Vasheihedenh ait
Tadacae Wobadeke ion a}
Cv etetitde a ‘ihe Pgateld
i
Hedoe ao ted ry + ita
a ined a:
ae } + is aeadet
4 poeple Ta fwilade A= ae
UM tet eee 2)
deel zag it
LA ee Hated} surdieifesty ide ob?
aee dt i t
Pd he
‘ bied
is Ha teas a
Pre weal
A
si shi
er
¥ yrs ee te seaed las
i) ae 4
alt Mth ee aired)
tomtded Hanah fer 4
jet, hie
Peby ort Rev oh
tod bddedalh wan
ait
He alg
ry ait Sadat :
ited aid 4
ie
hae
ada
ipa.
Ns ?
ge} Bete Abed Leu
soaeased af
:
Vays ; Lh pat tide
ah thie tay
i roth ifs
h git tai die pars
wehad ae
aden
eG Mate hen
added “4 eu ganiayl
Cl adedade vtig
4
Thelbat
oreyny ce
=
aah He Maittb deste
aaa i sh ar
yea
daflay tee?
tod aia
it
ba tat
‘lea ettattary
rs Mey
H 4 bY aa
Relea
DER tiesto te
iat ht ‘att
oo
rey
a” ita ha hae Hai nea pie ae f
Aap Fb big ted al bots
aap eatdete aifadad dai ded
rn APB ieeabale SEU ade ibe ake
Oooh ses iPods jaehas
i ity Vegeeerae eke b
ani ai wlio.
ashe
Vins tay ae vite
pap Ooh LY
belie
+? ene
ph ‘ Wye es vert
Macasa deeb Lara tert tee hh
aot ae Why yas aeas) Pe deWs diypame begs aah i
Evapr et tent ye He Lettodp hae art witte-« pits
agai for Ut Ay
bee sil es pauets
rasa ty; tei
ae fe We fhe
at Osdod
ea
yal
re Ath io had
if 1.
ean alan its
ne
ry fiat
Meng
i Ht itl
ve
alias
8.
rot
a dAieda
ERGY. ei
meats
i ‘'f at ite ida
g ia
Un ‘
va at
rs
cs “a Hi
ait :
: a a
bet
“1 iret ihe!
emanated
titan cael i. logy Yi
; +0 bape Pubes
died it ie beads alti ah cake
u they beled bh Mod, daihed? a
sean ngansgeded attait 1
iy dal ataite
ai ae
Baza nA f
o atten? aitai
; a aebiiing dies Ta
¢ = 1993 Pens ah
e ‘3 2 fe itaedt
ae
Ab
ib 41 rt
side: ri}
ig a
yt
Here at A
es had
ssttiae ive
a @ ibe 2 the
1 vie yey
sii eit ell
vieqranded aay
4 ail ie ath tpaial te
ChB h git if
erry
4 ae
i
eo ig
i.
at 4 As
a Ws
riheds Pee. edd
i 5}
sees ie : oe
Co eeriate
ate ton ; ¢
4 Bt the
alls
ner AURA
ih feahisaeh
Py ree et
anes. is ff
Rete ier ec
sasiisitad | 1y «
Ahaha dob tha tem dad ae
44 afiogh
4d
“
rer
4suewat sf
a
Baden ewan
Boe ted ah ted
dey amt es
ia
etek sates as
eas a
‘* aie sient ‘
a4 88h He
shesd syagedouat
a atu ead
ae Mp
a teas,
oe :
He iae erste A Oe
ae a
erer
ee CoRs
es Ww iH wy Hf
aia a
pital Csaba ty
Ha ae ne ee
stiahetedeted ats ue'> 3
as ee ui
oak
3
a she
aie ey
é ate
Re Ravi 4 abe
a i
ie
VE
Peat o30
UA (
ce
iestedanaer
ay ae
2
ey
wu
Hy
Pritgyay ‘
Le
cat
oy ai i ee sae:
vats
ip b
i;
eae
i if ee Pt
4 fi
rele
we
=
zy
rae
eh
ar
see
as
a
ih
Pht hs
Te Seer
phase
ita
ay
he
4
nt
a
4
i
*
‘
ae
= 3
ae
——
ee ee
a
2
ad Bay
=
tex
ares
etree
-+:
1a
ae
eee
Ge
es
=
-—
=
=
Pitan
fae
siatay eh ast
eres
ge ie I
Reet
Thad pie
mene
iar
nie rt
18
iertans
tats dine
iri
Ned ple
ite fa oe
3 ‘44 arte Hsia
tt Hotei Sida ghd ye
ae
a
ny
ree sate
naan
taey eae
Hh 1h 94 ut
ad ae
ae On
bani
Heth eet ded
lee
7
a eh Aba
HPP Gale
Sandi )
i
. ae Woe
Seana ein
aes aly ech te of Leda stt sot
Gat
a ne of ibe tee rp tee i “*.
“9
Sa ieteat. arse, tes tetsheg veer dish oth Bi
=e Wlindae dat (eased Laid
Nei
ae
aah hate dats 4?
sind
TRG ie
We ED
Seiwa
* ja vad aaa a
eth ek ie deh
Ay td Gaba yds a
Sate
ty HAS 5
adilerd
ase eh ange a
At lide
tee ay: cone 4 ait
ef ,
Shc shee ath A wks i Ae
Telaaebeeces oe ay
pinkeie)
Nene ai sie
way ce “se
ei ote
ts ater
“ ro i
¥ His is we
tetas ika if awe
ate
tbe eo
"
wads
mi ere
iwanay
a avi! a
ais
33
ord
ica
gaaeds
seat petit
ae perth
om {
(e848 fe hed
aya
delins yi
dy
retest dit 0
bie Hayes 4
eet
pt iat
Done anew
« “eg ta hd
+ ent
Pete ee ee
72 tw 4 bab priaelt beet
5 ret Baier He ptanetac utees u
au ng beg
Lehr at 2 Gsdod ee “ees uy ences
Whe bre eb ry tae dedtal’ bebebnd gel fs Bye! arent
ogee i widoae ata bebe beet Sottte }
tae ml 36983 ar itaby) ea wath site
an ie ow ye Rye ee cH ry
irene sate corte Pedal tt yo
4 is
a
br ivote fie euttey
Pa
raacen ca mot
a eeeageeg
a “ Dee 0
ty oo vee ‘ cea pee
| eis oaefoneye tre
vie treet reds
eet} phere diel SEO TE ST
f Pigdudel
a
pasties
Historic, archived document
Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
LIBRARY
BOOK NUMBER PgcpR
442762 9O-SE
1606-1507
a
An
(
fie S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 90.
B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
I. THE STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED.
By J. W. T. DUVEL, Assistant.
I]. THE CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT DISEASES OF THE APPLE TREE.
By GEORGE G. HEDGCOCK, Assistant.
il. PEPPERMINT.
By ALICE HENKEL, Assistant.
IV. THE POISONOUS ACTION OF JOHNSON GRASS.
By A. C. CRAWFORD, Pharmacologist.
IssuED Frsruary 21, 1906.
fh
na
> TA
aR
a
EDS
il
i
S>
S>
ay
i
i
“fel
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
LOG
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.
B. T. GALLOWAY,
Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau.
VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
ALBERT F. Woops, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, Acting Chief of Bureau in Absence of Chief.
BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
FREDERICK VY. COVILLE, Botanist in Charge.
FARM MANAGEMENT.
W. J. SPILLMAN, Agriculturist in Charge.
POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
G. B. BRACKETT, Pomologist in Charge.
SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.
A.J. PIETERS, Botanist in Charge.
ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
L. C. CORBETT, Horticulturist in Charge.
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL
PLANTS.
O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge.
DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT INVESTIGATIONS, AND TEA CULTURE INVESTIGATIONS.
RODNEY H. TRUE, Physiologist in Charge.
DRY LAND AGRICULTURE AND WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.
CARL S. SCOFIELD, Agriculturist in Charge. |
EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS.
E. M. BYRNES, Superintendent.
SEED LABORATORY.
EDGAR Brown, Botanist in Charge.
J. E. ROCKWELL, Editor.
JAMES E. JONES, Chief Clerk.
TF 2 76 2
_*
|
GON TE NPS
Page.
| ihe storagve and germination of wild rice seede==---0-5.22o25.5-- a2 5--- se -- 5
| ai LUC CLOTS oe see cae oe me ees een ee eae HEP yee oe Nt aN 5
WIS UtONise= sen caces so ase ee as eee ee ey eo AE cee sy 2 kh eae 5
HST ite eee ee Sea EN prise eal SER Gee La 2h Seek 6
Germination Ormtme: Seedy} 2954 2 1 ee ee eal RC te 7
HAllESee MIMS eVELSUS SPrINCYSCCGIM Oya o2. Cavers els ues Leese eee: 7
Dimectionssormstorime-tne seeds 2802.2 oe ea Ss oe. Se Sho ee ee 8
Detailed conditicns and results of storage experiments ..........-.------ 9)
Packie Orhan spOktaviOM so on cae ae seen ook oe el Sasi ek sse 11
Miethodstof makang-cermination tests! 9222 92-5 52.=-5 2222... 22522. Dd whe leh
| PEC inOlbemperavune.on Cerminahon™ <2 25859 l Sse eet Sa ane 12
Sumani GRAS Re 5 NE Se ee ee ee tp ae 1
Descripinoncoisliatessiamdeli cs S20. nti tees ee te Leek 14
| The crown-gall and hairy-root diseases of the apple tree.......-..--..------- 15
| MaiGrO CU ehl OMe eae ee ae ee ee eo i Meee tee 15
| Two distinct diseases, crown-gall and hairy-root .-.---..- ire cre Sw 15
ives Olea pplescrowdl-Caliee os: Alec emayhe Pe Ao tas lc. Voie secs 16
Bitectapon the teneth of lite ot the apple tree-=— 2.2. 2.3.2.2 i 5222. 25-26- 16
SHOP ESO MVELORMULESe EVI eIes se Ge ane re Se be eee SS 16
Water cle sine deeper een hehe i fe Ce ae ioe na sca es oes ee 17
>» POVD)DSROTUIING sas S ss Sed tach a ag 19
DBS CHT OGY Ss a A FSA ep ne 19
Weumimse caw nerewLOwMet an so. ol. es ees ee pe oe Se 20
Repperunimt-cultivation in the United States .--.-...--.-.:-.2----------- 21
CUEING SS a es a a 22
CW oMcuiroucpiMpUINOUG tO ChOP-s. 1. 22:2 22-5-.58o82 225-26 bs ee tenes: 2s
iarmveshinexand: distillation... .2.22L5.....5.--222..--- 2h SE geese 24
DES GRIDS COHN OEE FSO Sek Spe ae 25
Reppermimt oucimadunenthol 2... 2-2... 22... 22s ee ee bse tee eee 26
Pen OnmOepeDpermiMt Olgas es = 255502225... 52 we eo eee 5 wees Ae eee ese 27
EI Ces mame DPeriMininOll ea. saa 2 <= a ee eee sete te eceeee 28
heepoisongqucssctiom of JOHNSON grass ...-......-..--+---2--+------+----+-- 31
a The four papers constituting this Bulletin were issued in separate form on September 7, November
17, December 28, 1905, and January 17, 1906, respectively.
3
Pirate I,
Ine
IBGE
JEW
V.
DAE Ss eae OaN Ss
PLATES.
Wild rice growing in water aiter being kept wet in cold storage at a
temperature of 32-34° F., from October 19, 1903, to November 15,
10 ae poner Rs Mage Ra Ate hae phe Sui nA eR Mead ee ae Se
Stages of germination of wild rice, showing the development of the
root system and the relative position of the seedling and the parent
Fig. 1.—Apple crown-gall on grafted tree. Fig. 2.—Apple crown-
gall on transplanted seedling. Fig. 3.—Hairy-root disease on
grafted apple tree. Fig. 4.—Hairy-root disease on grafted apple
GEOG ja. 8 be ES Te a Bee Se og ee Se ae
Fig. 1.—Apple seedlings diseased with hairy-root. Fig. 2.—Apple
seedlings diseased: wathysoriverojvypina calle pee eye eee eer
Fig. 1.—Healthy fibrous rooted apple tree, pot grown. Fig. 2.—
Apple seedlings diseased with hairy-root.....-.-----------------
TEXT FIGURES.
Fig. 1. Peppermint ‘‘runners,’’ showing method of propagation..-....------
2. leaves and flowerine; Lop ofipep permit se esse re ee
3. Peppermint still (after Dewey, in Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American
Horticulture) 222224232522 see ee tee eee
4
Page.
14
14
WISCERIZANE OLS, PAPERS.
B. P. L.—178.
I.—THE STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE
Se Ds
By J. W. T. Duvet, Assistant in the Seed Laboratory.
INTRODUCTION.
The seed of wild rice, sometimes called Indian rice or water oats
(Zizania aquatica L.), has always been a very valuable food among
the Indians, especially those of the upper Mississippi Valley. Of
recent years wild rice has found a place on the menu cards of some
of our best American hotels. The rich and highly nutritious grains,
together with the slightly smoky flavor it has when properly pre-
pared, make it an extremely palatable article of diet. If it were not
for the difficulties of harvesting the seed and preparing the finished
product for market it is probable that wild rice would find a place in
many American homes.
At present, however, the greatest interest in wild rice is created by
the value of the seed as a food for wild waterfowl, particularly wild
ducks. Asa result of this interest the propagation of wild rice from
seed has become a question of considerable importance, especially to
the members of the gunning clubs throughout the United States and
Canada.
DISTRIBUTION.
The distribution of wild rice is now reported from New Brunswick
and Assiniboia south to Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. There are,
however, comparatively few localities in which it grows abundantly.
a Wild rice is considered one of the most important foods for wild ducks and other
waterfowl, and a large number of inquiries have been received from members of
gunning clubs throughout the United States asking where good, germinable seed can
be secured. It is quite generally recognized that wild rice seed loses its vitality if
allowed to become dry, and better methods of storing the seed during the winter
have long since been demanded.
The results of investigations begun two years ago show that wild rice seed can be
handled without any deterioration in vitality if it is harvested and stored according
to methods outlined in the present paper.
J. W. T. Duvet, Acting Botanist in Charge of Seed Laboratory.
SEED LABORATORY,
Washington, D. C., July 20, 1905.
6 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
Good reasons exist for assuming that this area can be extended to
include all fresh-water lakes, as well as swamps and river bogs, where
the water does not become stagnant, throughout the whole of North
America south of latitude 55° north. Wild rice also grows luxuri-
antly along the lower parts of many of the rivers of the Atlantic Coast
States, the waters of which are affected by the action of the tide toa
considerable degree, and consequently contain an appreciable quantity
of salt. It has been shown” that the maximum degree of concentra-
tion of salt water in which wild rice plants can grow successfully is
equivalent to a 0.03 normal solution of sodium chlorid. This concen-
tration corresponds to 0.1755 per cent by weight of sodium chlorid,
which is sufficient to give a slight salty taste to the water.
HABITAT.
While it is well recognized that the habitat of the wild rice plant is
in shallow fresh water, it is now known that it will grow luxuriantly
in water containing little less than two-tenths of 1 per cent of sodium
chlorid. Occasional plants have been found growing in water which
contained, for short periods at least, nearly double that amount of
salt. These facts indicate the possibility of a much wider range of
conditions to which this plant may be subjected without hindering its
development. It is not beyond the range of possibility—indeed, it is
quite probable—that by careful selection plants may be obtained which
will thrive on soil that is comparatively dry, at least in places in which
the water can be drawn off gradually during the latter part of the
erowing season. 3
In September, 1904, Mr. G. C. Worthen, of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, collected a cluster of wild rice plants which were growing
on the Potomac Flats, near Washington, D. C., in soil which was suf-
ficiently dry to permit the use of a 2-horse mowing machine for cutting
down the rank growth of vegetation. This was newly made land, and
in all probability the seed giving rise to this cluster of plants was
pumped in with the dirt from the Potomac River the year previous.
This amphibious type once established, it will undoubtedly carry
with it a strain of seed which can withstand considerable drying with- -
out any marked injury to its vitality. Such being true, the methods
and difficulties of propagation from seed would be greatly simplified.
Simultaneous with establishing an amphibious type should come the
selection of seed plants which are capable of retaining their seed until
the larger part of it has reached maturity. These two steps once
made, the future of wild rice as a cereal will be assured.
«The Salt Water Limits of Wild Rice. Bulletin No. 72, Part II, Bureau of Plant
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1905.
STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED. r
GERMINATION OF THE SEED.
The greatest difficulty to be overcome in extending the area for
growing wild rice is the poor germination of the commercial seed.
Inasmuch as wild rice constitutes one of the most important foods of
wild ducks and other wild waterfowl, many individuals and most of
the gunning clubs east of the Rocky Mountains have been asking the
question, How can we propagate wild rice from seed in order to estab-
lish better feeding and fattening grounds for our game birds?
The many failures in the propagation of wild rice from seed have
been due to the use of seed that had become dry before sowing, or to
the fact that the seed when sown fresh in the autumn had been eaten
by ducks or other animals or was carried away by heavy floods before
germination took place.
It is now very generally known that the seed of wild rice, if once
allowed to become dry, will not germinate, save possibly an occasional
grain. In its natural habitat the seed, as soon as mature, falls into the
water and sinks into the mud beneath, where it remains during the
winter months, germinating the following spring if conditions are
favorable.
Heretofore the plan generally followed, and the one usually recom-
mended by those who have given some attention to the propagation of
wild rice, was practically that of natural seeding; that 1s, to gather the
seed in the autumn, as soon as thoroughly mature, and, while still fresh,
to sow it in 1 to 3 feet of water.
FALL SEEDING VERSUS SPRING SEEDING.
It must be remembered that the bulk of the seed remains dormant
during the winter, germinating first the spring after maturing; con-
sequently, with but few exceptions, fall seeding is unsatisfactory and
unreliable. Fall seeding is likely to prove a failure for three reasons:
(1) Wild ducks and other animals of various kinds eat or destroy the
seed in considerable quantity before it has had time to germinate the
following spring; (2) much of the seed is frequently covered so deeply
with mud that washes in from the shore during the winter that the
young plants die of suffocation and starvation before they reach the
surface; (3) in some cases a large quantity of the seed is carried away
from the place where sown by the high waters and floating ice prev-
alent during the latter part of the winter and early spring.
In exceptional cases these difficulties can be overcome; under which
circumstances autumn sowing may be preferable to spring sowing.
In the majority of cases, however, much better results will be
obtained if the seed is properly stored and sown in the early spring,
as soon as the danger of heavy floods is passed and the water level
approaches normal.
1697
8 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
In sowing the seed considerable care must be exercised in selecting
a suitable place, securing the proper depth of water, etc. Good
results can be expected if the seed is sown in from 1 to 3 feet of water
which is not too stagnant or too swiftly moving, with a thick layer of
soft mud underneath.” It is useless to sow wild rice seed on a gravelly
bottom or in water where the seed will be constantly disturbed by
strong currents.
Previous to this time, save in a few reported cases, the seed which
was allowed to dry during the winter and was sown the following
spring gave only negative results. It is now definitely known that
wild rice, if properly handled, can be stored during the winter without
impairing the quality of germination to any appreciable degree, and
that it can be sown the following spring or summer with good success.
DIRECTIONS FOR STORING THE SEED.
The vitality of wild rice seed is preserved almost perfectly if kept
wet in cold storage—Nature’s method of preservation. This method
of storage implies that the seed has been properly harvested and cared
for up to the time of storage. The seed should be gathered as soon
as mature, put loosely into sacks (preferably burlap), and sent at once
to the cold-storage rooms. If the wild rice fields are some distance |
from the cold-storage plant the sacks of seed should be sent by express,
and unless prompt delivery can be guaranteed it is not advisable to
send by freight even for comparatively short distances. It is very
important that the period between the time of harvesting and the
time when the seed is put into cold storage be as short as possible.
If this time is prolonged to such an extent as to admit of much fer-
mentation or to allow the seed near the outside of the bags to become
dry during transit, its vitality will be greatly lowered.
It is not practicable to give any definite length of time which may
elapse between harvesting and storing, inasmuch as the temperature,
humidity, and general weather conditions, as well as the methods of
handling the seed, must be taken into consideration. Let it suffice to
say, however, that the vitality of the seed will be the stronger the
sooner it is put into cold storage after harvesting.
As soon as the seed is received at the cold-storage plant, while it is
still fresh and before fermentation has taken place, it should be put
into buckets, open barrels, or vats, covered with fresh water, and
placed at once in cold storage. If there is present a considerable |
quantity of light immature seed or straw, broken sticks, ete., it will
be profitable to separate this from the good seed by floating in water
«Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation. Bulletin No. 50, Bureau of Plant Industry,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1903,
—~——-
STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED. 9
preparatory to storing. The storage room should be maintained at
a temperature just above freezing—what the storage men usually
designate as the *‘ chill room.”
When taken from cold storage in the spring the seed must not be
allowed to dry out before planting, as a few days’ drying will destroy
every embryo.
Seed which was stored under the foregoing conditions from October
19, 1903, to November 15, 1904, 393 days, germinated from 80 to 88
per cent. Another lot of seed, which was stored on October 6, 1904,
and tested for vitality on April 17, 1905, germinated 79.8 per cent.
Plate I shows the luxuriant growth made by the seed which was kept
wet and stored at a temperature of 32° to 34° F. for 393 days.
DETAILED CONDITIONS AND RESULTS OF STORAGE EXPERI-
MENTS.
The foregoing conclusions are based on the results obtained from
two series of experiments, as follows:
In October, 1908, a box of wild rice seed was received from Ontario,
Canada. This seed, as soon as gathered, was loosely packed in moist
sphagnum and sent by express to the Seed Laboratory of the United
States Department of Agriculture. After a few days, while it was
_ yet moist and before any fermentation had taken place, the seed was
divided into four lots for special treatment, as follows:
(1) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 32° to 34° F.
(2) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 12° F. The seed was soon embedded in a solid mass of ice
and remained so until samples were taken for test.
(3) Seed, without the addition of water, put into cloth bags and kept
in cold storage at a temperature of 32° to 34° F.
(4) Seed, without the addition of water, put into cloth bags and kept
in cold storage at a temperature of 12° F.
In October, 1904, a second consignment of seed was received from
Minnesota, and the following additional storage experiments were
made by Mr. C. 8. Scofield, of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
(5) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 32° to 34° F., as in No. 1.
(6) Seed submerged in water and placed in cold storage at a temper-
ature of 12° F., as in No. 2.
(7) Seed submerged in water in a galvanized-iron bucket and stored
on the roof of the laboratory building. The water was changed daily
when not frozen. :
10 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
(8) Seed submerged in water in a galvanized-iron bucket and stored
on the roof of the jaboratory building, as in No. 7. In this case the
water was not changed save to replace the loss due to evaporation.
(9) The conditions for No. 9 were the same as those for No. 8,
except that air was forced into the water daily when not frozen solid.
Samples of seed were taken from the different lots and tested for
vitality at irregular intervals throughout the time of storage, which,
in the former series, extended over a period of approximately thirteen
months and in the latter series over a period of little more than six
months.
Experiments Nos. 1 and 5.—The seed which was submerged in water
and stored in the **chill room” showed no deterioration in vitality.
The results of the final tests gave a germination varying from 79.8 to
88 percent. This is practically Nature’s method of preserving the
vitality of the seed during the winter.
Experiments Nos. 2 and 6.—The seed which was submerged in
water and stored at a temperature of 12° F. was all killed before the
spring following the date of storage. Soon after being placed in stor-
age the water was frozen solid and the seeds were embedded in a mass
of ice, in which condition they remained throughout the experiment,
a portion being cut out from time to time for germination tests. The
complete loss of vitality in these two lots of seed is attributed not to
the freezing directly. but to the thorough desiccation as a result of
the continuous low temperature.
Experiments Nos. 3 and 4.—TYhe samples of seed which were stored
in cloth bags at the temperatures of 32° to 34° F. and of 12° F. had,
for all economic purposes, entirely lost their vitality. The average
percentage of germination, as shown by the 37 tests made from each
of the two lots, was less than five-tenths of 1 per cent.
Experiment No. 7.—The seed which was submerged in water and
stored on the roof of the laboratory building, the water being changed
daily, showed a good percentage of germination when the last vitality
tests were made. If only a small quantity of seed is desired for the
spring planting and cold storage can not be readily secured, good
results may be obtained by this treatment: but it is much less certain
and probably more expensive than keeping the seed in cold storage,
and for this reason is not recommended. The success of this method
will likewise depend largely on the temperature of the water.
Experiments Nos. 8 and 9.—On April 22, 1905, samples taken from
each of these two lots of seed showed a marked deterioration in vitality.
Thoroughly mixed samples from No. 8 showed a vitality of only 58
per cent, while No. 9 had deteriorated to 14.3 per cent.
STOKAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED.
pt
b—
PACKING FOR TRANSPORTATION.
Too much care can not be given to the matter of packing the seed
for transportation, for unless the packing is properly done the vitality
of the seed will be destroyed during transit. What is here said applies
to fresh seed which is to be sown in the autumn, as well as to seed
which has been kept in cold storage during the winter. It must not
be forgotten, however, that the vitality of cold-storage seed is more
quickly destroyed on drying than that of fresh seed.
For transportation the seed should be carefully packed, with moist
sphagnum, cocoanut fiber, or fine excelsior, in a loosely slatted box.
If the time of transportation does not exceed five or six days no spe-
cial precautions need be taken as to the temperature. During the
period of transportation it is quite probable that some of the seed will
’ germinate, but if sown at once growth will not be retarded and the
roots will soon penetrate the soil and anchor the young plants.
If the time of transportation is necessarily long, it is recommended,
if the best results are desired, that some provision be made for a
reduced temperature. The nearer the temperature approaches that of
freezing the better. It has been demonstrated, however, that a fair
percentage of seed will remain germinable for a considerable time if
packed as above described.
On October 10, 1904, Mr. C. S. Scofield sent a small quantity of
wild rice, packed in moist sphagnum moss in a well-ventilated box, to
Doctor De Vries, of Amsterdam, Holland. On October 14 or 15 this
box was placed in cold storage on the steamer in New York Harbor.
The box of seed was received by Doctor De Vries in good condition on
November 2, twenty-one days after the seed was packed for shipment.
METHODS OF MAKING GERMINATION TESTS.
The samples were tested (1) between folds of blotting paper—our
regular method for testing the germination of most seeds—and (2) in
water, Nature’s method of sowing wild rice seed. The latter method
gave much better results and was the one finally adopted for the
laboratory tests. The seed should be covered with water, the water
in the dishes to be changed daily.
Plate I shows the importance of making the germination tests in
water, as described in the foregoing paragraph. The seed was covered
with water and placed in a germinating chamber maintained at an
alternating temperature of 20° C. (68° F.) for eighteen hours, and
30° C. (84° F.) for six hours, until the majority of the seeds had
germinated. At this stage the dish containing the seeds was trans-
ferred to the worktable, which was exposed to the temperature of the
laboratory——approximately that of a living-room. The water in the _
1, MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
dish was changed daily during the period of germination, and water
was afterwards added at irregular intervals to replace the loss by
evaporation.
Plate I] shows somewhat in detail the different stages in the germina-
tion of wild rice seeds. The seeds and seedlings are shown in natural
size. In #4 andc the first sheath has just burst through the seed coats.
taking a position at right angles to the seed proper. The lateral roots
begin to emerge when the first sheath leaf has attained a length of $ to
4 inches. From this time growth continues rapidly, and by the time
the seedlings are 2 or 3 inches long the root system is very well
developed (f and g). At this stage under favorable conditions the
plants have a good hold in the soil and will not be washed away by an
ordinary freshet. The relative position of the actively growing
seedling is always at right angles to that of the old seed, as shown in
J and ¢.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON GERMINATION.
Germination tests were made at constant and alternating tempera-
tures, ranging from 15° to 35° C. (59° to 95° F.). While no effort
was made to show the minimum and maximum temperatures of ger-
mination, the percentage was somewhat reduced at a constant tempera-
ture of 35° C., and the maximum is not much above that. All of the
other temperatures gave good results. The lower temperatures, how-
ever, were slightly more favorable than the higher. These facts are
valuable to show that the wild rice plant can thrive in either warm or
cold water, but better, perhaps, in northern than in southern latitudes.
SUMMARY.
(1) Under no circumstances should wild rice seed which is intended
for planting be allowed to dry. Dried seed will germinate but rarely
and should never be sown.
(2) Wild rice seed can be stored without deterioration if it is gath-
ered as soon as matured, put into barrels or tanks, covered with fresh
water, and, before fermentation has set in, stored at a temperature of
32-34° F. Seed treated in this way germinated as high as 88 per cent
after being in storage 393 days. Fresh seed seldom germinates better,
and usually not so well.
(3) After the seed is taken from ‘cold stor age it should not be
allowed to dry. The vitality of cold-storage seed is destroyed on
drying even more quickly than that of fresh seed.
(4) For transportation the seed should be packed in moist sphagnum,
cocoanut fiber, or fine excelsior. If not more than five or six days
are required for transit, no special precautions need be taken for con-
trolling the temperature; but if the time for transportation exceeds
STORAGE AND GERMINATION OF WILD RICE SEED. 13
six days, provision should be made for a temperature sufficiently low
to prevent marked fermentation. A temperature approximately
freezing will give the most satisfactory results.
(5) Wild rice can be sown either in the autumn or in the spring.
Spring sowing is preferable, thus avoiding the danger of having the
seed eaten or destroyed by wild ducks or other animals during the fall
or winter, or of its being buried or washed away by the heavy floods
of late winter or early spring.
(6) Wild rice should be sown in the spring in from 1 to 3 feet of
water which is:neither too stagnant nor too swiftly moving, as soon as
the danger of heavy floods is passed.
(7) Wild rice is of the greatest importance as a food for wild water-
fowl, likewise a delicious breakfast food for man, and the area in which
it is extensively grown should be extended. It will grow luxuriantly.
in either warm or cold water; furthermore, it can be grown success-
fully in water which is slightly salty to the taste.
(8) In determining the vitality of any sample of wild rice seed the
germination tests should be made in water—the condition under which
the self-sown seed germinates.
(9) The seed will germinate well at temperatures ranging from
15° to 80° C. The maximum temperature of germination is above
35° C. (95° F.), but better results are obtained at lower temperatures.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES I AND II.
_Puate I. Wild rice growingin water. This seed was submerged at a temperature of .
32-34° F. for approximately thirteen months. In making the germination test
the seed was covered with water and placed in a germinating chamber main-
tained at a temperature of 20° C. (68° F.) for eighteen hours, and at 30° C.
(86° F.) for six hours. After the majority of the seeds had germinated the dish
was transferred to the worktable of the Seed Laboratory.
PuaTeE II. Progressive stages in the development of wild rice seedlings; f and g, seed-
lings showing the relative position of the growing seedlings and the parent seéd,
which take a position at right angles to each other when grown normally in
water. (Natural size. )
14
Bul. $0, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE l.
WILD RICE GROWING IN WATER AFTER BEING KEPT WET IN COLD STORAGE AT A TEM-
PERATURE OF 32-34° F., FROM OCTOBER 19, 1903, TO NOVEMBER 15, 1904.
Bul. 90, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |]
—
%
sa
Rp
STAGES OF GERMINATION OF WILD RICE, SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
Root SYSTEM AND THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE SEEDLING AND THE
PARENT SEED. NATURAL SIZE.
B. P. I.—186. ; V. P. P. I.—145.
IL—THE CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT DISEASES
Ol ibeAPPLE TREE.
By Grorcr G. HEpacock, Assistant in Pathology, Vegetable Pathological and
Physiological Investigations.
INTRODUCTION.
The diseases of the apple which have been classed under the name
crown-gall have, during the last few years, attracted much attention,
due partly to an increase of these diseases and partly to the enacting
of more stringent State laws governing the shipment and inspection of
trees.
A series of investigations into the nature of crown-gall upon the
apple, pear, raspberry, peach, almond, grape, rose, and other plants
has been in progress for some time in the Mississippi Valley Labora-
tory of the Bureau of Plant Industry at St. Louis, Mo., and also at
other points in the Mississippi Valley. It is not to be assumed, how-
ever, that such diseases are more common in this locality than in some
other portions of the United States. Apple crown-gall and hairy-root
have been found in all nurseries that have been examined in various
portions of the country.
This preliminary report is sent out, not with the intention of giving
the results of all our investigations, but for the purpose of calling the
attention of apple-tree growers to the different diseases hitherto known
as apple crown-gall, and to endeavor to interest them in the collection
of data regarding the predisposition of varieties to these diseases.
TWO DISTINCT DISEASES, CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT.
Our investigations have resulted first in separating apple crown-gall
into two diseases, which are considered distinct. The disease now
designated as crown-gall is a callous-like gall growth of hypertrophied
tissue following wounds on some portion of the root system of the
_ tree, which rarely occurs above the ground on parts of the trunk or
limbs. (See PI. III, figs. 1 and 2.)
The malady now called the hairy-root disease is evidently the same
as the one first given this name by Stewart, Rolfs, and Hall in Bulletin
191 of the New York State Experiment Station. It is characterized
both in seedlings (Pl. IV, fig. 1, and Pl. V, fig. 2) and in grafted or
16976—No. $0—06——3 15
16 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
budded trees (Pl. Ii], figs. 3 and 4) by a stunted root system, accom-
panied with an excessive production of small fibrous roots, often origi-
nating in clusters from the main root, or taproot. Galls often occur
in connection with hairy-root, but these are a result of wounds rather
than a form of this disease. Seedlings of the hairy-root type, unless
wounded, remain free from galls.
TYPES OF APPLE CROWN-GALL.
Apple crown-gall is of two types. A hard callous form is common
on grafted trees at the union of the root and scion, and at any other
point of the root system where wounds occur in either the cultivation
or transplanting of trees (Pl. III, fig. 1). The results of extensive
inoculations with this type have failed to prove that this disease is of
a contagious nature. :
A second type is a soft form more common on seedlings (Pl. LY.
fig. 2), occurring more rarely on grafted trees (Pl. I, fig. 2). These
softer galls resemble those of the raspberry and peach, in that they
are soft and often rot off. It is not certain, however, that they, like
the latter, are replaced the following year by a new gall growth from
the adjacent live tissues of the host, nor is there proof yet that they
are of a contagious nature.
EFFECT UPON THE LENGTH OF LIFE OF THE APPLE TREE.
Careful data are being collected from orchards and nurseries as to
the effect of these diseases upon the life and fruitfulness of trees.
Any information as to the locality of orchards in which diseased trees
have been planted will be highly appreciated. In our crown-gall
orchard there are more than 200 trees diseased with the hard type of
crown-gall, and 200 healthy trees of the same grade planted under
similar conditions. After two years’ growth six of the crown-gall
trees and nine of the healthy ones have died. No difference in the
growth of the trees is noticeable. However, it can not be assumed
from the results so far that, on the one hand, the disease may not yet
shorten the life of the trees, or, on the other, that the trees may not
entirely overcome its effects. A tree having crown-gall on its roots,
however, can never be correctly graded with a smooth-rooted tree.
The root system of a healthy fibrous-rooted apple tree is shown in
Plate V, figure 1.
SUGGESTIONS TO NURSERYMEN.
Nurserymen are advised to be careful in the selection of seedlings
for grafting and budding. All rough, warty, or galled seedlings
should be thrown out, for most of them will form rough-rooted trees.
Seedlings with tufted or hairy roots should also be rejected, for these,
Bul. 90, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PATE TE
Fic. 1.—APPLE CROWN-GALL ON FiG. 2.—APPLE CROWN-GALL ON
GRAFTED TREE. TRANSPLANTED SEEDLING.
Fig. 3.—HAIRY-ROOT DISEASE ON Fia. 4.—HAIRY-ROOT DISEASE ON
GRAFTED APPLE TREE. GRAFTED APPLE TREE.
PLATE IV.
Bul. 90, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Fic. 1.—APPLE SEEDLINGS DISEASED WITH HAIRY
-ROOT.
\
Fia. 2.—APPLE SEEDLINGS DISEASED WITH SOFT CROWN-GALL.
"NMOHD LOd ‘33UL Addy GSLOOY-snoudly AHLIVSH—'| ‘DI4
"LOOY-AYIVH HLIM Gasvasig SONITGSAS Anddv—'S ‘OI4
Bul. 90, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
PLATE V.
CROWN-GALL AND HAIRY-ROOT DISEASES OF THE APPLE TREE. 17
as shown by our experiments, develop into hairy-rooted trees with a
very deficient root system. The hairy-root disease, as it appears from
the results of two years’ experiments, is not contagious. It is hoped
in the near future to be able to offer some practical means of reducing
the percentage of trees affected with these diseases in the nursery.
DATA DESIRED.
The hearty cooperation of nurserymen and orchardists in securing
data is desired. It is hoped to secure the help of the leading nursery-
men of this country in getting an accurate count from each nursery
of the number of diseased trees in at least one row of every variety
in all fields where the trees are all dug in one season. Such data are
desired from every locality where apple trees are grown. Printed
blanks with directions for tabulating such data have been provided
and these will be sent to all who request them. Address the Missis-
sippi Valley Laboratory, St. Louis, Mo.
B. P. 1.—189.
ese ERRERMINT.“
By ALICE HENKEL, Assistant, Drug-Plant Investigations.
DESCRIPTION.
One of the most important essential oils produced in the United
States is distilled from the peppermint plant and its varieties. The
three kinds of mint grown in this country for the distillation of pep-
permint oil are the so-called American mint (J/entha piperita L.),
the black mint (J/entha piperita v ubgari is Sole), and the white mint
(Mentha piperita officinalis Sole). the two last named being varieties
of the American mint.
The American mint, although introduced from England many
years ago, 1s so called from the fact that it has long been cultivated
in this country, and the name “ State mint ” has been applied to it in
the State of New York for the same reason.
The peppermint, or American mint, is now naturalized in many
parts of the eastern United States, occurring in wet soil from the New
England States to Minnesota, south to Florida and Tennessee. It is
an aromatic perennial belonging to the mint family (Menthaceae),
and propagates by means of its long, running roots (fig. 1). The
smooth, square stems are erect and branching, from 1 to 3 feet in
height, bearing dark-green, lance-shaped leaves, which are from 1 to
2 inches long, and from one-half to 1 inch wide. The leaves are
pointed at the apex, rounded or narrowed at the base, sharply
toothed, smooth on both sides, or with hairy veins on the lower sur-
face. The flowers are borne in whorls in dense, terminal spikes: they
are purplish, with a tubular, five-toothed calyx, and a four-lobed
corolla. (Fig. 2.)
a@1¥n response to a steady demand for information relating to the peppermint
industry. Miss Alice Henkel, Assistant in Drug-Plant Investigations, has been
requested to bring together the most important facts regarding the history.
culture, and utilization of the peppermint plant. The information here pre-
sented has been obtained in large part from scattered articles on the subject,
and in part from experience with the plant in the Testing Gardens of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
Ropney H. True, Physiologist in Charge.
OFFICE OF DRUG-PLANT INVESTIGATIONS,
Washington, D. C., October 14, 1905,
: 19
20 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
The two varieties mentioned are closely related botanically, al-
though in general appear-
ance they are quite differ-
ent. The variety known
as black mint (J/entha
piperita vulgaris) has pur-
ple stems and slightly
toothed, dark-green leaves,
while the white mint
(Mentha piperita office-
nalis) has green stems,
with brighter green leaves,
Fic. 1.—Peppermint ‘“‘runners,’’ showing method of which are more lance-
propagation. shaped and more deeply
toothed. Black mint is much more hardy and productive than either
the American mint or the white mint,
and is grown on nearly all pepper-
mint farms in this country. The white
mint, which produces a fine grade
of oil, is rarely cultivated on a com-
mercial scale in this country on ac-
count of its inability to withstand the
climate and its smaller yield of essen-
tial oil.
The oils spoken of as Japanese and
Chinese ** peppermint ” oils are not ob-
tained from the true peppermint plant,
but are distilled from entirely different
species, namely, J/entha arvensis piper-
ascens Malinvaud and JJentha arvensis
glabrata Holmes, respectively.
COUNTRIES WHERE GROWN.
The most important peppermint-
producing countries are the United
States, England, and Japan. Pepper-
mint is grown on a smaller scale in
Germany, France, Italy, Russia, China,
and southern India.
In Japan, peppermint cultivation
is said to have been undertaken
before the Christian era. The plant
grown there is not, as already Fic. 2—Leaves and flowering top of
stated, the peppermint cultivated in nee i
our country, but Mentha arvensis piperascens, which is entirely dis-
PEPPERMINT. 21
tinct from the true peppermint, not only botanically but also in taste
and odor.
Peppermint is cultivated on many drug farms in England, espe-
cially at Mitcham, the middle of the eighteenth century marking the
beginning of peppermint cultivation in that country. Up to i805.
however, there were no stills at Mitcham, and the crops obtained
there were sent to London for distillation. About 1850, at which
time the peppermint industry in England was at its height, the effect
of American competition began to be felt, and caused a decided
check in the production.
PEPPERMINT CULTIVATION IN THE UNITED STATES.
Wayne County, N. Y., in 1816, was the first locality in this country
to distill peppermint on a commercial scale. The supply of root-
stocks was obtained from the wild plants found growing along the
banks of streams and brooks. Adjacent counties soon undertook the
cultivation of peppermint, but Wayne County was then, and is now,
the principal peppermint district in New York.
The cultivation of peppermint was extended to Ashtabula, Geauga,
and Cuyahoga counties in Ohio, and also to northern Indiana. Roots
were taken from Ohio.into St. Joseph County, Mich., the first plan-
tation being made on Pigeon prairie in 1835. Other plantations in
St. Joseph County were established the following years, and adjoin-
ing counties soon took up the cultivation of peppermint, and south-
western Michigan has been for thirty-five years or more the greatest
peppermint-producing section in the United States.
About 1844 an interesting peppermint-oil monopoly ¢ was under-
taken by a New York firm, which seems to have put an end to pepper-
mint cultivation in Ohio, for none of the counties just mentioned
has since been heard from as a peppermint-producing section.
The first step taken by this New York firm in its efforts to con-
trol the peppermint-oil market was to send a representative to
Liverpool, England, to ascertain the amount annually demanded by
that market, which was found to be about 12,000 pounds. This done.
another agent was sent West to determine the amount produced annu-
ally, with the result that it was found that the farms in New York
did not produce enough oil for their purposes, the plantations in
Ohio too much, while those in Michigan seemed to produce just about
the right amount to satisfy the Liverpool demand. A contract was
then entered into by this agent with the producers in New York and
Ohio “ whereby he bound them under heavy penalties to plow up
their mint fields and destroy the roots, and not plant any more mint.
or sell or give away any roots, or produce or sell any mint oil for the
a Proc, Amer. Pharm. Assoc., 7: 449-459 (1858).
22 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
period of five years.” For this wholesale destruction of their mint
fields the producers received a bonus of $1.50 per acre. Next a con-
tract was made by the agent with the producers of St. Joseph County,
Mich., agreeing to pay them $2.50 a pound for their mint oil, every
ounce of the mint oil to be delivered for a period of five years to the
agents named in the contract. They also were prohibited during
this period from extending thei plantations and from selling roots
to anyone. The producers held to these contracts for about three
years, after which period the New York firm was not so anxious to
enforce them, having, in the meantime, acquired a large fortune
through its peppermint-oil monopoly.
Since that period the area devoted to peppermint cultivation in
Michigan has steadily increased, and northern Indiana, with its prin-
cipal centers of production in St. Joseph, Steuben, and La Grange
counties, continues to place on the market a considerable quantity of
oul. Ohio seems to have abandoned peppermint cultivation, at least
on a commercial scale, and New York, for a number of years and until
very recently, had greatly reduced the area under peppermint, thou-
sands of acres formerly devoted to this crop having been given over
to sugar beets, onions, and celery. In 1889 Wayne County, N. Y..,
had 3,325 acres of peppermint, whereas in 1899 there were only 300
acres. In 1905, about 933 acres were under cultivation.
Special canvassers appoimted by the State of Michigan“ made a
canvass of 299 growers in the peppermint district in that State, cover-
ing 39 townships in nine counties (Allegan, Berrien, Branch, Cass,
Kalamazoo, Oakland, St. Joseph, St. Clair, and Van Buren), and
the total number of acres under peppermint cultivation, the number
of pounds of oil distilled, and the average number of pounds per acre,
as ascertained by this canvass, for the years 1900, 1901, and 1902, are
as follows:
Items. 1900. 1901. 1902.
“Dron WL sons HoT OLSI PONE EXGIEEIS (28 ONAN cane oboe me sees esbeoe Sobcooweecedensaue 2, 112 2, 7823 6, 4002
Motalmumiberrof poundsais till ec wae Sees ego eee eee eee | 47,6283) 63,7183} 82, 4202
Averagemumber/of POUNGS Per acres == 225 =—-9- sees aoe Seen | 22.5 23.9 12.8
| |
CULTIVATION.
Peppermint cultivation is most profitable on muck lands, such as
are now used in Michigan for this crop and for celery and cranberry
culture. These muck lands were formerly marshes and swamps,
which have been reclaimed by draining, plowing, and cultivating,
ithe swamp vegetation having been thus subdued, and the decayed
a Twentieth Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor of the State of Michigan,
1903, pp. 438-447.
PEPPERMINT. 23
vegetable matter resulting in a very black soil which is most admir-
ably adapted to mint cultivation. Formerly peppermint was grown
exclusively on upland soil in Michigan, but it is a very exhausting
crop on such land. Only two crops can be obtained from upland
plantations, and after the second year’s harvest the land is plowed and
a rotation of clover, corn, etc., is practiced for five years before pep-
permint is again planted. But on the rich muck land peppermint
can be grown year after year for six or seven years, the land being
plowed up after each crop is harvested, and the runners turned under
to form a hew growth the succeeding year. The ground is harrowed
in autumn and again in spring, and carefully weeded. Peppermint
will grow, however, on any land that will produce good crops of corn,
the ground being prepared by deep plowing and harrowing.
In Michigan? the land is plowed in the autumn, and early in spring
it is harrowed and marked with furrows about 3 feet apart. The
roots selected for planting are from one-eighth to one-quarter of an
inch thick, and from 1 to 8 feet long; and the workmen engaged in
‘setting mint,” as the process is called, carry these roots in sacks
across their shoulders and place them in the furrows by hand, cover-
ing the roots with one foot and stepping on them with the other.
The roots are planted so close together in the furrow as to form a
continuous line. An expert workman can plant about an acre in
a day.
In about two weeks the young plants will make their appearance,
and are carefully hoed and cultivated until July and August, when
the plants have usually sent out so many runners as to make further
cultivation difficult. The crop is cultivated with horse cultivators,
but if the land was very weedy in the first place, the weeds will
have to be pulled by hand. It is very necessary that the land be free
from weeds, as any collected with the peppermint crop will seriously
injure the quality of the oil.
It may be interesting to note here that on muck lands, when
necessary, the horses are usually provided with mud shoes to prevent
their sinking into the soft, wet ground, these mud shoes consisting
of wide pieces of iron or wood about 9 by 10 inches, fastened to the
hoofs and ordinary shoes by means of bolts and straps.
CONDITIONS INJURIOUS TO CROP.
Cold and wet weather or extremely dry periods have a very unfa-
vorable effect on the mint crop. Insect enemies also tend to cut down
the mint harvest—grasshoppers, crickets, and cutworms sometimes
doing considerable damage. A rust, causing the foliage to drop off
1908, pp. 488-447.
24 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
and leaving the stems almost bare, is apt to follow if very moist
weather occurs toward the latter part of the season. Weeds are
especially to be avoided in a mint field, since, as stated, the quality
of the oil will be seriously impaired if these are harvested with the
peppermint. The weeds generally found in a peppermint field are
Canada fleabane (Leptilon canadense), fireweed (Hrechtites hieraci-
folia), giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), pennyroyal (//edeoma
pulegioides), Eaton’s grass (Hatonia pennsylvanica), June grass
(Poa pratensis), and other low grasses.
HARVESTING AND DISTILLATION.
The first crop of mint is harvested in the latter part of August,
when the plants are in full flower, and the gathering continues until
about the middle of September, the stills running night and day
until all the mint is disposed of. The first crop is usually cut with a
scythe, as mowing machines do not work well on soft cultivated land.
The succeeding crops are cut with a mowing machine or sweep-rake
reaper. The highest yield per acre and the best quality of oil are
obtained from the first year’s crop. Sometimes, if the weather con-
ditions have been very favorable, a second cutting is made. The
yield of oil from peppermint obtained from the same field sometimes
varies very much, the condition of the atmosphere seeming to exert
an influence upon it, as it is said that mint cut after a warm and
humid night will yield more oil than that cut after a cool and dry
night. It requires about 330 pounds of dried peppermint to produce
1 pound of oil, and the yield of oil from an acre ranges from 12 to 50
pounds. 7
If the mint crop has been grown on muck land, all that is necessary
after the crop has been harvested is to plow up the land and turn the
runners under for a new crop. If grown on upland, after the second
year’s crop is in, or, at the most, after the third year’s harvest, the land
is plowed and then given up to other crops. Peppermint exhausts
the land, and it is necessary to practice rotation of crops for about five
years in order to put the land in condition if it is desired to use it
again for peppermint cultivation.
After the plants are cut they are usually placed in windrows until
they are dried, but are not allowed to become so dry as to permit the
leaves to shatter off, and are then taken to the distillery. Some grow-
ers believe that if the plants are allowed to dry there will be a smaller
oil content owing to the escape of some of the oil into the atmosphere,
and so have the plants brought to the distillery in the green state;
but Mr. A. M. Todd ¢ is of the opinion that no loss of oil will result
aAmer. Jour. Pharm., 60: 328-3382 (1888).
PEPPERMINT. 25
from drying, his experiments along this line showing that the dry
plants can be distilled three times as rapidly as the green plants, and
that a larger quantity of oil may be obtained. He states that—
To obtain the best results, both as to quality of essential oil and economy of
transportation and distillation, the plants should be dried as thoroughly as pos-
sible without endangering the loss of the leaves in handling. Distillation
should then take place as soon as convenient to prevent the oxidation of the oil
in the leaf by atmospheric action.
The smaller producers, who have no stills of their own, have their
mint crop hauled to the nearest peppermint distillery, where it is
distilled for them at a cost of 25 cents per pound of oil.
DESCRIPTION OF STILL.
The apparatus used in peppermint distillation in the early years
of the industry in this country consisted of a copper kettle, from
-the top of which a pipe connected with a condensing “ worm.”
Water was placed in the kettle and the plants were immersed in it,
and direct heat was applied to the bottom from a furnace. With
such a still only about 15 pounds of oil could be obtained from a
charge. In 1846, large wooden vats were substituted for the copper
kettles, and the plants were distilled by steam passing through them.
The kettle formerly used as the still was now employed to generate
steam, a long pipe conveying the steam to the bottom of the vats.
With this method of distillation from 75 to 100 pounds of oil could
be obtained from a charge without much additional expense.
A modern peppermint still (fig. 3) may be briefly described as fol-
lows: The apparatus required consists of a boiler, a pair of large
circular wooden vats, a condenser, and a receiver. The boiler, of
course, is used for the generation of steam.
Two wooden vats are used in order that they may be filled and
emptied alternately. These vats are about 6 feet high and about
5 feet in diameter, with tight-fitting removable covers and _ perfo-
rated false bottoms. Steam pipes are led from the boiler into the
bottom of the vats.
The condenser consists of a series of pipes of block tin, either
immersed in tanks of cold water or over which cold water is kept
running, the condenser being connected with the top of the dis-
tilling vats. The condensed steam, together with the oil, flows into
a metallic receiver, in which the oil, being lighter than the water,
rises to the top and can be drawn off.
The perforated false bottoms with which the vats are supplied
permit the passage of steam. A strong iron hoop is placed about
this false bottom, and two pairs of stout chains, which meet at the top
96 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
of the vat in a pair of rings, are attached to it. After the charge
has been distilled it is drawn from the vats by means of this arrange-
ment.
The plants are thrown into the vats and are closely packed by two
or three men tramping upon them, and as the vat becomes about
one-third full the packing is still further assisted by turning in a
small supply of steam, which softens the plants. When the vat is
filled the tight cover is replaced and a full head of steam turned on.
In the largest distilleries the vats have a capacity of from 2,000 to
3,000 pounds of dried plants each.
ey OSs
i ‘ yb aayebi
Oe Cin rd 0 vino
14 peri
fi
LI ts
am
|
in
|
- Fic. 3.—Peppermint still. (After Dewey, in Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American
Horticulture. )
A, boiler; B, steam pipes leading to vats; C, valves for shutting off steam; D, mint
packed in vat ready for distilling; H, mint being lowered into vat; Ff, tight-fitting cover
used alternately for both vats; G, pipe from top of vat, joined at H so as to swing to
other vat; J, perforated pipe, from which cold water drops over condensing tubes; K,
supply pipe for cold water; M, condensing pipes; N, outlet for condensed oil and water ;
O and P, water and oil in separating can; R, outlet for water; S, floor of distilling room.
Large tanks are used for storing the oil, and cans holding 20
pounds each are employed for shipping, three of these cans being
placed in a wooden case.
The peppermint hay which remains after distillation is used as a
fertilizer or is fed to stock.
PEPPERMINT OIL AND MENTHOL.
Peppermint leaves and flowering tops are official in the Eighth
Decennial Revision of the United States Pharmacopcela.:as are like-
wise the following products and preparations derived from these
parts: Oil of peppermint, menthol, spirit of peppermint, and pepper-
mint water.
PEPPERMINT. 27
The United States Pharmacopceia describes oil of peppermint as
“a colorless liquid, having the characteristic strong odor of pepper-
mint and a strongly aromatic pungent taste, followed by a sensation
of cold when air is drawn into the mouth.” It is largely used in medi-
cine, internally as a stimulant and carminative, and externally to
relieve neuralgic and rheumatic conditions. It is also used for flavor-
ing and scenting confectionery, cordials, and cosmetics. There is a
sheht difference in the odor of white and black peppermint oil, the
black being more pungent and less agreeable in fragrance than the
white, which has a much finer odor, but, as already indicated, the
white mint is less hardy than the black and yields a smaller quantity
of oil. |
The Japanese oil of peppermint, which, as pointed out elsewhere in
these pages, is obtained from a different species of mint than that
which produces the true oil of peppermint, is very inferior to the last
named. It has a very unpleasant odor and a bitter, disagreeable
taste, but itis a heavy oil and contains a higher percentage of menthol
and, being a very much cheaper oil, it is lable to be used as an adul-
terant of true peppermint oil.
Menthol, formerly known as peppermint camphor, is the solid con-
stituent of oil of peppermint, obtained by subjecting the distilled oil
to an exceedingly low temperature by means of a freezing mixture.
Its properties are about the same as those of o1l of peppermint, only
somewhat intensified. It is very largely made up into cones or pencils,
which furnish a popular remedy, to be applied externally or inhaled,
-for the relief of headache, neuralgia, catarrh, asthma, and kindred
affections. It is also.largely employed in other forms of medication.
The name “ pipmenthol ” has been applied to the menthol obtained
from the American oil, to distinguish it from the Japanese menthol.
Pipmenthol is said to have a distinct odor of peppermint, while the
Japanese menthol has but a slight peppermint odor.
EXPORT OF PEPPERMINT OIL.
The exports of peppermint oil during the fiscal year ended June 30,
1904, amounted to 42,939 pounds, valued at $124,728. Germany and
the United Kingdom were the largest consumers, the former receiving
92,372 pounds, valued at $65,505, and the latter 11,558 pounds, worth
$31,798.
The following tables show the export of peppermint oil, by coun-
tries, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1904, and the quantities and
values of peppermint oil exported for a period of ten years, from
July 1, 1894, to June 30, 1904, inclusive: |
28 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
Exports of peppermint oil, by countries, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1904.4
Country. eel Value.
y Pounds.
Bel oie 2 shoe Sie es RE ee eS ee ee re ed ee ee ee 473 $1,585
IPA CG Pe Sea ok BS ea ee I ie ER ee cao ee oe a 3,054 10, 059
Germamniye Ser ss a oeee Yt aie a Se eee ee SBS Ra LES SUSE eee gh aera 22,312 65, 505
Ee hy ea ot op ae eo ene een CORIO Si Io Ean CS aOR eens oA os Aces Gucmeece 826 2,471
Nofverands terse StS SRN Se he tit hy eae Pd 7S esl AS aa At Nc meg 590 1,934
WmitedsKaned orm, 25202 Se oh ee ri we Py ves Se ar ae rice eee eee 11, 558 31, 798
Dominion of Canada:
INOVATS COLA INTC Wells UIT S wal Cer © ti err a 85 234
Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, a MERON Anes Bie Tee Sy LE 1,165 3, 306
IN(Eryavononaveltewayel wach Ib HomeKOONeS | eee Se eee esate ree Seen etka deedeesels 94 204
West Indies:
BBPUGiSh F552 a se ee ae ew ah eg ae a 183 7
Cabaret SS ET ila AO citi CR eC a epee 29 87
LD EZ} ates) 0 emepaoeetinl ee ectae te OEE ame ana Win re nants Nene RS sea eae Gon adaee eos 17 55
BLA v he’) a eeempeemeent Be eee aventura eats Melvin NS CIE ee 1 ee ea 20 61
A POOIGLN G2 2 oe ap 0 a 2 aed eee ape ee are 1, 237 3, 504
Bulish Gulag soo so oe a ee ara gee ee age eae 10 rol
POT ie Boe ee I TGS 3 RES Se Sa gee a gp a ee 50 175
British INUGUARME RIE) oie eo ees NO Soe Ete Se aR RG OER 2 Coe oes 1,176 3,019
Ul IG 1°21 ener ene ec eM CDS Meena mE ner SPR AR Es Ses oN sent os Fey SS a yea ae 42, 939 124, 728
“The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for
the year ending
June 30, 1904, vol. 1, p. 531, Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor.
Quantities and values of peppermint oil exported during the fiscal years 1895
to 1904, inclusive.@
Fiscal year. tne Value. Fiscal year. ee | Value.
Pounds. Pounds.
8766331 °S1945616 41 | al S00 een eee ee ee 89,558 $90, 298
85, 290 7 60, 166 63, 672
162, 492 36, 301 54, 898
145, 375 13, 033 34, 948
117, 462 118. 227 GO ees Ee Sete seh oe e 42.939 124, 728
«From The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending
vol. p. 309, Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department; and The
June 380, 1902,
Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending June 30,
1904, “vol. 1, p..192, Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor.
ms
PRICES OF PEPPERMINT OIL.
The price of peppermint oil was very low for a few years prior to
1900, the enormous production of 1897 resulting in a great drop in
price. The lowest price paid for 1t was in 1899, when it brought
only 75 cents per pound. As a result of the low price a great many
mint farmers restricted the area of their mint plantations or alto-
gether abandoned peppermint cultivation. The smaller output of
the following seasons again sent prices up, and in 1902 the oil sold —
as high as $4.75 a pound, which price was maintained until early in
1903, when it gradually declined, until toward the end of that year it
reached $2.20 per pound.
PEPPERMINT. 29
fel t
The following table gives the highest and lowest prices of pepper-
mint oil in bulk from 1873 to September 16, 1905:
| lI |
Year Highest.| Lowest. Year. | Highest.) Lowest. Year. Highest. | Lowest.
PSTS eee re | $3.15 3 IGS I) eee eee $3. 00 SZ OOM el S95 eee $2. 00 $1.70
IST Ase TNS | 5. 25 Bt Coy Wakes Je Ses 4.37 PTY || Ae eee ae | 1.85 1.20
1 fae Seee | 5.50 hl) Il dks ose ce 3. 60 QE Be SO Tee wee 1.25 90
I fey eee en oe 3.75 2: 405 SESS eee = 2.715 TECTOM HN TESG Ts) uae oS 90 | . 80
Sige | 3.00 Isis |) aksfeke) see 2.40 Tei th\ ake) ee 90 75
NST Se eee 2. 00 SON SSO eee 2.30 1.80) eh 900 22 ee 1.10 | . 80
TVG) oe ee 2.65 Tb) KO) Seco cece 2.40 ESOT 190 ese 1.80 | 1.10
SSOP ces os 2. 87 ZsG07 |p 189 leseeeee = 2.50 Zen yO Ze a eee 4.75 iy
1 toy bh ee 2. 85 Pons) (hI eee | 2.50 221 be P1903 eae | 4.75 2. 20
SS 2a eee 2.50 Pare Hit Ike 8) ean See | 2.45 Zal 55 || e1 904 eee 3.75 2.65
T88S ewes ae 2. 60 2520) || PLSot aaa | 2.45 1.70 ! 1905 =a eee | 3.45 | 2.25
* To September 16.
The good prices of the past few years have caused many farmers
to look again to peppermint as a profitable crop, as noted in increased
areas under cultivation in many localities. This is the case not only
in Michigan and Indiana, but also in New York, where for many
vears the peppermint industry has been declining. Thus, if favor-
able conditions of growth prevail, an increased production may be
looked for within the next few years, which will have the effect of
again depressing prices. 7
As is the case with other products the prices of which are subject
to great fluctuations, the condition of the market for peppermint oil
needs to be closely observed. The cost of cultivation per acre has
been stated at from $12 to $14, and, with a charge of 25 cents per
pound of oil for distillation, the market price may easily fall below
the cost of production.
_
aFrom Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter, September 18, 1905, p. 7.
B. P. I.—194.
IV —IHE POISONOUS ACTION OF JOHNSON GRASS:
By A. C. Crawrorp, Pharmacologist, Poisonous- Plant Investigations.
Johnson grass, which was introduced from Turkey into this country
about 1830,? has spread so that in many places it is considered as a
weed and pest.“ Some farmers, however, have utilized the dried
grass as hay with advantage, either alone or combined with other
food material,“ and chemical analyses have proved its value as feed.
Recently reports have come to this office from California of the death
of cattle under such circumstances as to point to Johnson grass as the
causative agent—the cattle dying in thirty minutes after eating the
grass. Johnson grass belongs to the same genus of the Gramineae as
sorghum. This group has been partially investigated chemically, and
it has been found that the fresh green plants of various members yield
aThis office has from time to time received communications from stockmen,
especially in the lower part of California, Arizona, and adjacent territory, expressing
a suspicion that the eating of Johnson grass had caused the death of stock with
rather sudden and violent symptoms. There has seemed to be little ground in
poisonous-plant literature to support such an explanation. Last summer, however,
convincing observations were reported from California by a stockman who had lost
heavily, and a supply of the grass in question was obtained. The result of the study
of this material was so positive, and the possibility of damage due to this unsuspected
forage plant so clear, that this preliminary notice is put out in the hope of getting
observations and material for study from many sources, in order, if possible, to
determine the conditions under which the poisonous properties are developed and
over how wide an area they are likely to appear. WEE oh
Ropnety H. Trur, Physiologist.
OFFICE OF Potsonous-PLANT INVESTIGATIONS,
Washington, D. C’., December 11, 1905.
bBall, C. R. Johnson Grass. Bul. No. 11, Bureau of Plant Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture, 1902.
cSpillman, W. J. Extermination of Johnson Grass. Bul. No. 72, Part III,
Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1905.
@North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bul. 97, p. 92; Vasey, G.,
Grasses of the South, Bul. No. 3, Division of Botany, United States Department of
. Agriculture, 1887; Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1881, pp. 231, 252,
239, 241; Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1890, p. 381.
: 31
32 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
hydrocyanic acid as a result of the action of enzymes on more highly
complex bodies.”
Ball? in 1902 stated that at that time there had been no official
reports to his office of cases of poisoning by Johnson grass, but that
there were some newspaper statements to that effect. He thought
these accounts were probably not authentic, but stated that ‘‘since
Johnson grass is closely related to sorghum, which is known to be
poisonous under some circumstances, it would not be surprising if
Johnson grass should also be poisonous under like conditions. * * *
In comparison with the great number of cattle fed or pastured in
Johnson grass, the reported cases of poisoning are extremely rare.”
The first report of the poisonous action of Johnson grass which
reached the Department came from Miles City, Mont. Mr. William
Story reported that he and a neighbor had lost several head of cattle
after they had eaten small quantities of the grass, and that they had
died very suddenly. Mr. Story suggested that there was ‘‘something
peculiarly poisonous about the grass.” The Commissioner of Agricul-
ture in publishing this report stated that ‘‘although the grass has been
cultivated in the South for forty or fifty years, no similar charges have
been made against it.’
In India this plant is widely used as a fodder for cattle,“ and the
natives make use of the seeds for food. It has been noted there that
deaths in cattle frequently occur when, on account of the failure of
rain, the plants which have reached a certain size become stunted and
withered. The toxic principle appears simultaneously over a wide
area, but soon disappears if a rainfall occurs. The deaths of cattle
have been attributed by some to an insect living upon the plant, and
in Australia it is the belief that Sorghum vulgare, which also yields
hydrocyaniec acid, becomes more poisonous when attacked by an insect
during a drought.