygen, hydrogen gas being
evolved; but the action of this water appears to be but a sec-
ondary thing, and its influence is only felt where oxygen does
not exist in sufficient quantity in the substance acted upon
by the alkali to furnish the products that are found with the
quantity that they exact.

The above would appear to apply exactly to the case in
question. The spermaceti contains oxygen enough, which,
when combined with one half of its other elements, serves to
give rise to an acid. It is quite possible that the action of
the alkali, although not sufficiently strong at the temperature
of 212° Fah. to determine the elements of the spermaceti, to
appropriate the atom of water in the alkali to its complete
conversion into athalic acid (I say complete conversion into
athalic acid, for it will be shown that the action of an alkah

=
=

DISTILLATION OF SPERMAOERTI. 245

at a high temperature is to convert spermaceti entirely into
athalic acid), still it is of sufficient energy to disturb its atomic

arrangement, most of its oxygen combining with one half of
the other elements to form an acid which unites with the

potash.

It may be said that if this explanation of the saponification
of spermaceti be true, we should apply the same to the saponi-
fication of all fats, no longer considering them composed of acids
and glycerine, but simply of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in
the proper proportions to form them. But there appears to
me no necessity for forming such a conclusion, as the circum-
stances attending the saponification of spermaceti and that of
the fats differ considerably ; and if this difference be taken into
consideration with what follows, there is no doubt that the
justice of this explanation will be seen.

Another reason for supposing that spermaceti does not con-
sist of an acid and a base, or rather that athal does not exist in
it ready formed, is that in the products afforded by the distilla-
tion of spermaceti no trace of athal is to be found. This fact
is one that should be considered of great value in establish-
ing the nature of spermaceti, for there is no way of explaining
the non-existence of athal among the products of the distil-
lation, except by admitting that the substance distilled did not
contain it, for athal is a body easily volatilized without decom-
position.

If, on the contrary, we remark the action of a strong solution
of potash upon spermaceti at 100°, we find athal to be volatilized
during the process—an evidence of the ease with which this
substance is volatilized, as well as the necessity of an alkali
for its formation.

Let us compare with this the action of heat upon the fats,
with reference to the change that the glycerine undergoes.

_ We find that if a fat be distilled, a portion of the glycerine is

decomposed, giving rise to acroleine (a mixture of acetic acid,
etc.), and another portion passes over undecomposed; whereas
in the distillation of spermaceti its athal (supposing it to con-
tain it) undergoes complete decomposition, although athal distilled
by itself does not undergo the least decomposition.

This second reason then serves to increase the difference
between the nature of spermaceti and that of the fats; but I

17

246 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

am able to advance another fact stronger than either of the
above augmenting this difference. |

Dumas and Stass have shown that if athal be acted upon by
potash at a temperature of from 410° to 428° Fah., an acid is
the result, which acid they called athalic acid—the same that
has been shown to result from the saponification of spermaceti,
where the same alkali was employed, but at a much lower tem-
perature. The action then of potash upon spermaceti, assisted
by the proper temperatures, is to produce but one body, athalic
acid, which circumstance would hardly take place were sperma-
ceti composed of two or more proximate principles. We have
no similar example among the fats.

Although cholesterine does not undergo any change by the
action of a solution of potash at 212° Fah., still. the analogy
between it and the spermaceti may exist, for it must be ob-
served that cholesterine, having an atomic weight of more
than one half that of spermaceti, contains only one atom of
oxygen, and not sufficient to give rise to an acid without the
aid of an additional quantity; and it is probable that if choles-
terine be treated with an alkali at a high temperature, that an
acid similar to athalic acid would be the result, for then oxygen
would be furnished from the water of the hydrated alkali.

For the above reasons spermaceti should be considered a
simple organic substance, having, as already shown, for its
composition C,, H,,O,.. The action of an alkali upon it
produces a decomposition, which may be represented thus:

Anhydrous athalic acid in combination with
PACH aise cee va: Ci etal Tes \ Cse Hai Os
And hydrated athal, its atom of water being
obtained from the alkali in combination } C32 Hs3 O + HO
with the athalic: ACId.c2.sascasceeseee nieces ccies ace

Spermaceti, plus one atom of water............... Cos Hos O4 + HO

Under the head of the distillation of spermaceti the decom-
position brought about by the action of heat was shown to be
represented thus:

Heydrated athalic acid ncs-sesceemee aan... seer C32 Hse O4
(G/2) 2 0 Rae ree a a Er 52a 5, 4:7 RA Re bee C32 H32

SPermacetil.. ces «-coeser.sseepermeree BeNewebee Sale cee Cos Hos O4

on

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. 247

OXIDATION OF SPERMACETI.

Having made mention of the oxidation of spermaceti as
one of the evidences of the non-existence of oleic acid in this
substance, I shall give a short statement of what has been done
under this head, although but little, owing to the difficulty of
isolating the products that are formed.

When nitric acid and spermaceti are heated together a
gentle action takes place, and nitrous-acid fumes are given
off; at the end of three or four days the spermaceti still floats
upon the surface of the acid, but considerably changed in its
nature, having nearly the consistency of hog’s lard and an odor
of rancid butter, owing probably to the presence of phocenic
or butyric acid, but Iam more inclined to believe phocenic acid,
as this acid is found in the oil, in connection with which sperma-
ceti is found in its natural state, and the spermaceti may no
doubt play some part in its formation. ‘This fact is interesting
and worthy of future examination.

The action of the acid being continued (renewing it as it
evaporates), in about ten days the spermaceti is in complete
solution when the liquid is hot, and at the expiration of eighteen
or twenty days the oxidation is completed, and if the solution
be concentrated a crystalline deposit takes place.

The examination of the products formed is as yet imperfect;
the following is all that has been done that can be relied upon
as accurate.

After the completion of the oxidation the mass was thrown
upon a funnel containing in its neck a bit of asbestus; the fluid
was thus separated from the crystalline deposit, which was
washed with strong nitric acid. The fluid that passed through
upon concentration furnished more of the same crystals.

The crystalline mass in the funnel gave upon examination
no traces of suberic acid, but when dissolved in warm water
and allowed to cool a deposit slowly took place having the form
of little grains and the appearance of starch. Its reaction is
strongly acid, and when crystallized several times from its
aqueous solution, and dried at 212° Fah., it has a melting-point
of 298° Fah. It sublimes easily in feather-formed crystals;
its ammoniacal salt does not precipitate the chlorides of lime,
of baryta, or of strontia, the sulphate of copper, sulphate of

248 COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTS OF

zinc, or neutral acetate of lead. With the basic acetate of lead
a precipitate is formed, which is soluble in an excess of the
lead-salt.

0.3645 gramme of this acid burnt with the bioxide of copper |
gave 0.666 carbonic acid and 0.230 water. In 100 parts

HOarlomys.. ones eee eiathehee eenaasae b6 ca uae 50.20
ER VGTO GON see secccn dee sBaesshicloss snc seel eae memser ess aces sues 7.00
OSV REY sedan guboc6s occados toate AoQodadh abe bod sa oot zbkos Gonoce 42.80

100.00

The.silver-salt is easily formed by double decomposition with
the ammoniacal salt and nitrate of silver. It is slightly soluble
in water and not easily altered by the action of light.

Exp. 1.—0.525 gramme of this salt when burnt gave 0.294
gramme silver.

Exp. 2.—0.612 gramme of this salt when burnt gave 0.343
gramme silver.

These give in 100 parts

1.—56.01 silver, or 60.00 oxide of silver.
2.—56.05 ee 60.19 et >

Burnt with the bioxide of copper:

Exp. 1.—0.708 gramme of silver-salt gave 0.582 gramme
carbonic acid and 0.174 gramme water.

Exp. 2.—0.787 gramme of silver-salt gave 0.6465 gramme
carbonic acid and 0.190 gramme water.

These experiments give the following percentage:

il 2 Mean.
Carlbomesars ee iceae seins ale toe baese 22.56 22.60 22.58
Teli axeraiehcasebonag nos eoacag ose 2.68 2.68 2.68
Dray OCI torace cane sme ooeteeiean 14.67 14.638 14.65
Oxidevot silver, 42 deste eee 60.09 60.09 60.09
100.00 100.00 100.00
Out of this the following formula of a bibasic salt is caleu-
lated: In 100 parts.
Atomic weight. Calculated: Found.
14 atoms Carbonacs... ococssctmercace 84.95 22.18 22.58
LO Gem TOS EN... cc.2,---e sn 10.00 2.66 2.68
Oy Sa), ( Obie ONE Ces apne 283-2 56.00 14.65 14.65
2% VOxadevot silver. sccce -csee 232.20 60.51 60.09
383.20 100.00 100.00

This formula agrees with that of adipinate of silver, as made
out by Bromeis, with the unimportant difference of one atom

DISTILLATION OF SPERMACETI. 249

of hydrogen, and its physical properties and reactions are the
same as adipinic acid. I consider it as such.

None of the other acids afforded by the oxidation of sperma-
ceti have been obtained in a state of sufficient purity to be
examined. ‘There is, however, one among them whose copper
and zine salts are more soluble in cold than in warm water,
and if a solution of either of them be heated a precipitate is
formed, which redissolves upon cooling. This phenomenon is
most striking in the zinc-salt. Those portions of the exami-
nation of this subject that are as yet incomplete I propose
finishing at some future time.

THE CALCARIMETER :

A NEW INSTRUMENT FOR ESTIMATING THE QUANTITY OF
CARBONATE OF LIME PRESENT IN CALCAREOUS SUB-
STANCKHES.

Among the most ready methods used for the purpose of
estimating the quantity of carbonate of lime contained in cal-
careous substances are Davy’s pneumatic and Rogers’s methods,
the one estimating it from the bulk of carbonic acid,
and the other by the weight of the carbonic acid af-
forded by the action of an acid. The principal objec-
tion to the former is the complication of the apparatus,
and for the latter it is necessary to be furnished with
a more than ordinary pair of balances, and a set of
accurate weights; whereas the instrument about to be
described is free from both these objections, with the
additional advantage of affording more accurate re-
sults.

It appeared at first that by taking a certain quantity
of the substance to be examined, and letting fall upon
it by degrees a solution of acid, the strength of which
we know, that it might be possible to estimate the
quantity of carbonate of lime in the same manner as
the carbonates of the fixed alkalies are estimated. But
for this to succeed it is necessary that the substance
should be finely pulverized, and free from any materials
soluble in the acid used; but as it is not common to be
furnished with these two conditions, another method
had to be adopted, the principle of which is to treat
the calcareous substance with an excess of acid, the
strength of which is known, and then to find out the
amount of this excess, thereby knowing the quantity
of acid taken up, from which we can easily calculate the
quantity of carbonate of lime present: In the application of
this principle it will be found that any thing like difficult

THE CALCARIMETER. Zo

manipulation is avoided, and that there is no calculation re-
quired. ; }

The first thing to be furnished with is an instrument. which
consists simply of a tube about half an inch in diameter and
ten inches long, having the principal part of it graduated in
one hundred parts. The simplest form to be given to this tube
is such as is represented in figure 1, the extremity a being
drawn out and bent downward, leaving an opening so small
as to allow a liquid to flow but slowly from the tube. To the
upper part, for convenience’ sake, is adapted a perforated cork,
with a small tube. This is placed for the purpose of regulating
the flow of the fluid, by placing upon it and withdrawing from
it the finger, as we may wish to arrest or allow the liquid to
flow from the extremity a. With this instrument, that I pro-
pose calling the Calcarimeter from its use, we must be furnished
with two fluids, a solution of muriatic or nitric acid and a
solution of ammonia, both of which are prepared of a certain
streneth.*

Preparation of the acid solution —This solution is prepared
as follows: weigh out fifty grains of dry, finely-powdered ‘pure
carbonate of lime, or what is better, carbonate of lime precipi-
tated from any of its solutions by carbonate of potash or soda.
Place this in a cupsule or other convenient vessel; add to it
about an ounce of water (this is done simply for the purpose
of moderating the action of the acid). Then take the muriatic
or nitric acid of commerce, dilute it with one part of water.
With this liquid fill the instrument to the 100 point; then let
the acid fall gently upon the carbonate of lime, so as not to
create a too great effervescence; and by proceeding carefully
with the aid of a piece of litmus-paper we can find the exact
point at which the carbonate of lime is all taken up by the
solution having an acid reaction... When we see that nearly
all the lime is taken up we proceed very cautiously, by adding
but a-few drops of the acid at a time, and agitating the mix-

*The capacity of the instrument from 0 to 100 is 30 c. c. m., and the
length of the graduation had better be from eight to ten inches. Of course
this will vary with the diameter of the tube. As they are all to be of the
same capacity, the graduation may be made upon the tube itself, or upon a
piece of paper and pasted on, then varnished, first with a solution of gum
arabic, and afterward with copal varnish.

22, THE CALCARIMETER.

ture considerably for the purpose of bringing the insoluble
carbonate well in contact with the different parts of the fluid.
When the acid reaction commences the acid is no longer added,
and the point at which the acid now stands in the tube is
marked, and by subtracting that from 100 we have the number
of degrees of acid used to dissolve fifty grains of carbonate
of lime; but as it is desired that the hiquid should be so made
as to require 50° of it to dissolve fifty grains of the carbonate,
it is diluted with the proper quantity of water. For example,
suppose the fluid marked 65° after the experiment; this indi-
eates that 35° of the acid solution were required to dissolve
the 50 grains. Now instead of 35° we. require it to take 50°
to dissolve the same quantity, so that by making up the differ-
ence between the thirty-five and fifty with water the solution
is prepared; that is to say, to every thirty-five parts of the
acid experimented with fifteen parts of water are added. The
solution can be again tested if necessary, and slight modifica-
tions made. :
Preparation of the alkaline solution —The alkaline solution is
now prepared with ease. Let fall 50° of the acid into a WD
vessel, then make a mixture of equal parts of ammonia a
and water, fill the instrument to the 100°, and let it flow | *!
upon the acid, and mark tbe point at which the acid is
neutralized. Suppose it to be twenty, then 80° have
been used for that purpose; but it must be so made as Sa
that it will require 100°; therefore to every eighty parts
of the solution experimented with add twenty parts of
water. In making either of these solutions one gallon
can be made with the same ease as one ounce, and
moreover, when they are once made, there is never any
necessity of recurring to the carbonate of lime, as the
acid may now be prepared with the aid of the ammonia.
Thus then 50° of acid dissolves exactly fifty grains | : oh
of pure carbonate of lime, and 100° of the ammonia; ¢~
neutralizes fifty of the acid. ( Vy,
As using the same tube for both acid and alkali is \/
attended with some inconvenience, having to wash it out after
using one before introducing the other, I have used an addi-
tional tube (fig. 2), about the same diameter and a little more
than half as long as the calcarimeter, for the acid. It has

THE CALCARIMETER. 253

simply three marks upon it. The capacity of the tube from
the point marked a to the lower extremity is equal to the
capacity of 50° of the other tube, and the other two marks
correspond to ten and five. The use that is made of these will
be hereafter explained.

Manner of performing the analysis.— Being furnished with the
two tubes, the two fiuids, a capsule or other convenient vessel,
a small piece of glass rod a few inches long, a wine-glass, and
a piece of litmus-paper, a portion of which has been reddened
by an acid, we proceed as follows: Weigh out fifty grains of the
substance to be examined, place it in the capsule, and add to
it about one ounce of water; fill the instrument last described
up to the highest mark upon the stem with the acid. This is
done by holding it between the thumb and fore-finger, having
the little finger applied to the lower opening. After the acid
is poured in, before withdrawing the finger, introduce the cork,
and place the fore-finger of the other hand upon the opening
of the tube on the cork, for the purpose of preventing the
liquid flowing out when the lower opening is left unprotected.
After seeing that the acid stands exactly at the mark it is
allowed to flow gradually upon the substance. After all the
action has ceased, stirring it toward the end to insure this
result, we fill the graduated tube with the solution of ammonia,
in the same manner as we did the last, and let it fall graduaily
upon the mixture of acid and calcareous substance, arresting
at will the progress of the flow by simply placing the finger
upon the tube in the cork. This instrument should always be
transferred to the left hand and held in an inclined position.
During the addition of ammonia the mixture should be well
agitated with the glass rod, and occasionally tested by bringing
a little of it upon the extremity of the rod in contact with the
litmus-paper, and as soon as it ccases to turn this paper red,
or begins to turn the red part of it blue, the experiment is
completed, and we now look at what number of degrees the
fluid stands in the tube, and we are furnished with the per-
centage of carbonate of lime contained in the calcareous sub-
stance examined.* We may be saved the trouble of testing

* If magnesia happens to be present it will be estimated as lime; but this
will very seldom be a cause of error, as it exists very rarely in calcareous
manures, for which this instrument is particularly intended.

254 THE CALCARIMETER.

too often by paying attention to the strength of the reaction
of the fluid upon the litmus-paper.

In most marls which have served as the subjects of my ex-
periments more or less alumina is to be found, a part of which
is dissolved by the acid, of which part a very good use can be
made. While adding the ammonia the alumina immediately
around where the ammonia falls is thrown out of solution; and
if we stir the liquid, the alumina will be redissolved so long as
there is any free acid; so that when the flocks of alumina are
no longer taken up we are furnished with an assurance that
the process is nearly completed. The acid that the alumina
and iron take up is acted upon by the ammonia with almost
the same readiness as if free, so that no cause of error is to be
apprehended from that source.

It may sometimes happen from oversight that too much
ammonia is added. Notwithstanding this the analysis need
not be lost. Still holding the instrument in the left hand over
the cup, having of course arrested the flow of the fluid, we
pour some of the acid solution into a wine-glass, introduce
the small end of the acid instrument into it, and allow it to
rise on the inside to either of the small marks, and add this
acid to the liquid, and go on as before with the experiment,
and at the conclusion read off what is indicated, and to it add
10 or 20 according as we may have added the acid measured
by the first or second mark.

After what has been said a few words will suffice to explain
how the instrument operates.

It takes 50° of acid to dissolve fifty grains of carbonate of
lime, or 1° to dissolve one grain; and it takes 2° of the am-
monia solution to neutralize one of the acid; and therefore in
treating a substance consisting in part of carbonate of lime,
for every grain that is present one degree of the acid is taken
up, so that when we come to add the ammonia we know how
much of the acid is taken up by the quantity of ammonia left
behind, thereby knowing the number of grains of carbonate
of lime, which we multiply by two (as fifty grains of the sub-
stance was used) to arrive at the percentage. This multi-
plication is not actually performed, as the instrument is so
graduated as to dispense with it.

Were it at all necessary to give any evidence of its easy

THE CALCARIMETER. 255

application, I might state that it, along with the fluid, has been
placed in the hands of persons entirely unacquainted with
chemistry, and even with the principle of the instrument, and
they have, with some little instruction in the manipulations
necessary, obtained results only one or two per cent. out of
the way in their first examination. The instrument is designed
specially for examining calcareous manures.

ACTIONS OF NITRIC AND OXALIC ACIDS.

1. Action oF Nitric AcID ON THE CHLORIDES OF PoTASsIUM
AND Sopium. 2. AcTION oF OxaALic ACID ON THE NITRATES
AND CHLORIDES OF THE SAME, WITH A READY METHOD OF
CONVERTING THEM INTO THE CARBONATES; OXALIC ACID EN-
ABLING ZINC TO DECOMPOSE WATER.

This note is intended as an appendix to my researches for
determining the alkalies in insoluble silicates.

During that investigation many novel and interesting re-
actions were observed, several of which have already been
alluded to. I present here one or two others of some interest.

It is well known that if nitric acid be added to a chloride,
or hydrochloric acid to a nitrate, more or less of a decomposi-
tion will in either case ensue; but I believe it is not generally
known how ready and complete the replacement is when nitric
acid is heated with chloride of potassium or of sodium.

Among the experiments made, forty grammes of nitric acid
were boiled gently with six grammes of chloride of potassium,
and in twenty minutes no trace of chlorine could be found in
the liquid. The same is true when the chloride of sodium
is used. The operations appear to depend on the oxidizing
property of the nitric acid, with the liberation of chlorine that
combines with some of the elements of nitric acid to form the
chloronitric acid that readily passes off. The decomposition
of the nitrates of the alkalies by hydrochloric acid does not
readily take place, it not being complete even after repeated
evaporations to dryness with a large excess of hydrochloric
acid.

Before settling on the plan I now adopt, an easy method
was sought for separating the alkalies from magnesia by con-
verting the two into carbonates—a plan that had previously

ACTIONS OF NITRIC AND OXALIC ACIDS. 257

been adopted; but the question with me was to change the
nitrates to carbonates. The idea suggested itself of heating
the nitrates with an excess of oxalic acid to the temperature
at which the latter undergoes decomposition, when the nascent
oxide of carbon might break up the constitution of the nitric
acid, and the carbonic acid formed combine with the bases.

On making the experiment I was surprised to see an abundant
evolution of nitrous-acid vapors at a temperature considerably
below 212°. It was clear that the oxalic acid decomposed the
nitrate, liberating the nitric acid, which reacting on the excess
of oxalic acid gave rise to the nitrous-acid vapors. If crystal-
lized oxalic acid and the nitrate of potash or soda, the former
in excess, be placed together in a flask and heated over a
water-bath, the mass soon enters into watery fusion, and at the
temperature of from 130° to 140° bubbles of gas are evolved,
consisting of nitrous acid and carbonic acid. At 212° the
evolution is vigorous; and if after evaporation to dryness the
water be renewed several times, the nitric acid will be com-
pletely expelled from the niter, there remaining the excess
of oxalic acid and the oxalate of the alkalies.

It was natural to conclude from the above result that oxalic
acid would likewise decompose the chlorides of the alkalies,
and on experiment the conclusion proved to be correct. If an
excess of oxalic acid be mixed with either the chloride of po-
tassium or of sodium, and the whole warmed gently, abundant
vapors of hydrochloric acid are evolved, and by careful manipu-
lation all the chlorine may be driven off under this form.

If heat be apphed to the mass resulting from the action
of oxalic acid on either the nitrates or the chlorides, all the
oxalic acid will be expelled and the oxalates converted into
carbonates. A small amount of chloride of sodium can in this
way be converted in a few moments into carbonate of soda;
not, however, without some trace of the chloride being present.
It is not my object to point to any special application of this
decomposition, but it is one that may come into play in certain
operations in analytical chemistry.

Experiments were made with the sulphates of the alkalies
to see if the oxalic acid had any decomposing action on them,
expecting to test for free sulphuric acid by the action of the
solution of the mass on zinc or iron, taking for granted that

258 ACTIONS OF NITRIC AND OXAMLIC ACIDS.

the presence of oxalic acid alone would not cause the evolu-
tion of hydrogen gas. Hxperiment, however, showed that this
manner of testing the question was fallacious, and no other
method suggesting itself it was impossible to decide the ques-
tion positively. Sufficient was ascertained to show that if the
sulphate was decomposed it was only to a very minute extent.

In connection with this last experiment it is proved that
zinc decomposes water readily in presence of oxalic acid, hy-
drogen gas being evolved. The action ceases in a short time
from the formation of insoluble oxalate of zinc. With iron the
action is very feeble even when the solution is heated.

The decomposing action of oxalic acid on the nitrates and
chlorides of alkalies appears to be due simply to the fact of a
more stable acid being able to replace a more volatile one, and
in no way measures the relative strengths of the acids; it
being a well-established fact that the physical as well as chem-
ical properties of acids have much to do with their capability
of replacing each other, a mere change of circumstances often
reversing their relative action.

CHROMATE OF POTASSA:

A RE-AGENT FOR DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN THE SALTS
OF BARYTA AND STRONTIA.

Having had occasion some months since to examine a
specimen of fibrous celestine from Niagara, I was led to
suspect from its specific gravity that baryta was present.

With this supposition I examined for baryta, in the usual
way, with fluo-silicic acid; in fact, the only certain method
that I was aware of. The indication that this test gave of its
presence was so unsatisfactory that it led me at once to search
for a more decisive and more delicate distinguishing test, and
the following was the result of my labor.

It will be needless to detail the various re-agents that I had
recourse to in my experiments, but suffice it to say chromate
of potassa satisfied my most sanguine wishes, for no re-agent
with which I am acquainted acts so promptly upon any body
as does this upon the salts of baryta; and moreover, so delicate
is this test that in one of my experiments, in which a grain
of chloride of barium was dissolved in one gallon of water, it
gave immediate indication of the presence of baryta, although
sulphuric acid failed to do so; in fact, it will affect perceptibly
a solution that contains less'than one hundred-thousandth part
of baryta.

When a strong solution of chromate of potassa is poured upon
a strong solution of a salt of strontia a precipitate (similar to
that which is produced when a salt of baryta is used) will take
place. Solutions of these two salts of ordinary strength will
not affect each other.

Lest this fact should, under any circumstance, cause erro-
neous conclusions, I sought for some acid which would dissolve
the one precipitate and not the other. Acetic acid is the only
acid among the many that I have tried which answered this
end. If a small quantity of dilute acetic acid (common acetic

260 CHROMATE OF POTASSA.

acid diluted with five times its weight of water was used) be
poured upon the precipitate produced in the case of strontia,
it will be completely dissolved; whereas no impression is made
on that from the salts of baryta. |

Acetic acid, so concentrated as to crystallize when its temper-
ature was below 50°, was poured on the precipitated chromate
of baryta, and a portion of it taken up, but in no instance did
any quantity of the acid dissolve the entire precipitate.

With the above means there need not now remain the least
doubt in ascertaining promptly the presence of baryta in a salt

of strontia supposed to contain it; for all that is necessary to -

be done is to add to a solution of the salt a solution of chromate
of potassa, which, if baryta be present, will produce a light-
yellow precipitate insoluble in acetic acid. This re-agent will
also serve to distinguish baryta from hme.

BISULPHATE OF SODA AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR
THE BISULPHATE OF POTASH

IN THE DECOMPOSITION OF MINERALS, ESPECIALLY -
THE ALUMINOUS MINERALS.

In referring to the more recent works on analytical chemistry
I perceive that the bisulphate of potash is still used to the almost
utter exclusion of bisulphate of soda in rendering certain min-
erals soluble: and it is still recommended as the proper agent
to fuse with alumimous minerals, as corundum, emery, ete.

This subject occupied my attention to a considerable extent
when engaged in the preparation of two memoirs on the geology
and mineralogy of emery, presented to the French Academy
of Science in 1850, as well as in some investigations Lam now
making on the emery from Chester, Mass. In the above re-
searches I had a large number of corundums and emeries to
analyze. The powdered minerals were fused with the bisul-
phate of potash in the usual way, and I found no difficulty
in decomposing the minerals; but unfortunately during the
operation a double salt of potash and alumina is formed which
is almost insoluble in water or in the acids, and it is only by a
solution of potash that it is first decomposed and afterward
redissolved.’ There are many disadvantages and delays at-
tendant upon this method which experience soon exhibits, as
the constant deposition of alum if the solution is not kept quite
dilute. I therefore experimented with the bisulphate of soda,
knowing that the double salt of alumina and soda was quite
soluble, and my results were every thing that could be desired;
for while the soda-salt gives a decomposition at least as com-
plete as the potash-salt, the melted mass is very soluble in
water, and in the future operations of the analyses there is no
embarrassment from a deposit of alum. The manner of em-
ploying the bisulphate of soda in the analysis of emery is
referred to in the article on the emery of Chester, Mass.

| 18

262 BISULPHATE OF SODA, ETO.

PREPARATION OF THE BISULPHATE OF SODA.

The ordinary commercial article is not sufficiently pure for
use, and I prepare it from pure carbonate of soda or sulphate
of soda that has been purified by recrystallization. In either
‘instance pure sulphuric acid is added in excess to the salt in a
large platinum capsule, and heated over a flame until the melted
mass, when taken up on the end of a glass rod, solidifies quite
firmly. The mass is then allowed to cool; moving it over the
sides of the capsule will facilitate this operation. When cool
it is readily detached from the capsule, then broken: up, and put
into a glass-stoppered bottle. So far as my experience has yet
gone, in almost every instance where we have been in the habit
of using bisulphate of potash, the bisulphate of soda can be
substituted.

ACTION OF POTASH UPON CHOLESTERINE.

For some reasons we would be induced to place cholesterine
among the fatty bodies, but from many of its characters it
would appear certainly not to belong to this class of bodies.
The most important distinctions between these two bodies
are, first, the want of-action of a solution of potash upon
cholesterine; and secondly, its high point of fusion, which is
298° ‘Pah.*

Another difference which I am able to point out is that cho-
lesterine is heavier than water, whereas the fats are lighter.
It will be found in works on chemistry that cholesterine is
lighter than water, and I attribute this to the fact that the
substance, as it crystallizes out of alcohol, was found to float
on the surface of water; but this is owing to the air adhering
to the crystals. To show that itis heavier all that is necessary
to be done is to throw a small piece of fused cholesterine into
a vessel containing water, that must afterward be made to
boil (this is done to drive away the air adhering to the surface
of the body.); after which it will be found to sink, and remain
at the bottom of the vessel even when the water is cold. I
dwell thus much upon this because I feel confident that there
are other organic bodies that are said to be lighter than water,
but which are actually heavier; for, owing to the looseness of
their structure, air insinuates itself between the molecules, and
is afterward held so firmly that it is impossible to drive it
away by the ordinary means. I now return to the first dis-
tinguishing character between cholesterine and the fats—the
difference of the action of potash upon the two bodies.

-Chevreul and others have shown that if cholesterine be
digested a great length of time in a boiling solution of potash
no change takes place; but here the cholesterine is not sub-
jected to the action of the potash under the same circumstances

* The melting-point of most of the fats is below 140°.

264. ACTION OF POTASH UPON CHOLESTERINE.

as the fats; for in the case of the latter, the point of fusion
being considerably below that of boiling water, the force of
ageregation is in a great degree destroyed, and consequently
does not oppose itself to the chemical action; whereas in the
case of cholesterine, its point of fusion being much higher than
that of boiling water, it remains solid, and therefore its force
of aggregation opposes itself strongly to the action of potash
(supposing one to exist). So then the difference of the action
of a solution of potash upon these substances is not such a
strong mark of distinction as it would at first sight appear
to be, as it is impossible to subject them to this action under
similar circumstances. |

This fact is mentioned not to show that cholesterine may
be a species of fat. Far from it. It is simply to attempt to
exhibit that there is no stronger reason for supposing that
cholesterine is not a fat, because a boiling solution of an alkali
does not act upon it, than there is for considering spermaceti
a fat, because it is acted upon; as here the spermaceti is in a
state of fusion, one that is favorable to this action; and the
cholesterine solid, a state opposing this action.

In an article on spermaceti I stated my reasons at large for
- not believing this body to be a fat, properly speaking, and at
the same time explained how I supposed an alkali to react upon
it. It was there ranked with athal and cholesterine. I then
also stated that although a boiling solution of an alkali might
not react upon cholesterine, still I had no doubt that the alkali
by itself, aided with a high temperature, would react upon it in
a manner similar to that which it did upon spermaceti. From

_the kindness of M. Pelouze, who furnished me with a small.

quantity of cholesterine, I have been able to examine into the
truth of this supposition.

The first circumstance necessary to be observed in the exam-
ination of this reaction is to have the cholesterine intimately in
contact with the potash, and this is done -by rubbing together
equal parts of the two substances in a mortar. The mixture
was placed in a watch-glass, and spread out so as to expose a
large surface to the air; the watch-glass was placed on a sup-
port in a copper vessel (the air contained in this vessel could
be brought to any required temperature). The experiment
being thus disposed, the vessel was heated, and by the time

ACTION OF POTASH UPON CHOLESTERINE. 265

that the air in the interior arrived at 248° Fah. a change began
to take place in the mixture, and at 266° Fah. it was of a dark-
brown color. 7

This was now treated with cold ether, which dissolved the
unaltered cholesterine, and also a matter of a resinous character,
which when dissolved in alcohol, and the alcohol allowed to
evaporate spontaneously, is deposited in the form of little round
concretions entirely devoid of crystalline structure. It is not
soluble in any of the alkalies. What remains after the treat-
ment by ether is of a brown color and completely soluble in
water. If hydrochloric acid be added to this solution it is
decomposed, and a yellowish substance arises to the surface.
This substance is soluble in ether, alcohol, potash, soda, and
ammonia, as well as their carbonates. It does not crystallize.
Its alcoholic solution reacts slightly acid upon litmus-paper.
In fact it is an acid of a resinous character. Its combinations
with alkalies have the character of soaps. Its silver-salt is of a
yellow color, but soon becomes black by exposure to the light.

From the small quantity of cholesterine that was at my
disposal I have not been able to obtain sufficient of the acid
to examine its composition, but I have no doubt that it is a
new one.

If the mixture when heated be not well-exposed to the air,
very little of this acid is formed, even if we elevate the tem-
perature as high as 300° Fah.; but, on the contrary, a consid-
erable quantity of the resin before mentioned (soluble in ether).
is formed. This though is capable of being converted into the
acid by the action of potash,.a high temperature, and free
access of air. Thus then it will be seen that the action of
potash, instead of being a means of showing that spermaceti
and cholesterine are two substances of entirely different natures,
affords strong evidence of their being similar bodies. Further,
the action of potash upon spermaceti is to produce athalic acid
and athal, the former capable of forming soaps with the alkalies,
and the latter of being converted into the former by an alkali
and a high temperature. |

The action upon cholesterine is to form an acid (which it is
impossible for me as yet to name) and a basic resin. The
former forms soaps With alkalies, and the latter by the action
of potash at a high temperature is converted into the former.

266 ACTION OF POTASH UPON CHOLESTERINE.

This article is meant as an appendix to the one on sperma-
ceti, and as an additional proof of the analogy that exists
between that body and cholesterine, they being two of a class
of bodies which will no doubt be found to be tolerably nu-
merous, and which class I propose to call pseudo-gras. Among
them may be mentioned spermaceti, cholesterine, athal, am-
breine, and probably stearérine and elaiérine, two fatty sub-
stances found in linseed-oil, and which M. Chevreul brought
to the notice of the Academy of Sciences not long since. This
class of bodies would appear to be a link between the fats and
resins.

|
F

NEUTRAL ALKALINE PHOSPHATES.

ACTION OF THE NEUTRAL PHOSPHATES OF THE ALKALIES
UPON CARBONATE OF LIME.

It is a fact that, notwithstanding the advanced state of the
science of chemistry, we are ignorant of some of the laws that
govern the relative affinities of acids for bases, and the action
of neutral salts upon each other. It is true such and such
acids are ranked according to what is termed their strength,
and such bases are said to be more powerful than others; still
from time to time facts are developing themselves that contra-
dict these established rules. The decomposition of the sulphate
of lead by certain neutral alkaline salts (Am. Jour., xlvii, 81)
I thought could be explained upon a known law, that when
there existed two acids and two bases in solution (the sulphate
of lead being dissolved by the salts used) the stronger acid
sought the stronger base, and the feebler acid had to combine
with the feebler base, notwithstanding being originally in com-
bination with an alkali. But how are we to explain the fact
about to be mentioned, which, so far as my information goes,
has not been previously observed? It is that the feeblest solu-
tion of the neutral phosphate of soda or potash will decompose
the carbonate of lime in the cold, giving rise to carbonate of soda
and phosphate of lime.

This fact was first observed while analyzing the ashes of a
plant, which was fused with carbonate of soda, for the purpose
of estimating the phosphoric acid. The fused mass was thrown
into about four ounces of water, and digested at about 180°
Fah. for a couple of hours. The insoluble portion was sepa-
rated and treated with an acid, when to my astonishment it
dissolved with but a very slight effervescence; in fact, with the
escape of only a bubble or two of gas, the carbonate of lime

268 NEUTRAL ALKALINE PHOSPHATES.

expected not being present. It was known that this circum-
stance could not arise from a want of decomposition of the
original matter, as it was kept fused for half an hour with
four times its weight of carbonate of soda; therefore the only
rational conclusion was that the phosphate of lime was in
the first case decomposed by the soda, but was subsequently
reformed upon treating the fused mass with water. This has
been verified by direct experiment.

Twelve grains of neutral phosphate of soda and six of ecar-
bonate of lime were digested for two hours in four ounces
of water at 180° Fah., when the carbonate of lime was found
almost completely decomposed, and the clear solution upon
evaporation furnished carbonate of soda.

Six grains of precipitated carbonate of hme added to a
solution of twenty grains of phosphate of soda (equivalent
proportions of each), in one ounce of water, were kept in a
vial for one month, the temperature never exceeding 65° Fah.
At the expiration of this time the insoluble portion contained
three and a half grains of phosphate of lime, corresponding to
a decomposition of about two and a half grains of the carbonate
of lime. The soluble portion indicated a corresponding portion
of carbonate of soda. |

Other insoluble carbonates were experimented with, as the
carbonates of magnesia, strontia, baryta, and lead. The re-
sults were the same, differing only in degree. Even hydrated
alumina decomposes slightly the phosphate of soda when boiled
with it for a length of time.

I tried two other neutral salts, the acids of which produce
insoluble salts with lime, to see if they would act in the same
way. The chromate and the tartrate of potash were digested
a length of time upon the carbonate of lime, but no decompo-
sition ensued. |

- I shall not attempt to seek for an explanation of this at
present, but shall go on collecting facts of a similar character,
to endeavor to find out some general principle that may operate
in this and in other cases. This fact itself would not be pub-
lished at the present time if it were not of the greatest impor-
tance to put analytical chemists upon their guard; for but a
few days ago an individual wrote to me that he was estimating
the phosphate of lime in a certain class of bodies by fusing

:
|
|

NEUTRAL ALKALINE PHOSPHATES. 269

them with carbonate of soda, which will certainly be produc-
tive of some error; and although it is to be regretted that our
methods of arriving at phosphoric acid in analysis may be
diminished by this fact, still it will only stimulate us to find
out some other to solve this, one of the most difficult and
annoying problems in analytical chemistry.

REMOVAL OF SAL AMMONIAC IN MINERAL
ANALYSIS. em

About twenty years ago, in a publication made upon the
analysis of the natural silicates, I gave the details of some
interesting experiments made upon the removal of sal ammo-
niac, which so commonly accumulates in these analyses.

The method of accomplishing the removal of this salt, being
embodied in a lengthy paper embracing many other and more
important points, has been to a great extent overlooked by
analytical chemists. I have been frequently asked for details
in connection with the removal of this salt, and some recent
investigations have given me renewed appreciation of the in-
valuable nature of the process, where very large quantities of
sal ammoniac had accumulated and remained associated with
a very minute quantity of material that formed the subject
of research.

It may be of interest to bring this process more clearly to
the attention of chemists. The manner of proceeding is as
follows: The solution containing the sal ammoniac is concen-
trated in a capsule, best over a water-bath or in a glass flask;
pure nitric acid is added, about three grammes of it to every
eramme of sal ammoniac supposed to exist in the liquid; a little
habit will suffice to guide one in adding the nitric acid, as even
a large excess has no effect on the accuracy of the analysis.

The flask or capsule is now warmed very gently, and before
it reaches the boiling-point of water a gaseous decomposition
will take place with great rapidity. This is caused by the
decomposition of the sal ammoniac. It is no advantage to
push the decomposition with too great rapidity; a moderately
warm place on the sand-bath is well adapted for this purpose.
I, however, prefer a porcelain capsule of about three and a half
to four inches diameter (in the ordinary operations in mineral
analysis), inverting a clean funnel of smaller diameter over it,

REMOVAL OF SAL AMMONIAC IN MINERAL ANALYSIS. 271

and evaporating to dryness over the water-bath; at the end
of the operation the heat can be increased to four or five hun-
dred degrees.

By this operation, which requires no superintendence, one
hundred grammes of sal ammoniac may be separated as easily
and safely as one gramme from five milligrammes of alkalies,
and no loss of the latter be experienced.

The following are some experiments made with given quan-
tities of sal ammoniac and nitric acid, heated thus in a capsule

over a water-bath: Nitric Acid. Sal Ammoniae
5 grammes of salammoniac... 5c. cent. left. 3.190 grammes.
5 = : cs Son ene 3 2.610
~=6 = = - onde 1) .: * 790
5 - 2 ~ son alld) - > .010

The decomposition commences before the temperature reaches
140° Fah. The results of the decomposition were fully ex-
plained in a note to an article of mine published in the Amer.
Jour. of Science and Arts, March, 1853. It results principally
in the formation of protoxide of nitrogen and chlorine, the
former constituting over seven eighths of the gas formed.

MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

PART I.

A DESCRIPTION OF FIVE NEW METEORIC TRONS:

1. Mereoric Iron From TAazEWELL County, E. TENN.

This meteorite was placed in my possession through the
kindness of Prof.-J. B. Mitchell, of Knoxville, in the month
of August, 1853. “It was found by a son of Mr. Rogers, living
in that neighborhood, while engaged in plowing a hillside; his
attention was drawn to it by its sonorous character. As it very
often happens among the less informed, it was supposed to be
silver, or to contain a large portion of that metal. With some ~
difficulty the mass was procured by Prof. Mitchell and passed
over to me. Nothing could be ascertained as to the time of its
fall. Itis stated among the people living near where the mete-
orite was found that a light has been often seen to emanate from
and rest upon the hill—a belief that may have had its founda-
tion in the observed fall of this body.

The weight of this meteorite was fifty-five pounds. It is of a
flattened shape, with numerous conchoidal indentations, and
three annular openings passing through the thickness of the
mass near the outer edge. Two or three places on the surface
are flattened, as if other portions were attached at one time,
but had been rusted off by a process of oxidation that has
made several fissures in the mass so.as to allow portions to be
detached by the hammer, although when the metal is sound
the smallest fragment could not be thus detached, it being both
hard and tough. Its dimensions are such that it will just lie
in a box thirteen inches long, eleven inches broad, and five and
a half inches deep. The accompanying figure gives a correct
idea of the appearance of this meteorite

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 273

The exterior is covered with oxide of iron; in some places
so thin as hardly to conceal the iron, in other places a quarter
of an inch deep. Its hardness is so great that it is almost
impossible to detach portions by means of a saw. Its color is

Z,

——
———
==

SS

white, owing to the large amount of nickel present; and a
polished surface, when acted on by hot nitric acid, displays
in a most beautifully regular manner the Widmannstattian
figures. The specific gravity taken on three fragments se-
lected for their compactness and purity is from 7.88 to 7.91.
The following minerals have been. found to constitute this
meteorite: 1. Wickeliferous iron, forming nearly the entire mass.
2. Protosulphuret of iron, found in no inconsiderable quantity
on several parts of the exterior of the mass. 3. Schreibersite,
found more or less mixed with the pyrites and in the crevices
of the iron, in pieces from the thickness of the blade of a pen-
knife to that of the minutest particles. 4. Olivine; two or three
- very small pieces of this mineral have been found in the inte-
rior of the iron. 5. Protochloride of iron; this mineral has been
found in this meteorite in the solid state, which I believe is the
first observation of this fact; it was found in a crevice that
had been opened by a sledge-hammer, and in the same crevice
schreibersite was found. Chloride of iron is also found deli-
quescing on the surface; some portions of the surface are

274 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

®

entirely free from it, while others again are covered with an
abundance of rust arising from its/decomposition.

Besides the above minerals two others were found—one a
siliceous mineral, the other in minute rounded black particles;
both, however, were in too small quantity for any thing like a
correct idea to be formed of their composition.

The different minerals that admitted of it were examined
chemically, and the following are the results:

1. Nickeliferous Iron.—The specific gravity of this iron is, as
already stated, from 7.88 to 7.91. It is not readily acted on by
any of the acids in the cold; nitric acid, either concentrated
or dilute, has no action on it until heated to nearly 200° Fah.,
when the action commences, and continues with great vigor
even after the withdrawal of heat. With reference to the
action of sulphate of copper, it is passive, although when im
mersed in a solution of sulphate of copper, and allowed to
remain for several hours, the latter metal deposits itself in
spots on the surface of the iron. '

Thorough digestion in hot nitric acid dissolves the iron
completely. When boiled with hydrochloric acid the iron dis-
solves with the liberation of hydrogen, leaving undissolved the
schreibersite; but by long-continued action this latter is also
dissolved with the evolution of phosphureted hydrogen.

The following ingredients were detected on analysis of two

specimens : 1 2
IDEO)GY San abosusr osocaosonandeendnconaddae 82.39 83.02
INT Ckkeli ese csereiesscscteircormceceseeces 15.02 14.62
Cialis... ssa nsseche teasers seater a 43 a0
(CLOT OIE Sarasuo sac don sc oesccabancypangodden .09 06
TPINO SOMONE Seons- oe 1. sa ssoecordacoasccae .L6 19
Chilo Pinie, 4.202, 32st bec bi bes beac edamoe i ieset exe's 02
Seal DIE essn sia sopasecinnoe sae geomeeteamac cane .08
ROMUNKGEs Sob scao sa cbse poonensesea soe pades oc 46 .84
1 2 Fis SRI), sorpacaaqnendscapaccss soscees25 -euoce : 24

98.55 99.57

Tin and arsenic were looked for, but neither of those sub-
stances detected. The magnesia and silica are doubtless com-
bined, probably in the form of olivine, and disseminated in
minute particles through the iron. The phosphorus is in
combination with a given portion of iron and nickel, forming
schreibersite. The 0.16 per cent. of phosphorus corresponds to
1.15 of schreibersite; so the metal mass may be looked on as
composed of nickeliferous iron 98.97, screibersite 1.03=100.00

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. S25

The composition of the nickeliferous iron corresponds to five
atoms of iron and one of nickel: iron, 5 atoms, 82.59; nickel,
1 atom, 17.41=100.00.

2. Protosul bare! of Iron —This variety of sulphuret of iron
found with meteorites is usually designated as magnetic pyrites,
leaving it to be inferred that its composition is the same as the
terrestrial variety. Without alluding to the doubt among some
mineralogists as to the true composition of the terrestrial mag-
netic pyrites, I have only to say that most careful examination
of the sulphuret detached from the meteorite in question proves
it to be a protosulphuret—a conclusion to which Rammelsberg
had already come with reference to the pyrites of the Seelasgen
iron, which latter pyrites I have also examined, confirming the
results of Rammelsberg.

This pyrites incrusts some portion of the iron, and in places
is mixed with a little schreibersite. It presents no distinct
crystalline structure, has a gray metallic luster, and a specific
gravity of 4.75. The Seelasgen pyrites gave me for specific
gravity 4.681. The specimen of pyrites in question gave, on
analysis: iron, 62.38; sulphur, 35.67; nickel, 0.32; copper, trace;
silica, 0.56; lime, 0.08=98.91. The formula FeS requires sul-
phur 36.36, iron 63.64. The magnetic property of this mineral

is far ene to that possessed by schreibersite.

3. Schreibersite.—It is found disseminated in small eae
through the mass of the iron, and is made evident by the action
of hydrochloric acid; it is also found in flakes of little size,
inserted as it were into the iron; and owing to the fact that in
many parts where it occurs chloride of iron also exists, this last
has caused the iron to rust in crevices, and on opening these
schreibersite was detached mechanically. This mineral as it
exists in the meteorite in question so closely resembles mag-
netic pyrites that it can readily be mistaken for this latter
substance, and I feel confident in asserting that a great deal
of the so-called magnetic pyrites associated with various masses
of meteoric iron will upon examination be found not to contain
a trace of sulphur, and will, on the contrary, prove to be schrei-
bersite, that can be easily recognized by the characters to be
fully detailed a little farther on.

Its color is yellow or yellowish-white, sometimes with a
greenish tinge; luster metallic; hardness 6; specific gravity

276 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

7.017. No regular crystalline form was detected ; its fracture
in one direction is conchoidal. It is attracted very readily by
the magnet, even more so than magnetic oxide of iron; it ac-
quires polarity and retainsit. I havea piece three tenths of an
inch long, two tenths of an inch broad, and one twentieth of an
inch thick, which has retained its polarity over six months;
unfortunately the polarity was not tested immediately when
it was detached from the iron, and not until it had come in

contact with a magnet, so that it can not be pronounced as |

originally polar.

Before the blowpipe it melts readily, little blisters forming
on the surface from the escape of chlorine; and blackens. The
magnet is a most ready means of distinguishing the schrei-
bersite from the pyrites commonly found in meteoric irons;
for, although the pyrites is attracted by the magnet, it is neces-
sary that the latter should be brought quite near to it for the
effect to be produced; whereas if the particles exposed to the
magnet be schreibersite, they will be attracted with almost the
readiness of iron filings.

Hydrochloric acid acts exceedingly slow on this Hopeal
when pulverized with the formation of phosphureted Engh EO
gen. Nitric acid acts more vigorously, and readily dissolves
it when finely pulverized. The composition of this substance
has in all cases but one been made out from the residue of
meteoric iron, after having been acted on by hydrochloric acid,
which accounts for the great variation in the statements of the
proportion of its constituents. . |

Mr. Fisher examined, pieces of schreibersite detached from
the Braunau iron with the following results: iron, 55.430;
nickel, 25.015; phosphorus, 11.722; chrome, 2.850; carbon,
- 1.156; silex, 0.985=98.158.

The results of my analyses do not differ very materially
from this. They are as follows: |

i OW) 3
Aste Opin Me eS OR tsi sia he 'a'Sats s'gaia 57.22 56.04 56.53
IN Teele eeansar casos sassecee 25.82 26.48 28.02
Colbalteereks a ivvenebeestoue 32 Al 28
Copperiacnansles-satecse cst: trace. Ot 16Sts uiaan ema eerie
POS PHOT WSie-ltasa--scrs ORO es scalot ie N86
Silicate. ssevecs cee seeks LGD essa =. +. eet Eee eea eee
AL Livin ina eae edema MG Byes, <pskk bebe ee is diaye
LING aise tae casera cones trace. NOteSt ieee tess
OMMORINIG.. ceseadocicgaes eases GI Ce eT ES | as GLINR os Ae

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 277

Nos. 1 and 2 were separated mechanically from the iron;
No. 3 chemically. The silica, alumina, and lime were almost
entirely absent from No. 3, and in the other specimen they are
due to a siliceous mineral that I have found attached in small
particles to the schreibersite. There is no essential difference
in my results; yet in neither instance do I suppose the mineral
was obtained perfectly pure, although enough so, it is believed,
to furnish the correct chemical formula; and as from what
has been previously said schreibersite will be found to exist
in larger quantities than it was suspected, it will not be long
before the question of the uniformity of its composition will
be settled, a point of interest bearing upon the theoretical
consideration of meteoric stones.

The formula of schreibersite I consider to be Ni? Fet P.

Atom. Per cent.
JP NOS) OIOIPUIS dalek bomuécbees ceesonnnodaceoosee 1 15.47
INGE elt tasenceneeccaticnsteseemncels Sieh aiscotiele Zz PSV ALA
WGTE@) Mi peerear.t eae wie surceae ec cee hameesewoateweees 4 55.86

This mineral, although not usually much dwelt upon when
speaking of meteorites, is decidedly the most interesting one
associated with this class of bodies, even more so than the
nickeliferous iron. It has no representative in genus or spe-
cies among terrestrial minerals, and is one possessed of highly
interesting properties. Although among terrestrial minerals
phosphates are found, not a single phosphuret is known to
exist. So true is this that, with our present knowledge, if any
one thing could convince me more strongly than another of
the non-terrestrial origin of any natural body, it would be the
presence of this or some similar phosphuret. It is commonly
alluded to as a residue from the action of hydrochloric acid
upon meteoric iron, when in fact it exists in plates and frag-
ments of some size in almost all meteoric iron, and there is
reason to believe that it is never absent from any of them in
some form or other. What is meant by “some size” is that
it is in pieces large enough to be seen by the naked eye, and
to be detached mechanically. |

In an examination of the meteoric specimens in the Yale
College Cabinet more than half of them have been discov-
ered to contain schreibersite, visible to the eye, that had been
considered pyrites. Among them the large Texas meteorite
was examined; and although none was visible on the surface,

7 19

278 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

a small fragment of the same mass given me by Prof. Silliman
contains a piece of schreibersite of over a grain weight.

The reason why it has not attracted more attention arises
from its resemblance to pyrites. I will therefore state a ready
manner of telling whether it be such or not.

Detach a small fragment, and hold a magnet capable of sus-

taining five or six ounces or more within half an inch or an

inch of the fragment. If it be schreibersite it will be attracted
with great readiness, the magnetic pyrites requiring a very
close approximation of the magnet before attracted. This, with
some little experience, becomes a ready method of separating
the two. It is not, however, to be expected that this method
alone is to satisfy us when other means can be appealed to for
distinguishing this mineral. The following is one which is
readily accomplished with the smallest fragment (half a milli-
gramme). Melt in a small loop of platinum wire a little car-
bonate of soda; add the smallest fragment of nitrate of soda
and the piece of mineral; hold the mixture in the flame of a
lamp for two or three minutes; place the bead of soda in a
watch-glass; add a little water, and filter. To the filtrate add

a drop or two of acid to neutralize the exccss of carbonate of

soda; evaporate nearly to dryness; add a drop of ammonia,
and then a drop of ammoniacal sulphate of magnesia, when
the double phosphate of magnesia and ammonia will show
itself, and the crystalline form will be recognized under the
microscope. If the piece examined be several miligrammes

in weight, the operation can be carried on in a small platinum

capsule. This reaction can also be had by acting on the thin-
eral, however small the piece, by aqua regia; evaporate until
only a little of the liquid is left; add a little tartaric acid, then

a drop or two of ammonia to supersaturate the acid; and lastly.

a little ammoniacal sulphate of magnesia, when the crystals of
the double phosphate of magnesia and ammonia will appear:

4. Protochloride of Iron.—In breaking open one of the fissures
of this meteoric iron a small amount of a green substance was
obtained that was easily soluble in water; and although not
analyzed quantitively, it left no doubt upon my mind as to
its being protochloride of iron; and the manner of its occur-
rence gave strong evidence of its being an original constituent
of the mass, and not formed since the fall of the mass. Chloride

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 279

of iron was apparent on various parts of the iron by its deli-
quescence on the surface.

2. Mxerroric [Ron FRoM CAMPBELL County, TENN.

This meteorite was discovered in July, 1853, in Campbell
County, Tenn., in Stinking Creek, which flows down one of the
narrow valleys of the Cumberland Mountains. It was found
by a Mr. Arnold in the channel of this stream; and having
been obtained by Prof. Mitchell, of Knoxville, he kindly pre-
sented ittome. Itisasmall oval mass, two and a fourth inches
long, one and three fourths broad, and three fourths thick, with
an irregular surface and several cavities perforating the mass.
It was covered with a thin coat of oxide; and on one half of
it chloride of iron was deliquescing from the surface, while on
another portion there was a thin siliceous coating.

The iron composing the mass was quite tough, highly crys-
talline, and exhibited small cavities on being broken, resem-
bling very much in this respect, as well as in many other
points, the Hommony Creek iron. A polished surface when
etched exhibited distinct irregular Widmannstattian figures.

The weight is four and a third ounces; specific gravity
7.05. The lowness of the specific gravity is accounted for by
its porous nature. Composition:

Alb Osee reece Cece cenetnoas sen ccaSacccci ase wn scwoatiers 97.54
IN CG eee crise ease aco scelestae va eicaie cinta oabeste 25
Clo Wallies sasep hs secsssdecsises cccasesdeenccemste seaene 60
Copper, too small to be estimated.
(CIPO hos G86 Sot Ga sen ED BRR ARERR EB Een aeREE Ee ane 1.50
sO SP MOMMS ca. sos secesiccisa lavew aeseelonsotavena anne 12
STHIKEE) Ssh cos cco DoB See Ae nee {Gas eheen koeenatess sete 1.05.
100.52

Chlorine exists in some parts in minute proportion. The
amount of nickel, it will be seen, is quite small; but its com-
position is nevertheless perfectly characteristic of its origin.

3. Merrroric Iron rrom CoAanuiLa, MEXIco.

This meteorite was brought to this country by Lieut. Gouch,
of the United States army, he having obtained it at Saltillo.
It was said to have come from the Sancha estate, some fifty or
sixty miles from Santa Rosa, in the north of Coahuila. Various
accounts were given of the precise locality, but none seemed

280 © MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

very satisfactory. When first seen by Lieut. Gouch it was used
as an anvil, and had been originally intended for the Society
of Geography and Statistics in the City of Mexico. It is stated
that where this mass was found there are many others of enor-
mous size. These stones, however, it is well known, are to be
received with many allowances. Mr. Weidner, of the mines of
Freiberg, states that near the south-western edge of the Balson
de Mapimi, on the route to the mines of Parral, there is a
meteorite near the road of not less than a ton weight. Lieut.
Gouch also states that the intelligent but almost unknown
Dr. Berlandier writes in his journal of the commission of limits
that, at the hacienda of Venagas there was (1827) a piece of
iron that would make a cylinder one yard in length, with a
diameter of ten inches. It was said to have been brought from
the mountains near the hacienda. It presented no crystalline
structure, and was quite ductile.

The meteoric mass in question, which is at the Smithsonian
Institution, is of the form represented in the figure, and one

v
}

i

ii

n

iy
i

HH
p

\

1
q
Ki
2

well adapted for an anvil. Its weight is two hundred and
fifty-two pounds, and from several flattened places I am led
to suppose that pieces have become detached. The surface,
although irregular in some places, is rather smooth, with only
here and there thin coatings of rust, and, as might be expected,
but very feeble evidence of chlorine, and that only on one or
two spots on the surface. Specific gravity 7.81. It is highly
crystalline, quite malleable, and not difficult to cut with the
saw. Its surface ctched with nitric acid presents the Widmann-
stiittian figures, with a finely-specked surface between the lines,

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 281

‘resembling the representation we have of the etched surface
of Hauptmannsdorf iron. Schreibersite is visible in the iron,
but so inserted in the mass that it can not be readily detected
by mechanical means. Hydrochloric acid. leaves a residue
of beautifully brilliant patches of this mineral. Subjected to
analysis it was found to contain

HNpQp immer tartare rece ok cia Gaitictssuie ese ocleieaio’ senna ieee es 95.82
CO Olin ipargeeistel at /oic erolok/os aisle clsinetnicaiele ccadectabte nevebabales B35
: INTIGISE] cq 525A BAREPREAAI Re ents ens Aiea am RE Sa iE 3.18
Copper, minute quantity, not estimated.
He ih Bs BNO US is Spactoineiciact aare> «slaienises/see ae tens wae eer 24
99.59
Which corresponds to
INGE life nO Usman OM) se. .icm sess. eA cC SE CDone 98.45
SCMREMDENGIBON ss cuilac nsec seetacemsaascasteaese ees 1.55
. 100.00

The iron is remarkably free from other constituents. It is
especially interesting as the largest mass of meteoric iron in
this country next to the Texas meteorite at Yale College.

4. Mrerroric [ron rrom Tucson, Mexico.

We have had several accounts of meteoric masses which
exist at Tucson, Dr. J. L. LeConte having made them known
some few years ago. Since that time Mr. Bartlett, of the
- Boundary Commission, has seen them and made a drawing
of one which he has kindly allowed me the use of, as well as
the manuscript notice of them, which is, however, quite brief.
This mass is used for an anvil, resembles native iron, and
weighs about six hundred pounds. Its greatest length is five
feet. Its exterior is quite smooth, while the lower part which
projects from the larger leg is very jagged and rough. It was
found about twenty miles distant toward Tubac, and about
eight miles from the road, where we are told are many larger
masses. The following figure (3) represents the appearance
of that meteorite. |

Since my communication last April I have obtained frag-
ments of the meteorite from Lieut John G. Parke, of the U.S.
Topographical Engineers, who cut them from the mass at
Tueson, and to whose kindness I feel much indebted.

Some of the fragments were entirely covered with rust, and

-

282 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

in some parts little blisters existed, arising from chloride of iron.
Portions of the broken surface retain their metallic luster un-
tarnished. The Widmannstattian figures are very imperfectly
developed, owing to the porous nature of the iron, the pores
of which are filled with a stony mineral. The specific gravity
taken on three specimens were 6.52, 6.91, 7.13. The last was
the most compact and free from stony particles that could be
found, and upon that the chemical examination was made.*

\

ZZ }

= .
Gergen sum | I

ft | i i HC } \ WN ye ‘ = IK |

Ni
AWN
\

(|

On examination it is seen to consist of two distinct parts,
metallic and stony. The latter was only in minute particles,
yet it was impossible, among the specimens at my disposal, to
find a piece that was without it. On analysis the following
ingredients were found:

JDP O10) 3s5055.00e eqpanobedoocndse 85.54 Which represent the following min-
Nickel eset sscteccn ace «i . 8.55 erals: .
Copal pevestecancteececnas 61 . Nickeliferous ifomécs:-02: sees. eee 93.81
COpPelissesdenapacetecteseonct 08. “Chrome 170n:. ..4565.¢--.s-ssepseeaee Al
Phosphonuseess-p.ccecce---- 12) SehRelbersite .2.-caten.ceeeeeee een 84
Chromictoxide-:.-<...-..2. 2 OMI RINC saa of deletes seeee eee 5.06
Mig en@steesaaey cease on le-es 2.04
SUG) cee ae cones: abobpmsocene 3.02 100.12
Pe (VION TE earns bachansnindsoc. trace

100.12

* This iron is now in the Smithsonian Institution, as has been for several
years. April, 1873.

am =

a

ee

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 283

Some few particles of olivine were separated mechanically,
and readily recognized as such under the magnifying glass in
connection with the action of acids, which readily decompose
it, furnishing silica and magnesia. Some of the olivine is in a
pulverulent condition, resembling that of the Atacama iron.
The nickeliferous iron of this Tucson meteorite also resembles
that of the Atacama iron. Calculated from the above results
it consists of: Iron, 90.91; nickel, 8.46; cobalt, 63; copper,
trace—100:00°"

This meteorite is one of much interest, and it is to be hoped
that some of our enterprising U. 8S. Topographical Engineers
will yet be able to persuade the owners to part with it, and
bring it to this country.

5. Mrrroric Iron or Curnuanua, MExico.

For the description of this meteorite I am indebted to the
manuscript of Mr. Bartlett, and had hoped to have obtained a

\

:
we

if

1] \
=
y

C=

AS // : RR

t=

i]
——

C

NI

aN

Noes
DS SSS

oe =
UU eB

Fig. 4,

fragment of it for examination from Dr. Webb, who detached
pieces from the mass; but when applied to they were no longer
in his possession. It exists at the Hacienda de Conception,

284 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

about ten miles from Zapata. “The form is irregular. Its
greatest height is forty-six inches; greatest breadth thirty-
seven inches; circumference in thickest part eight feet three
inches. Its weight, as given by Senor Urquida, is about three
thousand eight hundred and fifty-three pounds. It is irregular
in form, as seen by the figure; and one side is filled with deep
cavities, generally round and of various dimensions. At its
lower part, as it now stands, is a projecting leg, quite similar
to the one on the meteorite at Tucson. The back or broadest
part is less jagged than the other portions, and contains fewer
cavities, yet, like the rest, is very irregular.”

PART If.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Under this head no mention will be made of the phenomena
accompanying the fall of meteorites, as their light, noise,
bursting, and their black coating, which arise after the bodies
have entered the atmosphere, and are brought about by its
agency. This omission will affect in no way the theoretical
views under consideration, and the introduction of these par-
ticulars would uselessly increase the length of this memoir.

The lessons to be learned from meteorites, both stony and
metallic, are probably not as much appreciated as they ought
to be. We are usually satisfied with an analysis of them and
surmises as to their origin, without due consideration of their
physical and chemical characters.

The great end of science is to generalize facts that are ob-

served. Thus terrestrial gravitation has been éxtended to the —
solar system, and in fact to the whole universe. The astronomer

by. his discoveries only proves the universality of this one law
of nature operating on matter. He has found no evidence that
any other force pertaining to terrestrial matter displays itself
in a similar manner in other spheres. However true and sclf-
evident it may appear that all matter in space is under the
same laws, be they those of gravitation, cohesion, chemical
affinity, etc., it is none the less interesting to have the fact

ae

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 285

proved; and meteorites when looked upon as bringing these
proofs acquire additional interest.

Meteorites studied in the way just mentioned lead us to the
inference that the materials of the earth are exact represen-
tatives of the materials of our system, for up to the present
time no element has been found in a meteorite that has not its
counterpart on the earth; or, if we are not warranted in making
such a broad assumption, we certainly have the proof, as far as

' we may ever expect to get it, that materials of other portions
-of the universe are identical with those of our earth.

Meteorites also show that the laws of crystawization in bodies
foreign to the earth are the same as those affecting terrestrial
matter, and in this connection we may instance pyroxene,
olivine, and chrome iron, affording in their crystalline form
angles identical with Hees of terrestrial origin.

But perhaps of all the interesting facts under this head
developed by meteorites is the universality of the laws of
chemical affinity, or the truth that all the laws of chemical
combination and atomic constitution are to be equally well
seen in extra-terrestrial and terrestrial matter; so that were
Dalton or Berzelius to seek for the atomic weights of iron,
silica, or magnesia, they might learn them as well from me-
teoric minerals as from those taken from the bowels of the
earth. The atomic constitution of meteoric anorthite or of
pyroxene is the same as that which exists in our own rocks.

Keeping in view then the physical and chemical characters
of meteorites, I propose to offer some theoretical considerations
which to be fully appreciated must be followed step by step.
These views are not offered because they individually possess
particular novelty. It is the manner in which they are com-
bined to which especial attention is called.

:

PHysicaAlL CHARACTERISTICS TO BE NOTED IN METEORITES.

The first physical characteristic to be noted is their form
No masses of rock, however rudely detached from a quarry, or
blasted from the side of a mountain, or ejected from the mouth
of a volcano, would present more diversity of form than
meteoric stones. They are rounded, cubical, oblong, jagged,
flattened, and in fine they present a great variety of fantastic
shapes. Now the fact of form I conceive to be a most im-

286 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

portant point for consideration in regard to the origin of these
bodies; as the form alone is strong proof that the individual
meteorites have not always been cosmical bodies, for had they
been their form must have been spherical or spheroidal. As
this is not so, it is reasonable to suppose that at one time or
another they must have constituted a part of some larger mass.
But as this subject will be taken up again, I pass to another
point; namely, the crystalline structure, more especially that
of the,iron, and the complete separation in nodules, in the
interior of the iron, of sulphuret and phosphuret of the metals
constituting the mass. When this is properly examined it is
seen that these bodies must have been in a plastic state for a
great length of time, for nothing else could have determined
such crystallization as we see in the iron, and allow such per-
fect separation of sulphur and phosphorus from the great bulk
of the metal, combining only with a limited portion to form
particular minerals; and did we aim to imitate such separation
by artificial processes, we could only hope to do it by retaining
the iron in a plastic condition for a great length of time. Also,
no other agent than fire can be conceived of by which this
metal could be kept in the condition requisite for the sepa-
ration.

If these facts with reference to the crystalline structure be
admitted, the natural suggestion is that they could only have
been thus heated while a part of some large body.

Another physical fact worthy of being noticed here is the
manner in which the metallic iron and stony parts are often
interlaced and mixed, as in the Pallas and Atacama irons,
where nickeliferous iron and olivine in nearly equal portions
(by bulk) are intimately mixed, so that when the olivine is
detached the iron resembles a very coarse sponge. This is an
additional fact in proof of the great heat to which the meteor-
ites must have been submitted, for with our present knowledge
of physical laws there is no other way in which we can con-
ceive that such a mixture of iron and olivine could have been
produced.

Other physical points might be noticed, but as they are
familiar to all, and would add nothing to the theoretical con-
siderations, they will be passed over.

sian aes

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 287

' MINERALOGICAL AND CHEMICAL Points IN METEORITES.

The rocks or minerals of meteorites are not of a sedimen-
tary character, nor such as are produced by the action of water.
This is obvious to any one who will examine these bodies. <A
mineralogist will also be struck with the thin dark-colored
coating on the surface of the stony meteorites. The coating,
in most if not in all instances, is of atmospheric origin, being
acquired after the meteorite enters the atmosphere, and as
such no further notice will be taken of it; but I will proceed
at once to notice the most interesting peculiarities under this
head. First of all, metallic iron, alloyed with more or less
nickel and cobalt, is of constant occurrence in meteorites, with
but three or four exceptions—in some instances constituting
the entire mass, at other times disseminated in fine particles
through stony matter. The existence of this highly oxidizable
mineral in its metallic condition is a positive indication of a
scarcity or total absence of oxygen (in its gaseous state or in
the form of water) in the locality whence it came.

Another mineralogical character of significance is that the
stony portions of the meteorites resemble the older igneous
rocks, and in even a more striking manner the volcanic rocks
belonging to various active and extinct volcanoes. It is useless
to dwell on this fact, as it is one well known to all mineralogists
who may have examined this matter; and none have given
more especial attention to it than Rammelsberg, who in a paper
published in 1849 details his examination of a great variety
of lavas, and traced the perfect parallelism between them and
stony meteorites. He showed that the Juvenas stone has the
same constitution as the Thjorsa lava of Heckla, both con-
sisting substantially of augite and anorthite, even in nearly
the same relative proportions; while the Chateau Renard and
Nordhausen stones have labradorite replacing the anorthite; and
the Blansko, Chantonnay, and Utrecht stones have oligoclase
as the feldspar, and resemble the lavas of tna, Stromboli, and
the newer lavas of Heckla.

The inference to be drawn from the last character is very
evident. It is highly significative of the igneous origin of
these bodies, and of an igneous action similar to that now
existing in our volcanoes.

288 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

Yet another point of resemblance to certain of our terrestrial
igneous rocks is the presence of metallic iron, for lately Mr.
Andrews has proved the existence of metallic iron in basaltic
rocks; but this will not be insisted on, as the quantity of iron
discovered in basaltic rocks is so minute as only to be detected
by the most delicate means of investigation.

Ever since the labors of Howard in 1802 the chemical con-
stitution of meteorites has attracted much attention, more
especially the elements associated in the metallic portion; and
although we find no new elements, still their association, so far
as yet known, is peculiar to this class of bodies. Thus nickel
is a constant associate of iron in meteorites (if we except the
Oswego, N. Y., meteorite upon whose claims to meteoric origin
there yet remains some doubt); and although cobalt and copper
are mentioned only as occasional associates, in my examination
of near thirty known meteorites Gn more than one half of
which these constituents were not mentioned) I have found
both of the last-mentioned metals as constantly as the nickel.
With our more recent method of separating cobalt from nickel
very accurate and precise results can be obtained as relates
to the cobalt. The copper exists always in so minute pro-
portion that the most careful manipulation is required to
separate it.

Another element frequently but not always mentioned as
associated with the iron is phosphorous. Here again my test-
ing of thirty specimens led me to a similar generalization
concerning phosphorus; namely, that no meteoric iron is to
be expected without it. My examination has extended as well
to the metallic particles separated from the stony meteorites
as to the meteoric irons proper. It may be even further stated
that in most instances the phosphorus was traceable directly
to the mineral schreibersite.

These four elements then—iron, nickel, cobalt, and phos-
phorus—I consider remarkably constant ingredients. First in
the meteoric irons proper, and secondly in the metallic particles
of the stony meteorites; there being only some three or four
meteorites among hundreds that are known in which they are
not recognized.

As regards the combination of these elements it is worthy
of remark that no one of them is associated with oxygen,

;
’
4
;
F

a ee ee ee OR ee

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 289

although all four of them have strong affinity for this element,
and are never found (except copper) in the earth uncombined
with it, except where some similar element (as sulphur, etc.)
supplies its place.*

The inference of the absence of oxygen in a gaseous condi-
tion, or in water, is drawn from such substances as iron and
nickel being in their metallic state, as has been just mentioned.
But it must not be inferred that oxygen is absent in all forms
at the place of origin of meteorites, for the silica, magnesia,
protoxide of iron, etc., contain this element. The occurrence
of one class of oxides and not another would indicate a limited
supply of the element oxygen, the more oxidizable elements,
as silicon, magnesium, etc., having appropriated it in preference
to the iron. a

Many other elements worthy of notice might be mentioned
here, and-some of them, for aught we know, may be constant
ingredients; but in the absence of strong presumption at least
on this head they will be passed over, as those already men-
tioned suffice for the support of all theoretical views to be
advanced.

I can not, however, avoid calling attention to the presence
of carbon in certain meteorites; for although its existence is
denied by some chemists, it is nevertheless a fact that can be as
easily established as the presence of the nickel. The interest
to be attached to it is due to the fact that it is so commonly
regarded in the light of an organic element. It serves to
strengthen the notion that carbon can be of pure mineral
origin, for no one would be likely to suppose that the carbon
found its way into a meteorite either directly or indirectly from
an organic source.

Having thus noted the predominant physical, mineralogical,
and chemical characteristics of meteorites, I pass on to the next
head.

MARKED POINTS OF SIMILARITY IN THE CONSTITUTION OF ME-
| TEORIC STONES.

Had this class of bodies not possessed certain properties dis-
tinguishing them from terrestrial minerals, much doubt would

* The traces of iron found in basaltic rock already alluded to form too
insignificant an exception to be insisted on. .

290 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

even now be entertained of their celestial origin, and various
would be the explanations made even in those cases where the
bodies were seen to fall, and afterward collected. . Chemistry
has entirely dissipated all doubts in the matter, and now an
examination in the laboratory of the chemist is entitled to more
credit than evidence from any other source in pronouncing on
the meteoric origin of a body. No question need be asked as
to whether it was seen to fall, or whether this or that rock or
mineral exists in the neighborhood where it may have been
collected. The reagents of the chemist alone are unerring
indications that suffice to set aside all caviling in the matter.

It is the object of this part of the paper to explain more’
prominently perhaps than has yet been done how it is that
chemistry pronounces with such unerring certainty on the
celestial origin of certain bodies; and I propose to go even a
step farther, and see if the chemical constitution of the mete-
orites can indicate from what part of the heavens they may
have come.

When the mineralogical and chemical composition of these
bodies are regarded, the most ordinary observer will be struck
with the wonderful family likeness running through them all,
however unlike at first sight. There will be seen to be three
great divisions of meteoric bodies (omitting three or four);
namely, metallic, stony with small particles of metal, and a
mixture of metallic and stony, in which the former predomi-
nates, as in the Pallas and Atacama meteorites.

As regards external appearances, these three classes differ in
a very marked manner from each other. The meteoric iron
being ordinarily of a compact structure, more or less corroded
externally, and when cut showing a dense structure with most
of the peculiarities of pure iron, only a little harder in texture
and whiter in color. The stony meteorites are usually of a gray
or greenish-gray color, granular structure, readily broken by a
blow of the hammer, and exteriorly are covered with a thin
coating of fused material. The mixed meteorite presents char-
acters of both of the above; a large portion of it is constituted
of the kind of iron already mentioned, cellular in its character,
and the cells filled up with stony materials, similar in appear-
ance to those constituting the second class.

Although there are some instances of bodies of undoubted

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 291

meteoric origin not falling properly under either of the above
three heads, still they will be seen upon close investigation not
to interfere in any way with the general conclusions that are
attempted to be arrived at; for these constituents are repre-
sented in the stony materials of the second class, from which
their only essential difference consists in the absence of metallic
particles.

If we now examine chemically the three classes mentioned,
we find them all possessed of certain common characteristics
that link them together, and at the same time separate them
from every thing terrestrial. Take first the metallic masses;
and in very many instances, in some fissure or cavity exposed
by sawing or otherwise, stony materials will frequently be
found, and a stony crystal is sometimes exposed ;. now examine
the composition of these, and then compare -the results with
what may be known of the stony meteorites, and in every
instance it will agree with some mineral or minerals found in
this latter class, as olivine or pyroxene—most commonly the
former; but in no instance is it a mineral not found in the
stony meteorites. If these last in their turn be examined, dif-
fering vastly in their appearance from the metallic meteorites,
they will with but two or three exceptions be found to contain
a malleable metal identical in composition with the metal con-
stituting the metallic meteorites.

As to those mixed meteorites in which the metallic and
stony portions seem to be equally distributed; their two ele-
ments are but representatives of the two classes just described.
Examined in this way, there will be no difficulty in tracing the
same signature on them all, indorsing the above.as their true
character, and almost serving to tell us whence they came.
They may emphatically be said to have been linked in their
origin by a chain of iron.

There is one mineral which there is every reason to believe
constantly accompanies the metzllic portions, and which may
be regarded as:a most peculiar mark of difference between
meteorites and terrestrial bodies. It is the mineral screibersite
(see first part of this memoir), to which the constant presence
of phosphorus in meteoric iron is due. This mineral, as already
remarked, has no parallel on the face of the globe, whether we
consider its specific or generic character, there being no such

292 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

thing as phosphuret of iron and nickel or any other phosphuret
found among minerals. These facts render the consideration
of schreibersite one of much interest, running as it probably
does through all meteorites, and forming another point of sepa-
ration between meteorites and terrestrial objects.

Another striking similarity in the composition of meteorites
is the limited action of oxygen on them. In the case of the
purely metallic meteorites we trace an almost total absence
of this element. In the stony meteorites the oxygen is in
combination with silicon, magnesium, etc., forming silica, mag-
nesia, etc., that combine with small portions of other substances
to form the predominant earthy minerals of meteorites. When
iron is found in combination with oxygen it is found in its
lowest state of oxidation, as in the protoxide of the olivine and
chrome iron, and as magnetic oxide.

Without going further into detail as regards the similarity
of composition of meteorites, they will be seen to have as
strongly marked points of resemblance as minerals coming
from the same mountain —I might almost say from the same
mine—and it is not asking much to admit their having a
common center of origin, and that, whatever the body from
which they originate, it must contain no uncombined oxygen,
and, I might even add, none in the form of water.

What is this center of origin? Physics does not point it
out; and although the chemist can not explore the elementary
constitution of any of the other great celestial bodies than the
earth, he can examine those smaller celestial masses which
come to the earth, and from his results stand on a firmer basis
for theoretical conclusions.

ORIGIN OF METEORIC STONES.

In taking up the theoretical considerations of the origin
of meteoric stones, it is of the utmost importance to reflect
well before we confound shooting-stars and meteoric stones as
all belonging to the same class of bodies—a view entertained
by many distinguished observers. It is doubtless owing to the
fact of their having been confounded that but little advance
has been made in‘settling upon the origin of these bodies; in
fact, owing to this manner of viewing the subject, observers
such as Arago, Bissel, Olbers, and others have turned away

:
? |
w

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 293

from the original conception of the origin of meteoric stones
to views of a different character, based on observations of the
shooting-stars.

It may be a broad assumption to start with, that there is
not a single evidence of the identity of shooting-stars (as ex-
emplified by the periodical meteors of August and November)
and these meteors which give rise to meteoric stones, and this
conclusion is one arrived at by as full an examination of the
subject as I am capable of making.* Some of the prominent
reasons for such a conclusion will be mentioned.

Were shooting-stars and meteoric stones the same class of
bodies, it is natural to suppose that the fall of the latter would
be most abundant when the former are most numerous. In
other words, these periodic occurrences of shooting-stars in
August and November, and more particularly those immense
showers that have been sometimes seen, ought to have been
attended with the falling of one or more meteoric stones;
whereas there is not a single instance on record where these
showers have been accompanied with the falling of a meteoric
stone. Again, in all instances where a meteoric body has been
seen to fall, and has been observed even from its very commence-
ment, it has been alone and not accompanied by other meteors.

~ Very little reflection will serve to convince any one that an

objection to the identity of the two classes of bodies, based
upon the above fact, is of great weight.

Another strong objection to considering the bodies of the
same nature is based on the want of proof of their velocities
being the same. It is a pretty well-established fact that the
average velocity of shooting-stars is sixteen and a half miles a
second—a result arrived at by different observers, and doubtless
a close approximation to the truth, as from the constant occur-
rence of shooting-stars thousands of observations may be made
with comparative ease by different observers noting the same
stars. Not so with meteoric stones, these occurrences being
rare, sudden, and unexpected, and no two observers being ever

* Prof. D. Olmsted, in a most interesting article on the subject of meteors,
to be found in the 26th volume of Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, p. 182,
insists upon the difference between shooting-stars and meteorites, and the
time and attention he has devoted to the phenomena of meteors give we'cht
to his opinion.

20

294. MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

prepared to note the data requisite for calculating their veloci-
ties; besides, I am prepared to prove that the two or three
cases of supposed determination of velocities of meteoric stones
can not be considered even gross approximation to the truth;
in fact, the difficulties in the way are so great that we probably
never shall arrive at a knowledge of their velocities.** Not
even their effect on striking the earth will furnish any data
whereby to calculate their velocities before entering the atmos-
phere, for this medium must offer such enormous resistance to
bodies penetrating at great velocities that these velocities must
be reduced to but a fraction of what they originally were; and
it is a question whether a body entering our atmosphere at ten
miles a second would penetrate the soil to a much greater depth
than one entering it at five miles a second, for the imereased
velocity of the former would cause an increased resistance in
the atmosphere, and therefore have received proportionally a
greater check before striking the earth.

Another fact tending to prove a dissimilarity between shoot-
ing-stars and meteoric stones is that the velocity of no one of the
shooting-stars has been observed to be so low as to allow of their
being considered satellites to the earth; their average velocity
is sixteen and a half miles a second, and it requires a reduction
to less than six miles a second for them to assume a path around
the earth. Now assume what we may as to the original orbit
of the meteoric stones, and as to their original velocity —let

* Under this head I will merely note what is considered one of the best
established cases of the determination of velocity of a meteoric stone; namely,
that of the Weston meteorite, the velocity of which Dr. Bowditch estimated
to “exceed three miles a second.’ Mr. Herrick considers the velocity very
much greater, and writes among other things what follows: “The length
of its path, from the observations made at Rutland, Vt., and at Weston,
was at least one hundred and seven miles. This space being divided by the
duration of the flight as estimated by two observers—viz., thirty seconds—
we have for the meteor’s relative velocity about three and a half miles a
second. 'The observations made at Wenham, Mass., are probably less exact in
this respect, and need not be mentioned here. An experienced observer, how-
ever intelligent, will give the time ten or even twenty-fold too large. One not
unversed in science who saw the meteor is confident it could not have been
in sight as long as ten seconds.” The above is given as a specimen of the
uncertain data we are to proceed upon in estimating the velocity of meteoric
stones.

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 295

their orbit be around the sun and their velocity sixteen miles a
second — there is one thing we know; namely, that these bodies
do enter our atmosphere, and, it is but right to assume, often
pass through the atmosphere without falling to the earth,
sometimes passing through the very uppermost portion of that
medium, at other times lower. What becomes of their original
assumed velocity after this passage? As they can be so checked
as to be drawn to the earth’s surface, and thus stopped alto-
gether in their passage, their velocities may be changed to any
velocity from sixteen miles a second to zero, according to the
amount of resistance they meet with; and what is equally true
in this connection is that when the velocity falls below six miles
a second (or thereabout) they can no longer escape from the
attraction of the earth and resume their solar orbit, but must
revolve as a satellite around the earth until ultimately brought
to its surface by repeated disturbances.

The deduction from the above fact is as follows: that as the
most correct observations have never given a velocity of less
than nine miles a second to a shooting-star, it is reasonable to
suppose that none have ever entered our atmosphere, or, what
is perhaps still more reasonable, that the matter of which they
are- composed is as subtile as that of Encke’s comet, and any
contact with even the uppermost limit of the atmosphere
destroys their velocity and disperses the matter of which they
are composed. Other grounds might be mentioned for sup-
posing a difference between shooting-stars and meteoric stones,
and I have dwelt on it thus much because it is conceived of
prime importance in pursuing the correct path that is to lead
‘to the discovery (Gf it can be made) of their origin. It is also
of no small value to the beautiful and probable theory of shoot-
ing-stars that we should separate every thing from it that may
tend to affect its plausibility.

Various theories have been devised to account for their
origin. One is that they are small planetary bodies revolving
around the sun, and that at times they become entangled in
the atmosphere, lose their orbital velocity by the resistance
of the atmosphere, and are finally attracted to the earth. They
are also supposed to have been ejected from the volcanoes of
the moon; and lastly, they are considered as formed from
particles floating in the atmosphere. The exact nature of this

296 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

last theory is understood by reading the views of Prof. C. U.
Shepard, as expressed in an interesting report on meteorites
published in 1848. The author* says: “The extra-terrestrial
origin of meteoric stones and iron masses seems likely to be
more and more called in question with the advance of knowl-
edge respecting such substances, and as additions continue to
be made to the connected sciences. Great electrical excitation
is known to accompany volcanic eruptions, which may reason-
ably be supposed to occasion some chemical changes in the
voleanic ashes ejected; these being wafted by the ascensional
force of the eruption into the regions of the magneto-polar
influence, may there undergo a species of magnetic analysis.
The most highly magnetic elements (iron, nickel, cobalt, chro-
mium, etc.), or compounds in which these predominate, would
thereby be separated, and become suspended in the form of me-
tallic dust, forming those columnar clouds so often illuminated
in auroral displays, and whose position conforms to the direc-
tion of the dipping-needle. While certain of the diamagnetic
elements, or combinations of them, on the other hand, may
under the control of the same force be collected into different
masses, taking up a position at right-angles to the former
(which Faraday has shown to be the fact in respect to such
bodies), and thus produce those more or less regular arches,
transverse to the magnetic meridian, that are often recognized
in the phenomena of the aurora borealis. Any great disturb-
ance of the forces maintaining these clouds of meteor-dust,
like that produced by a magnetic storm, might lead to the
precipitation of portions of the matter thus suspended. If
the disturbance was confined to the magnetic dust, iron masses
would fall; if to the diamagnetic dust, a non-ferruginous stone.
If it should extend to both classes simultaneously, a blending
of the two characters would ensue in the precipitate, and a rain
of ordinary meteoric stones would take place. The occasional
raining of meteorites might therefore on such a theory be as
much expected as the ordinary deposition of moisture from
the atmosphere. The former would originate in a mechanical

*JT must, in justice to Prof. Shepard, say that since his paper was written
he has informed me that he no longer entertains these views; and I would
now omit the criticism of them did they not exist in his memoir uncontra-
dicted, and also were they not views still entertained by some.

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 297

elevation of volcanic ashes and in matter swept into the air by
tornadoes, the latter from simple evaporation. In the one case
the matter is upheld by magneto-electric force; in the other
by the law of diffusion which regulates the blending of vapors
and gases, and by temperature. A precipitation of metallic
and earthy matter would happen on any reduction of the
magnetic tension; one of rain, hail, or snow on a fall of tem-
perature. The materials of both originate in our earth. In
the one instance they are elevated but to a short distance from
its surface, while in the other they appear to penetrate beyond
its farthest limits, and possibly to enter the interplanetary
system. In both cases, however, they are destined, through
the operation of invariable laws, to return to their original
_ repository.”

This theory, coming as it does from one who is justly entitled
to high consideration from the fact of the special attention he
has given to the subject of meteorites, may mislead; and for
that reason objections will be advanced which will doubtless
entirely set aside this notion of terrestrial origin, and to this
end I would consider two fundamental principles of it. First
of all it must be proved that terrestrial volcanoes contain all
the varieties of matter found in the composition of the mete-
oric bodies. There is no doubt that many of the varieties are
ejected from volcanoes, as olivine, ete.; but then the principal
one, nickeliferous iron, has never in a single instance been found
in the lava or other matter coming from volcanoes, although
frequently sought for.

But the physical obstacles are a still more insuperable diffi-
culty in the way of adopting this theory. In the first place it
is considered a physical impossibility for tornadoes or other
currents of air to waft matter, however impalpable, “beyond
the farthest limits of the earth, and possibly into interplanetary
space.” Again, if magnetic and diamagnetic forces cause the
particles to coalesce and form solid masses, by the cessation of
‘those forces the bodies would crumble into powder. Another
strong physical objection to the theory is, that as the consoli-
dation of these masses is expected to take place in “magneto-
polar” regions, their fall should only be in those portions of
the earth; for, like rain and hail (to which the consolidation
of these bodies are assimilated in this theory), they should fall

’ j \
298 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

-perpendicularly, or nearly so, from their points of condensa-
tion. And lastly, under the head of physical objections, how
can bodies so formed be precipitated in such very oblique direc-
tions aS many are known to have, and that too from east to
west and not from the north?

We pass on to a concise statement of some of the chemical
objections to this theory of atmospheric origin, and, if possible,
they are more insuperable than the last mentioned. Contem-
plate for a moment the first meteorite described in this paper.
Here is a mass of iron, of about sixty pounds, of a most solid
structure, highly crystalline, composed of nickel and iron chem-
ically united, containing in its center a crystalline phosphuret
of iron and nickel, and on its exterior surface a compound of
sulphur and iron also in atomic proportions, and then see if the
mind can be satisfied in supposing that the dust wafted from
the crater of a voleano into the higher regions of the atmos-
phere could in a few moments of time be brought together by
any known forces so as to create the body in question. How-
ever finely divided this volcanic dust might be, it can never be
subdivided into atoms, a state of things that must exist to
form bodies in atomic proportions where no agency is present
to dissolve or fuse the particles concerned. One other objection
and I am done with this theory.

The particles of iron and nickel supposed to be ejected from
the voleano must pass from the heated mouth of a crater, ascend
through the oxygen of the atmosphere without undergoing the
slightest oxidation; for if there be any one thing which marks
the meteorites more strongly than any other it is the freedom
of the masses of iron from oxidation except on the surface; but
a still more remarkable abstinence from oxidation would be the
ascent of the particles of phosphorus to form the schreibersite
traceable in so raany meteorites. Having noticed the promi-
nent objections to this theory, I pass on to consider, in as few
words as possible, the other two theories.

A very commonly-adopted theory of the origin of meteoric
bodies is that they are small planetary bodies revolving around
the sun, one portion of their orbit approaching or crossing that
of the earth; and from the various disturbing causes to which
these small bodies must necessarily be subjected their orbits
are constantly undergoing more or less variation until inter-

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 299

sected by our atmosphere, when they meet with the most
serious derangement, and fall to the earth’s surface in whole
orin part. This may not occur in their first passage through
the atmosphere, but repeated obstructions in this medium at
different times must ultimately bring about the result. In this
theory their origin is supposed to be the same as that of other
planetary bodies, and they are regarded as always having had
an individual cosmical existence. Now, however reasonable
the admission of this orbital motion immediately before and
for some time previous to their contact with the earth, the
assumption of their original cosmical origin would appear to
have no support in the many characteristics of meteoric bodies
as enumerated some pages back. The form alone of these bodies,
is any thing but what ought to be expected from a gradual
condensation and consolidation. All the chemical and miner-
alogical characters are opposed to this supposition. If the ad-
vocates of this theory do not insist on the last feature of it,
then the theory amounts to but little else than a statement that
meteoric stones fall to us from space while having an orbital
motion. In order to entitle this planetary theory to any weight
it must be shown how bodies formed and constructed as these are
could be other than fragments of some very much larger mass.
As to the existence of meteoric stones in space, traveling
in a special orbit prior to their fall, there can be but little
doubt when we consider their direction and velocity, their com-
position proving them to be of extra-terrestrial origin. This,
however, only conducts in part to their origin; and those who
will examine them chemically will feel convinced that the earth
is not the first great mass that meteoric stones have been in
contact with, and this conviction is strengthened when we
reflect on the strong marks of community of origin so fully
dwelt upon. It is then in consideration of what was the con-
nection of these bodies prior to their having an independent
motion of their own that this memoir will be concluded.

LUNAR ORIGIN OF METEORIC STONES.

It only remains to bring forward the facts already developed
to prove the plausibility of this origin of meteorites.

It is a theory that was proposed as early as 1660 by an
Italian philosopher, Terzago, and advanced by Olbers, in 1795,

300° MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

without any knowledge of its having been before proposed.
It was sustained by Laplace with all his mathematical skill
from the time of its adoption to his death. It was also advo-
cated on chemical grounds by Berzelius, whom I have no reason
~to believe ever changed his views in this matter; and to these
we have to add the following distinguished mathematicians
and philosophers: Biot, Brandes, Poisson, Quetelet, Arago,
and Benzenberg, who have at one time or another advocated
the lunar origin of meteorites.

Some of the above astronomers abandoned the theory, among
them Olbers and Arago; but they did not do so from any
supposed defect in it, but from adopting the assumption that
shooting-stars and meteorites were the same; and on studying
the former, and applying the phenomena attendant upon them
to meteorites, the supposed lunar origin was no longer possible.

On referring to the able researches of Sears C. Walker on
the periodical meteors of August and November (Trans. Am.
Phil. Soc., Jan., 1841), that astronomer makes the following
remarks about Olbers’s change of views: ‘In 1836 Olbers, the.
original proposer of the theory of 1795, being firmly convinced
of the correctness of Brandes’s estimate of the relative velocity
of meteors, renounces his selenic theory, and adopts the cosmical
theory as the only one which is adequate to explain the estab-
lished facts before the public.”

For reasons already stated it appears wrong to assume the
identity of meteorites and shooting-stars; so that whatever
difficulty the phenomena of shooting-stars may have interposed
in conceiving this or that to have been the origin of meteoric
stones, it now no longer exists; and we are fully authorized
in forming our conclusions concerning them to the utter dis-
regard of the phenomena of shooting-stars. Had Olbers viewed
the matter in this light he would doubtless have retained his
original convictions, to which no material objection appears to
have occurred to him for forty years.

It is not my object to enter upon all the points of plausibility
of this assumed origin, or to meet all the objections which have
been urged to it, for most of them have already been ably treated
of. The object now is simply to urge such points developed in
this memoir as appear to give strength to the lunar theory.
They may be summed up under the following heads:

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 301

1. That all meteoric masses have a community of origin.

2. At one period they formed parts of some large body.

3. They have all been subject to a more or less prolonged
igneous action, corresponding to that of terrestrial volcanoes.

4. That their source must be deficient in oxygen.

5. That their average specific gravity is about that of the
moon.

From what has been said under the head of common char-
acters of meteorites, it would appear far more singular that
these bodies should have been formed separately from each
other than that they should have at one time or another con-
stituted parts of the same body; and from the character of
their formation that body should have been of great dimen-
sions. Let us suppose all the known meteorites assembled in
one mass, and regarded by the philosopher, mindful of our
knowledge of chemical and physical laws. Would it be con-
sidered more rational to view them as the great representatives
of some one body that had been broken into fragments, or as
small specks of some vast body in space that at one period or
another has cast them forth? The latter, it seems to me, is
the only opinion that can be entertained in reviewing the facts
of the case. |

As regards the igneous character of the minerals composing
meteorites, nothing remains to be added to what has already
been said. In fact, no mineralogist can dispute the great re-
semblance of these minerals to those of terrestrial volcanoes,
they having only sufficient difference in association to establish
that, although igneous, they are extra-terrestrial. The source
must also be deficient in oxygen, either in a gaseous condition
or combined as in water. The reasons for so thinking have
been clearly stated as dependent upon the existence of metallic
iron in meteorites; a metal so oxidizable that in its terrestrial
associations it is almost always found combined with oxygen,
and never in its metallic state.

What then is that body which is to claim common parentage
of these celestial messengers that visit us from time to time?
Are we to look at them as fragments of some shattered planet,
whose great representatives are the numerous asteroids be-
tween Mars and Jupiter, and that they are “minute outriders
of the asteroids” (to use the language of R. P. Greg, jr., ina

302 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

late communcation to the British Association) which have been
ultimately drawn from their path by the attraction of the earth?
For more reasons than one this view is not tenable. Many of
our most distinguished astronomers do not regard the asteroids
as fragments of a shattered planet; and it is hard to believe if
they were, and the meteorites the smaller fragments, that these
latter should resemble each other so closely in their composi-
tion, a circumstance that would not be realized if our earth was
shattered into a million of masses large and small.

If then we leave the asterdids and look to the other planets, —

we find nothing in their constitution or the circumstances at-
tending them to lead to any rational supposition as to their
being the original habitation of the class of bodies in question.
This leaves us then but the moon to look to as the parent of
meteorites; and the more I contemplate that body the stronger
does the conviction grow that. to, it all these bodies originally
belonged.

It can not be doubted from what we know of the moon that
it is in all likelihood constituted of such matter as compose
meteoric stones: and that its appearances indicate volcanic
action, which, when compared with the combined volcanic
action on the face of the globe, is like contrasting Adtna with
an ordinary forge, so great is the difference. The results of
volcanic throws and outbursts of lava are. seen for which we
seek in vain any thing but a faint picture on the surface of our
earth. Again, in the support of the present view it is clearly
established that there is neither atmosphere nor water on the
surface of that body, and consequently no oxygen in those con-
ditions which would preclude the existence of metallic iron.

Another ground in support of this view is based on the
specific gravity of meteorites, a circumstance that has not been
insisted on; and although of itself possessing no great value,
yet in conjunction with the other facts it has some weight.

In viewing the cosmical bodies of our system with relation
to their densities, they are divided into two great classes—
planetary and cometary bodies (these last embracing comets
proper and shooting-stars)—the former being of dense and the
latter of very attenuated matter; and so far as our knowledge
extends there is no reason to believe that the density of any
comet approaches that of any of the planets. This fact gives

a
flea

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 303

some grounds for connecting meteorites with the planets.
Among the planets there is also a difference, and a very
marked one, in their respective densities; Saturn having a
density of 0.77 to 0.75, water being 1.0; Jupiter, 2.00—2.25 ;
Mars, 3.5-4.1; Venus, 4.8-5.4; Mercury between 7 and 36;
Uranus, 0.8-2.9; that of the Earth being 5.67.* If then from
specific gravity we are to connect meteorites to the planets, as
their mean density is usually considered about 3.0,+ they must
come within the planetary range of Mars, Earth, and Venus.
In the cases of the first and last we can trace no connection,
from our ignorance of their nature and of the causes that could
have detached them.

This reduces us then to our own planet, consisting of two
parts, the planet proper, with a density of 5.76, and the moon,
with a density of about 3.62. On viewing this, we are at
once struck with the relation that these bear to the density
of meteorites, a relation that even the planets do not bear to
each other. | .

As before remarked, I lay no great weight on this view of
the density, but call attention to it as agreeing with conclusions
arrived at on other grounds.

The chemical composition is also another strong ground in
favor of their.lunar origin. This has been so ably insisted on
by Berzelius and others that it would be superfluous to attempt
to argue the matter any further here; but I will simply make
a comment on the disregard that astronomers usually have
for this argument. In the memoir on the periodic meteors by
sears C. Walker, already quoted from, it is stated, “The chem-
ical objection is not very weighty, for we may as well suppose
a uniformity of constituents in cosmical as in lunar substances.”’
From this conclusion it is reasonable to dissent, for as yet we
are acquainted with the materials of but two bodies, those of

* For these estimates of the density of the planets the author is indebted
to Prof. Peirce.

7 Although the average specific gravity of the metallic and stony meteor-
ites is greater, yet the latter exceeding the former in quantity, the number
3.0 is doubtless as nearly correct as can be ascertained.

t Although the densities of the earth and moon differ, these two bodies
may consist of similar materials, for the numbers given represent the density
of bodies as wholes. The solid crust of the earth for a mile in depth can
not average a density of 3.0.

304 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

the earth and those of meteorites; and their very dissimilarity
of constitution is the strongest argument of their belonging to
different spheres. In further refutation of this idea it may be
asked, Is it to be expected that a mass of matter detached from
_ Jupiter (a planet but little heavier than water) or from Saturn
(one nearly as light as cork) or from Encke’s comet (thinner
than air) would at all accord with each other or with those
of the earth? It is far more rational to suppose that every
cosmical body, without necessarily possessing elements different
from each other, yet are so constituted that they may be known
by their fragments. With this view of the matter our speci-
mens of meteorites are but multiphed samples of the same
body, and that body, with the ight we now have, appears to
have been the moon.

This theory is not usually opposed on the ground that the
moon is not able to supply such bodies as the meteoric iron and
stone. It is more commonly objected to from the difficulty
that there appears to be in the way of this body’s projecting
masses of matter beyond the central point of attraction between
the earth and the moon. Suffice it to say that Laplace, with
all his mathematical acumen, saw no difficulty in the way of
this taking place, although we know that he gave special
attention to it at three different times during a period of thirty
years, and died without discovering any physical difficulty in
the way. Also for a period of forty years Olbers was of the
same opinion, and changed his views, as already stated, for
reasons of a different character. And to these two we add
Hutton, Biot, Poisson, and others whose names have been
already mentioned.

Laplace’s view of the matter was connected with present
volcanic action in the moon; but there is every reason to be-
lieve that all such action has long since ceased in the moon.
This, however, does not invalidate this theory in the least, for
the force of projection and modified attraction to which the
detached masses were subjected only gave them new and inde-
pendent orbits around the earth, that may endure for a great
length of time before coming in contact with the earth.

The various astronomers cited concur in the opinion that a
body projected from the moon with a velocity of about eight
thousand feet per second would go beyond the mutual point

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. | 305

of attraction between the earth and moon, and already having
an orbital velocity, may become a satellite of the earth with a
modified orbit.

The important question then for consideration is the force
requisite to produce this velocity. The force exercised in
terrestrial volcanoes varies. According to Dr. Peters, who
made observations on Aitna, the velocity of some of the stones
was 1,250 feet a second, and observations made on the peak
of Teneriffe gave 3,000 feet a second. Assuming, however,
the former velocity to be the maximum of terrestrial volcanic
effects, the velocity with which the bodies started (stones with
a specific gravity of about 3.00) must have exceeded 2,000 feet a
second to permit of an observed velocity of 1,250 feet through
the denser portions of our atmosphere.

Doubtless the projectile force of lunar volcanoes far exceeds
that of the terrestrial; and this we infer from the enormous
eraters of elevation to be seen upon its surface, and their great
elevation above the general surface of the moon, with their
borders thousands of feet above their center; all of which
point to the immense internal force required to elevate the
melted lava that must have at one time poured from their
sides. I know that Prof. Dana, in a learned paper on the sub-
ject of lunar volcanoes, argues that the great breadth of the
craters is no evidence of great projectile force, the pits being
regarded as boiling craters, where force for lofty projection
could not accumulate. Although his hypothesis is ingeniously
sustained, still, until stronger proof is urged, we are justified,
I think, in assuming the contrary to be true, for we must not
measure the convulsive throes of nature at all periods by what
our limited experience has enabled us to witness.

As regards the existence of volcanic action in the moon,
without air or water, I have nothing at present to do, particu-
larly as those who have studied volcanic action concede that
neither of these agents is absolutely required to produce it.
Moreover, the surface of the moon is the strongest evidence we
have in favor of its occurring under those circumstances.

But it may be very reasonably asked, Why consider the
moon the source of these fragmentary masses called meteor-
ites? May not smaller bodies, either planets or satellites, as
they pass by the earth and through our atmosphere, have

306 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

portions detached by the mechanical and chemical action to
which they are subjected? To this I will assent as soon as the
existence of that body or those bodies is proved. Are we to
suppose that each meteorite falling to the earth is thrown off
from a different sphere which becomes entangled in the atmos-
phere? If so, how great the wonder that the earth has never
intercepted one of those spheres, and that all should have struck
the stratum of air surrounding our globe (some fifty miles in
height), and escaped the body of the globe, 8,000 miles in
diameter. It is said that the earth has never intercepted one
of these spheres; for if we collect together all the known
meteorites, in and out of cabinets, they would hardly cover
the surface of a good-sized room, and no one of them could
be looked upon as the maternal mass upon which we might
suppose the others to have been grafted. And this would
appear equally true if we consider the known meteorites as
representing not more than a hundredth part of those which
have fallen.

If it be conceived that the same body has given rise to them,
and is still wending its path through space, only seeming by
its repeated shocks with our atmosphere to acquire new vigor
for a new encounter with that medium, the wonder will be
greater that it has not long since encountered the solid part
of the globe; but still more strange that its velocity has not
been long since destroyed by the resistance of the atmosphere,
through which it must have made repeated crossings of over
one thousand miles in extent.

But it may be said that facts are stronger than arguments,
and that bodies of great dimensions (even over one mile in
diameter) have been seen traversing the atmosphere, and have
also been seen to project fragments and pass on. Now of the
few instances of the supposed large bodies I will only analyze
the value of the data upon which the Wilton and Weston me-
teorites were calculated; and they are selected because the
details connected with them are more accessible. * The calcu-
lations concerning the latter were made by Dr. Bowditch; but
his able calculations were based on deceptive data; and this is
stated without hesitation, knowing the difficulty, admitted by
all, of making correct observation as to size of luminous bodies
passing rapidly through the atmosphere. Hxperiments that

: MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 307

would be considered superfluous have been instituted to prove
the perfect fallacy of making any but a most erroneous esti-
mate of the size of luminous bodies by their apparent size,
even when their distance from the observer and the true size of the
object are known. How much more fallacious then any estimate
of size made where the observer does not know the true size
of the body, and not even his distance very accurately.

In my experiments three solid bodies in a state of vigorous
incandescence were used: first, charcoal points transmitting
electricity; second, lime heated by the oxyhydrogen blow-
pipe; third, steel in-a state of incandescence in a stream of
oxygen gas. They were observed on a clear night at different
distances, and the body of light (without the bordering rays)
compared with the disk of the moon, then nearly full and 45°
above the horizon. Without going into details of the experi-
ment the results will be tabulated :

Actual diam.| Apparent Apparent Apparent
as.seen at | diameter at | diameter at | diameter at
10 in. 200 yds. 14 mile. 44 mile.

Diameter Diameter Diameter
moon’s disk.|moon’s disk.) moon’s disk.

@ AE WOM POINTS, a.m cungce'ssoceoes — 4 3 34
Meir pe Nie s ssw nineawiens-'soamakitoeas Ta A 2 2
Incandescent steel..........06+ Be Py = 1 et ate

If then the apparent diameter of a luminous meteor at a
given distance is to be accepted as a guide for calculating the
real size of these bodies the

Charcoal * points would be 80 feet in diameter, instead of 3, of an inch.
Lime 5 50 ee % “6 ae
The steel globule O° 25 m oc 9 2

It is not in place to enter into any explanation of these
_ deceptive appearances, for they are well-known facts, and were
tried in the present form only to give precision to the criticism
on the supposed size of these bodies. Comments on them are
also unnecessary, as they speak for themselves. But to return
to the two meteorites under review.

* Estimate made according to a table given by Prof. Olmsted (Amer. Jour.
of Science and Arts, vol. xxvi, p. 155) for estimating the diameter of meteors
on comparison with the moon.

308 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

That of Wilton was estimated by Mr. Edward C. Herrick
(Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, vol. xxxvii, p. 130) to be
about one hundred and fifty feet in diameter. It appeared to
increase gradually in size until just before the explosion, when it
was at its largest apparent magnitude of one fourth the moon’s
disk ; exploded twenty-five to thirty degrees above the horizon
with a heavy report that was heard about thirty seconds after
the explosion was seen. One or more of the observers saw
luminous fragments descend toward the ground. When it ex-
ploded it was three or four miles above the surface of the earth ;
immediately after the explosion it was no longer visible. The
large size of the body is made out of the fact of its appearing
one fourth the apparent disk of the moon at about six miles
distant. After the experiments just recorded and easy of repe-
tition, the uncertainty of such a conclusion must be evident;
and it is insisted on as a fact easy of demonstration that a. body
in a state of incandescence (as the ferruginous portions of a
stony meteorite) might exhibit the apparent diameter of the
Wilton meteorite at six miles distance, and not be more than a
few inches or a foot or two in diameter, according to the in-
tensity of the incandescence.

Besides, if that body was so large, where did it go to after
throwing off the supposed small fragments? The fragments
were seen to fall, but the great ignited mass suddenly disap-
peared at thirty degrees above the horizon, four miles from
the earth, when it could not have had less than six or seven
hundred miles of atmosphere to traverse before it reached the
limit of that medium; it has already acquired a state of igni-
tion in its passage through the air prior to the explosion, and
should have retained its luminous appearance consequent there-
upon, at least while remaining in the atmosphere; but as this
was not the case, and a sudden disappearance of the entire
body took place in the very lowest portions of the atmosphere,
and descending luminous fragments were seen, the natural con-
clusion appears to be that the whole meteorite was contained
in the fragments that fell.

As to the Weston meteorite, it is stated that its direction
was nearly parallel to the surface of the earth at an elevation
of about eighteen miles; was one mile farther when it ex-
ploded; the length of its path from the time it was seen until

MEMOIR ON METEORITES. 309

it exploded was at least one hundred and seven miles; duration
of flight estimated at about thirty seconds, and its relative
velocity three and a half miles a second; it exploded; three
heavy reports were heard; the meteorite disppaeared at the time
of the explosion. ,

As to the value of the data upon which its size was estimated,
the same objection is urged as in the case of the Wilton mete-
orite, and it is hazarding nothing to state that the apparent
size may have been due to an incandescent body a foot or two
in diameter. Also with reference to its disappearance there is
the same inexplicable mystery. It is supposed from its enor-
mous size that but minute fragments of it fell, yet it disappeared
at the time that this took placc, which, it is supposed, occurred
nineteen miles above the earth—an estimate doubtless too great
when we consider the heavy reports. Accepting this elevation,
what do we have? A body one mile and a half in diameter in
a state of incandescence, passing in a curve almost parallel to
the earth, and while in the very densest stratum of air that it
reaches with a vigorous reaction between the atmosphere and
its surface, and a dense body of air in front of it, is totally
eclipsed; while if it had a direction only tangential to the
earth, instead of nearly parallel, it would at the height of nine-
teen miles have had upward of five hundred miles of air of
variable density to traverse, which at the relative velocity
of three and a half miles a second (that must have been con-
stantly diminishing by the resistance) would have taken about
one hundred and forty-three seconds. It seems most probable
that if this body was such an enormous one, it should have been
seen for more than ten minutes after the explosion, for the
reasons above stated. The fact of its disappearance at the
time of the explosion is strong proof that the mass itself was
broken to fragments, and that these fragments fell to the earth,
assuring us that the meteorite was not the huge body repre-
sented, but simply one of those irregular stony fragments
which, by explosion from heat and great friction against the
atmosphere, become shattered. I say irregular, because we
have strong evidence of this irregularity in its motion, which
was “scolloping’’—a motion frequently observed in meteorites,
and doubtless due to the resistance of the atmosphere upon the
irregular mass, for a spherical body passing through a resisting

21

310 MEMOIR ON METEORITES.

medium at a great velocity would not show this. In fact, if
almost any of the specimens of meteorites in our cabinets were
discharged from a cannon, even in their limited flight the seal-
loping motion would be seen.

This then will conclude with what I have to say in contradic-
tion to the supposition of large solid cosmical bodies passing
through the atmosphere and dropping small portions of their
mass. The contradiction is seen to be based, first, upon the fact
that no meteorite is known of any great size—none larger than
the granite balls to be found at the Dardanelles alongside of the
pieces of ordnance from which they are discharged; secondly,
on the fallacy of estimating the actual size of these bodies from
their apparent size; and lastly, from its being opposed to all
the laws of chance that these bodies should have been passing
through an atmosphere for ages and none have yet encountered —
the body of the earth.

To sum up the theory of the lunar origin of meteorites, it
may be stated that the moon is the only large body in space of which
we have any knowledge possessing the requisite conditions demanded
by the physical and chemical properties of meteorites ; and that they
have been thrown off from that body by volcanic action (doubtless
long since extinct), and, encountering no gaseous medium of resist-—
ance, reached such a distance as that the moon exercised no longer
a preponderating attraction; the detached fragment, possessing an
orbital motion and an orbital velocity, which it had in common with
all parts of the moon, but now more or less modified by the projectile
Force and new condition of attraction in which it was placed with
reference to the earth, acquired an independent orbit more or less
elliptical. This orbit, necessarily subject to great disturbing injflu-
ences, may sooner or later cross our atmosphere and be intercepted
by the body of the globe.

In concluding this lengthy examination I must say that a
discussion of the phenomena accompanying the falling of me-
teorites has been avoided, as well as many points connected
with their history. This has been done from its having no
immediate connection with the object of this memoir, which is
intended simply to present some new views and many old views
in a new light, so as to awaken attention to the study of this
most interesting class of bodies.

BISHOPVILLE METEORIC STONE:

/
CHLADNITE PROVED TO BE A MAGNESIAN PYROXENE.

In 1846 Professor C. U. Shepard published an account of an
exceedingly interesting meteoric stone that fell at Bishopville,
S. C., in 1843, differing in its external character from other
meteoric stones; the fractured mass being exceedingly white,
except where metallic iron and other associate minerals occur.
I would refer the reader to Prof. Shepard’s description of it in
the American Journal of Science and Arts, September, 1846,
page 381.

The composition of the snow-white mineral (constituting
about ninety per cent. of the entire mass), as given by Prof.

Shepard, 1s Oxygen. Oxy. ratio.
Sill ales meen awit ceradanesaee 70.41 35.205 3
IMA yoaMe SHA det cane siecinaiseisaaiees 28.25 11.300 1
SOC Acme ace economic ascii acd veto’ 1.39 338

From the results of this analysis he considered it a tersilidate
of magnesia, constituting a new species, to which he gave the
name of chladnite.

Several years after this examination a fragment of this
meteoric stone came into my possession, and separating a small
portion of the mineral in question it was examined. The result
of this incomplete examination justified the statement in a note
to a memoir of mine on meteorites, presented to the American
Scientific Association in April, 1854, and published in the Amer.
Jour. of Science and Arts for. March, 1855, page 162, “that
from some investigations just made chladnite is likely to prove
a& pyroxene.’

Since that announcement I have been placed in possession
of other fragments of the meteorite, and have been able to
separate the “chladnite” perfectly pure, and in sufficient quan-
tity to submit it to a thorough analysis.

To render the chladnite soluble in acid it was fused with
four times its weight of carbonate of soda and potash, with a

34 4 \ BISHOPVILLE METEORIC STONE.

small fragment of caustic potash placed on the top of the mixed
powders in the crucible.* After fusion the analysis was pro-
ceeded with in the ordinary way. The results of two analyses
were as follows:

1 2
LIGA Ss oa ajecise's nasivectos dastuee me neetas nen ene MBE eee Geren. 60.12 59.83
Mae MESA) .c).c oslslsnicies| Sates <omancs fe setiee duemennemeeeeat scabs: 39.45 39.22
Peroxide of Wom..c..ucc dan dodanene avateceene see nendee ico 6 .30 .50
Soda, with feeble potash and strong lithia reaction, 74 14

100.61 100239

The minute quantity of peroxide of iron came from exceed-
ingly fine particles of iron diffused through the minerals, and
could be seen by a magnifying-glass. One separate analysis
was made for the soda. The constitution of the mineral, as
made out from the numbers in analysis 1, is

: Oxygen. Oxy. ratio.
Srliea es eacc. an: at. Cae cious umes ae Re Oe ot eae 31.22 ZA
IIARTIVSISIEY, Godan dadpocaddonssuctonassessaasooieaance6 15 51
SOG Ci Bet sncemedus siawawe aosmaue tetas s cuanaen epeeeee ee 19 ‘

corresponding to the formula Mg: Si?, ee to the ee al
formula of pyroxene, R? Si?.

The excess of silica obtained by Professor Shepard in his
analysis is doubtless due to an imperfect fusion of the mineral
with the carbonate of soda, am error easily made if the precau-
tions I have already mentioned are not attended to.

‘“Chladnite” approaches those forms of pyroxene known as
white augite, diopside, white coccolite, etc.; these last-named
minerals having a part of the magnesia replaced by lime. It
is identical in composition with enstatite of Kenngott, a pyrox-
enic mineral from Aloysthal, in Moravia.

From these observations it will be seen that the Bishopville
meteoric stone, however different in external characteristics
from other smaller bodies, is after all identical; with the great
family of pyroxenic meteoric stones.

*JT would remark that I seldom or ever-fuse a silicate with the alkaline
carbonates without the addition of a small piece of caustic potash or soda,
and never analyze a known or supposed pyroxene or hornblende without
this precaution. I have no doubt that there are many minerals classified
with hornblende which properly belong to pyroxene, the silica in the analyses
being rated too high, an error arising from an imperfect fusion.

HARRISON COUNTY (IND.) METEORITES.

(FELL Marcu 28, 1859.)

Having become acquainted with a remarkable phenomenon
accompanied with a fall of stones that occurred in Harrison -
County, Indiana, I immediately made inquiries concerning it,
expecting to visit the neighborhood on an early occasion; but
I was fortunate enough to learn of some admirable observations
made by Mr. HE. S. Crosier, and in fact so complete were his
examinations that I clearly saw no additional information could
be elicited by my resorting to the spot. Myr. Crosier obtained
for me the various stones that had been found, and also put
himself to much trouble to obtain the information desired.

The stones fell on Monday the 28th of March, 1859, and
Mr. Crosier visited the place on the Saturday following; in the
mean time the following stones were discovered :

No. 1, weighing 19 ounces, discovered by Goldsmith.
‘ a nlp *

No. 2, 43 Crawford.
No. 3, + 420 grains, - Lamb.
No. 4, say hoe ye 8 os 2 Mrs. Kelly.

The following are the facts elicited by inquiry on the spot.
The time at which it occurred (four o’clock in the afternoon)
rendered the phenomenon of ready observation. The area of
observation was about four miles square, and wherever persons
were about in that area the stones were heard hissing in the
air and then striking on the ground or among the trees.
Hardly a single person in the immediate vicinity of the occur-
rence saw any flash or blaze, as was noticed by all who heard
the report from a distance.

Three or four loud reports, like the bursting of bombshells,
were the first intimations of any thing unusual. A number
of smaller reports followed, resembling the bursting of stones
in a lime-kiln. The stones were seen to fall after the first four
loud explosions. Those who happened to be in the woods or
near them heard the stones distinctly striking amongst the

ol4 HARRISON COUNTY (IND.) METEORITES.

trees. In some places the noise of the falling stones in the
woods alarmed the cattle and horses in the vicinity, so that
they fled in terror. A peculiar hissing noise during the fall
of the stones was heard for miles around. A very intelligent
lady described it as very much like the sound produced by
pouring water upon hot stones. The air seemed as if all at
once it had become filled with thousands of serpents.

Mr. Crawford and his wife were standing in their yard at
the time, and hearing a loud hissing sound overhead, on looking
up a stone (No. 2) was seen to fall just before them, burying
itself four inches in the ground; they dug it up immediately,
but it did not possess any warmth; it had a sulphurous smell.
Another, which they did not find, fell near them, when they
thought it prudent to retire to the house.

Two sons of John Lamb were in the barn-yard attending to
the horses, when their attention was called to a loud hissing
noise above, and immediately a stone (No. 3) fell just at their
feet, penetrating the hard-tramped earth some three or four
inches, and they state that it was warm when taken from the
ground. Another fell in a peach-tree near by, but the ground
being newly plowed they were unable to find it.

The largest stone (No. 1) was not obtained until the following
day, being dug up beside a horse-track on the streets of Buena
Vista, Indiana, it having penetrated the hard gravel to the depth
of four or five inches. It had a strong smell of sulphur. The
last (No. 4) was dug up by Mrs. Kelly the following day in her
yard. ;

These four aérolites, owing to their being buried deeply in
the ground, are all that have been found up to this time. None
have been found or were heard to fall over a greater area than
four miles square. :

These are all the details that I have been able to gather
connected with this fall of meteoric stones. They are highly
interesting, and probably as accurate as it is possible to
obtain.

Nos. 1, 2, and 3 and a fragment of No. 4 were placed in my
hands for examination. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 are cuboidal in shape;
No. 3 was considerably elongated. ‘They are all covered by a
very black vitrified surface, equally intense on every one and
on every part of each one, and when broken show the usual

HARRISON COUNTY (IND.) METEORITES. 315

gray color of stony meteorites interspersed with bright metallic
particles.

The mean specific gravity is 3.465; when broken up and
examined under’a glass four substances are distinguishable—
metallic particles, dark glassy mineral, dark dull mineral, white
mineral matter. | ia

Examined as a whole, the following elements were found in
it: iron, nickel, cobalt, copper, phosphorus, sulphur, silicium,
calcium, aluminum, magnesium, manganese, sodium, potassium,
oxygen. By the action of the magnet it was separated into

INGeLCMMeROUS TOMES coc cs sacri skselcnsiedeois,-deaaniel Seen unlate 4.91
Heated Miny aM OT ANS) creas Ao Sone aides aiele saisie ios wieiasa eS wenicuReceie 95.19
100.00

The earthy minerals acted on by warm dilute hydrochloric
acid, thrown ona filter and thoroughly washed, then treated
with dilute caustic potash, to dissolve any silica of the decom-
posed portion that was not dissolved by the acid, gave

SOltMMle MON GIOM,. ate. ccculsseceeadansae-crmiveess -ceceresiclecantalcl 62.49
Hina SOAM NCW OT UTOM/ satire stetsers sonst «cjeaitsna(oo,seaesie venienaiciniers cele 37.51
The metallic portion separated from the earthy part gave
HON sas ie ses ayni ccs cates onntsayies'« Cbiaioats © iow vers ars catelsleweseisaros 86.781
ANGELS CLE Bete csi eee Bainm een csenis ns noshinat sets sick te Jastieedercess 18.241
© eae aacemncoe ceeds aceceiane.piceraeeses ssbuvcewscmeosacneres 842
CODGRIP. Fkbaddcaabacssornoansobd secs ec ca nnURE nA eonnaaseat apes 03
Hears PO UAO MM Sbartat ne acieectsoietaite dotsnnles\ce sits oiniciSorls/Sciieassignpgiicticiae .026
SSI MU eva eeeemiraate cterstisaacMsciseehacliceschisiasuidanaieteciiasevies .022
The earthy portion freed from metal gave
SHIM oan Mase cece caine eaves Gace hedcuns sshd sedce manus fluc 47.06
Orald Gof pm Onn cue ersmiace se Soc@uces cacencdncie Sagewed yemasceases 26.05
MMV SMTA Biante emert or oelsSte att vaieinin's Sie Oe cic soeetnsieiomeris ctane 27.61
PAUICHIMANIDN Myer Oi te ter ee Cn taeis oe ac ace aoauen nee matoatar aungoctan 2.35
JENTING aoabS nck Gnsoce case pane DERE POs ARUN Aa RSH re Nee oan ona name 81
POC ee ree ieeice te er eiistrtaniecls wae sais sity 6G wiaaepratsnet isbn eaeanss 42
FO UAS Ie pecr ee toe sccaisisackio<sslentua'e v susinus deieceinoe macaaees sess 68
Protoxide of manganese................+00: trace, not estimated.

It is clear from the analyses made out that these meteoric
stones contain the constituents frequently found in similar
bodies; namely, nickeliferous iron, phosphuret of iron and
nickel, sulphuret of iron, olivine, pyroxene, and albite, and in
about the following proportions:

INWGlxeliferous amo meee aia ccca.soc cea cacoecee seeeatocacvcusesse 4.989
@lmei erste s cmeee sees cock cceaPearaiouhcerna bose acuoaceaeuie 009
MMIoMeLIC DVT ILCS se Mentee «os on> vols oadeco aac stOense>sconemece 001
(COIN TTT) TEMAS PRE SA Sols 2 MR te RIDER ORC ets 61.000

316 HARRISON COUNTY (IND.) METEORITES.

I have no intention to enter into any speculations in relation |
to these meteoric stones, although I have accumulated some
additional matter on the subject since my memoir on meteorites
published in the American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xix,
pp. 152 and 322, intending to reserve their publication for a
future occasion,

DESCRIPTION OF THREE NEW METEORITES.

Netson County (Ky.) M&rrorite.

This came into my possession in the month of July, 1860,
being obtained from a plowed field, where it may have laid for
a considerable length of time.

It is a flattened mass of tough metal, a little scaly at one
corner, being seventeen inches long, fifteen inches broad, and
seven inches in the thickest part, shelving off like the back
of a turtle, and weighs one hundred and sixty-one pounds.

It is free from any large proportion of thick rust, conse-
quently showing no indication of chlorine. On analysis the
following constituents were found in one hundred parts, No. 1
in the table below:

1 2 3

NL OAc seranie'sinssocees senses 93.10 90.12 91.12
INGO IE arses sila cetitesss6 Oulel 8.72 7.82
Cobalt. sccce. eww evn 41 .o2 43
PHOSPHORUS vie. 6 roee veo e'ee 05 .10 .08
WOOL «cia cise vein sinisnis'ewin'e sive trace. trace. trace.
99.67 99.26 99.45

Marswatt County (Ky.) MErEorIrTE.

A piece of this meteorite was sent to me from Marshall
County, in this state. I have not yet seen the entire mass,
which is said to weigh fifteen pounds, and to be scaly in struc-
ture. It has the usual characteristics of meteoric iron, as seen
from the analysis No. 2.

Manpison County (N. C.) Merrorire.

This meteorite was presented to me in the year 1854 by
Hon. T. L. Clingman, of North Carolina. It came from Jewel
Hill, Madison County, of that state. There is a great deal of
thick rust on the surface, with constant deliquescence from
chloride of iron. Its form and surface indicate that it is entire.
Its dimensions are 7x6 x3 inches, with a number of indenta-
tions. Its weight is eight pounds thirteen ounces. Its com-

position is given in the analysis No. 3.

GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES.

(FELL May 1, 1860.)

These meteorites were first called Concord meteorites, as the
one first described was found near the village New Concord;
but I have thought proper to call them the Guernsey County
meteorites, since we are commonly in the habit of distinguishing |
the meteorites found in this country by the name of the county
in which they fell or were found. All but one of the great
number of meteoric stones that fell on this occasion were found
in Guernsey County, and that exceptional specimen fell in Mus-
kingum, on the edge of Guernsey County.

This fall of meteorites was the most remarkable ever observed
in this country, and equal to, if not surpassing, the famous fall
at 1’Aigle, in France, with which it has many points of interest
in common that will be stated in the course of this paper.

My attention was first directed to this occurrence, by a short
notice of it in a newspaper, as being an earthquake that had
occurred in eastern Ohio, accompanied with a shower of stones.
Suspecting the true nature of the phenomenon, I immediately
visited the spot where it was said to have occurred, and col-
lected the statements of those persons who had witnessed the
fall. It was ascertained that on Tuesday, May 1, 1860, re-
-markable phenomena transpired in the heavens, of which the
following are accounts given by different observers, men of
intelligence and observation.

Mr. McClenahan states that at Cambridge, in Guernsey
County, Ohio (lat. 40° 4’, long. 81° 35’), about twenty minutes
before one o’clock P.M., three or four distinct explosions were
heard, like the firing of heavy cannon, with an interval of a
second or two between each report. This was followed by
sounds like the firing of musketry in quick succession, which
ended with a rumbling noise like distant thunder, except that
it continued with about the same degree of intensity until it

lh et hl ee

GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES. 319

ceased. It continued two or three minutes, and seemed to
come from the south-west, at an elevation above the horizon
of thirty to forty degrees, terminating in the south-east at
about the same elevation. In the district where the meteorites
fell the explosions were heard immediately overhead.

The first reports were so heavy as to produce a tremulous
motion, like heavy thunder, causing the glass in windows to
rattle. The sound was so singular that it caused some excite-
ment and alarm, many supposing it an earthquake. At Barnes-
ville, twenty miles east of Cambridge, the cry of fire was made,
as the rumbling sound was thought to be the roaring of fire.

The day was cool and the sky covered at the time with
hight clouds. No thunder or lightning had been noticed that
day, nor could any thing unusual be seen in the appearance of

the clouds. Immediately on hearing the report this observer

looked in the direction it came, and noticed the clouds closely,
but could not see any thing unusual.

The next morning it was reported in Cambridge that aéro-
lites had fallen on a farm in the vicinity of New Concord (eight
miles west, a little south of Cambridge). Inquiries were im-
mediately instituted, and Messrs. Noble and Hines state that
they were near the house of a Mr. Amspoker at the time of the
first explosion, which seemed directly over their heads. ‘They
looked up and saw two objects apparently come through the
clouds, producing a twirling in the vapor of the cloud at the
point where they came through, then descending with great
velocity and a whizzing sound to the earth; one striking about
three hundred yards to the south-west of them, and the other
about one hundred yards north.

They immediately went to the spot where the first fell, and
found it buried two feet in the ground. They dug it out and
found it quite warm and of a sulphurous smell. The other
struck a fence-corner, and breaking the ends of some of the
rails penetrated into the earth sixteen or eighteen inches, pass-
ing through a heap of dry leaves. The first weighed fifty-two
pounds. The other was broken up, but must have weighed about
forty pounds. Another of forty-one pounds weight, not seen
to fall, was discovered at the bottom of a hole two feet deep,
where it had fallen on stiff turf, and was seen at the bottom
of the hole, having carried the sod before it. It must have

320 GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES.

come from the south-east at an angle of sixty degrees with
the horizon. Many were discovered to have fallen south-east
of Cambridge, but of smaller dimensions than those already
referred to. At the time of the occurrence-nearly all were at
dinner or in and about their houses. The stones obtained were
mostly found near houses, where they were seen to fall, as the
sound of their striking the ground attracted attention.

Another well-informed observer, Dr. McConnell, of New
Concord (a small town eight miles east of Cambridge), fur-
nishes the following particulars: “On Tuesday, the 1st of May,
at twenty-eight minutes past twelve o’clock, the people of that
vicinity were almost panic-stricken by a strange and terrible
report in the heavens, which shook the houses for many miles
distant. The first report was immediately overhead, and after
an interval of a few seconds was followed by similar reports
with such increasing rapidity that after the number of twenty-
two were counted they were no longer distinct, but became
continuous, and died away like the roaring of distant thunder,
the course of the reports being from the meridian to the south-
east. In one instance three men working in a field, their self-
possession being measurably restored from the shock of the
more terrible report from above, had their attention attracted
by a buzzing noise overhead, and soon observed a large body
descending strike the earth at.a distance of about one hundred
yards. Repairing thither they found a newly-made hole in the
ground, from which they extracted an irregular quadrangular
- stone weighing fifty-one pounds. This stone had buried itself
two feet beneath the surface, and when obtained was quite
warm.’

To this we add the following statement: ‘‘We the under-
signed do hereby certify that at about half past twelve o’clock
on Tuesday,. May 1, 1860, a most terrible report was heard
immediately overhead, filling the neighborhood with awe.
After an interval of a few seconds a series of successive re-
ports, the most wonderful and unearthly ever before heard by
us, took place, taking a direction from meridian to south-east,
where the sounds died away like the roaring of distant thunder,
jarring the houses for many miles distant.” Signed by A. G.
Gault, Jas. McDonald, Nancy Mills, Ichabod Grumman, Samuel
Harper, Rev. Jas. C. Murch, Mrs. M. Speer, Ang’e McKinney.

‘
;

GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES. 321

The above is from those who heard the noises, but did not
see the fall; the following are a few statements of the many
I collected from those who witnessed the fall of the stones. I
extract from their depositions made at the time:

“T heard the reports and roaring as above described, and a
few seconds afterward I saw a large body or substance descend
and strike the earth four or five hundred yards from where I
then stood; and then I, in company with Andrew Lister, re-
paired to the spot, and about eighteen inches beneath the
surface found a stone weighing fifty pounds.” Signed by
Samuel Reblu.

“ Heard the reports and roaring as above described; and the
said Mrs. Fillis further says that a few seconds afterward she
heard a descending buzzing noise as of a body falling to the
ground. And Miss Cherry also says that she was standing
near Mrs. Fillis, heard the same, and saw some substance
descend and strike the earth some hundred. yards distant, and
that Mrs. Fillis repaired to the spot and there found a stone, .
eighteen inches beneath the surface, weighing twenty-three
pounds.” Signed by Agnes Fillis and Mary J. Cherry. —

“T distinctly heard the roaring and sounds as above described,
and a few seconds after the above report I saw descending from
the clouds a large body that struck the earth about one hundred
and fifty yards from where I then stood, and I immediately re-
paired to the spot, and about two feet beneath the surface found
a stone weighing forty-two pounds. A second or two after
seeing the first stone I saw another descend and strike the
earth about the same distance from where I stood. I also took
the last-mentioned stone from the earth about two feet beneath
the surface. Both the above stones when taken from the earth
were quite warm. I also saw a third stone descend.” Signed
by Samuel M. Noble.

One observer saw a stone fall within three feet of his horse’s
head. One of the most southerly stones struck a barn, while
some people retired within doors for fear of being struck.

These, with many others of a similar nature, were the data
obtained near the region of the fall of stones. It is important
to remember that to these near observers no luminosity or fire-
ball was visible.

In addition to the above facts we have the following from

|

322 GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES.

observers at more distant points, as already published by Pro-
fessors Andrews and Evans. From the data they have collected
they consider the area over which the explosion was heard as
probably not less than one hundred and fifty miles in diameter.
‘At Marietta, Ohio, the sound came from a point north or a
little east of north. The direction of the sound varied with
the locality. An examination of all the different directions
leads to the conclusion that the central point from which the
sound emanated was near the southern part of Noble County,
Ohio ;” its course being “over the eastern end of Washington
County, then across the interior of Noble County, then over
the south-western corner of Guernsey and the north-eastern
corner of Muskingum, with a direction of about forty-two —
degrees west of north.” :

Mr. D. Mackley, of Jackson County, states that he was at
Berlin, six miles east of Jackson, Ohio, when he saw in a north-
east direction a ball of fire about thirty degrees above the
horizon. It was flying in a northerly direction with great
velocity. It appeared as white as melted iron, and left a
bright streak of fire behind it, which soon faded into a white
vapor. ‘This remained more than a minute, when it became
crooked and disappeared.

Mr. Wm. C. Welles, of Parkersburg, Virginia (lat. 39° 10’,
long. 81° 24’), about sixty miles south of Cambridge, saw the
meteorite as a ball of fire of great brilliancy emerging from
behind one cloud and disappearing behind another. Other
observers at some distance to the south of the point where
the fall occurred saw this meteorite as a luminous body.

Prof. Evans, of Marietta, in his observations states :

“The successive reports heard at great altitudes in the district where the
stones fell, and apparently connected with the descent of the separate pieces
through the clouds, were entirely distinct from the one great detonation which
was heard at great distances from that district. The former were distinctly
heard only over an area of a few miles. The latter shook the buildings from
Wheeling, Virginia, to Athens County, Ohio. It is ascertained by careful
inquiries to have been heard from Columbiana County on the north-east to
within eight miles of Chillicothe on the south-west, and from Knox County
on the north-west to the borders of the third tier of counties in Virginia on
the south-east— an area of about one hundred and fifty miles in diameter. At
all places within this area, except those near Cambridge and New Concord,
it was described as a single sound, a sudden concussion resembling thunder
or the discharge of a heavy piece of ordnance, followed by a roar of about

=>" -c. 2

)

ee ome Aas ee 24

GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES. 323

two seconds in continuance. A merchant of Marietta, happening to be at
dinner, suspected it was the explosion of a powder-magazine in his store
about a quarter of a mile distant. The Parkersburg News says ‘the houses
shook as with an earthquake.’ In the counties of Washington, Morgan,
Noble, Monroe, and Belmont, and in places along the Virginia side of the
Ohio River from Parkersburg to Wheeling, those who were within doors very
generally attributed it to an earthquake. The windows rattled, and local
papers state that the door of an engine-house was jarred open at Bellair near
Wheeling. The lines of direction of the sound from all sides, as distinguished
by those who happened to be out of doors, cross each other in the southern
(not far from the central) part of Noble County, while the inhabitants of that
region thought it was overhead. Prof. Andrews, giving the results of per-
sonal inquiries, says: ‘The people of the northern part of Noble County
heard it in a southern or south-eastern direction, and not in a north-western
direction toward New Concord. At Zanesville, about twelve miles from
New Concord, the Courier described the noise, not as a succession of sounds,
but as an ‘explosion.’ These facts clearly indicate that the great detonation
heard at these various places was one and the same sound, and that it pro-
ceeded from a point over the interior of Noble County. The most probable
location is five or six miles south of Sarahsville. It was undoubtedly the first
produced, but the last heard of the successive sounds described as receding to
the south-east by witnesses in the neighborhood where the meteoric stones
fell, and it was compared by them to the roar of thunder.”

The time of the day and the number and intelligence of the
observers unite to give considerable interest and value to these
observations. While some of them show points of difference,
natural to the observation of sudden and startling phenomena,
we can yet deduce from them many conclusions with more or
less accuracy, thus:

THE DIRECTION OF THE METEORITE.

My own observations of two of the stones, which fell half a
mile apart, enable me to give the direction of the meteor with
some degree of exactness. The first of these stones struck the
end of the rails of a Virginia (zigzag) fence, half-way down,
just touching the middle rail, breaking off more and more of
each rail as it passed to the ground. Connecting the points
of fracture by a line, this line represents a descending curve
from south-east to north-west.

Again, the stone that fell at Law’s (the most nonehoNy)
struck a large dead tree lying on the side of a hill, sloping
north-west, passing through it as any projectile would; it then
struck a small clump of elders, breaking them off at the root,

324 GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES.

falling finally at the foot of the hill. A line connecting these
points shows the curve already stated. Coupling with this the
observations of Mr. Callahan on the direction that one of these
stones penetrated the ground, with the observed path of their
distribution, no doubt can remain that the general direction
of their fall was from south-east to north-west, striking the
ground at an angle of about sixty degrees.

ALTITUDE OF THE METEORITE.

This is a point that can be determined but very imperfectly,
if at all. It may have been when first seen forty miles above
the earth, but when the explosion was heard it must have been
‘nearer, and was even still nearer when it subdivided and was
scattered (‘‘exploded,” as usually termed) over Guernsey and
the edge of Muskingum counties. It is, however, but proper
that I should give Prof. Evans’s computation from the data
he collected; they were published in the July number of the
Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, but their reproduction will
not be out of place here:

“Mr. William C. Welles, of Parkersburg, Virginia (lat. 39°
10’, long. 81° 24’), a gentleman of liberal education, testifies
that, being about three miles east of that place at the time of
the occurrence, he happened to look up to the north-east of him
and saw a meteor of great size and brilliancy emerging from
behind one cloud and disappearing behind another. When
about 35° east of north he thinks its altitude was 65°. Now
the distance, in a direction 35° east of north, from his station
to the line directly under the meteor’s path, is twenty miles.
Calculating from these data, I find for the vertical height, taken
to the nearest unit, forty-three miles. This was at a point in
Washington County near the border of Noble.

“Mr. C. Hackley testifies that he saw the meteor from Benin
in Jackson County. It crossed a cloudless space in the north-
east, and he thinks its altitude at the highest point was 30°.
Now the distance from Berlin to the nearest point under the
meteor’s path is seventy miles. These data give nearly forty-
one miles for its vertical height over Noble County, a few miles
to the south of Sarahsville (lat. 39° 53’, long. 81° 40’).

‘Many other reliable witnesses have been found who saw
the meteor through openings in the clouds from various points

GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES. 329

west of its path, and whose testimony so far agrees with the
foregoing as to give results ranging between thirty-seven and
forty-four miles. Care has been taken as far as possible to
verify the data in each case by personal examination of the
witnesses. The angles have in most instances been taken as
pointed out by them from their respective posts of observation.
It is unfortunate that no case has come to our knowledge in
which the meteor was seen from the region east of its path.
But it was a circumstance in some respects favorable to the
definiteness of the observations made from the west side that
the observers in nearly all cases saw the meteor only at one
point, or within a very small space, on the heavens. It is
impossible to reconcile the various accounts without granting
that its path was very nearly as above described, and that
its height did not vary far from forty miles as it crossed
Noble County.

“Tn regard to the time which intervened at different places
between seeing the fire-ball and hearing the report, the state-
ments are so vague that not much reliance has been placed
upon them. It may. be remarked, however, that they will
essentially agree with the foregoing conclusions, if we suppose
that the loudest explosion took place in the southern part of
Noble County.

‘T will add under this head the statement of Mr. Joel Rich-
ardson, of Warren, Washington County, who from a place six
miles west of Marietta saw the meteor as much as 15° or 20°
west of north at an altitude of about 45°. The direction in
this case was so oblique to the meteor’s path that the data are
of little value for simply determining the height; but they are
important on account of their connection with the place of the
meteor’s last appearance. Mr. Richardson was visited by the
writer, and his testimony was subjected to close scrutiny. If
we take the azimuth at 15° west of north, we shall have a dis-
tance of forty-one miles to the line under the meteor’s path;
_ and these data will give about forty-one miles for its vertical
height over a point not more than a mile from New Concord,
at the extreme western limit of the district along which the
meteorites were scattered. If we take the azimuth at.20° west
of north, both the distance and the height will be greatly aug-
mented. I have found two persons living near Bear Creek,

22

326 GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES.

nine miles north of Marietta, who make statements closely
corroborating that of Mr. Richardson.

“D. Mackley, Esq., a lawyer of Jackson, Ohio, who at the
time of the occurrence happened to be at Berlin, about six
miles north-east from the former place, and seventy miles from
the nearest point under the meteor’s path. He took pains to
note all the facts as accurately as he could at that time; and
he afterward returned to the spot in order to determine more
definitely the points of the compass. His testimony, in answer
to my interrogatories, is substantially as follows: ‘The meteor

Pe alilcon 7 Tees
AR PARKERSBURG

; Vv

SS VIRGINIA

first appeared to me at a point about 55° east of north. It
moved northward in a line very nearly parallel with the horizon.
When it had disappeared it had described an arc of about 15°.
It was in sight about six seconds. Its altitude was about 30°.
In regard to its size, I have since looked at the sun through a
thin cloud, and I think the apparent diameter of the meteor
was one half that of the sun.’

GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES. 327

“These data give the meteor a height of forty-one miles over
the northern boundary of Noble County; a diameter of three
eighths of a mile; and a relative velocity of nearly four miles

a pecond The antl agree satiny: well with those before
given.”

The accompanying map (fig. 1), made by Prof. Evans, shows
the region over which the meteorite was observed to pass, and
the conclusion to which he arrived is as follows: It was seen
over the eastern part of Washington County (about lat. 39° 27’,
long. 81° 8’), at a height of forty miles nearly. It was last seen
over the north-western border of Noble County (about lat. 39°

51’, long. 81° 34’), at a height of thirty-eight miles nearly. Its
velocity relative to the earth’s surface, was three to four miles
a second. 7

TEMPERATURE OF THE STONES.

Several of the largest stones were picked up ten minutes
after their fall, and are described as being about as warm as a
stone that had lain in the sun in the summer. One fell among
dry leaves that covered it after it had penetrated the ground.
. The leaves, however, showed no evidence of having been heated.
No appearance of ignition was discovered in places or objects
with which the stones came in contact at the time of their fall;
so that their temperature must have fallen far short of redness,
while it may not have reached that of 200°.

SIZE AND VELOCITY.

I have no data upon which to calculate either of these.
Prof. Evans, however, as just quoted, calculates from the data
above given that its size was three eighths of a mile and
velocity four miles a second.

While I may furnish no more reliable computations from the
data obtained, I may be excused a short criticism on the above
results to prevent too hasty conclusions being formed.

As regards the supposed elevation of forty miles when the
first reports were heard, I would simply ask the question, Is it
possible, with the established views of the conduction of sound
by rarefied air, that any conceivable noise produced by a mete-
orite forty miles distant from the earth, in a medium quite as
rare if not rarer than the best air-pump can produce, would

328 GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES.

reach us at all, or if so, in the manner described by observers?
This question is a more important one to consider, as some
observers on similar data have calculated the elevation of mete-
orites where they were first heard to explode at one hundred
miles.

As regards the size of the meteorite I have but to refer the
reader to my experiments made in 1854, and published in 1855,
to show the perfect fallacy of calculating the size of luminous
objects by their apparent disks, and I shall have more to say
on the same subject in a future paper. -It is important to note
that the nearest approach of the meteor to the earth must have
been in the northern part of Noble and in Guernsey counties,
the point from which its most wonderful display seemed to have

manifested itself; yet we
hear nothing of its fu- xd = eeeeeal
ture career by reports : i ae |
from observers north of
this, while its approach
from the south to this
point was noticed by a
number of observers.

I need hardly state
that my own convictions
are that the meteorite
terminated its career in |
Guernsey County, and
that the group of stones
which constituted it were
scattered broadcast over
that county. Many have
been collected, and many re)
lie buried in the soil |
to moulder and min- |
gle their elements with |
those of this earth. . =

We come now to con-
sider the stones that fell and were collected. Their number

was over thirty, and their places of falling have been plotted

with some care in the accompanying map (fig. 2.)
The localities of twenty-four have been fixed with precision,

~s= e
| Wooosrienp.
{
f
ue

a
OHI
Tn |

= I
a,

4 (
C,

<

oy ey.

Sd
mM 1
on
cap)
7
(
Aaa! Ny,
ce
S ie ,

(ln,

y

0G
bo

—e ee ee.

GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES. 329

by the assistance of the Hon. C. J. Albright; but from the
diminished scale of the map it is impossible to place a number
by each dot intended to represent the locality of a meteoric
stone. No.1 on the map is the spot where the largest stone
was found, weighing one hundred and three pounds; No. 2 is
the next largest, weighing fifty-six pounds; and No. 3 the small-
est, weighing eight ounces. The largest were at the north-west
extremity and the smallest at the south-east. The space over
which they were scattered was about ten miles long by three
miles broad. The following is a catalogue of twenty-four:

ON Os lree see seve scie vie wn's'e Weight 103 Ibs. ............ Fell on farm of Shenholt. °
Micke cisnek cs ssases.068 “ Oar Ne eis u.cidance os Law.
Me oe secdcienc tes -- BOs, Mase Moat “* Amspoker.
MISS Sciaieisaisatssstee's a DUR Wr eeaas ene a Amspoker,
PERC aee sels ae Sessa « = AD cee isasec cies Torrence.
OMe aaenmics slates aecae's . DO ew, Tisceecasines e Reasoner.
Tl ice ORBU SREB OEE ee ~ DOT ss dech neds ce Hodges.
PEE eh escswstereese. “ DO ists sewde siete ; Fillis.
Racine scwen > sieceeses 2 Gwe seitesaseiod facie fe Adair.
NO Breese cacesacecot iss =e RS) (SK cenoeceeontic i Craig.
AB cnee Rye skh aiswieco tr ~ She GO penosoocoac “2 Craig.
Ne ccasoasacedssces sks =: Ad caces Gonoes c6 Waller.
omrdeee ee cence ved woices << Oe massless sent os Beresford.
TaD cognossececossnecu oa fe SIEBOT Soocenencoess t Craig.
1a ae occiieticatesicnese = Oa aru caseseminesies oe Stevens,
NG esos sceisien coweeeecs = a ere ze Wall.
Piao cnc aeancGn ae avs eae ae = Walker.
DS o as cdeic'sbewes abeecs ers = Din Sctabeskime sng Claysville.
MO Ss ccewharanuescace ” Danie eietloeietewes = Stevens.
QO eo asatacnndecenecbct * Bo oP Meeroase’ Ge * Wall.
DA ee cipekicepiven aucaslcei ry De ieeneiontie crews - Savely.
22, ewetees = Ds he eee oaetees = Carter.
2G icdeeeeb ncaa he 1 cracboprene ¥ Heskett.
Dee rtcterinscelok shar Ban ear Meas avesecs os Heskett.

Others have been found, but I have no correct record of
their exact position. |

Some fifteen of these stones have come under my observa-
tion. They are all irregular in shape, cuboidal, wedge-shaped,
globular, and every conceivable form that irregular fragments
of stone may be supposed to possess. They all have the well-
known black coating, with a sharp outline between the coating
and gray mass of the stone, and there is quite a uniformity in
the character of the coating in both small and large stones.

When broken this meteor exhibits a gray mass, with me-
tallic particles of nickeliferous iron,* resembling the stones I

* T have picked out pieces of iron weighing two grains, closely cemented
to pyrites.

330 GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES.

examined that fell in Harrison County, Indiana, on the 28th
of March, 1859. The latter, however, is the coarser-grained
of the two. Prof. Shepard, who is familiar with the meteoric
stones preserved in the cabinets of this country and in Hurope,
says: “In its internal aspect it approaches the stone of Iekat-
erinoslaw, Russia (1825), though it is somewhat finer and more
compact. In crust the two are identical. It is also similar to
the stone Slobodka, Russia (August 10, 1818), and compares
closely with those of Politz (October 13, 1819), of Nanjemoy,
Maryland (February 10, 1828), and of Kuleschowka, Russia
(March 12, 1811); but the crust is less smooth on the Ohio
stone than in that of the latter. In fact, its character is that
of a large portion of the known meteoric stones.”

The general thickness of the crust is about from one thirtieth
to one fourtieth of an inch.

The cut (fig. 3) is a representation of the largest stone that
has been found, now in the cabinet of Marietta College, and

described by Prof. EK. B. Andrews. We reproduce the figure

from Prof. Andrews’s article here cited.

\ i
rs ie
a t ys

iy
ey

Fig. 3.

Several specimens have been examined. They all show the
presence of the same minerals, with a slight variation in their
proportions, as might be expected in a mass not homogeneous.
Its composition is fairly represented as follows: Specific gravity,

E
4

GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES. 331

3.550, varying slightly in different specimens. In one hundred
parts there are

INCI fEROMS IOI Wate ce fen he ceed cook c ne anatase ceome unwtant ae sese 10.7
Ase: Mayra eee beh) reine vals deans alesincztlea- oor ote aenaesicre . 89.3

The nickeliferous particles separated by a magnet from the
crushed stone, and well washed, presented the following con-
stituents in one hundred parts:

EPIL Ta Pee eee eee scie cick cnslcle le dats olusioletstacia wae cma ciehietsted aia 87.011
IN TEI Ell onono sesdoea cosndbon Nonbbo oon nb anoopesqdecdocucaacabanagecd 12.360
CMT .-cascaseaetgos Sopsn505 sogsdss9o mesHoSmotedauiab cc cosunsoOs 421
Canpeierestagaseeccns cess: sages minute quantity, not estimated
MHOS MOBS. ce cacarsneceliguccsseseslewnesieces BA Psa esate aniciotsie 012
SVU pont easels igs hotMiafsic annie coals sab acwseae estas ae ice coansate sees 1.080

The sulphur comes from magnetic pyrites that the meteorite
contains, and that it is not easy to separate mechanically from
the small particles of nickeliferous iron.

The earthy part, when freed as thoroughly as possible from
nickeliferous iron (which can be done pretty effectually by the
magnet), was treated with warm dilute muriatic acid thrown
on a filter first washed thoroughly with water, then with a
solution of potash to dissolve the last portion of the silica of
the decomposed portion of the mineral. The result was, in
one hundred parts,

Soluble portion.........000...s.00+ iste eve bce ttemenie noice cea 63.7
MTV SOMO eeccbacsesedeteaasisedc fe ssetite cscs ieedectestocenessnes 36.3

The earthy material analyzed -as a whole was found to
contain

MCA nee ecru eta ceny Sesh clteotebiid saselng Searehitinn cess srsns 47.30
OSES Olt TAO So SAS SoS BORAGE Sen aee bee BAAR CRE. care Mae aes iene 28.03
MARINI ANS sere ae ayesha a ok caine candace Nadal ocie Vaca erecmisleess ative dl
JILAGTNESISS, Gecbsated seASap ase CR COGS DOC RB ROsEocr EBURcntS cin SHerGRSRS 24.58
ni CH Ree Es wcln cthjaklad was ssetlo es tutase cars heatcacoutetoeee de 02
SOM ods cs ieionncenauassocac mecca ncieteaatnecen sennae

FO Las N Meena A ss caichin a vc da Bucmase cictos seaeme reagent. \ ae
IRIN ENTE SE: oc 5506800 LAOS ne PURGE REEDS DED cei Ba oC Ode cts BoC RSeM ERs trace

From these results it is very clear that the mineralogical
constitution of these meteoric stones is about as follows, in one
hundred parts:

INiGleliferOUsminOMettas soe c ocecs ok sawe ooo aun see lcwoes Saenee 10.690
Sehirel DeRsitemerre tats cock cle wo scion wlaseemeeedeiNate cca etiosts bis ss .005
JUL PER CHONG SOMARISS) Soncasagapaeeee eonocogud Bhs aes ue Spa neaeoe co 005
Obivy un eee tee ok 2. A scsi riceta nn Gam ome eta iee aisle ad 56.884
PAV OCMC) eee ae ete ee eeeesioss cino.sse ddoeaeaaiwicakve Woke nciens 32.416

This sums up the history of this meteoric shower, with as
full an account as possible of the stones that fell at that time.

332 GUERNSEY COUNTY (OHIO) METEORITES.

In the first part of this paper it was stated that this fall was
quite as remarkable as that near |’Aigle, in France, in 1803.
Although it does not equal this latter in the number of stones
that were collected, it exceeds it in the size of the stones that
fell. The largest of the 1’Aigle stones weighed seventeen and
a half pounds, while the largest in the present case was one
hundred and three pounds.

There are many points of coincidence in the pheaemeda and —
circumstances attending the two falls. Were I to copy Biot’s
description of the phenomena of the fall at 1’Aigle, as detailed
to the Academy of Sciences nearly sixty years ago, it would
be but a repetition of what has been written in the first part
of this paper.

The date of fall at 1’Aigle was the 26th of April; the date
of the Guernsey fall May 1st. Time of the day of the former,
one o'clock; of the latter, twenty minutes of one; the direc-
tion of both falls, from south-east to north-west. The extent
of surface covered by the first, seven and a half miles wide by
two and a half broad; by the latter, ten miles long by three
wide; and both were seen by a large number of persons.

THREE NEW METEORITES.

1. Lincotn County Merrorirs. (Frit Avaust 5, 1865.)

This meteorite was examined several years ago, having
been sent to me for that purpose by Prof. J. M. Safford, State
Geologist of Tennessee. The result of my examination was
embodied in Professor Safford’s report of the geology of Ten-
nessee for 1855, but has never received a special notice in any
scientific journal; and as it is not too late to make up that
deficiency, the following is sent for publication, embracing
Prof. Safford’s account of its fall, with the chemical exami-
nation. The following particulars in regard to its fall were
furnished by Rev. T. C. Blake, of Cumberland University:

“It fell two miles west of Petersburg and fifteen north-west
of Fayetteville, in Lincoln County, about half past three o’clock
p.M., August 5, 1855, during or just before a severe rain-storm.
Its fall was preceded by a loud report resembling that of a
large cannon, followed by four or five lesser reports. These
were heard by many persons in the surrounding country. Im-
mediately after this mass or fragment was seen by James B.
Dooley, Esq., to fall to the ground. It approached him from
the east, appeared while falling to be surrounded by a ‘milky’
halo two feet in diameter, and fell one hundred and fifty or two
hundred yards from him, burying itself about eighteen inches
in the soil. When first dug out it was too hot to be handled.

“This specimen has an edge broken off, revealing the char-
acter of the interior. Within it is of an ashen-gray color,
varied by patches of white, yellowish, and dark minerals.
With the exception of the broken edge it is covered, and when
first obtained was entirely covered, as most meteorites of this
kind are, with a very ‘black, shining crust, as if it had been
coated with pitch.’

‘“‘One end or face, which may be regarded as the base, has an
irregular rhomboidal outline, averaging two and three fourths

334 THREE NEW METEORITES.

by two and a half inches. Placing the stone upon this end,
the body of it presents the form of an irregular, slightly ob-
lique, rhomboidal prism. The upper end, however, is not well
defined, but runs up to one side in a flattened protuberance,
giving the entire specimen a form approaching roughly an
oblique pyramid. The length from the base to the apex is
four and a half inches. Three adjacent sides are rough, being
covered with cavities and pits. The other sides are smoother
and rounded. | }

“The specimen acts upon the needle; fragments of it readily
yield particles of nickeliferous iron by trituration in a mortar.
The specific gravity of the entire specimen is 3.20. Its weight
in its present condition is three pounds fourteen and a half
ounces.

“The minerals found in the meteorite are: pyroxene, prin-
cipal portion of the mass; olivine and orthoclase, disseminated
through the mass; nickeliferous iron, forming about one half
per cent. of the mass. In addition to these there are specks
of a black, shining mineral not yet examined.”

The general analysis is as follows:

SSE Cena ae are a rym oie Com OI) HE is Apne at ae aay 49.21
ANA rua ate yee eee aa ti a ene ne heed MTV MER RR DE 11.05
PLotOXIGE FOR: ILOME > cose esse Sree ioe Be eet ee eee 20.41
1 DibeaVensas 4.3 Ween rie Seater an tees Beeps ig te Sees ie See AE i a 9.01
IMA pMeS Tap cies cess ses cscs Oe stendee cere alemae suis neeeeeaate 8.18
ILAYOGANTOSO gos songranse onc bee ose beaceoosa BU BeosHesodt soanae Geet 04

TROT cA iaste ne soc oan non nisent seen enceseuset sae see eee nee 50
Nickel, minute quantity. ;
Phosphorus, minute Queue ey

Sal oat oe wcicee at oewieinhsacee cncaesolonerneset aeeceet cai ee eae 06
SKOG Ea saa con ebsog5cs905 donotoo0d ycondudo j a0 dseaon.scanooaasensen 82
99.23

The minute quantity of nickel that was separated did not |

permit of my examining for Cobaly, but there is no doubt that
this metal was present.

2. OLDHAM County METEORITE.

The announcement of the discovery of this iron meteorite
with the one that follows was made in a note in the American
Journal of Science and Arts. It was discovered in the month
of October, 1860, by Mr. William Daring, near Lagrange, in
Oldham County, Ky. There is nothing known with reference

he, i i
5

THREE NEW METEORITES. 335

to the time of its fall. It came into my possession shortly after
its discovery.

It was entire and weighed one hundred and twelve pounds.
Its extreme dimensions were: length, twenty inches; breadth,
ten and three fourths inches; and thickness, six and a half
inches. Its shape was elongated and flattened. Its specific

weight is 7.89, and an analysis furnished

Hoesen ee crcl s costes ecelSecu sav noe caehaleds acesucead scdnavcee O21

INGIOe eie coclacea eis sud ane cavscn sod cinncde@ance sccuags demas aelowe 7.81

UG ai renecente Sess des case ewindenlavesss<seertnaaneetodedvecssdcescecs 25

Copper, minute quantity, not estimated.

IO SDA GEUS eeccmenaeldaac ss octeseae Semewesaels <Coa.teaeeonscc hea: 05
99.32

3. RoBERTSON County METEORITE.

This mass of meteoric iron came into my possession during
the month of December, 1860, being sent by Prof. Lindsley, of
Nashville, Tenn. It was discovered by Mr. D. Crockett, near
Coopertown, in Robertson County, Tenn. The time of its fall
isnot known.

Its weight was thirty-seven pounds. Its form was wedge-
shaped; and its extreme dimensions were: length, ten inches;
breadth, nine and a half inches; and thickness, five and a half
inches. Its specific gravity is 7.85. On cutting through the ©
mass a module of sulphuret of iron was discovered about one
fourth of an inch in diameter, and there are doubtless others
in its interior. The iron on analysis furnished

ISOM) SesaAcosmocar conchowoteccboscadiaesde sane Ass osonseeponsshece 89.59

INGE CNR eeae orca ansscclotcalennisio Sadan manic ce deusan ees re sea 9.12

ROO gerrame tite ener seo ie once warienie ns wibeedeicamen cease atenpeiec cals 35

‘Copper, minute quantity, not estimated.

Fawr OM OMS ieee seme wesenie vecstbe slo que sshen ene veer ssacouosesdess 04
99.10

A NEW METEORITE FROM WAYNE COUNTY, O.

REMARKS ON THE METEORITE FROM ATACAMA, CHILI.

Mertroric [Ron oF WAYNE County, OH8IO.

The existence of a mass of meteoric iron from Wayne
County, Ohio, has been known to me for some years; but I
have delayed noticing its existence, hoping to obtain the mass,
and thus give a more complete description of it than I am able
to do,

My attention was first called to it by Prof. James C. Booth,
of the United States Mint at Philadelphia, it having been brought
to him by Peter Williams, of Wooster, Wayne County, Ohio, who
supposed it to be a mass of silver or some other precious metal.
Prof. Booth saw at once that it was meteoric iron, and tried to
procure it from Mr. Williams; but from some notion of its pos-
sessing considerable intrinsic value he retained it, and since that
time both the iron and Mr. Williams have been lost sight of.

Prof. Booth detached a small portion of it, part of which
specimen he placed at my disposal, with the following memo-
randum: “ Meteoric iron, given me in 1858 by Peter Williams,
of Wooster, Wayne County, Ohio. It was a rounded mass,
weighing about fifty pounds, and found by him in a woods
near the above place while gathering bowlders to pave a town.
It exhibits the usual figures on application of acid to a smooth
surface.”

As it is a well-authenticated meteorite, it is proper to make a
record of it. Its specific gravity is 7.901, and it is composed of

WS ih sseacadiode sasqehoon Roope sonndddosdnd 500 so ioooscabgeacesagacq000 93.61
IN Teele pa cmeaccetincssyascesasncesnseaemeintaeint cis slo's selsismaicette 6.01
Cobain eticcsesronccs ssc snsavececaceieeationenc scesescencnete 73
Copper, very minute, not estimated.

PHOSPHOLUS) sa7 ext < oe sony selnisbsinodesotteeewcd.s «sees eaceeoeehene 13

A NEW METEORITE FROM WAYNE COUNTY, O. 337

There was a very small quantity of manganese, that has
been estimated along with the nickel.

THE NEW ATACAMA METEORITE.

A fragment of the meteorite lately described by Prof. Joy
(Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, March, 1864, p. 243) has been
sent to me by Prof. C. F. Chandler, and I have thus been af-
forded an opportunity of carefully examining it. I had at first
supposed that it might be in some way related to the well-known
Atacama iron; but it is very clear, by the most casual inspec-
tion, that it has no connection with that iron; at the same time
it resembles so closely another meteoric mass from that region—
in fact, is so identical with it in all particulars—that if it had
not hailed from another locality it would be pronounced a
portion of the meteorite from Sierra de Chaco, Atacama, de-
scribed in 1863 by Prof. Rose (see Buchner, Geschichte der
Meteoriten, p. 131).

Prof. Joy omitted to mention in his paper that the meteorite
was said to have been found in the Janacera Pass.

The meteorite from Sierra de Chaco was, at the time it
was described, unique in its physical characteristics; the close
resemblance to it therefore of the one under notice, and its
coming from Atacama, has induced me to investigate as far as
possible the relative position of Sierra de Chaco and Janacera
Pass. aap

The best authority on the geography of Chili in this country
is doubtless Capt. Gilliss, of the United States Observatory at
Washington; in answer to my inquiries on the subject he gives
the following information: “I do not know any pass in Chili
named Janacera, there is a river Jarquera, which has its origin
near one of the passes in Atacama, and very probably there
is a pass of the same name. The river Jarquera is to the north-
ward and eastward of Chaco, the former being within the chain
of the Andes, and Chaco most probably is. in the western or
coast range. They are from one hundred and twenty to one
hundred and fifty miles apart.” :

As it is important to locate this meteorite correctly, I have
written to Prof. Domeyko on the subject. The village of Chaco
is situated near latitude 25° 20’ S. and longitude 69° 20’ W.
from Greenwich, and its height above the sea is 8,778 feet.

338 = <A NEW METEORITE FROM WAYNE COUNTY, 0.

The meteorite in question is so intimate a mixture of metallic
and stony matter that it is difficult to say whether to rank it
among the stony or metallic meteorites. Treated with a mix-
ture of nitric and chlorhydric acids, and slightly warmed, the
metallic portion is rapidly dissolved without the form of the
mass being altered. Its mineral constituents are readily sepa-
rated by the combined aid of chemical and mechanical means,
and besides the iron I have been enabled to separate small but
distinct particles of chromic iron, small spherical masses of
olivine as beautiful in color and as transparent as that from
the Pallas meteoric iron, and also a pyroxenic mineral; and
perhaps with a larger amount of material to work upon other
minerals might have been recognized.

I have nothing to add to the careful chemical examination by
Prof. Joy, having detached mechanically most of the minerals
that he deduced from analysis.

NEWTON COUNTY (ARK.) METEORITE:

CONTAINING ON ITS SURFACE CARBONATE OF LIME.

The first notice of the meteorite of Newton County was
made in 1860 by Prof. Cox, who was engaged in the geological
survey of Arkansas. The original has not been obtained. The
only fragment of it, being in the hands of Judge Green, was
given to Prof. Cox, who has kindly presented it to me. The
weight of the fragment is twenty-two and a half ounces, and
was evidently broken off from one corner of the mass, as it
presents three of the original surfaces.

This meteorite is of the mixed variety, and can not be
classed with either the metallic or the stony meteorites. It

is one of the most interesting that has been discovered in

the United States, differing from any other yet found in these
regions.

The stony matter is very distinctly crystallized, and some of
the minerals can be easily detached and examined separately.
The metallic portion constitutes somewhat over one half of the
mass, and owing to the diffusion of the stony matter has a
coarsely reticulated structure.

When broken under the hammer, and the iron separated by

the magnet, it is obtained in coarse grains, varying from three

to four grains down to very small fragments. The exterior is
of arusty color, roughened.by projection of nickeliferous iron,
and over several parts of the surface there is a white incrus-
tation.

Specific gravity taken on different pieces varies from 4.5
to 6.1. By mechanical means and the aid of the magnet the
following minerals were separated: Nickeliferous iron, chrome
iron, sulphuret of iron, hornblende, olivine, and carbonate of
lime.

Nickeliferous Iron.—I may as well mention the manner in
which I separate the iron from the stony matter of meteorites.

340 NEWTON COUNTY (ARK.) METEORITE.

In most instances it is necessary to sacrifice a fair portion of
the specimen. The mass is crushed in a steel mortar. The
magnet is then able to take out the iron from the mass of stony
matter, especially if the crushing operation is repeated two or
three times. The iron is then introduced into an iron or,
better still, a silver capsule or crucible, and a strong solution
of potash added. Heat is applied until all the water is driven
off, and the residue is heated to redness. On cooling water is
applied, and the excess of potash washed out, as well as some
silicate of potash that is formed. After thoroughly washing
the particles of iron they are moistened with a little alcohol,
and dried on blotting-paper with a gentle heat; and by holding
a magnet a little distance from them the particles of iron will
adhere to the magnet, almost perfectly free from earthy matter.

The iron, if of a coarse reticulated structure, as the one in
question, may require to be crushed in the steel mortar after
treatment by potash, to detach particles of silicate remaining in
small crevices; and in this variety I sometimes repeat the treat-
ment by potash. In this way the foreign matter associated with
the iron can be reduced to one half per cent. Of course this
process sacrifices more or less of the iron, especially if the iron —
be in very small particles. But this sacrifice is of secondary
importance compared with the necessity of having the metallic
matter in a pure state. Thus purified the iron was found to
be composed of

TOT as nrsiersre ae ook salen ciavalesiciemiete aot oa asia @ Se mabahctenten oaere eeaioes 91.23
SING @ Ne rr ne caine Nota cia Hoe mance memen eee DARA OE eC: Wail
Wopalt ener woccctinwsetatawcmueme cencere moatattomesemeneene 71
Copper,

Phosphorus, | too small to be estimated.

In the analysis, after separating the iron by the acetate of
soda, the nickel and cobalt were separated by nitrite of potash;
which method I have used frequently, and with the best results.
Liebig’s method for accomplishing the same end has been much
improved by the modification lately devised by Prof. Gibbs,
of dissolving the oxide of mercury in the cyanide of mercury. -
But having every arrangement necessary for executing suc-
cessfully the method by the nitrite of potash, I have not yet
tried Prof. Gibbs’s modification, but shall do so shortly.

NEWTON COUNTY (ARK.) METEORITE. 34]

Chrome Iron.—This is found in small quantity in minute
particles, some of them showing distinct faces of crystals; but
I failed to find any complete octahedron. The quantity was
too small for analysis, but was readily recognized by the blow-
pipe.

Sulphuret of Iron.—This also is discernible only in minute
quantity, and could not be collected for analysis. I would
remark, with reference to the sulphuret of iron found in mete-
orites, that it can not be classed with the terrestrial magnetic
pyrites, whose formula is considered Fe;S3, having always
found the sulphur too small for this formula; in which con-
clusion I believe that I am sustained by Rammelsberg and
others. My results point to the formula FeS; and if the com-
positions of these two kinds of pyrites are correctly made out,
then the meteoric variety has no terrestrial representative.

Hornblende.—This mineral is easily separated, and is of a
greenish-gray color, more or less soiled by iron. With some
care it can be detached unmixed with other constituents. It
has a very distinct cleavage in one direction and an imperfect
one in another. On analysis it gave 7

MING a rere ta Rites caidescecat itch ce seate sean oe tecaten kn #770210
Ja JIGNTINING) -consne dscbddht Gabchone nde nosndecbeaces dntosdsanenace 1.02
ROL OXACS) Oig I OMe ccc vadasslesndacccece sceceteacince=eeses 16.49
ROLOMIMeVOL MANGAN CSEr ac cca.2as5<ecaness «orses sac or 1.25
Wve STae as teiscehesaene saeaasnencinelsnisa ee seadsccosnasese 29.81
Alkalies (potash, soda, lithia)............-.s0sc2sssen2 24

100.91

The oxygen relations of the silica and protoxides furnish the
formula Ra Sis — the formula of hornblende. In structure and
composition it is not unlike some varieties of anthophyllite.

Olivine.—This mineral is diffused through the mass. Some
of the smaller pieces are almost colorless; others again are
more or less yellow, being stained with oxide of iron. Some
of the fragments are iridescent, like varieties of oligoclase,
which I at first took it to be. Sufficient of it was detached |
in a pure state for analysis, and was found to be composed as
follows:

SUA ere em eer ck oa wad na Salcewtcli de suds aie caaweceaced 42.02
MUTT TONER Ree rnicdin EE aM EEE ae RR Sha ae .46
PeLOLOXICLE, OlgmlnOMee scans ccc sc Coatescmeren cecum inact eee ate 12.08
0 MIGYETNCSTEN + op ontcedo ote EhpEnE ae nec CoSH OnCaCCuE bea eee -panss 47.25
101.81

2a

342 NEWTON COUNTY (ARK.) METEORITE.

There was a minute quantity of the manganese estimated
with the oxide of iron and magnesia. This analysis overruns
the 100. This is accounted for in part by the quantity used for
analysis not being more than 0.160 grammes. ‘The oxygen ratio
of the silica and protoxides show the composition Rs Si, which is
that of olivine.

Carbonate of Lime.—The observation of this constituent in
a meteorite is something entirely new, yet it is found on the
exterior surface of the meteorite in question in various places.
There is no doubt in my mind, however, that this ingredient
was not a part of the mass when it fell; but that it has been
exposed to certain conditions since its fall by which carbonate
of lime has been incrusted on its surface.

It is much to be regretted that the entire original mass is
not accessible to furnish facilities for determining whether it
is an incrustation or not, and if the former, whether the incrus-
tation was formed prior or subsequent to its fall.

In relation to the presence of carbonates in meteorites we
have the first and only announcement, up to the present time,
in connection with the meteorites which fell at Orgueil in
1863. Messrs. Des Cloizeaux, Pisani, Daubrée, and Cloez dis-
covered minute rhombohedral crystals of double carbonates of
magnesia and iron.

The above statements exhaust about all that I have to say at
the present time on the meteorite under investigation. There
may be one or two other minerals in its composition, but I
could not separate them in a manner to pronounce as to whether
they were different from those already described or not.

Pree:

COLORADO METEORIC IRONS.

1. RussEL GuuLcH [Ron.

' T have known of the existence of a new meteoric iron from
Russel Gulch in Colorado for about two years, but it was only
- recently that it passed into my hands. I first heard of it'in
the possession of Mr. Fisher, of New York, who subsequently
turned it over to Prof. C. F. Chandler, of Columbia College,
New York, who kindly submitted it to me, as [am furnished
with the necessary means for cutting up and scrutinizing thor-
oughly this class of bodies.

The mass of iron is accompanied with the following label:
‘Meteoric iron found in Russel Gulch, February 18, 1863, by
Mr. Otho Curtice. Weight twenty-nine pounds. Brought to
New York, February, 1864.”

The mass measures in its extreme len ath, bert and thick-
ness 8£x 74x54 inches. It is perfect in all parts except at one
extremity, and, as stated above, weighs twenty-nine pounds.

The iron is one of medium hardness, with the density 7.72,
and when cut through was found to contain a few small nodules
of iron pyrites. It is attacked readily by nitric acid, and gives
bold Widmannstattian figures without very sharp angles. It
resists the action of the air and moisture very well, and is
consequently but little altered on the surface. No siliceous
minerals could be traced in any of the crevices. On analysis
its composition was found to be

BTN eras Se ae isso wo Selvin oo doe aLec helseds Accnicecides Soke 90.61

BING Fee seer e tos as-is ase ducate missles suretsn ctwicistiee S'weeloce vee 7.84

Cobalt .. Hasse Beep an setae geet nein sete ose 78

Copper, minute quantity.

HOS OORT serene cere cannes cnisesies cb eeaens aucccdecsmenmanie’ 02
99.26

I have not made any further observations in relation to the
presence of copper in meteoric iron since 1852, when I called
attention to it. Since then I have become more confirmed in

344 COLORADO METEORIC IRONS.

the opinion, then first expressed, that copper would be found
in all meteoric irons; this has been the result of examinations
of many well-known meteoric irons and all new ones that have
come under my examination.

One or two grains of the iron is all that is necessary for the
examination, if it be done carefully; but four or five grains had
better be used. Dissolve the iron in chlorhydrie acid, and if
necessary add a little nitric acid; it is as well at all times to
add a drop or two at the end of the operation. Hvaporate
away the excess of acid, add water, precipitate with sulphur-
eted hydrogen until there be an excess of gas in the solution;
throw on a filter and wash with water containing a little HS,
dry the filter, burn in a porcelain crucible, treat the residue
in a little nitro-muriatic acid, and evaporate to dryness, with
the addition of a drop or two of sulphuric acid; treat the
residue with water, when the introduction of a clean plate
of iron will cause a deposition of the copper with all its
characteristic properties. 7

2. BEAR CREEK IRON.

Of this there are two short notices in the November number
of the Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, pages 260 and 286.
The specimen of it in my possession has enabled me to make a
thorough examination of the constituents. The piece I have
has a portion of the exterior attached.

As has already been stated by Prof. Shepard, it is coarsely
erystalline, and laminated from the effects of decomposition
between the crystals; the surface contains considerable pyrites,
although Prof. Shepard did not discover any in his specimen.
I was enabled to separate and analyze magnetic pyrites,
schreibersite, and nickeliferous iron. Of the magnetic pyrites
sufficient was separated to make a quantitative determination,
which was as follows:

Silo lamin sassearesteascntcjen at A 8 LR 35.08
TROT ee ice ew ica ee eel Sa Ca gteTas er aleTe Bera alee SEE RIS 61.82
ING@ Ke TE ee sesh et ae aii ia eos oe cicicis Neier ep tia nts tin oReia me ene Al
Tnsoluble Mesidwe vice che esd Aeaetomme meee eves clwonemerianamite 1.81

99.12

The schreibersite was not obtained in sufficient quantity for
a complete analysis; about fifty milligrammes of the pure min-

COLORADO METEORIC IRONS. 345

eral gave all the constituents usually found in this interesting
mineral. }

The nickeliferous iron, constituting of course the great bulk
of the mass, was composed as follows:

SOTA eM eae a icte sew sc si) sic aia baviesiow'sseedeieewaltone hie yenteenenaces 83.89

INUIGIRG!| ocovos rapadeapeaondnopseosoong Hodusoced aAuconpaagpodockbaxvar 14.06

(CIO). 3cccecgc dun pHEBOe OU Se DBne eS ua Bonn Bistodboce sar eEnoHnBmreeAr .83

Copper, minute quantity.

Mego SOMOS tienes: «inasls caissartsminsoaleisieiscls « seasen sLidelssrstecis seit 21
98.99

The lamine of iron are often very brilliant, having the
luster of silver, and caused me to suspect more nickel than was
found. It was supposed that in the decomposition of the crys-
tals the iron would disappear more rapidly than the nickel, and -
that by a process of cementation the nickel would accumulate
in the lamine; but from careful examination of the process
of decomposition there is no doubt that the interior of the mass
will not differ materially in its composition from the analysis
already given of the nickeliferous iron. Besides the minerals
already mentioned, and which properly belong to the original
mass, there is much oxide of iron, containing some nickel
arising from the decomposition of the surface.

COHAHUILA (MEXICO) METEORITES OF 1868.

The region of Mexico bordering on Texas seems to have
been most profusely furnished with these celestial visitors. In
1854 I first drew the attention of the scientific public to the
meteoric irons of this region, at which time I described one
brought from there by Lieut. Gouch, referring at the same time
to one mentioned by Mr. Weidner near the south-western edge
of the Balsin de Mapini, on the route to the mines of Panal,
weighing not less than one ton; also to another mentioned by
Dr. Berlandier, in his journal of the commission of limits, that
at the Hacienda of Venegas there was (1827) a piece of iron
that would make a cylinder one yard in length with a diameter
of ten inches. It was said to have been from the mountains
near the hacienda (see my article on the subject, Amer Jour.
of Science and Arts, 1854). In the description there given it
was stated that the specimen examined came from sixty miles
north of Santa Rosa, and therefore in one or two collections in
which it is to be found it is called incorrectly Santa Rosa mete-
orite. I was allowed to cut off but a small piece of it from the
original specimen, which is in the Smithsonian Institution, and
consequently I was able to supply but two or three specimens.
For the discovery and collection of the specimens now under
consideration we are indebted to Dr. H. B. Butcher, and I will
give a full detail of the discovery as communicated in letters te
his father by Dr. Butcher, to whom the scientific world are
certainly indebted for the labor, expense, and danger incurred

in procuring them. I must not, however, fail to state that I~

am indebted to Dr. Feuchtwanger for first informing me of the
fact of their arrival in this country, and for the exhibition
of a small fragment to the members of the American Scientific
Association at Chicago in 1868.

In a letter dated September 8, 1868, Dr. Butcher writes, from
information received from the son of Dr. Long, who had re-
sided many years at Santa Rosa, that in the fall of the year

—

COHAHUILA (MEXICO) METEORITES. 347

1837 there appeared over the town a most brilliant meteor,
having a north-west direction. He describes it as most beau-
tiful, lighting up the whole horizon, with a trail of brilliant
light following in its progress. Shortly after its disappearance
among the distant mountains they heard a rumbling sound,
immediately followed by a tremendous explosion.

From the report he thought it fell and exploded as it reached
the earth, somewhere between Santa Rosa and the mountains,
a distance of some thirty-five miles, and the next day he started
with friends to examine the route, hoping to findit. After two
days’ severe and rough riding they abandoned the search and
returned to town. Shortly afterward an Indian brought a piece
weighing ten or twelve pounds into Santa Rosa, supposing it to
be silver, having found it some ninety miles north-west of the
town, being in the same direction in which Dr. Long and his
friends had been exploring, the doctor having been deceived as
to distance, he only going to the base of the mountain instead
of crossing it and then following the valley for some forty miles
farther, where I think his search would have been a success.

Dr. Butcher now undertook the search, after which he writes:
“T have returned fully successful, and am making preparations
to send on the iron. In making my arrangements I hired
eight Mexicans and two Indians as guides, and started into the
mountains in a north-west direction, the same as taken by Dr.

- Long, and found the iron about ninety miles from Santa Rosa.

As no vehicle could go into the mountains by the route we
entered, I. spent two days in exploring a new road whereby the
ox-teams could bring them out and get them to Santa Rosa.
They consist of eight pieces, varying from two hundred and
ninety pounds, which is the smallest, to six hundred and fifty-
four pounds, which is the largest, making a total of nearly four
thousand pounds. Before the explosion the weight must have
been much greater, as it is not probable that I have secured

the whole, and we know some was taken away by the Indians,

who thought they found large masses of silver, and carried
their specimens to Santa Rosa. It appears there is on record

a statement of the meteor having passed over the city in 1837,

and one of my guides relates as a fact that at that time (1837)
a Lepan Indian was riding one of their small ponies through
the valley, when his stirrup struck against one of the masses,

O48: 5 COHAHUILA (MEXICO) METEORITES.

causing a ringing sound like silver. He dismounted, and was
confirmed in his opinion of silver, and took away a piece ten
or twelve pounds in weight, which he carried to Santa Rosa to
sell. I have received from various sources information relative
to this meteor, and all confirm me in the opinion that the au-
tumn of 1837 is about the time of its fall. My party were in
considerable danger while in the mountains, as we were en-
camped two miles from the regular trail when some three
hundred Indians went through with a large number of their
stolen horses.”

Whether or not the time above specified is that of the fall
of one or more of these irons is a matter of little moment; the
probabilities are, however, strongly in favor of it; nevertheless,
it forms one of the most interesting groupings of meteoric irons
known in any part of the world, especially as the masses are
solid and compact, and not fragile and half stony, as the
Atacama iron, that may have been broken artificially after its
fall, and the fragments scattered by Indians and explorers in
search of silver. Hach one of these masses merits a separate
examination, which I hope to be able to give, sooner or later,
to satisfy my mind on one or two points connected with their
common physical structure and chemical composition. But I
will not delay this paper until then.

Six of these masses have been brought to this country,
weighing respectively 290, 430, 438, 550, 580, and 654 pounds.
They are irregular compact masses, without any evidence of
stony minerals. They belong to the softer irons, not very diffi-
cult to cut with the saw; as yet there has been but about one
ounce detached from one of the masses, which has enabled me
to make out the following description Specific gravity 7.692.
It contains

EOIN Ae craceractovsisio's ops sea)s «4.c\elela vied Meine eee me nAcn tue annem t/yeatiaclele 92.95
IN FIGURE a 5 dhaserahn sapbbanaeeasd Acad concaabo scoopedusGnadeshesocds 6.62
COANE ere encen cn ieuicessbisles soca ennaemnenetnscse- nsec sn Aaue 48
JEIOGS) DINVOLABIS) aoulsnosoeadboadcnnoted 350 hoo sA444onpeodedenoabHses act 02

Copper, very minute quantity.

This composition differs somewhat from the meteoric iron
called Santa Rosa; but recently I have reason to believe that
the quantity of nickel given in the Santa Rosa is too small,
some portion of it having remained with the iron. Future
examinations may prove that the Santa Rosa belongs to the
group of irons under notice.

THE WISCONSIN METEORITES:

WITH SOME REMARKS ON WIDMANNSTATTIAN FIGURES.

These meteorites were first brought to my notice by Mr.
I. A. Lapham, of Wisconsin; and his attention was called to
them by Mr. C. Daflinger, Secretary of the German Natural
History Society of Wisconsin. They were discovered in the
town of Trenton, Washington County, Wisconsin, and I have
called them the “Wisconsin Meteorites.” Up to the present
time fragments have been found, indicating that these meteor-
ites were of the same fall, and separated at no great elevation.
They were found within a space of ten or twelve square yards,
very near the north line of the forty-acre lot of Louis Korb, in
latitude 43° 22’ north, and longitude 88° 8’ west from Green-
wich, and about thirty miles north-west of Milwaukee.

They were so near the surface as to be turned up with the
plow; they weigh sixty, sixteen, ten, and eight pounds respec-
tively, and present the usual pitted and irregular surfaces.

The largest of the meteorites in its extreme dimensions is
fourteen inches long, eight inches wide, and four inches thick,
weighing sixty-two pounds. Its specific gravity is 7.82, and |

composition :
ATOM are acters sie Suines, seiniaieySelsieisia.e s'isists gawtewawciransinscise ese sivaie ens 91.038
Nickel. Se)
Cobalt . Pe re ic ae Oana pC ate Mime See crac ETE a ed Gist got uO
HEAT SiON MO NGUIS tapas sicrseie. nis esien ste cnjedls aSclaatelacwn sisisencceti ewleicet aes 14
WO Oporto dere celssesaaye os) sna oie/sevso gene damssesiess minute quantity.
SOMMER eS eratesiess vais ces dclovetitencosedeaeciose cielecs ooelcss aed AO

A polished surface when etched gives well-marked Wid-
mannstattian figures. There is something, however, peculiar
about the markings on this iron, which is doubtless common
to other irons, but which has heretofore escaped my observa-
tion; and I can not discover, in a hasty investigation, that it
has been noticed by others. My attention was called to this
peculiarity by Mr. Lapham, on a slice of the meteorite I sent

350 THE WISCONSIN METEORITES.

him etched. Should these markings be entitled to a separate
notice, I propose calling them Laphamite markings. The little
drawing accompanying this, which is on a somewhat exagger-
ated scale, will show what they are.

The Widmannstattian figures are a, bright metallic, wl
convex ends and sides; bec, of a ane color, are the other
markings, usually smaller and with the —
sides and ends concave. The material of
which these dark figures are composed
seems to have enveloped the lighter col-
ored portion, which serves to make the
dark lines so beautifully conspicuous. A
good pocket-glass will show that the dark
figures are striated, with lines at right-
angles to the bounding surfaces. When the figure is nearly
square the lines extend from each of the four sides, but when
much elongated, as at c, they are parallel with the longer sides.
Often these lines do not reach the middle of the figure, where
only a confused crystallization can be detected. In the interior
of the elongated figures the lines are quite irregular, often run-
ning together and showing a striking resemblance to woody
fiber. The nature of these markings may be easily understood.
They indicate the axes of minute columnar. crystals, which
tend to assume a position at right-angles to the surface of
cooling.

These markings may have been observed by otherat and as -

‘soon as the subject can be examined on other irons, a better
conclusion can be formed.

oe

FRANKLIN COUNTY (KY.) METEORIC IRON:

WITH REMARKS ON THE PRESENCE OF COPPER AND
NICKEL IN METEORIO IRONS; THE METHOD OF ANALY-
ZING THE SAME; AND THE PROBABILITY OF THE LEAD
IN THE TARAPACA IRON HAVING BEEN ORIGINALLY
FOREIGN TO THAT MASS.

1. Toe Franxkuin County Mereroric Iron.

The Franklin County meteoric iron was first brought to my
attention in a blacksmith-shop in Frankfort, Ky. It was car-
ried there to be tested in regard to its quality as iron; being
supposed by its discoverer to indicate an iron-mine. Mr. Nelson
Alley became possessed of it, and kindly presented it to me.

It came from a hill eight miles south-west of Frankfort,
latitude 38° 14’ north, longitude 80° 40’ west from Greenwich,
and was discovered in 1866. It passed into my possession in
1867, and was then described by me, but the manuscript was
lost after its leaving my hands, and the original notes were
misplaced; the notes have been recently discovered, and the
iron again analyzed.

Its form is somewhat globular, with a highly crystalline
structure. Its weight was twenty-four pounds; and this
appears to have been its original weight, only a few flakes
having become detached by the rusting through of some of
the fissures. Specific gravity 7.692. Its composition when
perfectly freed from rust and earth is

J DROIN,soociosoag.250 Jaguos0e GROG OBB HERE Ose eeacubo re SHpeeOn ED: Net MaRRD EG) UMaTo)
INAIGIEG! Cho bouts asdccn soa eg ene HERE SaSEORE Bae CORSO ODE EREEE eae 55)
Wolalllitcmrcetre tery casts. oases ch one aaltsneviensUtseideeeds vet 0 OO
COpPeRiteterecettartaselveeioee'osis.ecosechieas awe eemminute> quanbity.
PAOSPMORUSepmeattnte sac cccees oss cd sath csdoiemce yor ba nloes sonar OO

99.52

Having, as it will be seen, the usual composition of meteoric
irons. While on the subject of this iron I will add some
remarks.

»
302 FRANKLIN COUNTY (KY.) METEORIC IRON.

2. On THE PRESENCE OF COBALT IN Metrroric [Rons.

My attention has been directed again and again to meteoric
irons whose analyses are given without mention of the presence
of cobalt; and in some instances with the distinct statement
that it is absent, as in the recent examination of a meteoric
iron from Auburn, Macon County, Alabama, by Prof. Shepard,
who states that “neither cobalt, tin, nor copper was detected
in this iron.” I can not but suggest the importance of making
a most critical examination of these irons before pronouncing
this fact; for in every analysis that I have made of meteoric
irons (over one hundred different specimens) with this in view,
cobalt has been invariably found, along with a minute quantity
of copper. A great many of the analyses made were of irons
that had been previously examined without a recognition of
the cobalt. 3

The presence of these ingredients, even in small quantities,
is a matter of considerable mineralogical interest, as is the case
of the presence of small quantities of other elements in many
minerals; a fact that I will have occasion to refer to at some
future time in connection with leucite and other silicates.

As a guide to those who may wish to know the manner of
my examinaton of meteoric iron, I will give a little in detail
the method adopted in separating the metals.

Method of analysis— <A small piece of the iron is selected
perfectly free from crust and earthy matter. I sometimes
plunge the fragment into nitric acid somewhat diluted, warm
the acid and continue the action for a few seconds, withdraw
the iron, wash well and dry it. The piece selected for analysis
should be about one gramme, or a little over (except where the
copper is sought for quantitively, and then at least ten grammes
should be used for the copper estimate alone). ‘Treat the iron
in a porcelain capsule, or glass flask, with a mixture of hydro-
chloric and nitric acids, consisting of four parts of the former
to one of the latter, and about as much water as acid; dissolve
over a water-bath. If a capsule be used, invert a funnel over
the mixture, the edges of the funnel entering the capsule but
not touching the mixture. Continue the action on the water-
bath until the solution is complete; evaporate to dryness (having.
washed what may adhere to the inner surface of the funnel into

FRANKLIN COUNTY (KY.) METEORIC IRON. 303

the capsule), then add a little more hydrochloric acid and evapo-
rate again nearly to dryness. This is done to insure driving off
the last portion of nitric acid and rendering the iron easily
soluble. Add to the contents of the capsule an ounce or two
of water, and if there be a residue it must be collected on a
weighed filter, dried, weighed, and reserved for future examina-
tion; if the quantity be too small for examination, a larger
portion of the iron must be examined with special reference to
this residue—which most commonly is a silicate, but may con-
tain carbon or chromic iron (chromite).

If, however, there is no residue, proceed to the next step
at once without filtering; if the solution has been filtered the
following steps are the same. Hxamine first for sulphur. This
is done by adding a few drops of chloride of barium; if there

8 a precipitate it is collected on a filter, and the sulphate of
baryta obtained furnishes the amount of sulphur present. Next
pass a stream of sulphureted hydrogen through the filtrate to
complete saturation, previously adding a drop or two of sul-
phuric acid; much Pale will be deposited and a very minute
quantity of copper (not traceable by the color of the precipitate,
but only recognized by the most delicate tests after the sulphur
of the collected precipitate is burnt away); the solution thrown
on a filter leaves the precipitated sulphur, the little trace of
copper, and all the excess of the baryta that had been added,
if the excess had been slight. The filter is then ignited in a
porcelain crucible; the residue treated with a few drops of nitric
and sulphuric acids, which suffices to dissolve the copper, and
when evaporated to dryness leaves the copper in the form of
sulphate, slightly acid, as there is no necessity of heating so
high as to drive off the very last trace of sulphuric acid. The
presence of the trace of copper is easily shown by adding a
drop or two of water to dissolve the sulphate, and with the
end of a glass rod placing a little of the solution on a clean and
bright surface of iron, as the blade of a knife, for instance. In
no examination of a meteoric iron have I failed to detect copper
by this means.

When more iron is used, and there is consequently more
copper, it can be separated and weighed. Tin and lead will
also be found in the precipitate if they be present; but I have
never detected either, except lead in the case of the Tarapaca

&
304 FRANKLIN COUNTY (KY.) METEORIC IRON.

\

iron, which I have every reason to believe was originally for-
eign to the iron. ?

The sulphureted hydrogen precipitate, which I have always
obtained, is so minute in a gramme of iron that it may be dis-
pensed with, and the iron, nickel, and cobalt be separated, which
is accomplished as described a little further on. If, however,
sulphureted hydrogen has been used, the iron in solution is in
the form of protoxide, and must be converted into the peroxide,
which is accomplished by adding a little chlorate of potash and
hydrochloric acid, that have been made to react on each other
by heating, before adding it to the boiling solution of iron, ete.

The solution of iron should have a bulk of ten or twelve
ounces; to it is added a solution of carbonate of soda in suffi-
cient quantity to nearly neutralize the free acid; the iron is
now precipitated by acetate of soda with all the well-known
precautions. I wash this precipitate only partially, and detach
it from the filter by washing it into a beaker and re-dissolving
it by hydrochloric acid, and precipitate it a second time by ace-
tate of soda; I then subject it to complete washing, and estimate
the iron in the way usually employed. This second precipitation
is necessary to separate an appreciable quantity of nickel remain-
ing in the acetate of iron after the first precipitation; and after
considerable experience I must say that it is the only method
of separating with any degree of accuracy iron from nickel.

The solution separated from the iron, and containing nickel
and cobalt, is concentrated down to four or five ounces, then
treated with caustic potash or soda, thrown on a filter and
washed with hot water, with all the usual precautions when
nickel is precipitated by an alkali. The precipitate is dried,
ignited and weighed; after which it is dissolved in nitric acid
over a water-bath and the acid solution evaporated nearly to
dryness; about two or three drachms of water are added, then
a concentrated solution of nitrite of potash, then an excess of
acetic acid; this is now set aside for forty-eight hours, during
which time the nitrite of cobalt is completely separated; it is

next thrown on a filter, washed and estimated in the manner *

proposed by the author of this method. I usually employ a
concentrated solution of the sulphate of potash to wash with.
This method, to say the least of it, has in my experience proved
fully equal to the cyanide method, and is much more simple;

+ :
FRANKLIN COUNTY (KY.) METEORIC IRON. 305

and by it I have never failed to detect and estimate cobalt in
every meteoric iron that has come under my examination.

In examining for phosphorus the following method is adopted:
To three or more grammes of the iron, in a porcelain capsule,
add nitric acid diluted with water; then invert a funnel over
the mixture to protect from loss during the action, evaporate
to dryness over a water-bath, and then on a sand-bath to a
temperature of 500° to 600°; the iron is thus converted into an
oxide with little or no nitric acid remaining, and the phosphorus
is transformed into phosphoric acid that is now combined with
oxide of iron. The residue is detached as thoroughly as possible
from the capsule and mixed with twice its weight of carbonate
of soda, or, better still, with a mixture of carbonates of soda
and potash; a little carbonate of soda added to the capsule and
rubbed with a pestle detaches the last portion of oxide of iron,
or rather leaves so small an amount as to make no error in the
future steps of an analysis where the original quantity of phos-
phorus is so small.

The mixture of oxide of iron and phosphate is now to be
heated in a platinum crucible to the point of fusion of the
carbonates for about twenty minutes; then heat the mass with
water, when the excess of carbonates will be dissolved, and
what phosphate may have been formed. The phosphates
will represent all the phosphorus in the iron. Now neutralize
the carbonate with hydrochloric acid, and estimate the phos-
phorus in the ordinary way by a magnesia salt.

With regard to the detection of chromium and other special
constituents of some meteoric irons, especially those containing
some siliceous minerals intimately mixed in the iron, it is not
the province of this paper to discuss.

3. Leap IN Mertreoric IRons.

The only instance of the finding of lead in meteoric irons is
that of the Tarapaca iron, found in 1840, in Chili, which was
examined by Mr. Greg; the metallic lead was detected by him
in small masses of varied dimensions.

I have examined several specimens cut from the original
mass of iron, two of which are in my possession, and my con-
viction is that the metallic lead was altogether foreign to the
iron when it originally fell, and has been doubtless derived

306 FRANKLIN COUNTY (KY.) METEORIC IRON.

from lead with which the mass was probably treated by the -
original discoverers for the purpose of extracting some precious
metal, they being ignorant of its true nature. My reasons for
coming to this conclusion are, that the lead is found in cavities
near the surface of the iron, these cavities having channels of
more or less size leading to the exterior of the mass; the iron
is honey-combed in its character in many places, which is evi-
dent to the eye, and is also indicated by its specific gravity, 6.5.
In pieces of the iron detached from the interior of the mass,
and examined with the utmost care by a magnifying glass to
see that there is no possible fissure in it, no lead has been found.
These pieces are exceedingly difficult to obtain, and can only be
had in very small pieces.

The crust of the iron having the most cavities furnishes
most lead, and is in some parts covered by a fused yellow crust
of oxide of lead; this last fact has no significance, however, in
the present consideration of the matter. Without venturing
to insist too sharply on the view here taken, after the careful
examination of so distinguished an observer as Mr. Greg, I
recommend this view of the subject to those having larger
specimens of the iron than myself.

“STEWART COUNTY (GA.) METEORITE.

(FELL oN OcTOBER 6, 1869.)

In October, 1869, I learned through the public press that
certain meteoric phenomena had occurred in Stewart County,
Georgia, and that one or more stones had fallen. Inquiries

were immediately instituted by me, and through Prof. Willet
I obtained for examination the only stone found, one that was
seen to strike the ground.

The stone, as it reached me, was nearly intact, and weighed
twelve and a quarter ounces; it must originally have weighed
twelve and a half ounces. It is of an irregular conical shape,
having a flattened base, and is covered with a dull, heavy
black coating. The specific gravity is 3.65. The fractured
surface has a grayish aspect, and when examined closely,
especially by the aid of a glass, exhibits numerous greenish
globules with a whitish granular material between; through
the mass are dark particles consisting principally of nickelif-
erous iron, with some pyrites and a few specks of chrome iron.
The nodules are sometimes three or more millimetres in diam-
eter, and of an obscure fibrous crystalline structure, the crystals
radiating usually from one side of the nodule; they. have a.
dirty bottle-green color, a greasy aspect when broken, and are
more or less opaque.

Some of these little nodules were separated in a tolerable
state of purity, amounting to one hundred and twenty-one
milligrammes. On analysis they afforded:

Oxygen. Ratio.
LLL Ateneo Reet ee ce ine wine 48.62 25.90 9
PUNDRIOW NS Wop SAP er se SA Reet MO 155 3.79
(PrOtORIdS. Of MOMs... es .n0s Leon 2:51 1
IE WSTN ESTE) Secs coc ancne costecede ore 30.18 11.80

98.06
The hardness of the mineral is about 6, and it is quite tough.
The formula would be RS$i, with a part of the silica replaced by
24.

308 STEWART COUNTY (GEORGIA) METEORITE.

alumina, a not unfrequent case in minerals such as hornblende,
hypersthene, etc. As it is impossible to derive any light from
its crystalline structure, the above analysis warrants me in
concluding that it is either bronzite or hornblende, but 1 am
more inclined to the former supposition, as it appears to take
the place of the enstatite in many meteorites.

Nickeliferous iron constitutes about seven per cent. of the
mass, and a portion separated in as pure a state as possible
afforded on analysis:

7 HO) OL a ae SS gE Ss SR AR TR RL yd a ey eee 86.92
ON GG IKE ii. Sestak veicite fase ate hein eo seh Rice eek Ree eee nee eee aE
L:(65) oy WL peer eran Cle, walrus UN noe Plate aetna re RAT RIT 2 IMU MSN ule EBS

99.68

These are the proportions after allowing iron for a small
amount of sulphur present in a minute quantity in the nickel-
iferous iron, which could not be separated mechanically. I did
not test for copper or phosphorus. The quantity of iron sepa-
rated from the stone did not warrant my making special analyses
for substances the quantity of which present could only be ex-
ceedingly minute.

The stony matter freed from the iron was treated with nitro-
muriatic acid and water, and heated for some time over a water-
bath, renewing the water and acid once or twice; the solution

. was filtered and the residue washed; the residue was then treated:

with a warm solution of caustic potash, filtered, and again washed.

. The filtrate was neutralized by hydrochloric acid and added to

the first filtrate, and the whole evaporated to dryness over a
water-bath, warmed gently over the lamp, and treated with
water and a little hydrochloric acid, thrown on a filter, the
silica collected and estimated; the last filtrate was treated with
a solution of chloride of barium to ascertain the quantity
of sulphuric acid present (due to the pyrites in the original
mass); it was found to indicate 6.10 per cent. of magnetic iron
pyrites. The solution freed from the excess of baryta was now
analyzed in the ordinary way.

The insoluble portion of the meteorite was fused with car-
bonate of soda and a small fragment of caustic potash, and its
ingredients ascertained.

A separate portion of the stony part of the meteorite was

examined. for alkalies.

STEWART COUNTY (GEORGIA) METEORITE. 309

The various analyses referred to above gave, omitting the
nickeliferous iron:

Wa joeats SC NIELS Me BYONG! | ebean Gos on mca doe obs bodconcoecnocSOcee 58.05
(Une yori ® Tea G@N NOLS Tal ENON lescooece op coe ooo ace ans poses cog ono cena)
Soluble part. Insoluble part.

SHG APE aoe oe sais covine's ccccen caceuhiemens ces 41.08 56.08
PNG tinamaaae et terete oc ccces some scnacecseeneaweus 132, 5.89
IPTOTONIGOCVOL TOM sccacccckccwacs cotecscosaes 18.45 15.21
IISGTNGEIR) cAonegungsiooebouroe nendoe soa cesoaeece 41.06 21.00
BGM eee cle as eiaicinc oaks sonnsosece ano nascncooaces Gorse 10
Sada, wathea little Koamd Wit.) 3. ssc... seca 2.97

100.88 101 20

The soluble part consists principally of olivine. The insolu-
ble is doubtless the bronzite already referred to, with a little
albite or oligoclase.

Chrome iron was detected by fusing some of the stony part
of the meteorite with carbonate of soda and a little niter and
separating in the usual way. The quantity was quite minute.
The composition of the stone as made out would be

INGiel<elnferoussiPOmT. qe does sejacers shinier cetslecstouscbesen eos socle 7.00
MBE ME| TIES PNM S eo. eens seaiscosmeacees acne fSade tase seme seeacee st 6.10
iromaiver OL, hornblende, 32,700 cosas cimsceneeee eens es
ON AINE arse alee seisn.cely sic ods wateseiucinc es sec dinimiceniesedete ts
PUTO W OR OC OCIASE)) Fe eocnacdccrsececiweos enon sate ee)

(HANEC TRANS WER O) Oe AR Ate rls uhh eee Atte Pe ACs CR aa pee

PHENOMENA ATTENDING THE FALL OF THE STONE.

Mr. J. B. Latimer, of Bladen’s Creek, Stewart County, has
kindly furnished the following particulars of the flight of the
body through the air, and of the several explosions, which‘oc-
curred nearly vertically above him:

“The morning of the 6th of October last (1869) was quite
clear, scarcely any cloud being visible, quite calm; about ten A. M.
the atmosphere grew somewhat hazy, no clouds; at about fifteen
or twenty minutes before twelve M. a roaring, rushing sound was
heard in a north-westerly direction, about 80° above the hori-
zon. In amoment or two it was almost directly overhead, at
which point a loud explosion occurred, followed in rapid suc-
cession by six other reports, but less in volume than the first—
making seven in all. The explosions appeared about as loud
as a twelve-pound cannon at a distance of ten or twelve miles.
These explosions did not occur all at the same point in the
heavens, but seemed to emanate from some body moving rapidly

360 STEWART COUNTY (GEORGIA) METEORITE,

to the south-east. After the explosions a peculiar whirring
sound was heard, apparently produced by some large irregular
body moving very rapidly. This also went in a south-easterly
direction. This sound was heard several seconds; many have
compared it, and aptly too, to an imperfect steam-whistle. I
have no precise idea of the time consumed in all this demon-
stration. Some persons say several minutes, but I think ten
or fifteen seconds would about cover the time.

“As the larger body was going out of our hearing, some
moments after the explosions, a smaller one passed to the
south-west with just such a noise as is always produced by a
flying fragment of a shell after its explosion, or of any angular
body cast violently through the air. This piece descended to
the earth, distinctly traced in its passage by many persons, and
struck in the yard of Capt. E. Barlow—which point of contact
is, on an air-line, about two and a half miles from a perpendic-
ular beneath where the explosions occurred. This is the only
one known to have fallen in this section.

“The explosions, together with the rushing sound afterward,
were heard over a region about thirty miles north-east and
south-west, and fifty or sixty miles north-west and south-east.
No shock was felt—at least no tremor of the earth.

“women say that they were looking in the exact direction
of the explosions at the time they occurred and saw a quantity
of vapor, much like the volume of steam escaping from the pipe
of an engine at each successive stroke, which vapor or mist was
violently agitated and increased in bulk with each successive
report, but disappeared soon after the cessation of the reports.
This corroborates the testimony of some of my own laborers,
who say that immediately after the explosions something like
a thin cloud cast its shadow over.the field they were in.”

Hon. John T. Clarke, of Cuthbert, Ga., who has interested
himself in collecting the history of the meteorite, and through
whose influence it has come into the possession of Mercer Uni-
versity, writes me the following particulars of its fall:

“Tt fell about 113 a. M., on the 6th of October last (1869), in
Stewart County, Georgia, on the premises of Elbridge Barlow,
Hsq., about twelve miles south of west from Lumpkin. Capt.
Barlow picked it up a few moments after it fell. His account
of it is this: While standing in the open yard, the sky being

STEWART COUNTY (GEORGIA) METEORITE. 361

bright and clear, he heard first a succession of about three
explosions, resembling bursts of thunder or discharges of artil-
lery, followed by a deep roaring for several seconds, and then
by a rushing or whizzing sound of something rushing with
great speed through the air near by. The sound ceased sud-
denly. ‘The noise from first to last was some half a minute.
Two negroes were washing near the well in the same yard,
about sixty yards from where Barlow stood. They heard the
noise, and supposed it to be the falling in of the plank well-
curbing, banging from side to side in its descent, and so spoke
of it to one another before it fell. While they were speaking
thus it struck the ground about twenty steps from them, in full
sight, knocking up the dirt. They called Capt. Barlow, and
showed him the spot. It was upon very hard-trodden ground.
in_the clean open yard. The earth was freshly loosened up
very fine in a circle of about one and a half feet in diameter ;
and, upon scraping the loose dirt away with the hands the
stone was found about ten inches below the surface. From the
direction in which the ground was crushed in it must have
come from the north-west, and at an angle of about thirty
degrees with the horizon. The stone when it was picked up
was covered all over with the black shell which it bears now,
except a triangular spot on one corner, about one inch each
way, where the corner appeared freshly knocked off, and about
four other spots near a quarter of an inch in diameter, where
the shell was slightly knocked off. The other bruises which
you will find upon it have been made since by persons who
have handled it. To enable you to distinguish the original
breaks upon it I have marked each of them with a red cross.
The stone still has a strong odor, which I will not undertake to
describe. Capt. Barlow says it smelled stronger when he first
picked it up. He does not remember that it had any noticeable
heat. It was not cold, as a stone found so deep in the ground
should be. |
“The stone weighs now twelve and a quarter ounces; about
half an ounce has been pecked off from it. Its color within is
strikingly lke very light granite; and with the exceptions
above noted it is entirely covered with a smooth, almost black
shell, a trifle thicker than common letter-paper, so that exter-
nally it looks very much like a lump of iron-ore. It is an

362 STEWART COUNTY (GEORGIA) METEORITE.

irregular, seven-sided figure, its longest side being about two
and three quarter inches long. If put into a spherical form it
would make a ball about one and three quarter inches in diam-
eter. So far as I have been able to ascertain no other parts
have been found.

“The noise attending this phenomena is variously described
by different persons, and from different places. Two intelligent
ladies, residing four miles south of Lumpkin, nearly east of
where the stone fell, and about ten or twelve miles off, describe
it thus: While sitting in the house they heard, as it were, the
sound of a great fire suddenly bursting forth from some con-
finement into the open air. They rushed out of doors and
heard the roaring sound continue for several seconds. They
located the source of the noise in the direction of Barlow’s.

“In Cuthbert, about eighteen miles from Barlow’s, nearly
south-east, a gentleman engaged in a workshop heard a lum-
bering noise, which he took to be several heavy pieces of
machinery in an adjoining room falling down one after another.
On going in he found no one, and that he had mistaken the
cause of the noise. Many persons here heard sounds like
repeated thunder followed by roaring. Some say that they
first. heard several rapid, cracking explosions, like that of vol-
leys of small arms, followed immediately*by the louder burst
of artillery. Most persons here thought the noise came from
the south-east, passed over the place in a north- pele direc-
tion, and died away in the distant north-west.

“The foregoing statements have been selected from many in

circulation, showing how differently the senses were affected at .

different points. The facts are purposely presented in their
nakedness. If you can find them available in aid of a scientific
investigation of the origin of this phenomenon, I shall have
accomplished more than I expect.”

The above accounts agree as to the main facts: the point of |

greatest discrepancy—the direction of flight. It is probable
that the meteorite came from some point in the north quarter ;
the statement of Mr. Latimer, over whom it exploded, and that
of Mr. Barlow as to the direction in which the earth was pene-
trated, concur in this regard. Persons in Cuthbert, who repre-
sent it as coming from the south, may have been misled by an
echo, mistaking this for the original sound.

DANVILLE (ALA.) METEORITE.

(FELL NovEMBER 27, 1868.)

Although the meteorite of Danville, Ala., fell in November,
1868, and an analysis has been made of it during the past
summer, it is only recently that I obtained a complete account
of the phenomena attending its fall.

On Friday evening, November 27, 1868, about five o’clock,

Mr. T. F. Freeman, of Danville (about lat. 34° 30’ and long. 87°

W. Greenwich), on stepping*from his house, was startled by
a loud report, so much lke artillery that for the moment its

- origin was attributed to the firing of a.small piece of artillery ©

kept in the village; but on inquiry it was ascertained that no
firing had taken place there, but that the sound was heard at
the village, and attributed to very heavy artillery at Decatur,
Trinity, Hillsboro, or some other point to the northward of
Danville. During the war artillery had been often heard in

the valley of the Tennessee, and various speculations were

indulged in as to what was meant by this cannonade at such
a time of day and in such a direction.
The following day Mr. Wm. Brown, living three miles west

‘of Danville, brought to the village a piece of rock, which he

said fell near him and some laborers who were picking cotton.
He dug it up at a depth of about one and a half to two feet.
It weighed about four and a half pounds, and had the char-
acteristic aspects of a meteoric stone. But it was broken by
the party obtaining it, and all but half a pound, now in my
possession, has been scattered, and probably lost or thrown
away.

Several other stones fell in the same vicinity. Some negroes
working in a cotton-field on the plantation of Capt. McDaniel,
half a mile from Danville, heard a body fall with a whizzing,
humming sound, and strike the ground near them with tre-
mendous force; but they were alarmed, and did not approach

364 DANVILLE (ALA.) METEORITE.

the spot that night. A rain fell during the night, and no trace
of it could be found the next day. Various other stones were
heard to fall in different parts of the adjacent country. Two
brothers by the name of Wallace were plowing in their field,
about one and three fourths miles north-west of Danville.
They distinctly heard two or three fainter reports after the
first loud one, and heard the sound of two falling bodies
whizzing down, one to the right and the other to the left
of them.

With the above data, and the known geography of the
country, its direction must have been north-east and south-
west; but it is impossible to say from which of these quarters
it came.

The portion of the meteorite that I possess has a large por-
tion of it covered with the usual black crust. Its general
aspect is rough and dull; a portion of the outer surface, not
covered with the black coating, is nevertheless a surface that it
had when it reached the ground, for on this surface are streaks
and little patches of a bright, pitchy matter, which was once
fused, and was derived either from another part of the coating
that was thrown off in a melted state from the coated portion,
and whipped around (as it were) on to the unfused surface as
the stone fell through the air, or from an incipient fusion that
was begun on the denuded surface, and arrested by the termi-
nation of the fall. Where the black crust reaches the denuded
places it appears to be rounded off, as if it had been melted
matter passing from another portion of the stone, and rolled
over the surface of the borders. |

The broken surface has a dark-gray color, and is somewhat
oolitic in structure, but not as much so as many other meteoric
stones. There are veins and patches of a slate-colored mineral
running through it. Pyrites and iron are also to be seen dif-
fused through the stone; thin flakes of the iron giving that
slickenside-like appearance to a fracture not unfrequently seen
in this class of bodies. There seems to be more of iron in the
slate-colored mineral than in the other parts. There are a few
patches of white mineral, which I take to be enstatite. The
specific gravity of the stone is 3,398.

For further examination a portion of the meteorite was sep-
arated mechanically into three parts, the pyrites, the metallic

~~" =

DANVILLE (ALA.) METEORITE. 365

iron, and the earthy minerals. As in the case of most mete-
orites, the earthy minerals were so intermixed that it was

impossible to separate the different varieties, three of which
_were easily traceable by the eye.

The iron, separated with great care from the pulverized me-
teorite, constitutes 3.092 per cent. of the entire mass, and an
analysis furnished |

ROM eho t os ot lacescwe Sen astelncdeedannseepete veda eves 89.518
INGIG ESOS cere a rats ce ade ctrctolectate delaras aisles o sieisdaomeas adere ds 9.050
WOME iedsews no sist rosveconreseaisees Rie con cetcs Sortceaeee §21
(OO JODSIR cos Hae SR ORB Rasen CaCO ane en nace nara minute quantity
POS PMOTUG 51cde secede cle sdb o aforeined sie CCT age webs Seeehleas 019
‘SUL DOORS ok Sosa snes nn ocnesor Eber or aRURBONGEB URDRSSE Larne 105

99.208

The sulphide of iron detached very carefully from the mass
of the meteorite gave

HiME Me anamceoenosaanwe scons Ue saiae Sanaa sanages | Wea Ue csidoes 61.11
Sail ltaT cornasacegh se conn aice| Moist gs siejaa Sin isicacied acetone wo 39.56
100.67

Which corresponds with the protosulphide of iron, FeS.
Whether it contains any of the sulphide known as troilite
I am not prepared to say.

The stony minerals were freed as much as possible from
iron and pyrites, and one gramme treated with ten grammes
of hydrochloric acid on a water-bath, and evaporated nearly to
dryness, then filtered, and the filtrate well washed. After
which the residue in the filter was warmed with a solution
of caustic soda, to dissolve any silica belonging to the portion

dissolved by the acid. It was then filtered again and washed.

The result was

DOMUMMC A ORTIOME sc uoccsee sear net eae te os aeeese 60.88
Insoluble portion....... nig aS bad oc Heehe tala Mea tiaie FEES 2 39.12

The treatment by a solution of caustic soda or potash is of
importance for a correct result, as otherwise a portion of the
silica of the decomposed minerals will be estimated with the

portion that is undecomposed.

The insoluble portion of it was analyzed; for, although the
analysis made in this way can not furnish any positive indi-
cation in regard to the true mineral constitution of the mete-

366 . DANVILLE (ALA.) METEORITE.

orite, it is nevertheless an important guide. It was found to
consist of

i@ay 223 eek Racket nate ee ee ee eee cs oy 50.08
ATTAIN 2s hogs toe Secchi ee ee ok eae 4.11
‘Protoxide or rom 28s) ae ee eee ess ee 19.85
Miao eSia a... ee. s edeeo sais eee MRRP eee Sena ocak 20.14
STU C5 etic antes hola cee heck eae me iP 3.90

98.08

From all the circumstances connected with this mineral, its
physical characters, etc., it is doubtless a pyroxene of the augite
variety.

The soluble portion, owing to the unavoidable presence of a
little iron and pyrites, simply furnished results on analysis that
showed it to be mostly olivine. The stony matter, as a whole,
freed as much as possible from pyrites and nickeliferous iron,
gave

PUTTICA SS cheae stecrre da oraeie ess cheek cok boot Namie ese a 45.90
IProtOxiGe sot. 1OM oe. seer ee ee ee ee 23.64
VEDIO MOSTAY. dee dae soere sociale race ce tens acne eels Seo Zoe
Alumina Pub care eset ales Ne Se pe a tn el ie
| Wah da ¥ = kate eee, ae alte Roa ART We ania a tls eee Meet a | Zoi
rey 1{0 (7 Woman Ane 4 Meee CARED on Ata Foe IA ot oe a i asl
Potashacccesecesc sens adhoc dovesouy Oe:

Oxide of manganese, : a ) minute. quantity, not SeENREN BL
Oxide of chrome,

Phosphorus,
Lithia—marked coadtion with thé spect oscope.
Sulphur... sol sosetedels sieaatain sees ssh deter cote cE Ceo EE ee cee aan a

The excess in ie eiienae up of the analysis above one
hundred per cent. is due to the fact that a part of the iron,
estimated as protoxide, is combined with pecuay forming ie
phide of iron.

This meteoric stone is similar in every respect to that which
fell, March 28, 1859, in Harrison County, Ind. (which locality I
see referred to in catalogues of meteorites as Harrison County,
Ky.) This meteorite is therefore composed of nickeliferous
iron, olivine, pyroxene, protosulphide of iron, with minute
quantities of schreibersite, chrome iron, and probably albite.

In concluding these observations on the Danville meteorite
I can not but feel more and more convinced of the importance
of a thorough re-examination of the mineral nature of the me-
teoric stones; and in the present case [am not at all satisfied
that the mineral characteristics are perfectly made out.

SEARSMONT (MAINE) METEORITE:
(FELL May 21, 1871.)

MINERALOGICAL AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

Immediately after the fall of this meteoric stone a portion
of it was placed in my hands for examination. The circum-
stances accompanying its fall, as well as its physical characters,
have been described by Prof. Shepard.

It resembles very closely the Mauerkirchen stone that fell
in 1768, the crust of the specimens corresponding quite closely
to that in thickness and appearance; the Mauerkirchen stone,
however, has not well-marked globules like that of Searsmont;
in this respect it corresponds more nearly with the Aussun, as
already stated by Prof. Shepard.

The specific gravity of the specimen seumnacl was 3.701.
The nickeliferous iron and stony matter were separated me-
chanically for analysis. One hundred parts of the meteorite

gave
Stony matter (including a little sulphuret of iron).. 85.38

INNClelti fer OUGelhOmt wesc st sacs os bao asinw sting clues vd awaecem en eces 14.62
The iron afforded

BTeTe OTs eee soar ae een See lee lac edie sewed savers ab caboes 90.02

PNGv@lme lesen neon tease SNe caus cee dics eee cnc cemdae ud oesacawee ~ 9,05

Deo fasten Sa tee aoe dic woclew nd oon aida d ea neen ae etl 43

Phosphorus and copper were not estimated.. The stony
part, treated with a mixture of hydrochlone and nitric acids,
gave

Solu pepe UepAGI ee cod. 52s staenscvciesmacerinseesooeeseseeen'e 52.8

gol e Mite MMM faa a's. oa ccce wa vecarew sae saccdo.saaaics deg 9 eeClall
The soluble portion iforded

STINGER: eSacccscomnocoacdscooberupeuseeneEnescreostiatec SeCaAEBRC ENC 40.61

IELOLORIGE) OMI OM cetset onal. nao. caenassqcastteceres cues sna siecs 19.21

IVA OTN OS 1A Samant ete eneteetiocica sia cass coisa ceesciscneaeeealassici= 36.34

SEM PMU eb Olp lt OMeewetteds as toa Jn- ccdcsem settee ane <a sniee= 3.06

Leaving out the sulphuret, mien is obviously only a me-
chanical mixture, this soluble part is evidently an olivine,

368 SEARSMONT (MAINE) METEORITE.

which is almost invariably the case with soluble portions of
meteoric stones. The insoluble part was composed as follows:

STU as, Uhiocleeein ti conrstuaters tecla eae ENR Reece tic ao ciara oseaoGeiomecene 56.25
ProtoxideOf TOM sac ssic seo eee ces oo ok ose eee 13.02
HA VAT TNA TINA & Pe ceterale Rade <cUis os da ele le Ne erecta nicKiok . < cht eS 2.01
IMME YS OeSG), RasSnocosc sqcnoqnbysoasdoddexcddosoonbn6 sobuegeBe abo >c 24.14
Alkalies, Na O, K O with trace of Li O................ 2.10

Chrome iron, small black specks, not estimated.

The above analyses give for the composition of the stone:

Nie <eliferousarom siocsnaessencseeeroetreeenemceaceis-reccee 14.63
Magnetic pyrites .......... Senanncadadesoabeds06 haoseSogo0000" 3.06
QUAVAIMG Makes cinsacw cesses « seemow els oivecsteuetoecreenmeuree sete 43.04
Bronzite or hornblende, with a little albite or ortho-

clase and Chrome TOW) .cscc. sees eres cecessde-leceesecer 39.27

With the bronzite there may also be enstatite, which would
be confounded with the former if existing in the stone.

METEORIC IRONS OF NORTH MEXICO:

PRECISE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION, WITH DESCRIPTION
OF A NEW MASS—THE SAN-GREGORIO METEORITE.

Some of the remarkable masses of meteoric iron in Northern
Mexico have been known to travelers for a number of years,
but no very precise information concerning them had been
given until the year 1854, when the first mass brought from
that locality was placed at my disposal by Lieut. Gouch, of the
United States army, and was described in a memoir on mete-
orites published in the Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, April,
1854; it is now in the Smithsonian Museum, and weighs two
hundred and fifty-two pounds.

On the return of Mr. Bartlett, of the Boundary Commis-
sion, I learned of two other masses in that region, and Lieut.
John G. Parke, of the United States army, placed a fragment
of one of them in my possession; the fragment of the other
mass was lost. I figured and described both of those mete-
orites in the memoir just alluded to; the first, which I called
the Tucson meteorite, is now in the Smithsonian Institute, and
weighs, I believe, several thousand pounds; the second one I
called the Chihuahua iron, and is still at the Hacienda de Con-
ception, where it was first found. Still later, in the year 1868,
Dr. H. B. Butcher placed under my examination eight masses
of meteoric iron that had been brought to the United States
from the same region of Mexico; these I examined, and pub-
lished a full account of in the Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts.
These masses are now in Philadelphia, still owned by Dr.
Butcher, and vary in weight from about three hundred to eight
hundred pounds. Dr. Butcher having returned to Mexico, I
requested him to get all possible information in regard to the
geographical position of these bodies; this he has succeeded in
accomplishing. Atthe same time he has sent a fragment of an-
other mass, still larger than any yet known, which will be called
the San-Gregorio meteoric iron. Its description is as follows.

370 METEORIC IRONS OF NORTH MEXICO.

THE SAN-GREGORIO METEORITE.

This immense mass of meteoric iron is situated on the
western border of the Mexican Desert, a map of which is
given on the next page. Some idea of its form may be had
in the accompanying sketch. It measures six feet six inches

6 ft. 6 in. in its greatest
length, is five
feet six inch-
es high, and
four ft. thick
atits base; on
one partof its
surface 1821
is cut with a
chisel, and
above this
wi date is the
== = === following in-
ais SCriptiome:
“Solo dios con un poder este fierro destruera, por que en el mondo
no habra quien lo puedo deschacer.”’

It lies within the inclosure of a hacienda, having been hauled
to the ranch many years ago by the Spaniards, who thought
that it could be made use of as iron for farming utensils. It is
said to have fallen quite near its present site, and from its huge
bulk and weight, which is calculated to be about five tons, it
could not have been transported very far. Nothing more is
known of its history. Small specimens were detached by Dr.
Butcher, one of which I have examined. I find it to be of the
softer meteoric irons, with a specific gravity of 7.84. The frag-—
ment I possess is too small for the study of the true character
of its Widmannstattian figures. On analysis it furnished the
following composition :

BY,

<FG, Z
Zy

<=
oe
LEE

= Ss

———
——!

—Z

)
\ \

tt
\\

VOM eects se ten esc stone un vaeenlynd ame see ueiedes cco! heen eae 95.01
INDOK ENS voi eden se eft c woceet ye reteset seer (ssts vers ee aaa eee 4.22
Cobalt ce vennesc- + sedrece oases cane tate Melonpecs -asiecidt atin eeeame 51
Copper, minute trace.

IPOs POLUSie..ceyedspisst dette neoeeies i a cer eeee jceemeeene 08

This San-Gregorio iron makes the fifth that has come under
my observation and examination from this famous Mexican

op
ie

Byal

METEORIC IRONS OF NORTH MEXICO

locality, the geography of which I will now describe, referring

It is four hundred

to the accompanying diagram for details
The Bolson de Mapini, or Mexican Desert, occupies the
western portion of the province of Cohahuila and the eastern

portion of the province of Chihuahua

miles from east to west, and five hundred miles from north to

south, bounded on the north by the river Rio Grande. Some
)

of the villages and haciendas are specified in the diagram, and
the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., are the localities of the different mete-

oric masses discovered.

SN
Cl S fe
HIHUAHUA =
< cine SS ( <
2 © z a Z
~ K BOLSION DE @
& zB
z s MA PIN} =
S 1 =
5 anes 2Qe=z STA. ROSA.
ROSALIA® J Z
x aS s
S ; =
= ees :
= o5°s 2 S
.) EL PARAS . NS :
Zz I =
Z, x =
I =
“np t S
"5 ~ x=
CONCEPTION. OW, Wor coy w" ws nt
cule == ZV 2
:

=——=—=

DURANGO

No. 1.—The locality of the Cohahuila meteorite, described

by me in the Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, April, 1854
is now in the Smithsonian Institution.
No. 2.—The locality of the Cohahuila meteorite of 1868
described by me in the Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, April

1870; it is now in the possession of Dr. Butcher.
No. 3.—The locality of the San- Gregorio meteorite just

it is still in the place where it was first observed.

it 1s stulleim |

described ;
No. 4.—The locality of the mass described and figured in
my memoir on meteorites (Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts
ae)

April 1854), and called the Chihuahua meteorite
place at the Hacienda de Conception, ten miles from Zapata

‘ )
its greatest height being forty-six inches, breadth thirty-seven
and in the thickest part eight feet three inches in circumference

372 METEORIC IRONS OF NORTH MEXIOO.

Signor Urquida calculated its weight to be about four thousand
pounds.

No. 5.—The locality of a huge meteorite lately discovered,
of which no specimen has yet been detached, and is said to be
larger than any one yet found in that locality.

No. 6.—The locality of the large mass described and figured
by me in 1854 as the Tucson iron, and now in the Smithsonian
Institution at Washington, having a large hole in the center,
and sometimes called the Signet meteorite, also the Ainsa mete-
orite. I do not know its exact weight, but suppose that it must
weigh two or three thousand pounds. |

The question naturally arises, what can be the cause of the
number of meteoric masses in the circumscribed region, and
whether each one represents a separate fall? My study of
them leads me to the belief that they are the products of two
falls. First of all, No. 6, the Signet or Ainsa meteorite, has
peculiar physical and chemical characters that separate it
entirely from the others. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 I have examined
chemically, and find them very closely allied in composition,
also in physical properties, as the softness of the iron, and free-
dom from rusty crusts over the exterior; in fact, the pieces I _
have examined were more or less bright on the exterior surface.
The Widmannstattian figures I have not had an opportunity to
compare, since, with the exception of No. 1, I have had only
small pieces that were detached from the surface by a cold-
chisel, which are unfit for the study of these figures. Thus far
in my investigation there appear strong reasons for supposing
that at some epoch, probably far remote, the meteoric masses
1, 2,3, 4, and 5 were the products of the fall of one meteoric
mass, moving from the north-east to the south-west, the smaller
masses falling first at 1 and 2, and the larger masses farther on.
The distances of these bodies from each other are: from Nos. 1
to 2, about eighty-five miles; from 2 to 5, about one hundred
and thirty-five miles; from 5 to 3, about one hundred and sixty-
five miles; from 3 to 4, about ninety miles. Of course there is
no great stress laid upon these deductions, but it would not be
surprising if farther investigation should sustain this view.

Since my first publication on these meteorites, Burckhardt,
of Bonn, has made some observations on them, but his publi-
cations are not within my reach at the present time.

VICTORIA METEORIC IRON:

(SEEN TO FALL IN SouTH AFRICA IN 1862)

WITH SOME NOTES ON CHLADNITE OR ENSTATITE.

The Victoria Metcoric Iron, although found about ten years
_ since, has never been described; and yet it is one of the most
interesting of this class of meteorites. I have succeeded in
collecting the following facts in connection with it. It was
seen to fall in the year 1862 by a Dutch farmer in Victoria
West, Cape Colony, South Africa, and was given by him to Mr.
Auret, the civil commissioner of that district, who presented
it to the South African Museum at Capetown. :

ox ABZ ,

Although it is an iron that has a tendency to decompose
rapidly, it has not undergone the decomposition that would
have inevitably taken place had it long remained exposed to
atmospheric influences. This fact, coupled with another that
the farmer could have no object to deceive any one with refer-
ence to a body which certainly bears evidence that it fell at
some time from the heavens, and as those who know the farmer
have every confidence in his statement, we are led to conclude
that it is to be placed along side of the Agram, Brannau, and

25 |

YC as VICTORIA METEORIC IRON.

Dickson County irons. The mass was pear-shaped, and weighed
abour six pounds eight ounces. One end was smooth and
rounded; the smaller end was jagged, as if torn or parted
from a ever meteorite.

A small fragment of it was first brought to Haute in 1868,
by which its true meteoric character was established. In 1870
the trustees of the South African Museum had it cut, retaining
one half of it, and sending specimens to the British, Calcutta,
Vienna, and Berlin museums; also to Mr. Nevill of Godalming ;
and a mass weighing about twelve ounces to myself.

From the specimen in my possession I here describe its
characteristics. The iron is compact, with a tendency to fissure
near some portions of its surface. The amount of oxide on the
surface is small, the cut surfaces showing bright metal quite
up to the exterior surface. The Widmannstattian figures
developed are of that class where the lines are delicate and
straight, inclined at a considerable angle to each other, a form
I have seen common to irons rich in schreibersite. This last
mineral is diffused through the iron in masses with absolutely
straight boundaries, some of them five eighths to three fourths
of an inch long, by one eighth of an inch broad (1 and 2 on
figure), and others much longer (6) and narrower; others again
triangular (5) and arrow-shaped; and on my specimen a layer
of it (3) coating an oval cavity that must have been an inch |
and a half in its longest and one inch in its shortest diameter,
the schreibersite having a thickness of about one twentieth
of an inch; the rest of this cavity being filled by pyrite (this
is distinctly seen in the photograph). My specimen shows
one fourth of this cavity, and there are doubtless others in the
original mass. The specific gravity is 7.692. On pee it
was found to contain:

1 BACON 0s cn ACRE SRB CE HEN ANBE AB UNNOGe- ecu doccs docaguouniaboogecob 88.83
IN GG(S) sa eneciots ahondeane Nesodnad sé os vbeoonmbsgesdsuisdos concn: 10.14
(OXG)Os SA EaRBAee BREE PRBBIN Cas hdd dcochnog sondeaadarnc and tds 53
(Ofo))0) Ces onehe sas ceneuaoeecHod coos bsesor un uoBoed minute quantity
HOS MOMS soccer alanine fli mar mn cisely alclae seats 28

99.78

ENSTATITE OF CHLADNITE.

This mineral now occupies so important a relation to the
mineral constitution of meteoric stones that it is well to give
an account of its discovery, and the subsequent. investigations

VICTORIA METEORIC IRON. 37D

of different observers. Its discovery is beyond doubt due to
Prof. C. U. Shepard, who first described it in the American
Journal of Science, Sept., 1846, p. 381, calling it chladnite.

It constituted nearly the entire mass of the Bishopville
meteorite that fell in 1843. Prof. Shepard did not make out
its composition correctly, his analysis being imperfect. The
composition given by him was

Sl Gartae eerie nedeccetboce sc cwucvaee ONL 3 of oxygen.
IVIPAGHME CIA acersece<css scccesacasaccouterseseness 28.25 it A
Soda... eee aneee 1.389

Making it out to be a tersilicate of magnesia. Although the
constitution was incorrectly determined, Prof. Shepard clearly
showed that it differed in Steven fee any then known
mineral.

Hight years after the mineral was first made«known, a small
fragment of the meteorite coming into my possession, a re-
examination was made of its chemical constitution, and the
errors of the first analysis discovered. But not having enough
of the meteorite for analysis, the simple statement was pre-
sented to the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, in April, 1854, “that from some investigations just
made chladnite is likely to prove to be a pyroxene.” This
was noticed in the proceedings of the association for that year,
and referred to in the American Journal of Science, March,
1855, p. 162. Ten years later a specimen of the Bishopville
meteorite of good size being placed at my disposal, the mineral
was separated in a very pure state, and found to be composed
as follows:

PUN ooscisa udadsc boke0 98 eubeicoce nbagotiocssobagctiod debnceetoeiey 59.97
IVI tes me Slalom nner reesei taco seeiasatonrac katate encase OUT OS
Peroxide of iron. Wate apes ye. (aU
Soda, with feeble potash ‘and Hi... Wea eergadatenoes” Ga

100.44

This minute quantity of peroxide of iron came from a little
metallic iron that was present. The analysis afforded the
oxygen ratio 2:1, corresponding to the formula Mg3, Si? (or
Mg Si), corresponding to the general formula of pyroxene.
The details of the examination then made are to be found in
the American Journal of Science, September, 1864, where it is
further stated that chladnite approaches those forms of pyroxene
known as white augite, diopside, white coccolite, etc., these

cd

376 VICTORIA METEORIC IRON.

last-named minerals having part of the magnesia replaced by
lime. It is identical with the enstatite of Kenngott, a pyroxenic
mineral from Aloysthal in Moravia.

From these observations it will be seen that the Bishopville
meteoric stone, however different in external characteristics
from other similar bodies, is after all identical with the great
family of pyroxenic meteoric stones.

ENSTATITE.

This form of pyroxene was first noticed by Kenngott as a
new species, in a communication made by him to the Vienna
Academy in 1855 (see Vien. Acad. Ber., xvi, p. 162; Jahres-
bericht for 1855, page ee us composition there given is

STGAIN sek tection ns adedibivccdhs Gacdhurss eectecee ao)
Nites pad den iron. RAM eIS Mn aeons AK 0) 1 |S
ILE STASI Senco seb cocetecd Hea cone chocosecon a neneceocommeoesenem, sco 35.85:
WG 2) ganna ers Mena UM lhe ae ene ee pn alm E A we emia or iL Oey

99.99

As the crystallographic character of this mineral entitles it to
separation from pyroxene, or, in other words, as it is entitled to.
be ranked as a new species, the prior right of discovery belongs
to Prof. Shepard, and the name first given by him, chladnite,
has the priority; but as it has for so long time borne the name
of enstatite among mineralogists, any attempt to change it
would only bring confusion. This is the more to. be regretted
‘since the name of chladni would be a most appropriate affix to
a mineral, the true and pure type of which is so ee eminently
that in meteorites.

In this connection I would refer to the simple chemical rela-
tion of three of the most characteristic minerals of meteoric
stones; these minerals forming at least ninety per cent. of the
earthy minerals in the aggregate mass of all meteoric stones.
The three minerals are:

Enstatite, R Si Mg Si
Bronzite, R Si (Mg Fe) Si
Chrysolite, Re Si (Mg Fre)Si

In these minerals the protoxide of iron replaces but a small
portion of the magnesia in the last two; so they are virtually
silicates of magnesia, containing one or two atoms of silica with
one atom of magnesia.

\

INVERTED MICROSCOPE:

A NEW FORM OF MICROSCOPE; WITH DESCRIPTION OF A
NEW MICROMETER AND GONIOMETER.

The instrument forming the subject of this article was
invented by me in the summer of 1850, and first brought to
the notice of the Societe de Biologie of Paris in the month of
September of the same year, and with additional improvements
in the micrometer movement was laid before the American
Scientific Association in 1851. Besides the mention made
of this instrument in the minutes of the proceedings of those
scientific bodies, no account of it has been published giving a
full detail of the objects sought after and effected by this new
form of microscope; and this I now hasten to do, in justice to
myself, since seeing in the last edition of Quekett’s work on
the microscope a short description of this instrument under the
title of Nachet’s Chemical Microscope.. How it is that my name
has been entirely omitted in connection with it is a mystery
to me; it must have arisen through Mr. Nachet’s neglect to
mention who the inventor of it was while exhibiting it at the
World’s Fair in London in 1862, or through the forgetfulness
of Mr. Quekett after being informed on the subject. This omis-
sion is still more glaring, from the fact that the instrument as
then exhibited, with one or two very unimportant modifications, -
is the same in all its mechanical details as was constructed for
me, from my plans, by Mr. Nachet, of Paris, and used in the
laboratory of Messrs. Wurtz and Verdiel.

I am sorry to be obliged to preface the description of the
microscope with this reclamation ; but after considerable expe- |
rience I feel that the instrument is an important one for general
as well as chemical purposes, and that it will in time be consid-
ered a decided advancement in the construction of microscopes.
With these views in the matter I am unwilling to yield what
little credit might be due the inventor of it.

378 INVERTED MICROSCOPE.

The great development made in microscopic research during’
the last twenty or thirty years is due in great part to improve-
ments in the construction of achromatic object-glasses; still
the mechanical arrangements of the instrument have contrib-
uted their share to facilitate observation and diminish the
fatigue dependent upon this character of research. In fact,
observers have not hesitated to make use of different descrip-
tions of mounting in their varied field of research, and now we
have instruments for general purposes, but the construction
of which is imperfectly adapted to certain special researches ;
as, for instance, the dissection of animal tissues. This last
circumstance has given rise to the invention of various forms
of dissecting microscopes, such as the Pancreatic Microscope
of Oberhauser, and more recently the simple and better in-
strument for arriving at the same end constructed by Nachet,
of Paris.

These remarks are made to show how the use of the micro-
scope might be extended by paying proper attention to its
mechanical arrangements, and it is from this cause I have been
led to seek out a form of instrumant by means of which micro-
chemical research might be facilitated and enlarged. The
instrument about to be described is calculated to produce
these results.

The great obstacles to chemical research beneath the micro-
scope are twofold: first, the necessity of manipulating in the
limited space between the object-glass and the stage; and
secondly, the exposure of the most essential parts of the instru-
ment to the vapors emanating from the re-agents employed,
and the condensation of vapor on the under-surface of the
object-glass, thereby obscuring the view. <A less important
obstacle is the impossibility of heating a liquid or other sub-
stance while beneath the microscope.

The only way by which these difficulties can be surmounted
is to place the object-glass beneath the stage and the object
above it, with an optical arrangement of such a nature as to
permit observation. It was with this view that M. Chevalier
made a chemical support to go with his general instrument;
but those familiar with it know how awkward it is for manipu-
lation, although exceedingly ingenious, and doubtless as perfect
as could be for attaching to his instrument. Feeling then the

INVERTED MICROSCOPE. 379

“want of something more effective, I was led to the construction
of the inverted microscope entirely with reference to its chem-
ical uses, other purposes to which it might be applied being
of secondary consideration; but I would here remark that
since its completion its value even in this latter respect yields
to no other form of instrument, and has induced me to change

its original designation of Chemical Microscope to that of In
verted Microscope, as the former name might mislead as to the
extent of its uses.

It was important for the arrangement in question so to have
the relative position of the stage and eye-piece that the eye,
while on a level with the latter, could readily see the former
and guide the required manipulations.

_ Without entering into any detail of the steps taken in the
construction of the instrument, I will at once proceed to a

380 INVERTED MICROSCOPE.

description of it that will be readily understood by referring*
to the figure. The most important part is a four-sided prism,
with the angles a, 6, c, d, respectively 55°, 1074°, 524°, 145°,
the angles being of such dimensions that a ray of light passing
into the prism in the directions shown by the arrows, and per-
pendicular to the surface ad, after undergoing total reflection
from the inner surfaces ab and 6c (on both of which the light
strikes at an angle much less than forty-five degrees), will pass
out perpendicular to the surface cd. If the line ¢ be followed,
it will be readily seen how a ray of light passing through the
object-glass B descends into the prism and passes out of it up-
ward through the eye-glass D, the tube of which is inclined to
the perpendicular 35°. The other parts of the instrument are
understood by simply looking at the figure. E is a heavy sup-
port that revolves on another support H, which carries a column
I, on which are placed the mirror, diaphragm, etc. The prism
used has each side nearly an tel in length, and little less in
width, which is about the most convenient size. The arrange-
ment for adjusting the focal distances 1 is Somewhat peculiar, and
is readily understood by refer-
ence to fig. 4. There are three
tubes (the outer one of which is
F) that slide on each other; the
inner is fastened to the plate O;
the second tube has a projecting
collar, on the under surface of
which rest the extremities of two
springs y, and on the upper sur-
face two points of the lever X,
which is moved by means of the screw T. The plate O is
fastened on to the top of the prism by the binding-screw L
(fig. 1), that readily allows of the plate being detached at
pleasure, which it is necessary to do at times in order to wipe
the upper surface of the prism. The way in which the observer
ae is to screw one or other of the object-glasses to a small
cap, K (fig. 4), that simply rests on the upper end of the outer
tube F, which is readily moved up and down by the finger for
the coarser adjustment, while the minute adjustment is obtained
by moving the screw T.

This description suffices to make it clearly understood how

* Fig. 4.

INVERTED MICROSCOPE. 381

» the instrument is used, and the conveniencés arising therefrom.
In examining an object with this microscope the object is
arranged in the ordinary way; when liquid it is placed in a
watch-glass, or such glass cells as are convenient to use. In
employing re-agents they can be added and their effects
watched immediately, for it is readily seen how the eye guides
the manipulations on the stage, and looks into the instrument
almost at one and the same time—a circumstance that facili-
tates affd renders highly satisfactory all such operations, as
nearly two years’ experience has convinced. me.

With this arrangement we need not hesitate to employ
hydrofluoric acid among our re-agents, as Prof. Bailey has
already done, for the purpose of settling, in a most ingenious
manner, that the markings: on certain microscopic siliceous
animalcule are elevations, and not depressions, as they dis-
appear last under the action of -this acid.

Under the supporting ring V are placed the diaphragms,
palarascope, achromatic condenser, etc. I have also arranged
a small ring of ivory, through the edge of which two wires
pass, that can be made the poles of a galvanic sbattery, and

- thereby subject any thing to au electric action while on the
microscope. The extremities of: the wires may be united with
a spiral of small platinum wire, which would become heated
by the passage of the electricity, and in this state can be
brought immediately over the object-under examination.

There is another and very simple method which I have
adopted for heating or evaporating liquids while on the stage
of the microscope. , It consists of a thin plate of brass, about
five inches long and an inch wide, with a hole in the center.
About an inch and a half each side of the hole there are two
screws projecting about the tenth of an inch. When required
it is placed on the stage with the projecting screws downward,
that prevent the plate from touching the stage, and the part
of the plate projecting beyond the stage is heated by a small
lamp. The heat is readily propagated along the plate, and
imparted to the glass that may be placed along it.

In using this instrument for chemical purposes it is very

“necessary to be able to apply the re-agents conveniently, and
for this purpose I place such of them as are used in two ounce
vials, in the neck of which there is a small drop tube, as repre-

382 INVERTED MICROSCOPE.

sented in fig. 3, over the top of which is stretched a piece of
sheet india-rubber, and by pressing and relaxing it the liquid
is drawn in, and by pressing the same the smallest possible
quantity can be discharged on the object subject to examination.
The tube also serves as a stopper to the vial, for the length
of the capillary extremity is such that it reaches nearly to the
bottom.

The acids and ammonia used are always diluted to about
one half their ordinary strength, to prevent any unnecessary
disengagement of vapors.

A movable stage, under many circumstances, is very con-
venient, and I have adopted one of a very simple character,
and quite equal to any of those where the motion is produced
by screws or pinions. It is a circular plate of metal or glass,
about three fourths of an inch less in diameter than the fixed
stage of the instrument, and an eighth of an inch thick, with
a hole in the center of nearly an inch diameter. This is laid
in the stage of the instrument, the glass sustaining the object
placed on it, and when required the former is moved by the
fingers, which can readily impart to it the most delicate motion,
as they are in part supported by the edge of the fixed stage.
For this suggestion I am indebted to Prof. Riddell, and both
he and myself, after much experience, feel convinced of its
usefulness. :

In observing with high powers, as the object-glass is beneath
the glass supporting the object, and as this glass is usually of a
certain thickness, we have to change our method of observa-
tion—for all powers resorted to in chemical examination this
difficuity never occurs, and in using high powers it is easily
obviated. Where the object is already mounted and dry, the
thin glass can be readily turned downward; but where it is
moist—as, for instance, in examining fresh Desmidie and Dia-
tomacie—the following plan is resorted to, namely, to use a cell
made of a thin piece of brass or glass, perforated with a hole
about half an inch in diameter; it is best to give the hole a
considerable bevel in one direction, as it facilitates the cleaning
of it; over the small end of the hole a piece of thin glass is
stuck with balsam or other cement. When used the object to
be examined is placed within, and a cover of thin glass placed
above. When brass is used to make the cell it may be as thin

INVERTED MICROSCOPE. 383

as the twentieth of an inch; and I have two such in my pos-
session, made for me by Prof. Riddell, and they are certainly
the most convenient things of the kind I have ever used. And
here I may remark that for all observation with high powers
the Inverted Microscope is decidedly superior to the ordinary
forms of mounting; for in the latter case, when an object-glass
of a one-twelfth or one-sixteenth inch focus is used, the focus
is too short to admit of the use of cells; whereas in the inverted
form, as the object is looked at from beneath, the cell may be
as thick as one pleases. Another thing that I have discovered
connected with this class of observations is that the Desmidice
and Diatomacie can be observed to much greater advantage
from beneath than from above, for reasons that will be obvious
to persons accustomed to observe these classes of objects.
Another advantage possessed by this instrument, calculated
to extend its use for general purposes, is its great capacity for
every variety of illumination, without sacrificing the ease and
freedom from fatigue belonging to the use of this form of micro-
scope; for when placed on a table, rather higher than the one
commonly used, and a foot or two from the edge, the observer
ean recline on his arms, and observe for hours without the
slightest sensation of fatigue.*

* As Prof. Riddell, of the Medical Department of the University of
Louisiana, has been using my microscope for general purposes for more
than a year, I requested of him his opinion as to its advantuges, which is
expressed in the following letter:

Prof. J. LAWRENCE SMiTuH: Dear Sir.—In reply to your note respecting
your Inverted Microscope, I have to say that having formerly been in the
habit of using the mountings of Pritchard, Dollard, Raspail, Chevalier, and
Nachet, and having the past year constantly used my best lenses (Spencer's
make) in the inverted microscope, I am fully satisfied of the practical
superiority of the latter for general purposes. With it observation can be
made with more ease and comfort, the light admits of more convenient and
efficient management, chemical re-agents can be applied to the object with
the greatest facility, without endangering the instrument, and the slides can
be moved or changed with the utmost facility, and with perfect safety to
the object-glass and the slices themselves. The instrument is so firm as to
manifest no vibration with the highest powers, and admits of the attachment
of every collateral appliance. I shall never willingly return to the habitual
use of any other known form of microscope, especially with high powers.
The excellence of your form of microscope depends on having a good
reflecting prism below the object-glass. The one used by me, made by
Oberhauser of Paris, seems to be perfection itself, and seems neither to.
absorb or distort the luminous rays in the slightest degree.

Respectfully yours, J. L. RIDDELL.

384 INVERTED MICROSCOPE.

Many little additional conveniences will suggest themselves
to almost all microscopists who may use this instrument; but
the great principle belonging to it is what I desire to make
public, and any other adjuncts that may be described are such
as belong to all forms of microscopes.

NEW FORM OF EYE-PIECE MICROMETER FOR MEASURING OBJECTS
UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.

Facility of measuring objects under the microscope is a
great desideratum; and for this reason I now make known
what I have been using for this purpose for upward of two
years, as it furnishes all that can be desired. The eye-piece
micrometer ordinarily in use consists of a glass with divisions
drawn in it, contained in a special eye-piece adapted for its
use; and whenever the measurement of an object is required
we replace the eye-piece used by the micrometer eye-piece,
and move the object on the stage, so that its image falls on
the marking of the micrometer. With all its advantages this
form has many inconveniences, among which I will mention the
necessity of using an eye-piece, which is not always the best
for examination, the constant interposition of the micrometer
in the field of observation, and the necessity of moving the
object so as to superpose its image on the micrometer.

The eye-piece micrometer of Mr. George Jackson, described
- in Quekett’s work on the Microscope, is an improvement on
the one just mentioned, but does not do away with all the
objections.

By the present arrangement the micrometer can be used
with any eye-piece; it can be withdrawn at pleasure, and
placed over the image of the object without regard to its
position in the field; for this purpose the tube of the micro-
scope is in two parts, G and N (fig. 2); the former has a collar h,
and projects a couple of inches into N, turns freely in it, and
is retained by a small screw n passing through N, and playing
on a groove inG. On the upper part of G there isa small
rectangular opening in a little mechanical arrangement, as
seen in m. ‘The various eye-pieces are so mounted that when
placed in the tube G the planes of their foci correspond with
the opening at g, and at the same time there is an opening in
their mounting, which is made to come opposite to that of g.

INVERTED MICROSCOPE. 38)

The micrometer is seen in fig. 2, and consists of a brass mount-
ing B, with a small plate of glass A, having near the outer edge
a fine graduate scale (the one used is ten millimetres divided
in one hundred parts) made in the direction of the breadth and
not of the length of the micrometer, which little circumstance
is of vast importance; for, made as it is, it can sweep the field —
of the microscope; whereas, were it graduated longitudinally,
it would simply move in the radii of the field, and therefore
could not be brought on the object in many of its positions.

The manner of using the micrometer can be understood in a
few words. In examining with any eye-piece, if it be required
to measure an object, the micrometer B is introduced into the
opening g, and if not seen distinctly, by turning the screw p it
is readily adjusted, and by pushing it backward or forward,
or turning the tube D, the graduated scale can be readily
brought over the image of the object, either longitudinally
or otherwise; and, knowing the value of each division, the
dimensions of the object is readily made out. The manner
of ascertaining the value of these divisions is learnt in almost
every work on the microscope. This method of mine is now
adopted by M. Nachet, of Paris, in the construction of his large
“microscope.

A NEW FORM OF GONIOMETER FOR MEASURING ANGLES OF CRYS-
TALS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.

The measurement of the angles of crystals beneath the
microscope is at best a very imperfect operation, for we can
only measure plane angles, the angles between the faces not
being measurable; yet, imperfect as it is, it is an important
adjunct in certain researches, as may be seen by referring
to the following, which is an abstract from’ Lehmann’s work
on Physiological Chemistry, where he speaks of detecting a
minute quantity of urea in albuminous fluids: “If the residue
of the fluids from which the coagulated matters have been
filtered be extracted with cold alcohol, and the solution rapidly
evaporated, so as to cause the chloride of sodium (taken up by
the cold alcohol) to separate as much as possible in crystals,
or then bringing a drop of the matter-liquid in contact with |
nitric acid under the microscope, we shall observe the com-
mencement of the formation of rhombic octahedra, and the

386 INVERTED MICROSCOPE.

hexagonal tablets, in which, if the investigation is to be un-
questionable, the acute angles (=82°) must be always measured.
After the determination of the nitrate we may also obtain the
oxalate, and submit it to microscopic examination. A good
crystalline determination yields the same certainty as an elementary
analysis, which in these cases would never, or extremely seldom, be
possible.” Fist

Two of the best goniometers used for this purpose are those
of Ross and Leesom, the latter being doubtless the best, and
based on the use of the double refracting spar. After trial,
however, I find it neither as accurate nor as economical in its
construction as the following: Around the tube N (fig. 1) there
is a collar X fastened to it. On the collar there is a graduated
circle S, about three inches in diameter, turning freely on X.
On the tube Ga small index ¢ is fastened. These are all the
additional parts necessary, as the micrometer just described
is used to aid in the measurement, which is accomplished as
follows: The angle of the crystal to be measured is brought
as near the center of the field as the eye can readily judge of
(a little deviation will not sensibly affect the measurement).
The micrometer is then introduced in the opening g, and
turned about until the lines are parallel to one side of the
angle, or until one of the long marks corresponds with that
side. This done, without disturbing the tube G, the graduated
circle S is turned until the index ¢ points to zero. Now look
again into the instrument, and turn G until the markings on
the micrometer are parallel with the other side of the angle;
read the number of degrees on the circle, and this will be the
angle or its complement. It frequently happens that the
micrometer has to be moved in or out to make the lines on
it accord with the second side; but as this motion is altogether
a parallel one, the accuracy of the measurement is not at all
affected. The simplicity of the mechanical arrangement can
now be very readily seen. The same advantage in using the
micrometer with every eye-piece belongs to the goniometer.

FLAME-HEAT IN THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY,

ESPECIALLY THAT FROM GAS, WITHOUT THE AID
OF A BLAST.

There is probably no more important era in the operations
of the chemical laboratory than that of the introduction of the
lamp as a source of heat for a large number of chemical oper-
ations, and that without the aid of a blast. Berzelius was
doubtless the first to accomplish much in this direction, which
he did by the agency of the lamp that so commonly bears his
name, and which, more or less modified, is still in use where the
ordinary illuminating gas is not to be had.

Although illuminating gas has been in use for about seventy
years, it is only within a comparatively recent date that it has
been pressed into service and used as a heating agent in the
laboratory. The reason of this arose from the fact that when
burnt in the ordinary manner it deposited soot on the vessels
heated by it. This difficulty has been overcome by burning
the gas from small orifices made in a tube bent in the form of a
circle, the holes being from one to two centimetres apart, and
sometimes combining two or more rings in concentric circles.
This method, however, has not been generally adopted.

We must date the successful introduction of gas for heating
purposes to the use of a mixture of gas and air passed through
wire-gauze and ignited above the gauze, giving a flame without
light and with great heat. The invention of this method is
claimed by several, and doubtless was discovered by different
individuals at about the same time, without a previous knowl-
edge of each other’s results; this method is still more or less
employed for certain purposes.

The next step in this direction, and doubtless the most im-
portant up to the present time, is to burn the mixture of gas
and air without the agency of wire-gauze; it was first made
known to the public in the burner commonly called the Bunsen

388 FLAME-HEAT IN THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY.

burner, doubtless from its being either invented or brought into
extensive practical use by the distinguished chemist of Heidel-
berg. Its form is too well known to require more than a mere
mention here, and it is now made of all sizes, from those capable
of burning four cubic feet of gas and under to those which can
burn fifteen or twenty cubic feet from a single burner or from.
a combination of several smaller ones. To this burner some
material additions have been made by different individuals.
J. J. Griffin (the chemical instrument dealer in London) was,
I believe, the first to introduce the use of the rosette and the
register for the supply of air. The most remarkable results
accomplished by this method of burning gas and air are those
obtained by G. Gore, of Birmingham (all of whose results I
have verified), where gold, copper, cast-iron, etc., were fused in
crucibles without the agency of any artificial blast. Mr. Gore -
evidently realized fully the true principle of burning this mix-
ture so as to obtain a maximum effect; the burner, however,
with its furnace arrangements, is unavoidably of a form and on
a scale limiting its application.

The usual form of the Bunsen burner, with the rosette and
register (when required), bids fair to hold its own against any
other form for general purposes, and whatever modifications
may be made on it should be of such a character as not to in-
trench on its simplicity. One or two of these modifications are
now in daily use in my laboratory, for which there is no claim
to any special originality, nor are they intended to supplant the
ordinary form.

As simple an instrument as the Bunsen burner appears to
be, its principles and effects are well worn of being carefully
studied.

As the gas passes from the small orifices* in the lower part
of the burner, and mixes with the air drawn in at the lower.
opening and passes out at the open end of the tube, it usually
contains not quite enough oxygen for its complete combustion,
and requires free access of air to the outer portion of the flame

* The outlet for gas may be in the form of crossed slits or two small holes
(one thirty-second inch in diameter each) for the small-size burner, the length
of the tube being about four to four and a half inches; the next larger has
four openings (about one twenty-fifth inch diameter each), and the tube about
five inches long.

FLAME-HEAT IN THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 389

to complete the combustion; yet even with this the flame is
hollow in its lower portion, having a cool center, its most in-
tense heat being at about three or four inches above the end
of the tube in the smaller Bunsen burners, and eight or ten
inches in the largest size. If a proper .access of air is not
allowed to the flame, as sometimes happens in some of the
furnace connections occasionally used with Bunsen’s burner,
acetylene is formed from the imperfect combustion, which is
recognized by its disagreeable odor, or by collecting some
of the gas formed during the combustion; the presence of
acetylene may be rendered evident by a small amount of a
solution of ammoniacal cuprous chloride.

The best heating effects of the gas used in the ordinary round
Bunsen burner, when employed in the heating of crucibles and
other vessels, are not obtained; yet in the great majority of
cases the small loss of gas is not worth considering, especially
as to obtain better results in most cases would only complicate
this beautifully simple instrument.

To get the best effects of heat, we must imitate the principle
applied in the Argand burner; namely, to flatten down the exit
of the mixed gases. It was
by following out this prin-
ciple that Mr. Gore was ena-
bled to make a burner having
a number of radial flat orifices
as represented in the figure
(1); the air from without hav-
ing free access to the flame
along the entire length of the
slit openings, the number of
slits used are more numerous
than those represented in the
figure. With the flame from
this burner introduced into a Fig. 1,
certain form of refractory eyl- The openings at the exit of Gore’s burner.
inders, cast-iron can be melted in a crucible without the aid of a
blast, as has already been stated, the little chimney to the fur-
nace being two inches in diameter and four feet long. This
burner and its furnace is of but limited application, and the
amount of gas consumed considerable.

26

390 FLAME-HEAT IN THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY.

The principle, however, of the above burner is introduced in
constructing a more simple form, and the flattened orifice is
now used in the construction of what I conceive to be the best
form of furnace for heating glass tubes for organic analyses and
other purposes. Such furnaces are made by Weisnig, of Paris,
and Desaga, of Heidelberg.

The use of the flattened burner is not fully appreciated ; its
advantages are, that there is no cold point in the flame, and the
burner can be brought much nearer to the object to be heated —
within twenty to twenty-five millimetres for the small-sized
burners. In this burner, as usually made, the opening is too
broad, experience having convinced me that a slit two mill-
metres across and about forty millimetres in length is the most
effective one for a small-size burner, consuming about five and
a half cubic feet per hour. This burner is repre-
sented in fig. 2, which can be used with the ordi-
nary tube by detaching the tube with the flattened
orifice.

By taking a burner of this description and
putting two pieces on each side of the center, as
represented in fig. 3, a very efficient burner is
made for heating platinum crucibles in silica
~. fusions, etc., and with such a burner, consuming
five and a half to six cubic feet of gas per hour,
I conduct most effectually all silica fusions in
one hour or less, taking care to protect the |
crucible from the current of the air by a
properly-constructed short conical chimney.

As was stated in the commencement of
this article, it was not intended to describe
the methods of burning gas in furnaces and
by means of a blast, but to confine the re-
marks to the simpler forms in every-day
use, which can be made to accomplish all
the ordinary requirements of the laboratory,
and when a higher heat is required the
furnace must be our recourse, whether burning gas, charcoal,
or coke. The burner represented in figure 2 is the one I now
employ in heating the crucible in my method of alkali determi-
nation with carbonate of lime and sal ammoniac.

FREEZING WATER BY THE AIR—-PUMP

WITHOUT SULPHURIC ACID OR OTHER DESICCATING AGENT.

In attempting to freeze water under the air-pump, without
the aid of a desiccating agent, the cooling of the water to the
point of congelation is prevented by the heat received from the
containing vessel. I have lately found that by obviating this
difficulty water may be readily frozen by its own evaporation.

It was first shown by Count Rumford that water does not
wet a sooted surface, but forms in globules like quicksilver.
Three drops of water were placed in a sooted watch-glass; the
spheroidal globule lay on the soot, exposing a large surface for
evaporation, at the same time that the water was insulated from
any source of heat. Arranged in this manner and placed under
an air-pump, two or three minutes were sufficient to freeze the
water. The glass was sooted over an oil-lamp with great care;
the experiment fails if the globule of water touches the glass
even by a small point.

In place of the sooted watch-glass make a shallow cavity in
the end of a large cork, and over a lamp burn it, sooting it at
the same time. By putting three drops of water into the cavity
thus prepared, and subjecting it to the action of the air-pump
under a pint receiver, the water froze solid in a minute and a
half, and in two and three fourths minutes twenty grains of
water congealed, though at 73° Fah. when introduced. Under
a receiver of three quarts’ capacity twenty grains of water
froze in four minutes. I could not succeed in freezing the same
amount in the sooted watch-glass.

By placing corks, prepared as above, over a saucer of sul-
phuric acid, the same results are obtained more rapidly. I
put half a drachm of water, at 65° Fah., in each cavity, and
exhausted the receiver till the mercurial gauge reached four
tenths of an inch, which was effected in one minute. In a
minute and a half the water on onercork began to freeze, and

392 FREEZING WATER BY THE AIR-PUMP.
4

in five minutes they were all frozen. An ounce of water in a
large flat cavity froze in three and a half minutes.

A flat-bottom porcelain capsule was prepared for an experi-
ment on a large scale by sooting it in the following manner:
After coating it with soot over a lamp, and allowing it to cool
a little, a small quantity of oil of turpentine was carefully
poured upon the edge and passed over the entire surface; the
vessel was then warmed to drive off the redundant turpentine.
The surface was again coated with soot and again with turpen-
tine, and this process was repeated a third time; finally another
coating of soot was added, when it was ready for use. Two
ounces of water were placed in this capsule under a receiver,
and the air-pump worked for one minute. After standing six
minutes the surface was frozen.

This experiment, as well as similar ones, was attended with
violent ebullition on the part of the liquid, throwing the water
against the sides of the receiver, which was owing to the rapid
formation of vapor on the under surface of the liquid.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES

BY IGNITION WITH CARBONATE OF LIME AND
SAL AMMONTAC,

In the following description of a method of separating and de-
termining the alkalies J aim to give the minutest details, and it is to
be regarded as an appendix to the one on page 200. Numerous
analyses have given me the experience here presented; and I
am convinced that analytical chemists, if they follow out the
directions, will not resort to any other known method. If there
be a better method, it is yet to be discovered. The presence of
boracic, hydrofluoric, and phosphoric acids in the minerals in
no way interferes with the process. Even in silicates soluble in
acids I prefer this method, in common with other analysts, for
its ease and accuracy. I made the researches during the latter
part of 1852, and the details were published early in 1853.*
Since then I have employed the process many hundreds of times
with the most accurate results. Some minor points were not
completed satisfactorily until several years after the first notice
of the method; these have since been perfected, and I now
. know of nothing further that is needed.

The purpose of this article is to give all the improvements,
with a minute detail of the manipulations and of the precau-
tions necessary, all of which are simple and easily executed.
In the two articles on the subject of alkali determination in
minerals, published in 1853, the whole subject was reviewed,
and it is needless to return to it now. I then considered the
processes by caustic baryta and its salts, and by hydrofluoric
acid, and also detailed some experiments on the separation

* Shortly after my first publication in this country M. St. Claire Deville
made known his method of analyzing the silicates by fusion with carbonate
of lime, but the nature of his process and the objects to be arrived at were
quite different from those attained in this process.

oot DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES. —

of the different alkalies from each other, and on the micro-
scopic examination of the same, ete. It was proved that, after
the caustic alkalies, the most powerful agent to attack silicates
at a high temperature is caustic lime, a fact not new to chemists.
But for the purpose of accomplishing conveniently by this
method a quantitative determination of the alkalies in silicates,
certain methods of manipulation and facts with regard to quan-
tity of material, admixture, etc., had to be discovered; and
in them resides the success of my process—converting the most
difficult parts of the analysis of a silicate into the easiest.

The methods of analysis by caustic baryta and by means
of its carbonate are now no longer used, for various reasons
fully detailed by Rose in his Analytical Chemistry. The
method still extensively employed is that with hydrofluoric
acid, proposed by Berzelius; and when used with the necessary
precautions it has.seemed to decompose all silicates; still, ac-
cording to Rose, there are siliceous compounds that can not be
completely decomposed by hydrofluoric acid.*

Dismissing all criticism, I at once proceed to the method
which is the subject of this artiele—viz., the decomposition of
silicates by ignition with carbonate of lime and sal ammoniac. A
mixture of carbonate of lime and sal ammoniac is used in the
decomposition simply for the purpose of bringing the caustic
lime to act in a most thorough manner upon the silicates at
red heat.+

Pure carbonate of lime.—The first requisite is pure carbonate
of lime. This is made in my laboratory as follows: Take as
good marble (calcite) as can be conveniently found, and dissolve
it in hydrochloric acid (it is not necessary that the acid be
perfectly pure); add an excess of the marble and warm the so-
lution; to it add lime-water, or some milk of lime made from
pure lime, until the solution is alkaline to test-paper; the lime
is added to precipitate any magnesia, phosphate of lime, ete.,
that may have existed in the marble. Filter this solution and
precipitate with carbonate of ammonia after heating to at least

* The process used by Deville in fusing with carbonate of lime is in most
cases better than that by hydrofluoric acid, and one that I should use in pref-
erence to all others except the one now under notice.

7 Chloride of calcium at a red heat will dissolve more or less caustic
lime.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES. 395

160° Fah.* The carbonate of lime thus precipitated is to be
thrown on a filter and well washed with distilled water. Thus
prepared, the carbonate of lime is a dense powder and per-
fectly pure, or if it contain any impurity it will be a trace
of carbonate of baryta or strontia, which in no way interferes
with its use.

Sal ammoniac.—To obtain this re-agent in the most con-
venient form take some fragments of clean sublimed sal am-
moniac, dissolve them in water with a gentle heat, filter,
evaporate the filtrate over.a steam-bath or a sand-bath, or by
means of any other convenient gentle heat, and as the crystals
deposit themselves stir the solution to keep them small; when
half or two thirds of the sal ammoniac is deposited pour off the
liquid without waiting for it to cool, throw on a cotton filter,
and dry the crystals at the temperature of the atmosphere. In
this way sal ammoniac is obtained that can be easily pulverized.

Vessel for the decomposition.—The ordinary platinum crucible
can be used for this purpose, and for many years was employed
by me. It was found, however, that while it is the best hitherto
contrived both for precision and ease, there was yet a very
minute quantity of alkalies lost by volatilization; and I made

- further researches to overcome this small loss. This I have

successfully accomplished, and for some time I have used an
improved form of crucible. The one for half to one gramme of
silicate is of the following form and dimensions; viz., an elon-
gated, slightly conical crucible with rounded bottom and cover
(either with or without the central wire by which to hold it) ;
length, ninety-five millimetres; diameter of opening, twenty-
two millimetres; diameter of smaller end just at the turn of
the bottom sixteen millimetres; weight about thirty-five to forty
grammes. These are now made by Messrs. Johnson, Matthey

* This precaution must not be overlooked, as it is desirable to obtain the
precipitated carbonate of lime as dense as possible. If the carbonate of am-
monia be added to the cold solution, the precipitate, at first gelatinous, will
ultimately become much more dense and settle readily; the same is true
if the mixture be heated after the addition of the carbonate; but in neither
ease will it be as dense as when the carbonate is added to the hot solution
of chloride of calcium. The reaction in the analysis is in no way affected
by the form of the carbonate of lime; but by using the denser form the mix-
ture occupies less space in the crucible.

396 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES.

/ -

& Co., Hatton Garden, London, to whom I have furnished all
the necessary directions. This shape is given it in order that
the portion of the crucible containing the mixture may be
heated strongly, while the upper portion is below a red heat.

Manner of heating the crucible——The ordinary crucible, if
used, may be heated in the manner commonly employed for
the fusion of silicates. If the new form of crucible, however,
is employed, then the upper part is grasped by a convenient
metallic clamp in a slightly-inclined position, and a moderate
blast from the table blow-pipe made to play upon it for about
twenty-five or thirty minutes; but as gas is to be found in every
well-mounted laboratory, Bunsen burners of all dimensions
are used, and when properly applied can be made to give all
gradations of heat. A simple, cheap, and convenient furnace,
with a properly-arranged draught, can be made to accomplish
all fusions of silicates without the aid of any manual labor;
and I therefore employ such an apparatus. (A description of
it is given at the close of this article.)

Method of analysis—We have now the pure carbone of
lime, granular sal ammoniac, and the proper crucible. The
silicate should be well pulverized “in an agate mortar,* and
half a gramme or one gramme of it is taken. The former
amount is most commonly used, it being sufficient and best
manipulated in the crucible; a gramme, however, may be con-
veniently employed. The weighed mineral is placed in a large
agate mortar, or better in a glazed porcelain mortar, of half
to one pint capacity. An equal quantity of the granular sal
ammoniac is weighed out (a centigramme more or less is of no
consequence) and put into the mortar with the mineral, and
the two are rubbed together intimately. After this add eight
parts of the carbonate of lime in three or four portions, and
mix intimately after each addition. Hmpty the contents of
the mortar completely upon a piece of glazed paper that ought

* While in all mineral analyses thorough pulverization of the mineral is
usually essential, still it is a singular fact very good analyses can be made
with this method even when the ppwder is tolerably coarse: and in some
experiments with lepidolite I used powder of which much of it was in par-
ticles of from one fortieth to one thirtieth of an inch, and obtained excellent
results. Notwithstanding this, thorough trituration of the mineral is recom-
mended.

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES. 397

always to be under the mortar, and introduce into the crucible.
The crucible is now tapped gently upon the table and the con-
tents settled down.

The crucible is then clasped by a metallic clamp in an
inclined position, or it is placed in the upper part of the
support referred to in the latter part of this article, leaving
outside about three fourths of an inch or one inch. By means
of a small Bunsen burner the heat is brought to bear just above
the top of the mixture, and gradually carried toward the lower
part, until the sal ammoniac is completely decomposed, which
takes about five minutes. Heat is then applied in the manner
suggested, either with the blast or with the burner referred to,
acting by its own draught, and the whole kept up to a bright-
red heat for from forty to sixty minutes. It is well to avoid
too intense a heat. :

The crucible is now allowed to cool, when the contents will
be found to be more or less agglomerated in the form of a semi-
fused mass. A glass rod or blunt steel point will most com-
monly detach the mass, which is then dropped into a platinum
or porcelain capsule of about one hundred and fifty centimetres
capacity, and sixty or eighty centimetres, and distilled water
added. After some time the mass will slack and crumble in
the manner of lime. Still better, this may be hastened by
bringing the contents of the capsule to the boiling-point either
over a lamp or water-bath; at the same time water is put into
the crucible to slack out any small particles that may adhere
to it, and subsequently this is added to that in the capsule,
washing off the cover of the crucible also.

After the mass is compietely slacked the analysis may be
proceeded with. As a general thing, I prefer to allow the
digestion to continue six or eight hours, though this is not
necessary.

If the contents of the crucible are not easily detached, do
not use very much force, as the crucible may be injured by it;
but fill the crucible to about two thirds its capacity with water,
bring it almost to the boiling-point, and lay it in the capsule
with the upper portion resting on the edge. The lime will
slack in the crucible, and then may be washed thoroughly into
the dish; also, as before, the cover is to be washed off.

We have now by this treatment with water the excess of

398 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES.

lime slacked into a hydrate, and some of the lime combined
with the silica and other ingredients of the silicate in an im-
palpable form. Im solution there is an excess of chloride of
calcium formed in the operation, and all the alkalies originally
contained in the mineral, as chlorides. All that now remains
to be done is to filter and separate the lime as carbonate, and
nothing is left but the chlorides of the alkalies. To do this
proceed as follows: throw the contents of the capsule on a
filter, the best size of which for the quantity above specified
is one three to three and a half inches in diameter; wash well,
to do which requires about two hundred centimetres of water;
the washing is executed rapidly. The contents of the filter
(except in those cases where the amount of the mineral is very
small, and there is no more for the estimation of the other
constituents) are of no use, unless it be desired to heat again
to see if any alkali still remains in it.

The filtrate contains in solution all the alkalies of the min-
eral, together with some chloride of calcium and caustic lime;
to this solution, after it has been thrown into a platinum or
porcelain capsule, is added a solution of pure carbonate of am-
monia (an amount equal to about one and a half grammes is
required). This precipitates all the lime as carbonate; it is
not, however, filtered immediately, but is evaporated over a
water-bath to about forty centimetres, and to this is added
again a little carbonate of ammonia and a few drops of caustic
ammonia to precipitate the little lime that is redissolved by the
action of the sal ammoniac on the carbonate of lime; filter on a
small filter (two-inch), which is readily and thoroughly washed
with but little water, and the filtrate allowed to run into a small
beaker. In this filtrate are all the alkalies, as chlorides and a
little sal ammoniac. Add a drop of carbonate of ammonia to
make sure that no lime is present. Hvaporate over a water- .
bath in a tared platinum dish, in which the alkalies are to be
weighed; the capsule used is about sixty centimetres’ capacity,
and during the evaporation is never filled to more than two
thirds of its capacity.

After the filtrate has been evaporated to dryness the bottom
of the dish is dried, and on a proper support heated very gently
by a Bunsen flame to drive off the little sal ammoniac. It is
well to cover the capsule with a piece of thin platinum to pre-

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES. 399

vent any possible loss by the spirting of the salt. After the
sal ammoniac has been driven off by gradually increasing the
heat the temperature of the dish is brought up to a point a
little below redness, the cover being off. (The cover can be
cleaned from any sal ammoniac that may have condensed upon
it by heating it over the lamp.) The capsule is again covered,
and when sufficiently cooled, and before becoming fully cold,
is placed on the balance and weighed. This weight gives as
chlorides the amount of alkalies contained in the mineral.

If the chloride of lithia be present, it is necessary to weigh
rapidly, for this salt, being very deliquescent, takes moisture
rapidly.

It not unfrequently happens that the chlorides at the end
of the analysis are more or less colored with a small amount
of carbon arising from certain constituents in carbonate of
ammonia; the quantity is usually very minute, and in no way
affects the accuracy of the analysis. In selecting pure car-
bonate of ammonia for analytical purposes it is well to take
specimens that are not colored by the action of light.

It only remains now to separate the alkalies by the known
methods. Under this head I have made several observations
that at some future time may be published as soon as the results
are sufficiently definite.

A SPECIAL ARRANGEMENT FOR HEATING THE CRUCIBLE BY GAS.

The support and burner, where gas is to be had, are simple in
their character, and have been contrived after a great variety
of experiments with gas furnaces. The figure here given illus-
trates the stand, burner, crucible, etc., and is about one sixth
the natural size:* f is the stand with its rod g; d is a brass
clamp with two holes at right-angles to each other, having two
binding screws; it slides on the rod g; the second hole is for a
round arm attached to b, the binding-screw e fixing it in any
position. 6 is a plate of cast-iron five to six mm. thick, ten to
eleven cm. long, and four and one half em. broad, having a hole
in its center large enough to admit the crucible to within about
fifteen mm. of the cover without binding. a is the crucible

* This apparatus can be obtained from Johnson, M ges & Co., Hatton
Garden, London.

400 DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES.

already referred to, which is made to incline a few degrees
downward by turning the plate of iron that supports it. cis a
chimney of sheet-iron, eight to nine em. long, ten em. high, the
width at the bottom being about
four cm. at one end and about
three cm. at the other end. It
is made with the sides straight
for about four cm., then inclines
toward the top so as to leave the
width of the opening at the top
about onecm. A piece is cut out
of the front of the chimney of the
width of the diameter of the hole
in the iron support, and about
four cm. in length, being semi-

the platinum crucible. Just above
= this part of the chimney is riv-
“a —— qm = ected a piece of sheet-iron in the

: ~ form of a flattened hook n, which
holds the chimney in place by
being slipped over the top of the crucible support; it serves as
a protection to the crucible against the cooling of the currents
of air. f is the burner, which has been described in the article
on flame-heat. The upper opening of it is a slit from one and
a half to two mm. in width and from three and a fourth to four
and a half cm. long, and when used is brought within about
two cm. of the lowest point of the crucible, the end of the
flame just playing around the lower end of the crucible; the
gas enters the lower part of the burner by two small holes
of one sixteenth of an inch, furnishing at one inch pressure
about five and a half cubic feet of gas per hour; the precaution
must be observed, already referred to, in heating the crucible
at first gently above the mixture. It is surprising to see the
effect produced by this simple burner as here used; eight
_ grammes of precipitated carbonate of lime can be decomposed
to within two or three per cent. in one hour, and when mixed
with silica or a silicate in a very much shorter space of time,
although in my analysis I employ one hour, as it requires
no attention after the operation is once started. This form

circular at the top, fitting over,

ming ft ba

DETERMINATION OF ALKALIES IN SILICATES, 401

of furnace and crucible is found to be convenient for other
operations. |

Although the details here given are long, the time occupied
in the analysis is short, and the necessary precautions are of a
simple character, so much so that results obtained by students
in beginning chemical analysis have been found by me far
more reliable and less variable on the alkalies of the silicates
than on any of the other constituents. Good alkali determina-
tions can be made in three hours or less from the commencement
of the operation, hastening the evaporation by more direct appli-
cation of the heat, which of course requires more close watching.

It is a common practice of mine, when a silicate presents
itself of which there are no physical means of ascertaining its
nature, to make at once an alkali determination, which not
unfrequently indicates immediately what it is, if it be a known
silicate containing an alkali; and if an unknown compound, the
analysis made is one step in the examination.

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