CHAPMAN'S

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

OF

ONTARIO AND QUEBEC.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
I.

AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF CANADA

BASED ON A SUBDIVISION OF THE PROVINCES
INTO NATURAL AREAS.

With six sketch-maps and 86 figures of characteristic fossils.

II.

BLOWPIPE PRACTICE.

WITH ORIGINAL TABLES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
ALL KNOWN MINERALS.

Favourable mention is made of this work in the later editions of Von Kobell's celebrated
Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien.

III.

ASSAY NOTES.

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR
THE DETERMINATION BY FURNACE ASSAY OF
GOLD AND SILVER IN ROCKS AND ORES.
Second Edition.

IV.

THE MINERAL INDICATOR:

A PRACTICAL GUIDE

TO THE DETERMINATION OF MINERALS OF
GENERAL OCCURENCE.

THE

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

OF

CENTRAL CANADA,

COMPRISING THE .

PROVINCES OF ONTARIO AND QUEBEC.

<A 0^ BY

E. J. CHAPMAN,

PH.D., LL.D.

PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO, AND SCHOOL OF
PRACTICAL SCIENCE.

THIRD EDITION,

REVISED AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN.

TORONTO :

THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, (LIMITED.)
1888.

774194

Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight
hundred and eighty-eight, by THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY (LIMITED), Toronto,
Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture.

nn

PREFACE.

THE plan and mode of treatment adopted in the original edition
of this work, are retained in the present edition ; but the subject
matter has been greatly extended, and, with the exception of a
few pages, the work has been entirely rewritten. It aims to convey,
in language as little technical as possible, a practical knowledge of
the minerals and general geology of the two central provinces of
the Dominion— Ontario and Quebec. In its plan, it embraces five
leading sections or subdivisions. These follow each other in logical
order, and are discussed throughout in an essentially explanatory
form.

The first section describes briefly the more salient characters or
properties by which the determination of minerals is effected ; and it
includes a sufficient notice of the blowpipe to enable anyone to
employ that useful instrument in the practical examination and rough
analysis of mineral bodies.

The second part or section contains descriptions of all the minerals
hitherto recognized within the Provinces to which the work refers.
In these descriptions, minute crystallographic and chemical details
are purposely avoided, as unsuited to the character of the book.* The
descriptive portion of the section is preceded by a couple of Determi-
native Tables, drawn up expresslv for the present work, by the use of
which, the name of any mineral occurring in central Canada, may be
easily ascertained.

The two succeeding sections, PARTS III and IV, are introductory
to PART Y, in which the geological features of Ontario and Quebec
are passed under review. Part III discusses the classification, struc-
tural characters and other technical points belonging to the study of
rock masses generally, and that of mineral veins ; and it includes also
a brief outline of the Earth's rock-recorded history (pp. 199 to 207).
Part IV comprises an epitome or systematic synopsis of Canadian
Paleontology, with figures and descriptions of our more characteristic

* A synopsis of the crystallographic characters of the more important mineral species will be
found in the Notes attached to the Determinative Tables of the author's Blowpipe Practice In
these Notes, spectroscopic characters, where readily determinate, are also <nven

VI.

PREFACE.

fossils, and many original groupings and generalizations. The figures
are somewhat roughly executed, but they serve sufficiently for the
identification of the forms to which they refer.

Finally, in PART V, the subdivisions, economic minerals, characte-
ristic fossils, and general distribution of the rock formations of the
two Provinces are given in systematic outline. Here, as elsewhere
throughout the work, I have been careful to acknowledge my obliga-
tions where information has been specially derived from other sources.
The subdivisions adopted with regard to the geological areas of the
Provinces are practically the same as those given in the author's
"Outline of the Geology of Canada" published in 1876; but their
arrangement has been slightly altered, and the greater portion of this
section has been entirely rewritten for the present work.

An Index, containing upwards of three thousand references to
minerals, rock-formations, fossils, localities, etc., within the two Pro-
vinces, concludes the volume, and will add much, it is thought, to its
utility.

E. J. C.

TORONTO, April 30, 1888.

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTORY NOTICE ...................................

PART I. THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS or MINERALS ............. 3

Preliminary Remarks (3). PHYSICAL CHARACTERS (4-18) \snector
Lustre (4) Colour (5). Streak (6). Form (7). Structure and
Cleavag^( 13).^ Hardness (14). Specific Gravity (16). Malleability

CHEMICAL CHARACTERS (18-48). Nomenclature (18). Actions of
Acids (20). Application of the Blowpipe (22-48). Blowpipe apparatus
(22). Blowpipe Flames (25-27). Fusion Trial (28). Water Test (30)
Treatment with cobalt nitrate (31). Roasting (31). Formation of
glasses on platinum wire (32). Table or Borax, Phosphor-salt, and
Ana* (84' 85)' Reduction (36)' CllPellation (38). Blowpipe

PART II. THE MINERALS OF CENTRAL CANADA ............... 49

Analytical Key (50) Simplified Key (57). Systematic Arrangement
159, 60). Simple Substances (61). Arsenides and Sulphides (67)
Oxygen Compounds: Copper Oxides (SO). Iron Oxides (81) Man-
ganese Oxides (87). Uranium, Tungstenum, and Titanium Oxides
(89). Alumina and Aluminates (90). Silica and Silicates (91-199)
Carbonates (122). Sulphates (129). Phosphates and Areeniatee (134)
^ Chlorides (137)' Bodies of Assumed Organic Origin

PART III. ROCKS AND ROCK-PRODUCING AGENCIES ............. 147

General Classification of Rock Masses (147). Sedimentary Rocks (150-
166). Composition of Sedimentary Rocks (150). Formation of Sedi-
mentary Rocks (153). Derivation, Deposition, and Consolidation of
Sediments (154, 156, 157). Elevation above sea-level (158) Denu-

IVS?n VT 1)- Tll1tmg and Fracturing (162). Production of Faults
(164). Metamorphism (165).

Metamorphic or Crystalline-stratiform Rocks (167-174).
Massiye or Unstratified Rocks (174-191). Granites (177). Anortho-
(191) Uv am Greenstones (182). Obsidians and Pitchstones

Mineral Veins (191-198).

Classification of Rocks in accordance with their relative periods of
formation (199-207). Table of Geological Ages and Periods (201)
General Outline of the Earth's history : Archaean Age (203) • Palteo

<2°3) ; Cainozoic Age (206) ; A>ndro2oic

Vlll.

CONTENTS.

PART IV. FOSSILIZED ORGANIC BODIES 209

Plant Remains (210-220). Thallogens (211). Acrogena (215). Gynmo-
sperms (219). Monocotyledons (220). Dicotyledons (220).

Animal Remains (221-292). Protozoa (221). Polystomata (223).
Coeleuterata (225). Echinodermata (236). Vermes ^248). Arthropoda
(250). Molluscoidea (265). Mollusca (275). Tunicata (290). Verte-
brata (290).

PART V. SYSTEMATIC OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY or CENTRAL CANADA,

COMPRISING THE PROVINCES OF ONTARIO AND QUEBEC 293

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO (294-333). Introductory Notice (294). Geo-
logical Subdivisions (296). District of the Upper Lakes (297). East-
ern Archaean District (304). Lower Ottawa District (308). Lake
Ontario District (322). Erie and Huron District (321). M. nitoulin
District (329). Northern Palaeozoic Area (331).

PROVINCE OF QUEBEC (333-354). Introductory Notice (333). Geolo-
gical Subdivisions (335). Northern Archaean District (336). District
of the Upper St. Lawrence (338). Anticosti and Mingan District (342).
Appalachian or Eastern Townships and Gaspe District (344).

Appendix : — Sequence of Rock Formations in Ontario and Quebec

INDEX. 357

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

P. 6, note— for "thas"read "that."

P. 17, line 8— for "pa" read "pan."

P. 22, line 11— for " fluorhydric " read "hydrofluoric."

P. 51, insert in bracket 18-BB, on charcoal, white incrustation and arsenical

odour — Mispickel (some varieties), No. 22.
P. 57, insert at the commencement of the "not malleable" series— Tin-white

or greyish. BB, arsenical odour— Mispickel (some varieties) i\o 22
6 ~ f°r "SIMPLE SUBSTANCE" read "SIMPLE

STAN CSS

SUB-

P. 64, line 15-add :" Gold occurs also in many of the veins around Big Stone
Bay Lake of the Woods ; and quite recently it has been discovered in
nd elsewhere in the Huronian rocks of the

P. 64, line 28— after Riviere du Loup, add (Beauce Co).
'. 71— add Sudbury to the localities of Purple Copper Pyrites.
P. 76, line 13— for " Cape Ibberwash " read " Cape Ipperwash."
P. 84, line 15— for "altered Silurian" read "crystalline."

f Crystals on these Pages are Pla^d in reversed

. 90, line 8 from bottom— for "from" read "form."

P. 93, for "distinct" read "distinctive."

P. 99, line 2— for " iron is " read " iron oxides ore."

104, lines 7 and 8 from bottom-erase " or Upper Laurentian strata."

P. 110 — transpose lines 5 and 6.

P. 110, line 15— for "Nepheletic" read " Nephelitic."

P. 1 15-add Sheffield to localities of Phlogopite. A valuable deposit of this

species of mica has been recently discovered in the township.

P. 126, line 6 from bottom — for "or" read "of."

P. 127, line 2— for "Bentick" read "Bentinck."

P. 128, last line— for " chlorite " read "chloritic."

P. 130, line 8 from bottom— for " from " read "form."

P. 148, line 4— for "more limited" read "a more or less limited depth "

P. 149, line 26— for " exhibit " read "exhibits."

'" The lette^g «hews its pro-

P. 169, line B-add : a very fine-grained variety, with predominating feldst><

has been named granulite or feldspar-rock.

P. 172, line 11 — for " agillite " read "argillite."

P. 172, line 24— for " Huronian rock " read "Huronian rocks."

P. 173, line 5 from bottom— for " from " read " form."

P. 189, line 17— add "at" before "Gros Cap."

P. 191, line 22— for " are not uncommon " read " have been fouud."

X.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

P. 191, line 5 from bottom — insert "lava-like products " after " but."

P. 204, line 21 — for " Equiseta " read '• Equiseti."

P. 205, line 10— for "Parts V. and VI." read " Part V."

P. 207, Jines 6 and 7 — erase " and to have been experienced also in the extrer

south."

P. 210, line 26 — for " literal " read "littoral."
P. 216, line 16 — for "hollow- jointed" read "hollow, jointed."
P. 224, lines 19, 23, 25— for " siliceons " read "siliceous."
P. 227, line 8 from bottom— insert after " all " " Upper Cambrian or."
P. 229, line 2 from bottom — for " Hydrocorolla " read " Hydrocoralla.
P. 232, line 3— insert (7) before " Syringopora."
P. 239, line 3 from bottom — for "bifercating " read " bifurcating."
P. 240, line 22 — f or " Enerincus and Enerinite " read ' ' Encrinus and Encrinil
P. 241, line 11 — for "oval" read "anal."
P. 245, line 10 — for "species" read "examples."
P. 248, line 3 under Vermes — for " six " read " seven."
P. 251, note — for " Phyllorarida " read " Phyllocarida. "
P. 254, line 24— for "states " read " slates."
P. 260, line 23— for " Limulas " read "Limulus."
P. 266, under Fig. 181 — for " Fenstella " read " Fenestella."
P. 267, line 10 — for " Brachipods" read " Brachiopods.
P. 269, lines 6 and 10 from bottom— for "Brown" read "Bronn."
P. 272, line 10 from bottom— for " Pernian " read " Permian."
P. 279, line 8 — for "arrange" read "arranged."
P. 280, line 6 — for " Prosobranchiala " read " Prosobranchiata. "
P. 284, line 1— for "Cytolites" read " Cyrtolites."
P. 288, line 9— for " Tetrebranchiata" read " Tetrabranchiata. "
P. 289, line 5 from bottom — for " resembling " read " resembles."
P. 302, at close of first paragraph — add : " Quite recently, important dis-
coveries of Native gold and auriferous ore have been made in the
vicinity of Sudbury : more especially in Dennison township."
P. 340, line 8 — for "outlying" read "inlying."

A POPULAR EXPOSITION

OP THE

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

OF

CENTRAL CANADA.

INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.

The aim of the present work is to impart, in a simple and con-
densed form, a practical knowledge of Canadian minerals and rock
formations, including with the latter, the various fossilized bodies
which so many of these rocks contain, and by which their respective
ages and positions are principally established. Geology, in the
proper acceptation of the term, comprises the History of the Earth
as distinct from records of human action and progress : a history
revealed to us by the study of the rock masses which lie around and
beneath us ; and by a comparison of the results of ancient phenomena,
as exhibited in these rocks, with the forces and agencies still at work
in modifying the surface of the globe. As Geology is thus essentially
based on the study of rocks and their contents, and as rocks are not
only made up of a certain number of simple minerals, but contain
also many of these latter in veins and other more or less accidental
forms of occurrence, it is advisable at the outset to obtain a certain
knowledge of the distinctive characters of minerals, and of the ap-
plication of these characters to the determination of mineral bodies
generally. This achieved, we may proceed to the study of the more
extended mineral masses, or rocks proper : their classification, struc-
tural characters, composition, modes of formation, and other related
points of inquiry. The study of Organic Remains comes next in
order— these bodies, the representatives of departed forms of life,
occurring in great numbers in many strata. They serve not only for
the practical identification of the rock groups in which they are
enclosed — thus enabling us to determine, for instance, whether a
2

2 INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.

given bed lie above or below the great coal formation or other
geological horizon — but they make known also many interesting
facts with regard to the climatic relations of the Past, and serve to
explain to some extent the embryology and development of existing
forms. Finally, with the information obtained from these prelimi-
nary sections, the reader may turn with profit to the study of our
local geology.

In accordance with these views, the subject-matter of the present
treatise is discussed under the following sub-divisions :

I. — The Distinctive Characters of Minerals.
II. — The Minerals of Central Canada, or Provinces of Ontaric

and Quebec.

III. — Rocks and Rock-producing Agencies.
IV. — Fossilized Organic Bodies.
V. — The Geology of Central Canada — comprising the Sub-
divisions, Characteristic Fossils, Economic Materials, and
Distribution, of the various Geological Formations oc-
curring within the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec.

PART I.

THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF MINERALS.
Preliminary Remarks .—The various bodies which occur in Natur
are of two general kinds-Organic and Inorganic, respectively Th
former constitute Vegetables and Animals, and all bodies of vege
e or animal origin. In the living state, they possess certain
structural parts or organs by which they assimilate or take into the*
.bstance external matter, and thus increase in bulk or maintain
vitahty Inorganic bodies, on the other hand, are entirely destitute
of functional organs of this nature. They comprise all product of
chemical, electrical and mechanical forces, acting independent? of
hfe; and thus mclude all metals, stones, and rocks, and also air and
water.

Mineral or inorganic bodies are in themselves, also, of two general
Some possess a definite composition and definite physical
characters Others are mixed bodies or compounds of more or
variable character. The former constitute simple minerals or nT
erals proper ; the latter form rocks or rock-matters. In Parts I and
this Treat,se, minerals proper are alone considered. Rocks ar

scz.'Srjr under reviev in part ra - * -
3SLT±fti^- onr T by, certain characters

form, degree of hardness,

Mineral characters are of two principal kinds : physical or external
and ckemwal, respectively. Physical characters comprise the variTus
properties exhibited under ordinary conditions by mineral bodi s
colour, form, Ac. are examples, Chemical characters, on the other
hand compose the properties developed in minerals by the applica-
on of heat, or by the action of acids or other re-agents, by which in
general, a certain amount of chemical decomposition is effected

4 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

A. -PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OR PROPERTIES.

The physical properties of minerals are somewhat numerous ; but
many, although of the highest interest in indicating the existence of
natural laws, and in their relations to physical science generally, are
not readily available as a means of mineral discrimination. These,
consequently, will be omitted from consideration in the following
pages ; and the other characters will be discussed only in so far as
they admit of direct application to the end in view —namely, the
practical discrimination of minerals one from another.*

The following are the characters in question :

1. ASPECT OR LUSTRE.

2. COLOUR.

3. STREAK.

4. FORM.

5. STRUCTURE.

6. HARDNESS.

7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

8. RELATIVE MALLEABILITY.

9. MAGNETISM.
10. TASTE.

Aspect or Lustre. — In reference to this character we have to con-
sider first, the kind, and, secondly, the degree or intensity of lustre,
as possessed by the mineral under examination. The kind of lustre
may be either metallic, as that of a piece of copper, silver, &c. ; or
sub-metallic, as that of most kinds of anthracite coal ; or non-metallic,
as that of stones in general. Of the non-metallic there are several
varieties, as, more especially : the adamantine lustre or that of the

* Viewed collectively, the Physical Characters of Minerals may be arranged for the purposes
of study, under six groups, as follows :

FIRST GROUP : — Morphological Characters : — 1, Form. 2, Surface-condition. 3, Structure.
4, Cleavage. 5, Fracture.

SECOND GROUP -.—Optical Characters :— 1, Aspect or Kind of Lustre. 2, Degree of Lustre.

3, Colour. 4, Streak. 5, Degree of Transparency. 6, Refraction. 7, Polarization.
THIRD GKOUP -.—Cohesion Characters :— 1, Hardness. 2, Tenacity. 3, Malleability. 4, Ex-
pansibility.

FOURTH GROUP:— Sensationary Characters:— 1, Weight (Specific Gravity). 2, Feel. 3, Taste,

4, Odour. 5. Sound.

FIFTH GROUP : — Physical Characters, proper : — 1, Magnetism. 2, Electricity. 3, Phos-
phorescence.

SIXTH GROUP : — Epigenic Characters : — 1, Tarnish. 2, Ordinary Disintegration and Decom-
position. 3, Efflorescence. 4, Deliquescence.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I.

diamond, carbonate of lead, &c.; the vitreous or glassy lustre-
example : rock crystal; the resinous lustre— ex.: native sulphur; the
pearly lustre— ex.: talc; the silky lustre (usually accompanying a
fibrous structure)— ex.; fibrous gypsum ; the stony aspect; the earthy
aspect, &c. These terms sufficiently explain themselves. Occasionally,
two kinds of non-metallic lustre are simultaneously present -either
blended, as seen in obsidian, which exhibits a " resino- vitreous "
aspect ; or distinct as regards different crystal faces or external and
internal surfaces. Many of the so-called Zeolites, for example, pre-
sent a pearly lustre on the surfaces produced by cleavage (see beyond),
whilst the external lustre is vitreous. In Apophyllite, the basal
or terminal crystal-plane is pearly, the others vitreous. Micas, and
some few other minerals, present a pseudo-metallic lustre. This may
be distinguished from the metallic lustre properly so-called, by being
accompanied by a degree of translucency, or by the powder of the
mineral being white or faintly coloured : minerals of a true metallic
aspect being always opaque, whilst their powder is either black or
dictinctly coloured. Very few minerals exhibit (in their different
varieties) more than one general kind of lustre : metallic or non-
metallic. Thus, galena (the common ore of lead), copper pyrites, &c.,
always present a metallic lustre ; whilst, on the other hand, quartz,
feldspar, calc-spar, gypsum, &c., are never metallic in aspect. ' Hence,
by means of this easily-recognized character, we may divide all
minerals into two broad groups ; and thus, if we pick up a specimen,
and wish to ascertain its name, we need only look for it among the
minerals of that group with which it agrees in lustre. The first step
towards the determinataion of the substance will in this way be
effected.

The degree of lustre may be either splendent, shining, glistening,
glimmering or dull ; but the character is one of comparatively little
importance.

Colour.— When combined with a metallic aspect, colour becomes a
definite character, and is thus of much value in the determination of
minerals. As regards a substance of metallic aspect, for example,
specimens brought from different localities, or occurring under
different conditions, rarely vary in colour beyond a slight difference
of depth or shade. Thus, galena the common ore of lead is always
lead-gray; copper pyrites, always brass-yellow; native gold, always

6 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

gold-yellow ; and so forth. When accompanied, however, by a
vitreous or other non-metallic lustre, colour becomes a character of
no practical value, as a mineral of non-metallic aspect may present, in
its different varieties, every variety of colour. Thus, we have col-
ourless quartz, amethystine or violet quartz, red quartz, yellow quartz,
&c. Also, feldspars, fluorspars, and other minerals of variable colour :
just as in the Vegetable Kingdom, we have red, white and yellow
roses, and dahlias, &c., of almost every hue. The more common shades
of metallic colour are as follows.

w, ., ( Silver-white ex. Native silver.

' \ Tin- white ex. Pure tin ; cobalt ore.

p ( Lead-grey ex. Galena.

' 1 Steel-grey ex. Specular iron ore.

Black Iron-black (usually with sub-metallic lustre) ex. Magnetic iron ore.

! Gold-yellow ex. Native gold.
Brass-yellow ex. Copper pyrites.
Bronze-yellow (a brownish-yellow) ex. Magnetic pyrites.

Red Copper-red ex. Native copper.

These metallic colours are often more or less obscured by a black,
brownish, purple, or iridescent surface-tarnish. In noting the colour
of a mineral, this must be constantly borne in mind, and if possible
a newly-fractured surface should be observed. The non-metallic col-
ours comprise, white, grey, black, blue, green, red, yellow, and brown,
with their various shades and intermixtures : as orange-yellow, straw-
yellow, reddish-brown, greenish-black, &c. In minerals of a non-
metallic aspect, the colour is sometimes uniform ; and at other times,
two or more colours are present together in spots, bands, &c., as in
the varieties of quartz called agate, blood-stone, jasper, and so forth-
In most varieties of Labradorite, or Labrador Feldspar, a beautiful
play or change of colour is observable in certain directions. The finer
varieties of Opal also exhibit a beautiful and well known iridescence.

Streak. — Under this technical term is comprised the appearance or
colour of the scratch, produced by drawing or " streaking " a mineral
across a file or piece of unglazed porcelain. The character is a valuable
one on account of its uniformity : as no matter how varied the colour
of a mineral may be in different specimens, the streak will remain of
one and the same colour throughout. Thus, blue, green, yellow, red,
violet, and other specimens of fluor spar, quartz, &c., exhibit equally a
white or "uncoloured" streak. The streak is sometimes " unchanged,"

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 7

or of the same tint as the external colour of the mineral ; but far more
frequently it presents a different colour. Thus, whilst Cinnabar, the
ore of mercury, has a red colour and reS streak, Realgar, red sulphide
of arsenic, has a red colour and orange-yellow streak ; Copper Pyrites,
a brass-yellow colour, and greenish-black streak ; and so forth. In cer-
tain malleable and sectile minerals, the scratched surface presents an
increase of lustre. The streak is then said to be " shining." Finally,
it should be remarked, that in trying the streak of very hard minerals,
we must crush a small fragment to powder, in place of using the file;
because otherwise, a greyish-black streak, arising from the abrasion
of the file, might very possibly be obtained, and so conduce to error.

Form. — The forms assumed by natural bodies are of two general
kinds: (I) Accidental or Irregular, depending rather on external
conditions than on the actual nature of the body : and (2), Essential
or Regular. Accidental forms occur only as monstrosities in Organic
Nature. Amongst minerals, on the other hand, they are of frequent
occurrence ; but the Mineral Kingdom possesses also its definite or
essential forms. These, whether transparent or opaque, are termed
crystals. This term was first applied to transparent vitreous speci-
mens of quartz or rock-crystal, from the resemblance of these to ice ;
but as it was subsequently found that many opaque specimens of
quartz present exactly similar forms, and that opaque as well as
transparent forms of other minerals occur, the term, in scientific
language, gradually lost its original signification, and came to be
applied to all the geometrical or regular forms of minerals and other
inorganic bodies, whether transparent, translucent, or opaque. As
already remarked, minerals of a metallic lustre are always opaque ;
and many of these, galena, iron-pyrites, arsenical-pyrites, &c., occur
frequently in very regular and symmetrical crystals.

As regards the regular or essential forms of Nature, two distinct
and in a measure antagonistic form-producing powers — Vitality and
Crystallization — thus appear to exist. Forms which arise from a
development of the vital force, exhibit rounded and confluent out-
lines ; whilst those produced by crystallization are made up of plain
surfaces, meeting, in sharp edges, under definite and constant angles.*

* This law is affected within slight limits by isomorphous replacements, and also by changes
of temperature. The law itself appears to have been discovered by Nicolaus Steno (a
naturalized Florentine) as early as 1669, but its true importance was not appreciated until the

8

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Crystals originate in almost all cases in which matter passes from a
gaseous or liquid into a solid state ; but if the process take place too
quickly, or the matter solidify without free space for expansion,
crystalline masses, in place of regular crystals, will result. If a small
fragment of arsenical pyrites, or native arsenic, be heated at one end
of an open and narrow glass tube, the arsenic, in volatilizing^ will
combine with oxygen from the atmosphere, and form arsenious acid,
which will be deposited at the other end of the tube, in the form of
minute octahedrons (Fig. 3, below). In like manner, if a few par-
ticles of common salt be dissolved in a small quantity of water, and
a drop of the solution be evaporated gently (or be left to evaporate
spontaneously) on a piece of glass, numerous little cubes and hopper-
shaped cubical aggregations will result. Boiling water, again, satu-
rated with common alum, will deposit octahedral crystals on cooling:
the cooled water not being able to retain in solution the full amount
of alum dissolved by the hot water. Finally, it may be observed
that bismuth, antimony, and many other bodies, crystallize by slow
cooling from the molten state. Although, as explained above, crystals
usually originate when matter passes slowly from the gaseous or
liquid condition into the solid state, crystallization and solidification
are not actually identical. Various substances, such as silica in cer-
tain conditions, its hydrate (constituting the different opals), gums,
many resins, &c., appear to resist altogether the action of crystal-
lization.

The crystal forms and combinations met with in Nature, exclusive
of those produced by the chemist in his laboratory, are exceedingly
numerous, many thousands being known to exist. By the help of
certain laws, however, and, more especially, by the aid of one, termed
"the Law of Symmetry," we are enabled to resolve these multitudinous
combinations into six groups or systems. The forms of the same group
combine together, and may be deduced mathematically from each other;
whilst those of distinct groups are unrelated. Thus, although the cube,
the rhombic dodecahedron, and the regular octahedron (Figs. 1, 2 & 3)
appear at first sight to be unconnected forms, their co-relations may

re-announcement, or rather re-discovery of the law in 1772, by the French crystallographer,
Rome de 1'Isle. Many of the contemporaries of the latter — amongst others the celebrated
Buffon — attempted to deny its existence ; but being susceptible of practical proof, its truth
was soon established.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I.

be readily shown by the Law of Symmetry. This law, for instance,
exacts one of three things, of which the most important is to this
effect, viz., that if an edge or angle of a crystal be modified in any
way, all the similar edges or angles in the crystal must be modified in
a similar manner. Now the cube has twelve similar edges and eight
similar angles. Consequently, if one edge or one angle be truncated,
or, to use a term more in conformity with the actual operations of
Nature, if one of these be suppressed during the formation of the
crystal, the other edges (or angles) must be suppressed also ; and if
the new planes, which thus arise, be extended .until they meet, the
rhombic dodecahedron on the one hand, and the regular octahedron
on the other, will result.* These forms, moreover, as well as their
intermediate oscillations, frequently occur in the same substancee :
red oxide of copper may be cited as an example. But between the
cube, a square prism, a regular hexagonal prism, and a rhombic
prism, no relations of this kind exist. Neither are these solids
related physicially : their optical, thermal, and other physical charac-
ters are equally distinct. By considerations of this sort, therefore,
we are able to establish six (or really seven) distinct Crystal Systems.
These (named chiefly in accordance with the relations of their axes,
or certain right lines assumed to pass through the centre of each
crystal, and terminate in opposite planes, edges, or angles) are
enumerated in the annexed tabular view :

Crystal-axes of one length (The Regular or Isopolar System (including the
Refraction, single . . . . . } cu.be' rhombic dodecahedron, octahedron, &c.,
^ with their various combinations. )

f The Tetragonal System (including square-based

Crystal-axes of two lengths. prisms and pyramids with their various corn-
Kef raction, double, with) binations.)
one neutral line or optical \ The Hexagonal System (including regular hexa-

; gonal prisms and pyramids, rhombohedrons,

\. &c., with their combinations.)

* The Law of Symmetry, in its exact acception, may be thus expressed :

(1.) If an edge or angle of a crystal be modified, all the similar edges or angles will exhibit
a similar modification.

Or (2.) One-half or one-mth of the corresponding angles or edges, in alternate positions, will
be equally modified. Example.— Cube and Tetrahedron (Boracite ; Arseniate of Iron.)

Or (3. ) All the similar edges or angles will be modified by one-half or one-mth the normal or
regular number of planes. Example.— Cube and Pentagonal Dodecahedron (Iron Pyrites,
Cobaltine.)

Conditions 2 and 3 produce hemihedrons or part-forms.

10

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Crystal-axes of three lengths
Refraction, double, with
two neutral lines or optical

rThe, Rhombic or Ortho-Rhombic

Axes at right- 1 Sy*tem ("w^ng nght rect.^n'
•J gular pnsms and pyramids,

rhombic prisms and pyramids,

One axis ob-
lique.

All the axes
oblique.

V. and combinations of these).

The Clino-Rhombic or Monoclinic
System (including oblique rec-
tangular and rhombic com-
binations).

The Triclinic or Anorthic System
(including doubly -oblique com-
binations).

The study of these Crystal groups, and that of crystal forms and
combinations generally, constitutes the science of Crystallography.
To enter into the details of this science would extend our present
discussion much beyond its proposed limits and object, the simple
determination of commonly occurring minerals ; but it will be advis-
able for the student to impress upon his memory the names of the
groups in question, with the general aspect of their more common
forms and combinations, as given in the following enumeration.

The Isopolar or Regidar System. — This group includes the cube
(Fig. 1), the rhombic dodecahedron (Fig. 2), the regular octahedron
(Fig. 3), trapezohedrons (Fig. 4), pentagonal dodecahedrons (Fig. 5),
&c. Figs. 6 and 6* are combinations of the cube and octahedron ;

IG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG.

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 6*. FIG. 7.

No. 7, a combination of the cube and pentagonal dodecahedron.
Native gold, silver, copper, iron pyrites, galena, zinc blende, grey
copper ore, red copper ore, magnetic iron ore, spinel, garnet, fluor
spar, rock salt, and numerous other minerals, crystallize in this
system.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I.

11

The Tetragonal System — This includes, principally, square-based
prisms and pyramids, and their combinations. Figures 8 to 9 are ex-

FIG. 8.

FIG. 8 a.

FIG.

amples of Tetragonal crystals. Amongst minerals, Copper Pyrites,
Tinstone, Rutile, Anatase, Zircon, Idocrase, Scapolite &c., may be
cited as belonging to the group.

The Hexagonal System. — Regular six-sibed prisms (Fig. 10, and
pyramids (Fig. 11), combinations of these (Fig. 12), three- sided prisms,
rhombohedrons (Figs. 13 and 14), and scalenohedrons (Fig. 15) ; are
included under this system. Graphite, Red Silver Ores, Cinnabar,
Specular Iron Ore, Corundum, Quartz, Beryl, Tourmaline, Apatite
or Phosphate of Lime, Phosphate and Arseniate of Lead, Calcite,

\\

FIG. 13. FIG. 14. FIG. 14.* FIG. 15.

Dolomite, and Carbonate of Iron, are some of the principle minerals
which belong to it.

The Rhombic System — This system includes right-rhombic prisms,
rectangular prisms, rhombic octahedrons, &c., and their combinations.
Fig. 16 is a rhombic prism ; Figs. 17 to 21 represent other crystals of

12

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

this system. Prismatic Iron-pyrites, Mispickel or Arsenical-pyrites,
Native Sulphur, Topaz, Staurolite, Arragonite, Heavy spar, Celestine,

FIG. 16.

FIG. 17.

FIG. 17.'

FIG. 18.

FIG. 19.

FIG. 20.

FIG. 21.

FIG.

and Epsom salt, are some of the principal minerals which belong to
the Rhombic group.

The Monoclinic or C lino- Rhombic System. — Rhombic prisms and
pyramids, and rectangular prisms and pyramids, with oblique or
sloping base, belong to this system. Figs. 22 to 24 are Monoclinic
combinations. Characteristic minerals comprise : Augite, Horn-
blende, Epidote, Sphene, Orthoclase or Potash Feldspar, Gypsum,
and Iron Vitriol or Sulphate of Iron.

FIG. 23.

FIG. 24.

FIG. 25.

The Triclinic or Anorthic System — The forms of this system are
oblique in two directions. The crystals in general are more or less
flat and unsymmetrical in appearance, No two planes meet at right
angles ; and there are never more than two similar planes present in
any crystal belonging to the group. Axinite, Albite or Soda-Feld-
spar, and Sulphate of Copper, Fig. 25, are examples of Triclinic
minerals.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 13

The Irregular Forms assumed by minerals are of very subordinate
importance. The following are some of the more common : — Globular
or nodular, ex. quartz, iron pyrites ; reniform or kidney-shaped, ex.
quartz, &c. ; botryoidal or mammillated : a form made up of a series
of rounded elevations and depressions, or otherwise exhibiting a sur-
face of this character, ex. red and brown iron ore, calcedony, &c. •
stalactitic, ex. calc. spar, &c. ; coralliform, resembling certain branch-
ing corals, ex. arragonite ; acicular, in minute needle-like forms, ex.
millerite ; dendritic or arborescent, a branching form, often made up
of small aggregated crystals, ex. native silver, native copper, &c. ;
filiform or wire-like, ex. native silver. When a mineral presents a
perfectly indefinite shape, it is said to be massive. Other terms used
in connection with the irregular forms of minerals, such as incrusting,
disseminated, &c., explain themselves. The term amorphous is applied
to obsidian, opal, and other minerals in which crystalline structure
and cleavage planes are altogether wanting.

Structure and Cleavage. — In the majority of minerals a certain kind
of structure, or, in other words, the shape as well as the mode of
aggregation of the smaller masses of which they are composed, is
always observable. Structure in minerals may be either lamellar,
laminar OY foliated, prismatic, fibrous, granular or compact. When
the mineral, as in most varieties of calc-spar, heavy-spar, feldspar,
and gypsum, for example, is made up of broad, tabular masses pro-
ducing a more or less stratified appearance, the structure is said to be
lamellar. When the tabular masses (whether straight, wavy or
curved) become extremely thin or leafy, as in mica more especially,
the structure is said to be laminar, or foliated, or sometimes mica-
ceous. The scaly structure is a variety of this, in which the laminse
are of small size. When the component masses are much longer
than broad or deep, as in many specimens of tourmaline, beryl, calc-
spar, &c., the structure is said to be prismatic or columnar. When
the prismatic concretions become very narrow, the fibrous structure
originates. Fibrous minerals may have either: a straight or parallel-
fibrous structure, as in many specimens of gypsum, calc-spar, &c. ; an
irregularly-fibrous structure, as in many specimens of augite and
hornblende; or a radiated -fibrous structure, as in the radiated varieties
of iron pyrites, natrolite, wavellite, and many other minerals, — the
fibres radiating from one or more central points. Minerals made up

14 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

of small grains or granular masses are said to have a granular struc-
ture ; ex. granular or saccharoidal limestone, granular gypsum, &c.
Finally, when the component particles are not apparent, the mineral
is said to have a compact structure, as in the native malleable metals,
obsidian, and most varieties of quartz. Hard and vitreous minerals
of a compact structure (ex. obsidian) generally show, when broken, a
conchoidal fracture, or a series of circular markings resembling the
lines of growth on the external surface of a bivalve shell.

Almost all minerals, especially those of a lamellar structure, break
or separate more readily in certain directions than in others. This
peculiarity is called cleavage. When cleavage takes place in more
than one direction, the resulting fragments have often a perfectly
regular or definite form. Thus the purer specimens rof calc-spar, no
matter what their external form, break very readily into rhombo-
heclrons, which measure 105° 5' over their obtuse edges. Galena, the
common ore of lead, yields rectangular or cubical cleavage forms j
whilst the cubes of fluor-spar break off most readily at the corners or
angles, and yield regular octahedrons (Figs. 6 and 3).

Hardness. — The hardness of a mineral is its relative power of
resisting abrasion, not that of resisting blows, as many of the hardest
minerals are exceedingly brittle. Practically, the character is of
great importance. By its aid, gypsum may be distinguished in a
moment from calc-spar or ordinary limestone, calc-spar from feldspar,
and copper pyrites from iron pyrites, not to mention other examples.*
The degree of hardness in minerals is conventionally assumed to
vary from 1 to 10 (1 being the lowest), as in the following scale,
devised by the German mineralogist, Mohs, and now generally
adopted :

1. Foliated TALC.

2. ROCK SALT, a transparent cleavable variety.
3 CALCAREOUS SPAR, a transparent variety.

4. FLUOR SPAR.

5. APATITE.

* Gypsum may be scratched by the finger-nail ; Calc-spar and copper pyrites are scratched
easily by a knife ; whilst feldspar and iron pyrites are hard enough to scratch window-glass.
Some years ago, as mentioned by Sir William Logan, a farmer in the Ottawa district was put to
much expense and annoyance by mistaking feldspar for crystalline limestone, and attempting
to burn it into lime. On a late visit to the township of Marmora, we found, near a deserted
kiln, a large heap of quartz fragments, on which n similar attempt had evidently been made.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I. 15

6. FELDSPAR.

7. EOCK CRYSTAL.

8. TOPAZ.

9. CORUNDUM.
10. THE DIAMOND.

In order to ascertain the hardness of a mineral by means of this
scale, we attempt to scratch the substance, under examination, by the
different specimens belonging to the scale, beginning with the hardest,
in order not to expose the specimens to unnecessary wear. Or,
proceeding in another manner, we take a fine file, and compare the
hardness of the mineral with that of the individual members of the
scale, by drawing the file quickly across them. The comparative
hardness is estimated by the resistance offered to the file ; by the
noise occasioned by the file in passing across the specimens ; and by
the amount of powder so produced. The degree of hardness of the
mineral is then said to be equal to that of the member of the scale
with which it agrees the nearest. Thus, if the mineral agree in
hardness with fluor-spar, we say, in its description, H (or hardness)
= 4. If, on the other hand, it be somewhat softer than fluor-spar,
but harder than calcareous spar, we say, H = 3.5. Finally, if, as
frequently happens, the hardness of a mineral vary slightly in
different specimens, the limits of the hardness are always stated.
Thus, if in some specimens, a mineral agree in hardness with calc-
spar. and in others with fluor-spar, we say, H = 3 to 4 ; or, more
commonly, H = 3 — 4. If the hardness be very rigorously tested,
it will frequently be found to differ slightly on different faces of a
crystallized specimen, or on the broad faces and the edges of the lamina
of foliated specimens ; but this, so far as regards the simple deter-
mination of minerals, is practically of little moment.

As the minerals of which the scale of Mbhs consists are not in all
places obtainable, or always at hand when required, the author of this
work devised, many years ago, a scale of hardness so contrived as to
agree closely enough for practical purposes with that of Mohs, whilst
exacting for its application only such objects as are always to be
met with. The following is tho scale in question : its use explains
itself.

16 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Chapman's Convenieat Scale of Hardness, to correspond with

of Mohs.

1. Yields easily to the nail.

2. Does not yield to the nail. Does not scratch a copper coin.*

3. Scratches a copper coin, but is also scratched by one, being of

about the same degree of hardness.

4. Not scratched by a copper coin. Does not scratch glass (ordinary

window-glass).

5. Scratches glass very feebly. Yields easily to the knife.

6. Scratches glass easily

7. Yields with difficulty to the edge of a file.

8. 9, 10. Harder than flint or rock-crystal.

Convenient objects for the estimation of degrees of hardness above
No. 7 cannot be easily obtained ; but that is of little consequence, as
there are but few minerals which exhibit a higher degree, and these
are readily distinguished by other characters.

Specific Gravity. — This is also a character of great value in the
determination of minerals. The specific gravity of a body is its
weight compared with the weight of an equal bulk of pure water.
In order to ascertain the specific gravity of a mineral, we weigh the
specimen first in a: and then in water. The loss of weight in the
latter case exactly equals the weight of the displaced water, or, in
other words, of a volume of water equal to the volume of the mineral.
The specific gravity of pure water, at a temperature of about 62°,
being assumed to equal 1, or unity, it follows that the specific gravity
of a mineral is obtained by dividing the weight of the latter in air
by its loss of weight in water. Thus, if a = the- weight in air, and
w = the weight in water, G, or sp. qr. = -?—•

a — w

Example. — A piece of calcareous spar weighs 66 grs. in air, and
42 grs. when immersed in rain or distilled water. Hence its sp. gr.

- "-'..- 2-75.

66 — 42 24

The weight of the mineral may be ascertained most conveniently,
and with sufficient exactness for general purposes, by a pair of small
scales such as are commonly called " apothecaries' scales." These may

* Thas is, an old-fashioned copper coin, not a modern bronze coin. The scale was published
in 1843.

I
I

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 17

be purchased for a couple of dollars or even less. A small hole must
be made in the centre of one of the pans for the passage of a horse-
hair or silken thread (about four inches in length) furnished at its
free end with a " slip-knot " or running noose to hold the specimen
whilst this is being weighed in water. The strings of the perforated
pan may also be somewhat shortened, but the balance must in this
case be brought into equilibrium by a few strokes of a file on the
under side of the other pan, or by attaching thinner strings to it.

As an application of specific gravity, apart from the employment
of the character in the determination of minerals, it may be observed
that the weight of masses of rock, heaps of ore, etc., may be readily
ascertained by reference to this property. The length, breadth, and
depth of the body being taken in feet and decimal parts of a foot,
and these dimensions being multiplied together, we get the contents
of the body in cubic feet. This value is then multiplied by 62.32,
the weight in Ibs. of a cubic foot of water. This gives the weight of
an equal bulk of water, which must finally be multiplied by the
average sp. gr. of the body. The weight of the latter is thus obtained
in Ibs. This weight divided by 2,000 gives the weight in American
or Canadian tons ; and by dividing it by 2,240, we get the weight
in British tons.

Relative Malleability. — Some few minerals, a< • native gold, native
silver, sulphide of silver, native copper, &c., are malleable or ductile,
flattening out when struck, instead of breaking. A few other
minerals, as talc, serpentine, &c., are sectile, or admit of being cut by
a knife ; whilst the majority of minerals are brittle, or incapable of
being cut or beaten out without breaking. In testing the relative
malleability of a mineral, a small fragment should be placed on a
little anvil, or block of steel polished on one of its faces, and struck
once or twice by a light hammer. To prevent the fragment from
flying off when struck, it may be covered by a strip of thin paper,
held down by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand. Thus
treated, malleable bodies flatten into discs or spangles, whilst brittle
substances break into powder.

Magnetism. — Few minerals attract the magnet in their natural

condition, although many do so after exposure to the blowpipe.

(See below. ) In trying if a mineral be magnetic, we chip off a small

fragment, and apply to it a little horse-shoe magnet, such as may be

3

18

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

purchased anywhere for a quarter of a dollar ; or otherwise we appl
the specimen to a properly suspended magnetic needle. In this
manner many of the black granular masses which occur so frequently
in our Gneissoid or Laurentian rocks, and in the boulders derived
from these, may easily be recognised as magnetic iron ore.* Most
specimens of this mineral (and also of magnetic pyrites) exhibit
"polarity," or attract, from a given point, one end of the needle, and
repel the other.

Taste. — This is a very characteristic although limited property,
being, of course, exhibited only by soluble minerals. In these, the
taste may be saline, as in Rock Salt ; or bitter, as in Epsom Salt ;
or metallic, as in Sulphate of Iron, and so forth.

B. CHEMICAL CHARACTERS.

The chemical characters of principal use in the determination of
minerals comprise the phenomena developed by the action of acids,
and those produced by the application of the blowpipe. Before
referring to these characters, the reader should be familiar with cer-
tain chemical terms of common employment in Mineralogy.

A substance of any kind, whether of natural or artificial formation,
must be either a simple or a compound substance. If the former, it
cannot be decomposed or subdivided into more simple bodies by any
process of art. If compound, on the other hand, a decomposition of
this kind may be more or less readily effected. Thus, whilst from a
piece of sulphur, copper, or iron, if pure, nothing but sulphur, copper
or iron respectively, can be extracted, a piece of copper pyrites will
yield all three of these substances — each, as before, resisting further
subdivision. Hence sulphur, copper, and iron are regarded as simple
substances, whilst copper pyrites is a compound body. These so-called
"simple" substances, it must be understood, may not be, and probably
are not, absolutely simple; but they are simple, id est, undecomposable,
in the present state of science. They are often known as Elements.
Up to the present time between sixty and seventy have been
recognized, but many occur only in a few rare minerals. Some —
oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, fluorine, hydrogen — exist in the free
state as gases ; two at ordinary temperatures are liquid ; the rest

* The other dark -coloured cleavable masses, in these rocks, consist mostly of mica, ho n-
blende, or tourmaline.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 19

are solid. Some few occur naturally, at times, in the free or simple
state. These form the so-called "native substances" (as Native
Sulphur, Native Platinum, Native Gold, &c.,) of Mineralogists.
Others occur only in combination. Some have a remarkable
tendency to attack and combine with other bodies. Oxygen,
chlorine, fluorine, sulphur and arsenic, in reference to natural
compounds, may be especially cited in this respect. The binary
compounds formed by these elements may be more or less passive
bodies or bases, or active bodies or acids, although in some cases a
strict line of demarcation cannot be drawn between the two. The
bases have their generic name always terminated by the monosyllable
" ide." Thus oxygen, in forming a compound of this kind, produces
an oxide j chlorine, a chloride ; fluorine, a fluoride ; sulphur, a sul-
phide ; and arsenic, an arsenide. Sulphur and arsenic compounds of
this sort were formerly known as "sulphurets" and " arseniurets,"
but these terms have now passed out of use. When more than one
compound of the above kind occurs, a distinctive prefix is added to
the term. Thus red oxide of copper is often known as the " sub-
oxide," whilst the black oxide of copper is known as " oxide " simply.
The red oxide contains two parts (combining weights,) of copper
to one of oxygen ; the black oxide, equal parts (combining weights,)
of each element. In like manner the oxide or protoxide of iron con-
sists of equal combining weights of iron and oxygen, whilst the
the sesquioxide or peroxide has one-and-a-half parts of oxygen to
one of iron — or, as more commonly given, three combining weights
of the former to two of the latter element. [By some authors these
compounds are known, respectively, as cuprous and cupric oxide,
ferrous and ferric oxide — the termination " ic " denoting the presence
of the larger amount of oxygen.] Active or " mineralizing " com-
pounds into which the above and other elements enter, are still com-
monly known as " acids," although many of these, it must be remem-
bered, are insoluble compounds, and hence have no acid properties in
the common acceptation of the term. By many modern chemists
they are designated as " anhydrides." For present purposes we need
only refer to oxygen compounds of this class. In these, the combi-
ning weights of oxygen are always greater than in bases or oxides
proper. Some elements form, with oxygen, several acids. Where
two exist, the one with least oxygen has its generic name terminat-

20 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

ing in the monosyllable " ous " — as sulphurous acid, arsenious acid,
tfec. ; whilst the monosyllable " ic " terminates the generic name of
the more highly oxidized compound, as sulphuric acid, arsenic acid,
&c. As regards minerals or natural inorganic substances, "ous"
acids are all but unknown. The more common acids of the Mineral
Kingdom — some of which occur both in the free state and in com-
bination with bases, others in the latter condition only — comprise
Silicic acid, (conventionally known as Silica), Carbonic acid, Sul-
phuric acid, Phosphoric acid, Arsenic acid, <fec. These acids have a
great tendency to combine with bases. The generic name of the
compounds which thus result, terminates in either the syllable ite or
ate. Ous acids give ite compounds with bases, and ic acids give ate
compounds. Except in a few rare instances the latter only are met
with among natural bodies. Silicic acid, in combining with a base
or with several bases, produces a silicate ; carbonic acid, in like man-
ner, produces a carbonate ; sulphuric acid, a sulphate ; arsenic acid,
an arseniate, and so forth. Many of these compounds yield water
when ignited : they are then known as hydrous or hydratec1 silicates,
sulphates, &c.

In these oxidized compounds, it will be observed, three elements
are present. Thus, the mineral cyanite <a silicate,) contains alumi-
nium, silicon and oxygen ; and carbonate of iron contains iron, car-
bon and oxygen. If these minerals be chemically decomposed, they
separate into an oxidized base on the one hand, and into an oxidized
acid on the other. In other words, the silicate cyanite yields alumina,
or oxide of aluminium, and anhydrous silicic acid ; whilst from car-
bonate of iron, oxide of iron and carbonic acid are obtained. Calcite
or calcareous spar, in like manner, may be formed from, and decom-
posed into, lime or oxide of calcium and carbonic acid. If the
mineral be exposed to a red heat, carbonic acid is expelled in the form
of an invisible gas, and lime remains behind ; and if this lime be ex-
posed to the atmosphere it will gradually absorb carbonic acid from
the latter, and the original compound will again result.

Action of Acids. — As a general rule, the use of acids may be dis-
pensed with in the ordinary determination of minerals, or resorted to
only as a confirmatory test, when the name of the substance has been
ascertained by other means. A drop of acid serves, however, very con-
veniently, to distinguish carbonates from most other bodies, by the

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 21

effervescence which is produced by the liberation of carbonic acid from
these salts. The test acids chiefly used, are nitric acid and hydrochlo-
ric acid. These must be kept in well-stoppered glass bottles provided
with glass caps, as their fumes soon destroy cork, and are otherwise
highly corrosive and deleterious. For geological purposes (testing
calcareous rocks, &c.) strong hydrochloric acid diluted with about an
equal volume of pure water, is principally used. The small bottle in
which this is kept, may have a long stopper extending into the acid ;
and a little nest or wicker-work pocket may be provided for its recep-
tion near the upper edge of the specimen basket. In examining a
mineral with an acid, the substance should be reduced, in ordinary
cases, to a fine powder, and covered in a test-tube or small porcelain
capsule with a few drops of the acid, the latter being subsequently
warmed or brought to the boiling point over the flame of a small
spirit lamp. The following are some of the principal effects pro-
duced by this treatment :

(a.) Simple solution : — Example, gypsum, &c.

(b.) Solution with effervescence and simultaneous evolution of a colorless
inodorous gas : — Ex. carbonates generally. Some of these, as calc spar, mala-
chite, &c., dissolve with effervescence in cold and more or less dilute acid ;
but others, as dolomite or bitter spar, and carbonate of iron, only effervesce,
as a rule, in heated acid. Either acid may be used, except in the case of car-
bonate of baryta or strontia ; as with these minerals, strong hydrochloric acid
forms an insoluble coating of chloride of barium or strontium, by which the
further action of the acid is entirely prevented. If the acid be used in a
diluted state, however, this effect is prevented, chlorides of barium and
strontium being readily soluble in water.

(c.) Partial solution, with separation of a gelatinous residuum : — Ex. various
silicates : these are said to " gelatinize in acids." Boiling hydrochloric acid is
generally required to produce the effect. The gelatinous matter consists of
silicic acid or silica. Some silicates (Vesuvian, Epidote, &c.), which do not
gelatinize under ordinary conditions, exhibit the effect after fusion or strong
ignition.

(d.) Partial solution, with separation of granular silica, ex. harmotome,
labradorite, &c. Boiling hydrochloric acid must be used, and the mineral
should be finely pulverized.

(e. ) Oxidation and solution, or partial solution, with evolution of sulphuretted
hydrogen, known by its fetid odour. Example— Most Sulphides. The effect
is most readily produced by boiling the mineral in powder with hydrochloric
acid.

(/. ) Oxidation and solution, or partial solution, without odour of sulphuretted
hydrogen. Ex. red copper ore, native copper, native silver, and some other
I

22

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

minerals, when treated with hot nitric acid. The acid gives up part of its
oxygen to the dissolving mineral, and the portion of the acid, thus altered,
escapes in ruddy fumes. Sulphides and other non-oxidized bodies also cause
the evolution of these coloured fumes. Acid cupreous solutions aic green o
greenish-blue in colour. A piece of polished steel or iron immersed in
diluted solution of this kind, becomes coated with metallic copper.

(g. ) Solution, or partial solution, and production, with hydrochloric acid, of
chlorine fumes. Ex. pyrolusite or black manganese ore, &c. The chlorine is,
of course, derived from the decomposition of the acid. Care must be taken
not to inhale its fumes.

(h.) Solution, or partial solution, with production of fluohydric acid in
corrosive fumes. Example — Fluor spar, in powder, with hot sulphuric acid.
The evolved fumes corrode glass. The experiment should be performed in a
platinum or lead vessel. If a piece of glass coated on its under side with a
thin layer of wax through which a pattern has been traced, be laid over the
vessel for a few minutes, and then removed and washed in warm water, the
lines of the pattern will be found more or less deeply etched on the surface of
the glass. Great care must be taken to prevent the fumes from being inhaled.

(i.) The substance may remain undissolved and unattacked. Example —
Quartz, orthoclase, zircon, &c.

Application ^of the Blowpipe : — The blowpipe in its simplest form
is merely a narrow tube of brass or other metal, bent round at one
extremity, and terminating, at that end, in a point with a very fine
orifice (fig. 26). If we place the pointed end of this instrument just

within the flame (and a little above
the wick) of a lamp or common candle,
and then blow gently down the tube,
the flame will be deflected to one
side in the form of a long narrow
cone, and its heating power will be
wonderfully increased. Many min-
erals, when held in the form of a
thin splinter at the point of a flame
thus acted upon, melt with the
FlG- 26. greatest ease; and some are either

wholly or partially volatilized. Other minerals, on the contrary,
remain unaltered. Two or more substances, therefore, of similar
appearance, may often be separated and distinguished in a moment,
by the aid of the blowpipe.

The blowpipe (in its scientific use) has, strictly, a three-fold appli-
cation. It may be employed, as just pointed out, to distinguish

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 23

minerals from one another : some of these being fusible, whilst others
are infusible ; some attracting the magnet after exposure to the blow-
pipe, whilst others do not exhibit that reaction ; some imparting a
colour to the flame, others volatilizing, and so forth. Secondly, the
blowpipe may be employed to ascertain the general composition of a
mineral ; or the presence or absence of some particular substance, as
copper, lead, iron, cobalt, manganese, sulphur, arsenic, and the like.
Thirdly, it may be used to determine in certain special cases, the
actual amount of a metallic or other ingredient previously ascertained
to be present in the substance under examination.

In using the blowpipe, the mouth is filled with air, and this is
forced gently but continuously down the tube by the compression of
the muscles of the cheeks and lips, breathing being carried on sim-
ultaneously by the nostrils. By a little practice this operation be-
comes exceedingly easy, especially in ordinary experiments, in which
the blast is rarely required to be kept up for more than fifteen or
twenty seconds at a time. The beginner will find it advisable to
restrict himself at first to the production of a steady continuous
flame, without seeking to direct this on any object. Holding the
blowpipe in his right hand, (with thumb and two outside fingers
below, and the index and middle finger above the tube,) near the
lower extremity, he should let the inner part of his arm, between the
wrist and the elbow, rest against the edge of the table at which he
operates. The jet or point of the blow-pipe is turned to the left, and
inserted either into or against the edge of the flame, according to the
nature of the operation, as explained below. After a few trials, when
sufficient skill to keep up a steady flame has been acquired, the point
of the flame may be directed upon a small splinter of some easily
fusible material, such as natrolite or lepidolite, held in a pair of for-
ceps with platinum tips.* Some little difficulty will probably be
experienced at first in keeping the test-fragment exactly at the flame's
point ; but this, arising partly from irregular blowing and partly from
the beginner being constrained to look at the jet of the blow-pipe
and the object simultaneously, is easily overcome by half-an- hour's
practice. A small cutting of metallic lead or particle of grey anti-
mony ore supported on a piece of well burnt soft-wood charcoal can

* If forcep^ of this kind caunot be procured, a pair of steel forceps with fine points, such as
watchmakers use, may serve as a substitute. It will be advisable to twist some silk thread or
fine twine round the lower part of these in order to protect the fingers. The points must be
kept clean by a file.

24

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

be examined in a similiar manner. In these experiments the begin-
ner must be careful not to operate on fragments of too large a bulk-
The smaller and more pointed the subject submitted to the flame, the
easier and and more certain will be the experiment.

In out-of-the-way places the common form of blowpipe described
above is frequently the only kind that can be obtained. It answers
well enough for ordinary experiments, but the moisture which col-
lects in it by condensation from the vapour of the breath is apt to be
blown into the flame. This inconvenience is remedied by the form
of construction shown in the annexed figures, in which the instru-
ment consists of two principal portions, a main stem closed at one
end, and a short tube fitting into this at right angles near the closed

extremity. The short tube is
also commonly provided with a
separate jet or nozzle of platinum.
In this case, the jet can cleaned
by simple ignition before the
blow-pipe flame, or over the
flame of the spirit lamp. In the
variety of blow-pipe known as
"Black's Blowpipe," FIG. 27, the
main tube is usually constructed
of japanned tin-plate, and the in-
strument is thus sold at a cheap rate. Mitscherlich's Blowpipe, FIG.
29, consists of three seperate pieces which fit together, when not in
use, as shewn in FIG. 28. This renders it as portable as an ordinary
pencil-case. FIG. 30 represents Gahn's or Berzelius's Blowpipe, with
a trumpet shaped mouth-piece of horn or ivory as devised by Platt-
ner. This mouth-piece is placed, of course, on the outside of the lips.
It is preferable to the ordinary mouth-piece, but is not readily used
by the beginner. In length, the blowpipe varies from about seven-
and-a-half to nine inches, according to the eye-sight of the operator.

In addition to the blowpipe itself, and the forceps described above,
a few other instruments and appliances are required in blowpipe
operations.* The principal of these comprise : a few pieces of plati-

*It will of course be understood, that merely a slight sketch of the application of the blow-
pipe is given in these pages. Hence only the more necessary operations, instruments, &c.
are alluded to. For fuller information, the author's BLOWPIPE PRACTICE (Copp and Co,
Toronto) may be consulted.

FIG. 27. FIG. 28. FIG. 29. FIG. 30.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I. 25

num wire, three or four inches in length, of about the thickness of
thin twine, to serve as a support in fusions with borax, &c. (see
below) ; two or three small glass flasks, or, in default, a narrow test
tube or two, used chiefly for the detection of water in minerals (see
below) ; a few pieces of narrow glass tubing, in lengths of four or five
inches, open at both ends ; a small hammer and anvil, or piece of
hard steel, half-an-inch thick, polished on one of its faces ; a bar or
horse-shoe magnet; a pen-knife or small steel spatula; a small agate
pestle and mortar; spirit-lamp, &c.; and a few wooden boxes or small
stoppered bottles to hold the blowpipe reagents. These latter are
employed for the greater part in the solid state, a condition which
adds much to their portability, and renders a small quantity sufficient
for a great number of experiments. The principal comprise : Carbon-
ate of soda (abbreviated into carb. soda, in the following pages), used
largely for the reduction of metallic oxides, and in testing for sulphur
and sulphuric acid, manganese, &c., as explained below; Biborate of
soda, or Borax, used principally for fusions on the platinum wire,
many substances communicating peculiar colours to the glass thus
formed ; and Phosphate of soda and ammonia, commonly known as
microcosmic salt or phosphor, salt, used for the same purpose as borax,
and also for the detection of silicates and chlorides, as explained
further on. Re-agents of less common use comprise : nitrate of
cobalt (in solution) ; bisulphate of potash ; black oxide of copper ;
chloride of barium ; metallic tin ; and a few other substances of
special employment.

The effects produced by the blowpipe cannot be properly under-
stood without a preliminary knowledge of the general composition
and structural parts of Flame. If the flame of a lamp or
candle, standing in a place free from draughts, be carefully
examined, it will be seen to consist of four more or less
distinct parts, as shown in in the annexed diagram, FIG.
31. A dark cone, a, will be seen in the centre of the flame.
This consists of gases, compounds of carbon and hydrogen,
which issue from the wick, but which cannot burn as they
are cut off from contact with the atmosphere. A bright
luminous cone b, surrounds this dark central portion,
except at its extreme base. In this bright cone the car-
bon, or a portion of it, separates from the hydrogen of

26

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

the gaseous compounds pumped up by the wick. The carbon
comes ignited in the form of minute particles, and these, with the
liberated hydrogen and undecomposed gas, are driven partly out-
wards, and partly downwards, or into the blue cup-shaped portion c,
which lies at the base of the flame. At the latter spot, the carbon,
meeting with a certain supply of oxygen, is converted into carbonic
oxide, a compound of equal combining weights of carbon and oxygen.
Finally, in the flame-border or outer envelope, d, of a pale pinkish
colour, only discernible on close inspection, complete combustion, i. e.y
union with oxygen, of both gases, carbon and hydrogen, takes place.
The carbon burns into carbonic acid, a compound of two combining
weights of oxygen with one of carbon (hence, now commonly
known as carbon dioxide) ; and the hydrogen, uniting with oxygen,
forms aqueous vapour. If a cold and polished body, for example, be
brought in contact with the edge of a flame of any kind, its surface
will exhibit a streak or line of moisture.

Now these different parts of flame, possess, to some extent, different
properties. The dark inner cone is entirely neutral or inert. Bodies
placed in it, become covered with soot or unburnt carbon. The
luminous or yellow cone possesses reducing powers. Its component
gases, requiring oxygen for their combustion, are ready to take this
from oxidized bodies placed in contact with them. The luminous
cone, however, in its normal state, has not a sufficiently high
temperature to decompose oxidized bodies, except in a few special
cases ; but its temperature, and consequently its decomposing or de-
oxidizing power, becomes much increased by the action of the blow-
pipe, as shown below. The blue portion of flame possesses also re-
ducing powers, but of comparatively feeble intensity, as the carbon
is there able to obtain from the atmosphere a partial supply of
oxygen. Finally, in the outer or feebly luminous envelope, in
which complete combustion takes place, the flame attains its highest
temperature ; and, having all the oxygen it requires from the sur-
rounding atmosphere, it exerts an oxidizing influence on bodies
placed in contact with it, since most bodies absorb oxygen when
ignited in the free air.

In subjecting a body to the action of the blowpipe, we seek, (1)
either to raise its temperature to as high a degree as possible, so as
to test the relative fusibility of the substance ; or (2) to oxidize it, or

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART

FIG. 32.

cause it, if an oxide, to combine with a larger amount of oxygen ; or
(3) to reduce it, either to the metallic state, or to a lower degree of
oxidation. The first and second of these effects may be produced
by the same kind of flame, known as an oxidating flame (or O. F),
the position of the substance being slightly different : whilst the third
effect is obtained by a so-called reducing flame (or R. F. ), in which
the yellow portion is developed as much as possible, and the substance
kept within it, so as to be off from contact with the atmosphere.

An oxidating arid fusion flame is
thus produced. The point of the
blowpipe is inserted well into the
flame of the lamp or candle under
use, so as almost to touch the sur-
face of the wick. The deflected
flame is thus well supplied with
oxygen, and its reducing or yellow portion becomes obliterated. It
forms a long narrow blue cone, surrounded by its feebly luminous
mantle. The body to be oxidized should be held a short distance
beyond the point of the cone, as in FIG. 32 ; but to test its fusion,
it must be held in contact with this, or even a little within the
flame. In thia position many substances, as those which contain
lithia, stronia, baryta, copper, &c., impart a crimson, green, or other
colour to outer or feebly luminous cone

For the production of a reducing flame
the orifice of the blowpipe must not be too
large. The point is held just on the out-
side of the flame, a little above the level
of the wick, as shown in FIG. 33. The
flame in its deflected state, then retains
the whole or a large portion of its yellow
cone. The substance under treatment must be held within this
(although towards its pointed extremity) so as to be entirely excluded
from the atmosphere ; whilst at the same time, the temperature is
raised sufficiently high to promote reduction. As a general rule,
bodies subjected to a reducing treatment should be supported on
charcoal.

For ordinary experiments, such as testing the relative fusibility,
&c., of minerals, the blowpipe may be used with the flame of a com-

28

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

mon candle. The wick of the candle should be kept rather short
(but not so as to weaken the flame), and it should be turned slightly
to the left, or away from the point of the blowpipe, the stream of
air being blown along its surface. A lamp flame, or that of coal
gas, gives a higher temperature, and is in many respects preferable.
The wick-holder (or jet, if gas be used) should be of a rectangular
form, with its upper surface sloping towards the left at a slight angle.
Either good oil, or, better, a mixture of about 1 part of spirit of
turpentine, or benzine, with 7 or 8 parts of strong alcohol, may be
used with the lamp. If the latter mixture is used, equal volumes
of the two ingredients must be first well shaken up together, and
then the rest of the alcohol added. If the wick crust rapidly, the
turpentine will be in excess, in which case another volume of alcohol
may be added to the mixture. For stationary use, a Bunsen burner
provided with an additional tube to slip into the main tube, and so
cut off the supply of air, is still more convenient. The projecting
top of this additional tube should have the sloping form of the rec-
tangular wick-holder described above.

The following are some of the more general operations required in
the examination of minerals by the blowpipe. A few others of
special employment are referred to under the Reactions given on a
subsequent page.

(1) The Fusion Trial: — In order to ascertain the relative fusi-
bility of a substance, we chip off a small particle, by the hammer or
cutting pliers, and expose it, either in the platinum-tipped forceps or
on charcoal, to the point of the blue flame (Fig. 26, above). If the
substance be easily reduced to metal, or if it contain arsenic, it must
be supported on charcoal (in a small cavity made by the knife-point
for its reception), as substances of this kind attack platinum.* In
other cases, a thin and sharply pointed splinter may be taken up by
the forceps, and exposed for about half-a-minute to the action of the
flame. It ought not to exceed, in any case, the size of a small carra-
way seed — and if smaller than this, so much the better. If fusible,
its point or edge (or on charcoal, the entire mass) will become
rounded into a bead or globule in the course of ten or twenty seconds.

* In order to prevent any risk of injury to the platinum forceps, it is advisable to use char-
coal as a support for all bodies of a metallic aspect, as well as for those which exhibit a dis-
tinctly coloured streak or high specific gravity.

N'TRAL CANADA PART I.

Difficultly fusible substances become vitrified only on the surface, or
rounded on the extreme edges ; whilst infusible bodies, though often
changing colour, or exhibiting other reactions, preserve the sharpness
of their point and edges intact.

The more characteristic phenomena exhibited by mineral bodies
when exposed to this treatment, are enumerated in the following
table : —

(a) The test-fragment may " decrepitate " or fly to pieces. Example : most
specimens of galena, heavy spar, &c. In this case a larger fragment must be
heated in a test-tube over a small spirit lamp, and after decrepitation has
taken place, one of the resulting fragments can be exposed to the blowpipe
flame as directed above. Decrepitation may sometimes be prevented if the
operator expose the test-fragment cautiously and gradually to the full action
of the flame.

(b) The test-fragment may change colour (with or without fusing) and
become attractable by the magnet. Example, carbonate of iron. This becomes
first red, then black, and attracts the magnet, but does not fuse. Iron pyrites,
on the other hand, becomes black and magnetic, but fuses also.

( c) The test-fragment may colour the flame. Thus, most copper compounds
impart a rich green colour to the flame ; compounds containing baryta and
many phosphates and borates, with the mineral molybdenite, colour the flame
pale green ; sulphur, selenium, lead and chloride of copper colour the flame
blue of different degrees of intensity ; compounds containing strontia and
lithia impart a crimson colour to the flame ; some lime compounds impart to it
a pale red colour ; soda compounds, a deep yellow colour ; and potash com-
pounds, a violet tint.

(d) The test-fragment may become caustic. Example, carbonate of lime.
The carbonic acid is burned off, and caustic lime remains. This restores the
blue colour of reddened litmus paper. It also imparts, if moistened, a burning
sensation to the back of the hand.

(e) The test-fragment may take fire and burn. Example, native sulphur ;
common bituminous coal, &c.

(f) The test-fragment may be volatilized or dissipated in fumes, either
wholly or partially, and with or without an accompanying odor. Thus, grey
antimony ore volatilizes with dense white fumes ; arsenical pyrites volatilizes
in part, with a strong odor of garlic ; common iron pyrites yields an odor of
brimstone, and so forth. In many cases the volatilized matter becomes in
great part deposited in an oxidized condition on the charcoal. Antimonial
minerals form a white deposit or incrustation of this kind. Zinc compounds,
a deposit which is lemon-yellow whilst hot, and white when cold. Lead and
bismuth are indicated by sulphur-yellow or orange-yellow deposits. Cadmium
by a reddish-brown incrustation.

30

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

(y) The test-fragment may fuse, either wholly or only at the point and
edges ; and the fusion may take place quietly, or with bubbling, and with or
without a previous "intumescence "or expansion of the fragment into a cauli-
flower-like mass. Most of the so-called Zeolites, for example, (minerals abun-
dant in Trap rocks) swell or curl up on exposure to the blowpipe, and then
fuse quietly ; but some, as Prehnite, melt with more or less bubbling.

(h) The test-fragment may remain unchanged. Example, Quartz and various
other infusible minerals.

(2) Treatment iu the Flask or Bulb-tube (The Water Test) :-
Minerals are frequently subjected to a kind of distillatory process by
ignition in small glass tubes closed at one end. These tubes are of
two general kinds. One kind has the form of a small flask, and is
commonly known as a " bulb-tube." Where it cannot be procured, a
small-sized test-tube may supply its place. It is used principally in
testing minerals for water. The other kinds consist simply of narrow
pieces of glass tubing, closed and sometimes drawn out to a point at
one extremity. They are chiefly employed in testing for mercury and
arsenic (see below). Our present description refers solely to the use
of the bulb-tube. Many minerals contain a considerable amount of
water, or the elements of water, in some unknown physical condition.
Gypsum, for example, yields nearly 21 per cent, of water. As the
presence of this substance is very easily ascertained, the water test is
frequently resorted to, in practice, for the formation of determinative
groups, or separation of hydrous from anhydrous minerals. The
operation is thus performed. The glass is first warmed gently over
the flame of a small spirit-lamp to ensure the absence of moisture, and
is then set aside for a few moments to cool. This effected, a piece of

the substance under examination, of about
the size of a small pea, is placed in it and
ignited over the spirit-lamp, as shown in
the annexed figure. If water be present
in the mineral, a thin film, condensing
rapidly into little drops, will be deposited
on the neck or upper part of the tube.
As soon as the moisture begins to show
itself, the tube must be held in a more
horizontal position, otherwise a fracture
mav be occasioned by the water flowing
FlG 34< down and coming in contact with the hot

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I. 31

part of the glass. A small spirit-lamp may be made by passing a piece
of glass tubing of about an inch in length, to serve as a wick-holder,
through an orifice in the cork of a short, flat bottle. When the lamp
is not is use the wick should be covered with a glass or other cap to
prevent the evaporation of the spirit. A mineral may also be exam-
ined for water, though less conveniently, by igniting it before the

blowpipe-flame in a piece
of open tubing, as shown
in FIG. 35. To prevent
the tube softening or
melting, a strip of plati-
num foil may be folded
round it where the test-
fragment rests. The latter is pushed into its place by a thin iron
wire. The moisture condenses on each side of the test-matter.

(3) Treatment with Nitrate of Cobalt : — This operation serves, in
certain cases, for the detection of alumina, magnesia, oxide of zinc, and
some few other substances; but it is not applicable to deeply coloured
or easily fusible bodies, nor to such as possess a metallic lustre or
coloured streak. A fragment of the substance, under treatment, is
reduced by the hammer and anvil, and afterwards by the use of the
agate mortar, to a fine powder. This is moistened with a drop of the
cobalt solution (nitrate of cobalt dissolved in water), and the result-
ing paste is strongly ignited on charcoal by being held about an inch
before the point of the flame, fusion being carefully avoided. Thus
treated, alumina assumes on cooling a fine blue colour; magnesia (and
the comparatively rare tantalic acid), a flesh -red tint; baryta, a dull
brownish-red colour ; oxide of zinc, bin-oxide of tin, antimony oxides,
a green colour. With other substances, a grey, blueish-grey,
brownish-black, or other indefinite coloration is produced, unless
fusion take place, in which case a glass may be obtained, coloured
blue by the dissolved oxide of cobalt.

(4) Roasting : — Tne principal object of this operation is the elimi-
nation of sulphur, arsenic, and certain other volatile bodies, from the
mineral under examination, as these prevent the reduction of many
substances to the metallic state, and also mask, to some extent, their
other characteristic reactions. By roasting, the substance is not only
deprived of sulphur, &c., but is also converted into an oxidized con-

32 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

dition. The operation is most readily performed as follows. A small
fragment of the mineral is reduced to powder. Some of this is made
into a paste by moistening with a drop of water, and is spread over
the surface of a piece of charcoal, or broken fragment of a porcelain
evaporating-dish or thin crucible. It is then ignited before the point
of an oxidating flame (Fig. 32), the heat being kept low, at first, to
prevent fusion. It is sometimes necessary to remove the ignited
paste to the mortar, and to break it up again with a fine steel spatula
(the end of a flattened wire, or knife-point), and renew the opera-
tion. When the roasting is terminated, the powder will present a
dull earthy aspect, and cease to omit fumes or odour. It is then
ready for operations 5 and 6, described below. By reducing the
substance to powder before roasting, the risk of decrepitation and
fusion is prevented, and the process itself is more efficiently performed.

Roasting is sometimes effected in a piece of open glass tubing as
in Fig. 35 — only the test object is placed near one end of the tube,
and the tube itself is held in a more inclined position. Sulphur
eliminated from bodies by this treatment, is converted into sulphur-
ous acid (a compound of sulphur and oxygen, the latter taken up
from the atmosphere) ; and arsenic forms arsenious acid, which de-
posits itself in the shape of numerous microscopic octahedrons on the
cool sides of the glass near the upper part of the tube. Sulphurous
acid in escaping from the open end of the tube is easily recognized
by its odour (identical with that emitted by an ignited match), as
well as by its property of changing the blue colour of a slip of
moistened limus paper to red. Antimonial compounds form a dense
white uncrystalline sublimate.

(5.) Formation of glasses on platinum wire or charcoal : — This
operation is one of constant utility in the determination of the con-
stituents of minerals. The glasses, in question, are formed by the
fusion of small portions of borax, phosphor salt, or carbonate of soda :
the latter reagent, however, being only occasionally used. Most sub-
stances, dissolve in one or the other of these glasses before the blow-
pipe, and many communicate to them peculiar colours by which the
nature of the test-matter is made known. If the matter to be tested
contain sulphur or arsenic, it should be roasted before being subjected
to the action of these fluxes. Metals and metallic alloys, as well as
metallic oxides, chlorides, &c , of very easy reduction, must be exami-

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 33

ned on charcoal, but in other cases it is more convenient to employ a
piece of platinum wire as a support. One end of the wire may be
inserted into a cork or special handle, or, if the wire be from 2| to
3 inches in length, it may be held in the naked fingers, as platinum
conducts heat very slowly. The other end is bent into a small loop
or ear. This, when borax or phosphor-salt is used, is ignited by the
blow-pipe flame, and plunged into the flux, the adhering portion of
the latter being then fused into a glass. If a sufficient portion to
fill the loop be not taken up at first, the process must be repeated.
With beginners, the fused glass is often brownish or discoloured by
smoke, but it may be rendered clear and transparent by being kept
in ignition for a few moments before the extreme point of the flame,
the carbonaceous matter becoming oxidized and expelled by this treat-
ment. When carbonate of soda is used, a small portion of the flux
must be moistened and kneaded in the palm of the left hand, by a
knife-point or a small spatula, into a slightly cohering paste, which
is placed on the loop of the wire, and fused into a bead. Whilst
hot, the bead is transparent, but it becomes opaque on cooling. The
portion of test-matter added to a glass or bead, formed by these rea-
gents, must be exceedingly small, otherwise the glass may become so
deeply coloured as to appear quite black. In this case, the colour
may be observed by pinching the bead flat between a pair of forceps,
before it has time to cool. It is always advisable, however, in the
first instance, to take up merely a minute particle or two of the test-
substance, and then to add more if no characteristic action be obtained.
The glass, in all cases, must be examined first before an oxidating
flame, and its colour observed both whilst the flux is hot, and when
it has become cold ; and, secondly, it must be kept for a somewhat
longer interval in a good reducing flame (Fig. 33), and its appearance
noted as before.* With certain substances (lime, magnesia, &c.) the
borax and phosphor-salt glasses become milky and opaque when satu-
rated, or when subjected to the intermittent action of the flame the

latter being urged upon them in short puffs, or the glass being moved
slowly in and out of the flame — a process technically known as
flaming.

* The colour of the glass ought not of course, to be examined by the transmitted light of the
lamp or candle flame. Strictly, it should be observed by daylfght.
4

34

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

The colours, &c., communicated to these glasses by the more com-
monly occurring constituent bodies, are shown in the annexed tabular

view.

Colour of Bead after exposure
to an Oxidating Flame.

BORAX.

Compounds of

Colour of Bead after exposure to
a Reducing Flame.

Violet or Amethystine Manganese.... j ^^dff S cS.

Nickel Grey and opaque

Blue (very intense) Cobalt , Blue (very deep).

More or less colorless or in-
Green (whilst hot p distinctly colored whilst

Blue or greenish-blue (cold) . . " hot ; brownish-red and

opaque on cooling.

Green or blueish -green Cobalt -r Iron. . . .Green or blueish-green.

n / j i \ \ Copper + Nickel ) Brownish-red, opaque on

' j Copper + Iron.. { cooling.

Emerald-green.

Yellow (whilst hot) ) v ,. J Brownish (whilst hot)

Greenish-yellow (cold) j v ' j Emerald-green (when cold).

Yellowish or reddish Iron Bottle-green.

Yellowish
Enamelled
Yellow (whilst hot) . .

Pale yellowish (cold) Cerium Colorless or yellowish

Hnamelled by flaming ) I Opaque-white, if saturated.

Yellow or yellowish-brown

Enamelled by flaming. . v flaming- POW'

V. under phosphor-salt be

Yellow or yellowish-brown
Enamelled by flaming.
V. under phospher sal'

Yellow (hot). . Brown orgrey,semi-opaque

Colorless or yellowish (cold) . . [ Molybdenum . . ?*ten Wlth sePara*ion of
Greyish and opaque by flaming \

fGrey and opaque on cool-
L -j ing but after continued

Yrellow or yellowish-red (hot) «. ' jjl ' ' subjection to the flame,

Yellowish or colorless, and g., " •{ 'the glass becomes clear :

often opaline, when cold . . . ,•''"' I the reduced metallic par-

°n^ I tides either collecting to-
gether or volatilizing.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART I.

35

Colorless (permanently clear)
Slowly dissolved '

Colorless. When saturated, ,
opaque-white on cooling or -j
by flaming

L Aluminium . . .

'Colorless : permanently
clear. (Tin compounds
dissolve in small quantity
only. On charcoal, they
become reduced to metal,
especially if a little carb.
soda be added to the
L glass. )

Colorless. When satu-
rated, opaque-white on
cooling or by flaming.

See Reactions, below.

Silicon . . -

Tin

r Tantalum •>
Zirconium

G-lucinum

Yttrium, &c . . . .
Thorium

Magnesium
Calcium
Strontium
Barium
Lithium .

•

Natrium

y. Kalium . . . 1

PHOSPHOR-SALT.

The glasses produced by the fusion of constituent bodies with this reagent
are for the greater part identical with those obtained by the use of borax,
although somewhat less deeply coloured as a general rule. The principal ex-
ceptions are the glasses formed in a reducing flame with compounds of Molyb-
denum, Tungstenum, and Titanium, respectively. The molybdenum glass
presents, when cold, a fine green colour, and the tungstenum glass becomes
greenish-blue. If the latter contain iron, the colour of the glass is changed to
blood-red or brownish red. Titanium in the presence of iron gives a similar
reaction ; but when free from iron, the glass is yellow whilst hot, and violet-
coloured when cold. Phosphor salt is an important reagent for the detection
of silica in silicates, as the silica remains for the greater part undissolved in
the glass, in the form of a translucent flocculent mass technically known as a
"silica skeleton," the associated constituents being gradually taken up by the
flux. A small amount of silica is also generally dissolved, but this is precipi-
tated as the bead cools, rendering it semi-transparent or opaline. Phosphor-
salt is likewise employed for the detection of chlorine, &c. (See Experiment
3, page 43.

CARBONATE OF SODA.

This reagent is principally used to promote the reduction of oxidized and
other bodies to the metallic state, as explained under the description of that
process. (Operation 6, below. ) It is also of frequent employment as a test for
sulphur in sulphides and oxidized bodies. (See under Reactions.) It is rarely
used, on the other hand, for the formation of glasses on platinum wire, except
as a test for the presence of manganese ; although when employed, in this man-
ner, it serves to distinguish salts of the alkalies, and those of strontia and
baryta from all other salts : the alkalies, with baryta and strontia, dissolv-
ing completely and rapidly in the bead, whereas lime, magnesia, alumina, and

36

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

other bases, remain unattacked. Manganese compounds form by oxidizing
fusion with this reagent a green glass, which becomes blue or bluish-green
and opaque on cooling. A very minute amount of manganese may be thus
detected. The delicacy of the test is increased by the addition of a small
quantity of nitre, as this promotes oxidation ; and if the 'substance contain
much lime, magnesia, iron oxides, or other bodies more or less insoluble in
carb. soda, it is advisable to add a little borax to the test-mixture. The blue
or bluish-green bead thus produced, is technically known as a "turquoise
enamel." Chromium compounds produce a somewhat similar reaction ; but if
the bead be saturated with silica or boracic acid, it will remain green in the
latter case. If the green colour result from the presence of manganese, on the
other hand, a violet or amethystine glass will be obtained. Some other appli-
cations of carbonate of soda as a blowpipe re-agent will be found under the
head of REACTIONS.

6. Reduction : — This term denotes the process by which an oxidized
or other compound is converted into the metallic state. Some 'com-
pounds become reduced by simple ignition ; others require for their
reduction the addition of certain reagents ; and some, again, resist re-
duction altogether. The reduced metal is in some cases so highly
volatile that it connot be obtained except by a kind of distillatory
process. In other cases, one or more fusible globules, or a number
of minute infusible grains, are obtained in blowpipe operations. Re-
ducible metals may be thus distributed into three groups, as shown
(with omission of a few metals of rare occurrence) in the annexed
Table :—

A. Yielding metallic globules : — Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Lead, Bismuth, Anti-

mony.

B. Yielding infusible metallic grains : — Platinum, Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Molyb-

denum, Tungstenum.

C. Yielding metallic vapours only, when treated on charcoal : — Mercury, Arsenic,

Cadmium, Zinc.

A metal of the first group may be obtained, unless present in very
small quantity, by a simple fusion of the previously roasted test-sub-
stance, with some carbonate of soda, on charcoal, in a good reducing
flame (Fig. 33 above). In ordinary cases, metallic globules are rapidly
produced by this treatment. By a little management the globules
may be brought together so as to form a single large globule. This
must be tested on the anvil as regards its relative malleability, &c.
Gold, silver, copper, tin and lead are malleable ; bismuth and anti-
mony, more or less brittle. Gold and silver (if pure) retain a bright

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 37

surface after subj ection fco an oxidating flame. Copper becomes covered
with a black film, and tin with a white crust. Lead and bismuth
volatilize more or less readily, and deposit on the charcoal a yellow
coating of oxide. Antimony is rapidly volatilized with deposition of
a dense white incrustation, on the charcoal. It is not, of course always
necessary to subject the test-substance to a previous roasting (Opera-
tion 4, above) but it is always safer to do so. Sulphur in most, and
arsenic in all cases, must be driven off by this preliminary treatment
before the actual process of reduction is attempted.

When the metal to be reduced belongs to the second group, or if
the amount of fusible metal in the test-substance do not exceed 4 or
5 per cent., the operation is performed as follows. A small portion
of the substance in powder — subjected previously to the roasting pro-
cess, if it contain sulphur or arsenic— is mixed with 3 or 4 volumes
of carbonate of soda (or neutral oxalate of potash, or a mixture of
about equal parts of carb-soda and cyanide of potassium — the latter,
it must be remembered, a highly poisonous substance), and the mix-
ture is exposed on charcoal to a good reducing flame, until all the
alkaline salt has become absorbed. Some more of the flux is then
added and the operation is repeated until the whole or the greater
part of the test-matter is also absorbed. The charcoal at this spot is
finally separated by a sharp knife-point and carefully ground to powder
in a small agate mortar or porcelain capsule, whilst a fine stream of
water is protected upon it from time to time, until all the carbonaceous
and other non-metallic particles are gradually washed away. For this
purpose, the mortar or capsule may be placed in the centre of an
ordinary plate ; and if the operator be not provided with a chemical
washing-bottle, he may use a small syringe, or, still more economically,
a simple piece of glass tubing, five or six inches in length and about
the fourth of an inch in diameter, drawn out at one end to a point.
This is filled by suction, and the water expelled, with the necessary
force, by blowing down the tube. The metallic grains or spangles
obtained by this process must be examined by the magnet. Those
of iron, nickel and cobalt are magnetic. Sometimes, however, when
but a trace or very small percentage of reducible metal is contained
in the test-substance, its presence is only indicated by a few metallic
streaks on the sides and bottom of the mortar. Metallic markings
of this kind can be removed by a piece of pumice.

38

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Metallic compounds referable to the third group, yield no metal
charcoal, or by other treatment in open contact with the atmosphere.
The presence of arsenic, however, is easily made known by the garlic -
like odour evolved during fusion with reducing agents (or alone) on
charcoal. Cadmium and zinc may also be recognized by the oxidized
sublimates which they deposit on the charcoal. The Cadmium subli-
mate is reddish-brown ; the zinc snblimate, lemon-yellow and phos-
phorescent whilst hot, and white when cold. Mercury forms no
incrustation on charcoal ; but its presence in any compound may be
determined by reduction with carbonate of soda or iron-fillings in a
glass tube of narrow diameter. A small test-tube or piece of glass
tubing closed at one end before the blow-pipe, may be used for the
experiment. The test-substance, in powder, mixed with 3 or 4 vols.
of perfectly dry carb. soda, is inserted into the tube by means of a
narrow strip of glazed writing-paper bent into the form of a trough,
so as to prevent the sides of the glass from being soiled, and the mix-
ture is strongly ignited by the spirit-lamp or by the blowpipe-flame.
If mercury be present, a grey metallic sublimate will be formed near
the upper part of the tube. By friction with an iron wire, or the
narrow end of a quill-pen, &c., the sublimate may be brought into the
form of fluid globules, which can be poured out of the tube, and are
thus easily recognized as metallic mercury.

7. Cupellation: — Gold and silver are separated by this process
from other metals. The test-metal is fused with several times its
weight of pure lead. The button, thus obtained, is exposed to an
oxidating fusion on a porous support of bone-ash, known as a cupel.
The lead and other so-called base metals become oxidized by this treat-
ment, and are partly volatilized, and partly absorbed by the bone-ash,
a globule of gold or silver (or the two combined) being finally left on
the surface of the cupel. For blowpipe operations, cupels are gen-
erally made by pressing a small quantity of dry boneash into a cir-
cular iron mould, the latter being fixed, when presented to the flame,
in a special support, consisting essentially of a wooden foot and pillar
with three or four short cross-wires (between which the cupel-mould
rests) at the top of the latter. Instruments of this kind cannot be
obtained in remote places, but the process may be performed equally
well by the use of a small iron spoon, of about half-an-inch in dia-
meter. Enough bone-ash to fill this, is taken up in it, and warmed

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 39

over the spirit-lamp or by the blowpipe flame. The spoon is then
placed on the blowpipe anvil, and, whilst the smooth or unused end
of the agate pestle (or other similar object, a glass button cemented
to a cork, for example) is pressed firmly on the surface of the bone-
ash, the handle of the spoon is moved three or four times from side
to side. The surface of the cupel thus formed is then exposed for a
few moments to the point of the flame, so as to render the bone- ash
thoroughly dry ; and if its smooth condition be in any way affected
by this treatment, the pressure with the pestle is repeated. Another
equally good, if not better support consists of a cylindrical piece of
pumice or well-baked clay with a small saucer-shaped depression for
the bone-ash at its transverse end. The substance to be cupelled
must be in the metallic state ; if not in this condition, therefore, it
must first be subjected to the reducing process described above. In
actual assaying or quantitative operations, this process is modified in
various ways, but in the present work, in which merely a brief out-
line of the use of the blowpipe is attempted, it would be out of place
to enter into these details. The piece of test-metal, which may weigh
about a couple of grains (or from 100 to 200 milligrammes) is wrapped
in a piece of pure lead-foil of three or four times its weight, and the
whole is exposed on the surface of the cupel to the extreme point of
a clear oxidating flame. If the substance consist of argentiferous
lead, as obtained from galena, tfec., the addition of the lead-foil is of
course unnecessary.* Six or seven grains (or from 400 to 500 milli-
grammes) may be taken for the experiment : a beginner, at least, will
not find it advisable to operate on a larger quantity at one time. As

* " In reducing galena, with a view to test the reduced lead for silver by cupellation, the reduc-
tion may be conveniently performed as follows : a small portion of the galena, crushed to powder,
is mixed with about twice its volume of carb. soda to which a little borax has been added.
This is made into a stiff paste by the moistened knife-blade or blowpipe spatula, and a short
piece of thin iron wire is stuck through it. The whole is then placed in a tolerably deep cavity
scooped in a good piece of charcoal, and is exposed for a couple of minutes to the action of a
reducing flame. By a little management, the minute globules of lead, which first result, can
easily be made to run into a single globule. The iron assists in taking up sulphur from the
galena. When sufficiently cool the fused mass is removad by a sharp knife-point, and flattened
(under a strip of paper) on the anvil. The disc of reduced lead, thus separated from the slag,
is then ready for cupellation." CHAPMAN'S BLOWPIPE PRACTICE.

In the case of ordinary ores or matters suspected to contain gold or silver, tha roasted test-
substance must be mixed with about an equal quantity of pure litharge or granulated lead and
a proper amount of flux, aud subjected to fusion in a charcoal cavity. The lead or reduced
litharge takes up any gold oa silver that may be in the ore, and this is set free by subsequent
cupellation as described above.

40

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

soon as fusion takes place, the cupel must be moved somewhat farther
from the flame, so as to allow merely the outer envelope of the latter,
or the warm air which surrounds this, to play over the surface of the
globule. By this treatment, the lead will become gradually con-
verted into a fusible and crystalline slag. When this collects in large
quantity, the position of the cupel must be slightly altered, so as to
cause the globule to flow towards its edge, the surface of the lead
being thus kept free for continued oxidation. When the globule
becomes reduced to about a fourth or fifth of its original bulk, the
process is discontinued, and the cupel set on the anvil to cool.* This
is the first or concentration stage of the process. Another cupel is
then prepared and dried ; and the concentrated globule (after being
carefully separated from the slag in which it is imbedded) is placed
on this, and again subjected to the oxidizing influence of the flame.
During this second part of the process, the flame is made to play
more on the surface of the cupel around the lead button, than on the
button itself, by which a complete absorption of the oxidized lead is
effected. The flame should be sharp and finely pointed, and urged
down on the cupel at an angle of forty or forty-five degrees. Finally,
if the test-metal contain gold or silver, a minute globule of one (or
both) of these metals will be left on the surface of the bone-ash. By
concentrating several portions of a test-substance, melting the concen-
trated globules together, again concentrating, and finally completing
the cupellation, as small an amount as half-an-ounce of gold or silver
in a ton of ore — or in round numbers, about one part in sixty-
thousand --may be readily detected by the blowpipe.

During cupellation, the process sometimes becomes suddenly
arrested. This may arise from the temperature being too low, in
which case the point of the blue flame must be brought for an instant
on the surface of the globule, until complete fusion again ensue. Or
the hindrance may arise from the boneash becoming saturated, when
a fresh cupel must be taken. Or. it may be occasioned, especially if
much copper or nickel be present, by an insufficient quantity of lead.
In this latter case, a piece of pure lead must be placed in contact
with the globule, and the two. fused together ; the cupel being then

* This is not always necessary, as in many cases the entire cupellation may be effected
without interruption on the same cupel.

OF CENTKAL CANADA PART I. 41

moved backward from the flame, and the oxidizing process again
established.

Reactions /—Certain reactions of the more commonly occurring
constituents of mineral bodies have already been mentioned in illus-
tration of the various operations given above. In the present place
a few additional reactions are described, and the whole are arranged
in systematic form.*

A. DETERMINATION OF THE CHEMICAL GROUP TO WHICH A MINEARL

MAY BELONG.

In the examination of a mineral by the blowpipe, it is advisable to
look first to its general chemical nature — or, in other words, to deter-
mine the chemical group to whicn it belongs — and afterwards, to seek
for the base or bases which it may contain. The more important
chemical groups of natural occurrence, comprise : Sulphides, Arsenides,
Chlorides, Fluorides, Oxides, Sulphates. Silicates, Carbonates, Borates,
Nitrates, Phosphates, and Arseniates. The group of simple Oxides
can only be determined by negative characters, but the other groups
are easly recognized by a few simple experiments.

Experiment 1. Fuse the substance, in powder, with 2 or 3 vols. of
carb. soda and a little borax, in a good reducing Jlame, on charcoal.

This experiment serves directly for the detection of Sulphides, Sul-
phates, Arsenides, and Arseniates.

a. A strong odour of garlic is emitted : — Arsenides and Arseniafes.
The former possess a metallic aspect, and emit the garlic "odour when
ignited per se. The latter never exhibit a metallic aspect. As occur-
ing in nature, arseniates are mostly of a green, blue, or red colour,
depending on the nature of the base.

b. A reddish or dark mass is produced. This, when moistened
and placed on a bright silver coin or on a glazed visiting card, forms
a dark stain. The moistened mass smells also of sulphuretted hydro-
gen : Sulphides and Sulphates. The former possess a metallic aspect,
or, if the lustre be non-metallic, the streak is always distinctly col-
oured, f With few exceptions, they omit an odour of burning brim-
stone (sulphurous acid) when ignited per se ; and in the open tube,

* A more complete method for the rapid determination of the chemical nature and composi-
tion of mineral bodies will be found in the author's BLOWPIPE PRACTICE, pages 60-65.

t Certain specimens of Zinc Blende are the only exceptions to this, so far at least as regards
naturally occurring- minerals, to which alone the statements of the text apply.

42 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

the evolved acid reddens moistened litmus-paper. (See Operation 4,
above.) The natural sulphates do not possess a metallic aspect, and
the streak is either colourless or pale green or blue. They do not
omit the smell of brimstone when heated,

Other results, if exhibited, may be noted down for after reference.

Remarks : — Reactions a and b are sometimes produced by the same
mineral, from the simultaneous presence of sulphur and arsenic, (Arse-
nical Pyrites, Realgar, Orpiment, &c.) Reaction b is also produced by
Selenides and Seleniates, but these are of exceedingly rare occurrence ,
and they evolve at the same time a strong odour of cabbage-water or
decomposing vegetable matter. The rare tellurides also exhibit the
reaction.

Experiment 2. Fuse a solid particle of the test-mineral with phos-
phor-salt on platinum wire.

This experiment serves directly for the detection of Carbonates and
Silicates.

a. The substance dissolves rapidly and with marked effervescence :
— Carbonates (essentially).*

Note : — Sulphates, Phosphates, and various other compounds, also
dissolve readily by fusion with phosphor-salt, but produce no effer-
vescence.

b. The substance dissolves in part only, the undissolved portion
retaining the original form of the test-fragment but becoming more
or less translucent. (On cooling, the glass often becomes opales-
cent) : — Silicates (see under " Phosphor-salt," page 35, above). Free
silica, or quartz, melts into a clear glass with carb. soda, in expelling,
with effervescence, the carbonic acid from the latter. Some silicates
produce the same reaction. The test-substance should be added little
by little. If the soda be in excess, the glass remains opaque, and
with too much silica it becomes infusible.

Note : — Other reactions that may ensue from this experiment, such
as the coloration of the glass, &c., may serve to detect the base or bases
in combination with the carbonic or silicic acid. These reactions,
therefore, should be noted down for after reference.

*Nitrates and certain bodies (Pyrolusite or Black Manganese Ore, &c.) which evolve oxygen
on ignition, also dissolve in phosphor-salt with effervescence before the blowpipe ; but these
bodies are of comparatively exceptional occurrence. To avoid risk of error, however, the sub-
stance may be warmed in a test tube with a few drops of hydrochloric acid. Thus treated, all
carbonates dissolve with marked effervesence, and evolve a colorless, inodorous gas.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 43

Experiment 3. Dissolve a few particles of black oxide of copper in
phosphor-salt on platinum wire, so as to form a strongly-coloured glass.
(Or simply melt some of the salt in a loop of thin copper-wire.) To
this, add the test-substance, in powder, and expose the whole to the point
of the blue cone.

This experiment serves directly for the detection of chlorides.

a. The fused bead is surrounded by a bright azure-blue flame.
Note : — The coloration is produced by the volatilization of chloride
of copper. It ceases therefore, after a time, but may be renewed by
more of the test-substance being fused into the bead. The rare
Bromides and Iodides can also be distinguished by this experiment.
The former produce a blue flame with green streaks and edges, the
latter a bright emerald-green coloration.

Experiment 4- Moisten the substance, in powder, with a drop of sul-
phuric acid, and expose on platinum wire to the point of the blue flame.

This experiment serves for the detection of Phosphates and Borates.
as these bodies impart, when thus treated, a clearly marked green
colour to the flame-border. The borates communicate also a green
colour — after previous treatment with a few drops of sulphuric acid —
to the flame of alcohol. The phosphates and borates of natural occur-
rence are without metallic aspect. All dissolve readily in borax and
phosphor-salt before the blowpipe. Many communicate a green
colour to the point of the flame when strongly ignited, per se. It
must not be forgotten, however, that certain other bodies, oxide of
copper, baryta, &c., also colour the flame green. Phosphates may
also be detected as follows : — Melt some of the substance in fine
powder with about 3 vols. of carb. soda, on platinum wire, or in a
small platinum spoon. Treat the fused mass with a few drops of
boiling water (in a test-tube, or, better, in a small porcelain or plati-
num capsule, over the spirit lamp), decant the clear solution ftpm
the insoluble residuum, add some nitric acid, and place in the solution
a fragment of ammonium molybdate. This forms a canary-yellow
precipitate with solutions of phosphates. In most cases the mineral
may be treated directly (in powder) with nitric acid, and the diluted
solution tested with ammonium molybdate. The yellow precipitate
rapidly forms on the solution being warmed. It is readily soluble in
ammonia.

44

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Experiment 5. Heat a small portion of the substance, in powder,
at the bottom of a test-tube, with a few drops of strong sulphuric acid.

This experiment serves for the detection of Fluorides and Nitrates.

a. The inside of the tube is more or less corroded, and also covered,
where damp, with a deposit of silica : — Fluorides. The results are
best seen by washing out the tube, and then drying thoroughly in the
flame of the spirit lamp. The corrosion arises from the formation of
a compound of fluorine and hydrogen which readily attacks silica, pro-
ducing a volatile compound of fluorine and silicon. This is decom-
dosed by water, with deposition of silica. The latter re-action may
be seen on the damp sides of the glass, and still more distinctly if a
piece of narrow tubing with a drop of water at the end (kept there
by the pressure of the finger at the other extremity) be brought
within the mouth of the test-tube. The deposit of silica adheres to
the glass with great tenacity.

b. Brownish or orange-coloured fumes are evolved : — Nitrates.
The fumes possess the peculiar sweetish smell of nitrous acid. A.11
nitrates of natural occurrence are more or less soluble in water.
They deflagrate when ignited on charcoal or in contact with other
organic bodies.

B> REACTIONS OF THE MORE COMMON MINERAL BASES.

In many minerals, the so-called base — lead, for example, in sul
phide of lead (galena), copper in red or black oxide of copper, baryta
in carbonate of baryta, and so forth — may be easily recognized by the
use of the blowpipe. This is especially the case, when the base con-
sists of a single and easily reducible metal or metallic oxide,
such as silver, lead, copper, tin, &c., or where it imparts a colour to
borax or other reagents, as in the case of copper, iron, cobalt, nickel,
manganese, &c.; or forms a deposit on charcoal, communicates a
colour to the flame, or exhibits other characteristic reactions. Evei
when several bodies of this kind are present together in the baf
their recognition, as a general rule, is easily effected. Earthy am
alkaline bases, when in the form of carbonates, sulphates, phosphates,
fluorides, <fec., can also be made out, in general, without difficulty,
unless several happen to be present together, in which case it is not
always possible, by the simple aid of the blowpipe, to distinguish them
individually. When these bases are combined with silica, on the

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 45

other hand, the blowpipe alone is rarely sufficient for their detection.
This however, so far as practical purposes are concerned, is of little
consequence, as no economic value in silicates of this kind is depen-
dent on the base.

A complete scheme for the detection of mineral bases by the blow-
pipe, does not fall within the province of the present work, bat an
arrangement of the more important of these bodies, in groups, founded
on blowpipe characters, is given below. Before referring to these
groups, the unpractised operator is recommended to subject the speci-
men under examination to three or four simple experiments, and to
note down the results. These experiments comprise: — 1, Ignition
in the bulb-tube, for detection of water. (This experiment may be
omitted as a general rule, if the substance possess a metallic lustre.) 2,
Treatment per se on charcoal or in the foreceps (see Operation 1,
page 30 above), the characters more especially to be looked for,
being coloration of the flame, formation of a coating on the charcoal,
assumption of magnetism, &c. 3, Treatment (after previous roasting
[Operation 4], if sulphur, &c., be present) with borax, phosphor-salt,
and carb. soda, respectively : observing if the glass be coloured, if the
substance dissolve entirely in it, if a reduction to metal take place,
and so forth (Operations 5 and 6, above). These experiments will
in general be sufficient to determine the nature of the base ; but
occasionally, certain special operations may be required in addition,
such as testing with nitrate of cobalt, or examination for mercury in
the closed tube, as described on a preceding page (Operations 3 and 6).

SECTION 1. — GIVING per se, OR WITH CARB. SODA, ON CHARCOAL,

METALLIC GLOBULES OR METALLIC GRAINS.

Group 1. Yielding malleable metallic globules, without deposit on
the charcoal.

Gold. Silver. Copper.

Gold is insoluble in the fluxes. Silver is not oxidized per se, but
retains a bright surface after exposure to an oxidating flame. Copper
becomes encrusted on cooling with a black coating. It imparts a
green colour to the flame-border ; and forms strongly coloured glasses
with borax and phosphor-salt : (green (hot) blue (cold) in O F ; red-
brown, opaque, in R F). Gold and Silver may be separated from
copper, &c., by fusion with lead, and subsequent cupellation (Opera-

46 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

tion 7). If gold and silver be present together, the bead is generally
more or less white. By fusing it in a small platinum spoon with
bisulphate of potash, the silver dissolves, and the surface of the
globule becomes yellow. If the globule be flattened out into a disc
on the anvil, before treatment with bisulphate of potash, the silver
is more rapidly extracted. The sulphate of silver must be removed
by treating the spoon, in a porcelain or platinum capsule, with a small
quantity of water, over the spirit lamp. By evaporation, and fusion
of the residuum with carb. soda on charcoal, metallic silver can be
again obtained.

Group 2. Yielding infusible metallic grains, without deposit on the
charcoal :

Platinum. Iron. Nickel. Cobalt.

Platinum is not attacked by the blowpipe fluxes. Iron, Nickel,
and Cobalt, are readily dissolved by fusion with borax or phosphor-
salt, producing a coloured glass (see under Borax, page 34, above.)
These metals are also magnetic. As a general rule, if a substance
become attractable by the magnet after exposure to the blowpipe, the
presence of iron may be inferred, cobalt and nickel compounds being
comparatively rare. The presence of cobalt is readily detected by the
rich blue colour of the borax and phosphor-salt glasses, in both an
oxidating and reducing flame ; but if much iron be present also, the
glass is blueish-green. With borax in the R. F., nickel compounds
give reduced metal, and the glass becomes grey and troubled. It is
also attracted by the magnet.

Group 3. Yielding metallic globules, with white or yellow deposit
on the charcoal.

Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Antimony.

Tin and Lead give malleable globules. The sublimate formed by
tin, is white, small in quantity, and deposited on, and immediately
around, the globule. The lead sublimate is yellow, and more or less
copious. Bismuth and Antimony give brittle globules. The bismuth
sublimate is dark yellow ; the antimony sublimate, white, and very
abundant. Lead imparts a clear blue colour to the flame-border ;
Antimony, a greenish tint. As a general rule, a yellow deposit on
the charcoal may be regarded as indicative of the presence of lead ;*

* Some lead compounds per se give a white or greyish sublimate ; but if the test-substance
be mixed with carb. soda, the sublimate is always yellow.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART I. 47

whilst the emission of copious fumes, and deposition of a white coat-
ing on the charcoal, may be safely considered to indicate antimony.
The coating or sublimate formed by Zinc (see below), although white
when cold, is lemon-yellow whilst hot. Bismuth compounds if fused
in powder with a mixture of sulphur and iodide of potassium produce
on charcoal a vivid scarlet incrustation (Yon Kobell). If metallic
tin and lead, in about equal proportions, be fused together, the re-
sulting globule immediately oxidises, and on removal from the flame
continues to push out white and yellow excrescences (Chapman's Blow-
pipe Practice, p. 92).

SECTION 2.— REDUCIBLE : BUT YIELDING NO METAL ON CHARCOAL.

(This arises from the rapid volatilization of the reduced metal.)

Group 1. Volatilizing without odour, and without formation of
deposit on the charcoal.

Mercury.

For the proper detection of this metal, a small portion of the test-
substance in powder must be mixed with some previously dried carb.
soda, and the mixture strongly ignited at the bottom of a small tube
or narrow flask. If mercury be present, a grey sublimate will be
formed. By friction with a wire, &c., this runs into small metallic
globules which may be poured out of the tube.

Group 2. Volatilizing without odour, but forming a deposit on the
charcoal.

Cadmium. Zinct

The deposit produced by cadmium is dark brown or reddish-brown.
That produced by zinc is lemon-yellow and phosphorescent whilst
hot, and white when cold. If moistened with a drop of nitrate of
cobalt and ignited, it becomes bright green.

Group 3. Volatilizing with strong odour of garlic.

Arsenic.

See additional reaction under Operation 4, page 32, above.

SECTION 3. — NOT REDUCIBLE BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE.

Group 1. Imparting a colour to borax.

Manganese. Chromium.

Manganese compounds impart, before an oxidating flame, a violet
colour to borax ; Chromium compounds, a clear green colour. See
also under " Carbonate of Soda " page 36, above.

[INERALS

)LOGY OF

The rare metals cerium, uranium, <fcc., belong also to this group.
.Reference should also be made to iron, nickel, cobalt and copper, a*
the oxides of these metals, if in small quantity, might escape detection
by the reducing process.

Group 2. Imparting no colour to the fluxes. Slowly dissolved by
borax, the glass remaining permanently dear :

Alumina

Moistened with nitrate of cobalt and then ignited, this base assumes
on cooling a fine blue color.

Group 3. Imparting no colour to the fluxes. Rapidly dissolved
by borax, the glass becoming opaque on cooling or when flamed :
Magnesia. Lime.

Moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and ignited, Magnesia becomes
pale-red in colour ; Lime, dark-grey.

Group 4. Entirely dissolved by fusion with carb-soda.

Baryta. Strontia. Lithia. Soda. Potash.

Baryta compounds impart a distinct green colour to the point and
border of the flame. Strontia and Lithia colour £he flame deep car-
mine-red. The crimson coloration is destroyed in the case of strontia
if the substance be fused with chloride of barium. Soda colours the
flame strongly yellow. Potash communicates to it a violet tint ; but
this colour is completely masked by the presence of soda, unless the
flame be examined through a deep blue glass.*

* The presence of alkalies or alkaline earths (magnesia excepted) is most readily ascertained
in minerals by the use of a small pocket spectroscope. See the author's Blowpipe Practice.

PAET II.

* , *

THE MINERALS OF CENTRAL CANADA.

The preceding sub-division of this work is of a purely introductory
•character, explanatory of the more common properties possessed by
minerals in general, and of certain technical terms employed in mine-
ralogical definitions. In the present Part, the Minerals of Central
Canada, comprising the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, are classi-
fied, and described. In these descriptions, in accordance with the
stated plan of the work, minute chemical and crystallographic details
are purposely omitted : details of this kind being obviously out of
place in a work intended for general use. Localities also except in a
few instances, are only stated generally, i. e. without precise reference
to lots and concessions ; but an attempt is made in all cases to give
the localities in systematic order, based, as much as possible, on geo-
logical relations.

The classification, adopted in the work, is founded essentially on
composition, as being the most convenient for practical reference. It
is preceded, however, by an Analytical Key, by means of which
the name and place of any mineral described under the Classification
proper, may be easily arrived at ; and a Simplified Key or Tabular
Arrangement, including minerals of common occurence only, is also
given for the same purpose. The method of application is explained
fully at the end of tha principal key : a certain knowledge of techni-
cal terms, and of the more common properties of minerals as explained
in the preceding division of the work, being of course supposed on
the part of the reader.

ANALYTICAL KEY,

By which the name of any Canadian Mineral may be easily ascertained*

NOTE— In this Key, minerals of common or extensive occurrence are denoted by the name

being- printed in large capitals, and minerals of tolerably common occurence, by the use of

* As regards the determination of minerals generally, the Reader may consult the Mineral
Tables attached to the author's Bloivpipe Practice. Also the author's Mineral Indicator
Copr, CLARK & Co., Toronto).
5

50 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

small capitals. Names in ordinary type, refer to minerals of rare occurrence, or obscure
character : so far, at least, as regards the presence of these minerals in Canada. The initials-
BB, signify "before the blowpipe." The number placed within brackets after the name of a
mineral, refers to the position of the substance in the classification proper, in which its des-
cription is given, at the end of the key

( Aspect metallic or sub-metellic 2

| Aspect non-metallic (i. e. vitreous, stony, &c. ) 35

n ( Occurring in detached grains or scales 3

| Occurring under other conditions fr

, ( Yielding by trituration a white <
| Not yielding a white powder by

„ ( Soiling, or marking on paper GRAPHITE No. 1. ).

| Not marking or soiling 4

white or light-grey powder. .MICA (Nos. 77-78.)
trituration 5

Colour, yellow. Fusible Gold (No. 3. ).

Colour, tin or greyish white. Infusible „. . Platinum (No. 4. )

Colour, black ; magnetic MAGNETIC IRON SAND (No. 31. >

[Also Iserine (No. 32)

Hardness sufficient to scratch glass 7

Hardness insufficient to scratch glass 15

( BB, emitting fumes, or odour of garlic or brimstone 8

| BB, 110 fumes or odour 10-

( Colour, light brass-yellow 9

( Colour, tin-white or greyish ARSENICAL PYRITES (No. 22. )•

In cubes or other Monometric Crystals (p. 14), or massive

IRON PYRITES (No. 20.)

In pointed, Prismatic Crystals of the Rhombic System (p. 16.), mostly
arranged in curved rows Marcasite or Prismatic Pyrites* (No, 21.)

in ( BB, easily fusible Wolfram (No. 39.)

j BB, infusible, or nearly so 11

( Streak-powder, dull-red SPECULAR IRON ORE (No. 29. )

( Streak powder, black or brown 12

,„ I Strongly magnetic MAGNETIC IRON ORE (No. 31.)

j Not (or very feebly) magnetic 13-

o \ Streak, black, brown, reddish-brown, or greenish 14

( Streak, brownish-yellow. Yielding water in the bulb- tube. . .

BROWN IRON ORE (No. 34.)

( Black, sub-metallic. BB, with phosphor-salt in R. F,, a fine green glass

14 1 CHROMIC IRON ORE (No. 33.)

( Black, sub-metallic. BB, with phosphor-salt in R. F., a red-brown glass

TlTANIFEROUS IRON ORE (No. 30.)*

, - ( More or less distinctly malleable 16

10 Not malleable " 20

16

BB, no fumes, or deposit on charcoal 17

BB, copious fumes, or incrustation on charcoal 18

* Iron Pyrites and Marcasite have exactly the same, composition (Sulphur 53.3, Iron 46.7)
but their crystal forms are quite distinct. Iron Pyrites is very abundant : Marcasite, in Canada,,
comparatively rare. Marcasite is especially prone to decomposition. ; specimens are thus often,
coated wit a greenish-white efforescence, or minute hair-like crystals, of sulphate of iron.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 51

( Colour, yellow (soft) : , . . .GOLD (No 3 )

17 I £ Sllvei"wnite (soft) SILVER (No. 5. )

) 0. copper-red (soft) COPPER (No. 6.

. C. steel-grey ; magnetic (hard) Meteoric Iron (No. 10. )

18 < ^' on cnareoal> a copious yellow incrustation 19

( BB, on charcoal, no incrustation. Colour, black. . SILVER GLANCE (No. 11.)

19 ( Colour, lead-grey. Perfectly malleable . , Lead (No 7 )

( Colour, tin-white. Slightly malleable . , , . Bismuth (No.' 8.)

Structure distinctly scaly or micaceous, the substance admitting of sepa-
ration into thin leaves, plates, or scales 21

Structure not micaceous or scaly } JJaj king or soiling '.'.'.]'.'..'. 21

' / JNot marking or soiling 23

2j 5 Marking on paper. Streak, black 22

i Not marking. Streak, white or greyish (Mica) ...'.' . . . . .... .' . .' . .' 21 Us.

21 bis \ £Totattacked by acids... MUSCOVITE or POTASH-MICA (No. 77.)

I Decomposed (in powder) by sulphuric acid PHLOGOPITE or

MAGNESIA MICA (No. 78.)
j Colour, black. BB. not dissolved by fluxes GRAPHITE (No 1 )

22 , Colour, lead-grey, BB, giving sulphur-reaction (see p. 44) with carb '

soda and borax MOLYBDENITE (No. 23.)

( Attracting the magnetic needle. Colour, brownish-yellow MAGNETIC

PYRITES (No. 19.)
( JN ot anectmg the magnetic needle 24

24 i -^' easily fusible (with or without previous decrepitation) . . .25

I BB, infusible, or nearly so ' 34

9£ ( BB, a magnetic globule 26

( Fusion-globule not magnetic 28

dark'lead gre7 .............................. Teunantite (No

Colour metallic-ellow or red

26 bis

3 In acicular form only -. . Millerite' (No. IS. )

I Not acicular 07

( Colour brass yellow (sometimes with iridescent tarnish COPPER

PYRITES (No. 16.)

27 j Colour reddish, but with purple tarnish BORNITE, (Horse-

flesh Ore, No. 15.)

Colour pale-red or yellowish. BB, yielding arsenical fumes Nickeline

some examples, (No. 17.)

28 j Colour pale-red or yellowish Nickeline (most examples, No. 17.)

( Colour, metallic white or grey 29

29 j BB, no coating on charcoal COPPER GLANCE (No. 14.)

I BB, a white or yellow coating on charcoal .30

«JQ | BB, a white coating on charcoal 31

| BB, a yellow incrustation on charcoal .32

31 j Lamellar or flne-granular in structure Native Antimony (No. 9 )

/ Fibrous or bladed Antimony Glance (No. 25.)

( BB, with mixture of potassium iodide and sulphur forming on charcoal

a vivid scarlet coating 33

( BB, as above, no scarlet coating 33 bis

52 MINERALS AND GEOLOGV

( Sp gr. over 9, reddish tin white Native Bismuth, (No. 8.)

I Sp. gr. under 7, light lead-grey, often iridescent Bismuth

Glance (No. 24.)

, . j Breaking into rectangular fragments GALENA (Mo. J2.)

'8 I BB, yielding antiinonial fumes. . . .Menighinite aud Plumbigerous

Antimony Ore, (Nos. 25 and 25 />;*.)

Lustre distinctly metallic ; streak greyish-black ; mostly fibrous or
acicular ...Maniranite (No. 35.)

Lustre sub-metallic ; streak, mostly pale brown ; BB, sulphur-reaction,
p. 44 .ZINC HLi-;.N DE (No. 13.)

r Soluble or partially soluble in water. Taste bitter or metallic. Occur-
ring chiefly as an efflorescence or incrustation 36

35 -j ( Occurring in earthly masses or crusts (which soil or mark

| Insoluble ] more or less) 39

( Occurring under other conditions 48

BB, with borax, a coloured glass or bead 37

BB, with borax, a white or colourless beard 38

( Solution giving a deep blue precipitate with red or yellow "prussiate of

37 ] potash."* Green Vitriol (Sulphate of Iron) (No. 100.)

( Solution giving a greenish-white precipitate with " yellow prussiate."

Sulphate of Nickel (No. 101.)

( BB, with nitrate of cobalt, a blue mass after ignition (see p. 34.)

38 ) Alum (No. li

( BB, with nitrate of cobalt, a pale-red mass Epsomite (No. 99.)

OQ j Colour, yellow or yellowish-brown 40

| Colour, red, black, brownish -black, blue, or green 43

BB, taking fire and burning with blue flame Sulphur (No. 2.)

BB, not inflammable . . 41

BB, becoming black and magnetic 42

BB, not rendered magnetic Uran Oehre (No. 37 .)

.^ ( Occurring in thin crusts on bituminous shale Humboldtine (No. 108.)

" | Occurring under other conditions YELLOW OCHRE (No. 34.)

( Colour, red. BB, becoming magnetic .. RED OCHRE and SCALY RED
43] IRON ORE (No. 29.)
( C. black, dark -brown, blue, or green 44

44 \ Q' black or dark-brown 45

j C. blue or green , 46

!BB, inflammable Asphalt (No. 110.)
BB, not inflammable. Forming with carb-soda a ''turquoise enamel,"
p. 39 EARTHY MANGANESE ORE (No. 36. )

47

(Green Carbonate
of Copper) (No. 95. )

,~ j Colour, blue 47

Colour, green. Effervescing in acids Malachite (Green Carbonate

* As the iron is always partly peroxidized, a blue precipitate is produced by either of these
reagents.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 53

( Effervescing in acids ; BB, reactions of Copper (p. 37. ). . Blue Carbonate

of Copper (No. 95. )
3B, rendered magnetic Vivianite (Phosphate of Iron) (No. 104.)

48 •! -^arc^uess sufficient to scratch window-glass distinctly 49

I Hardness insufficient to scratch glass distinctly 69

49 \ Fusible or partially fusible, per se* 50

I Infusible, per se 61

*n i Sp. gr. = 3.0 or less. (Colour, mostly pale..). . 51

)U j Sp. gr. o ver 3. 0 \ . . . 56

51 j Yielding water by ignition in bulb-tube (see p. 34) 52

i Not yielding water, or yielding traces only, on ignition 53

( Fusible on thin edges, only. C. dark-green Chloritoid (No. 81.)

52 j Easily fusible. C. light-green, greenish- white PREHNITE (No. 67.)

( Easily fusible. C. peach-blossom red Wilsonite : var. of Scapolite

(No. 63.)

53 j Easily fusible SCAPOLITE OR WERNERITE (No. 63. )

| Fusible on edges only, unless in thin splinters 54

( White, red, &c. In masses with smooth rectangular cleavage. . .

54 j ORTHOCLASE (No. 57. )

Cleavage not rectangular. Cleavage planes faintly striated 55

( White, reddish, &c. BB, imparting a yellow colour to the flame

ALBITE (No. 58.)
( Grey, often with coloured reflections LABRADORITE (No. 60.)

In rhombic dodecahedrons or trapezohedrous (p. 14), or in imbedded

granular masses mostly of a red colour GARNET (No. 47.)

In fibrous masses or prismatic crystals 57

I In black, brown, or green triangular prisms (often broken and disjointed

57 < or in fibres with triangular cross fracture TOURMALINE (No. 46. )

( In other forms g'g

_ j In tetragonal (square prismatic) crystals (p. 15). Sp. gr. 3.5 or more. .

Idocrase (No. 48.)
( In other forms 59

i Fusible into a globule or rounded mass AMPHIBOLE (No 52 )

PYROXENE (No. 53. )
-b usible on th-e surface, only, into a dull slag or scoria 60

( In flat wedge-like crystals, mostly dark-brown or yellowish

SPHENE(No.51.)

in green nbrous masses and long prismatic crystals EPIDOTE (No. 49. )

61 j Streak-powder, white, or greyish in dark specimens .62

( Streak-powder, black, brown, greenish or red ' 66

* In testing this character, only a thin, pointed

56

54 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Sp. gr. under 2.8 ; H = 7.0 ; vitreous ; fusible with carb-soda into a

62 «! clear glass QUARTZ (No. 43.)

Sp. gr. overS.0 63

rq j Harder than quartz ' 64

M / Less hard than quartz , 65

{ Crystallization, Hexagonal ; H = 9.0 ; sp. gr. 3.8 — 4.1 Corundum

(No. 41.)
j Crystallization, Octahedral (Regular System); H = 8.0 ; sp. gr... .

I 3,5_45 Spinel (No. 42.)

* ] Cystallization, Square-pyramidal (Tetragonal System) ; H=7.5 ; sp. gr.

4.0—4.7 Zircon (No. 44.)

| Crystallization, Rectangular-prismatic; H = 7.0 — 7.5 ; sp. gr. 3. 1 —
I 3'.2 Andalusite (No. 45.)

( Red or orange ; Lustre inclined to semi-metallic ; sp. gr. 4. 1 — 4. 3

Rutile (No. 40.)
rp. J Yellow ; in small granular masses (mostly with graphite in crystalline

limestone); sp. gr. 3. 1 — 3.2 Condrodite (N7o. 56. )

j Green, brownish-yellow ; in crystalline grains in eruptive rocks ; sp. gr.
I 3.3 — 3.5 » Olivine (No. 55.)

Strongly magnetic MAGNETIC IRON ORE (No. 31.)

Feebly (or non-) magnetic 67

( Streak-powder, black or brown 68

[Streak-powder, pull-red RED IRON ORE (No. 29.)

BB, with borax, an emerald-green glass CHROMIC IRON ORE (No. 33.)

BB, with borax, a dingy-green glass.. . TITANIFEROUS IRON ORE (No. 30.)

fiq ( BB, fusible, or imparting distinct colour to the flame, or both 70

J | BB, infusible (or fusible only at the external point) 77

( BB, easily dissolved by borax or phosphor-salt, the saturated glass be-

70 l coming opaque on cooling or when flamed (p. 37) 71

y BB, slowly and incompletely dissolved by borax or phosphor- salt, a
( " silica skeleton" (p. 39) separating in the latter reagent 74

„, ( BB, yielding sulphur-reaction with carb-soda and silver foil (p. 44) .... 72
| BB, no sulphur-reaction with carb-soda, &c. Mostly in cubical crystals . .

FLUOR SPAR (No. 106.)

72

( Yielding a large amount of water by ignition in bulb-tube

i^-V

GYPSUM (No. 98.)

\ » A JL JL kJ ^jf J.TA \ J-l \J. i/<J. /

( No water on ignition 73

BB, imparting an apple-green tint to the flame-border. Fusible with .

difficulty. BARYTINE (No. 96.)

BB, imparting a carmine-red colour to the flame-border

CELESTINE (No. 96. )

*,. ( BB, imparting a green tint to point of flame Datolite (No, 68. )

| BB, imparting a yellowish or indistinct colour to the flame 75

-. j BB, fusible quietly Analcime (No. 75. )

/0 j BB, intumescing 76

78

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 55

j Crystallization, Tetragonal (p. 15.) Apophyllite (No. 76.)

I Crystallization, Rhombic (p. 16.) Thomsonite (No. 70.)

( BB, very easily dissolved by borax or phosphor-salt, the saturated glass

1 becoming opaque on cooling 78

1 BB, slowly and incompletely dissolved by borax or phosphor-salt, a
( "silica skeleton" (p. 39) separating in the latter flux. . 81

BB, with carb-soda and silver foil (p. 44) yielding strong sulphur-reac-
tion Light coloured varieties of ZINC BLENDE (No. 13.)

BB, no sulphur-reaction , t 79

j H = 5.0. Soluble (in powder) without effervescence in heated nitric or

79 < hydrochloric acid APATITE (No. 103. )

( H = 3.0 — 3.75. Soluble with strong effervescence in heated acids. . SO

gQ ( Yielding water by ignition in bulb-tube Dawsonite (No. 94.)

| Nro water on ignition , 80 bis.

80 bis \ Soluble with strong effervescence in cold acids. . .CALCITE (No. 88.)

I Effervescing strongly only in heated acids. . . DOLOMITE (Xo. 90.)

MAGNESITE (No. 91.)

g, j Yielding merely traces of water on ignition (page 34) 82

| Yielding a considerable amount of water 83

Foliated or scaly. Thin leaves, elastic. Lustre, mostly pseudo-metallic

52 MICAS (Nos. 77 and 78. )
Foliated or compact. Not elastic. Soapy to the touch. No pseudo-
metallic lustre TALC and STEATITE (No. 82.)

53 j Fibrous, in soft silky masses.. CHRYSOTILE or FIBROUS SERPENTINE (No. 83. )
I Foliated or compact 84

04 ( Foliated or scaly 85

( Granular or compact 86

In soft nacreous scales of light colour. Becoming blue by ignition with

85 nitrate of cobalt (page 34) PHOLERITE (No. 84.)

In dark-green foliated or fine scaly masses. Mostly fusible on the eckes

CHLORITE (No. 80.)

( Assuming a pale-red or greyish colour by ignition with nitiate of cobalt

36 j (page 34) SERPENTINE (No, 83.)

( Assuming a bright-blue colour by ignition with nitrate of cobalt (p. 34. )

FINITE (No. 85.)

APPLICATION OF THE ANALYTICAL KEY.

The method of employing the above Key is shewn in the following
•example. Let the reader be supposed to have a massive piece of
magnetic pyrites, of the name and nature of which he is ignorant.
Turning to the first bracket of the Key, he finds :

-^ ( Aspect metallic or sub-metallic 2

j Aspect non-metallic (i. e., vitreous, stony, etc) 35

56

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

As the substance possesses a metallic aspect or lustre, he tin
bracket 2. There he finds :

2 ( Occurring in detached grains or scales ...................... 3

| Occurring under conditions .............................. 6

As the specimen is not in the form of loose grains or scales, but in
that of a solid mass, he turns to bracket 6, which reads :

P ( Hardness sufficient to scratch glass ...................... , . 7

"j Hardness insufficient to scratch glass ...................... 15

As the mineral is not hard enough to scratch glass, bracket 15-
must be, referred to, which reads :

, - j More or less distinctly malleable .......................... 46

Lo } Not malleable .......................................... 20

As the substance is not malleable — a small piece breaking readily
into powder under the hammer — tbe inquirer turns to bracket 20,
He there finds :

( Structure distinctly scaly or micaceous, the substance admit-
20 ) ting of separation into thin leaves, plates, or scales ........ 21

'

Structure not micaceous or scaly. .

As the mineral under investigation does not present a scaly
micaceous structure, and does not soil the hands or leave a mark on
paper, reference is made to bracket 23. This reads :

( Affecting the magnetic needle ; colour, browish-yellow

23^ MAGNETIC PYRITES (No. 19.)
( Not magnetic 24

A small particle or two being chipped off the specimen, and tried
by a common magnet — or the entire specimen being held near a
magnetic needle — attraction is found to ensue ; hence the substance
is shewn to be Magnetic Pyrites, No. 19 of the classified series de-
scribed in the following pages. By reference to the description there
given, the various physical and chemical characters of the substance,
its percentage composition, localities, etc. , may at once be ascertained.
In using the Key, caie must be taken to pass regularly from one
indicated bracket to the other, without attempting, on account of
foregone conclusions respecting the nature of the substance, to jump
over any of them, or to refer to others than those actually indicated.
If this be not attended to, errors and confusion may easily arise.

As the above Key contains a good many minerals of rare or com-
paratively exceptional occurrence, the beginner may frequently avoid
unnecessary trouble, in making out the name of an unknown sub-

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 57

stance, by consulting in the first instance the annexed simplified Key,
in which Canadian minerals of common occurrence are alone included.
Reference should then be made, for confirmatory proofs, to the com-
plete description of the species indicated by the Key.

A TABULAE GROUPING OF CANADIAN MINERALS OF COMPARA-
TIVELY FREQUENT OCCURRENCE.

* Aspect Metallic or Sub- Metallic.

** Hard enough to scratch glass distinctly. Not scratched, or very slightly
scratched, by the point of a knife. (Streak distinctly coloured.)

(a) Pale brass-yellow (Often in cubes) -.—Iron Pyrites (No. 20).

(b) Tin-white, or between silver-white and pale-grey (Emitting a garlic-

like odour on ignition) : — Arsenical Pyrites (No. 22).

(c) Steel-grey ; powder, dull-red: — Specular Iron Ore, (No. 29).

(d) Iron-black ; powder, black ; strongly magnetic : — Maqnetic Iron

Ore (No. 31)

(e) Iron-black ; powder, black or brown ; feebly or non-magnetic : —

Titaniferous Iron Ore (No. 30) : also Chromic Iron Ore (No. 33).

* Too soft to scratch glass. Easily scratched by a knife-point.
^ ( (a) Colour, yellow : — A ative Gold (No. 3).

« J (b) Colour, silver-white (but often with dark tarnish) ;— Native
^ 1 Silver.

^ [(C) Colour, black -.—Silver Glance (No. 11).

(d) Brownish-yellow ; slightly magnetic : — Magnetic Pyrites (No. 19. )

(e) Brass-yellow (often with varigated tarnish) ; streak, greenish

black -.—Copper Pyrites (No. 16.)

(f) Reddish, with purple tarnish ; streak, greyish-black : — Purple

Copper Pyrites (No. 15.)

. j (gr) Dark-grey (ofthe with blue or green tarnish) ; cleavage indis-
^ | tinct :— Copper Glance (No. 14.)

^ I (h) Lead-grey ; breaking readily, with rectangular cleavage, into

cubical fragments ; very heavy : — Galena (No. 12.)
(i) Light lead -grey ; in soft scaly masses ; marking : — Molybdenite
,o (No. 23.)

(k) Black ; soft, mostly in scaly or leafy masses ; marking and

soiling, — Graphite (No. 1.)

(iy Lustre, metallic-pearly ; brown, black, silvery- white, &c. In
foliated or scaly masses with white or light streak ; easily
separated into thin leaves: — Mica, including chiefly Musco-
vite (No. 77) and Phlogopite (No. 78.)

t Aspect : vitreous, stony, or earthy.

ft Hard enough to scratch glass distinctly. Not scratched by a knife-point.

(a) Vitreous : colourless, amethystine, brownish, &c. Mostly in hex-

agonal prism-pyramids, or in groups of sharply-pointed crystals;
otherwise massive. No lamellar structure. (Infusible): — Crys-
talline Quartz, including Rock Crystal, Amethyst, Smoky Quartz,
&c. (No. 43).

(b) Vitreous or stony. In nodular masses of grey, red, bluish, and

other colours, two or more tints being often present together

58

MINERALS AND GEOLOCY

in spots or bands. (Infusible) : — Calcedonic Quartz, including
the various Agates, &c. (No. 43).

(c) Stony or pearly. Vitreous. White, grey, red, green, &c. Mostly

in lamellar masses, which cleaye easily in several directions,
presenting smooth and somewhat pearly cleavage-planes.
Fusible, but as a general rule not very easily: the point of a thin
splinter is soon rounded or vitrified, however, in a properly
sustained flame : — The various Feldspars, including more
especially Orthodase or Potash- Feldspar (No. 57) ; Albite or
Soda-Feldspar (No. 58) ; and Labradorite or Liin<'-Frl</.i}t<.ir
(No. 60).

(d) Vitreous. Greenish- white or pale-green. Mostly in botryoidal

masses with crystalline surface. Easily fusible. Yielding a
little water in the bulb-tube : — Prehnite (No1 67).

(e) Dark or bright-red, brown, &c. Mostly in rhombic dodecahedrons

or in small rounded masses. Fusible. (Sp. gr. over 3.4) : —
Garnet (No. 47).

(/) Black or dark-brown. Mostly in triangular (and often broken)
prisms, . or in acicular or fibrous groups. Easily fusible : —
Tourmaline or Schorl (No. 46).

(g) Black, brown, green, greenish-white or colourless. In small
crystals (mostly imbedded in crystalline limestone, or other-
wise in trap rocks), and also in cleavable and granular masses.
Fusible : —Pyroxene (including Augite, &c.) No. 53; and also
Amphibole (including Hornblende, &c.) No. 52.

f+t Too soft to scratch glass. Easily scratched, or cut, by the point of a knife.
J* ( (a) White, grey, &c. Effervescing in cold acids. Infusible :
—Calcite (No. 88).

(b) White, brownish, &c. Effervescing only in heated acids.

Infusible : — Dolomite (No. 90) ; also Magtiesite (No. 91).

(c) Green, reddish-brown. Mostly in six-sided prisms with

rounded edges. Infusible, or nearly so. (H = 5.0) :—
Apatite (No. 103).

(d) Violet-blue, green, greyish, &c. Mostly in cubes. Fusible :

— Fluor Spar (So. 106).

(e) White, yellowish, greyish, pale-red, &c. Mostly in cleav-

able masses. Very heavy (sp. gr. =4.4 — 4.7. Fusible,
but not easily, tinging the flame pale-green : — Heavy
Spar (No. 96).

(/) White, pale-blue, reddish, &c. Mostly in cleavable masses
•j ~g or small crystals in limestone rocks. Fusible, tinging

^ the flame carmine red : Celestine (No. 97).

( (g) White, greyish, &c. Scratched by the nail. Fusible ; be-
coming at once opaque and dull white when held at the
edge of a candle-flame ; yielding a large amount of
water by ignition in the bulb-tube : — Gypsum (No. 98).
(h) White, greenish, green and brown, &c ; often mottled.

Very sectile, and more or less soapy to the touch :
•{ Talc and Steatite (No. 82). Also Serpentine (No. 83).

I (i) Dark or light green, scaly or earthy : — Chlorite.

L £f> S •** (k) Pearly-white, brown, black, &c. In leafy and scaly masse
with more or less pseudo-metallic lustre. Splitting into
thin plates : — The various Micas, including more espe-
cially : Muscovite or Potash-Mica (No. 77), and Phlogo-
(_ pite or Magnesia- Mica (No. 78).

a,

>J.

ses

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 59

^ ( (1) Streak, pale-brown. Colour, brown, black, yellow, &c. Mostly in in-
distinct crystals or small cleavable masses : — Zinc Blende (No. 13).
(ra) Streak, dull or bright-red. Colour, brick-red. Magnetic after ig-
nition : — Red Ochre and other varieties of Red Iron Ore (No. 20).

j>» (n) Streak, brownish-yellow. C., dark or light- brown. Magnetic after
iguition, and yielding water in the bulb.tube : — Yellow Ochre and

Brown or Bog Iron Ore (No. 34).
(o) Streak, pale-green ; colour, green : — Malachite (No. 94). Some

Chlorites (No. 80).
(p) Streak, pale-blue ; colour, blue. Mostly in crusts or earthy masses :

— Blue Carbonate of Copper (No. 95). Also Phosphate of Iron

(No. 104.)

SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF MINERALS.
Mineral bodies are characterized partly by composition, and partly
by physical properties. Composition alone, is not sufficient in all
cases to define or individualize a mineral species, as certain substances
— Carbon, for instance, in Graphite and the Diamond ; Carbonate of
Lime, in Calcite and and Arragonite — may occur in nature under
two or more distinct physical conditions. On the other hand, a close
resemblance, in general aspect and other physical characters, may be
exhibited by minerals of very dissimilar composition. Minerals have
thus a double nature, so to say — chemical and physical : the one
frequently in apparent opposition to the other ; and in this lies the
difficulty of framing a satisfactory classification of minerals. A
system of arrangement based on chemical composition, although un-
avoidably artificial in many of its details, is especially convenient for
practical reference, and on the whole is perhaps best suited to meet
the requirements of the general student. A system of this kind is
adopted, therefore, in the present work. It comprises five leading-
groups or classes. First, a group of simple or so-called Native Sub-
stances, as Native Sulphur, Native Gold, Native Silver, &c., the
naturally occurring elementary bodies of chemical language (See
under " Chemical Characters " in Part I). Secondly, a group of Sul-
phides and Arsenides, or compounds of sulphur, or of arsenic, with
various metals : galena, iron pyrites, arsenical pyrites, are examples.
Thirdly, a large group of oxygenized compounds, including Simple
Oxides, as red iron ore, &c., and various so-called oxygen-salts, as
Silicates, Carbonates, Sulphates, and the like. (See explanation of
Chemical Terms in Part I. Also the explanatory remarks prefixed
to the different groups and sub-divisions, in the following pages.)

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Fourthly, a group of Fluorides and Chlorides, compounds of nuori:
or chlorine with bases. And, finally, a small group of carbonaceous
matters, usually classed as Organico-Chemical substances, and re-
garded commonly as products of alteration derived from Organic
Nature. The sub-divisions of the system adopted, are shewn by-
way of index, in the annexed tabular view.

I. —SIMPLE SUBSTANCES :

A. Native Non-Metallic Substances (1—2).

B. Native Metals (3-10).
II. — ARSENIDES AND SULPHIDES :

A. Sulphides of Silver, Lead, and Zinc (11-13.)

B. Sulphides of Copper (14-16).

C. Arsenides and Sulphides of Nickel and Iron (17-22).

D. Sulphide of Molybdenum (23).

E. Sulphides of Bismuth and Antimony (24-26).
III. — OXYGEN COMPOUNDS :

A. Copper Oxides (27-28).
Iron Oxides :

B.

C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

(1) Hematite group of Iron Oxides (29-30).

(2) Magnetite group of Iron Oxides (31-33).

(3) Limonite group of Iron Oxides (34).

Manganese Oxides (35-36).
Uranium Oxides (37-38).
Tungstenum Compounds (39).
Titanium Oxides (40).
Alumina and Aluminates (41-42).
Silica and Silicates :

(1) Quartz group (43).

(2) Group of Basic Silicates (44-51).

(4)
(5)

16)
(7)

Group of Pyroxenic Silicates (52-54).
Group of Chrysolitic Silicates (55-56).
Group of Feldspathic Silicates

ss (57-59).

Group of Calcareo-Feldspathic Silicates (60-64).
Group of Nephelitic Silicates (65-66).

(8) Group of Zeolitic Silicates (67-76)'

(9) Group of Micaceous and Chloritic Silicates (77-81).

(10) Group of Talcose Silicates (82-83).

(11) Group of Kaolinic Silicates (84-85).

(12) Group of Copper and Nickel Silicates (86-87).

I. Carbonates :

(1) Group of Anhydrous Carbonates (88-93).

(2) Group of Hydrous Carbonates (94-95).

K. Sulphates (96-102).
L. Phosphates and Arseniates (103-105).
IV. — FLUORIDES AND CHLORIDES :

A. Fluorides (106).

B. Chlorides (107).

V. — BODIES OF ASSUMED ORGANIC ORIGIN :

A. Oxalates (108).

B. Carbonaceous substances (109-113).

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 61

I.— SIMPLE SUBSTANCE.

[This group includes the Native Non-Metallic Elements and Native
Metals of Canadian occurrence. Three of these, Graphite,— often
termed Plumbago or "Black Lead," but consisting essentially of
carbon, — Native Gold, and Native Silver, are entitled to rank amongst
the economic products of the country ; and Native Copper may even-
tually perhaps be added to the list. The rest occur in small quantities
only, or under more or less obscure conditions.]

A. NATIVE NON-METALLIC SUBSTANCES.

1. Graphite (Plumbago) :— Iron-black or dark steel-grey, with black
lustrous streak, and metallic or sub-metallic aspect. Found occasion-
ally in tabular hexagonal crystals, but more commonly in small scales,
and in foliated and granular masses, which soil the hands, and leave
a dark metallic trace on paper. Very sectile, and greasy or soapy to
the touch. H = 1.0 — 2.0; sp. gr. 2.0 — 2.3 in pure specimens,
but sometimes as high as 2.5. BB, quite infusible, and not dissolved
by borax or ordinary fluxes. Consists essentially of carbon, with a
variable amount of intimately intermixed siliceous or ferruginous
matter, the so-called "ash." This, which becomes visible when the
carbon is burnt off by long continued ignition, may vary from a mere
trace to 40 or 50 per cent. The actual amount of ash scarcely affects
the value of the plumbago. Samples holding 40 or more per cent,
may possess as much marketable value as others in which no more
than 8 or 10 per cent, is present. But a great deal depends on the
composition of the ash, at least as regards certain uses. If the ash
contain more than a very slight amount of lime or magnesia, the
graphite is scarcely suitable for the manufacture of crucibles. A
selected sample, from Buckingham, on the Ottawa, shewed the follow-
ing composition :

Carbon 80. 12 ( Silica 12.86

j Alumina 4 33

Ash 18 58 J *ron Oxide • 1-'07

Lime

0.16

| Magnesia .......*.'.'. trace

Moisture 1.30 I Loss 0.18

Another sample yielded: moisture 1.14, ash 22.06, carbon 76.80.

^ In the form of small scales and flaky masses, graphite is widely

disseminated throughout the area occupied by the Lauren tian series

of rocks (Part V.) It occurs most commonly in the beds of crystalline

limestone of this series ; but sometimes also in the gneissoid strata,

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

where it appears occasionally to replace the mica of these rocks. It-
occurs also in large flakes in some of the beds of iron-ore associated
with the Laurentian limestones, as at Hull, on the Ottawa. In other
places, graphite forms large lenticular masses, or actual beds a foot
or more in thickness, in these limestones. Occasionally also, it occurs
in the form of distinct veins, traversing different strata of the Lauren-
tian series. The more important localities comprise, the townships-
of Buckingham, Lochabar, Petite Nation, and Grenville, on the left
bank of the Ottawa, where this useful mineral occurs in comparative
abundance, and is more or less largely worked. Other localities com-
prise, more especially, the township of Burgess in Lanark county,
and Loughborough and Bedford in Frontenac ; but small quantities
are met with in almost every locality in which crystalline limestone
occurs. Graphite is found also in thin coatings and finely disseminated
scales amongst many of the altered slates of the metamorphic region
south of the St. Lawrence (See Part V.), as in Melborne, Shipton,
and elsewhere, but nowhere in workable quantities. The chief
employment of graphite or plumbago is in the manufacture of draw-
ing pencils, and refractory crucibles, the common kinds and refuse
being used as a polishing material for stoves, grates, <fec. It is also
occasionally employed to remove friction in machinery.

2. Sulphur : — Normally, in Ortho-Rhombic crystals (chiefly acute
rhombic octahedrons), and in granular masses of a yellow or yellowish-
grey colour. H — 2.5 or less ; sp. gr. 2.0. Inflammable, burning
with blue flame and sulphurous odour, and melting into brownish-
yellow drops which become pale-yellow on cooling.

In Canada, sulphur occurs very sparingly in the simple state : chiefly
as an efflorescent crust on specimens of decomposing pyrites from
Lake Superior, and elsewhere. It is also occasionally deposited as
an incrustation from springs containing sulphuretted hydrogen. In
this condition, mixed with carbonate of lime, it occurs in the Town-
shid of Chariot teville, (Lot 3, Con. 12,) Norfolk County, Ontario.
It is found also here and there, as first pointed out by Dr. Bigsby,
in the form of minute crystals, and in earthy coatings, on some of

the lower thin-bedded limestones around Niagara Falls.

B. NATIVE METALS.

2. Native Gold: — Golden yellow; malleable: Regular in crystalliza-
tion, but occuring chiefly in small granular or leafy particles imbedded

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

quartz or other rock-matters, or in the form of small nuggets or

fine grains mixed with sand and gravel. H =.2.0 3.0; sp. gr.

- 19.5 according to purity : usually about 16 to 17.5. BB,
easily fusible, but not oxydizable or otherwise affected. Insoluble in
nitric acid, but soluble in aqua regia.

Native gold is always alloyed with a small amount of silver, by
which its colour is rendered paler, and its specfic gravity lowered.
The average amount of silver in specimens from the Eastern Town-
ships is about 12 p. c., or from 10 to 15 p.c In the gold from the
Hastings district, it appears to vary from about 2 to 10 p.c. ; whilst
in much of the gold from Nova Scotia, it does not exceed 2 or 3 per
cent.

As regards Ontario and Quebec, gold occurs in rock formations of
three distinct ages. First, in quartz veins or bands in the Lauren-
tian Series.* more especially in the Townships of Madoc, Marmora
and Elzevir, in the County of Hastings, in Ontario. Secondly in
veins — mostly of quartz intermixed with ferruginous calcspar or
dolomite— in the Metamorphic Series of the Eastern Townships of
the Province Quebec, south of the St. Lawrence (as well as in altered
strata of the same general age in Nova Scotia) ; and thirdly, in gravel
and other detrital accumulations of Post-Cainozoic age, or in part
apparently of somewhat older date. These latter deposits occur chiefly
at the base of the Drift-Formation (see Part V.) throughout the
Eastern Townships and adjacent region generally. They usually
yield, by washing, a considerable residuum of black ferruginous sand,
with which the gold is intermixed— sometimes in nuggets weighing
several ounces, but more commonly in very minute grains. The
sands of most of the streams and rivers which traverse this district
are, thus, more or less auriferous. The St. Francis, Chaudiere,
Famine, Metgermet, Du-Loup, Guillauine or Des-Plaiites, and Gilbert
or Touffedes-Pins, may be mentioned more especially in this connexion.
A good deal of alluvial gold has been taken out of cracks and hollows
m the slaty rocks forming the bed of these rivers, as at the Devil's
Rapids on the Chaudiere ; also on small streams near Ste. Marie and
St. George and elsewhere. The gold-bearing veins of this district
have been noticed chiefly in Vaudreuil, Aubert-Gallion, and Liniere,

* The characters and relations of the various rock groups referred to in this Division are
ully described in Parts III and V.

[IN Ell A

in the County of Beauce ; St. Giles, in Lotbiniero County
in Megantic (Nutbro wn's location), <tc. The gold is distributed very
irregularly throughout the veinstone, some samples yielding upwards
-of $100 per ton, and others nothing, or a mere trace (See a valuable
Report by A. Michel and Dr. T. Sterry Hunt : Geological Survey
of Canada, 1866).

In the older Laurentian area of Hastings and adjoining district, in
Ontario, the gold occurs only in quartz or quartzo-dolomitic veins
or bands in gneissoid strata. Most of these bands carry auriferous
mispickel and pyrites, the so-called " free gold " being comparatively
rare ; but in certain localities, as at the Richardson and some other
mines in the immediate vicinity of Eldorado in Madoc, in the 2nd
and 9th concessions of Marmora, and in parts of Elzevir, some rich
shews have been obtained. Up to the present time, however, gold-
mining in this region has met with but very partial success.

The presence of g )ld in Arsenical and Iron Pyrites, Blende, &c.,
will be referred to in the descriptions of these minerals. Auriferous
varieties occur more esepcially in Hastings, and in veins on the north-
west shore of Lake Superior, as well as in the Eastern Townships.
Samples of Copper and Iron Pyrites mixed with much rock-matter,
from the Lake Superior region, yielded the writer amounts of gold
corresponding to nearly an ounce troy in the ton of 2,000 Ibs. ; and
some rich samples of crystalline mispickel from Marmora held nearly
seven ounces per ton.

4. Native Platinum : — Tin-white or greyish-white. In small loose
grains or scales. Sp. gr. 16 — 20. Infusible. Insoluble in nitric
acid. Occurs very sparingly with native gold in the sands of the
Riviere du Loup, and in some of the other iron-sands of the Eastern
Townships, Province of Quebec, accompanied in places by steel-grey
grains of Irid-Osmium.

5. Native Silver : — Metallic-white, but usually with dark surface-
tarnish. Regular in crystallization, but found chiefly in small granu-
lar, leafy, or filiform masses, usually imbedded in quartz or calcspai
Malleable. H = 2.5 — 3.0 ; sp. gr. 10 — 11. BB, easily fusible,
but not otherwise altered. Readily dissolved by nitric acid. A white
curdy precipitate of chloride of silver, is thrown down from the solu-
tion by hydrochloric acid, or solution of any chloride, as common
salt. The precipitate blackens on exposure to light, and is readily

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 65

soluble in ammonia : characters which distinguish it from chloride of
lead.

Native silver occurs in a broad vein of calc spar at Prince's Mine,
Spar Island, and on the adjacent main land, on the north-west shore
of Lake Superior. It is associated at this spot with blende, galena,
amethyst, quartz, &c., and contains, according to Dr. Sterry Hunt, a
small amount of gold ; but the mine has been prematurely abandoned.
East of this location, around Thunder Bay, several broad veins occur,
in which native silver has been found in still larger quantities. The
veinstone consists in part of amethystine and colourless quartz, and
partly of crystalline calc spar, accompanied by heavy spar, fluorspar,
blende, galena, and pyrites. The silver is also associated here and there
with silver-glance or black sulphide of silver. It does not appear to con-
tain gold. Silver Islet, near Thunder Cape, is one of the more re-
markable of these localities, but the accessible portion of the vein at
this spot appears to be now worked out. This metal occurs also in
the native state, but in sparing quantities, associated with copper-
glance in a calcspar and quartz vein on the Island of Saint Ignace ;
and with native copper on the Island of Michipicoten, further east.
Native silver has likewise been seen occasionally, in small filaments,
among the copper ores of the Acton Mine, in the Province of
Quebec.

The occurrence of silver in galena, blende, pyrites, and other min-
erals, will be noticed under the descriptions of these substances.

6. Native Copper .-—Copper-red ; malleable ; Regular in crystalliza-
tion, but occurring generally in arborescent groups of minute indis-
tinct crystals, or in masses of irregular form. H = 2.5 3.0 ; sp.

gr. 8.8 — 8.95. BB, easily fusible into a shining globule which
becomes covered, on cooling, with a coating of black oxide. Readily
soluble in nitric acid. The diluted solution is rendered intensely blue
by addition of ammonia.

Native copper, although so abundant on the south shore of Lake
Superior, has not been found, as yet, very abundantly in Canada.
It occurs, however, in many of the amygdaloidal traps and green-
stones, of the Upper Copper-bearing series of the north and east shores
of the lake, associated with prehnite, epidote, chlorite, &c. Here
and there it has been obtained in irregular masses of the weight of
several pounds ; but it occurs most commonly scattered through the
6

GEOLOGY

trap in small grains which frequently present a rounded or semi-fm
appearance. The principal localities comprise Battle Island and the
Islands of St. Ignace and Michipicoten ; also Maimanse arid Cape
Gargantua, According to the Report for 1863 of the Geological
Survey, Native Copper occurs likewise in thin plates in red shales
of the Quebec series, on the Etcheniin River, below St. Henri, and
at Point Levis, opposite Quebec ; as well as in a kind of amygdaloidal
greenstone underlying these shales at St. Flavien, in the same district-
It is stated to have been found, moreover, in small dendritic and
other masses, accompanying copper pyrites, apatite, and a silvery-
white mica, in a quartz vein in the Township of Barford.

7. Native Lead : — Lead-grey ; soft and malleable. BB, fuses easily,
and becomes gradually volatilized, coating the charcoal with a yellow
ring of lead oxide.

Native lead is of very rare occurrence. The only specimen dis-
covered in Canada, is in the form of a thin string in colourless quartz.
It was obtained by Mr. Mclntyre of Fort William, Lake Superior,
from the vicinity of the Kaministiquia, Thunder Bay. As the quartz
contains a few scales of specular iron ore in a perfectly normal con-
dition, it is evident that the lead cannot have arisen from the reduction
of galena by the action of heat.

8 Native Bismuth : — Silver- white with reddish tinge, but usually
tarnished. Sectile, but not malleable. Hemi-hexagonal in crystalli-
zation, but commonly in small masses of lamellar structure. H = 2.0
— 2.5 ; sp. gr. about 9.7. BB, melts easily and volatilizes, coating
the charceal with yellow oxide. Soluble in nitric acid ; the solution
yields a white precipitate of bismuthic oxide on the addition of water
in excess.

The oiily examples of Native Bismuth hitherto met with in Canada,
were recognized by the writer in some rolled pieces of quartz, obtain
from near Echo Lake, on the north-west shore of Lake Huron.

9. Native Antimony ; — Tin or greyish-white. Brittle. Chieny in
small masses of lamellar or fine granular structure. H = 3.0 — 3.5 ;
sp. gr. 6.65 — 6.75. BB, melts and volatilizes, tinging the flame
pale-green, and depositing a copious white crust on the charcoal.
The only known occurrence of Native Antimony in Canada, is in the
Eastern Township of South Ham (lot 27 of first range), where, mixed
with antimony glance, &c., it forms several narrow veins in a clay
.« late of the Quebec Group.

"•">

-

OF CEVT.RAFj CANADA PART II.

APPENDIX TO GROUP I.

10. Meteoric Iron: — Dark steel-grey; malleable; strongly magnetic;
H == 4.5 ; sp. gr. about 7.4 ; fracture, hackly. BB, infusible.

An irregular mass of malleable iron weighing about 750 Ibs. was
•discovered in 1854, on the surface of the ground, in the Township of
Madoc. Its examination by Dr. Sterry Hunt showed the presence of
6.35 per cent of Nickel, with other characters belonging to ordinary
examples of meteoric iron. It exhibits a dark coating of oxide, and
contains a small amount of intermixed phosphide of iron (Schreiber-
site) and magnetic pyrites. Nitric acid brings out on the polished
surface the so-called Widmannstadt's figures, or intersecting lines and
zigzag markings indicative of an irregular crystalline structure.

II.— ARSENIDES AND SULPHIDES.

[This sub-division contains the various compounds of arsenic and
sulphur with metallic bases, hitherto found in Central Canada. These
may be conveniently described under five groups, as follows : Sul-
phides of Silver, Lead, and Zinc ; Sulphides of Copper ; Arsenides
and Sulphides of Nickel and Iron ; Sulphide of Molybdenum ; and
.Sulphides of Bismuth and Antimony.]

A. — SULPHIDES OF SILVER, LEAD, AND ZINC.

11. Silver Glance or Argentite : — Black, or dark lead-grey; malle-
able; Regular in crystallization, but occurring commonly in small
irregular masses, or in leafy or delicate arborescent forms. H = 2.0

- 2.5 ; sp.gr. 7.2 — 7.4. BB, melts with bubbling, and yields a
globule of metallic silver. 1 00 parts contain normally : Sulphur 12.90,
Ril ver 87. 10. Hitherto, only found with native silver, <fcc., at Prince's
Location, Lake Superior, and in the silver veins of Thunder Bay.
At the " Withers Mine/' at a depth of nearly sixty feet from the sur-
face, several crystals, combinations of cube and octahedron, measuring
the fourth of an inch across, were obtained by the writer ; and some
others of still larger size were found in the same shaft by Mr. Mc-
Intyre of Fort William, One of these (sp. gr. 7.31) yielded : sulphur
13.37 ; silver 86.44 ; copper, slight trace. The adjacent mine of the
Thunder Bay Company has also furnished some good specimens.

12. Galena: — Lead-grey; more or less sectile, but not malleable ;
Regular in crystallization, and often met with in cubes ( fig. 36)

68

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

and in combination of the cube and octahedron (fig. 37), and other
related forms : also in irregular masses,
mostly with well-marked lamellar struc-
ture. Cleavage cubical and easily effect-
ed. H = 2.5 ; sp.gr. 7.2 — 7.7. BB,
decrepitates (as a general rule) and be-
comes reduced to metallic lead. The

charcoal is entrusted partly with a yellow ring of lead oxide, and
beyond this, with a white deposit of mixed sulphate and carbonate
of lead. 100 parts of galena contain: sulphur 13.4, lead 8G.6 ; but a
minute portion of the sulphide of lead is almost invariably replaced
by sulphide of silver. In most Canadian samples however, the
amount of silver does not exceed ten or twelve dwts. in the ton, and
is consequently insufficient to defray the cost of extraction. The
known or reported exceptions to this statement are mentioned be-
low.

Galena, as a mineral, is very widely distributed throughout Canada :
both in veins, and in small crystalline masses, &c., scattered through
rocks of various kinds, more especially in metamorphic and other
limestones or dolomites. It is thus present in almost every mineral
vein on the north shore of Lake Superior, in association with zinc-
blende, copper and iron pyrites, &c. Also, here and there, through-
out the wide Laurentian area between the northern lakes, and the
Ottawa ; in the limestones and dolomites of the Niagara and other
formations in Ontario ; in the dark calcareous shales around Quebec ;.
in the metamorphic region of the Eastern Townships ; and in the
limestones of Gaspe. Some of the more special localities comprise :
— Prince's Location, Lake Superior ; the silver vein of Thunder Bay
and Thunder Cape; many veins holding copper pyrites, ifec., north of
Thunder Bay ; the region around Black Bay, where it is associated
with auriferous copper-pyrites in broad veins;* the district north of
Garden River, between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, where it
holds a considerable amount of silver ; in well-defined veins of much

* A surface-sample obtained personally from a quartzose vein in the Upper Copper bearing
rocks of this district, gave me : 47.56 per cent, metallic lead, 8.10 per cent, metallic copper
(another sample gave 11.62 per cent.), with an amount of gold equivalent to 16 dwts. 18 grs. per
ton of 2000 Ibs. of ore, and 2 oz. ]2 dwts. of silver. The amount of gold in different samples
varied from 14 to 19 dwts. per ton. according to the amount of pyrites. This vein is about
10 feet wide, and carries in its centre a solid lode at least 4 feet in width, of a mixture of
copper pyrites and galena.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

promise, with gangue of highly crystalline calc-spar heavy spar, in
gneiss, in the Township of Galway, Peterborough County, and in the
adjoining Township of Sommerville ; in Lake, Tudor, Limerick, and
Marmora, when numerous veins occur in gneissoid strata,* in the
Township of Loughborough in Frontenac in broad veins, traversing
gneiss and crystalline limestone ; under similar conditions in Bedford
in the same county ; in Lansdowne, Leeds County ; and Ramsay, in
Lanark County. Galena occurs also in narrow, deceptive, gash veins
{see under "Mineral Veins" in Part III.) in the Niagara dolomites
of Malmur (Simcoe County), Erarnosa (Wellington County), and
•Clinton (Lincoln County).

In the Province of Quebec, this mineral occurs especially in the
-copper-ore veins of the Eastern Townships, as in Acton, Upton, and
Ascot, and in many of the quartz veins of the Chaudiere valley.
Galena, apparently in workable quantities has also been noticed by
the Geological Survey at Gaspe Cove and Indian Cove, near Cape
Gaspe (Report, 1863, p. 400'. Argentiferous galena (properly so-
called) occurs, according to Dr. S terry Hunt, at the St. Francis Rapids
on the Chaudiere, associated with Arsenical Pyrites and Blende, and
•at Moulton Hill, near Lennoxville. The actual amount of silver
appears to vary greatly, probably from intermixed particles of native
.silver. Three dressed samples from the Chaudiere yielded respectively
-32 oz., 256 oz., and 37 oz., per ton of 2240 Ibs. A dressed sample
from Moulton Hill yielded 65 oz. per ton. Other argentiferous
varieties are reported to occur on Lake Superior (Meredith's Location,
Maimanse, and elsewhere), but the silver, found in some of these
may be due to intermixed scales and filaments of native silver and
silver-glance.

1 3. Zinc Blende or Sphalerite : — Lustre, sub-metallic or resinous.
Colour (in Canadian examples) brown, black, yellow, &c. ; streak,
mostly pale-brown. Regular in crystallization, but occurring com-
monly in small irregular masses, or indistinct crystals, with well-
marked lamellar structure. H = 3.5 — 4.0 ; sp. gr. 3.9 4.2.

BB, infusible, or fusible on the edges only; but when stronglv ignited
with carb. soda on charcoal, it yields a white incrustation of zinc
oxide, which assumes a green colour when moistened with nitrate of

* Some of these veins are apparently cut off, at a comparatively slight depth, by the walls
coming together, and their working has beeen thus abandoned ; but if the sinking were con-
tinued, they would probably be found to open out again.

70 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

cobalt and then subjected to ignition (see Part I, p. 35). Warmed,
in powder, with hydrochloric acid, it emits an odour of sulphuretted
hydrogen. Some of the yellow blendes emit a phosphorescent light
when scratched or broken. 100 parts contain (normally) sulphur 33,
zinc 67 ; but in the dark varieties a certain amount of iron is always
present, and many specimens contain a small percentage of cadmium,
manganese, <fcc.

This mineral occurs with galena in almost all the localities given
in the description of that substance, (see under No. 12, above), and
lately it has been found in large quantities north of Thunder Bay.
Brown and yellow varieties are scattered through all the silver-bear-
ing veins of Thunder Bay, and some of the latter have yielded traces
of gold, not exceeding, however, 2 dwts. in the ton. Small crystalline
masses and grains occur also in most of the lead veins of Peterborough?
Frontenac, Hastings, <fec., and some of a wax-yellow colour are occa-
sionally seen in fossil shells, or associated with gypsum in small cracks
and cavities in the limestone beds around Niagara Falls, as well as
in the older limestones of Kingston, Montreal, &c. Zinc Blende is
seen likewise in many of the veins of the Eastern Townships, as in.
the valley of the Chaudiere, and elsewhere. An auriferous variety
is stated by Dr. Sterry Hunt to accompany argentiferous galena, <fcc.,
in a quartz vein at the St. Francis Rapids on the Chaudiere.

B. SULPHIDES OF COPPER.

14. Copper Glance : — Dark lead-grey, often with blue or green tar-
nish ; streak, black and slightly shining. Crystallization Rhombic,
but the crystals have mostly a pseudo-hexagonal aspect. Found
commonly, however, in small granular or other masses. H 2.5 -
3.0 ; sp. gr. 5.5 — 5.8. BB, melts with strong bubbling or spitting,,
colours the edge and point of the flame green, and yields a globule of
metallic copper covered by a dark scoria or crust. One hundred parts
contain : Sulphur 20.2, Copper 79.8.

This ore, often termed '• vitreous copper ore " (although its lustre
is perfectly metallic), occurs in small quantities in many of the mineral
veins of lake Superior and Lake Huron : as on Spar Island, Pigeon
River, St. Ignace, Point Porphyry, Michipicoten, Point-aux-Mines>
Batchewahning Bay, Echo Lake, Bruce Mines, &c. It occurs also in
many of the copper-ore veins of the Eastern Townships, as in Leeds
(at the Harvey Hill and other mines), Halifax, Sutton, Brome, Shef-

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 71

ford, Stukely, Brompton, Acton, Melbourne, Cleveland, &c. Also
reported from Coteau St. Genevieve, near Quebec.

15. Purple or Variegated Pyrites (Bornite, Erubescite, Horse-flesh
Ore) : — Pale brownish-red, but always presenting a rich purple or
variegated tarnish ; streak, greyish-black. Regular, but rarely cry-
stallized ; mostly in irregular masses. Brittle. H = 3.0; sp.gr.
4.5 — 5.5. BB, fusible into a dark magnetic globule. Composition
somewhat variable, but averaging : Sulphur 25, Copper 60, Iron 15.
A sample from Lake Huron gave the author : Sulphur 24.03, Copper
63.19, Iron 11.86.

This valuable mineral (the "horse-flesh ore" of miners) occurs in
large and small masses, imbedded in, or scattered through, many of
the altered strata of the Eastern Townships ; and also, though less
abundantly, in quartz veins traversing these strata. Some of the more
important localities comprise the celebrated Acton mine in Acton
Township, the Halifax mine in the township of the same name, Sweet's
mine in Sutton, Cold Spring mine and Balrath mine in Melbourne,
the St. Francis mine in Cleveland, and the Harvey Hill mine in Leeds ;
but it occurs also in other parts of these townships, as well as, more
or less', throughout the entire district, associated most commonly with
the ordinary or yelloy pyrites, and frequently with earthy malachite,
copper glance, native copper, galena, &c. The country rock is usually
a dolomitic limestone, or a chloritic or micaceous slate. See further,
under Copper Pyrites, below.

In other parts of Canada, this ore occurs but sparingly. It has
been found at the Wellington and Bruce mines on Lake Huron j and
in veins at Point-aux-Mines, Maimanse, and elsewhere, on Lake Sup-
erior. Lake Huron specimens sometimes exhibit pseuodmorphs (tetra-
hedrons of the Tetragonal System after Copper Pyrites.

16. Copper Pyrites (Chalkopyrite) /-—Brass-yellow, often with varie-
gated tarnish ; streak, dark green, or greenish-black. Tetragonal in
crystallization, but commonly found in irregular masses. Brittle.
H = 3.5 — 4.0 ; sp. gr. 4.1 — 4.3. BB, melts into a dark magnetic
globule ; after roasting, yields, with carb. soda, metallic copper. One
hundred parts contain : Sulphur 34.9, Copper 34.6, Iron 30.5

This is the common ore of copper. It is familiarly known as " yel-
low copper ore." It occurs in small quantities, both in veins and in
scattered masses, among the Laurentian strata of various localities :

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

more especially in the townships of Lake, Madoc, Elzevir, Hungerford,
&c., in the County of Hastings ; North Burgess in. Lanark ; Escott
and Bastard in Leeds, and throughout the gneissoid region generally
between the Ottawa and Lake Huron. The accompanying veinstone
is mostly calcspar, but in some places it consists of quartz, or is of a
granitic nature. Specks of galena, blende, and iron pyrites, usually
accompany the copper ore. This mineral has been found also in calc-
spar veins traversing gneiss in Kildare, Joliette County, in the Pro-
vince of Quebec.

In the Huronian strata, this ore is far more abundant. Numerous
veins, with quartz gangue, occur on the north shore of Lake Huron.
Many of these veins carry workable quantities of copper pyrites,
accompanied in most cases by small portions of variegated pyrites, and
also by copper glance, iron pyrites, &c. The best known are those
of the Bruce and Wellington Mines ; but others occur at Copper Bay,
White Fish River, Spanish River, Garden River, Root River, Echo
Lake, and elsewhere in that district. Yery large quantities have
lately been found in the vicinity of Sudbury.

Copper Pyrites occurs also in many localities on the east and north
shores of Lake Superior, in veins traversing strata apparently of Cam-
brian age (see Part V). These are known as the Copper-Bearing
series of Lake Superior. Among other localities may be enumerated :
Bach e wanning Bay, Maimanse, Point-aux-Mines, Mica Bay, Black
River, Black Bay, Thunder Bay, and locations between Thunder Bay
and Dog Lake on the Kaministiquia. Some of rhese veins carry but
small quantities of ore, but others are exeedingly rich : those especially
which occur in the vicinity of Black Bay, and in the country north
of Thunder Bay. Samples from these latter districts, collected per-
sonally, and others obtained by Mr. S. J. Dawson, have yielded
amounts of gold varying from a few dwts. to about an oz. troy in the
ton of 2000 Ibs. of ore. The gangue of these veins is either quartz,
or a mixture of calcspar, heavy spar, amethystine quartz, and fluor
spar ; and the copper ore is generally accompanied by galena, zinc
blende, and iron pyrites.

Finally, Copper Pyrites is widely distributed throughout many of
the Eastern Townships in the Province of Quebec. In some places,
the copper of this region is entirely in the form of yellow pyrites ;
in others, chiefly in the state of purple or variegated ore (No 15,

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

73

above). The more important localities of the yellow ore, lie in the
townships of Stukely (Grand Trunk)Mine, &c.), Ely (Ely Mine, <kc.),
Bolton (Huntington Mine, Ives Mine, <fcc.), Leeds (Harvey Hill
Mine, &c.), Halifax (Black Lake Mine), Inverness, Tringwick, Chester,
Ham, and others. Also in the townships of Ascot (Ascot Mine,
Belvidere Mine, Lower Canada Mine, Albert Mine, Capel or Eldorado
Mine, Victoria Mine, Marrington Mine, Griffith's Mine, Clark Mine,
Ac.), Sutton, Brome, Melbourne (Coldstream M., Balrath M.), and
Cleveland.* Copper Pyrites occurs also in true veins in this district,
as at the Harvey Hill and Nu thrown mines in Leeds, as well as in
Inverness, and elsewhere.

C. — ARSENIDES AND SULPHIDES OF NICKEL AND IRON.

17 Arsenical Nickel Ore: — Pale copper-red, with dull greyish tar-
nish. Hexagonal in crystallization, but mostly in irregular masses.
Brittle. H = 5.0 — 5.5 ; sp. gr. 6.7 — 7.3- BB, emits a strong
odour of garlic, and melts into a dark (sometimes magnetic) globule.
One hundred parts contain : Arsenic 56, Nickel 44, but some of the
nickel is commonly replaced by iron, and sometimes by cobalt.

The above characters are those of the ore in its normal state. In
Canada, this ore, however, has only been found in admixture with
other metallic compounds. A mixture of this kind, in small nodular
masses associated with calcspar, occurs in amygdaloidal trap on Mich-
ipicoten Island, Lake Superior. The amount of nickel according
to analyses by Dr. Sterry Hunt and Prof. Whitney, varies from
about 17 to 37 per cent. The colour of this variety is between tin-
white and bronze-yellow : sp. gr. 7.3 — 7.4. The composition
indicates a mixture of arsenides of nickel with arsenides of copper
(Domeykite).

Another nickleferous compound of a steel-grey colour apparently
a mixture of arsenide and sulphide of nickel with arsenical pyrites,
occurs sparingly at the Wallace Mine, Lake Huron. It was first
made known by Dr, Sterry Hunt. The surface is commonly covered,
more or less, with minute hair-like crystals of nickel and iron sul-
phates, arising from the partial decomposition of the ore.

18. Miller ite or Sulphide of Nickel : — Brass or bronze yellow.

* A detailed list of all the copper ore localities of the Eastern Townships will be found in the
valuable Appendix of the Geological Surrvey Report for 1886.

74 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Hemi-hexagonal, the crystals mostly acicular and very minute ; al?
found in imbedded grains and small globular masses. H = 3.0, —
3.5 (but not easily ascertained) ; sp. gr. 4.6 — 5.6. BB, melts into
a dark globule. One hundred parts contain ; Sulphur 35, Nickel 65.
Occurs very sparingly, in small specks, with calcspar and minute
green crystals of chrome garnet, in the Township of Orford (Lot 6,
Range 12), where it was first recognized by Dr. Sterry Hunt.

19. Magnetic Pyrites (Pyrrhotino) ; — Bronze-yellow, with black
streak. Crystal-system, Hexagonal, but crystals very rare ; found
commonly in granular and irregular masses. H = 3.5 — 4.5; sp.
gr. 4.4 — 4.7. Slightly magnetic, many specimens exhibiting polar-
ity. The magnetism is best shewn by bringing a specimen of some
size near a suspended needle. As a general rule, a bar or horseshoe
magnet will only take up very small particles. BB, emits sulphur-
ous fumes, and melts into a dark slag-like mass. By roasting, becomes
ve.iy easily converted into red oxide. Soluble in hot hydrochloric
acid, with emission of sulphuretted hydrogen odour. One hundred
parts yield, on an average, Sulphur 39.5, Iron 60.5 ; but many
varieties contain 3 or more per cent, of nickel, replacing part of
the iron. A -variety from Madoc, (lot 10, con. 2), yielded the writer :
Sulphur 39.88, Iron 59.56, and contained no trace of cobalt, nickel,
or gold.

Occurs in veins and irregular beds among the Laurentian strata
north of Thunder Bay, and in other localities a short distance inland
from the north shore of Lake Superior. Also, under similar con-
ditions, near Balsam Lake, &c. ; and more or less throughout the
Laurentian district between Georgian Bay and the Ottawa. Like-
wise in a calcspar vein in Portneuf, Province of Quebec ; and still
more abundantly in St. Jerome, Terrebonne. Magnetic Pyrites occurs
also in the higher metamorphic district south of the St. Lawrence,
generally accompanying copper ores : as in the Townships of Barford,
St. Francis, and Sutton, and at the Ives and Huntington mines in-
Bolton.

20. Iron Pyrites (Cubical Pyrites, Mundic, &c.) : — Pale brass-yellow-
— often brown on the surface from partial conversion into brown iron
oxide ; streak, greyish-black. Regular in crystallization, and fre-
quently found in cubes (usually with striated faces, the strise on one
face running at right angles to those on the adjacent face) ; also in

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II.

75

>rnbinations of cube
and octahedron, in sim-
ple octahedrons, pen-
tagonal dodecahedrons,
&c. (Figs. 37 — 41.)
Found still more fre-
quently in granular,
nodular, and other irre-
gular masses. H =
6.0 — 6.5 ; sp. gr. 4.8
—52. BE, emits sul- FlGS- 37 to «.

phurous fumes, and melts into a dark magnetic globule. One hun-
dred parts contain: Sulphur 53.3, Iron 46.7, but a small portion of
the iron is occasionally replaced by cobalt or nickel. Many varieties,
also, contain traces of both gold and silver. (In this connectiou, it
may be observed that a percentage of 0.01 is equivalent to 2 oz. 18
dwts. 8 grs. (troy) in the ton of 2000 Ibs., or to 3 oz. 5 dwts. 8 grs.
(troy) in the British ton of 2240 Ibs.)

Iron Pyrites is of exceedingly common occurrence. It is present,
more or less, in almost every mineral vein ; and occurs also, in crystals,
grains, and irregular masses, in rocks of all ages and of various kinds.
It sometimes forms the substance of organic remains, as in examples
of Trilobites, &c., from the Utica Slate of Whitby and other localities.
In this condition it arises most probably from the alteration of carbo-
nate of iron.

In the Laurentian rocks of North Hastings and adjacent counties,
in the copper-bearing series. of Lake Superior, and in the altered
strata of the Eastern Townships south of the St. Lawrence, auriferous
varieties have been noticed ; but the amount of gold in these is scarce-
ly sufficient to defray the cost of its extraction. In Elizabethtown
(Lot 19, Range 2), near Brockville, and elsewhere in this vicinity,
some large beds or veins of a cbbaltic variety occur. Large veins
occur also in Clarendon, on the Ottawa ; in Terrebonne and Lanoraie ;
in Hastings, and throughout that district ; as well as on the north
shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. Extensive deposits are like-
wise seen in some of the Eastern Townships (Garthby, Ascot, <fcc.) —
all of which are likely to become available at no distant day, in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid. Cubical crystals of large size occur

76

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

iii a copper-ore vein, on Lot 8, Range 1, in Melbourne Townshij
Small but very symmetrical octahedrons are obtained occasionally from
the thick-bedded Trenton Limestone on the Bay of Quinte, near Belle-
ville. Cubes, pentagonal dodecahedrons, and other crystals, occur in
many of the veins and gneissoid rocks of Madoc, Elzevir, Tudor, &c.
Occasionally also, well crystallize examples are seen in the veins, and
also in the trap dykes, of Lake Huron and Lake Superior; and small
brilliant crystals occur in the white compact trachyte of Montreal.
Finally, it may be mentioned, without attempting however to name
all the localities of this mineral in Canada, that peculiar nodular
concretionary masses occur in the shales of the Island of Orleans,
and elsewhere near Quebec ; and in the more modern bituminous
shales of the Portage Group, at Cape Ibberwash or Kettle Point,
Lake Huron.

21. Prismatic Pyrites or Marcasite (Radiated Pyrites, Cockscoml
Pyrites, &c. ) : — Light brass - yellow ;
Rhombic in crystallization, the pris-
matric crystals mostly in radiated aggre-
gations, or united in rows, as in Fig. 42.
Composition and other characters as in
the common or cubical pyrites, the two FIG 42.

minerals thus presenting an example of Dimorphism — i.e., the assump-
tion of two distinct sets of forms by the same chemical substance.
The prismatic species is especially subject to decomposition, yielding
iron vitriol.

The occurrence of prismatic pyrites in Canada was first made
known by the author, who met with it in 1865 in a quartz vein
(carving copper pyrites, galena, heavy spar, &c., together with ex-
amples of cubical pyrites), in the remote Township of Neebing, a fe\v
miles east of the Kaministiquia River, on the north west shore of
Lake Superior.* Other examples have come under his notice on
subsequent visits to this district, from some of the silver-bearing
veins of Thunder Bay ; and he has obtained recently a large and tine
specimen from a vein in Laurentian rock in the Township of Hinchin-
brook, in Frontenac County. Many of the spherical masses of
pyrites with radiated structure and crystallized surface, it should be
observed, though commonly referred to Marcasite, belong really to
•the cubical species.

* Lot 25. Con. 5. Canadian Journal, 2nd Series, Vol. X., 408.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

77

FIG. 43.

A garlic-like

22. Arsenical Pyrites or Mispickel: — Colour between silver-white
and pale steel-grey, often obscured by yellowish or pale-blue tarnish;
streak, greyish-black. Crystallization, Rhombic : the crystals mostly
small and short rhombic prisms, terminated by two
nearly flat and striated planes (Fig. 43). Occurs
also in granular and irregular masses. H = 5.0 —
6.0; sp. gr. 6.0. — 6.4. BB emits a strong odour
of garlic, and melts into a dark magnetic globule,
odour is also more or less perceptible when the mineral is broken by
a smart blow. One hundred parts contain : Sulphur 19.6, Arsenic
46.0, Iron, 34.4 ; but a small portion of the iron is occasionally re-
placed by cobalt.*

This mineral is useless as an ore of iron, but it serves for the pro-
duction of arsenious acid, the " arsenic " or " white arsenic " of
commerce, and it frequently contains minute portions of gold. In
Central Canada, it occurs in the Laurentian strata of Marmora and
Tudor. Specimens from Marmora have yielded the author amounts
of gold ranging from 1 oz. to over 6 ounces in the ton of 2000
Ibs.t In Tudor, small crystals of mispickel J accompany Bismuth
Glance. The copper-ore veins of the Huronian rocks, also show here
and there small crystals and granular masses of this mineral, as at
the Bruce and Wellington Mines ; and it occurs in small quantities
in some of the argentiferous veins of the Upper Copper-bearing
Series around Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. The altered rocks of
the Eastern Townships, south of the St. Lawrence, likewise contain
it in places, as near the Chaudiere Rapids in the County of Beauce,

* In this case, the roasted ore when fused with borax will import a more or less decided blue
colour to the glass. For details respecting this and other blowpipe processes and reactions see
Part 1.

t An amount of this kind, it will of course be understood, although rendering the ore of great
commercial value, does not practically affect the normal composition of the mineral. One
ounce per ton of 2000 Ibs., for example, is equivalent only to a percentage of 0.00343.

J Although a reference to minute crystallographic details
is opposed to the plan of the present work, it may be
stated, here, that these Tudor crystals present the com-
bination shown in the annexed Figure, in which the
common brachydome Jjg is replaced by $% and & . The
form ^ , the summit angle of which equals 118° 30', is a
comparatively tare form, but it appears to be always
present in the cobaltiferous varieties of Mispickel, and in
the allied species Glaucodot. The Tudor crystals, as
shewn by a blowpipe examination, contain a small per-
centage of cobalt.

FIG. 44.

78 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

where it occurs with argentiferous galena in quartz veins ; and also,
according to Dr. Sterry Hunt, under similar conditions at Moulton
Hill in Leimoxville. In Nova Scotia, mispickrl is of exceedingly
common occurrence in the gold-bearing quartz hands, and it appears
invariably to be more or less auriferous.

D. SULPHIDE OF MOLYBDENUM.

23. Molybdenite : — Light lead-grey, with greyish-black metallic
streak. Hexagonal in crystallization, but occurring commonly in
the form of small scales, or in leafy or fine granular masses. Very
sectile ; slightly greasy or soapy to the touch, leaving a black trace
on paper, and a dull greyish-green trace on smooth porcelain. H =
1.0 — 2.0 ; sp. gr. 4.4 — -4.8. BB, imparts (in the forceps) a distinct
green coloration to the point of the flame, but remains infusible. In
a continued blast on charcoal, however, it deposits a white coating of
molybdic acid on the support. Forms with carb. soda an alkaline
sulphide (see Part I, p. 44), by which, with other characters, it may
be distinguished from Graphite. One hundred parts contain : Sul-
phur 41, Molybdenum 59.

This mineral is at present of little commercial value.* It occurs
in small scales disseminated through many of the crystalline lime-
stones of the Lauren tian series, in the Counties of Frontenac,
Hastings, Peterborough, Victoria, &c. According to the Reports of
the Geological Survey, it has been found in much larger quantity
near the mouth of the River Quetachoo, in Manicougan Bay, on the
north shore of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. It occurs also in some
abundance at Sea-beach Bay, near Black River, on the north shore
of Lake Superior, in several veins, accompanying copper pyrites in
quartz. Samples from this locality have yielded nearly 4J per
cent, of molybdenite, or about 100 Ibs. per ton of ore, (Can. Jour.
Vol. X., p. 409). Terrace Cove is another locality in which molyb-
denite has been found on Lake Superior. This mineral occurs also
in quartz veins at Harvey Hill, in the Township of Leeds, in small
rounded masses of fine granular structure associated with copper
pyrites and crystallized dolomite.

* As Molybdenite is quoted in chemical price-lists at from 50 cents to a dollar or more per
lb., an idea is sometimes expressed that it would pay to work, if found in sufficient quantity.
Inquiries, however, made in London, Paris, Hamburg, Berlin and other cities, have demon-
strated the fact that a very few tons would completely overstock the market.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 79

E. SULPHIDES OF BISMUTH AND ANTIMONY.

24. Bismuth Glance :— Light lead-grey, often with yellow or blue-
ish tarnish ; streak, black. Ehombic in crystallization, but occurring
commonly in lamellar and fibrous masses. H = 2.0 ; sp. gr. about
6.5. BB, melts very readily into a black globule, which gradually
volatilizes, with deposition of a yellow ling of oxide (and, beyond
this, a greyish-white coating of sulphate) on the charcoal*. A small
residum is sometimes left ; this generally shews with borax or phos-
phor-salt the reactions of copper and iron (see Part I.). Dissolves,
with separation of sulphur, in nitric acid. The solution dropped
into excess of water forms a milky or opaline liquid. Not affected
by caustic potash. One hundred parts of the pure mineral contain :
sulphur 18.75, bismuth 81.25.

Bismuth glance is a comparatively rare mineral. It has not
hitherto been discovered, at any locality, in sufficient quantity to
form a commercial ore. In Canada, it occurs in small lamellar and
sub-fibrous masses in a quartz vein, with numerous interpenetrating
crystals of black tourmaline, at Hill's Mine, in the rear of Tudor,
one of the northern townships of the County of Hastings. Some
small samples have also been found near Cornwall, Out.

25. Antimony Glance or Grey Antimony Ore : — Light lead-grey,
often with dark, or iridescent, tarnish. Rhombic in crystallization,
but occurring mostly in fibrous or granular masses. H = 2.0, sp. gr.
4.52—4.62. Melts per se in the flame of a candle. BB, melts
rapidly, and becomes volatilized in dense white fumes, a white
oxidized coating being deposited on the charcoal. The point of the
flame, if directed on this, is tinged pale blueish-green. A hot solu-
tion of caustic potash converts the powdered ore into an orange-
coloured compound of similar composition. One hundred parts
contain : sulphur 28.2, antimony 71.8.

Of rare occurrence in Canada. Hitherto, found only in small
quantities, with iron pyrites and mica, in a band of crystalline dolo-
mite, in the Township of Sheffield (Lot 28, Con. 1), in Addington
County ; and in small masses mixed with tremolite, under similar
conditions, in Marmora. Also, in radiating fibrous masses with
Native Antimony in narrow veins traversing slates of the Quebec
Series, in the Eastern Township of South Ham.

"All compounds of Bismuth when fused on charcoal with a mixture of potassium iodide and
•m a vivid scarlet coating on the support, as first shewn by Merz and Von Kobell.

80

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Note : — A plumbiferous variety of Antimony Glance, apparentb
a mixture of that ore with Zinkenite or Jamesonite, has been sent
to me Jately from Belleville, with the intimation that it was obtained
in Elzevir. It forms small fibrous or sub-fibrous masses, intimately
mixed with calc-spar, and with numerous acicular crystals of Tre-
molite, and some massive Hornblende, in quartz. Partially soluble
in caustic potash, hydrochloric acid precipitating orange-coloured
flakes from the solution.

26 bis. Menighinite : — Lead-grey ; H=2.5 ; sp. gr. 6. 33. Easily
fusible with antimonial fumes. Contains sulphur, antimony and
lead. Occurs near Marble Lake, Township of Barrie, Ont., (Dr. B.
J. Harrington, Trans. Roy. Society of Canada, 1883).

26. Red Antimony Ore (Kermesite) : — Dark cherry-red, somewhat
lighter in the streak ; lustre adamantine, or approaching semi-
metallic. Monoclinic in crystallization, but occurring almost always
in small radiating fibrous tufts, associated with Antimony Glance.
H=1.0 — 1.5, sp. gr. 4.5. — 4.6. BB, melts on the first application
of the flame, and becomes rapidly volatilized. The composition is
somewhat remarkable, presenting the union of a sulphur and oxygen
compound. One hundred parts contain : sulphur 19.8, oxygen 4.9,
antimony 75.3.

Occurs in small feathery masses, with Native Antimony and
Antimony Glance, in the Eastern Township of South Ham.

III. OXYGEN COMPOUNDS.
[This sub-division comprises the various Oxides of natural occur-
rence, i. e. combinations of oxygen with various metals ; and also
the ternary oxygen compounds, or so-called oxygen salts, commonly
regarded as combinations of an oxygen acid (silicic acid, carbonic
acid, &c.) with an oxidized metallic base (lime, magnesia, alumina,
iron oxides, &c.). These latter compounds form the groups of Sili-
cates, Carbonates, Sulphates, and so forth. See the remarks
Chemical Nomenclature in Part 1., and also the observations p
fixed to the various groups below.]

A. COPPER OXIDES.

27. Red Copper Ore (Ruby Copper, Ruberite, Cuprite) : — Red,
with red streak. Normally, in Regular crystals (chiefly the octahe-
dron and rhombic dodecahedron) which are commonly converted on

— -- 'j

ili-

:

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 81

the surface into green carbonate of copper ; also massive and earthy.
H =4.0 or less ; sp. gr. 5.8 — 6.1. BB, imparts a green colour to
the flame, and becomes reduced to metallic copper. One hundred
parts contain : Oxygen 11.20, Copper 88.80.

In Canada, this mineral occurs in traces merely, in some of the
copper ore deposits of the Eastern Townships (Halifax, Acton, &c).
Spots and stains of a more or less bright red colour, are frequently
the only indications of its presence. Stains of a similar appear-
ance, are more commonly produced, however, by the weathering of
iron ores.

28. Black Copper Ore (Melaconite) :— Black, with black streak.
Mostly in dull earthy masses. BB, colours the flame green, and
yields metallic copper. One hundred parts of the pure mineral con-
tain : oxygen 20.15, copper 79.85. Occurs in traces only in some of
the copper ore deposits of the Eastern Townships.

B. IRON OXIDES.

[This group comprises the mineral species which consist simply of
oxygen and iron ; and those, of a closely related character, in which
part of the iron is replaced by titanium or chromium. These species
fall into three natural groups: (1) The Hematite group, consisting
of anhydrous sesqui-oxides (or analogous compounds), Hexagonal, or
rather He mi-Hexagonal, in crystallization ; (2) the Magnetite group,
compounds (apparently) of oxides and sesqui-oxides, Regular in
crystallization ; and (3), the Limonite group, consisting of hydrated
sesqui-oxides.

(1) HEMATITE GROUP OF IRON OXIDES.

29. Hematite (Specular Iron Ore, Red Iron Ore, Red Ochre) :

This mineral occurs under several more or less distinct conditions,
and especially : (1) In Hemi-hexagonal crystals, chiefly groups of
modified rhombohedrons, and in lamellar and micaceous masses, with
steel-grey colour, often iridescent on the surface, and with strongly
marked metallic lustre ( = Specular and Micaceous Iron Ore) ; (2) In
botryoidal masses of fibrous structure, and in irregular lamellar
masses, with blueish or brownish- red colour, and lustre between
metallic and semi-metallic ( = Hematite of old authors, Red Iron Ore),
and (3), In brick-red, more or less earthy and granular masses
( = Reddle or Red Ochre). In these varieties, the streak or powder
is equally of a red colour. H = 5.5 - 6.5 in the crystals and crystal-
7

82 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

line or semi-crystalline masses, but only 1.0 - 2.0 in the earthy and
ochreous varieties. Sp. gr. 4.3-5.3. BB, becomes magnetic, but
on charcoal remains unfused, although a very thin splinter in the
forceps may be rounded at the point. One hundred parts contain,
normally : oxygen 30, iron 70 ; but many specimens, it should be
observed, are intimately mixed with quartz, chlorite slate, or other
rock matter, by which the parcentage of iron is much reduced.

This valuable ore occurs in Canada in strata of various periods of
formation. One of its more important localities is in the Township of
McNabb, in Renfrew, where it forms a bed of about 30 feet in thick-
ness, associated with crystalline limestone of the Laurentian Series?
and overlaid by a magnesian limestone of Lower Silurian ago. It
occurs also in the township of Bristol, and in Templeton and Hull,
on the opposite side of the Ottawa. Other Laurentian localities
comprise various spots in the counties of Addington, Hastings,
Peterborough,* etc. ; and on Iron Island, on Lake Nipissing, where
it also occurs in connection with crystalline limestone. In Huronian
strata, it has been found near the Wallace Mine on Lake Huron,
and still more abundantly on Lake Superior, as in the Bachewah-
nung District on the east shore of the lake ; on the north side of
Michipicoten Harbour : and in widely-extended beds in the vicinity
of Pic River : mostly in green, chloritic, pyroxenic, or hornblendic
slates. Micaceous and other varieties occur in the metamorphic
strata of the Eastern Townships : as in St. Arm and, Brome, and
Sutton, mostly in chloritic schists, as well as in the auriferous
copper-ore veins of Leeds and Halifax. In Silurian strata, hematitic
or specular iron ore has been noticed in small quantities in the
Potsdam Sandstone of Bastard and Ramsay. Lastly, it may be
mentioned, that an earthy impure variety is found in bands and
small masses interstratified with the red ferruginous shales of the
Clinton or Middle Silurian Series, near Dundas, in Flamborough
West.

Note. — Small octahedrons, and related crystals, having the com-
position of Red Iron Ore, are occasionally found. These form the
species Martite of some authors, but they are probably due to the
alteration of Magnetic Iron Ore. See under that mineral, No. 31.

* Special localities in Hastings and Peterborough counties are given in a paper by the author,
with analyses of the ores, in Vol. III. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 1885

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 83

30. Titaniferous Iron Ore (Ilmenite, Menaccanite in part) :

Iron-black ; streak-powder, brownish-black to chocolate-brown.
Henri-Hexagonal, but commonly in lamellar and granular masses.
When pure, not magnetic; but sometimes feebly-magnetic, probably
from intermixed magnetic iron ore. H=5-6; sp. gr. '4.3 -5.0.
BB, like Hermatite ; but the glass formed with phosphor- salt, after
exposure to a reducing flame, has a distinctly red colour. Composi-
tion, essentially iron, titanium, and oxygen, in variable proportions.
The Titaniferous ore from Baie St. Paul, on the Lower St. Law-
rence, as deduced from Dr. Sterry Hunt's analysis, contains
Titanium 29.63, Iron 36.11, Oxygen 29.10, in addition to 3.60 per
cent, of magnesia.

This ore occurs in Canada, in vast beds or masses interstratified
with feldspathic rocks of the so-called Labrador or Upper Laurentian
Series, at Baie St. Paul, below Quebec. At this locality, it exhibits
a peculiar structure : an aggregation of coarse granular concretions
composed of irregular lamella Small grains of rutile are scattered
in places through the mass. The principal bed is ninety feet in
thickness and of great extent, but the ore at present is comparatively
useless. This substance occurs also in grains and thin bands in a
similar anorthosite or feldspathic rock (see Part III) in the neigh-
bouring parish of Chateau Richer, and likewise under the same
conditions in the Township of Rawdon, in Montcalm County. It
has been detected also by the officers of the Geological Survey,
amongst the iron ores of the metamorphic strata of the Eastern
Townships : as in St. Francis, in Beauce County, and in Brome and
Sutton.

(2) MAGNHTITB GROUP OP IRON OXIDES.

31. Magnetic Iron Ore or Magnetite /—Iron-black, with black
streak, and in general a sub-metallic lustre. Strongly mastic
most specimens exhibiting polarity (see under Magnetism, Part I)'
Regular in crystallization, and often
found in octahedrous and rhombic
dodecahedrons (Figs. 45 and 46), the
faces of the latter commonly striated
parallel with the position of the edges
of a plane of the octahedron. Occurs

also still more frequently in lamellar, FlG8< 45 and 46-

granular, and other masses, sometimes forming large beds or

84 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

" stocks." Also in the form of black sand. H = 5.5 - 6.5 ; sp. gr.
4.9 - 5.2. BB, on charcoal, infusible, but a fine splinter in the for-
ceps may be rounded at the point. One hundred parts of the mineral
contain: Oxygen 27.6, Iron 72.4 (or, oxide of iron 31.03, sesqui-
oxide 68.07).

This ore, the most valuable of all the ores of iron, occurs in great
quantity, and of good quality, in numerous localities of the Lauren-
tian area of Canada. It is usually found in the form of large
" stocks " or irregular masses, mostly associated with pyroxene, and
in contact, as pointed out by Sir William Logan, with crystalline
limestones of the Laurentian Series ; but it occurs also interstratified
with gneissoid and schistose strata of the same group, and in grains
and small masses scattered through these rocks. Sometimes, like-
wise, it forms true veins, traversing Laurentian strata. It occurs
also in beds amongst the altered Silurian rocks of the Eastern Town-
ships; and, in the form of sand (usually mixed with Iserine), it
belongs to comparatively recent deposits.

The principal or more interesting Laurentian localities lie in the
following Townships : — Hull and Templeton in Ottawa County
(several beds, one nearly 90 feet in thickness ; the ore, here and
there, mixed with layers of hematite, and also with scales of
graphite) ; Buckingham, in the same county (in crystalline masses in
broad feldspathic veins) ; Went worth, Grenville, and Grandison, in
Argenteuil County ; Ross, in Renfrew County (in reticulating veins
in cryst. limestone) ; South Crosby (bed of 200 feet in thickness),
and Escott, in Leeds County ; South Sherbrooke, in Lanark County ;
Bedford, in Frontenac County ; Madoc, Elzevir, Marmora, Tudor,
Wollaston, Faraday, Herschel, etc., in Hastings County (many large
and valuable deposits, although intermixed here and there with
pyrites); Belmont, Cardiff, Monmouth, Glamorgan, Snowdon, Minden,
etc., in Peterborough and Haliburton Counties,* forming deposits of
great extent. Magnetic Iron Ore in cleavable masses, associated
with Hematite, occurs also near the mouth of the Little Pic River,
on the north shore of Lake Superior, and minute octahedrons are
sometimes observable amongst the layers of hematite from this region.

The Eastern Townships of Sutton, Leeds, Bolton, Orford, <kc., like-
wise possess deposits of magnetite, chiefly in masses and disseminated

* Special localities in the Hastings, Peterborough and Haliburton district are given, with
analyses of the ores, in a paper by the author in Vol. III. of the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

85

crystals, as well as in continuous bands, in dolomite, chlorite slate,
serpentine, and other magnesiaii strata. Much of the ore from these
localities, however, contains titanium or chromium. Lastly, in the
form of black sand, alone, or mixed with Iserine, the ore occurs very
commonly on the shores and islands of Lake Superior, Lake Huron,
Erie, and Ontario, and on those of many of our smaller lakes. Also,
here and there, on the north shore and gulf of the St. Lawrence ;
and mixed with the auriferous gravels of the Chaudiere, St. Francis,
Gilbert, and other rivers of the Eastern Townships.

Note : — Magnetite occasionally becomes altered by higher oxida-
tion into Hematite, without change of form. The streak is then
more or less red, and the magnetism scarcely perceptible. Some
small octahedrons (with truncated edges) of this character, the Mar-
tite of some authors, were observed by the writer in a gneissoid
boulder from Bass Lake, a few miles north of Orillia.

32. Iserine, or Titaniferous Magnetic Ore : — Black, with black
streak and sub-metallic lustre. More or less strongly magnetic. In
minute octahedrons, sand grains and pebbles. Other characters like
those of Magnetic Iron Ore, but the glass obtained by fusion in a
reducing flame with phosphor-salt has always a distinct red or red-
brown colour. Composition, essentially, magnetic oxide of iron, with
part of the iron replaced by titanium. A small amount of magnesia
is also generally present. Forms a certain portion of most of the
black magnetic sands of our lake, island and river shores, referred
to under No. 31.*

33. Chromic Iron Ore : — Black or brownish-black, with, normally,
a dark brown streak, and sub-metallic aspect ; but the streak is often
greenish or greenish-grey, from the presence of intermixed serpentine
or other silicious matter. In general, slightly magnetic : if strongly
magnetic, the substance is mixed with magnetic iron ore, and the
streak is more or less black. Regular in crystallization, but occur-
ring commonly in irregular masses, mostly of granular structure.
H=5.5 ; sp. gr. 4.3—4.6. BB, like magnetite, infusible or but
slightly rounded on the thin edges. With borax and phosphor-salt,
yields a more or less pure green glass, the green colour becoming
clearer and more distinct as the glass cools. Composition, theoreti-
cally, oxide of iron and sesqui-oxide of chromium, but the latter is

* For the detection of Titanium in iron ores, generally, the reader is referred to the author's
Blowpipe Practice, p. 51.

86

MINERALS AND Gl

always replaced to some extent by alumina, &c., and the iron by a
certain amount of magnesia. The sosqui-oxide of chromium thus
varies from about 40 to about 60 per cent., in different samples. A
variety from Bolton yielded Dr. Skerry Hunt 45.90 per cent., and
another from Lake Memphramagog gave 49.75 per cent.

Occurs abundantly in beds and scattered grains amongst the meta-
morphic strata of the Easter Townships and Gaspe\ mostly in connec-
tion with serpentine or other magnesian rocks, the green colour of
these being partly due to the presence cf oxide of chromium. The
principal localities comprise : Mount Albert in the Shickshock Range
of Gasps', and the Townships of Bolton, Ham and Melbourne.
Chromic Iron Ore is largely used in the preparation of chromate and
bi-chromate of potash.

(3) LIMONITE GROUP OF IRON OXIDES.

34. Brown Iron Ore or Limonite (including Bog Iron Ore and
Yellow Ochre) : — Brown, brownish-black, or dull-yellow ; streak,
yellowish-brown or ochre-yellow. Aspect, sub-metallic in some of
the dark varieties, silky and earthy in others. Occurs commonly in
masses with botryoidal surface and fibrous structure, or in granular
or earthy masses. H=1.0 — 5.5 ; sp. gr. 3.5 — 4.0. Heated in the
bulb tube, it gives off water, and becomes converted into red oxide.
BB, turns red, and then blackens and becomes magnetic. A thin
scale, in the forceps, may be rounded on the thin edges ; otherwise
infusible. Composition, essentially, hydrated sesquioxide of iron ;
but the amount of water varies considerably, and the more earthy
varieties always contain a certain percentage of phosphoric acid, with
frequently silica, alumina, oxides of manganese, and humic or other
organic acids. In the sub-metallic and silky varieties, the average
amount of metallic iron is equal to about 58 or 60 per cent. ; in the
average bog ores it equals about 45 or sometimes 50 per cent. ; and
in the ochres, it varies from about 10 to 40 per cent. The average
amount of water is about 15 per cent, or from 10 to 20 per cent.
Brown and Bog Iron Ores are often smelted, and the Iron Ochres
are valuable as a paint material.

The varieties of this mineral hitherto found in Canada, comprise
the more earthy varieties, Bog Iron Ore and Yellow Ochre. These
belong to comparatively modern deposits, and, in places, indeed, they
are now under process of formation. The iron is taken up by water
percolating through ferruginous strata, and is held in solution for a

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 87

time as bicarbonate or in combination with organic acids ; and after-
wards, by absorption of oxygen, it becomes converted into insoluble
sesquioxide, and is thus deposited in a hydrated condition, mixed
more or less with earthy and other impurities.

In the Province of Ontario, Bog Iron Ore occurs in small quanti-
ties in almost every Township, but some of the more important de-
posits lie in the townships of Charlotte ville, Middletown and Wind-
ham, in Norfolk County, on Lake Erie ; also in Camden Township
in Kent, West Gwillimbury in Simcoe, Bastard in Leeds, March
and Fitzroy, and also Vaudreuil, on the Ottawa, and elsewhere.
Ochres occur also at the la' ter locality, associated with the bog ore ;
and extensive beds have been discovered in various places in the
County of Middlesex ; in Walsingham Township, Norfolk Co. ; at
Limehouse in Halton Co. ; as well as near Owen Sound in the
township of Sydenham in Grey County, and in Nottawasaga Town-
ship in Simcoe. Also in Elzevir, Leeds and other Townships.

Bog Iron Ore, in still more valuable deposits, occurs abundantly
in the Province of Quebec. The most important localities lie per-
haps in the Three Rivers District, or between the Rivers St. Mau-
rice, Batiscan and St. Anne. The old St. Maurice forges, so cele-
brated for their castings, were fed by the ore of this neighbourhood ;
and the more recently established Radnor forges, at Batiscan, draw
their supply from the same district. Other deposits of bog ore
occur in Lachenaie in I'Assomption County, Kildare in Joliette
County, and elsewhere in that section ; also in Templeton, Hull and
Eardley, on the left bank of the Ottawa. South of the St. Lawrence,
the ore occurs more or less abundantly in the Eastern Townships of
Stanbridge, Farnham, Simpson, Ascot, Stanstead, Ireland, &c., and
in St. Lambert, St. Yallier, Yilleray, Cacouna and elsewhere. Yal li-
able deposits of ochre occur especially near the mouth of the St.
Anne, in Montmorenci, below Quebec ; and at Cap de la Madeleine
and Point du Lac, near the St. Maurice, in the Three Rivers
District. Also in the township of Mansfield, on the Upper Ottawa.
A bed of ochre occurs likewise in Durham, and elsewhere, in the
Eastern Townships. These ochres are frequently, in places, of a
dark-brown or greenish-black colour, from intermixture with earthy
manganese ore.

C. MANGANESE OXIDES.

35. Manganite : — Steel-grey, with brownish streak, and metallic

88 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

or sub-metallic lustre. Rhombic in crystallization, but occurring
chiefly in fibrous masses. H=3.5— 4.0 ; sp. gr. 4.3 — 4.4. B.B
infusible. Yields water by ignition in the bulb-tube, and forms a
" turquoise enamel " with carb.-soda (see Part I., p. 39). Composi-
tion, if pure : sesquioxide of manganese 89.8, water 10.2.

Said to occur in a broad vein, with quartz, calc spar and fluor
spar, traversing trap rocks, on the south shore of Bachewahnung
Bay, Lake Superior, but no examples have yet come under the
author's observation.

36.' Earthy Manganese Ore (Wad, Bog-Manganese, Manganese
Ochre) : — Black or blackish-brown, in dull, earthy and often nodular
masses. Very soft. BB, infusible. Yields water in the bulb-tube,
and forms with carb.-soda a " turquoise enamel," green whilst hot,
greenish-blue and opaque when cold. Composition, essentially, hy-
drated oxide of manganese, but always mixed with earthy matters,
and often with iron ochre. Some varieties contain baryta, others
oxide of cobalt, copper, &c. The manganese is usually present both
as protoxide and sesquioxide.

This substance occurs principally in recent deposits throughout
the district south of the St. Lawrence, as, more especially, in Cleve-
land, Bolton, Stanstead, Tring, Aubert Gallion, Ste. Marie (Beauce),
St. Sylvester, Lauzun, &c. Deposits of this ochre have also been
found on the north shore, as in Seigniories of Ste. Anne and Cacouna,
and in the immediate vicinity of Quebec. In Ontario, it has only
been observed, as yet, in the Township of Madoc ; and. in admixture
with iron ochre, on the north-east shore of Thunder Bay, Lake
Superior. A sample from the latter locality, yielded the author :

Sesquioxide of Iron 33.68

Sesquioxide manganese 16.54

Protoxide manganese 5.08

Lime 0.81

Carbonic Acid 3. 78

Sulphuric acid trace only

Phosphoric acid . . very slight trace

Water 3.82

Silicious rock matter .., . 36.12

( Carbonate manganese .. 8.23
( Carbonate of lime 1.44

99.83"

* The small amount of water held by this ochre is somewhat remarkable. As regards the
Dominion of Canada, workable amounts of Pyrolusite or Black Ore of Manganese appear to
occur only in the Lower Carboniferous strata of Albert and King's Counties, New Brnnswick.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 89

D. URANIUM OXIDES.

37. Uran Ochre : — Yellow, in earthy crusts. BB, blackens, but
does not fuse. Composition, probably, sesquioxide of uranium and
water. In Canada, observed only as a coating on magnetic iron ore
with intermixed actynolite, at the Seymour Mine in Madoc.

38. Black Uranium Ore or Pitch-blende (Coracite, &c.) : — Black,
greyish-black, greenish-black, with greyish or brownish streak.
Aspect between sub-metallic and vitreo-resinous. Mostly in nodu-
lar or other imcleavable masses. H = 5.5 when pure, but frequently
less from intermixed earthy matters ; sp.gr. 6.6 — 7.0 when pure,
but sometimes as high as 8.0, and often only 4.0 or 4.5, from impuri-
ties. BB, infusible, or rounded only on the thinnest edges. Com-
position, normally, protoxide of uranium 32.10, sesquioxide 67.90;
but, in many instances mixed with carbonate or silicate of lime,
lead, bismuth, copper and other compounds.

The only known locality in which this substance occurs in Canada,
is at Maimanse, on the east shore of Lake Superior. The variety
found at this spot was first described by Dr. Le Conte under the
name of Coracite. It is mixed with carbonate of lime and other
impurities, by which its sp. gr. is reduced to between 4.3 and 4.4
(4.378 Le Conte), and its hardness to about 3.5 or 4.0. It yields
also, according to the analyses of Whitney and Genth, about 5 or 6
per cent, of water (Dana's Mineralogy : 5th ed. p. 155).

E. TUNGSTENUM COMPOUNDS.

39. Wolfram : — Brownish -black, with strong, sub-metallic lustre,
and blackish-brown or red-brown streak. Rhombic in crystalliza-
tion, but occurring frequently in irregular masses of lamellar or
columnar structure. H=5. 0—5.5; sp.gr. 7.1 — 7.6. BB, melts
into a dull iron-grey globule with striated or crystalline surface.
Consists of Tungstic acid combined with oxides of iron and mangan-
ese.

The only known examples of Canadian wolfram, were found by
the writer, some years ago, in a large boulder of gneiss, on the north
shore of Chief's Island, Lake Couchiching. (See description in
Canadian Journal, 2nd series, Vol. 1. p. 308. Also, for analysis by
Dr. Sterry Hunt, Vol. V., p. 303\.

F. TITANIUM OXIDES.

[See also Ilmenite and Iserine under the Iron Ores.]

40. Rutile: — D irk-red, with peculiar adamantine lustre: streak,

90

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

pale-brown or greyish. Tetrag. in crystallization, the crystals often
in geniculated twin-combinations. Commonly, also, in columnar am
fibrous masses, and sometimes in small grains or scales (imperfect or
flattened crystals). H=6.0 -6.5 ; sp. gr. 4.15—4.3. BB, infu-
sible. With borax in a reducing flame, it forms a dark, amethystin<
glass, which is transformed into a light-blue opaque enamel by ex-
posure to an intermittent flame (see Part I.). Composition : oxygen
39, titanium 61.

Small grains or indistinct crystals of Rutile occur in the beds of
Ilmenite at Baie St. Paul, below Quebec ; and at other localities, in
Laurentian strata, associated with this ore. Tolerably distim
crystals, half-an-inch in length, have been found in crystalline lime-
stone on Green Island, Moira Lake, in Madoc.* Acicular crystals
occur sparingly in quartz cavities .at the Wallace Mine, Lake Huron.
Small crystalline grains and flattened crystals also, in the chloritic
schists of some of the Eastern Townships, more especially in Sutton .
Minute grains of Rutile occur likewise in many of the black ferru-
ginous sands described uuder Nos. 31 and 32, above.

G. ALUMINA AND ALUMINATES.

[This group includes but two minerals of Canadian occurrence :
Corundum and Spinel. The first, by crystallization and atomic
constitution, is related to Hematite, amongst the Iron Ores, and the
second to Magnetite\.

41. Corundum: — Blue, blueish-white, red, brownish, greenish,
dark-grey ; streak, white or greyish ; aspect vitreous or stony.
Hexagonal in crystallization, but occurring
frequently in grains and small granular
masses. H = 9.0 ; sp. gr. 3.9 - 4.2. BB, in-
fusible. Not dissolved by carb. soda. Con
sists, normally, of alumina. Transparent blue
FIG. 47. FIG. 48. varieties from the Sapphire of commerce, and

red varieties, the Ruby. Coarse, dull-coloured varieties are known
as Common Corundum or Adamantme Spar ; and opaque, dark-grey,
granular varieties (often mixed with magnetic iron ore) constitute
Emery, a substance largely used as a polishing material. Some of
the finer varieties of corundum exhibit, especially when cut, a
peculiar opalescence, frequently in the shape of a six -rayed star.
These are known as asteria sapphires, rubies, <fcc.

* This locality was first pointed out by the late T. C. Wallbridge, of Belleville.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 91

In Canada, this mineral has hitherto been noticed only in the
form of blueish and pale-red grains in the crystalline Laurentian
limestones of the Township of Burgess, Lanark County, Ontario.
At one locality (Lot 2, Con. 9), it is associated with quartz, ortho-
clase, pearly-white mica and sphene.

42. Spinel : - Red, blueish, dark-green, black ; streak, white or
grey ; aspect, vitreous or stony. Regular in crystallization, and
commonly occurring in octahedrons,
either simple, or united in twin-forms
(Figs. 49 and 50). H = 8.0 ; sp. gr. 3.5
-4.5. BB, infusible* The red and
transparent varieties consist essentially
of alumina and magnesia : normally of Fm' 49> FlG' 50'

alumina 72, magnesia 28, per cent. • in the black varieties (Pleo-
naste, Ceylanite), the magnesia is largely replaced, however, by oxide
of iron ; and in the dark green or greenish-black varieties (Gahnite,
Automolite) it is almost entirely replaced by oxide of zinc.

Small octahedrons and grains of a pale-blue colour (much resem-
bling the spinel which occurs under similar conditions at Aker, in
Sweden) are found in a crystalline limestone in the Seigniory of
Daillebout, Jolliette County, in the Province of Quebec. Large and
often very symetrical black crystals occur in crystalline limestone in
Burgess, Lanark Co. ; and less perfect examples of a similar colour,
accompanying fluor spar, apatite, and white orthoclase crystals, are
found in a vein of flesh-red calcite, in the Township of Ross, in
Renfrew County, on the Ottawa.

H. SILICA AND SILICATES.*

[This division comprises the different varieties of Quartz and Opal,
or silica in the free state ; together with the natural compounds of
silica with various bases, such as alumina, the iron oxides, magnesia,
lime, soda, potash, and the like. Some of these silicates yield water
when ignited ; others are anhydrous in their normal condition, but
frequently yield traces of water as the result of incipient decomposi-
tion. It is not possible t) arrange the silicates strictly in accordance
with their bases, without separating, in many instances, substances
which in general characters are closely allied ; and in some cases, an

* For details respecting the crystallization characters of the silicates generally, the reader
may consult the Notes attached to the Mineral Tables in the author's Blowpipe Practice.

92

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

arrangement of this kind would lead to a separation of varieti«
of one and the same mineral. In the garnets, for example, cer-
tain varieties contain magnesia, and others lime or oxide of iron,
<fec., in place of magnesia, these bases being capable of mutual
substitution without the general or essential character of the sub-
stance being altered by the change — a peculiarity known as isomor-
phism. The silicates possess representatives of all the crystal sys-
tems. In their hardness they vary from 1.0 (in tale) to 8.0 (in
topaz). Their aspect is most commonly vitreous, resin o- vitreous,
stony, or pearly, but the micas and some few other silicates
(bronzite, &c.) exhibit a pseudo-metallic lustre (see Part I). The
colour frequently varies greatly in examples of the same species,
as it is due chiefly to minute and accidental proportions of
foreign matters, or to variations in the isomorphous bodies which
form the base. Thus, where protoxide of iron or ferro-ferric oxide is
largely present, the mineral will generally possess a dark-green or
black colour, but where these bases are replaced by lime or magnesia
in greater or less proportion, the same mineral may be quite pale or
light in colour, or even colourless. The different garnets, pyroxenes,
amphiboles, tourmalines, &c., are familiar examples of this fact. The
streak, however, is always white (or nearly so) under normal con-
ditions, but it may exhibit a slight or indefinite tinge of grey, green,
or brown, in a very dark or ferruginous variety, especially if the sub-
stance be slightly altered or decomposed. Many silicates unless pre-
viously ignited or fused with potash or alkaline carbonates, resist
altogether the action of acids. Others becomj partially attacked or
decomposed (some by boiling hydrochloric acid, and others by sul-
phuric acid), the silica separating in a granalar, slimy or gelatinous
condition (See under "Action of Acids," in Part I). Some silicates,
which do not gelatinize in their ordinary state, exhibit this peculi-
arity if previously fused or strongly ignited. Certain silicates are
quite influsible in the blow-pipe flame. Others, if held, in the form
of a thin or pointed splinter, in the platinum forceps (Part I), be-
come rounded and vitrified at the point or edges ; and others, again,
melt into a perfect globule. In. some cases, the substance exfoliates,
or swells up and forms an intumescent branching mass, on the first
application of the flame ; and in many instances the fusion of a sili-
cate is accompanied by continued bubbling. Silicates which contain
a large proportion of silica form a clear transparent glass with carb.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 93

soda, if the latter be added littfe by little until the proper quantity be
obtained ; but phosphor-salt is a far more characteristic reagent for
these bodies. When a silicate is exposed in a bead of phosphor-salt
to the action of the blowpipe, the bases (lime, magnesia, alumina,
&c.) become gradually taken up, whilst the silica remains wholly or
in chief part undissolved. A small portion may be taken up by the
hot flux, but as this cools, the silica is precipitated, rendering the
glass opaline or milky. The undissolved silica, if a small fragment
or scale-like particle of the mineral be subjected to the test, forms a
thin, translucid, flocculent mass, technically known as a "silica
skeleton," in the centre of the bead. A silicate may thus be readily
distinguished from a phosphate, carbonate, sulphate, &c., as these
latter bodies are rapidly and entirely dissolved (the carbonates with
effervesence) by phosphor-salt under the action of the blowpipe.

The silicous minerals, hitherto discovered in Canada, are described
in this work under twelve groups or sub-divisions ; but some of
these, it should be observed, are rather groups of convenience than
strictly natural collocations. Their distinct characters are given
below. The groups, themselves, comprise : (1) Quartz group; (2)
Basic Silicates ; (3) Pyroxenic Silicates ; (4 > Chrysolitic Silicates ;
(5) Feldspathic Silicates; (6) Calcareo-Feldspathic Silicates; (7)
Nephelitic Silicates; (8) Zeolitic Silicates; (9) Micaceous and
Chloritic Silicates ; (10) Talcose Silicates; (11) Kaolinic Silicates ;
(1'2) Copper and Nickel Silicates.

(1) QUARTZ GROUP.

[This group includes the different conditions of Silica in its free or
uncombined state. These conditions aje principally three : the
crystalline anhydrous condition — yielding the different varieties of
Quartz ; the Calcedonic condition ; and the uncrystalline, generally
hydrated condition, giving rise to the various Opals.

43. Quartz : — Colourless or variously coloured, and vitreous or
stony in aspect. Streak (normally) white. Frequently found in
Hexagonal crystals, consisting almost invariably of a six-sided prism,
transversely striated, and terminated by the planes of a six-sided
pyramid. In many examples, however, the pyramidal planes, more
especially, are of very unequal size, some of the faces being often
abnormally developed so as to produce the partial or complete
obliteration of the rest. The point of the pyramid is thus often ex-

94

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

tended into an edge, as in some of the accompanying figures. Qua
occurs also, and more frequently, in masses of irregular shape, as
well as in nodu-

in

lar and stalactitic
forms, and in small
grains. Cleavage,
scarcely observ-
able: fracturecon-
choidal and un-
even. H = 7.0 ;
sp. gr. 2.5 — 2.8,
mostly about 2.65. FIGS. 51 TO 53.

BB, per se, quite infusible ; with carb. soda, melts with effervescence
(due to the expulsion of the carbonic acid of the flux) into a trans-
parent glass. Insoluble in the ordinary mineral acids. Consists,
normally, of pure silica, the tints of the coloured varieties being due
to accidental amounts of iron and manganese oxides, bituminous
matter and other inessential ingredients. The principal varieties of
Quartz, hitherto met with in Canada, are as follows : —

( a) Common Quartz, Rock Crystal : — Vitreous or stony • mostly
colourless, but sometimes pale reddish, yellowish, greenish or grey.
Forms an essential component of granite, mica-schist, gneiss, quartz-
rock and various other crystalline rocks, and is thus present through-
out the wide area occupied by our Laurentian strata, as well as in
many localities where Huronian rocks prevail, and amongst the crys-
talline strata of the Eastern Townships (see Part V.). Very common
also in mineral veins : as in those of Thunder Bay, Lake Superior ;
the Bruce Mines, Lake Huron ; Harvey's Hill Mine, in Leeds ;
and elsewhere. Occasionally present likewise, in fissures and cavi-
ties in limestone rocks, as in the vicinity of Quebec, where the
crystals are known as Quebec diamonds.

(b) Smoky Quartz : — In brownish crystals : Thunder Bay, Lake
Superior ; also near Quebec ; and elsewhere.

(<•) Amethyst : — In violet-coloured crystals, sometimes of large
size. Fine specimens, associated with fluor spar, calcspar, pyrites,
native silver, &c., occur in veins on Thunder Bay and throughout
that district ; also on Spar Island, farther west, on Lake Superior.
Many of these crystals present a deep reddish-brown colour on the

OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART II. 95

outer surface, arising from a deposition of numerous minute spots of
jasper or sesquioxide of iron. The colouring matter appears to con-
sist in certain cases of a minute trace of some silver compound.

(d) Chalcedony : — In nodular semi-tianslucent masses of a yellow-
ish, grey, or reddish colour. Occasionally present in the amygdaloidal
traps of Lake Superior. Also in thin bands or veins, with Jasper,
on the River Ouelle in Kamouraska. The nodules pass more or less
into semi-opal.

(e) Agate : — In nodular masses of various clouded or banded
colours, either feebly translucent or opaque. Yery abundant in the
amygdaloidal traps of St. Ignace, Agate Island, Michipicoten, etc.,
on the north shore of Lake Superior, and in the shingle beaches of
these islands. Also in the conglomerates of Gaspe' ; and in the
pebbly beaches along the shores of Gaspe' Bay, arising from the
destruction of these conglomerates.

(f) Jasper : — In opaque rounded masses, and in beds, of a brown,
red, green and other colour; sometimes striped or banded; and
always more or less dull or earthly-looking on the fractured surface.
Some remarkable quartz-rocks, evidently altered conglomerates,
containing pebbles of red Jasper, occur on the north-west shore of
Lake Huron. Many of the dark green and striped slates of Lake
Huron, also, may be regarded as closely akin to Jasper. At
Bachewahnung, on the east shore of Lake Superior, bands of red
Jasper are associated with hematitic iron ore ; and layers and
imbedded nodules occur in the copper-bearing series of the north
shore, around Thunder Bay, &c. Many of the so-called agates of
this region are properly Jaspers. Beds and layers of red Jasper,
in places very ferruginous, are found in the crystalline strata of
the Eastern Townships, as in Sherbrooke, Shipton, Broughton, &c.,
and on the River Ouelle. Jasper pebbles are associated also with
agates in the conglomerates and Shingle beaches of Gaspe.

(g) Chert or Hornstone : — Yellowish, brownish, reddish-white,
grey, black, &c. Mostly in nodular and irregularly-shaped masses,
and occasionally in beds and veins which often present a cellular
or brecciated structure. Translucent to nearly opaque. Closely
allied to Chalcedony and Flint. Occurs in the form of veins tra-
versing syenite in the township of Grenville, at first pointed out
by Sir William Logan. Also in layers, &c., in the upper copper-

96

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

bearing series of Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, and abundantly-
imbedded nodular masses, and in thin layers in the Corniferous
Formation of the Devonian series of Western Canada, on the shore
of Lake Erie, (fee. ; as well as occasionally under similar conditions
in limestones of the Niagara and Trenton groups. Hornstone, or
related silicious matter, forms the fossilizing substance of most of
the corals and brachipods of our Western Devonian beds, as well as
that of many of the organic remains found in Silurian strata, as at
Pauquette's Rapids on the Ottawa, and elsewhere.

( h) Sandstones ; Sands ; Gravel : — Sandstones consist essentially
of quartz grains, cemented together, or consolidated by pressure (see
Part III) ; whilst sands and gravel consist of the same substance in
loose grains and pebbles. These rock matters, although occasionally
colourless, usually exhibit various shades of yellow, brown, or red,
from the presence of sesquioxide of iron. Sandstones are also
occasionally of a green or greyish-green colour, in which case part
of the iron is in the condition of protoxide. S6me of our purest
sandstones and quartz sands are found at the following localities :
Pittsburg township (near Kingston) ; Charleston Lake, in Escott ;
Vaudreuil, on the Lower Ottawa ; Beauharnois ; the Gres Rapids,
on the St. Maurice • Township of Batiscan ; and also near Brock-
ville, Perth, Owen Sound, Dundas, &c. (see Part Y.)
(2) GROUP OF BASIC SILICATES.

[This group includes a small number of silicates in which the per-
centage of silica varies from 30 to 40. The specific gravity is com-
paratively high (=3.0 to 4.75) ; and the hardness sufficient in all
cases to scratch glass strongly (=5.5 to 7.5, but mostly over 6.0)].

44. Zircon: — Brown, red, reddish-yellow, with resino- vitreous
aspect. In Tegragonal crystals, mostly square prisms, terminated at
each extremity by a four-planed pyramid
(Figs. 54, 55) ; occasionally also in small
granular masses. H = 7.5 . sp. gr. 4.0 —
4.75. BB, quite infusible. Not attacked by
acids. Consists of : silica 33.2, zirconia 66.8.
Occurs with plumbago, wollastonite, pyroxene, FlQ. 54. FlG. 55<

<fec., in the crystalline limestone of the Township of Grenville, in
Argenteuil County, and more or less throughout the phosphate
deposits of Buckingham, Templeton, <fec., often in fine crystals.

OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART II. 97

Also in granitic veins, with tourmaline, on the North River, in St.
Jerdme, Terrebonne County ; and, according to the Reports of the
Geological Survey, in a syenitic rock, composed of red feldspar and
black hornblende, on Pie Island, Lake Superior. Transparent
varieties of this mineral are employed in jewellery, under the name
of Jargon or Hyacinth.

45. Chiastolite : — Grey or pale-red. Occurs in rectangular and
rhombic prisms, mostly of narrow diameter, and in compound
groupings, which present the appearance of a simple prism with
dark cross on the transverse section (Fig.

56), the cross consisting of slate or other
rock matter, in which the prisms are im-
bedded. Found also in granular masses.
H = 5.5 — 7.7 ; sp. gr. 3.1 — 3.2. BB, FlG. 56.

quite infusible. The powder by ignition with nitrate of cobalt
(p. 34) assumes a fine blue colour. General composition : silica, 37,
alumina 03. Occurs in somewhat indistinct crystals imbedded in
argillo-micaceous slates, in the immediate vicinity of intrusive masses
of granite, on Lake St. Francis, in Megantic County.

46. Tourmaline : — Of various colours — green, blue, black, brown,
yellow, red, and sometimes colourless ; but Canadian varieties are
either black, brown or brownish-yellow. The black variety is com-
monly known as Schorl, and is quite opaque. Hexagonal (or rather
Hemi-Hexagonal) in crystallization, the crystals being almost in-
variably three-sided prisms (or these, with bevelled edges, produc-
ing a prism of nine sides). The cross fracture is thus as a rule more
or less distinctly triangular. The prisms are often longitudinally
striated, and are frequently

much broken, especially when
imbedded in quartz (Fig. 58).
Tourmaline occurs also very
generally in columnar, acicu-

lar and fibrous masses. H= FIQ. 57. FIG. 58.

6.5—7.0; sp. gr. 3.0—3.3. BB, the black and most of the brown
varieties melt very easily, the other varieties being for the greater
part quite infusible. Nearly all exhibit electrical properties when
heated. Composition somewhat variable, but the essential compo-
nents consist of : silica (averaging about 38 per cent.), boracic acid
8

98

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

(4 — 9 per cent.), alumina (30 — 44 per cent.), with more or less
quioxide of iron, magnesia, protoxide of iron, protoxide of manganese,
lime (under 2 per cent.), soda, potash and sometimes lithia. A small
amount of fluorine is also generally present.

Tourmaline is of comparatively common occurrence in the Lauren-
tian strata of Canada. It is met with both in the crystalline lime-
stones and in many of the gneissoid or quartz beds of that formation,
as well as in some of the granitic veins by which these beds are
traversed. In the Ottawa district, it occurs especially in crystalline
limestones, as at Calumet Falls (yellowish-brown and black, with
Idocrase, <fcc.) ; in Clarendon Township, County of Pontiac ; in
North Burgess and Elmsley, Lanark County ; in Grenville, and at
Lachute, in Argenteuil County and elsewhere. In Ross, Elmsley,
Bathurst, Ely thtield (near the High Falls of the Madawaska), St.
Jerome (Terrebonne County), Gal way (Peterborough County), and
on Yeo's Island, Stoney Lake, Charleston Lake, &c., it is found in
granitic and syenitic veins. Also in quartz veins and beds associ-
ated with gneissoid strata, in various parts of Madoc, Tudor, Elzevir,
and more or less generally throughout the back country between the
Ottawa and Georgian Bay.

47. Garnet: — Variously coloured — most commonly red, brown,
black, green or yellow : rarely colourless. Regular in crystalliza-
tion : the crystals almost invariably either rhombic dodecahedrons
or trapezohedrons (Figs. 59 and 60). The mineral occurs also, very
commonly, in granular and lamellar
masses. H— 6.5 — 7.0 ; sp. gr. 3.5
— 4.2. BB, most varieties melt more
or less readily, the dark-red yielding
a magnetic globule ; but the bright-
green chrome garnet and some light- FW. 59. FIG. eo.
coloured varieties are infusible. After fusion or strong ignition,
most varieties gelatinize in boiling hydrochloric acid (see under
" Action of Acids," Part I.). Composition exceedingly variable, but
essentially silica (33 to 43 percent.), alumina or sesqui-oxide of iron
(or both), with either lime, magnesia, protoxide of iron, or protoxide
of manganese, or several of these bases combined. In the bright-
green garnet (Ouvarovite), the sesquioxide of iron is chiefly re-
placed by sesquioxide of chromium, *and the monoxidized portion of

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 99

the base is essentially lime. All the deeply-coloured garnets are
strongly ferruginous ; whilst in the light-coloured varieties, iron is
chiefly replaced by alumina, lime or magnesia.

Garnets occur in Canada in many crystalline strata of the Lau-
rentian series ; also in the less ancient crystalline beds of the Eastern
Townships (see Part V.) ; and in some of the trappean rocks of Lake
Superior. In Laurentian strata, they affect principally the beds of
hornblende-rock, and gneiss, which lie in contact with, or adjacent
to, the interstratified bands of crystalline limestone, but they occur
also apart from these limestones. The best-known Laurentian locali-
ties comprise : the banks of the River Rouge and adjacent country
near the " Three Mountains," in the township of Clyde, Ottawa
County (pink and red ferro-magnesian varieties in gneiss and quartz
rock) ; Seignory of St. Jerdme, on the Ottawa (red and very abun-
dant in gneiss) ; Rawdon Township, in Montcalm County (in quart-
rock) ; Townships of Chatham, Chatham Gore and Grenville in
Argenteuil County (red and yellowish-red varieties) ; Hunterstown,
in Maskinonge Qounty ; Bay St. Paul (red, in quartz-rock); Murray
Bay (large crystals and rounded masses in gneiss) ; Madoc Town-
ship (Lot 11, Con. 11, in hornblende rock with iron pyrites, &c.) ;
Townships of Elzevir, Barrie, &c. (dark-red, in hornblende rock) ;
Marmora (in quartz rock, <fec.). It occurs thus in the Laurentian
area generally between the Ottawa and Georgian Bay. In the
altered strata of the Eastern Townships, yellowish-red or pale-brown
garnets occur in pyroxene rock on Brompton Lake, and minute
grains and crystals of bright-green chrome garnet are thickly dis-
seminated through a calc-spar vein at the same locality. Red gar-
nets are found also in crystalline magnesian limestone, with talc,
magnetic and chrome iron ores, &c., in the Townships of Broughton
and Sutton ; and with black hornblende in the serpentines of Mount
Albert in Gaspe*. In Orford, Dr. Sterry Hunt has discovered a
peculiar variety of a white or light-coloured calcareo-aluminous gar-
net, in rounded masses of somewhat waxy aspect, mixed with ser-
pentine; and he has described the occurrence of a similar • variety
in more or less compact beds, holding specks of hative gold, in St.
Francis (Rep. 63 : p. 496). Finally, it may be observed, garnets of
a pale red-brown colour occur sparingly, with epidote, &c., in amyg-
daloidal traps, at Maimanse, on the east shore of Lake Superior.

100

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

FIG. 61.

48. Vesuvian or Idocrase : — Yellow, brown, yellowish-red, &c.
Tetragonal in crystallization : otherwise, both in composition and
general characters, identical with garnet. H = 6.5 ; sp.

gr. 3.3 — 3.45. BB, more or less readily fusible. Occurs
in some of the crystalline limestones of the Ottawa Dis-
trict : principally in brown crystals, with tourmaline, at
Calumet Falls, and in the township of Clarendon ; and
also in small reddish-yellow crystals, with zircon, py-
roxene, graphite, &c., in the township of Grenville.

49. Epidote : — Green, yellowish-green, blackish-green, grey, <kc.
Monoclinic in crystallization, but well denned crystals are of rare
occurrence in Canada ; mostly in acicular crystals, and in columnar,
reniform and more or less compact masses, or in imbedded grains.
H •= 6.0—7.0 ; sd. gr. 3.25 — 3.35. BB, swells up and forms a dull
slag-like mass, with rounded edges. This is generally magnetic,
but unlike the beads formed by hornblende, pyroxene, vesuvian, &c.,
it resists further fusion. After strong ignition, epidote gelatinises
in boiling hydrochloric acid. (See under " Action of Acids," in
Part I.) General composition : silica 34 — 40, alumina 18 — 28, ses-
quioxide of iron 7 — 17, lime 20 — 25. This mineral is comparatively
rare in the Laurentian rocks of Canada, but it occurs, although with
more or less indistinct characters, in the gneissoid strata associated
with the iron-ore of Belmont, Seyour, and Marmora ; and in irregular
layers in a reddish gneiss at Carleton Place, in the township of Beck-
with, Lanark County, the rock, when polished, forming a handsome
ornamental stone. Epidote is far more abundant in the metamor-
phic stiata of the Eastern Townships, and it occurs thus in St.
Armand, Potton, Shipton, Melbourne, and elsewhere throughout
that region. Some of the best defined examples are found in spheroi-
dal masses of a peculiar slate-rock in the seignory of St. Joseph, the
epidote in these masses being associated with calcite, serpentine,
chlorite, and quartz. Epidote occurs also in some of the amygdaloi-
dal traps and greenstones of Lake Superior, as at Maimanse (with
mesolite, chlorite, brown garnet, &c.), and on the Island of Michi-
picoten.

50. Allanite (Orthite) : — Black, brown, yellowish-brown. Mono-
clinic, and like Epidote in crystallization, but occurring generally in
granular and amorphous masses, with strong resino-vitreous lustre.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 101

*

Fracture, conchoidal. H = 5.5 — 6.0; sp. gr. 3.1 — 4.2. BB,
intnmesces strongly, and melts into a black and usually magnetic
globule. The powder is readily decomposed by hot hydrochloric acid,
silica separating in a gelatinous state. General composition ; silica
(30 to 38 per cent.), alumina (8 to 17 per cent), iron oxides (8 to 20
per cent.), oxide of cerium (usually about 15 or 16 per cent., but in
some examples nearly 30 per cent.; generally replaced, however, in
part, by oxides of lanthanum, yttrium, &c. ), lime (6 to 12 per cent.),
with a small amount of magnesia, and a little water, the latter indi-
cating incipient decomposition. Allanite is of comparatively rare
occurrence in Canada. Hitherto, only recognized in pitch-black
masses or grains in Laurentian strata, as in the upper Laurentian
feldspathic rocks around Bay St. Paul and Lake St. John (as first
made known by Dr. Sterry Hunt) ; and in the form of a narrow
vein in gneissoid strata at Hollow Lake, the head waters of the
South Muskoka. (See a notice, by the writer, in Canadian Journal,
Vol. IX., p. 103).

51. Sphene or Titanite : — Brown, black, yellow, greenish. Mono-
clinic in crystallization (the crystals most commonly, as
in Fig. 62) ; but occurring also in small granular masses,
and in veins or strings of more or less compact structure.
H = 5.6 ; sp. gr. 3.4 — 3. 6. BB melts with bubbling
into a dark glass or enamel, but sometimes on the edges FlG. 62.
only. In powder, decomposed by hot sulphuric acid. Consists of:
silica, about 32 per cent., titanic acid, 40, lime 28, but part of the
latter is usually replaced by a little oxide of iron and magnanese.
Occurs in small dark-brown opaque crystals in the Laurentian
gneissoid rocks of Tudor, Madoc, Lutterworth, Muskoka, <fcc. Also
in crystalline limestone in Grenville, Burgess, North Elmsley ; and
at Lachiiie and Calumet Falls, in the Ottawa country. Sphene is
also found in small amber-coloured grains and crystals in the granitic
trachytes of the Eastern Townships (Brome, Shefford, Yamaska),
and in thin veins or strings with micaceous or slaty iron ore in the
altered rocks of Sutton.

(3.) GROUP OF PYROXENIC SILICATES.

This group consists essentially of non-aluminous silicates of lime
and magnesia, these bases being partly replaced, however, in dark
varieties, by protoxide of iron. Alumina is only exceptionally

102

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

FIG. 64.

present, and rarely exceeds 4 or 5 per cent. Crystallization,
tially clinorhonibic. Sp. gr 2.9 — 3.3. Scarcely, if at all, attacked
by acids.]

52. Amphibole (including Tremolite, Actinolite, Hornblende, &c.): —
Green of various shades, greenish-white or almost colourless, brown,
black. Clinorhonibic in crystallization, the crystals mostly oblique
rhombic or six-sided prisms, with the obtuse prism-angle (Y on Y
in the accompanying figures) = 124° 30';
but occurring commonly in acicular forms, and
in fibrous, lamellar and granular masses.
H == 5.5 — 6.0 ; sp. gr. 2.9 — 3.4 (mostly
3.0—3.2) BB, melts more or less easily, the
dark varieties yielding a magnetic bead.
Scarcely or not at all attacked by acids. The greenish-white and
colourless or pale-grey varieties of this mineral are usually known
as Tremolite ; the bright-green, or dark-green, acicular and fibrous
varieties, as ^ctinoliie ; and the green massive varieties, as well as
those in green, brown, or black, thick crystals, are commonly termed
Hornblende, a name applied by many authors to the species
generally. A. soft, siiky variety, in 'fibrous masses, belonging, how-
ever, partly to Pyroxene (No. 53), is also known as Asbestus or
Amianthus, but this variety does not appear to occur in Canada, our
so-called asbestus being a fibrous serpentine, containing about 12
or 14 per cent, of water. (See under No. 83, below.) Average
composition : silica (40 — 60 per cent.) magnesia (15 — 25 per
cent.), lime (12 — 15 per cent.), with, in most varieties, a small
amount of protoxide of iron, &c. Alumina, when present, varies in
amount from less than one to above 15 or 16 per cent, but the
latter is only found in a few dark-coloured hornblendes of excep-
tional occurrence.

Amphibole is an essential constituent of many eruptive and
metamorphic rocks, such as syenite, diorite or greenstone proper,
syenitic gneiss, hornblende slate, &c. ; and it is present accidentally
in many crystalline limestones and other rocks. It occurs in various
localities throughout the large area occupied by the Laurentian
series of Canadian strata (see Part Y), and also in the more modern
metamorphic district of the Eastern Townships. Examples
of Tremolite occur more especially in the crystalline (Laurentian)

OF CENTRAL CANADA — TART II.

103

limestones of the Ottawa region, as at Calumet Falls, and in the
townships of Algona, Blythfield, and Dalhousie. Dark-green
Amphibole, in good crystals, occurs with diopside at the High Falls
of the Madawaska, and elsewhere on that river. A fibrous and
acicular pale-grey or greenish variety (Raphilite) is found near
Perth, in Lanark County. Actinolite occurs here and there amongst
the magnetic iron ores of Madoc and Belmont. Beds of hornblende
rock range through Frontenac, North Hastings, &c., in the Lauren-
tian area lying between the Ottawa and Georgian Bay ; and syenitic
or hornblendic gneiss occurs abundantly throughout the Laurentian
area, generally. See Parts III. and V. Black and dark-green
hornblende is seen in distinct crystalline masses and grains in many
syenites and diorites ; notably in the large development of syenite
in the townships of Grenville, Chatham, and Wentworth, on the
east side of the Ottawa: (See parts III. and Y.) South of the
St. Lawrence, green hornblende occurs in well-defined examples in
the township of Potton : and actinolite is found, with talc, chlorite,
fibrons or asbestiform serpentine, &c., in the townships of Brome
and Sutton, as well as in beds of fibrous structure in St. Francis,
Beauce County. Black hornblende, with garnets, is associated with
the Serpentines of Mount Albert, in Gaspe ; and small grains and
crystalline masses occur in the diorite and granitic trachytes
(Part III.) of Mount Johnson, Yamaska, Brome and Shefford.

53. Pyroxene, (including Diopside, Saklite, Augite, <fec.) : — Green of
various shades, greenish-white or almost colorless, brown, black. Clin-
orhombicic in crystallization,
the crystals mostly eight-sided
prisms with sloping terminal
planes, as in the annexed
figures. The prism-faces v,
v meet (over v) at an angle

of 87° 5' ; v inclines to v at FIG. 65. FIG. 66. FIG. 67.

an angle of 133° 33' ; v and v' form a right angle. Fig 65 is the
combination usually presented by the light or dark coloured vari-
eties of our Laurentian crystalline limestones. Fig. 66 represents
the ordinary augite crystals of basaltic rocks : good examples occur
in the trap of the Montreal Mountain. Fig. 67 represents a
twin or compound crystal from Orford, presented to the writer by

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

•

Dr. Sterry Hunt. It consists of two crystals of diopside, like Fig.
65, united by a front vertical face, and much extended or flattened in
this direction. Pyroxene occurs also very commonly in acicular and
fibrous groups, and in cleavable and also granular masses. Cleavage
planes meet at angles of 87° 5' and 92° 55'. H (except in altered or
abnormal varieties) = 5.5 — 6.0 ; sp. gr. = 3.2 — 3.5. BB, melts
in. general without difficulty, the dark varieties yielding in most
cases a magnetic bead. Scarcely or not at all attacked by acids. In
composition, essentially a bisilicate of magnesia and lime, with part
of these bases replaced by protoxide of iron, &c. A small amount of
alumina is likewise occasionally present, as in Amphibole, the com-
position of these two minerals being practically identical. Pyroxene
and Amphibole are also closely allied by crystallization and physical
characters, but their crystals have a more or less distinct aspect, and
the cleavage angles are not alike. Pyroxene exhibits also, as a general
rule, a somewhat higher density, its sp. gr. varying usually from 3.25
to 3.35, whilst that of Amphibole lies most commonly between 2.9
and 3.2. Light-coloured varieties of pyroxene are usually known as
Diopside (also as Sahlite, Malacolite, Traverselite, Alalite, <fec.),
whilst the term Augite is generally applied to the dark varieties.
(Jeftersonite, Hudsonite, Hedenbergite, Coccolite, <kc., are other
synonyms of this species.)

Pyroxene is of common occurrence in eruptive and metamorphic
rocks (see Part III). It is especially characteristic of modern vol-
canic products, but occurs also in many of the more ancient trappean
formations. In Central Canada, it is found in white and pale-green
crystals in many of the Laurentian crystalline limestones, as at Calu-
met Falls and elsewhere in the Ottawa district. Also in large
crystals, with amphibole, at the High Falls of the Madawaska ; with
mica, apatite, &c., in Bathurst ; in well-defined crystals with pyrites
in a quartz vein near Belmont Lake ; in the anorthosites or Upper
Laurentian strata of Chateau Richer ; and elsewhere in these older
metamorphic strata. In the higher series south of the St. Lawrence,
it occurs with garnets, <fec., in Orford Township. Finally, well-defined
black crystals are imbedded in the trap of the Montreal Mountain,
and also in the erupted traps or dolerites of Rougemont and Montar-
ville. Acmite, a related silicate in thin, black crystals, occurs
according to Dr. B. J. Harrington, in the nepheline syenites of
Montreal and Beloil.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 105

54. Hyper sthene : — Brown, brownish-black, brownish-green ; with
pale-grey streak, and a more or less pearly-metallic lustre. Mostly
in laminar or foliated masses. H = 5.0 — 6.0 ; sp. gr. 3.3 — 3.42.
BB, gives a black magnetic bead. Essentially a silicate of magnesia
and iron oxide. A specimen from Chateau Richer yielded Dr. Sterry
Hunt : silica 51.35, alumina 3.70, protoxide of iron 20.56, lime 1.68,
magnesia 22.59, volatile matter 0.10. Occurs in association with
anorthosites or feldspar rocks, more especially in Chateau Richer
and St. Urbain, near Baie St. Paul, below Quebec.

(4) GROUP OF CHRYSOLITIC S^L GATES.

[The minerals of this group are essentially silicates of magnesia,
the latter base being more or less replaced, however, by protoxide of
iron. Sp. gr. 3.1 — 3.5. Infusible. Gelatinizing in heated hy-
drochloric acid.]

55. Chrysolite or Olivine : — Yellow, green, brownish-green.
Rhombic in crystallization, but rarely occurring otherwise than in
small grains and granular masses imbedded mostly in eruptive rocks.
H = 6 — 7 ; sp. gr. 3.3 — 3.5. BB, loses its colour but remains
unfused, except in the case of certain highly ferruginous varieties not
yet found in Canada. The powder becomes decomposed, with
separation of gelatinous or flocculent silica, in both hydrochloric and
sulphuric acid. This species occurs in the trap mountains of Mont-
real, Rougemont, and Montarville, usually in the form of small green
and yellow grains, but occasionally in indistinct crystal-masses. An
analysis by Dr. Sterry Hunt yielded: silica 37.17, magnesia 39.68,
protoxide of iron 22.54.

56. Chondrodite : — Yellow, brownish-yellow. In small granular
masses, mostfy imbedded in crystalline limestone. H = 6.0 — 6.5 ;
sp. gr. 3.1 — 3.25. BB, infusible. Gelatinizes in acids. Consists
essentially of silica, magnesia, and fluoride of magnesium ; or is an
oxygen compound with part of the oxygen replaced by fluorine.
The latter element appears to vary in amount from about 2| to
nearly 10 per cent. Chondrodite occurs in many of our crystalline
Laurentian limestones, frequently accompanied bv scales of graphite.
Newboro', in the township of North Crosby, in Leeds County ;
Grenville, in Argenteuil County ; and St. Jerdme, in Terrebonne
County, have yielded examples.

106

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

(5) GROUP OP FELDSPATHIC SILICATES.

[This group is composed essentially of alkaline and non-magnesian
silicates, containing a high per-centage of silica (62 to 69), and
about 20 per cent, of alumina. H— 6 to nearly 7 ; sp. gr. 2.4 — 2.7.
Crystallization, Clinorhombic or Triclinic. Fusible in thin splinl
only. Insoluble in acids.]

57. Orthoclase or Potash Feldspar : — White, red, flesh-red, apple-
green, grey, &c. Lustre more or less pearly on cleavage planes,
otherwise vitreous or stony. Crystallization Clinorhombic, but with
two well-maiked cleavage directions (parallel with base and side
vertical) meeting at right angles. Crystals often compound, as in
the more common twin combination shewn in Fig 70. Found
usually, however, in lamellar and granular masses. H = 6.0 ; sp.
gr. 2.5 — 2.6. BB, fusible with difficulty, unless in the form of a
thin pointed splinter, in which case the edge and point become
quickly rounded. Practically, unattacked by acids. Average com-
position : silica 64.8, alumina 18.4, potash 16.8 ; but many varieties
contain a small percentage of soda, replacing a portion of the potash.
Orthoclase is one of the com-
ponent minerals of many
crystalline rocks, granite, sy-
enite, gneiss, <fec. • it occurs
also in many trappean rocks,
and forms the essential com- FlG. 68> FlG< 69> Fl0i 70<

ponent of trachytes and ordinary lavas. In the Laurentian strata
so widely developed throughout the more northern portions of
Canada (see Part Y), this mineral is consequently largely present ;
and well denned cleavable masses, mostly of a flesh-red or greyish-
white colour, may be obtained in almost every district in which
gneissoid rocks occur, more especially from the coarser granitic veins
by which these rocks are so commonly traversed. Some of the more
remarkable Laurentian localities comprise : the townships of North
Burgess, Elmsley, Grenville, Chatham, &c. : also the township of
Ross, and other places in the neighbourhood of Calumet Falls ; and
several spots on the north shore of Lake Huron. In Burgess (Lot
3, Con. 6), among other varieties, a striped red and brownish ortho-
clase occurs. This presents iridescent reflections, and is the variety
known as Perthite. It contains soda as well as potash. In Ross
(Renfrew County) large white crystals occur with apatite and spinel

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

107

in calcite veins. Pale-red and other varieties are found in the
Ottawa region, especially in the phosphate deposits. Orthoclase
occurs also in the metamorphic strata south of the St. Lawrence,
as in veins cutting altered slates in the townships of Inverness,
Leeds, and Sutton ; and it is likewise present in many of the eruptive
rocks of this district, notably in the porphyritic trachyte of Chambly,
and in the trachytes of Montreal and Brome. These varieties, ac-
cording to Dr. Sterry Hunt's analyess (Report: 1863, p. 476) con-
tain nearly equal amounts of potash and soda. Orthoclase, in com-
mon with other feldspathic silicates, yields by atmospheric decompo-
sition, a white earthy clay, largely used, under the term of Kaolin,
in the manufacture of porcelain.

58. Albite or Soda Feldspar : — White, red, greyish-white, &c.,
sometimes with pale-blueish or pearly opalescence. Triclinic in
crystallization, but occurring commonly in lamellar masses, readily
cleavable in two directions under angles of 93° 36 v arid 86° 24\
One of the cleavage planes usually exhibits a delicate striatiou. In
other respects, Albite closely resembles Orthoclase. H = 6.0 ; sp.
gr. 2.55 — 2.65. Average composition : silica 68, alumina 20, soda
(with trace of potash, &c.) 12. Albite is a constituent of many
trappean rocks, and it occurs also in certain granites and syenites,
and in various metamorphic strata. An opalescent variety, known
as Peristerite, occurs in the township of Bathurst (Lot 1 9, Con. 9),
and also on the north shore of Stony Lake, in Burleigh. A white
variety in cleavable masses of considerable size forms the feldspathic
portion of certain granitic and gneissoid rocks of the more northern
districts of the county of Ottawa. Fine crystals are also said to
occur in a vein on Lake Massawippi (Stanstead), in the metamorphic
region of the Eastern Townships.

59. Oligodase : — White, greenish, pale-grey. Triclinic in crystal-
lization, and closely allied in all its characters to Albite, but contain-
ing a somewhat smaller percentage of silica. The cleavage planes
meet at angles of 95° 50' and 86° 10'. Occurs in Canada, according
to Dr. Sterry Hunt, associated with black amphibole in the eruptive
mass of Mount Johnson, in the district of Iberville, near the east
shore of the River Richelieu.

(6) GROUP OF CALCARBO-FELDBPATHIC SILICATES.

[The minerals of this group are very closely related to those of
the preceding division, but they are essentially lime-holding, and

108 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

contain a lower per centage of silica. They are more readily fus
moreover ; and are decomposed, or at least strongly attacked, by hy-
drochloric acid.]

60. Labradorite or Lime Feldspar: — Grey, greyish-white, greenish
white, greyish-blue, with frequently reflections of a beautiful blue,
green, orange or other colour. Triclinic in crystallization, but rarely
occurring otherwise than in cleavable lamellar masses, the cleavage
planes, which usually present a delicate striation, meeting at angles
of 93° 40' and 86° 20'. H=6.0 ; sp. gr. 2.66—2.76. BB, in thin
splinters, readily fusible. Decomposed, or strongly attacked, in
powder, by hydrochloric acid. Average composition : silica 53,
alumina 30, lime 12.5, soda 4.5. This species enters into the com-
position of various trappean rocks, and it also forms, both alone and
in admixture with other triclinic feldspars, large masses of crystal-
line structure associated with gneiss and other metamorphic strata.
In this latter condition, it predominates amongst the Upper Lauren-
tian or so-called Labrador series of Canada (see Parts III. and V.).
Fine examples occur in St. JeYdme, Morin, Abercrombie and Mille
Isles, in the County of Terrebonne, north-west of Montreal ; and in
boulders (probably from the above sources) scattered over Grenville
Township, on the Lower Ottawa. The Labradorite of these locali-
ties is frequently opaque- white on the surface from semi-decom posi-
tion or weathering. A pale-blue and greyish variety, without
opalescence, occurs in Chateau Richer (Montgomery County), below
Quebec. Pale greenish-blue and other opalescent examples have
been obtained from boulders in the Townships of Drummond and
Lanark, west of the Ottawa ; and a range of feldspathic rocks, pre-
senting fine examples of colour-reflecting Labradorite, occurs on the
north shore of Lake Huron, east and south-east of French River.
The occurrence of Labradorite at the latter locality was first made
known by Dr. Bigsby. A granular variety, in which the opalescent
tints only shew under the magnifying glass, occurs with scattered
pyrites in a vein traversing Laurentian gneiss in the vicinity of
Haliburton, Ontario.

6 1 . Andesite : — This is a somewhat doubtful species apparently
intermediate in character between Albite or Oligoclase and Labra-
dorite. A reddish, feldspathic mineral in cleavable and striated
masses, from the Labrador rocks of Chateau Richer, below Quebec,

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 109

is referred to it by Dr. Sterry Hunt. Report for 1863, p. 478.
Average composition : silica 59£, alumina 25f , lime 7}, soda 5,
potash 1. Sp. gr. 2.66 — 2.67.

62. Anorthite : — This species is also very closely related to both
Labradorite and Albite. It occurs in Triclinic crystals and cleavable
masses of a greenish-white, reddish, pale-grey and other colour, with
H = 6 — 6.5, and sp. gr. 2.66 —2.79. Fusible, and more or less
readily decomposed by hydrochloric acid. Average composition :
silica 44 — 47, alumina 30 — 35, lime 14 — 18; with small per-
centage of soda, potash, &c. A variety found in boulders in the
vicinity of Ottawa city was originally described under the name of
Bytownite. Some of the feldspar of Chateau Richer, according to
Dr. Sterry Hunt, belongs probably to this species. The feldspar
which enters into the composition of the diorite of the Yamaska
Mountain is also referred to it by the same observer; and fine
crystals of Anorthite, according to Mr. Thomas Macfarlane, occur in
a large dyke of dioritic porphyry, of which several rocky islets in the
vicinity of Thunder Cape, Lake Superior, are mainly composed.

*** The two following species are placed for convenience in this group, as
they are essentially lime-containing silicates, fusible, and decomposable in hy-
drochloric acid.

63. Wernerite or Scapolite : — White, grey, red, greenish, &c.
Occurring in crystals of the Tetrrgonal System (mostly combinations
of a square-based prism and pyramid), and in lamellar, columnar
and sub-fibrous masses. H — 5.5 — 6.0 (under normal conditions,
but often somewhat lower from incipient decomposition of the
specimen) ; sp. gr. 2.6 — 2.8. BB, easily fusible, mostly with strong
bubbling. Partially decomposed by hydrochloric acid. Average
composition : silica 48, alumina 28, lime 18, soda 5, the latter some-
times largely replaced by potash. Carbonate of lime and a small
percentage of water are very constantly present in altered or
weathered specimens. Scapolite occurs in the Laurentian limestones
of Calumet Island, and in Grenville Township, on the Ottawa, as
well as in most of the phosphate deposits of the Ottawa region.
Also in large crystals and cleavable masses, with sphene and augite,
in the Laurentian strata of Hunterstown, Maskinonge County,
Quebec; and at Golden Lake, in Algona Township, County of
Renfrew. An altered or semi-decomposed variety in violet-red or

no

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

greyish-red cleavable masses, from the vicinity of Perth, in Lanarl
County, has been described under the name of Wilsonite.

64. Wollastonite : — White, pale-greenish, brown, grey, &c. Clino-
rhcmbic in crystallization, and of the pyroxene type, but occurring
sp. gr. 2.7 — 2.9. BB, more or less readily fusible. Decomposed,
commonly in thin tabular masses of fibrous structure. H = 4.5 —
5.0 ; with separation of gelatinous silica, by hydrochloric acid.
Essential composition : silica 51,7, line 48.3. In Canada, fibrous
Wollastonite occurs in many of the crystalline limestones of the
Laurentian series, mixed more or less intimately with pyroxene,
mica, quartz, and other minerals. Grenville Township in Argen-
teuil County, St. Jerome and Morin in Terrebonne, North Burgess
in Lanark, and Bastard in Leeds County, are the best known
localities.

(7) GROUP OF NEPHELETIC SILICATES.

[This group includes a small number of essentially anhydrous sili-
cates of alumina and soda, in some of which chloride of sodium is
also present, whilst others contain traces of chlorine or sulphuric
acid. They fuse more or less readily, and gelatinize in acids.
Canadian examples are .comparatively unimportant.]

65. Nepheline, including Elceolite : — White, brownish, greenish,
blueish-grey, yellowish, dull-red. Hexagonal in crystallization, but
occurring commonly in cleavable masses of a more or less greasy or
vitreo-resinous lustre, forming the variety known as Elseolite. H =
5.5 — 6.0 ; sp. gr. 2.5 — 2.65. BB, easily fusible. Decomposed
readily by acids, with separation of gelatinous or slimy silica.
Average composition: silica 44, alumina 44, soda 17, potash 5.
This species is said to occur in small orange-red granular masses in
boulders with orthoclase and black ainphibole, on Pie Island, Lake
Superior. Also, it is stated by Dr. Sterry Hunt, in white crystals
in the granitic trachyte of Brome. (Jancrinite, a closely allied
silicate, occurs, according to Dr. B. J. Harrington, in the nepheline-
syenites of Beloeil and Montreal.

66. Sodalite: — Blue, greyish, colourless, <fec. Regular in crys-
tallization, but occurring mostly in small granular masses. H = 5.5
— 6.0 ; sp. gr. 215 — 2.35. BB, melts with bubbling. Gelatinizes
in acids. Recognized in the form of small grains of a fine blue
colour, by Dr. Sterry Hunt, in the granitic trachyte of Brome. In

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. Ill

composition, essentially a silicate of alumina and soda, combined
with 6 or 7 per cent, of chloride of sodium.

(8) GROUP OP ZEOLITIC SILICATES.

[The silicates of this group are essentially hydrous species, especi-
ally characteristic of trappean or basaltic rocks. All fuse more or
less readily, the fusion in many cases being preceded by intumescence,"
or accompanied by bubbling, whence the old name of the group from
^kw and /{'#OT. Most of these minerals also gelatinize in acids, or
become readily decomposed with separation of granular or slimy
silica. Those which occur in Central Canada may be arranged in
two sub-groups, comprising (a) Calcareous Zeolites ; and (b) Alkaline
Zeolites, ,]

SUB-GROUP A. CALCAREOUS ZEOLITES.

67. Prehnite : — Green, of various shades, greenish- white. Rhom-
bic in crystallization, but occurring mostly in botryoidal masses with
crystalline surface and radiating fibrous
structure (Fig. 71). H = 6.0 — 6. 5 ; sp.
gr. 2.8 — 2.95. BB, easily fusible with
great bubbling. Attacked by boiling
acids with separation of granular silica,

FIG. 71. but complete decomposition is not readily

effected Essential composition : silica 43.5, alumina 25, lime 27,
water 4.5. Occurs chiefly in the trap rocks of Lake Superior, some-
times forming distinct veins, as on Slate River, an affluent of the
Kaministiquia, and with imbedded nodules of native copper on an
island near St Ignace. A specimen, obtained by the author from
Slate River, shewed a sp. gr. of 2.88, and yielded : silica 43.41,
alumina 23.80, sesquioxide iron 1.26, sesquioxide manganese 0.53,
lime 26.62, water 4.14. The " Chlorastrolite " from Isle Royale is
probably a variety of Prehnite. It occurs in small nodular masses
in amygdaloidal trap ; or in the form of small pebbles, left by the
disintegration of the trap, on the beaches of the island. Its colour is
mostly dark and light green in alternate patches, and it exhibits a
radiating fibrous structure and somewhat silky aspect. Sp. gr. 2.90
to 3.20, the heavier specimens invariably containing minute particles
of magnetic iron ore, forming nuclei from which the fibres radiate.
The amount of water varies from a little over 4.0, to about 5.5 per
cent.

112 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

68. Datolite : — White or pale-green. Clinorhombic in crystalliza-
tion, but occurring chiefly in botryoidal masses of fibrous structure.
H = 5.0 — 5.5 ; sp.gr. 2.95 — 3.0. BB tinges the flame pale-green,
and melts with great bubbling. In the bulk-tube yields about 5 per
cent, water. Gelatinizes in hydrochloric acid. Average composition :
silica 38, boracic acid 21.5, lime 35.5, water 5.0. Of doubtful
presence in Central Canada, but bel ved to occur sparingly in some
of the trap rocks of Lake Superior. Abundant on the south shore
of the lake, and present also on Isle Royale.

69. Laumontite : — White, greyish, pale-red, &c. Clinorhombic but
mostly in fibrous groups. H = 3.5 — 4.0, but often less from
incipient decomposition of the mineral; sp. gr. 2.2 — 2.35. BB,
exfoliates, and melts to a white enamel. Gives off a large amount
of water in the bulb-tube. Gelatinizes in hydrochloric acid. Aver-
age composition : silica 52, alumina 21, lime 12, soda 4.5, water
15. Occurs in the amygdaloidal traps of Lake Superior, but
mostly in a weathered condition.

70. Thomsonite : — White, red, &c. Rhombic, but most common-
ly found in indistinct acicular crystals and fibrous groups. H= 5.0
— 5.0; sp. gr. 2.3 — 2.4. BB, intumesces, and melts into a blebby
glass. Gives off water in the bulb-tube. Gelatinizes in hydrochloric
acid. Average composition : silica 38, alumina 30, lime 13, soda
4.5, water 13.5. Of somewhat doubtful occurrence, but some of
the zeolites from fhe amygdaloidal traps of Lake Superior belong
apparently to this species. They are mostly in a weathered and
semi-decomposed condition.

71. Heulandite. 72. Stilbite. 73. Chabazite. These minerals
are essentially hydrous silicates of alumina and lime. They are said
to occur in some of our trappean rocks, but nowhere in distinct or
well-characterized examples.

SUB-GROUP B : ALKALINE ZEOLITES.

Natrolite: — White, yellowish, &c. Rhombic in crystallization,
but occurring most commonly in radiating fibrous groups. H = 5.0
— 5.5 ; sp. gr. 2.15 — 2.35. BB, tinges the flame strongly yellow,
and melts very easily without intumescence. In the bulb-tube, yields
a large amount of water. Gelatinizes in acids. Average composi-
tion : silica 47.5, alumina 27, soda 12, water 9.5. Occurs, but
mostly in a weathered condition and in part altered into carbonate of

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 113

lime, in some of the amygdaloidal traps of Lake Superior. Also in
trap rocks around Montreal.

75. Analcime : — White, greyish, pale-red, &c. Regular in
crystallization : the crystals mostly trapezohedrons. Occurring
also in small granular masses. H = 5.0 — 5.5 ; sp. gr. 2.2 — 2.3.
BB, imparts a yellow tinge to the flame, and melts without bubbling
or intumescence into a more or less clear glass. In the bulb-tube,
gives off water in considerable quantity. Gelatinizes in acids.
Average composition: silica 54, alumina 23, soda 14, water 9.
Occurs in the amygdaloidal traps of Lake Superior, and more es-
pecially, with native copper, on the Island of Michipicoben. It is
said also to be present, here and there, in the trap rocks of the
district around Montreal.

76. Apophyllite: — "White, pale-red, &c. Tetragonal in crystalliza-
tion, but occurring commonly in lamellar masses of a somewhat
pearly aspect. (The crystals exhibit a pearly opalescence on the
basal plane, and a vitreous lustre on the other faces.)* H = 4.5 ;
sp. gr. 2.3 — 2.4. BB, easily fusible, and yielding a large amount
of water in the bulb-tube. Decomposed, with separation of floccnlent
silica, by hydrochloric acid. Apophyllite differs from other zeolitic
minerals in being non-aluminous. Average composition : silica 52,
lime 25, water 16, potassium fluoride 6J- Occurs in pale reddish
and colourless foliated masses, mixed with calcspar, in the silver-
bearing vein of Prince's Location, on Spar Island, Lake Superior.

(9) GROUP OF MICACEOUS AND CHLORITIC SILICATES.

[The silicates of this group possess an eminently fissile or foliaceous
structure, in consequence of which they admit of separation into plates
or scales of extreme tenuity. Although differing more or less in
composition, they form a connected series, commencing with species
which consist essentially of silicates of alumina and potash, anhydrous
or nearly so, and terminating in hydrated silicates of alumina and
magnesia, but with intermediate species in which both potash and
magnesia are present, and in which the amount of water gradually
increases. Many of these intermediate links, however, have not been
met with, as yet, in Canada. Through the hydrated magnesian
species, there is a transition into the talcose minerals of the next
group.]

* See Types of Crystallization, in the author's Mineral Tables, page 276.
9

114 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

77. Muscovite or Potash Mica : — Silvery-white, grey, brown, green,
black, with pseudo-metallic pearly lustre. Rhombic in crystallization r
the crystals usually six-sided tables or prisms with strongly-pro-
nounced basal cleavage, but distinct crystals are comparatively rare;
Most commonly in foliated or scaly masses, tough and flexible.
H = 1.5 — 2.0 or cleavage surface, somewhat higher on edges of
folia. Sp. gr. 2.7 — 3.1. BB, whitens, and melts on the thin edges.
In the bulb-tube, usually gives off a small amount of water. Not
attacked by acids. Average composition : silica 46, alumina 30,
sesquioxide iron 4, potash 10, water (and traces of fluorine) 2 to 4.
In some bright green varieties, 3 or 4 per cent, of oxide of chromium
is present.

Muscovite is an essential component of ordinary granite, gneiss,
mica slate, and other crystalline rocks. It occurs, thus, more or less-
abundantly throughout the Lauren tian area of Canada (Part Y), and
also amongst the metamorphic series of the Eastern Townships.
Most commonly it forms small scaly masses, but,, as stated by Sir
William Logan, large crystals and plates occur in a vein of graphic
granite (see Part III) on Allumette Lake, north of Pembroke in
Renfrew County, and with black tourmaline on Yeo's Island, in the-
Upper St. Maurice. Large crystals of mica (apparently Muscovite)
are also said by Dr. Bigsby to occur in granite at Cape Tourmente
below Quebec. A green chromiferous variety in the form of small
scales in magnesite and dolomite has been recognized by Dr. Sterry
Hunt in the Eastern Townships of Sutton and Bolton.

78. Phlogopite (Magnesia Mica) : — Yellowish-brown, brownish-
red, olive-green, yellowish-green, blueish-grey, &c.,with pearly-metallic
lustre. Rhombic : — but occurring mostly in six-sided plates and
broad foliated masses, or in scaly particles, tough and elastic. Cleav-
age strongly pronounced in one direction. H = 2.0-2.5; sp. gr.
2.72-2.85. BB, whitens, and generally melts at the point and
edges. In the bulb-tube, most varieties yield traces of moisture..
Attacked, in powder, by hot sulphuric acid, the silica separating in
fine scales. Average composition,: silica 41, alumina 13 to 18,
magnesia (with some oxide of iron (<fec.) 30, potash (with soda) 8 to-
10, water and fluorine 1 to 4.

This species occurs most generally in association with the crystal-
line limestones and pyroxenic beds of the Laurentian. series, and it is-

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 115

abundant in all the phosphate deposits of the Ottawa region. Large
plates of economic value for stove-fronts, lanterns, <fcc., are obtained
in the townships of Grenville, Buckingham, Templeton, &c., and in
North and South Burgess. On the north shore of Rideau Lake in
Burgess, large six-sided plates and prisms, associated with apatite
and calcite, occur in great profusion. Translucent greenish-yellow
prisms with calcite and diopside occur also at Calumet Falls.

Note : — Lepidolite or Lithia Mica has not yet been recognized in
Canada, although abundant in Maine and in Connecticut. It is
mostly in granular scaly masses of a pink, red, or greyish colour,
melting easily and with much intumescence before the blow-pipe, and
colouring the flame carmine-red. Biotite is another magnesian mica,
closely related to Phlogopite, described above, but Hexagonal in
crystallization, and mostly black or green in colour. It is of doubt-
ful occurrence in Canada, but a dark-green mica from Moor's Slide
on the Ottawa has been referred to this species.

79. Seybertite (Clintonite) : — Brown, brownish-red. Mostly in
small scaly or foliated masses with peaT'ly-metallic aspect. H = 4.0
or less ; sp. gr. 3.0-3.1. BB, whitens but does not fuse, or melts
only on the thinest edges. Gives off water in the bulb-tube. De-
composed, in powder, by sulphuric acid. Contains a comparatively
small amount of silica. Average composition : silica 20, alumina
40, iron oxide 4, magnesia 20, lime 13, water 3. Occurs sparingly
in crystalline limestone with blue spinel in the seignory of Daille-
bout, Joliette County, Province of Quebec.

80. Chlorite (Pennine) : — Dark-green, greenish-grey. Hexagonal
or Hemi- Hexagonal in crystallization, but occurring principally in
scaly or foliated masses, and frequently in a more or less earthy
condition, or in granular slaty masses. H = 2.5 or less; sp. gr. 2.6

- 2.8. Sectile. Flexible in thin pieces, but not elastic. BB, gen-
erally melts upon the edges. In the bulb-tube yields water. De-
composed, in powder, by hot sulphuric acid. Average composition :
silica 33, alumina 13, iron and chromium oxides 6, magnesia 35,
water 13. Occurs chiefly in crystalline strata south of the St. Law-
rence, forming beds of chloritic slates which often carry copper ores,
as in Cleveland, Bolton, Shefford, Melbourne, Ascot, and other
Eastern Townships. In Sutton, St. Armand, Brome, and elsewhere
in the same district, it occurs in admixture with specular iron ore,

116

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

forming schistose beds or chloritic iron slates. Also in sub-folia
or more or less compact and sectile beds, of economic value as pot-
stones in Bolton and Broughton. In the form of chloritic rock-
masses this mineral is especially characteristic of Huronian strata,
and is thus largely present throughout the wide extent of country
north of Lake Huron and Lake Superior.

81. Chloritoid : — Greyish-green, greenish-black, dark grey, In
thin lamellar masses, and also, occasionally in imbedded nodules of
foliaceous texture. H=5.5— 6.0 ; sp.gr. 3.5 — 3.6. BB, in the
outer flame, becomes red ; in the inner flame, dark and magnetic ;
but resists fusion, or vitrifies only on the thinnest edges. Yields
water in the bulb-tube. Decomposed by sulphuric acid. A dark,
greenish-grey variety from Leeds, analysed by Dr. Sterry Hunt,
yielded : silica 26.30, alumina 37.10, protoxide of iron 25.92, pro-
toxide of manganese 0.93, magnesia 3.66, water 6.10. Occurs in
many of the schistose strata of the Eastern Townships, more es-
pecially in Brome and Leeds.

Loganite (Altered Hornblende) : — This substance is derived apparently from
the alteration and partial decomposition of hornblende (No. 52, above). It
occurs in small dull brown crystals, resembling those of hornblende, in the
crystalline limestone of Calumet Falls on the Ottawa, associated with serpen-
tine, phlogopite and apatite, H about 3.0 ; sp. gr., according to Hunt, 2.60
— 2.64. Infusible. Partially attacked by acids. Dr. Hunt's analysis shewed:
silica 33.28, alumina 13.30, magnesia 35.50, iron peroxide 1.92, volatile matter
(water, &c.) 16.00.

Hydrous Diallage : — This is also a product of alteration, derived apparently
from augite (No. 53, above). It occurs in cleavable masses of a greenish-grey
or pale green and somewhat waxy lustre, associated with apatite, calcite and
sphene, in crystalline limestone in North Elmsley, and also in association with
phlogopite in North Burgess. H = 1.5 — 3.0; sp. gr. =2.3 — 3.55. Infusible,
or nearly so. Composition somewhat variable, but essentially, after Hunt's
analysis: silica 36.50— 39.70, alumina 10.80—14.80, magnesia 25.62—28 26,
iron protoxide, 4.32—9.54, water 14.0—17.66.

Another variety, in greenish and somewhat pearly masses with H=5.0 and
sp. gr. about 3.0, from the Eastern Township of Orford, yielded Dr. Sterry
Hunt: silica 47. 10, alumina 3.50, magnesia 24.58, lime 11.34, iron protoxide
8.55, water 5.5. It is related apparently to the hydrous bronzite described
below.

Hydrous Bronzite : — Also an alteration product, derived apparently from
augite. Occurs in bronze coloured cleavable and scaly masses in schistose
strata in the township of Ham. Dr. Hunt's analysis gives : silica 50.00
magnesia 27.17, iron protoxide 13.90, lime 3.80, water 6.30.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II. 117

(10) GROUP OF TALCOSB SILICATES.

[The minerals of this group are essentially non-aluminous mag-
nesian silicates, foliated or compact in texture, very sectile, and more
or less greasy or soapy to the touch.]

82. Talc, including Steatite or Soapstone : — Silvery or greenish-
white, pale-green, greyish ; often mottled in grey and greyish tints.
Hexagonal in crystallization, but occurring mostly in foliated or scaly
masses, the folia flexible but not elastic (Talc}, or in beds of a sub-
granular, slaty or compact texture (Steatite or Soapstone). Very
sectile, and more or less soapy to the touch. H=1.0 — 2.0 ; sp. gr.
2.56 — 2.8. BB, sometimes exfoliates, but melts only on the thinnest
edges. In the bulb-tube, yields, generally, a little water. Scarcely
attacked by acids. Average composition ; silica 63, magnesia 33,
water 4 ; but some specimens contain merely a trace of water, whilst
others yield 6 or 7 per cent. Talc appears to be of rare occurrence
in the more ancient metamorphic rocks of Canada, but abed of grey
and dark greyish-green steatite, mixed with magnesian carbonate of
lime occurs near the village of Bridgewater in Elzevir, County of
Hastings. It is also said to have been found in Galway or Somer-
ville. In the higher metamorphic strata south of the St. Lawrence,
talcose slates, on the other hand, are not uncommon, and beds of
steatite are comparatively abundant. These lie principally in the
townships of Bolton, Sutton, Potton, Stanstead, Leeds and Vaudreuil.
As shown by Dr. Sterry Hunt, they frequently contain traces of
oxide of nickel, A bed of mottled and pale-green steatite of excel-
lent quality has been found recently by Mr, Peter McKellar near
Thunder Bay, on Lake Superior. A specimen analysed by the
writer, yielded : silica 62.67, magnesia 33.40, oxide of iron 0.86,
water 1.88. The more compact kinds of steatite are capable of
economic employment in the manufacture of fire-bricks, stoves,
baths, gas burners, culinary vessels, table ornaments, &c., and other
varieties are used as a paint material. Powdered talc or steatite
appears also to be occasionally added to ordinary lead paint with a
view to produce increased lustre ; and it has been employed to lessen
friction in machinery.

Pyrallolite or Renselaerite : — This substauee agrees essentially in composition
and general characters with steatite, but presents the cleavage and occasionally
the crystalline form of augite. It is evidently a product of alteration. Mostly

2RALS AND GEOLOGY

greenish-white, pale-green, grey, or brownish, with somewhat waxy lustre.
Very sectile. H = 2.5 - 3.0 ; sp. gr. 2. 6 - 2.8. Infusible, or fuses only on the
thinnest edges, but differs (although perhaps only in some examples) from
steatite, proper, in being partially attacked by hot sulphuric acid. Occurs in
beds in the crystalline limestone of Grenville on the Ottawa. Also in the
townshiphs of Ramsay, Rawdon, and Lansdowne. The Grenville variety
yielded Dr. Sterry Hunt: silica 61-60, magnesia 31.06, iron protoxide 1.53,
water 5.60.

83. Serpentine (including Retinalite, Chrysotile, &c.) : — Greyish
green, oil-green, greyish-yellow, brown, reddish, sometimes nearly
white, and often veined or mottled. Mostly in compact, granular,
slaty masses, forming rock-beds. Occasionally fibrous, and then
commonly known as /Serpentine-asbestos or Chrysotile. Also at
times in pseudoniorphous crystals derived from the alteration of
chrysolite, pyroxene, amphibole, spinel, and other species. H = 2.5
— 4.0, but in general about 3.0. Very sectile. Sp. gr. 2.2 (fibrous
varieties) to 2.66; usually about 2.5. BB, fusible on thin edges
only. In the bulb-tube yields water. Decomposed by heated acids,
especially by sulphuric acid. Average composition : silica 42, mag-
nesia 42, iron protoxide 3, water 13. In Canada, serpentine is met
with abundantly in the older crystalline or Laurentian rocks, and
still more extensively in the crystalline strata of the Eastern Town-
ships and Gaspe. In Laurentian rocks it occurs principally in con-
nection with the crystalline or Eozoon limestones, as, more especially
in the township of Grenville 011 the Ottawa, on Calumet Island, and
in the township of Burgess in Lanark County. These Laurentian
serpentines are mostly pale-green or yellowish, often with spots and
streaks of a reddish-brown colour. Serpentine occurs also, in smaller
quantities, in some of the iron-ore beds of Belmoiit and Marmora.
In the metam orphic strata south of the St. Lawrence, large beds,
mostly intermixed with carbonate of lime or dolomite, and thus form-
ing serpentine marbles of more or less beauty, occur in the townships of
Melbourne, Orford, Broughton, Bolton, Hani, and Garthby, and
abundantly around Mount Albert in Gaspe. In many of these locali-
ties, the serpentine is closely associated with chromic iron ore. In
St. Francis in Beauce County, serpentine occurs also in connection
with magnetic and titaniferous iron ore ; and in Roxton, Brompton,
Orford, and other townships of that district, it often carries copper
pyrites and other copper ores. Finally, a fibrous asbestiform variety

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

119

is found in Melbourne, Bolton, Ham, Thetford, Coleraine, Broughton
and other eastern townships, where within the last three or four years
it has been extensively mined, and it now forms an important article
of commerce.

Aphrodite : — White, yellowish- white. In soft, earthy, or waxy-looking
masses, strongly adherent to the tongue. Essentially a hydrated silicate ol
magnesia, allied to serpentine and also to meerschaum. Occurs in small quan-
tities, in a bed of steatite or pyrallolite (see under No. 62 above) in the town-
ship of Grenville on the Ottawa.

(11) GROUP OF KAOLINIC SILICATES.

[The minerals of this group much resemble in aspect and general
characters the talcs and steatites of the preceding group. Foliated
examples present a pearly lustre and talcose appearance, and compact
and granular varieties are more or less soapy to the touch and
adherent to the tongue. Th se Kaolinic silicates, however, differ
from the talcose species in being essentially non-magnesian. They
are hydrated silicates of alumina, or of alumina and potash, and are
evidently products of alteration, derived from the decomposition of
feldspathic and other aluminous silicates. As in the case .f all
substances of this kind, composition and physical characters are
necessarily somewhat variable, numerous so-called species might be
made out of these products if slight points of difference were taken
into consideration ; but Canadian examples may be referred to two or
three types, as given below.]

84. Kaolinite or Pholerite .-—Pearly- white, pale-green, greenish-
grey, and sometimes red from admixture with scaly red iron ore.
Occurs in soft unctuous scaly masses, and also in a more or less
•compact and granular condition. Very sectile, and soapy to the
touch. H= 1.0 — 2.0: sp. gr. 2.33—2.63. BB, sometimes
exfoliates or expands in bulk, but remains unfused. In the bulb-
tube, yields a large amount of water. The light-coloured varieties
assume a fine blue colour after ignition with nitrate of cobalt (See
Operation 3, under the Application of the Blowpipe, in Part L).
Scarcely attacked by acids. Average composition : silica 46, alumina
40, water 14. Occurs in fissures of a sandstone of the Quebec group
near Chaudiere Falls (Dr. Stony Hunt) ; also, according to Dr.
Hunt, in films in the joints of some of the quartzose sandstones of
the Huronian series. A red ferruginous variety in strongly soiling

120 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

particles which become lustrous when rubbed, occurs in Macloc and
elsewnere in the counties of Hastings and Peterborough, and prob-
ably in other parts of that region. Finally, it may be observed that
many of the metamorphic slates of the Eastern Townships appear to-
owe their nacreous talcose aspect the presence of kaolinite, or to that
of the related non-magnesian silicates described under Pinite, below.

85. Pinite (including Aluminous- A galmatolite and Parophite, &c.)r
— Greenish or greyish-white, dull-yellow, grey, green, brown, &c. In
compact, granular, and sometimes slaty masses : also occasionally in
pseudomorphous crystals. Very sectile, and more or less unctuous to
the touch. H == 2.5 to 3.5 ; sp. gr. 2.65 — 2.8. BB, infusible, or
fusible with difficulty on the edges only. The light-coloured varieties
assume a blue tint after ignition with nitrate of cobalt, In the bulb-
tube, yields water. More or less attacked by acids. Average com-
position : silica 45 to 55, alumina 25 to 35, iron oxides 1 to 4, potash
6 to 10, with small amounts of magnesia, soda, &c., and from 5 to 8-
per cent, of water.

The term Pinite (from the Pini mine near Schneeberg in Saxony)
was originally restricted to certain brown pseudomorphous crystals,
apparently derived from the decomposition of lolite, but it is now
applied by Dana so as to include a number of related substances of
various colours and modes of occurrence. These substances are essen-
tially hydrated silicates of alumina and potash, much resembling the
magnesian steatites and serpentines in their physical characters. One
of the best known is the Chinese Agalmatolite or Figure-stone, but
many of the so-called agalmatolites are magnesian in composition, and
identical with steatite. Dr. Hunt refers the Wilsonite (see No. 63,,
above) to this group, on account of its composition; but its physical
characters are quite distinct from those of the typical pinites and agal-
matolites. It wants the sectility and soapy feel, for example, so char-
acteristic of these latter, whilst it possesses, on the other hand, a dis-
tinctly spathoid structure.

The agalmatolite variety occurs in beds and layers amongst the
strata of the Eastern Townships of Canada, especially in St. Nicholas
(LeVis), where it forms green and greenish-white layers in an indura-
ted clay-slate of the Quebec group (see Part V.) ; also near St. Francis.
(Beauce), in yellow, waxy-looking, semi-translucent layers ; and on
Lake Memphramagog in Stanstead, where it occurs in yellowish beds,

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

121

one of which presents a sub-fibrous silky aspect, in chloritic slate.
Analysis of these varieties by Dr. Steriy Hnnt, will be found in the
elaborate Report of the Geological Survey for 1863.

Olauconite (Green Sand) : — This substance occurs only in the form of small
grains and specks of a green colour, distributed through sandstone and other
rocks. These grains appear to consist essentially of a hydrated silicate of
alumina, potash, and iron oxide. They occur in a sandstone of the Quebec
group near Point Levis, and on the Island of Orleans. Certain bright-green
markings in the siliceous Black River limestones of Lake St. John, in Rama,
have also been referred to Glauconite.

(12) GROUP OF COPPER AND NICKEL SILICATES.

[The minerals of this group, as regards Canadian examples, are com-
paratively unimportant. They are essentially hydrated silicates of an
amorphous or earthy structure : products of decomposition of copper
and nickel ores.]

86. Chrysocolla : — Green, greenish-blue, occasionally passing into
brown and black. In amorphous masses, and in earthy crusts on copper
ores, frequently mixed with malachite. H = 1.5 — 4.0 ; sp, gr. 2.1

- 2.3. BB, blackens, and imparts a green colour to the flame-border,
but does not fuse. In the bulb-tube yields a large amount of water..
Attacked and decomposed by heated acids. Average composition :
silica 34, oxide of copper 45, water 2 1 . The brown and black varie-
ties are intermixed with iron and manganese oxides, or with black
oxide of copper. In Canada, found sparingly amongst some of the
copper ores of Lake Superior.

87. Genthite (Nickel-Gymnite) : — Pale-green, greenish -yellow. Oc-
curs in earthy crusts, and in amorphous masses sometimes with botry-
oidal surface. H = 1.5 — 4.0; sp. gr. 2.2—2.5. BB. blackens,
but remains infusible, In the bulb-tube gives off a large amount of
water. A sofc earthy variety from Michipicoten yielded Dr. Sterry
Hunt: silica 35.80, oxide of nickel 32.40, water 12.20; but in an-
other specimen (less thoroughly dried before analysis) the amount of
water was found equal to 17.10 per cent. Hitherto only recognized
in Canada in a vein on the Island of Michipicoten, Lake Superior.
The vein traverses amygdaloidal trap, and carries small grains and
rounded masses of native copper and native silver.

I. CARBONATES.

[This subdivision comprises the natural compounds of Carbonic
Acid (now commonly called carbon dioxide) with various bases, such

122

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

as lime, magnesia, and the like. In acids these compounds become
decomposed with strong effervescence, the latter effect being due to
the liberation of their carbonic acid, but in many cases the application
of heat is required to develop the phenomenon. The substance, in
the form of a small particle or two, or in powder, may be conveniently
examined, with some diluted hydrochloric acid, in a test-tube or deep
watch-glass supported over a common spirit-lamp. (See under
" Action of Acids," in Part I.) The carbonates, also, when fused
with borax before the blowpipe, dissolve with marked effervescence,
their carbonic acid being driven off. Up to the present time, only
eight carbonates have been recognized amongst Canadian minerals,
and five of these are altogether unimportant. We arrange the whole,
therefore, simply under two groups : Anhydrous and Hydrous Car-
bonates, respectively.]

(1) GROUP OF ANHYDROUS CARBONATES.

[The anhydrous carbonates belong properly to several disl
groups : more especially to a Rhombohedrcd Group, typified by calcite
01 ordinary calc spar, and including dc lomite, magnesite, siderite, &c. ;
and a Prismatic Group of Rhombic and Monoclinic species, typified
by Arragonite, and including carbonates of lead, baryta, strontia, &c.
But in Canada, the latter group is only represented, and that
obscurely, by arragonite or prismatic carbonate of lime.]

88. Calcite or Calc S})ar (Rhombohedral Carbonate of Lime) : —
White, grey, reddish white, greenish-white, yellowish-white, red,
black, &c., but mostly colourless or lightly tinted. Hexagonal or
Hemi-Hexagonal in crystallization, with strongly pronounced rhom-
bohedral cleavage. The crystals are chiefly obtuse and acute
rhombohedrous (Figs 72 and 74) ; combinations of a rhombohedroii
and hexagonal prism, the so-called " nail-headed " crystals (Fig. 73) ;
and more or
less acute scal-
enohed ro n s
(Fig. 75), the
mineral in the
latter form be-
ing often popu-
larly known as FlG. 72. FIG. 73. FIG. 74.
" dog-tooth spar." Calcite occurs also abundantly

in

FIG. 75.

lamellar,

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 123

columnar, fibrous, granular, and earthy masses. The crystals and
crystalline masses break readily into rhombohedrons which measure
105° 5' over a polar edge, and 74° 55' over other edges. In some of
its conditions, this species presents a more or less pearly or silky
lustre ; and all transparent specimens exhibit in certain directions a
strongly-marked double refraction, as in the so-called " Iceland Spar."
This is best shown by placing a rhombohedron, as obtained by
cleavage, with its broader faces over a ruled line or other thin object,
and turning the crystal so as to make it revolve around this. In the
direction of a line joining the obtuse plane angles of the rhombic
face, the two images coalesce ; but in the opposite direction they are
more or less widely separated, according to the thickness of the
crystal. H = 3.0 in crystals and cleavable masses, but less in earthy
varieties. Sp. gr. = 2.5 — 2.75, mostly about 2.7. BB, infusible,
but glows strongly and becomes caustic, the carbonic acid being
expelled. Readily soluble with strong effervescence in diluted acids,
without the aid of heat. Normal composition : carbonic acid 44,
lime 56, but a small portion of the lime is very generally replaced by
magnesia, protoxide of iron, protoxide of manganese, <fec.

The varieties presented by this mineral are comparatively numer-
ous. Those which occur in Canada may be arranged under three
divisions, comprising : (a] Crystals, and crystalline cleavable
varieties ; (6) Concretionary and stalactitic varieties ; (c) Rock
varieties.

(a) Crystallized and cleavable varieties of Calcite : — Rhombo-
hedrons and scalenohedrons of calcite occur in many of the mineral
veins on the north shore of Lake Superior ; at the Bruce and
Wellington Mines, Lake Huron ; in the galena-bearing lodes of
Gal way. Ramsey, Loughborough, &c. ; and in some of the copper
lodes of the Eastern Townships. In a " pocket " or " vug " in the
Shuniah vein north of Thunder Bay, the writer observed a large
bunch of scalenohedral crystals, many of which measured upwards of
18 inches in length. Some large scalenoheclrous have also been
observed at the Wellington Mines on Lake Huron. Fine cleavable
and transparent masses of calcite occur at Harrison's Location on the
Island of St. Ignace, Lake Superior ; and others, perfectly fit for
optical purposes, were found in abundance in the upper part of the
main shaft at the Galway lead mine in North Peterborough.

124

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Crystallized examples occur likewise in hollows and in fissures of
many of our Silurian and Devonian strata, as more especially, in the
Trenton limestone near Lachine, and in the same formation in the
township of Huntingdon in Hastings County ; in dolomitic beds of
the Quebec group near Point Levis, opposite Quebec ; and in the
Niagara formation in the vicinity of the Great Falls, Hamilton,
Dundas and elsewhere. Many of the amygdaloidal trap rocks of
Lake Superior and Lake Huron, also, enclose nodular cleavable
masses of calcite, and occasionally the more open amygdaloidal
cavities are lined with crystals. These are almost always scalenohe-
drons, or combinations in which one or more scalenohedrons pre-
dominate.

(b) Concretionary and Stalactitic varieties of Calcite : — These
varieties are being constantly formed by deposition of carbonate of
lime from springs and streams in limestone districts, and from water
percolating through limestone rocks. Carbonate of lime, consisting
of equal atoms or combining weights of lime and carbonic acid, is
comparatively insoluble in water, but the bicarbonate, containing
two parts of carbonic acid to one of lime, dissolves to a certain ex-
tent. Water contains very generally a small amount of free car-
carbonic acid, derived from the atmosphere, decaying organic matter,
&c., and thus it is enabled to take up a certain quantity of carbonate
of lime, this becoming converted into bicarbonate. The latter com-
pound, however, is extremely unstable. It parts with carbonic acid
very readily, even by simple exposure to the air. The insoluble
carbonate thus again results, and is necessarily precipitated from the
water, the precipitation often taking place upon moss, roots and
other organic bodies, converting these into so-called " petrifactions."
Water issuing from limestone strata
often deposits concretionary masses
of carbonate of lime, in this manner,
as at Hamilton, Rockwood, the
Falls of Noisy River, the Banks of
Beaver River in Euphrasia and
Artemisia, and other places along FIG. 76.

the escarpment of the Niagara Formation (see Part V.). Deposits
of this kind are commonly known as Calcareous Tufa. Specimens
from Hamilton, more especially, are hard and solid, and admit of a

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 125

good polish. They are mostly of a brownish-yellow color. Caverns
and hollows of greater or less extent often occur in limestone recks.
Water percolating into these through minute fissures in the roof,
very generally deposits on the latter a thin coating of carbonate of
lime, and then dropping on the floor, deposits there a further portion
of calcareous matter. In this manner, the process constantly going
on, stalactites and stalagmites originate, the two occasionally meet-
ing in the form of a pillar (as shown in Figure 76). These stalacti-
tic deposits usually exhibit a radiated fibrous structure, with fre-
quently a botryoidal surface. Some large stalactites have been
obtained from a cavern at the lower falls of the Nottawa River in
Mono (Geological Report, 1863, p. 334) ; and others, of smaller
size and less symmetrical form, have been found in adjoining town-

(c) Rock Varieties : — These come properly under review in Parts
III. and Y. of this work. They comprise the various kinds of lime-
stone, including : Crystalline Limestone, the finer varieties of which
are commonly known as Marble ; Ordinary Limestone ; Lithographic
Limestone ; Oolitic Limestone, composed of minute spherical con-
cretions ; Earthy Limestone or Chalk, and so forth. In Canada,
valuable beds of marble occur in the Laurentian strata of Renfrew
(Arnprior), McNabb, Grenville, Weiitworth, Bastard, Marmora,
Elzevir, &c. ; and in the metamorphic region south of the St. Law-
rence, as in St. Armand, St. Joseph, Melbourne, Oribrd, Dudswell
and elsewhere, many of the marbles from these localities being mixed
with green and other coloured serpentine. In some of the unaltered
Lower Silurian strata, also, red, grey, black and brown marbles
occur; as at St. Lin, Caughnawaga, St. Dominique, Montreal, Corn-
wall, Point Clare and Pakenham. See further, under Part V.

89. Arragonite (Prismatic Carbonate of Lime) :— Colourless, and
of various colours — yellow, blueish, brownish-red, &c. Rhombic in
crystallization, and often in compound crystals which sometimes
present a pseudo-hexagonal aspect. Also in fibrous and stalactitic
masses. H = 3.5— 4.0; sp. gr. 2.9 — 2.95. BB, infusible, but
becomes opaqu > and falls into powder. Soluble in acids with strong
effervescence. Composition identical with that of calcite : carbonate
of lime being thus a dimorphous body — i.e,, a substance capable of
.assuming two distinct sets of physical characters. Fibrous arragonite

126

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

appears to occur sparingly amongst the Lake Superior traps ; and
occasionally in stalactitic coatings on the sides of cracks in some of
our limestone rocks, as in the township of Tring, and elsewhere, but
no very distinct or crystallized examples have as yet been found.

90. Dolomite (Pearl Spar, Bitter Spar) : — White, grey, brownish,
<fcc. Crystallization Hemi-Hexagonal, the crystals being, mostly,
rhombohedrons, the faces of which are often more or less curved.
Occurs also in lamellar cleavable masses, with cleavage angles of
106° 15' and 73° 45', and in granular and rock masses. H = 3.5—
4.0 ; sp. gr. 2.8 — 2.95. BB, infusible, but becomes caustic. Slowly
soluble in cold acids, but rapidly dissolved witli strong effervescence
if the acid be gently heated. Essential composition : carbonic acid,
lime, and magnesia, forming carbonate of lime 54.35, carbonate of
magnesia 45.65, but small portions of the lime and magnesia are very
generally replaced by protoxide of iron and protoxide of manganese,
by which the cleavage angle is slightly altered. The various rhombo-
hedral carbonates, Calcite, Dolomite, Magnesite, Siderite, Rhodochro-
site, &c., merge, in fact, into each other by intermediate transitional
forms, to some of which distinct names have been given. The ferru-
ginous and manganesian dolomites become brown by weathering.

Crystals and crystalline varieties of dolomite occur in many of the
metalliferous veins of Lake Superior and Lake Huron, and occasion-
ally in those of the Eastern Townships and other parts of Canada.
Groups of small rhombohedrons of more ov less pearly aspect, have
been obtained, more especially from the Wellington Mines on Lake
Huron. Small rhombohedral crystals occur also in cavities and on
the sides of cracks, &c., in many limestone strata : as in the dolo-
mitic limestones of the Calciferous formation near Prescott on the
St. Lawrence, and Rigaud on the Ottawa ; and also in the dolomitic
beds of the Niagara Formation in the vicinity of the Falls and else-
where.

In the form or rock-masses, dolomite is of very common occur-
rence in many parts of Canada. A white fine-granular crystalline
variety, or dolomite marble, occurs in Laurention strata at Lake
Mazinaw, in the Township of Barrie, Frontenac County ; and many
of the marbles from the altered strata of the Eastern Townships are
more or less magnesian or dolomitic. In the unaltered Silurian
series, beds of dolomite, of a more or less sub-crystalline texture,

OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART II. 127

make up the strata of the Guelph Formation, as seen in the Town-
ships of Elora, Guelph, Dumfries, Waterloo, Bentick, <fcc. ; and dolo-
mitic limestones, or mixtures of limestone and dolomite, belong to
the various other formations of this series, more especially to Cal-
ciferous, Chazy, Niagara, and Onondaga strata, as described under
these divisions in Part Y.

91. Magnetite : — White, brownish, &c. Henri-Hexagonal in crys-
tallization, the crystals mostly obtuse rhombohedrons ; but occurring
commonly in cleavable masses (with cleavage angles — 107° 29' and
72° 31')' and in granular and rock varieties. H (in pure varieties)
= 3.5 — 4.5 ; sp. gr, 2.8 — 3.0, or slightly higher in the brown fer-
ruginous varieties. BB, infusible. Soluble in heated acids with
effervescence. Normal composition : carbonic acid 52.4, magnesia
47.C), but part of the magnesia usually replaced by protoxides of iron
and manganese. In Canada, this mineral occurs only in rock masses?
forming beds in the altered strata of the Eastern Townships of Sut-
ton and Bolton, south of the St. Lawrence, where it is associated
chiefly with serpentine and steatite.

92. Rhodochrosite, or Carbonate of Manganese : — This species has
not yet been found in Canada in distinct examples, but it occurs in
admixture with many of the manganese ochres (No. 96), and is also
present, in traces, in some of the altered strata of the Eastern Town-
ships. Colour, rose-red or pale-red, weathering brown.

93. Siderite or Spathic Iron Ore (Spherosiderite, Clay Iron Ore,
&c.) : — Yellowish, greyish, light and dark brown, green, &c. Occurs
under several conditions, and more especially : (1), in rhombohe-
drons, scalenohedrons, and lamellar masses, with cleavage angles of
107° and 73° (Spathic Iron, proper); (2), in spherical or concre-
tionary masses with radiating fibrous structure in trappean rocks
(Spherosiderite) ; and (3), in nodujar masses and occasionally in
layers, mostly of a brown colour and earthy or dull stone-like aspect
(Clay Iron Ore). Crystalline varieties of this mineral have not yet
been recognized with certainty in Canada ; but nodules and thin
layers of clay ironstone or clay iron ore occur in the Devonian strata
of Gaspe", associated with a small seam of impure coal, and with fos-
silized plant-remains. This variety is a mixture of carbonate of iron
(more or less converted into brown iron ore) with argillaceous mat-

128

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

ter. Although rarely yielding more than 25 or 3QV> per cent, of iro:
clay ironstone, as occurring in the Carboniferous strata of Europe
and the United States, supplies a large number of furnaces, and
yields metal of good quality. The nodules have usually a strongly-
marked slaty structure ; and, when broken, they almost invariably
exhibit the impression of a fern frond, fish skeleton, or other organic
body. Small fragments after ignition before the blow-pipe, or in. a
glass tube held over a common spLit lamp, assume at first a red
colour, and then become black and magnetic.

93 bis. Strontianite : — This carbonate is stated by Dr. B. J. Har-
rington to occur in the form of white fibrous tufts in cracks in some
concretionary limestone masses in the Utica slate of St. Helen's
Island, Montreal. It imparts a crimson colour to the blowpipe

flame.

(2) GROUP OF HYDROUS CARBOXATES.

[This group is only represented in Canada by the some\vhat proble-
matical Dawsonite, and by the two cupreous carbonates Malachite
and Azurite ; and these latter species do not occur in well character-
ized examples, but merely as incrustations on Copper Ores, or in the
form of stains and small earthy masses in copper-holding rocks.]

94. Dawsonite : — In. white, thin-bladed aggregations or coatings on
compact trachyte, Montreal, H = 3 ; sp. gr. 2.4, contains, according
to Dr. Harrington, alumina, soda, lime, carbonic acid, and water.

95. Malachite or Green Carbonate of Copper : — Green of various
shades, with pale-green streak. Monoclinic in crystallization, but
crystals exceedingly rare. Mostly in botryoidal masses of concentric
lamellar, and fibrous structure ; in earthy coatings on copper ores ;
and in the form of streaks and markings in copper-holding rocks.
H = 3.5 — 4.0 (in the solid state) ; sp. gr. 3.7 — 4.0. BB, tinges
the flame green, and becomes rapidly reduced to metallic copper.
Soluble in acids with effervescence. Essential composition : carbonic
acid 20, oxide of copper 72, water 8. Occurs in small quantities with
copper glance, native silver, &c., in a calc-spar vein on Spar Island,
Lake Superior, and in small earthy incrustations and markings amongst
many of the copper ores and associated veinstones of Lake Superior
and Lake Huron, generally. Also under similar conditions in Madoc,
Marmora, and various other localities in which copper pyrites occur
in larger or smaller quantities ; and especially in the chlorite and

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II.

129

other altered rocks of the metamorphic country south of the St. Law-
rence, as in the townships of Leeds, Halifax, Inverness, Hani, Shipton,
Cleveland, Stukely, Bolton, Brome, Sutton, &c.

96. Azurite or Blue Carbonate of Copper : — This species has hither-
to been recognized only in small incrustations and stains of a blue
colour, associated with malachite, at most of the localities named
under No. 95, above. The blue carbonate contains : carbonic acid
25.6, oxide of copper 69.2, water 5.2.

K. SULPHATES.

[The mineral substances placed under this division may be regarded,
according to the commonly received view, as compounds of sulphuric
acid with one or more oxidized bases, such as baryta, lime, oxide of
lead, alumina, and the like. As regards physical characters, these
bodies exhibit a non-metallic aspect, and either a colourless or a very
faintly-coloured streak, the colour in the latter case being green or
blue, or occasionally yellow. They afford representatives of all the
systems of crystallization : Rhombic and Clino-Rhombic types being
especially abundant. H = 1.0 — 4.0. The sulphates may be easily
distinguished from carbonates, phosphates, silicates, &c., by fusion in
a reducing flame on charcoal with carb-soda ; or better with a mixture
of carb-soda and a little borax, as the latter reagent facilitates the
decomposition of earthy sulphates, and prevents the absorption of the
fused mass. An alkaline sulphide is formed by this treatment.
When moistened, and placed on a piece of silver or on lead test-paper
(a bright coin or glazed visiting card may be used as a substitute),
the fused mass produces a black or brown stain of sulphide of silver
or sulphide of lead. The stain may be easily removed from the silver
by friction with moist bone-ash.

Amongst the sulphates generally, several natural groups stand out
with great prominence. The Rhombic group of anhydrous species,
for example, containing the Sulphates of Baryta, Strontia, Lime,
Lead, &c. ; the Gypsum group ; the Monometric group of Alums ;
the Prismatic group of Vitriols ; and others of subordinate impor-
tance. The sulphates hitherto found in Canada, are too few, however,
to admit of distribution into special groups of this kind. In the
descriptions which follow, the anhydrous species Barytine and Celes-
10

130

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

tine are placed first. To these, succeeds the hydrous sulphate, Gy]
sum ; and a few sapid types of obscure or comparatively rare occur-
rence, close the list.]

97. Barytine or Heavy Spar : — White, yellow, reddish, pale-blue,
grey, &c. Crystallization Rhombic (Figs. 77-78, and other combina-
tions). Occurs very commonly in lamellar masses and aggregations
of large flat crystals with cleavage angles of 101° 40', 78° 20\ and 90°,
yielding a right rhombic prism. Also in masses of a granular or more
or less compact structure. H = 3.0 — 3.5 ; sp. gr. 4.3 — 4.7, mostly
about 4.4 — 4.5. BB, generally decrepitates, tinges the flame
pale-green, and melts with great difficulty, often at the point only,
into a white enamel. Dissolves entirely in carb-soda before the
blowpipe. Not attacked by acids.
Normal composition : sulphuric acid
34.33, baryta 65.67. This mineral
occurs abundantly in many parts of
Canada. In the Laurentian strata, FIG. 77. FIG. 78.

it occurs in veins per se, and as a gangue or veinstone with galena —
more especially in the townships of Lansdowne in Leeds County •
Bathurst and North Burgess in Lanark County ; McNab, Renfrew
County ; Dummer and Galway, in Peterborough County ; and Som-
merville in Victoria County. A broad vein of white crystalline
heavy spar is exposed along the side of the road in lot 7 of the 10th
concession of Hull, near the Gatineau River. Red crystals were
discovered by Mr. Murray on Iron Island, Lake Nipissing ] and other
examples have been met with in the copper-ore veins of Lake Huron.
Isolated pale reddish-yellow crystals (Fig. 78) were found by the
writer (Canadian Journal, November, 1885,) in veins in Neebing
Township near Fort William, Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, and sub-
sequently in other mineral veins in that region. Massive and sub-
crystalline varieties from also large veins on Jarvis Island, near
Pigeon River west of Fort William, and also on Pie Island ; and
other veins of a similar character are said to occur east of Thunder
Cape, as at Edward Island in Black Bay, and elsewhere. Heavy Spar
has also been noticed in some of the serpentines and other altered
strata of the Eastern metauiorphic region south of the St. Lawrence,
as on the Bras River, where a white variety occurs in small veins.
Nodular masses of a red or reddish-yellow colour occur with fibrous

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 131

and granular gypsum in the Hudson River strata of Cape Rich on
Georgian Bay ; and small crystals and crystalline masses are occasion-
ally found in cavities of the dolomitic limestones of the Calciferous
and Niagara groups, as near Brockville, and in the vicinity of Niagara
Falls. Heavy Spar is employed in the manufacture of paints, and is
too frequently used in this connection as a fraudulent substitute for
white lead. It is also the chief source of the baryta salts of the
laboratory.

98. C destine: — White, blue, grey, pale-red, &c. Rhombic in
crystallization, the crystals frequently bearing a close resemblance
to those of heavy spar. Occurring also in lamellar and crystalline
masses, with cleavage angles of about 104°, 76°, and90°, yielding a
right rhombic prizm ; and in masses of fibrous or granular struc-
ture. H — 3.0 - 3.5 ; sp. gr. 3.95 — 3.97. BB, imparts a crimson
colour to the point and border of the flame, and melts into a white
alkaline enamel. Dissolves entirely, by fusion, in carb. soda. Not
attacked by acids. Normal composition : sulphuric acid 43.6, stron-
tia 56.4. This mineral occurs chiefly in sedimentary rock-forma-
tions : very rarely in mineral veins or in crystalline rocks. In
Central Canada, it is found somewhat abundantly in the interior of
small cavities in the Black River or Trenton limestone of Kingston ;
and also, with crystals of dolomite, gypsum, fluor spar, blende, and
other minerals, in cavities in the Niagara limestone, as in the vicinity
of the Falls ; around Owen Sound ; on Drummond Island ; and on
the Grand Manitoulin, Lake Huron. A red variety has been
recently found by Mr. Roche in freestone of the Medina formation at
the forks of the Credit. Celestine is the principal source of strontia
salts, used in pyrotechny to impart a red colour to rockets and signal
lights, and for laboratory purposes.

99. Gypsum (Hydrous Sulphate of Lime, Selenite, &c,) : — White
grey, yellowish, pale-red, «fec. Monoclinic in crystallization, the crys-
tals very commonly as in Fig. 79 a, or in

arrow-headed twins as in Fig. b, also in lamellar
and foliated crystalline masses with strongly
pronounced cleavage in one direction, and in
fibrous and granular masses, the latter often
forming rock deposits. The cleavage planes
present a more or less pearly aspect, the other a FlGi 79>

132

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

crystal-faces exhibiting a vitreous or pearly-vitreous lustre. Granu-
lar and rock varieties have mostly a dull earthy aspect. H — 1.0«
2.0; sp. gr. 2.25 — 2.35. Sectile, and, in thin lamellae, somewhat
flexible. Becomes opaque when held at the edge of a lamp or candle-
flame. BB, exfoliates, and melts into a white caustic enamel. In
the bulb- tube yields a large amount of water. Soluble in hydro-
chloric acid. Dissolves also, if in tine powder, in a large amount of
water, and more readily in a solution of rock. salt. Normal composi-
tion : sulphuric acid 46.51, lime 32.56, water 20.93. The transpar-
ent crystals aud cleavable varieties are commonly termed selenite ;
and the fibrous and fine granular varieties form the alabaster and
satin spar of lapidaries, but these names are also bestowed on similar-
varieties of carbonate of lime. When deprived of its water by ex-
posure to a low red heat, gypsum is converted into plaster ov. Plaster-
of Paris.

Crystalline and fibrous masses, and occasionally distinct crystals of
gypsum, associated with crystals of quartz,, dolomite, &c., occur in.
cavities of many of the Silurian strata in Canada, and thin bands are
interstratified in places with the shales and limestones of some of
these formations. Gypsum occurs under these conditions in the-
Calciferous formation of Beauharnois, the Hudson River formation
of Point Rich on Georgian Bay, the Medina formation of St. Vincent,,
and in the Clinton and Niagara strata in the vicinity of the Falls,.
Hamilton, Dundas, and elsewhere.

Rock masses of granular and compact gypsum, more or less mixedi
with carbonate of lime, characterize the Onondaga Formation of"
Western Canada, and occur largely in the valley of the Grand River :.
more especially in the townships of Dumfries, Brantford, Oneida,
Seneca, and Cayuga; as well as throughout the tract of country,,
generally, between the eastern extremity of Lake Erie and the mouth-
of the Saugeen. (See under the Onondaga Formation, in Part V.)
The greater part of the gypsum from these localities is ground for
agricultural use.

100. Epsomite (Epsom Sak) :-. — White or greyish. Soluble : taste,,
strongly bitter. Rhombic in crystallization, but occurring chiefly in
fibrous tufts and earthy or botryoidal incrusting masses. H = 2.0^
or less. BB, runs at first into liquid fusion, and then forms am
alkaline infusible crust which., assumes a flesh-red colour if moistened

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 133

•with a drop of nitrate of cobalt and again ignited. Yields a large
amount of water in the bulb-tube. Normal composition : sulphuric
acid 32.52, magnesia 16.26, water 51.22. Occurs in Canada, as an
•efflorescence or incrustation, on exposed surfaces, and on the edges of
the planes of bedding, of shales and other strata, where it is formed
^apparently by the action of percolating water containing soluble
matters derived from the decomposition of pyrites. It occurs thus
in some of the slaty talcose layers associated with the iron ores of
Marmora, and also on the weathered shales of the Utica series, near
Montreal, Quebec, and Collingwood ; and still more abundantly 011
-some of the dolomitic beds of the Clinton and Niagara Formation, as
near Dundas and elsewhere. Sulphate of magnesia occurs also in
solution in the Tuscarora water, and in some other mineral springs.

101. Iron Vitriol (Green Vitriol, Copperas, Melaiiterite, &c.) : —
Pale-green, greenish -white ; brownish-yellow by partial decomposition.
Monoclmic in crystallization, but occurring mostly in efflorescent
-crusts and minute hair-like indistinct crystals. Soluble : taste, inky
;and metallic. H = 2.0, or less. BB, blackens and becomes mag-
netic. In the bulb-tube yields a large amount of water, and gives
off sulphurous acid. The aqueous solution gives a deep-blue pre-
oipitate with " red prussiate of potash ;" and in general also with
the yellow prussiate, from the presence of more or less sesquioxide
of iron. Normal composition : sulphuric acid 28.8, protoxide of
Iron 25.9, water 45.3. Occurs on decomposing pyrites and marcasite,
^and on the exposed surfaces of rocks in which these minerals are
present. It is thus found, in small quantities, on many of the ores
from the mineral veins of Lake Superior, Lake Huron, the Hastings
a^egion, and other parts of Canada. A specimen of iron pyrites from
the Gal way Lead Mine in the northern part of the county of Peter-
borough, became covered in the course of a few weeks with delicate
tufts of minute acicular crystals of this mineral.

102. Nickel Vitriol (Morenosite) : — Pale-green, greenish-white. In
efflorescent tufts of minute crystals on nickel ores. Soluble : taste,
strongly metallic. BB, evolves sulphurous acid, swells up, and forms
& dark grey mass. With borax, gives reactions of nickel oxide (see
Part I.). In the bulb-tube yields a large amount of water. If free
from iron, the aqueous solution does not yield a blue precipitate with
«*ed or yellow " prussiate of potash." Normal composition : sulphuric

134 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

acid 28.5, oxide of nickel 26.7, water 44.8. Detected by Dr. Steriy
Hunt, as an efflorescence on an aresenical nickel ore from the Wallace
Mine, Lake Huron. (See No. 17, above.)

103. Alum: — Normally, white, but sometimes stained of a yel-
lowish or brownish colour by sesquioxide of iron and other impurities.
Monometric in crystallization, but occurring commonly in earthy
efflorescent crusts. Soluble : taste, sharp and more or less bitter.
BB, froths up and forms a white earthy mass which assumes a fine
blue colour if moistened with a drop of nitrate of cobalt, and again
ignited. Normal composition : sulphuric acid 33.75, alumina 10. 82,
potash 9.95, water 45.48. Occurs in considerable abundance on the
exposed face of some high bluffs of argillaceous shale (belonging to
the Animikie series) on Slate River, a tributary of the Kaministiquia,,
about twelve miles west of Fort William, Lake Superior.

L. PHOSPHATES AND ARSENIATES.

[These compounds are composed of phosphoric acid or arsenic acid
with various bases. They present a vitreous or other non-metallia
aspect. Phosphates when moistened with a drop of sulphuric acid
(and many without this addition), impart a green colour to the point
of the blowpipe flame. When fused, in powder, with carb. soda in,
a platinum spoon, an alkaline phosphate is formed, soluble in water.
The clear solution decanted from the insoluble residuum, and acidified
by a few drops of nitric acid, yields a canary yellow precipitate with
a drop or two (or small fragment) of ammonium molybdate.
Arseniates, when mixed in powder with some carb. soda, and ignited
on charcoal in a reducing flame, emit a very distinct odour of garlic^
Canadian examples, of this group, amount to only three in number,
as riven below ; but, one of these, the lime fluor-phosphate. Apatite*
occurs in comparative abundance, and is a substance of great com-
mercial value.]

104. Apatite (Phosphate of Lime) : — Green, blueish-green, vioJet-
red, rose-red, brownish, greenish- white, &c. — shades of green and
dull-red being often present in the same specimen. Lustre, vitreous
and vitreo-resinous, with frequently a slight opalescence on one of
the cleavage planes: Crystalliza ion, Hexagonal : the crystals con-
sisting most commonly of six-sided prisms, often of large size, and

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

135

frequently with rounded edges. Occurs also in
lamellar cleavable masses, and occasionally in
globular and other shapes with fibrous structure.
H = 4.5 - 5.5, normally 5.0. Sp. gr. 2.9 - 3.3,
most i ommonly about about 3.18 to 3.2. BB,
in most cases quite infusible, but some varieties FIG. 79.*

vitrify slightly at the point of the assay-fragment after exposure to
a long-sustained blast. The powder moistened with sulphuric acid
tinges the flame-point distinctly green. Melts and dissolves readily
in borax and phosphor-salt, forming a glass which becomes opaque on
cooling or when flamed. (See under Blowpipe-reactions in Part I.)
Easily soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid. The diluted solution,
saturated with ammonia, yields a copious white precipitate of phos-
phate of lime. This precipitate assumes a canary-yellow tint if
treated with a solution of nitrate of silver, or if a crystal of that
substance be laid in it whilst still moist. The presence of phosphoric
acid may also be rendered evident in the diluted nitric acid solution
by the formation of a clear-yellow precipitate with rnolybdate of
ammonium.* Apatite consists essentially of phosphate of lime (or
calcium, phosphorus and oxygen) combined with in general about 8
or 10 per cent, of fluoride of calcium or chloride of calcium, or with
a mixture of both, the fluoride usually preponderating. Canadian
examples appear to be essentially fluor apatites. The normal com-
position of an apatite of this kind is equivalent to : phosphoric acid
42.26, lime 55.60, fluorine 3.37 ; or tribasic phosphate of lime 92.26,
fluoride of calcium 7.74 ; but samples even when dressed for shipping
usually contain a good deal of intermixed calcite and mica scales, and
rarely run higher in tribasic phosphate than about 80 per cent.

Extensive deposits of this mineral, chiefly in the form of veins,
occur in the Laurentian strata of North Burgess and North Elmsley
in the County of Lanark. These veins cut the enclosing strata
transversely, and vary in width from an inch or two to several feet.
The apatite, in crystals, and in cleavable and granular masses, is
associated with phlogopite, pyroxene, and other silicates. Where

* The test-solution is prepared by dissolving some of the crystallilzed molybdate in a very

small quantity of water, nitric acid being added to the solution until the cloudiness or thick

recipitate, which forms at first, becomes redissolved. When this is added to the solution

of the mineral, the whole must be gently warmed. A yellow coloration, succeeded by a

yellow precipitate, then quickly ensues.

136 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

the veins occur in contact with crystalline limestones, these latter
contain in many places detached crystals and grains of apatite, with
occasional masses of that substance. The most important phosphate
region, however, lies on the left bank of the Ottawa, in Buckingham
and adjacent townships, where the apatite occurs in the form of large
lenticular masses and crystals in broad veins, with pyroxene, mag-
nesiari mica (phlogopite), calcite, and other minerals.* Apatite
occurs also in connexion with crystalline limestone, associated with
fluor spar and octahedrons of black spinel, in the township of Ross
in Renfrew county on the Ottawa • and with quartz and and calcite,
at Calumet Falls. Small shews also are seen in many of the lime-
stone bands throughout the Laurentian country between the Ottawa
and Georgian Bay. Transparent pink and purple crystals are also
reported by Dr. S terry Hunt to occur in association with crystals of
augite in a mass of erupted dolerite (see Part III) at St. Roch on
the River Achigan. Apatite has likewise been found, in a quartz
vein carrying copper pyrites and native copper, with large plates of
white mica, in the township of Burford, in the metainorphic district
south of the St. Lawrence.

Finally, it may be observed, small nodular masses consisting in
great part of phosphate of lime, mixed with carbonates of lime and
magnesia, sand, and other matters, are scattered through a conglom-
erate of the (Lower Silurian) Chazy formation at the Allumette
Rapids ', and similar nodules occur in limestone strata of the same
formation in the townships of Hawkesbury and Lochiel, west of the
Ottawa ; as well as in strata of the Quebec group at Point Levis,
and on the River Ouelle. These phosphatic nodules present a
chocolate or blackish-brown colour, and contain in some cases frag-
ments of the shells of Imgulse (see Part IV) and other organic bodies.
They are supposed to be coprolites or fossilized excrementous mat-
ters. When heated, they emit an odour of burnt animal matter, and
evolve ammonia. Phosphate of lime, when converted into super-
phosphate by treatment with sulphuric acid, constitutes an agricul-
tural fertilizer of the highest value.

* Crystals of apatite consist most commonly of a simple hexagonal prism with large basal
plane, but our Canadian crystals, when unbroken, are terminated by the planes of an obtuse
hexagonal pyramid, the basal plane being thus entirely suppressed. This combination has
hitherto been only seen in the so-called spargelstein of German mineralogists, from the
mountains near Jumilla in the south east of Spain, and in the variety known as moroxite fror
Arendal in Norway.

CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

.04. Vivianite (Hydrated Phosphate of Iron) : — Blue, bluish-green
(normally, colourless, but becomes blue on exposure) ; streak pale-
blue or blueish-white. Monoclinic in crystallization, with very per-
fect cleavage in one direction, but found more commonly in bladed
and fibrous varieties, and in earthy masses, often forming, when in
the latter condition, beds or layers of a certain extent. H = 1.0 —
2.0; sp. gr. 2.55 — 2.7. BB, tinges the flame-point pale-green (from
presence of phosphoric acid), and yields a dark magnetic globule. In
the bulb-tube gives off a large amount of water. Normal composi-
tion : phosphoric acid 28.30, iron protoxide 43.00, water 28.70, but
the iron in the coloured varieties is always partly in the state of
sesquioxide, and the earthy varieties moreover are usually mixed
with a certain amount of clay, sand, iron ochres, manganese ochre,
or other foreign matters. In Canada, this mineral has only been
found in an earthy condition, underlying a bed of bog iron ore, in
Yaudreuil, on the Lower Ottawa.

105. Cobalt Bloom (Erythrine, Arseniate of Cobalt) : — Occurs
only (as regards Canada) in the form of a slight efflorescence or in-
crustation, of a peach-blossom red colour, on the silver-holding calc
spar of Prince's Location, on the north-west shore of Lake Superior ;
and also, but in traces only, in the more recently discovered silver
bearing vein near Thunder Cape. Normal composition : arsenic acid
38.25, oxide of cobalt 37.85, water 23.90 ; but sometimes mixed
with arsenious acid.

IV. FLUORIDES AND CHLORIDES.

[This subdivision comprises the compounds of Fluorine and Chlo-
rine, respectively, with metallic bases, such as sodium, calcium, alu-
minum, lead, silver, and the like. These compounds present a non-
metaliic aspect ; and they exhibit a general resemblance, also, in
other characters, to many so-called oxygen salts, more especially to
certain phosphates, borates, carbonates, and sulphates. Amongst
Canadian minerals, however, as at present discovered, we have but a
single representative of each group.]

A. FLUORIDES.

[The only Fluoride as yet discovered in Canada, is the fluoride of
calcium, long known under its popular name of Fluor Spar. In a
strictly natural classification, this mineral should occupy a place in

138

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

the immediate vicinity of the Apatite and Gale-Spar groups. The
fluorides generally, when treated, in powder, with hot sulphuric acid,,
evolve fumes of hydrofluoric acid which exert a strongly corrosive
action on glass. The powdered substance may be warmed with some
sulphuric acid in a platinum or lead crucible covered with a glass
plate, when the under surface of the latter will be quickly corroded.
In making the experiment, great care must be taken not to inhale the
evolved fumes, as these are highly injurious. See also under "Blow-
pipe Reactions/' in Part I.)

106. Fluor Spar: — Occasionally colourless, but more commonly
violet or amethyst-blue, dark blueish-green, pale-green, pale blueish-
grey, yellow, brownish, or rose- red, the edges and angles of many
crystals being more deeply tinted than the other parts, or sometimes
presenting a distinctly different tint or shade of colour. Streak,
white. Crystallization, regular; the crystals mostly cubes, or cubes
with bevelled edges (Figs. 80 and 81.) The corners of these cubes
break off very readily, in consequence of the strongly-pronounced
octahedral cleavage possessed by the mineral. H = 4.0 ; sp. gr. 3.1
— 3.2. Emits a blueish or other coloured phosphorescent light, when
moderately heated in the form of powder. BB, generally decrepi-
tates violently (see Part I), and fuses into an opaque white bead,
which becomes caustic after strong ignition. Decomposed, with evo-
lution of corrosive fumes, by hot sulphuric acid. The evolved fumes
consist of hydrofluoric acid, which strongly corrodes the surface of
glass. Average composition : fluorine 48*72, calcium (the metallic
base of lime » 51.28.

Fluor Spar occurs very
generally in association with
metallic ores in veins. It
also forms per se, or in con-
nection with calcite, the
substance of many narrow FIG. so. FIG. si. FIG. 82.

veins ; and it occurs likewise in cavities and small fissures in lime-
stone and other rocks, and is occasionally disseminated through beds
of crystalline limestone. The finest examples hitherto discovered in
Canada, have been obtained from a large vug or cavity in a vein of
amethyst-quartz on the north-east shore of Thunder Bay, Lake
Superior. The fluor spar from this spot forms large cubes of two or

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II.

139

iree inches in diameter, which rest on equally large pyramids of
amethyst-quartz, and are coated with iron pyrites in minute cubes*
the whole being surmounted, here and there, by scalenohedrons of
calcite. The fluor spar is partly of a pale greenish tint, but mostly
of a violet or amethystine colour. Pale green and purple cubes
occur also in most of the metalliferous veins of Thunder Bay and the
surrounding region, mostly with quartz, calcite, blende, galena, and
copper and iron pyrites, as at Prince's Mine, the Shuniah Mine, in
several veins in the township of Neebing, and in others near Black
Bay and Terrace Bay, on Fluor Island in Neepigon Bay, and else-
where. Also in amygdaloidal greenstone, near Cape Gargantua.
Finer spar occurs likewise, according to Mr. Murray, in association
with specular iron ore, in crystalline limestone on Lake Nipissing.
It occurs also, with apatite, in crystalline limestone in the township
of Ross, in Renfrew county on the Ottawa, and also, with heavy
spar, in Hull, and elsewhere in that district. Also in veins, with
galena and calcite, in Trenton limestone in contact with gneiss at
Baie St. Paul ; and in narrow veins In the Trenton limestone of the
vicinity of Montreal, and the Utica slates of Quebec. Small crystals
have likewise been obtained, from fissures and cavities of the Niagara
strata, in the neighbourhood of the Falls, and on the escarpment at
Hamilton.

B. CHLORIDES.

[This group is represented in Canada by a single type, the highly
important Chloride of Sodium, or Rock Salt. The presence of chlo-
rine in mineral bodies is easily ascertained by the blowpipe. Some
phosphor-salt, with a few particles of black oxide of copper, is fused
in a loop of platinum wire, so as to produce a deeply-coloured glass.
To this, a small portion of the test-substance, in powder, is added,,
and the glass during fusion is held just within the point or edge of
the flame. The latter, if chlorine be present, will assume a rich
azure-blue colour from the volatilization of chloride of copper. Many
chlorides are soluble in water. None possess a metallic lustre, nor
is the degree of hardness in any species sufficient to scratch ordinary
glass. ]

108. Rock Satt : — Colourless, and also variousiy coloured by acci-
dental impurities, as sesquioxide of iron, organic matters, <fcc., the-

140

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

FIG. 83.

Hopper-shaped"
cube of salt.

imparted tints being mostly red, brownish, violet-blue, yellowish, or
pale-green. Streak, white. Crystallization, Regular :
the crystals usually cubes, often with hopper-shaped
depressions on each face — the larger crystals being
composed of numerous minute cubes so arranged as to
produce this peculiarity. Occurs also in lamellar and
and granular masses. Cleavage, cubical. H = 2.0
— 2.5; sp. gr. 2.1 — 2.25. Taste, strongly saline.
BB, decrepitates strongly (unless very dry), and melts into an
opaque bead, which colours the outer flame intensely yellow. Nor-
mal composition : chlorine 60.66, sodium 39.34; but usually, small
portions of chlorides of magnesium and calcium, and sulphates of
lime, magnesia, and soda, are also present. Most samples contain
likewise a certain admixture of clay or other impurities.

A deep boring on the bank of the River Maitland near the town
of Goderich, commenced at the close of 1865 in quest of rock oil, has
yielded an abundant supply of strong brine cf remarkable purity —
thus indicating the presence of a very extensive deposit of salt below
this section of the country. The boring has been carried down from
the surface gravel and underlying Corniferous Formation into and
apparently through the G-ypsiferous or Onondaga strata (see Part
V.), the total depth from the surface being a little over one thousand
feet. According to Mr. Platt, who conducted the boring, salt in
solid layers was reached at 964 feet from the surface, and the total
thickness of these layers, exclusive of some thin partings of salt-
bearing clay, averages about thirty feet. An analysis of the brine by
Dr. Sterry Hunt, shews it to be a saturated solution, containing over
26 per cent, of saline matter : 25.90 (equal to 99.018 per cent. ) of this,
being pure salt or chloride of sodium. (See Geol. Reports 1868 and
1869, for various comparative analyses, and much valuable information
on the Goderich and other brines, by Dr. Sterry Hunt.) Salt has also
been subsequently reached by other borings at Kincardine, Clinton,
and Seaforth, in the same district. At Seaforth, from information
received from Dr. N. Coleman, a more or less solid bed was struck
at a depth of about 1040 feet. Chloride of sodium occurs also in
solution in many of our mineral springs, but only in small quantity,
and alwavs accompanied by much chloride of calcium or chloride of
magnesium, sulphate of lime, and other saline compounds, which

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. Ml

interfere with its separation for economic purposes. The Hallowell
Spring contains from 3J to nearly 4 per cent. ; the St. Catharines'
water about 3 per cent. ; and other springs still lower amounts.
Quite recently, an announcement of the discovery of rock salt in the
township of Combermere, in Renfrew County, has been made in the
newspapers, but this requires verification. In all probability, the
mass said to have been found was placed there by some of the earlier
settlers to prevent cattle from straying in the woods, or by hunters
to attract deer. Large masses of rock salt are brought by Quebec
ships from Liverpool, in ballast ; and blocks of this salt, taken into
the woods, have often given rise to pretended discoveries. A block
of 80 or 100 Ibs. weight will remain undissolved for many years.

V. BODIES OF ASSUMED ORGANIC ORIGIN.

This division includes many salts, resins, coals, and other carbona-
ceous matters, to which an organic origin is generally attributed ;
but the supposed derivation of all matters of this kind from organic
bodies is by no means free from doubt. The group is represented in
Central Canada by a single salt, an oxalate, and by two or three
bituminous and carbonaceous substances, one of which, the fluid
petroleum or rock-oil, is of great economic value.

109. Humboldtine (Oxalate of Iron) : — Only known, in Canada,
as a yellow incrustation on the bituminous (Devonian) shales of
Kettle Point or Cape Ipperwash in the township of Bosanquet on
Lake Huron. BB, becomes black and magnetic when gently heated,
and is finally converted into red oxide of iion. In the bulb-tube,
blackens, and yields a large amount of water. Normal composition :
oxalic acid 42.40, protoxide of iron 41.13, water 16-47.

110. Petroleum or Naphtha (Rock Oil) : — Fluid, passing into a
semi-fluid and viscous condition. Colour, yellowish-brown or brown-
ish-black in petroleum : pale-yellow, occasionally with a blueish tinge,
in naphtha. Highly inflammable. Essential composition : carbon
83 — 88 per cent., hydrogen 12 — 17 per cent. Occurs in rocks of
various kinds and of different periods of formation, and is usually
thought to have originated from the slow decomposition of imbedded
vegetable and animal matters. This view, however, is exceedingly
problematical as applied ta petroleum generally : regard being had

142 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

to the enormous quantities of this substance occurring in so many
different parts of the earth ; to the unceasing flow of vast numbers
of petroleum springs in many localities, age after age, from the earliest
periods of history ; to the fact that petroleum occurs in many rock-
formations — even in ancient gneissoid strata — which lie far below
the great Carboniferous and Devonian series (the first, apparently, in
which land vegetation has been detected) ; and to the absence in
petroleum-bearing rocks of any special organic remains or peculiar
characters suggestive of naphtha-forming capabilities, as compared
with strata in which petroleum has not been found. Regard being
had to these and other related facts, it is scarcely possible to refer
the enormous quantities stored up' in subterranean reservoirs, or
poured out in flowing springs from age to age, simply to the decom-
position of sea-weeds or the soft parts ordinary mollusca, radiata, or
lower types, entombed in rock deposits : evidences of these organic
bodies being wanting, moreover, in many petroleum-holding rocks t
and being far less abundant in others than in various strata in which
no traces of petroleum are met with. It might be pretended, with
almost an equal show of probability, that all the water on the earth
had come from organised bodies, simply because these bodies contain
or yield water. A suggestion of this kind would probably have been
attempted if water were a substance of comparatively limited occur-
rence.

In the province of Ontario, petroleum occurs abundantly in springs
or wells, arising apparently from reservoirs in the Corniferous
(Devonian) Formation, in many parts of the region lying between
the more southern point of Lake Huron and the north-west shore of
Lake Erie : more especially in the township of Enniskillen ; and,
less abundantly, in Oxford, Mosa, and Dereham. Small quantities
have also been obtained from a well in the Utica (Lower Silurian)
Formation oi the Great Maiiitoulin Island in Georgian Bay — the
shales of this formation, both there and elsewhere, being more or less
saturated with bituminous matter, and thus yielding petroleum on
distillation. Many of the calcareous strata of the Niagara, Trenton,
and other Silurian Formations, are also more or less bituminous;
and liquid and viscous petroleum is occasionally found in the cavities
of fossil shells, enclosed in these beds, as well as fosilized corals, &c.,
of Devonian rocks. Petroleum springs occur likewise in the Devon-

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART II.

143

ian strata of Gaspe in Eastern Quebec, as near Douglastown on the
St. John River, and on a branch of a small stream known as Silver
'Brook in the adjacent country, as first made known by the officers
of the Geological Survey. Viscous petroleum is cited also, in the
Geological Report for 1863, as occurring in cavities, many of which
are lined with chalcedony, &c., in a greenstone dyke at " Tar Point"
in Gaspe Basin. Indications of petroleum or asphalt have also been
noticed in other eruptive dykes of that region.

111. Asphalt: — Black, blackish-brown. In solid and also in
spongy or semi-viscous masses. H, in the solid varieties, = 1.0 —
2.0; sp. gr. 1.0 — 2.0. Very inflammable — melting easily, and
burning with a yellow flame and emission of bituminous odour.
Consists essentially of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen, in
somewhat variable proportions. In many, if not in all cases, asphalt
is derived from petroleum, the two substances passing into each
other by insensible transitions. Petroleum thickens and assumes a
darker colour under certain conditions of exposure, and finally be-
comes solid and partially oxidized. The so-called " gum beds " or
" mineral-tar deposits " of Enniskillen may be referred to this
variety. These beds, which have evidently resulted from the drying
up of ancient overflows of petroleum, occupy, in the southern part of
the township, two detached areas of about an acre, each, in extent ;
and they present a thickness varying from a couple of inches to two
feet. A small deposit, covered by ten or twelve feet of drift clay,
and resting on gravel, occurs in the northern" part of the township.
This deposit is partly of a leafy texture, somewhat resembling the
so-called "paper coal" from the lignite deposits of the Rhine, <fec.,
and its shaly layers exhibit the impressions of leaves and insects in
various places. Being mixed moreover with much earthy matter,
or " ash," the deposit has all the characters of a small coal-seam.

112. Anthraxolite : — Black, lustrous, resembling anthracite in
general characters, but very brittle. H = 2.25 — 2.5; sp.gr. 1.35
— 1.55. Generally decrepitates when heated. BB. a small frag-
ment loses its lustre, but exhibits ro further change. Composition,
essentially, carbon, with from 3 to 25 per cent, of volatile matter,
including a small amount of moisture. The ash, as at present ob-
served, varies from 0 to 10 or 11 per cent. When present, it
exhibits under the microscope no trace of organic structure. This
substance, in all probability a product of alteration from petroleum

144 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

or asphalt, occurs in narrow veins in rocks of various kinds, and in-
small masses and thin layers or coatings in strata of the Utica and
other formations. Occasionally also, it is found in the interior of
orthoceratites and other fossil shells. As it differs essentially by
these conditions of occurrence from anthracite proper, the name an~
thraxolite has been given to it, but simply as a convenient term for
present use. It occurs in narrow veins, associated with quartz,
amongst the altered strata of Lotbiniere, in the Eastern Townships ;
and also, in regularly banded veins with quartz and iron pyrites, on
Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. A variety from the latter district,
shewed a sp. gr. of 1.43, and gave the writer: moisture 2.08, addi-
tional loss in closed vessel 3.56, ash 0.00, fixed carbon (by differ-
ence) 94.36 (Canadian Journal, vol. x. 411). The substance occurs
likewise in narrow broken veins, or filling small cracks, per se, at
Acton and other localities in the Eastern Townships, as well as on the
Island of Orleans, at Beauport and Point Levis near Quebec, and
elsewhere in the neighbourhood of the latter city. The variable
percentage of volatile matter (exclusive of moisture) is evidently due
to the greater or less amount of alteration to which the original
bituminous matter has been subjected.

113. Coal : — Black (often with iridescent tarnish) in anthracite
and bituminous coal; brown, in brown coal or lignite. H = 1.0 (or
less) — 2.5; sp.gr. 1.0 — 1.7. BB, anthracite is scarcely altered |
bituminous coals take fire, and many exhibit a kind of fusion. True
coal, in its different varieties, occurs in regular beds or layers, mostly
associated with bituminous shale, nodules of iron-stone or impure
carbonate of iron, and numerous fossilized plants. Anthracite con-
sists almost wholly of carbon (exclusive of a small amount of mineral
matter or "ash"). Anthracitic coals contain, in addition, a small
percentage of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen ; and in bituminous
coals, these components are more largely present. Many coals also
contain sulphur, derived in chief part, or perhaps wholly, from inter-
mixed pyrites, A thin seam of bituminous coal occurs in the De-
vonian sandstones of Gaspe, the only known locality within the old
limits of Canada in which true coal has been found.*

* The great, workable, coal beds of the Dominion of Canada occur at two widely separated
geological horizons, namely in the true Carboniferous Formation of Nova Scotia, and in the
Cretaceous and Cainozoic deposits of the North-West Territories and British Columbia. Much
of this latter coal closely resembles ordinary bituminous coal in general character, ar
some places anthracitic varieties occur.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART II. 145

114. Peat . — This substance is simply vegetable matter — consist-
jag chiefly of semi-aquatic mosses — in a peculiar state of decomposi-
tion. It presents in its more typical form, a brown or blackish-
brown colour, with an earthy, or, in places, a sub-slaty or sub-fibrous,
texture. Sp. gr. 0.33 — 1.0 l 1 s 1 ]< . burning with a plea-

sant odour and yellow flame. Composition, essentially carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, and a large amount of water (in dried peat, normally
from 15 to 25 per cent.) with from 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 per cent,
of mineral matter or ash. This valuable fuel, occurs in large
beds of more or less modern origin, in various parts of Ontario and
Quebec, mostly overlying deposits of shell-marl. The principal lo-
calities lie within the townships of Humberstone and Wainfleet on
Lake Erie ; Sheffield in Addington County ; Backwith, Huntly, Goul-
bourne, Westmeath, Nepean, Gloucester, Cumberland, Clarence,
Plantagenet, Roxborough, Osnabruck, and Finch, between the west
bank of the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence ; Grenville, Harrington,
Miile-Isles, and adjacent localities on the east side of the Ottawa ;
the Seigniories of Assumption, St. Sulpice, Lavaltrie, and Lanoraie,
on the north shore of the St. Lawrence, above Lake St. Peter ; St.
Etienne, Champlain, and other places between the St. Maurice and
Quebec ; Sherrington, Hemmingford, Longueuil, Ste. Marie de Mon-
noir, Ste. Roselie, and other localities on the south shore of the St.
Lawrence ; the Seigniories of Riviere Ouelle and Riviere du Loup,
farther east : near the Migfcis, Rimouski, and Madaswaka Rivers, in
Gaspe ; and largely in the Island of Anticosti. Peat in a properly
dried and compressed condition, has been shown of late years to form
a good fuel for the use of locomotives, and also for many metallur-
gical operations.
11

PAET III.

HOCKS AND ROCK-PRODUCING AGENCIES.

I. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK MASSES.

The term " rock " in its geological acceptation, includes all the
stony and earthy masses — whether consolidated, as granite, lime-
stones, &c., or composed of loosely coherent particles, as sands and
gravels — which make up the outer or visible portion of the earth.
The mean radius of the earth-mass, or distance from centre to surface
is equal to 3956 miles. The elevations and depressions which occur
upon the earth's surface, forming mountain-chains and table-lands,
valleys and the beds of seas and lakes, are thus, as compared with
this radius, of but slight significance. It is necessary to bear this in
mind, in order that we may not exaggerate the intensity of the
forces by which these inequalities have been produced. In a section
or profile in which the same scale is employed for longitudinal and
vertical dimensions, the greatest inequalities become scarcely appar-
ent. In order to render evident the differences of level existing
between separate points, it is necessary in engineering drawings,
and in ordinary geological diagrams, to use a greatly exaggerated
scale for heights or depths as compared with horizontal distances ;
and the eye unconsciously follows a somewhat similar process in
taking in the contour-lines or general aspect of a mountainous region.

Our knowledge of the internal condition of the earth is necessary
to a great extent conjectural • but the weight of evidence, collected
in reference to this subject, leads to the conclusion that the earth-
mass, from surface to surface, is not throughout a perfectly solid
body. In the opinion of some investigators, the central portion is
solid, and between this and the consolidated surface-layers a zone of
fluid or incandescent matter exists. According to others, the earth-
mass is more or less consolidated throughout, but with enormous

148 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

cavities here and there, filled with molten or fluid matter. The
more commonly received opinion, again, infers the surface rooks —
technically known as the earth's crust — to extend downward to a
more limited depth, whilst the whole of the internal portion is in a
condition of igneous fluidity. These views are practically identical,
in so far as they assume the presence of molten or incandescent matter,
and the existence of a high temperature, at a certain depth beneath
the surface rocks ; and they are sustained, more especially, by the
following data :

(1.) Careful observations made in various parts of the world, shew that a
constant temperature is maintained throughout all periods of the year, at a
certain depth beneath the earth's surface. The depth varies in different
localities, and especially where different kinds of rock occur, but it averages
in temperate climates about 100 feet. At lower levels the temperature is
found invariably to increase with increase of depth. The ratio of increase is
not uniform, being greater or more rapid in some places than in others : but
an actual and marked rise of the thermometer from point to point, below the
zone of constant temperature, is always observable. The mean ratio of in-
crease, at the limited depths to which researches have been carried, may be
assumed to equal 1° Fahrenheit for each descent of 60 feet. At this ratio
even, and we may reasonably infer that it would be much accelerated at lower
levels, a temperature sufficiently high to maintain most mineral substances in
a state of fusion, or in part even in a vaporous condition, would soon be
reached.

(2.) Water brought to the surface from great depths by narrow bore-holes
commonly known as Artesian wells, always exhibit a higher temperature than
the mean temperature of the locality ; and if the boring be increased in depth,
the temperature of the water becomes also increased.

(3.) Active volcanoes, which maybe regarded as channels of communication
between the surface and the internal parts of the earth, are more or less con-
stantly pouring forth, from unknown depths, vast streams of molten rock or
lava, accompanied by other products of igneous action. About two hundred
and seventy volcanoes are now known to be from time to time in eruption, and
many others are apparently in a permanently quiescent state. Eruptions also
frequently take place on the bed of the sea.

(4.) Certain rock-masses, in districts now remote from centres of volcanic
action, have evidently been forced upwards, from deeply-seated sources, in a
molten or more or less incandescent state, amongst previously consolidated
rocks. The latter exhibit at the points of contact, and for some distance be-
yond, changes of colour, and other effects, that can only have resulted from
the direct or indirect action of heat. These effects are not seen in all cases of
rock-intrusion, but in the great majority of instances they have undoubtedly
occurred.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III.

149

In different localities, as a general rule, the rocks which form the
surface of the ground, or which become visible to us on the sides of
cliffs and river-banks, in quarries, railway cuttings and the like, are
more or less distinct in composition and other characters. This must
be familiar to the most casual observer. Thus, around the Falls of
Niagara, and extending far and wide across that section of the Pro-
vince, we find vast beds of dolomitic or magnesian limestone present-
ing several varieties of texture. About Hamilton and Dundas, with
other rocks, ferruginous shales and beds of red marl and grey sand-
stone are seen. At Toronto, our rock-masses consist of layers of
gravel and clay, overlying grey and greenish sandstone-shales. Near
Collingwood, and again at Whitby, we observe dark-brown, highly-
bituminous shales, containing the impressions of trilobites and lin-
gulae (see Part IV.), often in great numbers. At Kingston, we meet
with limestone rocks differing from those of the Niagara district, and
giving place, as we proceed north and east of the city, to beds of
crystalline rock of granitic aspect, geologically known as Gneiss.
Some of the " Thousand Islands " consist of very ancient sandstone
resting on gneiss. At Montreal, with beds of limestone, &c., we
see, in the picturesque Mountain, a dark, massive or unstratified
rock, a variety of the Trappean series, more or less closely allied to
the lavas of volcanic regions ; and rocks of a similar kind occur
largely on the north shore of Lake Huron, and around Lake Su-
perior, as well as in the Eastern Townships and other parts of
Canada.

These examples are sufficient to shew the diversity which prevails
with regard to the rock-matters of comparatively neighbouring locali-
ties. But if we look, not to the mineral characters of rocks, but to
their general conditions of occurrence, by which their respective
origins or modes of formation are indicated, we may refer them to
two leading groups or sub-divisions, connected by an intermediate
group, as in the following scheme :

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS — or Ordinary Stratified-Formations.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS — or Stratified Crystalline-Formations.
ERUPTIVE or UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS.

Sedimentary strata, comprising ordinary sandstones, limestones,
&c., consist of detrital or other materials, collected, and arranged in
more or less regular layers, by the action of water, as described below.

150

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Metamorphic strata are regarded as consisting wholly or in great part
of sedimentary deposits that have been altered or rendered crystalline
by heat or chemical agencies. Eruptive rocks are known in many
instances to have cooled down from a state of fusion, and are thought
in others to have been consolidated from a plastic condition due to
aqueo-igneous agencies. They have been formed, or have been brought
into this condition, beneath, or deeply within, the Earth's crust, and
have been forced upwards from time to time through fissures in the
overlying rocks. In each of these divisions — Sedimentary, Metamor-
phic, and Eruptive — the included rocks belong to various periods of
formation.

II. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.

The rocks of this division make up by far the greater portion of
the Earth's surface. Having been formed by the agency of water,
they are often called Aqueous Rocks. They consist for the greater
part of muddy, sandy, and other detrital sediments, collected by the
mechanical action of water, and subsequently consolidated by natural
processes, as described a few pages further on. Various limestones,
however, and certain other rock matters of this division, have heen
deposited from waters in which their materials were chemically
dissolved.

These sedimentary or aqueous rocks are characterized essentially
by occurring in beds or strata ; secondly, by exhibiting in many
instances, a more or less clearly-marked detrital or sedimentary
structure; and thirdly, by often containing organic remains. The
latter, comprising shells, bones, leaf-impressions, &c. (see Part IV.),
are the fossilized parts of animals and plants which lived upon the
Earth, or in its waters, during the periods in which these rocks were
under process of formation, as described below.

The sedimentary rocks may be conveniently discussed under the
following heads : (1) Composition or mineral characters ; (2) Modes
of formation ; (3) Subsequent changes and effects produced by geolo-
gical

(1) COMPOSITION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.

As regards composition, these rocks fall mainly under the following
sub-divisions :

'OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 151

'.Sandstones, sands, and gravels — or arenaceous rocks.

•Clays and clay-slates — or argillaceous rocks.

Limestones and Dolomites — or calcareous rocks.

Conglomerates and Breccias : rocks of variable composition (see
below).

Trap tufas : stratified deposits formed out of materials derived from
the denudation of trap and greenstone rocks.

Rock mutters of carbonaceous origin, as the different kinds of coal.

To these may be added a few other substances of subordinate occur-
rence, as gypsum, rock-salt, and bog-iron ore.

Sandstones are nothing more than beds of consolidated sand. They
are of various colours, but chiefly present dull shades of yellow, red,
brown, or green, and some are nearly pure white. The colouring
-matter is either sesquioxide of iron, or, in the case of the greenish
varieties, a silicate of the protoxide. The harder and purer kinds,
as some examples of our " Potsdam sandstone," are called quartzose
sandstones. In other kinds, a certain amount of carbonate of lime
is present, cementing together the component grains of sand, and
thus forming calcareous sandstones. For special Canadian localities
of these and other rocks mentioned under this division, consult Part
Y. Certain siliceous rocks, called " tripoli " and (erroneously)
" infusorial marls," are formed almost entirely of remains of diatoms,
microscopic vegetable forms of low organization. (See Part IV.)

Clay Slates are merely consolidated clays. They have a fissile
structure, and are mostly of a grey, greenish, brown, or black colour
— the dark tints being chiefly derived from the presence of finely dis-
seminated carbonaceous or bituminous matter. Clays are also of
various colours, as white, greenish, yellowish, blueish, black, and red.
Those which contain little or no iron become white or pale yellow on
Ignition. Many clays are highly calcareous ; others, bituminous, &c.
The term shale is often applied to fissile consolidated clays ; but this
term, it must be remembered, is applied equally to fissile or slaty
limestones and sandstones. When the term is used, therefore, the
kind of shale should also be signified : as an argillaceous shale, an
-arenaceous shale, and so forth. Bituminous shales, as regards their
mineral ;base, may be also arenaceous, calcareous, <fec.

Limestones and Dolomites are principally, perhaps, of chemical for-
mation. Water containing free carbonic acid (derived from decay-

152 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

ing vegetable matter, &c.) dissolves a certain amount of carbonate
of lime, but the bicarbonate, thus formed, is easily decomposed by
various natural agencies, even by mere exposure to the atmosphere,
and a precipitation of calcareous matter takes place. In this manner
calcareous tufas (so common in many of our swamps, streams, &c.),.
together with stalactites and stalagmites, are produced ; and similar
processes, acting on a larger scale, may have given rise to extensive
depositions of limestone strata in ancient seas and lakes. Some lime-
stones, again, are formed almost wholly of the calcareous shells or
tests of crinoids, foraminifera, and other organisms (see Part IV) :
but others are, undoubtedly, mechanical or rock deposits, derived
from the wasting of coral reefs and other limestone formations.
Limestones consist of carbonate of lime, more or less pure ; dolomites,
of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia in equal atomic pro-
portions ; and dolomitic limestones of these two carbonates in other
proportions, the lime carbonate generally predominating. Dolomites-
and dolomitic limestones appear in many cases to have been simple
chemical precipitates, and, in others, to have originited from the-
alteration of limestone rocks by the action of soluble magnesian salts.
These calcareous rocks are of various colours : grey, white, black,
yellowish, &c. Their texture is sometimes very close and uniform.
At other times, the stone is made up of small spherical concretions,
when the texture is said to " oolitic." A bed of grey limestone of this
structure occurs near the Chatte Biver in Gaspd Oolitic limestones
are of all geological ages. Some limestones, again, are of an earthy
texture : the well-known chalk of Europe is an example ; also our
own "calcareous tufa," or " shell marl." Many of the dark lime-
stones, as those of Niagara, &c., are more or less bituminous. Ordi-
eary limestones dissolve in acids with strong effervescence ; but dolo-
mites as a rule produce merely a feeble or slightly perceptible effer-
vescence unless the acid be heated.* Limestones which contain from
15 to 25 per cent, of argillaceous matter in intimate admixture, yield

*~To determine the presence of magnesia in dolomitic limestones, a few grains of the rock
may be dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid. The solution is then boiled with a drop or two
of nitric acid (to convert any FeO, that may be present, into Fe2O3), and ammonia is added
carefully in slight excess. This will occasion a floculent precipitate if iron be present. Oxalate
of ammonia is then added to precipitate the lime ; this (after settling) is filtered off ; the filtrate-
tested with another drop of oxalate of ammonia to make sure that all the lime has been thrown
down ; and finally the magnesia is precipitated by sodium phosphate or by solution of the
blowpipe flux known as " microcosmic or phosphor salt."

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 153

hydraulic or water lime. Beds of this kind occur at Thorold, Cayugar
Loughboro', Kingston, Hull, Quebec, and other localities. See
Part V.

Conglomerates consist of rounded pebbles or masses of quartz, sand-
stone, &c., cemented together, or imbedded in a paste of finer sand-
stone, or other rock substance. They are often known as " Pudding
stones." Examples are not uncommon amongst our Silurian and
other strata.

Breccias consist of angular masses or fragments of rocks, cemented
together most commonly by calcareous matter. Whilst Conglomerates*
frequently contain imbedded water-worn materials derived from dis-
tant sources, true breccias are necessarily composed of detrital matters-
derived from neighbouring localities.

Trap-tufas are of comparatively rare or local occurrence. They are
made up of materials derived from the wasting of trap or greenstone
rocks, and are mostly of a green colour, weathering red. Their tex-
ture is generally more or less uniformly fine-grained ; but some occur
as conglomerates and breccias, as on the north-eastern shore of Lake
Superior, and elsewhere.

The other rock-substances enumerated above — Coals, Gypsum, Rock-
salt, and Bog Iron Ore — occur only here and there as stratified rock
deposits. For descriptions and Canadian localities, see Part I.

(2) FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.

The manner in which the ordinary sedimentary rocks, sandstones,
shales, &c., have been formed, or built up as it were, is rendered clear
by the observation of certain natural processes still in action. We
find, for example, at the present day, that sediments of various kinds
are constantly carried clown by streams and rivers into lakes and seas,
and are there deposited. We fincj, moreover, that the cliffs of many
sea and lake coasts are being continually abraded and washed away by
the action of the waves. Observation shows also, that the sedimentary
matters thus obtained, are always deposited or arranged in regular
layers or beds, and that they frequently enclose shells and sea-weeds,
together with bones and leaves drifted from the land, and other organic
bodies. Hence it is now universally admitted, that, with the excep-
tion of certain limestones and dolomites, beds of rock-salt, gypsum,
coal, and some other chemical or organic deposits of small extent, all
the sedimentary rocks have been formed directly out of pr viosuly-

154

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

existing rock-masses, by the wearing away or destruction of these ;
and secondly, that they have all been formed or deposited under water.

In pursuance of this inquiry, consequently, we have to consider,
first, the origin or derivation of the sediments of which these rocks
are made up ; and, secondly, the processes by which the consolidation
of the sediments into rock, properly so-called, was affected.

The sediments of which these rocks originally consisted, were de-
rived from previously-existing rocks, by decomposing atmospheric
agencies — rain, frost, and so forth ; by the action of streams and rivers
on their beds ; and by the destructive action of the waves and breakers
of the sea.

Action of the Atmosphere. — All rocks, even the most solid, are con-
stantly undergoing decomposition and decay. The exposed face of a
rock of any kind, for example, soon changes colour, and becomes in
general more porous than the other portions of the rock. This effect
is technically termed " weathering." Its action gives rise to the pro-
duction of soils, and frequently causes the fossils contained in the rock
to stand out in relief, these bodies being in many cases less easily
destructible than the mass of rock itself. Every shower of rain that
falls, takes part in this decomposing or disintegrating action, and
carries off something, in s lution or suspension, to lower levels — id
•est, into streams, lakes, and seas. Frost, and, in certain localities,
carbonic acid and other gases issuing through crevices in the rocks,
assist this destructive process. Rain, acting on loosely coherent mat-
teis, is known in many districts to have excavated channels of con-
siderable extent. These may become in coarse of time more or less
permanent water courses, and the work of excavation be thus con-
tinously carried on.

Action of Streams and fiivers. — The action of streams and rivers,
in wearing their channels, is both chemical and mechanical. Calca-
reous river-beds are wasted bit by bit by the dissolving power of the
water, especially during the autumnal season, \vhen dead leaves and
'Other decaying vegetable matters yield the water a large supply of
carbonic acid. On the other hand, a mechanical waste is also very
.generally taking place to a greater or less extent ; and thus numerous
rivers are continually cutting back their beds, and forming ravines.
The Falls of the Niagara River have in this manner gradually receded
from the face of the escarpment near Queenston to their present site ;

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 155

and there is scarcely a river, or small stream indeed, in any part of
Canada, that does not exhibit indications of having occupied at one
period a wider bed and high level than at present. This erosive power
of rivers has probably been assisted in many instances by a gradual
elevation of the surrounding land. Some of the grandest examples
of river erosion are exhibited by the canons of the Colorado and other
streams west of the Rocky Mountains. In some of these remarkable
ravines, the stream has excavated its channel, within almost perpen-
dicular walls of limestone and other rock, to a depth of a thousand
feet or more.

The amount of detrital matters borne down by some rivers to the
sea, is exceedingly abundant. This is well shown by the formation
of deltas. The delta of the Mississippi on this continent, for example?
like all other deltas, is derived essentially from the sandy and other
matters brought down by the stream. On entering the sea, the
velocity of the river is necessarily checked, and the sediments are
thrown down. Much of the coarser matter, is indeed deposited on
the bed of the river itself, raising this, and compelling the formation
of artificial banks, or levees, to prevent inundations. Finally, as a
well-known illustration of the immense amount of sedimentary
matters borne seawards by certain rivers, the case of the Ganges,
as described so fully by Sir Charles Lyell, in his " Principles of
Geology," may be here cited. That river, it has been demonstrated
by actual observation and experiment, conveys annually to the sea
an amount of matter that would outweigh sixty solid pyramids of
granite, supposing each, like the largest of the Egyptian pyramids,
to cover eleven acres at its base, and to stand 500 feet in height.
The delta of the Ganges, composed of mud, &c., thus brought down
by the river, extends for 200 miles along the coast, and commences
far inland.

A considerable quantity of sediment is also produced by the slow-
mo venients of glaciers in Alpine and other districts in which these
remarkable ice-rivers prevail. The glacier of the Aar, which covers
with, its tributaries an area of only six or seven square miles, thus
furnishes daily, according to some recent researches of M. Collomb,
at least 100 cubic yards of sand. This is carried off by its terminal
stream or torrent.

Action of the Sea (and of large bodies of Water generally). — Vast
in amount as are the sediments collected by rivers, they are far sur-

156

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

passed by the accumulation of detrital matters obtained by the waves
and breakers of the sea. All who have resided for any length of
time on an exposed and rocky coast, must be well aware of the des
tructive action of the waves. The cliffs subjected to this action,
gradually become undermined and hollowed out ; and thus large
masses of rock are brought down by their own weight. These,
sooner or later, are broken up, and spread in the form of sediment
along the shore, or over the sea-bottom. On some coasts, the
amount of land destroyed in this manner almost exceeds belief.* On
some parts of the eastern shores of England, and the opposite or
western shores of France, for example, the sea has thus carried off,
within the present century, from fifty to over two hundred yards of
coast — measured backwards from the shore-line — along a distance of
many miles. Graveyards, shown by maps of no ancient date to have
been located at considerable distances from the sea, have become ex-
posed upon the cliff-face ; and forts erected by the First Napoleon on
the French coast, at two hundred metres and upwards from the edge
of the cliff, now lie in ruins on the beach, or have altogether dis-
appeared. These localities are mentioned as being more especially
known to the writer ; but in all parts of the world examples may be
found of the same destructive process. In the clay and sandy bluffs
of our own Lakes, as at Scarboro' Heights on Lake Ontario, and
elsewhere, effects of this kind may be equally studied.

Confining our view at present to these results only, it must be
evident to all that an enormous amount of sedimentary matter is
annually, or even daily, under process of accumulation. The question
then arises as to what becomes of this. The reply is obvious. The
detrital matter thus obtained, is deposited in lakes or at river mouths
or along the sea-shore, or over the sea-bed — contributing day by day
to the formation of new rocks. In other words, existing rock
masses, worn down by atmospheric agencies, by streams and rivers,
and by the action of the sea, supply the material for other and of
course newer rock deposits.

Deposition of Sediments. — All sediments diffused through deep or
quiet water, arrange themselves under general conditions, in horizontal
or nearly horizontal beds : the latter, if deposited on gently-sloping

* It would obviously be out of place in an Essay like the present to enlarge on this point.
The reader unfamiliar with geological details of this character, should consult, more especially
Lyell's Principles of Geology, and also the Cours Elementaireofthelate Alcide d'Orbigny.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III. 157

shores. Professor H. D. Rogers, in his Report on the Geology of
Pennsylvania, contests to some extent this usually-received view, and
maintains that certain inclined strata of mechanical formation were
originally of inclined deposition. This may be true under local or
exceptional, but certainly not under general, conditions. (See proofs*
further on.) Where, however, sands and gravels are thrown down by
currents and running streams, an oblique arrangement commonly takes
place ; but this is more or less confined to the subordinate layers of
which the larger beds consist, as shewn in the annexed figure. The
inclined layers have sometimes different
degrees of inclination, and even dip (in dif-
ferent beds of the same strata) in opposite
directions, indicating changes in the tidal
or other currents by which they were
thrown down. This inclined arrangement
is termed " false bedding," or "oblique FIG. 84.

stratification." It may be seen in some of the ancient, and also in
some of the more modern deposits of this continent, as in the Chazy
Sandstone of the south shore of Lake Superior, and in the Post-glacial
sands and gravels of many parts of Canada.

Consolidation of Sediments. — Having thus rapidly traced out the
formation of the mechanically-formed sedimentary rocks up to their
deposition in the state of detrital matter on the beds of seas, lakes, or
estuaries, we have now to inquire how these accumulations of mud,
sand, &c., become hardened into rock, properly so-called.

Most sediments hold within themselves the elements of their own
consolidation, in the form of particles of calcareous or ferruginous
matter, which act upon the other substances in the manner of a cement,
causing the whole to " set " or harden under water. Frequently, also,
a large amount of calcareous matter is derived from the decomposi-
tion or solution of imbedded shells and other organic remains made
up of carbonate of lime. In the majority of strata, and in sandstones
more especially, merely casts or impressions are thus left, in place of
the originally imbedded shells. Masses of solid conglomerate are daily
under process of formation in places where springs containing calca-
reous or ferruginous matters infiltrate through the gravels and pebble-
beds of our Drift deposits. Many thermal springs (as well as many

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

river- waters) also contain considerable quantities of silica in solution ;.
and there is reason to believe that in former periods of the Earth's
history, springs of this kind must have prevailed to a very great ex-
tent. These, flowing into seas and lakes where sediments were under
process of deposition, must also have lent their agency towards the
consolidation of such deposits. Many of our Canadian limestones, it
may be observed, are more or less siliceous.

The enormous pressure exerted upon low-lying sedimentary beds
by masses of superincumbent strata, must likewise have been sufficient
in many instances to have effected consolidation.

The heat transmitted in earlier periods from subterranean depths,
or generated amongst low-lying sediments by chemical action, may
also have been concerned in the work of consolidating the originally
loose materials of stratified rocks. It may be remarked, likewise,
that sediments occasionally become solidified by simple desiCation.
The shell-marl, or calcareous tufa, of our swamps, &c., becomes thus
hai-dened on exposure to the air.

(3) SUBSEQUENT ACTION OF NATURAL FORCES ON SEDIMENTARY

ROCKS.

The more important effects produced on sedimentary rocks, from
their first period of aggregation, are as follows : — (a) Elevation above
the water-level, with Alternations of Upheaval and Depression ;
(6) Denudation ; (c) Tilting up and Fracturing ; (d) Metamorphism.
It is of course to be understood, that whilst certain strata may have
experienced all of these effects, others may have been subjected to
upheaval, or to upheaval accompanied by denudation, only.

(a) Elevation above the Sea Level : — The stratified rocks, it has
been shown, must have been deposited originally, in the form of
sediments, under water ; and from the marine remains which so many
of these rocks contain, it is evident, that, as a general rule, they
were laid down on the bed of the sea, either in deep or in shallow
water. We find these rocks, however, now, at various heights above
the sea-level, and frequently far inland. Hence of two things, one :
either the sea must have gone down, or the land must have been
elevated above the water.

OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART III. 159'

The sinking of the sea would appear at first thought to be the
more rational explanation of this phenomenon ; but if we look to
existing Nature, we find no instance of the actual falling of the sea,-
whilst we have many well-proved examples of the actual rising and
sinking of the land. In connection with this inquiry, it must be
borne in mind that the sea cannot go down or change its level at one
place without doing the same generally all over the world.

To afford a few brief illustrations, it may be observed that on
several occasions within the present century, large portions of the
Pacific coast of South America have been raised bodily above the
sea, leaving beds of oysters, mussels, &c., exposed above high-water
mark. The phenomenon, to the inhabitants of the coast, appeared
naturally to be due rather to a sinking of the waters than to an
actual elevation of the land ; but at a certain distance north and
south of the raised districts, the relative levels of land and sea remain
practically unaltered : and hence, if the sea had gone down within
the intervening space, to the extent indicated, its surface must have
presented an outline of this character "V f \ a mani-

fest impossibility.

The land is also known to be slowly rising and sinking in
countries far removed from centres of volcanic activity. Careful
observations have shown, for example, that the northern parts of
Sweden and Finland are slowly rising, and the south and south-
eastern shores of the Scandinavian peninsular are slowly sinking :
whilst around Stockholm there is no apparent change in the levels
of land and sea. The whole of the western coast of Greenland
is inferred to be slowly sinking : buildings erected on the shore by
early missionaries, being now in places under water. A slow move-
ment of depression is likewise taking place along the shores of Cape
Breton and Nova Scotia generally ; and, probably also, to some
extent, on the Atlantic sea-board of the United States. On the
shores of Newfoundland, of Cornwall, and other districts, examples,
occur of sub-marine forests, or of the remains of modern trees, . in
their normal positions of growth, below low-water mark ; whilst in
neighbouring localities no change of level appears to have taken
place. Besides which, without extending these inquiries further, we
know that many fossiliferous strata are hundreds, and even thou-
sands, of feet above the present sea-level. On the top Of the Colling-

160

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

wood escarpment, for example, we find strata containing marine
fossils at an elevation of over 1,500 feet above the sea ; and on the
Montreal mountain, shells of existing species occur at an elevation of
about 500 feet. Hence, if these strata had been left dry land by the
sinking of the oceanic waters in which they were deposited, an
immense body of water, extending over the whole globe, must in
some unaccountable manner have been caused wholly to disappear.
It is therefore now universally admitted, that the sedimentary rocks,
as a rule, have come into their present positions, not by the sinking
-and retiring of the sea, but by the actual elevation of the land.

Many strata afford proofs of having been elevated and depressed
above and beneath the sea, successively, at different intervals.
Many sandstones, for example, exhibit ripple-marked surfaces, and
occasionally impressions of reptilian and other tracks, throughout
their entire thickness. This indicates plainly that they were formed
.slowly in shallow water, and that they were left dry, or nearly so,
between the tides. And it indicates, further, that the shore on
which they were deposited, layer by layer, was undergoing a slow
and continual movement of depression : otherwise the process of
formation would necessarily have ceased, and the strata would
present a thickness of a few inches only, or of a few feet at most.
Afterwards a period of upheaval must have commenced, bringing up
the rocks to their present level. In certain strata, also, the upright
stems of fossil trees occur at various levels; and in some localities,
beds containing marine fossils are over-laid by others holding lacus-
trine or fresh-water species ; and these again by others with marine
remains. Finally, to bring this section to a close, we have a striking
example of alternations of land-upheaval and depression in the
geology of Canada generally. Around Toronto, for example, we
have certain strata of old date, belonging to the Lower Silurian
Series, overlaid by deposits of clay, gravel, and sand of the Drift
Epoch, a comparatively modern period. Between the two, a vast
break in the geological scale occurs. Many intervening formations,
indicating the lapse of long periods of time, are present in other parts
of this continent; and hence, it is concluded that the Silurian
deposits of this locality, after their elevation above the sea, remained
dry land for many ages, whilst the intervening groups were under
process of deposition in other spots ; and that, finally, at the com-

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III.

1G1

FIG. 85.

inencetnent of the Drift Period, the country was again depressed
beneath the ocean, and covered with the clays, sands, and boulders
of this latter time. Another period of elevation must then have
succeeded, bringing up both the Silurian and the Drift formations to
their present levels above the sea.

(6) Denudation : — This term, in its geological employment, signi-
fies the removal or partial removal of rock masses by the agency of
water. The abrading action of the sea, of rivers, &c., acting under
ordinary conditions, has already been alluded to; but the erosive
effects of water may be seen in numerous localities in which this action
is no longer in force. Sections of the kind shewn in the accompanying
figure, for instance, are met with almost everywhere, producing un-
dulating or roll-
ing countries.
Here it is evi-
dent that the
strata were once
continuous in

the space between A and B. Valleys which thus result from the re-
moval of strata, are termed " valleys of denudation." Some of these
valleys are many miles in breadth. Their excavation, consequently,
could not, in the majority of instances, have been effected by atmos-
pheric agencies, or by the streams which may now occupy their lower
levels ; but must have been caused essentially by the denuding action
of the sea during the gradual uprise of the land, or during alternate
movements of elevation and depression, in former geological epochs.
If the bed of the Atlantic, for example, were now being raised from
beneath, at the rate of a few inches in a year or series of years, an
enormous valley would probably be scooped out along the course of
the Gulf Stream ; and in other places where currents prevail, more
or less continuous valleys would also be formed. Isolated patches of
strata have been frequently left by denudation at wide distances
from the rocks of which they originally formed part. These are
termed "outliers." Thus in Western Canada, small isolated areas,
occupied by bituminous shales of the Devonian series, occur in the
townships of Bosanquet and Warwick, and constitute outliers or
outlying portions of the Chemung and Portage group (see Part V.)
largely developed in the adjoining peninsula of Michigan. The
12

162

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

matter carried off in some districts by denudation, must have beei
of enormous amount ; and when it is considered that most of the ine-
qualities on the earth's surface — those at least not immediately con-
nected with mountain chains — have been thus produced, the part
played by the denuding agencies of former periods in providing the
materials of newer strata, may be readily appreciated.

(c) Tilting up and Fracturing of Strata. — Whilst some strata re-
tain their original horizontality, others are more or less inclined, and
some few occupy a vertical and even a recurved position. That
strata were not originally inclined, at least to any extent, is proved
by the known arrangement of sediments when diffused through
water, — these (with the exceptional cases already pointed out)
always depositing themselves in horizontal, or nearly horizontal,
layers. The same fact is shown also by the frequent presence of

FIG. 86.

rows of pebbles, fossil shells, &c., parallel with the planes of stratifi-
cation, as in Fig. 86 ; by the occasional presence of the fossilized
stems of trees (evidently in their positions of growth) standing at
right angles to these planes (Fig. 87) ; and sometimes by the presence
of stalactites suspended in a similar position. It is evident that
these bodies could not have been originally inclined in this manner
to the horizon.

The inclination of strata is technically termed the dip ; and the
direction of the up-turned edges, the strike. The dip and strike are
always at right angles. In observing the dip, we have to notice
both its angle or amount, and its direction or bearing — as north,
north-east, N 10° E, and so forth. The direction of the dip is of
course ascertained by the compass ; the rate of inclination, by the
eye, or by an instrument called a clinometer. The most convenient
instrument for both purposes, is a pocket compass, set in a square
bed, or attached to a square plate of metal, and furnished, in addition
to the needle and graduated limb, with a moveable index. The
latter hangs freely from the centre of the compass, and plays around

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III.

163

Fig. 88.

a graduated arc, as in the
annexed figure. When the
upper edge of the compass is
held horizontally, the index
cuts the zero point of thegradu-
ated arc. From each side of
this point, the graduation is
•carried up to to 90°. If, con-
sequently, the upper edge of
the instrument be placed par-
allel with the inclined beds of
any strata, the angle of the
dip will be at once shewn by
the index. A contrivance of
this kind, exclusive of the compass, may, be easily made out of a
semicircle of hard wood. The index may consist of a piece of twine
extending below the graduated limb, and kept taut by a lead plumb
or by a stone.

In a compass used for taking bearings, it is convenient to mark
the west side EAST, and the east side WEST, as in the figure. If the
north side of the instrument be then kept always in advance, and the
angle be always taken from the north end of the needle — no matter
what the actual direction of the line — the true magnetic bearing is
obtained at once, and without risk of error. The compass is most
readily held by passing the thumb through a short strap or loop, or
through a hinged ring, attached to its under side. Where very ac-
curate bearings are required, sights may be used, the instrument
being fixed on a support ; or a prismatic compass may be more con-
veniently employed.

When strata dip in two directions, as at A, in Fig. 89, the line
along the culminating point of the strata is termed an Anticlinal or
Anticlinal Axis ; and the line from which the strata rise in opposite
directions, as at S in the figure, is called a Synclinal or Synclinal Axis.
Synclinals when of a certain magnitude, constitute '• valleys of un-
dulation." Anticlinals are often hollowed out by denudation, form-
ing valleys or troughs called " valleys of elevation," as shewn at E in
Fig. 89. The term " elevation " applies here, it should be observed,
to the raised strata, and not to the actual position of the valley, as

164

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

many of these so-called valleys of elevation lie in the beds of rivers>
or occupy comparatively low ground. The River Humber near To-
ronto, for example, flows at the lower part of its course over a.
denuded anticlinal of this character.* Finally, it may be observed,.

Fig. 89.

that when strata lie in parallel beds (as in Figs. 85 and 89), the*
stratification is said to be conformable or concordant. When on the
other hand, the beds are not parallel, the stratification is said to be

unconformable. The accompany-
ing section, in which the inclined
beds belong to the Laurentianr
and the overlying beds to the
Lower Silurian Series (see Part
V.), as shewn on Crow Lake,
north of Marmora village, is an
example of uncomformable strati-
fication, or of want of concor-
dance between these two series
of rocks. As explained further

Fig. 90.

on, a want of conformability indicates almost invariably the com-
mencement of a new geological period.

Both horizontal and inclined strata frequently exhibit fractures of
greater or less extent. Mineral veins, it may be mentioned, consist
essentially of cracks or fractures formed at some more or less remote
period in the surrounding rocks, and filled subsequently by various*
agencies, with sparry, earthy, and metallic matters. The strata on
one side of a fracture are often displaced, being thrown up or do win
as it were. This peculiarity is technically termed a fault. The

* Professor Robert Bell in his Report on the Manitoulin Islands, has pointed out the occur-
rence of fifteen anticlinals, crossing the Great Manitoulin in a general north and south direc-
tion. These anticlinals give rise on the north shore of the island to deep indentations or bays,,
and inland to a series of parallel lakes.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 165

\(Z&r .-.V-TiY^^,

levels occupied by a displaced bed are
sometimes only a few inches, and at
other times upwards of a thousand feet,
apart. At the first formation of a fault
or slip, an escarpment or terrace of
greater or less height must necessarily
Imve been produced ; but in very few
•cases (if in any case unconnected with
existing earthquake phenomena) is any-
thing of this kind now observable, the ground having been levelled
•down at some after period by the agency of denudation. In moun-
tainous districts the fracturing of strata has sometimes given rise to
narrow gorges or so-called " valleys of dislocation," but most of these
have been subsequently enlarged by the atmospheric disintegration
of the surrounding rocks, and by the streams or torrents of which
they usually form the channels. In most faults the displaced beds
have slipped downwards, and have thus been brought into a lower
position than that which they originally occupied ; but occasionally,
-as in the so-called " reversed faults," they have been forced upwards,
so as in some instances to overlie the other beds.

(d) Metamorphism. — Many strata afford undeniable proofs of
having been greatly altered, as regards texture and other mineral
characters, from their original sedimentary condition. In many in-
•8Lances, indeed, the original composition of the rock appears to have
been changed. Strata thus affected, are commonly known as meta-
morphic or altered rocks. In some cases a passage can be traced from
the altered into the unaltered parts of the rock; but, frequently, where
•rocks have been subjected to this action, the alteration has extended
•over wide areas, and has been more or less complete. It consists most
commonly in the assumption of a crystalline structure, and is very
generally accompanied by the presence of crystallized minerals and
other indications of chemical action.

In numerous instances, metamorphism, on a limited scale, has
•evidently resulted from the direct intrusion of eruptive rock matters
amongst sedimentary formations. Where trap dykes or masses of
granite, for example, have been thrust up through fissures in ordinary
strata, the latter are seen in many cases to have been more or less
altered around the points of contact, as though by the agency of
intense heat, or by that of steam or other gases acting under pressure.

166

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Coal has been thus converted, within a certain distance of interpene-
trating trap masses, into cinder and coke; earthy limestone, into-
crystalline marble ; sandstone into quartz rock, and so forth ; and
somewhat analogous effects are occasionally produced in sandstone-
blocks that have been long exposed to heat and heated vapours in the
interior of certain furnaces. These effects, however, have not always
followed the intrusion of eruptive rocks; and in no case do they appear
to have extended far into the mass of the surrounding strata. The
alteration of extensive regions therefore, such as the wide area occu-
pied by the Laurentian strata of Canada (see Part V.), points evidently-
to some more general although probably related cause, in explanation
of the facts of metamorphism.* Whatever view be adopted respecting
the internal condition of the earth, it is clear that immense spaces
filled or partially filled with molten and vaporous matter must have-
existed through untold ages at certain depths beneath the surface
rocks ; and the chemical action going on within these spaces, and
emanating from them, may be regarded as sufficient to produce the-
results in question, even if we cannot explain, to our thorough satis-
faction, the actual processes involved in the production of these effects.
See further under the METAMORPHIC ROCKS described below.

A special effect of metainorphism, developed moie particularly in?
fine-grained argillaceous strata, is the production of slaty cleavage*
Rocks thus affected, exhibit a more or less strongly-pronounced fissile
texture, arising from the presence of numerous divisional planes run-
ning parallel with one another through the rock, and usually in a
direction inclined to that of the planes of deposition. It is not
always easy, in inclined strata, to distinguish the latter planes from
planes of cleavage; but their direction is generally revealed by the
presence of fossils, or by intercalated layers of a different shade of
colour, degree of fineness, &c., across which the cleavage lines com-
monly pass without interruption. Cleavage in rocks, as shown by
this latter condition, and by the fact that fossil bodies and imbedded
stones are frequently drawn out or unnaturally elongated in th&
direction of the cleavage planes, is evidently a superinduced effect ;
but much obscurity still prevails with regard to its actual origin.

* We follow here the generally received view respecting the nature of these stratified, or at
least laminated, crystalline rocks. But the assumed metamorphic character of these rocks is
contested by some observers— in Canada, notabiy by Mr. Thomas Macfarlane— who regard
them as original formations. Impartially considered, this view is not without strong grounds
of probability.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III. 167

It is usually attributed to mechanical pressure acting laterally upon
the rock during elevations or depressions of contiguous areas ; but it
may be really due to the effect of long continued heat on confined
masses of damp strata. Moist clay, for example, if exposed in a
covered vessel to a certain degree of furnace heat, almost invariably
assumes a fissile texture ; and the same peculiarity is observable in
ordinary biscuits, and more especially in those which have undergone
an extra firing for ships' use. Oblique cleavage is exhibited by
many of the clay-slates of the Eastern Townships, as those of Mel-
bourne, Cleveland, Kingsey, &c. : but the clay slates of Lake Superior
and other parts of the province, though more or lesa finely laminated,
appear to be entirely destitute of true cleavage planes of this
character.

III. METAMORPHIC OR CRYSTALLINE STRATIFORM ROCKS.

The rocks of this series are stratified or laminated rocks of a more
or less crystalline aspect. In their mineral characters they frequently
bear a great resemblance to eruptive rocks, to which indeed they are
closely allied — almost every metamorphic rock having its repre-
sentative in the eruptive series; but they differ from these latter
by their general conditions of occurrence. As explained above, many
sedimentary strata are seen to have assumed a crystalline texture, or
to have lost more or less completely their normal sedimentary aspect,
in the vicinity of intrusive masses of granite, greenstone, or other
eruptive rocks. An alteration of this kind is known as local meta-
morphism. Earthy or ordinary limestones and dolomites are thus
occasionally converted into hard crystalline marble, often veined
with green and other coloured streaks and patches of serpentine, and
filled in many cases with crystals and crystalline particles of graphite,
pyroxene, amphibole, various micas, tourmaline, garnets, pyrites and
other minerals, foreign to the rock in its sedimentary condition. In
like manner, sandstones are changed in colour and texture, and are
often converted into quartz-rock or some variety of gneiss ; and clay-
slates are transformed into mica-slate, talc- slate, hornblende-rock,
and other so-called crystalline schists and gneissoid aggregations.
These metamorphic results are probably due in part to the agency
of various gases and heated vapours which accompanied the protu-
sioii of the eruptive mass. Alterations of a similar kind, but ex-

168

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

tending over wide areas, are assumed, on the other hand, to have
taken place in many localities, without the direct intervention of
eruptive rocks. This widely extended metamorphism has probably
been effected by alkaline and other solutions acting on the heated
rocks, or by the agency of superheated steam and other vapours on
deeply-seated strata, or by other causes more or less immediately
connected with the presence of subterranean heat. In many cases
there can be no question as to these crystalline strata being really
altered sedimentary deposits, and thus, by inference, a similar origin
is generally attributed to all rucks of this character. Whilst sedi-
mentary rocks, proper, are the products of surface action, and erup-
tive rocks — as regards their present condition, if not in all cases their
actual origin — are products of internal or subterranean forces, meta-
morphic formations may be regarded as the result of both external
and internal agencies.

The metamorphic rocks of Canada belong, as regards their geo-
logical position, to two essentially distinct series. The older series
of Archaean age, comprises the rock formations of the Laurentian
and Huronian periods, and occupies all the more northern and north-
western portions of Quebec and Ontario, its strata consisting chiefly
of enormous beds of gneiss, crystalline limestone, siliceous slates, and
other rocks, enumerated below, and described more fully in Part Y.
The higher or less ancient series is apparently intermediate in posi-
tion between the Huronian and Cambrian formations. Its strata
are chiefly developed in the form of chloritic and talcose slates and
beds of serpentine, throughout the Eastern townships and adjoining
region south of the St. Lawrence, in the Province of Quebec.

The following are the more important metamorphic rocks of Cana-
dian occurrence : —

Gneiss : — This rock is made up normally of three minerals — quartz
feldspar and mica ; the two latter being generally the common potash
species, orthoclase and muscovite (See Part I.). In some districts,
however, the rock consists almost entirely of quartz and feldspar,
mica being absent or very sparingly present. In coarsely crystalline
varieties of the rock, the component minerals are easily recognized.
The feldspar is usually white or red, and is present in distinctly
cleavable grains or masses ; the mica is in leafy masses or small
scales of a silvery white, brown or black colour; and the quartz in

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 169

•colourless vitreous grains. The striped or banded aspect of the rock
generally serves to distinguish it, in hand specimens, from granite •
-and when seen in position, its stratified structure is in most cases
very apparent. Vast beds of gneiss, and strata of gneissoid rock in
which the component minerals are more or less indistinct, occur
throughout the wide area occupied by the Laurentian rocks of the
more northern regions of Canada (see Part V.), and also here and
there, in the less ancient crystalline district south of the St. Law-
rence. Most of the boulders scattered so abundantly over the sur-
face of Canada, consist of micaceous gneiss, or of the hornblendic
variety described below. In some localities the mica of ordinary
gneiss is partially replaced by scales of graphite.

Syenitic or Hornblendic Gneiss : — This rock only differs from
ordinary gneiss by containing hornblende in place of mica ; but the
two rocks frequently merge into one another, both hornblende and
mica being present in certain varieties. Normally, the hornblendic
variety of gneiss is composed of red or grey feldspar, with quartz,
and black or green hornblende. The three minerals are sometimes
very distinct ; but in other cases they are intimately blended, so as
to form a dark-green rock, which passes, by the gradual diminution
•of the quartz, into hornblende-slate or amphibolite. Syenitic gneiss
occurs abundantly, with ordinary or micaceous gneiss, in the Lauren-
tian districts of Canada (see Part V.).

Mica Slate : — This is H foliated or schistose rock, composed essen-
tially of quartz and mica. It is generally of a dark-grey, greyish-
green, or silvery- white colour, and occasionally black ; and some
varieties are highly lustrous from the presence of intermixed graphite,
-as in many parts of the " Eastern Townships " of Quebec. It passes
into clay-slate, and also into fine-grained gneiss and other rocks of
this series. Mica-slate occurs here and there throughout the Lau-
rentian area of Canada, and in the crystalline districts south of the St.
Lawrence (see Part V.) ; but characteristic examples are rare — the
rocks in question being rather micaceous slates than mica-slate as
commonly defined.

Pyroxenite or Augite-Rock : — This rock, of subordinate occurrence,
consists at times of almost pure augite or pyroxene, but in general it
forms a granular compound of augite and some kind of feldspar, more
or less intermixed with carbonate of lime. Frequently, also, it con-

170

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

tains chlorite, with grains of magnetic iron ore and other minerals..
The normal colour is dark green. Examples occur here and there in
connection with becte of crystalline limestone and iron ores of the-
Laurentian Formation, as at Calumet Falls on the Ottawa, and parts
of Madoc, Marmora, Tudor, and adjacent townships. In many cases
pyroxenite cannot be distinguished from hornblende rock ; and it
closely resembles also, in general character and composition, certain
eruptive masses and dykes belonging to the trappean series. Many
Laurentian pyroxenites, indeed, are probably of igneous origin.

Amphibolite or Hornblende Rock : — This metamorphic product is
sometimes described as diorite, but the latter term is properly
restricted to eruptive greenstones of similar composition. Horn-
blende Rock is composed normally of a mixture of hornblende and
soda-feldspar, but at times it consists of almost pure hornblende..
Many varieties are also more or less calcareous, and in some, both
mica and quartz are occasionally present. These pass into syenitic
gneiss. The texture of the rock is compact, granular, fibrous or
slaty. The slaty varieties are commonly known as Hornblende
Schist, and the fibrous as Actynolite Rock or Schist. Examples
occur in some abundance among the Laurentian strata of Marmora,.
Madoc, Elzevir, Blythfield, and throughout the Laurentian country
generally, between the Ottawa and Lake Huron ; also at various,
places on Lake Superior, as at Point-aux-Mines, Goulais River, and
elsewhere ; but many of the hornblende rocks of these districts may
be really eruptive masses. Hornblendic rocks and slates form part
also of the crystalline deposits of Beauce and other districts of the
Eastern Townships.

Wollastonite-Rock :— The mineral Wollastonite (No. 64, Part II),
mixed with feldspar, pyroxene, quartz, calcite, and other minerals,
occasionally form beds in the Laurentian series, mostly in association
with crystalline limestone. Where the Wollastonite predominates,
the rock presents a granular-fibrous structure, and is white or pale-
greenish in colour. Examples occur in the counties of Argenteuil,
Terrebonne, Leeds, &c., but are comparatively unimportant.

Epidote-Rock /—This is also of subordinate occurrence. It consists
of a mixture of quartz and epidote, and presents both granular and
compact varieties, mostly of a pale-green colour. Examples have-
been recognized amongst the Shickshock Mountains of Gaspe ; and
others occur in Melbourne and other parts of the Eastern Townships.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III. 171

Garnet- Rock : — Subordinate beds of this rock, composed essentially
of granular red garnets and crystalline quartz, occur among the
Laurentian strata of St. Jerome on the Ottawa, and Rawdon in
Montcalm county ; and also, according to Mr. Richardson, in asso-
ciation with micaceous schists at Baie St. Paul. Dr. Sterry Hunt
has likewise made known the occurrence of beds of more or less com-
pact and light-coloured garnet amongst the metamorphic series of the
Eastern Townships. See under " Garnet," Part II.

Quartzite or Quartz-Rock : — This rock consists normally of pure
crystalline quartz, either colourless, or of pale shades of red, yellow,
green, or smoky-brown. Coarse and more or less opaque varieties,
passing into quartzose sandstone and chert, exhibit various colours,
however ; and the rock is often green and greenish-grey from admix-
ture with chlorite. Some cherts are black from the presence of
anthracitic matter. Enormous beds of quartzite, frequently very
pure, occur in the Laurentian series of strata, as on the River Rouge
in the county of Argenteuil, and elsewhere; and these rocks are
still more characteristic of Huronian strata. Laurentian quartzose
conglomerates occur in the townships of Bastard and Rawdon ; and
a very remarkable conglomerate of the Huronian series, consisting
of pebbles of colourless quartz and red jasper in a colourless, green-
ish-white or pale-yellowish quartzose base, is met with in the Bruce
Mines district. These crystalline conglomerates show unmistakably
the metamorphic origin of the rock. Beds of chert and jaspery
quartz occur also in places on Lake Superior, and in the crystalline
region south of the St. Lawrence (see Part V).

Siliceous Slate : — This rock is probably an altered clay-slate. It
passes into impure quartz-rock or jasper; consists essentially of a
silicate of alumina; is hard or more or less slaty, and usually of a
greenish-grey colour, or dark green from intermixed chlorite, and
occasionally striped or zoned with lines of black, green, or red. Ex-
amples of siliceous slates are of common occurrence on the north shore
of Lake Huron, and amongst the Huronian strata of the Rive Dore*
and other localities on Lake Superior. In many places, these slates
hold rounded pebbles or masses of gneiss, syenite, &c., and thus form
" slate conglomerates."

Augillite : — This is one of the least altered rocks of the metamor-
phic series. It is simply a more or less indurated clay-slate, and
commonly presents a black or bluish-black or dark-grey colour, but

172

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

some varieties are dull chocolate-red, and others greenish-grey — th<
rock passing by insensible transitions into ordinary unaltered shales
on the one-hand, and into silicious and micaeous slates on the other.
Many argillites are highly lustrous from intermixed graphite, and
some contain small straw-like crystals of chiastolite or andalusite, as
described under that mineral in Part II. Dark and more or less
lustrous varieties are common in Huronian strata, and are still more
abundant in the higher Animikie series of Thunder Bay, Lake
Superior (see Part V), and in various parts of the altered region
south of the St. Lawrence. In the latter district, as in Beauce and
elsewhere, many of the green, purplish, and red agillites present a
nacreous talcose aspect, but, as shewn by Dr. Hunt's analysis, they
contain little or no magnesia.

Chlorite Slate : — This metamorphic rock in its normal aspect is a
compound of chlorite and quartz, possessing a distinct green colour
and a foliated or schistose structure ; but in many examples the
structure becomes fine-granular or almost compact. Tn Canada,
chlorite slates, passing into chloritic strata in which the typical
character of the rock is more or less obscured, occur sparingly in the
Laurentian series, mostly in connection with iron ores. A bed of a
dark green colour, filled with numerous small octahedrons of mag-
netic iron ore, occurs in the township of Gal way. Other examples,
but often of -somewhat obscure schistose structure, are characteristic
of the Huronian rock throughout the vast region north of Lake
Huron and Lake Superior. In the crystalline region south of the St.
Lawrence, chloritic slates are also abundant, and most of the copper
ores of the Eastern Townships are associated with these strata.
Other beds contain intercalated scales and layers of specular or mica-
ceous iron ore ; and in the Townships of Bolton and Broughton,
more or less compact or subfoliated beds of greenish-grey chlorite,
known as " potstone," form workable beds of good quality. (See
Part II, No. 80).

Steatite or Soapstone-Rock : — This rock consists of granular or
slaty talc, frequently intermingled with carbonate of lime or dolo-
mite. It usually presents a greyish or greenish- white colour, and
when pure is very sectile. A bed of somewhat inferior quality, from
intermixture with calcareous matter, occurs in the Laurentian strata
of Elzevir. The closely related substance known as Pyrallolite (see

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III. 173

under No. 82, in Part II), also forms beds among Laurentian strata,
as in Grenville, Ramsay, and elsewhere. Many deposits of more or
less compact soapstone occur likewise in the higher crystalline
series of the Eastern Townships, as in various parts of Bolton more
especially, and also in Potton, Sutton, Stanstead, Leeds, and Yau_
dreuil.

Ophiolite or Serpentine Rock : — This rock consists essentially of
the hydrated magnesian silicate, Serpentine, described fully in Part
IT. It usually presents a green, brown, greenish-grey, or pale
yellowish colour, often veined or mottled with lines and patches of
darker or lighter green, red or reddish brown ; and it forms more or
less compact beds, frequently of great extent and thickness. Sub-
ordinate examples occur in the Laurentian strata of many localities,
mostly associated with bands of crystalline limestone, as in the town-
ship of Grenville, and at Calumet Island on the Ottawa ; also in
Burgess, and elsewhere ; but the crystalline districts south of the St.
Lawrence contain the most abundant and important deposits of ser-
pentine rock, as at Mount Albert in Gaspe, and in the Eastern
Townships of Melbourne, Oxford, Brougham, Bolton, Ham, and
Garthby, more especially. The serpentine of these districts is very
commonly associated with beds of chromic iron ore ; and many ex-
amples are intermixed with crystalline calcite or dolomite, forming
ornamental " serpentine-marbles " of green, chocolate-brown and
other colours.

Crystalline Lim&stone : — This rock consists of carbonate of lime in
a crystalline or semi-crystalline condition. It is usually white, light
grey, or pale reddish, in colour, and is sometimes veined or spotted
with yellow, green, blueish-grey and other tints. It presents most
commonly a fine or coarse granular structure, much resembling that
of loaf sugar, whence the name " saccharoidal limestone " by which
this rock is often known ; but some varieties are more or less com-
pact \ and others present in places a fibrous aspect, from inter-
mingled tremolite or white hornblende, or light varieties of pyroxene.
The finer kinds from the ordinary marbles of commerce. In Canada,
large beds of crystalline limestone, often containing scales of graphite,
and crystals of apatite, pyroxene, amphibole, mica and other
minerals, occur among the Laurentian and Huronian series of strata
in numerous localities (See Part Y) ; and also among the crystalline

FERALS AND GEOLOGY

strata south of the St. Lawrence. In the latter district, as already
mentioned, some of these limestone beds are intermixed with green
-and other coloured serpentines, but many of the so-called serpentine
marbles from the Eastern Townships are mixtures of serpentine with
dolomite or magnesite.

Crystalline Dolomite : — This rock resembles crystalline limestone
in colour and other external characters, but consists of carbonate of
lime and carbonate of magnesia, and only effervesces when tested
with heated acid (See Part I). It occurs, here and there, amongst
the Laurentian strata, as at Lake Mazinaw in the County of
Frontenac, and elsewhere. Also among the strata of the Eastern
Townships, in which district beds of crystalline magnesite (See Part
II), mixed with mica, serpentine, &c., are likewise present. These
magnesian beds, as pointed out by Dr. S terry Hunt, assume a
yellowish or dull-red colour by weathering. ^

Crystalline Iron Ores: — Vast beds of Magnetic, Specular and
Titaniferous Iron Ore, occur locally amongst the rocks of the Laur-
entian series, and should thus be referred to in connexion with the
metamorphic formations of Canada. The strata of the metamorphic
region south of the St. Lawrence are also especially characterized in
certain localities by the presence of chromic iron ore in rock masses ;
and many of the chloritic and other schistose strata of this region
pass locally into "iron slates" or "specular schists," by the addition
of micaceous hematite or specular ore. The distinctive characters of
these Iron Ores, and their principal localities, ar.e given in Part II.

IV. MASSIVE OR UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS.

The rocks of this division are commonly known as Igneous or Erup-
tive Rocks. With regard to the igneous formation of certain members
of the Eruptive Series, there can be no possible doubt ; but the actual
mode of formation of other rocks of this group is involved in great
obscurity. All agree, however, in being essentially devoid of true
planes of stratification. They occur either in irregular unstratified
masses ; or in sheets or apparent beds, intercalated amongst, or over-
flowing, stratified deposits ; or in the form of more or less tortuous
veins ; or in broader and simpler veins, technically known as
" dykes," which frequently terminate at their upper extremity in

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART JII.

175

FIG. 92.

overlying step-like and columnar sheets of matter. And in these
conditions, they are frequently seen to traverse older rocks of the
same class, or to penetrate various stratified formations. They are
thus essentially intrusive rocks ; and they are also, in the words of
Humboldt, essen-
tially endogenous
rocks — i. e., they
•come from more
or less deeply-
seated sources
within or beneath
the Earth's crust,
from whence they
have been forced
up from time to time through cracks and fissures opened in the
overlying or surrounding rock masses. From this it follows, as a
general rule, that the intrusive rocks in question must have been at
one time in a soft and plastic state, if not in an actually fluid condi-
tion. Certain trachytic and basaltic rocks — members of this group;
described below — cannot be distinguished by chemical or minera-
logical characters from ordinary lavas ; and the former existence of
many basalts in a molten or highly heated condition is established by
the effects produced by veins or dykes of these rocks on coal beds
and other strata through which they have been erupted. Coal in
contact with dykes of this kind, has been burnt into cinder, or
converted into coke ; clays have been baked into brick-like masses ;
sandstones rendered more or less vitreous ; and various limestones,
to cite no further instances, have been hardened and altered into
marbles of crystalline texture. Intrusive veins and masses of granite
and syenite are also known to have produced metamorphic effects on
the rocks which they traverse. But in many instances no alterations
of this kind have followed the intrusion of a vein or mass of unstra.
tified rock amongst sedimentary deposits. Hence it is clear that
although the intrusive rock must have been in a soft or plastic
•condition, it could not in these latter cases have been in a molten or
intensely heated sta'te. Occasionally also, solid granitic' masses
appear to have been thrust up amongst overlying strata, the intru-
.sion being followed necessarily by signs of great mechanical
disturbance. The condition of the quartz in granite and syenite, is

176

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

opposed to the view of igneous fusion ; and yet quartz of the sai
character does occur sparingly in many trachytes, and under condi-
tions not favourable to the idea that it may have been subsequently
introduced by aqueous agencies. Through these trachytes, moreover,
there is a gradual passage into actual lavas or known fusion-products;,
whilst, on the other hand, many syenites (containing free quartz)
merge gradually into greenstone and basalt, products intimately
related to augitic lavas. It is, of course, impossible to say in what
form a rock belonging now to the eruptive .class may actually have
originated. It may have been produced from, an earlier formed
igneous or crystalline mass, or from a sedimentary deposit buried
deeply under overlying beds. The endogenous or subterranean
agencies, whatever they may have been, that rendered granite and
syenite plastic and crystalline, also produced the crystalline texture
and other related characters of gneiss, mica schist, hornblende rock,
and other members of the metamorphic series. It is now very
generally assumed that whilst ordinary lavas and most trachytes and
trappean (or basaltic) rocks have solidified from a molten condition,
other rocks of this class, the granites and syenites more especially,
have been rendered plastic and crystalline by "hydro-igneous"
agency. These rocks, in other words, are thought to have undergone
a kind of aqueous fusion and subsequent crystallization, the water,
originally present in them, having been retained for a time by the
pressure exerted on the plastic mass at great depths. But this view,
it must be understood, is entirely hypothetical, and in many respecta
is far from satisfactory. All that is really known may be thus
expressed : — Two sets of forces are concerned, either alone or con
jointly, in the production of rock masses generally. One set, entirely
external, or consisting essentially in the action of the atmosphere
and waters on the surface of the earth-mass, produces the sedimentary
or stratified rocks proper. The other forces, of internal or subter-
ranean origin, produce the unstratified rocks, as we now see these
latter, and lead to the crystallization and metamorphism of sedimen-
tary strata brought within their influence. But whether granites,
syenites, traps, and trachytes, be igneous or non-igneous rocks, they
are evidently related products, and members of a common class.

These rocks are arranged by Sir Charles Lyell in two broad
divisions : Volcanic and Plutonic rocks ; but it is impossible to draw

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 177

a distinct line of demarcation between the two. Granite and syenite
for example, are placed in the Plutonic series, and trachyte, green-
stone, basalt, &c., in the Volcanic division; but certain granitic
trachytes connect the granites with the volcanic rocks ; and in like
manner, certain greenstones merge on the one hand into syenite, and
on the other (the distinction between augite and hornblende, except
in a purely mineralogical or crystallographic point of view, being
practically of little moment) they pass into augitic lavas. This
equally affects the sub-division into Volcanic, Trappean, and Granite
rocks, adopted by other observers. I would therefore propose, as an
arrangement of convenience, the distribution of our Canadian Erup-
tive rocks into the following groups : — 1. Granites and Syenites ; 2.
Anorthosites ; 3. Traps and Greenstones ; 4. Trachytes ; 5. Obsi-
dians ; 6. Lavas.

1 . Granites : — The rocks of this group possess, normally, a crystal-
line aspect and strongly-marked granular, structure, the term granite
being derived from the latter character. Granites are also especially
characterized by the presence of free silica or quartz in a crystalline
condition. They occur occasionally in broad, straight veins or dykes,
but are most commonly seen in the form of complicated, ramifying
veins, or in large irregular masses which have often broken through
and tilted up the surrounding rocks. Where a granite mass lies in
contact with another rock, the latter will necessarily be the older
formation if it be tilted up or otherwise mechanically affected by the
granite ; or if it be chemically altered near the points of contact ; or
if portions of its substance (in a more or less altered state) be enclosed
within the granite mass ; or if the granite run into it in the form of
veins (Fig. 93). On the other hand, if the adjacent rock rest in un-
disturbed position
on the surface of

the granite, and ex-
hibit no chemical
alteration, it may FlG- 93- FlG- 94«

be inferred to be the more recent of the two (Fig. 94). Granitic
veins frequently cross or intersect each other : intersected veins be-
ing necessarily older than those by which they are intersected. The
diagram (Fig. 95) exhibits three veins of different ages. No. 1 is
the oldest vein, as it is cut and also displaced or " faulted " by the
other two. No. 3, again, is the most recent of the series, as it tra-
13

178

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

FIG. 95.

verses and displaces both Nos.
and 2. Granite rocks, by the
decomposition of one of their es-
sential components, feldspar, have
become converted in some dis-
tricts into white or light-coloured
clays, largely used, under the
name of kaolin, in the manufac-
ture of porcelain.

Granite, properly so-called, is composed of three minerals : quartz,
feldspar and mica. The feldspar is usually the potash species Ortho-
clase (see No. 57, Part II), but is occasionally represented by the Soda
species Albite (Part II, No. 58), or by Oligoclase (No. 59). The
mica is generally the common potash species Muscovite (Part II, No.
77), but is sometimes mixed with, or occasionally replaced by, one of
the magnesiaii micas. As a general rule, the quartz, in granite,
occurs in vitreous colourless grains ; the feldspar, in red, white, pink,
or occasionally green or grey, lamellar masses, which exhibit smooth
and somewhat pearly cleavage planes ; and the mica is mostly in
small scales, or larger folise, of a pearly-metallic aspect, and silvery
white, black, brown, pearl-grey, or greenish in colour. In coarse-
grained granites, these component minerals are readily distinguish-
able ; but in rocks of fine-grain, they become blended into a common
granitic mass. The mica frequently dies out, or is very sparingly
present, in which case the rock is sometimes known as Pegmatite,
but this name is applied by German lithologists to coarse-grained
granites containing a small amount of silvery- white mica in compar-
atively large scales or leaves. Occasionally also in these quartzo-
feldspathic granites, the quartz is arranged in the form of narrow,
irregular crystals in more or less distinct
bands, producing, in transverse sections,
the appearance of a cuniform or Assy-
rian inscription : whence the term "gra-
phic granite " sometimes bestowed on this
variety. When, again, the quartz and
feldspar become intimately blended, so as
to possess more or less the appearance of a simple mineral, the rock
has been termed Felsite or Petrosilex. Very frequently, through a

FIG.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III. 179

base of this, or of ordinary granite, numerous crystals of feldspar are
distributed, when the rock is known as porphyry, or, better, as por-
phyritic gra die or porphyritic felsite (Fig. 97). The imbedded crys-
tals often show the twin or compound
structure so common in feldspathic sili-
cates. The term " porphyry " (from nop-
<pvpa), as the name would indicate, was
originally applied to rocks of this kind,
in which either the base or the imbedded

crystals presented a deep-red colour ; but it is now bestowed conven-
tionally on all rocks containing distinct crystals of feldspar or other
minerals. We have thus porphyritic granites, porphyritic syenites,
porphyritic trachytes, porphyritic greenstones (the original por-
phyry having been probably one of these latter), porphyritic lavas,
&c. Finally, as regards other granite varieties (to many of which
special names of uncertain or merely local application have been use-
lessly given), it may be observed that the mica of ordinary granite
is occasionally replaced by talc, giving rise to talcose granite (the
Protogine of some authors), or is accompanied at times by hornblende,
the rocks in the latter case being known as syenitic or hornblendic
granite. By the gradual diminution of quartz, the granites proper
pass into granitic trachytes, described below ; and they are repre-
sented in the metamorphic series by gneiss and gneissoid rocks gen-
erally, into which also they appear locally to merge.

Examples of intrusive granite occur in most parts of the large area
occupied by the Laurentian rocks of Canada (see Part V.). Porphy-
ritic felsite, in which the base is mostly dull-red or greenish-black, and
the imbedded feldspar crystals red or pink, is seen in connection with
a large mass of syenite in the Township of Grenville on the Ottawa.
This variety, sometimes termed Orthophyre, is scarcely perhaps a true
granite, but as it contains free quartz it must be referred convention-
ally to the granitic series. A broad dyke or vein of graphic granite
(consisting of quartz and orthoclase-feldspar) is described in the
Reports of the Geological Survey as occurring on Allumette Lake,
north of Pembroke, and other examples of a similar character have
been recognized in the neighbouring Township of Ross. Veins of both
ordinary and quartzo-feldspathic granite, in some cases holding crystals
•of tourmaline or schorl, occur also more or less abundantly, in St.

180

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Jerome, Escott, Lansdowne, Burgess, Madoc, Marmora, Galway, ant
indeed throughout the Laurentian region generally, lying between the
Ottawa and Georgian Bay. In Laurentian strata, likewise, on the-
River Rouge, east of the Ottawa, and at Stony Lake, in the Township
of Dummer or Burleigh, as well as in Bathurst and Burgess, granitic
veins containing albite or soda-feldspar replacing or accompanying
orthoclase, have long been known. The opalescent variety of Albite
known as Peristerite (see Part II., No. 58) coems from a vein of this
kind in Bathurst. Other veins and some considerable masses of
granite occur on the north and north-east shores of Lake Superior,
as in the vicinity of Michipicoten, at Point-aux-Mines, and here and
there about Bachewahnung Bay, and elsewhere. A mass of red
granite, inferred by Sir William Logan to be of Huronian age, is
described as having broken through and tilted up Laurentian gneissoid
stnta south of Lake Pakowagaming on the north shore of Lake
Huron; and granitic dykes and veins occur in the Bruce Mines-
District. A flesh-red granite underlies beds of Trenton limestone in
the Township of Storrington, north of Kingston. Finally, intrusive
masses and dykes of white or light-coloured granite occur on Lake
Memphremagog in the Township of Stanstead, and others in the
Townships of Hereford, Barnston, and Burford, of that district.
Similar masses have been noticed on Lake St. Francis, Lake Megantic,.
and in the intervening townships. Some of these granitic masses, as
described in the Revised Report of the Geological Survey (1863),
cover areas of from six to twelve square miles.

A granite which contains hornblende in place of mica, was formerly
defined by most geologists as /Syenite, but this term is now generally
restricted to a granitic greenstone, or mixture of orthoclase and horn-
blende. Keeping to the latter definition, we have in syenite a more
or less distinctly granular or granite-like aggregate of potash-feldspar,
and hornblende : the feldspar being usually red or white, and the
hornblende green or black. Quartz in small amounts ia also occa-
sionally present. As in ordinary granite, both coarse and fine-grained
varieties of syenite occur. In the latter, the component minerals
are blended into a more or less uniform dark-green mass, and the-
rock resembles, and can rarely be distinguished from, an ordinary
greenstone. From this trappean rock into well-defined syenite, indeed,,
an evident transition may be occasionally traced. On the other-

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III. 181

hand, syenite is represented in the Metamorphic Series by syenitic
gneiss, and to some extent by amphibolite or hornblende-rock.
Syenite, as already explained, is very frequently porphyritic — red or
occasionally white crystals of feldspar appearing on a dark or black
groun 1, or green or black crystals of hornblende being imbedded in
a reddish granular mixture of the usual components.

In Canada, eruptive syenites appear to be confined mostly to
Laurentian areas. The most remarkable example is the great
syenitic mass described by Sir William Logan as covering a space of
about thirty-six square miles in the Townships of Grenville, Chatham,
and Weritworth, near the left bank of the Ottawa. It consists chiefly
•of red and white orthoclase, with black hornblende and a little
quartz ; mica being also present in one portion of the mass, which
thus shows a transition into syenitic granite. Dykes pass from the
main body of the syenite into the surrounding beds of crystalline
limestone and gneiss. Two other series of dykes or eruptive masses
•occur in connection with the syenite of this locality. Some of these
masses, consisting of a compact base of petro-silex, or intimate mix-
ture of quartz and feldspar, with imbedded crystals of red orthoclase
and fragments of gneiss and other rocks, traverse the syenite, and
hence are of newer origin ; whilst others, consisting of trap or green-
stone, are cut off, or interrupted in their course, by the syenite, and
are therefore of anterior date. Dykes of syenite also occur, here and
there, throughout the Laurentian country between the Ottawa and
Lake Superior.

Anorthosites : — The term " anorthosite " was first applied by Dr.
Sterry Hunt to a rock-mixture of various anorthic or triclinic feld-
spars, at that time regarded as a stratified crystalline formation or
•rock of the metamorphic series proper. Feldspathic rocks of this
character occur in the counties of Argenteuil, Terrebonne and Mont-
morency, in the Province of Quebec, where they were thought to
represent the so-called Upper Laurentian, Labrador or Norian for-
mation, but they are now regarded by Dr. A. C. Selwyn, the present
director of the Geological Survey of Canada, as eruptive products of
Laurentian age, and this opinion, although not absolutely free from
•doubt, is probably tne correct view. As stated in the previous
•edition of this work, their supposed stratification is exceedingly

182

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

obscure. They consist essentially of Jabradorite or albite, or of
mixtures of these and other triclinic feldspars. Their colour is.
mostly white, light-grey, pale lavender-blue or greenish-white ; but
some are pale-red or yellowish ; and the cleavage planes occasionally
show the green or greenish-blue reflected tints characteristic of la-
bradorite. All become opaque-white by weathering. Bronze-coloured-
or dark -green hypersthene, in foliated examples, is sometimes present
in them, as at Chateau Richer and elsewhere. This variety has been
termed Hyperite or Hypersthene rock.

3. Traps and Greenstones: — The rocks of this series present a
somewhat variable composition, but consist essentially of some kind
of feldspar — usually Labradorite or Albite — or a mixture of feld-
spars, with augite, hornblende or chlorite. Many also contain in
addition, a mixture of zeolitic minerals, nepheline, magnetic and
titaniferous iron ores, grains of olivine, scales of mica, carbonates of
lime and iron, and other substances. But free silica or quartz is
altogether absent, or is present only as an accidental or inessential
constituent. The texture of these rocks is of two general or princi-
pal kinds : .(1), compact or homogeneous; and (2), distinctly granu-
lar or granitic ; but fine-grained examples offer a transition from th&
granitic to compact structure. In the latter, the component minerals
are blended into a common or uniform mass, chiefly, unless weathered,,
of a grey, green or black colour. In each of these varieties of texture,.
a poq.hyritic structure (see Fig. 97, above) may also be present —
the imbedded crystals consisting of albite, oligoclase, augite, horn-
blende or some other mineral. The compact varieties also frequently
exhibit an amygdaloidal structure, Fig. 98, the rock being full of
oval or irregularly-shaped cavities, usually of small size, and com-
monly lined or filled with amethyst, agate,.
or other varieties of quartz, or otherwise
with calcspar, various zeolites, green-
earth, &c. These compact varieties,
moreover, ' of both trap and greenstone
very often assume a columnar or basalti-
form structure, as in figure 99. In this
case the rock exhibits a kind of rough
crystallization, and contains numerous

FIG. 98.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III.

183

joints or partings in the direction of
which it separates more or less
readily, forming prisms or prismatic
masses of from three to eight or
nine sides : and as these possess also
transverse joints at right angles to
the axis of a prism, a flat, tabular,
and step-like outline is very gener-
ally presented by columnar or sub- FIG. 99.
columnar varieties of this kind. Hence the term " trap " or " trap-
pean rock," from trappa, a Swedish word signifying a set of steps —
attention having first been called to this peculiarity by Swedish
observers. A good example is presented by the promontory of
Thunder Cape, Fig.
100, on the north-
west shore of Lake
Superior, in which
five very distinct

steps are observable, FIG. 100.

more especially when viewed from a certain distance. The eruptive
mass of McKay's Mountain on the other side of Thunder Bay, as
well as similar rocks on Pie Island and elsewhere in that district,
exhibit also well-marked illustrations of this step-like outline, al-
though most of these rocks present only a sub-columnar structure.
A similar step-like outline is exhibited by some large dykes of col-
umnar dolerite in the township of Grenville on the Ottawa, as first
pointed out by the late Sir William Logan.

As regards their general conditions of occurrence, greenstones and
traps are seen very commonly in the form of more or less broad and
straight or simply-forking veins (Fig. 101), technically known as

dykes. This term originates in
the fact that trappean veins
usually possess greater powers
of resistance to the decompos-
ing influences of the atmos-
phere or the destructive action
of water than the rocks which
they traverse ; in conse-
01 quence of which they often

184

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

project from the face of cliffs or hill-sides, or stand up above the
general surface of the ground, and thus resemble in many cases the
stone fences or walls known in certain localities as " dykes/' The
annexed figure exhibits a diagram-view — the surrounding foliage,
<fec., being omitted — of a pro-
jecting dyke of this kind, as
seen on Slate River, a small
rocky stream which enters the
Kaministiquia about twelve
miles above Fort William on
Thunder Bay, Lake Superior.
The high cliffs of aluminous
slate or shale on each side of
the ravine through which the
river flows, have been wasted
by atmospheric action to a
much greater extent than the Fi°- 102<

dyke ; and the latter thus stands out from the face of the cliff on
each side of the ravine, and presents the appearance of an old Gothic
wall. On one side, it comes down close to the bank of the stream,
as seen in the figure ; and the arch, there shewn, must have been
hollowed out, when the water flowed with fuller volume and at a
somewhat higher level, during the gradual excavation of the valley.
Most of the projecting points, reefs, and rocky islets on the shores of
our northern lakes, consist of denuded portions of trappean dykes.
Occasionally, however, trap and greenstones decompose more readily
than the surrounding or encasing rock. Trench-like depressions in
the ground, or clefts and open fissures on the face of the rock, are
thus produced. Examples may be seen on some of the islands and
parts of the coast of Lake Superior, near JSTeepigon Bay, and else-
where.

Traps and greenstones occur also, in many districts, in the form of
flat tabular masses, resting upon hill-tops. These are merely por-
tions of ancient dykes, exposed and isolated by denudation. Finally,
mountain-masses composed of trappean and greenstone rocks are of
frequent occurrence, but these also may be regarded in most cases as
the more salient portions of enormous dykes, several being often
seen to lie in the same general direction, as though along an ex-

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III.

185

tended line of fissure. The picturesque mountain of Montreal, and
the mountains of Beloeil, Monnoir, Rougement, &c., are examples.
These salient masses exhibit in places a distinctly conical or partly
truncated form, as seen in the outline of the "Paps," (Fig. 103), on

the east side of Black Bay, Lake
Superior, and to some extent,
also, in many of the greenstone
hills of the Eastern Townships.
A step-like and more or less
tabular outline, as already re-
FIQ. 103. marked, is likewise very charac-

teristic of rock masses of this group.

The variable composition and diversities of structure exhibited by
trappean rocks have given rise on the part of lithologists to the
formation of a great number of so-called species, each provided with
a distinct name, usually of Greek derivation. But these attempted
distinctions are in many instances of purely local application ; and
in very few cases can they be regarded as indicating definite admix-
tures of ready recognition. Names applied to particular varieties by
one author, are applied quite differently by others. The terms
melaphyre, porpLyrite, diabase, &c., might be cited as examples. In
many cases also, the same rock, if presenting slight differences of
texture, or if assumed, without any possibility of proving the assump-
tion, to contain augite in one case and hornblende in another, is
described under different specias. In this manner, fanciful distinc-
tions which have no true foundation in Nature, and which cannot
be rigorously or definitely applied, are attempted vainly to be
carried out in many so-called systems of lithology. If minute
chemical or mineralogical differences were regarded as essential,
our Canadian varieties of this group of rocks might add many
names to the already uselessly extended list. It is not possible
however in the present state of the question, nor is it desirable
in an elementary work of this character, to depart altogether
from the beaten track. Retaining therefore some of the more gene-
rally recognised names and distinctions, whilst duly admitting the
more or less arbitrary and uncertain character of these, we may refer
our Canadian rocks of the Trappean series to the following varieties :
(1) Trap or Basalt; (2) Dolerite or Granitoid Trap; (3) Greenstone

186

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

or Aphanite ; (4) Diorite or Granitoid Greenstone ; (5) Diabase 01
Chloritic Trap. These varieties, it must be understood, merge more
or less into each other, so that in many instances a rock might be
referred with equal justice to two or more of their included types.

Trap or Basalt may be defined conventionally as a black, greenish-
black or dark -grey rock of compact texture, composed of an intimately
blended mixture of lime-feldspar (or lime and soda feldspars), augite,
magnetic and titaniferous iron ores, zeolitic silicates, and carbonates of
lime and iron. In some kinds, the feldspar is replaced by nepheline ;
and olivine, in visible grains of a green or greenish -brown colour, is
very generally present in basaltic rocks. These component minerals-
are deduced by calculation, it will of course be understood, from the
separate ingredients, silica, magnesia, lime, &c., obtained in the analysis
of the rock. Altered or weathered varieties of trap are frequently of
a dull brick-red or brown colour, the change being caused by the
higher oxidation of the iron. Unaltered basalts are always more or
less strongly magnetic, easily fusible, and partially attacked by acids.
Sp. gr. 3.0 to 3.1, but occasionally somewhat less from partial altera-
tion of the rock.

The more common varieties or sub- varieties comprise : — (a) Massive
or amorphous trap ; (6) Slaty trap ; (c) Columnar and sub-columnar
trap (Fig. 99), the variety to which the term basalt is more generally
applied; (d) Amygdaloidal trap (Fig. 98), containing oval or other
shaped cavities mostly filled with agates, zeolites, calc-spar, green
earth, &c., as explained on a preceding page ; (e) Porphyritic trap,
containing imbedded crystals of albite, augite, or other minerals.
Examples of massive and porphyritic trap (consisting in places of
almost pure augite or pyroxene, and hence termed " pyroxenite," by
some observers) occur more especially in the Montreal Mountain,
and in various parts of the Eastern Townships and lower St. Lawrence
district. Columnar and sub-columnar trap is abundant around
Thunder Bay ; and amygdaloidal trap is of common occurrence along
the northern and other shores of Lake Superior, the north shore of
Lake Huron, and elsewhere. The agates of Michipicoten Island,
Agate Island, and ether spots on Lake Superior, are derived from
the disintegration of these amygdaloidal rocks.

Dolerite is simply a trap or basalt of granitoid structure, in the
coarse-grained varieties of which the component minerals are more or

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III. 1ST

less perceptible, individually. Fine-grained varieties, which offer a
transition into basalt proper, have been classed apart, by some litholo-
gists, under the name of Anamesite. In these, the component minerals
are scarcely, if at all, observable. Dolerites, as a general rule, are
chiefly of a greyish colour, varying from light-grey with black specks
and indistinct crystals of augite, to an almost uniform black or dark-
grey tint. When much olivine is present, and occasionally in other
cases, the rock assumes a greenish-grey or brownish-green colour ;
and weathered examples are frequently rusty-red, or otherwise dull
white. Sp. gr. =2.7. — 3.0.

This granitoid condition of trap presents, as in ordinary basalt,
massive, slaty, columnar, amygdaloidal, and porphyritic varieties.
Examples occur generally throughout Canadian districts in which
trappean rocks prevail ; especially in the Townships of Grenville,.
Chatham and Wentworth in the Ottawa region ; also in parts of the
Montreal Mountain and in the mountains of Montarville and Rouge-
mont, and other parts of that district ; abundantly also on the shores-
and islands of Lake Superior, (Gros Cap, Goulais Bay, Montreal
River, &c.,) and throughout the northern lake region generally.
The dyke on Slate River, shown in figure 102, consists of grey
dole rite.

Greenstone or Aphanite is a compact trappean rock of a more or
less decided green colour, passing into greenish-black. It is assumed
from its general composition to be made up of an intimate mixture of
lime and soda feldspars and hornblende, with very generally a certain
amount of magnetic and titaniferous iron ore, and some carbonate of
lime. Strictly, it cannot be distinguished, except conventionally by its
green colour, from ordinary trap. It presents massive, slaty,
columnar, aiiygdaloidal, and pophyritic varieties, and passes into-
diorite and diabase, the latter by the addition of chlorite, as well as
into common trap. Dykes of this green variety of trap occur here
and there on Lake Superior, but most of the so-called greenstones of
that region are evidently chloritic, and hence would be regarded by
systematists as compact and amygdaloidal varieties of diabase. Dykes
of somewhat similar character occur also in the Madoc and Marmora
region, and undoubtedly in other districts. The terms Greenstone
and Aphanite, it should be observed, are applied by some authors to-

A

188 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

compact varieties of Hornblende Rock and other hornblen
examples of the Metamorphic Series.

Diorite is the name commonly given to a granitoid trappean r<
made up of more or less distinctly visible grains or imperfect crystals
of a soda-feldspar (or lime-feldspar) and hornblende, and containing
very frequently, in addition, small grains of carbonate of lime,
particles of magnetic iron ore, scales of mica, sphene, and other
minerals. It passes into compact greenstone by almost insensible
transitions ; and in many cases it cannot be distinguished readily, if
at all, from varieties of dolerite or granitoid trap. Its feldspathic
portion is usually white or grey, or sometimes reddish, and the horn-
blende black or green ; but fine-grained examples have very
commonly a distinct green colour throughout. Massive, slaty,
columnar, amygdaloidal, and porphyritic varieties occur, as in other
kinds of trappean rock. The specific gravity varies from about
2.6 to 2.9.

Examples of diorite, of a more or less granitic aspect from the
frequent presence of small scales of brown mica, occur in the eruptive
masses of Belceil, Monnoir or Mt. Johnson, Rigaud, and Yamaska, of
the Eastern Townships of Canada. Other examples, passing here
and there into diabase, are seen at several spots on the shores of
Lake Superior, as near Michipicoten Harbour and elsewhere in that
neighbourhood, Batchewahmimg Bay, &c. The term diorite, it must
be remembered, has also been applied by certain authors to some of
the stratified hornblendic rocks of the Metamorphic Series — these
crystalline strata representing, as regards general composition, many
diorites and other intrusive rocks containing hornblende, just as the
gneissoid strata represent the granites and syenites. To avoid con-
fusion, however, the term if employed at all, should be restricted, in
accordance with common usage, to intrusive or eruptive rocks. If
the same term is to be applied indefinitely to a stratified arid eruptive
form of rock, it follows logically that the term gneiss should be
abandoned, and all the micaceous examples of gneiss should be
known as granite, and the hornblendic varieties as syenite — a system,
we presume, that few geologists, apart from those of a certain school,
would be inclined to follow.

Diabase or Chloritic Trap — as defined by most authors — is an
^eruptive, feldspathic rock, containing augite or hornblende with a

OF CENTEAL CANADA — PART III.

189»

certain amount of chlorite : carbonate of lime being very generally
present as an additional constituent. The term u diabase " is often
applied, however, to chloiitic and other varieties of hornblendic and
angitic rocks belonging to the Metamorphic Series. Some kinds of
eruptive diabase have also been described as melaphyre, but this term
is also vaguely applied to many diorites and other granitoid rocks of
the present group. Compact varieties, which are mostly of a decided
green colour, pass into compact trap and greenstone by insensible
transitions. Granitoid varieties merge also into dolerite and diorite.
Both kinds offer amygdaloidal, prophyritic, and other examples.
The feldspar in coarse-grained examples is either greyish- white,
greenish, reddish, or brownish ; and the chlorite presents the form of
small scales and particles of a green colour. Weathered examples are
usually dull-brown or red. Varieties of diabase, as thus defined?
occur both in the form of dykes and in intercalated bedded masses
among the Huronian strata of Lake Superior, as in Michipicoten
Island, as well as Cros Gap, Cape Maimanse, Point-aux-Mines,
Goulais River, and elsewhere. The bedded examples may perhaps
be really metamorphosed strata, but they consist most probably of
portions of ancient trappean overflows formed during the gradual
building up of the Huronian deposits. Some contain epidote ;
others enclose well-defined crystals of augite ; and many are in the
condition of calcareous amygdaloids.

Trachytes : — The rocks of this division are essentially feldspathic
in composition, the more typical or characteristic examples consisting
almost wholly of orthoclase or potash-feldspar. Many of these are
more or less porous or vesicular in texture, and are thus peculiarly
harsh or dry to the touch, when the name "trachyte," from rpa^r
rough. This character, however, will only apply to certain varieties,
as many trachytes do not differ in this respect from other rocks,
Most trachytes are white, light-grey, or pale reddish in colour ; but
in the granitoid varieties the presence of scales of brown mica, small
crystals or particles of green or black hornblende, and other accessory
minerals, gives rise to a darker and variable tint. These trachyte
rocks merge into members of the granitic and trappean series on the
one hand, and into ordinary feldspathic lavas on the other. The
substance known as pumice, for example, may be referred both to
trachyte and to lava. Thus, many trachytes, occuring in connection

190

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

with active or extinct volcanic cones, are actual lavas in the cor
sense of the term ; but others, although undoubtedly of similar
origin, occur in localities to which the term volcanic lias ceased to
apply. Viewed generally, although no marked lines of demarcation
can be drawn between them, the Trachytes present the following
leading varieties : — Common or Porous Trachyte ; Compact or
Massive Trachyte ; Slaty Trachyte ; Granitoid Trachyte. Examples
of porphyritic structure occur in each of these varieties ; and in the
trachytes of some localities the feldspar consists partially or wholly
of soda or lime species.

Common Trachyte is met with chiefly in regions in which active
or extinct volcanoes are distributed. It is more or less porous, or of
an open granular texture, and is frequently porphyritic from enclosed
crystals of glassy feldspar. Scales and specks of mica, (fee., are some-
times scattered through it, and it contains occasionally some grains
of quartz. The latter mineral is altogether of exceptional occurrence,
but its occasional presence serves to connect the trachytes with granitic
rocks. Compact Trachyte, also known as "white trap" or "feldspar
trap," occurs in broad veins or dykes traversing both the older trap
or dolerite of the Montreal Mountain and the Lower Silurian lime-
stones of that neighbourhood. It contains at these localities a con-
siderable amount of intermixed carbonate of lime ; whilst a related
variety of somewhat slaty structure, from near Lachine, is partly
zeolitic in its composition, and would thus be known by many lith-
ologists as a phonolite. These examples are partially in an earthy
state, a condition sometimes recognized by a special name, that of
Domite, a term applied to the earthy or semi-decomposed trachytes
of the Puy-de-D6me in the ancient volcanic district of Central France.
A porphyritic variety of pale-red or yellowish trachyte, holding large
•crystals of feldspar, occurs also at Chambly. Examples of Granitoid
Trachyte are especially abundant in the Eastern Townships of Brome
and Shefford where they form eruptive passes of considerable extent
and elevation. The trachytes of these mountains are both eoarse
and fine granular, and are composed of orthoclas j or other feldspars
with intermixed scales of black or brown mica, grains of yellow
sphene and magnetic iron ore. Some crystalline particles of black
hornblende are also occasionally present. In the Yamaska Moun-
tain of the same district, a micaceous rock of this character changes

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 191

somewhat in the composition of its feldspar, and becoming strongly
hornblendic, passes into a variety of diorite; but the distinction
between granitic trachyte and diorite is in many cases purely arti-
ficial.

5. Obsidians and Pitchstones : — This division includes lavas and
•other rock matters of igneous origin which occur in a more or less

vitreous or glassy state, and present an essentially feldspathic compo-
sition. The term obsidian is usually restricted to grey, green, brown,
or black rocks of this character, occurring in actual connection with
volcanoes, whether active or extinct. A variety containing small
spherical secretions of a somewhat pearly aspect is known as Pearl-
stone. These rocks break with sharp edges, and the fractured sur-
face shows conchoidal markings. Pitchstone occurs chiefly in the
form of dykes in trappean districts. It is mostly of a black colour,
.and pitchlike or resinous aspect, but some varieties are dull-green,
grey or red. A porphyritic variety, traversed by small veins of
agate, occurs near the deserted copper workings on the Island of
Michipicoten, Lake Superior ; and some of the dykes and bedded
traps near Michipicoten Harbour on the mainland, appear to be
intermediate in character between pitchstone and ordinary basalt.
Although not recognized in Ontario or Quebec, examples of obsidian
are not uncommon in British Columbia.

6. Lavas : — These comprise the actual rock-matters which issue in
a molten condition from volcanoes. They present vesicular, compact,
columnar, porphyritic, and other varieties, and are of two general
kinds as regards composition : feldspathic, and feldspatho-augitic.
The first, and by far the more common of the two, are composed
•essentially of feldspar, and are mostly of a light or dark grey colour.
They pass into trachytes. The second, composed essentially of feld-
spar and augite. are dark-L;reen or black in colour and are un dis-
tinguishable, except by their actual conditions of occurrence, from
many traps and greenstones. Examples of the group, as thus
denned, are unknown within the limits of Ontario and Quebec, but
occur in British Columbia.

V. MINERAL VEINS.

In a review of the characters and conditions of occurrence of rock-
,masses, the subject of mineral veins cannot be altogether passed over,

192

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

but the scope of the present work admits only of a general i
to this subject.*

Mineral veins may be denned as cracks or fissures in the Earth's
crust, filled or partially filled with stony and metallic matters. In
some veins, stony or sparry matters, as quartz or calc spar, are alone
present ; but these matters are very generally accompanied by metallic
sulphides, oxides, or other compounds, and occasionally by native
metals. The sparry or stony substances are then known as gangues
or veinstones. The more common veinstones comprise : quartz, calc
spar, fluor spar, and heavy spar — two or more of these being frequently
present together. In the higher part of a vein, frequently to a depth
of several fathoms from the surface, the gangtie and ores are often in
a partially decomposed or earthy condition.

A mineral vein thus forms a more or less compressed sheet of mineral
matter, extending often to unknown depths, and being frequently
traceable for several miles across a line of country. Some veins are
less than an inch broad, whilst others occasionally exceed twenty or
even fifty feet in width. Many of the veins containing native silver
in the district around Thunder Bay on Lake Superior, are at least
twenty feet wide, and some are wider. A vein of calc spar, carrying
galena, at the Fronteiiac Mining Location in the Township of Lough-
borough (north of Kingston) is very nearly as wide, although the
workable portion is limited to about twelve feet in breadth. As a
general rule, however, few veins exhibit a greater average width than
three or four feet ; and in nearly all cases a vein contracts and expands
more or less at different depths, or in different parts of its course.
Many veins traverse the enclosing rocks, or "country," almost or quite
vertically ; others incline at a greater or less angle, the inclination
being commonly termed the "underlie" or "hade;" and some again
run almost horizontally, or like a narrow bed, for certain distances.
The sides of a vein are known in mining language as the walls. These
are very often separated from the enclosing rock by a band of brown
ochreous matter or gossan, arising from the decomposition of pyrites,
or by a layer of clay or other soft or earthy material. This is techni-

* Although true veins are of not uncommon occurrence among Canadian rock -formations,
it should be premised that many of our metalliferous deposits, our iron ores especially, are
chiefly present in the form of large irregular masses or "stocks."

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III.

193

cally known as a " selvage.'

FIG. 104.

It usually facilitates the working of the
vein. A broad selvage of this charac-
ter lines the south wall of the Fron-
tenac vein, referred to above. In
inclined veins, the upper wall is
generally termed the " hanging
wall," and the lower, the "foot wall"
or floor. A and B, in Fig. 104, il-
lustrate these positions respectively.

Mineral veins occur chiefly in mountainous or geologically-disturbed
districts ; and although present in certain localities among unaltered
strata, they prevail mostly in metamorphic regions, especially where
these are broken through by eruptive masses and dykes of granitic or
trappean rock. In the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, they occur
chiefly in four districts: — First, in the Lauren tian country Ijing
between the Ottawa and Lake Huron, as, more especially, in the
counties of Carleton, Lanark, Leeds, Frontenac, Hastings, Peter-
borough, and Victoria; secondly, in the allied Huronian strata 011
the north shore of Lake Huron ; thirdly, in somewhat higher rocks on
the shores and islands of Lake Superior; and fourthly, in metamorphic
strata of apparently Pre-Cambrian age, in the Eastern Townships
and adjoining region south of the St. Lawrence. These districts, as
regards their geological relations, are described in Part V.

In reference to form and geological position, four different kinds of
veins have been recognized. These comprise: — (1) Independent or
ordinary veins, consisting of well-defined fissures which pass through
rocks of various kinds, and generally hold a more or less straight
course, whilst extending at the same time to great depths. In mining
localities, several veins of this kind are commonly found to run in the
same direction at greater or less distances apart. If crossed by another
series of veins, the latter are usually found to carry ores of a different
nature. The course of these veins may often be traced by trench-like
depressions in the ground, arising from the atmospheric decomposition
to which the surface of the vein has been subjected; but in some cases,
especially when the gangue consists essentially of quartz, the vein has
•weathered to a less extent than the surrounding rocks, and thus stands
14

194

:RALS AND GEOLOGY

up in ridge-like form above the surface of the ground. (2) St
werks. This term, borrowed from German miners, is used to denote
a series of usually narrow veins, ramifying amongst each other, and
uniting occasionally into bunches or pockets of ore. (3) Contact
veins. These are ordinary veins lying in immediate contact with
eruptive masses, or between two different kinds of rock. Very
frequently, for example, a band of metalliferous matter is ft und to
lie between the edge of a mass of granite or trap and the enclosing
stratified rock, in which case it is said to occur in the " contact
country" of the two. (4) Gash veins. These are simply surface
clefts or fissures of slight depth or extent. They are commonly
filled with galena, and differ usually if not always from ordinary
veins by the absence of veinstones properly so-called. In many cases
they form mere strings of metalliferous matter. Attempts have
been made to work deceptive veins of this character, in the townships-
of Eramosa, Clinton, and Mulmur.

Mineral veins may also be arranged to some extent as regards
their structure or texture in five groups, as follows: — (1) Compact
veins. In these, the fissure is filled entirely with a solid and more or
less uniform mass of ore. (2) Open ns. The fissure, in these
veins, is only partially occupied by mineral matter,' open spaces
occurring throughout the vein generally. Large cavities or " vugs,"
often lined with fine crystallizations, occur here and there in veins
of various kinds ; but in these open veins, so-called, the insterstices
or free spaces are especially numerous. (3) Banded veins. These
are filled or lined with distinct bands or zones of different substances,
the bands of the two walls corresponding in character, as in the
annexed figure. The two outer
bands, or those against the walls,
may consist, for example, of
brown ferruginous gossan, the
two next of quartz, the two
within these, of copper pyrites,
succeeded by zinc blende, quartz,
calcspar, galena, or other sub-
stances, in regular, banded alter-
nations. Veins of this kind are
exceedingly abundant in many mining districts, but characteristic:

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III. 195

examples are rare in Canada. (4) Spheroidal Veins. In these the
ore lies in the gangue in the form of spheroidal masses composed of
concentric layers. Well-defined examples of Canadian occurrence do
not appear to have been recorded, (5) Brecciated Veins. These form
the great majority of mineral veins hitherto observed in Canada.
The gangue contains angular and other fragments of well-rock, with
the metalliferous portions of the vein arranged between and around
these, occasionally in more or less distinct layers. The rock-frag
ments are often traversed by thin strings of ore. When of large
size, they form the so-called " horses " of the miners. These horses
sometimes cause a good deal of trouble by coming in a direct line
with the shaft, as happened at the Shuniah vein on Thunder Bay,
Lake Superior, and in one of the shafts at the Ives Mine in the
Eastern Township of Bolton.

Great obscurity prevails with regard to the processes by which
vein-fissures have been filled with their contents ; but, in the majority
of cases, several distinct agencies, acting both simultaneously and
consecutively, have evidently been concerned in the repletion of these
fissures. Some observers have sought to maintain that all the
various matters found in veins were originally diffused through the
mass of the surrounding rocks, and were drawn into the fissures by
electrical currents passing through these : although they fail to
explain how currents of this kind could possibly effect the operation
in question. Others assume the mineral matters, in veins, to have
been extracted from the surrounding rocks by the solvent power of
water, and thus to have been gradually carried into the fissure.
Many of the sparry, and some of the metallic matters, occurring in
veins, may have been derived in this manner from the surrounding
rocks ; but the supposed presence of diffused metallic matters in
these rocks, considered generally, is, it must be remembered, entirely
hypothetical, and open to many objections. On the other hand, we
have undeniable proofs in volcanic and other districts, that metallic
matters, in many respects similar to those found in veins, or capable
of being converted into such by known chemical changes and decom-
positions, are actually brought from deeply-seated sources, both as
sublimed products, and in solution in thermal springs. The weight
of evidence, therefore, leads to the inference th&t the contents of
veins generally, are due to endogenous action, rather than to surface

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

forces; or that veins, in other words, have been filled essentially
from below. In this connection, it must be remembered that many
veins penetrate to unknown depths, and have yielded sulphurized or
other ores, without being yet exhausted, to the amount of thousands
of tons. Whilst many products found in veins are probably due in
part or wholly to sublimation, the great majority of these products
would certainly appear to have been deposited from solution : not
necessarily in the condition in which they now appear, but in some
other form from which their present condition has been derived.
According to certain theorists, the whole of these bodies have been
deposited from aqueous solution, but it is not easy to reconcile facts
in all cases with this assumption. Such changes and decompositions
as now take place in veins, lead to the conversion of many sulphur-
ized ores into sulphates, carbonates, and other oxidized compounds ;
but do not bring about, as the above hypothesis would require,
the conversion of these latter on the large scale into vast bodies of
galena, copper pyrites, arsenical pyrites, and other non-oxidized ores.
But if these ores, now found in such vast quanities in mineral veins,
really originated from soluble sulphates, chlorides, &c., the latter
must undoubtedly have come from some deeply-seated source ; and
their conversion into non-oxidized bodies could not have taken place
on this enormous scale without the further collaboration of endo-
genous agencies.

Mineral veins are generally opened by shafts and adits, or by both
of these methods combined.
In the case of veins with con-
siderable underlie, the shafts, or
openings from the surface of
the ground, are often carried
down along the slope of the
vein ; but in general, shafts
are sunk vertically, and cross-
cuts are carried from the sides
of the shaft at regular intervals
to the intersection of the vein.

Galleries are then driven along FIG. 106.

the course of the latter at these points, and the sheet of ore lying

OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART III. 197

between each pair of galleries or "levels" as these are commonly called,
is extracted by a' system of step-like excavations, technically known as
" stoping." When a vein is nearly vertical in its position, a shaft
may of course be carried down to a great depth upon the substance
of the vein itself, and the material thus taken out of the shaft will
often pay for the sinking of the latter. Shafts are usually rectangu-
lar in form, and are not only strongly framed at the sides, at least
for a certain depth, but are commonly sub-divided vertically into two
or more compartments by brattice-work or planking ; one of these
compartments being reserved for the pump rods and also for the
buckets or kibbles used for sending up the ore, or bringing it, in
technical phraseology, to grass ; and another being fitted with ladders
or with a special lifting apparatus for the miners. An adit is a hori-
zontal or nearly horizontal gallery driven from the side of sloping or
escarped ground, so as to strike the vein at a certain depth from the
surface outcrop of the latter. It serves in many cases, especially
where it opens out on a river bank, or on ground suitable for a tram-
way, &c., as a convenient roadway for bringing out the ore ; and if
at a sufficiently low level it may greatly facilitate the drainage of
the mine, and assist in the ventilation of the works. Where two
shafts are sunk upon the vein, they should be located, if possible, on
high and low ground, respectively, in order to promote ventilation.
The ore, when brought to the surface, is usually " cobbed " or hand-
dressed by children, and the assorted portions, thus broken up by
hammers, are brought into the state of powder by subjection to
stamps or crushers. Tha powder is then agitated with water in Jong
narrow troughs or flat circular tubs called " buddies," the latter kind
being furnished with revolving arms or sweeps to which brushes are
attached ; or it is shaken up with water in "jiggers " or tubs pro-
vided with movable sieves, until the metallic particles by reason of
their greater weight collect together, and so become separated, more
or less thoroughly, from the lighter earthy particles or refuse, com-
monly known as waste slimes or tailings. The dressed or concen-
trated ore is then ready for the furnace or reducing works.

198

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Veins often cut or cross each
other or are cut by eruptive dykes.
In this case the intersected vein
is very generally faulted or dis-
placed. In mining language, a
break of this kind in the con-
tinuity of the vein is commonly
termed a "trouble," "heave,"
or " thrust," or an " upthrow "
or "downthrow" as the case
may be. The displacement may
be very slight, or it may exceed Fia. 107.

many fathoms ; and great expense is often incurred in seeking for
the displaced portion of a vein thus affected. As a general rule, if
the intersecting vein or dyke be entered at its hanging- wall, as in
working from A to A', Fig. 107, the continuation of the broken vein
may be looked for " up-hill ;" whereas, if the intersecting vein or
dyke be entered at its foot-wall, or at J3', the search for the displaced
vein should be made "down-hill." This rule is not without its
exceptions, but the exceptions are comparatively rare.

In order to ascertain the depth at which an inclined vein or bed of
any kind may be reached by vertical sinking at a given depth from its
outcrop, as at S, for example,
in Fig. 108, we have the for-
mula : s = tan i x d \ or, Log
s — log tan i + log d ; in which ^
s — the depth of the shaft ;
i = the dip or inclination of the
vein in degrees or minutes ; and d — the distance between the out-
crop and the mouth of the shaft. If the ground at the proposed site
of the shaft be higher or lower than at the outcrop of the vein or
bed, the difference of level must of course be added to or deducted
from s, as the case may require.

^^S^^^^SS^;^
FIG.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III.

199

VI. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK MASSES IN ACCORDANCE WITH
THEIR RELATIVE PERIODS OF FORMATION.

Viewed in reference to their modes of derivation or general form-
ative processes, rocks admit, as we have seen, of a distribution into
three leading groups : comprising Sedimentary, Metamorphic, and
Eruptive rocks ; but they admit also of another and far more interest-
ing classification, based on their relative ages or periods of formation.

It is now universally conceded, on proofs the most unanswerable,
that the various sedimentary and other rocks which make up the solid
portion of our globe, were not formed during one brief or transitory
period, but were gradually elaborated or built up during a long succes-
sion of ages. In areas of very limited extent, for example, even on
the same cliff-face, or in excavations of moderate depth, we often find
.alternations of sandstones, limestones, clays, &c., lying one above
another, and thus revealing the fact that the physical conditions pre-
vailing around the spot in question must have been subjected to
repeated changes. The same thing is also proved by alternations of
marine and fresh- water strata in particular localities : and of deep-
sea and shallow-sea deposits, in others. Again, the sedimentary rocks
are frequently found in unconforrnable stratification, as explained
&bove : horizontal beds resting upon the sloping surface or upturned
-edo-es of inclined strata. Here it is evident that the inclined beds

O

must have been consolidated and thrown into their inclined positions
before the deposition of the horizontal beds which rest upon them.
In the absence of particular sets of strata in special localities, proving
•extensive denudation or long-continued periods of upheaval and de-
pression— in the vast metamorphic changes effected throughout many
districts — in the upward limitation of
faults (Fig. 109), as sometimes seen —
and, briefly, in the worn and denuded
surface which a lower formation often
presents in connexion with strata rest-
ing conformably upon it, — we have
^additional evidence of the lapse of long
Intervals of time during the elaboration
of these rocks generally. FIG. 109.

But a still more conclusive proof of this fact is to be found in the
limited vertical distribution of fossil species of plants and animals, the

200

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

remains of which are entombed in so many of the sedimentary roc
The sediments now under process of deposition in our lakes, rive
estuaries, and seas, frequently enclose, it will be remembered, the more
durable parts, if not the entire forms, of various plants and animals,
amongst which aquatic types necessarily preponderate. The sedimen-
tary deposits of former geological periods have enclosed in like manner
various organic forms peculiar to those periods. In the very lowest
or earliest formed deposits, it is true, no traces of organic types have
yet b°en met with, but above these beds, each group of strata holds
its own characteristic fossils. Regarded broadly, the higher groups
contain the higher organisms ; and many structural conditions which
are now embryonic or transitory, were manifested as adult or perma-
nent forms of development in the periods represented by lower groups.
Type after type lived through its allotted time, and then died out to
be replaced by other and in general by higher forms of life. These
facts are discussed more fully in Part IY. of this Essay, in which the
leading questions connected with the subject of Organic Remains come
under review. For present purposes, it will be sufficient to observe
that by the careful study and comparison of these remains, geologists
have sub-divided the series of rock-masses of which the Earth's crust
or outer portion is composed, into a certain number of so-called For-
mations,— each Formation representing an interval or period in the
ancient history of the Earth. These periods are thus made known
to us by the various rocks produced by aqueous and other agencies
during their continuance ; and by the organic remains, deriv: d from
the living forms of the periods in question, which are enclosed in
these rocks. Each Formation, as already stated, holds its own
organic types ; although, when viewed apart from local distinctions,
consecutive Formations appear to merge into each other, — as an
ordinary historic period blends insensibly with that which precedes
and'that which follows it. This is the case in natural groupings or
classifications of all kinds : hard or sharply-defined lines being strictly
unrecognized by Nature. The divisions however adopted by geolo-
gists, although overlapping as it were at their common boundaries,,
are distinct enough in. the main ; and as some of these divisions are
linked together more or less closely by the presence of certain related
types of life, as well as by the general absence of other types, a,
grouping of Formations into larger divisions, representing longer

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART III.

201

geological periods or " ages," is conventionally adopted, as in the
annexed tabular view.

FORMATIONS OF THE
ANDROZOIC
OR MODERN AGE.

1 Modern Deposits.

Post-Glacial Formation. t

Drift or Glacial Formation. ,

FORMATIONS OF THE
CAINOZOIC AGE.

Pliocene Formation.

Miocene Formation.

Eocene Formation.

FORMATIONS OF THE
MESOZOIC AGE.

Cretaceous Formation.

Jurassic Formation.

Triassic Formation.

FORMATIONS OF THE
PALEOZOIC AGE.

Permian Formation.

Carboniferous Formation.

Devonian Formation. v

Silurian Formation.

Cambrian Formation.

FORMATIONS OF THE
ARCHAEAN AGE.

Huronian Formation.

Laurentian Formation.

Notes on the above Table.

As the rock- formations enumerated in this table comprise a known
thickness of many thousands of feet, it is evident that they can never
exhibit a complete series at any one locality. But they are known
to occur in this order, by a comparison of their relative positions at
different places. Thus, in one district, we find (in ascending order)
the Silurian and Devonian series ; in another, the Devonian and
Carboniferous, and so on.

(2) One or more of several consecutive formations are often want-
ing or absent at a given spot. The Carboniferous rocks may thus, in
certain districts, be found resting on the Silurian, without the inter-
vention of the Devonian series. But the relative positions of these
groups are never reversed. The Devonian beds are never found
under the Silurian, for example, nor the Cretaceous under the Jur.
assic. The absence of particular strata, at a given locality, is
accounted for by the elevation of the spot above the sea-level during
the period to which the strata in question belong ; or otherwise it is
explained by denudation; or by the district having been situated

202

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

beyond the area of deposition to which the sediments extended. (See
some of the preceding observations under " Formation of Sedimen-
tary Rocks," " Denudation," &c.)

(3) A formation of a given age may be represented in one place
by a limestone ; in another, by a sandstone ; in a third, by argillace-
ous shales, and so on. This will be easily understood, if we reflect
that at the present day these different kinds of rock are being formed
^simultaneously at different places. Many of our preceding observa-
tions have amply illustrated this, but the fact may be rendered still
clearer by the accompanying diagram. In this sketch, the dark out-
line is intended to
represent a s o m e-
what extended line
of coast, with a river
debouching into a

;\C • . *."':$ ","".' I deep bay. In the

I latter, the argilla,

ceous or muddy sedi-
At £ we

FIG. 110.

ments (a), brought down by the river, may be deposited,
may suppose a granitic headland. The arenaceous or siliceous sedi-
ments (s) derived from the disintegration of this, will be arranged
along the shore beyond it, by the set of the current. Finally, at L,
we may suppose the occurrence of exposed cliffs of limestone, yielding
calcareous sediments (c). These various sedimentary matters will be
also in places more or less intermingled, producing rocks of inter-
mediate or mixed composition. But these rocks will be shown to be
of the same period of formation, by the identity of some, afc least, of
the organic bodies contained in them : although many of the enclosed
shells, &c., will necessarily be distinct, owing to the diverse nature
of the sediments, the more or less exposed character of the coast, and
the varying depths of water prevailing at different places. We
might expect, moreover, to find in one and all of these deposits,
coins, pieces of pottery, and other objects of human workmanship,
proving both their contemporaneous and their recent origin. Hence,
the age of a rock, it must be remembered, is in no way indicated by
mineral composition : sandstones, limestones, &c., are of all geological
periods.

(4) From time to time, during the gradual deposition of these
sedimentary formations, various eruptive rocks were driven up

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III.

203

amongst them, producing (in general) chemical or mechanical altera-
tions of greater or less extent. This action is still going on, as seen
in volcanic phenomena.

(5) It is very generally assumed that the component matters of
the earth and other cosmical bodies existed originally in a diffused
nebulous condition, and gradually became condensed or solidified
after passing through a state of igneous fluidity. And it is assumed,
further, that this early molten condition of the earth is still retained
in subterranean depths. This view — proposed by IMMANUEL KANT
and maintained by LAPLACE — is necessarily hypothetical, but it is
supported by many collateral facts, and has been very generally
admitted.* If it be in the main correct, the rock-matters resulting
from the first consolidation of the earth's surface must have been
more or less akin to lavas and other volcanic products, although
probably of a somewhat denser character from the greater density of
the atmosphere then existing. No traces of these early lava-like
rocks are now, however, visible. They must have been converted,
long since, into other products, or have been re-melted and re-con-
solidated, probably time after time, beneath increasing thicknesses of
superincumbent deposits. Sooner or later, after the first process of
consolidation had set in, the continued radiation of terrestrial h''at
would allow the condensation of water to take place on the cooling
surface of the earth. Then, a new set of phenomena would arise.
The more exposed rock-surfaces would be worn down by aqueous and
atmospheric agencies, and the materials thus obtained would form
over the sea-bed a gradually increasing thickness of stratified deposits
— most of which would undoubtedly be converted by subterranean
agencies into crystalline or metamorphic formations. The earliest
known rocks — those which underlie all other strata — are of this
metamorphic character. They form vast beds of gneiss, mica-slate,
hornblende-rock, chlorite-slate, quartzite, and other crystalline rocks,
interstratined here and there with beds of crystalline limestone and
dolomite, and are largely represented in Ontario and Quebec (see
Part V.) In some of their strata, within the last few years, some

* "There are the strongest grounds for believing that during a certain period of its history
the earth was not, nor was it fit to be, the theatre of life. Whether this was ever a nebulous
period, or merely a molten period, does not much matter : and if we refer to the nebulous
condition it is because the probabilities are really on its side."— PROFESSOR TTNDALL : Address
before the British Association : Liverpool, 1870.

204- MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

obscure and fragmentary examples of a supposed Protozoan, belong-
ing or related to the Forminifera, have been discovered in Canada
and at several European sites. A special genus has been framed for
their reception under the name of Eozoon* ; and the crystalline
strata in which they occur, and which were formerly classed as
formations of the Azoic age, are now generally known as " Archaean
strata."

(6) Viewed broadly, the rock-representatives of the earlier portion
of the Palaeozoic age — comprising ordinary slates, sandstones, lime-
stones, &c. — are characterized, more especially, by the presence of
graptolites, cystideans, and trilobites, associated with tabulated corals,
a great abundance of brachiopods (including species of the still
surviving genus lingula), and many examples of orthoceras — an
extinct cephalopod with straight shell, and simple, unlobed septa.
These earlier Palaeozoic formations are also distinguished, negatively,
by the general absence or extreme rarity of land plants and verte-
brated animal remains. The middle and higher portions of the
Palaeozoic series — including the Upper Devonian, Carboniferous, and
Permian formations — contain, on the other hand, the remains of an
abundant terrestrial vegetation, especially characterized by the pres-
ence of ferns and large equiseta (calamites), accompanied by peculiar
types (lepidodendra, sigillarice, &c.), some of which apparently
indicate extinct transition groups between the higher acrogens and
the gymnosperms of existing nature. In these higher Palaeozoic
strata also, the remains of cuirassed and other ganoid fishes, all of
heterocercal type, occur more or less commonly ; together with
numerous tabulated corals, crinoids, brachiopods, and cephalopods,
related generally to earlier or lower forms — whilst graptolites and
cystideans are no longer met with, and trilobites die out at the base

* Examples of the Eozoon Canadense were first discovered in the Laurentian strata of
Ontario by the late DR. WILSON, of Perth, and others were subsequently found in the crystal-
line limestone of Grand Calumet Island on the Upper Ottawa, by the officers of the Canadian
Survey. Although their organic origin was strongly suspected at the time by SIR WILLIAM
LOGAN, it was not definitely admitted until the publication of DR. DAWSON'S microscopic
researches, followed by those of DR. CARPENTER in England. By many observers, however,
the organic nature of these remains is still contested, and it cannot certainly be regarded as
fully proved. One point, and a great point, in its favour, is the undoubted resemblance of
the better preserved Eozoon structures to examples of Palaeozoic Stromatopora. On the other
hand, it is somewhat remarkable that no other form of undoubted organic structure should as
yet have been discovered in these Laurentian strata or in the less crystalline limestones
the succeeding Huronian series.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III.

205

of the Carboniferous beds. Among the cephalopods, however, genera
with angulated septa (bactrites, goniatites) make their appearance,
and thus foreshadow the advent of the more elaborately-lobed 'ypes
of the succeeding age. Of the higher vertebrates, mammalia and
birds are entirely unknown, and reptiles all but absent — the only
undoubted examples of the latter occuring in Permian strata. The
remains of labyrinth odont amphibians, on the other hand, occur
throughout the Carboniferous and Permian formations. Rock-repre-
sentatives of the earlier Palaeozoic periods occur widely throughout
Ontario and Quebec. (Sse Parts Y. and VI.)

(7) The succeeding strata, of Mesozoic age, are characterized
essentially by the remains of numerous extinct types of reptilia of
remarkable organization, including the paddle-footed Ichthyosaurians
and Plesiosaurians, the winged Pterodactyls, the Dinosaurs, and
many others. These strata are also especially distinguished by the
ammonites and other genera of tetrabranchiate cephalopods with
highly-lobed or foliated septa, which first appear in them, and which
are altogether unknown in higher formations. Of these, the am-
monite (as a genus) ranges throughout the entire Mesozoic series ;
the ceratite is confined to Triassic strata ; and the baculite, scaphite,
ancyloceras, crioceras, turrilite, &c., are essentially Cretaceous forms.
The belemnite, a genus of the dibranchiate cephalopoda, known by
its conical (internal) shell, is also especially characteristic of Mesozoic
strata. Among the representatives of fish-life, homocercal forms
appear ; and in the higher or Cretaceous portions of the series the
rapidly-diminishing ganoids become almost entirely replaced by
teleosteans of modern type. Vertebrates, higher than reptiles, are
exceedingly rare ; but some bird remains of apparently reptilian
character, referred to the extinct genus Archceopteryx (distinguished
by an elongated series of caudal vertebrae : an embryonic type of
structure as regards existing birds), have been found of late years in
Jurassic strata ; and the Cretaceous beds of Western America have
yielded some remarkable remains of toothed birds. A few small
jaws and teeth, belonging most probably to marsupial mammals, are
also known as Mesozoic forms. In the vegetation of the age, cycads
and conifers stand out as dominant types — especially in its earlier
and middle periods ; but monocotyledons are also represented through-
out its series of strata, and dicotyledons appeared abundantly before

206

fERALS AND GEOLOGY

its close. Mesozoic strata, although occurring in other parts of the
Dominion, are unknown within the limits of Ontario and Quebec.*

(8). — The organic remains entombed in Cainozoic strata present,
collectively, a marked resemblance to those of the existing epoch.
Angiosperms, except under local conditions, evidently formed, us
now, the prevailing vegetation of the age ; but among the dicoty-
ledonous types, gamopetala, as compared with polypetala and apetala,
were apparently less numerous than at present. In the animal world,
the crinoids, brachiopods, chambered cephalopods, ganoid fishes and
other types eminently characteristic of Mesozoic and Palaeozoic
periods were no longer predominating forms, but were reduced to a
few comparatively unimportant representatives. The reptilian char-
acteristics of the Mesozoic age had also given place to higher modifi-
cations of vertebrate structure and organization. Placental mammals
formed the leading or more characteristic types, and were abundantly
represented. All Cainozoic orders still offer representatives ; but
many Cainozoic genera, and practically all the species, have become
extinct; and two orders, at least, the Edentata and Proboscidea,
exhibit marked decadency. Cainozoic strata underlie an immense
extent of country throughout the north-western portions of the
Dominion, but have not been recognized in Ontario or Quebec.

(9). — During the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic ages, and the earlier
epochs of the Cainozoic age, the entire surface of the globe appears to
have possessed a warm and comparatively uniform temperature, re-
sembling that which now prevails in intertropical regions. This
view is amply sustained by fossil evidence. The remarkable plant
remains, so abundant in the middle or higher Palaeozoic strata, ex-
hibit in widely separated regions the same aspect and character.
Those of Mesozoic formations, and also the characteristic reptilian
and other types of the Mesozoic periods, exhibit the same law. The
broad distinctions, due to geographical position, which now prevail,
were absent also throughout the greater portion of the Cainozoic age,
or only became indicated towards its close. Not only do we find,
for example, in the Cainozoic strata of Northern Europe, and other
comparatively high latitudes, the shells of conulariee, nautili and

* Certain marls and sandstones associated with the trappean overflows of Thunder Bay and
the Nipigon district, Lake Superior, have been thought by some observers to represent Triassic
strata, but the weight of evidence is opposed to that view.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART III.

207

similar warm-sea mollusca, but these strata contain also many palm-
fruits, with the remains of large ophidians, and the teeth and bones
of large mammals allied to the existing tapir, rhinoceros, hippo-
potamus and other genera, now limited, or nearly so, to intertropical
habitation. As time passed on, however, a great climatic change
appears to have crept slowly over all the northern portions of both
the eastern and western continents, and to have been experienced
also in the extreme south. Under its influence, the once warm
climate gradually gave place to all the rigours of an Arctic winter.
This remarkable change was evidently accompanied, and probably in
chief part produced, by great alterations in the previously-existing
levels of land and sea. All the higher lands appear to have been
covered by broadly-extended glaciers, whilst the seas were traversed
by floating icebergs, bearing southwards the boulders and detritus of
northern rocks. This condition of things was undoubtedly of long
duration. Between its close and the actual commencement of the
natural conditions now existing, no strict demarcation can be drawn.
The one period merged slowly into the other, as the glacial mani-
festations were gradually beaten back to within the higher latitudes
and alpine elevations in which they still prevail. Deposits of this
glacial period are present almost everywhere throughout Ontario
and Quebec. (See Part Y.)

(10). — At some remote epoch of this later time, Man appeared
upon the scene, His advent preceded the extinction of several im-
portant species and even genera of mammals ; a fact which in itself
goes far to prove the high antiquity of our race. The extinction of
these types cannot be supposed to have taken place in any sudden
manner, but was undoubtedly the result of slow organic and physical
changes, proceeding continuously throughout long intervals of time.
All the earlier tokens of man's presence on the earth — the rude flint
and bone implements found in certain gravel-beds, associated in
places with extinct mammalian remains — indicate a low state of
civilization ; a deduction sustained to some extent by the characters
of certain human crania found in similar deposits. In later accumu-
lations of detrital matter, as well as in many peat-morasses, etc.,
somewhat more finished types of stone utensils and weapons make
their appearance ; and these become replaced, in higher portions of
the same deposits, by characteristic memorials of the so-called bronze
and iron periods.

PART IV.

FOSSILIZED ORGANIC BODIES.

In sedimentary accumulations now forming at river-mouths and
in lakes and seas, the shells of mollusca, bones of vertebrates, and
hard parts generally of other animals, are being constantly enclosed —
together with many sea-weeds, and the leaves and stems of various
land plants. In like manner, the remains of many of the plants
and animals which lived upon the earth or in its waters in former
ages, became entombed in the sedimentary rock-matters then being
deposited ; and they have thus been fossilized and preserved, although
very commonly in the form of casts or impressions only. Many
stratified rocks are thus found to contain fossilized organic bodies,
either entire or in a fragmentary condition. In these fossil bodies,
therefore, we see representatives of some, at least, of the life-forms
of former geological periods ; but we must guard against the sup-
position that more than the merest vestiges of the floras and faunas
of the Past are thus brought before us. Thousands of living forms,
it is clear from their conditions of life and general surroundings,
have little chance of being preserved in a fossilized state : and
equally, in former periods, must the great majority of the types,
then living, have passed away without leaving behind them any
record of their existence. Imperfect, however, as must necessarily
be our knowledge of the life-forms of past ages, the vestiges thus
preserved to us reveal many points of great physical and biological
interest. Their study enables us to distinguish the formations of
one geological age or period from those of other periods — each
holding its own proper and separate forms. These fossil forms,
moreover, fill up many breaks or gaps in the existing life-series,
shewing connections between living forms apparently remote in
structural affinities, and indicating a gradual passage from earlier
and comparatively generalized types, into higher and more specialized
forms of existence. Their study reveals also in many instances the
great changes in the distribution of land and sea that have taken
place both in early and in comparatively recent times.
14

210

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Certain fossil forms belonging to the most recent geological
deposits are identical with existing species ; others are akin to these
generically, although specifically distinct ; and many are wholly
without representatives in existing nature. In some cases the fossils
found in rocks were evidently entombed as living forms ; whilst, in
other cases, they have been drifted after death to a greater or less
distance with the sediments of which they now form part. The
process of fossilization is a gradual replacement (as in the case of
many mineral pseudornorphs) of the original substance of the body
by mineral matter. The fossilizing material is either the general
substance of the enclosing sediments, or some special substance —
mostly silica, calcic carbonate, or ferrous carbonate. The latter is
frequently converted by after changes into hydrated ferric oxide,
or occasionally into iron pyrites.

PLANT REMAINS.

The relations of fossil plants to existing vegetable types — except
(and that not always) in the case of sea-weeds, ferns, and the plant
remains of the less ancient rock-formations — are generally more or
less obscure. This arises from the comparatively imperfect state of
preservation of these bodies, their more characteristic structural
parts being commonly destroyed ; whilst, at the same time, the
fragmentary remains of distinct species and genera are often mixed
up together, and much uncertainty in their determination is thus
occasioned. Plant remains in the fossil state are much less common
than the fossilized remains of animals. The reason is obvious :
aquatic types, literal and lacustrine forms especially, are those most
favourably situated for fossil preservation, and these, in the plant
world, are for the greater part composed of easily-perishable cellular
tissue, — whereas most aquatic animals possess shells, bones, or other
hard secretions, composed largely of mineral and comparatively
indestructible matter. The shells of most mollusca, for instance,
as well as most coral structures, contain more than 90 per cent, of
calcic carbonate; in teeth, the inorganic matter varies from 60 to
70 per cent. ; and in ordinary bones, from 50 to about 60 per cent.*
Land plants, when preserved as fossils, are generally found in

* The inorganic matter in ordinary fish-scales exceeds 50 or 55 per cent.; whilst in the scales
of reptiles (as in the nails, horns, and hair of mammals) it is under 5 or 6 per cent. This
explains the rare occurrence of reptilian scales, even as impressions, in strata, whilst those
of fishes are comparatively abundant.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV. 211

argillaceous shales and in certain sandstones, usually in the form
of casts or impressions, with the surface coated with a thin layer of
black carbonaceous matter.

The vegetable forms of existing Nature admit of a separation into
two primary subdivisions : Cryptogams and Phanerogams, or flower-
less and flower-bearing plants, respectively. In the latter — although
in many of their types the floral organs are quite inconspicuous — the
ovules or embryo seeds are produced and fertilized into seeds,
properly so-called, within the flower ; whilst in cryptogamic forms
there are neither flowers nor ovules, and consequently no true
seeds, but, in place of these, certain seed-like bodies, termed spores, of
a peculiar character. Some of the higher cryptogams, however,
notwithstanding these and other points of difference, make a close
approach in many respects to the lower phanerogamic types ; and it
is very probable that certain extinct forms of Palaeozoic vegetation
may have constituted connecting links between the two divisions.

In each of these primary series, various subordinate groups are
recognized — as shewn, in condensed form, in the following tabular

view : —

I. CRYPTOGAMS :

1. THALLOGENS:

(i.) Land Thallogens.
(ii.) Aquatic Thallogens.

2. ACROGENS :

(i.) Cellular Acrogens.
(ii.) Vascular Acrogens.

II. PHANEROGAMS :

1. GYMNOSPERMS :

(i.) Cycads.
(ii.) Conifers.

2. ANGIOSPERMS :

(i.) Monocotyledons,
(ii.) Dicotyledons.

CRYPTOGAMS.

CRYPTOGAMS, as already explained, comprise all flowerless forms of
vegetation, as lichens, sea-weeds, mosses, ferns, and the like. They
may be arranged broadly under two series : Thallogens and Acrogens.

212

M/NERALS AND GEOLOGY

Thallogens are composed of cellular tissue only, and in them there
is no proper (although sometimes a seeming) differentiation of stem
and leaf. They may be classed as Land Thallogens, growing in the
air ; and Aquatic Thallogens, growing in the water of seas, lakes and
streams.

Land Thallogens comprise Fungi, which have no chlorophyll (green
colouring matter) in their tissues, and which require organized
matter for their nutrition ; and Lichens, most of which form incrus-
tations on stones and the bark of trees. Neither are of palaeonto-
logical interest.

Aquatic Thallogens may be regarded broadly as consisting of Algcv
(ordinary sea-weeds and related fresh water confervas), and Micro-
phytes— separating, under the latter designation, a group of very
minute or microscopic forms usually placed with the algae, and known
as diatomaceae, desmidiae, and volvocineae.

Algae, occur as fossil casts and impressions in rocks of all ages from
the Cambrian upwards ; but in the majority of instances fossil forms
can only be -referred doubtfully to the special groups into which
modern algse are divided. They are commonly termed "fucoids."
and are abundant in our Silurian and other strata. Some of the
more common examples are shewn in the annexed figures : 111-115.

FIG. 111.

Lithrophycus Ottawaensis (Billings).
Trenton Formation.

FIG. 112.

Bythotrephis tennis (Hall).
Medina and Clinton Formations.

The remarkable impressions, commonly regarded as the tracks of
Crustacea, which occur in the Potsdam (Cambrian) formation of the
vicinity of Perth in Ontario, and in Beauharnois, Quebec, should
probably be referred to algae. These are known as Climactichnites
and Protichnites, figures 116 and 117. In Climactichnites, the form

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

213

is that of a long ribbon, five or six inches wide and several feet in
length, mostly with a kind of beaded border and central groove, and

FIG. us.

Arthrophycus Harlani (Hall).
Medina and Clinton Formations.

FIG. 114.

Rusophycus bilobatus (Hall).
Medina and Clinton Formns.

FIG. 115.

Fucoides (=SpirophytonJ cauda-galli.
Portage-Chemung Formation.

FIG. 116.

Climactichnites Wilsoni (Logan).
Potsdam Formation.

with numerous transverse furrows. Protichnites consists of a central
groove, more or less interrupted, with on each side, at nearly regular

FIG. 117.

distances apart, a series of small pits or indentations, varying in
number in different impressions, or being occasionally absent.*

* The central groove, by those who consider these impressions to be crustacean tracks, is
supposed to have been made by the caudal spine of the creature, and the lateral pit marks by
its claws. But these pit marks differ in number in different impressions, and as the number
of the feet in the Crustacea is a very important and constant character, Professor Owen has

214 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Of the microscopic forms, here separated under the name of Micro-
phytes from the Algce proper, the diatoms only are of palseontological
interest — representatives of the other groups being unknown, or only
doubtfully known, in the fossil state. The diatoms, which abound
in modern seas and in most fresh waters, secrete a siliceous test or
shell. Under the microscope, they present circular, stellate, triangu-
lar, sigmoid, and other shapes. Many siliceous deposits of cainozoic

been forced to refer the impressions to four or five distinct species— one impression being with-
out the lateral indentations. As stated by the writer more than ten years ago (Canadian
Journal, 1877 ; also, Annals of Nat. History, of the same year), the association of so many
different species, if the supposed tracks be really of animal origin, is at least a very remarkable
circumstance ; one, indeed, that might cause doubt in unprejudiced minds as to real nature
of these impressions. On the other hand, there is really nothing in them to conflict with the
view that they may be simply the impressions of large fucoids. Many of the existing Melano-
spermce grow to a great length : and in many genera with flattened or riband-like fronds there
is a well-defined midrib, sufficiently hard to make a distinct impression when the frond is
pressed upon damp sand. The lateral indentations of our Potsdam examples may have been
made by groups of spores or sporangia arranged (as seen in many existing sea-weeds) along the
sides of the fronds. Even apart from these, the air-bladders in many algae are capable of
making very distinct impressions on moist sand : and it would not be more unreasonable to
infer that in these ancient sea-weeds the spores were of a somewhat harder or denser nature,
than to have to admit with Professor Owen that the crustaceans by whose feet the indentations
are commonly supposed to have been made, were ' ' wholly distinct from the crustacean forms
of later geological periods or of the present day."

If the impressions be fucoidal, the otherwise remarkable character of these lateral pit-
marks, in differing in number and grouping in different impressions, becomes easily explained
without the necessity of having recourse to imaginary specific distinctions. In the impressions
in which they do not appear, it may be inferred that the fucoid had already scattered its
spores, or that the development of the latter had not taken place, when the frond was cast
upon the ripple-marked shore of the old Potsdam sea.

The supposed fucoidal origin of these impressions would not, I confess, however, have been
thus advanced, were it not for their association or connection in at least one locality — the
vicinity of Perth, in Eastern Ontaiio-with impressions of an analogous character to which an
animal origin can scarcely be attributed on any rational grounds. These are the impressions
known as Cliinactichnites. It is probable that the supposed animal origin of these latter
impreesions would never have been conceived, but for their general relations to the Protich-
nites impressions. They may be described, generally, as being in the form of a band, several
feet in length, although clearly fragmentary, with a width of from five to six inches. In their
general dimensions they agree, therefore, very closely with the Protichnites impressions.
But they differ from the latter in being traversed transversely by a series of narrow parallel
ridges, about an inch and three-quarters apart, and by having a kind of beaded edge or border
— the impression, as remarked by Sir William Logan, thus somewhat resembling a rope-ladder,
whence the name Climactichnites. In some examples there is a central groove or ridge
running roughly parallel with the length of the impression.

The points, here, to which attention should be chiefly directed, are, first, the presence of
these numerous transverse ridges ; secondly, their constancy, and the uniform clearness of
their outline, throughout the impression ; and thirdly, the unbroken continuity of the impres-
sion throughout its entire length. It must be evident that there are only two ways — both
exceedingly improbable — by which these impressions could by any possibility have been made
by any animal. If the impression "be really a track, the animal must either have had, or have
been able to assume, the form of a complete sphere or cylinder with ribbed surface, and it
must have possessed sufficient internal force to roll itself over and over throughout a length of

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

215

FIG. 118.
Recent Diatoms.
Greatly magnified.

and recent age consist almost entirely of these minute forms. The
well-known "Tripoli," used as a polishing material, is of this charac-
ter. Diatornaceous deposits were for-
merly called " infusorial marls," di-
atoms having been at first regarded as
animal infusoria. Fig. 118 shews a few
of these forms, highly magnified. In
Canada, diatomaceous beds are all but
unknown. The only recorded example
(Rep. Geol. Survey, 1863) is in the val-
ley of the Petewahweh, in the Upper
Ottawa region ; but a bed of this nature
is said to occur at Westbury in Cornpton
County, Quebec. Thin sections of chert nodules from our corniferous
(Devonian) limestone, have also shewn the presence of diatoms.

Acrogens : — Whilst in Thallogens, the plant, so to say, is practi-
cally all leaf or all stem, and growth takes place from no definite
point, in acrogens there is a distinct differentiation of stem and leaf,
and the growth is acrogenous or terminal. The division falls into
two subdivisions : Cellular Acrogens and Vascular Acrogens.

In cellular acrogens, the plant, as in the thallogens, is composed of
cellular tissue only. The sub-division comprises : Characece, Mosses,
and Hepaticacece. Fossil representatives of these (with the exception
of the " nucules," of certain charse) are exceedingly rare, and of no
special interest. The nucules of charse (fresh-water plants) are
minute seed-like organs, encased in five spirally-twisted filaments, the

many feet ; or otherwise the creature must have moved forward by a series of spasmodic jerks
or jumps, alighting always in an exact line with the end of the trail, so as to avoid the slightest
overlap or other break of symmetry in the entire impression. Any other mode of progression
would unavoidably have effaced or smudged the transverse grooves or ridges as the bod}- of
the animal passed over them. There is also another point which appears to be in complete
opposition to the assumed track-origin of these impressions. In places, two, or even three, of
these supposed tracks cross one another, but at the crossing points there is no sign of disturb-
ance or smearing, so to say, such as must inevitably have occurred if one trail had been carried
across another. As shown especially in Sir William Logan's original figure, representing a
group of several "tracks" (Geol. of Canada, 1863, p. 107), the one impression simply conceals
or lies over the other at these points, as would happen if two fucoid -fronds, or other similar
bodies, were drifted together to a sandy shore, and were there covered simultaneously with
sediment.

In attributing these impressions to large fucoids, we encounter, on the other hand, no real
difficulty. Many algae, it is well known, present transverse furrows ; and a salient example of
this character may be seen in our Arthrophycus Harlani, so abundant in many of the Medina
and Clinton beds.

216

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

free ends of which form a kind of coronal on the top of the nucule.
These little bodies, when first found as fossils, were taken for foram-
inifera and called " gyrogonites." They occur in Triassic and many
higher (especially Cainozoic) fresh-water deposits.

Vascular acrogens comprise the more typical acrogenous forms,
those in which vascular tissue is present. They include : Equisetacece,
Ferns and Opkioglossacece, Hydropteridce or Rhizocarps, Lycopodiacece,
and Lepidodendracece. The latter are usually placed with the lyco-
podiaceae, but although more or less closely allied to these, their true
affinities are still uncertain ; and their comparatively large size and
other characters warrant their separation as a distinct and higher
group. All are extinct ; and their remains are apparently confined
to Palaeozoic strata.

The Equisetacece comprise only one living genus, Equisetum, com-
mon species of which are familiarly known as " Dutch rushes,"
horsetails, &c. The Equiseti form hollow-jointed stems, arising from
creeping rhizomes or root-stalks, with, in fertile examples, a terminal
cone or spike containing the sporangia. The stem in most cases is
longitudinally striated, and the joints (in which, more especially,
silica is deposited) are surrounded by a toothed sheath of united

FIG. 119.
Calamites inornatus (Dawson). Portage -chemung Formation.

leaves or scales, and also in some examples by a whorl of slender
branchlets. Fossil forms are chiefly represented by Calamites,
although undoubted equiseti are known in carboniferous and higher
strata. Calamites are abundant in many Devonian and Carboniferous
beds. They occur usually in the form of stem-fragments (or impres-
sions of these), transversely jointed and longitudinally furrowed, and
as a rule more or less flattened or compressed. These stems vary
from about an inch, or less, to more than a foot in diameter, the
average width being from two or three to about six inches. Fig.
119 represents an example of a calamite from the dark bituminous
shales (Devonian) of Cape Ipperwash or Kettle Point in the town-

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

217

ship of Bosanquet on Lake Huron. Other examples occur in the
Devonian rocks of Gaspe. At the latter locality, some impressions
of radiating leaves (annularia laxa, Dawson) belonging probably to
a related type of plant, have also been found. The narrow radiating
leaves (often attached to furrowed stems) known as Aster 'ophyllitesi
and which are so abundant in many Carboniferous and in some
Devonian strata, have not yet been recognized within the area of
Ontario and Quebec. They are commonly regarded as calamite
leaves, but on very uncertain evidence.

Ferns (Filices), although so abundant in the higher Devonian,
Carboniferous and other strata, mostly in the form of leaf or frond
impressions, have not as yet been discovered in a fossil condition
within the limits of the Provinces referred to in the present work.

The Hydropteridce or Rhizocarps, sometimes known as water-ferns,
comprise merely a few fresh-water forms (Marsilea, Piluria, Salvinia,
&c.) without fossil representatives in our strata.

The Lycopodiacece, of existing Nature comprise a small number of
inconspicuous forms belonging to both land and fresh- water types.
The former (lycopodium, selaginella) are small, moss-like cryptogams,
dichotomously branching, and with narrow, more or less clasping or
imbricating leaves. The aquatic types (Isoetes) are rush-like forms.
True lycopods occur in Devonian and higher strata; and some
apparently related forms from the Devonian rocks of Gaspe have
been referred by Sir William Dawson to this division. The principal
of these form the genus Psilophylon (Fig. 120), represented by frag-
mentary impressions of narrow, stem-like plants, circinate (as in
ordinary ferns) at their terminal points. The leaves are very small
and thorn-like.

The Lepidodendracece, represented typically by the fossil genera,
Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, are entirely Palaeozoic. They consist,
in most cases, of casts or impressions of tree-stems, usually frag-
mentary, but found occasionally in lengths of more than thirty or
forty feet. The lepidodendracese, proper, are regarded as closely
allied to the lycopods, whilst the sigillaria? are thought by some
authorities to constitute a higher type of vegetation, more nearly
allied to the cycads. The two, however, are very closely alike,* and

* In their dichotomons branching, their supposed leaves, their leaf-scars, woody structure,
roots, &c. See a comparative tabular view of these homologies by Professor Schimpfer, in
Zittel's Handbuch der Palaeontologie (1880), p.p. 209, 210.

218

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

they appear in certain intermediate forms ( Lycopodendron vascular e,
Sigillaria Defrancii, S. tesselata, &c.) to merge into each other.
Typically, the sigillarise have the outer surface marked with strongly-
defined, longitudinal ribs and furrows, whilst
these are absent in the lepidodendra ; but ribs
are also absent in many sigillarise, at least upon
the outer surface : whence the two groups cos-
tatce and acostatce of the latter, as commonly
adopted. The oval, rhombic, or other shaped
impressions on the stem-surface of both types,
indicate the original sites of leaves, and are
thus known as "leaf-scars." Within these,
generally towards the upper part, lie in most
FIG 120 cases, three small indentations known as " vas-

Psiiophytum princeps cular scars," but in some genera only one is

(Dawson). *P. elegans.(Id.)

Devonian : Gaspe. present. Typically, in lepidodendra the central
vascular scar is more pronounced than the lateral scars ; whilst in
sigillarise the reverse of this occurs, or the central scar may be alto-
gether wanting. Very probably these extinct types represent con-
necting links between the higher cryptogams and the gymnosperms
of existing Nature.

Remains of lepidodendroids are unknown in Ontario, but a species
of lepidodendron (Fig. 121) occurs in the Devonian rocks of Gaspe,

FIG. 121.
Lepidodendron Gaspianum (Dawson).

Devonian: Gaspe.

together with impressions of long, narrow, parallel- veined leaves
referred to Cordaites* (Fig. 122).

* Some of the more characteristic lepidodendroid and sigillarioid fossils of Devonian and
Carboniferous rocks, are comprised in the following synopsis :

1. Lepidodendron : — Stem-forms, often of great length, bifurcating, the surface marked with
oval, cordiform, or rhomboidal leaf-scars. Upper Silurian (?), Devonian, Carboniferous,
Permian.

2. Lepidostrobus : — Oval or cylindrical bodies with more or less distinctly hexagonal surfs
markings. Supposed " fruit cones " of lepidodendroids, Dev., Carb.

3. Cordaites : — Long-pointed leaves with comparatively broad base and parallel
Supposed leaves of lepidodendroids.

nal surface-
1 venation-

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

219

PHANEROGAMS.

All flower-bearing vegetable forms belong to this division ; but in
many, the flowers are exceedingly inconspicuous, being destitute of
corolla and other parts of the floral enve-
lope or perianth, and thus reduced to parts
directly concerned in the production of seed.
The phanerogams fall into two principal
series : Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. In
the first, the seeds are "naked," that is,
they are not developed within a special
ovary ; and these types present in other re-
spects certain peculiarities of organization
which, notwithstanding the exogenous struc- FIG 122

ture of the wood, render them more or less Cordaites angusti/oiia (Dawson).

, . ,11-1 T i Devonian: Gaspe.

akin to the higher cryptogams. In the an- See preceding paragraph
giosperms, on the other hand, the ovules are developed and con-
verted into seed within a special receptacle or so-called ovary.

Gymnosperms : — These, distinguished essentially by their naked
seeds, are commonly classed under three orders : Cycads, Conifers,
Gmtacece ; but the latter, some of which are known popularly as
"jointed firs," are of no palaBontological importance.

Cycads, represented essentially by the genera cycas and zamia, are
intermediate in aspect between tree-ferns and palms ; and those of
existing Nature are entirely confined to intertropical regions. .Fossil
forms are cited from Devonian and higher strata, and are especially
characteristic of Mesozoic formations. (See the table on page 201.)
Examples are unknown within the area of Central Canada.

Conifers comprise firs, pines, cypresses, and other (typically) cone-
bearing, resin-secreting types, with acicular or narrow leaves.
Vertical sections of the wood shew under the microscope rows of
circular discs, regarded practically, as a typical character ; but these
discs are shewn also by cycads, and likewise, although far less pro-
minently, by certain dicotyledons. Conifers occur in all latitudes

4. Sigillaria .-—Stem-forms, with (typically) longitudinal ribs and grooves on the surface,
and with more or less hexagonal or oval leaf-scars within the furrows. The scars in some
examples are comparatively far apart ; in others, close together. Some examples, also, are
without longitudinal ribs and furrows. Dev. , Carb .

5. Stigmaria .-—Stem-like casts with irregular, more or less rounded, surface-markings.
Supposed roots of sigillarise and lepidodendra.

220 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

within the limits of arboreal vegetation, although certain types are
confined to special localities. Fossil examples date from the Devo-
nian (or perhaps Upper Silurian period). Those
of Carboniferous and Jurassic strata are thought
to have been closely allied to the Araucarice,
now limited to Australia and the more southern
portions of South America. Pines and firs,
proper, first appear in Lower Cretaceousbeds, and
FIG. 123. are largely present in the Upper Cretaceous and

Circularise^ of conifer- ^^ Cainozoic brown-coal deposits through-
out the North- West Territories and British Columbia; whilst juni-
pers, yews, and gnetacese are comparatively modern types.

In the Devonian rocks of Gaspe some casts of comparatively large
stems have been referred by Sir J. W. Dawson to coniferse, under
the name of Prototaxites, but this view is disputed by other
authorities.

Angiosperms : — The plants of this subdivision, as explained above,
comprise all flowering types in which the seeds are enclosed in an
ovary. They fall into two leading series : Monocotyledons and Dico-
tyledons. In the first, as the name implies, the embryo-plant has
but one cotyledon or seed-leaf ; whilst in the second, the embryo has
two cotyledons.

Monocotyledons : — These (formerly known as endogens) comprise
grasses, lilies,, palms, and other representatives with (typically)
straight-veined leaves, flowers composed of parts in threes or sixes,
and wood made up of irregularly disposed vascular bundles. Obscure
examples are cited from Carboniferous strata, but the earliest
undoubted examples are Mesozoic. No fossil examples occur in the
strata of Ontario or Quebec.

Dicotyledons : — In these plants, the leaves are typically net-veined,
the flowers composed of parts in fives or fours, or multiples of these
numbers, and tne woody stem made up of rings of vascular bundles
traversed by medullary rays. The greater number of the flowering
plants, and all the trees (conifers excepted) of temperate regions
belong to this subdivision. Fossil examples appear first in Lower
Cretaceous strata. In Canada, so far as regards the Provinces referred
to in this book, the only fossil examples consist of modern leaves,
&c., as those of populus balsamnifera, and our common species of

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

221

maple, oak, and other trees — impressions of which occur in many
Post-Cainozoic clays, shell-marls, calcareons tufas, &c., as at Green's
Creek on the Ottawa, and elsewhere, at numerous localities, in both
Ontario and Quebec.

ANIMAL REMAINS.

The forms of the Animal Kingdom may be classed under nine
leading divisions or so-called sub-kingdoms, namely: 1. Protozoa;

2. Polystomata ; 3. Ccelenterata ; 4. Echinodermata ; 5. Vermes ;
6. Arthropoda; 7. Mollusca ; 8. Tunicata ; 9. Vertebrata.

SUB-KINGDOM I.
PROTOZOA.

This sub-division — apart from a few fossil representatives — com-
prises a number of minute, and in great part microscopic, types,
consisting of gelatinous sarcode-matter, destitute of true tissues and
special organs, and either naked, or protected by an external test or
shell of a horny, calcareous, or siliceous nature. Nearly all are
aquatic, but some few are internal parasites. They have no true
body-cavity, the sarcode-matter absorbing nutriment through its
entire substance, although in some of the higher forms (Infusoria)
certain portions of the body are more permeable than other parts —
an approach towards an alimentary canal being thus indicated.*
The Protozoa admit of a sub-division into three natural groups : —
Pseudopodifera, in which the body substance is extensible into long
or short pseudopodia (see preceding note) ; Gregarina, entozoic types,
pseudopodous only at an early stage of existence; and Ciliata,
including the ordinary infusorial forms, furnished with long or short
cilia, or, in one section, with retractile tubular suckers.

Of these three groups, that of the Pseudopodifera alone presents
fossil representatives. This group includes four classes : 1 and 2,
Monera (?) and Amcebina, both soft-bodied and without fossil forms ;

3. Foraminifera, mostly with calcareous shell, and long, anastomos-

* The amoeba of our ponds and ditches will convey a good idea of a typical protozoan.
Under the microscope, this is seen to consist of a small gelatinous mass which possesses the
power of extending itself into short irregular projections, technically known as pseudopodia.
By the aid of these it moves along and captures passing infusoria or particles of nutriceous
matter, over which the body closes until digestion is effected. The creature thus improvises a
a temporary stomach. In actinophrys, a related form, often found in rain puddles, gutters,
&c., the pseudopodia are long and thin, and regularly radiated.

ing pseudopodia* ; and 4, Radiolaria with siliceous, highly forami

ated test as regards the more typical forms.

Remains of Foraminifera, all belonging to living species, were

detected some years ago in the leda clay formation (immediately
above the true drift deposits/ see Part Y.) by
Sir J. W. Dawson in the vicinity of Montreal,
and at Beauport, near Quebec. The most com-
mon form is the Polystomella (or Nonionina?),
shown at B in the following highly magnified
figure. Another, but much less common form,
from Beauport, observed by the writer in some

B Polystsmeiia (or NO- sandy matter in the interior of a fossil balanus, is

nionina-?) umbilicata. , T. . . c m ± i ' v

A Textuiaria (varia- s^ewn at A. It is a species of Textularia : a living

mis?). genus, dating from the Carboniferous epoch.

In addition to these essentially microscopic forms found in our
post-cainozoic deposits, some comparatively gigantic types, referred
rightly or wrongly to the foraminifera, have been discovered in our
Archaean and Palaeozoic (Cambrian and Lower Silurian) rocks.
These comprise, chiefly, the Eozwn of Dawson, the Archceocyathus
and some related forms together with the Pasceolus of Billings, and
the Receptaculites of Ferdinand Roeiner. The true nature of these
fossil forms, however, is exceedingly obscure. The Eozoon is
regarded by Mbbius, King, and other high authorities, as entirely of
inorganic origin, notwithstanding the able memoirs of Dawson and
Carpenter in defence of its assumed foraminiferous character. It
occurs, with us, in the crystalline Lauren tian strata of North

The Foraminifera may be sub-divided, practically, as in the following synopsis : —
GROUP I. — Imperforata : Body -covering or shell with single external opening for passage of
pseudopodia.

§ 1. Chitonosa : With chitonous (or indistinct) body-covering :

Fam. 1. Gromidce (e.g., Gromia, Lieberkiihnia).
§ 2. Arenacea : With body-covering made up of agglutinated sand-grains, &c.

Fam. 2. Lituolidce (e.g., Lituola, Saccamina).
§ 3. Porcellanea : With calcareous, non-foraminated, porcelain -like shell.

Fam. 3. Miliolidce (e.g., Cornuspira, Miliola. &c.).
GROUP II.— Perforate/, : with distinctly foraminated shell :

§ 4. Vitrea : Shell more or less distinctly hyaline ; calcareous ; foraminated :

Fain. 4. Lagenidce : Shell with very minnte foramina (e.g., Lagena, Cristel-
laria, &c.).

Fam. 5. Globigerinidce : foramina* comparatively large ; shell thin (e.g.,

Textilaria, Globigerina, &c.).
Fam. 6. Nummulinidce : foramina comparatively large; shell solid (e.g.,

Nummulina, Fusulina, &c.).

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

223

Fia. 125.

Pasceolus.

Trenton Formn.

Hastings, and elsewhere, in the form of concentric, wavy, partially
constricted or irregular layers, made up of calcite or dolomite with
intervening layers or areas of serpentine. The more perfect
examples are of circular shape, and vary in diameter from three or
four inches to nearly a foot. Archceocyathus is
cyathiform in shape, much resembling many
corals and some sponges, to the latter of which
groups it was at first (and probably correctly)
referred. It occurs in the Potsdam and Calcifer-
ous formations (see Part V.) of Eastern Quebec.
Pasceolus (Fig. 125) forms oval or small globular
masses, an inch or two in diameter, with the
surface covered with hexagonal markings. It
occurs in the Trenton (Lower Silurian) formation
of Ottawa. Eeceptaculites presents shallow, saucer-like or circular
forms, often a foot or more in diameter.
The surface, as shewn in Fig. 125, is
divided into small, rhombic areas by fine
(usually somewhat dotted) lines, curving
in opposite directions, like the lines on
"engine-turned" watch-cases, from a cen-
tral root-like nucleus. It was at first
placed with Dactylopora, now regarded as
a calcareous fucoid. It occurs in our
Lower Silurian strata, both in Central Canada and in Manitoba.

The fourth group of the Pseudopodiferous Protozoa, the siliceous-
shelled Radiolaria, also known as Polycystina, have not as yet been
recognized in Canadian strata, although their remains in a fragmen-
tary state probably occur with sponge spicules, &c., in some of our
post-cainozoic deposits.

FIG. 126.
Eeceptaculites.
Lower Silurian.

SUB-KINGDOM II.
POLYSTOMATA OR SPONGIDA.

The representatives of this division are aquatic and mostly marine
organisms, consisting of ciliated gelatinous matter, with internal
cavity traversed by numerous inhalent pores or canals, and having
one or several outlets or oscula. In the great majority of sponges,
the gelatinous matter is strengthened by a fibrous, horny framework

224

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

(the sponge of commerce), or by spicules or a spicular-skeleton of silica
or of carbonate of lime. The spicules are of various forms — mostly
needle-like, or three-pointed, anchor-like, irregularly -branching, or
stellate ; and the shape, and in some cases the arrangement, of these
spicules is found to be a more or less constant character, whilst
the outer form of the sponge is exceedingly variable. Hence, the
modern classification of sponges is based essentially on spicular char-
acters ; but these, in fossil examples, are as a rule of somewhat
difficult observation. Occasionally, they may be made out if the
sponge be dissolved in dilute acid ; but this method of observation is
very frequently inapplicable from the entire body of the sponge
having become silicified by fossilization. The internal structures can
then only be detected by the microscopic examination of thin slices
or chippings (ground down with emery powder on a cast-iron plate)
under an object glass of tolerably high power.

Sponges are thus commonly classified as in the annexed table :
I. Myxosponyice — gelatinous, only.
II. Fibrospongice — with horny framework, or separate or

united siliceons spicules, or both.
III. Calcisponyice — with calcareous spicules.

Classes II. and III. are sub-divided further into families — as (in
Class II.) CeraospongiJce (with horny framework, sometimes con-
taining simple spicules; ; Monactinellidce (with simple, unbranched
siliceons spicules) ; Tetractinellidce (with siliceous four-pronged
spicules) ; Lithistidm (with branching, often united, spicules) ; and
Hexactinellidce (with six- armed siliceons spicules). The Calcispongice
fall into : Ascones (with thin " wall," and regularly-arranged three-
rayed and other calcareous spicules) ; Leucones and Pharetrones (with
thick wall, traversed by irregularly-branching canals, and with
scattered or united spicules) ; and Sycones (with thick wall, traversed
by radiating canals, and with regularly-arranged spicules).

The fossil sponges, or bodies regarded as sponges, hitherto found in
the strata of Ontario and Quebec, are very few in number, and all
are more or less obscure in character. The principal comprise :
Stromatopora ; Archeocyathus (already mentioned under the foram-
inifera, but which is probably a calcareous sponge of the order
Sycones) \ Eospongia ; and Astylospongia.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV. '225

Stromatopora is of not uncommon occurrence in our Silurian for-
mations. It has been referred to the Foraminifera, the Sponges,
the Zoantharia and the Hydrozoa. It forms hemi-
spherical or more or less irregular masses, often
many inches in diameter, made up of numerous
concentric, wavy lamellse. Our most common
species is the S. rugosa, found especially in the
'Trenton (including the Black River) formation of
various parts of Ontario and Quebec. Another FlG' 127-

r . . Stromatopora

closelv related species S. concentnca occurs in the rugosa.

Niagara formation. Trenton Formation-

Archeocyathus occurs in expanding, beaker-like or horn-shaped
forms, with deep central cavity, the sides of which are marked with
what appear to be the openings of radiating canals. The form has
thus a general resemblance to a Zaphrentis or other cyathiform coral.
Species have only been found, at present, in the Potsdam and Cal-
ciferous formations of the Straits of Belle Isle and the Mingan
Islands of Eastern Quebec. Eospongia is mostly pyriform or sub-
globular in aspect, with central depression and radiating pores.
Species occur in the Chazy formation of the Mingan Islands.
Astylospongia occurs in small, globular or sub-globular forms, without
a central cavity, or with only indications of this ; but with radiating
lines or pores at the somewhat flattened upper portion, and without
any signs of a stem-attachment at the under side. Species have been
found in the Trenton and Niagara formations, but are of compara-
tively rare occurrence.

SUB-KINGDOM III.
C03LENTERATA.

The typical coelenterates are distinguished from lower forms by the
possession of a distinct body-cavity with single mouth-opening ; and
from higher forms, by the absence of a distinctly separated stomach
— the body-cavity and stomach being practically identical. The
mouth-opening is surrounded by tentacles. All coalenterates are
aquatic types. They may be classified conveniently, as shewn in
the annexed tabular view :
15

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

A. Without natatory cilia :

A.1 Stomach-cavity completely identical with body-cavity
(i.) Without internal calcareous corallum :

Class I. Hydrozoa.
(ii. ) With internal calcareous corallum :

Class II. Hydrocoralla.

A.2 Stomach partially separated from body-cavity :
(i.) Mouth-opening with eight fringed tentacles :

Class III. Crossocoralla or Alcyonaria.
(ii. ) Mouth-opening with numerous simple tentacles .
Class IV. Anthocoralla or Zoantharia.

B. With natatory cilia :

Class V. Ctenophora.*

i.

HYDROZOA.

This class, as here denned, is composed of soft-bodied aquatic types,
without internal stony " corallum. "f In some of its representatives,
however, a chitonous or horny, cellular support is present. The
class may be sub-divided broadly into the following orders : — 1.
Hydrida (e.g., the fresh-water Hydra); 2. Hydromedusce (e.g.,
Tubularia, Sertulaiia, &c., and extinct Graptolites) ; 3. Discomedusce
(e.g., the true Medusae, Rhizostoma, <fec.) ; 4. Lucernarida (e.g.,
Lucernaria, &c.) ; and 5. Siphonophora (e.g., Physalia, Velella, &c.).
Of these, the Hydrida, Lucernarida, and Siphonophora, have no
fossil representatives. The Discomedusce, being entirely soft-bodied,
gelatinous types,, are most rare in the fossil state ; but their impres-
sions have been occasionally found in Mesozoic rocks, as in the
lithographic slates of Solenhofen in Bavaria. The remaining Order,
that of the Hydromedusce, represented by the living sertularians, <kc.,
contains, on the other hand, an extinct group of forms, the Grapto-
lites, of great palseontological interest. These forms are exclusively
of lower palaeozoic age, and are typically characteristic of Silurian
strata.

Graptolites : — The extinct forms, thus known, were apparently

* An aberrant group, forming a passage-group into the echinodermata. Fossil representa-
tives are unknown.

t The Milleporidce are Hydrozoids with secreted calcareous corallum, and should thus h
placed with the Hydrocoralla, as in the present classification. See page 229.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 227

free-floating marine types, living in colonies of individuals which
secreted in common a horny or chitonous cellular support. The
latter, in a more or less fragmentary condition, has alone been
preserved, forming markings or impressions, mostly in argillaceous
slates. It is technically known as the " stipe." Most commonly it
presents a narrow, linear shape, " toothed " or serrated along one or
both of its edges. Frequently, these linear stipes bifurcate, and in
some forms (Rastrites, &c.) become partially enrolled or even spiral,
and assume in others a leaf-like form. Occasionally, the lateral
serratures are obliterated by transverse compression. These serra-
tures are the mouths or openings of minute cells, and thus much
resemble those of modern sertularians. They are pointed or even
mucronate in some genera, and obtuse in others. A somewhat
prominent thread-like line runs up the centre of the stipe (or along
the outer edge in the forms with one row of serratures) and often
projects beyond the stipe. This thread-like line is known as the
axis. Where its projecting extremity, or in bifurcating forms the
united extremities of two axes, forms a sharp or blunt point, this is
known as the "radicle" or "sicula." In some examples from the
Quebec slates of Point Levis, several bifurcating stipes radiate from
a common centre around which there appears to be a thin connecting
membrane or supposed " float." In the leaf-like forms from this
locality, as first pointed out by Professor Hall, of Albany, two, or
more properly four, stipes were united originally in a cruciform mode
of structure, although now generally separated.

Graptolites may be arranged under five groups. These comprise :
(1) Monoprionidians* with single stipe celled on one margin only
(e.g., Monograptus, Spirograptus, Rastrites) ; (2) Dichoprionidians*
with dichotomously-branched stipe, celled on one margin, only (e.g.T
Didymograptus, Tetragraptus, Loganograptus, &c., — all Lower
Silurian) ; (3) Metaprionidians^ stipe bifurcating, with single row
of cells on the separated portions of the forks, and a row on each
margin where the forks come together (e.g., Dicranograptus, Lower
Silurian) ; (4) Diprionidians, with cells on each side of stipe (e.g.,
Diplograptus, Climacograptus, Phyllograptus) ; and (5) Retioprioni-
dians, with comparatively broad, bi-serrated, stipe, net-veined or
dotted on the surface (e.g., Retiolites, Retiograptus).

* TrpiovtoTos, serrated, saw-like.

t Mera, between, intermediate — as regards the group.

[INERALS AN]

The annexed figures shew some of our more common or
teristic forms :

FIG. 128.
Graptolithus (Didymograptus) flexilis : Hall.

FIG. 129.
G. (Loganograptus) Logani : Hall.

FIG. 130.
G. (Didymograptus) pennatulus: Hall.

FIG. 131.

G. (Dicranograptus) ramosus : Hall.

FIG. 132.
G. (Climacograptus) bicornis : Hall.

FIG. 132.*

G. ( Diplograptus) pristis . Hisinger.

FIG. 133.
G. (Phyllograptus) typus : Hall.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

229

[n addition to these forms, several more or less related fossil-types
are commonly referred to the graptolites. As
regards Canada, the Dictyonema is the princi.
pal representative of these doubtful types.
It forms dark, usually carbonaceous, undula-
ting, recticulated markings, as shewn in fig-
ure 134, which represents a common species,
D. retiformis, of our Niagara and Clinton
Formations. By some palseoutologists it is
regarded as a Bryozoon, by others as a sea
weed.

Fio. 134.

Dietyonema retiformis : Hall
Upper Silurian.

HYDKOCORALLA.

This sub-division is to some extent a group of convenience, ren-
dered necessary by our still uncertain knowledge of its included
forms. Some of these are undoubted Hydrozoa with tabulated cal-
careous corallum. The tabulated character of this corallum — with
other features, as the absence (or rudimentary nature) of radiating
septa, &c. — compels the collocation in the same group, as maintained
by Agassiz, of many of the " Tabulata " of older groupings— thus
separating these latter from the typical " Hexamerous Corals " with
which they are still so commonly placed, although from the general
absence of septa it is impossible to tell whether the tentacles of the
living animal were hexamerous or not. These tabulata again, offer
a complete transition into the allied — although in classifications
usually widely separated — Rugosa, in many of which the assumed
tetramerotis character of the septa is not recognizable. Some of the
forms placed under the present division may perhaps be Bryozoa,
and others, again, Alcyonarians : but it is not possible to determine
this. On the other hand, the tabulated structure which they possess
in common, serves to unite them conveniently — and, in default of
negative evidence, naturally also, into a common group, under the
name of Hydrocorolla. This name indicates their affinities to the
Hydrozoa, on one side, and to the corals proper, on the other.*

* The classification of corals into Hexacoralla and Octocoralla, althongh definite enough
in certain cases, is on the whole entirely conventional. In many forms there are no visible
septa ; and in many in which well-developed septa are present, the actual number is exceed-
ingly variable. The genera Stylina, Lam., Stylocoenia, Edw. and Haime, Heterophyllia, McCoy,
and numerous others, are examples.

230

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Before referring to the more typical forms of Canadian occurrence,
it will be necessary to explain briefly a few common terms employed
in the description of the Hydrocoralla and corals generally. The
animal substance of corals consists of soft gelatinous matter contain-
ing a digestive sack or stomach (or a number of these, united) with
a series of tentacles around the opening or so-called mouth. The
gelatinous matter possesses in the great majority of cases the power
of secreting amongst its tissues a calcareous or horny framework,
technically known as a corallum, the " coral " of popular language.
This corallum is either " sclerodermal," or "sclerobasal." A scler-
odermal corallum is secreted within the tissues, and reveals more or
less the form of the polyp or fleshy part of the animal. It is
always composed of a single cell or tube, — round, oval, hexagonal
or polygonal in shape — or of a number of these in close juxtaposi-
tion or otherwise united : (1) by two sides only of the cell
(Haly sites) ; or (2) by short lateral tubes ( Syringopora) ; or (3) by
a mass of more or less porous, or occasionally compact tissue, known
as " coenenchyme ". The sclerobasal-corallum, on the other hand, is
never cellular. Is is secreted, as a common support, by the entire
fleshy mass of the compound coral, the separate polyps being devel-
oped only within this fleshy mass, as seen for example, in the well-
known " red coral " of the Mediterranean.

In the sclerodermal or cellular corallum, the interior of the cell is
in some cases quite smooth or open ; in others, the walls are marked
ABC D

FIG. 135.

by vertical striae ; in others, vertical projections radiate from the walls
towards the interior of the cell, and often unite in its centre. These
projections, known as " septa " or "radiating septa," present in some
groups of forms a very distinct hexamerous character, and in others
a tetramerous system of arrangement, but these characters in fossil
examples cannot always be made out, and in many genera, the septa
are quite variable in number. Sometimes, in place of one of the
primary or more strongly pronounced septa, there is a narrow empty
space or " septal fossette " as in Zaphrentis, etc., but this in badly

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

231

preserved examples is not always observable. Its presence is usually
marked by a ridge upon the outside of the cup or cell.

Whether radiating septa are present or absent, the interior of the
cell in many genera — typically, in all the HYDROCORALLA — is divided
transversely by a series of plates or " tabulae," also called " dia-
phragms," which extend more or less regularly across the cell, and are
flat or arched in form (Fig 135 a. £ b.). In other cases, these tabulae,
when present, are confined to the more central part of the cup, or cell,
the sides of the latter being filled with short, irregular, plates, techni-
cally known as " vescicular tissue" (Fig. 135c). Occasionally,
again, as in the genus Cystiphyllum, this vesicular tissue occupies the
entire cell (Fig. 135c?).

Viewed broadly, the HYDROCORALLA* may be classed under six
sections, as in the following table :

§ 1. Inornata.

§ 2. Tabulo-Stellata.

§ 3. Vesiculo-Stellata.

§ 4. Vesiculosa.

§ 5. Operculata.

§ 6. Integri-Stellata.
These sections are defined as follows :

§ 1. Inornata : — Tabulae well developed, extending entirely across
the cell. Radiating septa absent, or quite rudimentary.

All the genera of this section are compound forms ; and all, with
the exception of Millepora (a living type, dating only from the
Eocene period) are extinct Palaeozoic types. The more common Cana-
dian genera comprise : (1) Fistulipora, mostly in irregular, encrust-
ing masses with very small cells of two sizes, the smaller forming a
kind of pseudo coenenchyme. (2) Monticulipora (including in part,
Stenopora and Ghcetetes), with narrow, capilliform cell-tubes, in
branching and rounded or hemispherical examples, Fig. 130. (3)
Favosites, in irregular and pyriform, sometimes branching, masses,
composed of polygonal cell- tubes with perforated walls and straight
tabulae, Fig. 137. (4) Alveolites Fig. 137 a. with obliquely-opening
cell-mouths and perforated walls : (5) Michelinea. with short, wide

*The subdivision of the Hydrocoralla, as here adopted, may be thus defined:— Hydrozoa or
allied types with internal calcareous corallum : the latter containing— <1) tabulae, with or with-
out radiating septa ; or (2), vesicular tissue, with or without tabulae and septa; or (3), a dis-
tinctly tetramerous system of septa ; or (4), indications of bilateral symmetry.

232

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

• cells, and convex tabulae, Fig 138. (6) Halysites (the "chain corals"),
with oval or round cell-tubes united in chain-like groupings, Fig. 139.
Syringopora, with round, reed-like cell-tubes, united by short trans-
verse tubes, Fig. 140.

FIG. 136.

a. Monticulipora (Stenopora or Choutetes) fibrosa ; b. M. petropolitana. Trenton
and Hudson River Formations.

FIG. 137.

Favosites Gothlandica. Silurian
and Devonian.

FIG. 138.

Michelinea contexa.
Devonian.

FIG. 137*

Aheolites cryptodens.
Devonian

Halysites catenulatus.
Formation.

FIG. 139. FIG. 140. FIG. 141.

Niagara Syringopora Maclurea. S. Hisingeri.

Devonian. Devonian.

§ 2. Tabulo-Stellata : — Tabulae and radiating septa both present
No vesicular tissue, or traces merely.

Both compound and simple forms are included in this section.
The more common Canadian genera comprise : (1) Columnaria Fig.
142, with compound corallum made up of hexagonal or polygonal
cell-tubes, with short septa and horizontal tabulae. Distinguish from
Favosites, which it much resembles in general aspect, by the border
of short radiating-septa at the cell-walls and the absence of pores ;

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

233

Favistella is identical or closely allied, but with longer septa, none
of which however reach the centre of the cell. (2), Amplexus, Fig.
143, mostly with simple corallum, in the form of a round, often more
or less contorted tube, bordered with short septa and divided trans-
versely by horizontal tabulae. (3), Zaphrentis, (Fig. 144,) a genus
of common occurrence in our Devonian strata, in simple horn-like
forms with well-developed radiating septa, and a septal fosse tte.
One species, Z. gigantea is of comparatively large size, but the
smaller species Z. prolifica, figured below, is more abundant. In
both, the septa reach the centre of the cup. Streptelasma, a
Silurian genus, is of very similar conformation, but some of its
septa form in the centre of the cup a kind of twisted axis or
" pseudo-columella."

FIG. 142.

Columnaria alveolata
(Goldfuss) Black River
(Trenton) Formation.

FIG. 143.

Amplexus laxatus (Billings).
Devonian.

FIG. 144.
Zaphrentis prolifica (Bill-

ings). Devonian.

§ 3. Vesiculo-Stellata : — Tabulse confined to central or inner part
of cell, the outer part filled with vesicular tissue. Radiating septa
always present.

This section includes a large number of both simple and com-
pound forms, belonging in part to somewhat ill-defined genera.
The more common examples of Canadian occurrence, comprise : (1)
Gyathophyllum, simple and compound, septa with smooth sides and
edges; (2) Heliophyllum, Fig. 145, like Cyathophyllum, but with
ridges or projections on the sides of the septa ; (3) Clisiophyllum,
simple, horn shaped, with conical elevation in centre of the cup or
cell,* and (4), Phillipsastrea, Fig. 146, compound, astrseiform, with
radiating septa prolonged beyond the outer walls of the cells.

* A vertical section shews in Clisiophyllum three areas : a central area indicated by the
raised ends of the united septa ; an outer or marginal area of fine vesicular tissue ; and an in-
termediate area represented by more or less irregular tabulae or diaphragms.

234

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

FIG. 146.

FIG. 145. Phillipsastrcea. Devonian.

Heliophyllum Halli Devonian.

§ 4. Vesiculosa : — Tabulae replaced by irregular vesicular-tissue.
Radiating septa absent or quite rudimentary.

The only Canadian genus referrible to this section, is Cystiphyllum,
in which the entire cell is filled with short vesicular tissue. Examples,
one of which is shewn in figure 147, are mostly simple and more or
lesss horn-shaped; but at least one compound species, C. aggregatum,
is known.

§5. Operculati: — cup or cell furnished with an operculum com-
posed of a single valve or of several pieces. Septa
more or less rudimentary.

Canadian representatives of this section have not
as yet been discovered. Among other types it in-
cludes the curious slipper-like, triangular form, Cal-
ceola, until lately regarded as a brachiopod. This
genus is especiallv characteristic of Devonian rocks
in Europe.

§ 6. Integri-Stellata : — Radiating septa well devel- _
oped. Tabulae and vesicular-tissue entirely absent, or cystiphyiium Sene-
the latter present only in mere traces. C^JS£^]

Petraia, Fig. 148, with deep cup, in simple horn-shaped or turbinate
forms, appears to be the only example of this group hitherto recog-
nised in Canadian Strata. Species, however, are often confounded
with Zaphrentis, owing to the difficulty of determin.
ing the internal structure without obtaining arti-
ficial sections of the fossil. The typical represen-
tative of the group is the genus Cyathaxonia, in
which a central columella is present ; but of this

. FIG. 148.

form We have no examples. Petraia. Lower Silurian.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

235

III.
CROSSOCORALLA OR ALCYONARIA.

This division is composed largely of living forms. In these, the
polyps possess eight fringed tentacles, and there is a partial separa-
tion of the stomach from the general body-cavity. The corallum is
scleroderrnal or thecal in some forms, and sclerobasal in others.*
The Crossocoralla may be arranged under four Sections, (1), Tubuli-
fera ; (2), Spiculosa ; (3), Incellata ; (l),Pinnigera.

§1. Tubulifera : — Corallum sclerodermal, tubular, without septa
or other internal structures.

This section includes the living Tubipora or " Organ
Corals," and most probably the extinct (palaeozoic) Aulo-
pora. The latter genus is of not uncommon occurrence
in Canadian strata. Figure 149 represents a Devonian
form.

§ 2. Spiculosa : — Corallum slerodermal, coriaceous, with
imbedded calcareous, branching, spicula; fixed. Includes
the Alcyonidoe, doubtfully represented in the fossil state.

§ 3. Incellata : — Corallum sclerobasal, horny or calcareous ; fixed.
Includes the Gorgonidce, or " sea fans," the Isidacece, and the Corallidce
— the latter represented by the well-known " Red Coral " of the
Mediterranean and Red Sea. No fossil representatives in Canadian
strata.

§ 4. Pinnigera : — Corallum sclerobasal, horny ; free. Includes the
Pennatulidce, or "sea pens" — Pennatula, Renilla, Virgularia. No
fossil Canadian representatives, unless the Graptolites, as inferred by
some palaeontologists, belong to this section.

FIG. 149.
Aulopora cor-

IV.
ANTHOCORALLA OR ZOANTHARIA.

The general absence of tabulae, and the typically hexamerous
character of the radiating septa, are the leading characters of this
class. The Anthocoralla include a great number of existing corals
and manv Cainozoic and Mesozoic genera and species ; but Palaeo-

* See explanation of these terms in the introductory remarks prefixed to the Hydrocoralla
on a preceding page.

236

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

zoic types are exceedingly rare, and fossil examples in our strata are
of very doubtful occurrence. Viewed broadly, the Class may be sub-
divided into four sections : Aporosa ; Perforata ; Sclerobasica ; and
Malacodermata.

§ 1. Aporosa : — Tissues of the corallum ("sclerenchyme ") compara-
tively or essentially solid and compact. Includes the families of the
Turbinolidos, Astrceidce, Oculinidce, and Fungidce. No fossils in strata
of Central Canada.

§ 2. Perforata : — Substance of the corallum essentially porous ;
cell-walls perforated. Includes the families of the Eupsammidce and
Poritidce (placing the Madreporidce with the latter). No fossils in
rocks of Central Canada.

§ 3. Sclerobasica : — Corallum sclerobasal, horny or spicular ; Polyp-
tentacles simple, 6, 12, 18, or 24 in number. Includes properly
only one Family, that of the Antipathidce or so-called " black corals. "
No fossils.

§ 4. Malacodermata : — No-corallum : entirely soft-bodied. Includes

the Families of the Actinidce or
Zoantkifke. No fossils.

sea anemonies," Ilyanthidce, and

SUB-KINGDOM IV.

ECHINODERMATA.

The representatives of this division are marine, and, in the adult
state, typically radiated forms, with stomach distinctly separated
from the general body-cavity. The latter (with its system of appen-
dages, when present) is protected by an external calcareous test,
composed of numerous plates ; or otherwise, by a coriaceous integu-
ment strengthened by calcareous plates, tubercles, or spicula. In
some forms, the body is attached to the sea bottom, either per-
manently or during the earlier period of life, by a long or short stem
made up of numerous calcareous plates, mostly round or pentagonal
in shape, and perforated through the centre by a circular, stellate,
pentagonal or quadrate, orifice. The structural parts are almost in-
variably in fives cr multiples of five. In the more typical forms,
the test or skin carries numerous movable spines, whence the name

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

237

Echinodermata. The more common existing forms comprise " star-
fishes," " brittle stars," " sea-urchins," and holothurians. Peduncu-
lated forms were especially characteristic of the earlier periods of the
Earth's history, but are now comparatively rare, or, as regards the
greater part, entirely extinct.

The Echinoderms are distributed under the following classes :

1. Crinoidea. 5. Ophiuroidea.

2. Cystidea. 6. Aster oidea.

3. Blastoidea. 1. Echinoidea.

4: Edrioasterida. 8. Holothur oidea.

I.

CRINOIDEA.

This class comprises the various so-called " sea-lilies," now nearly
extinct. The Crinoids are attached, typically, to the sea-floor by a
comparatively long, flexible stem ; but some become free in the adult
condition. They consist essentially of three parts : the body or
"calyx, the "arms" or tentacles, and the stalk or stem, as indicated
in the annexed sketch, figure 150. The body, oval /$!
or cyathiform in shape, is protected externally by
a number of calcareous plates, meeting, and in some
cases partially interlocking, at their edges. These
plates comprise : (1) a series of " basals," usually
three or five in number, immediately above the
stem, but often forming two horizontal rows, known
respectively as lower and upper basals ; (2) a
series of •' radials " often in more than one zone ;
(3) a series of " inter-radials," more or less nume-
rous, but sometimes absent ; and (4) a series of
"brachials," from which the arms or tentacles
immediately spring, (see figure 151). The upper
part of the calyx is covered in many genera by
numerous small, more or less irregularly arranged
plates, and is termed the " vault " or " roof," but FIG. ]50.

'this in most of the more modern forms is simply coriaceous, or desti-
tute of plates, properly so called. The calyx has a central opening,

238

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

FIG. 151.

Simplified dissection of a crinoidal calyx,
viewed from below.

usually regarded as the mouth, and, in living forms, an exceritric

anal opening; but in most fossil
genera only one opening is pres-
ent. This is situated centrally
or sub-centrally, and is frequent-
ly placed at the summit of a
so-called "proboscis" or ele-
vated, tubular portion of the
calyx roof. The arms are in
some cases short and simple ; in
others, long and dichotomously
•branched. As a rule, they are
free or separate, but sometimes
they are more or less united.
Commonly, also, they are pro-
vided with attached pinnulse, among which in living forms genera-
tion-products are developed. The plates which protect these arms
externally, form either a single regular series, as in a, figure 152; or
a single alternating series as at b ; or a double interlocking series as
at c. The same arm, however, sometimes presents two of these
conditions. The plates which compose the stem,
are circular or pentagonal (more rarely tetra-
gonal) in form, and usually shew a radiately-
striated surface on their planes of junction.
They are either of one diameter throughout the stem, or of alternating
diameters ; and they have always a central perforation, round, penta-
gonal, five-rayed, or rarely quadrate, in shape. Occasionally, addi-
tional orifices are also present.

The Crinoids are usually sub-divided by palaeontologists into two
leading groups, named respectively, Tesselata and Articulata. The
Tesselata are distinguished essentially by the calyx-roof being closed
in with calcareous plates ; and by the calyx-plates, generally, being
comparatively thin and but loosely attached to each other : whilst
in the Articulata the roof has merely a coriaceous covering (strength-
ened in some forms by small plates or tubercles), and the calyx-plates,
as a rule, are comparatively thick, and in a measure locked together.
All the Tesselata are extinct ; and their remains (with the exception
of two Ci etaceous genera) are exclusively confined to Palaeozoic strata.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

239

All the Articulata, on the other hand, are Post-palseozoic types, fossil
genera being found especially in Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
formations ; and about eight living genera are known.*

Nmerous examples of crinoid stems in a more or less fragmentary

condition occur in our Silurian and
Devonian rocks. Figure 153 repre-
sents a piece of shale, from the vicinity
of Toronto, covered with portions of
Crinoid stems, some seen in transverse

FIG. 153.

Crinoid stem-fragments. section, and others longitudinally ; and

similar examples are abundant in the Chazy, Trenton, Niagara, and
Corniferous limestones, of other parts of Central Canada. Well pre-
served or entire examples of crinoids, and especially of the calyx (on
which, distinctive characters, as regards genera and species, are chiefly
based) are, on the other hand, comparatively rare. The stems, un-
fortunately, are of little use in the determination of genera, as the
character of the stem differs frequently in different species of the
same genus ; and occasionally the same stem is found tv> vary in
different parts of its own length. Next to the stems, fragments of
crinoid arms are of most frequent occurrence. In the following
enumeration, therefore, of some of our more commonly occurring
forms, the genera are arranged after the more easily recognised arm-
characters :

§ 1. Arms with pinnulce,

Glyptocrinus : — Pinnulse very fine ; arm-plates in single row ;
calyx-plates radiately ridged ; stem generally round,
the plates alternating in diameter, (sometimes pen-
tangular) ; stem-orifice, five angled. Figure 154.

Thysanocrinus : — arms long and thin, bifurca-
ting ; arm plates in a double row, otherwise much
like Glyptocrinus : Silurian and Devonian,

Dendrocrinus : — arms thin, long, much branch-
ing ; calyx-plates, large ; stem five-angled. Lower
Silurian.

Heterocrinus : — arms long, simple or bifercat-
ing, with strong pinnulse ; arm plates in single
row ; stem variable. Lower Silurian.

In 1882, the Author proposed a new classification of the Crinoids in three groups and twenty-

240 MINERALS AFD GEOLOGY

§ 2. arms without pinnulce.

Palceocrinus : — arms long and thin, of equal size, without pinnuls
bifurcating. Lower Silurian.

Hybocrinus : — arms very long and thin, not bifurcating, and with-
out pinnulse ; Lower Silurian.

Cheirocri nus (including Calcecrinus, &c.): — arms very long, decum-
bent, unequal in size, with single row of plates. Silurian, Devonian.

Ichthyocrinus : — arms short, without pinnulse, more or less in
close contact throughout their length, gradually
merging into the calyx ; arm plates in one row ;
stem round, with small circular orifice. Roof of
calyx composed of small, imbricating plates. Upper
Silurian to Carboniferous. Figure 155 represents
our principle species.

Lecanocrinus : — Closely allied to Ichthyocrinus
(if not really identical), but calyx plates larger and
less numerous. L. elegans, Trenton Formation, is
our best known species. FIG

Other typical genera of the tesselated crinoids, Ichthyocrinus icevi*.
comprise : Pisocrinus, Marsupites (a stemless form), Niagara Formation-
Actinocrinus, Crotalocrinus, &c. The Articulata (see above) comprise,
more especially, Enerinus (to which the " lily enerinite," E. liliifor-
mis, of Triassic strata, belongs) ; Apiocrinus (including the " pear
enerinite " of Jurassic strata) ; Pentacrinus, Antedon or Comatula,
&c, but no examples of this group occur in Central Canada.

II.

CYSTIDEA.

The Cystideans from an entirely extinct group of Cambrian and
Silurian age. They present relations, in some cases obscure, in
others very marked, to both crinoids and blastoids. The typical
cystidean may be described as an oval or spherical body, covered

two distinctive sections, the groups based on the presence or absence of a canaliculated struc-
ture in the plates of the calyx and arms. A synopsis is published in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Canada : vol. 1, pp. 113-116. 'i'his grouping is not followed here— as in a little
work of this unpretending character (dealing only with local forms, necessarily limited in
number) it would be out of place to enter into the classification details which it involves

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV,

241

with calcareous plates united at their edges, without, or with merely
rudimentary arms, and attached to the sea-floor by a short stem.
Some, however, appear to have had no stem ; and in one or two gen-
era closely related to the crinoids (Porocrinus, Caryocrinus) a well-
developed system of arms was present. Two other salient characters
are commonly present, also, in all typical cystideans. These com-
prise a so-called " pyramidal orifice," and a system of pores or mi-
nute fissures, by which some or all of the plates are traversed. The
" pyramidal orifice " is an opening, usually near the summit of the
body closed by several triagular plates, forming a five or six-sided
elevation. It was most probably the oval orifice*. A second opening
is generally present at the upper part of the body, and occasionally a
third opening is seen. An enlarged view of a pyramidal orifice is
shown in figure 156. The pores so commonly
present in cystideans, have not been recognised in
all genera. When present, they are either scat-
tered irregularly over the surface of the body ; or
are grouped in twos in small oval areas, on some or
most of the plates ; or otherwise are arranged in
fine lines forming lozenge-shaped areas, the so-called Fig. 156.

" pectinated rhombs," or " hydrospires," which extend across the
sutures into adjacent plates, as shown in enlarged form in figure
157-6. Figure A. shows a series of
paired or double pores.

No very satisfactory classification
of cystideans has yet been proposed,
but these forms may be arranged
conveniently under five sections, as
follows : —

§ 1. Occultiperforata : — Without

visible or distinct pores ; but pores Fig 157j5

may perhaps open on the sides of the plates between the sutures.

Canadian genera include : Amygdalocystites (Billings) : with few
body-plates and two recumbent arms: Trenton formation; Ateleo-
cystites (Billings) with plane and convex sides, respectively, and two
free arms : Silurian, Devonian ; and Malocystites, with numerous

* It is regarded by some palaeontologists as the mouth, and by others as an ovarian aperture.
The system of valves, closing from without, would appear to indicate that it was an orifice ot
emission, not of entiance.

16

242 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

body plates and several recumbent arms or pseudo-ambulacra : Lower
Silurian.

§ 2. Biperforata : With double pores, in small separate areas, on
the body plates.

The section includes : — Gomphocystites (Hall) with somewhat club-
shaped body covered with numerous plates : Niagara formation ;
Holocystites, etc.

§3. Rhombiperforata : — With numerous pores (or fine linear
grooves) in rhdmbic areas which extend into adjacent plates.

Includes Porocrinus (Billings), a small crinoid-resembling form,
with few body-plates, distinct arms, and pore-areas at the angles of
the plates : Trenton formation ; Caryocrinus, also a crinoid-like form,
but of larger size, with radiately ornamented body-plates, distinct
arms, and long stem : Niagara formation ; and Echinosphcerites (not
yet found in Canada), with globular body, covered with numerous,
small, hexagonal plates : Lower Silurian.

§ 4. Pauciperforata : With pectinated rhombs more or less apart
and comparatively few in number.

Includes Pleurocystites (Billings) with few body
plates on one side of the body, and many smaller
ones on the other side, two arms and short stem, the
latter made up of round plates alternating in diame-
ter : Chazy to Hudson River formations ; Glyptocys-
tites (Fig. 158.); Callocystites, etc.

§ 5. Tectiperforata : — With hydrospire at upper
surface of body.

This section includes, with probably a few other
Fi 15g imperfectly known types, the blastoid-resembling

0am cmrnnss) L°' Codonaster, in which the form is more or less conical
Trenton formation. or top-shaped, with flat or truncated upper surface
carrying a five-rayed pseudo-ambulacral star, and intervening narrow
plates, between which occur the minutely punctured lines of the
hydrospire. Apart from the presence of the latter, the form and
general arrangement of the body-plates are those of a typical blastoid :
Devonian, Carboniferous.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 243

III
BLASTOIDEA.

This class, like that of the Cystoidea to which it is more or less
closely related, is entirely extinct, and chiefly characteristic of De-
vonian and Carboniferous strata. The typical Blastoid has an oval
or bud-shaped body, covered with comparatively large, regularly
arranged plates, with a five-rayed "pseudo-ambulacral star" at the
summit. The pseudo-ambulacral plates carried, it is supposed, small
piimulse during the life of the animal. At the underside of the body
there is usually a short stem.

The known or supposed genera (for some
are of very doubtful position) may be ar-
ranged as follows :

§ 1. Without any inter-ambulacral aper-
tures : This section includes Pentremites Fig- 159>
(with broad-ambulacral areas, and comparatively large basal plates
i.e. those immediately above the stem), Upper Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous ; Granatocrinus (with long and narrow pseud-ambu-
lacral areas and very small basal plates) Carboniferous ; and Eleutho-
crinus (stemless, with four linear and one short pseud-ambulacral
area) Devonian.

§ 2. With (anal) aperture in one of the inter-ambulacral spaces :
Orophocrinus (with general aspect like that of Pentremites), Carbon-
iferous. Nucleocrinus (with very minute based plates, and long
pseudambulacral areas) Devonian, Carboniferous. Stephanocrinus?
(with long basals, and five sharp points at the summit of the calyx)
Upper Silurian : Niagara formation.

Blastoids are rare among Canadian fossils, but examples of Nucleo-
crinus and Stephanocrinus are occasionally met with.
Fig. 160 shows the upper surface (about twice
enlarged) of Nucleocrinns Canadensis (Mont-
gomery), perhaps identical with N. lucina
(Hall), from the Hamilton formation of

l^F Nucleocrinus

Bosanquet township in south-western On- W Canadensis. De-

tario.* Fig. 160 bis. is a figure of Stephan-

ocrinus angulatus of the Niagara formation. *%**»«*»«• anguiatu*.

* A full description of this species by its discoverer, Prof. H. Montgomery, an old student
and graduate of Toronto University, will be found in the Canadian Naturalist, vol. x, No. 2

244 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

t

IV
EDRIOASTERIDA.

This class, entirely extinct and Palseozoic, comprises a very
limited number of representatives. These apparently connect the
cystideans with the star fishes. They are stemless, circular, de-
pressed forms, varying from about a quarter of an inch to a little
over an inch in diameter. The under side of the body is unknown.
The upper side carries a five-rayed ambulacroid star, composed of a
double series of interlocking plates. The rays are curved in some
forms, and straight in others ; and are entirely confined to the upper
surface of the body. The margin of the disciform body is covered
with very small imbricating or partially-overlapping, scale-like plates.
The other parts or inter-ambulacroid spaces are protected also by
imbricating plates, but of somewhat larger size; and a "pyramidal
orifice," resembling that of a cystidean, is situated in one of these
inter-radial spaces.

The principal genera comprise : (1) Agelacrinites, with curved rays,
like the "arms" of many ophiurian star-fishes ; and (2) Hemicystites,
with short, straight rays.* Species of both genera occur in our Silu-

* The generic name Agelacrinus (now more commonly written Agelacrinites) was given by
Vanuxem to these forms, from the Greek, ayeXr;, a herd or crowd — the first found examples
consisting of several individuals heaped or crowded together. But this condition of occurrence
is purely accidental. It was also thought that these forms, although without a stem, were
always attached to shells or other submarine objects by their broad base ; and this idea is still
retained by many writers. Hence the term Edrioasterida of Billings, from e6paio<r fixed,
sessile, Examples are found now and then attached to fossil shells, but that condition is by no
means general. Out of fourteen or fifteen examples belonging to several species examined by
the writer, only one occurred in contact with a brachipod shell, and accidental contacts of that
kind are common among fossil bodies generally. The structural characters of the Edrioas-
terians are still very imperfectly known. The mouth for instance, is almost universally regarded
as lying in the centre of the ambulacroid area at the summit of the disc. In a communication
published in the Canadian Journal, and in the Annals of Natural History, so long ago as
1860, the writer strove to maintain that this was not its true position, but that it was to be
looked for, as in ordinary asterians, &c., in the centre of the disc, below. No little support
seems to be lent to this view, by the subsequent discovery by Wyville Thompson of his
Echinocystites, regarded by him as a transitional tj'pe between cystideans and echinida. The
body is covered (apart from the ambulacra, &c.) with imbricating, irregularly arranged plates;
the mouth is central, on the under side of the body ; and the anal opening, with protecting
pyramid of plates, is interradial in position (Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 1861,).

A magnificent specimen of Agelacrinites — probably the best in Canada, if not on this Conti-
nent—is in the collection of Dr. Grant of Ottawa.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

245

rian, Trenton Formation, but are com.
paratively rare. The genus Edrioaster
of Billings only differs from Agelacrinites
in shewing pores in the am bulacroid spaces;
buo pores (obliterated by fossilization) were
probably present originally in all forms.
Figure. 161 represents an example of Hemi-
cystites Billingsii from the Trenton Lime-
stone of Peterborough in Ontario, Other
species, but commonly of smaller size,
occur in the same formation at Ottawa and elsewhere.

Fig. 161.

Hemicystites (Agelacrinites)

Billingsii ; Chapman. Trenton

Formation.

V.

OPHIUROIDEA.

This class comprises the so-called " Brittle Stars," or star-fishes
with typically small central body, and five long, thin, more or less
serpentiform arms or rays, entirely distinct from the central stomach-
cavity, and without open ambulacral groove. Both disc and arms
are generally plate-covered, but in some forms they are coriaceous
only, or partially tuberculated. The month is in the centre of the
underside of the disc, and there is no separate anal orifice.

Two orders are generally recognized : Euryalida, with coriaceous
integument, and mostly with branching arms which are capable of
being curled towards the mouth ; and Ophiurida, the true brittle
stars, with plate-covered disc and arms. Examples of both orders
date from the Silurian period ; and some few genera (Protaster, Eugas-
ter, &c.) are exclusively Palaeozoic. Tceniaster cylindricus (Billings),
with narrow arms and partially overlapping, spinous plates, from
the Trenton Formation, is our best known representative.

VI.

A5TEROIDEA.

The representatives of this class comprise the starfishes proper, in
which the stomach cavity is continued into the so-called arms or rays.
In most, there is an anal orifice ; and, in all, the ambulacral groove

246

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

is open or uncovered. The mouth is in the centre of the under-side,
and the body-covering is chiefly coriaceous, or partly tuberculated or
plate-covered. The star-fishes date from the Silurian period, but
fossil examples in the lower rocks are comparatively rare. The class
is usually subdivided into two orders : Brisingida, connecting the
class with that of the Ophiuroidea, the arms being distinct to some
extent from the body cavity ; and Stellerida, comprising the true
star-fishes.

The Brisingida are unknown in the fossil state. The Stellerida
may be conveniently arranged under three sections as follows:
§1. Multiradiata, with more than five, usually from 13 to over 20
arms or rays (e.g. Lepidaster, Upper Silurian; Solaster, a living type,
dating from the Jurassic period; Luidia, &c.) § 2. Cnrtiradiata, with
very short or in some cases almost suppressed rays, the shape being
then pentagonal (e.g. Palasterinus, Lower Silurian; Palceocoma,~Upper
Silurian ; Goniaster, the " cushion-stars," first appearing in Liassic
strata ; Asterodiscus, &c). § 3. Quinquerwliata, with five well-devel-
oped rays (e.g. Palceaster, Stenaster, Cambrian and Lower Silurian to
Carboniferous ; Aaterias, Oreaster, &c.).

The genera Palasterina, Palceaster and Stenaster are occasionally
represented in our Lower Silurian strata, more especially in the
limestones of the Trenton formation. In Palasterina, the rays ex-
tend a very little way beyond the central part of the body : P. Stel-
lata, a pentagonal form, is our best-known species. In Palceaster

(including Petraster) the form is dis-
tinctly five-rayed, and the ambulacral
furrows are bordered by two rows of
small plates ; whilst in Stenaster
( = Ur aster ella] , also a distinctly five*
rayed form, the ambulacral grooves are
margined by a single row. Our prin-
cipal species comprise, Palceaster rigi-
dus from the Trenton, and P. bellulus
from the Niagara formation ; Stenaster

Fig. 161 bis.

Petraster Bellulus, after Billings,
agara Formation. Grimsby, Ont.

Ni-

pulchellus, with very narrow rays, and
S. Salteri with comparatively broad rays, both from Trenton strata.
Full descriptions of these species, by the late Mr. Billings, will be
found in Decade III. of " Canadian Organic Remains," issued in
1861 by the Geological Survey.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV. 247

VII.
ECH1NOIDEA.

The representatives of this class are the "sea-urchins " or " sea-eggs "
of popular parlance. They present a globular, disciform, oval, heart-
shaped, or other form of body, entirely enclosed in calcareous plates.
In a small number of both ancient and living genera, the plates are
overlapping, but in the great majority of echinids, they are joined
at their edges. These plates are of two general kinds : ambulacral
and inter ambulacral, respectively. The ambulacral plates, in all
echinida, form five separate, converging, linear or petaloidal areas,
each composed of two rows or zones of perforated plates. The inter-
ambulacral plates, lie also in five separate areas ; but in all Palaeo-
zoic types, with a single exception (Bothriocidaris), each area contains
more than two rows, commonly five or six ; whilst in all succeed-
ing with only two known exceptions (Anaulocidaris 1 and Tetraci-
d,aris) these interambulacral areas contain two rows only.* The
perforations in the ambulacral plates give passage to delicate sucker-
feet ; and movable spines — in some cases hair-like, in othors club
shaped or cylindrical and comparatively large — are borne on both
the ambulacral and interambulacral plates, more especially on the
latter, these being more or less distinctly tuberculated for the
support or attachment of the spines. The mouth, in echinids, is
always on the under-side of the body, and either central or sub-
marginal in position. The anal orifice is situated in some forms at
the apex of the shell or test, but in others it is at or near the under
margin.

Echinida are very numerous in existing seas. They abounded
also in the seas of the Cainozoic and Mesozoic Ages, but appear to
have been rare in Palaeozoic times. No certain evidence of their
remains in the strata of Central Canada has yet been obtained : it is
unnecessary therefore in the present work to describe their leading
subdivisions and genera.

* In the palaeozoic Bothriocidaris, the interambnlacrals form a single row. In Tetracidaris,
a Lower Cretaceous type, there are four rows of interambulacrals at the lower part of the test,
but these merge into the typical two rows at the upper part.

248 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

VIII.
HOLOTHUROIDEA.

This class comprises a small number of elongated, more or less
vermiform types, protected by a thick, coriaceous integument,
strengthened by calcareous wheel-like, anchor-shaped, and other
spicules. The mouth is situated at one extremity of the body, and
is surrounded by a circle of quinary, usually branching tentacles.
The anal orifice in all the typical forms is at the opposite end of the
body ; but in the genus Rhopalodina (Gray) it is at the same extrem-
ity as the mouth. Wheel-shaped spicules, thought to have belonged
to holothurans, have been found occasionally in carboniferous and
higher strata, but apart from this, fossil forms are of very doubtful
occurrence.

SUB-KINGDOM V.
VERMES.

This division, comprising the various parasitic and other worms,
with some related memberless types, is of comparatively little palae-
ontological interest. It may be subdivided into the six following
classes : Turbellaria, Platyelmintha, Nematelmintha, Rotifera, Gepli-
yrea, Chcetognatha, and Annelida.

The Turbellaria are non-parasitic, mostly marine or fresh water
forms, more or less depressed in shape, but of great length in certain
genera (Linus, Borlasia). Fossil forms are unknown.

The Platyelmintha comprise the so called " flat worms " most of
which are internal parasites. Fossil forms unknown.

The Nematelmintha, comprise the so called " round worms " most of
which are also permanently, or for a time, parasitic. Of late years
some supposed representatives of this class have been discovered in
amber aud brown coal, both of Cainozoic age ; but otherwise there
are no known fossil representatives.

The Rotifera are very minute aquatic forms, with one or more
ciliated discs at the front end of the body. They are commonly
known as " wheel animalculse." There are no recognized fossil
forms.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 249

The Gephyrea, represented principally by the Sipunculus, are
marine, worm-like forms with thick skin. They present in some
respects connecting links between the worms and the holothurians,
whence the name of the class, from r£<fvpa, a bridge. Some supposed
fossil forms have been cited from the Upper Jurassic Strata of
Bavaria. Otherwise the class is unknown in the fossil state.

The Chwtognatha, comprise the single genus Sagitta, a small, some-
what fish1 like form from the Mediterranean, with fin-representative
at the posterior end of the body. Fossil forms unknown.

The Annelida comprise earth-worms, leeches, serpulse, &c., and are
thus classified :

Abranchiata — without visible branchiae.

1. Suctoria (leeches). Foss. Rep., unknown.

2. Terricola (earth worms). Foss. Rep. unknown.

Branchiata — with distinct branchial organs.

1. Tubicola or Cephalo-branchiata :

2. Errantia or Dorsi-branchiata:

e Tubicola are marine worms with a circlet of thread-like
branchiae around the rudimentary head. Some
secrete a calcareous tube or shell, and others
form a protecting sheath of agglutinated grains
of sand, &c, Two genera, Serpula, with cal-
careous wavy or contorted tube, and Spirorbis,
FIG. 162. with regularly enrolled shell (Fig, 162) are of

a. Serpula. 6. Spirorbis. frequent occurrence in the fossil state. They
date from the Cambrian or Silurian period, and are found mostly on
the external or internal surface of fossil shells.

The firrantia are marine worms with tufts of thread-like branchiae
along the sides of the body, and without a shell or protecting sheath.
They date from the Cambrian period, but many fossil examples
referred to the genera ITereites, Nemertites, &c., are of somewhat
doubtful nature. The narrow, cylindrical cavities found occasionally
in the Potsdam sandstone of the County of Leeds, Ontario, and at
some other localities, and which are commonly known as " Scolithus
cavities," are thought by some observers to have been made by boring
annelids, but others regard them as of fucoidal origin. Minute, horny

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

or chitonous bodies (Fig. 163) recognized as the

jaws of species of Errantia, were found a few

years ago in the Hudson River Strata and other

Lower Silurian rocks of Ontario by Mr. J. G.

Hinde. Two of these, greatly magnified, are

shewn in figure 163. Similar bodies from the

same strata in Ohio had been previously regarded by Grinel as the

lower jaws of Errantia.

Jaws of Errantia.

SUB-KINGDOM VI.
ARTHROPODA.

The Arthropoda or Articulata (as they are also called) comprise
a large series of animals, characterised typically by their jointed legs,
more or less distinctly segmented body, and bilateral symmetry.
They include both aquatic and terrestrial forms. Some are of great
palseontological interest ; but many in their relations to geology are
comparatively unimportant. Four classes are universally recognized.
These comprise: 1. Crustacea; 2. Arachnida ; 3. Myriapoda ; and
4. Insecta or Hexapoda.

CRUSTACEA.

The crustaceans are mostly aquatic types, with respiratory organs
(when present) in the form of branchiae. They include: barnacles,
crabs and lobsters, wood lice, &c., among living forms ; and an extinct
group, the Trilobites, with some other extinct forms, of great geologi-
cal interest. By uniting some of the more closely connected orders
we may arrange the crustaceans, generally, under ten leading sub-
divisions, comprising: 1. Cirripedia ; 2. Ostracoda ; 3. Phyllopoda ;
4. Trilobita ; 5. Merostomata ; 6. Phyllocarida ; 7. .Ampliipoda ;
8. Isopoda ; 9. Stomapoda ; 10 Decapoda.

1 . Cirripedia : — The cirripeds form a small group of marine animals,
sedentary in their adult condition, and more resembling mollusks at
first sight than members of the articulated series. They secrete an
external, many-valved, calcareous shell ; and possess a number of
delicate, plume-like cirrhi, capable of protrusion beyond the shell for
the creation of currents in the surrounding water. Some of the

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

FIG. 164.
Living Balanus.

more common types are pedunculated, others are sessile. In the for-
mer, to which the well known barnacles belong, the animal is attached
to ships' bottoms, floating timber, &c., by a flexible, coriaceous stem;
whilst in the latter, typified by the balanus or " sea-acorn," the shell
is fixed directly by its base to rocks and other submarine bodies,
especially to those which lie between the tide marks.
Fig. 164 shews the general form of a living bala-
nus with its cirrhi protruded between the smaller
opercula-like valves of its shell. Fragments of
comparatively large shells, which must have aver-
aged an inch or more in diameter, belonging to one
or two species of Balanus (B. Undevallensis, B.
Hameri ?) occur in the Post-Cainozoic " Saxicava Sand Formation "
of Beauport near Quebec ; but 110 cirripeds are found in our lower
rocks, nor have any undoubted examples been discovered in Palaeo-
zoic strata.

2. Ostracoda : — The Ostracods comprise a large number of gene-
rally minute aquatic forms, in which the entire body is enclosed in a
bivalve shell, whence the name of "bivalve entomostracans " by which
they are often known. Natatory antenna?, and several pairs of small
feet (which do not serve as swimming organs), project in living forms
beyond the shell. The latter is smooth in some genera, and more or
less embossed or tuberculated in others. Most living forms are ma-
rine, but some (Cypris, &c,) are fresh-water types. The best known
Paleozoic genera comprise Leperditia and Beyrichia. In Leperditia,
the shell is comparatively thick, with straight
dorsal edge ; and it commonly averages from one-
fourth to three-fourths' of an inch in length. Fig
165 is an example from the Trenton formation.

FIG. 165.

Leperditia Canadensis, In Beyrichia, the shell is very similar in shape
Nat> Sizemaloent0n F<*" but much smaller, rarely exceeding the 12th of
an inch in length, and its surface is tuberculated or embossed.

3. Phyllopoda: — This sub-division may be made to include the
Copepoda, Cladocera, and Phyllopoda, proper — small* aquatic types,

* The large, phyllopod resembling types, Hymenocaris, Dictyocaris, &c. of early palaeozoic
age, are now separated from the Phyllopods, proper, and placed in a distinct group, the Phyllo-
rarida of Packard. As shewn by Packard and Claus, they appear to form a connecting link
between the lower and higher crustaceans : the Entomostraca and Malacostraca of many
classifications. They form the sub-division Leptostraca of Claus.

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

with flattened, natatory feet. The Copepods represented by the
modern Cyclops, Argulus, <fec., have no known fossil-representatives,
and the Cladocera are also of very doubtful occurrence in the fossil
state. The Phyllopods, represented by the living Apus, Branchipus,
Estheria, &c., date apparently from the Devonian period, but no
fossil examples have been found, as yet, in Ontario or Quebec.

4. Trilobita : — The Trilobites form an entirely extinct series of
Crustacea, related to the Phyllopods on one hand, and to the Mero-
stomes on the other. Their remains are found in Cambrian, Silurian,
and Devonian strata in great numbers, and sparingly in the Lower
Carboniferous beds, above which, no traces of the group have been
discovered. The trilobites present a generally oval, tri-lobed
form of body, averaging about an inch-and-a-half to three inches in
length ; but some examples are scarcely the fourth of an inch, whilst
others occasionally shew a length of eight or nine inches. The upper
surface of the trilobite was protected by a chitonous or crustaceous
shell composed of numerous pieces, in part free, and partly united by
sutures. The underside of the body seems to have been covered
essentially by a soft or semi-coriaceous integument, and to have
carried numerous feet, some of these being "jaw feet" as in the
merostomes and copepods, and others probably branchial and natatory
in their functions.

As shewn in the annexed Figure (166), the
upper covering or " back " of the trilobite consists
of three principal parts : (1) the Buckler or Head-
shield, H ; (2) the Body or Thorax, T ; and (3) the
Pygidium or Caudal-shield, P.

The head-shield is always more or less of a cres-
cented or horse-shoe shape, with the convex side
in front ; and its posterior or so-called genal angles,
though rounded in some species, very commonly
terminate in points or spines. Its central portion
is generally in the form of a distinctly raised
area known as the glabella (— G, Fig. 166).
The surface of this is sometimes smooth, but is more commonly
lobed, furrowed, or granulated. In certain genera (Phacops, &c.) the
glabella is enlarged or expanded anteriorly, and in others (Calymene,

FIG. 166.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

253

&c.) it is contracted in that direction. In some, again, (Triarthrus,
&c.), it is of nearly uniform width throughout. Very prominent,
also, in some genera ; and in others, but feebly elevated and compara-
tively inconspicuous. The head-shield exhibits likewise, in most
examples, on each side of the glabella a sutural line (=f. f. in Fig.
1 66) called the " facial suture." The hinder extremity of this sutural
line terminates either at the posterior margin of the head-shield ( asa-
phus, &c.); or at the angles of this (calymene, &c. ); or at the sides, near
the level of the eyes (Phacops, Ceraurus, &c.). In some few genera,
however, the facial suture is not preceptible. The eyes, when present,
occur on each side of the head-shield in the line of the facial suture,
just on the outer edge of this. In all genera but Harpes they are
compound, as in ordinary crustaceans, insects, &c., and in certain
genera ( Dalmanites, Phacops), the component facets are comparatively
large, forming the so-called " reticulated eye." The outer sides or
" cheeks " (gena) of the head-shield often separate along the line of
the facial suture, and are found detached. The shell is continued
over the nead-shield, and a so-called labrum or hypostoma is occasion-
ally found, where the mouth was situated, on the underside. This
is commonly found detached, and generally oval in form ; but in the
genus Asaphus it presents a forked or horse-shoe shape, with the
concavity at its lower or posterior margin.

The body or thorax of the trilobite consists of a series of movable
rings or segments, varying in number, according to the genus or the
state of development of the individual. Two, generally deeply-
marked, longitudinal grooves or furrows traverse the thorax and
extend into the head-shield above and the pygidium below. In the
head-shield they limit the glabella. They divide the thorax into
three parts — a central part or axis, and two side portions, or pleurae
( = a, and pi. of figure 166.) These latter have their free ends
rounded in some species, and pointed or even prolonged in part or
wholly into spines, in others. In some genera (e. g. ceraurus or
cheirurus) there is a raised band on each pleura, and in others a
narrow groove. The degree of mobility with which the thoracic
segments were endowed, at least in most cases, enabled the trilobite
to bring the under parts of the caudal and head shield together,
both for the protection of the branchial feet or more or less
undefended portions of the body, and also, in all probability, to

254

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Fio. 167.

Calymene Senaria
"rolled up" con-
dition.

enable the creature to sink with greater rapid-
ity into deeper water in moments of danger or
alarm. Fig. 167 is an example of a trilobite in
this " rolled up" condition.

The pygidium, or shelly covering of the tail or
abdomen, consists of a single piece, arising probably
from consolidated segments. Very commonly, it
is found detached from other portions of the body. Its outline is
either rounded, with smooth or digitated margin, or is more or less
pointed ; and it sometimes terminates in a long spine, or in several
spinous processes. It shows very frequently a distinct axis, with
pleurse-like, lateral furrows, but is quite smooth or without furrows
in some species. In some genera, also, it is exceedingly small
( Paradoxides, &c.), whilst in others (Illcenus, Asaphus, &c.), it
equals the head-shield in size.

The trilobites may be arranged broadly under four leading groups :
— Pusilliformes, Latiformes, Frontones and Conif routes.

The Pusilliformes constitute a group of very small and somewhat
doubtful trilobites represented by the genus Agnostus. In this form
the thorax consists of only two segments, whilst the head-shield and
pygidium are quite large in comparison and of nearly equal size.
The type is essentially Cambrian, but lower Silurian examples are
also known. Several species have been obtained from the limestone
bands intercalated with the graptolitic states of the Levis formation
(Quebec), but usually without the thorax. Figure 167
shows the head-shield and pygidium of Agnostus Cana-
densis from that formation.

The group of Latiformes comprises a series of un-
doubted trilobites, mostly of considerable size and broad
form, with large head-shield and pygidium — thus differ-
ing essentially from the more elongated many-ringed
forms of the typical Frontones and Conifrontes. The
principal genera of Canadian occurrence, comprise : Asaphus and
Illaenus ; but the group includes, also, Bathyurus, Bronteus, Lichas,
Dikelocephalus and other genera. Asaphus is distinguished by its
eight body-segments, its large head-shield with feebly-elevated and
(as a rule) unfurrowed glabella, its forked or horse-shoe-shaped
hypostoma, its large and broad pygidium, and other characters. The

:

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV. 255

side cheeks are often broken off, and the pygtdium is frequently

FIG. 168.

Asaphus platycephalus
( = Isotelus gigas) :
Stokes. Trenton
Formation.

H . = The hypostoma.

FIG. 169.

Asaphus Canadensis : Chap-
man. Utica Formation.

found without the other portions of the body. The genus appears
to be exclusively Lower Silurian. Our most common species com-
prise ; A. platycephalus., a more or less smooth species with rounded
head angles and pleura?, very abundant in the Trenton limestone,
but occurring also in the Chazy and Hudson River Formations,
and A. Canadensis, with horned head-shield, pointed pleurae,
and furrowed pygidium, of common occurrence in the Utica bitumi-
nous schists of Collingwood, Whitby, Ottawa and other localities.
Closely related to Asaphus is the genus Ogygia, distinguished by its
shield-shaped or pointed hypostoma, and its laterally-furrowed pygi-
dium, but it is essentially a European type. The genus Illcenus is
represented by smooth, oval species, with large head-shield and pygi-
dium, feebly-raised glabella, far-apart eyes, ten (or rarely nine) body-
segments, and rounded pleurae. It is essentially a Lower Silurian
type but ranges from Upper Cambrian into Upper Silurian strata.
Figure 170 represents a species in a rolled up
condition from the Chazy Formation. / Ameri-
camis (= I. crassicauda ?) from the Trenton
limestone of the Ottawa district, is another
Canadian species; and fragmentary examples
of additional species occur in the Levis forma-
tion of Quebec. Bathyurus is also chiefly from
:tjie game formatiOn. Its buckler, thorax (with

256

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

nine segments) and pygidium, are nearly of equal size. The
usually extends to within *a short distance of the extremity of the
pygidium, and the latter has very frequently a marginal furrow.
The genus Bronteus is mostly a Devonian and Upper Silurian type,
but is represented also in Lower Silurian strata. It is distinguished
by its ten body-segments with slightly-raised bands in place of fur-
rows on the pleurae, and its widely-expanded glabella ; and especially
by its large pygidium, with short axis, and fan-like, furrowed sur-
face, the furrows curving upwards. The genus Lichas is exclusively
Silurian. It is distinguished chiefly by its nine or ten body-segments ;
its broad, backward-curving, and pointed pleurae ; and its compara-
tively large pygidium with short axis, largely-serated margin and
almost longitudinal furrows. The genus Dikelocephalus is exclusi-
vely Cambrian. From this latter circumstance it is comm nly
placed in the family of the Olenidce, in despite of its very dissimilar
aspect and structural characters. Whilst Olenus (with other
members of the Olenidae family)has a very small pygidium, compared
with the broad head-shield, in Dikelocephalus the pygidium is as
large as the head-shield or even larger, and it lias a very short axis
as in Lichas and Bronteus of this group. The genus, however, is
still very imperfectly denned. The number of
the body-segments is not yet known ; and the
glabella, as regards its transverse furrows,
appears to differ very considerably in different
species. Figure 171 represents the pygidium
of D. magnificus (after Billings) from the Levis
or Quebec formation. In some other species
referred to this genus, the outline of the
dium is simply rounded.

FIG. 171.

Dikelocephalus magnifi-

cua : Pygidium, after

Billings. Levis

Formation.

The Frontones are distinguished by a very
large head-shield and small, or comparatively
small, pygidium. The glabella is more or less broad and prominently
developed, and the posterior angles of the head-shield are almost
always in the form of long spines or horns. The more typical
genera comprise : Paradoxides, with from sixteen to twenty spinous
body-segments and very small pygidium ; Trinucleus, with six body-
segments, large oval glabella, and head-shield surrounded by a per-

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 257

forated margin ; Cheirurus or Ceraurus, with eleven body rings, and
facial-suture terminating at the sides of the head-shield ; Encrinurus,
also with eleven body-segments and other characters as in Cheirurus,
but with many-ringed axis to its pygidium ; and Dalmannites and
Phacops, forms with eleven body-segments and facial suture also as
in Cheirurus, with other characters described below.

Paradoxides is strictly a Cambrian type. Examples occur in New
Brunswick and Newfoundland, but none appear to have been dis-
covered elsewhere in Canada. Trinucleus is essentially a Silurian
type, characterised by its six body-segments, its
globose, strongly-pronounced glabella, and the
perforated border of its head-shield. Adult
forms are without eyes. Figure 172 shews our
common species T. concentricus from the Tren-
ton and Hudson River (Lower Silurian) forma-
tions. Ceraurus is also essentially a Silurian
type, although the genus ranged from the Upper FIG. 172

Cambrian into the Devonian period. It is T™™k™ concentricus

. , , . a , .. , I , Trenton and Hudson

characterised chieny by its eleven body-segments, River Formations.
its pleurae with raised bands in place of furrows, and the lateral termina-
tion of its facial sutures. By the latter character as well as by the
number of its body-segments, it approaches Phacops and Dalmanites ;
but from these it is distinguished among
other characters, by its finely reticulated
eyes, its glabella of almost uniform width.
and the bands upon its pleurae. Figure 173
represents a common species, C.pleurexanthe-
nus from our Trenton limestone. Impress-
ions of the glabella and two-horned pygi-
dium, are especially abundant in some of
these limestone beds, as at Belleville, Peter-
borough and elsewhere. Phacops is char-
acteristic both of Silurian and Devonian
strata. It is distinguished by its eleven
Fw 173 body-segments; its laterally-terminating

Ceraurus ( = Cheirurus ) pien- facial suture; its large anteriorly expanded
"ISEliSK ' J and usually granulated glabella ; its coarsely-
facetted eyes ; and its rounded^pleurse. A common Devonian species,
17

258

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

FIG. 174.

P. Bufo, is represented in Figure 1 74. The genus Dalmanites is closely
allied to Phacops, possessing like the latter an anteriorly expanded gla-
bella, with coarsely-reticulated eyes, and facial suture
terminating at the sides of the head-shield. But it
is distinguished by distinctly marked lateral fur-
rows on the glabella and by its pointed pleurae.
The head-shield is also horned at its genal angles,
and the pygidium in some species ends in a long
spine. This is the case with our I), limulurus,
Figure 175, from the Niagara (Upper Silurian)
formation, but the caudal spine is only seen in
well preserved examples. The genus is exclu-
sively Silurian.

In the group of Conifrontes, the distinguishing
character is the conical form and comparatively
small size of the glabella, but in other respects

b Phacops bufo : Green.

these trilobites closely approach the Frontones — Comiferous and Ha-

mllton Formation

the head-shield as a rule exceeding the pygidium
in size, and the body-axis being continued into the latter, so as to ren-
der the line of separation between the thorax and pygidium scarcely
distinguishable. Some ot the more typical genera comprise : Olenus,
Harpes, Conocephalites, Triarthrus, Calymene and Homalonotus.
The genus Olenus, with from twelve to sixteen
narrow, pointed body-rings, and very short pygi-
dium, is of doubtful occurrence in Central Cana-
dian strata, unless the " Loganellus," discovered
by Mr. T. Devine in the Levis formation of Quebec,
belongs to it. The type is essentially Cambrian.
The genus Harpes is both Silurian and Devonian.
It has a very large horse-shoe-shaped head-shield,
with broad, perforated border, but the glabella is
short and conical. The body-segments vary from
twelve to twenty-five or twenty-six in number,

Figure 176

shews the head-shield (with eyes connected by a
raised band, as in Olenus) and part of the many-ringed thorax of

FIG. 175.

Dalmanites Umalurus : and the pygidium is very small.

Harpes Ottwaensis (Billings) from a specimen obtained from the
Trenton Formation by Dr. Grant of Ottawa. The genus Conocep)

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

259

FIG. 176.

lites is a Cambrian and Lower Silurian type, but as regards the
area treated of in the present volume it
occurs only in fragmentary examples in
the Levis formation of Quebec. It pos-
sesses fourteen or fifteen body-segments
and a glabella which narrows anteriorly
and has short lateral furrows as in Ca y
mene, a genus with which in other respects
it has close affinities. The genus Triar-
thrus is peculiar to this continent, and its
species are apparently confined to the
Lower Silurian, Utica formation. The T

HarpesOttawaensis : after Billings.

body-segments vary from fourteen to six- Trenton Formation

teen in number, and in our most common species T. Beckii, each seg-
ment bears in the centre a short spine, as shown in figure 177. In
another species, T. spinosus (Billings), a very long spine is attached
to the eighth or ninth thoracic segment, and another to the neck seg-
ment.* The glabella in this genus is of nearly uniform
width, not much raised, and is marked on each side
by several short furrows. Impressions of the glabella
of T. Beckii occur in the shale beds west of Colling-
vood and at Whitby and Ottawa, in great abundance.
A third Canadian species, T. glaber, is destitute of
spines. The genus Calymene is exclusively Silurian,
its species are about equally numerous in the Lower

and Upper Silurian beds, and several range from the

FIG. 177.
lower into the higher series. The genus is distin- Triarthrus Beckii:

guished by its thirteen body-segments ; its lobed gla- EFo°nnation.Ca
bella, narrowing upwards ; and by the posterior ends of its facial
suture terminating at the corners of the head-shield. Our common
species is C. Blumenbachii ( = C. senaria) with rounded head-angles
and pleurae, strongly lobed glabella, and little apparent distinction
between the end of the thorax and commencement of the pygidium.

* See a revised description of this species by Henry M. Ami, of the Geological Survey,
in a paper on the Utica Slate Formation published in the Transactions of the Ottawa Fiel
Naturalists' Club : 1882.

260

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Hudson River,
and Niagara
Formations.

Examples are often found in a " rolled up " condition.
The genus Homalonotus has also thirteen body-seg-
ments, and facial suture terminating at the posterior
corners of the head-shield as in Calymene. But the
glabella is unlobed and feebly pronounced, and the
axis or central part of the thorax is scarcely defined
— the longitudinal furrows, by which in most trilo-
bites the axis is marked off from the pleurae, being
in this genus very indistinct. The Homalonoti
are typically Devonian and Upper Silurian forms,
but some occur in Lower Silurian strata. Figure
179 represents H. delphinocephalus (usually when
perfect, about three inches in length) from the Niagara formation.

5. Merostomata : — The crustaceans of this Order comprise a single
living genus, Limulus, and several extinct genera
of related character in which the basal joints of
some of the feet fulfil the office of jaws in the pro-
cess of mastication. Hence the name of the group,
from fjajpfe a thigh and oro/za mouth. The Meros-
tomes may be arranged under three families: Limu-
lidce, Belinuridoe and Eurypteridce.

The Limulidce are represented by the single
genus, Limulas, species of which are popularly
known as " Horseshoe crabs " or " King Crabs."
They consist of three essential parts : a large cres- FIQ 179
cent-shaped cephalic portion covered by a single Homalonotus deipkino-

, . .. ,, ., -I-11 cephalua : Green. Nia-

shield, a thoracic portion covered by another shield, j,rara Formation.
and an abdominal portion in the form of a long spine or " telson,"
the whole presenting a trilobitic aspect. In the young state, the tel-
son is absent, and the trilobitic aspect is especially marked. The
genus dates from the Triassic period, but fossil examples are unknown
as regards Canadian strata.

The Belinuridce much resemble the Limulidce in general characters,
but the thorax and abdomen in most forms are distinctly segmented.
Nemiaspis from Silurian strata, and the Carboniferous types Belinu-
rus and Prestwichia, are the principal genera. Examples have been
discovered in the United States but none in Central Canada. The
dorsal aspect in these fQrms is more or less distinctly tri-lobed.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PAKT IV.

261

The Eurypteridae are sometimes known as Gigantostraca from the
large size presented by some examples. The head is covered by a
single plate, and carries on the under side several pairs of mastica-
ting, and a single pair of swimming feet. The long thorax and abdo-
men (including the telson) consist of thirteen moveable segments.
The principal genera comprise Eurypterus
and Pterygotus, in both of which (although
only seen in well preserved examples) the
surface of the shelly covering shews scale-
like markings. In Eurypterus, the an-
terior feet are slender and antennse-like ;
whilst in Pterygotus the front pair are
very long, and are terminated by claws
or nippers. In Eurypterus, also, there
is a long thorn-like telson, and in Ptery-
gotus a comparatively short and flattened
terminal-segment. Examples of Euryp-
terus in a more or less fragmentary con-
dition are not uncommon in the Oriskany
(Devonian) Formation of South-western
Ontario. A restored example of E. re.
mipes is represented in Figure 1 80. The
cephalic shield and the long thorn-like telson, are the parts generally
found. The genus ranges from the Upper Silurian into Carboni-
ferous strata. Pterygotus is an Upper Silurian and Devonian type.

6. Phyllocarida : — This sub-division is of comparatively recent
adoption, principally from the researches of Packard and Glaus. It
includes the modern Nebalia (a small shrimp-like crustacean with
stalked eyes) and a series of extinct forms of related character but
much larger size. In these, there appears to be a blending of
characters belonging to both the lower types (often grouped together
under the common term of Entomostraca), and the higher forms
(Malacostraca) of existing crustaceans. The Cambrian Hymenocaris,
the Silurian and Carboniferous Ceratiocaris, and the Devonian Dithy-
rocaris, are the principal fossil genera. They present a large and in
general laterally compressed head-shield (or cephalo-thoracic shelly
covering) composed mostly of two pieces, and a jointed or ring-formed
abdomen terminating in a telson of three 'or several spines. EX-

FIG. 180.

Eurypterus remipes : Devonian,
a, a, are the swimining feet.

262

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

amples have not been detected in our strata, although found in the
Palaeozoic rocks of the United States.

7. Amphipoda : — This Order (which may be made to include the
Laemodipoda of some systems of classification) comprises a series of
small shrimp-like crustaceans, represented by " water-fleas," " sand
hoppers," "spectre-shrimps," &c., with sessile eyes and typically seven
pairs of legs, the front pairs directed backwards, and the hind pairs
forwards, whence the name of the group. Marine, fresh -water, and
terrestrial types are known. Fossil forms (Gampsonyx, &c.) only
date with certainty from the Carboniferous period, and the amphipods
are unrepresented in our strata.

8. Isopoda: — The isopods are small crustaceans, very similar in
character to the amphipods, and including, like the latter, marine,
fresh- water, and terrestrial types ; but the form instead of being
laterally compressed, is generally flattened from above downwards.
The Oniscus or " wood-louse " is the typical terrestrial representative.
Fossil forms of the group, date from the Devonian period, but are of
comparatively little interest.

9. Stomapoda: — This division comprises small shrimp-like crus-
taceans with stalked eyes, and with branchiae suspended from the
abdomen or attached to the thoracic feet. Squilla and My sis are
typical examples. Species of the latter are familiarly known as
" opossum shrimps." Fossil forms date from the Jurassic period, but
are rare and of no special interest.

10. Decapoda: — In the Decapods — the type-forms of the Crus-
tacea— the true feet are always in five pairs; the eyes are stalked;
the head and thorax are united into a cephalo-thorax ; and the
branchiae are in special cavities at the sides of the latter. Three
leading groups are recognized : — (1) Macrura or long-tailed decapods,
in which the abdomen is well-devoleped, forming a powerful swim-
ming organ. Typical representatives comprise lobsters, cray-fish, and
true shrimps. Fossil forms date from the Carboniferous period.
(2) Anomura, or defenceless-tailed decapods, in which the abdomen
is unprotected by a shelly covering, and does not serve as a natatory
organ. The Paguridae or " Hermit-crabs " are examples. These
insert the abdomen into the vacant shells of whelks or other gastero-

o

pods, or keep it buried in the sand of the sea shores on which they
live. Fossil forms date from the Jurassic period. (3) Brachyura

CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

263

or short-tailed decapods, in which the abdomen is rudimentary and
bent under the cephalo-thorax. They are represented by the various
crabs, properly so-called. Fossil forms have been cited from. Palaeo-
zoic and Jurassic rocks, but the earliest undoubted examples are
Cretaceous.

II.

ARACHNIDA.-

This Class is represented typically by Spiders, Harvest-Spiders.
Chelifers and Scorpions, in which the respiration is aerial (tracheal
or pulmo-branchial), the body and thorax united, and the legs in four
pairs. In certain lower forms there are no visible organs of respira-
tion, and the legs are variable in number.

In Spiders, the abdomen is short and unsegmented. Examples
date from the Carboniferous period.

Scorpions have a long abdomen divided into segments and scarcely
distinguishable from the thorax. They possess also a pair of large
antennae or palpi furnished at their extremities with nipper-claws,
as in the extinct crustacean genus Pterygotus. From this and other
characters, the latter is referred to the Scorpions by some palaeonto-
logists. The earliest known Scorpions appear in Carboniferous strata,
in which, also, examples of chelifers are said to have been discovered ;
but no fossil arachnids belong to our rocks.

III.

MYRIAPODA.

The myriapods are represented essentially by centipedes and milli-
pedes, in which the form is elongated and worm-like, the abdomen
being divided into numerous segments each of which bears a pair or
a couple of pairs of short legs. The head is distinct from the thorax,
and the respiration is trachaeai. Fossil examples first appear in
Carboniferous strata, but are of rare occurrence. None occur in our
rocks, but a species of Xylobius (allied to lulus') was recognized
by Sir J. W. Dawson, many years ago, in the hollow stem of a sigil-
laria from the middle or productive coal formation of Nova Scotia.

264 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

IV.
INSECTA.

This large and important division of the Arthropoda is of compara-
tively little geological interest. In all insects, the head, thorax, and
abdomen are distinctly separated, the respiration is tracheal, and the
legs are always in three pairs. Hence the name of Hexapoda by
which the entire division is now often known.

ed

:

Some insects assume their perfect form at birth. These belong
the Thysanura (or group Ametabola : e. g. Podura, Lepisma, &c.), and
are without fossil representatives except in amber. The recognized
forms, thus preserved, belong with one exception (Glessaria)
existing genera.

Other insects undergo an incomplete metamorphosis after birth.
They belong to the section Hemimetabola, and comprise the Hemip-
tera or Rhyncota (insects with rostral mouth : e. g. Aphides, Coccina,
Cicada, Nepa, &c.), and the Orthoptera, including with the latter the
so-called Pseudo-Neuroptera. Orthoptera comprise cockroaches, grass-
hoppers, locusts, &c., and the Pseudo-Neuroptera, the so-called " dra-
gon-flies " and related forms. . Fossil examples occur in Devonian
strata (Platyphemera antiqua) ; in the Carboniferous formation (Blat-
tina, Termes, Euphemerites, Palingia), and more abundantly in
Mesozoic and Cainozoic deposits (Ephemera, Libellula, &c.).

Other insects, again, undergo complete metamorphoses — passing
through the three conditions of larva, pupa and imago. These form
the group or section Holomltabola and cromprise the Neuroptera
as now restricted (e. g. " scorpion flies," " caddis worms," " ant-lions,"
&c.); the Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) ; Diptera (house-flies,
&c.) ; Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants) ; Strepsiptera (bee-parasites) ;
and Coleoptera (beetles). The parasitic Strepsiptera have no known
fossil representatives. Doubtful examples of Coleoptera have been
cited from Carboniferous strata, but the Order only dates with cer-
tainty from the Triassic period. Fossil Lepidoptera, Diptera and
Hymenoptera are Mesozoic and Cainozoic only. No examples of
fossil insects occur in the strata of Ontario and Quebec. This brief
summary, therefore, is all that need be given in the present work.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

265

SUB-KINGDOM VII.

MOLLUSCA.

The animals of this series comprise a large number of soft-bodied
forms in which the blood is essentially colorless and the symmetry
bilateral. In most, an external calcareous shell is present ; but in
some cases the shell is internal, and in others it is wanting or rudi-
mentary. Most mollusks inhabit the sea, but a small number are
fresh-water types, and a still smaller number are terrestrial. The
marine oyster, whelk, nautilus and cuttle-fish, the fresh-water limnea,
and the land snails, are typical examples of existing forms.

Mollusca are usually classed under two series : Molluscoidea and
Mollusca vera.

A. MOLLUSCOIDEA.

In the representatives of this series there are no distinct branchiae as
in the Mollusca proper, and the heart is either absent or more or less
rudimentary. Although connected by these and other organization
characters, the two classes into which the Molluscoidea are sub-
divided, differ greatly in external configuration. These classes
comprise : 1, Bryozoa or Polyzoa, and 2, Brachiopoda.

I.

BRYOZOA OR POLYZOA.

The bryozoons — so named from their general moss-like aspect —
are minute animals of aquatic habitat. They form colonies of indi-
viduals which secrete in common a horny, calcareous or gelatinous
cellular " exoskeleton " or support, and thus closely resemble Sertu-
larians and some other compound Ccelenterates. They possess, how-
ever, a distinct oral and anal orifice, with other characters indicating
a higher organization. The secreted cell- structure is either leaf-like,
plumose, tubular, dendritic, heliciform, circular, or irregular, in
form ; and it frequently encrusts other marine bodies. The actual
bryozoon may be likened to a minute, digestive sack, with oral and
anal orifices, and with a wreath or circle of delicate tentacles at the
oral opening. The bryozoa are exceedingly rich in genera and
species ; and of late years many fossil forms have been removed from
the corals and referred to them, although necessarily on very uncer-
tain evidence.

266

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Modern bryozoa are generally divided into Entoprocta and Ecto-
procta, according as to whether the anal orifice is within or without
the tentacular area. The Entoprocta have no fossil representatives.
The Ectoprocta are subdivided into two leading sections : 1, Phylac-
toloemata, in which the mouth is furnished with a skin-like " epistome "
or moveable cover, and the " lophophore " or tentacle-bearing organ
is of horse-shoe form, as seen in the fresh-water genus Plumatella,
<fec.; and 2, Gymnolcemata, in which there is no epistome, and the
lophophore is circular in form. The first section or Order is supposed
to have no fossil representatives. The Gymnolozmata are divided
into four sub-Orders, two of which, Cyclostomata and Cheilostomata,
include fossil examples. Living forms of these sub-Orders are
exclusively marine types. In the Cyclostomata, the cells are tubular,
and the cell-opening is terminal and as large as the diameter of the
cell. The cyclostomes date from the lower Silurian period. The
delicate lace-like genera, Fenestella and Ptilo-
dictya, are common Canadian examples ; and
certain other forms ( ' Monticulipora, &c,) gen.
erally referred to the HYDRO-CORALLA, are also
placed under this Order by some palreontolo-
zists. In the Cheilostoma the cells are oval or
egg-shaped, and the cell-opening is narrower
than the general width of the cell. It is also
furnished in many forms with an articulated lid
or operculum. This sub-order is only known with certainty to date
from the Jurassic period : we have consequently no examples in
Centra]

FIG. 181.

Fenstella Etegans.
Upper Silurian.

Hall.

II.
BRACHIOPODA.

The brachiopods are separately-living, marine, molluscoid animals,
provided with a bivalve shell. This latter character, and their gen-
eral aspect, causes them on superficial observation to seem very
nearly allied to the lamellibranchiates or ordinary bivalve mollusca,
but, rightly considered, they are far more closely connected with the

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 267

bryozoons. Their chief characteristic is the possession of a pair of
long, ciliated " arms/' coiled up within the shell, and supported in
some forms by calcined structures. These so-called " arms " undoubt-
edly represei t to some extent the tentacular organs of the bryozoons.
Living brachiopods are for the greater part attached to the sea-floor
by a flexible pedicel, passing through a foramen in the shell or
between the bivalves ; but in some cases the attachment is made by
the shell itself, without a pedicel.

In the seas of the Palaeozoic Age,
brachipods abounded and far exceeded in
numbers the lamellibranchiate mollusca.
During the Mesozoic periods, they were
still numerous, but they diminished greatly
in the succeeding Cainozoic Age, and at
present about 100 living species only are FlG- 182>

° r -Di • Diagram of a typical brachiopod

known. Whilst most Of the PaleeOZOlC in normal position.

genera are extinct, some few — as lingula, rhynconella, terebratula,
&c. — still offer living representatives.

The two valves of the brachiopod are of unequal size, but always
equilateral. As regards the latter character, therefore, a straight
line drawn vertically through the middle of each valve will divide
the shell into two symmetrically equal parts. This serves to distin-
guish at a glance a brachiopod shell from the shells of ordinary
bivalve mollusca, or, at least, from the great majority of these, as
some few, the Pectens for example, have nearly equilateral shells.
The larger valve in brachiopods is almost always the ventral valve ;
its " beak " or " umbo " is sometimes very prominent, sometimes
depressed or inconspicuous ; and in some genera it is perforated for
the passage of the pedicel. The smaller or dorsal valve is in some
cases articulated by short projecting processes or " teeth " to the
larger valve, whilst in other cases the articulation is very indistinct j
and in one group of forms, including the lingulidce, <fec., the valves
are without articulation. The two valves along the so-called " hinge-
line " (the upper part of the shell as conventionally drawn in figures)
are either in close contact or connected by an intervening " area."
The latter is usually striated. In its centre, or under the beak or
umbo of the larger shell, there is sometimes a smaller triangular
area or " deltidium." This is sometimes perforated for the passage

268

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

of a pedicel, and is sometimes covered by a " pseudo-del tidium."
The hinge-line in some genera is straight or horizontal (orthis, stro-
phomena, spirifer, &c.), and in others curved (rkynconella, terebratula,
<&c.). The outer surface of the shell may be smooth, or (and more
commonly) it may be marked by fine or coarse radiating lines. In
many genera the centre of the ventral valve (more rarely the dorsal)
shows a depression or " sinus," and there is a corresponding elevation
or " mesial fold " on the other valve. The substance of the shell
may be " punctate " or " impunctate " — i.e. traversed, or not, by
minute pores ; but this character often becomes inconspicuous through
fossilization.

The arms or tentacles in the interior of the shell are always
attached to the smaller valve. In some genera (ortkis, <fcc.), these
are without supporting calcareous structures. In other genera (rhyn-
conella, <&c.) they are attached to two very short processes or " crura."
In others (spirifer, (fee.), they are wound around two calcareous
spires. In others, again, (terabratela, waldheimia, &c.) they are
supported by a short or long calcareous loop. Unfortunately, these
internal structures in fossil examples are often not directly observ-
able. As a rule, the shell must be carefully ground down with fine
emery on an iron plate, or artificial sections must be prepared for
their recognition. In like manner, the muscular impressions on
the inner surface of the valves are only occasionally observable.
These impressions differ in shape and mode of arrangement, but are
usually in pairs ; four to six in number.

The brachiopods are classed under two principal divisions. In one
(Articulata of Huxley, Arthropomata of Owen, Testicardines of
Brown, Clistenterata of King, Apygia of Zittel) the valves have a
more or less distinct hinge or interlocking teeth, and (as seen in
the living forms) the intestine is without any anal opening. In the
other (Inarticulata of Huxley, Lyopomata of Owen, Ecardines of
Brown, Tretenterata of King, Pleuropygia of Zittel), there is no
proper hinge, and the intestine terminates in an anal orifice at the
side of the body.

Division 1 — Articulata or Clistenterata : — Brachiopods with hinged
shell. In living forms, the intestine closed :

This division includes (principally) the following families : — 1,

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

269

Spiriferidce ; 2, Atrypidce, ; 3, Terebratulidce ; 4, RhynconellidoR ; 5,
Strophomenidce ; 6, Produetidce.

Family 1. Spiriferidce : Shell with both valves convex. Smaller
valve with internal calcareous spires, tapering laterally.

The principal genera of Canadian occurrence comprise : — Spirifer,
with straight hinge-line, and beaks comparatively near together (Sil-
urian to Lias) ; figures 183, 184, 185. Cyrtina, with straight
hinge-line and large area, the beaks consequently far apart (Silurian
to Trias) ; fig. 186. And Spirigera (or Athyris), with curved hinge-
line; Silurian to Trias); fig. 187.

184 bin.

184.

183.

185.

Fig. 184 bis. S. gregarius

Fig. 183. Interior of dorsal
valve of a spirifer shewing posi-
tion of spiral arm-supports.

Fig. 184. S. radiatus: Ni-
agara Formation.
Corniferous (Devonian) Formation.

Fig. 185. S. mucronatus : Devonian.

Fig. 186. Cyrtina. Devonian.

Fig. 187. Spirigera (Athyris) concentrica : Devonian.

Note :—The Spiriferidce, in accordance with their more prominent characters, may be
grouped in two sections and four sub-sections, as follows :

§ 1. Librati : Hinge-line straight. A distinct area :

A. Vicinale* : Beaks near together ; Type-forms : Spirifer, Spiriferina.

B. Disjuncti: Beaks widely apart ; Type-forms: Cyrtia, Cyrtina.
§ 2. Arcuati : Hinge-line curved. True area, absent or indistinct.

A. Vicinales : Beaks near together ; Type-forms : Spirigera ( = Athyris)

Retzia.

B. Disjuncti: Beaks widely apart ; Type-form: Uncites.

270

MINERALS AFD GEOLOGY

Family 2. Atrypidce, : Shell with internal spires attached to th
hinge-line of the dorsal valve. No area. Shell bi- convex.

This family differs from that of the Spiriferidse
by the direction of the spiral supports. The only
typical genus Atrypa ( = Spirigerina) much re-
sembles the spirifers with curved hinge-line. Our
most common species is A. reticularis, fig. 188,
an Upper Silurian and Devonian type of wide

*Y. Fro. 188.

geographical range. Atrypa reticularig

Upper Silurian.

Family 3. Terebratulidce : Shell with both
valves convex. Internal arm-supports in the form of a short or long
calcareous loop.

This family has several living representatives, notably, Terebratula,
dating from the Devonian period, and Waldheimia, from the Triassic,
In the former, the internal loop is short, and in the latter compara-
tively long and deeply recurved. The genus Centronella, an extinct
Devonian type is the principal if not the only Canadian representa-
tive of the family. Fig. 189 represents C.
glans-fagea of Hall.

Family 4. Rhynconellidce : Shell wit*1
both valves convex; usually strongly
ribbed. Internal arm-supports in the form
of very short, more or less inconspicuous
points.

This family includes the typical genus
Rhynconella, dating from the Silurian

period and still surviving, and the extinct genera Pentamerus (Sil-
urian to Carb.), Stricklandia, and Camerella : the two latter, Silurian
only. Several species of Rhynconella and a common Pentamerus
are represented in figures 190 to 193.

FIG. 189.
Centronella-glans fagea.

(Hall.)
Devonian.

1)0.

191.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

271

Fig. 190. Rhynconella plena, Chazy
Formation.

Fig. 191. R. increbescens, Trenton
Formation.

Fig. 192. R. (Camerella) varians,
Chazy Formation.

Fig. 193. Pentamerus oblongus, Clin-
ton and Niagara Formations.

Family 5. Strophomenidce : — Shell,
mostly, with one valve convex and the
other flat or concave, but in some forms
193 biconvex. No internal arm-supports.

Hinge-line straight.

This family is entirely extinct and almost exclusively palaeozoic.
Its more characteristic genera comprize : (1) Strophomena, with
concavo-convex or plano-convex shell and greatest width at hinge-
line : the four most distinct muscular impressions in a single row :
Silurian to Carboniferous period : (2) Lepto&na, much like strop-
homena but muscular impressions very long : Silurian to Liassic
period. (3) Orthis, shell flatly bi-convex or plano-convex, with
greatest width below the hinge-line ; the four most distinct muscular
impressions not in a single horizontal row : Cambrian to Carbon-
iferous. (4) Platystrophia, with strongly bi-convex shell : one valve
depressed in the centre and the other with mesial fold, thus greatly
resembling a spirifer shell. Surface of shell strongly ribbed : Silurian
to Carboniferous. Representatives of these genera are shewn in the
following figures.

194. 196. 197.

Fig. 194. Strophomena alternata : Trenton and Hudson River
Formations.

Fig. 196. Leptcena sericea: Trenton and Hudson River Formations.

Fig. 197. Orthis testudinaria : Trenton and Hudson River Forms.
0. elegantula, an Upper Silurian form, much resemble this species.

272

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

198.

195.

199. 200.

Fig. 195. S. rhomboidalis ( = S. depressa) : Upper Silurian and
Devonian.

Fig. 198. 0. tricenaria : Trenton Formation.

Fig. 199. 0. vanuxemi : Devonian.

Fig. 200. Platystrophia lynx, the Delthyris lynx, afterwards
Spirifer lynx, and Or this lynx, of old publications : Trenton forma-
tion. The plications on the mesial fold and sinus serve as a distinc-
tive character.

Family 6. Productidce : Shell concavo-convex, free or attached by
surface of larger valve. Area absent or very narrow. Hinge-teeth
often rudimentary. No internal arm- supports.

This family is entirely extinct. Its chief representatives comprise :
Productus, with very convex ventral valve and spiny surface, a
characteristic Carboniferous genus, but occurring also in Devonian
and Pernian strata ; and Chonetes, with flat, transversely elongated
shell, bearing spines along] the hinge-margin. The latter genus
ranges from Silurian into Carboniferous strata, but the family is
unrepresented in the rocks of Central Canada.

Division II. Inarticulate or Tretenterata : — Brachiopods with
hingeless shell. In living forms, the intestine terminates in an anal
opening on the right side of the body. There are no calcified arm-
supports.

This Division comprises the following families: 1, Trimerellidce ;
2, Craniadce ; 3, Discinidce ; 4, Lingulidce.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

273

FIG. 201.

Cast of Trimerella

acuminata

(Billings.)

Guelph Formation

Family 1. Trimer e llidce : — Shell, thick, calcareous, without fora-
men. Rudimentary hinge-teeth sometimes present. A broad?
bipartite plate, with supporting septum, in the interior of each valve-

This family is entirely of Silurian age. It is represented chiefly
by the genera, Monomerella, with flat, central plate ; and Linobolus
and Trimerella, with the edges of the central plate
curved outwards. In all, the ventral valve has a
large area and deltidium, and the smaller valve is
nearly circular. Both valves are smooJi or with-
out external ribs, and moderately convex in form.
Several species of these genera occur in our Silurian
strata, more especially in the Upper Silurian
Guelph Formation. Examples are commonly in
the form of casts. These shew two or three deep
sinusses at or near the beak of the shell.

Family 2. Craniadce : — Shell thick, calcareous, finely-perforated,
more or less circular or square-shaped, without foramen. Beak of
both valves, sub central.

This family dates from the Silurian period, but its typical genus
Crania is especially characteristic of Cretaceous strata. The internal
muscular impressions and presence of a nose-shaped septum produce
the appearance of a face or skull — whence the name of the genus.
Our strata are without recognized representatives of the family.

Family 3. Discinidce : — Shell composed of horny and calcareous
layers, more or less circular in form, with central or sub-central beak,
and foramen (usually in the form of a narrow slit) in the larger valve.

This family is represented chiefly by Discina, Orbiculoidea, and
Tr emails. The horny part of the shell in these genera (as in the
lingulidce) is composed essentially of calcium
phosphate. Examples, mostly of small size
occur in our Silurian strata. The genus,
Discina has living representatives. The other
genera are extinct.

Family 4. Lingulidce : Shell composed of
horny and calcareous layers, the horny por.
tion consisting of calcium phosphate. Com-
monly oblong or oval in shape, more rarely
18

FIG. 202.
Discina (or Orbiculoidea)

(.'//•(•<• t
Trenton Formation.

274

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

circular. Usually smooth, or marked simply by concentric '.
growth.

This family, of the highest antiquity, still offers living representa-
tives. The principal genera comprise Lingida, Lingulella, and
Obolus. The shell in linyula is without a foramen, the pedicel, as
seen in living species, passing out between the valves. Tn lingulella
and in obolus, there is a narrow marginal foramen in one valve.
These genera date from the Cambrian period. In the strata of
Ontario and Quebec, examples of lingulae are of frequent occurrence.
Usually the shell is dark and lustrous ; but in examples from the
Medina formation of Hamilton, Ontario, it preserves its normal sub-
pearly and iridescent aspect. Some of our more characteristic species
are shewn in the annexed figures.

207.

203. 204. 205. 206. zu'- 207 bin.

Fig. 203. Lingula acuminata (= L. antiqua) Potsdam (Cambrian)
formation.

Fig. 204. L. Quebecensis : Levis formation.

Fig. 205. L. Lyelli : Chazy formation.

Fig. 206. L. quadrata : Trenton formation.

Fig. 207. L. obtusa : Utica and Hudson River formations.

Fig. 207 bi. L. oblonga (Conrad) : Medina and Clinton forma-
tions.*

* This small species of lingula is abundant in some of the red, Medina strata of Hamilton,
Ontario. In many examples the substance of the shell is preserved.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

275

B. MOLLUSCA VERA.

The mollusca proper, as distinguished from the molluscoidea,
possess distinct branchiae, or, in default of these, a pulmonary sac ;
and they have also, typically, a systematic heart. In most, the body
is enclosed in a calcareous shell, as in the oyster, whelk, &c.; but in
some forms the shell is internal, and in others it is absent or rudi-
mentary. They fall primarily under two sections : Aglossata, in
which the mollusk has no " lingual ribbon " or odontophore ; and
Glossophora or Odontophora, in which the animal is provided with a
long, narrow " tongue " or " radula " thickly set with rows of minute,
rasping teeth, of variable form and mode of arrangement in different
genera. The Aglossata comprise a single class, Lamellibranchiata.
The Glossophora are sub-divided into the following classes : Scapho.
poda ; Pteropoda ; Gasteropoda ; Heteropoda ; and Cephalopoda.

CLASS 1. LAMMELLIBRANCHIATA. ( = CONCHIFERA, PELECYPODA, &C.)

The lamellibranchs are entirely aquatic, and mostly marine types.
They secrete an external, calcareous shell composed of two separate
valves, united, in most forms, by interlocking points or teeth, and by
a narrow elastic ligament. All are headless. They are commonly
classed under two leading sections : Asiphonida and Siphonida. In
the latter the animal possesses a pair of long or short siphonal tubes,
capable, more or less, of extension beyond the shell. One of these
tubes serves for the ingress of water, and the other for the expulsion
of this after the air has been extracted from it, as well as for the
removal of effete matters generally. The Asiphonida are without
these siphonal tubes, although there is an approach towards them in
one of their families, the Unionidce. These sections are again sub-
divided into two groups or Orders, as in the following arrangement :

, . •, ( 1. Pleuroconcha.
Asphonida 1

I 2. Orthoconcha.

Siphonida

( 4. Smupalhata.

1. Pleuroconcha : In this subdivision, the valves of the shell are
mostly of unequal size ; and, in normal position, one valve is the
under, and the other the upper valve. In the interior of each valve
there is one large muscular impression, or one large and one

276

small impression — whence the terms Monomyarla and Heterjmyaria,
often applied to the members of this group. Some of the more
common genera comprise : Ostrcea (dating from the Carboniferous
period) ; Spondylus (dating from the Triassic period) ; Pecten (dating
from the Devonian period) ; Lima (dating from the Carboniferous
period); Avicula (dating from the Silurian period) ; Mytilus (dating
from the Triassic period) ; and Pinna (dating from the Devonian
period), Among the most frequent forms of Palaeozoic age, occurring
in our strata, Ambonychia radiata (Family Aviculidce), and Modio-
lopsis modiolaris (Family Mytilidce) may be especially cited.

FIG. 209.

Modiolopsis modiolaris.
Hudson River Formation.

FIG. 208.

Ambonychia radiata.

Trenton and Hudson

River Formations.

2. Orthoconcha : — This group, so named by the French palaeonto-
logist Alcide d'Orbigny. is the Homomt/aria of some authors. The
valves of the shell in the normal position of the animal tir« right and
left,* and the muscular impressions are two in number and of prac-
tically equal size. In these respects, therefore, the Orthoconcha are-
more closely allied to the Siphonida Can to the Pleuroconcha^
although they are without siphonal tubes, properly so-called. The
marine forms Area, Nucula and Leda (all dating from the Silurian
period), Trigonia (dating from the Liassic period), and the fresh-
water UniOy are some of the more representative genera. The fossil
genus Megalomus or Cyrtodonta probably belongs to the Arcacece.
One species, M. Canadensis, found mostly in the form of casts of
comparatively large size, is very characteristic of the (Upper Silurian)
Guelph formation. Other species (Cyrtodonta of Billings) are of
common occurrence in the Hudson River formation. A species of
Leda (L. truncata) is equally characteristic of the Post-Glacial

* The conventional position adopted in drawings does not represent the normal position
the living lamellibranchiates.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV.

277

deposits— known, after Dawson, as the Leda clay formation— of the
Province of Quebec.

Cast of Megalnmus (Cyrtodonta) Canademis :

FIG. 211.
Leda truncata.
Post Glacial.

3. IntegripdlUcita : — The shell and normal position of the animal
in this group are the same as in the Orthoconcha, but the animal
possesses a pair of short siphonal tubes. The muscular impressions are
connected by a narrow linear depression, marking the edge of the
mantel, and this is continuous or without any bend or sinus —
whence the term " Integripalleata." Tridacna (dating from the
Miocene period), Cardium and Lucina (dating from the Silurian
period), Cyclas and Cyrena (dating from the Jurassic period), and
Crassatella (from the Cretaceous), are some of the more typical
genera. The annexed figures represent two of our Palaeozoic forms.

FIG. 212.

Lttcina proavia : (Hall).
Devonian.

FIG. 213.

Conocardium trigonale : (Conrad).
Devonian.

4. Sinupalliata : — In this group the animal possesses a pair of
long, more or less extensible, siphonal tubes ; and the muscular
impressions are connected by a parallel groove with a fold or sinus
where the tubes occur. Representatives of the group are hardly
known in Palaeozoic strata, but are abundant in Mesozoic and Caino-
.zoic formations and in existing seas. Some of the more characteristic

278

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

genera comprise : Venus, Cytherea, Tellina, and Mactra (all dating
from the Jurassic period), Donax and Solen (both dating from the
Eocene) and Mya, Saxicava, &c. (dating from the Miocene period).
Species of Mya, Tellina and Saxicava are very characteristic of the
Saxicava-Sand formation (Post-Glacial) of the Province of Quebec.

FIG. 214.

Mya truncata.
Post-Glacial.

FIG. 215.

Tellina groenlandica.
Post-Glacial.

FIG. 216.

Saxicava rurjosa.
Post-Glacial.

CLASS II. SCAPHOPODA.

This class comprises but one family, that of the Dentalidce, in
which the head is rudimentary (but furnished with a lingual ribbon
or radula) and the foot in the form of a hollow, conical organ, adapted
for boring — whence the name of the class, from gxa^oc, a spade. The
typical genus Dentalium, in which the shell is in the form of a
hollow cone, straight or curved, and open at both ends, dates from
the Silurian or Devonian periods, but is without representatives in
our strata.

CLASS III. PTEKOPODA.

The Pteropods form a small series of pelagic, free-swimming mol-
lusks, frequenters of the open ocean. They possess a rudimentary
head, with a fin-like, natatory organ on each side. Some are naked
types, others secrete a light shell of variable form. They are com-
monly classed in two orders : 1. Thecosomata, with, typically, a thin
external shell ; and 2. Gymnosomata, including the naked forms,
with more or less distinct head. The modern genera Hyalaea and
Limacina (both dating from the Miocene period) are types of the
first Order ; and the recent genus Clio is the principal representa-
sive of the second Order.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 279

Two essentially palaeozoic forms, Tentaculites (Silurian, Devonian),
and Conularia (Silurian to Lower Jurassic), are commonly regarded
as thecosomatous pteropods, but their true position is still uncertain.

FIG. 217. FIG. 218.

Tentaculites Ornatua Conularia Trentonensis :

Upper Silurian. Lower Silurian.

The shell, in Tentaculites, is tubular, of narrow diameter, tapering
to a rounded point, and transversely ringed. In Conularia, it is
more or less conical and four-angled, but usually flattened by com-
pression. Its surface is marked by a few longitudinal furrows, and
by numerous fine lines, resembling rows of punctures, arrange
transversely in zigzag form as shewn in figure 216. Some examples
are several inches in length.

CLASS IV. GASTEROPODA.

In the mollusks of this class there is a more or less distinct head
and all are furnished with a radula or lingual ribbon, thickly set
with minute teeth. The number, form and arrangement of the latter
constitute valuable classification-characters as regards living species,
but are without, or of only indirect, palseontological application,
Typical gasteropods possess also a fleshy expansion or so-called foot
on the under side of the body, by which locomotion is effected : hence
the name of the class. The greater number secrete an external uni-
valve shell, mostly spiral in form, but some few, as the slugs, are
naked, or possess merely a rudimentary shell ; and in the chitons, an
exceptional group, the shell is composed of several pieces. In many
of the spiral forms, the mouth or aperture of the shell can be closed
when the animal has retired within it, by a shelly or horny plate,
known as an " operculum." Some gasteropods, as the common

280

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

snails, are terrestrial ; others, as the limnea, and planorbis,
species of which are of common occurrence in our lakes and
streams, inhabit fresh-water ; but the greater number are marine
types.

The class may be subdivided into four sub-classes : Pulmonata,
Opist/iobranchiata, Placophora, and Prosobranchiala — the great ma-
jority of species belonging to the latter.

Pulmonata : — The animals of this sub-class possess, in place of
branchiae, a simple lung-sac by which they breathe air directly from
the atmosphere. They comprise land and fresh- water types, and are
chiefly represented by the genera Helix, Planorbis, Limnea, &c., fos-
silized examples of which, belonging to recent species, occur in some
of our Post-Glacial deposits ; but the sub-class dates from at least the
Carboniferous period. All the Pulmonata are hem aphrodites.

Opisthobranchiata : — This sub-class comprises marine types in
which the branchiae are situated behind the heart. Like the Pulmon-
ata (and the preceding class of Pteropods) all are hemaphrodites.
They are commonly divided into Nudibranchiata (e. g. Eolis, Doris]
in which there is no shell ; and Tectibranchiata (e. g. Bulla, Actoeo-
nella, &c. ) mostly with external shell. The latter date from the Tri-
assic period, but are of no special interest.

Placoj)hora : — in this sub-class there is only one family, the Chi-
tonidce, dating from the Silurian period but without known repre-
sentatives in Canadian strata. The Chitons are abnormal gastero-
pods of flat, oval or elongated form, in which the upper surface of
the body is protected by a series of eight more or less tile-like plates.
They are marine, sexually-distinct types.

Prosobranchiata : This sub-class includes all the typical branchi-
ferous gasterpods in which the branchiae are placed in front of the
heart. The species are marine forms with distinct sexes. The shell
is commonly more or less spiral ; but whilst in some forms the spire
is very long, in others it is quite short or almost obliterated ; and in
some few genera the shell is patelliform. The sub-class admits of a
natural division into two leading groups or sections : Holostomata
and Siplionostomata .

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV. 281

Holostomata : In this section, the aperture or so-called mouth of
the shell presents a continuous or entire margin : hence holosto-
matous types are often called " round-mouthed gasteropods," but the
same character is presented by the Helicidce, (snails) and other Pul-
monata. It indicates, as a rule, vegetable-feeding types. Examples
of Holostomata are of common occurrence in all fossiliferous rocks,
and they abound on existing sea-coasts ; but whilst they are associ-
ated at present and in Cainozoic and Mesozoic strata, with siphon-
ostomatous types, in the rocks of the various Palaeozoic periods they
appear to form the sole representatives of the prosobranchiate gas-
teropods. Carnivorous forms of mollusca were then mainly repre-
sented by predatory, coast-frequenting cephalopods, which afterwards
became extinct. The holostomous gasteropods of our Silurian and
Devonian strata belong chiefly to the following genera : Pleurotomaria :
Shell with few whorls ; the lower whorl large, with slit in outer lip.
The slit becomes closed with the growth of the shell, but its position
is indicated by a more or less distinct band (fig. 219). Murchisonia :
Shell spiral or sub-spiral, with many whorls ; a slit or band present,
as in pleurotomaria (fig. 220). Bellerophon (formerly referred to the
Heteropoda} : Shell boat-shaped, somewhat globular, equilaterally
curved; a slit in outer lip often present (fig. 221). Gyrtolites, like
Bellerophon, but mostly compressed ; with distinctly-seen whorls and
keeled back. Euomphalus (including Ophileta*) : Shell discoidal,
more or less regularly enrolled ; with, typically, sunk spire, large
umbilicus, and sub-angular whorls and aperture. Maclurea (formerly
referred to tha Heteropoda) : Shell with flat spire and rapidly enlarg-
ing outer whorl, furnished with a thick operculum, shewing two
projections on its inner side (fig. 222). Platyceras ( - Acroculia) :
Shell bonnet-shaped or patelliform, with very large aperture (fig.
•J23). Platyostoma: Shell turbinate, few-whorled, the lower whorl
very large, often projected laterally, with aperture wider than high.
ffolopea : Shell turbinate, few-whorled ; aperture round, or higher
than wide, with continuous margin (flg. - 4). Cyclonema : Shell
turbinate, few-whorled, much like Holopea, but with somewhat inter-
rupted margin. Subulites : Shell elongated, cylindrical, with com.
paratively narrow aperture (fig 225).

* Ophileta is properly a Euomphalus with slightly raised spire ; or a low-spired Straparol-
lus, if Straparollus and Euomphalus be considered distinct.

282

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

223.

Fig. i!9. Pleurotomaria Progne (Billings). Lower Trenton for-
mation.

Fig. 220. Murchisonia gracilis. Trenton and Hudson River for-
mations.

Fig. 220a. Cast of M. gracilis.

Fig. 221. Bellerophon bilobatus. Trenton and Hudson River for-
mations.

Fig. 222. Maclurea Logani (shell and operculum). Lower Tren-
ton formation.

Fig. 223. Platyceras angulatum. Trenton formation. Other
species are without the strong ribs on the shell ; and in some, the
shell is spine-bearing.

Fig. 224. Holopea Guelphensis. Upper Silurian.

Fig. 2-^. Subulites elonyatus (Internal cast) : Lower Silurian.

These and other species of gasteropods occur very commonly in the
fo-m of internal casts, and in that condition their specific distinctions
are not, in all cases, easily determined. Many so-called species,

)F CENTRAL CANADA PAR'

moreover, are founded on very slight differences, and should rank as
varieties only.

Siphonostomata : — The representatives of this section are essen-
tially carnivorous types. They are distinguished by having the
aperture of the shell knotched at both of its extremities, or
otherwise by the aperture being extended into a slit tube or so-called
canal. Their remains are apparently unknown in Palaeozoic strata
but become abundant in Mesozoic and Cainozoic beds, and their
representatives are still more abundant in the
seas of the existing period. The more typi-
cal families comprise : the Cerithiadoe, Pur-
puridce, and Fusidce, dating from the Triassic
period ; the Srombidce, Buccinidce and Neri-
neidce, dating from the Jurassic period ; the
Muricidce, Volutidce, Cancellaridce, Conidce, and
Cypraeidce,'d&tiiig from Cretaceous times. The
annexed figure represents a species of Buccinum
from the Post-Glacial, Saxicava-sand formation
of Beauport, near Qubec.

FIG. 226.

Buccinum undatuin
Post Cainozoic and living.

CLASS V. HETEROPODA.

The mollusks of this class are regarded by many zoologists as
simply an Order (—Nudeobranchiata) of the Gasteropods. They
are free-swimming, pelagic types, and thus resemble in habit the
Pteropods, but are of much higher organization. They possess a
well-developed head, with perfectly formed eyes, &c., and the sexes
are distinct. Some are without a shell j others have a very small,
thin shell, protecting only a portion of the body ; and in those of the
Family Atlantidce, there is a light shell of sufficient size to contain
the entire animal, and this in some cases is furnished with an
operculum.

Two families are commonly recognized : 1 , Firolidce (or Ptero-
trachaeidce), in which natation is pai'tly performed by a so-called "tail
fin," including the naked genus Firola, and also the Carinaria with
small, delicate, patelliform shell ; and 2, Atlantidce, in which there is a
light, hyaline shell into which the animal can withdraw its body. BThe
only known fossils are some small shells of two species of Carinaria,
from European strata of Miocene age. The extinct genera, Bellerophon,

284

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Cytolites, Maclurea, &c., formerly regarded as belonging to this cla
are now placed under the holostomatous gasteropoda.

CLASS VI. CEPHALOPODA.

This class is represented by highly-organized mollusca, furnished
with a distinct head, large eyes, and a central mouth (with horny,
beak-like jaws) surrounded by a series of tentacles, or so-called
" arms/' which serve as organs of prehension and locomotion. The
Nautilus, Argonaut, Octopus, Sepia or Cuttle-Fish, and Loligo or
Squid, are its principal living representatives. These are commonly
classed under two leading sections or orders, Tetrabranchiata and
Dibranchiata, in accordance with thj number of their branchiae.
The Nautilus is the only living representative of the Tetrabran-
chiate Cephalopods, but many extinct genera in which the character
of the shell is more or less akin to that of the Nautilus, are usually
regarded as belonging to the same order. Of late years, however,
doubts have arisen on this point with respect to some of these extinct
forms, which are now supposed to have been more nearly related (as
regards the animal, apart from the shell) to living Dibranchiate
types. They are chiefly represented by the extinct ammonites and
related genera, Hence, the recent adoption of three sections or
orders in the classification of the Cephalopoda — namely : (1) Tetra-
branckiata ; (2) Ammonoidia, and (3) Dibranchiata. The Tetra-
branchiata are essentially ancient types in a state of decadence, the
Nautilus (with greatly diminished species) being the only living
representative. The Ammonoidea are extinct, typically Mesozoic,
forms. The Dibranchiata, on the other hand, although including
some extinct genera (as the Belemnite of Mesozoic age,) are essen-
tially recent types. These relations are shown in the following
diagram :

Existing Period.
Cainozoic Periods.

Mesozoie Periods.
Palaeozoic Periods.

FIG. 227.

Diagram, shewing geological relations of the 'retrabranchiate, Ammonitoidal, and
Dibranchiate Cephalopods, respectively.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

285

Tetrabranchiata : In this nearly extinct Order, the shell — judging
from the single surviving genus, the Nautilus — is external, and is
divided into numerous chambers by concave or slightly sinuated par-
titions, known as " septa." These are formed successively during
the growth of the cephalopod — the animal inhabiting the last-formed
outer chamber. The septa are traversed by a long tube or " siphun-
cle," passing through all the chambers, and serving to keep the
earlier-formed portions of the shell in connection with the animal's
body. This tube or siphuncle varies in size, shape and position. In
some forms it is of narrow diameter ; in others, comparatively wide.
In some, ajjain, of uniform, gradually tapering shape ; in others con-
tracted at regular intervals, in which case it is known as a " beaded "

FIG. 227.

Section of shell of Saittilux (N), and of Orthoceraa (O and O'), shewing- form and
position of septa and siphuncle.

siphuncle ; and as regards position it may be central or more or less
excentric. Worn sections of the orthoceras shell, especially when
the siphuncle is beaded and the outer portion of the shell is destroyed,
much resemble the vertebral column of a iish, and are often taken
for this by quarry men and others. With regard to external form,
the shell may either be convolute (as in the nautilus), or simply
curved or more or less conical. The concave edges of the septa
generally shew on the external surface of the shell ; but these must
not be confounded with the lines of growth, ribs, striae, and other
surface markings and ornamentation. The mouth or aperture of the
shell is commonly open or expanded, but in certain forms it is more
or less contracted, and in some few almost closed — a narrow (some-
what key-hole shaped) opening only remaining. Merely the arms
or tentacles of the animal could have been protruded through this :
always supposing the shell to have been external. Occasionally,
in the larger orthoceratites especially, the posterior portion of the
siphuncle is filled with a solid conical secretion of calcic carbonate,

286

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

which probably served as ballast to counteract the extreme buoy-
ancy of the shell, (see figure 232).

The Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods (thus limited) may be arranged
as first indicated by Barrande in two leading groups, named by
Fischer, Retrosiphonata and Prosiphonata. In the first, the funnel-
shaped sheaths which surround the siphuncle at each septum, point
backwards, and the latter forwards (as in most of the Arnmonitoidal
Cephalopods) ; but in Canada we have no known examples of the
Prosiphonata group. Canadian representatives of the Retrosiphonata
may be defined as follows :

A. SEPTA EXTENDING COMPLETELY ACROSS THE SHELL :

§ 1 . Aperture of shell contracted to a narrow orifice of definite
form. *

Shell, straight — Gomphoceras. Silurian to Carboniferous.
Shell, curved — Phragmoceras. Silurian.
Shell, enrolled — Lituites. Silurian.

§ . Aperture of shell essentially open :

Shell, straight — Orthoceras. Cambrian to Trias.
Shell, curved — Cyrtoceras. Cambrian to Permian.
Shell, enrolled — Nautilus. Silurian to Recent.

B. SMPTA INCOMPLETE, CONFINED TO ONE SIDE OF THE SHELL.

Representatives very imperfectly known : they form proba-
bly a single genus, Ascoceras confined to Silurian strata.

* A subdivision of this kind has been objected to, first, because an approach towards a
contracted aperture is seen occasionally in other genera of the tetrabranchiate series ; and,
secondly, because it is exhibited by both straight and curved forms. But in gomphoceras, &CM
the contracted aperture assumes a regular, definite shape ; and as it can hardly have been
present in the earlier-formed chambers of the shell, but only in the last, abruptly enlarged
body -chamber, it evidently indicates a marked change in the condition of the animal. As
regards the second objection, surely the definite shape of the aperture is quite as good a clas-
sification-character, used subordinately, as the external configuration of the shell. In the
recent classification of ZITTEL (Handbuch der Pal.) gomphoceras, because its shell is straight,
is placed in the family of the Orthoceratidce, whilst the slightlj -curved Cyrtoceras is placed in
a distinct family (Cyrtoceratidce) with Phragmoceras. And, in like manner, Trochoceras,
Nautilus, <fec., are formed into other distinct families, based on the shape of the shell. There
can be little doubt, however, that gomphoceras and phragmoceras are more nearly related than
gomphoceras and orthoceras ; and, on the other hand, that Cyrtoceras is more closely related
to orthoceras than to phragmoceras. Whilst adhering to the outer shape of the shell as a
leading-classification character in these tetrabranchiate forms, ZIT , EL departs from it entirely
in the more or less closely related Ammonitoidea (still represented by Owen and other author-
ities as tetrabranchiate), and he thus places the straight Baculites, the hooked H-amites, the
spiral Turrilites, rf;c.,in one family with Lytoceras and other completely enrolled nautiloidal
forms.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

287

?he genus Orthoceras is our most commonly occurring type of this
division. It presents a long, more or less conical shell, with simple
concave septa. The exterior surface of the shell is smooth or
delicately striated in most species ; but in some it is transversely
ringed, and in others marked with longitudinal ridges and furrows.
The Siphuncle is either central or excentric in position, and either of
small or large diameter. In the latter case it sometimes contains a
solid cone of calcareous matter, as shown in figure 232. Very
frequently it presents a so-called beaded form, expanded and con-
tracted at regular intervals (fig. 233), and this becomes especially
marked in certain forms from Lake Huron and elsewhere, regarded
by some geologists as forming distinct sub-genera under the names of
Actinoceras and Huronia. Figures of several of our characteristic
species, with examples also of other genera, are shown in the
annexed engravings.

FIG. 229.

FIG. 229. a.

FIG. 230. FIG. 235.

Explanation of figures :

Fig. 22,». Phragmoceras Hector. (Billings.) Guelph Formation.
229 a. Aperture of P. Hector.

Fig. 230. Lituites undatus (Hall). Lower Silurian.
Fig. 235. Ascoceras Townsendi (Whiteaves). Guelph Formation,
Ontario.

288

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

FIG. 232.

FIG. 233.

FIG. 231.

Explanation of figures :

Fig. 231. Orthoceras Lamarcki (Billings). Calciferous Formation.

Fig. 232. 0. (Endoceras) proteiforme (Hall). Trenton Forma-
tion.

Fig. 233. 0. (Ormoceras) crebriseptum (Hall). Hudson River
Formation.

Fig. 234. Part of siphuncle, natural size, of 0. (Huronia) vertebrale.
Niagara Formation, Lake Huron.

Ammonouha : This Order, separated of late years, only, from the
Tetrebranchiata, comprises a number of extinct forms, more especially
characteristic of Mesozoic formations, although including two Palae-
ozoic genera, Clymenia and Goniatites. In most forms the shell is
convolute or closely enrolled ; but straight, curved, spiral and other
shapes are occasionally presented, especially by Cretaceous genera.
In all, the shell is divided into chambers by septa, which are slightly
undulated in Clymenia ; more prominently undulated or indented in
Goniatites ; and, as a rule, highly complicated with numerous lobes
or foliations in the Ammonites proper. The siphuncle is small and

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART IV. 289

simple. In Clymenia it runs along the inner margin of the shell ;
and along the outer margin in Goniatites, Ceratites and Ammonites
proper. In Clymenia, Goniatites, Ceratites and most Ammonites the
shell is enrolled or more or less nautiloidal in aspect, but is straight
in £aculites, hooked or only partially enrolled in Samites, spiral
in Turrilites, and variously modified in other forms.

A few examples of Goniatites have been cited from the Devonian
Rocks of Western Ontario, but these appear to be of rare occur-
rence, and are not well characterised. The Ammonites and other
representatives of the Order, although abundant in the cretaceous
strata of the North-West and British Columbia, are wholly unknown
in Palaeozoic formations, and are, therefore, never met with in the
rocks of Central Canada.

Dibranchiata : — This Order — distinguished by the presence of two
branchiae, and the possession of eight or ten powerful arms or
prehensile organs furnished (typically) on their inner side with
hooked suckers — is rich in living representatives. The Argonaut,
Octopus, Sepia or Cuttle-fish, Squid, Spirula, and the extinct
Belemnites, are its principal types. The female Argonaut— the so-
called " paper Nautilus" — secretes an external boat-shaped shell,
consisting of a single chamber. In all other forms of Dibranchiate
Cephalopods, there is only an internal, often horny, shell; or the
animal is practically without a shell. The Order is commonly sub-
divided into two sub-Orders : — Octopoda, with eight arms, and
Decapoda with eight arms and two longer tentacles. In the living
spirula and the extinct belemnites (both belonging to the latter
sub-division), the internal shell is furnished with a " phragmocone" or
set of air-chambers divided by simply concave septa, and thus,
resembling to some extent the external shell of the Tetrabranchiate
and Ammonitoidal Cephalopods.

Remains of this sub-Order are unknown in Palaeozoic rocks ; and
with the exception of the belemnites, confined to Mesozoic strata,
they are rare in higher formations.

19

290 MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

SUB-KINGDOM VIII.

TUNICATA.

The forms of this sub-Kingdom— Tunicates or Ascidians — were
classed until recently among the Molluscoidea, and are still placed
there by many authorities. They comprise a series of marine ani-
mals of small size, in which the body is enclosed in a thick, sack -like
integument. Some are simple, others compound organisms, at least
in the adult state. They have been raised to their present position
from certain very striking resemblances between the young ascidian
aid the amphioxus or lancelet, first detected by Kowalewsky in
1866. As the amphioxus is now definitely regarded as a low form
of the fish class, the tunicates are thus looked upon as constituting a
connecting link between the invertebrata and higher types. Apai't
from this, they have no palseontological interest, fossil forms being
entirely unknown.

SUB-KINGDOM IX.

VERTEBHATA.

This sub-Kingdom includes all animals of bilateral symmetry, pos-
sessing a vertebrated backbone, or a permanent chorda dorsalis. or
both. Limbs may be present or absent. Vertebrates thus comprise,
typically, all animals with internal cartilaginous or bony skeleton.
The only exception is the gelatinous Amphioxus or Lancelet; but a
chorda dorsalis is present in this peculiar type, as in all embryonic
and some adult vertebrates.* The sub-Kingdom is separated into the
following classes: — 1, Fishes; 2, Amphibians; 3, Reptiles; 4,
Birds ; 5, Mammals. The annexed diagram shews the life-range and
relative importance at different epochs, so far as revealed by fossil
evidence, of these various Classes of Yertebrata.

* The chorda dorsalis or notochord is the forerunner or embryonic representative of the
vertebral column. In some fishes it is retained permanently, but in the great majority of ver-
tebrates it is merely a transitory organ.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART IV.

Existing Period
Cainozoic Periods.

Mesozoic Periods.

Palaeozoic Periods.

Archsean Periods.

As the remains of vertebrates in the rock formations of the
Provinces to which this book refers are practically of little import-
ance, it will not be necessary to enter into classification details.

A few spines belonging apparently to an extinct cestraciont shark
( Machcer acanthus sulcatus)h&ve been obtained from the Corniferons

FIG. 237. Spine of Castraciont (Maehceracanthus sulcatus.) Corniferous Formation.

and Hamilton formations of South Western Ontario ; and in the
succeeding Portage-Chemung formation ganoidal scales are occasion-
ally found. The spines are several inches in length, curved, and
more or less distinctly furrowed. The remains of several species of
ganoid fishes, in a more or less fragmentary condition, have also been
found of late years in the Upper Devonian rocks of Scaumenac Bay
in Eastern Quebec. These are referred to Pterichthys (or Bothrio-
lepis), Acanthodes and Phaneropleuron. See descriptions and figures
by Mr. Whiteaves in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada for 1886.

In the comparatively modern Post-Glacial deposits, entire skeletons
of some existing teleostean species — mallotus villosus (the capelin)^
and cyclopterus lumpus (the lump-sucker) — occur in clay modules at
Green's Creek on the Ottawa, and at other places in that district, at
considerable elevations above the present sea-level. Bones of a living
seal (phoca grcenlandica) occur in the same deposits. The Post-
Glacial sands a.nd clays around Hamilton and elsewhere have yielded
occasionally a few bones and teeth of our existing black bear (Ursus
Americanus), wapiti, beaver and other existing forms; together with

292

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

teeth and portions of the tusks of two extinct proboscidians : the
mammoth, an extinct elephant of the Asiatic type (probably Elephas
primigenius*), and the common mastodon (M. Ohioticus).

Fia. 238.
Molar tooth of Elephas pt itmgenius.

FIG. 239.
Molar tooth of Mastodon Oli.intii-n.-i.

:* It has been proposed to subdivide the genus Elephas into two distinct genera : Euelephax,
for the Asiatic type, with narrow, linear tooth-bands, short ears, &c.; and Loxodon, for the
African type, with tooth-bands of lozenge-like form, large ears and other more or less diver-
gent characters ; but this subdivision is not generally adopted. E. primigenius, again, is sub-
divided by some authorities into several species or sub-species, as E. Jucksmi, E. Aineri-
canus, &c.

PART V.

SYSTEMATIC OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF CEN-
TRAL CANADA, COMPRISING THE PROVINCES
OF ONTARIO AND QUEBEC.

As explained in preceding sections of this work, the various rock-
formations which make up the outer portion or so-called crust of the
earth do not form a single unbroken series, but belong to various
epochs of formation. These epochs comprise five primary divisions
or ages : determined partly by the superposition of their rocks, and
partly by the fossilized organic bodies which many of these rocks
contain. The ages fchus recognized are as follows :

5. The Present or Existing Age.

4. The Cainozoic Age.

0. The Mesozoic Age.
2. The Palaeozoic Age.

1. The Archaean Age.

These ages, although distinct in the main, offer, as in all historic
periods, a gradual passage from their older into their newer epochs.
The rocks by which they are made known to us are of three princi-
pal kinds : Sedimentary or Stratified rocks, represented by ordinary
sandstones and limestones, clay-slates, clays, sands, &c., many of
which contain the fossilized remains of plants and animals living on
the earth when the rocks in question were formed ; Foliated or
Stratiform-crystalline rocks, represented by gneiss, mica-schist, crys-
talline limestone, &c.; Eruptive rocks — partly crystalline, as granites
and syenites ; partly compact or aphanitic in texture, as ordinary
traps and basalts ; partly scoriaceous, as ordinary lavas ; and partly
vitreous, as obsidian.

In the Dominion of Canada, viewed in its entirety, examples occur
of all these rocks, and each of the five great geological ages is repre-
sented by rock-formations ; but in the separate Provinces of the
Dominion, the rock-representatives of some of the geological ages are
unknown. Thus within the boundaries of Ontario and Quebec there
are no known rock-formations of Mesozoic or Cainozoic age. Viewed

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

broadly, the older rock-formations lie in the northern and eastern
portions of the Dominion ; the newer, in the west. *

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.

The southern limit of this Province extends westward along the
St. Lawrence River, from a few miles above the junction of the St.
Lawrence and the Ottawa, through Lake Ontario, and the greater part
of Lake Erie to the River Detroit. Its south-western and western
limit runs through Lake St. Clair, Lake Huron and Lake Superior
as far as the mouth of Pigeon River, and from thence to the
north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods. Its north-west and
northern boundary runs from that point to Winnipeg River, and then
north-easterly by Lac Seul and St. Joseph's Lake, along the Albany
River to James' Bay, the southern point of Hudson's Bay ; and its
eastern boundary passes from the latter directly south to Lake Tem-
iscamingue, and from thence down the Ottawa to near the junction
of that river with the St. Lawrence. The area of the Province (ex-
clusive of the portions of the great lakes within its boundary) is com-
puted to equal 181,800 square miles.

On passing south-westerly, parallel with the River St. Lawrence
from the County of Glengarry, the eastern extremity of Ontario, we
traverse a gently undulating district, rising from about 100 to 25u
feet above the sea-level and extending from the Province boundary to
the vicinity of Brockville. This district is underlaid by limestones
and sandstones of Silurian and Cambrian age, and is of good fertility.
The Nation River flows through it in a north-easterly direction and
falls into the Ottawa. A little west of Brockville, a gneissoid^cj^s-
talline district, comparatively wild and rocky, is traversed for about
40 miles to the neighborhood of Kingston. This extends northwards
into the great Archaean region, which it connects, south of the St-
Lawrence, with the mountainous district of the Adirondacks. West
of Kingston, a gently-undulating, agricultural district, underlaid
mostly by Lower Silurian limestones, is again traversed. This ex-
tends, with an avergage elevation of about 250 feet near the shore of

* The rock-formations of Ontario and Quebec alone come under review in the present
work. A synopsis of the geology of the other Provinces will be found in the author's " Outline
of the Geology of Canada.

OF CENTRAL CANADA-^ PART V. 295

Lake Ontario, to Hamilton at the head of the Lake. Northwards
the ground rises in a succession of terraces to about 1,000 feet, and
then descends towards Lake Simcoe to about 700 feet above the level
of the sea. The northern edge of this Lower Silurian area, from
Kingston to Georgian Bay, abuts against the Archaean, gneissoid
region, and the junction of the Silurian limestones with the gneissoid
Laurentian rocks of the latter is marked by an almost continuous
line of small lakes. At Hamilton the ground rises abruptly into the
great escarpment known as the Niagara escarpment, which extends
from the Niagara River to Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay. West-
ward, the escarpment forms the edge of a broad table-land, which,
from an average elevation of about 1,100 feet, stretches on one side
to Georgian Bay (578 feet above the sea-level), and on others to Lake
Erie (565 feet) and the southern extremity of Lake Huron (578
feet). This high land is underlaid by Upper Silurian and Devonian
strata, and is of great fertility over the larger portion of its area.
The Manitoulm Islands in Georgian Bay are made up mostly of
Lower and Upper Silurian strata. All the other portion of the
Province except the remote and still imperfectly known region
around James' Bay, in which the strata are chiefly or wholly of
Upper Silurian and Devonian age, belongs essentially to the great
Archa3an region of Canada, and is underlaid by Huronian and Lau-
rentian gneissoid rocks, with a comparatively small development of
Lower Cambrian strata about Thunder Bay and a few other points on
Lake Superior. This vast Archaean region, although densely wooded,
is of a more or less wild and inhospitable character, and as a rule ill
adapted for agricultural occupation : but it abounds in mineral
wealth, and especially in ores of iron, copper and silver.

From this rapid outline of the topography and general features of
Ontario, it will be seen that three great geological areas may be
recognized within the limits of the Province. A line drawn from
James' Bay southwards to Lake Ontario will traverse these three
leading areas, as shewn in the annexed sketch-section :

SOUTH. Fig. 240.

With the exception of the remote and unsettled region around

296

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

James' Bay, these large areas may be conveniently divided, in ord<
to facilitate their description, into several smaller areas or districts,
as in the following distribution :

1. THE ARCHLEAN AREA.

la. The District of the Upper Lakes.
lb. The Eastern Archaean District.

2. THE SOUTHERN PALEOZOIC AREA.

2a. The Lower Ottawa District.
2b. The Lake Ontario District.
2C. The Erie and Huron District.
2d. The Manitoulin District.

3. THE NORTHERN PALEOZOIC AREA.

FIG. 241.
Sketch Map of Province of Ontario, shewing geological areas.

Explanation : The diagonally shaded space shews the great Archaean area :
la indicating the District of the Upper Lakes, and lb the Eastern Archaean
District.

The horizontally shaded space shows the Southern Palaeozoic area : 2a de-
noting the Lower Ottawa District ; 2b, the Lake Ontario District ; 2C, the
Erie and Huron District ; and 2d, the Manitoulin District.

The vertically-shaded space (3) indicates the portion of the Northern False -
ozoic area lying within the Province boundary.

S=Lake Superior ; M=Lake Michigan ; H=Lake Huron ; E=Lake Erie ;
and 0=Lake Ontario. The unshaded district on the right is part of the
Province of Quebec.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 297

DISTRICT OF THE UPPER LAKES.

This district may be described in general terms as extending west
of Lake Temiscamingue, over the almost entire north-west portion of
Ontario, exclusive of the still little known Palaeozoic region around
James' Bay. It forms for the greater part a densely-wooded, but
rugged and mountainous region, broken up by numerous bodies of'
water, and underlaid essentially by crystalline and semi-crystalline
rocks of the Laurentian and Huronian series. The surface of Lake
Temiscamingue is 612 feet, that of Lake Huron 578 feet, and that of
Lake Superior 600 feet above the sea, From these levels the ground
rises more or ]ess abruptly to an average height of 1,000 to 1,500
feet, with here and there a few points of still greater elevation. The
rocks within its area comprise : ( 1 ), representatives of the Lauren-
tian and Huronian series, occupying, as remarked above, the greater
part of its surface ; (2), some succeeding strata of supposed Lower
Cambrian age j (3), many eruptive granites and trappean masses;
and (4), overlying Glacial and Post-Glacial superficial deposits.

Laurentian and Huronian rocks : — The Laurentian rocks of this
district consist for the most part of ordinary red and gray gneiss, in
more or less inclined and often nearly vertical beds, or presenting a
highly contorted lamination. These alternate with darker beds con-
taining hornblende, or in some cases augite, and with occasional
bands of crystalline limestone. Black tourmaline or schorl and
opaque dark red garnets are among the more commonly-occurring
accidental minerals of these gneissic rocks. The Huronian repre-
sentatives, although distinct enough in their entirety, closely resemble
in many cases the Laurentian rocks of the district, and cannot always
be readily separated from these. As a rule, however, the texture is
less crystalline or less granitoidal, and slaty or semi-crystalline con-
glomerates appear among them. Quartzites, varying in tint from
colorless or pale green to dark gray and black, are especially abund-
ant ; and many of these hold pebbles or fragments of jasper or of
gneiss, or pass into siliceous slates or slaty conglomerates. In some
cases also they are more or less feldspathic, and consist of an intimate
mixture of quartz and orthoclase or other feldspar. In addition to
these quartzites and slate conglomerates, dark green chloritic and
hornblendic rocks form the more characteristic representatives of the
Huronian series.

298

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Fio. 242.

The dotted line in this diagram
indicates the level below which the
rocks are concealed.

The stratigraphical relations of the two
series, Laurentian and Huronian, in this
district, have not yet been clearly made
out. The mineral characteristics, and
especially the presence of conglomerates
holding gneissoid and other fragments,
lead undoubtedly to the conclusion that
the Huronian beds are of later formation
than the Laurentian; but, as pointed out by Dr. Selwyn, the Huronian
appear in many places to pass under the latter. This can only be
explained by the assumption of great overturned or reversed dips*
as shewn roughly in fig. 242.

As regards distribution, whilst the Laurentian rocks cover perhaps
the greater portion of the district now under description, large areas
within it are occupied by Huronian beds. The latter form essen-
tially a series of wide bands ranging in a north-east and south-west
direction. The largest perhaps of these Huronian areas lies immedi-
ately west and south-west of Lake Temiscammgue, extending in the
latter direction to near Killarney on Georgian Bay, and along the
north shore of Lake Huron and the back country to beyond Goulais
Bay in the south-east angle of Lake Superior. This area is traversed
for about miles by the Canadian Pacific Railway, from the Wah-
nahpitae River, by Sudbury, to Spanish Forks, where Laurentian
rocks come up ; and fine sections may be seen in the railway cuttings,
especially in the vicinity of Sudbury Junction, and westward, where
large deposits of copper ore occur. The copper pyrites of Eagle Lake
(near Lake Huron) and that of the Bruce Mines, now apparently
exhausted, occur in quartz veins traversing the same Huronian for-
mation. About Sudbury and along the branch line to the Algoma
Mills on Georgian Bay the Huronian quartzites and conglomerates
are broken through by many dykes and erruptive masses of diorite
and syenite. Another Huronian area of considerable size extends
around Michipicoten Harbour, and along Michipicoten, Magpie and
Dog Rivers, for some distance inland. Here the rocks are more or
less ferruginous, and are broken through by some large granitic
masses. Huronian beds occur also further west on Lake Superior
along the course of Pic River. And again, with granitic intrusions,
in the back country between Black Bay and the International boun-

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

299

dary on Pigeon River. Long belts of Huronian rocks range also
towards the north-east from the eastern shore of Lake Nepigon.
Still further west, Huronian beds, mostly in the form of hornblendic*
chloritic and nacreous schists, with some clay-slates and quartzites,
extend around the shores and through the numerous rocky islets of
the Lake of the Woods. On the north-east shore and adjacent
islands of this lake, especially round Big Stone Bay, gold-bearing-
quartz veins have been opened at several localities. Eruptive gran-
ites are of common occurrence also throughout this portion, of the
Huronian area.

Lower Cambrian Strata : Animikie and Keweenian Formations :
—The actual age of these formations is still somewhat uncertain, but
they belong most probably to an early Cambrian period. But
although of post-Archa3an age, they form part of the great Archaean
region of North-western Ontario, and are thus legitimately described
with the latter. They were designated originally by Sir William
Logan as the " Upper Copper-bearing R.ocks of Lake Superior."
Two series or separate formations are recognized. The lower forma-
tion, now known as the Animikie formation,* is made up principally
of black slates with subordinate stratifications of white, gray and
black chert (in places antLracitic), dark gray ferruginous dolomite,
occasional layers of altered sandstone, and bands of trappean matter,
mostly composed of dark hornblende and greenish white feldspar,
and frequently porphyritic. An enormous trappean overflow, with
well-marked sub-columnar structure, caps the entire formation, as
seen in the bold promontary of Thunder Cape, as well as at McKay's
Mountain, and on Pie Island and elsewhere around Thunder Bay.
The higher formation, known as the Keweenian (or Keweenian and
Nepigon), consists of white and red calcareous sandstones and marls,
beds of conglomerate, and numerous interstratified trappean bands, the
whole overlaid as in the lower series by a great trappean overflow'
These traps or greenstones are more or less compact or fine-granular in
texture as regards those which occur west of Thunder Cape and which
are thus associated with the Animikie series \ whilst the more east-
ern displays, or those connected more especially with the higher

* The earliest name bestowed on this series was that of the Kaministiquia Formation,
in the first edition of this work, published in 1864. The name was derived from the Kaminis-
tiquia River of the Thunder Bay country, along the course of which these rocks are princi-
pally developed.

300

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Keweenian series are very generally amygdaloidal (see page 182).
Both series are traversed by numerous trappean and dioritic dykes
(often distinctly porphyritic) in which a transverse columnar struc-
ture, as first pointed out by Sir William Logan, is very conspicuous.
Both series also are interpenetrated by mineral veins carrying native
silver, silver-glance, galena, zinc blende, copper-pyrites, and other
ores, some of which are more or less auriferous. These are referred
to below.

The Animikie formation extends from Pigeon River eastward
across the Kaministiquia and around the shore of Thunder Bay to a
little beyond Thunder Cape. The Keweenian formation stretches
from this point around Black Bay (on the west shore of which it
abuts against a large mass of granite), and across Nepigon Bay, St.
Ignace and adjacent islands ; and it occupies also a broad area on
the south, west and north sides of Lake Nepigon. Michipicoten
Island with its cupreous greenstone dykes, and one or two headlands
on the east shore of Lake Superior, likewise belong to this series.

Superficial Deposits : — Over the floor of crystalline rocks by which
this vast region is essentially underlaid, Drift clays and boulders, and
Post-Glacial clays and sands, with other recent accumulations, are
spread in many places. Glacial furrows and striae also are seen in
numerous localities. The prevalent direction of the striae is decidedly
towards the south-west, although some run nearly south, others east
of south, and others, again, almost east and west. Where commonly
seen two or more sets of striae occur together and thus intersect each
other. Drift clays are seen in many of the river channels, and
boulders are of very general distribution. The latter are accumu-
lated in some places in long ridges or morains at the opening of
valleys or along the lower slopes of hills. Whilst many of these
boulders are of essentially local origin — and thus consist on the north
shore of Lake Huron of jasper-conglomerate, quartzite, and other
Huronian rocks, and of Laurentian and Copper-Bearing rocks about
Lake Superior — examples of limestone boulders, containing Middle
or Upper Silurian and Devonian fossils, occur in places throughout
the region. These latter must have come generally from the northern
country which lies beyond the height of land and extends north-east-
erly to Hudson's Bay. The Post-Glacial deposits of the district con-
sist in their lower beds of stratified clays and sands, referred by the

CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

Survey to the " Saugeen " division ; and in their higher beds, of ridges
and widely-spread accumulations of fine sand only, referred to the
" Algoma " series. The stratified clays (of gray, red, and buff
colors) are seen in places on the north shore of Lake Huron and
St. Mary's River, and prominently in the high terraces around the
Sault, as well as on the Pic River, and in the ancient banks of the
Kaministiquia and other rivers of Lake Superior. The higher sands
are also displayed in the Kaministiquia banks, and more or less
throughout the Nepigon country, where they form in places hills and
ridges of considerable elevation. Also on the Pic River, and largely
around Michipicoten Harbour, and on the Goulais River ; and along
nearly all the river valleys, and over many intervening tracts of
country north of Lake Huron.

Economic Minerals : — At many localities within this vast region,
and notably in the Huronian, Animikie and Keweenian areas, the
presence of great mineral wealth has been fully proved. But very
little has been done in the way of actual mining. Many of the so-
called mines of the district are merely mineral locations on which
only a few test pits have been sunk. And where mining has been
attempted, it has in several instances been prematurely abandoned
owing to want of capital or other causes. Somewhat extensive opera-
tions, however, are now being carried on in the vicinity of Sudbury,
and at the Rabbit Hill and Beaver Mines north of Thunder Bay.
The more important metalliferous localities are given in the following
list:

Gold : — This metal has been found both in the free state, and in
small quantities varying from a few pennyweights to over an ounce
per ton, in the copper-ore deposits of Sudbury and surrounding coun-
try, in Huronian rocks. Also in the same geological formation at
the Lake of the Woods, chiefly around Big Stone Bay, where it occurs
in quartz veins with iron and copper pyrites, zinc blende, &c. The
principal "mines" are known as the George Heenan, Winnipeg
Consolidated, Keewatin, Gold Hill, Pine Portage, and Sultana
Mines, but of late little or no work has been done upon them. Gold-
bearing pyrito-quartzose veins occur also in Huronian rocks at Vic-
toria Cape, Lake Superior ; and in the dark slates of the Animikie
formation north and west of Thunder Bay, but in that district the
ores are chiefly argentiferous. In a vein carrying galena, zinc blende

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

and copper pyrites in the Keweenian formation of Black Bay (Enter-
prise mine), the author found a small percentage of gold, averaging
about 18 dwts. in the ton of ore.

Silver: — Nearly all the pyritous veins of this district hold small quan-
tities of silver, more especially when the vein-matter carries intermixed
copper pyrites, iron pyrites, zinc blende and galena; but paying
amounts are confined almost wholly to the calc-spar (or calc-spar and
quartz) veins around or in the vicinity of Thunder Bay. These veins
traverse, as a rule, the black slates of the Animikie formation, but
some occur in the Keweenian series. The most remarkable of these
veins is that which runs through Silver Islet, a small rock lying a
few miles east of Thunder Cape, where the slate is in contact with a
comparatively broad and persistent dyke of sub-crystalline diorite.
The vein cuts this transversely and carries native silver, silver glance
and galena, with subordinate shews of pyrites, blende, plumbago, &c.,
in a gangue of calcite mixed in places with quartz and a little fluor
spar. Although now abandoned, the vein has yielded an amount of
ore (mostly native silver) valued at the lowest estimate at more than
three millions of dollars. The workings extended far under the level
of the lake; and when the mine was closed in 1884 its shaft had
been carried down to a depth of 1,230 feet. Other silver-bearing
veins traverse the Animikie formation immediately north and west
of Thunder Bay. Many of these have shewn very rich bunches of
ore, and several, comprising more especially the Rabbit Mountain,
Beaver Mountain, Badger, and Silver Mountain veins, are now being
successfully worked. A good deal of work has also been done on
the Shuniah or Duncan vein, but the work on this vein is now
stopped for a time. Other mining locations in this neighborhood, on
most of which, however, merely trial pits have been sunk, comprise
the Silver Creek, Singleton, Porcupine, Crown Point, Spar Island, and
other properties. Silver-bearing veins are also known on Pie Island
in Thunder Bay. The gold-bearing veins of the Shebandowan district
and the Lake of the Woods are likewise more or less argentiferous.*
Many of the Huronian copper ores of Sudbury also hold small
amounts of silver ; and a vein of argentiferous galena (some portions
of which hold over 100 oz. of silver in the ton) has been worked, off

* In some of the Shebandowan ores the presence of tellurium was first detected by
Dr. W. H. Ellis of the School of Practical Science, Toronto.

OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART V.

and on for some years with fluctuating results, near Garden River,
east of the Sault. Other argentiferous galena veins have been recog-
nized in the vicinity of Lake Terniscamingue.

Copper : — The Keweenian formation on Michipicoton Island, Lake
Superior, has yielded native copper in disseminated masses and small
strings, and somewhat extensive mining operations have been carried
on at the north-west of the island, although with not very encourag-
ing results. The same formation at Black Bay is traversed by veins
containing intermixed copper pyrites and galena, carrying small
amounts of gold and silver ; and at Prince's Location, west of Thun-
der Bay, both copper pyrites and copper glance occur in the dark
Animikie slates which there form the country rock. Veins contain
ing promising amounts of copper pyrites have been discovered also in
Neebing and other townships in the Thunder Bay district ; but the
most important deposits of copper ore lie in the Huronian rocks of
the region now under review. The veins at the Bruce and Wallace
mines, Lake Huron, after yielding large supplies of copper (in the
form of the yellow and horseflesh ores) for many years, are now
thought to be exhausted, and mining operations at that immediate
locality are abandoned. Some promising veins, however, are now
being opened at Echo Lake, a short distance inland. Vast deposits
of copper ore, probably in the form of both veins and stocks, occur to
the north-east, in the Sudbury district, and these are now beginning
to be largely worked.

Lead and Zinc Ores and Other Economic Minerals of the District :
— Promising amounts of galena occur in many of the veins which tra-
verse the Animikie, Keweenian and Huronian rocks around Thun-
der Bay and adjacent country, as in Nee bing Township, and at Silver
Lake and Black Bay. Also at Garden River, east of the Sault
Ste. Marie and elsewhere. In most of these veins the galena is inter-
mixed with blende and copper pyrites, and carries more or less silver.
Some comparatively broad veins carrying workable quantities of
zinc blende have been discovered at Blende Lake and Silver Lake
immediately adjacent to Thunder Bay, and also a few miles inland on
the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Large iron deposits, at
present only partially explored, occur at various localities within this
region, as in the vicinity of the Pic River, and at Michipicoten, Eagle
L ike, and elsewhere ; but some of these deposits hold a good deal of

304

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

siliceous rock-matter, and are rather ferruginous schists than work-
able ore. Many however are rich in metal, and are especially free
from titanium and phosphorus. Finally, it may be mentioned, the
granite masses which occur so abundantly within the district, yield
excellent building stone, and have been largely quarried near the
Lake of the Woods and at other spots for use in the construction of
the Canadian Pacific .Railway.

THE EASTERN ARCHAEAN DISTRICT.

This district is a south-eastern extension of the great archaean
district of the northern lakes, described above. It is separated only
conventionally from the latter, and chiefly for facility of description.
At the same time, it presents certain points of difference : more
especially in the absence of any clearly recognised Huronian strata,
and in the apparently total absence of the Animikie and Keweenian
Formations. Its bands of crystalline limestone differ also very
generally from those of the more northern and western region by
containing various crystalline silicates and other minerals : pyroxene,
zircon, garnets, brown tourmaline, phlogopite mica, apatite, and
graphite, being especially prevalent.

Its north-western boundary is a conventional line running from
Lake Temiscamingue to a short distance beyond French River on the
north shore of Georgian Bay. Its northern and north-eastern
boundary is the river Ottawa to the vicinity of Arnprior ; and frcm
this point its eastern limit runs south by Pakenham, Carleton Place,
Perth, and Charleston Lake, to the St. Lawrence. The rocks of the
district form a narrow-belt along the St. Lawrence, roughly, between
Brockville and a few miles west of Gananoque. From the latter
point, its southern boundary passes through the back townships of
Frontenac, Acldington, Hastings, Peterborough, and Simcoe, and
strikes Georgian Bay near the mouth of the Severn. The average
elevation is about 800 feet above the sea. Lake Nlpissing lies at an
elevation of 640 feet, but the ground to the south and east of the
lake is considerably higher. Around Haliburton, for instance, the
elevation above the sea-level exceeds 1000 feet. Lake Nipissiiig is
its largest body of water. Numerous smaller lakes, as Lake Opiongo

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V.

305

and the Muskoka lakes, lie within its area ; and an almost continu-
ous chain of these extends along its southern border. As a rule,
the country is of a broken, hilly character : vast masses of gneissoid
rock standing in many places high above the ground. The entire
district, however, is more or less densely wooded.

Gneissoid, Laurentian rocks underlie the district generally. These
consist for the greater part of ordinary and hornblendic gneisses,
traversed by numerous granite veins, and interstratified with subor-
dinate beds of dark-green pyroxenic rock, crystalline limestone,
quartzite, and siliceous slate, — some beds of conglomerate appearing
in places near the upper part of the series. The green pyroxenic
bands are mostly associated with deposits of iron ore. In some parts
of the district, long rugged belts of red syenitic granite (as seen in
the Huckleberry Hills near Marmora, and elsewhere) traverse the
country in a general N.E. and S.W. direction, and produce a syn-
clinal structure in the intervening tracts. At many spots, as around
Stoney Lake and elsewhere, the gneiss is almost free from mica ;
and where it is traversed by granite veins, the latter are usually very
feldspathic and more coarsely granular than the gneiss. Good
exposures occur more cr less all over the district, especially on the
lake shores and islands, and along the high ridges which traverse the
district generally. The beds at most spots are tilted at high angles,
and are frequently much corrugated and contorted, as shewn in the
annexed sketch.

Outliers: — The Laurentian rocks
of this district are overlaid here and
there by outlying patches of Lower
Silurian strata. On the Bonnechere
Elver in Renfrew, and in the vicin-
ity of Pembroke, outliers of this FIG. 243.

kind, composed of light-coloured Portion of a granite vein traversing con -

. torted micaceous-gneiss. Vicinity of Hali-

Chazy sandstones and Black River burton, Ontario,
limestones, rest directly on the Laurentian gneiss. Several outliers
of Black River and Trenton limestone (see under the Lake Ontario
District) cover detached areas of considerable extent in the gneissoid
country immediately north of Madoc in the county of Hastings.

Drift deposits : — Over many portions of the district, unstratified
clays with boulders of gneissoid rock, and higher or post-glacial
20

306

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

stratified clays and sands, are largely distributed ; and it is chiefly
where these occur that the district admits of agricultural occupation.
Glacial strise of this period are seen on the exposed surfaces of
many of the harder rocks. In some localities, as in most parts of
Renfrew and other eastern sites, the striae have a very general south-
easterly direction ; whilst in the west, as about Lake Nipissing and
Georgian Bay, and in the northern parts of Hastings, Peterborough,
and Victoria, the prevalent direction is towards the south-west.

Economic Minerals : — This district is especially rich in deposits of
iron ore ; and, in addition, it contains auriferous mispickel, galena,
apatite, marble, and mica, in workable quantities The iron ore con-
sists chiefly of magnetite (see page 83), but valuable deposits of
hematite replace this at some localities. As a rule, these oxidized
ores form large irregular masses or " stocks," and are very generally
associated with the green pyroxenic rocks and the crystalline lime-
stones of the district. Many are exceedingly rich and pure, holding
from 65 to 70 per cent, metallic iron,* with consequently very little
intermixed rock-matter ; and although pyrites is occasionally present,
the amount of sulphur and phosphorus is in general quite low. But
some of these magnetites are rendered unmarketable in consequence
of the presence of titanium in comparative excess. An enormous
deposit of titaniferous magnetite occurs on lot 35 of the 4th con-
cession of Glamorgan ; and another in the Township of Tudor
in North Hastings. t The deposits of workable ore, however, far
exceed in number those which are unavailable from the presence of
titanium. These workable deposits occur all over the district, and
their presence in new localities is constantly being discovered. Some
of the best known occur in the townships of McNabb, Bedford, Crosby,
Sherbrook, Wollaston, Faraday, Glamorgan, Tudor, Madoc, Marmora,
Belmont, Limerick, Minden, and Snowden.j

*The maximum percentage of metallic iron in perfectly pure magnetite is 72.41. and in
hematite, 70. See descriptions of these ores in Part II.

t See descriptions and analyses by the author, in Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada
for 1884. Analyses and brief descriptions of many of the iron ores of Central Canada, by the
author, will also be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1885.

J Other townships will no doubt be rapidly added to those of the present list. It should be
pointed out, however, that as these iron ore deposits are essentially in the form of "stocks,''
great care should be exercised in determining the probable dimensions of a deposit, before
purchasing, or putting up expensive works in connection with it. Happily, in the diamond
drill, we have the means of readily testing the size and purity of ore-masses of this character.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V.

307

The auriferous mispickel of the district occurs in the form of veins,
running mostly parallel with the stratification, in the township of
Marmora. The mispickel (see page 77) is essentially in a quartz
veinstone in which " free gold " is often visible. Bitter spar or
dolomite usually accompanies the quartz; and iron pyrites, brown and
blackish-green mica and other minerals are also commonly present.
The veins have a general N.N.W. and S.S.E. direction, and dip
westerly at an average angle of 30° or 35°. A layer of talcose slate
forms in most cases one or both of the walls. The annexed sketch-
section, fig. 244, shews the general character of the ground in the

.C R

WEST. FIG. 244. EAST

more southern portions of the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh
concessions of the township. H, indicates the syenitic Huckleberry
Hills ; R M, the River Moira, here reduced to a comparatively small
stream ; C R, Crow River, with the site of Marmora village adjoining;
L, the inclined Laurentian beds ; and S, the overlying and near-ly
horizontal Lower Silurian strata. The shaded portion of the Laur-
entian rocks indicates the principal site of the gold-bearing veins.
The amount of gold carried by the mispickel of these veins, varies
from one or two to seven or eight ounces in the ton ; and the average
yield of the undressed veinstuff, generally, is rarely less, and com-
monly higher, than from fifteen to eighteen dwts. per ton of ore.
The gold averages in fineness about 23 carats, very little silver being
combined with it. The large amount of arsenic in the mispickel
also adds to the value of the ore.

Galena veins* occur within the district in the townships of Lough-
borough, Bedford, Lansdowne, Ramsey, Galway, Somerville, Tudor,
Marmora, Lake, Limerick, and elsewhere ; but hitherto these veins
have not been successfully worked.

Apatite — the " phosphate" of commerce — occurs in North Burgess
and North Elmsley, and at other localities in the country between

A few borings put down just beyond the supposed limits of the deposit, and in the central
part of the latter, will prove its extent and depth; and the cores brought up by the drill will
show the character of the deposit throughout its mass.

308

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Kingston and Perth, mostly in veins associated with calcite, phlo-
gopite, and pyroxene. At present however, these deposits are
practically idle, the phosphate now shipped from Canada coming
essentially from the left bank of the Ottawa in the Province of
Quebec. The township of Burgess has also yielded some good mica ;
and marble quarries have been opened, among other places, in the
townships of McNabb, Fitzroy, Barrie, and Elzevir. The tine grey
marble of Arn prior in the township of McNabb, has been largely
used in the interior of the Parliamentary Buildings at Ottawa.

THE LOWER OTTAWA DISTRICT.

This is essentially an agricultural area, underlaid by Palaeozoic
formations in comparatively undisturbed stratification. It occupies
the country between the right bank of the Ottawa and the left bank
of the St. Lawrence, extending to the Province boundary near the
junction of these rivers. On the west, it is bounded by a line ex-
tending roughly from Brock ville to the vicinity of Perth, and from
t"he latter point to the Ottawa a little north of the mouth of the
Madawaska. It presents a generally level surface, although some
bold escarpments, in part connected with faults, occur within its
limits, especially around Ottawa city, and in the townships of Cumber-
land, Alfred, L'Orignal and Hawkesbury. The height above the sea
at the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers, is about 60
feet; and at the foot of the Chaudiere Falls, about 118 feet. From
these levels, the district rises near its north-west boundary to about
400 feet, and its average elevation may be placed at from 250 to 300
feet above the sea. In some parts of Cumberland and other town-
ships, extensive swamps occur, but viewed generally, the district is
well timbered and of good fertility. The Rideau Canal passes
through its central portion, and a large part of its more southern
area is drained by the South Nation River, which rises near the St.
Lawrence in Edwardsburg, and flowing north-east, falls into the
Ottawa, in the township of Planta genet.

The strata of the district belong to the Cambrian and Lower
Silurian series, but these are overlaid in many places by Drift

CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

309

leposits and still more recent accumulations. The Cambrian strata
comprise representatives of the Potsdam aiid Calciferous formations ;
and the Lower Silurian series — or " Cambro-Silurian " of the present
Survey — is made up of Chazy, Trenton, Utica, and Hudson River
beds. These strata, as a rule, are practically horizontal, or dip at an
angle only of two or three degrees.

The Potsdam strata are mostly brown, red, and white sandstones,
with some quartzose conglomerates and a few interstratified beds of
dolomitic limestone. They form a more or less continuous belt of
no great width, curving from the St. Lawrence, below Brockville,
north-westerly to the township of Bedford, and from thence in a north-
easterly direction to Pakenham on the Ottawa. Instructive exposures
may be seen on the river bank between Brockville and Prescott,*
at Charleston Lake in the township of Escott; in the vicinity of
Perth (where Protichnites and Climactichnites impressions, figures
116, 117, occur); at Otty Lake in Drummond ; and at various
places in the township of Nepean, where the formation is represented
by a white, fine-grained sandstone. Fossils are rare, but at some
spots, the small, narrow-beaked brachiopod, lingula acuminata, and
the still problematical " scolithus cavities/' are present in the sand-
stone beds. The Protichnites and Climactichnites impressions occur
more especially on ripple-marked sandstones in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Perth.

The Calciferous strata, which consist chiefly of dolomitic and sandy
limestones — the " bastard limestones " of the country parlance — ex-
tend over a considerable area along the inner edge of the Potsdam
belt more especially in the Counties of Leeds, Grenville, Lanark,
Carleton, and Russell. The principal fossils in these strata, comprise,
a small narrow lingula, L MantelU ; a low-spired gasteropod
Euomphalus (or Ophileta) compacta ; some Pleurotomarice, not unlike
fig. 219 ; and the orthoceras 0. Lamarki. Exposures occur on the
river-bank near Prescott ; at Smith's Falls and elsewhere on the
Rideau canal; and at various points in the townships of Oxford,
Young, and Edwardsburg; but throughout its extent it is much
obscured by overlying Drift deposits.

* Near Brockville, at several spots, the lower Potsdam conglomerates may be seen to rest
un conformably on Laurentian gneiss. A small outlier of these conglomerates was observed
by the writer under similar conditions at the western extremity of the gneissoid belt near
Gananoque.

310

fERALS AND GEOLOGY

The other portions of this district, extending to the Ottawa river,
are occupied by Lower Silurian formations. The first of these in
ascending order, the Chazy formation, is made up principally of
light-coloured, thin-bedded sandstones, followed in places by grey or
dark-brown limestones largely employed in the manufacture of hy-
draulic cement or " water-lime." In these limestones, examples of
the ostracod Leperditia Canadensis (fig. 165), or a closely allied
species, are especially numerous. The .brachiopod Rhynconella plena
(fig. 190) is also very characteristic, and examples occur in great pro-
fusion throughout most of the Chazy strata. Camerella varians
(fig. 192) is another characteristic Chazy type. Many other brachi-
opods, with Illenus globosus (fig. 170) and other trilobitos, and
numerous gasteropods ( ' Murchisonia, Pleurotomaria, etc.} are of
common occurrence in these strata. In outlying patches on the
gneissoid rocks near Pembroke, etc., in Renfrew, some of the lower
Chazy beds contain small nodular masses of a dark-brown colour,
regarded as fish-coprolites. They consist of impure phosphate of
lime mixed with shells of lingulae in a fragmentary condition. In
these beds also examples of Lingula Lyelli (fig. 205) and pleuroto-
marise are abundant. Good exposures of the Chazy formation,
generally, occur elsewhere at L'Orignal and Hawkesbury on the lower
Ottawa, and at various points in Lochiel, Cornwall, Nepean, Huntly,
and adjacent townships.

The Chazy beds are succeeded by Black River and Trenton strata,
mostly represented by very fossiliferous limestones of a dark grey
colour. These occur in force about Ottawa City, as well as in Cum-
berland township, and throughout the Counties of Russell, Stormont,
and Ca.rleton, generally. Among the more typical fossils, the follow-
ing may be especially cited: Glyptocrinus decadactylus (fig. 154),
Lecanocrinus elegans, and other crinoids, mostly however in the form
of stem fragments; many cystideans as Glyptocystites Logani, etc.,
(fig. 158); Hemicystites Billingsii (fig. 161); numerous brachiopods,
as Strophomena alternated (fig. 194), Orthis testudinaria (fig. 191);
various species of modiolopsis and other lamellibranchiates ; numerous
gasteropods, as Maclurea Logani (fig. 222), Pleurotomaria Progne
(fig. 219), Subulites elongatus (fig. 225), and others; various ortho-
ceratites; and several trilobites, more especially Asaphus platycephalic
(fig. 168), Cheirurus pleurexanthemus (fig. 173), and Trinncleus con-

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

•icus (fig. 172). Characteristic exposures of these strata occur
at Barrack Hill (Ottawa City) ; Green's Creek in East Gloucester ;
neir Dunning's Mills in Cumberland; near McCaul's Mills in
Clarence; at the High Falls of the South Nation .River in Cam-
bridge; and at various sites in L'Orignal, West Hawkesbury,
Lochiel, Kenyon, Cornwall and adjacent townships.

The Utica formation, consisting essentially of dark-brown or black
bituminous shales, overlies the Trenton, but occurs only in small
areas around Ottawa City, and in parts of Cumberland, Clarence,
and Plantagenet. Its more characteristic fossils, as occuring in the
shales of the Rideau and elsewhere in the immediate vicinity of
Ottawa,* include several graptolites, as Diplograptus iwistis (fig. 132)
and other species ; various crinoids, brachiopods, lamellibranchiates
and gasteropods; and the trilobites, Asaphus Canadensis (fig. 169)
and Triarthrus Beckii (fig. 177). The Hudson River Formation,
which follows the Utica Formation in ascending order, is also but
slightly developed in this district. It is represented essentially by
thin-bedded calcareous sandstones, seen here and there in the town-
ships of Osgoode and Russell, and at points near Ottawa City. The
more characteristic fossils of the Formation ( Leptcena sericea, fig.
196 ; Strophomena alternata, fig. 194 ; Ambonychia radiata, fig. 208;
Ccdymene Blumenbachii^ fig. 178; etc., etc.J, are referred to more
fully under this formation as occurring in the LAKE ONTARIO DISTRICT.

These various strata, as stated above, are overlaid very generally
by Drift deposits and other superficial accumulations. The Drift for-
mation is represented by boulder clays in some places, and by gravel
heaps and scattered boulders in others. These latter are arranged
here and there in long ridges which occasionally cause obstructions
and rapids in the river courses, as at Green's Creek and L'Orignal on
the Ottawa. At Barrack Hill and other places around Ottawa, and
also in other parts of the district, the limestones beneath the boulder
clay often shew ice-grooves and other signs of glacial action. The
grooves and striae have mostly a south-east direction, but some are
only a few degrees east of south. To these Drift or Glacial deposits
proper, succeed in many places beds of stratified clay, sand and gravel,
as a rule free, or practically free, from boulders. They contain shells

* See a complete list in papers by Mr. Ami, contributed to the Field Naturalists' Association
of Ottawa.

312

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

of marine or estuary species of mollusca now living in the St.
Lawrence Gulf. At Green's Creek, and at spots on the Madawaska,
200 feet above the present sea-level, some of these later deposits
contain also calcareous nodules inclosing well-preserved examples of
the capelin ( Mallotus villosus), lumpsucker (Cyclopterus lumpusj
and other small fishes of existing species, with occasional impres-
sions of modern leaves, as those of the populus balsamnifera, etc.
To still more recent formations belong the deposits of shell-marl
and peat, indicating the sites of ancient ponds and swamps, which
overlie the surface rocks of the district in Cumberland, Plantagenet,
Clarence, Gloucester and other townships. Several of these peat
deposits are of wide extent.

In addition to good building-stones, the more important economic
products comprise : The white sandstone of the Potsdam formation
of Nepean, available as a glass material ; the dolomitic limestone
of the Chazy formation of the same township, which furnishes
the celebrated " Hull Cement;" the " shell limestone," also belonging
to the Chazy strata, which is largely dressed at L'Orignal for
manteltops, tombstones, etc.; and the great peat beds referred to
above.*

LAKE ONTARIO DISTRICT.

This district, separated from the palaeozoic district of the Lower
Ottawa by the intervening gneissoid belt which crosses the St.
Lawrence between Brockville and Kingston and extends south-
wards into the wild region of the Adirondacks, is underlaid
essentially by Lower Silurian formations in nearly horizontal beds.
Viewed generally, the strata present a dip of about half-a-degree, or
less, towards the south-west ; and, thus, in proceeding westward
from Kingston to Hamilton we pass from older to newer formations,
as shewn (but with necessarily exaggerated dip, as in all ordinary
sections) in the annexed diagram. The latter, however, extending
still further westward, shews the outcropping strata of the Erie and
Huron district, as well.

The southern limit of the present district forms the entire Can-
adian shore of lake Ontario. Its eastern and northern limits are

* Dr Robert Bell, of the Geological Survey of Canada, has recently expressed the opinion
(Ottawa Evening Journal, Febuary 4th, 1888) that a supply of "natural gas" would probably
be obtained by boring at suitable sites around Ottawa City.

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V.

313

bounded by the crystalline, Archaean regions already described. Its
°J western boundary is the high escarpment which

runs from the Niagara river, near Queenston, in a
general westerly direction beyond Grimsby, to the
back of Hamilton, then northwards by Dunclas,
Georgetown, Bellefontaine and Orangeville, to the
northern part of Nottawasaga, and from thence
north-westerly by the " Blue Mountains," etc., to
Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay. From the latter
point, eastward, the district includes the shore of
the Bay to a short distance beyond the mouth of
the River Severn, where the crystalline rocks of
the Archaean region come up from beneath its
strata. The Lake Ontario District thus includes
portions of the Counties of Frontenac, Addington,
Hastings, Peterborough, Victoria, Simcoe, Peel,
Halton, Wentworth and Lincoln, with the whole
§ of York, Ontario, Durham, Northumberland and
gbc Lennox. Numerous lakes, of which Lake Simcoe

S

is the largest, lie within its area, or form a more
or less continuous band along its northern edge
where the Archaean country commences. The
River Trent, which rises in the latter, and flows
through a series of small lakes into the Bay of
Quint^ and Lake Ontario, is its most important
river. Among other streams flowing southwards
are the Salmon or Shannon, the Moira, the Don,
Humber, and Credit. Northward-flowing rivers
include the Scugog, which flows from the small
lake of that name, 800 feet above the sea-level, into
Sturgeon Lake ; the Holland river which flows
into Lake Simcoe, the northern waters of this
lake communicating by the Severn with Georgian
I Bay ; and the Nottawasaga, on the extreme west of
the district, flowing into Nottawasaga Bay, a broad
inlet of the Georgian Bay waters. In its surface features the district
is generally of an undulating character, with but few abrupt inequal-
ities of level. The ground rises gradually from Lake Ontario (232

314

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

feet above the sea) in a series of ridges or terraces running ii
general east and west direction. These ridges are composed of Drift
materials, mostly sand and gravels filled with boulders of various
kinds, brought down from northern sources during the Glacial and
Post-Glacial epochs, by glaciers or by floating icebergs, when the
land was necessarily beneath the sea (vide page 207). The highest
ridge in Albion and King townships has an elevation of from 700 to
750 feet above Lake Ontario, but becomes gradually lower in its east-
ern extension. Near the village of Stirling, in Hastings County, it
averages 515 feet above the ordinary level of the lake; and a few
miles east of this spot it merges into the general levels of the country.
Lake Simcoe to the north is 704 feet above the sea, and Balsam Lake
(the northern part of which lies within the crystalline area already
described) is still higher, its elevation being 820 feet above the sea.
Behnont Lake and Rice Lake are each nearly 600 feet, and Scugog
Lake (in the midst of the Drift ridges) is nearly 800 feet above the
sea level.

The strata of the District consist essentially of Lower Silurian
formations, overlaid extensively by Glacial and Post-Glacial deposits ;
but on its extreme eastern border a few indications of the (Upper
Cambrian) Potsdam formation have been recognised ; and along its
western limits, the (Upper Silurian) Medina and Clinton formations
outcrop beneath or upon the great Niagara escarpment, and connect
the Lake Ontario District with the Erie and Huron region of the
Province. These strata, apart from a fow subordinate anticlinals,
exhibit a slight inclination only towards the west or south-west; and
they are altogether free from intrusions of trappean or other eruptive
rocks. In ascending order, and succeeding each other in successive
outcrops from east to west, they comprise representatives of the
Potsdam, Black River and Trenton, Utica, Hudson River, Medina,
and Clinton formations.

The Potsdam formation is very sparingly represented. It occurs
in the form of a thin band (or in broken patches) of sandstone and
conglomerate lying along the south-western edge of the crystalline
gneissoid region in the townships of Loughborough and Storrington.
Exposures occur on Loughborough Lake and on Knowltoii and Eel
Lakes Some of the beds in Storrington are readily friable, and
yield a refractory sand employed as a lining for iron furnaces. The

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

315

it display is at the north end of Knowlton Lake, where the Potsdam
strata form a high cliff composed of thin-bedded, more or less ferru-
ginous sandstones of a red and brownish-green colour. A sandstone
bed of the same formation, available as a material for furnace hearths>
occurs at the Frontenac mining location in Loughborough township,
about 12 miles north of Kingston.

The Calciferous and Chazy Formations which intervene, in the Pa-
laeozoic area of the lower Ottawa, between the Potsdam and the Tren-
ton formations, have not been recognized within the present district.

The Trenton for Black River and Trenton) Formation is repre-
sented chiefly by dark -grey thick-bedded limestones overlaid by lime-
stone shales. The upper beds are in places exceedingly fossiliferous,
and most of the lower beds yield excellent building stones. One of
these latter beds is capable of employment, for the greater part, as a
lithographic stone. It forms a continuous band, running north-west
from the vicinity of Kingston, through Marmora, etc., to Georgian
Bay. The thickness of the formation in this district averages about
700 or 750 feet. The northern boundary runs from the St. Lawrence
a little east of Kingston, through North Hastings, Peterborough,
South Victoria, Ontario, and Simcoe, to near the mouth of the River
Severn on Georgian Bay — a chain of small lakes indicating its course
throughout the greater part of the distance. North of these lakes,
gneissoid Laurentian rocks occur in highly tilted beds, whilst the
Trenton (or Black River) strata, 011 the south, occupy a nearly hori-
zontal position. The southern boundary of the formation constitutes
the coast of Lake Ontario from Kingston to the neighbourhood of
Newcastle a few miles west of Port Hope. From that point the
formation turns towards the north-west, and passing across Dur-
ham, Ontario, and Simcoe, comes out on Nottawasaga Bay, west of
Collingwood. The intermediate country, however is very thickly
overlaid in most places by Drift and superficial deposits. Some of
the more frequently occurring fossils comprise : Lithophycus Ottawa-
ensis (fig. Ill); Stromatopora rugosa (fig. 127) ; Monticulipora (or
Stenopora) fibrosa (fig. 136); Columnaria alveolata (fig. 142);
Petraia corniculam (fig. 148) ; Glyptocrinus decadactylus (fig. 154) ;
Le-perditia Canadensis (fig. 165); Asaphus platyceplialus (fig. 168) ;
Trinudeus concentricus (fig. 172); Cheirurus pleurexanthemus (fig.
173;; Calymene Blumenbacldi (fig. 178); Strophomena alternata

316

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

(tig. 194) ; Leptcena sericea (fig. 196) ; Orthis testudinaria (fig. 197) ;
Orthis tricenaria (fig. 198); Platystrophia lynx (fig. 200); Orlicu-
loidea Circe (fig. 202) ; Linyula quadrata (fig. 206) ; Ambonyckia
radiata (fig. 208) ; Conularia Trentonensis (fig. 218) ; Pleurotomaria
Progne (fig. 219) ; Murchisonia gracilis (fig. 220) ; Madurea Logani
(fig. 222) ; Platyceras angidatum (fig. 223) ; Subulites elongatus (fig.
225) ; Orthoceras proteiforme (fig. 232).

Characteristic exposures of the Black River and Trenton strata of
this district may be seen more especially at the following spots :
Kingston city and environs, where the limestone beds contain in places
crystallized examples of celestine (page 131), gypsum (page 131),
and other minerals ; Clare River in Sheffield township ; Crow River
near Marmora ; Shannon ville ; River Moira at Belleville and else-
where ; Ox Point, Bay of Quinte' ; Rednersville on the south shore
of the Bay ; Trenton, Healy's Falls, and elsewhere, on the Trent
River ; environs of Peterborough ; river banks at Lakefield ; Quarry
near Burleigh Falls on Stony Lake ; Bobcaygeon ; Balsam Lake, south
shore ; Fenelon Falls ; Raver Scugog near Lindsay ; north east shore
of Lake Couchiching ; and Lake St. John in Rama township, where
the strata are seen in unconformable contact with the underlying
Laurentian gneiss.

The Utica Formation is made up almost entirely of dark -brown or
black bituminous shales, interstratified here and there with beds of
dark limestone, the total thickness of the Formation in this district
being under 100 feet. The shales weather light grey, and yield by
atmospheric disintegration a soil of much fertility. In some localities,
as in the townships of Collingwood and Whitby, they are sufficiently
bituminous to yield a considerable quantity of mineral oil by dis-
tillation. The Collingwood shales, for example, have yielded as much
as 20 gallons of oil to the ton of shale ; but the distilleries have
long been closed, in consequence of the large and cheap supply of
mineral oil furnished by the petroleum wells of Western Ontario
and the United States. The more characteristic Utica fossils com-
prise: Diplograptus pristis (fig. 132); Asaphus Canadensis, the
pygidium especially, (fig. 169); Triartkrus Beckii (fig. 177); Lingula
obtusa (fig. 207) ; Rhynconella increbescens (fig. 191), and some other
species which occur in both the underlying Trenton and overlying
Hudson River Strata — the formations constituting strictly a single

I

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

jroup. The trilobites Asaphus Canadensis and Triarthrus Beckii
appear however to be confined to the Utica strata. These range
along the shore of Lake Ontario from a little west of Port Hope to
a short distance west of Whitby ; sweeping from these points, in a
comparatively narrow band, towards the north-west, and coming out
on Nottawasaga Bay a mile or two west of Collingwood ; but within
the intervening space the formation is entirely concealed by over-
lying Drift and superficial deposits. Good exposures may be seen,
however, in the vicinity of Whitby, and on the lake shore under the
" Blue Mountains" a few miles west of Collingwood harbour.

The Hudson River Formation consists essentially of shaly thin-
bedded sandstones, mostly of a greenish-grey or drab colour but
weathering rusty-brown. These shaly sandstones, formerly known
as Lorraine shales, are interstratified here and there with a few cal-
careous beds. The total thickness of the Formation in this district
is about 750 feet. Its fossils are in great part identical with those
of the underlying Trenton and Utica beds, these three so called
formations forming properly a single subdivision of the Lower
Silurian series : dolomitic and other limestones characterising the
lower part ; bituminous shales (with more or less distinct fossils)
the central portion ; and arenaceous shales, holding many of the
lower limestone fossils, the upper part. Some of the more common
fossils of the Hudson River strata comprise : Climacograptus bicornis
(fig. 132); Diplograptus pristis (fig. 132*); Monticulipora fibrosa
(fig. 136); Glyptocrinus decadactylus (fig, 154); Galymene Blumen-
bachii=C. senaria (fig. 178); Asaphus platycephalus (fig. 168);
Trinucleus concentricus (fig. 172) ; Strophomena alternate (fig. 194 ) :
Leptcena sericea (fig. 196); Ambonychia radiata (tig. 208) ; Modiola
modiolopsis (fig. 209) ; Murchisonia gracilis (fig. 220) ; Bellerophon
bilobatus (fig. 221); Cyrtolites ( Bellerophon ) ornatus ; and Orthoceras
crebriseptum (fig. 233). The formation constitutes the shore-line of
Lake Ontario from the River Rouge, in the township of Pickering,
to the River Credit, west of Toronto. From these points, although
much obscured by overlying Drift and more recent deposits, it extends
to the north and north-west, and forms the shore of Nottawasaga
Bay in the townships of Collingwood, St. Vincent, Keppel and
Albemarle. Good exposures, at most of which fossils may be
obtained, occur on the banks of the Humber, Mimico, Etobicoke,

318

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

and Credit ; also at Point Boucher on Nottawasaga Bay, and at Cape
Rich, Point William, Cape Crocker, and Point Montresor, farther
west.

The Medina Formation is regarded as forming the base of the
Upper Silurian series It is chiefly made up of red marls and soft
red sandstones, interstratified with red and green arenaceous shales,
and capped by a bed of fine-grained sandstone — commonly known as
the "grey-band" — averaging about ten or twelve feet in thicknes?,
but presenting in places a thickness of over thirty feet. This grey
sandstone is largely quarried for building purposes in the township
of Nottawasaga, and at Dundas, Hamilton, and other places along
the great Niagara escarpment. The Medina formation, presenting
collectively a thickness of about 600 feet, extends along the shore
of Lake Ontario westward from the vicinity of the River Credit to
the escarpment (or so called " mountain ") at Hamilton ; and it
occupies the strip of land lying between the escarpment and the lake
as far as the Dominion boundary on the Niagara River. Northwards,
it extends through the^townships of East and West Flamborougb,
Nelson, Caledon, Mono, Mulmur, and Nottawasaga : from- whence,
turning westward, it continues along the course of the escarpment,
but with greatly diminished thickness, and loss of the " grey-band,"
to the base of the bold promontory known as Cabot's Head on
Georgian Bay. Fossils are of comparatively rare occurrence in this
formation. The principal comprise : the fucoid Arthrophycus Harlani
(fig. 113) and a small lingula, L. oblonga (fig. 127). The best ex-
posures occur about Wellington Square, Hamilton, Dundas, Queen-
ston, and Georgetown, and at the Dennis quarries in Nottawasaga.

The Clinton Formation which immediately succeeds the Medina,
consists at its lower part essentially of green, red, and greyish shales,
in places more or less ferruginous ; and at its upper part mostly of
dolomitic limestones. The lower portion should properly be referred
to the Medina Formation, and the upper part to the Niagara. The
lower shales hold casts, often in great abundance, of Arthrophycus
Harlani (fig. 113), and remains of a small coral (or bryozoon) Hdi-
pora fragilis. The formation, generally, follows the course of the
Niagara escarpment between the Niagara River and Georgian Bay —
gradually increasing in thickness, from a few feet to about 100 feet,
between these points. Conventionally, all the beds lying above the

)F CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

grey-band " and beneath the limestone containing shells or casts of
the brachiopod Pentamerus oblongus (fig. 193) are given to the Clin-
ton Formation. Exposures occur, chiefly, on the Well and Canal and
elsewhere in the vicinity of Thorold ; also, with greatly increased
thickness, immediately around Hamilton ; in road-cuttings at Dun-
das ; in the gorges of the Noisy and Mad Rivers in Nottawasaga ;
at spots on Beaver River ; and at Cape Chin, Cape Commodore,
and Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay. The celebrated "Thorold
cement " is manufactured from a limestone of this Formation.

Glacial and Post-Glacial Deposits : — The greater portion of the
Lake Ontario District is overlaid by clays, sands and gravels of the
Glacial and Post-Glacial periods. Beneath these deposits, many
strata, limestones especially, are seen when first uncovered, to be
striated and polished by glacial action. The striaB run in some
places towards the south-west, and in others towards the south-east ;
and the same rock-surface occasionally exhibits both S.W. and S.E.
striations. These so called superficial deposits admit in ascending
order of the following subdivisions : (i.) Boulder Clay formation ;
(ii.) Erie Clay formation; (iii.) Saugeen Clay and Sand formation;
(iv.) Artemisia Gravel formation; (v.) Algoma Sand formation; and
(vi.) Recent deposits, proper, as shell-marls, bog iron ore, and peat.

The Boulder Clay or " Till " consists of thick beds of boulder-
holding clay, without subordinate stratification. The boulders vary
in size from small pebbles to masses of considerable dimensions ; and
they consist for the greater part of gneissoid and other crystalline
rocks brought down from the Archaean northern region by glaciers
or icebergs during the long period of cold which more or less immedi-
ately preceded the existing epoch. See ante, page 207. Many of
the included boulders, even those of small size, shew marks of polish-
ing and striation. In some places, especially on ridges and high
lands within the district, the Drift is represented by accumulations
of boulders alone, without accompanying clay. Stratified ciays, also
holding boulders in some localities, overlie the unstratified drift clays
very generally, and are known as "Erie clays." They are more or
less calcareous, and yield white or light-coloured bricks. Deposits
occur at North Toronto, Cobourg, Belleville, Dundas, and numerous
other places within the district. The so called Saugeen clays (which
yield red bricks) and their accompanying sands succeed the Erie clay

320

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

deposit, and occur more or less all over the Province. Beds of coarse
gravel mixed with boulders, known as the Artemisia Gravel forma-
tion, occupying a somewhat higher horizon than that of the stratified
Saugeen clays and sands, occur especially (as regards this district)
along the base of the Niagara escarpment in the townships of Arte-
mesia, Osprey, Mulmur, Mono, and Albion, where they form the
chief mass of the " Oak Ridges." These latter extend from the es-
carpment eastwards, and rise in the township of King and adjacent
townships to elevations of from 700 to 760 feet, above Lake Ontario.
In many places the gravels are seen to be distinctly stratified, and
here and there they hold gneissoid and other boulders of large size.
The Algoma sands consist of still higher accumulations of white or
light-coloured lacustrine sands, practically free from stones or boulders,
and often shewing signs of oblique stratification. These lacustrine
sands occur extensively throughout the district, as seen along the
line of the Canadian Pacific Railway between Toronto and Peter-
borough, in cuttings on the Grand Trunk between Scarborough and
Hamilton, around Barrie on Lake Simcoe, and elsewhere. Many
fresh- water shells (Unio complanatus, Cyclas similis, Planorbis
trivolvis, Limncea palustris, etc.,) identical with those now living in
our lakes and streams, occur at various levels in these and other re-
lated beds — their presence in these deposits apparently indicating the
former union of our lake-waters into one vast fresh-water sea. In
this case, the water must have been held up in the east by a greater
elevation of the gneissoid belt of rock which crosses the St. Lawrence
between Brockville and Kingston, and expands into the wild district
of the Adirondack Mountains in the State of New York ; or perhaps
by an enormous glacier, descending from the latter region and ex-
tending northwards into Canada. The shells of recent species of
mollusca found in the Post-Glacial deposits east of this gneissoid
belt, belong to marine or brackish- water species : whilst those within
the Lake Ontario District, and country to the west, are all fresh-
water types. The most abundant of the recent deposits, proper, of
this region, are the beds of shell marl which occur at numerous local-
ities, forming the floor and margin of small lakes and swamps.
This substance is a white or light-coloured calcareous deposit, con-
taining minute shells of species of cyclas, planorbis, and other fresh-
water mollusca.

'RAL CANADA PART V.

THE ERIE AND HURON DISTRICT.

This district — occupied throughout by comparatively undisturbed
limestones and other strata of the Upper Silurian and Devonian
series, with overlying Drift clays and sands, and more recent super-
ficial deposits — is essentially an agricultural area of great fertility.
It lies immediately west of the Lake Ontario District, and is sepa-
rated from the latter by the great Niagara escarpment which runs, as
stated above, from the Niagara River — by Queenston, Thorold,
Grimsby, Hamilton, Dundas, Georgetown, etc., — to Cabot's Head on
Georgian Bay. On the south, the district is bounded by Lake Erie ;
and on the west by Lake Huron. The greater portion of its area
forms an elevated table-land of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet above the
sea. Along its north-eastern edge the ground rises in places to an
altitude of nearly 1,600 feet ; but it slopes gradually towards Lake
Erie on the south (565 feet above the sea), and towards Lake Huron
(578 feet above the sea-level) in the west. Its surface, except where
cut by river- valleys, is generally even ; and the district presents a
marked contrast to the lower region of Lake Ontario by the almost
total absence of inland bodies of water. It is traversed, however,
by many important rivers, and especially by the Grand River, flowing
into Lake Erie ; the Thames, flowing into Lake St. Clair ; and the
Maitland and Saugeen, flowing into Lake Huron. The eastern and
north-eastern boundary, along the great escarpment, is also cut through
by numerous smaller streams. These enter the Lake Ontario District,
consequently, through deep ravines, many of which are of a very
wild and picturesque character.

The strata of the district consist, in its more eastern portions, of
Upper Silurian representatives, with various Devonian formations in
the west. They follow each other (in ascending order) from north-
east to south-west, generally, and comprise : The Niagara formation
(with some Upper Clinton beds), the Guelph formation, the Onondaga
or Gypsiferous, and the Eurypterus or Lower Helderberg formations,
of the Upper Silurian series ; and the Oriskany, Corniferous,
Hamilton or Lambton, and Chemung-Portage formations, of Devonian
age. These strata, although practically undisturbed, are affected by
several moderate anticlinals running across the more central part of
the district in a general east and west or south-west direction ; and
21

322

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

it is thought that the petroleum of this part of the region has
brought towards the surface by fissures resulting from these anti-
clinals. A transverse or nearly north and south fold, forming a trough
or synclinal filled with higher Devonian strata (of the Hamilton or
Lambton formation), also occurs in the south-western portion of the
district between Lake Erie and the south point of Lake Huron.

The Niagara Formation in this district, is made up of dark-gray
calcareous shales and thick-bedded limestones, both of which are more
or less magnesian and bituminous. Its lower limit is regarded, con-
ventionally, as indicated by a magnesian limestone holding shells ot
the brachiopod Pentamerus oblongus (tig. 19 ); but this " Peiit-
amerus bed " is referred by the New York geologists to the upper
part of the underlying Clinton formation. At Niagara Falls, the
dark shales present a thickness of about 80 feet, and form the lower
portion of the escarped face over which the cataract breaks, whilst
the upper portion of the cliff is composed of thick-bedded limestones.
Along the gorge, the shales are mostly concealed by the slope or
talus of detrital matter which rests against the cliff face ; but they
may be seen on the side of the steep road which leads from the old
ferry to the Clifton House, and at several other spots. Some of the
beds of this formation yield excellent hydraulic lime, much of the
" Thorold cement " being manufactured from the lime obtained from
them. Many of the Niagara beds are rich in fossils. The more
common species comprise : The corals : Favosites Gothlandica (=F.
Niagarensis fig. 137,); and Halysites catemdatus (the so-called
"chain coral" fig. 139); the Bryozoon, Fenestella elegans (fig. 181);
the Brachiopods : Pentamerus oblongus (fig. 193); Orthis elegantula
(fig. 197) ; Spirifer Niagarensis and S. radiatus (fig. 184) ; and the
Trilobites, Calymene Blumenbachii (ranging upwards from earlier
strata, fig. 167, 178); Homalonotus delphinocephalus (fig. 179) and
Dalmannites limulurus (fig. 175). The formation extends a few
iniles westward from the edge of the great line of escarpment —
already described as running from the Niagara River, by Hamilton,
Georgetown, etc., to Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay — and then passes
under the succeeding Guelph formation. It thus marks the eastern
and northern limits of the table-land of which the Erie and Huron
district largely consists. Good exposures occur more especially at
the Niagara Falls and on the adjacent banks of the river (where the

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

323

limestones are overlaid by terraces of fresh-water clay and sand of
Post-Glacial age) ; also on the Welland Canal near Thorold ; along
the upper part of the escarpment or " mountain " by Grimsby,
Hamilton, Dimdas, Ancaster, Rockwood, etc. ; 011 the River Credit
in Caleclon, as at Bellefontaine and elsewhere, and on the Nottawa
and Beaver Rivers, where it forms high and precipitous cliffs ; at
various other points in Mulmur, Nottawasaga, Artemisia, and Eu-
phrasia ; about Owen's Sound ; and at Cape Paulet, Cape Chin, and
the upper part of Cabot's Head. In the immediate vicinity of Rock-
wood, some large caverns occur in a dolomitic limestone (thickly
interspersed with, crinoid stems) belonging to this formation ; and
deceptive veins and strings of galena have been noticed in the same
township (Eramosa), as well as in the Niagara strata of Mulmur
and Clinton.

The Guelph Formation is represented for the greater part by white
or light-coloured dolomites of a peculiar semi-crystalline or granular
texture, containing, among other fossils, large casts of a lamellibran-
chiate mollusk, the Megalomus Canadensis (fig. 210). The coral, Am-
plexus laxatus (fig. 143) ; the brachiopod, Trimerella acuminata (fig.
1:01) ; several species of Murchisonia, Holopea Guelphensis (fig. 224);
and Phragmoceras Hector (fig. 229), are also characteristic. The
formation extends over a considerable area, chiefly in the counties of
Waterloo, Wellington, and Grey, but it is greatly concealed by over-
lying Drift and other superficial deposits. The principal exposures
occur on the River Speed in the vicinity of Guelph ; at Elora, near
the junction of the Grand and Irvine Rivers, where the strata form
high cliffs ; also on other parts of the Grand River, as at Fergus,
Preston, and Gait ; near Hespeler, again, on the railway between
Guelph and Brantford ; and on the rocky Saugeen River in Bentinck.
At most of these localities excellent building-stones are obtained.

The Onondaga or Gypsiferous Formation consists, in Canada, of
thin-bedded dolomites of a yellowish or pale grey colour, associated
with greenish calcareo-argillaceous shales and with large masses or
irregular beds of gypsum. These deposits appear to have been largely
formed from precipitates thrown down in* ancient salt-lakes or bays
in which an active evaporation was going on. They contain only a
few obscure traces of organic remains ; but hopper-shaped and
prismatic casts, derived from crystals of ordinary salt, soluble- sul-

324

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

phates, etc., are not uncommon in some of their beds. The gypsui
is mostly of an earthy or granular texture, and is always more or
less mixed with carbonates. The formation enters Canada a short
distance above the Falls on the Niagara River, and includes the
whole of Grand Island in this portion of its area. From thence,
it follows the general outcrop of the Guelph formation to the vicinity
of the Saugeen Hiver on Lake Huron. It thus includes portions of
Welland, Haldimand, Brant, Oxford (north-east corner), Waterloo,
Perth and Bruce ; but throughout much of this area it is covered by
Glacial and other superficial deposits. Exposures may be seen near
Waterloo village, Bertie township, on the Niagara River ; along the
Grand River between Cayuga and Paris, and near the Don Mills ;
on the Upper Saugeen, near Ay ton and Neustadt, in Normanby
township ; around Walkerton on the Saugeen, in Brant, and at
various points down the river : as at the elbow in the south-west
corner of Elderslie, a little below Paisley. The gypsum or ''plaster"
deposits are chiefly quarried at Cayuga, Indiana, and York, in the
township of Seneca; at Mount Healy and elsewhere in Oneida •
largely around Paris ; and at various places in Brantford township.
Some of the dolomitic and argillaceous shales of the formation, as
those which outcrop near Walkerton, etc., furnish valuable material
for the manufacture of hydraulic cement ; and it is apparently from
this formation that the brine — obtained in the vicinities of Goderich,
Seaforth and Clinton, by deep borings through overlying deposits —
is essentially derived.

The Lower Helderberg or Eurypterus Formation, as occurring in
this district, represents merely a small portion of the " Lower
Helderberg group " of New York. It is made up of a few thin-
bedded dolomites, with some interstratified shales and a brecciated
bed (composed chiefly of dolomite fragments) at its base. These
strata, which collectively do not exceed fifty feet in thickness, appear
to represent the lower portion — the "Water-lime" or " Tentaculite
limestone" — of the Helderberg series proper. They are chiefly
characterized by the presence of fragmentary examples of a peculiar
crustacean, Eurypterus remipes (fig. 180), belonging to the Mero-
stomata, an almost extinct order, but represented in existing nature
by the Limulus or Xiphosure. The formation probably extends as
a thin band along the western border of the Onondaga formation

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V.

325

between Lake Erie and Lake Huron, but the only known exposures
are in the Lake Erie townships of Bertie and Cayuga.

The Oriskany Formation, the first in ascending order of the Devo-
nian series, is also but sparingly present in the district. It is
represented chiefly by a layer of chert or hornstone (containing
much iron pyrites) at the base, with a succeeding brecciated bed
(made up in part of chert fragments), and some quartzose grits or
sandstones : the entire thickness varying from about six to ten feet.
Its fossils are chiefly identical with those of the overlying Corni-
ferous strata, but are mixed in places with Upper Silurian types.
Some of the more common comprise : Favosifes Gothlandica (fig. 137);
Zaphrentis prolifica (fig. 144) ; Strophomena rhomboidalis (fig. 195);
Atrypa reticularis (fig. 188) and Calymene Blumenbachii (fig. 178\
The formation enters Canada in the township of Bertie in the
north-east corner of Lake Erie, and appears to run as a thin band
along the southern edge of the Eurypterus or Onondaga formation at
least as far as the country of Norfolk ; but the only known exposures
occur at Bertie, Dunn, North Cayuga, Oneida, ;md Windham. From
the exposure in North Cayuga, a little north of the Talbot Road,
good millstones have been quarried.

The Corniferous Formation, as recognized in Western Canada,
includes the " Onondaga limestone" and "Corniferous limestone" of
New York geologists. It is made up essentially of more or less
bituminous limestones, containing, in places, nodular masses of chert,
or interstratined with bands of that substance, and associated here
and there with beds of calcareous sandstone and bituminous shale.
The thickness of these strata, collectively, is estimated at about 200
feet. The limestones contain, as a rule, a great abundance of silici-
fied fossils, mostly brachiopods, corals, and crinoidal stems. The
common forms comprise : The corals, Michelinea convexa (fig. 138) ;
Syringopora Maclurei (with coarse cell-tubes, fig. 140) and S. Hisin-
geri (with narrow-cells, fig. 141); and the simple horn-shaped types?
Zaphrentis prolifica (fig. 144) and Z. gigantea, the latter often a
couple of inches in diameter and five or six inches in length. The
bracuiopods, Strophomena rhomboidalis (tig. 195); Atrypa reticularis
(fig. 188) ; Spirifer mucronatus (fig. 185) ; S. gregarius (fig. 184 bin) ;
Spirigera concentrica (fig. 187) and Stricklandia elongata — most of
which occur also in higher Devonian strata. The trilobite Phacops

326

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

bufo (fig. 174) is also a common Corniferous type. In the district
under review, the formation occupies two large areas, separated by a
broad intervening belt of the succeeding Hamilton or Lambton for-
mation. The more eastern of these areas extends over portions of
Welland, Haldimand, Norfolk, Brant, Oxford, Perth, Huron and
Bruce ; and the western area occupies parts of Lambton, Kent and
Essex. Exposures occur more particularly on or near the shore of
Lake Erie in the following townships : Bertie, Humberstone (as at
Rama's farm, near Port Colborne, a noted fossil locality), Dunn,
Rainham, Walpole and Woodhouse. Also in North and South
Cayuga; near Woodstock village ; and at St. Mary's (another locality
especially rich in fossils). The formation outcrops likewise at various
places in Carrick, Brant, Bruce and Kincardine ; and again, farther
south, as near Port Albert and Goderich, and in the vicinity of
Amherstburg in Maiden. At many of these localities, and especially
at the large exposure in Maiden, building-stones of very superior
quality are obtained.

The Hamilton or Lambton Formation,* as defined in Canada,
represents merely the middle portion of the " Hamilton formation "
of the New York geologists. It consists mainly of soft calcareous
shales associated with some beds of encrinal limestone. The fossils
are identical for the greater part with those of the Corniferous forma-
tion ; but the brachiopods, Spirifer mucronatns (fig. 185) ; Spirigera
concentrica (fig. 187); Atrypa reticularis (fig. 188); and Ortkis
Vanuxemi (fig. 199) are especially abundant in these higher beds.
The formation in this district is estimated at about 250 feet in thick-
ness. It extends across the counties of Norfolk, Elgin, Kent,
Middlesex and Lambton, and also the south pait of Huron, but is
much obscured throughout this area by overlying clays, sands, and
other Drift and superficial deposits. The best exposures occur in the
township of Bosanquet, in the north-west corner of Lambton. The
formation is chiefly of interest as constituting the essential petroleum

* The name by which this formation is commonly known, is derived from the village of
Hamilton, in Madison county, New York. It is often supposed, in Canada, to refer to our city
of Hamilton, on the western extremity of Lake Ontario, where the strata belong to a much
lower horizon — that of the Medina formation, lying at the base of the Upper Silurian series.
In consequence of this very prevalent misconception (of which some curious instances might
be given), the writer proposed some years ago to call this group of strata, as occurring in
Canada, the Lambton formation, after the county in which it is principally developed in
Western Ontario.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

327

area or oil district of Western Canada, although the deeper borings,
from which the petroleum is chiefly obtained, appear to pass through
its strata into the underlying Corniferous formation. Natural
springs have been noticed in various parts of the district, as in Mosa,
Enniskillen, Zone, Orford, etc. In the township of Enniskillen,
overflows from springs of this kind have formed deposits of solid
bitumen or " mineral tar," varying in thickness from an inch or two
to nearly a couple of feet, and extending over an acre or more of
ground. One of these deposits or " gum beds," in the northern part
of the township, is covered by several feet of Drift clay ; and in
places it presents a leafy or shaly texture, and contains impressions of
leaves and insects. As proved by the very different results obtained
in many instances from closely contiguous borings, the petroleum is
evidently confined to comparatively narrow and tortuous channels,
within limited belts of country. These belts are characterized, both
in the United States and Canada, by the presence of anticlinals, by
which a more or less fissured condition of the strata has been pro-
duced. The petroleum in these fissures is almost always accompanied
by salt or brackish water, and inflammable gas is usually emitted on
the first tapping of the fissure. As a rule, the wells become gradu-
ally impoverished, and frequently end by yielding water only. The
petroleum, as first obtained, is of a dark colour and more or less
viscid consistency. When decolourized and purified it loses about
forty per cent — five barrels of crude oil yielding about three barrels
of refined oil.

The Portage, or Portage-Chemuny Formation, as seen in Canada,
is made up of dark bituminous shales, holding in places large cal-
careous concretions, and also much iron pyrites, with occasional fish-
scales and spines, and impressions of long-flattened stems of a calamite
(tig. 119). Here and there these shales become coated, by weathering,
with a* yellow crust of oxalate of iron. The formation extends pro-
bably over a considerable area around Lake St. Clair and the adjoin-
ing country ; but it is thickly overlaid by Drift and superficial deposits
throughout the greater part of this area, and the only well-recognized
exposures occur at Kettle-point, or Cape. Ipperwash. in the township
of Bosanquet, on Lake Huron, and at one or two places in the town-
ships of Warwick and Brooke. As seen at these spots, the thickness
of the formation does not exceed twelve or fifteen feet.

328

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Deposits of Glacial, Post-Glacial and more recent age are spread
very generally over the Silurian and Devonian strata of this district
— a wide break in the geological succession occurring here as in other
parts of the Province. These deposits comprise in ascending order :
(i.) The Boulder-clay or Lower Drift formation; (ii.) the stratified
" Erie Clay " formation ; (iii.) The Saugeen Clay and Sand formation ;
(iv.) The Artemisia Gravel and (v.) the Algoma sand deposits; with
(vi.) a series of recent accumulations, proper.

The Lower or true Drift Formation consists of a thick deposit of
unstratified clay, holding Laurentian and other boulders. It appears
to be essentially a Glacier formation, derived in chief part from the
grinding action of ice on the surface of the subjacent rocks. As a
rule, it is greatly concealed from observation; and much of its
original substance has undoubtedly been removed, or otherwise re-
arranged in the form of succeeding deposits, by the subsequent action
of water. The Upper Drift deposits consist principally of dark blue
or gray calcareous clays, arranged in distinct layers, and containing,
as a rule, numerous stones and boulders, but no shells or other fossils.
These "Erie clays" yield white or light-yellow bricks. In places, as
near Brantford, etc., their planes of stratification are greatly con-
torted. Good displays occur along the north shore of Lake Erie
generally ; also near Clark Point, etc., and adjacent coast of Lake
Huron; and at Woodstock, St. Mary's, London, and elsewhere
throughout the district.

The Lower Fresh-water deposits, or " Saugeen clays and sands."
where in contact with the "Erie" or underlying boulder-holding
clays, commonly rest on the denuded surface of the latter. The
clays present a very general brown colour, and although more or less
calcareous, they yield, as a rule, red bricks. All are distinctly strati-
fied, and, in most cases, boulders are but sparingly present in them.
Good exposures, showing the blue or Erie clay below, occur more
especially near Port Talbot and Port Stanley on Lake Erie. Others
may be seen around Woodstock ; and also between Clark Point and
Port Frank on Lake Huron, as well as at various spots on the
Saugeen, around Walkerton, and throughout the township of Brant
generally. Layers of sand and gravel are commonly associated with
these clays; and a deposit of coarse gravel with boulders — the
"Artemisia gravel'' of the Geological Survey — extends largely

CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

throughout the country between the Grand Elver and Georgian Bay,
and is seen near Brantford and elsewhere to overlie the blue or Erie
clay. In many parts, again, of the Erie and Huron district (as in
the more western portion of the Lake Ontario region, already described)
the brown clays, or in their absence the underlying deposits, are
capped by lacustrine sands and gravels, some of which contain shells
of fresh-water mollusca — species of uiiio, cyclas, amnicola, valvata,
planorbis, physa, limnsea, melania, &c. — still inhabiting our lakes
and streams ; and similar shells are occasionally found in the clay
beds. Terraced deposits containing fresh-water shells of this kind
occur especially around Niagara Falls. Other examples have been
seen in the vicinities of Paris, Brantford, Walkerton, &c. In addi-
tion to these Glacial and Post- Glacial accumulations, various deposits
of still more recent origin occur within the district. The principal
comprise : the sandy flats of the Grand River and other streams ; the
beds of shell- marl which underlie and margin most of the swampy
areas ; the ochre deposits of the counties of Middlesex and Norfolk ;
and the peat beds of Humberstone and Wainfleet on Lake Erie.

THE MANITOULIN DISTRICT.

This district may be regarded as an outlying portion of the Ontario
and Erie districts combined, the Silurian strata of these extend-
ing into it, and ranging continuously throughout its area. It comprises
the Great Manitoulin Island, eighty miles in length, lying along the
north shore of Lake Huron, with the La Cloche and other smaller
islands between the Manitoulin and the Lake Huron coast, and
Oockburn Island, St. Joseph's Island, Campement d'Ours, &c., farther
west. Drummond Island belongs also, geologically, to the district,
but lies beyond the Canadian boundary. The more northern portion
of the Great Manitoulin contains numerous lakes, and its north shore
is indented by comparatively deep bays. These appear to lie in
synclinal folds, formed by a series of undulations (with north and
south axes) which traverse the Island throughout its length.* The
strata of the district succeed each other from north to south, the

*See "Reports on the Manitoulin Islands," by Dr. Robert Bell, by whom these anticlinals
were first pointed out, in Geological Survey Reports for 1866 and 1867.

330

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

general dip being in the latter direction. They comprise a slight
development of Huroiiian quartzites, with representatives of the
Chazy, Black River and Trenton, Utica, Hudson River, Clinton,
Niagara, and Guelph formations. The Huroniaii outcrops occur
principally in the form of bare, rocky ledges, but are only seen at
one or two places, principally at Shequenandod village, near the
eastern extremity of the Great Manitoulin, on La Cloche Island, and
on the Island of Campement d'Ours, near the entrance to St. Mary's
River. Exposures of reddish marls and light-coloured sandstones on
the north side of La Cloche Island are commonly referred to the
Chazy division ; and the thin bedded sandstones (provisionally
known as the Ste. Marie sandstones), which occur in small outlying
patches on Campement d'Ours and St. Joseph's Island, are thought, as
regards their geological positon to represent the same formation. The
southern portions of La Cloche Island, and the smaller islets imme-
diately west, are occupied entirely, or essentially, by dark gray
dolornitic limestones cf the lower part of the Trenton (or so-called
Black River) series — the higher beds merging into the Trenton
division proper, and supporting at one or two points small strips or
patches of Utica shale. The Bigsby, Thessalon, and other rocky
islands farther west, and a large part of Campement d'Ours and St.
Joseph's Island, belong to the same series. From the La Cloche
group of islands these Trenton strata extend across the intervening
channel, and crop out in several places as a fringe along the north
coast of the Great Manitoulin. They show principally in the Mani-
towaning headland, and also between Little Current and West Bay.
Southwards, the dark bituminous shales of the Utica formation come
up, and range entirely through the islands. Good exposures occur
at Shequenandod village (where the shales incline against an outcrop
of Huronian quartzite), and at Cape Smyth. At the latter spot the
formation is capped by a considerable thickness cf arenaceous shales
and sandstones, very rich in fossils, belonging to the Hudson River
series. This latter formation ranges also entirely through the Great
Manitoulin, and extends over Barrie Island on the north. It is fol-
lowed along its southern border by a series of strata holding Clinton
fossils. These strata consist mostly of light-coloured dolomites capped
by a bed of red marl — the best soil on the island, according to Dr.
Bell, resulting from the disintegration of the latter. South of these

CENTRAL CANADA — PART V.

331

Jlinton beds, a steep escarpment of Niagara limestone runs through
the central part of the island, facing the north, following in its strike
the same east and west direction as the other formations of the district-
From the top of the escarpment, the limestones extend in a series
of steps to the south shore, where they become covered in places by
patches of semi-crystalline dolomites belonging to the Guelph for-
mation. The southern portion of the Great Manitoulin is thus
occupied entirely by these Upper Silurian strata, and broad shelves
of bare limestone-rock form large portions of its surface. A con-
tinuous outcrop occurs along this south shore ; but the best exposures
are seen in the lower beds along the line of escarpment, more especially
about Lake Manitou and Lake Wolsey (and intervening country),
and around the south shore of Bayfield Sound. Cockburn Island)
immediately west of the Great Manitoulin, is also underlaid through-
out its whole extent by Niagara limestone.

The other formations recognizejd within the district consist of
Drift clays and higher sand deposits — the " Algoma Sand" of the
Geological Survey. The clays appear to belong essentially to the
lower or unstratified Drift. They occur in great thickness upon St.
Joseph's Island, and are overlaid very generally on Cockburn Island
by the higher Algoma sands. Both divisions are also seen on the
Great Manitoulin and elsewhere throughout the district. Detached
boulders, mostly of Huronian rock, occur likewise in many places ;
and glacial striae and furrows are seen on almost all the exposed rock-
Surfaces. The strise have a general south-westerly direction, but vary
from a few degrees west of south to about S. 50° W.

Petroleum springs occur both on the Great Manitoulin and on
some of the other islands of the Manitoulin group. The petroleum
appears to come from the Utica shales ; but although the formation
has been penetrated and even traversed by several wells or borings,
no permanent supply has hitherto been obtained.

THE NORTHERN PALEOZOIC AREA.

This area comprises a large extent of comparatively flat country,
ranging around the south shore of James' Bay to beyond the Pro-
vince boundary on Albany River, and stretching from these points in

332

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

a general south-westerly direction towards the " Height of Land."
Moose River on the east, and Albany River on the west, flow mainly
within its limits.

The area still remains practically unexplored, but it is known to
be underlaid around its more southern and western portion by cal -
careous strata of Upper Silurian age (resting immediately on the
Huronian and Laurentian rocks of the great Archaean region around
the Height of Land) ; and northerly and easterly, by Devonian
formations extending to the shores of the Bay. These paleozoic
strata, however, are almost entirely concealed by a thick surface
covering of Glacial and Post-Glacial clays. Where visible on Moose
River, the underlying rock, according to Dr. Bell (Report of 1875)
consists of bituminous grey and drab limestone, holding Devonian
fossils* • and on the banks of this river Dr. Bell observed a deposit
of spathic-iron-ore weathering into brown hematite, and also grey and
white gypsiferous deposits. In. the post-glacial clays (Report for
1877) the same observer discovered a considerable bed of lignite,
varying in thickness from eighteen inches to six feet. These post-
glacial deposits contain also in many places detached crystals of
gypsum, (see page 131), and shells of my a truncata, tellina groen-
landica, saxicava rugosa (figs. 214, 215, 216, page 278), so character-
istic of the post-glacial deposits of Eastern Canada.

Our knowledge of the country around James' Bay is derived
principally from the valuable Reports on Hudson's Bay by Dr. Bell
of the Geological Survey of Canada, but the region referre I to in
these Reports lies mostly beyond the area now under consideration,
and, indeed, beyond the Province of Ontario.! The following ex-
tract, however, from the Report for 1879 applies in chief part to the
present district. " To the south and south-west of James' Bay, in
the latitude of Devonshire and Cornwall, there is a large tract in
which much of the land is well-wooded, but although little or no rock
comes to the surface over an immense area, neither the soil nor the

* In addition to the Devonian species cited in Dr. Bell's report, the author has fonnd in col-
lections made by the stipendiary magistrate, Mr. E. B. Borron — Zaphrentis prolifica, Z. gigan-
tea, Cystiphyllum Senacaense, Amplexus lax:itus, Phxagmoceras (Hector ?), and the pygidium
of Daltnanites limulurus or a closely allied species.

t Useful information may also be derived from the Report presented to the Ontario Govern-
ment by Mr. Borron, in 1882, on the portion of the Hudson's Bay basin lying within the pro-
vince boundary.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V.

333

climate is suitable for carrying on agriculture as a principal occu-
pation until we have passed over more than half the distance to Lake
Winnipeg. This region appears to offer no engineering difficulties
to the construction of a railway from the sea-coast to the better
country beyond. Some of the timber found in the country which
sends its waters into James' Bay may prove to be of value for ex-
port. Among the kinds which it produces, may be mentioned white,
red, and pitch pine, black and white spruce, balsam, larch, white
cedar, and white birch. The numerous rivers which converge to-
wards the head of James' Bay offer facilities for " driving " timber
to points at which it may be shipped by sea-going vessels."

PROVINCE OF QUEBEC.

INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.

This Province is separated from Ontario on the west by almost the
entire course of the Ottawa River, and by a line drawn directly
north from Lake Temiscamingue : but a small area on the Ontario
side of the Ottawa at its junction with the St. Lawrence, although
properly within the limits of the western province, is given to Que-
bec. This area includes the small counties of Vandreuil and Sou-
langes. On the south, the Province of Quebec is bounded by the
northern portions of the States of New York, Vermont, New Hamp-
shire, and Maine; and by the New Brunswick counties of Victoria
and Restigouche, and the Bay of Chaleurs. The St. Lawrence Gulf,
Labrador, and Hudson's Bay bound it on the east and north, but its
limits in the latter direction are still practically undefined. Its area
is approximately stated at 190,0^0 square miles.

The river St. Lawrence, widening into its majestic Gulf, traverses
the province from south-west to north-east, and receives, as principal
affluents on its northern bank, the Ottawa, the Assomption, the
St. Maurice, the St. Anne, the Montmorency, and the Saguenay ;
and on its southern bank, the Richelieu, the St. Francis, the Chaudiere,
the Du Loup, Metis and other rivers. Two mountain ranges follow
roughly the course of the St. Lawrence : and to these, in con-

334

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

y

junction with the great river and its affluents, the physical charact
of the province is chiefly subordinate. The range on the north (with
an average elevation of 1500 feet above the sea, rising in places to
over 2,000 feet) constitutes the Laurentide Mountains, and runs
roughly parallel with the Ottawa until within about 30 miles of its
rnouth, when the range curves towards the east, and skirting the St.
Lawrence a short distance inland, strikes the river at Cape Tourinente
a little below the city of Quebec. From this point it follows the
north shore of the river and Gulf to beyond the province boundary in
Labrador. This range and the country which it traverses consist
of greatly corrugated archaean gneiss, broken through by various
dioritic and feldspathic rocks. The southern range is properly a
continuation of the great Appalachian, chain of the United States. It
is known in Canada as the Notre Dame and Shickshock Mountain
.Range. It traverses the Eastern Townships, and gradually approach-
ing the St. Lawrence, runs along the south shore, but at a distance
of from 30 to about 10 or 12 miles inland, until it terminates in the
high table-land of Gaspe at the extremity of the Province. This
range, consisting of several roughly parallel lines of mountainous
country, presents one or two points of nearly 4000 feet in altitude,
and in the Gaspe peninsular the elevation averages 1,500 feet. It is
made up largely of crystalline, magnesian locks, including talcose
and chloritic schists and beds of ^serpentine, associated in places
with micaceous and gneissoid rocks and other crystalline representa-
tives, the true age of which is still more or less uncertain.

On passing from the Laurentide Mountains southwards to the St.
Lawrence, the gneissoid Archaean rocks become overlaid unconform-
ably by Cambrian and Lower Silurian strata. Where the river enters
the province, and for some distance eastward, the latter occur 011
both shores, and they continue along the north shore to beyond the
city of Quebec. They reappear further east in the Mingan Islands,
and also, with accompanying Upper Silurian strata, in the Island of
Anticosti. On the south side of the river, Cambrian slates and
other strata have been brought up by a great fault into a position
apparently higher than that of the Hudson River beds. This fault,
first indicated and traced out by Sir William Logan, extends along the
bed of the gulf and river to the immediate vicinity of Quebec, and
then turns inland towards the south-west, and continues in that

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V. 335

direction to the head of Lake Champlain, beyond the province boun-
dary. All the strata to the south and east of this fault have been
greatly disturbed and broken up, and have been more or less altered
by metamorphic agencies. Crystalline, gneissoid and mngnesian
rocks appear in part to underlie them, and partly to be mixed up
with them in intricate foldings, by which their stratigraphic relations
become greatly obscured. In many places also they are broken
through by tr achy tic and granitic masses.

As regards its geology therefore, the Province admits of a sub-
division into three natural areas : the Archaean, area of the north ;
the typical Palaeozoic area ; and the disturbed Appalachian district
including the Eastern Townships and the Gaspe" peninsula. For con-
venience of description, however, the Island of Anticosti and the
Mingan Islands may be separated from the second of the above
areas, and regarded as forming a distinct palaeozoic district.

The positions of these areas are shewn roughly in the annexed
sketch-map :

FIG. 246.
Sketch-Map of the Province of Quebec, shewing geological areas.

1. Northern Archaean district — shewn in part, only.

2. Palaeozoic district of the Upper St. Lawrence.

3. Palaeozoic district of Anticosti and the Gulf.

4. Appalachian and Gaspe district.

Q— Quebec ; M— Montreal ; C— Lake Champlain (Northern por-
tion). The dotted line indicates the direction of the great Fault.

336

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

NORTHERN ARCH^AN DISTRICT.

This is essentially a region of ancient crystalline strata — rocky and
mountainous in character : an eastward extension i-f the Lauren tian
district of Ontario, but with certain special features of its own. It
comprises the wide expanse of territory lying between the Ottawa
River and Labrador, with the exception of a comparatively narrow
strip of country (occupied by Lower Palaeozoic formations), extend-
ing along the St. Lawrence from near the junction of the two great
rivers to a point a short distance below the city of Quebec. It is
traversed by the Laurentide Mountains, proper, which form within
it several broken ranges curving roughly parallel with the course of
the St. Lawrence. The more southern of these gradually approach
the river, and run closely adjacent to it along the lower part of its
course. The average height of the Laurentides generally, is from
about 1,200 to 1,500 feet, but at one or two points they reach an
altitude of over 2,000 feet above the sea. Numerous rivers rise
among them. Some of the more important comprise : the Riviere
du Moine, the Gattineau, the Riviere du Lievre, the Riviere Rouge,
and the Riviere du Nord, flowing into the Ottawa ; and the PAssomp-
tion, Chicot, St. Maurice, Batiscan, Ste. Anne (Portneuf), Jacques
Cartier, Montmorenci, Ste. Anne (Montmorenci), Murray, Saguenay,
Moisie, and other eastern rivers, flowing into the St. Lawrence.
The rocks of this Archaean area consist for the greater part of
typical Laurentian gneiss (composed of quartz and orthoclase, with
associated mica or hornblende) interbedded wi£h quartzites and bands
of crystalline limestone and iron ore. These Laurentian strata, as a
rule, are more or less strongly tilted and corrugated, or otherwise
disturbed. They are also traversed very generally by granitic or
syenitic veins, and are broken through in places (more especially in
Wentworth, Chatham, and Grenville on the Lower Ottawa) by
enormous masses of eruptive syenite and greenstone. The crystalline
limestones very commonly contain diopside or light-coloured pyrox-
ene, phlogopite, zircon, sphene, and other crystallized silicates, with
scales of graphite, and grains and crystals of fluor-apatite. The
latter mineral also occurs in workable quantities, associated mostly
with pyroxene, phlogopite mica, calcite, and scapolite, in broad veins
which cut the gneissoid strata transversely — especially in the townships

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V.

337

of Buckingham, Templeton, Lochaber, and Grenville, on the Ottawa,*
and throughout that section of country, generally. About 20,000
tons were obtained from these deposits in 1886, and they are still
being largely worked. Veins and large lenticular masses of graphite
occur also in the rocks of this district, and mica of good quality has
been obtained from localities in Grenville, Templeton, and adjacent
townships. Iron ore in workable quantity occurs also in Hull, and
elsewhere in the same district.

The orthoclase gneiss- rocks which form the prevailing strata of
this archeean region north of the St. Lawrence, are overlaid in some
few localities by comparatively limited areas of feldspathic rock com-
posed of labradorite or other triclinic lime-feldspars ; and here and
there these labradoritic rocks or " anorthosites," see page 181, are
apparently interstratified with the upper beds of the ordinary otho-
clase gneisses. They were at one time, and are still by some
observers, regarded as indicating a newer or higher series of Lauren-
tian strata, and were known as the Upper Laurentian, Labrador, or
Norian formation, But in the main mass of these anorthosites there
is no apparaiit stratification, and they are now regarded by Dr.
Selwyn as essentially eruptive rocks of Laurentian age. This view,
although not absolutely free from doubt, will probably meet with
general acceptance. A large area of these anorthosic rocks occurs
in the counties of Argenteuil, Terrebonne, Montcalm, and Joliette ;
and another, equally large, lies around the north-east and south sides
of Lake St. John, at the head of the Saguenay River. Smaller areas
O3cur on the north shore of the St. Lawrence in Montmorenci and
Charlevoix, and a large exposure has been recognised on the branches
of the river Moisie, off the Gulf. These feldspathic rocks present
generally light shades of colour, and weather dull white. In most
examples, some of the cleavage planes shew a blue or green opales-
cent play of colour, as in typical examples of labradorite ; and
occasionally, as at Chateau Richer and elsewhere, they contain scales
and folise of bronze-coloured or green hypersthene or bronzite. Gai-
nets, also, are frequently present in them ; and they are associated in
many localities with titaniferous iron ore. A very large deposit of
the latter mineral occurs in these rocks near Baie St. Paul ; and

* The distinctive characters etc. , of this valuable mineral (known commercially as "phos-
phate") are given on page 135.

22

338

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

titaniferous ii'on Bands are abundant around the mouth of the Moisie
river on the Gulf. Attempts to utilize these titaniferous ores have
been made, but hitherto without success.*

In addition to the gneissic and other crystalline formations of tins
northern archsean region, a few outlying patches of Lower Silurian
strata, consisting mostly of Trenton limestone and Utica shales,
occur here and there within its area. The largest of these Silurian
outliers is seen around Lake St. John on the Upper Saguenay. As
remarked by Sir William Logan, the limestones at this locality shew
characteristic Black River fossils associated with those of the Trenton
formation proper,! and comprise principally : Maclurea Loyani
(fig. 222); Stromatopora rugosa (fig. 127) Orthoceras Biysbyi ; Lep-
tcena sericea (196) ; Strophomena cdternata (fig. 194); Murchisonia
gradlis (fig. 220) ; Calymene Blumenbachii (fig. 179), etc. — with, near
the base of the series, Halysites catemdatus (fig. 139), typically, an
Upper Silurian form. The fossils of the overlying Utica shales in-
clude various graptolites, broken crinoidal stems, species of discina, &c.,
and the characteristic Utica trilobite Triarthrus Beckii (fig. 177). A
small exposure of Hudson River beds is seen also on Snake Island in
the lake.

Glacial boulders, clays, and gravels, with Post-Glacial sands and
other superficial deposits, are distributed, as in other parts of Canada,
more or less generally throughout this region ; and many of the
harder rocks shew glacial striae. These run most commonly either
towards the south-east or south-west ; but at some spots their direc-
tion is nearly north and south \ and, in others, not far removed from
east and west.

DISTRICT OF THE UPPER ST. LAWRENCE.

This is essentially a Palseozoic area, occupied — apart from some
isolated eruptive-masses — by sandstones, limestones, and other strata,

* The presence of titanium in an iron ore is objectionable chiefly for the following reasons :
(1) It diminishes, of course, the percentage of iron in the ore ; (2) it renders the ore very re-
fractory ; and (3) it scours the ore, carrying off a large amount of iron in the form of slag. To
prevent the latter effect, a comparatively large amount of lime is required, and this fills up the
furnace with an unproductive burden. Very little titanium goes into the pig metal, even when
highly titaniferous ores are used.

t A similar association of Black River and Trenton types was pointed out by the author,
many years ago, as occurring at Shannonville in Ontario. The two so-called formations cannot
in fact be properly disunited.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V. 339

which retain their original sedimentary aspect, and occur, for the
greater part, in undisturbed beds. It extends along both sides of
the St. Lawrenc3 from the western boundary of the Province to the
neighbourhood of Quebec. In the west, it includes the counties of
Vaudreuil and Soulanges, lying in the point of the triangular space
immediately west of the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence
Rivers. From the county of Vaudivuil, its northern boundary
crosses tho Ottawa, and then, keeping entirely on the north side of
the St. Lawrence, runs along the southern edge of the Laurentide
district already described, and gradually approaching the river,
strikes it a short distance below Quebec. Its southern limit runs
from the south-west corner of Huntingdon (south of the St. Law-
rence), along the boundary-line between the Province and the State
of New York, to a little beyond the River Richelieu at the northern
extremity of Lake Champlain ; and east of this, the district is
bounded by the disturded and metamorphic area of the Eastern
Townships — its actual limits in this direction being a remarkable
line of dislocation, with accompanying fault, running (as first traced
out by Sir William Logan) from near the north-east end of Lake
Champlain to the vicinity of Point Levis, and from thence, by the
City of Quebec, along the north side of the Island of Orleans, and
down the river and Gulf, between the Island of Anticosti and the
Gasp£ shore.

The rock-formations of the district belong to three distinct series,,
namely : stratified Palaeozoic formations ; eruptive rocks ; and
Glacial and other Post- Cainozoic deposits. The stratified rocks, pro-
per, consist of representatives of the Potsdam, Calciferous, Chazy,.
Black River and Trenton, Utica, and Hudson River formations —
with some small exposures, south of the St. Lawrence, of strata re-
ferred to the Medina group ; and a few outlying patches of Upper
Silurian strata (belonging to the Lower Helderberg formation) in
the vicinity of Montreal. These formations are broken through in
places by large eruptive masses of trachytic and trappean rock,
forming a series of picturesque motmtains, which rise abruptly from
the generally level surface of the district in the more southern and
western portions of its area ; and in addition to these Palaeozoic and
Eruptive rocks, Glacial and Post-Glacial accumulations, with deposits-
of comparatively modern origin, occur throughout the district
generally.

340

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

The Potsdam beds consist of coarse conglomerates and fine-grained
siliceous sandstones — the latter in many localities sufficiently pure
for glass-manufacture and for the hearths of furnaces. The formation
is largely displayed in Hemmingford Mountain, and over large portions
of Huntingdon, Chateauguay, and Beauharnois, from whence it crosses
the St. Lawrence, and spreads over a large part of Soulanges and
Vaudreuil ; and from thence, passing across the western end of the
Island of Montreal and Isle Bizard, it wraps around a large outlying
mass of Laurentian gneiss (forming Mont Calvaire on the north
shore), and continues uninterruptedly along the edge of the Laurentide
district as far east as the River Chicot, where the continuity of the
strata is broken by a fault, and limestones of the Trenton formation
are let down against the Potsdam beds. East of this point, the
formation only appears at one or two places — notably on the St.
Maurice, where it exhibits a slight thickness of nearly horizontal
beds of conglomerate and sandstone, resting upon gneiss. Throughout
its range, as far east as the Chicot, it is accompanied by sandy and
dolomitic limestones of the Calciferous formation, and these cover
large areas south of the St. Lawrence, and in the country around the
junction of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa. East of this formation, on
the south aide of the St. Lawrence, limestones of the Chazy and
Trenton series, and dark bituminous shales of the Utica formation,
with succeeding sandstones and arenaceous shales of the Hudson
River formation, largely prevail — the latter, especially, east of Riche-
lieu River. These formations cross the St. Lawrence, and range in
regular sequence along the north shore between the Calciferous out-
•crop and the river bank. The intervening Island of Montreal, Isle
Je*sus, Isle Bizard, etc., consist essentially of Chazy, Trenton, and
Utica strata — -the Hudson River beds coming up farther east. The
Chazy limestones of Caughnawaga and St. Domenique on the south
shore, those of Ste. GeneVieve on the Island of Montreal, of Isle
Bizard, and of St. Lin on the north shore, yield marbles (red-spotted
or uniformly red) of good quality. East of the River Chicot, which
enters the St. Lawrence on the north shore, near the upper or
western extremity of the expansion known as Lake St. Peter, the
comparatively narrow strip of country between the Laurentian
gneissoid rocks and the river margin is occupied almost entirely by
Trenton, Utica, and Hudson River strata — one or two small ex-

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V. 341

posures of the Potsdam formation on the St. Maurice and at St.
Ambroise alone representing the lower beds as seen west of the
Chicot fault. In this eastern portion of the district, the strata are
tilted in many places at considerable angles, as near Pointe aux
Trembles, Montinorenci Falls, etc., and their continuity at these spots
is more or less disturbed by minor faults.*

As stated above, the Lower Silurian strata of the more southern
and western portions of the Upper St. Lawrence district are broken
through in places by trachytic and trappean masses, forming a series
of isolated mountains which rise above the generally level surface of
the country to elevations of from 600 to 800 feet. Most of these
occur apparently upon a single line of fissure traversing the district
in a general south-easterly direction. They comprise : (1) the
Mountain of Rigaud in Yaudreuil, composed partly of a purely
feldspathic% and partly of a dioritic or hornblendic trachyte, porphy-
ritic in places ; (2) the Montreal Mountain, composed essentially
of augitic trap or dolerite, but traversed by dykes of compact and
granitic trachyte ; (3) Montarville or Boucherville Mountain, also
essentially trappean in composition ; (4) Belceil, a dioritic and
micaceous trachyte ; (5) Monnoir or Mount Johnson (south of Beloeil),
of the same mineral character ; (6) Rouge mont, in Rouville County,
a trappean mass like that of Montreal in general composition ; and
(7), the Yamaska Mountain, essentially a micaceous trachyte. The
Mountains of Brome and Shefford belong to the same eruptive series,
but lie within the crystalline district to the east. In addition to
these principal masses, many dykes of similar character traverse the
surrounding strata ; and some of these in the neighbourhood of
Montreal and Lachine are intercalated with the soft shales of the
Utica series, which have become more or less worn away, leaving the
associated trap bands in the form of projecting ledges. Most of the
rapicfs in this part of the St. Lawrence have been thus produced.

The superficial deposits of the district comprise Glacial boulders and
related clays and gravels, with Post-Glacial and recent accumu-
lations. Drift or Glacial deposits, proper, are of general distribution ;
and in some places, as on the Rigaud Mountain, the boulders form
roughly parallel ridges, several feet in height. The Glacial strise
of the country have two prevailing directions — south-west and south-

* The fossils in these various Lower Silurian formations are practically identical with those of
the same formations in Ontario : see ante, pages 315 to 317.

342

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

east respectively. The Post-Glacial deposits belong chiefly to
series, as first determined by Sir J. W. Dawson of Montreal: a lowe1
deep-sea formation, known as the " Leda Clay;" and a succeeding deposit'
apparently a shallow-sea or shore-line accumulation, known as " Saxi-
cava Sand." These occur widely within the district, and at various
elevations.* On Montreal Mountain, beds of Saxicava sand, for
example, form a series of terraces, one of which is at an altitude of
nearly 500 feet above the present sea level. Beauport, below Quebec,
is another locality at which these deposits are well exposed ; but they
occur also, and over large areas, around Murray Bay, as well as on
the Lower St. Maurice, and elsewhere. The more recent formations
of the district comprise, principally, the bog iron ore and ochres of
the St. Maurice and other localities on the north shore of the St.
Lawrence ; the great peat-beds of Lanoraye, Lavaltrie, St. Sulpice,
<fec., 011 the same side of the river ; and those of Sherrington, Loiig-
ueuil, and St. Dominique, with others on the south shore. Most of
these peat beds overlie deposits of shell marl.

THE ANTICOSTI AND MINGAN DISTRICT.

This division belongs strictly to the palaeozoic area of the upper
St. Lawrence, of which it forms a detached, eastern portion. It in-
cludes the large island of Anticosti in the St. Lawrence Gulf, and the
group of the Mingan Islands on the opposite northern shore, together
with a narrow strip of the latter east of the Mingan River. Its
strata consist of Upper Cambrian and Lower and Upper Silurian
formations. On the Mingan coast and islands, and throughout
Anticosti, these strata are practically undisturbed. They dip, at
slight inclinations, in regular sequence towards the Gulf. The great
line of dislocation, referred to on page 335 as passing from the head
of Lake Champlain to the St. Lawrence in the vicinity of Quebec,
and from thence eastwards along the river and the Gulf, runs
between Anticosti and the .Gaspe coast ; and appears to have produced

* The leda clay formation is characterised by the presence more especially of the lamelli-
branchiate, leda truncata (fig. 211, page 277) ; whilst the characteristic fossils of the higher
deposit comprise : saxicava rugosa (fig. 216), mya truncata (fig. 214), and buccinum undatum
(226).

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V.

(as in other places) much disturbance and contortion in the strata of
the latter between the mouth of the Marsouin River and Cape Rosier
at the extremity of the Gaspe* peninsula.

The Island of Anticosti extends in a general north-west and south-
east direction, with a length of about 150 miles, and a breadth in its
broadest part, of about 35 miles, gradually tapering at the extremities.
The northern coast presents bold ranges of cliffs, from 200 to 400 feet
in height, cut through in places by deep water-courses. The interior
of the island is thickly wooded, but is destitute of lakes and impor-
tant streams. It appears to consist of a series of plateaux or broad
terraces, gradually descending to the south shore. The latter,
although showing in places high cliffs of drift clay, is mostly of a
low and swampy character, and this part of the island is especially
characterized by the presence of extensive beds of peat.

The Mingan Coast consists of arenaceous limestones and dolomites
of the Calciferous formation, and similar strata on the islands are
succeeded by Chazy beds composed of reddish and pale-gray lime-
stones, with interstratined arenaceous shales. On the principal
island (Large Island) of the Mingan group, light-coloured lime-
stones, holding characteristic Lower Trenton or Black River fossils,
overlie the Chazy beds — the whole dipping, at a slight angle, south-
wards or towards the Gulf. The next exposure (in the regular
sequence of Lower Silurian formations) occurs along the opposite
north coast of Anticosti, and consists of grayish and other coloured
limestones, with interstratined shales and conglomerates, having an
inland or southerly dip of very slight amount. These beds belong to
the upper part of the Hudson River formation, and it may thus be
legitimately inferred that the intervening area of the Gulf is occupied
uninterruptedly by other Hudson River beds, with Utica and Tren-
ton strata cropping out to the north successively from beneath them.
In some of these Hudson River strata, examples of the curious stem-
like corals (Bearicea undata), resembling the petrified trunks of
large trees, occur in considerable abundance. The succeeding area of
the Island to the south, is occupied by argillaceous and other lime-
stones, the equivalents apparently of the Medina, Clinton, and
Niagara formations of the West; but characteristic Niagara fossils
are associated in some of these strata with Lower Silurian types.

The other rock-formations of Anticosti and the northern islands of

344

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

the district consist of Post-Cainozoic deposits. Kaisecl beaches, in
form of a series of terraces, extending to a height of about 100 feet
above the sea, occur on some of the Mingan Islands; and other
evidences of elevation are seen in the pillared rocks left here and
there upon the surface, at heights of fifty or sixty feet above the
present sea level. Drift clays, holding limestone pebbles, overlie the
calcareous strata of some parts of Anticosti, especially on the south-
west coast, where they form cliffs of considerable height. But the
more remarkable of the Post-Cainozoic formations of Anticosti are the
great peat-beds, which cover large areas on the southern part of the
Island. One of these extends in a narrow band along the south-east
coast, between Heath Point and South Point, over a length of nearly
eighty miles.

THE APPALACHIAN OR EASTERN TOWNSHIPS' AND GASPE^ DISTRICT.

The term " Appalachian region " was first bestowed on this part
of Canada by Dr. Sterry Hunt, The district forms, indeed, a pro-
longation into Eastern Canada of the Appalachian region of the United
States : the Appalachian chain, with its tilted, contorted, and in great
part metamorphosed series of rocks, extending into the Stoke Moun-
tains and other elevations of the Eastern Townships, and appearing
further east in the Shickshock Mountains of Gaspe. The district
comprises all that portion of the Province which lies east and south
of the great line dislocation referred to under the preceding district
as running north-easterly from Lake Champlain to Quebec, and from
thence along the bed of the river and the Gulf. Whilst to the west
and north of this dislocation, the strata are practically undisturbed,
those which lie directly east and south of it have been greatly tilted
and uplifted, and generally reversed in dip ; and towards the more
central parts of the district many of the beds have been altered or
rendered crystalline by metamorphic agencies, and have been folded
up with one another, and with an older system of crystalline rocks
forming the. axes of the higher elevations so as to produce great com-
plications of structure. As regards physical features, the district is
more or less throughout of a mountainous character, but also, as a
rule, of good fertility — differing remarkably in this respect from the

CENTRAL CANADA — PART V.

345

mountainous Laurentian region of the northern portion of the Pro-
vince. The average elevation of the. Gaspe peninsula is about 1500
feet, and that of the other parts of the district about 800 to 1000
feet above the sea ; but several peaks in the Shickshock ranges of
Gaspe approach 4000 feet in height, ;md the summits of some of the
mountains in the Eastern Townships are apparantly over 3000 feet.
Many lakes, but none of large size, occur within the district. Among
these, Lake St. Francis lies at an elevation of 890 feet, and Lake
Memphramagog at an elevation of 760 feet above the sea. In Gaspe"
Lake Temiscouta and Lake Matapedia lie respectively at altitudes of
470 and 480 feet. The district is greatly intersected by streams and
rivers. Some of the principal comprise : the Yamaska and the St.
Francis, the Chaudiere (with its tributaries, the Famine, Des Plantes,
etc.,) and the Etchemin, in the more western portion of the district ;
and the Riviere du Loup, Trois Pistoles, Rimouski, Metis, Matanne,
Chatte, St. Anne, Magdalen, Cascapediac, Matapediac, and other
rivers of the Gaspe peninsula, most of which flow in deeply excava-
ted channels.

The geology of this district, so far as regards the actual sequence
and relations of the rock groups within its area, is still very imper-
fectly known, and much diversity of opinion prevails respecting the
true age and position of some of these formations.

Viewed broadly, the district may be regarded as divisible into three
sub-areas : (1) a comparatively narrow central zone of mountainous
country composed of crystalline and essentially metalliferous rocks,
ranging from the Dominion boundary near Lake Champlain, through
Sutton, Brome, Stukely, and other " Eastern Townships," in a north-
easterly direction across the Chaudiere River as far as the County
of Kamouraska, and re-appearing farther east in the Shickshock
Mountains of Gaspe ; with (2), a somewhat broader band between it
and the St. Lawrence, composed of Cambrian and Lower Silurian
strata ; and (3), a still broader area, underlaid essentially by Upper
Silurian and Devonian beds, along its southern border. These areas
are broken through in places by eruptive dykes and mountain-
masses ; and are overlaid very generally by Drift and other sur-
face-deposits.

Four series of rock-formations are thus recognizable within the
district. These comprise : (1), Crystalline and sub-crystalline forma-

346

MINERALS

tions ; (2), Fossiliferous Palaeozoic formations ; (3), Granites,
chytes, and Trappean masses ; and (4), Superficial Post-Cainozoic
deposits.

Crystalline and Sub-crystalline formations : — These as described
above, form the main axis of the Appalachian District, extending in
a belt of mountainous country from the Dominion boundary, a little
east of Lake Champlain, through the Eastern Townships, and north-
easterly, beyond the Chaudiere River to the border of Kamouraska.
Sutton Mountain, the Owl's Head in Lake Memphramagog, Victoria,
Mountain in Oxford, Pinnacle Mountain in Shipton, Ham
Mountain, the Stoke Mountains, and other elevated points, lie
within this area, and are composed essentially of crystalline
schists or related feldspathic and quartzoze rocks. Still farther
towards the north-east, these rocks re-appear in the Shickshock
Mountains of the Gaspe peninsula. Good exposures are seen at
numerous spots in Sutton, Potton, Brome, Bolton, Shefford, Stukely,
Orford, Melbourne, Acton, Shipton, Stoke, Ham, Cleveland, and
throughout the Townships generally. Also around Mt. Albert in
Gaspe, and at many other spots along the Shickshock Range,
where serpentines especially predominate. Almost everywhere,
these crystalline strata are greatly tilted, folded, and otherwise
disturbed. They consist essentially of gneissoid and micaceous beds,
talcose and chloritic schists and potstones, serpentines, amphibolites
and epidosites, crystalline limestones and dolomites, giaphitic
argillites, quartzites, specular-iron schists, and other rocks of related
character, holding in many places large masses or " stocks" of copper
ore or magnetite, or containing these ores in veins or in dissemi-
nated grains, together with chromic iron ore, gold (in quartz veins,)
.galena, antimony ores and nickel sulphide. Many of the crystalline
dolomites are intermixed with serpentine, forming green, chocolate-
brown and other coloured " serpentine marbles."

These crystalline schists and their associated quartzites, serpentines,
dolomites, etc., are now regarded as mainly of Pre-Cambrian, pro-
bably Huronian, age ; but it may be inferred that portions of Trenton
and higher palaeozoic strata are enclosed here and there in a
metamorphosed condition, among their foldings.*

* Until recently, these metamorphic or crystalline formations were regarded as consisting
essentially of altered portions of Sir William Logan's " Quebec Group." The latter represents
a series of strata of about the age of the Calciferous formation, but holding peculiar graptolites

OF CENTRAL CANADA PART V. 347

The more important economic minerals belonging to these crystalline
areas, are enumerated briefly in the following list : Copper Ores —
These comprise chiefly the Yellow Copper Pyrites, Bornite or Horse
flesh ore, and Copper Glance, occasionally mixed with small portions
of native copper and native silver. They occur mostly in lenti-
cular or irregular masses ("stocks") often of considerable size,
or in thickly disseminated grains, in chloritic schists and other rocks
of the country. Indications occur in almost the entire series of the
Eastern Townships, but copper mining has been carried on at a few
spots only : notably at the Harvey Hill mine in Leeds, the Hunting-
don and Ives mines in Bolton, the Hepburn, Suffield and Ascot
mines in Ascot, and at spots in Acton, Sutton and Brome. Chromic
Iron Ore —in beds in serpentine, in the townships of Ham, Bolton,
and Melbourne; and largely at Mt. Albert in Gaspe. Mag-
netic Iron Ore — chiefly in beds, in Brome, Sutton, Leeds, and other
townships, but often titaniferous. Antimony — native, but associated
commonly with Antimony Glance and Kermesite, the red oxy-sul-
phide (page 80), in Ham township. Nickel — as sulphide, but in
small quantities only, with chrome garnet in calcite, Township of
Orford. Gold — native, in quartz veins in Leeds, Garth by, etc., but
apparently in little more than specks or traces. Graphite — in
crystalline limestone, in Waketield. Serpentine and Serpentine-
marble — in Orford, Melbourne, Ham, B rough ton, etc., and around
Mt. Albert in Gaspe*. "Asbestos" (Chrysotile, page 118) — in veins
or bands varying from about half-an-inch to three or four inches in
width : Townships of Thetford, Coleraine, Leeds, Melbourne, Bol-
ton. Potstone and Soapstone — in beds in Sutton, Potton, Bolton,

and some other distinct fossils. It was thought by Sir William Logan to admit of a separation into
three parts, named by him (in supposed ascending order) the Levis, Lauzun, and Sillery forma-
tions—the Lauzen formation, or sub-formation, being the especially metalliferous portion of the
series. It is now pretty well established that these sub-divisions cannot be maintained. The
so-called Levi strata are shewn to overlie the Sillery beds, if the two can properly be separated ;
and although both may be much altered in places there is certainly no evidence to support the
assumption that they have been altered into the gneissoid and micaceous schists, the serpen-
tines and other crystalline rocks of the Eastern Townships and central Gaspe ; or that what
were thought to be the lower beds of these Quebec strata pass under the crystalline series.

Sir William Logan's opinion was first objected to by Mr. Macfarlane (now of Ottawa), and
was subsequently opposed very strongly by Dr. Sterry Hunt, who had originally endorsed Sir
William's interpretation. But the now general acceptance of the essentially ire-Cambrian
age of these crystalline rocks, is mainly due to the present Director of the Geological Survey,
Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn. Whether these rocks should be regarded as Huronian, or as constitu-
ting a somewhat higher, or " Montalban" series, distinguished especially by their predomina-
ting magnesian, chromiferous character, is still an open question.

348

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

Wolfestown, Stanstead, Leeds etc. Roofing Slate (in part belonging
to altered Silurian beds) — Melbourne, Orford, Cleveland, Richmond.
Whetstones — Stanstead, Bolton, Kinsey.

Fossiliferous Palceozoic Formations : — As recognised within the
Appalachian district, these comprise, in ascending order, represen-
tatives of the Calciferous Formation, with Lower Silurian, Upper
Silurian, Devonian and Lower Carboniferous strata.

The Calciferous Formation — or geological horizon corresponding
practically to the higher part of this — is represented by the uncryst-tl-
line portions of Sir William Logan's " Quebec Group." This series
of strata is made up essentially of grey and greenish (in places glau-
conitic) sandstones, many of which hold small pebbles of white quartz,
interstratified with olive-green, red, purplish, and gray shales, form-
ing the so-called " Sillery formation " ; and of grey, red, and black
graptolitic shales associated with limestone conglomerates and yellow-
ish-grey dolomitic beds, making up the " Levis formation." The sub-
divisions of Sillery and Levis, however, should properly be abandoned,
the two sets of strata forming practically but a single series of varied
mineral composition. The sandstones along parts of the Gaspe* coast
— as between the St. Anne des Monts and Grand Michaud rivers,
more especially— have been worn by denudation into more or less
isolated pillars which form prominent objects as seen from the Gulf.
Hence the name of " pillar sandstones," by which they were at one
time known. The black and other coloured shales are especially
characterised by the presence of " compound graptolites," represented
by Loganograptus, Phyllograptus and related types (ante, page 228);
and the calcareous beds contain many peculiar trilobites — species of
Agnostus (fig. 167 bis.) Uik«locephalus (fig. 171), Bathyurus, Arionel-
lus, etc. The shales and limestones contain also, in many places,
examples of characteristic brachiopods, as Obolella prjztiosa, Lingula
Quebecencis (fig. 204), and small species of Or this, Leptozna, and Cam-
erella.

As regards general distribution, these Calciferous (Quebec) strata
form a practically continuous band along the western and northern
edge of the central crystalline areas of the district, from the province
line at the head of Lake Champlain. to the extremity of Gaspe ; and
they are well displayed at Sillery on the St. Lawrence, and along the
southern and central portions of the Island of Orleans. Throughout

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 349

the greater part of their course they are more or less intimately asso-
ciated in complicated stratigraphic relations, with the Lower Silurian
Utica shales, the latter appearing in many places to dip under them.
They are distinguished however from these Utica beds by their pecu-
liar graptolites. In Brome and Shefford the formation is broken
through by trachytic mountain-masses which cover areas of many
square miles in extent (see below). These trachytic areas lie between
the central crystalline range and the great Champlain fault, and they
belong to the same eruptive series as the trachytic and trappean
masses of the upper St. Lawrence District, described on a preceding
page. The formation appears also along the southern edge of the
crystalline country west of Kamouraska in contact with altered
Upper Silurian strata, as seen about St. Joseph on the Chaudiere and
in the townships of Wolfestowu, Ham, Richmond and Sherbrook.

The Lower Silurian formations within the Appalachian District
lie on the western and northern limit of the Calciferous (Quebec)
series, and in many places are mixed up with these latter in complicated
relations. They consist mostly of Hudson River and Utica strata,
but some Trenton (and perhaps Chazy ]) beds have been recognized
in Missisquoi, at the extreme south-western limit of the district, and
the steeply-dipping black slates which occur on the St. Lawrence
near Point Levis, and which were originally thought to occupy a
geological position below the Potsdam horizon, may belong to the
same formation, if not to the succeeding Utica and Hudson River
series. Representatives of these latter — consisting mostly of grey and
black slates and greyish sandstones, whilst the associated Calciferous
(Quebec) beds are chiefly in the form of red and greenish, or more
rarely black, shales, with limestone conglomerates, yellowish dolo-
mites, and greenish-grey sandstones — occur largely along the coast as
far east as the Magdalen River ; and beyond that point, they occupy
the entire-coast line to Cape Rosier, in the form of disturbed and
strikingly contorted strata. At the Magdalen and elsewhere, accord-
ing to Mr. R. W. Ells (Geological Survey Report 1882), the Utica
beds appear to underlie the older Calciferous formations. No certain
evidence has been obtained of the occurence of Lower Silurian strata
* in that portion of the District which lies south of the central crystal-
line range of country, all the strata being there regarded as of Upper
Silurian and Devonian age ; but some of the argillaceous slates which
occur there may perhaps be Lower Silurian.

350

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

The Upper Silurian strata of the Appalachian District, although
originally regarded as forming the principal part of the " Gaspe
Limestone series " of the late Sir William Logan, are but slightly
developed in Gasp^ proper, the supposed Upper Silurian beds of that
region being now shewn by their fossils to be chiefly of Devonian
age. But Upper Silurian strata —if rightly determined — occur some-
what largely in the south-eastern part of the district, south of the
central crystalline region. In the Eastern townships of Orford.
Melbourne, Westbury and adjacent sites, and in their extension
across the Chaudiere, they consist essentially of dark -gray or black
slates, and are seen in places to overlie the Calciferous (Quebec)
strata unconformably. These slates have been largely quarried for
rooting purposes in the township of Melbourne, and to some extent
also in Cleveland and adjacent townships. The Chaudiere slates in
the country around St. George, and elsewhere in Beauce County,
exactly resemble the hard black slates on the St. Lawrence opposite
Quebec, and shew no trace of fossils. They form the broken floor or
" bed-rock " on which the alluvial gold of this part of the Chaudiere
valley essentially rests ; and here and there they are traversed by
quartz veins carrying small quantities of gold. In Gaspe proper,
the Upper Silurian strata are composed mainly of calcareous beds,
consisting of grey limestones and shales ; but according to Mr. Ells.
to whom our recent knowledge of the geology of the Gasp^ coast is
chiefly due, these strata occupy a much smaller area then that
formerly assigned to them, most of the Gaspe limestones holding De-
vonian fossils. Those to which an Upper Silurian age may be attribu-
ted, are exposed chiefly on the Grand River of the south coast, and
along the shore between the Pabos River and Cape D'Espoir. At
these points they underlie unconformably the Lower Carboniferous
Bonaventure beds.

The Devonian formations of the region now under review, besides
comprising the great body of the " Gaspe limestones and sandstones,"
occur undoubtedly in the more southern of the Eastern Townships,
but, as a rule, in a more or less altered condition, and not clearly
separable from associated Silurian strata. Many of the grey, black,
and marbled limestones, however, of this area, as those of Weedon,
Duds well and Lake Memphremagog, as well as the micaceous lime-
stones of Compton and adjacent townships, are apparently Devonian.

OF CENTRAL CANADA PAKT V. 351

Some of the Dudswell beds form veined marbles of considerable
beauty, black and yellow, and white and yellow, in colour ; and these
limestones in their less altered portions shew Devonian fossils, or
mixtures of these with Upper Silurian types. In Gaspe, proper,
Devonian rocks occupy wide areas, and consist of limestones, sand-
stones, and conglomerates. Where in contact with Upper Silurian
strata (below), and with Lower Cavboniferous conglomerates (above),
as in Perce, etc., they are unconformable to both of these formations.
The arenaceous beds constitute the more typical strata of this
Devonian series, and are made up essentially of gray shales and gray,
brown, and reddish sandstones, holding in places, more especially
around Gaspe Bay and near Fleurant Point on the Bay of Chaleurs,
numerous plant remains ; and at the latter locality the remains also
of ganoid fishes (see ante, page 291). The fossil plants comprise
examples of Psilopliylon (tig. 120), Lepidodendron (fig. 121) Stig-
maria, Cordaites (fig. 122), Calamites (fig. 119), Annularia, Pro-
totaxites, etc. A thin seam of shaly coal, a few inches thick, occurs
also in these beds at Little Gaspe Cove ; and petroleum springs ooze
through the strata at Douglastown on the south shore of Gaspe Bay,
but borings put down in the vicinity of these have failed to obtain
a profitable supply. At Tar Point, a grey amygdaloidal dyke con-
tains pitch -like petroleum in some of its cavities. Other eruptive
dykes break through the Devonian strata on this part of the Gaspe*
coast and on the Bay of Chaleurs, as described below.

The Carboniferous strata of the district belong to the lower part
of the Coal Measures, but are entirely destitute of coal. They form
the " Bonaventure formation " of the late Sir William Logan, and
consist essentially of conglomerates, associated with red and brown
sandstones and shales, many of which contain fossilized vegetable
remains or casts of these. The conglomerates are made up of rounded
masses or pebbles of limestone, sandstone, syenite, agate, quartz and
other rock-matters, held together by an arenaceo-calcareous cement.
These beds rests unconformably on the Devonian and Silurian strata
of the Gaspe coast. They occupy the entire area of Bonaventure
Island, and occur in comparatively narrow strips along the Bonaven-
ture and Perce shore of the mainland. They form also the upper
portion of the Perce" mountain, but the lower conglomerates for-

352

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

merly assigned to them, both at this spot and at localities along the
Bay of Chaleurs, are now regarded as Devonian *

Eruptive Rocks : — The more important eruptive rocks occuring
within the Appalachian and Gaspe' District, comprise : (1) the tra-
chytic mountains of Brome and Shefford ; (2), the granites of the
Great and Little Megantic Mountains, and other granitic masses of
the Eastern Townships; and (3),, the trappean dvkes and hills of
Eastern Gasp4 and the Bay of Chaleurs.

The Brome and Shefford mountains consist essentially of granitoid
trachytes, composed of greyish-white or light-coloured feldspar with
scales or grains of brown or black mica and dark hornblende, and
some minute crystals and specks of sphene and magnetite. The feld-
spar, according to Dr. Sterry Hunt's analyses, contains both potash
and soda but shews the cleavage of orthoclase. The Brome (and
Gale) Mountain covers an area of about twenty square miles, and the
closely adjacent Shefford Mountain, about nine square miles. Both
belong to the same eruptive series as the trachytic and trappean
mountains (Yamaska, Chambly, Montreal, etc.) of the Upper St.
Lawrence District described on a preceding page, all of which are
apparently of Upper Silurian or Devonian age.

The granites of this region are also of Devonian or later age. They
present a very general resemblance in aspect and composition, consist-
ing almost uniformly of white orthoclase-feldspar and colourless
quartz, with small quantities of black or brown mica. Large ex-
posures occur in Stanstead, one alone covering five or six square
miles ; also in the country immediately south-west of Lake St. Francis,
and around Lake Megantic in Compton ; and smaller exposures are
seen in Barnston, Burford, Hereford, and other townships. In most
cases the granite has penetrated the surrounding rocks in veins or
dykes, and has greatly altered these : rendering the limestones and
dolomites more or less crystalline, with partial or complete oblite-
ration of iossils ; and converting the slates in some places into mica-
ceous schists, or developing in them crystals of chiastolite (see page
97), garnet, hornblende, and small cubes of pyrites, as well as pro-
ducing fractures and other signs of mechanical disturbance.

The eruptive dykes of Gaspe consist partly of grey dolerites (in
places amygdaloidal), and in part of green diorite with porphyritic

* For structural and other details, see Report on the Gaspe Peninsula by R. W. Ells, 1882

OF CENTRAL CANADA — PART V. 353

crystals of greenish-white feldspar ; or otherwise they present the
form of a more or less compact or granular greenstone, properly so-
called. Grey doleritic dykes occur around Gaspe* Bay, as at Tar
Point (referred to on a preceding page) and elsewhere ; and green
feldspatho-porphyritic dykes are exceedingly numerous on the south
coast at New Carlisle, as described many years ago by the late Sir
William Logan (Geological Reports : 1844, 1863). Trappean hills
and dykes occur also at other points along or near the coast between
the Cascapedia and the Restigouche at the head of the Bay of
Chaleurs.

Glacial and other surface deposits : — These are spread very generally
within this district, as elsewhere, over the various rock-formations
of the country. They comprise, in ascending series : (1), Beds of
auriferous gravel and magnetic sand ; (2), Boulder-clays or Drift de-
posits, proper, consisting of accumulations of clay and gravel with
boulders of crystalline and other rocks ; (3), Beds of Leda Clay (a
more or less deep-sea formation) and Saxicava Sand (a shore-line or
shallow-sea deposit : page 342) ; and (4), sundry superficial deposits
of comparatively recent origin. The Drift clays in many parts of the
Eastern Townships and adjacent area, are underlaid by (and also
partially mixed with) layers of gravel and black magnetic sand,
containing, very generally, fine grains, and occasionally small nug.
gets of free gold. These auriferous deposits have been recognized in
the beds of most of the streams and rivers which flow through this
section of the Province, and especially in the St. Francis, Chaudiere,
Famine, Riviere des Plantes, Etchemin, Gilbert, Metgerniet, and
Riviere du Loup.* The slate rock which underlies most of the
Chaudiere country, although exposed in many places, is covered as a
rule, from the surface downwards, by a deposit of alluvial earth, clay,
boulder-clay, black magnetic sand, and coarse gravel, varying from a
few feet to over 1£>0 feet in thickness. There is hardly a single
stream connected with the Chaudiere valley that does not carry
more or less gold, chiefly in the gravel which fills the cracks and
crevices of the rock which forms its bed. But the greater portion of
this surface gold has long since been extracted-— at least, as regards
the smaller streams and rivers where the bed-rock can be easily got

* Of Beauce County : not the Riviere du Loup of Kamouraska and Teraiscouta on the St.
Lawrence

23

354

MINERALS AND GEOLOGY

at and explored. It has been ascertained, however, that, in many
if not in all cases, these existing streams and rivers flowed at one
time in older and lower channels beneath their present beds. The
ancient and in general wider channels have been subsequently covered
up and hidden by deposits ot glacial and post-glacial age, consisting,
as already stated, of gravels and black magnetic sand in immediate
contact with the bed-rock, overlaid by clays and boulder-clays, other
gravels (in some places auriferous) and vegetable soil. The clays
and boulder-clays contain apparently no trace of gold ; and it is i.nly
in the lowest layer of gravel immediately above the bed-rock, and in
the cracks and hollows and behind projecting ridges of the bed-rock
itself, that gold occurs in paying quantity. All underground work-
ings therefore have to be carried down to the rock floor. When the
gravel is washed, a certain amount of black magnetic sand is almost
always found with the gold in the sluices, but this arises from the
comparative density of the sand. The black sand, in itself, is no
absolute indication of the presence of gold in alluvial gravels, as it
occurs almost everywhere in the detritus of our crystalline rocks.

The Leda Clay and Saxicava Sand deposits (see page 342) are
largely displayed on the Trois Pistoles, Cacouna, Riviere du Loup
(Temiscouta), St. Anne, Matanne, Metis, and other rivers, at various
elevations from three or four, to over two hundred feet above the
present sea-level.

The more superficial deposits of the district include the bog-iron
ores of Stanbridge, Farnham, Simpson, Ascot, Stanstead, Ireland, St.
Lambert, St. Vallier, Vallery, Cacouna, and ether sites ; the ochres
of Durham ; the shell marls of Stanstead, New Carlisle, etc.; and the
peat beds of the Riviere Ouelle, Riviere du Loup, Metis, Rimouski,
and Madawaska — most of which are of great extent, and from five
to ten or fifteen feet in depth.

OF CENTRAL CANADA— PART V. 355

APPENDIX.

Sequence of Rock Formations recognized within the Provinces of
Ontario and Quebec.

Fifr*&-

POST-CAINOZOIC FORMATIONS :

24. Deposits of Recent Origin.

23. Post-Glacial Deposits.

22. Drift or Glacial Deposits.
PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS : — — • —
Carboniferous :

21. Bonaventure Fn.
Devonian : /^

20. Portage-Chemung Fn.

19. Hamilton (or Lambton) Fn.

18. Corniferous Fn.

17. Oriskany Fn.
Upper Silurian :

1 6. Lower Helderberg or Etirypterus Fn.

15. Onondaga or Gypsiferous Fn.

14. Guelph Fn.

13. Niagara Fn.

12. Clinton Fn.

11. Medina Fn.

Lower (or Cambrio-) Silurian :
10. Hudson River Fn.

9. UticaFn.

8. Trenton (and Black River) Fn.

7. Chazy Fn.
Cambrian :

6. Calciferous (including Quebec) Fn.

5. Potsdam Fn.

4. Keweenian Fn.

3. Animikie Fn.
ARCHAEAN FORMATIONS :

2. Huronian Fn.

1. Laurentian Fn.

INDEX.

357

INDEX.

Abercrombie, 108.

Abranchiata, 249.

Acanthodes, 291.

Acmite, 104.

Acrogens, 215.

Actinidee, 236.

Actinocrinus, 240.

Actinolite, 102.

Acids, action of, 20.

Action of the Atmosphere, 154.

" " Streams and Rivers, 154.

" Sea, 155.
Actinophrys, 221.
Acton, 144, 346.
Adamantine Spar, 90.
Addington, 82, 313.
Adirondack Mts., 294, 320.
Agalmatolite, 120.
Agate, 95, 186.
Agate Island, 186.
Agelacrinites, 224.
Aglossata, 275.
Agnostus, 254.
Albany Paver, 294, 331.
Albeinarle, 317.
Albion, 314.
Albite, 107.
Alcyonaria, 235.
Algas, 212.

Algoma Sand, 319, 320, 328, 331.
Allanite, 100.
Alum, 134.

Alumette Lake and Rapids, 136, 179.
Alvsolites, 231.
Ambonychia, 276-
Amherstburg, 326.
Amethyst, 94.
Amianthus, 102.
Amoeba, 221.
Amphibole, 102.
Amphibolite, 170.
Amphipoda, 262.
Ammonites, 205, 288.
Amphioxus, 290.
Amplexus, 233, 323, 332.

Ainygdaloidal Trap, 182, 186, 300,

352.

Amygdalocystites, 241.
Analcime, 113.
Anamesite, 187.
Ancaster, 323.
Andesite, 108.
Angiosperms, 206, 220.
Animals, Classification of, 221.
Animal Remains, 221-292.
Animikie Formation, 172, 299, 302,

303.

Annelida, 249.
Annularia, 217.
Anomura, 262.
Anorthite, 109.
Anorthosites, 181, 337.
Antedon, 240.
Anticlinals, 163.

Anticosti, 145, 334, 342, 343, 344.
Antimony :

Glance, 79,

Grey Ore of, 79.

Native, 66, 347-

Oxy-sulphide, 80, 347.

Sulphide, 79, 347.
AnthocoraUa, 235.
Anthraxolite, 143.
Antipathidse, 236.
Apatite, 134, 307, 336.
Aphanite, 187,
Aphrodite, 119.
Apiocrinus, 240.
ApophyUite, 113.
Aporosa, 236.

Appalachian District, 344-354.
Appalachian Mts., 344.
Apus, 252.
Aqueous rocks, 155.
Arachnida, 263.
Area, 276.

Argenteuil, 96, 98, 99, 105, 110.
Argentite, 67, 302.
Archaean Age, 203.
Archaean Districts, 295-304, 336-338

358

INDEX.

Archaeocyathus, 225.
Argenteuil, 84, 181, 337.
Argillaceous, rocks, 151.
Argillites, 171, 346.
Argonaut, 289.
Argulus, 253.
Arnprior, 125, 304, 308.
Arragonite, 125.
Arsenical Nickel, 73.

Pyrites, 77, 307.
Arsenic, detection of, 32, 41.
Arsenides, 67, 73.
Artemisia, 320.

Artemisia Gravel, 319, 320, 328.
Arthrophycus, £13, 318.
Arthropoda, 250.
Articulata (Brachiopods), 268.
Articulata (Crinoids), 238.
Asaphus, 254, 255, 310, 311, 315; 317.
Asbestus, 102, 348.
Ascideans, 290.
Ascoceras, 287.
Ascot, 73, 87, 115, 347.
Asiphonida, 275.
Aspect, in minerals, 4.
Asphalt, 143.
Asteroidea, 245.
Asterophyllites, 217.
Astrseidae, 236.
Astylospongia, 225.
Athyris, 269, 325, 326.
Atlantic^, 283.
Atrypa, 270, 325, 326.
Aubert Gallion, 88.
Augite, 103, 182, 186, 336.
Augite Kock, 169.
Augitic Trap, 341.
Aulopora, 235.
Auriferous gravel, 353.
Automolite, 91.
Avicula, 276.
Axis, anticlinal, 163.
" synchinal, 163.
Ayton, 324.
Azurite, 129.

Baie St. Paul, 83. 101, 105, 337.
Balanus, 251.

Balsam Lake, 74, 314, 316.
Barnston, 180, 352.
Barrack Hill (Ottawa), 311.
Barrie (Frontenac Co.), 80, 99, 126,

308.

Barrie (Simcoe Co.) 320.
Barytine (Barite), 130.
Basalt, 186.
Bathyurus, 255.
Bastard limestone, 309.

Bathurst, 130, 180.
Batiscan, 87.

Bay of Chaleurs, 333, 351, 353.
Bay of Quint6, 316.
Bay St. Paul, 83, 101, 105, 337.
Beatricia, 343.
Beckwith, 145.
Beauce Co., 64, 88, 118, 350.
Beauharnois Co., 96, 132, 340.
Beauport, 142, 342.
Beaver Mine, 300.
Bedford, 62, 69, 84, 306.
Belemnites, 205, 289.
Bekeil, 104, 110, 185, 188, 341.
Belfontaine, 313, 322.
Belinurus, 260.
Bellerophon, 281, 282, 317.
Belleville, 316, 319.
Belmont, 84, 118, 306.
Belmont Lake, 314.
Beiitinck, 127.
Bertie, 324, 325.
Beyrichia, 251.
Bigsby Island, 330,
Big Stone Bay, 299, 301.
Bismuth, Native, 66.
Glance, 79.
Biotite, 115.
Bitter Spar, 126.
Bitumen (Asphalt), 143, 351.
Bituminous shales, 142, 311, 316.
Bivalve Entomostracans, 251.
Bizard, Isle, 340.
Black Bay, 68, 72, 130, 185, 302, 303.
Black Copper Ore, 81.
Black Lead (Graphite), 61, 337.
Black River limestone, 310, 315, 316,

339.

Blastoids, 243.
Blende, 69.
Blende Lake, 303.
Blowpipe, use of, 22-48.
Blue Mts. (Collingwood), 317.
Bobcageon, 316.
Bog Iron Ore, 86, 342, 354.
Bog Manganese Ore, 88.
Bolton township, 73, 84, 86, 88, 114,

115, 117, 127, 347.
Bonaventure Formation, 351.
Bonaventure Island, 351.
Bornite, 71, 303, 347.
Bosanquet, 141, 243, 326, 327.
Bothriocidaris, 247.
Bouider Clay and Boulders, 300, 311.

314, 319, 328, 338, 341, 353.
Brachiopoda, 266-274.
Brachiura, 262.

INDEX.

359:

Branchiata, 249.

Branchifera, 280, 281, 283.

Branchipus, 252.

Brant, 324, 326.

Brantford, 132, 329.

Breccias, 153.

Brick Clays, 319, 328.

Bridgewater, 117,

Brisingida, 246.

Brockville, 96, 294, 304, 308, 309,

312, 320.
Brome, 73, 83, 103, 107, 115, 116, 190,

345, 349.

Brome, Gale, and Shefford Mts., 351.
Brompton, 99.
Brompton Lake, 99.
Bronteus, 256.
Bronzite, 116.
Brooke, 327.

Broughton, 99, 116, 118, 172, 348.
Brown Iron Ore, 86, 332, 342.
Bruce Co., 324, 326.
Bruce Mines, 71, 303.
Bryozoa, 265.
Buccinum, 283.
Buckingham, 62, 96, 115.
Bulb-tube, 30.
Burford, 136, 352.
Burgess, 62, 98, 106, 115, 118, 130,

135, 308.
Burleigh, 180.
Burleigh Falls, 316.
Bythotrephis, 212.
Bytownite, 109.

Cabot's Head, 295, 313, 318, 319.

Cacouna, 88.

Calamites, 204, 216.

Cainozoic Age, 205.

Calcareous rocks, 151.

Calcedony, 95.

Calciferous Formation, 309, 340, 343,

348.

Calcite (Calc Spar), 122.
Calcispongias, 224.
Calc Tufa, 124.
Caledon, 318, 322.
Calumet Falls, 98, 100, 101, 104, 106,

136, 170.

Calumet Island, 109, 118.
Calymene, 259,260, 311, 315, 317, 322,

325.

Cambridge, 311.
Camden, 87.
Camerella, 270.
Campement d' Ours, 329, 330.
Canadian minerals :

Determinative Tables of, 50, 57,

Descriptions of, 61-145.
Canadian Rock Formations, see Parts
iii., v., vi., generally; also page
355.

Cancrinite, 110.
Cape Chin, 319, 322.
C. Commodore, 319.
C. Crocker.
C. d' Espoir, 350.
C. Gargantua, 66.
C. Ipperwash, 76, 141, 216, 327.
C. Maimanse, 189.|
C. Paulet, 322.
C. Rich, 130, 131.
C. Rosier, 343", 349.
C. Smythe, 330.
C. Tourmente, 114.
Celenterata, 225-236.
Chaudiere Falls, 308.
Chaudiere River and Valley, 63, 69,

119, 345, 349, 353.
Chazy Formation, 310, 340, 343.
Cheirocrinus, 240.

Cheirurus (Ceraurus), 257, 310, 315,
Chemical Characters of minerals, 18-

48.

Chert, 95, 325.
Chiastolite, 97, 352.
Chiton, 280.
Chlorastrolite, 111.
Chlorides, 139-141.
Chlorite, 115.
Chlorite slate, 172, 297.
Chloritic schists, 297, 346, 347.
Chloritoid. 116.
Chonetes, 272.
Chrome garnet, 98, 99.
Chromic Iron Ore, 85, 347.
Chromiferous mica, 114.
Chrysocolla, 121.
Chrysolite (Olivinc), 105.
Chrysotile (Serpentine-asbestus), 118,

347.

Cirrhipedia, 250.
Circular discs in Conifers, 220.
Cladocera, 251.
Clarence, 145, 311.
Clarendon, 75, 98, 100.
Clark Point, 328.
Clay Iron Ore, 127.
Clay slate, 151, 299, 349, 350, 353.
Cleveland, 73, 88, 115, 348, 350,
Cleavage iu minerals, 13.
Cleavage, slaty, 166.
Climactichnites, 213, 214, 309.
Clinometer-Compass, 163.*
Clinton, 140, 323, 324.

* The cut illustrating this instrument has been placed incorrectly on one of its sides. The
lettering shews the proper position of the instrument.

360

INDEX.

Clinton Formation, 318, 322, 330.

Clisiophyllum, 233.

Clistenterata, 268.

Clymenia, 288.

Coal, 144.

Cobalt Bloom, 137.

Cobourg, 319.

Cockburn Island, 329.

Coccolite, 104.

Codonaster, 2.42.

Coleraine, 118, 348.

Collingwood township, 316, 317,

Colour in minerals, 5.

Columnaria, 232, 315.

Comatula, 240.

Compton, 350, 352.

Conchifera, 275.

Conchoidal fracture, 14.

Concordant stratification, 164.

Condrodite (Chondrodite). 105.

Conformable stratification, 164.

Conglomerates, 153, 297, 305, 348, 351.

Conifers, 219.

Conocephalites, 259.

Conifrontes, 258.

Conocardium, 277.

Consolidation of sediments, 157.

Conularia, 279, 316.

Copepoda, 251.

Copper :

Carbonates, 128, 129.

Native, 65, 303, 347.

Glance, 70, 347.

Pyrites, 71, 303, 347.

Purple Pyrites, 71, 303, 347.

Silicate, 121.

Copper-bearing rocks of Lake Super-
ior : — see Animikie an 1 Keween-
ian formations.
Corals, 230-236.
Cordaites, 218.

Corniferous Formation, 96, 325.
Cornwall, 310.
Corundum, 90.
Couchiching, Lake, 316.
Conidse, 283.
Craniadae, 273.
Credit, River, 131, 317.
Crinoidea, 237-240.
Crosby, 84, 105, 306.
Crossocoralla, 235.
Crow Lake, 164.
Crow River, 307, 316.
Crown Point mine, 302.
Crustacea, 250-262.
Cryptogams, 211.
Crystals, 7-12.

Crystalline dolomite, 174, 346, 351.
Crystalline limestone, 125, 173, 297,

305, 336, 346.
Cumberland, 145, 308.
Cupellation, 38.
Cuttle Fish, 289.
Cyathophyllum, 233.
Cycads, 219.
Cyclas, 277.
Cyclopterus, 291.
Cyprseidae, 283.
Cypris, 251.
Cyrena, 277.
Cyrtoceras, 286.
Cyrtodonta, 277.
Cyrtolites, 281.
Cyrtina, 269.
Cystidea, 240-242.
Cystiphyllum, 231, 234.
Dalmanites, 258, 322.
Datolite, 112.
Dawsonite, 128.
Decapoda (Crustaceans), 262.
Decapoda (Cephalopods), 289.
Delthyris (Platystrophia), 272.
Dendocrinus, 239.
Dennis quarries, 318.
Dennison township, (see Addenda).
Dentalium, 278.
Denudation, 161.
Dereham, 142.
Devonian Formations, 325-327, 332,

350.

Diabase, 188. ^
Diallage, 116.
Diatoms, 215.
Dibranchiata, 289.
Dichoprionidians, 228.
Dicotyledons, 211, 220.
Dicranograptus, 228.
Dictyonema, 229.
Didymograptus, 227-8.
Dikelocephalus, 256.
Diopside, 103.
Diorite, 188, 302.
Dip of strata, 162.
Diplograptus, 228.
Diprionidians, 227.
Discina, 273.
Discomedusse, 226.
Dislocation of strata.
Dolerite, 186, 341.
Dolomite, 126, 151', 174, 346, 351.
Dolomitic limestone, 152.
Domite, 190.
Don, River, 313.
Don Mills (Grand River), 324.

INDEX.

361

Dorsibranchiata, 249.

Douglastown, 143.

Drift deposits, 300, 305, 311, 314, 319,

320, 328, 338, 338, 341, 344, 353.
Drummond Island, 131.
Dudswell, 125, 350, 351.
Dumfries, 127, 132.
Dundas, 82, 96, 132, 133, 313, 318,

319.

Dunn, 325.
Durham, 87, 313.
Dykes, 174, 175, 181, 183, 184, 298,

300, 302, 341, 353.
Eardly, 87.

Earthy manganese ore, 88.
Eastern Townships (Quebec), 64, 66,

69, 71, 73, 75, 79, 82, 84, 85, 86,

87, 95, 100, 101, 114, 115, 116,

117, 118, 126, 129, 172, 173, 344,

345, 346.

Echinocystites, 244.
Echinodermata, 236-248.
Echinoidea, 247.
Echo Lake, 66, 303.
Economic minerals,

Of Archaean rocks. 301-303, 306-308,

337 347
Of Paleozoic rocks, 312, 319, 324,

327, 351.
Of Post-Cainozoic deposits, 319, 329,

342, 344, 353, 354.
Edrioasteridge, 244.
Edwardsburg, 308.
Ekeolite, 110.
Elephas, 292.
Elderslie, 324.
Elevation of strata, 158.
Elevation, Valleys of, 163.
Elizabethtown, 75.
Elmsley, 106, 135.
Elora, 127.

Elzevir, 63, 84, 87, 99, 117, 172, 308.
Emery, 90.

Encrinites (Criuoids), 237.
Encrinus, 240.
Endoceras, 288.
Endogenous rocks, 175.
Enniskillen, 142, 143, 327.
Eozoon, 222.
Eospongia, 225.
Epidote, 100.
Epidote-rock, 170.
Epsomite, 132.
Equisetaceaj, 216.
Eramosa, 69, 323.
Erie and Huron District, 321-331.

Erie Clay, 319, 323.

Errantia, 249.

Erubescite (Bornite), 71, 303, 347.

Eruptive Rocks, 175, 297, 336, 341,
352.

Essex, 326.

Etchemin River, 66, 345, 353, 354.

Euomphalus. 281, 309.

Euelephas, 292.

Euryalida, 245.

Eurypterus, 261.

Eurypterus, (Lower Helderberg) For-
mation, 324.

False bedding, 157.

Famine River, 64, 345, 353.

Faraday township, 84, 306.

Farnham, 354.

Faults in strata, 164, 165, 334, 339,
340.

Favosites, 231, 232, 325, 332.

Feldspars, 106-109.

Feldspar-rock (Feldspathic gneiss),
168.

Felsite, 178.

Fenelon Falls, 316.

Fenestella, 266.

Fergus, 323.

Ferns, 204, 217.

Finch, 145.

Firolidge, 283.

Fishes, 204, 205, 291.

Fistulipora, 231.

Fitzroy, 308.

Fitzroy Island (Niagara Formation,
Georgian Bay).

Flamborough, 318.

Flaming process, 33.

Fleurant Point, 351.

Flint, 95, 325, (chert).

Flower-pot Islands (Niagara Forma-
tion, Georgian Bay).

Fluor Island, 139.

Fluorides, 137.

Fluor Spar, 138.

Footwall in veins, 193.

Foraminifera, 222.

Form : Regular 7 ; Irregular 13.

Fort William (Lake Snperior), 66, 67,
130, 134.

Fossilized Organic Bodies, 209-289.

Animal Remains, 221-292.
" Vegetable Remains, 210-
220, 351.

Fracturing of sti'ata, 164.

French River.

262

INDEX,

Frontenac Co., 69, 78, 126, 192, 304,

313

Frontones, 256,
Fungiiliu, 236.
Fusibility in minerals, 28.
Fusidae, 283.

Gale Mountain (Brome) 352.
Galena, 67, 303, 307, 323.
Gait, 323.
Galway township, 69, 98, 123, 133,

172, 307.

Gananoque, 304, 307.
Garden River, 68, 302.
Garnet, 98, 297, 304.
Garnet-rock, 171.
Garthby, 118.
Gash veins, 194, 322.
Gaspe, 68, 95, 118, 127, 334, 344, 345,

350, 352.

Gaspe Bay, 351, 353.
Gasp6 limestones and sandstones, 68,

350.

Gasteropoda, 279.
Genthite, 121.
Geological Ages and Periods, Table

of, 201.

Georgetown, 313, 318.
Georgian Bay, 313, 215, 318.
Gephyrea, 249.
Glacial Formation, 207, 300, 311, 314,

319, 328, 331, 338, 341, 353.
Glacial strife, 300, 306, 311, 319, 331.
Glaciers, 155, 207, 300.
Glamorgan, 84, 306.
Glaucom'te, 121.
Glauconitic sandstones, 348.
Glossophora, 275.
Gloucester, 145
Glyptocrinus, 239.
Gneiss, 168, 169, 203, 297, 305, 334,

336, 337, 346.
Goderich, 324.
Gold, 62, 301, 307, 353. see also the

Addenda.
Gomphoceras, 286.
Goniatites, 205, 289.
Gorgonidas, 235.
Goulais Bay, 187.
Goulbourne, 145.
Grand Island, 324.
Grand River, 132, 323.
Granite, 177, 178, 297, 298, 304, 305,

352.

Granitoid Trachyte, 190, 341, 352.
Graphic granite, 178, 179.
Graphite, 61, 337.
Graptolites, 226, 228, 311, 316, 317,

348.

Green's Creek, 291, 311.
Greenstone, 182, 187, 299, 336, 353.
Grenville (P.Q.), 62, 95, 100, 103, 106,

108, 109, 110, 118, 145, 179, 336.
Grey Band (Medina Formation), 318.
Grimsby, 321.
Gros Cap, 187, 189.
Guelph, 127, 323, 324.
Guelph Formation, 323.
Gulf, St. Lawrence, 333, 338, 342.
Gum Beds, 143, 327.
Gymnosperms, 219.
Gymnolsemata, 266.
Gymnosomata, 278.
Gypsiferous Formation, 323.
Gypsum, 131, 324, 332.
Hematite, 81, 303, 306, 337.
Haldimand, 324, 326.
Haliburton, 84, 108, 304.
Halifax township (P.Q.), 83.
Hallowell Spring, 141.
Halysites, 232, 322, 338.
Ham township, 66, 79, 80, 86, 118,

346, 347, 348.
Hamilton, 124, 139, 291, 295, 312,

318, 321.

Hamilton Formation, 326.
Hanging- wall in veins, 193.
Hardness in minerals, 14, 16.
Harrington, 145.
Harpes, 258.
Harvey Hill mine, 347.
Hastings Co., 64, 72, 75, 82, 120, 304,

306, 313.

Hawkesbury, 136, 310.
Healey's Falls, 316.
Heavy Spar, 130.
Heliopora, 318.
Heliophylltan, 233.
Helix, 280.

Hematite, 81, 303, 306, 337.
Hemicystites, 244.
Hemrningford, 145, 340.
Hereford, 180, 352.
Herschel, 84.
Hespeler, 323.
Heterocrinus, 239.
Heteromyaria, 276.
Heteropoda, 283.
Hexapoda (Insecta), 264.
Hinchinbrook, 76.
Holopea, 282.
Holostomata, 281.
Holothuroidea, 248.
Homalonotus, 260, 322.
Homomyaria, 276.
Hornblende, 102.
Hornblende-rock or slate, 170.

INDEX.

363

Hornblendic gneiss, 169.
Hornblendic granite, 179.
Hornstone, 95.

" Horses " in mineral veins, 195.
Horseflesh Ore (Bornite), 71, 303, 347.
Huckleberry Hills, 305, 307.
Hudson River Formation, 311, 317,

330, 340, 343, 349.
Hull, 82, 84, 130, 139, 337.
Hull cement, 312.
Humber, River, 313, 317.
Humberstone, 145, 326.
Humboldtine, 141.
Huntington, 124, 340, 346, (mine).
Huntly, 145, 310.
Huron Co., 326.
Huronia, 288.
Huron, Lake, 66, 68, 70, 72, 73, 76,

85, 95, 297, 298, 300, 301, 303,

321, 329.

Huronian Formation, 297, 299.
Hyacinth (Zircon), 97.
Hybocrinus, 240.
Hydraulic limestone, 152, 324.
Hydrocoralla, 229.
Hydromedusae, 226.
Hymenocaris, 261.
Hydrozoa, 226.
Hypersthene, 105, 337.
Hypersthene-rock, 182.
Ichthyocrinus, 240.
Idocrase, 100.
Igneous rocks, 175.
Illfenus, 255, 310.
Ilmenite, 83.
Inarticulata, 272.
Incellata, 235.
Indiana township, 324.
" Infusorial " marls, 215.
Inornata, 231.
Insecta, 264.
Integri-radiata, 277.
Integri-stellata, 234.
Intrusive rocks, 175.
Ipperwash, Cape, 76, 141, 216, 327.
Ireland township, 87.
Iridescent Feldspars, 107, 108, 337.
Iricl-Osmium, 64.
Iron Island, 82, 130.
Iron Ores, 81, 174, 303, 306, 337, 342,

347.

Iron Oxalate, 141.
Iron Pyrites, 74, 327, 352.
Iron Vitriol, 133,
Iserine, 85.
Isidacese, 235.
Island of Orleans, 76, 339, 348.

Isle Bizard, 340.

Isle Jesus, 340.

Isle Royale, 111.

Isopoda, 262.

Isoteles (Asaphus), 255.

Ives mine, 195, 347.

James' Bay, 294, 296, 353.

Jargon, 97.

Jarvis Island, 130.

Jasper, 95.

Jasper, conglomerate, 95, 171.

JolietteCo., 91, 115, 337.

Kaministiquia River, 72, 76, 184.

Kamouraska, 345, 349.

Kaolin, 107.

Kaolinite, 119.

Kenny on, 311.

Kent, 326.

Kepple, 317.

Kermesite, 80, 348.

Kettle Point, 76, 141, 216, 327.

Keweenian Formation, 299, 303.

Kincardine, 140.

King, 314, 320.

Kingsey, 348.

Kingston, 70, 131, 294, 312, 315. 316,

320.

Knowlton Lake, 314.
Labradorite, 108, 109, 337.
"Labrador Formation," 181, 337.
Lachine, 190.

La Cloche Islands, 329, 330.
Lakefield, 316.
Lake township, 69, 307.
Lake Ontario District, 312-320.
Lakes :

Allumette, 114, 179.

Balsam, 74.

Belmont, 314.

Brompton, 99.

Champlain, 335, 342, 345.

Charleston, 96, 98, 309.

Couchiching, 89, 316.

Crow, 164.

Eagle, 303.

Echo, 72, 303.

Eel, 314.

Erie, 321, 325, 328.

Of the Woods, 299, 301, 302, 304.

Golden, 109.

Hollow, 101.

Huron, 66. 68, 70, 72, 73, 76, 85, 95,
295, 297, 298, 301, 321.

Knowlton, 314.

Loughborough, 314.

Magog, 345.

Manitou, 331.

364

INDEX.

Lakes — Continued.

Mazinaw, 126, 174.

Megantic, 180, 352.

Memphramagog, 86, 120, 345, 346,

Metapedia, 345.

Moira, 90.

Muskoka, 101, 305.

Neepigon, 299, 300, 311.

Nipissing, 82, 130, 304, 306.

Otty, 309.

Ontario, 312, 313, 314, 315, 317.

Rice, 314.

St. Clair, 321, 327.

St. Francis, 97, 180, 345, 352.

St. John(P.Q.), 337, 338.

St. John (Ont.j, 316.

St. Peter, 340.

Scugog, 314.

Silver, 303.

Simcoe, 295, 313.

Stoney, 98, 107, 180, 305.

Superior, 65, 68, 72, 82, 85, 111,
112, 187, 294, 296, 297, 299, 300.

Temiscamingue, 294, 297.

Temiscouata, 345,

Wolsey, 331.
Lambton Co., 326.

Lambton (Hamilton) Formation, 326.
Lamellibranchiata, 275.
Lanark Co., 84, 103, 110, 135, 309.
Lanordie, 145, 342.
Lansdowne, 69, 130.
Latiformes (Trilobites), 254.
Laumontite, 112.
Laurentian Formation, 169, 297, 305,

336.

Laurentide Mountains, 334, 336.
Lauzun Formation, 347.
La Valtrie, 145, 342.
Lead sulphide (galena) 67, 303,307,323.
Lecanocrinus, 240.
Leda Clay Formation, 342, 353. 354.
Leda truncata, 277, 342 (note).
Leeds, 69, 71, 78, 105, 110, 130, 348.
Lennoxville, 69.
Leperditia, 251.
Lepidodendroecese, 217.
Lepidodendron, 204, 218.
Leptaena, 271.
Levis Formation, 347, 348.
Lichas, 256.
Lima, 276.
Limestones, 125, 151, 152, 173. see

also under different Formations.
Lime, Carbonate, 122.

Feldspars, 108, 109, 337.

Phosphate, 134, 307, 336.

Sulphate, 131, 324, 332.

Limerick, 69, 307.

Limnea, 278.

Limonite, 86, 332, 342.

Limulus, 260.

Lincoln Co., 69.

Lingula, 273, 274, 309, 310, 316, 318,

348.

Lingulella, 274.
Linobolus. 273.
Lithographic stone, 125, 315.
Little Current, 329.
Little Gaspe" Cove, 351.
Lituites, 286, 287.
Lochiel, 136, 310, 311.
Lochaber, 62, 336.
Loganellus, 258.
Loganite, 116.
Loganograptus, 228, 348.
London, Ont., 328.
Longueuil, 145.
L'Orignal, 310, 311, 312.
Lotbiniere, 64, 144.
Loughborough, 62, 123, 192, 307, 314,

315.
Lower Helderberg Formation, 324,

339

Lower Ottawa District, 308-312.
Lucina, 277.
Lustre in minerals, 4.
Lutterworth, 102.
Lycopodiacese, 217.
Machaeracanthus, 291.
McKay's Mountain, 299.
McNab township, 82, 306, 508.
Maclurea, 281, 282, 310, 316, 338.
Macrura, 262.
Madoc, 63, 67, 74, 84, 99, 101, 103,

305, 306.

Magdalen River (Gaspe"), 345, 349.
Magnesia Mica, 114, 337.
Sulphate, 132.
Magnesite, 127.
Magnetic Iron Ore (Magnetite), 83,

304, 306, 337, 347.
Magnetic Pyrites, 74.
Magnetic Iron Sands, 63, 85, 354.
Magnetism in minerals, 1 7 .
Maimanse, 71, 89, 99, 100.
Malachite, 128.
Malacodermata, 236.
Maiden, 326.

Malleability in minerals, 17.
Mallotus, 291, 312.
Mammoth, 292.
Manganese carbonate, 127.
Manganese Ores, 87, 88.
Manganese, detection of, 36.
Manitoulin District, 329-331.

INDEX.

365

Manitoulin Island, 131, 142, 164, 295,

Marble,' 125, 312, 340, 346, 351.

Marcasite, 76.

Marmora, 63, 84, 99, 118, 305, 306,
307, 315.

Martite, 82, 85.

Maskinonge Co., 99, 109.

Massive rocks, 174-191.

Mastodon, 292.

Medina Formation, 318.

Megalomus, 277, 323.

Megantic, Lake, 180, 352.

Megantic Mountains, 352.

Memphramagog, Lake, 86, 120, 345,
346, 350.

Melbourne township, 62, 71, 73, 86,
100, 115, 118, 125, 348, 350.

Menighinite, 80.

Merostomata, 260.

Mesozoic Age, 205.

Metamorphic Rocks, 167, 168, 297,
305, 336, 346.

Metamorphism, 165.

Meteor c Iron, 67.

Micas, 114, 337.

Mica schist, 169.

Michelinea, 231, 232, 325.

Michipicoten Island, 65, 95, 100, 113,

121, 186, 189, 298, 300, 303.
Michipicoten River, 298.
Middlesex Co., 329.
Millerite, 73.
Mlllepora, 231.
Millstones, 325.
Mimico River, 317.
Miiiden, 84, 306.
Mineral Veins, 191-198
Mingan coast and Islands, 334, 342,

343.

Mispickel, 77, 307.
Modiolopsis, 276.
Moira Lake, 90.
Moira River, 307, 313, 316.
Mollusca, 265-289.
Molluscoidea, 265-274.
Molybdenite, 78.
Monmouth, 84.

Monnoir (Mt. Johnson), 184 188, 341.
Mono, 318, 320.
Monocotyledons, 205, 220.
Monomerella, 273.
Monomyaria, 276.
Monoprionidians, 228.
Montarville, 105, 187, 341.
Montcalm Co., 83, 337.

Monticulipora, 231.

Montmorenci River, 333; Falls, 341

Montreal, 103, 104, 105, 107, 110, 185,
187, 341, 342.

Moose River, 331.

Morin, 108, 110.

Mosa, 142, 327.

Mt. Albert, 86, 99, 103. 118, 346, 348.

Mt. Johnson, 103, 107,A184, 188, 341

Mulmur, 69, 318, 320, 322.

Mundic, 74.

Murchisonia, 281, 282, 310, 316, 317.

Muricidee, 283.

Murray Bay, 99, 344.

Muscovite, 114.

Muskoka, 101, 305.

Mya, 278, 332.

Myriapoda, 263.

Mytilus, 276.

Naptha, 141.

Native Antimony, 66, 347.

N. Bismuth, 66.

N. Copper, 65, 303, 347.

N. Gold, 62, 301, 307, 353. see also
the Addenda.

N. Lead, 66.

N. Silver, 64, 302.

Natrolite, 112.

Nautilus, 285.

Neebing, 76, 130, 139.

Neepigon, Lake and River, 299, 300,

311.

Nelson, 318.
Nepean, 145, 309, 310.
Nepheline, 110.
Neustadt, 324.
Niagara Escarpment, 295, 314, 318,

321.
Niagara Falls, 126, 131, 132, 322, 324,

329.

Niagara Formation, 124, 322, 330, 343.
Niagara River, 313, 318.
Nickel Ores, 73, 346.
Nickel Vitriol, 133.
Nipissing, Lake. 82, 130, 304, 306.
Noisy River, 124, 319.
Norian rocks, 337.
Norfolk Co., 87, 326.
Normanby, 324.
Northern Archaean District (Quebec),

336.

Northern Palaeozoic Area(0ntario)331.
Northumberland, 313.
Ndtre Dame Mountains, 334, 344, 346.
Nottawasaga Bay, etc., 313, 315, 317,
318.

366

INDEX.

Nucleobranchiata, 283.

Nucleocrinus, 243.

Nudibranchiata, 280.

Nucula, 276.

Oak Ridges, 320.

Oblique bedding, 157.

Obolus, 274.

Obsidian, 191.

Ochres, 87, 89, 329, 342, 354.

Octopus, 289.

Oculinidse, 239.

Ogygia, 255.
Oli

ligoclase, 107.
Olivine, 105.
Oneida, 132, 322. 325.
Onondaga Formation, 132.
Ontario, Geology of, 294-323.
Operculata (Corals), 234.
Ophileta, 281, 309.
Ophiolite (Serpentine), 173, 346.
Ophiuroidea, 245.
Opisthobranchiata, 280.
Orbiculoidea, 273.
Orford township, 74, 79, 103, 125, 346,

350,

Organic Remains, 209-292.
Orillia, 85.

Oriskany Formation, 325.
Orleans, Island of, 76, 339, 348.
Ormoceras, 288.

Orthis, 271, 272, 310, 316, 322, 326.
Orthite, 100.

Orthoceras, 286, 288, 316, 317.
Orthoconcha, 276.
Orthoclase, 106, 168, 178, 181, 336,

352.

Osgoode, 311.
Ornabruck, 145.
Ostracoda, 251.
Ostrasa, 276.

Ottawa, 109, 308, 310, 311, 312.
Ottawa Co., 99, 100, 107, 109.
Ottawa River, 136, 294, 308, 310, 311.
Outliers, 161, 305, 338.
Ouvarovite (Chrome garnet), 98.
Owen Sound, 131, 323.
Owl's Head Mountain, 346.
Oxalateof Iron, 141.
Oxford Co., 324.
Oxford township, 142.
Oxides, 80, 86, 87, 89.
Ox Point, 316.
Paguridffi, 262.
Paisley, 324.
Pakenham, 125.
Palasterina, 246.
Palseaster, 246.
Palseocrinus, 240.

Palaeozoic Age, 204.

Paradoxides, 257.

Pauquette's Rapids, 96.

Paris (Ont.), 324, 329.

Parophite, 120.

Pasceolus, 223. •

Peat, 145, 342, 344, 354.

Pecten, 276.

Peel Co., 313.

Pegmatite, 178.

Pembroke, 179, 305.

Pennatula, 235.

Pennine, 115.

Pentamerus, 271, 319, 322.

Pentremites, 243.

Perce, 351.

Perforata, 236.

Peristerite, 106.

Peterborough, 316.

Peterborough Co., 70, 304, 313.

Petraia, 234.

Petraster, 246.

Petroleum, 141, 327, 331.

Petrosilex, 178.

Phacops, 257, 258, 325.

Phaneropleuron, 291.

Phillipsastrea, 233.

Phlogopite, 114, 336.

Pholerite, 119.

Phonolite, 190.

Phosphate (Apatite), 134, 308, 336.

Phosphates, 134.

Phragmoceras, 286, 287, 332.

Phyllocarida, 261.

Phyllograptus, 228, 348.

Phyllopoda, 251.

Physical Characters of minerals, 3-18.

Pic River, 82, 84, 299, 302.

Pickering, 317.

Pie Island (Lake Superior), 130, 299,

302.

Pigeon River, 70, 130, 300.
Pillar sandstones, 348.
Finite, 120.
Pisocrinus, 240.
Pitchblende, 89.
Pitchstone, 191.
Placophora, 280.
Planorbis, 278, 320.
Plantagenet, 145, 308, 311.
Plant Remains, 210-220.
Plaster of Paris, 132, 324.
Platinum, 64.
Platyceras, 281, 282, 316.
Platystrophia, 271, 272, 316.
Pleurocystites, 242.
Pleurotomaria, 281, 282, 310, 316.
Plumbago (Graphite), 61, 337.

Plutonic Rocks, 176.

Pointe aux Mines, 70, 72, 139.

Points aux Trembles, 341.

Point Boucher, 318.

P. LeMs, 136, 144, 339, 349.

P. Montresor, 318.

P. Rich, 130, 131, 1$2, 318.

P. William, 318.

Polycystina, 223.

Polyifera (Corals), 229.

Polystomata, 223.

Polystomella, 222.

Polyzoa, 265.

Porifera, 223.

Poritidae, 236.

Porphyry, 179.

Porphyritic granite, 179.

Porphyritic trachyte, 190.

Porcupine vein, 302.

Portage- Chemung Formation, 327.

Port Albert, 326.

P. Colborne, 326.

P. Frank, 328.

P. Hope, 317.

P. Stanley, 328.

P. Talbot, 328.

Post-Cainozoic Period, 207.

Post-Glacial deposits, 291, 300, 315,

319, 320, 328, 333, 338, 342, 344,

353, 354.

Potstone, 172, 348.
Potsdam Formation, 308, 314, 340.
Potton township, 100, 103, 117,172,

346.

Prehnite, 111.
Prescott, 309.

Prince's Location, 65, 67, 113, 303.
Prismatic Pyrites, 76.
Productus, 272.
Prosobranchiata, 280.
Protichtites, 213, 309.
Protogine, 179.
Protozoa, 221.
Pseudo-metallic lustre, 5.
Pseudopodifera, 221.
Psilophyton, 218.
Pterichthys, 291.
Pteropoda, 278.
Pterygotus, 261.
Pulmonata, 280,
Purple Copper Pyrites, 71, 347.
Pusilliformes, 254.
Pygidium, in Trilo bites, 254.
Pyrallolite, 117.
Pyrites :

Arsenical, 77, 307.
Cockscomb, 76.
Copper, 71, 303, 347.

Pyrites— Continued.

Cubical, 74, 327, 352.

Iron, 74, 327, 352.

Magnetic, 74.

Prismatic, 76.

Purple, 71, 303, 347.

Radiated, 76.
Pyroxene, 103, 336.
Pyroxenite, 169, 186.
Quartz, 93.
Quartzites (Quartz Rock), 171, 297,

305, 336, 346.
Quebec City, 88, 144, 339.
"Quebec Group," 347, 348.
Quebec Province, 91, 115, 333,

335-354.

Queenston, 318, 321.
Quinte, Bay of, 313, 316.
Rabbit Hill mine, 301.
Radiolaria, 222, 223.
Radiated Pyrites, 76.
Radnor, 87.
Rainham, 326.
Rama, 316.
Ramsay, 69, 123, 307.
Rawdon, S3, 99.
Receptaculites, 223.
Red Antimony Ore, 80, 347 .
Red Copper Ore, 80.
Red Coral, 235.
Red Iron Ore, 81.
Rednersville, 316.

Renfrew, 84, 106, 109, 114, 139, 310.
Renilla, 235.
Renselacrite, 117-
Rhizopods (Pseudopodifera), 221.
Rhodochrosite, 127.
Rhyuconella, 270, 310, 316.
Rice Lake, 314.
Rigaud Mountain, 188, 341.
Rivers :

Achigan, 136.

Albany, 294, 351.

Assomption, 333, 336.

Batiscan, 87, 336.

Beaver, 124, 319.

Bonnechere, 30o.

Bras, 130.

Cacouna, 354.

Cascapedia, 345.

Chatte, 152, 345.

Chaudiere, 63, 69, 85, 333, 345, 349,
350, 353.

Chicot, 340.

Clare, 316.

Credit, 131, 317, 318, 322.

Crow, 307.

Des Plantes, 63, 345, 353.

368

INDEX,

Rivers — Continued.

Detroit, 294.

Don, 313.

Du Lievre, 336.

Du Loup (Beauce), 63, 353.

Du Loup (Kamouraska), 333, 354.

Du Moine, 336.

Du Nord, 336.

Etchemin, 66, 345, 353, 354.

Etobicoke, 317.

Famine, 63, 345, 353.

Garden, 68, 72, 303.

Gatineau, 130, 336.

Gilbert, 85, 353.

Goulais, 189, 301.

Grand, 132, 321, 323, 324.

Guillaume, 63.

Holland, 313,

Humber, 313, 317.

Irvine, 323.

Kaministiquia, 76, 134, 184, 301.

Mad, 319.

Madawaska, 103, 101, 145, 312, 354.

Magdalen, 345, 349.

Magpie, 298.

Maitland, 140, 321.

Matanne, 345, 354.

Matapediac, 345.

Metis, 145, 333, 345, 354.
Metgermet, 63.
Mimico, 317.
Mitchipicoten, 298.
Montmorenci, 33, 336.
Moira, 307, 313, 316.
Moisie, 336, 337, 338.
Moose, 351.
Muskoka, 101.
Nation, 294.
Neepigon, 301.
Niagara, 313, 318, 325.
Noisy, 124, 319.
Nottawasaga, 125, 313.
Ottawa, 136, 308, 334, 336.
Ouelle, 95, 136, 145, 354.
Pabos, 350.
Pic, 82, 84, 298.
Pigeon, 130, 299, 300.
Richelieu, 107, 333.
Rideau, 311.
Rimouski, 145.
Root, 72.

Rouge (Ont.), 317.
Rouge (P.Q.), 99, 336.
Ste. Anne, 87, 333, 336.
Ste. Anne des Monts, 348.
St. Francis, 63, 85, 333, 345.
St. Lawrence, 295, 308, 315, 333,
339, 342, 344, 348.

Rivers — Continued.

St. Mary, 301, 330.

St. Maurice, 87, 96, 114, 333, 336,
340.

Saguenay, 336, 338.

Salmon, 313.

Saugeen, 132, 321, 324, 323.

Scugog,.313.

Seaforth, 324.

Severn, 304, 313, 315.

Slate, 111, 134, 184.

South Nation, 308, 311.

Spanish, 298.

Speed, 323.

Thames, 321.

Touffe des-Pins, 63.

Trent, 313, 316.

Trois Pistoles, 345, 354.

Wahnapitae, 298.

Yamaska, 345.
Rocks :

Classification of, 147.

Structural Characters, etc., 150-207.

Formations of Central Canada, 355.

Eruptive, 174-191.

Metamorphic, 167-174.

Sedimeutary, 150-167.
Rock Crystal, 94.
Rock Oil, 141.
Rock Salt, 139.
Rockwood, 124, 323.
Ross, 84, 106, 136, 139.
Rougemont, 105, 187, 341.
Roxborough, 145.
Ruby, 90.

Russell Co., 309, 310.
Rutile, 89.
Ste. Anue, 87, 333, 336 (Portnent),

354.

Ste. Anne des Monts, 348.
St. Armand, 82, 100, 115, 125.
St. Catharines, 141.
St. Dominique, 342,
St. Etiene, 145.
St. Flavien, 66.
St. Francis, 63, 83, 99, 103, 118, 120,

333, 345.

St. George (Beauce), 63, 350.
St. Giles, 64.
St. Helen's Island, 128.
St. Henri, 66.

St. Ignace, 65, 95, 111, 123, 300.
St. Jerome, 74, 98, 99, 105, 110.
St. Joseph, 100, 125, 349.
St. Joseph's Island, 329.
St. Lawrence (River), 294, 308, 315,

333, 339, 342, 344, 348.
St. Lambert, 354.

360

St. Lin, 125, 340.

Ste. Marie (Beauce), 63, 88, 145.

Ste. Marie sandstones (Lake Huron),

330.

St. Marys, 326, 328.
St. Maurice, 87, 336.
St. Nicholas, 120.
Ste. Roselie, 145.
St. Roche, 136, 341.
St. Sulpice, 145, 341.
St. Sylvester, 88.
St. Urbam, 105.
St. Vallier, 354.
St. Vincent, 132, 317.
Sabella, 249.

Sacharoidal limestone, 173.
Saguenay River, 336.
Sahlite, 103.
> anclstones. 96, 151.
SaultdeSte. Marie, 301. 303.
Saugeen Clays and Sands, 319, 328.
Saugeen River, 132, 321, 324, 328,
Saxicava, 278, 332, 342.
Saxicava Sand, 342, 353, 354.
Scaphopoda, 278.
Scapolite, 109.. 336.
Scarborough (Out.) 320.
Schorl, 97.
Sclerobasica, 236.
,-colithus cavities, 249, 309.
Scugog Lake, 314.
Seaforth, 140, 324.
Sea Urchins, 247.
Sedimentary Rocks, 150-167.
Sediments, derivation of, 153.
Sediments, consolidation of, 157.
Selenite, 131.

Seneca township, 132, 324.
Sepia, 289.

Serpentine, 118, 173, 347.
Serpentine-Asbestus, 118, 347.
Serpentine-marble, 118, 173, 346, 347.
Serpula, 249.

Severn River, 304, 313, 315.
Shannon ville, 316.
Shebandowan district, 302.
Sheffield township, 79, 145, 316.
Sheflord, 103, 115, 346, 349.
Shefford Mountain, 103, ICO. 352.
Shell Marl, 152, 312, 320, 342, 354.
Sherbrooke, 349.
Sherrington, 145, 342.
Shickshock Mountains, 170, 334, 344,

345, 346.

Shipton, 62, 100, 346.
Shuniah (Duncan) Mine, 195, 302.
Sigillaria, 217, 219.
Siderite, 127.
Silicates, 91-121.
24

Sillery strata, 348.
Siliceous slate, 171.
Silurian Formations :

Lower, 308-311, 314-319, 330, 340,
343, 349, 355.

Upper, 322-324, 33J, 332, 343, 350,

355.

Silver, detection of, 39.
Silver Creek vein, 302.
Silver Islet, 65, 302.
Silver Glance, 67, 302.
Silver Lake, 303.
Silver, Native, 64. 302.
Simcoe Co., 87, 313.
Simcoe, Lake, 314.
Simpson, 87.
Singleton mine, 302.
Sinupalliata, 277.
Siphouida, 275.
Siphonostomata, 283.
Sipunculus, 249.
Slate River, 184.
iSlaty Cleavage, 166.
Smith's Falls, 309.
Siiowdon township, 84, 306.
Soapstone, 117, 172, H3, 348.
Socialite, 110.
Solaster, 246.
Somerville, 69, 307.
SoulangesCo., 333, 339, 340.
Spanish River, 72, 2i!S.
Si ar Island, 65, 113, 128.
Specific Gravity, 16.
Specular Iron Ure. 81.
Specujar-iron schists, 174, 304, 346.
Sphalerite (Blende), 69, 303.
bpathic Iron Ore, 127.
Sphene, 102, 336.
S^iculosa, 235.
Spinel, 91, 115.
Spiriferidse, 269.
Spirifer, 269, 322, 325, 326.
Spirigera (Athyris), 269, 325, 326.
Spirigerina (Atrypa), 270, S25, 326.
Spirorbis, 249.
Sponges, 223, 224.
Stalactites and Stalagmites, 125.
Stanstead, 87, 88, 348, 352.
Steatite, 117, 172.
Stellerida, 246.
Stenaster, 246.
Stenopora, 231, 315, 317.
Stephanocrinus, 24X,
Stigmaria, 219, 351.
Stilbite. 1121.
Stirling, 314.
Stocks (Ore), 192, S06.
Stoke Mountains, 344, 346.
Stornapoda, 262.

370

INDEX.

Stormont, 310.

Storrington, 180, 314.

Stratification, 164.

Streak in minerals, 6.

Stricklandia, 270.

Strike of strata, 162.

Stromatopora, 225, 315, 338.

Strombidfe, 283.

Strontianite, 128.

Strophomena, 271, 310, 311, 315, 317,

325.

Structure in minerals, 7.
Stukely, 345.
Sturgeon Lake, 313,
Subulites, 282.
Sudbury, 72, 298, 001, 302, 303. see

also the Addenda.
Suffield mine, 347.

Superficial deposits, 291, 300, 315,
319, 320, 328, 333, 338, 342, 344,
353, 354.
Superior, Lake, 65, 68, 72, 85, 111,

112, 299. 300.
Sulphates, 129-134.
Sulphate of :

alumina, 134.

baryta, 130.

iron, 133.

lime, 131.

magnesia, 132.

nickel, 133,

strontia, 131.
Sulphides, 67-80.
Sulphide of :

copper, 70, 71.

iron, 74, 76.

lead, 67.

molybdenum, 78.

nickel, 73.

silver, 67.
Sulphur, 62.
Sutton township (P.Q.), 73, 74, 83,

99, 101, 114, 115, 117, 127, 345.
Sutton Mountain, 346.
Syenite, 180, 298, 336.
Syenitic gneiss, 169.
Syenitic granite, 179, 305, 307.
Synclinal axis, 163.
Syringopora, 232, 325,
Tabular Distribution of Canadian

minerals, 50, 57.
Tabular Sequence of Eock Formations, I

x 355.

Tasuiaster, 245.
Talc, 117.

Talcose granite, 179.
Talcose schists, 346.
Tarnish in minerals, 6.

Tar Point, 133, 351, 335.

Tectibranchiata, 280.

Tellina, 278, 332.

Tellurium, 302.

Temiscainingue, Lake, 294, 297.

Templeton, 82, 84, 96, 115, 136, 336

Tentaculites, 279.

Tentaculite limestone, 324.

Terebratulida, 270

Terrace Cove, 78, 139.

Terreboune. 74, 75, 108, 337.

Tesselata, 238

Tetrabranchiata, 285.

Thallogens, 212.

Thames, Eiver, 321.

Thecosomata, 278.

Thessalon, 330.

Thetford, 118, 348.

Thomsonite, 112.

Thorold, 319, 321.

Thorold cement, 319, 322.

Thousand Isles, 149.

Three Eivers, 87.

Thunder Bay, 68, 94, 117, 138, 139,

144, 192, 300, 302.
Thunder Cape, 109, 183, 299. *
Titaniferous Magnetite, 85, 306,[338.
Titanite, 102. -
Titanium Oxides, 89.
Toronto, 160, 317, 319, 320.
Tourmaline, 97.
Trachytes, 189, 190, 341, 349.
Traps, 183, 186, 299, 341, 353.
Trap dykes, 183, 184, 352.
Trap tufa, 153.
Tremolite, 102.
Trent Eiver, 313.
Trenton, 316.
Trenton Formation, 310, 315, 330,

338, 340, 343.
Triarthrus, 259, 311, 316.
Trimerella, 275, 323.
Tring, 88, 126.
Trilobites, 250-260.
Trinucleus, 257, 315, 317.
Tripoli, 215.
Trois Pistoles, 345, 354.
Tubicola, 249.
Tubipora, 235.
Tubulifera, 235.

Tudor, 69, 77, 79, 84, 101, 306, 307.
Tufa, calcareous, 124.
Tungstenum Compounds, 89.
Tunicata, 290.
TurbicolidfB, 346.
Tuscorora water, 133.
Unio, 276, 320.
Unstratified rocks, 174-191.

371

Ipper Copper-bearing rocks (Lake

Superior), 65, 299.
Upper Lakes, District of, 297-304.
Upper Silurian Series, 322-324, 331,

332, 343, 350, 355.

Upper St. Lawrence District, 338-342.
Uran. ochre, 89.
Urastella, 246.
Utica Formation, 311, 316, 330, 338,

349.

Vallery, 354.

Valleys of Denudation, 161.
Dislocation, 165.
Elevation, 163.
Undulation, 163.
Vaudreuil Co., 87, 96, 137, 333, 339,

340.

Vaudreuil (Beauce), 63.
Veins, mineral, 119-198.
Verines, 248.
Vertebrata, 290.
Vesiculosa, 234.
Vesiculo-stellata, 233.
Vesuvian, 100.

Victoria Co. (Ont.), 306, 313.
Victoria Mountain (P.Q.), 346.
Virgularia, 235.
Vivianite, 137.

Vugs in mineral veins, 123, 194.
Wainfleet, 145, 329.
Wakefield, 340.
Walkerton, 324, 328.
Wallace mine, 73, 82, 134, 303.
Walpole, 326.
Warwick, 327.

Waterloo Co., 324.

Weedon, 350.

Welland, 319, 322, 324, 326.

Wellington Mines, 72, 126.

Wellington Square, 318.

WentworthCo. (Ont.), 313.

Wentworth (P.Q.), 103, 181, 32b.

Wernerite (Scapolite), 109, 336.

Westbury, 350.

Westmeath, 145.

Whetstones, 348.

Whitby, 316, 317.

Wilsonite (Scapolite), 110.

Windham, 325.

Wolfestown, 348, 349.

Wolfram, 89.

Wollaston, 306.

Wollastonite, 110.

Wollastonite Rock, 170.

Wolsey, Lake, 331.

Woodhouse, 336.

Wood, Lake of the, 299, 301, 302, 304.

Yamaska Mountain, 101, 103, 109,

188, 190, 341.
Yamaska River, 345.
Yellow Ochre, 86, 329, 342, 354.
Yellow Copper-ore, 71, 347.
Yeo's Island, 114.
Young township, 309.
Zaphrentis, 233, 325.
Zinc Blende, 69, 303.
Zircon, 96, 336.
Zoantharia, 235.
Zoanthidae, 236.
Zone township, 327.

Chajprnon, E 3"

The

vooo

1828 cental Ccfnbdo

FEB 2 1994
NOV 2 3 1994

LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO