HARVARD UNIVERSITY Library of the Museum of Comparative Zoology UNI 8126 OO Handbook of IffBU of Kansas b« Htbiirf M. Smith f ' .^/)'/?/}^'^r 7 MUS. COMP. Z< LIBRARY nnr 28 19?) HARVARD UNtVERSiT^ University of Kansas Museum of Naturdl History dnd State Biological Survey UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Miscellaneous Publication No. 9 2nd Edition (1st ed. was Miscl. Publ. No. 2, 1950) The HANDBOOK OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF KAN- SAS by Hobart M. Smith results from a continuation of the work of the KANSAS BIOLOGICAL SURVEY; the Department of Zoology and Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas from time to time hope to be able to provide in published form information on the kinds, distribution, habits, possible economic uses, and other attributes of the biota of the state. This second edition of the Hand- book is a revision of the first edition and is published in response to scores of requests from citizens of Kansas for information concerning the amphibians and reptiles of the state. E. Raymond Hall, Editor. Snake in color on front of cover is a copperhead S^ ) HANDBOOK OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF KANSAS BV HoBART M. Smith University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History Editor: E. Raymond Hall Miscellaneous Publication No. 9 Second Edition, pp. 1-356, 253 figures Published April 20, 1956 (First Edition, Miscl. Publ. No. 2, of pp. 1-336, 233 figures was published September 12, 1950) University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas PRINTED BY FERD VOILAND. JR. . STATE PRINTER TOPEKA. KANSAS 1956 25-9019 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Purpose 7 Materials 7 Treatment of Species 7 Maps : 8 Acknowledgments 8 History 9 Composition of Fauna 10 Venomous Species 12 Collecting 12 Care of Live Individuals 15 Preservation of Specimens 17 Identification 23 Key to Classes 25 Class Amphibia 25 Key to orders of Amphibia 25 Salamanders, Order Caudata 26 Key to species of salamanders 27 Key to known eggs of salamanders 30 Hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis 31 Eastern Newt, Notophthalmiis viridescens 33 Spotted Salamander, Ambystoma maculatum 36 Narrow-mouthed Salamander, Ambystoma texanum 38 Tiger Salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum 40 Long-tailed Salamander, Eurycea longicauda 43 Cave Salamander, Eurycea lucifuga 45 Nereous Salamander, TyphJotriton nereus 47 Mudpuppy, Nectunis maculosus 48 Anurans ( Frogs and Toads ), Order Salientia 51 Key to species of frogs and toads 53 Key to known eggs of anurans 63 Plains Spadefoot, Spea bombifrons 66 Plains Toad, Bufo cognatus 69 Sonoran Toad, Bufo compactilis 72 Green Toad, Bufo debilis 74 Canyon Toad, Bufo punctatus 77 American Toad, Bufo terrestris 79 Garden Toad, Bufo tvoodhousii 83 Northern Cricket Frog, Acris crepitans 87 Spotted Chorus Frog, Pseudacris clarkii 90 Striped Chorus Frog, Pseudacris nigrita 93 Spring Peeper, Hyla crucifer 95 Common Tree Frog, Hyla versicolor 97 Gopher Frog, Rana areolata 99 (3) 4 Contents PAGE Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana 102 Green Frog, Rana clamitans 104 Pickerel Frog, Rana palustris 106 Leopard Frog, Rana pipiens 109 Wood Frog, Rana sylvatica Ill Eastern Narrow-mouthed Frog, Gastrophryne carolinensis 11 Western Narrow-mouthed Frog, Gastrophryne olivacea 115 Class Reptilia 117 Key to orders and suborders of Reptilia 118 Turtles, Order Testudines 119 Key to species of turtles 1 19 Common Musk Turtle, Sternotheriis odoratus 126 Yellow Mud Turtle, Kinosternon flavcscens 129 Alligator Snapping Turtle, Macroclemys temminckii 131 Common Snapping Turtle, Chehjdra serpentina 134 Carolina Box Turtle, Terrapene Carolina 137 Ornate Box Turtle, Terrapene ornata 141 Map Turtle, Graptemys geographica 144 False Map Turtle, Graptemys pseudogeographica 147 Painted Turtle, Chryseinys picta 149 Saw-toothed Slider, Pseudemys floridana 152 Elegant Slider, Pseudemys scripta 155 Smooth Soft-shelled Turtle, Amyda mutica 157 Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle, Amyda ferox 160 Lizards, Suborder Sauria 163 Key to species of lizards 163 Carolina Anole, Anolis carolinensis 168 Earless Lizard, Holbrookia maculata 171 Collared Lizard, Crotaphytus collaris 174 Rough-scaled Lizard, Sceloporus tindidatus 176 Texan Homed Lizard, Phrynosoma cornutum 181 Short-horned Lizard, Phrynosoma doiiglassii 184 Brown Skink, Scincella laterale 186 Coal Skink, Eumeces anthracinus 188 Common Five-lined Skink, Etimeces fasciatus 191 Greater Five-lined Skink, Eumeces laticeps 194 Sonoran Skink, Eumeces obsoletus 197 Prairie Skink, Eumeces septentrionalis 200 Six-lined Racerunner, Cnemidophorus sexlineatus 204 Glass-snake Lizard, Ophisaurus attenuatus 207 Snakes, Suborder Serpentes 210 Key to species of snakes 2l2 New Mexican Blind Snake, Leptotyphlops myopica 220 Worm Snake, Carphophis amoenus 222 Contents 5 PAGE Eastern Ring-necked Snake, Diadophis punctatus 224 Common Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon platyrhinos 226 Western Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon nasicus 229 Rough Green Snake, Opheodrys aestivus 231 Smooth Green Snake, Opheodrys vernalis 234 Racer, Coluber constrictor 236 Coachwhip, Masticophis flagellum 240 Rat Snake, Elaphe guttata 243 Pilot Black Snake, Elaphe ohsoleta 245 Glossy Snake, Arizona elegans 248 Bull Snake, Pituophis melanoleucus 250 Blotched King Snake, Lampropeltis calligaster 253 Speckled King Snake, Lampropeltis getulus 256 Red King Snake, Lampropeltis triangulum 258 Long-nosed Snake, Rhinocheilus lecontei 261 Plains Ground Snake, Sonora episcopa 263 Slender Tantilla, Tantilla gracilis 265 Black-headed Tantilla, Tantilla nigriceps 268 Spotted Night Snake, Hypsiglena torquata 269 Yellow-bellied Water Snake, Natrix erythrogaster 272 Graham Water Snake, Natrix grahamii 274 Diamond-backed Water Snake, Natrix rhomhifera 276 Common Water Snake, Natrix sipedon 279 DeKay Snake, Storeria dekayi 281 Red-bellied Snake, Storeria occipitomaculata 283 Southern Ground Snake, Haldea striatula 285 Western Ground Snake, Haldea valeriae 287 Marcy Garter Snake, Thaninophis marcianus 289 Common Garter Snake, Thamnophis ordinatus 291 Plains Garter Snake, Thamnophis radix 293 Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis sauritus 296 Lined Snake, Tropidoclonion lineatum 298 Pit Vipers, Family Crotalidae 301 Copperhead, Ancistrodon contortrix 304 Cottonmouth, Ancistrodon piscivorus 308 Massasauga, Sistrurus catenatiis 310 Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox 313 Timber Rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus 316 Prairie Rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis 318 Species and Subspecies of Probable But Unverified Occurrence 320 Glossary 326 Literature Cited 330 Index 345 PURPOSE This handbook is designed to meet the needs of students and others who have httle or no biological background but who are in- terested, either casually or seriously, in the identification, habits and distribution of the amphibians and reptiles of the state of Kansas, Little that is new is included in these pages. Advanced specialists in herpetology will find useful material chiefly, if at all, in the distri- butional data which have been carefully compiled as completely as possible from both published accounts and previously unreported specimens. All species and subspecies for which definite evidence of occur- rence could be found in the state are included in the following ac- counts. Other species (and even subspecies) of probable but un- verified occurrence are listed on page 320, and these are likewise incorporated in the keys to adults (not to eggs or larvae) for the convenience of those who may discover them. This publication treats only species now existing in the state. Extinct kinds were summarized by Lane ( 1945, 1946 ) . For recent additions see Galbreath (1948), Oelrich (1952, 1953, 1954) and Twente (1952). MATERIALS Specimens used in preparing this account are for the most part in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. Other col- lections examined are at Kansas State Teachers College at Emporia, Pittsburg State Teachers College, University of Illinois Museum of Natural History, and Ottawa University. Pertinent pubhshed ac- counts, especially those treating of Kansas, have also been used. Descriptions are based on individuals from Kansas although the mentioned extremes of variation are derived from knowledge avail- able for the subspecies as a whole, or for the species in instances where no geographic races have been named. Accounts of habits and habitats are derived from information obtained in different states. TREATMENT OF SPECIES Probably most users of this account will be interested primarily in knowing the species to which an animal belongs, since the species is the largest category of "kind" which satisfies the needs of identifi- cation. It seems to be unnecessarily confusing, for most beginners, to be confronted with the detail of subspecific identities. Accord- (7) 8 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. ingly attempt has been made throughout to emphasize the species. For advanced students and speciahsts who are interested in the sub- species there is a brief statement at the end of the account of each species, of the subspecies in Kansas, and, if more than one sub- species occurs in Kansas the distinguishing features of each are mentioned. The simpHfication by deemphasis of the subspecies, which is con- trary to the usual practice in guides of this sort, is made possible by the fact that subspecies have geographic ranges which are comple- mentary, not overlapping. Therefore identification of a specimen to species from a known locality automatically furnishes a clue as to the subspecies concerned. Specimens from areas intermediate between the known geographic ranges of two subspecies of a single species are at best decipherable by only the specialist, to whom they should be made available. MAPS The account of each species is accompanied by two maps. One is a small map of North America, showing the range of the species as a whole, including all its subspecies, if any are known. The sec- ond map is an outline of the state, showing exact localities of known occurrence (see symbols) and the presumed range (a "shaded" area). The estimate of the range of any species in Kansas is based on ( 1 ) the locality records for that species, ( 2 ) physiography, and (3) distributional data for other species of similar range. The symbols for locality records are as follows: circles, speci- mens examined; triangles, specimens reported but not examined; solid symbols, precise localities; hollow symbols, localities known only to county. Although most localities of occurrence have been re- corded, not every one is recorded in every county. Closely grouped localities have been indicated by a single symbol in order to avoid undue crowding of symbols. However, at least one record is shown for every county from which the species concerned is known. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many associates have contributed to the completion of this work directly and indirectly, and to all I acknowledge my debt and ex- press my gratitude. Among those to whom I am especially in- debted are: Dr. Edward H. Taylor, who has provided numerous photographs; Dr. John C. Breukelman, for permission to examine the collection at Emporia State Teachers College; the late Dr. Henry Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 9 H. Hall, for permission to examine the collection at Pittsburg State Teachers College; the late Dr. William B. Wilson, for permission to examine the collection formerly at Ottawa University (now at the University of Kansas); Mr. Lester J. Short, Jr., for records of Opheo- dnjs vernalis; Mr. R. F. Clarke and Dr. Richard B. Loomis, for numerous suggestions and corrections, and for use of numerous distributional records personally compiled; Mr. Roger Conant, Mr. Ray R. Hamm, Dr. Howard K. Gloyd, Dr. Sherman C. Bishop, and the staff at the New York Zoological Society for their coopera- tion and courtesy in making certain photographs available; Dr. Philip W. Smith, for suggestions and photographs; to Dr. Louis W. Ramsey, Dr. Anna A. Wright, Dr. Arthur H. Wright, Mr. Charles A. McLaughlin and Dr. Charles H. Lowe, Jr., for numerous photo- graphs. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Comstock Pub- lishing Company, Inc., for permission to reproduce selected illustra- tions from my "Handbook of Lizards . . ." published in 1946. The drawings have been made by students at the University of Kansas, by Mrs. Katherine H. Paul, staff artist at the University of Illinois, and by Mrs. Virginia Unruh, formerly staff artist. University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, who has helped in other ways. Finally I acknowledge with gratitude the assistance of Dr. E. Ray- mond Hall, at whose suggestion the work was undertaken, and who has given critical editorial assistance to the several stages of the work and who has otherwise forwarded completion of the handbook. HISTORY Although Kansas is the birthplace and home of a relatively large number of herpetologists, none of them has published a thorough account of all of the reptiles and amphibians of the state. The near- est approach, but little more than a list of species, is Cragin's "A Preliminary Catalogue . . ." of 1881, in which eighty-eight species and subspecies are listed, although subsequently many of these have been shown not to occur in the state. A few supplementary papers by Cragin ( 1885, 1894 ) added some species to the list for Kansas. The "father" of Kansan herpetology was unquestionably Dr. Ed- ward Hallowell, who in 1856 reported upon a very commendable collection of twenty-four species and subspecies obtained by Dr. W. A. Hammond from "Kansas" (without further data, at a time when "Kansas" included a much larger area than it does now). More recent accounts have treated restricted groups. Examples are: Branson's "The Snakes of Kansas" (1904), a rare item, now 10 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. of little practical use since the nomenclature has been much changed in later years. Of still more recent date, and more nearly complete, are E. H. Taylor's (1929) list of the snakes of Kansas and C. E. Burt's paper on the lizards (1928). No more recent summary of either of these groups has appeared. The same is true of the only summary of the amphibians of the state which appeared in 1934, in "The Amphibians of Kansas," by H. M. Smith. All of the articles mentioned are unobtainable now except as secondhand items. Despite the lack of a complete herpetological account, published records for the state are unusually numerous. Considerable field activity since 1925, in great part stimulated by Edward H. Taylor, Howard K. Gloyd, and Charles E. Burt, resulted in many accounts being published. Material from the state is contained in widely sep- arated collections and has been reported in numerous monographs on natural groups which enter the state, as for example in Blan- chard's LampropeUis (1921) monograph, Taylor's Eumeces (1935) monograph, Gloyd's rattlesnake (1940) monograph, and in many others. Many of these, but by no means all, are cited in the ap- pended list of literature. Throughout this period of active collecting in Kansas, the role of the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas has been of great importance. A survey of the vertebrates of the state, initiated by Mr. C. D. Bunker of that Museum, gave the initial im- petus to the field work that has made the distribution of the fauna of this state relatively well known. COMPOSITION OF FAUNA At the present time 98 species, or a total of 110 species and sub- species, are known from Kansas. At least 13 others are to be expected and undoubtedly still more will be found. The totals are as follows: Numerical Distribution of the HERPETOFAtrNA of Kansas Species Probable but and unverified Species subspecies species and verified verified subspecies Salamanders 9 10 2 Anurans 20 24 3 Lizards 15 16 1 Snakes 40 46 3 Turtles 13 13 2 97 109 11 Although intensive field work has been carried on for many years in the state, much yet remains to be learned of the composition and Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 11 distribution of the fauna, especially along the borders of the state. A comprehensive list of the fauna in only one other adjacent state (Nebraska) has been published in recent years; for it Hudson ( 1942 ) estimated 56 species and subspecies at that time. Although now far out of date in nomenclature and completeness of distribu- tional data, summaries are available also for the states of Missouri (Hurter, 1911) and Colorado (Ellis and Henderson, 1913, 1915). No complete printed summary has appeared for Oklahoma, except for a list of species and localities which Ortenburger published in 1926. The same author published a key to the reptiles only a few years later (1930), and Bragg et al. (1950) have summarized the amphibians (others of partially synoptic scope are Bragg, 1942, 1943a, b, 1944a, 1945; Bragg and Smith, 1943). For certain other nonadjacent states lists of the fauna have been prepared, although a good many years ago, and some of the compilations can now be considered far from accurate. Comparisons of the Kansan Herpetofauna mith That of Other States Washington 25 ( 1942) New Mexico 88 ( 1924) South Dakota 36 ( 1943) Missouri 102 ( 1911 ) New Hampshire 36 (1939) Kansas 109 ( 19^4 ) Idaho 40 (1941) lUinois 110 (1949)f Minnesota 45 (1944) Oklahoma 127 (1934)f Michigan 46 ( 1928) Arkansas 130 ( 1938) Nebraska 56(1942) South CaroHna 142 (1954) Colorado 57 (1915) North Carolina 145 (1943) Utah 57 ( 1931 ) Florida 162 ( 1940) Oregon 63 (1939) Cahfornia 169 ( 1947)f West Virginia 70 (1934) Alabama 180 (IflM) Pennsylvania 74 ( 1939) Texas 216 ( 1947) Ohio 78 (1935, 1943, 1946)* For what it may be worth, however, the number of species and subspecies recorded for each of these states is listed herewith. All lists published prior to 1940 now are subject to extensive revision ( especially in the case of New Mexico, but less so in the case of more eastern states such as Florida, Michigan, Pennsylvania and West Virginia). More recent lists require fewer corrections, but none is complete. The table reveals that the most important factor in pro- viding a large faimal list for any state is its latitudinal position: there is a gradual and steady increase in number of kinds toward the south along any meridian. The second most important factor is an east-to-west geographic position which embraces good representations of each of the major groups of reptiles and amphibians: along any parallel their number * The dates refer to reptile, salamander and aniiran synopses, respectively, f Unpublished estimate. 12 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. increases as approach is made from either the west or east to the area which hes between the Mississippi Valley and the Great Plains. Texas exceeds any other state in extent of its herpetofauna; Arkan- sas exceeds any other in its parallel (except perhaps Oklahoma or North Carolina); Missouri exceeds any other in its parallel; and no doubt Iowa and Wisconsin hold the honor in their positions. Finally, however, the table reveals the futility of the use of states or other political divisions for comparisons of faunae on natural grounds. Some states include a highly varied topography or climate; they may be expected to have — and actually do possess — a more varied fauna than states in which conditions are more uniform. VENOMOUS SPECIES No lizards, turtles or amphibians in Kansas are venomous. All statements to the contrary are erroneous. The only possible grain of truth in the accusation that any of these are venomous is the fact that the secretions of the skin of some salamanders, toads and frogs are toxic when taken into the digestive tract or rubbed onto the nasal membranes or into the eyes of mammals. Even this toxicity, in species of Kansas, is relatively slight so far as man is concerned. Perhaps there should also be mentioned in this connection the tem- porary infusion of the poisonous muscarine of deadly mushrooms into the tissues of box turtles that have eaten these plants, with sec- ondary poisoning of persons who eat the turtles (see discussion, p. 140). The only truly venomous reptiles in the state are certain members of the family of pit vipers — the copperhead, cottonmouth, and rattle- snakes. All of these can be recognized unequivocally by either ( 1 ) the presence of a large pit on either side of the head in front of the eye, in addition to the pair of small nostrils near the tip of the snout; or by ( 2 ) the presence of a pair of large, i*novable fangs at the front of the mouth. Persons who are bitten should make a determined effort to learn whether the snake is a deadly one or not. Much undue anxiety and pain could be avoided by definite identification of the kind of snake concerned. A summary of first aid and precautions for snake bite treatment is given on p. 302. For further information on the subject of ven- omous snakes and their structure, see Schmidt and Davis ( 1941 ) . COLLECTING There are many techniques for discovery of specimens of reptiles and amphibians. Each collector develops his own methods to a Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 13 greater or lesser extent, and often becomes proficient in one or more techniques. Certain more or less basic principles are universal, how- ever, among successful collectors. At certain times of the year, especially in spring, much success can be obtained by slowly driving along highways at night, with careful scrutiny of the area of the road lighted by the headlights. With experience, even the tiny blind snakes (LeptotypJilops) can be discerned by this means, and of course all manner of other snakes and of amphibians may be found. By this means diurnal and aquatic species such as lizards and some snakes are never or rarely found. Success varies with the speed of driving, alertness of the observers, intensity of the lights, nature of the road, darkness of the night, temperature of the air, temperature of the ground, humidity, and the type of country on either side of the road. Careful observa- tions on the correlation of these factors with abundance of animals discovered are much to be desired. Many amphibians are most easily discovered at night, when they are breeding or prowling for food. Use of a headlight or, still better, a gasoline lantern is highly recommended as an aid in collecting them. In spring, choruses of frogs will lead to their discovery; at such times it is profitable simply to drive about until voices of inter- est are heard. At other times any pond, marsh or other body of water may be expected to yield specimens. Salamanders of most species breed early, even while a thin layer of ice still is present on the water. In western Kansas, specimens of the tiger salamander (Amhystoma tigrinmn) have been found not infrequently at the mouths of burrows of mammals in which the salamanders spend the day but from which they may wander a short distance at night. All caves, especially those with any water in them, are likely places for amphibians and to a lesser extent for reptiles as well. In caves, care should be taken to observe streams or pools closely for any sign of small, often white, salamanders. Lanterns are likewise valuable when observing nocturnal snakes on flat plains, desert flats and along streams. On the plains one should become accustomed to watch both far ahead for fleeting glimpses of wary snakes, and near at hand for the motionless bodies of sluggish or temporarily blinded species. Along streams snakes often do not move even when closely approached; at other times they dive quickly and must be hastily captured if at all. Another productive practice is the seining of marshes, ponds and streams. Turtles and occasionally snakes or salamanders are to be found by this means. It is well, if any closely packed debris or vege- 14 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. tation is present near the borders of the bodies of water, to haul quantities of such material onto the shore and carefully pick through it for salamanders, frogs, snakes or turtles. This procedure is often extremely effective. Of most universal application, of course, is the technique of keep- ing a sharp eye on the entire surroundings, and of turning every conceivable type of cover. Stones, logs, cardboard, junk, tin, and any other movable surface cover may well conceal some desired reptile or amphibian, even in streams. A good collector, literally and fig- uratively, never leaves a stone unturned. In early spring especially, and in the fall, one may expect good results from this effort. In the summer the ground under such cover is often too dry, and little will be found. At such times of the year it is by far the best practice to hunt early in the morning, before the heat of the sun has pene- trated through cover to the ground. Often much more will be pres- ent under such cover early in the morning than at any other time. In certain areas removal of debris from the ground reveals many specimens. Accumulations of leaves, twigs, and even flood deposits, often conceal reptiles or amphibians. Rotten logs, and loose bark on logs or trees, likewise are a favorite haunt; different species often prefer different types of logs. As logs are turned and broken up one should always remember to turn the bark that often still lies on the ground, half covered with particles of rotten wood, and under which animals often seek protection. Piles of hay drying in fields often conceal many snakes, and make it profitable for the collector to be present when the hay is being removed. Turtles may often be found by watching the edge of streams or pools for small holes in the mud or sand through which the heads of turtles may have been projected. Feeling with the hands or feet about such spots often yields turtles that are difficult to find other- wise. Once discovered, all frogs and salamanders occurring in Kansas may be captured and handled with impunity, for they do not bite or otherwise injure persons. Care should be taken, however, to avoid any possible entry of the secretion into the collector's eyes, nose or mouth, for the skin exudate of some salamanders, some frogs (for example, Rana palustris), and all toads is poisonous if ingested and irritating on any mucous membrane. No lizard in the state is venomous, but all can bite; therefore some precaution may be desired. Actually, only the collared lizard (Crotaphyttis colloris) and sonoran skink (Eumeces ohsoletus) have Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 15 jaws powerful enough to deliver bites painful to persons. All others have jaws so small that no precaution need be made to avoid their bite. The horned lizards are reluctant to bite, although they do have a peculiar protective device of squirting blood from their eyes upon occasion when seriously alarmed. Snakes, on the other hand, include a number of highly dangerous, venomous species. Unless these can positively be recognized in ad- vance, the amateur should treat all snakes as if venomous — that is, avoid them or capture them in the safest possible manner. Wanton destruction of snakes or other reptiles is much to be deplored, for all are of very considerable value in the balance of nature and to man in controlling his really important enemies and pests among the insects and small mammals. It is indeed unfortunate that man has not ap- preciated generally the beneficial role of practically all reptiles. Harmless snakes can be captured by picking them up quickly by any part of the body. It is true, however, that any snake more than sixteen inches long may be capable of giving a painful bite, and that therefore some precaution against them may be desired. Gloves may be used, or a stick or other object may be used firmly to hold the head, while the other hand grasps the snake immediately behind the head or even at the very rear of the head. Venomous snakes may similarly be captured, but great care should be used to avoid the fangs, and to hold the rear of the head firmly enough so that it is impossible for the snake to twist the jaws about and wound a finger with the exceedingly mobile fangs. Fast-moving, wary lizards and snakes can be obtained by means of .22 caliber shells loaded with fine shot (".22 long rifle shot shells"). Lizards are usually killed by the shot, but snakes often are only stunned long enough to allow their apprehension. Care should be taken not to shoot from too close a range, since the speci- men may be so damaged as to be useless. The less an animal is mutilated the more valuable it will be as a specimen. Some collectors use a noose on a long stick to capture venomous or vicious snakes. The forked stick, widely known, is of doubtful value unless the arms of the fork are made very short, so that they do not obstruct a firm grip on the neck by the crotch of the fork. CARE OF LIVE INDIVIDUALS In the field, live specimens are ordinarily placed in specially con- structed, double-sewed, unbleached muslin bags of various sizes ranging from that of a ten-pound sugar sack to that of a 100-pound flour bag. Sugar sacks and flour bags can be used, but if so a cer- 16 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. tain loss should be expected, for neither the cloth nor the sewing is strong enough to hold all animals safely. A string for tying around the neck of the bag two or more inches from the mouth should be at- tached by its middle to one seam. Two of the animals most often kept alive in houses and schools are common frogs (Rana) and the anole (Anolis, or, improperly, the "chameleon"). Suggestions for the care of the latter are given in the discussion of that species (p. 170); these could well apply to many other lizards. Dr. S. Meryl Rose, of the Department of Zool- ogy, University of Illinois, has suggested, in Ward's Natural Science Bulletin (Vol. 20, No. 3, p. 45, 1947), an effective means for keeping frogs alive. His article follows: "When one begins to keep frogs in a laboratory the question of an adequate artificial diet soon arises, because the time and space re- quired to grow natural food for a large colony of frogs precludes it as a practical venture in most laboratories. In the last few years we have experimented with a number of simple artificial diets and have finally fixed on one which maintains rapid growth. It is a mixture of mammalian or fish muscle, bone meal and cod-liver oil. The meat is cut into thin strips and rolled in bone meal made sticky with cod- liver oil. This mixture tempts few frogs to jump for it, but there are exceptions, all bullfrogs. The usual practice is to open the frog's mouth with smooth, blunt forceps, and then, while holding the mouth open by a thumb inserted near the angle of the jaw, to push in enough meat to fill the posterior two- thirds of the mouth cavity. If the mouth is then closed and the frog made to sit out of water, the food is swallowed. Young frogs fed this amount every other day and kept between 20° and 25° C. grow well. "The cod-liver oil was added because growing laboratory frogs, deprived of sunlight and without an added source of vitamin D, rap- idly develop rickets. Associated with the rickets are periodic seiz- ures with universal muscle contractions resembling a reaction to strychnine. Compound fractures of rachitic femurs are common during seizures and a frog survives only a few seizures. However, by adding a source of vitamin D to the diet some frogs have been made to recover even after two seizures and a compound fracture of one leg, and have been kept another year in the laboratory in healthy condition. The bone meal was added to the diet because abnormal skeletal proportions were observed in rapidly growing frogs. Since the addition of bone meal three years ago all of our growing frogs have had normal proportions. Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 17 "Disease epidemics sweep through colonies of captive frogs with alarming rapidity and thoroughness. The common practice is to call almost all of these diseases 'red-leg.' Our observations, quite inci- dental to other studies, indicate that there are several different dis- eases, usually fatal, which are partially characterized by red spots on the legs and elsewhere. An alternative possibility is that red-leg, a disease condition in its own right, accompanies other diseases. One disease in particular, a kind of leprosy, has attracted our attention because it interferes with limb regeneration. Minute ulcers on the toes usually accompanied by red spots elsewhere are the first symp- toms of the disease. The ulcers enlarge and the soft tissues of the toes regress leaving phalanges exposed. Regression of soft tissues with subsequent sloughing of skeletal parts may proceed until entire feet are lost, but far more commonly, the frogs die after only small parts of toes have disappeared. Accompanying the regression of tissues is loss of sensory function in the affected appendages while motor function is maintained. "All of the common diseases of frogs are prevented by addition of 0.15 percent of NaCl to the tap water in which the animals are kept. As a rule we use oblong aquaria tipped up a few inches at one end and with enough saline solution added to cover about one-third of the floor. The rest of the floor is covered by moist paper toweling which extends down into the solution and acts as a wick. The solu- tion is continuously aerated and is changed every day along with the paper. "With the above methods of care, a dead frog has become a rarity in our laboratory." Snakes may be kept in screened wooden cages on a bottom of wood shavings. Water should be made available at all times. See Allen and Neill (1954) for further suggestions for care of live reptiles. PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS Proper preservation involves three steps: (1) killing; (2) hard- ening, and (3) tagging. The last step is the one most often omitted, unfortunately. Teachers and students are often misled into pride for a personal collection of local animals which, through lack of re- corded data, is useless to an outsider who might otherwise join in their pride. Addition of simple and accurate locality data is a small task as compared with the other steps necessary for proper preser- vation, yet the importance of accurate labeling has been woefully underestimated. Anyone who preserves a specimen should resolutely 18 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. make a record, in some fashion, of the locaHty at which the specimen was obtained, and record the date and name of the collector. These data should be attached to the specimen. The simplest and perhaps best way to kill reptiles and amphibians is to immerse them in weak alcohol of not more than fifty-five per- cent dilution. They should be removed as soon as dead in order to avoid stiffening in awkward positions; this is especially important for amphibians, since they quickly become rigid. Ether can be used, but chloroform never, since it causes the animal to die with its mus- cles taut. Hot water also produces the same reaction in frogs. It is essential to use some means for killing that leaves the animals relaxed. Next, for amphibians, place the animals in a tray. Spread the toes and fingers in a lifelike position and pour over them a mixture of one part of formalin to five parts of water. Pour on no more than enough to cover the bottom of the loan, else the toes and legs may float free and change their position. Allow to harden for fifteen minutes, then pour on more, enough to cover the limbs. Allow to remain for one hour, or until moderately stiff, then drop into a jar containing a solution of one part of formalin to six parts of water. They should there float free so as not to be distorted by pressure of other specimens; avoid crowding. After they have become thor- oughly hardened (usually in two to three days) they should be re- moved. Tags recording the locality and other data should be at- tached at or before this time. At this time a small slit should be made in the abdomen with a razor blade or pair of sharp-pointed scissors, or, instead, the specimen may be injected with a one-to-six solution of preserving fluid. In thus injecting specimens, care should be taken to avoid unnaturally distending them because this obliter- ates many of the important diagnostic characters. The specimens should then be stored in sixty-five to seventy percent alcohol. Am- phibians should never be placed in alcohol stronger than seventy percent, since shrinkage of the skin and digits — both of which carry very important characters — often results. Lizards can be treated like amphibians with a few exceptions. The belly should be cut long and deeply, and the tail should be slit at various places along its length and always toward the base (or if small, should be pierced by a needle ) before spreading. The oper- ation on the tail is very important, although frequently omitted. In spreading long-tailed species, the tail should be brought forward along the body for protection and may even be loosely tied in posi- Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles op^ Kansas 19 tion. The fluid may be poured fairly deeply over them, care being taken not to float any part of them free until they are hardened. Lizards require a longer time for the initial hardening than do am- phibians; reptiles should be left twelve to eighteen hours. Trans- ferred to the jar for thorough hardening, they should remain for approximately a week, at which time they may be stored in seventy- five percent alcohol. They should not under any circumstance be placed in a solution weaker than seventy percent. Note that this is stronger than the requirement for amphibians. Snakes should be treated like lizards, with two exceptions. They may either be coiled flat in the tray with the head at the center of and resting upon the nearest coil, or they may be coiled springlike in a jar of appropriate size. In the latter position they need not be removed until thoroughly hardened; if in the former position they should remain only until fairly stiff, and then be removed to jars where they can harden completely. Large snakes are more appro- priately spring-coiled and small snakes flat-coiled. As a precaution, the viscera can be removed from large snakes. These eviscerated specimens can be placed upside down in jars so that air pockets do not prevent thorough exposure of all parts to the formalin. The tail must be slit, as in lizards. Turtles should, preferably, be injected with formalin (1 to 5 or stronger). If this is not convenient, the skin between the arms and neck, and between the legs and bridge, on both sides, should be slit with a knife and the knife worked around deep in the body in order to effect a means of entry for the formalin. The mouth should be propped wide open with a cork, stone, stick or other object. This is of extreme importance. Then the specimen should be immersed in formalin and the legs and neck stretched out as much as possible. Avoid allowing the head and limbs to withdraw, since it is next to impossible to extend them once they are hardened. Turtles may be left permanently in formalin. For tagging of the specimens, some water-resistant paper, pref- erably as furnished by biological supply houses, or as available at most laundries, should be used. The tag should be strung, and on it should be written, in pencil or in Higgin's Eternal Ink (not India Ink nor any other type ) the date and locality of collection, and name of the collector. If the locality is unkown, merely say so. This satisfies the demands of anyone who wishes to know. The experi- enced collector assigns also a number, and in a field catalog keeps opposite the number, the data mentioned and identity of the speci- 20 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. men. The plan of attaching to the specimen a tag with only the number, which refers to a catalog in which the data are kept, is ob- viously hazardous since the value of the specimen depends entirely upon the catalog, which might easily be lost or destroyed. It is important to check the fluids in containers as least twice a year, or oftener in a hot, dry climate, in order that they do not be- come exhausted. The collection should be stored in the dark, or where only artificial light can reach it, since daylight rapidly fades specimens. Two stages of amphibians have been relatively neglected, and de- serve much more attention than they have received in the past. These are the tadpole and egg stages of anurans. Orton (1946) re- marks as follows concerning tadpoles : "The larval stage of the Amphibia has long been one of the com- paratively unexplored fields of vertebrate zoology. Much work is needed to make this section of the fauna known to interested stu- dents and investigators. Larval stages of less than one-third of the frogs of the world have been described. Even the tadpoles of many of the frogs in the United States, particularly in the western half of the country, are incompletely described or entirely unknown. De- scriptive and morphological studies are necessary preliminaries to the preparation of identification keys. Ready means of identification are, in turn, essential if effective utilization of the animals in experi- mental work is expected. . . . "If tadpoles are present in a collecting site at all, they are usually sufficiently abundant to permit the collection of series. This is for- tunate, for only through the study of series can the characters and limits of variation be determined. The modern concept of species in terms of populations rather than individual specimens applies to larval as well as adult stages. "Preservation of fresh specimens in the field is preferred, both to forestall the very rapid degenerative changes in the soft parts and to prevent shedding of the beaks and labial teeth. Fixation in ten percent formalin is recommended. For permanent storage, the specimens should be transferred to seventy percent alcohol if possi- ble. Full locality data and brief notes on the habitat should be recorded. Notes on the color and pattern in life are desirable. Many tadpoles have conspicuous markings of red or yellow, areas of metal- lic iridescence, or other color characters that disappear more or less completely in preservative. Such ephemeral pattern elements as these are of little assistance in the identification of preserved mate- Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 21 rial, but they are often highly diagnostic of the living specimens and should be adequately described. "Preserved tadpoles are somewhat more difficult to ship than are the adult states, for they require more careful packing to prevent drying or crushing. Small specimens should be placed in tightly corked vials filled with formalin or alcohol, each vial wrapped in cotton, Spanish moss, shredded paper, or other soft material, and then wrapped and tied in a small piece of cloth to hold the packing together. A slip bearing the data should, of course, be placed with each lot of specimens. The wrapped vials may then be placed in excelsior in a small box in such a way that the vials are not in con- tact. Preserved tadpoles too large to fit standard-size vials may be wrapped in formalin-soaked cheesecloth or cotton, placed in a small bottle with sufficient preservative to keep them wet, and the bottle packed carefully to prevent breakage." A recent study of eggs of anurans of this country, by Livezey and Wright ( 1947 ) , should furnish an impetus to the study of this highly interesting stage of life history. They summarize as follows: "Much in the way of adequate field descriptions is lacking in the study of the eggs of frogs and toads in this country. Seldom are there complete notes published on the appearance of the masses in the field. It is surprising to find that that phase of the life history receives no more attention than it does at present, nor has in the past, with herpetologists. Some of the field data that would aid greatly in the future study of this subject are suggested as follows: location, date, place of deposition (margins or centers of ponds), appearance of mass (globular, plinth, irregular, etc.), how attached and to what, depth of mass, depth of water, type of pond or stream ( stagnant, fresh, slowflowing, swift, clear, muddy, rocky, sandy bot- tom), vegetation in the water and on the bank, air temperature, water temperature, other amphibians or their eggs, state of develop- ment at time of collection, and pigmentation. Data that could be completed at a somewhat later time in the laboratory are: volume of mass, volume of individual eggs, number of eggs per mass, com- plement per frog, number of envelopes, diameter of vitellus, vitelline capsule and all subsequent gelatinous envelopes. "Another failure in the study of eggs of Salientia of this country is the laxness in collecting specimens from various localities through- out the animal's range. A much clearer concept of the optimum appearance and condition of deposition could be gained by further collecting. After a description appears in print, most workers seem 22 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. satisfied to take that description without additional investigation. Hence, sooner or later a difficulty arises, as in the case of Pseiidacris nigrita triseriata, where two almost totally different descriptions are given for the one form. Such as this may also arise by failure to use care in the collecting, preserving, and identification of the eggs. A sampling over wide areas may very possibly give further data relevant to the geographical variation of these animals and shed some light on the validity of some of the species and subspecies that have been considered by the taxonomists. "So far as this writer has been able to determine, by questionnaire, there are at present no collections of Salientian eggs of any size or completeness in existence in this country. Even the commonest forms have not been kept to provide a reference for future use. The only depository of any size is at Cornell University, and sorry to say, that collection has been harmed in recent years by breakage of a steam line in the place of storage and through the addition of alcohol to several specimens in the process of replenishing the pre- servative. In other words, this aspect of the study is practically nil. "Perhaps the best method of preserving amphibian eggs is first to put them in ten percent formalin for not more than twenty-four hours. After this time has elapsed, they should be removed to a four percent solution of formalin for permanent storage. The use of alcohol is decidedly detrimental to the muco-protein forming the jelly envelopes and will dissolve it away in a short time. When col- lecting both the eggs and the adults of these animals, it is often the habit to attempt to preserve both in the same container, and as a result the eggs are soon rendered valueless by the alcohol most often used for the preservation of the mature animals. "The only sure method of identifying many of the eggs is to ob- serve the female in the act of laying, and then collect both the adult and the eggs. In this event it should be remembered that the jelly of the eggs may take some time before it swells to normal size, fifteen minutes to twelve hours or more, and should be allowed to do so before being put into any preservative. Eggs laid in the laboratory often are not of normal appearance for usually they are deposited in glass containers without provision for attachment; and even if this is done many specimens will not deposit normally in the ab- normal situation. Such masses will become flattened by the bottom and walls of the container and will fail to gain the natural shape and size. "Along this line it might be well to point out that in collecting eggs, caution must be used not to overcrowd specimens of eggs or Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 23 pack them with animals and other materials. Putting masses in cheesecloth is not recommended, for the jelly will adhere to the cloth and in unpacking the specimens will be damaged and distorted. The best method is to be provided with proper sized jars or tins, even though this may be bulky and at times cumbersome. In storing a collection, it is expedient not to place it in excessive heat or in sun- light, otherwise the jelly will deteriorate rapidly." IDENTIFICATION Sooner or later, once a specimen has been obtained, the question of its "kind" or identity arises. There are two names furnished for each species, in this handbook: the common (vernacular) name, and the scientific name. To determine the name, reference should be made first to the key to classes (unless the class is already known ) , then to the key to orders or suborders of the class to which the animal belongs, and then to the key to the species of that order or suborder. The last key will supply the scientific name, and the common name will be found by reference to the page number which follows the scientific name in the key. Tlie keys are made in the form of a number of sets of two oppos- ing statements, and the sets are numbered consecutively. Beginning with set number 1 (1 and 1') a decision should be made as to which statement applies to the animal in hand. The fitting statement either leads to a scientific name, or is followed by another set of op- posing statements (2 and 2') indented underneath it. One should continue in this fashion until a name is indicated for the animal or its class, order or suborder. The common names are names applicable to the entire species, in- cluding all of its subspecies. The scientific name of a species is made up of two parts. The first part is the name of the genus and this generic name always is to be written with an initial capital letter. The second part is the name of the species and this specific name is to be written, in zoology, without an initial capital letter. For ex- ample, Pseiidacris nigrita is the whole of the scientific name of the Striped Chorus Frog in which Pseiidacris is the name of the genus and nigrita is the name of the species. At the head of each species account the author's name follows the scientific name; the author's own name is placed in parentheses if the generic part of the name is different from the one used by the author of the specific name. For instance, Le Conte is the author of the name Pseudacris nigrita, but in writing this name we place parentheses around the name of the author, Le Conte — Pseudacris nigrita (Le Conte) — because when 24 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Le Conte originally proposed the name for this species he wrote "Rana nigrita." Discovery that the species he named nigrita did not belong in the genus Rana but actually in the genus Pseudacris resulted in removal of the species from the genus Rana; and now, no matter in what genus the species is placed, other than Rana, Le Conte's name must remain in parentheses. If we put the specific name nigrita back in Rana, the parentheses would be removed from Le Conte. As a person becomes more and more familiar with the kinds of reptiles and amphibians, it is well to pay some attention to the sub- species, which are geographical subdivisions of a species, based upon not only their occurrence in different areas but of course upon recognizably different features (as color, size, number of scales, etc. ) . Some species, while occurring over wide expanses of terri- tory, show no features consistently in one area that do not occur in others, so no subspecies are recognized. In other species of similar distribution the animals in a number of areas may show distinctive features not occurring elsewhere in the range of the species. Some species contain dozens of subspecies. In Kansas, no more than two subspecies occur in any species of reptile or amphibian. The names of the subspecies, and their distinctive features if more than one occurs in the state, are cited at the end of the discussion of each species. Further information upon many phases of herpetology (in other words the study of reptiles and amphibians) can be found in the articles cited in the list of literature (p. 330). The best summaries now available, covering the entire field of herpetology in North America, are the following five books which are essential for further study: For Salamanders: Bishop, 1943. For Anurans (Frogs and Toads): Wright and Wright, 1949. For Lizards: Smith, 1946. For Snakes: Schmidt and Davis, 1941. For Turtles: Carr, 1952. For further information on the study of herpetology, consult your nearest University or write to the Director, Museum of Natural His- tory, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. Often, even after considerable effort, it may be impossible for you to identify or be confident of your identification of certain specimens. The Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas has as one of its functions the extension of aid to those who feel the need Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 25 or wish for advice and encouragement. Specimens may be shipped for checking to the Director in tight metal containers, in well-packed, well-sealed jars, or, better yet, in plastic (neoprene) bags like those used to wrap frozen foods. Be sure that the specimens are so packed that they will not jostle about. It is well to wrap each one, or each lot, in cloth (cheesecloth is commonly used) to insure constant dampness. Only enough fluid should be poured in to moisten the contents thoroughly and leave a small, unabsorbed quantity in the bottom of the container. Specimens in plastic bags may be shipped in cardboard boxes with paper or other packing. Key to Classes 1. Limbs, if present, with claws on fingers and toes; except in soft-shelled turtles, surface of body with scales Reptilia, p. 117 1'. Limbs always present (except in some larvae), fingers and toes always without claws; surface of body never with scales Amphibia, p. 25 Class AMPHIBIA Linnaeus Two of the three orders generally recognized of living am- phibians occur in Kansas. The other order, the Apoda or Gymno- phiona, is comprised of the caecilians only, which occur in tropical regions. All the living orders are aberrant derivatives of the dis- tantly related, ancient amphibians ( stegocephalians ) and should not be considered as "typical" of the class Amphibia, especially when that class is viewed as a link between fishes and reptiles. With some justification the ancient and modern amphibians have been consid- ered by some zoologists as comprising separate classes. The adults or larvae of salamanders are readily distinguishable from those of anurans, and are contrasted in the following key. The eggs of the two orders are not collectively distinguishable. Unless it is known to which order any given eggs belong it will be necessary to try them in both keys. The keys to eggs are so designed that the eggs of one order will not "run down" in the key to tlie other order. Key to Orders of Amphibia * 1. Tail absent; limbs always present Salientia, p. 51 1'. Tail present; limbs present or absent. 2. Forelegs absent or, if present, considerably less well-developed and shorter than the hind legs; tadpoles Salientia, p. 51 2'. Forelegs as well as hind legs always present and of about the same size, or the hind legs just slightly larger Caudata, p. 26 * Including larvae. 26 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Salamanders Order CAUDATA Oppel Nine species of salamanders have been recorded from the state. They represent five families. Possibly two other species occur (see p. 320). Most are confined to the eastern, relatively humid border; only one extends west of the eastern third, into the forbiddingly dry, Great Plains. All species in the state lay eggs in water, and larvae subsequently develop \vhich may or may not, according to species ( or in Amhijs- toma tigrinum according to the individual), eventually transform. Those which transform breed only after transformation. Those which do not transform breed in the larval state and thus are sexually mature in the larval state; they are sjioken of as "neotenic." Ncc- turus maculosus, Tt/plilofriton nerens and Cnjptohranchus alle- ganiensis are "obligatory" neotenes, the former two with no steps toward transformation whatever, the latter with but few; Am- hystoma tigrinum is a "facultative" neotene, as some individuals transform while others do not. In some parts of its range, perhaps in Kansas, NotoplifliaJmiis viridescens is facultatively neotenic. The eggs and breeding habits are not at all or but poorly known in all (3) members of the family Plethodontidae, although in other species they are rather well known. The larvae are known of all species, although not all stages have been observed and recorded. Identification of the larvae of species occurring within the state is relatively simple since they possess numerous characteristics of the adults. Many species of the family Plethodontidae actually lack a free-living larval stage, hatching from the egg as miniature replicas of the terrestrial adult, but none is yet known to exist in the state of Kansas. Unfortunately salamanders all too frequently are confounded with lizards, with which they share the false (so far as species in this state are concerned) reputation of being venomous. Salamanders can be distinguished from lizards by having no scales whatever, and all species in this state have four fingers on each front limb. All the lizards have scales, and the species in this state have either five fingers on each front limb, or no limbs whatever (glass-snake lizard). All salamanders possess numerous, small glands in the skin. These glands secrete a viscous fluid known in some foreign species to have venomous properties. No species in this country can effect harm with tliis secretion unless considerable quantities are eaten or ap- plied to open wounds. Larvae are less venomous than adults. Smith: Salamanders 27 Key to Species of Salamanders (Adults and Larvae) 1. Four toes on each hind foot; eyeUds absent; external gills present throughout life Necturus maculosus, p. r. Five toes on each hind foot; eyelids present or absent; gills present or not througliout life. 2. One, and only one, gill slit on each side of neck; prominent length- wise folds on each side of body, and along rear margin of hind legs; no eyelids Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, p. 2'. No gill slits at all, or else 2 on each side of neck; no folds on body or legs; eyelids present or absent. 3. Gills present behind head. 4. Upper fin extending forward from tail onto body at least past groin (Fig. 1). 48 31 Fig. 1. Larva of the tiger salamander, Anibystoma tigrinum, in lateral view, X Vio. K. U. No. 4416. 18 miles north of Elkhart, Morton County, Kansas. 5. Costal grooves 11-12 between limbs. 6. Costal grooves 11 Amhy stoma maculatum, p. 36 6'. Costal grooves 12 Ambystoma tigrinum, p. 40 5'. Costal grooves 13-14 between limbs. 6. Jaws corneous, blackened as seen with mouth open. Ambystoma texanum, p. 38 6'. Jaws not corneous, and not blackened as seen with mouth open NotophthaJmiis viridescens, p. 33 Upper fin not extending onto body from tail ( Fig. 2 ) . 5. Costal grooves 13 or 14; 3 or fewer costal grooves sepa- rating hmbs when the limbs are laid against the sides of the body with the forelimbs backward and the hind limbs forward (that is to say, "adpressed" ) . 6. A dorsolateral series of small round, light spots. Eurycea longicauda, p. 43 6'. A dorsolateral, lateral and paravertebral series of dark spots Eurycea lucifuga, p. 45 5'. Costal grooves 18 or more; 6 or more costal grooves sepa- rating limbs when they are adpressed. 6. Costal grooves 19 to 20; 8 or 9 grooves between the adpressed limbs (not yet recorded from the state). Eurycea multiplicata 6'. Costal grooves usually 18, sometimes 19; usually 6 or 7 grooves between adpressed limbs. Typhlotriton nereus, p. 47 28 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. I : -.tfT 1 M ij+iirH 1 1 n I u • 1 1 r\>j Fig. 2. An adult of the nereous salamander, Typhlotriton nereus, in lateral view, X 1, K. U. No. 16160, 4 miles north of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Fig. 3. Top of head of an eastern newt, Notophthalmus viridescens, in dorsal view, X 6, K. U. No. 23027, 3 miles southeast of Fontana, Miami County, Kansas. Smith: Salamanders 29 Gills absent. 4. A pair of distinct, longitudinal ridges on top of head ( Fig. 3 ) ; no costal (vertical) grooves or only indistinct grooves on sides of body Notophthalmus viridescens, p. 33 4'. No ridges on head; costal grooves distinct. 5. Sixteen or more costal grooves between the limbs. 6. Belly pigmented. 7. A prominent, broad middorsal light streak, bounded on either side by the dark color of the sides (not yet recorded from the state). Plethodon cinereus 7'. Middorsum not lighter than sides (not yet re- corded from the state ) Plethodon glutinosus 6'. Belly clear, unpigmented. 7. Eyes small, their diameter entering at least 3 times into interorbital distance; 16 to 18 costal grooves (not yet recorded from the state). Typhlotriton spelaeus, p. 320 7'. Eyes large, their diameter subequal to interorbital distance; 19 or 20 costal grooves (not yet recorded from the state) Eurycea multiplicata 5'. Fourteen or fewer costal grooves between limbs; body slender or stout. 6. Body liglit-colored above, with dark spots. 7. A continuous, dark streak, from eye along each side of body to tail Eurycea longicauda, p. 43 7'. No continuous dark streak along sides of body. Eurycea lucifuga, p. 45 6'. Body dark-colored above, with or without light spots. 7. No sharply outlined light spots on back or sides. Amhystoma texanum, p. 38 7'. Sharply outlined light spots on back and sides. 8. Light markings consisting of 4-7 transverse bands on dark background, their ends often uniting with a continuous dorsolateral light streak; sides not marked, uniformly dark (not yet recorded from the state ) . Amhystoma opacum, p. 320 8'. Light markings consisting of a number of oval, round or transverse light spots, often on sides as well as on back. 9. Belly and lower sides uniform, unspotted; only one dorsolateral series of round spots on either side of body. Amhystoma maculatum, p. 36 9'. Belly or lower sides with light spots; latter not restricted to a dorsolateral series on either side, more numerous and irregularh placed, often more oval, or even in the form of vertical bars on sides of body. Amhystoma tigrinum, p. 40 30 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Key to Known Eggs of Salamanders 1. Eggs in strings, beadlike; vitellus 6 mm. in diameter, envelopes 20 mm. (Fig. 4A) Cnjpiohranchus alleganiensis 1'. Eggs not in strings; vitellus smaller or not; envelopes not more than 11 mm. in diameter. 2. Eggs laid separately but in groups of 60 to 110; vitellus not pig- mented, 5 to 6 mm. in diameter Necturus maculosus 2'. Eggs not laid singly in clusters; vitellus pigmented, smaller. 3. Eggs in a small, firm compact mass of 60 to 256 eggs. Amhystoma maculatum 3'. Eggs laid singly or in small masses of not more than 8 eggs each. Fig. 4. A. A section of the chain of eggs of the hellbender, Ciyptobranchus alleganiensis, from Bishop (1943), approx. X 1. B. Egg of a narrow-mouthed salamander, Ambijstoma texanum, approx. X 3, from Haskell Bottoms, 2 miles south of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. C. Egg of a tiger salamander, Amhystoma tigrimim, X 7, eight miles west of Clay Center, Clay County, Kansas. Figs. B and C from Smith (1934). 4. Vitellus smaller, 1.5 mm. in diameter; envelopes elliptical, 3.5 by 2.4 mm. Notophthalmus viridescens 4'. Vitellus larger, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter; envelopes spherical, 4 to 8 mm. 5. Outer envelope about 4 mm. in diameter; vitellus about 2mm. in diameter (Fig. 4B) Amhystoma texanum 5'. Outer envelope about 7 to 8 mm. in diameter; vitellus about 3 mm. in diameter (Fig. 4C). Amhystoma tigrinum Smith: Salamanders 31 FAMILY CRYPTOBRANCHIDAE Genus Cryptobraucliiis Leuckart Hellbender Cryptobranchus alleganiensis (Daudin) Salaniandra alleganiensis Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 8, 1803, p. 231 (type locality — Alleghenx' Mountains in Virginia). Cryptobranchus alleganiensis Van der Hoeven, Tijdschr. Nat. Geschied. Phvsiol., vol. 4, 1837, p. 384. Range. — Extreme southeastern corner of state; recorded only from Labette ( Neosho River 8 miles west of McCune ) and Cherokee (1 mile north of Riverton) counties. _^V^Xi ^ i7n ^h ^iJ Scale Ki o 30 4oMiles I.I I I Museum of Noiurot History University of Konsos 1945 Fig. 5. Distribution of the hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Head and body large, flat; numerous loose folds along sides of body and on posterior margins of limbs; eyelids ab- sent; no gills; a single gill slit always present on either side of neck; tail about one-third of the total length, with a dorsal fin; no fin on body. Dark above, a little lighter below; some indistinct dark spots on dorsal surface. Size large, up to 27 inches in total length. Recognition Characters. — The large size (no other Kansas sala- mander exceeds 17 inches in length) alone serves to identify most specimens. Individuals of any size, except the smallest larvae, can be recognized by the single slit on either side of throat. 32 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Habits and Habitat. — The required habitat is permanent streams or rivers with several feet of water and objects on the bottom that may be used as cover. The food consists of crayfish, small fish, snails, worms, insects, and a great variety of animal refuse. The breeding season is in the fall, commonly in September. The nest is a shallow excavation constructed on the bottom of a stream, under some object, say, a flat rock. The eggs are laid in a pair of long, rosarylike strings, while tlie male emits a cloudy seminal fluid over them. Three hundred to 450 eggs are deposited by a single female at one laying. This is the only American salamander which Fig. 6. A hellbender, Cnjptobranchus a. alleganiensis, X '/s, from Big Sandy Creek, Venango County, Pennsylvania. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. practices external fertilization; in other salamanders, spermatophores deposited by the males are picked up by the females and internal fertilization follows. The large eggs, % of an inch in diameter ( including the gelatinous envelopes), hatch in 68 to 84 days. While not vicious, these salamanders sometimes bite most pain- fully. The flesh is palatable. Kansan Subspecies. — C. a. alleganiensis is tlie subspecies occurring in Kan- sas. One other occurs in south-central Missouri and adjacent Arkansas. No other forms are recognized in the genus. References. — Bishop, 1941; 37-53, figs. 2b, 4b, 9-13 (description, excellent account of natural history); Bishop, 1943: 59-63, fig. 14, map 3 (description). Smith: Salamanders 33 FAMILY SALAMANDRIDAE Genus 'N otophthohnus Rafinesque Eastern Newt Notophtha!mus viridescens ( Rafinesque ) Triturus viridescens Rafinesque, Ann. Nat., Lexington, no. 1, 1820, p. 5 (type locality — Lake George, or Lake Champlain, New York). Notophthalmus viridescens Rafinesque, Ann. Nat., Lexington, no. 1, 1820. p. 5. Range. — Extreme eastern Kansas south of the Missouri River; recorded only from Miami (Pigeon Lake), Linn (VA miles south of Boicourt — not shown in figure 7) and Cherokee (1 mile north and 4 miles east of Crestline; 7 miles east of Baxter Springs) coun- ties. Huitufn of Nolural MitlOry Univtrtity of t^oniat 1945 Fig. 7. Distribution of the eastern newt, Notophthalmus viridescens, in Kansas with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Adults without gills or gill slits, with 4 fingers and .5 toes. Aquatic adults with prominent tail fins, the dorsal one of which extends onto body, and the skin smooth; terrestrial adults lacking fins, and skin rough, tubercular. Adults with a pair of ridges between eyes; latter with lids; no costal grooves; males with corne- ous patches on ventral surface of hind legs and at tips of toes, and with 3 pits on each side of head; tail slightly longer than head and body; forelegs considerably more slender than hind legs. Aquatic adults slate above, yellowish below; small black dots on both surfaces. Terrestrial adults brick-red above, otherwise marked the same as aquatic adults. Larvae with a dorsal fin extending onto body; 13 or 14 costal 2—9019 34 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. grooves discernible; jaws lacking corneous biting surfaces; ridges between eyes not well-developed. Size small, reaching 3/2 inches in total length. Recognition Characters. — The adults are readily recognizable by the color pattern, or by the ridges between the eyes. Habits and Habitat. — As these animals develop, they pass from an aquatic larval stage through a transformed (but not adult) ter- restrial stage to an aquatic adult stage. Terrestrial forms live on land amongst leaves, under logs and in brush piles, sometimes at ^Wl' \ Fig. 8. Eastern newts, Notophtlinlmtis viridesccns louisianensis. X %, from Imboden, Lawrence County, Arkansas, from Smith (1934); right figure is of a female and left figure is of a male. rather great distances from water. Aquatic forms are confined to either temporary or permanent pools, swamps and other standing bodies of water, except in rare instances. In such instances they are in migration from one pool to another or have been forced to hibernate on land since the pools previously inhabited may have been so shallow as to freeze to the bottom in winter. The food consists chiefly of worms, insects and their larvae, tad- poles, small crustaceans, and snails. Frog and salamander eggs may be eaten. Food is detected primarily by odor. Smith: Salamanders 35 An elaborate courtship occurs in the fall, sporadically in winter, and in the spring. The male, after a short period of contortion in front of the female, climbs onto her back where he remains quietly clasping her body with his hind legs around the forepart of her body, for half an hour to several hours. After he becomes excited and drags the female about jerkily, he releases his hold and crawls in front of her, depositing 1 to 3 spermatophores. The female passes over these and some of the sperm enter her cloaca and the sperm- sacs ( spermathecae ) within. The eggs are laid in the last of March or in early April, singly upon the leaves of submerged water plants. The eggs themselves measure about 1.5 mm. in diameter, and with their gelatinous en- velopes about 2.5 to 3.5 mm. Normally they hatch in twenty to thirty-five days, although under laboratory conditions in as little time as twelve days. Normally the larvae transform in three or four months, and then wander out on land for 2M to 3)2 years, at the end of which time they return as sexually mature adults. During their stay on land the skin is rough, the color is usually reddish, and there are no caudal fins. Upon returning to the water, the animals redevelop the dorsal and ventral caudal fins and assume an olive coloration, as the skin becomes smoother. Under certain conditions the larvae may re- main in water and never pass through a terrestrial stage, and may even become sexually mature in a single year. Neoteny may occur. Hibernation is temporary if it occurs at all; specimens have been seen in winter swimming about under an inch of ice. They shed their skins at frequent intervals, sometimes taking 1/2 hours for the process, pulling it off with the jaws. The shed skin is eaten. Where abundant thev can be seen bv dav sunning them- selves by floating on the water, climbing on aquatic plants, or swim- ming near the edge of pools. They are not particularly nocturnal, although some night activity may occur. The above notes on natural history are of the eastern subspecies, N. V. viridescens. The natural history of the subspecies occurring in Kansas is almost entirely unknown. The terrestrial stage is ap- parently abbreviated and in some parts of the range is apparently omitted entirely from the life cycle. Kansan Subspecies. — A', v. louisianensis WolterstorfF, with its type locality at New Orleans, Louisiana, is the subspecies in Kansas. Three others occur in the eastern United States. References. — Smith, 1934: 406-413, map 4 (description, natural history); Bishop, 1941: 54-82, figs. 2g, 4c, 14-17 (superb account of natural history of .V. f. viridescens) . oo University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. FAMILY AMBYSTOMIDAE Genus Anibystoma Tschudi Spotted Salamander Ambystoma maculatum (Shaw) Lacerta tnactdata Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. 3, pt. 1, 1802, p. 304 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Ambystoma maculatum Stejneger, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. 15, 1902, p. 239. Range. — South of Missouri River; recorded only from Douglas and Crawford ( 1 mile north of Pittsburg) counties. Scolfl 10 0 20 ooHlltS I.I I I Multum o' Nalurol History Univtrsity of Kontos I94S m Fig. 9. Distribution of the spotted salamander, Ambystoma macidatum, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Adults without external gills or gill slits; hind limbs a little stouter than forelimbs; no nasolabial groove; eyes moderate in size, lidded; 12 costal grooves usually; no fin on tail or body. Dorsal surface black, slate, or bluish black. A row of rather widely separated, round, light yellow or orange spots extending along each side of body from the eyes onto the tail; these spots are not elongated transversely, and thus never reach belly nor even lower parts of sides; one small spot is regularly present back of, or to the median side of, the eye. Ventral surface light gray. Size moderate, total length up to 1% inches; tail almost exactly as long as head and body. Recognition Characters. — The pattern, consisting of rather large, rounded light spots on a dark background, is distinctive. This spe- cies is most easily confused with the tiger salamander, A. tigrinum. Smith: Salamanders 37 in which, however, the hght spots are elongated transversely and extend far onto the sides or even onto the belly. Habits and Habitat. — Although this species has been found in habitats varying greatly in character, it seems to be most abundant in deciduous woods where ponds, slow streams and temporary pools offer suitable breeding places. In summer, individuals often wander considerable distances from the waters in which they breed and have been found in cellars and window wells of city houses and on slopes high above the nearest pond or slow stream. The food consists of earthworms, snails, slugs, spiders and various insects. Small fishes may be eaten by the larvae. Adults do not feed while breeding. In the middle of March, or whenever temperatures during the day Fig. 10. A spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, X "U, from Hart Scout Reser- vation, "near Sumney town," Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. Courtesy of the Zoo- logical Society of Philadelphia. are above freezing and rains have recently fallen, these salamanders migrate at night from their terrestrial quarters to shallow ponds. Temperatures at night may be as low as freezing or as high as 46° F., but are less important by far than the occurrence of rains and diurnal temperatures above freezing. Under favorable condi- tions large numbers congregate at pools in areas where at other times the species may rarely be found. Males precede females by one or two days in arriving at the ponds. As the females arrive, all swim around in one or several compact groups, creating a boihng effect by their gyrations, vigorous rubbing and nosing. When con- ditions prevent the arrival of many individuals at one time, the com- munal dance just described does not occur. In courtships of single pairs, the male rubs the venter of the female with his snout, then swims away a short distance to where he deposits a spermatophore. 38 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. The female moves her cloaca over the spermatophore and either rests briefly in that position, allowing the sperm to enter the cloaca and the spermathecae within, or actually picks up the head of the spermatophore with the cloaca. The males deposit some forty sperm atophores . Eggs are laid a few days after mating. They are deposited in masses measuring 2/2 to 3/2 inches in diameter and each contains approximately 100 eggs. They are generally attached to upright stems approximately six inches below the surface of the water. They hatch forty-five to fifty days later and the larvae transform in from sixty to 115 days — as late as the middle of October in New York. In a year they grow to a length of 82 mm., and are known to live at least eighteen years. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished in this species. References. — Smith, 19.34: .'390-396, map 1, fig. 13 (description, natural history); Bishop, 1941: 108-134, figs. 2e, 4e, 23-2.5, 26d-f, 27 (excellent account of natural history, descrip- tion). Narrow-mouthed Salamander Ambystoma texanum ( Matthes ) Salamandra tcxana Matthes, Allg. deutsche naturh. Zeitschr., n. s., vol. 1, 18.55, p. 266 ( type locality — Colorado River, Fayette Co., Texas ) . Amblystoma texanum Baird, U. S. Mex. Bound. Surv., vol. 2, Rept., 1859, p. 29, pi. 35, fig. 15. Range. — Eastern fourth of the state. Peripheral localities on the western edge of the recorded range are in Doniphan (Doniphan Fig. 11. Distribution of the narrow-mouthed salamander, Ambystoma texanum, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Smith: Salamanders 39 Lake), Douglas (Lawrence), Lyon (Emporia), Greenwood (Ham- ilton) and Cowley (9 miles southeast of Dexter) counties. Description. — Adults without external gills or gill slits; hind legs a little stouter than forelimbs; no nasolabial groove; eyes moderate in size, lidded; 14 costal grooves; no fin on tail or body. Ground color, in life, dark brown to black; dorsal surface with a variable number of grayish spots of indefinite outline, sometimes so numerous as almost completely to cover the back, at other times sparsely distributed; ventral surface with much lighter spots of somewhat more definite outline, about the size of the eyes, and usually sparsely distributed, more numerous laterally; occasionally ventral surfaces uniformly spotted. Fig. 12. Narrow-mouthed salamanders, Ambystoma tcxanum, approx. X %, from Haskell Bottoms, 2 miles south of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas; above, dorsal viev\ ; Ik low, ventral view, from Smith (1934). Size small, total length reaching 6)2 inches; tail about f the head- body length. Recognition Characters. — The absence of distinctly outlined light spots on the dark background is generally sufiicient to identify this salamander. The other two members of the genus in Kansas have very distinct spots. Species of other genera possess distinct dark spots, or are of much larger size, or have more numerous costal grooves, or possess external gills as adults. 40 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Habits and Habitat. — Generally they are found in damp regions close to ponds or pools. The winter probably is spent in crayfish holes or other holes near water. After the spring emergence, breed- ing occurs, and females remain about the water for several weeks to lay eggs. Males retire to more terrestial haunts after breeding. Both sexes spend the remainder of the year on land, where they may be found under logs and stones in damp situations, sometimes far from water. The breeding pools may disappear completely. The food consists largely of earthworms but also of insects. Some 700 eggs are laid in March and April, singly or in groups of 3 or 4, on upright grass stems or objects on the bottom, 1 to 6 inches below the surface of the water. The egg with its gelatinous envelopes measures approximately 4 mm. in diameter — the egg itself 2.1 mm. Ice may cover parts of some pools when eggs are laid in them. Kansaii Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished anywhere in the range of this species. Reference. — Smith, 1934: 396-400, map 2, figs. 16, 17. Tiger Salamander Ambystoma tigrinum (Green) Salamandra tigrina Green, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 5, 1825, p. 116 (type locality — Moorestown, New Jersey). Amblystoma tigrina Baird, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ser. 2, vol. 1, 1849, p. 284. Range. — State-wide. Specimens are not recorded from every county but it is almost certain that this strikingly marked species does occur in every county of the state. Description. — Adults without external gills or gill slits; hind limbs a little stouter than forelimbs; no nasolabial groove; eyes moderate in size, lidded; twelve costal grooves; no fin on tail or body. Brownish to steel-gray above, lighter below; large whitish blotches on back and sides; dorsal spots more rounded in outline than lateral spots, usually not crossing midline; lateral spots transversely elon- gate, extending onto ventral surface; tail as well as limbs blotched, sometimes banded. Size relatively large, up to 8/2 inches in total length; tail % to %o the head-body length. Recognition Characters. — The large, light spots, on a dark back- ground, which extend onto the ventral surface, characterize this species. The only other species in Kansas that is likely to be con- Smith: Salamanders 41 fused with A. tigrinutn is A. inaculatwn in which the pale spots are circular and do not cross the lateral surface to reach the belly. Museum of Nolufol History University of Konsos I94S Fig. 13. Distribution of the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum, in Kansas. The range of A. t. tigrinum in the eastern part of the state is indicated by the stippled area, that of A. t. mavortium by the lined area. Habits and Habitat. — Ponds, temporary pools and watering tanks are habitats of the larvae and breeding adults. Nonbreeding adults may be found hidden under debris near pools of water, or at con- siderable distances from water in holes of crayfish and mammals. From time to time zoologists have found tiger salamanders emerg- ing from prairie dog holes after dark even on rainless nights. Fig. 14. An adult tiger salamander, Ambtjstoma tigrinum mavnrtiiim. approx. X %, from Hamilton, Greenwood County, Kansas. Courtesy of Glenn C. Rinker and E. H. Taylor. 42 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Mating occurs in water, with the males depositing spermato- phores which the females pick up with their cloacae, after a pre- liminary courtship of body rubbing, tail lashing and close swimming. However, mating is not accompanied by a migration like that of A. maculatum. Eggs are laid from late February to middle or late March. About a thousand are laid, singly or in pairs (sometimes 3 together), on weed stems in shallow water. They measure, with the outer gela- tinous envelopes, approximately 7.5 mm. in diameter, and hatch in from fourteen to twenty days. The larvae eat minute organisms at first and later insects, worms, tadpoles, and other larvae. Not infrequently they become canni- FiG. 15. A larval tiger salamander, Amhijsto^ra tigrintni). approx. X %■ Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society. balistic and then grow to enormous size. Transformed specimens eat almost any moving odoriferous object. Neoteny occurs com- monly. The length of life is known to be at least eleven years. Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies occur in Kansas: Amhtjstoma tignnuin mavortiiim Baird, with type locality of "New Mexico," and A. t. tigrinum (Green). Five other subspecies occur in the United States and at least one and possibly others in Mexico, giving a total range for the species covering most of the United States and northern Mexico. The two subspecies in Kansas may be distinguished by the shape of the light spots, which are small and ovoid in A. t. tigrintini even on the sides of the body, instead of being large and in the form of vertical bars as in A. t. mavortium. References. — Smith, 1934: 401-406, map 3, figs. 9, 12. 14 (description, natural history); Bishop, 1941: 155-173, figs. 2f, 4g, 30-32, 33a-c, 34 (excellent general account). Smith: Salamanders 43 FAMILY PLETHODONTIDAE Subfamily Plethodontinae Genus Eurijcea Rafinesque Long-tailed Salamander Eurycea longicauda (Green) Salamandra longicauda Green, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 1, 1818, p. 351 (type locality — Princeton, New Jersey). Eurycea longicauda Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Amer. Amph. Kept., ed. 1, 1917, p. 19. Range. — Known only from the extreme southeastern corner of the state, near Galena, four miles north of Baxter Springs, and eight miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Scolt to o so 4oMil«t III I I Mustum ol Notural Hitlory Unlweriity ol Kantot 1945 Fig. 16. Distribution of the long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicauda, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — A slender, small species with long tail, rather broad head and large, lidded eyes; nasolabial groove; hind legs about twice as strong as forelegs; fourteen costal grooves; adults without external gills or gill slits; no fin on body or tail. A broad, pale yellow dorsal band on body, bordered laterally by a sharp-edged blackish area extending to sides of venter and becom- ing gradually lighter and interspersed with spots of same color as dorsum; ventral surfaces of body white, unspotted; a double series of, or irregularly arranged, small black spots down middle of back; top of head of same color as back, with irregularly placed, small black spots; black band on sides of body extending to posterior mar- gin of eye; chin finely stippled; dorsal surfaces of limbs mottled; tail marked like body but without middorsal spots. 44 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Size small, total length reaching 6 inches; tail about I/2 to 1% times as long as head and body. Recognition Characters. — The dark sides and light, dark-spotted back identify this species. Somewhat similar is E. lucifuga, but in the latter the dark spots are scattered over the entire back and sides. Fig. 17. A long-tailed salamander, Eurijcca longicaiida melanopleura, X from Ravenden, Lawrence County. Arkansas, after Smith (1934). / ' "'*i»*^ ^. Fig. 18. A long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicaiida melanopleura, X 1, from Ravenden, Arkansas. Courtesy S. C. Bishop. Habits and Habitat. — These salamanders generally are found un- der rocks near streams, sometimes at the mouths of caves. They are exceedingly active and if disturbed when out of water they seek to hide under debris. Little is known of the natural history of the subspecies which oc- curs in Kansas. Individuals are said to feed upon spiders, mites, myriapods, insects, and some plant material. Courtship in most plethodontid salamanders is like that of ambystomids, consisting of considerable rubbing of bodies and tails. The male is most active in this process, and has special stimulating ( hedonic ) glands ( mental ) on the chin. After this "play" the male deposits a spermatophore and the female walks over it and by means of the cloaca picks up the cap containing the sperm. Kansan Subspecies. — Eurycea I. melanopleura (Cope), with type locality at Rileys Creek, White River, Missouri, is the subspecies occurring in Kansas. Two other subspecies occur in the central and northeastern United States. References. — Smith, 1934: 417-420, map 6, fig. 15; Bishop, 1941: 297-307, figs. 3f, 57a- b, 58-59 (E. /. longicaiida, description and natural history). Smith: Salamanders 45 Cave Salamander Eurycea lucifuga Rafinesque Eurycea lucifuga Rafinesque, Kentucky Gazette, Lexington, n. s., vol. 1, no. 9, 1822, p. 3, column 6 ( type locality — caves near Lexington, Kentucky ) . Range. — Known only from the extreme southeastern corner of the state, eight miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County. «>Mllat =1 Musflwm of Nolurol Hittorf Uxivtrtily of KanMt 194} m Fig. 19. Distribution of the cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga, in Kansas, with insert show- ing range of the species. Description. — A slender, rather small species with a long tail, rather broad, flat head and large, lidded eyes; a nasolabial groove; hind legs about twice as large as forelegs; fourteen costal grooves; adults without external gills or gill slits; no fins on tail or body. Ground color yellow to orange, light yellow below; dorsal and lateral surfaces with numerous, scattered dark spots which may form a dorsolateral series and even a middorsal series. Size rather small, reaching 6% inches in length, of which the tail comprises three-fifths to two-thirds. Recognition Characters. — The small, dark spots on a hgbt back- ground distinguish this species from all others in the state except E. longicauda. In our race of the latter, however, the sides are dark. In rare individuals the dark spots are larger, diffuse and fused to form an irregular, somewhat reticulate pattern. Habits and Habitat. — Generally these salamanders are to be found on floors and walls of damp caves, in the twilight areas; also they are found under logs and other debris in damp places near en- 46 University of Kansas Fuels., Mus. Nat. Hist. trances to caves. Little is known of the natural history of this species. In Kansas, the species is difficult to find, inasmuch as suitable habitats scarcely enter the state. Caves in the central and western parts of the state are not known to harbor cave salamanders, al- though occasionally rimiors are circulated in various localities of cave animals that may be salamanders. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in tlie range of this species. Reference. — Bishop, 1943: 431-435, map 50, fig. 129 (description). iriC''"''^/ ' Fig. 20. A cave salamander, Eurijcca lucifuga, X 74, K. U. No. 24406 from 5 miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by E. IL Taylor and T. P. Lyle. S-Miui: Salamanders 47 Genus Tijphlotriton Stejneger Nereous Salamander Typhlotriton nereus Bishop Tijphlotriton nereus Bishop, Copeia, no. 1, 1944, pp. 1-4, fig. 3 (type locality- Spring, Imboden, Lawrence County, Arkansas). -York Range. — Known from only the extreme southeastern corner of the state, near Galena, Cherokee county. Mustum of Notural History Univarsilr of Kgnias IMS Fig. 21. Distribution of the nereous salamander, Typhlotriton ncrciis, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — A small, permanently larval species never losing the gills and gill slits; eyes small, permanently open, not lidded; usually eighteen, sometimes nineteen, costal grooves; a dorsal tail- fin reaching only to anus, not onto body. Brownish above and on sides, whitish below; pigmentation slightly irregular, with small, vague lighter areas here and there. Size small, total length reaching 8)2 inches; tail length about half of total length. Recognition Characters. — The small size of the species and the numerous costal grooves (ordinarily 18) will usually identify it. Although only this species and Necttirus have gills throughout life, all other salamanders in Kansas have gills for part of their lives. Habits and Habitat. — In Kansas this species has been taken only from spring-fed, plant-choked pools in wooded, hilly areas. Little is known of its natural history anywhere in its range. 48 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Kansan Subspecies. — None has been defined anywhere in the range of the species. References. — Smith, 1934: 413-417 (description, habitat); Bishop, 1944: 1-5, figs. 1-4 (description, range, taxonomy). Fig. 22. Cave salamander, Typhlotriton spelaeus, X 1^/4, from Waynesville, Pulaski County, Missouri. Courtesy Philip W. Smith. This species, not recorded from but of possible occurrence in Kansas, is indistinguishable in general appearance from T. nereus. FAMILY PROTEIDAE Genus Necturus Rafinesque Mudpuppy Necturus maculosus (Rafinesque) Sirena maculosa Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag. Crit. Rev., vol. 4, no. 1, 1818, p. 41 (type locality — Ohio River). Necturus maculosus Rafinesque, Ann. Nat., Lexington, no. 1, 1820, p. 4. Range. — Eastern fourth of Kansas. Peripheral locahties on the western edge of the recorded range are in Douglas (Lawrence), Chase (Matfield Green) and Greenwood (Fall River) counties. Records for the northeastern and southeastern corners are lacking but to be expected in view of the known range in adjacent states. Smith: Salamanders 49 Description. — Gills present unless lost accidentally, and gill slits invariably present; snout blunt, flattened; eyes small, lidless; a groove across under side of throat; a flap at either side of lower jaw; tail half length of body, with both dorsal and ventral fin; no fin on body; toes and fingers 4-4; costal grooves dim, about fifteen. Adults brownish above, usually with scattered, large, rather poorly defined, black spots; ground color of belly light, at least down the middle, with variable spotting. Young with a broad, median longi- tudinal streak, bordered on either side by a narrower yellow stripe. Size large, total length up to seventeen inches. Recognition Characters. — The four toes, instead of five, on the Scol« » 40Uil«K I I Mul«um of Natural Hiitotf Uni«irtil|r of Koniai 194} m Fig. 23. Distribution of the mudpuppy, Necturus maculosus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. hind limbs distinguish this species of salamander from all others in Kansas. Habits and Habitat. — These salamanders are found only in streams and well-drained ponds where the water is usually three feet or more in depth, and where the bottom is provided with suit- able cover for nesting sites. The necessary cover is flat stones, boards, or similar objects under which there is space suflBcient for the deposition of eggs. The food consists of crayfish, plants, insects (including larvae), fish, snails, other amphibians, leeches, and minute organisms. There is strong evidence that mating occurs in the fall. The 50 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. males deposit large spermatophores ( av. 11 mm. in height, 7 mm. in width ) which the females pick up with the cloaca. The eggs are laid in spring (late May) as the female finds suitable cover, turns upside down and deposits them against the under side of the pro- tective object, from which each hangs pendantlike until it hatches. Some 60 to 140 are usually laid, in an area some 6 to 12 inches in diameter. With the gelatinous envelopes they measure 11 X 14 mm. suspended in water. The females may guard the eggs. The eggs hatch in five or six weeks. Considerable growth occurs the first year, and the animal adds 30 to 35 mm. every year there- after until adult size is reached, when growth is greatly slowed. Activity is greatest at night. They instinctively shun fight. Many fishermen believe that the salamanders are poisonous, al- though actually they are not. They may rarely bite, and the bite is painful although not serious; they can be handled with impunity. _ ' ^ ^ ' ■ft /^^^r^^t '^*^^&.i IK Fig. 24. A mudpuppy, Nectunis macidosus mnculosus, approx. X %• Courtesy Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Although some fish and fish eggs are eaten, the animals do little harm and do not deserve the persecution they suffer. They make excellent food. Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies Necturus maculosus maculosus (Rafi- nesque) occurs in Kansas. Only one other race, in Wisconsin, is recognized. References. — Smith, 1934:422-427 (description, natural history); Bishop, 1941:18-37, figs. 2a, 7a, 5-8 (description, excellent natural history account. New York); Bishop, 1943: 40-43, fig. 7 (description, breeding). Smith: Toads and Frogs 51 Anurans (Frogs and Toads) Order SALIENTIA Laurenti Twenty species of anurans (that is, members of the order SaHen- tia), four of which are represented by two subspecies, are known at the present time in the state. They represent five famiHes. Two other species, as well as one additional subspecies of a species al- ready known in the state, are of probable occurrence. All members of this order known in this state lay eggs in water. From these hatch limbless larvae commonly known as tadpoles. In all species these larvae transform into a limbed but tailless ju- venile which, after a year or two of growth, becomes sexually ma- ture. There are no neotenic anurans. The key to the species of anurans is given here in two parts. The first part ( I ) is to transformed specimens, and the second ( II ) is to specimens in the tadpole stage. The larvae, or tadpoles, are characterized chiefly by the presence of a tail. Those which have not begun to transform, that is to say, those which do not have legs, are most easily identified by the tad- pole key. Those which have developed forelegs as well as hind legs cannot be identified at all by that key, but should be identified by use of the key to transformed specimens. It may be necessary to try the specimens with hind legs but without forelegs in both keys in order to arrive at an identification; even then identification may be difficult. , The key to tadpoles includes only those species actually recorded from the state. The tadpoles of Acris have been described, but those of crepitans and grijUus have not been distinguished. Further de- tails on most species can be found in Wright's summary of 1929. A notably workable key to genera has been written recently by Orton (1952). Identification of tadpoles is not easy. It can be accomplished, however, by (1) use of a magnifying lens of some sort, (2) study of the accompanying drawings until the details are well in mind (es- pecially Fig. 25), and (3) exercise of patience. Patience and per- severance, indeed, are needed to find and clearly see the structures that are important in distinguishing one kind of tadpole from an- other. The key characters are for the most part evident only in fully developed mouthparts, present in neither early nor late tad- pole stages. We include likewise a key to the eggs of anurans, based upon Livezey's key (1947). The eggs of two species, Bufo debilis and 52 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Spea bombifrons, have not been adequately described and are not included in the key. A common query is exactly what distinguishes frogs and toads. True toads are members of the genus Btifo, and toads in general are all members of primitive families up to and including the Leptodactylidae. True frogs are members of the genus Rana, and frogs in general are all members of the "advanced" families from the Hylidae through the remaining suborders. Outer row of Upper Labial teefh Inner row of Upper Lobial teeth Upper mandible Upper Labium Lower Labium Lower mandible Papillary fringe nner row of Lower Labial teeth Outer row of Lower Labial teeth Fig. 25. Mouth-disc of a tadpole of the garden toad, Bufo woodhotisii X 17, from Lawrence, Douglas County. Kansas (after Youngstrom and Smith, 1936). ."»«, ■ -Q ■ § •«iA'<;'L"l°..''VVjc?j- Fig. 26. Lateral A and dorsal B views of the head of a canyon toad, Bufo punctattts, from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 12661, La Paz, Baja California. C and D, same, for the west- ern green toad, Bufo debilis, from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 2624, Delaware Creek, Culberson County, Texas. E and F, same, for the sonoran toad, Bufo compactilis, from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 2611, "Pesquieria" Grande, Nuevo Le6n, Mexico. All after Kellogg (1932); X 1. Smith: Toads and Frogs 53 Key to Species of Frogs and Toads I. Transformed Specimens An enlarged, oval or elongate, raised gland (parotoid gland) on neck behind eyes; lower surface of rear foot with small warts. 2. Parotoid gland as broad as or broader than long ( Fig. 26A, B ) . Bufo punctatus, p. 77 2'. Parotoid gland longer than broad. 3. Parotoid gland extending laterally below levels of lower edge of tympanum (Fig. 26C, D) Bufo debilis, p. 74 3'. Parotoid gland not extending laterally beyond level of middle of tympanum. 4. Cranial crests absent or, if present, very poorly defined and better developed behind than between orbits (Fig. 26E, F). Bufo compactilis, p. 72 4'. Cranial crests well defined.* Fig. 27. Lateral A and dorsal B views of the head of a plains toad, Bufo cog- natus, from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 4626, Nebraska. C and D, same for the American toad, Bufo terrestris americanus, H. M. Smith 380, Fox Ridge State Park, Coles Co., Illinois. E and F, same, for the garden toad, Bufo tcood- housii, from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 2531, San Francisco Mountain, Arizona. AU X 1; figs. A, B, C and F from Kellogg (1932); figs. C and D by Mrs. X. H. Paul. 5. Pattern of large, rather closely placed, distinctly outlined and light-edged spots, sometimes elongated so as to form a reticulated pattern; ridges on head between eyes unit- ing on snout to form a conspicuous boss (Fig. 27A, B). Bufo cognatus, p. 69 5'. Pattern usually of small spots covering but 3 or 4 warts; large spots, if present, not distinctly outlined; no boss in nasal region. In immature specimens the cranial crests of all species may be poorly defined. 54 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 28. Ventral view of the foot of a striped ehoriis frog, Pscudacris nigrita, showing the short web between the toes, X 7, from H. M. Smith 381, Urbana, Illinois. Drawing by Mrs. K. H. Paul. Fig. 29. A. Body outline of a narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne, X %, after Wright and Wright (1942). B. Body outline of a spadefoot, Scaphiopus, X %, after Wright and Wright (1942), showing the elongated (instead of rounded) metatarsal tubercle. C. Ventral view of the foot of a plains spadefoot, Spea bombifrons, X 3, K. U. No. 5232, 12 miles north of Elkhart, Morton County, Kansas, showing the rounded metatarsal tubercle. Smith: Toads and Frogs 55 6. Median anterior surface of foot with blackish spines; parotoid gland separated from postorbital crest (Fig. 27C, D ) ; distal subarticular tubercle almost always divided, and the penultimate one usually divided; parotoid glands broader and closer together (width 0.8 to 1.6 of least interparotoid distance); song a high trill of 10 to 30 seconds duration Bufo terrestris, p. 79 6'. Median anterior surface of foot warty but not tipped with blackish spines; parotoid glands in contact with postorbital crest ( Fig. 27E, F ) ; distal subarticular tu- bercle usually single, and the penultimate one always single; parotoid glands narrower and wider apart (width 1.7 to 2.6 times in least interparotoid dis- tance); song a low trill of less than 5 seconds dura- tion Bufo woodhoitsii, p. 83 1'. No parotoid gland; lower surface of rear foot warty or not. 2. Toes not webbed or only slightly so, the web never extending be- yond the basal segment of the movable portion of the longest toe ( as in Fig. 28 ) ; disks on toes absent or considerably less than half as wide as ear membrane. 3. No ear membrane visible; head much narrower than body (as in Fig. 29A). 4. Belly heavily pigmented e.xcept in small, scattered spots. Gastwphnjne carolinensis, p. 113 4', Belly pigmentless, unifonnly white or yellow. Gastrnphryne oUvace:i, p. 115 3'. Ear meinbrane distinct; head as broad as body or nearly so (ex- cept in pregnant females ) . 4. Usually a triangular dark mark between eyes; pattern of rather large, dark spots irregularly arranged on back; no dark line bordering upper jaw, or a very indistinct one; ear mem- brane nearly in contact with angle of jaw. Pseiidacris clarkii, p. 90 4'. Usually no triangular dark mark between eyes; pattern of stripes, sometimes broken up into rows of spots; usually a distinct dark line bordering upper jaw; ear membrane dis- tinctly separated from angle of jaw . Pseudacris nigrita, p. 93 2'. Toes distinctly webbed, the web extending beyond at least the basal segment of the movable portion of the longest toe; disks on toes absent or, if present, at least half as wide as ear membrane. 5. An enlarged, blackened tubercle with free cutting edge at base of foot; pupil vertical in life when subjected to considerable light. 6. Blackened portion of metatarsal tubercle 2-3 times as long as broad ( Fig. 29B ) ; top of head somewhat elevated in a "boss" (not yet reported from the state) Scaphiopus hurterii, p. 321 6'. Blackened portion of metatarsal tubercle about as broad as long ( Fig. 29C ) ; top of head elevated or not. 56 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 30. A. Body outline of a leopard frog, Rana pipiens, K. U. No. 17882, 1 mile north of Harper, Harper County, Kansas. B. Same of a green frog, Rana clamitans, K. U. No. 23166, 7 miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Both drawings by Ann Murray, X V2; r, dorsolateral glandular ridge; e, eye; t, tympanum. Smith: Toads and Frogs 57 7. Top of head elevated between eyes as a boss. Spea bombifrons, p, 66 7'. Top of head flat ( not yet reported from the state ) . Spea hammondii, p. 320 5'. No blackened or enlarged tubercle with a free cutting edge at base of foot; pupil round in light. 6. Tips of fingers and toes with enlarged disks, the largest at least half as wide as tympanum. 7. Color greenish, slate or grey; no distinct x-shaped mark on back; webs between toes extending to the terminal disks except on the longest toe Hijla versicolor, p. 97 7'. Color brownish; a distinct, x-shaped mark on back; webs between toes extending only to next to the last joint on all except on the longest one Hyla crticifer, p. 95 6'. No disks on tips of fingers and toes. 7. A raised, ridgelike gland (Fig. 30A, r) at sides of back at least an- teriorly ( "dorsolateral folds" ) . 8. No distinctly outlined dark spots on back. 9. Ear membrane ["tympanum," (Fig. SOB, t)] as large as eye (Fig. SOB, e) or larger; no dark blotch on side of head. Rana clamitans, p. 104 9'. Tympanum smaller than eye; a dark patch behind eye, cover- ing tympanum and ending on shoulder Rana sylvatica, p. Ill 8'. Distinctly outlined dark spots present on back. 9. Pattern of square or more or less rectangular spots in two rows between dorsolateral folds and in two rows on the sides; concealed surfaces of thighs and groin orange ( in life ) . Rana palustris, p. 106 9'. Pattern not of square or rectangular spots; concealed sur- faces of thighs and groin not orange. 10. No dark markings on back and sides between spots; dor- solateral folds usually narrow Rana pipiens, p. 109 10'. Areas between spots distincdy reticulated vidth a color darker than background; dorsolateral folds usually broad Rana areolata, p. 99 7'. No dorsolateral folds whatever. 8. Skin on belly smooth; ear membrane always distinct, as large as or larger than eye; no triangular dark mark between eyes; size ( snout to vent ) up to at least 175 mm. and probably more. Rana catesbeiana, p. 102 8'. Skin on belly granular; ear membrane indistinct, smaller than eye; a triangular dark mark between eyes; size (snout to vent) not exceeding 35 mm Acris crepitans, p. 87 58 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 31. Mouth-disks of anuran tadpoles. A. Plains spadefoot, Spea bombifrons, Meade County State Lake, Kansas, drawn by Ann Murray, approx. X 20. B. Gopher frog. Rami areolata, approx. X 17, Herrin, Williamson County, Illinois. Smith: Toads and Frogs 59 II. Tadpoles 1. Mouth disk absent; spiracle median, near anus. 2. Eyes barely visible in ventral view; rear edge of upper labium pro- vided with black, homy tubercles Gastrophnjne olivacea 2'. Eyes plainly visible in ventral view; rear edge of upper labium lack- ing tubercles Gastrophnjne carolinensis 1'. Mouth disk present; spiracle sinistral. 2. Papillary fringe encircling entire mouth disk except for a short space, less than one-fourth width of jaws, at middorsal border (Fig. 31A); 4 rows of teeth in lower labium (when all present and none lost in pretransformation changes) Spea bombifrons 2'. Papillary fringe incomplete dorsally by a space more than one-third width of jaws (Figs. 25, 31B, 32, 33); no more than 3 rows of teeth in lower labium ( except in Rana sylvatica ) . 3. Papillary fringe encirchng lower labium ( P'igs. 31B, 32, 33). 4. Papillary fringe with a strong indentation at each corner of mouth (Fig. 31B). 5. Three rows of teeth in upper labium, 4 in lower. Rana sylvatica 5'. Two rows of teeth in upper labium, 3 in lower. 6. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium shorter than (% to fj, usually less than V2) e.ther lateral part Rana arcaJr ta 6'. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium as long as either lateral part, or longer. 7. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper la- bium less than twice as long as either lateral part. 8. Beak narrowly pigmented with dark, the lower mandible dark for less than half its length. Rana catesbeiana 8'. Beak broadly pigmented with dark, the lower mandible dark nearly to base . Rana pipiens 7'. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium 2 to 11 times the length of either part. 8. Median space of inner row of teeth 2 to 4 times the length of either lateral part. Rana palustris 8'. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium 6 to 11 times the length of either lateral part Rana clamitans 4'. Papillary fringe not strongly indented at each comer of mouth (Fig. 32). 5. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium ap- proximately equal to the length of either lateral part; 2 rows of teeth in each labium Acris (crepitans?) 5'. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium one- half the length of either lateral part, or less; usually 3 rows in lower labium. 60 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. "^y^. %... '^'^'Q',. fsmommii,,,, " «»»""" «"'» „„„|,«U»1"" ^ ''^^^^.A^cKM^,,?"'''"- .J^' Fig. 32. Mouth-disks of anuran tadpoles. Spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarkii, from Bragg (1943), X 15. B. Striped chorus frog, Pseudacris nigrita, Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas, X 15, from Youngstrom and Smith (1934). Fig. 33. Mouth-disks of anuran tadpoles. A. Green toad, Bufo debilis, Schwartz Caiion, Comanche County, Kansas, X 15, from Smith (1934). B. Plains toad, Bufo cognatus, Meade County State Park, Kansas, X 22, from Smith (1946). Smith: Toads and Frogs 61 6. Outer row of teeth in lower labium more than half length of other rows in lower labium Hyla versicolor 6'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium less than half length of other rows in lower labium (Fig. 32). 7. Upper edge of upper mandible somewhat concave medi- ally (Fig. 32A) Pseudacris chiikii 7'. Upper edge of upper mandible convex medially ( Fig. 32B). 8. Outer row of teeth in lower labium no longer than half the length of either section of the inner row of teeth in the upper labium Hyla crucifer 8'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium more than half the length of either section of the inner row of teeth in the upper labium ( Fig. 32B ) . . . Pseudacris nigrita 3'. Papillary fringe confined to sides of labia (Fig. 33). 4. Outer row of teeth in lower labium as long as, or longer than, inner- most row. 5. Median space between lateral parts of median row of teeth in upper labium one-third length of either lateral part, or longer. Bufo punctatus 5'. Median space between lateral parts of median row of teeth in upper labium absent or much shorter than one-third length of either lateral part ( Fig. 33A ) Bufo debilis 4'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium shorter than innermost row. 5. Outer row of teeth in lower labium usually two-thirds length of inner row, or longer. 6. Median space between lateral parts of median row of teeth in upper labium one-half length of either part, or longer. Bufo terrestris 6'. Median space between lateral parts of median row of teeth in upper labium less than one-half length of either part. Bufo woodhousii 5'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium usually shorter than two- thirds length of inner row ( Fig. 33B ) . 6. Outer row of teeth in lower labium less than one-half length of second row ( Fig. 33B ) Bufo cognatus 6'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium usually one-half or more length of second row Bufo compactilis 62 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hisr. / D \ / \ \ \ / / H Fig. 34. Eggs of various anurans. A. Spring peeper, Uijla crucifer. B. Northern cricket frog, Acris crepitans. C. Canyon toad, Bufo punctatus. D. Bullfrog, Rana catesheiana. E. Green frog, Rana clamitans. F. Eastern narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne caro- linensis. G. Cominon tree frog, Hyla versicolor. H. Western narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne olivacea. All from Livezey and Wright (1947), X 5. Smith: Toads and Frogs 63 Key to Known Eggs of Anurans Eggs deposited singly. 2. Envelope 1.2 to 2.0 mm. in diameter (Fig. 34A) Hyla crucifer 2'. Envelope 2.4 to 3.6 mm. in diameter. 3. Vitellus 0.9 to 1.0 mm. in diameter (Fig. 34B) Acris crepitans 3'. Vitellus 1.0 to 1.3 mm. in diameter (Fig. 34C) Bufo punctatus Eggs deposited in groups. 2. Egg mass in form of a surface film. 3. Film large with a surface area of 35 sq. in. or more. 4. Each egg with only one gelatinous envelope (Fig. 34D). Rana catesbciana 4'. Each egg with two gelatinous envelopes (Fig. 34E). Rana clamitans 3'. Film small, with a surface area of 28 sq. in. or less. 4. Envelope truncated sphere, flat above; outline of envelope distinct and firm, gi\ing the mass a mosaic appearance ( Fig. 34F) Gastrophryne carolinensis 4'. Envelope round, not trimcate; outline of envelope not dis- tinct and firm. 5. Egg masses small, of 5 to 40 eggs; a distinct inner en- velope separated from vitellus by 0.2 to 0.9 mm. ( Fig. 34G) Hyla versicolor 5'. Egg masses large, of more than 100 and as many as 645 eggs; no inner en\elope or if so scarcely separable from vitellus (Fig. 34H) Gastrophryne olivacea 2'. Egg mass submerged. 3. Egg mass in form of files or strings. 4. Files or strings without a continuous gelatinous encasement, like a string of beads Bufo punctatus 4'. Files or strings with a continuous gelatinous encasement. 5. One cylindrical envelope; no partitions separating indi- vidual eggs. 64 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. B mmmm Fig. 35. Eggs of various aniirans. A. Garden toad, Bufo woodhousii. B. Sonoran toad, Bufo compactilis. C. Plains toad, Bttfo cognntus. D. Striped chorus frog, Pseudacris nigrita. E. American toad, Bufo terrestris. F. Pickerel frog, Rana palustris. G. Gopher frog, Rana areolata. H. Woodfrog, Rana sylvatica. I. Leopard frog, Rana pipiens. J. Spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarkii. Figs. A, D, E, G, I from Smith (1934); all others from Livezey and Wright (1937); figs. A, E, I, X 8; all others X 4. Smith: Toads and Frogs 65 6. Envelope 2.6 to 4.6 mm. in diameter (Fig. SoA). Bufo tvoodhousii 6'. Envelope 1.8 to 2.4 mm. in diameter (Fig. 35B). Bufo compactilis 5'. Two cylindrical envelopes; partitions separating individ- ual eggs. 6. Envelopes decidedly scalloped, almost beadlike (Fig. 350) Bufo cognatus 6'. Envelopes not scalloped, straight (Fig. 35E). Bufo terrestris 3'. Eggs in lumps. 4. Each egg with only one envelope Pseudacris nigrita 4'. Each egg with two envelopes. 5. Mass a firm regular cluster of 2,000 to 7,000 eggs. 6. Eggs brown above and yellow below (Fig. 35F), Rana palustris 6'. Eggs black above and white below. 7. Vitellus 2.46 to 2.50 mm. in diameter (Fig. 35G). Rana areolata 7'. Vitellus 1.5 to 2.4 mm. in diameter. 8. Egg mass spherical, 2.3 to 4.0 inches in diameter, of no more than 3,000 eggs (Fig. 35H) Rana sylvatica 8'. Egg mass a plinth measuring 3 to 6 by 2 to 3 inches, of 3,500 eggs or more (Fig. 351). Rann pipiens 5'. Mass a loose cluster of 10 to 300 eggs, usually 1 inch or less in diameter. 6. Outer envelope 5.0 to 7.8 mm. in diameter (Fig. 35D). Pseudacris nigrita 6'. Outer envelope 2.2 to 2.4 mm. in diameter (Fig. 35J). Pseudacris clarkii 3—9019 66 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. FAMILY PELOBATIDAE . Genus Spea Cope Plains Spadefoot Spea bombifrons (Cope) Scaphiopus bombifrons Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1863, p. .53 (type locality — Fort Union, Montana). Spea bombifrons Cope, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ser. 2, vol. 6, 1866, p. 81. Range. — Western two-thirds of state, and eastward along the Kansas River as far as Lawrence, Douglas County. The other easternmost locality is Winfield, Cowley County; the species has not been taken in any of the counties north of the latitude of Lawrence and east of Phillips County (1 mile east of Glade), although it probably occurs in the northern part of the state as far east as Wash- ington and Clay counties. Museum of Natural History Universllir o( Kansas I94S m Fig. 36. Distribution of the plains spadefoot, Spea bombifrons, in Kansas, with insert show- ing range of the species. Description. — Skin rather smooth, sometimes with low wartlike projections; eyes large, with vertical pupil; prominent, rounded ele- vation between eyes; parotoid gland poorly defined; tympanum scarcely visible; fingers only sHghtly webbed; toes nearly fully webbed; projecting, blackened, hard, inner metatarsal tubercle with rounded free edge; large outer metatarsal tubercle, not cornified; tips of fingers corneous in males. Gray above, coarsely reticulated with darker color; venter whitish, unspotted; throat blackish in adult males; two poorly defined light Smith: Toads 67 stripes on each side; inner stripes originating behind orbits, con- verging toward shoulder region, thence diverging backwards, en- closing an oval area in middle of back, ending at rear of back; outer stripes beginning above anus, continuing along sides to groin; thighs somewhat mottled. Size moderate, snout-vent measurement reaching 2% inches. Fig. 37. Plains spadefoot, Spea bomhifrons, X IV2, from 13 miles north of Elfrida, Cochise County, Arizona. Courtesy George M. Bradt and Charles H. Lowe. Jr. Recognition Characters. — The vertical pupil and protruding fore- head are absolutely distinctive of this species, among Kansas forms. It differs from the various species of Bnfo, wdth which it is most easily confused, in the absence of a distinct parotoid gland; all other anurans differ in lacking a blackened, inner metatarsal tubercle with a free cutting edge. s 68 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Habits and Habitat. — This species, found in somewhat arid re- gions on sandy or other loose soil, is associated with grasslands, not normally with flood plains or woodlands. The colony established beside the Kansas River near Lawrence is of special interest since it undoubtedly owes its origin to flood-borne waifs swept perhaps ICO miles east of former range limits. The plains spadefoot emerges only at night; at other times it is underground, where it burrows backwards with a peculiar, side- ways shuffling of the rear feet. These toads burrow to any depths necessary to remain properly moist; they tend to burrow "beside objects ( usually plants ) where ( a ) the ground may be softer, (b) it is more shady, and (c) the burrows are not easily observed" (Bragg: 1945). Individuals emerge when moisture is abundant and the tem- perature high; the surface of the ground, as well as the ground be- low the surface, must be damp. The food consists of almost any kind of terrestial arthropod small enough to be swallowed and large enough to be seen. The tadpoles are strongly carnivorous and frequently become cannibalistic; when cannibalistic they grow to enormous size (4/2 in.). The normal transformation size is about IVs inches. There is no definite breeding season. The animals breed only during or after rains, emerging for that purpose with the first heavy rain, after a minimum spring fall of 3/2 inches, occurring after temperatures reach 52° F. They breed only in temporaiy pools, where they convene in large numbers (both males and females), attracted by the calls of earlier arrivals. The voice is loud and harsh; it is audible in chorus for two miles on a still night. In mating, the male clasps the female with his forelegs, around the groin of the female, just in front of the hind legs. The eggs, laid in masses of from 10 to 250 each, hatch in 48 hours. The hatchling, one-fourth inch in length, doubles its length in five days, and again with five more days, averaging then one inch in length. The hind legs appear at this time. In a total of twenty-five days the maximum length is reached. At thirty days arms appear, and transformation commences. By the fortieth day, transformation is complete. The young burrow immediately, emerging at night to feed, and after a week or so have wandered away from the pool. Many other details of the life history have been given by Trow- bridge and Trowbridge (1937) and Bragg (1945). Kansan Subspecies. — No races have been defined anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Smith, 1934: 427-436, map 8 (description, natural history); Trowbridge and Trowbridge, 1937: 460-480 ( natural history ) ; Bragg, 1944a: 517-533, and 1945: 52-72. Smith: Toads 69 FAMILY BUFONIDAE Genus Bufo Laurenti Plains Toad Bufo cognatus Say Bufo cognatus Say, Long's Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 2, Arkansas River, Prowers County, Colorado). 1823, p. 190 (type localit>- — Range. — The western three-fourths of the state. Recorded as far east as Marshall (Blue Rapids), Pottawatomie, Jefferson (1 mi. E Perry), Douglas (Lawrence), Miami (3 miles southwest of Spring Scoia TO 40MiUs I I Museum of Nolurot History Uniwersily of Konsos 1945 m Fig. 38. Distribution of the plains toad, Bufo cognatus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Hill), Marion (5 miles north of Lincolnville ) , Butler (El Dorado) and Cowley (Winfield) counties. The record from Lawrence can be attributed to the effect of the Kaw River, down which specimens have migrated; that from Miami County is not readily explicable; the specimen may have been introduced as a tadpole, when waters were stocked with fish from a place farther west in Kansas. Description. — Skin warty; cranial crests prominent, uniting an- teriorly to form a rather pronounced, smooth, flat elevation between and behind the nares; parotoid glands elongate, ovoid, in contact with crest behind eye; tympanum distinct, its diameter equal to dis- tance between nares; inner metatarsal tubercle large, elongate, blackened, with a free cutting edge; fingers not webbed; toes about one-half webbed, with three free phalanges on fourth toe and one on others; warts on body and hind limbs equal in size, those on fore- legs smaller and spinose; inner digit corneous, blackened in males. 70 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Color yellowish above; sides and back with large brownish areas each of which is surrounded by a dark band inside a light-colored band; hind legs banded; forelegs banded or spotted; diagonal brownish crossbar across each eyelid; upper jaw banded; ventral surface yellowish, unspotted or with a few dark spots on chest. Males possess large blackish gular pouches, and the inner fingers (thumbs) are more or less cornified; females are larger. Size rather large, snout-vent measurement reaching 4/2 inches. Recognition Characters. — The large, distinctly outlined, dark spots, each including numerous warts, are distinctive among Kansas Fig. 39. A plains toad, Bufo cognatus, X %, 9 miles north of Tnbune, Greeley County, Kansas, from Smith (1934). species of Bufo. All toads of the genus Bufo can be recognized by the distinctly evident parotoid glands. See remarks on B. terres- tris. Habits and Habitat. — This plains species is most common in long- grass and mixed-grass prairies and less common in short-grass areas where it tends to be restricted to the vicinity of streams. Usually it does not occur in wooded areas except as accidentally carried downstream into them. This species like others of the genus Bufo Smith: Toads 71 is nocturnal, although a few individuals have been observed to be active in the daytime. The call is said to be a long raucous trill of metallic timbre suggestive of grinding gears. The vocal sacs of males are enormous and kidney-shaped when inflated. The food probably consists of practically any kind of small animal that moves. Stomachs that were examined contained snout beetles and dung beetles. Ants may comprise a large proportion of the diet. Excerpts from Bragg's summary (1940) of the natural history of tliis species follow. "They breed only after rain in spring or summer when the temperature exceeds 12° C. Breeding sites in central Oklahoma include buffalo wallows, flooded fields and the edges of extensive temporary pools. They do not use ditches, 'tanks' in pas- tures, streams nor lakes, and they have never been known to breed in excessively muddy water. . . . The eggs are very numerous (20,000 to each full clutch), and the percentage of hatching is high. Concentration of tadpoles in some pools may exceed 750 per cubic foot of water. Food for the larvae ( algae and plant and animal debris ) is plentiful in the pools, and large numbers of young often succeed in passing metamorphosis. . . . The embryos and tadpoles can withstand temperatures in the pools of from near freezing to at least 37° C. and probably more. "Metamorphosis starts at one and one-half months after eggs are laid, at a tadpole length of 26 to 29 mm. The young toads have a distinctive color pattern, the major feature of which is four to eight pairs of large dark spots on the dorsal surface and smaller spots on the sides. In two-day-old toads, the whole dorsal surface is dotted with small brick-red speckles. "Immediately after transformation, the young toads average about 11 mm. in length, and there is not much variation among them. When, at two or three days of age, they disperse from the pool, they are about a millimeter longer. They immediately start feeding and grow very rapidly upon a diet of small insects, young snails and mites. In one week they vary much in size, the larger reaching as much as 20 mm. in length. In about four months some may be half grown (over 50 mm. in length), but others may remain much smaller. It is probable that the rate of growth of an indi- vidual is primarily dependent upon availability of food. If this be the case, then adult size may be reached in two years by some indi- viduals but not attained by others for three or four years." Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Smith, 1934: 440-443, map 10, fig. 18 (description, natural history); Bragg, 1936: 14-20, pis. 1-2 (breeding habits, eggs, tadpole); Bragg, 1937: 273-284, figs. 1-6 (eggs, breeding habits); Bragg, 1940: 322-349, 424-438 (habits, habitat, breeding). 72 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Sonoran Toad Bufo compactilis Wiegmann Bufo compactilis Wiegmann, Isis, 1833, p. 661 (type locality — Mexico City, Mexico). Range. — Uncertain, as no definite records for the state are known. Cope (1889) reported it from "Kansas," and Bragg and Smith (1943) record the species from just south of the Kansan border in Harper County, Oklahoma (near Buffalo, 15 miles south of the Kansas line). This county is adjacent to Clark and Comanche counties, Kansas, where precise records of occurrence are to be sought. Scala 10 0 zo «)Milat I.I I ' Muttum of Nolu'Ol Hislor/ Unlvtrsitjr of Kontos I94J m Fig. 40. Distribution of the Sonoran toad, Bufo compactilis, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Skin with many low warts, none notably larger than many others; cranial crests very low, clearly discernible (if at all) only behind eye; tympanum distinct, vertically oval, its hori- zontal diameter subequal to distance between inner edges of nares; parotoid glands small, oval, less than twice as long as broad, sep- arated from each other by more than the length of either; inner metatarsal tubercle elongate, a little longer than first toe from the metatarsal tubercle, with a blackened free edge three times as long as wide, or longer; outer metatarsal tubercle much smaller, but blackened and with a free cutting edge; tips of toes often blackened; fingers not webbed, foot webbed at base, the web extending to the Smith: Toads 73 antepenultimate segment of the fourth toe, to near tip on others. Color yellowish or gray in adults, or often both colors interspersed on the dorsal surface; young with three pairs of dark spots down the middle of the back, becoming indistinct and broken up in adults; belly uniform yellow or white, unspotted; dim cross bands present on legs. Males with a large gular pouch of the same color as the belly, and the inner finger (thumb) more or less cornified. Females lack both modifications and are somewhat larger. Fig. 41. A Sonoran toad, Bufo compactilis speciostis, Xl'/4, from Tarrant County, Texas. Courtesy Louis W. Ramsey. Size moderately large, the snout-vent measurement reaching 3/8 inches in males, 3^ inches in females. Recognition Characters. — The poorly developed cranial crests and small, oval parotoid gland but little longer than wide are, in combination, distinctive of this species. The extraordinarily well- 74 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. developed metatarsal tubercles, both with free cutting edges, are unique. Habits and Habitat. — This is a species characteristic of arid or semiarid, short-grass plains. In some areas it is extremely abundant, the dominant toad of the region. In other areas the species is rarely seen except when breeding, as both sexes congregate in large num- bers about either temporary or permanent pools of water. Breeding is initiated by heavy rainfall at any time from early spring through the summer, until the end of August. Wright de- scribes the call as loud and shrill. The vocal sac in use is sausage- shaped, one end projecting far in front of the head. In hot, dry weather the species is seldom seen except in moist areas and about street lights in certain parts of its range. The food consists largely of insects but any small moving creature is likely to be taken. The eggs are laid in narrow strings. The diameter of the tube is approximately 1.8 to 2.4 mm. in diameter. Only one gelatinous envelope, the outer cylindrical tube, is present. The eggs are small, 1.2 to 1.6 mm. in diameter, and brown or dark gray above, yellow below. The eggs are crowded in the tube, 11 to 17 per inch. "The bicolored tadpole is small, 1 to l/s inches (24 to 28 mm.), light colored, its back a drab or light grayish olive; its belly, pale cinnamon pink; its tail crests translucent. The tooth ridges are %. After a tadpole period of 40 to 60 days, they transform, June 1 to August 1, at % inch (12 mm.)" (Wright and Wright, 1942.) Kansan Subspecies. — One subspecies, Bufo compactilis speciosus Girard, with type locality at Pesqueria Grande, Nuevo Leon, Mexico, is known in the state. One other subspecies, in central and western Mexico, is recognized. Two other subspecies, of California and an area including adjacent parts of Nevada, Utah and Arizona, were formerly placed in this species but are now referred to the species B. tvoodhousii. References. — Wright and Wright, 1949: 167-171 (description, natural history, illus- trations); Bragg and Smith, 1943: 294-295, map, fig. 4 (distribution in Oklahoma, habits); Bragg, 1940: 8 (habits). Green Toad Bufo debilis Girard Bufo debilis Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 7, 1854, p. 87 (type locality — Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico). Range. — Southwestern Kansas, as far east as Barber County, and as far north as Logan County. Known from only four other coun- ties: Grant, Greeley (9 miles northeast of Tribune), Hamilton, and Morton (18 miles north of Elkhart). Smith: Toads 75 Description. — Head and body very flat; no longitudinal crests be- tween eyes, or if so only a low border about eyelids; tympanum very small, oval, in contact with parotoids to the rear, smaller in diameter than internarial space; parotoids large, almost as long as head, broader than internarial space; fingers not webbed; toes one- half webbed. Ground color above greenish; some of warts yellowish, others blackish; the latter color frequently extending over several warts, forming usually narrow streaks that may tend to give the back a re- ticulated appearance; hind legs faintly banded; ventral surface yellowish; belly sometimes spotted. Size small, the snout-vent length reaching 1% inches. MuseuTi of Nolurfll History Univarslly of KonsOS 1945 Fig. 42. Distribution of the green toad, Bufo dcbilis. in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. The range of the eastern subspecies, B. d. dcbilis, is crosshatchcd; that of the western (B. d. insidior) is lined. Recognition Characters. — The presence of a distinct parotoid gland identifies the members of the genus Bufo. Of the five species known in Kansas, only this and B. piinctatus lack cranial crests. These two species differ in shape of parotoid glands (round in B. punctatus, elongate in B. dehilis). Habits and Habitat. — This species inhabits the short-grass prairie and sand prairie; it ranges also into mi.xed-grass prairie to the east. The habits are not well known. The animals emerge at night. In Texas they are said to breed in April and May, in rain-formed pools and ditches, but pregnant females of Bufo have been found as late as June 27, and choruses have been heard on August 8 and in early 76 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. September. The voice is said to be "cricket-like, a low sustained trill." The tadpoles have not been authoritatively identified. A series tentatively referred to this species has been described ( Smith, 1934). This is one of the few species of anurans in Kansas whose eggs are unknown. Fig. 43. A green toad, Btifo dcbilis insidior, X IVa, from 18 miles north of Elkhart, Morton Countv, Kansas, K. U. No. 5647, after Smith (1934). Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies are recognized, two occurring in Kansas: B. d. insidior Girard, with the type locality at Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico, and ranging from trans-Pecos Texas and southeastern Arizona north- ward into Kansas and southward into Mexico; and B. d. debilis, occurring from northeastern Mexico northward through central Texas into Kansas. The third subspecies, B. d. retiformis Sanders and Smith, occurs only in south-central Arizona and adjacent Mexico. In B. d. insidior the warts on the cranial crests are pointed and widely separated, and the ridge below eye does not extend forward beyond the level of the ridge in front of eye. In B. d. debilis the warts on the crests are smooth and fused to form continuous ridges, and the ridge below eye extends forward beyond the level of the ridge in front of eye. The latter tends to have smaller, more nearly round spots, whereas the spots in B. d. insidior tend to be narrow, elongate, and to enclose several warts. References. — Smith, 1934: 443-446, map 11, fig. 20 (description); Wright and Wright, 1949: 172-175, pi. 34, map 12 (general account); Bragg and Smith. 1943: 295-296, fig. 5 (habitat, Oklahoma range); Savage, 1954: 83-112, figs. 1-3 (taxonomy, distribution, phylogeny); Riemer, 1955: 17-19 (taxonomy, phylogeny). Smith: Toads 77 Canyon Toad Bufo punctatus Baird and Girard Btifo punctatus Baird and Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, 1832, p. 173 (type locality — Rio San Pedro, tributary of the Rio Grande del Norte, Texas). Range. — Southwestern Kansas. Reported only from Morton (12 miles north of Elkhart), Clark (Stephenson and Abell Ranches), Comanche (Schwartz Canon) and Barber (1 mile west of Sunny- side School, and 5 miles south of Sun City) counties. Museum of Nolurol History Univorsily of Kansas Fig. 44. Distribution of the canyon toad, Bufo punctatus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Head rather flat; no cranial crests; parotoid glands small, round, little larger than eye; tympanum distinct, small, oval, equal in greatest diameter to internarial distance; body with rather large, low, smooth warts; fingers not webbed; toes half-webbed. Color brownish or gray above, the warts more reddish and the head darker; ventral surface yellowish, with small, black spots; larger dorsal warts edged with black. Size small, the snout-vent length reaching three inches. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of B. debilis. Habits and Habitat. — This species is known only from rocky semiarid areas, in mountains and in dissected plateaus. Little is known of the habits. The song is said to be a "long con- tinued trill, resembling that of a hearth cricket but with more vol- ume" (Storer). Breeding apparently takes place in late April and early May. Larvae and recently metamorphosed young have been observed on May 28. The animals presumably are nocturnal, al- 78 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. though they have been seen in the open in the daytime. The food consists of beetles, bugs, ants, and bees, with ants predominating; many other arthropods probably are eaten. The eggs of this species are the most distinctive of those of any member of the genus Biifo in the United States. All species except Fig. 45. A canyon toad, Bufo punctatus, X 1, from Helotes, Texas. Courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright. this lay eggs in strings. Canyon toads, however, lay their eggs singly on the bottom of pools or streams. The eggs are protected by a sticky gelatin, and often tend to adhere one to the others in masses only a single layer in depth. The vocal pouch is a more or less spherical structure when in- flated. As in other anurans, diis pouch occurs only in males. Of the toads of Kansas, only the sonoran toad and plains toad have the pouch, or sac, bean-shaped and extending beyond the tip of the snout. Except in breeding choruses this species is seldom found. During dry seasons, presumably much time is spent underground; specimens have been found in prairie dog burrows at such times. In chorus, however, enormous numbers may be present, but the time of chorus is highly unpredictable and apparently dependent largely upon occurrence of heavy rainfall, even as late as September. Although resistant to semiarid conditions, these toads are yet restricted to regions of relatively high moisture content. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been segregated anywhere in th" range of this species. References. — Smith, 1934: 446-449, map 12, fig. 21 (description, natiiral history); Stebbins, 1951: 280-285, pi. 17 (general account); Storer, 1925: 192-199 (description, natural history); Strecker, 1926: 8-10 (habits); Wright and Wright, 1949: 192-197, pi. 39, map 13 (general account). Smith: Toads 79 American Toad Bufo terrestris ( Bonnaterre ) Raua terrestris Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl. Method., Erp., 1789, p. 8 (type localit>^ — Charleston, South Carolina). Bufo terres-tris Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Anier. Amphs. Repts., 1917, p. 29. Range. — The eastern quarter of the state. Peripheral locahties are in Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Osage (Carbondale), Chase (10 miles southwest of Toronto) and Chautauqua (3 miles south of Cedar Vale) counties. i i i_ Scal« 10 O JO 44Mil9S I.I 1 I Museum o' Nolurol Hislory University of Konsos I94S Fig. 46. Distribution of the American toad, Bufo terrestris, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. The range of B. t. americanus is lined, that of B. t. charlesmithi crosshatched. Description. — Skin warty; warts with small apical spines; anterior surface of foot with black spines; a pair of distinct ridges between eyes, not directly bordering orbit; tympanum distinct, one-half to one-third size of eye; parotoid glands large, broad, only one-third to one-half longer than wide, separated from each other by a distance less than the length of one gland; dorsal warts of various sizes, some as large as tympanum; warts on shank as large as those of body; an enlarged brightly colored wart above and on either side of anus; large, blackened, inner metatarsal tubercle with free cutting edge; subarticular tubercles on feet frequently divided, the first tubercle practically always divided; all toes nearly fully webbed, except the three terminal phalanges of the fourth. Color rather dark gray or reddish; a few black, light-outlined spots each surrounding one or two warts, on dorsal surface; some individuals with elongate lateral dark marks including numerous small warts; frequently a black, light-edged bar across each eyelid; upper lip banded sometimes; breast often with numerous black 80 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. spots; frequently a brightly colored, red or orange patch of warts between insertion of foreleg and tympanum, and one wart above and on each side of anus. In males throat black at least during the breeding season, and inner finger (thumb) enlarged and cornified (an aid to clasping). Females larger. Size moderate, snout-vent measurement as much as 3^ inches. Fig. 47. American toad, Bufo terresfris americanus, X %. Specimen at left, from Starved Rock State Park, LaSalle County, Illinois; the specimen at right is from 1 mile southwest of Carbondale, Osage County, Kansas. Recognition Characters. — The distinct parotoid gland serves to identify this species as a member of the genus Bufo. From other kinds of Bufo in Kansas, B. terrestris may be distinguished by the distinct cranial crests (excludes B. compactilis, B. dehilis and B. punctatus) , the small dorsal dark spots (excludes B. cognatus), and by a number of characters that separate it from B. ivoodhousii. The latter species is the only one frequently confused with it. There are many differences between the two; nevertheless, variation in each species is so extensive that occasional specimens are not easily identified. Differences mentioned in the following parallel columns will aid in identifying specimens at least from Kansas. Smith: Toads 81 B. terrestris 1. Belly usually profusely spotted. 2. Parotoids not more than twice as long as broad, separated from each other by no more than the length of one gland. 3. Skin on median anterior surface of tarsi and metatarsi with black- ish spines. 4. Warts on body more varied in size, fewer, some of them con- siderably enlarged. 5. Usually but one or two warts to a dark color spot. 6. Usually no median dorsal white line. 7. Second subarticular tubercle of fourth toe frequently divided; first almost always divided. 8. Parotoids usually separated from postorbital ridge, and the latter in contact with tympanum either directly or by a secondary arm. 9. Snouts of males in lateral profile pointed to some extent. 10. A pair of brightly colored warts above anus. 11. Song a high trill of ten to thirty seconds duration. 12. Eggs laid single file, enclosed in a double tubular membrane, with a partition separating each egg from the next one. B. woodhousii 1. Belly usually unspotted or with a single dark, median spot on chest. 2. Parotoids more than twice as long as broad, usually separated from each other by more than the length of one gland. 3. Skin on median anterior surface of tarsi and metatarsi without blackish spines. 4. Warts on body more uniform in size, more numerous, smaller. 5. Some of dorsal spots including many warts ( eastern specimens ) or but one or two (western specimens ) . 6. Always a median dorsal white line. 7. Second subarticular tubercle of fourth toe never divided; first seldom divided. 8. Parotoids usually in contact with postorbital ridge, and the tym- panum separated distinctly from the latter. 9. Snouts of both males and females sharply truncate in lateral profile. 10. No brightly colored warts above anus. 11. Song a low trill of three to four seconds duration. 12. No partitions between eggs; a single tubular membrane. Habits and Habitat. — Individuals of B. terrestris live in wooded areas where rainfall is moderately high. Except in the breeding season, they are scattered far and wide, and can be found under logs, stones or other shelter in damp areas during the day. At night and in late evening they emerge from their hiding places to obtain food. Insects, worms and almost any other kind of small, moving animals are eaten. Hibernation occurs probably in underground burrows. The toads emerge as early as the middle of March in Kansas, and soon con- gregate at more or less permanent pools of water to breed. Males 82 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. have been heard calling as early as March 24, and as late as April 28. The song is a high-pitched trill prolonged for ten to thirty seconds. The males clasp the females about the body immediately back of the forelegs, pressing the thumbs into the region of the armpits. Eggs nxe laid in double strings, one from each oviduct, over a considerable period of time, as the male emits sperm to fertilize them. The eggs measure 1.43 mm. in diameter, and are arranged single file down each tube. When examined microscopically, it can be seen diat the tube is divided into cells by partitions; there is but one egg in a cell. Two membranes line the tube, the outside diameter of Fig. 48. An American toad, Btifo terrcstris chtnles- mithi, X "A, from 1 mile northeast of Riverton, Cher- okee County, Kansas. Photo bv E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. which is 2.86 mm. The total number of eggs laid by a single female varies from 4,000 to 20,600. The tadpoles transform fifty to sixty- five days after hatching. Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies occur in the state: Bufo t. americantis (with type locality at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), and B. t. cJmrlesmithi Bragg (with type locality in McCurtain Co., Oklahoma). Two other subspecies, B. t. copei Yarrow and Henshaw of northeastern Canada and B. t. terrestris of south- eastern United States, are recognized. B. t. charlesmithi is small (seldom ex- ceeding two and one-half inches snout-to-vent) and has an unspotted venter, whereas adult B. t. americantis usually exceed that size and have a heavily pigmented venter. References. — Smith, 1934: 436-440, figs. 22, 23 (description, Kansas localities); Gage, 1904 (natural history); Miller, 1909 (natural history); Wright, 1914 (natural history); Bragg, 1954 ( systematics, description of B. t. charlesmithi). Smith: Toads 83 Garden Toad Bufo woodhousii Girard Bufo woodhousii Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 7, 18.54. p. 86 (type lo- cality— San Francisco Mt., Coconino Count>', Arizona). Range. — Throughout die state. Not recorded from the eastern border south of the Missouri River; peripheral locaHties in that area are in Douglas (Lawrence), Osage ( Carbondale ), Woodson (Neosho Falls) and Chautauqua (5 miles south of Cedar Vale) counties. Museum of Natural History Univarsiljr of Konsos 1945 Fig. 49. Distribution of the garden toad, Bufo woodhousii, in Kansas. The range of B. w. woodhousii is lined, that of B. tv. fowleri crosshatchtd. Description. — Head thick; snout rounded, flat at tip in lateral profile; sides of head in front of eyes slanting outward at an angle of about 45°; tympanum distinct, oval, equal in greatest diameter to distance between nares; cranial crest prominent; parotoids long and narrow, separated by a distance equal to their own length, as long as head, or wide as internarial space; dorsal warts small, numerous, spinose, none enlarged; subarticular tubercles usually entire, the second sometimes divided (on foot); large, blackened inner metatarsal tubercle with a free cutting edge; toes two-thirds webbed. Color gray or yellow above; spots on body blackish or greenish, sometimes small and including only one or two warts, but fre- quently large and including many warts, as in B. w. fowleri; a nar- row, median, dorsal, light line; usually a transverse bar across orbits; upper lip with .3 bands; ventral surface usually unspotted, sometimes with a single median dark spot, rarely several spots. 84 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. In males the throat is blackish, the thumb is enlarged and corni- fied, the tips of the fingers corneous, the size smaller and the skin smoother than in females. Size large, the snout- vent measurement reaching 4% inches. Fig. 50. A garden toad, Bufo uoodhoiisii woodhoiisii, X V2, from 35 miles southeast of Meade County State Park, Kansas. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of B. terrestris, and Figs. 47, 48, and 50. Habits and Habitat. — Garden toads are most abundant in long- grass and mixed-grass prairie, but in the eastern part of their range they enter the periphery of wooded areas, especially in more sparsely-wooded areas and in oak-hickory associations. An enor- mous variety of situations is inhabited. These toads are common about human habitations and in dry river bottoms. In the central part of Kansas this species is the most common of all toads. Indi- viduals emerge mostly at night and in the evening, when they forage for insects of many kinds. They eat bees readily upon occasion and may be a pest about apiaries for that reason. However, as a regu- lator of insect pests they are effective, because they have huge appe- tites and eat large numbers of webworms and probably other pests. It is estimated that they eat two-thirds their own volume of food Smith: Toads 85 every twenty-four hours. Young individuals tend to be active dur- ing the day as well as at night. Adults may emerge early in the morning to warm themselves. They retire late at night because they become cool then. In the daytime they burrow into the soil or utilize crevices under cover or ready-made holes or burrows. Breeding occurs "in a great variety of places (cattle-tanks, ditches, flooded fields, back-washes of streams, artificial fish-pools, edges of small semipermanent artificial lakes, and sloughs on the flood plains of rivers ) . They are not known to use buffalo wallows and their general versatility and adaptability to conditions make this hard to explain. They seem to prefer shallow water for breed- ing but have been known to produce eggs in water at least three feet deep. They seem to prefer muddy water but will use clear water at times. Within any one season the breeding activities are staggered — that is, not all individuals breed at the same time even under favorable conditions. They are not dependent upon rain for breed- ing although most breeding activity does occur after rains in spring or summer. Congresses of this species are usually small and each male acts more or less individualistically, calling or not according to some inner urge. . . . "Metamorphosis occurs at a total length of about 30 mm. after a tadpole period of from thirty-four to forty-five days, dependent upon both tempera- ture and food supply. The food of the larvae is algae and organic debris of either plant or animal origin. The young toads are spotted dorsally in two colors on a grayish-brown back- ground. The larger spots are dark- colored and of medium size; the smaller are tiny and red. . . . The young toads are active and alert. They feed upon small insects and arachnids and may grow at a rate of 0.3 mm. ( i. e., about 3 percent ) a day. Some become half grown during the first summer. . . ." ( Bragg, 1940 ) . Breeding has been observed as early as March 25, and as late as Fig. 51. A garden toad, Bufo woodhousii fotvleri, X %, from Fox Ridge State Park, Coles County, Illinois. 86 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. August 17. The song is a short, low trill of three to four seconds duration. Bragg (1950) has recorded that with air temperatures at 20° C. and water temperatures at 22° C. two or three calls are given within intervals of 10 seconds, at least under the conditions prevail- ing at one time when 120 10-second intervals were observed. How- ever, rate of call is influenced not only by prevailing temperatures (air and water temperatures having different effects), but also by "social factors." Males are stimulated by the calls of their own kind, and the rate of calling is affected by the numbers calling at any one time and place. These generalizations seemingly pertain to all of the anurans possessing a voice. The known irregularity of breeding activity in this species is, interestingly enough, correlated with irregularity of ovarian activity. Clark and Bragg (1950) record that the ovaries ". . . are not equally ready for ovulation during the known breeding period, but instead they exhibit a variation of preparedness from animal to animal in the months of March through August." Bragg (1950) has recorded size variation in detail for Oklahoma specimens. Males are mature at a snout- vent length of a minimum of 65 mm., and reach a maximum at 99 mm.; females as small as 68 mm. snout to vent may be mature, and their maximum is reached at 126 mm. (only rarely exceeding 118 mm., however). Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies occur in Kansas: B. iv. woodhousii, with type locality at San Francisco Mt., Coconino Co., Arizona, and Biifo to. foicleri Hinckley, with type locality at Milton, Massachusetts. The two sub- species differ (according to Bailey and Bailey, 1940) as follows: B. w. fowleri B. w. icoodhotisii 1. A pattern including six well-de- 1. A pattern not of six symmetrically fined, relatively large dark dorsal placed, large dark spots; largest spots * which usually involve 3 or dorsal spots usually involving 1 or 4 warts (total in all 6 spots, 14 to 2 warts (total in 6, 6 to 18, av. 10; 31, av. 20; 15 or more in 96 per- 13 or less in 92 percent). cent ) . 2. Postorbital ridge in contact with 2. Postorbital ridge separated from tympanum in adults. tympanum in most adults. 3. Smaller, maximum snout-vent 3. Larger, maximum s n o u t-vent length 3 inches in males, 3/4 inches length 3/8 inches in males, 6 inches in females. in females. 4. Width of parotoid gland 1.3 to 1.9 4. Width of parotoid gland 1.7 to 2.6 (av. 1.7; 1.8 or less in 92 percent) (av. 2.1; 1.9 or more in 88 per- in interparotoid distance. cent) in interparotoid distance. References. — Smith, 1934: 449-457, map 13, figs. 22, 23 (description, natural history); Youngstrom and Smith, 1936: 630-632, figs. 2, 4, 6 (tadpole); Bragg, 1940: 306-321, figs. 1 (habits, habitat, breeding). * The six spots counted include the two lying between the anterior ends of the parotoids, two between the posterior ends of the parotoids, and two near the mid-dorsal line in the middle of the back. Smith: Frogs 87 FAMILY HYLIDAE Genus Acris Dumt'-ril, Bibron and Dumeril Northern Cricket Frog Acris crepitans Baird Acris crepitans Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 7, 1854, p. 59 (type locality — Potomac River at Harper's Ferry, West Virginia. Range. — State-wide, except perhaps the south- western corner. It has not been reported southwest of Wallace (Sharon Springs), Scott (State Lake), Finney (Essex) and Seward (Arkansas River 12 miles west of Kismet) counties. Fig. 52. Distribution of the northern cricket frog, Acris crepitans, in Kansas. Description. — Skin smooth or with small, smooth warts; eyelids always warty; head rather thick, pointed; tympanum indistinct, small ( half internarial distance ) , low ( dorsal margin even with ven- tral margin of eye); no parotoid glands; no dorsolateral ridges; foot, excluding tarsus, half of snout-vent length or longer; toes nearly or quite fully webbed, except for the two terminal phalanges on the fourth toe; a fold across chest between armpits; ventral surfaces granular at least posteriorly; two short bones at tips of digits. Color above slate gray; a dark, usually light-edged, triangular mark, apex directed caudad, between eyes; frequently a broad, ir- regular light band down back, whitish, greenish or reddish in color; back frequently with small black spots, sometimes surrounding lighter areas or warts; about four prominent dark bars across upper lip on each side; usually a distinct, broad, dark longitudinal line on 88 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. posterior (concealed) surface of thigh, bordered above and below by a light color; ventral surfaces immaculate, sometimes spotted on chest and throat; usually a light-colored wart on each side of, and below anus. Size small, the maximum snout-vent measurement being 1% inches. Recognition Characters. — This species can be distinguished from all others in Kansas by the combination of three characters, as fol- lows: Presence of two (instead of 1) short terminal bones (about Fig. 53. A cricket frog, Acris crepitans blanchardi, X 3, UTMNH No. 16298 from 1 mile north and 3 miles west of Collinsville, Illinois. Photo by Charles A. McLaughlin. as long as broad) on digits; presence of extensive webbing on the feet; and the absence of disks on the tips of the digits. Most easily confused with A. crepitans are members of tlie genus Pseudacris, but these have only short webs on the hind feet. The slightly warty skin, pointed head, and the dark mark between the eyes are the characters most useful in quick identification, once a person has become familiar with the forms to be found in the state. Habits and Habitat. — These frogs generally are found in low vege- tation on the banks of any permanent or semipermanent bodies of water. They seem to avoid deep water, yet are seldom found so far from water that they could not reach it in a few hops. Smith: Frogs 89 The food consists of aquatic insects, terrestrial arthropods, cray- fish, ants, caterpillars, beetles, and spiders. The frogs are active during the day as well as at night, quickly jumping into the water when disturbed and swimming promptly to the bank at some other point. They migrate at night between pools. Breeding places include almost any water except shallow, transi- tory pools. The frogs emerge early in spring (late February), and remain active until late in the fall. Breeding, however, does not occur until early in April, and continues to as late as May 9. Sing- ing males are heard as late as July 15. Amplexation (clasping of the female by the male) is axillary. Usually the eggs are laid singly; a single female lays approximately 250 eggs. The call of this species is one of the most common of frog voices in eastern Kansas. It is a distinctive click as of small stones being struck together, repeated several times and often slurred by lessen- ing the intervals between notes. The call is not loud and does not carry well, but until the middle of July or even later it is more frequently heard than any other. Even after that time the frogs are commonly seen, but are seldom heard. The lazy rhythm of a small chorus of this species in late spring suggests that a sort of "call order" like that recently recorded for Hyla crucifer may occur. In the latter species, a chorus is com- posed of numerous trios, each in turn composed of three frogs emit- ting notes of different key. Each frog always sings the same key, and the calls are always initiated by the individual having the low- est note. The highest note is heard only after the other two have established their rhythm. The members of each trio may be widely dispersed in a chorus, but the composition of the trio remains the same despite interruptions, at least for an evening. Whether the cricket frog actually has a similar call order is not known, but certainly the nature of the call and the apparent rhythm casually observed suggest at least the possibility of some sort of order existing. This is a fertile field for observation, for in only the one species mentioned have any observations been recorded. Kansan Subspecies. — The Kansan subspecies is Acris crepitans blanchardi Harper, with type locahty at Smallen's Cave, Ozark, Christian County, Mis- souri. One other race, A. c. crepitans, occurs in the eastern United States. References. — Smith, 1934: 457-461, map 14 (description, natural history); Harper, 1947: 39-40 (description of A. c. blanchardi); Wright and Wright, 1949: 220-228, pi. 46. map 13 (general account). 90 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Genus Pseudacris Fitzinger Spotted Chorus Frog Pseudacris clarkii ( Baird ) Helocactcs clarkii Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 7, 1854, p. 60 (type lo- cality— Galveston, Texas). Pseudacris clarkii Smith, Amer. Midi. Nat., vol. 15, 1934, p. 462. Range. — South-central Kansas from Rush County (Nekoma) south through Lyon and Sedgwick counties (10 miles north of Wichita) on the east and Meade County on the west. Known from only si.x other localities: Cheyenne Bottoms south of Hoisington, Barton County (not shown in fig. 54); 10 miles south of Ensign, Gray County; Kingsdown, Ford County; Rezeau Ranch, Kiowa County; three miles southwest of Sun City, Barber County; and Harper, Harper County. Description. — Skin perfectly smooth; head rather flat; tympanum distinct, rather large, round, in contact with angle of jaw, separated from orbit by less than half of its own diameter, bordered above by a fold of skin; fingers not webbed; webs between toes short, not involving more than the basal phalan.x of the fourth toe; belly granular. Uusaum of Natural History UiM.arsilr ol Konias 1945 m Fig. 54. Distribution of the spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarkii, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Light slate above, with promiscuously placed, rather large to medium-sized spots, usually not arranged in longitudinal rows; usually a triangular dark mark between eyes; limbs banded except on concealed and ventral surfaces; venter immaculate, whitish. Size small, maximum snout-\ent measurement being IM inches. Smith: Frogs 91 Recognition Chaidcters. — The combination of absence of ex- tensive webs on the hind feet with the presence of a distinct tympa- num is absokitely distinctive of the members of the genus Pseudacris in Kansas. Gastro))Jiryne lacks the webs too but also lacks a visible tympanum. The two species of Pseudacris known from the state closely resemble each other, but can be distinguished by the follow- ing characters: P. clarkii lip not or feebly dark- P. nigrita 1. Upper lip distinctly dark-edged. 2. Usually no triangular dark mark between eyes. 3. Always striped or with spots ar- ranged in distinct rows. 4. Tympanum smaller and more widely separated from angle of jaws. 5. Eggs deposited in clumps of 1 10 or more. In the two species the calls are different and the tadpoles are known to differ in various structural details. Upper edged. A triangular dark mark between eyes. Usually with a pattern of irregu- larly distributed spots, but some- times striped. Tympanum larger and in contact or near-contact with angle of jaws. Eggs deposited in clumps of 20 or less. Fig. 55. Spotted chorus frogs, Pseudacris clarkii, X 1, from 2 miles north of Lex- ington, Cleveland County, Oklahoma. After Smith (1934). Habits and Habitat. — This species is characteristic of grassland prairies. "In springtime, it emerges early in the evening to feed, ranging through pastures and fields but never in roadways except quite incidentally. It does not frequent stream margins or pools (except, of course, for breeding) and is quite secretive and shy. . . . In late summer (mid-July through September) I have never found P. clarkii active (except in late breeding congresses) and I think 92 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. that, like the characteristic prairie biifos, they tend to be inactive during dry, hot weather." (Bragg, 1943: 130.) Mating occurs in temporary, shallow pools, never in deep pools. An important environmental factor in bringing about breeding activi- ties is rainfall; after the first heavy rains of spring ( providing a cer- tain undetermined minimum of moisture has previously fallen), the frogs come to the breeding sites. They breed at temperatures of as low as 5.5° C, and as early as March 5. If the spring is unusually dry, the breeding is delayed indefinitely, apparently with no ill effects, at least into August. The call normally is a "loud, medium pitched, and rapidly re- peated 'whank, whank, whank'" (Bragg, 1943: 131). However, the species has a surprisingly varied vocal repertoire, as discovered by Bragg. At temperatures below 12° C. the call is a slow grinding note, and when males approach a pond in which the species breeds they use a call not quite so loud as normal that has "an indescribable quality which, for want of a better term, I call 'pensive' or 'plead- ing.' " The latter calls presumably guide more distant males to the pools, and do not serve primarily to attract females. Amplexation is axillary, and is maintained for periods of up to twenty-four hours. The pair moves about, chiefly through efforts of the female, as eggs are laid in small masses here and there usually on vertical grasses, sedges or weed stems not more than three inches below the surface of the water. Occasionally the pair comes to the surface for air. Approximately 1,000 eggs are laid, in masses of 6 to 30. They have been described in detail by Bragg (1933: 133). They require a higher concentration of oxygen than do the eggs of most kinds of frogs, which fact may explain why the eggs are de- posited close to the surface of the water. They hatch, by disintegra- tion of the gelatinous envelopes, in 2/2 to 3 days. The tadpole has been described by Bragg (1943: 136-139). After transformation the young frogs "remain near the pool for about three or four days, then gradually scatter widely. While about the pool, the young are diurnal except in very hot, bright sunshine. In the latter situation, they seek protection beneath any appropriate object during the day and come forth at night to feed." (Bragg, 1943: 139.) Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species have been defined any- where in its range. References. — Smith, 1934: 462-465, map 15, fig. 24 (description); Bragg, 1943: 70-74 (natural history, compared with that of P. nigrita); Bragg, 1943: 129-140, figs. 1-4 (life- history ) . Smith: Frogs 93 Striped Chorus Frog Pseudacris nigrita (Le Conte) Rana nigrita Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 1, pt. 2, 1825, p. 282 (type localit>- — Liberty County, Georgia). Pseudacris nigrita Giinther, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., 1858, p. 97. Range. — The eastern two-thirds of the state. The western Hmit of range is not accurately known; the species has been taken as far west as Hays, Elhs County; Nekoma, Rush County; Pratt, Pratt County; and Kiowa, Barber County, In the northern part of the state it probably occurs as far west as Decatur County, yet has not been taken west of Miltonvale, Cloud County. uteum of Naturol Hi&torjr Univlrsity ol Konsos 1945 Fig. 56. Distribution of the striped chorus frog, Pseudacris nigrita, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Skin perfectly smooth; head ratlier flat; tympanum round, bordered above by a fold of skin, separated by one-third of its own diameter from angle of jaws, and by about three-fourths of its diameter from orbit; fingers not webbed; webs between toes very short; belly granular. Color light slate above; typically three broad dark slate stripes down back; middorsal stripe frequently broken, others less fre- quently; rarely a triangular dark mark between eyes; a dark spot covering each eyelid frequently present; transversely elongate spots on limbs; feet usually pigmented; ventral surfaces whitish; a few small black spots usually present on chest. Size small, the snout-vent length reaching 132 inches. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of P. clarkii. 94 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Habits and Habitat. — The usual habitat of this species of frog is swampy, marshy places, aud in such places the animals are abun- dant in spring. At this time of the year they may be found about temporary pools at roadsides or in pastures, or in small streams, although never, probably, as abundantly as along the shores of lakes and in flood plains. In summer and fall they seldom or never sing, and in these seasons are rarely found. -^.. ■ Fig. 57. A striped chorus frog. P.seitdacris ni- grita triseriata, X 1%, K. U. no. 23620, from 1 mile northeast of Riverton, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. Because they lack extensive webs between the toes, they are not strong swimmers, and because the disks on the digits are small, the animals seldom climb far above the water. The breeding season extends through March and April. Am- plexation is axillary. The call may be imitated by drawing a point across a comb, commencing at the bottom of a jar and rapidly bringing it to the mouth. Approximately two months are required for complete development from the egg to the time of transfor- mation. The food consists of many kinds of arthropods, including a large percentage of spiders and beetles. Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies occurring in Kansas is P. n. triseriata (Wied), the type locality of which is Mt. Vernon, Ohio River, Indiana. Five other subspecies occur in the eastern United States and central Canada. References. — Smith, 1934: 465-469, map 16 (description, natural history); Bragg, 1943: 70-75 (natural history, comparisons with P. clarkii); P. W. Smith, 1952: 165-180, pi. 1, figs. 1-2 (taxonomy). Smith: Frogs 95 Genus Hyla Laurenti Spring Peeper Hyla crucifer Wied Hyla crucifer Wied, Reise Nord. Anier., vol. 1, pt. 5, 1838, p. 275 (type localit)- — Leavenworth, Kansas). Range. — Extreme eastern Kansas. Recorded only from Leaven- worth, Leavenworth County, Pigeon Lake, Miami County and 2 miles south of Galena, Cherokee County, Fig. 58. Distribution of the spring peeper, HtjJa crucifer, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Skin perfectly smooth; no parotoid glands; tym- panum distinct, round, its diameter about two-thirds internarial distance, removed from angle of jaw by about one-half its length, from orbit by about three-fourths; largest disk on fingers but slightly smaller than tympanum; a distinct metatarsal tubercle and tarsal fold; no webs on fingers; webs on toes extending to antepenul- timate phalanx of fourth toe, to penultimate of others; ventral sur- faces granular. Color above light brown, with darker, brownish, narrow markings forming a band between eyes, a cross extending from eyes to the midlumbar region, and an inverted v-shaped mark in front of anus; frequently a band connecting the arms of the cross; limbs narrowK- banded; ventral surfaces yellowish, immaculate. Size small, the snout-vent measurement reaching l/i inches. Recognition Characters. — This is the only genus of amphibian in Kansas the fingers of which terminate in disks the largest of which 96 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. are nearly or quite as large as the distinct tympanum. The two species of this genus differ as follows: H. crucifer Ground color brownish. A distinct, narrow-lined cruciform mark on back. Webs between toes extending only to penultimate phalanges ( ante- penuhimate on 4th). H. versicolor 1. Ground color greenish, slate or gray. 2. Markings irregular, seldom cruci- form. 3. Webs between toes extending to terminal disks ( to ultimate pha- lanx on 4th). Fig. 59. Spring peeper. Hyla c. crucifer, X 2, from 3 miles northeast of Val- meyer, Monroe County, Illinois. Habits and Habitat. — This species occurs in marshes, swamps, ditches, ponds, any pools (whether temporary or permanent), in timbered areas and in untimbered lowlands. The breeding season is early — March 15 to March 24 in Kansas, so far as known. Amplexation is axillary. The song is a series of half-second peeps, repeated ten to twenty times at intervals of one minute or so. The sound has the quality of a high shrill whistle. In chorus the effect is that of jingling sleigh bells ( see p. 89 ) . Smith: Frogs 97 The eggs hatch in 4 to 5 days, and transformation requires 90 to 100 days. The food consists of such nonaquatic insects as bugs, flies, and beetles with a predominance of flying kinds. Kansan Subspecies. — H. c. crucifer occurs in Kansas. The only other sub- species recognized occurs in the extreme southeastern United States. References. — Smith, 1934: 470-472, map 17, fig. 26 (description, natural history); Wright and Wright, 1949: 311-315, pi. 66, map 23 (general account). Common Tree Frog Hyla versicolor Le Conte Hyla versicolor Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 1, pt. 2, 182.5, p. 28 (tjTJe locality — New York, New York). Range. — Eastern third of Kansas. Recorded from as far west as Manhattan, Riley County; Fall River, Greenwood County; and Elk City, Montgomery County. Musium of Noturfll Hutoij 1945 Fig. 60. Distribution of the common tree frog, Hyla versicolor, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Skin perfectly smooth; no parotoid glands; tympa- num distinct, large, round, its diameter sHghtly less than internarial distance, separated from angle of jaws by one-fourth to one-fifth its own diameter, and almost in contact with orbit; fingers shghtly webbed; digital disks large; a large inner metatarsal tubercle; toes nearly fully webbed; ventral surfaces granular. Color above normally light gray, but back with darker gray, black-outlined markings, frequently forming a bluntly five-pointed 4—9019 98 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. irregular star-shaped mark in pectoral region; a band across eacti upper eyelid; a dark line from posterior margin of eye to groin, limbs broadly banded; posterior concealed surface of thighs reticu- lated or blotched with darker color; concealed surfaces of thigft, shank and groin orange in life. Size moderate, the snout-vent measurement amounting to as much as 2% inches. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of H. crucifer. Habits and Habitat. — These animals are restricted to permanent, wooded bodies of water, such as lakes, permanent swamps, and streams. Although they seldom leave the vicinity of these perma- FiG. 61. Common tree frogs, Hyla v. versicolor. Top from Pigeon Lake, Miami County, Kansas, X 1V4; courtesy H. K. Gloyd. Bottom from 4 miles north and 1 mile east of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas, X %; photo by W. W. Tanner and T. P. Lyie. nent bodies of water, they are not actually in them, except during the breeding season, but remain in the trees, shrubs and sometimes on the ground, from where males call in summer and fall. Prior to the Smith: Frogs 99 actual breeding season they remain in these situations for periods of up to ten days. Males are heard as early as April 9 in Kansas, and mating occurs as late as June. At temperatures of 50° F. or less they do not call or breed. The eggs are laid in packets of thirty to forty, and from a single female total up to about 1,800. Amplexation is axillary. The call is a loud, pronounced trill of approximately two seconds duration, repeated at intervals of ten to twenty seconds. Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies of Kansas is H. v. versicolor. Two other subspecies, H. v. chnjsoscelis Cope and H. v. sandersi Smith and Brown, are recognized. They occur in Texas and Louisiana northward to Ilhnois. References. — Smith, 1934: 472-477, map 18, fig. 28 (description, natural history); Bragg, 1943: 64-67 (natural history). FAMILY RANIDAE Genus Rana Linnaeus Gopher Frog Rana areolata Baird and Girard Rana areolata Baird and Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, 1852, p. 173 (type locality — Indianola, Texas). Range. — Southeastern fifth of the state. Known as far west as 9 miles southeast of Toronto, Greenwood County, and 6^ miles northeast of Howard, Elk County; and as far north as Lawrence, Douglas County. Seal* Wwiaum er Naiwrfll MiJwf Un'*«r« m Fig. 62. Distribution of the gopher frog, Rana areolata, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. 100 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. riisi. Description. — Skin on sides with smooth warts; no parotoid glands; tympanum distinct, round, separated from eye by one-half its own diameter, which is about two-thirds diameter of eye; fingers not webbed; toes webbed to antepenultimate phalanx of fourth digit, to penultimate or ultimate phalanges of others; no blackened tu- bercles on hands or feet; a pair of prominent dorsolateral ridges ex- tending posteriorly to level of groin; short longitudinal ridges present between dorsolateral ridges. Color light slate or light brown above; back with numerous, dark Fig. 63. A gopher frog, Rana arcolata circulosa, X 1, from Haskell Bottoms, 2 miles south of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. After Smith (1934). bluish, blue-brown or darker brown, more or less rounded, usually hght-edged, sometimes light-centered, spots over body and head, smaller on latter; a distinct dark reticulation between these dark Smith: Frogs 101 spots on back; posterior limbs with about four dark cross-bands; forelimbs blotched. Ventral surfaces immaculate, whitish. Size moderately large, maximum snout-vent length, AVia inches. Recognition Characters. — The presence of distinct dorsolateral ridges combined with a pattern of large, round dark spots, dis- tinguishes this species from all others in Kansas except R. pipiens. From the latter it differs most clearly in having (whereas R. pipiens lacks) a dark reticulation between the dark spots on the back. Habits and Habitat. — These frogs generally are found in low meadow land, in crayfish holes, and seldom leave the holes except in the spring, when breeding choruses form in temporary pools. Ex- cept during the breeding season, the frogs are rarely seen. They pre- sumably live in the crayfish holes throughout the year, and wander but short distances from them, emerging only in early morning. They breed as early as March 11 and as late as May 15. The calls are short, one or two seconds in duration. Some 7,000 eggs are laid in masses five or six inches in diameter. The larvae are undescribed except for the mouthparts. Juvenal individuals are extremely rare in collections. Apparently they utilize burrows immediately upon transformation. If it were not for the annual breeding congresses, adults imdoubtedly would be as rarely found as are the juveniles. No other species of Rana in this country possess such secretive habits. In the postbreeding sea- son, specimens can be dug from their retreats, but a more eflFective and less tedious method is to probe into crayfish holes with a slender stick to the end of which is attached a small fishhook. Holes oc- cupied by frogs can be identified by the absence of an earthen funnel and the presence of a smooth platform beside the entrance. The vocal sacs of males are paired and are distended, when the song is produced, to a size almost equal to that of the head. Equally as unique as the habitat, so far as species of Rana in this country are concerned, are ( 1 ) the formation of breeding congresses in response only to heavy rains, and (2) utilization by the congresses of temporary pools. These features identify the xeric (arid) type of breeding pattern, and suggest that in the distant past the frogs were subject to much more arid conditions than they now are. Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies occurring in Kansas is Rana areolata circulosa Davis and Rice, with type locality at Olney, Richland County, Illinois. The only other subspecies, R. a. areolata, occurs to the soutli, in Texas, Okla- homa, Arkansas and Louisiana. References. — Smith, 1934: 477-482, map 19, fig. 31; Bragg, 1953 (breeding behavior, eggs, tadpoles); Goin and Netting, 1940: 153-158 (taxonomy, natural history). 102 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Bullfrog Rana catesbeiana Shaw Rana catesbeiana Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. 3, pt. 1, 1802, p. 106, pi. 33 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Ratige. — Presumably state-wide; not recorded in extreme southwestern corner. Description. — Skin smooth; no parotoid glands; tympanum distinct, round to oval, its diameter twice internarial distance in males, equal in fe- males; fingers not webbed; toes fully webbed, ter- minal phalanx of 4th toe sometimes partly free; no blackened tuber- cles on hands or feet; no dorsolateral ridges, although tympanum is bordered above by a fold. Museum of Natural Hislofy Univartiljr ol Kontat 1945 Fig. 64. Distribution of the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, in Kansas. Color above green or olive to brownish, either uniform or indis- tinctly blotched with darker; hind legs usually indistinctly banded or spotted; if the latter, spots arranged in transverse rows; venter whitish or obscurely mottled with dark color, especially on chest and throat; concealed surfaces of shank and thigh heavily mottled or re- ticulated. Young and larvae with numerous scattered, minute, black specks above. Size large, the snout-vent length reaching eight inches. Recognition Characters. — This can be distinguished from all other species of Rana in Kansas by the complete absence of dorsolateral folds; all others have them extending at least halfway to the groin. From other species of anurans in Kansas it may be distinguished by Smith: Frogs 103 the following combination of characters: smooth skin, lacking paro- toid glands ( excludes Btifo ) ; absence of a blackened tubercle with a free cutting edge at base of foot (excludes Spea); presence of complete webs between toes, with no more than the last phalanx of the fourth toe free from web (excludes Pseudacris and Gastro- phrtjne); and absence of disks at the tips of the digits (excludes Hyla). Fig. 65. A bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, X %, from 2 miles north and 1 mile east of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by W. W. Tanner and T. P. Lyle. Habits and Habitat. — These frogs are restricted to permanent bodies of water such as lakes, rivers and swamps with deep water. Isolated ponds may be inhabited if the water is permanent. Intro- duced into cattle tanks, they appear to live well. Dispersal by man has resulted in establishment under natural conditions of the species in areas as remote as eastern Mexico and California, whereas the natural range seems to have been restricted 104 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist, to the eastern United States. In a few decades the former natural range may well become completely obscured. The period of hibernation is probably passed under water. Emer- gence occurs as early as February 16, but mating follows much later, certainly in May. The eggs are laid in large films of 10,000 to 20,000 eggs each and one film covers one to two and one-half square feet; the eggs hatch in four to five days. The larvae typically require one year for transformation, which occurs late in the second summer after hatching. The food is of great variety, including small vertebrates as well as arthropods. A goodly proportion is terrestrial. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Smith, 1934: 482-487, map 20 (description, natural history); Wright and Wright, 1949: 444-449, pi. 94, map 29 (general account). Green Frog Rana clamitans Latreille Rana clamitans Latreille, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 2, 1802, p. 157 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Range. — Extreme eastern Kansas south of the Missouri River. Recorded from only two counties: Miami (Marais des Cygnes River near Osawatomie) and Cherokee (Riverton and Shoal Creek 200 ft. from Missouri line, west of Baxter Springs). Fio. 66. Distribution of the green frog, Rana clamitans, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Smith: Frogs 105 Description. — Skin with numerous smooth or spinose rugosities, except on head; rugosities on hind Hmbs sometimes arranged in lon- gitudinal rows; no parotoid glands; tympanum distinct, in females separated from orbit and angle of jaws by one-half its diameter, which is one-third greater than internarial distance; tympanum in males with a diameter twice internarial distance and practically in contact with orbit and angle of jaws; fingers not webbed; toes fully webbed except for proximal phalanx of fourth toe; no blackened tubercles on hand or foot; dorsolateral ridges present, extending pos- teriorly only half the length of the back ( to the sacrum, marked by the hump, at middle of back ) . Color uniform olive or olive-brown; sometimes blackish blotches of indefinite outline scattered over back, sides and top of head; limbs sometimes narrowly banded; posterior surfaces of thighs re- ticulated or heavily marbled with blackish, or almost uniform blackish or gray with minute light spots; throat sometimes faintly blotched with gray, venter otherwise white, immaculate. Size moderate, snout-vent measurement reaching four inches. Recognition Characters. — The presence of dorsolateral folds ex- tending halfway down the back is distinctive of this species. The complete absence of distinctly outlined dark spots is characteristic, but R. catesheiana, as well as each of several other species, is similar in this respect. Fig. 67. A green frog. Rami damitans clamitans, X '/!>, from Callahan, Florida. Courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright. Habits and Habitat. — This solitary frog, like R. catesbeiana, is restricted to permanent pools or streams. In Kansas the breeding habits are unknown. Elsewhere it emerges in April, and breeding 106 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. follows much later. The larvae typically transform about three months after hatching. The call is a twanging bass note repeated at intervals of some thirty seconds. The life history of northern individuals has been studied in detail. Nothing is known of the life history of individuals in the central and southern parts of the range, where transformation may be ex- pected to occur in the first year, without overwintering in the tad- pole stage. It is reliably recorded that a similar abbreviation occurs in the life history of the bullfrog, in which transformation requires two years in the north and only one in the south. Ovulation (egg-laying) occurs in a period of about three weeks at any time in a period of two and one-half months in the north, but whether such an extended period holds in the central part of the range is unknown. Details of all parts of the life history of indi- viduals in Kansas and in more southern areas are to be desired for comparison with those of individuals from more northern areas. The food is ninety percent nonaquatic, consisting of worms and various arthropods such as insects, crayfish and spiders. Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are recognized. The one occurring in Kansas is Rana clamitans melanota (Rafinesque), with Lake Champlain as type locahty. It ranges northward from southern Oklahoma, southern Ilhnois and the coastal plain into Canada. References. — Smith, 1934: 488-491, map 2 (description, natural history); Mecham, 1954: 1-24, figs. 1-7, pi. 1 (taxonomy); Wright and Wright, 1949: 450-454, pi. 95, map 30 (gen- eral account). Pickerel Frog Rana palustris Le Conte Rana palustris Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 1, pt. 2, 1825, p. 282 (type locality — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). Range. — Extreme southeastern Kansas. Recorded only from Cherokee (3 to 5 miles north of Baxter Springs) and Crawford (Cow Creek, Pittsburg) counties. Description. — Skin with a pair of broad dorsolateral ridges ex- tending posteriorly to level of groin; a number of short longitudinal ridges between folds; tympanum distinct, round, sometimes bor- dered above by a fold of skin and separated from tympanum and angle of jaws by about one-third its own diameter; fingers not webbed; toes nearly fully webbed but deeply indented, the two terminal phalanges of fourth toe free or with a narrow flap bordering each side; metatarsal tubercles present but not blackened. Smith: Frogs 107 Color above tan or light brown; rectangular, definitely outlined, sometimes narrowly light-bordered dark reddish-brown spots, ar- ranged in two more or less regular rows between the dorsolateral ridges and also in two rows on the sides, the lower row of much smaller spots; forelegs blotched above, hind legs narrowly banded; dorsolateral ridges sometimes silvery; posterior surfaces of thigh blotched; concealed surfaces of thigh and groin orange; ventral sur- face whitish, unmarked or with a few spots on lower lips. Size moderate, the snout-vent measurement reaching SVq inches. Sceli 10 0 » *oMHt« Hwiium ol Noturfll HlltOff UiUvrtltf of Konioa 1949 Fig. 68. Distribution of the pickerel frog, Rana palustris, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Recognition Characters. — The presence of dorsolateral ridges ex- tending posteriorly to the level of the groin distinguishes this species from all other anurans of the state with the exception of R. areolata, R. pipiens and R. sylvatica. The latter has no distinctly outlined spots, and is thus easily separable from R. palustris, but the first two do have spots. From R. areolata and R. pipiens, palustris differs chiefly in the presence of rectangular instead of round or oval spots, the arrangement of them in regular rows, and in the presence of an orange color on the concealed surfaces of the flank and thigh. Habits and Habitat. — This species frequents cold springs, perma- nent, clear streams, ponds, lakes and the like, where vegetation at 108 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. the water's edge is sufficient for concealment. Among the species of the genus Rana of the United States, palustris is exceptional in its ability to secrete an irritating fluid poisonous in the digestive tract of other animals. These secretions will kill other amphibians if they are kept in close confinement with R. palustris, and are very dan- gerous to man if eaten. No details of the life history in Kansas are known, but elsewhere the eggs, 2,000 to 3,000 in number, are laid in masses 3/2 to 4 inches Fig. 69. A pickerel frog, Rana palustris, X %. Courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright. in diameter, and hatch in 11 to 21 days. The larvae transform 90 to 100 days after hatching. A vast variety of arthropods is eaten. Recently transformed individuals have a diet of 76 percent terrestrial forms, whereas in adults 95 percent of the food is terrestrial, in large part as a result of the thickened skin allowing a wider forage range. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Smith, 1934: 491-494, map 22 (description, natural history); Wright and Wright, 1949: 476-480, pi. 100, map 32 (general account). Smith: Frogs 109 Leopard Frog Rana pipiens Schreber Rana pipiens Schreber, Naturforscher, vol. 18, 1872, p. 185, pi. 4 (White Plains, New York, or Raccoon Landing, Gloucester County, New Jersey ) . Range. — State-wide. Description. — A pair of dorsolateral ridges ex- tending posteriorly to groin; usually short ridges present between dorsolateral ridges; no parotoid glands; tympanum with a diameter equal to or somewhat greater than internarial distance, sepa- rated by one-fourth its diameter from orbit, by one- sixth from angle of jaws; fingers not webbed; toes nearly or fully webbed, except two terminal phalanges on fourth toe, which are bordered by a narrow flap of skin extending from web; a distinct tarsal fold; metatarsal tubercles present but not blackened. Fig. 70. Distribution of the leopard frog, Rana pipiens, in Kansas. The range of R. p. berlandieri in the eastern part of the state is indicated by the lined area and that of R. p. brachycephala by the stippled area. Color above slate; brownish gray to dark gray or blackish spots on back and sides; bands or spots on hind legs; frequently a light band along dorsolateral ridges, and from above axilla below tym- panum and eye onto side of head; in some specimens (especially southeastern), a distinct dark stripe extends from orbit through nares to tip of snout, the light line below encroaching upon the for- mer and not narrowly restricted; ventral surfaces immaculate save 110 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. for markings about edge of lower jaw; posterior surface of thigh spotted or reticulated with darker. Size moderate, the snout-vent measurement reaching 4M2 inches. Recognition Characters. — Only three species of frogs in Kansas possess a pair of dorsolateral folds extending to groin, combined with distinctly outlined dark spots: R. areolata, R. palustris, and R. pipiens. For comparisons of the latter with the former two see dis- cussions of R. areolata and R. palustris. "as. Fig. 71. A leopard frog, Rana pipiens brachycephala, X 1, from Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. Habits and Habitat. — The leopard frog is the most ubiquitous of the anurans of the state. Practically every roadside pool, stream, pond, lake, swamp and river has its quota, especially during the breeding season and early summer, when transformation takes place. During much of the year specimens may be found in damp situa- tions far from water. Hibernation takes place in mud and water at depths below the frost line. The frogs emerge as early as February 2. Breeding has been reported as early as March 10, and may continue until the middle of May. The song is a low chuckling of varied frequency. Smith: Frogs 111 The eggs, 4,000 to 6,500 in number, are laid in masses four to five inches in diameter and hatch in five to twenty days. In approxi- mately three months the larvae transform. The food consists almost wholly of nonaquatic arthropods. Kansan Subspecies. — Two races, Rana pipiens herlandieri Baird (with type locality in southern Texas) and R. p. brachycephala Cope (with type locality on Yellowstone River), occur in Kansas. There are a number of difiFerences between these two races in Kansas, the most reliable of which is the ratio of head length to head width. The latter divided by the former is 1.1 or more in R. p. brachycephala and less than 1.1 in R. p. berlandieri. Not only is the southeastern race more narrow-headed, but in it the longitudinal bands on the front of the thigh are indicated at least by a row of spots (entirely absent in R. p. brachycephala) ; a spot is rarely present on top of the snout in front of eyes (usually present in R. p. brachycephala); and distinct bands are present on each side of the head from the eyes to the tip of the snout (absent or in- distinct in R. p. brachycephala) . References. — Smith, 1934: 494-501, map 23 (description, natural history); Wright and Wright, 1949: 498-520, pis. 105-115, map 34 (general accomit). Wood Frog Rana sylvatica Le Conte Rana sylvatica Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 1, pt. 2, 1825, p. 282 (type locality — New York, New York). Range. — Limits unknown in Kansas. Apparently a relict form, known at present only from the Verdigris River bottoms in extreme southwestern Lyon County. wHiltl =1 Mustum el Nolgrot History UnivtMily ol Kansas 1943 Fig. 72. Distribution of the wood frog, Rana sylvatica, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. 112 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Description. — Dorsolateral ridges extending to level of groin; skin v^ith small, smooth irregularities giving it a somewhat rough appear- ance; no parotoid glands; tympanum distinct, its diameter entering body length 11 to 15 times; no blackened tubercles on hands or feet; fingers not webbed; toes fully webbed, except on fourth toe. Color brownish above, usually uniform and unspotted, but some- times a median white stripe present, and/or a dark area down middle of back bordering the stripe if present; hind legs with narrow dark bars; a prominent dark stripe on side of head from snout through eye and tympanum, bordered below by a broad white line; edge of upper lip dark; throat and chest usually speckled, ventral surfaces otherwise white. Size rather small, the snout-vent measurement not exceeding 2/4 inches, tibia-body proportion .45 to .55; leg ( to heel ) equally as long as, or shorter than, body. Fig. 73. A wood frog, Rana s. cantabrigensis, X 1, . from Fox Ridge State Park, Coles Couiity, Illuiois. Photo by Charles A. McLaughlin. Recognition Characters. — The combination of a dark patch on side of head (involving tympanum), absence of distinctly outlined spots on back, and presence of a pair of dorsolateral ridges extend- ing to the level of the groin, is absolutely distinctive of this species in Kansas. R. clamitans and R. catesbeiana lack dorsal spots but the dorsolateral ridges are either absent or reach only halfway to the groin, and they lack the black patch on the side of the head. No other anurans closely resemble JR. sylvatica. Habits and Habitat. — This is strictly a woods frog, never found in open areas. Breeding occurs in woodland pools. Unlike other ranas of Kansas, it hibernates on land, under stumps, logs or stones. Smith: Frogs 113 The natural history of this frog in Kansas is unknown. Elsewhere it breeds from March to July at temperatures of some 50° F. The eggs, 2,000 to 3,000 in number, are laid in masses 2^4 to 4 inches in diameter. The larvae transform 44 to 85 days after hatching. The call is said to be a hoarse clacking. Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies reported in Kansas is R. sylvatica canta- brigensis Baird, with type locality at Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan. Two other sub- species are recognized. One, Rana s. sylvatica he Conte, is to be expected in the extreme southeastern corner of Kansas. Its chief peculiarity is the long legs, whose length enters only .53 to .62 times into the snout-vent length, as opposed to .62 to .74 in R. s. cantabrigensis; the tibia-body proportion is greater, .55 or more, and the leg ( to heel ) is longer than the body. References. — Wright and Wright, 1949: 540-552 (description, natural history); Schmidt, 1938: 377-379 (taxonomy). FAMILY MICROHYLIDAE Genus Gastrophryne Fitzinger Eastern Narrow-mouthed Frog Gastrophryne carolinensis (Holbrook) Engystoma carolinense Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp., ed. 1, vol. 1, 1836, p. 83, pi. 11 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). GastTophryne carolinensis Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Amer. Amph. Kept., 1917, p. 40. Range. — Extreme southeastern corner of the state. Recorded only from four miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. i - hiHttum of Ngiurgl Hiiiorr Univartllr of KanMS 1943 Fig. 74. Distribution of the eastern narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne carolinensis, in Kan- sas, with insert showing range of the species. 114 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Description. — Skin smooth; no parotoid glands; no tympanum visible; head narrow, pointed, considerably narrower than body; no webs on either fingers or toes; an inner but no outer metatarsal tubercle, not cornified; a transverse groove passing across head be- tween posterior borders of orbits and extending onto each side of head behind angles of jaws, and sometimes completely encircHng, the head; no tarsal fold; a groove across chest between armpits. Color dark slate gray above; sides and broad middorsal area often darker than rest of body; irregular dark spots outline a middorsal area, whether this area is darker or not; the area generally narrower in front than behind, but very variable in shape; limbs with variable dark marks; ventral surfaces of body and limbs dark, with small, scattered, rounded light spots. In males the throat is dark. Size small, maximum snout-vent measurement being 1% inches. Recognition Characters. — ^All other anurans in the state, except Gastrophrijne olivacea, have at least short webs between the toes, and a distinct tympanum. The broad body and narrow, pointed head are likewise distinctive. This species possesses a heavily pig- mented belly, whereas the belly in G. olivacea is unpigmented. Fig. 75. Eastern narrow-mouthed frogs, Gastrophrijne carolinensis. Left, K. U. no. 24414, 4 miles east of Baxter Springs. Cherokee County, Kansas, X "/lo- Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. Right, from southern tip of Matagorda Island, Matagorda Counts', Texas, X IVa. Photo by R. R. Hamm. Habits and Habitat. — Wooded, moist regions are inhabited; there the animals are found most often either breeding about clear, tem- porary pools and backwater, or under surface debris. During dry periods they remain buried underground and are rarely seen. In the breeding season, from April to August, the males call from terrestrial pools with a peculiar bleating voice quite like that of Smith: Frogs 115 sheep. It is of low intensity, scarcely audible at a distance of fifty to seventy-five feet away. The call is short, lasting 1.5 to 2 seconds. The eggs and tadpoles are well known (see Wright, 1934). The egg mass is a surface film; in some instances the eggs are in separate packets of ten to ninety eggs each. The complement is about 850 eggs, the envelopes of which are truncate. The tadpoles are small ( 1 inch in length ) , flat and wide; the head is notably flattened, the snout is truncate, and the eyes are visible from below. The spiracle is immediately in front of the anus. There is no disk, or horny man- dible, and there are no papillae, or horny teeth. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Wright, 1931: 452-476, numerous illus. (complete account, Okefinokee Swamp, Georgia); Hecht and Matalas, 1946: 1-21 (taxonomic review); Carvalho, 1954: 12- 13 (generic status). Western Narrow-mouthed Frog Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell) Engystoma olivaceum Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 8, 1856, p. 252 ( type locality — Ft. Riley, Geary County, Kansas ) . Gastrophryne olivacea Smith, Copeia, 1933, p. 217. Range. — Eastern two-thirds of the state. Peripheral records to the west and north are in Meade (State Park), Rush (Nekoma), Ellis (6 miles west of Hays), and Jewell (14 miles north of Man- kato) counties. iitwm of Natural HItlorir Uni«arill|r of Konioi 1949 m Fig. 76. Distribution of the western narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne olivacea, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. 116 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Description. — Skin smooth; no parotoid glands; no tympanum visi- ble; head narrow^, pointed, considerably narrower than body; no webs on either fingers or toes; a cornified inner but no outer meta- tarsal tubercle; a transverse groove passing across head between posterior borders of orbits and extending onto each side of head behind angles of jaws, and sometimes completely encirchng the head; no tarsal fold; a groove across chest between armpits. Color slate or brownish gray above, either uniform or with a few black spots scattered over back and hind legs; ventral surface whitish, immaculate or with faint reticulations of dark color on throat and sides. In males the throat is black. Size small, maximum snout-vent measurement being VAe inches. Recognition Characters. — This species differs from all other Kan- san anurans, save only Gastrophryne carolinensis, in the absolute ab- sence of webs between the toes; it is also the only one in which the tympanum is entirely concealed. The broad body and narrow, pointed head are also distinctive. The most obvious distinction from G. carolinensis is in belly markings; in G. olivacea the belly is completely unpig- mented, while in G. carolinensis the belly is heavily pigmented except in pigment- less areolae. Habits and Habitat. — This frog is found Fig. 77. A western narrow- ill woodcd arcas, somctimcs iu rocky mouthed frog, Gastrophryne -n i .1- i • rr o. olivacea, X 1, from 5 miles zoucs. Kocks are the usual cover in Kan- Te^'n'l.e, DougiaT'county,°Ka^srs' sas, but the animal is subterranean in Photo by w.^ w^Tanner and j-^^b^^s and iu many parts of its range out- side Kansas it inhabits rockless areas. Breeding occurs from April through early September, after rain- storms when the temperature is high. While active early in spring, at least in April, breeding is delayed until later in the season. The call is a slight peep followed by a high-pitched shrill buzz of two to three seconds duration, audible at a distance of 50 to 100 feet. The eggs, some 600 in number, are laid as a surface film. Tad- poles transform thirty to fifty days after hatching. Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are recognized. The one in Kansas is G. o. olivacea. The other, G. o. mazatlanensis Taylor, occurs in Arizona and northwestern Mexico. References. — Smith, 1934: 501-505, map 24, fig. 30 (description, natural history); Bragg and Smith, 1942: 40 (breeding); Bragg, 1943: 75-76 (breeding); Wright and Wright, 1949: 578-583, pi. 126 (description, natural history); Hecht and Matalas, 1946: 1-26 (taxonomic review); Freiburg, 1951 (thorough ecological study); Tanner, 1950: 47-48 (habits); Car- valho, 1954: 12-13 (generic status). Smith: Reptiles 117 Class REPTILIA Laurenti Two orders of reptiles occur in Kansas: the Testudines or tur- tles, and Squamata. The latter includes the two suborders of lizards ( Sauria ) and snakes ( Serpentes ) . One other order, the Crocodilia, possibly occurred naturally in Kansas at one time, but is now extinct in the state and in fact is not now reliably known nearer than eastern Texas. The only repre- sentative concerned, the alligator, was reported by Cragin in 1885 from the Arkansas River at Wichita, and this report has received credence rather widely. This is the only indication, so far as known, of the occurrence of the species naturally within the borders of the state. The range of the species has rapidly diminished in historic times, however, and it is entirely reasonable to suppose that the alligator formerly ranged up the Arkansas River as far as Wichita. Explorers reported in the early days of settlement in Texas that the species occurred commonly far in the northwestern part of the state, while it is now restricted to the southeastern corner. Even at the present time reports are circulated at intervals of the discovery of alligators in ponds and streams in various parts of Kansas. All specimens reported are small, however, and the con- clusion is inescapable that they have been imported and subse- quently released or permitted to escape. The alligator, therefore, is not included as a member of the present fauna of Kansas. Deletion of the alligator from the faunal list for Kansas is com- pensated for numerically by the addition of one other reptile ap- parently not formerly occurring in the state — the so-called American chameleon, better termed the Carolina anole. This small lizard, so popular in the "pet" trade of this country, has reportedly become established in the environs of Leavenworth, Kansas, as a result of the release of imported animals. Although introduced, it may rightfully be counted as a member of the present Kansas fauna if the lizard actually becomes successfully established, as it is claimed it is. Thus slowly does the fauna of a region change. The perma- nence of the addition of the Carolina anole to the Kansas fauna is not assured, however; only continued attention to the colonies known will reveal the ultimate success of the introduction. Reports from persons familiar with the Kansan colonies, or with other intro- duced species, would be of great value. Wanton introduction of species of any animal into new areas is highly undesirable, but where it has occurred a study of the history of the colonies can be of some scientific value. 118 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Reptiles do not pass through a transformation from a larval to a Juvenal stage as do amphibians. Accordingly the keys given here should apply equally well to all post-embryonic stages. The eggs of reptiles are incompletely known and no serious at- tempt has ever been made to distinguish those of one kind from those of another. Within certain limits such differentiation should be possible, and deserves the attention of students of natural history. Not all reptiles lay eggs. All turtles do lay eggs as also do aU species of lizards in the state of Kansas unless the short-horned lizard, a live-bearer, actually does occur in the state. A number of snakes produce active young. They include all members of the subfamily Natricinae (Thumnophis, Natrix, Storeria, Haldea, and Tropidoclonion) , and all of the pit vipers (family Crotalidae) of this state. In some species little exchange of materials occurs be- tween embryo and mother, but in others the exchange is so extensive as to require a placenta of sorts. In the more primitive live-bearing snakes the eggs are thus simply held in the body until, in effect, they hatch. Occasionally an individual of such a species may ac- tually lay eggs that hatch very shortly after deposition (suspected of Haldea). Some egg-laying species approach the live-bearers, laying eggs that hatch in but a few days (as in Opheodnjs vernalis) or, in rare instances, actually giving birth to the active young ( Diadophis punctatus ) . There are almost as many definitions of turtle, slider, terrapin and tortoise as there are herpetologists. The definitions preferred by perhaps most are as follows. Terrapins are members of the genus Malaclemys, restricted to salt-water marshes of the Atlantic coast of the United States and perhaps Mexico; they are highly prized for food. Tortoises are members of the family Testudinidae, of world- wide distribution in areas of tropical and subtropical climate, occur- ring in the United States only in the extreme south from Florida to Arizona ( genus Gopherns only ) . Sliders are members of the genus Psettdemtjs, all river turtles, restricted to North America north of Panama. Turtles are any and all members of the order Testudines. Key to Orders and Suborders of Reptilia 1. Limbs and head retractable within a leathery or bony shell; turtles. Order Testudines, p. 119 r. Limbs and head not retractable; no shell Order Squamata, p. 163 2. Belly with a single row of large, undivided, transverse plates; always limbless; most snakes Suborder Serpentes, p. 210 Smith: Turtles 119 2'. Belly with many rows of scales, sometimes arranged in a transverse series, but never fused together into single transverse plates; legs present except in two species. 3. No eyelids; a scale, several times as large as eye, covering latter; worm snakes Suborder Serpentes, p. 3'. Eyelids present; eye not covered by a scale larger than eye; lizards Suborder Sauria, p. Turtles 210 163 Order TESTUDINES Batsch Thirteen species of turtles, belonging to four separate families, occur in the state, and no species is represented by more than one subspecies. Two other species, Emys blandingii and Kinosternon subrubrum, probably will be found to occur in the state. The part of the shell shielding the upperpart of a turtle is the carapace; and the part shielding the lower part of the animal is the plastron. The two parts of the shell are united by a narrow bridge on each side of the body. In all except the soft-shelled turtles, the shell is covered by a number of large, thin, horny plates or laminae. They are illustrated and named in Figures 81 and 82B. Key to Species of Titrtles 1. Shell soft and leathery at least at edges, not covered by large plates. 2. Anterior border of carapace absolutely smooth; wall separating nos- trils from each other smooth and even, without longitudinal ridges ( Fig. 78A ) Amyda inutica, p. 157 Fig. 78. Anterior view of tips of snouts of soft-shelled turtles. A. Smooth soft-shelled turtle, Amyda mutica, X 15, K. U. no. 1962, De Vails Bluff, Prairie County, Arkansas. B, Desert soft-shelled turtle, Amyda ferox emoryi, X 9, K. U. no. 3128, Phoenix, Mari- copa County, Arizona. Both drawings by Ann Murray. 2'. Anterior border of carapace provided with tubercles; wall separating nostrils from each other provided with a prominent ridge on each side which projects into each nasal opening (Fig. 78B). Amyda ferox, p. 160 120 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 79. Laminae of plastron of common snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina, X %, K. U. no. 3388, De Vails Bluff, Prairie County, Arkansas; AB, axillary bridge scale; Ab, abdominal; An, anal; F, femoral; G, gular (usually not even partly split, as here); H, humeral; IB, inguinal bridge scale; P, pectoral. Smith: Turtles 121 1'. Shell hard, bony, covered by large laminae. 2. Zone where upper and lower shells are fused ( the "bridge" ) at least twice as broad as long (Fig. 79). 3. Head covered with smooth, symmetrical plates; scales on under side of tail irregularly arranged; tubercles on sides of neck branched; 3 to 5 extra scutes between marginals and costals abo\e the bridge (Fig. 80, x) Macroclemys temminckii, p. 131 Fig. 80. Carapace of alLgator snapping ttirtle, Macroclemys temminckii, X V2, K. U. no. 3401, De Vails Bluff, Prairie County, Arkansas; the lateral marginals, actually not visible in dorsal view, are depicted as though they were, in order clearly to indicate the supramarginals (indicated by X). 3'. Head covered with soft skin; scales on under side of tail ar- ranged in 2 rows at least in part; tubercles on sides of neck un- branched; no exira scutes between marginals and costals. Chehjdra serpentina, p. 134 122 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 81. Plastra of musk and mud turtles. A. Cojumon musk turtle, Sterno- therus odoratus, X V2, K. U. no. 17122, 1 mile east of Climax, Greenwood County, Kansas. B. Yellow mud turtle, Kinosternon flavescens, X V2, K. U. no. 20521, 1 mile northwest of Aetna, Barber County, Kansas. Labels as in Fig. 75A. The stippling indicates the area of uncomified skin; the other areas are comified. Fig. 82. Laminae of carapaces of false map turtle and elegant slider. A. False map turtle, Graptemys pseudogeographica, X %, K. U. no. 3238, De Vails Bluff, Prairie Covmty, Arkansas. B. Elegant slider, Pseudemys scripta, X %, K. U. no. 3328, Pratt, Pratt County, Kansas. C, costals; M, marginals; N, nuchal; V, vertebrals. Smith: Turtles 123 2'. Bridge about as long as wide or longer (Fig. 81). 3. Plastron (exclusive of bridge) with 5 pairs of scutes preceded usually either by no other scutes or by an unpaired one (if by another pair, then these extremely minute); plastron completely separated from carapace by uncomified skin and by two or more small bridge laminae. 4. First pair of scutes on lower side reaching (or nearly reach- ing) 3rd pair at midline (Fig. 81B). Kinosternon ftavescens, p. 129 4'. First pair of scutes widely separated from 3rd pair (Fig. 81A) Stertwtherus odoratus, p. 126 3'. Plastron ( exclusive of bridge ) with 6 pairs of scutes, the anterior of which is not minute; plates of plastron at least partially in direct contact with plates of carapace at bridge. 4. Front part of plastron hinged onto the rest and movable.* 5. Upper jaw notched at apex; carapace black with hun- dreds of small, round or oval, yellow spots (not yet re- corded from Kansas) Emys bJandingii, p. 323 5'. Upper jaw hooked at apex; carapace brownish, with no markings or with radiating light streaks. 6. Usually 3 claws on rear feet; markings absent below, dim above; median scales on carapace keeled. Terrapene Carolina, p. 137 6'. Usually 4 claws on rear feet; distinct, radiating yellow lines above and below; no keel on carapace. Terrapene ornata, p. 141 4'. Entire plastron solid (no part liinged) and immovable. 5. Carapace smoothly rounded behind, edges of all plates even; a notch at tip of upper jaw, flanked on either side by a short projection ( Fig. 83A ) . ,. . Chrysemtjs picta, p. 149 * Of preserved specimens which are hardened, those with the hinges have a very deep groove between the pectoral and abdominal laminae. 124 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat, Hist. Fig. 83. A. Palatal view of upper jaw of a skull of a painted turtle, Chrysemys picta, X 2, K. U. no. 1914, Pratt, Pratt County, Kansas. B. Palatal view of upper jaw of skull of a false map turtle, Graptemys geographica, X 2, K. U. no. 2466, Doniphan Lake, Doniphan County, Kansas. C. Edges of lips as seen with the mouth partly open, front view, of an elegant slider, Psetidemys scripta, X %, K. U. no. 17227, Va mile west of Runnymede, King- man County, Kansas. D. Edges of lips as seen with the mouth partly open, front view, of a map turtle, Graptemys geographica, X %, K. U. no. 3265, Franklin County, Kansas, ar, alveolar ridge; as, alveolar surface; n, notch; p, protuberance. Fig. 84. Patterns, on heads of map turtles, all from dorsolateral view, X 2. A. Map turtle, Graptemys geographica, K. U. no. 3265, Franklin County, Kansas. B. False map turtle, Graptemys pseudogeographica, K. U. no. 3288, Neosho River, CoflFey County, Kan- sas. C. Same, K. U. no. 3298, Verdigris River, Montgomery County, Kansas. D. Same, K. U. no. 3287, Neosho River, Coffey County, Kansas. Smith: Turtles 125 5'. Carapace notched and irregular behind (Fig. 82); no notch on upper jaw, or if so it is not flanked on either side by a projection (Figs. 83B, C, D, 85A, C). 6. Crushing surface of upper jaw ( as seen with mouth open ) not ridged ( Fig. 83B ) ; plate in middle of anterior margin ( "nuchal" ) less than twice as long as broad (Fig. 82A). 7. A small (much narrower than diameter of orbit), more or less triangular, yellow spot behind eye; a distinct, vertical light line between this spot and eye (Fig. 84A). Graptemtjs geographica, p. 144 7'. A large (at least as wide as diameter of orbit) crescentic or transverse yellow spot (frequently linelike) behind eye, often continued forward under eye and backward on neck; no or only dim light lines between this spot and eye (Fig. 84B, C, D). Graptemys pseudogeographica, p. 147 6'. Crushing surface of upper jaw (as seen with mouth open) with a ridge running parallel to the edge of the jaw ( Fig. 85A, C ) ; nuchal at least twice as long as broad (Fig. 82B). 7. The broad light stripe which originates at posterior comer of eye f of uniform diameter, not widened posteriorly (Fig. 86C); ridge on crushing surface of upper jaw serrate. (Fig. 85A); lower jaw serrate at sides (Fig. 85B) Pseudemys floridana, p. 152 7'. The broad light stripe which originates at posterior comer of eye greatly widened posteriorly (Fig. 86A, B); ridge on cmshing surface of upper jaw smooth ( Fig. 85C ) ; lower jaw not toothed at sides Pseudemys scripta, p. 155 Fig. 85. A. Palatal view of upper jaw of a skull of a saw-toothed slider, Pseudemys fiori- dana, X 1%, K. U. no. 1179, De Vails Bluff. Prairie County, Arkansas. B. Dorsolateral view of lower jaw of same, X 1*A. C. Palatal view of upper jaw of a skull of an elegant slider, Pseudemys scripta, X V/i, K. U. no. 2899, Doniphan Lake, Doniphan County, Kansas. Fig. 86. Patterns on heads of sliders, all from dorsolateral view, X %. A. Elegant slider, Pseudemys scripta, K. U. no. 17227, Vi mile west of Runnymede, Kingman County, Kan- sas. B. Same, K. U. no. 3328, Pratt, Pratt County, Kansas. C. Saw-toothed slider, Pseudemys fioridana, K. U. no. 3385, De Vails Bluff, Prairie County, Arkansas. t Care should be taken not to confuse this light stripe with one which closely skirts the orbit but which actually originates along its median border. 126 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. FAMILY KINOSTERNIDAE Genus Sternotherus Gray Common Musk Turtle Sternotherus odoratus ( Latreille ) Testudo odorata Latreille, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 1, 1801, p. 122 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Sternotherus odoratus Bell, Zool. Journ., vol. 2, 1825, p. 307. Range. — Southeastern part of state. Recorded as far west as Pratt, Pratt County; Wichita, Sedgwick County; and 11 miles south- east of Winfield, Cowley County; and as far north as 2 miles north of Lawrence, Douglas County, and Lake of the Forest, Wyandotte County ( not mapped ) . The record for "Wallace Co." ( KU ) needs verification because it is doubtful, although the species may occur much farther west along major streams than is now known. Hullum of Natural Hltlor|r Unlvartlty of Konias I94J Fig. 87. Distribution of the common musk turtle, Sternotherus odoratus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Carapace, except in young, with only feeble keel along the middle line, or none at all; young specimens may have three keels. Two hinges in plastron, allowing free movement of its front part, and restricted movement of rear part (except in young, in which entire plastron may be rigid). Laminae on plastron com- pletely separated from small marginal laminae on carapace by two small shields; five pairs of laminae on plastron, and one small un- paired lamina (gular) at extreme anterior tip; lamina on either side of gular widely separated from hinge, reaching only about halfway there from anterior margin of plastron. Adult males with two curious patches of horny scales on inner margin of each hind leg. Smith: Turtles 127 Skin rather spiny; two conspicuous chin barbels; all digits clawed. Dark olive or brown above, sometimes with darker streaks. Color below the same, except that margins of plates may be white. Two narrow yellow streaks, dim in adults and very prominent in the young, along either side of head. Size small, carapace of largest recorded specimen measuring 5/3 inches in straight line from front to rear margin. Recognition Characters. — The combination of having eleven laminae on the plastron, the 1st pair of which is separated from the front hinge by half the length of the front lobe of the plastron, is distinctive; no other turtle in Kansas has both these characters. The yellow mud turtle, Kinosternon flavescens, which has the same general appearance, has the first pair of ventral laminae in contact with the front hinge or narrowly separated from it. .•.> 1 ^1 . ' L • v--^ Fig. 88. A common musk turtle, Sternotherus odoratus, X %. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Habits and Habitat. — Sluggish or still, deep waters, with mud- bottoms, along river banks, in ponds, lakes and marshes, are typi- cally inhabited by this species. These turtles are mostly bottom dwellers and are not good swimmers. The food is usually found and eaten under water. Normally it consists of earthworms, aquatic insects, small snails, crayfish, minnows and tadpoles. Sometimes plant food is taken. The animals seldom ba.sk in the sun. 128 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Mating occurs in the fall and spring, and egg-laying in early or middle summer. Two to seven (usually 3 to 5) eggs are laid and covered in a shallow excavation dug by the female under or near a log, stump or similar protection, not farther than 200 feet from water. The eggs are thick, have brittle shells, and average IHa X ^ inches in size. Under artificial conditions the eggs hatch in two to three months. Males reach sexual maturity in three or four years and females in nine to eleven years. For each sex, about ten years are required to attain a length 3^/i inches. In captivity they have lived as long as twenty-three years. These turtles hibernate in mud at various depths down to a foot below its surface where the mud is covered with water. They emerge in March. When captured they are rather vicious, biting upon but slight provocation. The bite is not severe, however, and does not break the tougher skin of the hand of a person. After a time in captivity they become tame and will eat from the fingers. They have voracious appetites, and survive exceedingly well under the unnatural conditions of captivity. These turtles have a strong, offensive odor, which probably serves as a protection from natural enemies. The odor is produced by the secretions of four glands, one on each side near the rear margin of the bridge at the border of the carapace, and one at the margin of the carapace halfway between the bridge and the middle line an- teriorly. This species seems to have no economic value whatever, so far as man is concerned; it is neither detrimental nor beneficial. A peculiarity of males only is an odd clasping organ on the rear surface of the hind legs. It consists of an oval patch of enlarged, heavy, rough scales on the thigh, and another on the shank. The two surfaces are thought to be used in copulation to grasp the edges of the carapace of the female, although the function is not actually known. Other unique features of the males are a long, stout tail terminating with a relatively large, blunt, clawlike scale (the tail is short and clawless in females); a smooth tail (a mid-dorsal row of tubercles in females ) ; and smaller scutes ( and accordingly larger non-cornified areas ) on the plastron than in females. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species are recognized, either in Kansas or elsewhere. References. — Carr, 1952: 82-89, pi. 12, map 4 (general account); Pope, 1939: 37-47, pis. 5, 6, 7 ( deicription, life history, habits, range). Smith: Turtles 129 Genus Kinosternon Spix Yellow Mud Turtle Kinosternon flavescens (Agassiz) Platythyra flavescens Agassiz, Contr. Nat. Hist. U. S., vol. 1, 1857, p. 430; vol. 2, 1857, pi. 5, figs. 12-15 (type locality — Waco, Texas). Cinostemum flavescens Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 1875, p. 52. Range. — State-wide except perhaps the northeastern comer of the state. Recorded as far east as Cherokee ( Columbus ) , Franklin, and Republic (Republic) counties. Uncommon east of the Arkan- sas River. Fig. 89. Distribution of the yellow mud turtle, Kinosternon flavescens, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Carapace without a keel, except in the young, which may have a feeble keel along the midline. Two hinges in plastron, allowing free movement of the front part and restricted movement of rear part. Laminae on plastron separated completely from small marginal plates of carapace by two small shields; five pairs of laminae on plastron, and one small, unpaired lamina ( gular) at extreme anterior tip; lamina on either side of gular nearly or quite reaching hinge. Adult males with two curious patches of horny scales on inner margin of each leg. A pair of barbels on chin. Dull olive-brown above, and yellowish brown below. Head and other exposed parts of body olive above, with few if any markings; head and neck much lighter, yellowish below. Size small, carapace of largest recorded specimen measuring 5^ inches in straight line from front to rear margin. 5—9019 130 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Recognition Characters. — Having 11 laminae on the plastron, the first pair of which is in contact with, or narrowly separated from, the front hinge is a distinctive combination. No other turtle in Kansas has both these characters. Most easily confused with it is the common musk turtle, Sternotherus odoratus, which has much the same appearance, but in the latter species the first pair of ven- tral laminae is separated from the front hinge by half the length of the front lobe of the lower shell. Fig. 90. Dorsal and ventral views of a yellow mud turtle, Kinostcrnon f. flavescens, X ap- proximately V2, dVz miles west and V4 mile south of Scott Citv, Scott County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyl'e. Habits and Habitat. — Any mud-bottomed waters, shallow or deep, make suitable habitats for this species. It is mainly a bottom dweller, and a rather poor swimmer. The food accepted in captivity in- cludes tadpoles, earthworms, salamanders, snails, raw meat and fish. Plant food, insects, snails, and small vertebrates may comprise part of the natural diet. This species is said to bask often in the sun. Probably the patches of scales on the hind legs of males serve as grasping devices and not as sound-producing structures. The two eggs usually laid measure approximately 1 X ^ inch. Having a strong odor, this species is known as the "stink pot." Kansan Subspecies. — Kinosternon flavescens flavescens is the only subspecies occurring in Kansas. Two other subspecies, K. f. stejnegeri Hartweg and K. f. spooneri Smith, occur in Mexico and Illinois, respectively. References. — Carr, 1952: 94-99, pi. 15, map 5 (general account); Pope, 1939:52-55 (description, life history, habits, range). Smith: Turtles 131 FAMn^Y CHELYDRroAE Genus Macroclemys Gray Alligator Snapping Turtle Macroclemys temminckii (Troost) Chelonura temminckii Troost, in Harlan's Med. Phys. Res., 1835, p. 158, footnote (type locality — tributary stream of the Mississippi above Memphis, in western Tennessee ) . Macroclemys temminckii Gray, Cat. Shield Rept., I, 1855, p. 49. Range. — Tributaries of the Arkansas River as far north and west as Florence, Marion County (on Neosho-Cottonwood rivers), Au- gusta, Butler County ( on Walnut River ) , Wichita, Sedgwick County (on Arkansas River), and Baxter Springs, Cherokee County (on Spring River). Muicum of Nattffol Hiilory Univartity Qt Kan»a» 1941 Fig. 91. Distribution of the alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemys temminckii, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Carapace, in both young and adults, with three prominent, high keels. Plastron small, cross-shaped, and lacking hinges. Nine laminae on plastron; anterior single lamina sometimes partly split into two. Bridge narrow, separated from marginal laminae of carapace by rows of two large and usually two small plates. Marginal laminae of carapace not visible at sides in dorsal view, concealed by the presence of three or four extra plates ( supra- marginals) between them and costal plates. Pronounced beak on both jaws; large plates covering head. Lower surface of tail with numerous, irregularly arranged, small scales; row of plates no higher than wide, on midline of tail. 132 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Dull brownish above, on shell, limbs, tail and head; lower surface whitish. Size, largest of any American, nonmarine turtle; weight up to 200 pounds (there is a highly questionable record for 403 pounds). Measurements not available for large specimens; one with carapace 24.02 in. (in a straight line) long weighed 103 pounds. Fig. 92. An alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemtis tc"^^^irickii, X Va- logical Society of Philadelphia. Courtesy of the Zoo- Recognition Characters. — No other turtle in Kansas has the com- bination of fewer than eleven laminae on the plastron (excluding the bridge) and plates on top of the head. The only other species resembling it is the common snapping turtle (Chehjdra) which is most easily distinguished — once the difference is seen — by the ab- sence from the carapace of the highly elevated keels characteristic of the alligator snapper. In the young alligator snapper the three keels on the carapace are high instead of merely prominent as in Chelydra which, as it grows older, loses the keels. In the alligator snapper the keels remain highly elevated throughout life. In addition it has numerous small scales on the lower side of tail instead of two rows of large plates; and a row of plates which are no higher than vdde on the midline of the top of the tail ( in Chelydra, height greater than width ) . Macro- Smith: Turtles 133 cJemys has hard plates on the head instead of soft skin as in CJielydra, and possesses supramarginal phites (absent in ChcUjdra). Habits and Habitat. — This turtle is a bottom-dweller, swimming but little, and living in large, muddy-bottomed rivers and canals. The food presumably consists of fish. An extraordinary structure, apparently serving as a lure for prey, is a narrow blood-red band of tissue, on the middle of the tongue, which can be set in serpentine motion. This structure closely resembles a wriggling worm. The mouth otherwise is dull-colored, much like the rest of the entire animal. It is thought that the tiutle rests on the bottom of the river with the huge jaws wide open, revealing to view in the murky waters only the squirming lure; unsuspecting fish in search of a meal thus themselves become food. For protection, this species relies chiefly upon camouflage. Dull- colored, mud-coated and with a growth of algae, these turtles easily conceal themselves, and remain motionless with wide-open jaws even when disturbed. Once enraged, however, they are exceedingly ferocious. Although the jaws are large and the beak formidable, the fabulous tales of these turtles biting through inch boards and broom handles are erroneous. It is nevertheless obvious that extreme caution in the proximity of an angered specimen is highly expedient. These turtles are known to live at least seventy-five years, and in all probability they exceed this age twofold. The specimen still alive in the Philadelphia Zoo, kept for fifty-five years (since May 6, 1890), weighed only fifty-two pounds in 1939. Authentic records of the maximum size and weight of this species are much to be desired. The largest accurately recorded weight is 219 pounds; all reports giving figures in excess of this are based upon visual estimates of various observers. Large specimens oc- casionally are in even relatively small creeks and rivers, perhaps in part because these creatures regularly migrate upstream at a re- corded rate of about six miles a year, at least in Oklahoma. An interesting possible correlation is the fact that fishes in a single area soon learn not to bite at the tongue lure. Therefore the turtle must constantly need to invade new areas to secure food. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species have been distinguished. References. — Carr, 1952: 52-60, pis. 6-7, map 1 (general account); Pope, 1939: 66-71, pis. 16, 17 (description, life history, habits, range). 134 UNivERsnv OF Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Genus Cheltjdra Schweigger Common Snapping Turtle Chelydra serpentina (Linnaeus) Testudo serpentina Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 199 (type locality — New Orleans, Louisiana). Chelydra serpentina Schweigger, Konigsberg. Arch. Naturw. Math., vol. 1, pt. 3, 1812, p. 293. Range. — State-wide. Taken as far west as Rawlins (Ludell), Sherman ( North Fork of Smoky Hill River at county line) and Morton (12 miles north of Elkader) coun- ties, and east to Marshall (Blue Rapids), Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Leavenworth (Fort Leaven- worth), Miami (Pigeon Lake) and Cherokee (Columbus) counties. MusauTi o( Nolural Hittory Univ.rsirr of Kansas 1949 Fig. 93. Distribution of the common snapping turtle, Chehjdra serpentina, in Kansas. Description. — Carapace with three fairly prominent lengthwise ridges (keels) in the young, becoming low or invisible in adults. Plastron small, cross-shaped, and lacking hinges. Nine laminae on plastron; anterior single lamina sometimes partly or wholly split into two. Bridge narrow, separated from marginal laminae of carapace by row of two large and usually two small laminae. Pronounced beaks on both jaws. Lower surface of tail with relatively large laminae mostly arranged in two rows; row of large bony triangular, projecting plates much higher than wide on midline of upper surface of tail. Dull brown above, light below, often obscured by algal growth. Smith: Turtles 135 Weight frequently as much as fifty pounds; one fattened in a swill-barrel weighed eighty-six pounds. Recognition Characters. — The presence of fewer than eleven laminae on the plastron (exclusive of the bridge) in combination with the presence of soft skin ( instead of hard plates ) on the head, distinguishes this species from all others in Kansas. Both this species Fig. 94. Common snapping turtles, Chelydra s. serpentina, X '/=• Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. and the alHgator snapper have very small lower shells (plastrons), and resemble each other also in other respects. See discussion of Macroclemys for comparison. Habits and Habitat. — Practically any permanent waters are in- habited by this species. Preferred habitats are mud-bottomed ponds and streams. It is a bottom-dweller and a poor swimmer. 136 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Wholesale slaughter of snappers is seldom if ever recommended as a desirable method of protecting other animals. Generalizations are difficult to make, however, since every body of water has its own unique combination of variables. Nevertheless, autopsies of large numbers of snappers indicate that, strange as it may seem, between 35 percent and 70 percent of the food consists of vegeta- tion, and only 6 percent to 35 percent of game and pan fishes, many undoubtedly dead when attacked. Rarely vertebrates of other classes, a few invertebrates, and carrion constitute the rest of the diet. Birds are rarely taken, reports to the contrary notwithstanding. Of the invertebrates, crayfish and snails are the kinds most commonly eaten, but insects also are important. The food is stalked with imperceptibly slow movements, or by waiting for it to approach within striking distance. The tongue, according to some writers, is used as a lure, by thrusting it out of the mouth as the animal lies in ^vait for its prey to investigate and venture within striking distance. Mating occurs at any time of the year except when the animals are in hibernation. The sperm remain viable in the female for sev- eral years. Eggs are laid in June, and hatch in August. Some twenty to forty spherical eggs one inch in diameter are laid at a time, in crude, shallow nests scooped by the females in damp soil exposed to the sun. The nests may be half a mile from the nearest water. Muskrat houses not infrequently are used as nests. The hatchlings appear generally to migrate toward the most open hori- zon, irrespective of humidity gradients, actual direction of water, position of sun or any other possible factors. In captivity specimens have lived twenty years. Hibernation begins in October or November and ends in March. The turtles spend the winter in mud usually under water, in musk- rat holes, or buried underneath logs and other objects. Out of water these turtles are vicious, but when submerged they attempt only to escape. On land a safe way to handle one is to grasp its tail and hold the turtle well away from one's self. The eggs are edible ( fried, for they do not harden when boiled ) , and the flesh is widely used for soup. Few turtles are of greater commercial value. Kansan Subspecies. — Only one subspecies, Chelydra serpentina serpentina, occurs in Kansas. Another subspecies is sometimes recognized in Florida, and still another in Central America. References. — Carr, 1952: 61-72, pi. 8, map 2 (general account); Pope, 1939:72-83, pis. 18-23 (description, life history, habits, range). Smith: Turtles 137 FAMILY EMYIDAE Genus Terrapene Merrem Carolina Box Turtle Terrapene Carolina (Linnaeus) Testudo Carolina Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 198 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Terrapene Carolina Bell, Zodl. Joum., vol. 2, 1825, p. 309. Range. — Eastern third of state, east of the Flint Hills, and south of the Kansas River. Cragin (1881) recorded the species from as far north and west as the vicinity of Manhattan, Riley County, but the range otherwise is marked by the peripheral localities in Wyan- dotte (Kansas City), Miami (Pigeon Lake), Franklin (Ottawa), Museum of Natural Hittory Univarsilr of Konsas 1945 Fig. 95. Distribution of the Carolina box turtle, Terrapene Carolina, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Osage (Melvern, not mapped), Coffey (1 mile west of Agricola), Greenwood (Hamilton) and Montgomery (Havana) counties. Description. — Carapace arched (not flattened on top), with dis- tinct although sometimes discontinuous keel. Plastron with 12 laminae (exclusive of bridge), and consisting of two movable sec- tions hinged across middle of shell and capable of completely con- cealing all soft parts ( head and legs ) . Each forefoot with five claws, each hindfoot usually with three. Rear feet stumplike, adapted for walking on land and not for swimming. Dorsal surface tan or brownish, with a variable pattern of yellow spots or streaks radiating from posteromedial part of each scute. 138 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Light marks tend to be relatively broad ( nearly as broad as the eye ) , short, and indistinct, as compared with those of the ornate box tur- tle. Ventral surface nearly uniform yellowish. Head and forelegs /jSSS I \ I / Fig. 96. Carolina box turtles, Terrapene Carolina triunguis, X %■ Above, courtesy Zoo- logical Society of Philadelphia. Below, H. M. Smith no. 25, College Station, Brazos County, Texas. Photo by R. R. Hamm. Smith: Turtles 139 spotted with orange (males) or yellow (females). Iris of eye of males reddish, in females usually gray. Size moderate, plastron measuring about five inches in length in the largest specimens. Recognition Characters. — The single hinge on the plastron ( allow- ing movement of a rear and a front lobe) combined with a uni- formly yellow lower shell, serves to distinguish this species from all others in the state. The only other species closely resembling the Carolina box turtle is the ornate box turtle, distinguished by having distinct yellow marks on a brownish plastron and four instead of three claws on the rear feet. The number of toes on the hind foot in the Carolina box turtle is sometimes four instead of the usual three. Habits and Habitat. — Fields and woods on relatively flat terrain are favored where there is normally a considerable growth of trees. The eastern race T. c. Carolina is known to be able to swim as well as Chrysemys picta, although it is not found in water except in hot dry periods. Whether the Kansan race has like proclivities is un- known. For the Kansan race no information is on record concerning hab- its, which presumably resemble those of the eastern race. The food- is composed of a large variety of animal and plant material, includ- ing, in order of importance, mushrooms, insects, earthworms, slugs,, snails, myriapods, dead animals, blackberries, strawberries, and other fruit. Seasonal preferences in kind of food are pronounced. In the eastern race, mating occurs at any time in the period in which the turtles are active but is most frequent in spring. The eggs, laid in June or early July in the District of Columbia, vary from twa to seven, and usually number four in each clutch; they measure, on the average, 33 X 19-5 mm., and are laid and covered in shallow nests dug by the hind legs at night in relatively open spots in loose, moist soil. The excavation of a nest and laying of eggs requires four to five hours. Hatching occurs generally in September, and hiber- nation immediately ensues without partaking of food. Groviih in subsequent seasons is rapid, a carapace length of five inches being reached in five years. Specimens commonly live sixty years, occa- sionally exceed 100 years, and are said to reach even 123 years of age. Hibernation is accomplished by degrees, the turtle burrowing deeper and deeper as the season progresses. Final depth depends upon the severity of the wdnter, and may be as much as two feet. In Kansas in late autumn they frequently are found in burrows of 140 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. the striped skunk where they presumably go to pass the winter. Sud- den and severe cold spells, occurring before the animals burrow ■deeply, not uncommonly are fatal. The turtles have a restricted home territory rarely more than a half-mile in diameter. The homing instinct is well developed. Un- like strictly aquatic turtles, they will not drop off high ( 6 feet ) sur- faces, and hesitate to walk off surfaces even one foot above lower levels. Most specimens are docile, but exceptional individuals are more active and bite readily. The bite is not severe. The flesh is palatable, but a person who dines upon these turtles does so with some risk because the poison of the mushrooms eaten by them — which does not deleteriously affect the turtles — is reported to be transferred undiminished in potency to man who unfortunately is not immune to its effect. Naturalists resident in Kansas and elsewhere in the range of the western subspecies which occurs in this state could well use the ex- tensive work done upon the eastern subspecies as a guide for similar investigations upon the western race. Casual observations suggest that differences in habits may be numerous. References to two of the more important studies are appended. Of interest is the fact that the only barrier between the two races is the Mississippi River, which seems to be sufficiently eflFective that no gradual transition, but rather an abrupt change from the characters of one to those of the other race occurs in the vicinity of the river. One of the most outstanding problems involving the habits of the species ( all subspecies ) concerns the activities of young individuals less than three inches in length of plastron. Juveniles are so seldom seen that even their natural haunts are uncertain. An even stronger aquatic preference on the part of juveniles than in adults has been suggested. Aid in maintenance of the chigger population of the country is a curious role of this species, shared with most other reptiles of ter- restrial habits. Chiggers utilize such a variety of wild animals as hosts, however, that control of them by host elimination is not feasible. Kansan Subspecies. — Only one, Terrapene Carolina triunguis (Agassiz), with type locality at New Orleans, Louisiana, occurs in Kansas. Three other races are recognized but they occur only east of the Mississippi River and in southern Louisiana and Texas. References. — Carr. 1952: 153-156, pis. 28, 29, map 11 (general account); Pope, 1939: 135-136, pi. 39 (description, range, natural history); Allard, 1948 and 1949 (complete life history, based upon data collected over a period of many years ) . Smith: Turtles 141 Ornate Box Turtle '' ■■■('' Terrapene omata (Agassiz) Cistudo omata Agassiz, Contr. Nat. Hist. U. S., vol. 1, 1857, p. 443 (type locality — Council Bluffs, Pottawatomie County, Iowa ) . Terrapene omata Baur, Science, vol. 17, 1891, p. 191. Range. — State-wide, except in extreme northeastern and extreme southeastern corners. Not known in the Ozark Plateau region of southeastern Cherokee County, nor in the area north of the line from Washington (6 miles north of Haddam) to Atchison (EflBng- ham) and Leavenworth (Leavenworth) counties. Fig. 97. Distribution of the ornate box turtle, Terrapene omata, in Kansas. Description. — Carapace high but frequently flattened on top, lacking a keel except in very young. Plastron provided with twelve laminae (exclusive of bridge), and consisting of two movable lobes hinged across the middle of the shell and capable of completely con- cealing the head and legs. Each forefoot with five claws, each rear foot usually with four. Rear feet stumplike, adapted for walking on land and not for swimming. Dorsal surface dark brown, usually with a bright pattern of nar- row, yellow lines or spots radiating from the posteromedial comer of each plate. The light lines average narrower than those of the Carolina box turtle, and the width of one is approximately half the diameter of the eye. The ventral surface is marked much Hke the dorsal, with radiating light lines on a dark background. Irregular light areas are present on the head and neck, and more or less rounded light spots on the front- of the forelegs; these light spots. 142 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. as well as the iris of the eye, are reddish in males and yellowish in females. Size moderate, plastron measuring up to 5% inches in length. Recognition Characters. — The two ventral lobes of the plastron .•'^ V' ■ . 7'*'.- — -^^ "'' • Fig. 98. Ornate box turtles, Terrapene o. ornata. Above, Hutchinson, Reno County, Kansas, X %. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Below, iy2 miles southwest of Stockton, Rooks County, Kansas, X %• Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyie. Smith: Turtles 143 united by a single transverse hinge, combined with a yellow-marked, dark ventral surface, serve to identify this species and to distinguish it from all other turtles in Kansas. Only one other species in the state resembles it — the Carolina box turtle. See discussion of the latter for comparison. Hybrid individuals combining the characteristics of both the ornate and Carolina box turtles have authoritatively been recorded in adjacent states, and may rarely be found in Kansas. Normal variation is extensive in both species, however, and extremes not in- frequently are labelled erroneously as hybrids. Careful study is required of suspected hybrids to determine their exact identity. Such individuals should be submitted to experts for examination (see p. 24). Habits and Habitat. — This species usually is found in relatively dry open areas on flat or somewhat hilly terrain. It is most abun- dant in sandy places, but occurs also in wooded regions at the east- ern edge of its range. Moisture requirements sometimes cause T. ornata in dry weather to congregate about streams or ponds and often to lie half-buried or completely concealed in the mud or sand near the shore. The food consists mostly of insects, of which grasshoppers form a conspicuous portion, but may include tender plant material as well. Mating occurs in May, and eggs are laid as late as the first part of August. The eggs average 36 X 22.5 mm. in size. T. ornata hibernates earlier and farther below ground than T. Carolina; presumably T. ornata is less resistant to cold. Although even-tempered, this species will bite upon occasion. The bite is not particularly powerful, but can break skin as tender as that on the back of a man's hand. In captivity a cage should be provided with sandy soil, shade and sun, a protective retreat, and a low water container. The animals can be fed bits of meat in addition to insects. Regular feeding, once a day, will produce a feeding reflex. This species can, for the most part, be considered beneficial. In the Dakotas, Indians use it for food, and the practice no doubt could be more widely adopted. The only reported damages wrought by the animals were incurred in their rare attacks upon ripening cantaloupes. Kansan Subspecies. — Terrapene o. ornata is the only subspecies in Kansas. One other, T. o. luteola, Smith and Ramsey, occurs in western Texas. References. — Carr, 1952: 156-162, pi. 30, map 12 (general account); Pope, 1939:139- 145, pis. 43, 44 (description, range, natural history); Clarke, 1930:54 (records of aquatic habitats in Kansas); Norris and Zweifel, 1950:1-4 (habits); Rainey, 1953:109-110 (para- sitization by fly larvae). 144 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Genus Graptemys Agassiz Map Turtle Graptemys geographica (Le Sueur) Testudo geographica Le Sueur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 1, pt. 1, 1817, p. 86, pi. 5 (type locality— marsh on the border of Lake Erie). Graptemys geographica Agassiz, Contr. Nat. Hist. U. S., vol. 1, 1857, p. 436. Range. — Eastern third of state. Known from only six localities: Anderson (Garnett), Crawford (State Park 3 miles north of Pitts- burg), Franklin (Ottawa), Osage (Melvern — not shown on map), Montgomery, Riley (Manhattan), and Wilson counties. Mullum of Nalgroi Hitlery 1949 Fig. 99. Distribution of the map turtle, Graptemys geographica, in Kansas, with insert showing the range of the species. Description. — Carapace high, with uneven median keel (highest at back of each scale) in both young and adults, shell not arched but sloping nearly straight away from keel to lateral edge; rear edge of carapace moderately notched; plastron with twelve laminae, ab- solutely fixed in position ( no part movable ) ; hind legs and to lesser extent forelegs greatly widened toward tip as an adaptation for swimming. Jaws smooth-edged externally; upper jaw sometimes with feeble indentation at apex; crushing surface of upper jaw (as seen with mouth open) smooth, not ridged. Lamina in middle of an- terior margin of carapace (nuchal lamina) short and broadened pos- teriorly, less than twice as long as broad. Carapace dull olive, marked with narrow, yellowish lines of varia- ble distinctness; plastron unmarked, uniform cream-yellow; legs olive, with longitudinal light streaks; neck and head with numerous light-yellow lines extending longitudinally; more or less rounded, Smith: Turtles 145 small, yellow spot behind eye, separated from eye by distance equal to diameter of spot; light line clearly defined, passing transversely between postocular spot and eye. Size moderately large, carapace measuring as much as 10^ inches in a straight line in females, and 5/4 inches in males. Recognition Characters. — The genus to which this species belongs can be recognized by the combination of characters as follows: plastron with twelve plates and lacking any movable portion (2 characters which exclude all turtles except members of the genera Chrysemys and Pseudemys); crushing surface of upper jaw (as seen with mouth open) smooth, not ridged (this excludes Pseudemys) ; upper jaw lacking a notch at apex which is flanked by a projection on either side (this excludes Chrysemys) . All except young speci- mens of Graptemys can, with some practice, be distinguished by the possession of a single, median keel (lacking in Chrysemys of all sizes but present in young Pseudemys) . Chrysemys can be excluded also by the smooth posterior border of the carapace, which in both Pseudemys and Graptemys is notched. The species Graptemys geographica can be distinguished most easily from the only other species of the genus ( G. pseudogeograph- ica ) occurring in the state by the pattern on the head, especially that back of the eye. In G. geographica a small, isolated light spot back of the eye is separated from the eye by a distance approximately equal to the diameter of the spot, and across that space passes a narrow, transverse light line. In G. pseudogeographica the post- ocular spot is usually much larger, and frequently is crescent-shaped, extending below the eye and even backward on the neck. Some- times, however, the spot is so reduced in size that confusion with G. geographica is possible. Accordingly it is important to observe that the postocular spot in G. pseudogeographica is very close to — almost in contact with — the eye, and that there is not sufficient space between the spot and eye for a transverse light line between them as there is in G. geographica. Habits and Habitat. — The preferred habitat is a large, permanent body of water with considerable plant growth and a mud bottom. Marshes, lakes and large rivers meet this turtle's needs. The food consists almost entirely of snails and clams. The broad, crushing surfaces of the jaws are especially adapted for this diet. The larger the turtle the tougher-shelled the clams and snails which can be eaten. Insects and crayfish are eaten to a lesser extent. Mating occurs in spring and perhaps in fall. Eggs are laid in late May, June, and early July. Eggs deposited early in the season 146 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. hatch in August or September, but those laid later may overwinter without hatching until the following spring. The eggs measure ap- proximately 22 X 35 mm. and have soft, white shells. They are laid in shallow excavations dug in soft eartli, sometimes as far from water as a quarter of a mile. The female covers the clutch, con- sisting of from ten to sixteen eggs, carefully and leaves it to fate, without further checking. In fact the only time these turtles leave the water, except for basking, is when the eggs are laid. L. -^k. 1 " •:^>i'- -, Jcj r ' ^^^i^S^^^ ^ V Fig. 100. A map turtle, Graptcnnjs geographica, X %■ Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Hibernation may or may not occur, according to the severity of the winter. The turtles may remain feebly active all winter, walk- ing slowly about on the bottom and breathing no air; the skin, pharynx, and cloaca serve as organs for aquatic respiration. These turtles are extremely shy, and at the slightest disturbance hide in masses of vegetation in the water. They bite when cap- tured, but only upon close approximation of annoying objects; the animals are not vicious. In their natural habitat they bask a great deal, climbing onto the shore, trees or ledges that allow immediate reentry into the water. They spread their legs and relax completely, giving every indication of enjoyment and inattention whereas they are in reality alert for the slightest indication of danger. This species is palatable for man but is not commonly eaten. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range of this species. Reference. — Pope, 1939:168-175, pis. 48, 49 (description, range, natural history). Smith: Turtles 147 False Map Turtle Graptemys pseudogeographica (Gray) Emys pseudogeographica Gray, Syn. Kept., 1831, p. 31 (type locality — Wabash River, New Harmony, Indiana). Graptemys pseudogeographica Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. 12 1863 p. 180. Range. — Eastern third of state. A dubious record for "Wallace county" (KU) needs substantiation. There are rehable records from as far west and north as Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Riley (Manhattan), Shawnee (Topeka), Osage (Long Creek), Coffey (Neosho River), Woodson (Neosho Falls), Wilson and Montgomery (Verdigris River) counties. =1 Mvltum 0f Notufol Hittorr Univirailr of K«niat I94S m Fig. 101. Distribution of the false map turtle, Graptemys pseudogeographica, in Kansas, with insert showing the range of the species. Description. — The description given of G. geographica, applies to this species except for color, size, and the fact that the rear margin of the carapace is strongly, instead of moderately, notched. Color like that of G. geographica, except that the postocular spot is large (generally as broad as, or broader than, eye) and usually is crescent-shaped, curving under the eye. Occasionally the spot is continuous posteriorly near the median line of the neck, or may be a transverse oval. In any case the spot is close to the eye (the distance between is much less than the width of the spot), and there is thus no space for a distinct transverse light line between the spot and eye as in G. geographica. Size moderately large, the carapace reaching a length of ten inches as measured in a straight line ( not on the curve of the shell ) . Recognition Characters. — See the account of G, geographica. 14S University of Kansas Publs.. Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 102. A false map turtle, Graptemijs pseudogeographica kohnii, X %. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. This specimen is of the subspecies which occurs in Kansas. Habits and Habitat. — Both habits and habitat closely correspond to those of G. geographica except that the adults are omnivorous. The species is palatable for man and in parts of its range is sold on the turtle market. In Kansas it is not used frequently as food. Kansan Subspecies. — The race found in this state is G. p. kohnii (Gray), the type locaHty of which is restricted to St. Martinsville, Louisiana. Two other races occur in Texas and south-central United States. The taxonomic status of the false map turtles of Kansas is not yet established securely. Cagle tentatively recognizes G. kohnii as a full species that lives in much of central United States along with G. p. ouachitensis Cagle (type locality Harrisonburg, La. ), distinguishing the two primarily on the basis of head pattern and head size: G. kohnii with a curved, continuous subocular-postocular line (as in Figs. 84D, 102) and a broad head in adult females, G. p. ouachitensis with a subrectangular spot behind eye ( as in Fig. 84B, C ) and narrow head in adult females. The extent of variation I have observed in turtles of this group is so great that I judge every intermediate condition exists and that nowhere do two populations coexist. G. p. ouachitensis appears to be a vaUd geographic race not occurring in Kansas, but it is true that some Kansan specimens re- semble that form, others G. p. pseudogeographica and G. p. kohnii. Since most are of the latter type to that name all Kansan specimens are here referred, pending a more thorough study. References. — Carr, 1952: 202-207, pi. 38, figs. 13, 15, 16, map 15 (general account); Cagle, 1953: 1-17, figs. 1-3 (taxonomy); Cagle, 1954: 183-186 (in generic key; taxonomy, distribution); Pope, 1939: 175-179, pis. 50, 51 (description, range, natural history). Smith: Turtles 149 Genus Chrysemys Gray Painted Turtle Chrysemys picta (Schneider) Testudo picta Schneider, Naturg. Schildkr.. 1783, p. 348 (type locality — Lancaster, Pennsylvania ) . Chrysemys picta Gray, Cat. Shield Kept. Brit. Mus., pt. 1, 1856, p. 32. Range. — State-wide except perhaps the southwestern corner. Not yet recorded west of a line from Meade (State Park) through Ford (2 miles south of Bucklin), Scott (State Park), and Logan (Vincent Ranch, ex- treme northwest corner) to Cheyenne (23 miles by road northwest of St. Francis ) counties. lytlum of Nalwrot Hitlory Univcriity of K«ntat I94> Fig. 103. Distribution of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta, in Kansas. Description. — Carapace not arched (but slightly flattened), com- pletely lacking longitudinal keels, with posterior edge smooth (not at all notched); plastron completely fixed, with no movable part, and composed of twelve laminae; hind legs somewhat broadened, adapted for swimming. As seen in the open mouth, crushing surface of upper jaw smooth and not ridged; apex of upper jaw with sharp notch flanked on either side by a projection. Claws on forefeet of males long, presumably modified for the special courtship practiced by this species ( see discussion under Habits and Habitat ) . Slate gray above; carapace with fine, irregular, yellow border which joins narrow light line passing through center of each mar- ginal plate; marginal lines continuous in turn with irregular, coarse network of light lines which become faint toward middle of cara- 150 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist, pace; middle of plastron dark, with dark extension outward on each suture between plates; limbs and head with a number of light Hnes somewhat wider than those on carapace. Size moderate, carapace measuring as much as ten inches in a straight line. Recognition Characters. — This species can be recognized by the combination of the following characters: Plastron with no movable part and provided with twelve laminae; notch at apex of upper jaw flanked on either side by toothlike projection; posterior margin of upper shell perfectly smooth, not notched. Most easily confused with this turtle are the several species of the genera Fseudemys and Graptemys, in which the posterior margin of the carapace is notched, Fig. 104. Painted hirtles, Chrysemys picta beUii. Left, K. U. no. 24393, 4 miles east and 1 mile north of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas, X %• Right, IM; miles south- west of Stockton, Rooks County, Kansas, X %• Photos by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. and the upper jaw does not have a tooth-flanked notch at its apex; Graptemys moreover has no ridge on the middle of the crushing sur- face of the upper jaw ( as seen with the mouth open ) ; and specimens of all ages of Graptemys have a median longitudinal ridge down the back. Habits and Habitat. — Shallow, warm waters, with some plant growth, such as ponds, ditches, streams, lakes, and still pools in rivers, are inhabited. Surprisingly, stagnant and polluted waters sometimes are inhabited. The food consists about half-and-half of plant and animal mate- rial. The plant matter is mostly algae and leaves, and the animal Smith: Turtles 151 matter primarily insects, with smaller amounts of MoUusca and vertebrate animals. The latter are not killed by tliese turtles but are eaten after death has been caused by some other agency. The scavenger habit is pronounced. Mating occurs in spring and fall. In courtship the male swims backward in front of the female, facing her as she swims forward. From time to time he slows, allows her to approach, then stretches his forelimbs forward, vibrating them rapidly on the chin and sides of the snout of the female. This activity may continue for a quarter of an hour or longer before copulation occurs. Eggs are laid in June and early July, generally in late afternoon or early evening. They number from five to fifteen, are white and measure 28 to 32 mm. long and 17 to 20 mm. thick. They are laid in nests, in which they are adroitly covered. The nests are dug by use of the hind legs and may be several hundred yards from water. At the site chosen, the female digs diligently, alternately with the hind feet, pushing the dirt back from time to time by sliding back- ward while the forefeet remain fixed — as they do during the entire nesting process. The soil is dampened from time to time by release of fluid from the bladder; several species of turtles are known to have this habit. As much as two hours may be occupied in digging and covering the nest. Eggs hatch in aj)proximately seventy-two days. The egg-tooth, although present, is useless in this process. If the hatching occurs late in the fall the young may not emerge from the nest until the following spring. In some nests eggs laid in one year do not hatch until the following spring. The newly hatched turtles find water by virtue of their instinct to move toward the source of greatest illumination. The turtles hibernate in mud at the bottom of the bodies of water in which they live. They enter hibernation in late October or early November and emerge in April. In captivity these turtles have lived to be 11/4 years old. They tame readily, will learn to eat from the fingers, and are hardy vivarium inmates. Although these turtles may be eaten by man, they are not popular on the market. Kansan Subspecies. — Chrysemys picta bellii (Gray), the type locality of which is Puget Sound, Washington, is the race that occiurs in Kansas. Three other races are known in the eastern United States. References. — Carr, 1952: 219-224, pi. 41, map 16 (general account); Legler, 1954: 137-144 (nesting habits); Pope, 1939:184-203, pis. 56, 57 (description, range, natural his- tory). 152 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat, Hist. Genus Pseudemys Gray Saw-toothed Slider Pseudemys floridana (Le Conte) Testudo floridana Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 3, 1830, p. 100 (type locality — St. John's River, Florida). Pseudemys floridana Baur, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 31, 1893, p. 223. Range. — Southern half of eastern third of state. Known from only five localities in Greenwood ("Holmer creek south of Hamilton on State Highway 99"), Wilson (northeast of Neodesha), Woodson (5y2 miles northeast of Coyville; Neosho Falls), Bourbon (5 miles west of Fulton) and Miami (Murray Lake) counties. Museum of Natural Htstorjr Uni.artitr Ot Kaniot 1949 Fig. 105. Distribution of the saw-toothed slider, Pscuderntjs floridana, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Young with prominent median longitudinal keel on carapace, but this keel absent in subadults and adults; plastron fixed, with no part movable, and provided with twelve laminae. Limbs, especially hind legs, conspicuously broadened toward tip, adapted for swimming; claws on forefeet long in males ( correlated with breeding habits). Crushing surface of upper jaw, as seen in open mouth, with high, toothed ridge; upper jaw sometimes notched at tip but notch, if present, not flanked by conspicuous toothlike projections as in Chrysemys; lower jaw with sharp projection ( "tooth" ) at apex, and feebly serrate at edge. Carapace with complicated network of yellow lines on dark-slate ground color; limbs with narrow yellow lines; lines on head nar- Smith: Turtles 153 Fig. 106. A saw-toothed slider, Pseudemys floridana hoyi, X %, from Harris County, Texas. Courtesy Louis A. Ramsey. 154 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. row above, broad below; lines radiating backward from eye narrow, not expanded; plastron cream, unmarked or with seven vaguely de- fined dark areas (three on each side, one anterior) except in young, which have an irregular, narrow, longitudinal dark marking. Size moderately large, carapace measuring as much as fifteen inches in a straight line. Recognition Characters. — The genus Psetidetnys can be recog- nized by the following combination of characters: plastron fixed and lacking any movable part, provided with twelve plates; and crushing surface of upper jaw with a conspicuous longitudinal ridge evident in the open mouth. The first character eliminates all but the genera Chrysemys and Graptemys. The latter genus can be distinguished from all except young Pseitdemys by, in addition to the character mentioned above, the presence of a strong keel. Chrysemys is dis- tinctive in having a notch flanked by teeth at the apex of the upper jaw, and in having the posterior margin of the carapace smooth and not at all notched. The two most conspicuous differences between the two species of Fseudemys occurring in Kansas ( P. fioridana and P. scripta ) are the pattern of the head and the character of the crush- ing surface of the upper jaw. In P. floridana the ridge on the crushing surface of the upper jaw is strongly toothed, while in P. scripta it lacks teeth. The latter species, in Kansas, has a broad light line extending posteriorly from the eye; the width of the line is as great as the diameter of the eye. In P. scripta none of the lines extending backward from the eye are particularly broad; their width does not exceed about one-half the diameter of the eye. Habits and Habitat. — Completely aquatic, this species is at home in permanent bodies of still or slow-moving shallow water. A soft bottom and plenty of vegetation is preferred. These turtles are almost completely carnivorous, eating insects, crayfish, tadpoles, and small fish. They act as scavengers. Some aquatic plants are eaten. The mating habits are like those of Chrysemys, as probably also are the nesting habits. The eggs, not definitely known, are thought to measure approximately 26 X 38 mm. and to be laid in early June in clutches of 9 to 19. Turtles of this species are extremely wary, although they delight in sunning themselves either on objects in the water or at the surface of the water itself. Kansan Subspecies. — Fseudemys floridana hoyi (Agassiz), with type locality at Springfield, Missouri, is the race in Kansas. Seven other races are known in the eastern and southern United States, and extreme northern Mexico. References. — Carr, 1952: 307-311, pi. 58, figs. 19, 20, map 19 (natural history, descrip- tion, range); Pope, 1939:205-215, pis. 60-70 (natural history). Smith: Turtles 155 Elegant Slider Pseudemys scripta (Schoepff) Testudo scripta SchoepfF, Hist. Testud., pts. 1-2, 1792, p. 16, pi. 3, figs. 4, 5 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Pseudemys scripta Jordan, Man. Vertebr. Anim. North. U. S., ed. 8, 1899, p. 209. Range. — Southeastern half of state, south and east of a line from Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Ottawa, Reno (2 miles south of Lerado), Pratt (Pratt), and Clark (Stephenson Ranch, 6 miles south of Kingsdown) to Meade ( State Park ) counties. A dubious record for "Wallace County" (KU) needs verification. Uut«um of Notgnil Hltlory Unntrsify of Kontot 1945 m Fig. 107. Distribution of the elegant slider, Pseudemys scripta, in Kansas. Description. — Young with prominent median longitudinal keel on carapace, but keel absent in subadults and adults; lower shell com- pletely fixed, with no movable portion, and provided with twelve laminae. Limbs, especially posterior pair, conspicuously broadened toward tip, adapted for swimming; claws on forefeet exceptionally long in males ( correlated with breeding habits ) . Crushing surface of upper jaw, as seen in open mouth, with high, smooth (not toothed) ridge; outer edge of jaw even; apex of upper jaw sometimes with a notch, but latter never flanked by a projection on either side; lower jaw lacking apical beak. Carapace with rather dim light lines, the most conspicuous of these extending through middle of costal and marginal plates; adult males lose this pattern and instead develop dark lines along sutures between plates; these lines expand with age until entire carapace may be black. Each plate on ventral surface with a large, circular 156 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. dark mark, which becomes fainter in adults and almost completely disappears in adult males. Limbs and head with conspicuous yel- low lines; most conspicuous line on head begins at upper rear corner of eye, passes backward, becoming very broad, and terminates abruptly near posterior margin of head. Size moderately large, plastron measuring as much as lO'/ic inches in length. Recognition Characters. — See account of P. floridana. Fig. 108. Elegant sliders, rscudimtji scripta elegans, X Vo. Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee. Left, male; right, female. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Habits and Habitat. — Permanent bodies of water are inhabited, such as lakes, rivers, creeks, large ponds and marshes. Still waters with mud bottoms are preferred. The food is mostly animal matter, including insects, snails, cray- fish, tadpoles, small fishes and various dead animals. Some aquatic plants are eaten. The courtship of this species is like that of Chrysemys, and may occur either in spring or fall. Egg-laying follows some two weeks after mating. An average of ten (5 to 22) eggs are laid in June or early July, in a nest closely resembling that of Chrysemys. Six to eight years are required to reach maturity ( breeding state ) . Animals of this species are inoffensive and shy, but upon capture they go through the motions of swimming, even in the air, and may half-heartedly attempt to bite. In parts of some other states man makes important use of these turtles as food. Kansan Subspecies. — Pseudemys scripta elegans (Wied), whose type locality is the Fo.x River at New Harmony, Indiana, is the race occurring in Kansas. Five other races are known from the eastern United States and the region south to Panama. Reference. — Pope, 1939:224-233. pis. 79, 80, 81 (description, range, natural history). Smith: Turtles IS' FAMILY TRIONYCHIDAE Genus Amyda Schweigger Smooth Soft-shelled Turtle Amyda mutica (Le Sueur) Trionyx vmticus Lc Sueur, Mem. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, vol. 15, 1827, p. 263, pi. 7 (type locality — Wabash River at New Harmony, Indiana). Amyda mutica Agassiz, Contr. Nat. Hist. United States, vol. 1, 1857, p. 399, vol. 2, pi. 6, figs. 6-7. Range. — Eastern two-thirds of state, south and east of a line from Doniphan (Doniphan Lake) through Trego (Wakeeney), McPherson (Linds- borg), Reno (6 miles east of Turon), Gray (1 mile west of Cimarron; not mapped ) and Barber (Aetna) counties. Ilttt«ym of NalunI Hitle/y UAl*«r«ilr of KanMt IMS m Fig. 109. Distribution of the smooth soft-shelled turtle, Amyda mutica, in Kansas. Description. — Shell leathery, without laminae, although bone is "visible" centrally; carapace completely devoid of tubercles; limbs, especially the rear ones, adapted for swimming. Nostrils rounded, lacking a ridge projecting from median septum into nasal cavities. Adults uniform light or dark brown above, unmarked; head dark above, light below; lower surfaces cream-white. Young light brown above, with pale, yellowish margin around sides and rear part of carapace in turn bordered medially by narrow dark line; small dark flecks may be present on back; light, dark-edged band extending 158 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. from eye onto neck, and at least a short distance (sometimes to snout) anteriorly from eye; sometimes small dark flecks on sides and upper surfaces of neck, and on forelegs. Fig. 110. Smooth soft-shelled turtles, Amyda mutica. Above, courtesy New York Zoo- logical Society, X */»• Below right, Lage Texoma, Grayson County, Texas, X '/s. Below left, snout of same, approx. X IVs- Size moderately large, carapace measuring as much as eleven inches in length. Recognition Characters. — The soft-shelled turtles are easily rec- ognized by the flexible, leatherlike edges of the shells, and absence Smith: Tubtles 159 of laminae covering the body. The only difficulties arise in distin- guishing the two Kansan species from each other. A. mutica lacks the ridge projecting to each side from the median nasal septum into the nasal cavities, which ridge is present in A. ferox and easily seen by looking directly at the end of the snout. Moreover A. mutica completely lacks the spines and tubercles at the front end of the carapace, so characteristic of A. ferox; these tubercles are not clearly evident in young specimens of A. ferox. Habits and Habitat. — These are typically river and stream tur- tles, although they are found in nonstagnant lakes. Waters with mud bottoms and aquatic vegetation are preferred. The food consists of insects, worms, crayfish, snails, clams, frogs, tadpoles, fishes, perhaps young birds, fruit, nuts and potato stems. These turtles are the best swimmers of all freshwater turtles, and perhaps of any turtles, and can catch even such piscatorial experts as trout. Even on land these turtles are said to be remarkably swift. Some ten to thirty-one eggs are laid in June and incubate in about seventy days. They measure approximately 23 mm. in diameter and have thick, white shells. The female scoops out a nest in plain sight of the water, and not more than sixty feet from it or nearer than ten feet to it. Sandy soil of just the right dampness so that the particles will cling together, and lacking any cohesive foreign mat- ter such as clay, is required. These turtles are vicious and difficult to handle because the long, snakelike neck allows great freedom of movement for the head which can be moved rapidly, and enables the powerful jaws to grasp an adversary. The least hazardous way to manage one of these turtles is to hold it by the tail. These turtles spend hours at the edge of streams, buried under a thin layer of sand in water just deep enough to permit the nostrils to reach the air when the animal stretches its neck. In such a situa- tion it is almost impossible to see one. While unbelievably shy and wary, the turtles sun themselves to some extent on beaches near water. For food this is one of the best of all turtles. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Carr, 1952: 436-440, pi. 79, map 23 (general account); Pope, 1939: 318- 323 (description, range, natural history). 160 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle Amyda ferox (Schneider) Trionyx ferox Schneider, 1783, Naturg. Schildkr., p. 330 (type locality — Savannah River, Georgia). Amyda ferox Oken, Lehrb. Zool., vol. 2, 1816, p. 348 (but Oken's names and com- binations are in question as to availability). Range. — State-wide, except entire northern border and perhaps extreme southwestern corner. Not recorded north of Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Riley (Manhat- tan), Sheridan (7 miles northeast of Quinter) and Wallace counties. Not recorded south and west of a line from Meade ( State Park ) to Hamilton ( Syra- cuse) counties. Museum of Nolural Hittorr Uniwarsity of Kanto) 1943 Fig. 111. Distribution of the spiny soft-shelled turtle, Amyda ferox, in Kansas. Description. — Shell leathery, without laminae, although bone is "visible" centrally; tubercles or spines present at front margin of up- per shell, very low in young and several millimeters long in adults; limbs adapted for swimming. A ridge projecting from each side of septum between nostrils into the nasal cavities. Adults uniformly light or dark brown above, unmarked; head dark above, light below; lower surfaces creamy white; in young carapace dark spotted and light bordered; inside the light border is narrow dark ring; light line through eye. Smith: Turtles 161 Size moderateh large, carapace measuring as much as fourteen inches in length. Recognition CJiaracters. — See account of A. miitica. Habits and Habitat. — Rivers and streams are the usual habitat, where soft bottoms are available. Well-drained lakes and ponds may be inhabited, but temporary waters are shunned. Fig. 112. A spiny soft-shelled turtle, Amtjda fcrox spinifcra, X ^3. from Champaign, Ilh'nois. The food consists mostly of crayfish, but also of many other items such as insects, snails, worms, frogs, tadpoles, clams, small fishes and grains of corn. In seeking food "they crawl or swim along the bottom, thrusting their snouts under stones and into masses of vege- tation, occasionally snapping up a crayfish or larva that they have succeeded in dislodging." ( Newman, 1906. ) Twelve to twenty-five, generally eighteen or nineteen, eggs of usually spherical shape, approximately 26 mm. in diameter, are laid in June and hatch in the fall. The female follows much the same procedure as other turtles in constructing the nest, but usually makes it within twenty-five feet of water, and is extremely wary during the entire process ( most other turtles are not easily disturbed at that time). "The nest is flask-shaped, ranging in depth from four to ten inches, in greatest diameter from three to five inches, and 6—9019 162 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. with a narrow neck around one and one-half inches in diameter" (Carr, 1952:429). Females reach sexual maturity when 9/2 inches long — a length attained probably at six or seven years of age. Hibernation begins in late October, and the turtles emerge in April or May. They hibernate under a few inches of mud or sand covered by water. They sun themselves on open beaches in summer, but always re- main close to the water and highly alert to any indication of danger. They float at the surface of the water for hours, and also lie in shal- low water barely covered by sand or mud flipped onto the back by the feet or into which the body is sidled. Often specimens may be found on sandy beaches in the hottest parts of summer days by probing into depressions where they have dug near water. They live under water for hours by practicing aquatic respiration with use of the highly vascularized interior of the throat and esophagus. The adaptive value of the soft-margined flat shell of Aniijda seem- ingly is not so much a provision for speed in aquatic locomotion (although these turtles are said to overtake bass), as it is a means by which the turtle may easily conceal itself. The disposition of these turtles is notoriously fierce. They snap and strike long distances with great speed and precision, so that they can safely be handled only by the tail. Strangely, the eyes are kept uppermost when striking at objects behind them. For some time after capture they retain their sour disposition, but even- tually submit to captivity and have survived 10/2 years under arti- ficial conditions. The flesh of this and A. mtttica is the most delicious of any Kan- san turtles. The soft-shelled turtles have never been of commercial importance, however, because of rarity of capture. According to Carr (1952: 431), "The importance of this soft-shell as an enemy of valuable fishes has not been demonstrated and prob- ably is not nearly so great as is popularly supposed. It quite possi- bly is of more significance as a competitor with game fish than as an enemy, since the preponderance of crayfish in its diet implies a de- pendence on a partly similar food supply." Kansan Subspecies. — A. /. hartwegi Conant and Goin is the race in Kansas. Its type locality is at Wichita, Kansas. Five others occur in the eastern United States. References. — Carr, 1952: 433-435, pi. 78, map 22 (general account); Pope, 1939:307- 318 (description, range and natural history; Pope's plates for this species actually illustrate another subspecies, A. f. aspera). Smith: Lizards 163 Order SQUAMATA Oppel Lizards Suborder Sauria Macartney Fourteen species, two of which are represented by two subspecies, are known to occur in the state. They represent four famihes. One other species, a skink of the genus Eumeces, is to be expected in the state ( see p. 321 ) . Key to Species of Lizards 1. r. 207 Body limbless Ophisaurus attenuatus, p. Body with 4 limbs. 2. Scales around middle of trunk numbering 35 or more, differing markedly in size and shape. 3. Posterior border of head provided with horns (Fig. 113). 4. Spines at rear of head (occipitals) about twice as long as those at sides of head, 3 times as large as those back of eye (Fig. 113A); 2 fringes of elongate scales on each side of trunk; chinshields increasing in size posteriorly. Phrynosoma cornutum, p. 181 4'. Spines at rear of head about same size as those at sides of head, and less than twice as large as those back of eye (Fig. 113B): 1 fringe of elongate scales on each side of trunk; chinshields decreasing in size posteriorly. Phrynosoma douglassii, p. 184 vcv» Fig. 113. Dorsal views of tht- heads of horned lizards. A. Texan horned lizard, Phryno- soma cornutum, X l^i-, from Burt (1935). B. Short-horned lizard, Phrtjnosonui douglassii, X 4, K. U. no. 21451, 16 miles southwest of Marsland, Box Butte County, Nebraska. Drawn by Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh. 3'. Head without horns. 4. No ear opening; tympanic membrane invisible. Holbrookia maculata, p. 171 4'. Ear opening present; tympanic membrane visible. 164 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist, poztrosirals internasals fronial ridges circumorbifals supraorbiial semicircle inierpariefal rosiral canihals loreals (4 rows) preoculars superciliaries suboculars postoculars iemporals ear opening mental infralabials sublabials gulars ihroat fan posianal dorsal scales lateral scales ventral scales Fig. 114. Typical scutellation in an anole, Anolis carolincnsis. X 2, locality unknown. A. Top of head. B. Under side of head. C. Side of head. D. Ventral view of right hind leg and anal region. E. Section of body in lateral view. F. Ventral view of hind foot. From Cope, after Smith (1946). Smith: Lizards 165 I'art ot fingers and tofs expanded, padlike; scales granular above, small below; no fold across lower surface of neck, but a longitudinal flap ( throat fan ) present in males ( Fig. 114) Annlis carolmensis, p. 168 Fingers and toes of nearly uniform diameter throughout, never expanded; all scales large, or at least the lower scales considerably larger than the upper; no longitudinal throat flap. 6. A granular fold across lower surface of neck; scales on back granular. 7. Belly scales large, abruptK' difterentiated from dorsal scales (Fig. 115A); fewer than 15 rows of scales across middle of belly. Cnemidophorns sexlineatus, p. 204 7'. BelK scales small, gradually merging with the dorsal scales; more than 15 rows of scales across middle of belly Crotapht/tus collaris, p. 174 6'. No fold across neck; dorsal scales large, keeled, strongly pointed, overlapping Sceloponis undulatus, p. 176 B Fig. 115. A. A strip of scales around middle of body, split at middorsal line, of a si.\-lined racerunner, Cncmidophorus sexlineatus, X 2, from Burt (1935). B. Dorsal view of head of a brown skink, Scincelta laterale, X 2ij, from Imboden, Lawrence County-, Arkansas. C. Lateral view of head of same species, locality unknown, from Burt (1935). D. A strip of scales around middle of body, split at middorsal line, of a skink, Eumeccs tctragrammus, X 2, from Burt (1935). Scales around middle of trunk numbering 30 or less, all of uniform size and shape, and relatively large, absolutely smooth, shiny and overlapping (Fig. 115D). 3. Frontal V-shaped, rear part much narrower than forepart (Fig. 115B); lower eyelid with a single fairly large, windowHke scale (Fig. 11.5C); supranasals absent ScinceUa laterale, p. 186 106 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. preocu/or- superclliaries,, posterior loreal--^ anterior loreal posfnosa/ nasol * rostral upper secondary lemporai l;> tertiary temporals lower secondary temporal 'primary temporal -postlabials upper labials tower labials menial -- postmenlal chinshtelds posfgeniaf rostral supranosals ~ frontonasal prefrontal - frontal ■"->> supraoculars preocular superciliaries upper ciliary series - trontopofietal — parietal interparietal upper secondary temporal nuchal palpebrals postoculars posisuboculars \; lower ciliary series presuboculars Fig. 116. Typical scutellation in a skink, EumeceSy species not determined. A. Side of head, X 2 7/10. B. Top of head, X 2 7/10. C. Under side of head, X 2 7/10. D. Or- bital region in lateral aspect, X 4. From Taylor, after Smith (1946). B Fig. 117. A section of the side of the body. A. Sonoran skink, Eiimcces obsolcttis. B. Common five-lined skink, Eumcccs fasciatus. Both drawings X 3. Fig. 118. A. Lateral view of head of a coal skink, Euttwces nnthracintis, X 1%, K. U. no. 8221, Imboden, Lawrence Connty, Arkansas, after Taylor (1936). B. Ventral view of head of same, approx. X %. locality unknown, after Burt (1935). C. Lateral view of head of a prairie skink, Eumeces septcntrionalis, X 1%, K. U. no. 6988, 5 miles west of Onaga, Potta- watomie County, Kansas, after Taylor (1936). D. Ventral view of head of same species, locality unknown, after Smith (1946). Smith: Lizards 167 3'. Frontal nearly rectangular, with nearly straight sides, rear part being but little narrower than forepart; lower eyelid with many scales, none windowlike; supranasals present (Fig. 116). 4. Third scale row ( counting to either side from the middle of the back ) with a dorsolateral light line running down its mid- dle (not yet known from Kansas) Eumeces multivirgatus, p. 321 4'. Third scale row not marked by any hght line. 5. Only 7 or fewer rows of scales parallel with long axis of body; lateral rows oblique, rising as they continue pos- teriorly (Fig. 117A) Eumeces obsoletus, p. 197 5'. At least 8 dorsal scale rows, and usually also lateral rows, parallel with long axis of body (Fig. 117B). 6. One postmental (Fig. 118B); no postnasal (Fig. 118A); never a forked median hght line on head. Eumeces anthr acinus, p. 188 6'. Two postmentals (Fig. 118D); postnasal present or absent; median light line forking on head or not. B C D Fig. 119. A. Side view of head of Eumeces laticeps. B. Same, E. fasciatus. C. Pos- terior surface of right fourth toe of E. laticeps. D. Same, E. fasciatus. All from Smith (1946). A and B, X 1; C and D, X 3. 7. In young and subadults, a median light line pres- ent, forking on head; in adults, dorsolateral light line indistinct or bordered medially by a dark line narrower than the light line or by no dark hne at all; postnasal present. 8. No postlabials, or 1 or 2 of small size; lateral intercalary scales on 4th toe reaching onto next to last phalanx; maximum snout-to-vent length 5^6 inches Eumeces laticeps, p. 194 8'. Two postlabials of relatively large size; lateral intercalary scales on 4tli toe not reaching pen- ultimate phalanx; maximum snout-vent meas- urement 3^,^ inches . . Eumeces fasciatus, p. 191 7'. Median light line never forking on head; dorso- lateral light line always distinct and bordered medially by a dark line as broad as, or e\en broader than, the light line; postnasal absent ( Fig. 118C) Eumeces septentrionalis, p. 200 168 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hisr. FAMILY IGUANIDAE Genus Anolis Daudin Carolina Anole Ano!is carolinensis Voigt Anolhis carolinensis Voigt, Cuvier's Thierreich, vol. 2, 1832, p. 71 (t>pe localitx — Charleston, South Carolina). Range. — Not a natural inhabitant of Kansas. Introduced in the vicinity of Leavenworth. Musaum of Nolural Hitlory University of Kaniai 194 :> Fig. 120. Distribution of the Carolina anole, Anolis carolinensis, in Kansas, \\ ith insert show- ing range of the species. Description. — The head is long, flattened, and rather wedge- shaped, covered above with small, heavily keeled scales. The dorsal scales are a little more strongly keeled; fingers and toes, except the first on each hand, curiously expanded near tips; expanded parts provided with numerous fine lamellae; last joint with claw, ex- tending beyond expanded part. Male with a loose, integumentary fold in middle of throat, supported internally by a slender rod of cartilage. This supporting rod can be lifted away (downward) from the surface of the body by swinging it from its attached, anterior end; thus the loose skin is pulled away from the body and flared so as to show the bright color of the skin between the scales. There are no femoral i:)ores, but enlarged postanal scales are present. The tail is round in cross section. The color of lizards capable of such pronounced metachrosis as these is difficult to describe. The animals may be a uniform light brown above and flecked with brown below, or pure, pale green above and white below. Almost all imaginable intermediates be- Smith: Lizards 169 tweeii these two extremes can be assumed b\ the Hzarcls at will. In some a middorsal light stripe may extend from the head to the tail. The back may be mottled with brown and green, or show short, irregular, dark stripes. This dark pattern varies greatly between specimens but is constant in any one animal in that phase of its color repertoire in which the pattern is evident at all. Dark speci- mens usually show several short, longitudinal dark streaks on the sides of the throat, fine white flecks on the sides of the body, and a dim reticulation or spotting with darker brown on the sides of the abdomen. Both green and brown specimens have a white or cream stripe along the sides of the head below the eye; in dark specimens it extends to the shoulders more or less through the middle of the e>'e. The dewlap in males is colored a brilliant red, but the color is fully visible only when the fan is spread. The females lack a Fig. 121. Carolina anoles, Anolis c. carolinensis. A. Female, X ^/lo, from Auburn, Ala- bama. B. Male, Thomson, Georgia. C. Male, y '2, from Auburn, Alabama. From Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright (A. C), and Gloyd (B). well-developed dewlap but sometimes show feeble evidence of it in the middle of the throat. Size small, the snout-vent length reaching 2% inches; the tail is long, approximately twice the snout-vent length. Recognilion Characters. — No other lizard in this state possesses expanded digits, or a well-developed dewlap in males, or the combi- nation of the presence of tiny scales all o\'er the body with the absence of a transverse gular fold. Habits and Habitat. — These animals are found on trees, shrubs, vines, low vegetation, fences, and sometimes old wooden buildings. Shade, some sort of protection, and something on which they can climb limit their range of habitat. In relati\'ely dry areas they choose moist habitats and are less abundant. Like most other lizards of the United States, anoles are diurnal. 170 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. beginning their movements when the temperature has risen in late morning. They are most active early in the clay. They feed mostly upon flies and may function usefully in the control of mosquitoes. Males frequently fight among themselves, spreading the throat fan as a threatening gesture. Also, probably to intimidate an ad- versary, the skin along the middle of the back and neck is elevated to form a high crest. They are known to climb fifty or sixty feet above the ground in trees; when active they make two-foot leaps between limbs. They swim well and may live in waterside bushes. The skin is shed several times a year and is usually eaten. In captivity the animals are known to live nearly four years. Mating occurs in April or May, and the eggs, usually two in num- ber, are laid in June a few inches below the surface in loose, slightly moist debris. The eggs measure approximately 6 X H mm., are soft-shelled, and hatch in six to seven weeks. Since the anole is the most common rej)tile "pet" or curio in the United States, some details of its proper care may be of interest. Although the lizards are normally short-lived, many die prematurely in captivity because of lack of attention. In summer, anoles may have the run of a screened porch, but during the winter a cage should be provided. A box, preferably "at least two or three feet long, placed where it will receive plenty of sunlight, may be used. The open face should be covered with a pane of glass, mosquito netting, or a fine-meshed wire screening, A small, shallow bowl containing a water hyacinth , , . or some other water plant should be placed inside the cage and a little water sprayed over its leaves at least once each day, as these lizards normally procure what water they require by lapping up with their thick tongues scattered droplets on leaves. A captive anole may soon die of thirst even with a pan of water in the cage. Do not give sweetened water. An anole will soon die on a diet of sugar and water. . . . "Captive chameleons may be fed on flies and meal worms or on insects caught in a net swept through rank vegetation. Under ordinary conditions, live meal worms will prove to be the most satisfactory diet, especially as they may be bred or purchased from dealers. Cockroaches have been found acceptable when other insects have been refused." (Wildlife Research and Management Leaflet BS-92. ) Kansan Subspecies. — A. c. carolinemis is the subspecies occurring in Kansas, Two others occur in the West Indies. References. — Smith, 1946: 95-99, fig. 59, pi. 11, map 2 (description, natural history, range); Brumwell, 1942:54 (establishment in Kansas). Smith: Lizards 171 Genus Holbrookia Girard Earless Lizard Holbrookia maculata Girard Holbrookia maculata Girard, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., New Haven, vol. 4, 185), p. 201 (t>-pe localit>- — opposite Grand Island, Platte River, Nebraska). Range. — State-wide except in the eastern fourth. Peripheral lo- calities on the eastern edge of the recorded range in Kansas are in Rawlins ( 4 miles northeast of Ludell ) , Osborne ( Alton ) , Dickinson (Manchester), Lyon (6 miles southeast of Emporia), Woodson (Neosho Falls), Wilson, and Elk (Longton) counties. 1 -y Uvttiim of Natural Hillary UnUartlty of K«(tsat IMS m Fig. 122. Distribution of the earless lizard, Holbrookia maculata, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Dorsal scales small, flat; lateral scales a little smaller, decreasing in size toward belly, but somewhat pointed and elevated near tips; belly scales larger, smooth. Hat, grading into lat- eral scales; a prominent, granular, gular fold, and a smaller, pre- gular one just anterior to it; supralabials diagonal; a triangular postmental; supraoculars numerous, slightly enlarged, separated from median head scales by one or two rows of small scales; femoral pores usually ten to fourteen; enlarged postanals present in males. Dorsal ground color light gray to gray-brown; a broad, middorsal, gray, unmarked light area; on either side of this is a series of nine to fourteen dark brown spots on body; dark spots a little broader than long, bordered laterally by a rather dim, dorsolateral light line extending from orbit to base of tail; another light line extending from axilla to groin; area between these light lines on either side 172 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. unmarked or with a series of dim spots similar to those on back. Two black, diagonal bars, directed posteroventrally, extending from extreme lateral belly scales and disappearing a short distance above lateral fold; these bars, and sometimes 1 or 2 similar bars posterior Fig. 123. An earless lizard, Holhrookia m. mactilata, X 1, from 3 miles east of Sharon Springs, Kansas. Dorsal and ventral views of a male, from Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright. to these, are always present in males and usually in females; in the latter the belly is otherwise unmarked, except for a gray suffusion sometimes in the gular region; in males the throat is usually grayish, Smith: Lizards 173 and frequently there is some mottlinj^ or a barred pattern laterally. Size small, the snout-vent measurement reaching I'v; inches. The tail is slightly shorter to slightly longer than the snout-vent length. Recognition Clioractcrs. — No other lizard in the state lacks an ear opening or visible tympanum. The diagonal supralabials and trian- gular postmental are also distinctive. The only species frequently confused with it is Sceloporus iindiihittis, which can however be dis- tinguished easily by the absence of a ventral throat fold, presence of an ear opening, flat supralabials not overlying each other, and by the absence of a median postmental. Habits and Habitat. — A more or less sandy soil, where vegetation is sparse and low and where there is little grass, seems to be pre- ferred by this species. These lizards are not extremely wary, but are not often caught by hand. On warm days they are active and can be seen scampering about the bases of bushes. In the day they spend some time partly buried in the sand. Early in the evening, long before the sun ac- tually sets, they retire to burrows made by mammals or other ani- mals where they spend the nights and cold days. They are seldom found under rocks or other objects. They eat spiders and insects. Grasshoppers comprise nearly a half, and true bugs about one-fourth of their food. As an eater of chinch bugs which damage planted crops, these lizards may be of considerable economic importance. The breeding habits are little known. Mating occurs in late June and early July. The eggs number six to eight, and are probably laid in August. In the mating periods, this species is found in pairs composed of one individual of each sex. They are intensely curious which on occasion leads to their capture by enemies. If kept in a sandy habitat and provided with adequate light and heat, these lizards live well in captivity, for they eat readily under proper conditions. Adequate but not excessive light and heat are best provided by a thermostatically controlled, weak light bulb. Kansan Subspecies. — H. in. maculatu Girard is the only subspecies in the state. Four other subspecies are recognized from the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. References. — Burt, 1928: 53-54 (food); Bvirt, 1928: 11-16, map 2 (description, habits, habitat, Kansas records); Smith, 1946: 115-119, fig. 63, pi. 16, map 4 (distribution, descrip- tion, habits, habitat). 174 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Genus Crotaphijtus Holbrook Collared Lizard Crotaphytus collaris (Say) Agama collaris Say, Long's Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 2, 1823, p. 252 (type locality — Ver- digris River near its union with Arkansas River, Oklahoma). Crotaphytus collaris Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp., ed. 2, vol. 2, 1842, p. 79, pi. 10. Range. — Southern and central Kansas. Peripheral localities on the northern edge of the recorded range in Kansas are in Bourbon, Anderson (6 miles south of Garnett), Coffey (8 miles southeast of Waverly), Wabaunsee (2 miles northeast of Alma), Pottawatomie (east of Rocky Ford Power Plant), Riley (Garrison), Marshall (5 Museum of Nolunil Hitlorjr UnivtrsJfr of KAnsai 194} Fig. 124. Distribution of the collared lizard, Crotaphytus collaris, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. miles south of Waterville), Cloud (Miltonvale), Mitchell (Glen Elder), Lincoln (3 miles west of Sylvan Grove), Russell, Ellis, Rush (3 miles west of Shaffer) and Seward counties. Description. — Head broad and distinctly set off from body by a relatively narrow neck; scales on head small; 1, 2, 3 or 4 unpaired, rather irregular, scales between areas above eyes; a distinct fold across throat; ear opening large, oval, not protected by overlapping scales; dorsal scales small, smooth; ventral scales a little larger; a long series of 14 to 27 femoral pores on each thigh; males lacking enlarged postanal scales. Males of this species are brightly colored; ground color straw yellow; a black collar, broken in the middle, extends dorsally around the neck between the insertions of the arms; another collar preceding Smith: Lizards 175 this, also broken inedialK-; six dark crossbands on back; blue spots scattered near edges of dark bands; ventral surface white or cream, unmarked save for a coarse reticulation on lower lips; throat some- times orange or yellow. Females marked like males but less brightly colored. Young with broader collars on neck and more distinct dark bands on body; these bands may enclose large, more or less circular, light marks; the breaking up of these circular marks in adults results in small blue flecks near edges of crossbands; in very old specimens crossbands disappear completely and the only distinct markings remaining may be light flecks. Size large, snout-vent length reaching 115 mm.; tail usually about twice as long as body and head. Males have a notably broader, more muscular head, than females. Hind legs larger than the forelegs, and about as long as head and body. f Fig. 123. A collared lizard, Crotapliijtus c. coUaris, X Vz, Manhattan, Kansas, from Smith (1946). Courtesy Howard K. Gloyd. Recognition Characters. — The general body form of this species is distinctive. No single scale character is distinctive, but the com- bination of a transverse gular fold, absence of horns on the head, presence of an ear opening, and small ventral scales less than six times as large as the dorsals, will serve to identify all specimens of the species. Habits and Habitat. — These lizards are common on the limestone- capped hills of the central part of the state, where they reach their maximum abundance. They are restricted to rocky areas or canyons in the prairies, and thus do not occur on the vast expanse of flat ]")rairie in the west. The pugnacious habits of these lizards are well known. Their discrimination must be poor, for they sometimes react threateningly at almost any movement, when startled, whether the moving object be a dog, human, or train. Sometimes they are taken by surprise. 176 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. but usually they see an intruder when he is yet a considerable distance away and take refuge under stones or in cracks before the intruder arrives on the scene. The eggs vary from four to twenty-four according to published accounts, and may be deposited in loose sand to a depth of four or five inches, or in tunnels underneath rocks. The food consists largely of grasshoppers, but includes other large arthropods such as spiders, beetles, moths, and occasionally small vertebrates, including other lizards. Kansan Subspecies. — Only C c. coUaris Say occurs in Kansas. Two other subspecies, C c. baileyi Stejneger and C c. oiiriceps Fitch and Tanner occur in the southwestern United States. References. — Burt, 1928: 51-53 (food); Burt, 1928: 5-11. fig. 1 (description, habits, habitat, Kansas distriliution ); Smith, 1946: 168-170, fig. 71, pi. 32, map 8 (description, range, habits). Genus Sceloporus Wiegmann Rough-scaled Lizard Sceloporus undulatus (Latreille) Stcllio undulatus Latreille, Hist. Nat. Kept., vol. 2, 1802, p. 40 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Sceloporus undulatus Wiegmann. Isis, 1828, p. 369. Range. — State-wide, except for a peculiar gap that occupies most of the eastern third of the state. Peripheral localities on the eastern edge of the recorded range of the western subspecies, S. ii. garmani, are in Norton (2 miles southeast of Dinsmore), Rooks (Stockton), Osborne, Saline ( Brookville ) , Geary (Fort Riley), Douglas (Lawrence), Chase, Harvey (10 miles northwest of Halstead), Sedg- wick (Clearwater), and Cowley (Arkansas City) counties. The eastward record stations, in Geary and Douglas counties, probably result from floodwaters carrying animals eastward of their normal geographic range. The eastern subspecies, S. ii. liyaciutliinus, is known from only as far west as Cherokee (1 mile north of Crestline), Crawford (3 miles north of Pittsburg), Johnson (3 miles west of Mission), Wyandotte and Atchison (Atchison) counties; these are the only counties from which reliable records are now available. Description. — Dorsal scales rough, overlapping, with backward- projecting spines thirty-live to forty-nine from occiput to base of tail; ventral scales a little smaller than dorsal scales; numerous scales on top of head, irregular in shape and number; no transverse fold across throat; femoral pores ten to nineteen on each side. hi the eastern subspecies, S. ti. hyacinthinus, ground color gray- brown, broken by a series of six to ten narrow, dark, undulating Smith: Lizards 177 crossbands; ventral surface, in males, bluish at sides of belly, bluish color being bordered by black; middle of belK' light, or in large specimens black; throat suffused with gray, becoming black in large specimens. Wntral surface in females and young dusky, with small, scattered dark marks and no distinct large markings. ■^■imii Musaum of Naturol HIsrory University Ol Konsos i94S Fig. 126. Distrilmtion of the rcjuKli-scaled lizard, Sccloporus undtiliitiis. in Kansas. The range of S. u. liyticinlhiiuis in the eastern part of the state is indieated h\ the lined area, that of S. u. gcirinani by the stippled area. In the western subspecies, S. u. p,armoni, ground color light brown; a dorsolateral light stripe, and sometimes a lateral one also; on each side of mid-dorsal line a series of nine small, dark brown spots. In males, sides of belly light blue, from axilla to groin, but ventral sur- faces otherwise white. Females not marked below. Size moderate, snout-vent length reaching 2M inches; tail about 1/2 times as long as rest of animal. Recognition Characters. — The distinctive feature of this lizard, within the boundaries of the state of Kansas, is the presence of uni- form, overlapping, relatively large dorsal scales with sharp points on their posterior edges. Another feature of importance is the ab- sence of a transverse or longitudinal fold on the throat. The latter character alone, in fact, distinguishes this species from all others with the exception of the legless lizard, the horned lizards, and the smooth-scaled skinks; all of these are readily separated from Scclo- porus by other characters. Habits and Habitat. — The habitat of S. //. liyacintJiiniis, the east- ern race, is dry forested areas, where the animals may frequent 178 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. almost any sort of object on which they can climb if it receives a fair amount of sunshine. They spend a great deal of time basking Fig. 127. Rough-scaled lizards, Sceloporus undulatus fiuacinthinus, all X 'i;. A. Patuxent Research Refuge, Bowie, Maryland; female and male. B. Weymouth, New Jersey; female. C. Same locality; male. D. San Antonio, Te.xas; male. From Smith ( 1946). Photos bv A. A. and A. H. Wright (B-D), and by U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (A). in the sun, and for that reason heavy woods through which the sun does not penetrate are uninhabited. They frequently spend as much as half of their time in the day on the ground, but trees or other ob- jects on which they can climb are a necessary part of their habitat. In Missouri, hibernation may begin as late as November 15, and emergence may follow as early as February 10. As in most species Smith: Lizards 179 of lizards, the adults spend a longer time in hibernation than do the young, and for both age groups the actual length of hibernation varies greatly according to the rigor of the season. Hibernating quarters are burrows in the ground, spaces under or between rocks, or within rotten logs or stumps. Soon after emergence from hibernation the breeding season com- mences, and la.sts several weeks. In this time the lizards are active and react quickly to the presence of others of their species. They occupy rather restricted territories, and males will defend their ter- ritories from the entry of others. Females do not defend territory and are permitted by the males to wander freely. Apparently, for a period of some two or three weeks, during the mating season, there is a sort of family tie. The eggs are laid, about eight weeks after mating, one-half to four inches below the surface of slightly damp soil. The lizard makes its own burrow for the eggs, lays four to seventeen eggs, and then covers them carefully. Egg-laying may occur over a period of six weeks, in any one year, and the eggs hatch in about ten weeks. The lizards have a voracious appetite, and eat all kinds of small or medium-sized terrestrial arthropods. Ordinarily only moving prey is taken. Most of the food is taken early in the morning, after a brief period of sunning. During hot parts of the day the lizards are quiescent, and in the evening they may again become active just before retiring at dusk. When pursued, they seek to conceal themselves rather than to escape by rapid flight. The immediate reaction is to climb some- thing, and enter a hole, hide under a loose bit of bark, or just to keep the structure on which the animal is climbing between it and the source of danger. At night it appears that the lizards sleep aloft rather than on the ground. The western subspecies, S. u. garmani, prefers a terrestrial habitat and in fact seldom climbs except upon rocks and sometimes in weeds. Sand dunes or sandy soil seems to be preferred, and in such habitats these lizards may be nearly as abundant as the earless lizards. They are more widely distributed than the latter, being found on sandstone hills, in the white chalk cliffs of the western part of the state, and even on the open prairie wherever there is some cover such as piles of weeds, or burrows of mammals. They are frequently found under shocks of wheat. 180 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist, Fig. 128. Rough-scaled lizards, Sceloponn unduhitiis gantiani. all X %. \, B, female, from 10 miles southwest of Winfield, Kansas. C, D, male, from Hackherry Lake, Gordon County, .\ehraska. From Smith ( 1946). Photos by U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Smith: Lizards 181 The food consists of small grasshoppers and beetles, for the most part. Large insects may be killed but not eaten. Ladybird beetles and bees are not molested. A bee sting will kill one of these lizards. Seven to eleven eggs are laid in the middle of June. Kansan Subspecies. — Two occur in the state: Sceloparus undiilatus garmani Boulenger (type locality at Pine Ridge, South Dakota), and Sceloporus un- duhitus hijacinthinus (Green) (type locality at Princeton, New Jersey). Five other subspecies are recognized from areas outside the state. The situation with regard to the two subspecies in Kansas is rather strange, for their ranges do not meet, so far as is now known, within the state, where the two forms are entirely distinct. They do meet farther soutli, in Oklahoma and Texas, how- ever, and intergradation occurs there. They can be identified by the following differences. hijacinthinus 1. Dark markings on back narrow but extending transversely across most of back, usually crossing the dorso- lateral light lines. 2. Males with 1 or 2 large, distinct, dark blue or black areas on throat. 3. Scales in a line between ends of femoral pore series, by smallest count, 7 or more in 7.5 percent of 286 counts. garmani 1. Dark markings on back n(jt more than 3 times as wide as long, not crossing either a broad middorsal zone or a distinct dorsolateral light line. 2. Throat of males unmarked or with two very inconspicuous dark mark- ings posteriorly. 3. Scales in a line between ends of femoral pore series, by smallest count, 7 or more in 6 percent of 47 counts. References. — Burt, 1928: 54-56 (food); Burt, 1928: 16-27, figs. 3, 4 (Kansas distribu- tion, habits, habitat, description); Smith, 1938: 8-10, 14-15 (taxonomy); Smith, 1946: 222- 231, pis. 51, 52, map 15 (range, description, habits, habitat). Genus Phrynosoma Wiegmann Texan Horned Lizard Phrynosoma cornutum ( Harlan ) Agama cormtta Harlan, Journ. Acad. Xal. Sci. Phila., vol. 4, 1825, p. 299, pi. 20 (type locality — Fort Riley, Geary County, Kansas). Phrynosoma cornutum Gray, Griffith's Cuvier's Anim. Kingdom, Syn. Rept., 1831. p. 9. Range. — Almost state-wide, excluding only the northwestern and northeastern corners. To the west the species has been recorded as far as Rawlins County, but other records would limit it at a line from Morton (12 miles northwest of Elkhart) through Ellis to Phillips (4 miles south of Glade) counties. Toward the northeast it has been recorded as far as Smith, Cloud ( 7 miles south- east of Scottsville), Ottawa, Riley (Manhattan), 182 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Douglas (Lawrence), Franklin (Ottawa), and Bourbon (Fort Scott) counties. Some peripheral occurrences may be introductions. Description. — A much enlarged spine on each side of the back of the head; three other spines, about half as large or less, projecting from the rear sides of the head; a series of large chinshields, greatly increasing in size posteriorly, separated by a couple of rows of small scales from the lower labials; three groups of lateral neck spines; a transverse gular fold; dorsal scales mostly small, but scattered, en- larged, keeled spines also present; numerous keeled scales near mid- dorsal line, but latter with only small scales; two series of spines at fringe of abdomen, and one series along sides of tail; femoral pores and enlarged postanals poorly defined. Ground color light yellowish brown to reddish brown or tan; a dark brown; elongate, white-edged, sharply outlined blotch on wHIlai Mu&aum of Natural Hislory Univtrsily of Kansai 1945 Fig. 129. Distribution of the Texan horned Hzard, Phrijnosoma cornutiim, in Kansas. each side immediately behind head; a series of four more or less rounded dark spots on either side of middorsal line on body, each bordered posteriorly by a white streak, and each surrounding an en- larged spine; another series of three similar spots on either side, fre- quently fused with the more median row to form transverse, un- dulate bars; a light middorsal streak from head to tail; a number of alternating dark and light streaks across top of head, and radiating from eye; ventral surfaces white, unspotted or with a few small, rounded dark spots on chest, belh' and preanal region. Size moderate, snout-vent length reaching 4K inches, about D'l times length of tail. Recognition Characters. — The presence of a pair of large spines at the rear of the head, three times as large as the spines just back of Smith: Lizards 183 eye, is distinctive of this species of horned Hzard in Kansas. In the other species of Plinjnosoma the occipital horns are mnch smaller (less than half the size of the postocular horns), and the chinshields decrease instead of increase in size posteriorly. Habits and Habitat. — These are terrestrial lizards which occur on almost any type of flat, dry land where vegetation is scanty. The soil may be rocky, sandy or a loam. B Fig. 130. Texan horned lizards, Phnjnosoma cornutum. A, X %, and C, X %, both from 10 miles southeast of Comstock, Texas; male. B, X %, from Wilcox, Arizona. From Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright. Exclusively diurnal, these lizards prey upon many types of arthro- pods, which are active in the daytime. Ants form by far the largest part of the diet. As befits a lizard which requires such high temper- atures for feeding, hibernation occurs early — in September or Octo- ber; emergence follows in April or May. Mating occurs soon after emergence, and some time later a large number ( 23 to 37 ) of eggs are laid in pits dug to a depth of five to seven inches in loose soil or sand. The eggs hatch in thirty-nine to forty-seven days. Immediately after being captured, rare individuals have been ob- served to squirt a tiny stream, or a few drops, of blood from one or both eyes to a distance of several feet. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Burt, 1928: 56-58 (food); Burt, 1928: 27-32, fig. 5 (description, habits, habitat, Kansas localities); Smith, 1946: 290-293, fig. 84, pi. 74, map 20 (description, habits, habitat, distribution). 184 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Short-horned Lizard Phrynosoma douglassii (Bell) Aganui (IntifiUissii Bell, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, vol. 16. 18''5'3, p. 105, pi. 10 (type locality — watershed of Columbia River). PhriinosoDid doti^ldssii Wagler, S>st. .4niph., 1830, p. 146. Range. — Perhaps northwestern tliird of state; recorded only from Smith, Rooks, Logan, Ellis (Hays) and Edwards connties, but the verified distribution of this species in states adjoining Kansas, and the lack of preciseness and authenticity of each record for Kansas, strongly suggest that all records for Kansas are based either upon escaped specimens imported from elsewhere, or upon erroneous data. Fig. 131. Distribution of the short-horned lizards, Phrynosomii doiitihissii, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Horns on head short, the pair at rear on either side of middorsal line not over twice size of other horns; three or four small horns at either side of rear of head, and another back of each eye; chinshields decreasing in size posteriorly; a pair or more of transverse folds on throat; several enlarged scales on a loose fold on either side of neck; dorsal scales highly irregular in size; four series of enlarged scales toward tip of tail; a single fringe of elongate scales at sides of abdomen; belly scales small, smooth; femoral pores twelve to sixteen. Ground color gray or brown; a series of three or four irregularly outlined, dark blotches on each side of middorsal line, and some- times a similar lateral series; each blotch light-edged posteriorly, fading into ground color anteriorly; a large, indistinct blotch on each Smiiii: Lizards 185 side of neck behind head; hiteial hinge of scales whitisli; belly light, sometimes black-speckled; throat usually mottled with gray. Size relatively small, snout-vent measurement reaching 2/2 inches; tail a little less to a little more than half length of rest of animal. Recognition Characters. — The presence of horns on the head, none of which are conspicuously enlarged (for instance to the length of the eye), is distinctive. See discussion of Phrynosonia cornutum. Habits and Habitat. — In Nebraska these lizards are said to occur in fairly rough terrain in the semiarid short-grass plains. % *. ' -•*«,< Fig. 132. A short-horned lizard, Phrynosoma doiiglds.sii l>rcvir()strc, X %. Casper, \\'yoiiiing; female. From Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright. The food consists mostly of grasshoppers and ants. This species gives birth to young instead of laying eggs. Broods from females of the subspecies occurring in Kansas contain five or six young. Possibly several broods are carried at once, as one female contained six young about ready to be born, and four large eggs. In Kansas this is the rarest of native lizards. Any specimens dis- covered are well worth preservation in a museum ( see pp. 18, 25 ) . Kansan Subspecies. — Only Plirynosoma doufilassii brevirostre (Girard), with type locality at Pole Creek, Nebraska, is ascribed to Kansas and this ascription is open to question; see above (page 184) under "Range." Four other sub- species are currently recognized in the western United States. References. — Burt, 1928: 32-36, map fig. 6 (description, Kansas localities); Smith. 1946: 302-304, pi. 79, map 21 (description, natural history, distribution). 186 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. FAMILY SCINCIDAE Genus Scincella Mittleman Brown Skink Scincella laterale ( Say ) Scincus lateralis Say, Long's Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 2, 1823, p. 324 (type locality-v Banks of Mississippi below Cape Girardeau, Missouri). Scincella laterale Mittleman, Herpetologica, vol. 6, 1950, p. 19. Range. — Eastern third of state. Peripheral locahties on the west- ern edge of the recorded range in Kansas are in Harper (7 miles southwest of Norwich), Kingman (2 miles north of Adams), Clay (Clay Center), Pottawatomie (Flush), Jefferson (10 miles north of Lawrence) and Leavenworth (7 miles northeast of Lawrence) counties. Fig. 133. Distribution of the brown skink, ScinceUa laterale, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — All scales of body small, very smooth, flat, and rounded; twenty-six to thirty-two (usually 28 or 30) scale rows around middle of body, and seventy-seven to eighty scales from parietal to above anus; head scales large, regular, including among the more important a large frontonasal broadly in contact with rostral; no supranasals; a large elongate frontal in contact anteriorly with frontonasal, narrowly in contact with two frontoparietals poste- riorly; a large parietal on each side, narrowly in contact behind a small, median interparietal; four large supraoculars, second largest; seven upper labials, fourth smallest; a nearly transparent window in lower eyelid; median row of subcaudals somewhat enlarged. Smith: Lizards 187 Light brown abo\e, the sides dark brown, and sometimes a fine white Hne at point of contact of the two colors; sides hght below the lateral dark stripe, which occnpies two scale rows and sometimes half of each adjacent row; lower lips and sometimes throat with irregnlar dark gray marks or l)ars. Size small, snout-vent length reaching Us inches; tail VA times as Ions: as bodv. Fig. 134. Brown skinks, ScinccUa latcralc, X "/lo- A. Patuxent R' search Refuge, Bowie, Maryland. B, D, E, Somerset, Texas. C. Helotes, Texas. From Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright (B-E), and by U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Recognition Characters. — All of the skinks are distinctive in having absolutely smooth, shiny scales — not granular or rough scales as in other legged-lizards of Kansas. The brown skink may be told from other species most easily by the shape of the frontal, which tapers sharply toward the posterior, instead of being about as broad in front as behind, as in other species. Also distinctive is the rather large, windowlike scale in the lower eyelid; in other skinks this is not present or is represented by several instead of a single scale. Furthermore, in no other skinks are the supranasals absent. Habits and Habitat. — These skinks are found in wooded areas on the ground among leaves and other debris; moist places, frequently near streams, are preferred. Less commonly they are found in open fields or on grassy hills, vmder stones and logs. These lizards are secretive, and seldom seen in the open. They are probably diurnal, but ordinarily they are seen during the day 188 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. only when uncovered or startled from underneath objects of concealment. The food consists of small insects, millipeds, pill- bugs, and earthworms. The eggs, one to five in number (usually 3), are laid in humus, rotten stumps or logs. They measure about 9x4 mm., are thin and brittle-shelled. They are laid from early June to August. Hatching occurs in August and throughout September. The lizards are active from April through October. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Burt, 1928: 61 (food); Burt, 1928: 45-49, map fig. 8 (description, natural history, Kansas localities); Smith, 1946: 337-340, figs. 94, 96, 98, pi. 92, map 25 (descrip- tion, natural history, distribution); Johnson, 1953: 11-27 (life history); Slater, 1949: 79-80 (food habits ). Genus Eumeces Wiegmann Coal Skink Eumeces anthracinus ( Baird ) Plestiodon anthracinus Baird, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ser. 2, vol. 1, 1849, p. 294 (type localit>' — North Mountain near Carlisle, Pennsylvania). Eumeces anthracinus Cope, Bidl. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 1875, p. 45. Range. — Southeastern fifth of state; recorded from Dickinson (Carlton), Franklin (Homewood; Ottawa), Anderson (Glenlock), Miami (Pigeon Lake) and Cherokee (3 miles east of Crestline; 4 miles northeast of Baxter Springs ) counties. Sou I Wutaum o( Nalunl Hltlorjr UnUtnity of KonMa IMS jn Fig. 13.5. Distribution of the coal skink, Eumeces anthracinus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Smith: Lizards 189 Description. — Scales around body uniform in size, flat, smooth, twenty-four to twenty-eight at middle of body; head scales rather large, regular, including among other scales of importance a single postmental, a scale longer than wide bordering postgenial medially; postnasals absent; seven supralabials; median subcaudals widened. Adults olive gray to olive brown above; a narrow dorsolateral white line on each side, on scale rows three and four (counting from middorsum), originating at eye and extending onto tail; a broad, dark brown band below this, occupying two and one-half scale rows, and bordered below by a narrow white line; this light stripe is bor- dered below by a dark area fading gradually into the lighter ven- tral color; venter bluish or gray, unmarked; sometimes a narrow median light stripe, bordered on either side by black, on back, but not reaching onto head; a number of light spots on head. Young almost uniformly black, with reddish spots on head; tail deep blue- violet. Size moderate, the snout-vent length reaching two and one-half inches. Tail about twice the length of the rest of the animal, in adults, about equal in the young; limbs overlapping when adpressed. Recognition Characters. — All skinks can easily be recognized by the presence of uniform, smooth, overlapping scales all around the body; in all other legged-lizards of Kansas the scales are rough, different above and below, or are granular. The shape of the fron- tal, which is about as broad behind as in front, is distinctive of Eumeces; the absence of a single windowlike scale in the lower eye- lid is also distinctive (Eumeces has several plates in the place of the window); and the presence of supranasals likewise will distinguish this genus from ScinceUa, the only other genus of skinks in the state. Within the genus Eumeces, as represented in Kansas, the species E. anthracinus is distinctive in being the only one with a single postmental, but this character is not infallible for it varies somewhat not only in this but in other species. From E. obsoletus, anthracinus differs in having the scale rows on the sides of the body parallel to those on the back; the absence of a middorsal light line forking on the head distinguishes it from all others except adult specimens of £. fasciatus; and the latter species can be distinguished by the presence of a postnasal. Habits and Habitat. — Typically this skink is found on wooded hillsides in rotten logs, piles of debris, and under loose stones, in moist areas fairly near water. Usually these lizards are discovered in places of concealment, but they have been seen moving about enough in the daytime to indicate that they are diurnal. In seeking to escape they do not hesitate to take to %\'ater. Courtship and mating probably occur in April. Eight or nine eggs are laid in 190 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. a nest guarded by the female. They hatch in four to five weeks, and the newly born young measure 47 to 51 mm. in total length. The food consists of insects and insect larvae. It is impossible to predict with accuracy where specimens may be found, for many apparently suitable localities are uninhabited. Fig. 136. Coal skink, Etiireccs (tntliracinus; B, C, E. a. anthracinus; others, E. a. pluvialis. A. Male, and D, female, Inihoden, Arkansas. B. Female with eggs and young, and C, femal • from Bergen, New York. E, F. Cherokee Countv, Kansas. All X %■ From Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright (A-D), and by E. H. Taylor (E, F). Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies occurring in this state is Eunieces anthracinus pluvialis Cope, with type locality at Mobile, Alabama. One other race is recognized in the eastern United States. References. — Taylor, 1935: 373-387, figs. 62, 63, pi. 32 (monograph); Smith, 1946: 372-375, fig. 116, pi. 103, map 30 (description, natural history, distribution). Smith: Lizards 191 Common Five-lined Skink Eumeces fasciatus (Linnaeus) Lacerta fasciata Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 209 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Ettmeces fasciatus Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 1875, p. 4.5. Range. — Eastern third of the state. Peripheral western localities are in Snmner, Sedgwick (Wichita), Chase (6 miles south of Clem- ents), Geary (Ft. Riley), Riley (Manhattan), and Doniphan (Doni- phan Lake) counties. The record for Ransom, Ness County, based upon a K. U. specimen, needs verification. Muttum 0' Natural History Urtivarsity of Kortios 1945 Fig. 137. Distribution of the common five-lined skink, Eumeces fasciatus, in Kansas, w insert showing range of the species. ith Description. — Scales of body smooth, overlapping, twenty-five to thirty-one around middle of body (usually 28 or 30); head scales few, regular, including among others of importance seven suprala- bials; two well-defined, rather large postlabials between last suprala- bial and ear; two postmentals; median row of subcaudals greatly widened. Young more or less uniform black above, except for five narrow white lines, including a median one that forks on the nuchals (rear of head) and reunites on the rostral; a pair of dorsolateral light stripes on the third and fourth scale rows; a lateral light stripe from sides of head through ear opening to hind leg; throat and snout cream, rest of ventral surfaces bluish-gray; dorsal surface of tail azure blue, very brilliant on distal half. As specimens attain larger size, brownish streaks form along the middle of the dark areas be- tween the light stripes, and expand until little or none of the black 192 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 138. Common five-lined skink, Eumeces fasciatus. A. Locust Grove, Mayes County, Oklahoma, X "/i«. B. Ithaca, New York. X Vs. C, E. Pennsylvania State College Cam- pus, X "In,. D, X Vio, F, X -lo, G, X -/s, from Lawrence, Kansas. From Smith (1946). Photos bv A. A. and A. H. Wright (B-G), and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (A). Smith: Lizards 193 remains. The lateral dark bands remain darker than the rest of the body, but even these become lighter with greater age; the tail loses all trace of the blue color. This condition occurs in young males and in all adult females, which do not lose the stripes except on the head where they may become dim. In old males all stripes may disappear except for the dark lateral stripes; the head becomes reddish, at least ill the breeding season, and the back is olive or olive-brown. Size moderate, the snout-vent measurement reaching three and one-eighth inches. The tail is a little less than twice the head-body length. RecogJiition Characters. — The smooth, flat scales identify the skinks. This species, which is often confused with E. anthracinus and E. septentrionalis differs from them in a number of scale char- acters as well as in details of pattern. The most conspicuous differ- ences are listed in the key. See discussion also of E. anthracinus. Habits and Habitat. — This species is commonly found in wooded areas, usually on the ground, under stones, in piles of leaves and in rotten logs. A moist but not wet environment is preferred. These lizards frequently sun themselves in open areas in the hot part of the day, but because of their nervous temperament they sel- dom remain long in one place. They wander considerably, but on cool days may not emerge at all. They seem to wander within circumscribed areas, and have habitual retreats. Because of their wariness, specimens are seldom seen abroad even when abundant, but more frequently under objects where they have taken refuge. They mate soon after emerging from hibernation. A preliminary courtship consists of scratching the ground or rubbing the ground with the cloaca. Active courtship on the part of the male consists of rushing, with open mouth, any lizard of the same species that may be around; if the latter fights or runs away, it is probably a male, but if it submits, it is a female and mating generally ensues. In copula- tion the male grasps the female by the side of the neck with his jaws, curling his cloaca underneath that of the female. One of the two hemipenes ( either one ) is used. Courtship lasts some five to seven minutes, and mating four to eight minutes. Eggs are laid after six to seven weeks, in a two- week period in early summer. Hatching requires an average of five to six weeks. The eggs are laid in clutches of from two to eighteen, in rotten logs or loose soil several inches below the surface, and are brooded for the entire incubation period by the female. Intruders are coura- geously attacked. At hatching, the young measure 24 to 27.5 mm. from snout to vent. Winter is spent in rotten logs or underground; one was found hi- 7—9019 194 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. bernating in a pile of sawdust and others, in Kansas, have been found as deep as eight feet in the ground. The earliest recorded date of emergence in Kansas is April 6. The food consists of almost any small moving animal, including many kinds of arthropods and even small vertebrates. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species have been defined any- where in its range. References. — Burt, 1928: 61-62 (food); Burt, 1928: 51-56, map fig. 11 (description, habits, habitat, Kansas localities); Smith, 1946: 347-351, figs. 95, 109, 111, pi. 93, map 26 (description, natural history, distribution); Taylor, 1935: 188-212, figs. 24-27, pi. 13 (mono- graph); Fitch, 1954 (complete life history, ecology). Greater Five-lined Skink Eumeces laticeps (Schneider) Scinctis laticeps Schneider, Hist. Amph., 1801, vol. 2, p. 189 (type locality — Charles- ton, South Carolina, by subs, design.). Eumeces laticeps Peters, Monatsb. Acad. Wiss. Berlin, 1864. p. 49. Range. — Extreme eastern central part of the state. Recorded only from Murray Lake, Miami County, and a locality 4 miles west of La Cygne, Linn County. Scoli 10 aoMilfli Museum of Nalurol Hutotf Uftivarsilit o( Kanias I94J Fig. 139. Distribution of the greater five-lined skink, Eumeces laticeps, in Kansas. Description. — Scales of body smooth, overlapping, rounded at free edge, twenty-eight to thirty-four around middle of body (usually 30 or 32); head scales few, regular, including among others of importance a postnasal, two postmentals, seven or often Smith: Lizards 195 enght supralabials; postlabials tiny (if paired), single, or absent; median row of snbcaudals greatly widened. Young more or less uniform black above except for five narrow white lines; median line forking on nuchal scales at rear of head; dorsolateral lines on third and fourth, fourth and fifth, or fourth scale-row only; lateral light stripe extending from sides of head to upper edge of ear opening, and then from middle of rear edge of Fig. 140. Greater five-lined skink. Etimeccs laticcps. A, Stove Lake near Turrell, Arkan- sas; B, Boliver. Tenn.; C, Waverlv Mills, South Carolina. From Smith (1946). Photos bv A. A. and A. H. Wright ( C, E, F), Gloyd (B, D), and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (A). A, D, E, X %; B, X %; E, F, X 1. ear opening to hind leg; tail a striking azure blue, brilliant on distal half; throat and snout cream, belly bluish-gray to white. Half-grown examples and young adult females have light brown streaks in the 196 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. dark fields between the light stripes, and the tail is slate. In old adult females and all adult males the stripes tend to disappear completely, and the lateral dark field is the last to go; in such specimens the entire dorsal surface is uniform light brown. In the breeding season adult males have a reddish head, and the jaw muscles are so enlarged as to give the rear of the head a swollen appearance. Size large, the snout-vent measurement reaching five inches. The tail when intact is a third or a half greater than the head-body length; a regenerated tail is shorter, but is often so similar in appearance to the original tail as to be distinguishable only by reference to the midventral scales, which are wider than those on the intact part of the tail. Recognition Characters. — The smooth, flat, rounded scales identify the skinks. The possession of five light lines and a postnasal readily separates this species from all others occurring in Kansas, with the exception of E. fasciatus. These two species are extraordinarily similar; they are among the best examples of "sibling" species known in vertebrates. No known character will distinguish all examples. E. laticeps reaches a much larger size, lays larger eggs, produces larger, broader-headed young; it more frequently has 8 supralabials and the dorsolateral light stripe not involving the third scale row; seemingly the most reliable character is the reduction of the postlabials to two tiny scales, or to one scale, or to nothing whatever. Habits and Habitat. — This species is restricted to wooded regions, where it is commonly found in logs or piles of brush and in or on standing trees. It is of more arboreal habits than the common species, but is often found on or near the ground. Its habits appear to be virtually the same as those of E. fasciatus (which see). The egg clutch appears to be a little smaller, of 6 to 10 eggs as opposed to 2 to 18 in E. fasciatus. The eggs when laid measure about 15 X 10 mm., and near hatching time about 20 X 14 mm. The hatchlings measure 30.5 to 32 mm. snout to vent. The bite of large males is exceptionally powerful and may draw blood. Specimens never become docile, but they do learn to tolerate captivity. Captive specimens have been kept for years on a diet of mealworms and miscellaneous insects as they become available. Kansau Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species have been defined anywhere in its range. References. — Anderson. 1950:53 (report from Kansas); Smith, 1946: 353-356. figs. 108, 110, pi. 95, map 27 (description, natural history, distribution); Taylor, 1936: 212-224 ( monograph ) . Smith: Lizards m Sonoran Skink Eumeces obsoletus ( Baird and Girard ) Plestiodon nbsolctum Baird and Girard, Proc. Acad. Xat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, 1852, p. 129 (type locality — N'allt-y of Rio San Pedro, tributary of Rio Grande del Norte, Texas ). Eumeces obsoletus Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 187.5, p. 4.5. Range. — Apparently state-wide; presumably oc- cupies the northwestern corner of the state, but has not been reported northwest of Hamilton (Syra- cuse), Logan (Oakley), Osborne and Jewell (Man- kato) counties. MuSAwm o( Notwrot H4ilorr Uni««r«ilr of Kantoi J943 Fig. 141. Distribution of the Sonoran skink, Eiimeces obsoletus, in Kansas. Description. — Scales on body smooth, flat, twenty-eight around middle of body, those on sides in rows obliquely rising dorsad as they extend posteriorly; at least seven scale rows on back parallel to each other; two postmentals; usually no postnasal; subcaudals considerably widened. Adults light slate gray; a dark border around each scale usually, sometimes so expanded that a somewhat lined pattern is evident; venter unmarked. Young, black with a blue tail; most scales on head with a rounded, bluish white or orange spot. Specimens inter- mediate in size show intermediate stages in the change from the youthful to the adult pattern. The juveniles were long thought to represent a distinct species, so different is their pattern from that of the adults. Size rather large, the snout-vent measurement reaching 4/8 inches. Tail about VA times as long as head and body. 19S University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 142. Sonoran skiiiks, Euiticccs ohsolctus. A, X \i. B, X 2, C, X %, E, X %. from Lawrence, Kansas. D, X %, Cameron Countv, Texas. From Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright (A, B, D), and E. H. Taylor (C, E). Smith: Lizards 199 Recognition Characters. — The conil)inatioii of smooth, uniform scales around the body, with the ol)hque ^josition of the hiteral scale rows, is distinctive of this species. As a rule no other skink of the state has the lateral scale rows obHque; they parallel the dorsal scale rows. But on rare occasion (see in E. septentrionalis) some of the lateral scale rows are diagonal, much as in E. ohsoletus. In the former species, however, not so many of the lateral rows are diagonal in the abnormal specimens examined, and it is believed that none would have so few as seven middorsal scale rows parallel with each other; that number is the maximum in E. ohsoletus. The species is so distinct that it is not often confused with an>' other. Habits and Habitat. — This species is found most commonly on grassy or somewhat wooded hillsides underneath loose, flat, lime- stone rocks. Rough country seems to be preferred, but like Scelop- orus u. garmani, this skink may be found even on flat prairie if there are enough burrows of mammals to afford protection Its dis- tribution is especially spotty in the latter habitat. Like the other skinks, these lizards are so secretive and shy that they are seldom seen even though they are common and diurnal. They are active as early as late March, and as late as early October. They hibernate in burrows underground, at depths of as much as ten inches. These are among the most vicious lizards of the state. They do not tame well, and their powerful jaws may well lacerate the skin since only small pinches are taken at any one time. When releasing a grip, they wriggle energetically immediately in advance. Mating occurs from late April to the middle of June, and may last for four to five minutes. The male grasps a fold of the side of the neck of the female in his jaws, and curls the cloaca under that of the female when copulating with her. Eggs are laid from the middle of June to the middle of July. Seven to fifteen are laid in a nest where the female usually remains until the eggs hatch in late August. The food consists of a wide variety of small arthropods. Males have eaten the eggs of their own species. Ground beetles and lady- bird beetles are rejected. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have as yet been defined anywhere in the range of this species, although several are to be expected. References. — Burt, 1928: 62-63 (food); Burt, 1928: 58-63, map fi«. 13 (description, natural histor>', Kansas records); Smith, 1946: 362-36.5, figs. 100, 101, pi. 99, map 29 (de- scription, natural history, distribution); Taylor, 1935: 305-320, fids. 47, 48. pi. 24 (mono- graph completely summarizing natural histor>-, structural and geographic variation). 200 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Prairie Skink Eumeces septentrionalis (Baird) Plestiodon septentrionalis Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1858: 256 (type lo- cality— Fort Ripley, Minnesota). Eumeces septentrionalis Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 1875: 44. Range. — The eastern third and south-central quarter of the state. The western subspecies, E. s. obtusirostris, is known from only two localities: Schwartz Canon, Comanche County, and Norwich, King- man County. The eastern subspecies, E. s. septentrionalis, is re- corded as far west as Pottawatomie (5 miles north of Onaga), Russell (7 miles south and 2 miles east of Russell), Chase (6 miles south of Clements), Woodson (Neosho Falls) and Cherokee coun- ties. Fig. 143. Distribution of the prairie skink, Eumeces septentrionalis, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. The range of E. s. septentrionalis is indicated by the lined area, that of E. s. obtusirostris in the south by the stippled area. Description. — Scales on body perfectly smooth, shiny, flat, usually in twenty-six or twenty-eight rows around middle of body; head scales relatively large, regular, including among others of importance two postmentals; postnasal usually absent; frontonasal small, some- times absent, seldom in contact with anterior loreal ( a scale to each side of the frontonasal). Ground color olive to olive-brown; dorsolateral hght lines extend- ing from above eye along the fourth or adjacent edges of fourth and Smith: Lizards 201 fifth scale rows onto tail; lateral light lines from sides of head through ear, above arm and to tail; a narrow dark line below lateral light line, and a broad brown band occupying the space between the lateral and dorsolateral light lines; bordering the dorsolateral light lines medially is another brown band involving two half scale rows; on the adjacent edges of the first and second scale rows, from the nuchal region to the tail, extends another dark brown stripe on each side; these three lines of ground color ( not light color as in the dorso- lateral and lateral light stripes ) are enclosed by four dark bands; in some specimens the dark bands on either side of the middle of the Fig. 144. Prairie skink, Eumcces s. septentrionalis, X %. A, B, E, Onaga. Pottawatomie County, Kansas. C, F, Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. D, Ice Caves, northeastern Iowa. From Smith ( 1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright. back are poorly defined. Tail bright blue in young, the color disap- pearing at a snout-vent length of about two inches. Size moderate, the snout-vent length reaching 3)4 inches; the tail, but little longer than the head and body in young specimens, be- comes proportionately about twice as long in adults. Recognition Characters. — This species is often confused with E. fasciattis, although there are many details that differ. See the key for a list of the conspicuous diflFerences. 202 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Habits and Habitat. — Open grassy hillsides provided with small, flat rocks are the best places to find these lizards. They appear to have a very spotty distribution; at any rate they have been found at relatively few localities in the state. Although A': Fig. 145. Prairie skink, Eumeces s. ohtusirostris, X 1, Waco, McLennan Countv, Texas. From Smith (1946). Photos by E. H. Taylor. Smith: Lizards 203 rarely seen in the open, probably they are diurnal. Because they seek cover in advance of the near approach of an observer, they may only appear always to be under cover. Nothing is known of the natural history of the southern race. In the northern race, E. s. septentrionalis, a niunber of facts are known owing to the work of Breckenridge in Minnesota. Mating occurs in May or early June, and five to thirteen eggs are laid in excavations in loose, moist soil under boards, stones and other ob- jects, in late May and June. In an average of forty-six days the eggs hatch, and the hatchlings measure 24 to 26.5 mm. snout to vent. After hibernation through the first winter, growth is rapid, at an average rate of .37 mm. per day, and in the second year it proceeds at the rate of .31 mm. per day, but in subsequent years it is much slower. Maturity is reached by the end of the second year, with at- tainment of a length of 65 mm. from snout to vent. The food consists of small invertebrates such as insects, snails, and spiders; small vertebrates, even young of its own species, are some- times eaten. Enemies of this and other similar lizards include hog-nosed snakes, hawks, owls, skunks, raccoons, and ground squirrels. In Minnesota, most of these skinks become inactive in September, and begin hibernation in October. In Iowa, a group of fifty-two specimens was found 4/2 feet below the surface of the ground in a gravel pit. Males emerge from hibernation before the females (as in many other species), in April or early May, but females do not emerge until later in May, in Minnesota. Kansun Subspecies. — Two races are known in Kansas: Eumeces septen- trionalis septentrionalis (Baird), and Eumeces septentrionalis ohtusirostris Bo- court. The type locality of the latter is in "Texas." These two subspecies can be identified by reference to the accompanying table of differences. A third subspecies occurs in Texas. E. s. septentrionalis E. s. ohtusirostris 1. Frontonasal small, usually not in 1. Frontonasal large, usually in con- contact with anterior loreal on each tact on each side with anterior side. loreal. 2. Ground color usually light gray. 2. Ground color usuallv- very dark. 3. Dark borders of median light hne 3. No dark borders on median light present but frequently broken and line. poorly defined. 4. Dark lines bordering dorsolateral 4. Dark lines bordering dorsolateral light lines well defined, broad. light lines poorly defined. Reference. — Taylor, 1935: 394-410, pis. 28, 34 (monoeraph ). 204 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. FAMILY TEIIDAE Genus Cnemidophorus Wagler Six-lined Racerunuer Cnemidophorus sexlineatus ( Linnaeus ) Lacerta sexlineata Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 364 (type locality — ■ Charleston, South Carolina). Cnemidophorus scxiincattts Dumeril and Bibron, Erp. Gen., vol. 5, 1839, p. 1. Rurii'c. — State-wide. Description. — Dorsal scales small, granular, sev- enty-six to ninety-three from one side to the other at about the middle of the body; large, flat, quad- rangular belly plates, not overlapping, in eight longitudinal rows; two gular folds, the posterior overlapped anteriorly by enlarged scales; head plates large; scales on limbs variable, some large, others small. Muiaoffl ol Naturol Hlslor)r Unlvtriilf of KdntOS 1949 m Fig. 146. Distribution of the six-lined racerunner, Cnemidophorus sexlineatus, in Kansas. Six, well-defined, narrow, longitudinal, light pale blue to yellowish lines on body in females and in young, all extending from head to base of tail or groin; the lateral stripe passes through the ear; the dorsolateral stripes begin at the posterior corner of the eye, and the others begin near the median edge of the parietal; back and sides between these stripes usually black; the area between the middle stripes is brownish; belly white. Adult males with the same dorsal pattern; lateral stripes and dark areas above them indistinct, merged with belly color; black between dorsolateral and median stripes less intense; belly and throat suffused with pale blue. Smith: Lizards 205 Size modorate, the snout-vent length reaching 3 inches; the tail is long and slender, about 2^/io to 2M\ times the head-body length. Recognition Clioracters. — This is the only lizard in Kansas with granular, uniform dorsal scales combined with the presence of large, Fig. 147. Six lined racerunncrs, Cncmidophorus sexlineatus, all X %, except D which is X V2- A, B, Cape Henrys Virginia. C. Three miles east of Sharon Springs, Kansas. D. St. Petersburg, Florida. E. Key West, Florida. From Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright (C-E), and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( A-B). 206 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. juxtaposed (not overlapping), quadrangular ventrals many times as large as the dorsals. No other species is easily confused with it. Habits and Habitat. — The habitat is in relatively dry areas, where sandy or other loose soil, short grass, and other kinds of low vege- tation occur. The chief requirement seems to be a certain degree of dryness. The land may be flat or hilly, and the soil coarse or fine. These are moderately wary lizards frequently seen in places where they occur, but seldom caught by hand unless special effort is made to run them down or dig them out of holes to which they retreat when pursued. They can dig their own burrows, but frequently use burrows made by other kinds of animals. In digging they use their front legs to remove the soil. The burrows extend to depths of eight to ten inches. It is said that the burrows are used as retreats at night, and for laying eggs. Probably they hibernate in such bur- rows, many of which may be constructed in a year. Activity begins early in the morning on warm days and falls oflF in the afternoon; in late afternoon the lizards retire completely. On cool or cloudy days they may not emerge at all. These are among the fastest of Kansan lizards, being able to run at the rate of about 18 miles per hour. Their speed requires further check. The food consists of practically any small, moving animals found, save ladybird beetles. Soft-bodied insects are preferred. Mating occurs in spring, probably not later than two or three weeks after emergence from hibernation. Courtship by the males includes a preliminary rubbing of the cloaca upon the ground, dash- ing in figure eights in front of a prospective mate, and the chasing and nipping of any other individuals of the species that may be in the vicinity. Reception of his attention by any females is immedi- ately followed by a five-minute period of copulation, during which time the male grasps in his jaws some loose skin on the posterior part of the back of the female. The eggs, four to six in number, are laid from as early as the first part of June until as late as the middle of July, four to twelve inches below the surface, or frequently under some object on the surface such as a log. Mole tunnels may frequently be used, the lizards making side tunnels in which the eggs are deposited. The eggs hatch in August. Kansun Subspecies. — No subspecies are currently recognized anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Burt, 1928: 58-61 (food); Burt, 1928: 38-46 (description, natural history, localities in Kansas); Burt, 1931: 76-97 (monograph); Smith, 1946: 415-418, figs. 13, 122, pi. 116, map 33 (description, natural history, distribution). Smith: Lizards 207 FAMILY ANGUIDAE Genus 0))Jiisaiirus Daudin Glass-snake Lizard Ophisaurus attenuatus Baird Ophisauriis vcntralis attenuatus Baird, in Cope, Bull. U. S. N'at. Mus., no. 17, 1880, p. 18 (type locality — Cook County, Texas). Ophisatirus attenuatus Bouleniler, Cat. Liz. Brit. Miis., \ol. 2. 1885, p. 282. Range. — Eastern half of the state. Westernmost records are in Washington (3 miles southeast of Haddam), Graham, Ellis. Ells- worth (Ellsworth), McPherson, Butler, and Barber (Sharon) counties. ScoK X> 4oMII«ft I I Mv»«um 0' Notyrol Hittorj Uni*«r9lt]r of Kontos I94S Fig. 148. Distribution of the glass-snake lizard, Ophisaurus attenuatus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — No evidence whatever exists externally of either the front or the hind legs; head scales large or small, regular in posi- tion; eyehds present; ear openings small, about halfway between eye and anterior ends of a deep longitudinal fold extending along each side of belly to side of anal region; dorsal scales from inter- parietal to base of tail 118 to 124, in 14 to 16 longitudinal rows; scales toward middle of back sometimes convex or with a round keel; ventral scales in ten rows, about same size as dorsals, flat; tail scales like those on body; no lateral fold on tail. Dorsal ground color light gray to brown, covering head, body in a broad median area involving six scale rows and the edge of the adjacent row on each side, and the tail in an area involving four 208 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. scale rows; ground color sharply differentiated laterally from the dark brown sides, the color broken only by narrow light lines ex- tending along either the middle or edges of the scale rows; brown lateral color fading into white or cream near lateral fold; sides of head also usually dark, with vertical alternating light and dark bars of varying distinctness; a few dark marks on lower lips. Back nearly uniform, or with a median dark stripe, or a narrow dark streak on each scale row; ventral surfaces of belly and tail entirely white, with the exception of dark streaks along lateral scale rows in some specimens. Size large, snout- vent length reaching 9% inches; tail consider- ably longer, about 1% to 2 times length of head and body. The length of an extraordinarily large specimen has been recorded as 37/l> inches; ordinarily adults do not exceed 28 inches in total length. Fig. 149. A glass-snake lizard, Ophisattrus a. attenuatus, X %, K. U. no. 23605, Law- rence, E)ouglas County, Kansas. Photo by W. W. Tanner and T. P. Lyle. Recognition Characters. — The absence of legs is a totally reliable means of identification of this species of lizard, if indeed it is properly recognized as a lizard by anyone who captures or examines specimens of it. The presence of an ear opening will readily dis- tinguish the species from the animals it most closely resembles, the snakes. Habits and Habitat. — These lizards are found on the ground in moist, grassy open areas in wooded regions. They are said to bur- Smith: Lizards 209 row a great deal and are frequently unearthed by plowing. They are seldom seen in the open, unless startled from some cover; apparently they are diurnal. After heavy rains they are said to emerge in abundance. The skin is shed almost entire whereas in most other lizards it is shed in large patches. The food consists, as in other lizards, of insects and their larvae, spiders and other arthropods, and small snails. It is said that other lizards as well as snakes are eaten, and that at least in captivity they may be cannibalistic. Eight to seventeen eggs are laid from early June to early August, and are brooded by the female, which turns the eggs from time to time, but makes no eflFort to defend the eggs as skinks do theirs. The eggs of Ophisaurus hatch in from fifty-six to sixty-one days, and the young measure approximately five inches in total length. One of the most celebrated characteristics of this species is that of the ready parting of the tail. If the animal is handled, it may by violent squirming suddenly break the tail from the body, some- times into several pieces, and while the vital portion glides quietly away the parts of the tail thrash and bound so energetically that no attention is given to the escape of the animal. At least, such ap- parently is the purpose of the adaptation for breaking the tail so readily. The superstitions that the parts of the tail grow back to- gether, or that they reunite with the body at sometime, or that they can grow new individuals, all are entirely false. The lost tail de- generates or is eaten by other animals, and the lizard itself grows a new tail from the remaining stump. The new tail is shorter than the original and lacks the uniform pattern; its internal structure likewise is different. Skinks have been known deliberately to break off and eat their tails as food, and it is possible that this species also may do it. In early stages of regeneration the tip of the tail has a spinelike or spurlike appearance, giving rise to the erroneous suppo- sition that the structure constitutes a sting. Kansan Subspecies. — Only O. a. attenuatus occurs in this state. One other subspecies and two other monotypic species of this genus are recognized in the extreme southeastern United States. References. — Burt, 1928: 58 (food); Burt, 1928: 36-38, map fig. 7 (description, habits, habitat, Kansas distribution); Smith, 1946: 466-470, figs. 2, 134, pi. 133 (description, nat- ural history, distribution); McConkey, 1954: 147-171, fig. 5, pi. 2 (taxonomy, natural history ) . 210 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Snakes Suborder Serpentes Linnaeus Forty species of snakes, six of which are represented by two subspecies each, are known from the state of Kansas. Three other species are to be expected. These belong to only three families, two of which (Colubridae, Crotalidae) belong to the superfamily Colu- broidea, whereas the third ( Leptotyphlopidae ) belongs to the super- family Typhlopoidea. At least eleven other families and one other superfamily (Boidoidea) occur elsewhere in the world. Only two other families (Elapidae, Boidae) occur in the United States. Numerous taxonomic and ecological problems exist pertaining to snakes, as well as to other groups of reptiles and amphibians within the boundaries of Kansas. A detailed study of geographic varia- tion, with special emphasis upon areas of intergradation, is highly desirable, for most intergrading zones can now be but roughly approximated. Such a study is prerequisite for any definitive ap- proach to a zoogeographic analysis of the state. As implied by Peters (1955), the conventional concept of faunal provinces may require extensive revision; only a detailed distributional and varia- tional study will reveal the extent and nature of revision that may be necessary. The accompanying figures (Figs. 150, 151) may be of value in use of the following keys. Most of the features commonly used in classifying snakes are indicated there. FRONTAL SUPRAOCULAR, PREOCULAR> > PREFRONTAL V \ \ V POSTNASAL \^ \ \ INTEHNASAL*, PRENASAL--. ROSTRAL f lHar UPPER LABIAL MENTAL'' fIRST LOWER LABIAL' POSTOCULARS / .PARIETAL , FIRST TEMPORAL SECOND TEMPORALS ,«05TRAL -rNTERNASALS LAST UPPER LABIAL ■ LAST LOWER LABIAL ROSTRAL ,-MCNTAL -fiBST LOWES LABIAL _,-ANTeRlOB CH)N SMIELOS ^T£ACtNIAL5 'POSTCRIOI* CMiN SMICLOS .-riRJT VCNTHAb Fig. 1.50. Names of certain scales used in classification of snakes. Drawing of a king snake, Lampropeltis, X %. From Perkins (1940). Smith: Snakes 211 CANTHU9 HOST»*LIS NOSTRIL meroONTAL ARCA-" (iNTtRCANTHALS) ROSTRAU ,-intcrna»al ,-prenasau .-.cantmals . fRONTAL ARCA- . (iNTtRSUPRAOCULARS; SUPRAOCULAR MCNTAL flRST INfRALAilAL* .--••-SeNIALS ,.-,CULARS ..'FIRST VtNTRAL -LAST INPRALABIAlJ •■RICTUS or MOUTM OR COMMISSURE VENTRAL* OM CASTR0STI6CS -SUPRAOCULAR PREOCULARS — PIT—' SUPRALABIALS INFRALABIALS CANT HALS — INTERNASAL -POSTNASAL -PRENASAL --ROSTRAL -FIRST SUPRALABIAL MENTAL \ GENIAL ViRST INFRALABIAL LOREALS>^ CANTHALSv POSTNASAL^ ) NOSTRIL-^ PRENASAI . ROSTRAL- PIT— FIRST SUPRALABIAL--- MENTAL- FIRST INFRALABIAL-- LOWER PREOCULAR' ,OPPER PREOCULAR ^.SUPRAOCULAR / ,POSTOCULARS -LAST SUPRALABIAL -LAST INFRALABIAL Fig. 151. Nomenclaturt' of certain scales used in classification of snakes. Drawing of a rattlesnake, Crotalus, X 1. From Perkins (1940). 212 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Key to Species of Snakes 1. Scales of equal size all around body (Fig. 152A). Leptotyphlops myopica, p. 220 r. Scales on belly much larger than other scales (Fig. 152B). B Fig. 152. A. Ventral scales of a blind snake, Leptotyphlops, X 6. B. A king snake, Lampropeltis, X 1. From Perkins (1940). 2. A large pit on either side of head between eye and nostril (Fig. 153B). n p e Fig. 153. A. Lateral view of the head of a snake lacking a facial pit. B. Lateral view of the head of a snake possessing a pit; e, eye; n, nostril; p, pit. From Perkins (1940), X 1. 3. Rattle (or any segment thereof, or a homy "button") absent (Fig. 154A). 4. No loreal; usually 25 scale rows at middle of body. Ancistrodon piscivorus, p. 308 4'. A loreal; usually 23 scale rows at middle of body. Ancistrodon contortrix, p. 304 3'. Rattle, or at least a segment thereof, or a horny "button," present (Fig. 154B). Fig. 154. A. The tail of a copperhead, Ancistrodon contortrix, X SVz. B. The tail of a rattlesnake, Sistrurus catenatus, X 1%. From Blanchard (1925). Smith: Snakes 213 Four large scales on top of head in front of eyes; other head scales relatively large (Fig. 155A). 5. Dorsal blotches separated by interspaces 1.5 to 2 times as long niiddorsally as the blotches themselves. Sistrurus miliarius, p. 324 5'. Dorsal blotches separated by interspaces shorter along the middorsal line than the blotches themselves. Sistrurus catenatus, p. 310 Fig. 1.5.5. A. The head scales of a massasauga, Sistrurus catenatus, X 1. B. The head scales of a rattlesnake of the genus Crotalus, X 1. From Perkins ( 1940). 4'. Numerous and only small scales (except supraoculars) over entire upper surface of head (Fig. 155B). 5. Pattern of body consisting chiefly of crossbands ( some- times chevron-shaped) Crotalus horridus, p. 316 5'. Pattern of body consisting of a median series of blotches less than 3 times as wide as long. 6. Ground color and dark rings of tail distinctly different from those of body; blotches diamond-shaped, angu- lar (pointed) laterally Crotalus atrox, p. 313 6'. Ground color and dark rings on tail closely resembling those on body; blotches oval, not pointed laterally. Crotalus viridis, p. 318 2'. No pit between eye and nostril (Fig. 153A). 3. Scale at tip of snout enlarged, sharp-edged, and with a sharp median, longitudinal keel (ridge) (Fig. 156). Fig. 1.56. A. Head scales of a western hog-nosed snake, Hetcrodon nasicus. X 1. B. Head scales of an eastern hog-nosed snake, H. platyrhinos, X 1- From Cope (1900). 4. In lateral profile, tip of snout abruptly turned up (Fig. 156A) Heterodon nasicus, p. 229 4'. In lateral profile, tip of snout almost straight above ( Fig. 156B ) Heterodon platyrhinos, p. 226 214 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 157. A. Dorsal view of head of a bull snake, Pituophis melannlciicus, X %, from Cope (1900). B. Lateral view of head of a western ground snake, Hahlea valeriae, appro.\. X 2, from Blanehard (1925). C. Lateral view of head of a red-bellied snake, Storcria occipito- maculata, X 2%, from Blanehard (1925); 1, loreal; p, preocular; r, rostral. Fig. 1.58. A. Lateral view of a head of slender tantilla, TantiUa gracilis, X 4, 10 miles southwest of Somerset, Atascosa County, Texas. B. Lateral view of head of collared tantilla, Tantilla atriceps, X 4, Drumright, Oklahoma. After Taylor (1937). B Fig. 1.59. A. Smooth scales as seen in side view of body, as of a king snaki', Lnmpro- pcltis, X %. B. Keeled scales as seen in side view of bodv, as of a water snake, Natrix, X %. From Perkins (1940)'. Smith: Snakes 215 3'. Snout rounded, not keeled. 4. Entire dorsal surface uniformly dark except for a conspicuous, narrow, light ring around neck; belly yellowish, black-dotted. Diddophis punctatus, p. 224 4'. Ring on neck lacking, or if present the dorsal surface with other markings also. 5. Color of entire dorsal surface black or dark brown, sharply differentiated, at third dorsal scale row, from im- spotted yellowish or reddish color of belly; jirefrontal touching eye Carphophis amoenus, p. 222 5'. Color of dorsal or ventral surfaces marked with some sort of pattern, or else merging with each other gradually at sides of ventral scales; prefrontal touching or not touching eye. 6. All or most subcaudals undivided. Rhinocheilus lecontei, p. 261 6'. All or most subcaudals divided. 7. Rostral twice as high as wide; usually four pre- frontals (Fig. 157A) . Pituophis melanoleucus, p. 250 7'. Rostral nearly or fully as wide as high; two pre- frontals. 8. Preocular absent; prefrontal in contact with eye (Fig. 157B). 9. Five supralabials; 1 postocular; usually 1 internasal Haldea striatula, p. 285 9'. Six supralabials; 2 postoculars; 2 internasals ( Fig. 157B ) Haldea valeriae, p. 287 8'. Preocular present; prefrontal not in contact with eye. 9. Loreal absent (Fig. 157C). 10. Scales smooth (Fig. 159A). 11. Six supralabials (Fig. 158A); top of head sometimes darker than body but the colors of body and head merging gradually with each other . . . Tantilla gracilis, p. 265 11'. Seven supralabials (Fig. 158B); top of head black, the color sharply distinguished from that of body; dark area on head with a V-shaped posterior border whose apex extends onto neck. Tantilla nigriceps, p. 268 10'. Scales keeled (Fig. 159B). 11. Seventeen scale rows; 7 supra- labials Storeria dekayi, p. 281 11'. Fifteen scale rows; 5 or 6 supra- labials (Fig. 157C). Storeria occipitomacnlata, p. 283 9'. Loreal present. 216 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. B Fio. 160. Undivided anal platp, as of a king snake, Lampropeltis, X 1. B. Divided anal plate, as of a rat snake, Elavhc RiiUata, X 1. From Perkins (1940). Smith: Snakes 217 10. Anal plate undivided (Fig. 160A). 11. Dorsal scales keeled (Fig. 159B). 12. Two rows of black spots down middle of belly; supralabials 6 or less Tropidoclonion lineatum, p. 298 12'. Spots on belly, if in 2 rows, much nearer sides than middle of belly; supralabials 7 or more. 13. Lateral light stripe clearly involving third and fourth scale rows anteriorly. 14. Lips barred; tail less than 27 percent of total length; supralabials usually 7; fields between stripes with well defined spots Thamnophis radix, p. 293 14'. Lips not barred; tail 27 percent or more of total length; supralabials usually 8; fields between stripes tending to be uniformly dark, the spots scarcely or not evident Thamnophis sauritus, p. 296 13'. Lateral light stripe absent, indistinct, or clearly not in- volving 4th scale row. ' 14. Lateral light stripe not involving second scale row on anterior half of body; scale rows at middle of body 21; lips prominently barred; a conspicuous, crescent-shaped white mark behind angle of jaw. Thamnophis marcianus, p. 289 14'. Lateral light stripe involving second scale row on anterior half of body; scale rows at middle of body 19; lips slate-colored, feebly barred; no crescentic white mark behind angle of jaw. Thamnophis ordinattis, p. 291 11'. Dorsal scales smooth (Fig. 159A). 12. No markings on belly; scale rows 29 or more. Arizona elegans, p. 248 12'. Belly marked in some fashion; scale rows 27 or less. 13. Pattern consisting of red-centered blotches or rings. Lampropeltis triangtdum, p. 258 13'. Pattern not of red-centered blotches or rings. 14. Pattern consisting chiefly of a dorsal series of gray or brown, black-edged blotches on a lighter back- ground; scale rows around middle of body usually 25 or 27 Lampropeltis calligaster, p. 253 14'. Dorsal pattern consisting chiefly of small, light (yellow) spots on a dark background, either ir- regularly and profusely scattered (one on nearly every scale), or fewer and outlining dark blotches; scale rows around middle of body usually 19 or 21. Lampropeltis getulus, p. 256 10'. Anal plate divided (Fig. 160B). 218 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 161. A. Lateral view of head of a racer. Coluber constrictor, X %, from Blan- chard (1925). B. Lateral view of head of a water snake, Natrix crythrogastcr, X 1, from Cope (1900); at, anterior teniperal. Fig. 162. A. Ventral view of head of a plains ground snake, Sonora episcofxi, X 4. B. Ven- tral view of a smooth green snake, Opheodrys vernalis, X 2. From Schmidt and Davis (1941). Smith: Snakes 219 11. Two or more anterior temporals in contact with postocular (Fig. 161A). 12. Scale rows 25 or more. 13. A large /\-shaped mark on head; apex of mark between eyes, and arms united with first blotch on neck. Elaphe guttata, p. 243 13'. No such mark on head, which is more or less unicolor above. 14. More than 220 ventrals Elaplie ohsoleta, p. 245 14'. Fewer than 220 ventrals (not yet recorded from the state ) Elaphe vulpina, p. 323 12'. Scale rows 17 or fewer. 13. Scale rows 15 immediately in front of anus. Coluber constrictor, p. 236 13'. Scale rows 13 immediately in front of anus. Masticophis flageUum, p. 240 11'. Only one anterior temporal in contact with postocular (Fig. 161B). 12. Scales smooth. 13. Posterior chinshields much shorter than anterior chinshields (Fig. 162A) Sonora episcopa, p. 263 13'. Posterior chinshields approximately as long as anterior chin- shields (Fig. 162B). 14. Uniform green above Opheodrys vernalis, p. 234 14'. Numerous blotches present on back and sides. Htjpsiglena torquata, p. 269 12'. Scales keeled. 13. Uniform green above, unmarked below; scale rows 17. Opheodrys aesticus, p. 231 13'. Not green above but instead usually blotched or striped; belly frequently marked; scale rows 19 or more. 14. Scale rows 19; striped Natrix grahamii, p. 274 14'. Scale rows 21 or more. 15. Belly without markings, or dark markings on only the anterior edges of belly scales; dorsal markings obscure in adults; 3 or fewer complete transverse bands on neck Natrix erythrogaster, p. 272 15'. Belly with definite markings; dorsal markings visi- ble in all specimens; 5 or more complete transverse bands on neck. 16. Large dorsal spots, the anterior spots forming broad transverse bands Natrix sipedon, p. 279 16'. Small alternating, dorsal and lateral spots con- nected by oblique bars . . Natrix rhombifera, p. 276 220 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. FAMILY LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE Genus Leptotyphlops Fitzinger New Mexican Blind Snake Leptotyphlops myopica (Garman) Sienostoma myopicum Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoiil., vol. 8, 1883, p. 6 (type lo- cality— Tampico, Tamaulipas, Mexico). Leptotyphlops myopica Barbour and Loveridge, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 69 (10), 1929, p. 345. Range. — Southern midwest border of state; recorded from Meade (1 mile west of State Lake; 10 miles west of Englewood), Clark (2 miles south of State Lake; Stevenson Ranch); and Barber (Lake City) counties. Mutaum of Nalwl HHi9ti l»4» Fig. 163. Distribution of the New Mexican blind snake, Leptotyphlops myopica, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — A slender, wormlike snake, cylindrical throughout its length; eyes not clearly visible, appearing as a dark spot on each side of head, underneath a large scale (ocular); a large rostral, fol- lowed middorsally by a series of scales little different from those on body, the anterior four, in order from front to back, known as pre- frontal, supraocular, interparietal, and interoccipital; a supraocular on either side of prefrontal, in contact with ocular; two occipitals back of ocular, on each side, each in contact with middorsal series of scales, the first in contact with the last (third) supralabial and sometimes split into two, and the second separated from third supra- labial by single temporal scale; a large nasal, divided crosswise through the naris into two scales, in front of ocular; upper lip bor- Smith: Snakes 221 dered by rostral, nasal, 1st and 2nd supralahials. ocnlar, and third supralabial, in succession from anterior to posterior. All scales around body uniform in size and character, all smooth; fourteen scale rows around body, ten around tail near base; 224 to 246 ( aver- age 238) middorsal scales from rostral to spine at tip of tail; twelve to sixteen (average 14) midventral subcaudals from anus to ter- minal tail spine. Dark above on seven scale rows (3 on either side of middorsal series), pink to cream below. Size small, total length reaching 10/4 inches; ratio of total length to diameter of body averages 51 in adults, ratio of total length to tail length about 21.7. ' Recognition Characters. — No other snake in Kansas has ventral scales which are no wider than the dorsals; in this species, all scales on the body, above and below, are of equal size; in other snakes of the state the ventral scales are several times as large as the dorsals. Habits and Habitat. — Little has been recorded about this species. It lives in rocky, semi-arid areas where moisture may locally be present. It is a strange fact that moist spots are preferred, such as the ground imderneath rocks and other surface cover, while the species does not occur in regions which receive much rainfall. Loose, sandy soil is preferred. In captivity moist sand is preferred to dry. The snakes are nocturnal, emerging at about sunset and actively moving about for two hours or more; they are most active from 8:00 to 8:30 p. m. They emerge only when temperatures at night are 64° F. or higher; optimum temperatures are between 78° and 82' F. They are most easily obtained by driving slowly along paved highways and watching the lighted part of the road. In the daytime these snakes are most frequently found under stones, especially soon after heavy rains and as long as moisture re- mains. The food probably consists of soft-bodied insects such as ter- mites; ant eggs have been eaten in captivity. They drink as do other snakes, and use the tiny tongue for perception of odors. Eggs are laid presumably in middle or late summer; as many as seven are laid by a single snake. Snakes as small as 7% inches in total length are known to lay eggs. The eggs are long and slender, and in other species of about the same size and proportions measure approximately 15 X 4/2 mm. Nocturnal birds of prey, and some other predators, for example coyotes, are known to prey upon these snakes. When the snakes 222 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist, are forced to emerge in the daytime, as sometimes occurs in floods, diurnal birds and other animals readily feed upon them. These snakes are inoffensive and incapable of biting a person. Kansan Subspecies. — Two races are here recognized ( some authors recognize 3), only one of which is known in Kansas: Leptottjphlops mtjopica dissccta (Cope) whose type locality is Lake Valley, Sierra County, New Mexico. The other subspecies occurs in northeastern Mexico. Reference. — Klauber, 1940:112-117, 144-149 (taxonomy and summary of life history). FAMILY COLUBRIDAE Genus Carphophis Gervais Worm Snake Carphophis amoenus ( Say ) Coluber amoenus Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 4, pt. 2, 1825, p. 237 (type locality — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ) . Carphophis amoena Blanchard, Papers Mich. Acad. Nat. Sci., Arts Letters, vol. 4, 1924, p. 527. Range. — Eastern third of the state. Recorded as far west as Riley (Garrison), Geary (5 miles southwest of Wreford), Chase (6 miles southwest of Gottonwood Falls), Greenwood (4 miles northwest of Lamont ) and Cowley ( 13 miles east-northeast of Arkansas City) counties. Description. — Head flat, no wider than neck; head scales typical (see Fig. 150) except as follows: supraocular small, of about the Mu58um of Notuial History Univarsttn of Kansas 1945 Fig. 164. Distribution of the worm snake, Carphophis amoenus, in Kansas, with insert show- iua range of the species. Smith: Snakes 223 same size as postocular; frontal large, pentagonal; nasal single; loreal touching eye; no preocular; one postocular; one anterior and one posterior temporal; five supralabials, last low, elongate; six infralabials. Scales on bodv absolutely smooth; dorsals in thirteen rows throughout length of body; anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 127-137 in males, 129-148 in females; subcaudals 37-41 in males, 23-33 in females. Glossy black or brownish-black, salmon pink below; belly color extending dorsally onto the three lower dorsal scale rows. Size small, reaching 12^y]G inches in total length; tail about one-seventh of total length. Recognition Characters. — No other species of snake in the state has the dorsal surface uniformly black and the belly orange. Also this snake is the only one in Kansas having no more than thirteen scale rows. The only other species (2 of Halclea) that lack a pre- ocular have keeled scales. Fig. 165. A worm snake, Carphophis amoenus vermis, X %, from Golden Eagle, Calhoun County, Illinois. Habits and Habitat. — This species is commonly found in the east- ern part of the state in moist woods under stones or logs. Probably it is nocturnal; I collected a specimen in Cherokee County at night as it crawled on the gravel banks of a creek. The food consists almost entirely of earthworms; the snake does not constrict its food. Two to five eggs are laid in July. They measure approximately 30 X 10 mm. and hatch in September. The species is entirely innocuous and never attempts to bite persons. Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies are recognized; one, Carphophis amoenus vermis (Kennicott), occurs in Kansas, and its type locality is in Missouri. The other races occur in the eastern United States. Reference. — Blanchard, 1925:527-530 (taxonomy). 224 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Genus Diadophis Baird and Girard Eastern Ring-necked Snake Diadophis punctatus ( Linnaeus ) Coluber ptmctatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 376 (type locality- Charleston, South Carolina). Diadophis punctatus Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Kept., pt. 1, 1853, p. 112. Range. — Probably state-wide, except perhaps the extreme northwestern quarter. Not recorded in the area north of Wallace ( Wallace ) and Gove counties, and west of Mitchell County. Description. — Head flattened, a little broader than neck; head scales typical, as indicated in Fig. 150. Scales on body absolutely smooth, dorsals usually in seventeen scale rows on anterior two- thirds of body, fifteen on posterior one-third (sometimes 17-17, or 15-15, or 15-17-15); anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 142- 169 (average 156) in males, and 151-185 (average 168) in females; subcaudals 37-57 (average 46) in males, and 30-50 (average 41) in females. Slate grey to black above (on all dorsal scales), darker on head; an orange or yellow ring one or two scales wide across neck, bor- dered with black behind; supralabials, infralabials, chin and throat whitish, with small, scattered, black spots; belly usually with many, scattered black dots, rarely absent or arranged in a single midventral row, sometimes arranged in two rows; posterior lateral edge of sub- FiG. 166. Distribution of the eastern ring-necked snake, Diadophis punctatus, in Kansas. Smith: Snakes 225 caudals black, and to a lesser extent those of ventrals also; anterior part of belly whitish or pale pink, the latter color becoming more intense posteriorly, so that on the tail it is bright red. Size small, total length reaching 15/2 inches; tail varies from 12.5 to 22 percent of total length; newly hatched specimens measure four inches in total length. Recognition Characters. — The presence of a narrow, light ring across the neck above — the only marking on the otherwise uniformly dark back — is absolutely distinctive, among Kansan species. ^^AJtX?^ Fig. 167. .\n eastern ring-necked snake, Diadophis punctotus arniji, X 1, from Tarrant County, Texas. Courtesy Louis W. Ramsey. Habits and Habitat. — In eastern Kansas this species is commonly found in more or less open woods, under stones, and in or under rot- ten logs and stumps. Ordinarily it is found on hillsides rather than on flat land, perhaps because of the greater amount of cover. Piles of drift sometimes harbor the species which probably is nocturnal. The food consists of earthworms and, in captivity, small sala- manders. Insect eggs and insects such as beetles also are eaten. There are some records of small snakes, frogs, and lizards having been eaten. The food is not constricted. The eggs vary from one to three from each female, and are laid from June to August in rotten logs and in the ground. They measure approximately 27 X 6.5 mm. and hatch in from fifty-four to seventy days. In the first year an increase of sixty-seven percent in length 8—9019 226 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. of the snake is recorded, and for successive years increases of thirty- six, thirty-one and nine percent. When captured, these snakes have a habit of curhng the tail in a spiral, with the bright red underside uppermost, and at the same time they void excreta and secretions from the anal scent glands. The odor produced is rather offensive. Ordinarily this reaction is not repeated after the snake is first handled. Kansan Subspecies. — Five subspecies are recognized. One, Diadophis punc- iatus arniji Kennicott, whose type locality is Hyatt, Anderson County, Kansas, is known from the state. The other subspecies occur in the eastern i^art of the United States as far west as Texas. Reference. — Blanchard, 1942:69-87, fig. 16 (monograph). Genus Heterodon Latreille Common Hog-nosed Snake Heterodon platyrhinos Latreille Heterodon platyrhinos Latreille, Hist. Nat. des Kept., vol. 4, 1800, p. 32, figs. 1-3 (type locality — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). Range. — State-wide. Not yet recorded from either the extreme northwestern or extreme northeastern corner but certainly occurring in the latter and probably also in the former part of the state. Description. — Snout (the rostral scale) projecting forward, with a single median keel above, not turned up; one or two small un- paired scales immediately back of rostral, separating prefrontals; nasal divided; a ring of seven to thirteen small scales surrounding eye, except above it where the supraocular is situated; generally one, sometimes two loreals; two to four anterior temporals; two large tem- poral scales bordering last three supralabials; supralabials generally eight, infralabials generally ten; head scales otherwise about as usual (as in Fig. 150). Dorsal scales keeled except in one to three rows next to ventrals; scale rows twenty-five or twenty-seven anteriorly, twenty-three or twenty-five at middle of body, and usually nineteen (seldom 17) in front of anus; anal and all subcaudals divided; ven- trals 122-139 in males, 122-147 in females; subcaudals 45-57 in males, 40-52 in females. One or two teeth somewhat enlarged at rear of the upper jaw, but solid and fixed in position, and lacking in any function concerned with venom. Ground color yellow to dark gray; except in darkest specimens in which the pattern is little evident, a series of 20-31 rather large, dark blotches on middle of back (excluding tail); a series of smaller dark blotches on either side, alternating with dorsal blotches; ground color frequently lighter between median dark blotches; tail with Smith: Snakes 227 seven to fourteen alternating dark and light rings above. Belly yellowish to gray, with vague, indefinite and irregular dark areas toward sides (darker in young specimens, becoming almost entirely Musaam of Nalurol H>tlor| Univtrsitjr of Kcnaof 1945 m Fig. 168. Distribution of the comnion hog-nosed snake, Heterodon platyrhinos, in Kansas. black ) ; undersides of head, throat and tail usually lighter than rest of ventral surfaces. Total length reaching thirty-nine inches; tail fourteen to twenty- three percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The shovellike tip of the snout, with the upper edge horizontal (not turned up), is distinctive. No other species, except H. nasicus, has a similar, shovellike snout, but the upper edge ( as seen in lateral profile ) turns sharply upward. These two species are the only ones in the state with a median, dorsal longitudinal ridge on the rostral plate. Habits and Habitat. — Dry areas where ample sunshine reaches the ground seem to be required for this species. Specimens are to be found in dry woods, on sandy shores of rivers, in sand dunes, but seldom in moist or heavily wooded areas. The food consists almost exclusively of toads, but frogs are eaten, and at times insects. Birds have been recorded. The food is not constricted. Mating occurs in April and May. Eight to forty eggs are laid in June or July, and hatch sixty to ninety days later, as late as the mid- dle of October. Emergence from hibernation occurs as early as late January in Ohio, but probably not before March in Kansas. 228 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. These snakes are diurnal in habit. Their most widely known habit is that of flattening the head and much of the body when disturbed. Upon discovery this is their immediate reaction; continued dis- turbance will cause the snake to act more threateningly, jerkily thrusting the head outward, twisting the tail, and voiding excreta Fig. 169. A common hog-nosed snake, Hctcrodon f). i)hiti/rhinos, X %, Shawnee National Park, Illinois. Photo by R. R. Ilamm. and secretions from the anal scent glands. The mouth may be held partly open, while the snake hisses ferociously. The strikes and fierce demeanor are, however, all bluff, for these snakes, even in their worst moods, practically never bite persons. If the bluff does not drive the tormentor away, the snake rolls over onto its back, twitches a little, opens the mouth, which may be somewhat bloody inside, and holds the tongue extended in an arch forward and down- ward from the lower jaw. Even though the snake is picked up, and otherwise molested, it will remain limp as though dead. If the in- truder leaves, the snake gradually regains confidence, and after a cautious survey of its environs rolls onto its belly and crawls away. Reappearance of danger may cause the snake to flop again onto its back, but this behavior is not repeated many times. After a few hours the snake tires of the sham and cannot afterward be induced to perform imder any circumstances. Smith: Snakes 229 Kdii.san Stih.s))cciL'.s. — Two subspecies are currentK- recognized; one, Iletew- don platijrhinos pkityrhinos (Latreille) occurs in Kansas. The other subspecies occurs in Florida. This species has been known erroneously for the past 30 \ears as Heterodon contortrix. References. — Cope, 1900: 761-769. figs. 165, 166 (description, habits); Conant, 1938: 41-44 (description, habits, Ohio); McCauley, 194.5: 63-66 (description, habits, Maryland); Schmidt and Davis. 1941: 115, 117-118, figs. 25, 26, pi. 11 (description, habits). Western Hog-nosed Snake Heterodon nasicus Baird and Girard Heterodon nasicus Baird and Girard, Stansbury's Expl. Surv. Valley Great Salt Lake, 1852, p. 352 (type localit>- — Amarillo, Texas). Range. — Entire state except extreme southeastern corner, in Ozark Plateau region. Not recorded from northeastern corner but to be expected. Peripheral records to- wards the east are in Washington (4 miles north of Haddam), Riley (Manhattan), Douglas, Franklin, and Crawford (1 mile east of Anna) counties. Fig. 170. Distribution of the western hog-nosed snake, Heterodon nasicus. in Kansas. The range of H. n. ruisicus is indicated by oblique lines, that of //. n. gloydi by vertical lines. Area of overlap of lines indicates zone of intergradation. Description. — Snout (the rostral scale) projecting forward, with a single median keel above, rather sharply turned up; 9 to 25 small scales between rostral and large plates aboxe and between eyes (frontal, supraoculars); nasal divided; a ring of 9 to 13 small scales encircling eye, except above where supraocular is situated; 1 to 6 lo- 230 Univeksity of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 171. A western hog-nosed snake, Heterodon nanicus gloydi, approx. X %. Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society. reals; 3 or 4 anterior temporals, the lower largest; supralabials un- usually high, generally 8; infralabials 10 or 11; anal and all subcau- dals divided; head scales otherwise about as usual (as in Fig. 150). Dorsal scales keeled except in one row next to ventrals; scale rows 20-26 anteriorly, 21-24 at middle of body, and 17-20 in front of Sntith: Snakes 23i anus; ventrals 128 to 141 in males, 139-151 in females; subcaudals 41-47 in males, 32-38 in females. "Ground color above light yellowish-brown; a median dorsal row of 31-50 (av. 40.1) dark brown or olive blotches; 2 or 3 rows of small alternating blotches along each side (often obscure except the upper row); scales between median dorsal blotches sometimes pale brownish-white, forming narrow cross-bars; ventral surface yellow- ish-white with wide irregular black band down center; this black band usuallv interrupted bv blotches of white or vellow." ( Hudson, 1942:51.) Size moderate, total length reaching 26/2 inches; tail about 15 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of //. platyrhinos. Habits and Habitat. — This species inhabits only relatively dry areas, and is especially abundant in sand dunes. It is characteristic of prairie regions. The food apparently is much the same as that of H. platyrhinos, consisting chiefly of toads. It is not constricted. Like all other hog-nosed snakes, this species shams death, in much the same manner as described in the discussion of H. platyrhinos. It is diurnal and egg-laying. Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies are known, two of which, Heterodon nasicus nasicus Baird and Girard, and H. n. gloijdi Edgren, with a type locality at Wheelock, Robertson County, Texas, occur in this state. The other occurs in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas and in northern Mexico. In H. n. nasicus and H. n. gloydi respectively the niiddorsal blotches on body are 35 or more vs. 32 or fewer in males; in females they are 40 or more vs. 37 or fewer. References.- — Cope, 1900: 774-777, fig. 168 (description, variation); Edgren, 1952: 2-3 ( taxonomy ) . Genus Opheodrys Fitzinger Rough Green Snake Opheodrys aestivus ( Linnaeus ) Coluber aestivus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 387 (type localit\^ — Charleston, South Carolina). Opheodrys aestivus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 560. Range. — Southeastern quarter of the state. Recorded as far west as Riley and Cowley (Arkansas City) counties. The record for Bar- ton County ( Great Bend ) is questionable. Description. — Head rather thick, a little wider than neck; head scales typical (see Fig. 150) except as follows: nasal single; one preocular; two posterior temporals; generally 7 supralabials, gener- ally 8 infralabials. Scales on body keeled except those on outer 1 to 3 rows on each side, next to ventrals; 17 scale rows on anterior two-thirds of body, 15 on posterior third; anal and all subcaudals 232 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. divided; ventrals 146 to 164, with little difference between the ex- treme counts of males and females; subcaudals 114 to 142, av. 128. Dorsal color pale to dark green, unmarked; chin and throat pale yellow; other ventral surfaces yellowish white. Body form extremely elongate and slender; total length reaching 32-^ inches; tail varies from 34.6 to 41.8 percent of total length. Fig. 172. Distribution of the rough green snake, Opheodrtjs aestivus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Recog7iitio7i Characters. — The keeled scales furnish an important character in this species, separating it from all others which are uni- form bluish above and unmarked below. Most frequently confused, probably, are the smooth green snake and blue racer, both of which have absolutely smooth scales. Habits and Habitat. — Open woods, fields and marshes are fa- vorite haunts of this species. It occurs both on the ground and in bushes and low trees. In either place it is difficult to see because of the protective, green color. The snakes are often passed, as they rest without moving where they lie, stationary in position until a person reaches within a few inches of them. This habit of "freezing" in position renders them extremely difficult to detect. They lie for considerable periods with the head and a few inches of the neck ex- tending upward, free from any support. These snakes are nonpoisonous, but may attempt to bite when first captured. After a short time in captivity they are remarkably docile. Always they retain a degree of wiriness which does not make them as pleasant to handle as some other snakes. They are Smith: Snakes 233 capable of extending the body ontvvard an extraordinary distance. The tail has strong prehensile powers, althongh the body shows no ability to constrict. The snakes are completely diurnal. The food consists mostly of insects, of which a large portion is grasshoppers; snails, flies, caterpillars and crickets have been re- FiG. 173. A rough green snake, Opheodrys aestivus majalis, X '1;, K. U. no. 23687, 3 miles north of Galena, Cherokee Countv. Kansas. Photo bv Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh and t. P. Lyle. corded as the food of some specimens. In captivity they readily eat grasshoppers and crickets. Mating activities have been observed in the middle of May. One male of this species attempted to mate with a female of the smooth green snake. The eggs are laid at any time in July in clutches of 3 to 9 in rotten stumps and logs. They measure 21-31 mm. in length and 10-12 mm. in width. They hatch in 56 to 62 days; the young average 200 ( 190 to 213) mm. in total length upon hatching and are dull grayish olive. In six days the skin is shed for the first time, and the color becomes bright, dark green. Kansan Subspecies. — Opiieodrys a. mdjalis ( Baird and Girard), with type locality at New Braunfels, Comal Count)', Texas, is the subspecies occurring in Kansas. Two others are recognized in the eastern United States. References. — Conant, 1938: 45-47, pi. 5, fig. 3 (description, natural history, Ohio); Mc- Cauley, 1945: 66-71, fig. 14 (description, natural history, Maryland); Burger, 1947 (abstract or taxonomic study, first modern usage of o. a. luajalis, resurrected). 234 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Smooth Green Snake Opheodrys vernalis ( Harlan ) Coluber vernalis Harlan, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 5, 1827, p. 361 (type lo- cality— Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ). Opheodrys vernalis Schmidt and Necker, Herpetologica, vol. 1, no. 2, 1936, p. 64. Range. — Not well known, but probably state-wide. The present records are all in the eastern third of the state or on the central southern border, but records from adjacent states indicate occurrence throughout all of Kansas. The great rarity of the species accounts for the paucity of data. Peripheral records are in Geary (Fort Riley), Riley (Manhattan), Pottawatomie, Douglas, Franklin (8 miles southeast of Ottawa), Craw- ford (Pittsburg), Montgomery, Chautauqua (4y2 miles southeast of Cedar Vale), and Meade (Meade) counties. Scol* (0 0 « 4oMt(#( III I I Mui«um of Nfl'ural Hiitory Univtrtilf of Koniat 1945 Fig. 174. Distribution of the smooth green snake, Opheodrys vernalis, in Kansas. Description. — Head rather thick, elongate, a little wider than neck; head scales typical (see Fig. 150) except as follows: nasal entire; preocular generally single, occasionally double (28^2 per- cent of specimens ) ; two posterior temporals; generally seven supra- labials; generally eight infralabials; internasals as large as pre- frontals. Scales on body absolutely smooth; scale rows fifteen throughout length of body; anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 125-141 in males (average 134), 139-154 in females (average 145); Smith: Snakes 235 subcaudals 78-95 in males (average 88), 68-82 in females (average 75). Dark greenish blue or blue above, without markings; ventral sur- face ivory yellow. Slender and elongate in form; total length moderate, reaching 47^ inches; tail about twenty-five percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The bluish dorsal color, combined with the presence of no more than fifteen scale rows, is distinctive of this species in Kansas. Only four other species have fifteen and no more than fifteen scale rows on the body: Sonora episcopa, Storeria oc- cipitomacnlata, Tantilla gracilis and T. nigriceps. The latter three lack a loreal (present in O. vernalis) and Sonora episcopa has post- genials which are much shorter than the pregenials (equal in O. vernalis). Fig. 175. A smooth green snake, Opheodrys v. vernalis, X '/a, Durham, New Hampshire. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd. Habits and Habitat. — This snake is found in relatively moist, grassy situations. Sometimes it climbs bushes. In most parts of its range it can be found under objects on the ground more readily than elsewhere, since in the open its coloration conceals it almost per- fectly. It is diurnal. The food consists chiefly of insects, including moths, crickets, beetles, ants and grasshoppers; other arthropods such as spiders are eaten, and snails also are taken; there is a record of one having eaten a salamander. In captivity crickets are said to be eaten freely. Lepidopterous larvae (caterpillars) also are readily taken, if the proper, hairless, green varieties are offered. It is possible that when 236 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. available these actually form a large part of the diet in nature. The food is not constricted. The life history of the race occurring in Kansas is unknown. The eastern race is known to lay three to eleven (usually 7) cylindrical eggs measuring 19.5 to 34 mm. in length and 8 to 18 mm. in width. The eggs are laid from late July to the end of August, and hatch in four to tvventy-three days. The short incubation period is re- markable; the young snakes are well developed when the eggs are laid, measuring as much as 95 mm. in total length; at hatching the total length varies from 101 to 166 mm. Mating has been recorded in the fall (August 18 and 22) in Ontario. This snake is remarkably inoffensive, refusing to bite and quickly becoming calm and quiet in captivity. Kansan Subspecies. — Two races are known, one of which, Opheodrtjs vernalis blanchardi Grobman, with type locahty at Spanish Peaks, 8,000 ft., Colorado, occurs in Kansas. The other race occurs in the northeastern United States. References. — Conant, 1938: 47-49 (description, summary of natural history, Ohio); Grob- man, 1941: 1-38 (description, variation, taxonomy); McCauley, 1945: 71-73 (description, natural history, Maryland); Stille, 1954: 1-11 (reprodvicHon, distribution). Genus Coluber Linnaeus Racer Coluber constrictor Linnaeus Coluber constrictor Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 216 (type locality — northern America ) . Range. — State-wide. Description. — Head thick, elongate; head scales typical (see Fig. 150) except as follows: frontal nearly twice as wide anteriorly as posteriorly; two preoculars, the lower small; two anterior as well as two posterior temporals; supralabials generally seven, lower labials generally nine. Scales on body absolutely smooth; seventeen scale rows on anterior two-thirds of body, fifteen on posterior one-third; anal and all subcaudals divided; in both sexes ventrals 158 to 191 in the subspecies which occurs in Kansas (but in Kansas proper probably not less than 165), averag- ing about three less in males than in females (about 177 and 180 re- spectively, in Kansas ) ; subcaudals 66 to 105 in both sexes throughout the range of the Kansas race (probably not less than 70, nor more than 95 in Kansas proper ) averaging about seven more in males than in females (about 87 and 81, respectively, in Kansas). This species goes through as remarkable a change in pattern from young to adult as any snake in the state. In the young "there is a Smith: Snakes 237 median dorsal row of chestnut l)lotches which number 65-80 between the head and the anterior third of the tail. . . . Along either side and on the belly are numerous chestnut or blackish dots. The juvenile color pattern is well-developed in specimens up to sixteen inches in length, but gradually fades out beyond this so that in indi- viduals twenty-one inches long the spots are barely visible." ( Hud- son, 1942:55.) The adults are pale greenish olive above and whitish to yellow below, without markings. Size rather large, the total length reaching seventy-one inches in Ohio, and forty-seven and nine-sixteenths inches in Nebraska. The tail comprises 20-29 percent of the total length. Recognition Cliaracters. — The adults can be distinguished from all other Kansan snakes by the uniform bluish color of the upper parts combined with the occurrence of seventeen scale rows and absolutely smooth dorsals. Most often confused are the green snakes, one of which (O. aestiviis) has keeled scales, while the other (O. vernaJis) has fifteen scale rows. Mus«um ot Noiural Hltlory Uniworiiljr ot Kontos I94S Fig. 176. Distribution of the racer. Coluber constrictor, in Kansas. The spotted young could be confused with several other snakes, but the combination of smooth scales and seventeen scale rows will distinguish them from all other species of spotted snakes in the state. Habits' and Habitat. — This is one of the most ubiquitous snakes of the state, occurring in moist and dry habitats, in wooded areas and in prairies. Although it is chiefly a ground snake, it has been known to climb bushes and trees, and one author states that it 238 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. ascends twenty to thirty feet into trees. It is commonly found along roads, but is most easily captured early in the morning before the sun has had a chance to warm the earth, under stones or other shel- ter where it spends the night. The snake is completely diurnal. During most of the day, unless the temperatures are low, it is not to be found under cover. When disturbed it flees rapidly, relying upon speed for escape, but if closely pursued it may stop abruptly and coil as tightly as possible. The food is of enormous variety. Insects, especially the larger kinds, are commonly eaten; so also are smaller vertebrates such as lizards, other snakes, small mammals, birds, eggs of various verte- brates, frogs and toads. The animals eaten mostly have no economic value; the chief portions of the diet are kinds of animals which man regards as his competitors or as of no economic value. Racers eat copperheads and even other racers. Racers frequently hibernate with copperheads and rattlesnakes, sometimes in large numbers. The food is not constricted although the body may be used to hold the food down while the snake obtains a hold with its jaws. Fig. 177. An ndnlt blue racer. Coluber constrictor flavivcntris, X %, K. U. no. 24391, 2 miles east of Shaw, Neosho County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. V. Lyie. Smith: Snakes 239 Eight to twenty-five eggs are laid in June and July. They average 35 X 22 mm. in size, and are laid in the ground, in rotten logs and stumps, or in other debris of similar nature. They hatch in about two months (61, 62, 67 and 70 days have been recorded for the east- ern subspecies, C. c. constrictor). Emergence from hibernation has been recorded in April. Fig. 178. A juvenal blue racer. Coluber constrictor flaviventris, X 1, 9 miles southwest of Clintou, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by R. R. Hanini. These snakes appear to have definite home territories and retreats to which they will return almost invariably, even though the in- truder may stand between them and the retreat. When captured they are vicious, biting vigorously with a sliding motion that imbeds and tears the teeth through the flesh. They may become fairly tame in captivity, but are always nervous. Kansan Subspecies. — In the United States and northern Mexico, six sub- species are known, of which only one occurs in Kansas. It is Coluber constrictor jlaviventris Say, with type locahty at a stone quarry on the west side of the Missouri River three miles above the mouth of Boyer's River, Iowa. References. — Conant, 1938: 54-55 (description, variation, natural history, Ohio); Orten- burger, 1928: 175-192, pis. 27-30 (monograph). 240 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Genus Masticophis Baird and Girard Coachwhip Masticophis flagellum (Shaw) Coluber flagellum Shaw. Gen. Zool.. vol. 3, 1802, p. 475 ( t\ pe locality — Charleston, South Carolina ) . Masticophis flagellum Ortenburger, Mem. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., vol. I, 1928, p. 104. Range. — State-wide except in the northeastern quarter. Peri- pheral locahties in the north are in Rooks (Stockton), Elhs, Chase (Ehndale), Greenwood (Hamilton), Elk (5 miles west of Grenola), and Douglas counties. The latter is highly questionable. Descriptio7i. — Head thick, elongate; head scales typical (see Fig. 150) except as follows: frontal nearly twice as wide anteriorly as posteriorly; two preoculars, the lower small; two anterior as well as two posterior temporals; supralabials generally eight, infralabials generally ten, often eleven. Scales on body absolutely smooth; seventeen scale rows on anterior three-fifths of body, and thirteen immediately in front of anus; anal and all subcaudals divided; ven- trals 186-207; subcaudals 94-119. Fig. 179. Distribution of the coachwhip, Masticophis flagellum, in Kansas, with insert show- ing range of the species. The parallel lines indicate the range of M. f. flagellum, the dots that of M. /. flavigularis. As in Coluber, the young of Masticophis are colored differently than the adults, although there is less difference in this genus than in Coluber. In the young the ground color is light brownish yellow; narrow, irregular-edged, dark brown crossbands are present an- teriorly. Posteriorly these bands become dim and disappear on the posterior part of the body near the anus. The spaces between the Smith: Snakes 241 bands are about equal to three times the width of the bands them- selves. The belly is whitish or cream, anteriorly with a row of small dark spots on either side of the midventral line; these spots become dim as the rows extend posteriorly, and disappear on the posterior part of the belly. The head is irregularly marked with dark and light areas. In adults the dark bands become obscure, either by fading to the same color as the ground color, or by the darkening of the ground color to an intensity equal to that of the bands. As a result the adults are either uniform light brown above, with a double row of feebly defined spots below on an otherwise unmarked belly ( M. /. fiavigtilaris), or are black or dark brown above and below on the fore- part of the body, light brown (mottled) above and whitish below on the rear part and on tail (A/. /. fageUuni). The total length reaches six feet; the tail averages twenty-five Fig. 180. .^n adult coachwhip, Masticophis f. flagcUum, X Vt, Montgomers- Countv, Texas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd. percent of the total length. Elsewhere the species is recorded to reach eight feet two inches, less an estimated four-inch tail-tip. Recognition Characters. — The smooth scales in 17 rows, reduced to 13 rows immediately in front of anus, is diagnostic of this species in Kansas. In body form the species resembles the blue racer, but no species is often confused with the coachwhip. Habits and Habitat. — This terrestrial species usually is found in grassy areas more or less devoid of trees, but individuals are capable of climbing into trees and bushes. They are completely diurnal. When captured these snakes ordinarily bite viciously, and the habit of rasping the long teeth through the flesh makes a painful wound. The tail frequently is vibrated when the snake is annoyed. The snakes are, nevertheless, nonpoisonous. Captives tame slowly. The food consists of other vertebrates such as snakes, lizards. 242 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 181. A juvenal coachwhip, Masticophis f. ftagelluru, X 1. 8 miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by W. W. Tanner and T. P. Lyle. small mammals, and probably birds, and larger insects such as grasshoppers and cicadas. Large quantities of the latter are eaten where they are abundant. The food, if of considerable size, is commonly held down with the body as it is being swallowed, but the snake does not constrict. Occasionally other snakes are killed before being swallowed. The coachwhip grasps the head in its jaws and holds down the body with its own body; the coachwhip then rasps its teeth through the flesh back of the victim's head, producing a wound that probably is at times fatal to the prey. Mating occurs in April and May. The eggs number as many as twelve, and average about eight in each clutch. They are laid in the ground; one clutch was eleven inches beneath the surface. Kaiisan Subspecies. — In the southern United States and northern Mexico, eight subspecies are recognized. Two occur in Kansas: Masticophis flageUum ftageUttin (Shaw), and Masticophis flageUiun flaviguhiris (Hallowell), whose type locality is Maysville, Garvin County, Oklahoma. The adults of these two can easily be distinguished on the basis of color, those of M. f. jlageUum being black anteriorly and mottled with brownish posteriorly, whereas those of M. f. flaviguhiris are brownish througliout the length of the body. The young look more alike, but can be distinguished on the basis of the width of the narrow dark crossbands on the anterior part of the body. In M. f. flavigularis, these bands are one or two scales wide and are separated from each other by areas three to five scales wide and thus the bands are about one-third as wide as the interspaces; in M. /. flageUum, the dark bands are separated from each other by spaces only one or two scales wide, and thus the dark bands are about as broad as or broader than the interspaces. References. — Ortenburger, 1928: 92-111, pis. 16-19 (monograph); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 127, 130-131, pi. 13 (description, natural history); Maslin, 1953: 193-200 (tax- onomy ) . Smith: Snakes 243 Genus Elaplie Fitzinger Rat Snake Elaphe guttata (Linnaeus) Coluber guttatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 385 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Elaphis guttatus Dumeril, Bibron and Dumeril, Erpet. Gen., vol. 7, 18.54, p. 273. Range. — Throughout state except western fourth and extreme northeastern corner. Peripheral locaHties on the west are in Meade (Schwartz Caiion), Trego and PhilHps counties; in the northeast, Marshall (Blue Rapids) and Leavenworth (10 miles northeast of Lawrence) counties. Mmflum of Noturol Hitlery Univvrsili of KoflSOt I94S Fig. 182. Distribution of the rat snake, Elaphe guttata, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Head somewhat flattened, a little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; one preocular; temporals 2 or more both anteriorly and posteriorly; supralabials generally 8. seldom 9; infralabials 11 to 14, generally 12 or 13. Median dorsal scale rows keeled at least feebly (except perhaps in the very young), but outer 7 rows on each side smooth; scale rows usually 25, occa- sionally 27 on anterior third of body, usually 27 but occasionally 29 at middle of body, and 19 or 21 immediately in front of anus; ven- trals 213-232, average 220, in males, and 219-234, average 228, in females; subcaudals 66-80, average 76, in males, 60-75, average 68, in females. Ground color gray, olive or olive-brown; a middorsal series of 25- 45 well-defined, quadrangular, dark brown, black-bordered spots on body, 8 to 20 on tail; the blotches about 4 scales in length, 244 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. sepiirated by interspaces iy2-2 scales in length; a series of small, rounded blotches on sides, alternating with niiddorsal blotches, and another series of still smaller spots just above ventrals, alternating with those in the series above; a distinct band extending along each side of top of the head across parietals to frontal, where they merge; belly whitish or cream, with irregularly placed, quadrangular dark blotches. Size moderately large, total length reaching forty-five inches; tail about one-fifth or one-sixth of total length. Recognition Characters. — The most important peculiarity of this species is one of pattern: the two broad dark lines converging for- ward from the neck, cross the parietals and meet on the frontal. No other blotched species — or unblotched for that matter — has such a marking. Most often confused with it is Lampropeltis calligaster, which however has a single anal (divided in E. guttata); also similar are the young of Elaplie obsoleta and Coluber, neither of which, however, has the marking described for E. guttata. Fig. 183. A rat snake, Elaphc guttata cmortii. approx. X %• Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Habits and Habitat. — This apparently is a nocturnal snake, and is found frequently in the day in hiding under stones and other ob- jects, in caves, and in other dark places. It is usually associated with rocky hillsides or canyons, and seldom if ever occurs on the open prairie. E. guttata does not frequent heavily wooded areas, al- though it occurs commonly on sparsely or moderately heavily wooded hillsides. The food is constricted. Nothing has been published upon the natural history of this species, although it is known to be egg-laying. Smith: Snakes 245 Kansan Subspecies. — Five races may be recognized, one of which, Elaphe guttata emortji ( Baird and Girard ) , type locality Howard Springs, Ellis County, Oklahoma, occurs in Kansas. The other races occur as far west as Utah, southward into Arizona and northern Mexico, and as far east as the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. References. — Woodbury and Woodbury, 1942: 133-142 (taxonomy, description); Dow- ling, 19.51: 39-44, figs. 1. 2; 1952: 2--3 (taxonomy). Pilot Black Snake Elaphe obsoleta (Say) Coluber obsoletu.s Say, Long's Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, 1823, p. 140 (type localit>' — Council Bluffs, Iowa). Elaphis obsoletus Gamian, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 8, no. 3, 1883, p. 54. Range. — Eastern half of state. Recorded as far west as Marshall (1 mile east of Waterville ) , Riley (Manhattan), Saline (3 miles northeast of Salina), Harvey (10 miles northwest of Halstcad), Sedgwick (8 miles west of Wichita), and Harper (Danville) counties. yilMlHn or NotwfVl Hi«l9rr UaJvanJIy of KanMl IMS Fig. 184. Distribution of the pilot black snake, Elaphe obsoleta, in Kansas, with insert show- ing range of the species. Description. — Head somewhat flattened, a little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; one preocular; t^vo anterior temporals, three or four posterior temporals; supralabials generally eight; infralabials generally eleven or twelve. One to eleven outer rows of dorsals on either side perfect!)' smooth (the fewer rows of smooth scales at posterior part of body ) , others feebly keeled, ap- parently smooth in very young; scale rows 25 or 27 on anterior three-fifths of bodv, 17 or 19 immediatelv in front of anus; anal and 246 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. all subcaiidals divided; ventrals 221-241 in males, 227-244 in females; subcaudals 73-91 in males, 69 to 89 in females. Color of young and adults different. Young with gray ground color; middorsal series of 28 to 38 well defined, quadrangular, seal Fig. 185. An adult pilot black snake, Elaphe o. ohsoleta, X %, K. U. no. 24392, 5 miles south of Humboldt, Allen County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. brown blotches 4 to 8 scales long and 11 to 14 scales wide; two series of smaller spots alternating with each other and with dorsal spots, on each side; belly whitish, with irregular, extensive dark blotches. Adults usually uniform black above, but occasionally blotches re- main evident, sometimes red-bordered; belly dusky anteriorly, be- coming nearly uniform posteriorly and on tail. Size large, total length reaching eight feet, five inches; tail aver- aging seventeen or eighteen percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The adults, with their large size and nearly uniform black back, cannot be confused with any other species in the state. The young, however, have a color pattern Smith: Snakes 247 closely resemhlinti; that of Elaplic '^uttata^ Lauipropdtis call i paster, and the young of Coluber constrictor. The first may be distinguished by the presence of dark bars on the top of the head crossing the parietal plates and uniting on the frontal; the king snake may be distinguished by the presence in it of an entire anal; and the blue Fig. 186. A juvenal pilot black snake, Ehiphv o. ohsoletii . X 1, 4 miles .south of Garnett. Anderson County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. racer differs by having two preoculars ( instead of 1 ) , and no more than nineteen scale rows (instead of more than 20). Habits and Habitat. — This species is partial to moist, wooded re- gions. It is a proficient climber — probably a better climber than any other snake in the state. Its climbing is done mainly in trees. It is largely diurnal in habits. Individuals frequently sun them- selves. The food consists for the most part of small mammals, and to a lesser extent of birds. Frogs and insects are occasionally eaten. The food except for smaller items is constricted. Eggs are not in- frequently taken. In Maryland mating occurs in May and June; seven to twenty- 248 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. two eggs are laid in sawdust piles, loose earth, manure piles, rotten trees, logs and stumps, and other places in or near the ground, from July to early August. The eggs measure 37 to 50 mm. in length, 21 to 27 mm. in width, and hatch after some 2*2 months. When first captured these snakes ordinarily bite rather readily; the bite is painful but not of such a lacerating character as that of the blue racer and coachwhip. Pilot black snakes are somewhat more docile than either of the two species just mentioned, and some individuals even when first captured do not attempt to bite. After a time in captivity they become quite tame. When annoyed the tail is rattled, and when the snake is picked up the scent glands e.xude a secretion of strong and somewhat repugnant odor. K(ins(i7^ Subspecies. — Five races are recognized at present, one of which occurs in Kansas : Eluphe ohsoleta obsoleta ( Say ) . The other races occur in the southeastern United States from Texas and Oklahoma eastward. References. — Conant, 1938: 55-60, pi. 8, fig. 1 (description, variation, natural history, Ohio); McCauley, 1945: 81-85, fig. 19 (description, variation, natural history, Maryland); Hudson, 1942: 58-60 (brief description, variational notes, natural history, Nebraska); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 148-150 (description, natural history, general). Genus Arizona Kennicott Glossy Snake Arizona elegans Kennicott Arizona elegans Kennicott, in Baird, U. S.-Mex. Bound. Survey, vol. 2, Rept., 1859, p. 18, pi. 13 (type locality — lower Rio Grande, Texas). Range. — Western third of state. Reported as far north and east as Cheyenne (13 miles southeast [ = SSE] of Benkelman, Ne- braska), Stafford (Little Salt Marsh), Reno (Hutchinson), and Harper (5 miles northwest of Harper) counties. Description. — Head rather thick, pointed, a little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; rostral enlarged, pro- jecting backwards between internasals, not keeled above; 2 pre- oculars; 2 anterior and 3 posterior temporals; generally 8 supra- labials; generally 13 or 14 infralabials; postgenials small, about one-tenth size of pregenials. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale rows usually 29 or 31 at middle of body, 19 or 21 immediately in front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 187-219 in males, 205-226 in females; subcaudals 52-57 in males, 42-53 in females. Ground color light gray-brown; 45-65 distinct, dark gray or brown, black-edged blotches on body; 2 series of smaller spots on either side, alternating with each other and with median spots; belly cream, without markings (unlike the otherwise similar king snakes). Smith: Snakes 249 Size rather large, total length reaching 44/2 inches; tail comprises 14-15 percent of total length. Scoit 10 0 20 40Mll«& I.I I ' MuKum 9' Natural Hislorj Urxvarsitf of Kgnsoi 1943 Fig. 187. Distribution of the glossy snake, Arizona elegans, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Recognition Characters. — No other blotched snake in the state with smooth scales and entire anal has the ventral surfaces un- marked, except some specimens of Rhinocheilus, in which most of the subcaudal plates are entire. Fig. 188. A glossy snake, Arizona elegans blanchardi, X Vt, from Motley County, Texas. Courtesy Louis W. Ramsey. Habits and Habitat. — This nocturnal species is characteristic of sandy areas; it is found only in semiarid regions, on Hat plains. The 250 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist, food, which is constricted, consists largely of lizards so far as known. A single clutch of ten eggs has been recorded. Individuals of the glossy snake are notably wary and they are not easily approached at night, but those in captivity do not offer to bite and they are remarkably docile. The species is nonpoisonous. Kansan Subspecies. — Nine subspecies are now recognized, one of which, Arizona eJegans hhinchcirdi Klanber, occurs in Kansas. Tlie type locahty is 13 miles southeast of Benkehnan, Nebraska, in Cheyenne County, Kansas. The other subspecies occur in tlie southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. References. — Blanchard, 1924: 1-5 (variation, taxonomy); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 156-158, fig. 44 (brief description, natural history); Klauber, 1946: 328-333 (monograph). Genus Pitiiophis Holbrook Bull Snake Pituophis melano!eucus ( Daudin ) Coluber ituhinohucus Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 6, 1803, p. 409 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina, b\' restr. ). Pituophis mclanolcuctis Holbrook, \. Amer. Herp., ed. 2, vol. 4, 1842, p. 7 pi. 1. Range. — State-wide. Less abundant in the east- ern quarter of the state, and uncommon along the eastern border in extensively wooded areas. No other reptile in Kansas is recorded, however, from localities in so many different counties. Scot« to «oUJI«k I I Muteum «! Nslurot Hliterv 1945 Fig. 189. Distribution of the bull snake, PittiopJiis mclanohuctts, in Kansas. Smith: Snakes 251 Description. — Head somewhat thickened, a Httle wider than neck; snout pointed; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; rostral en- larged and projecting somewhat beyond the general level of the head, about twice as high as wide, half separating internasals; nasal divided; 4 prefrontals; often 1 or 2 small scales preceding frontal, between prefrontals; preoculars usually 1, sometimes 2; postoculars 2-5, usually 3 or 4; usually 1 loreal, sometimes 2, rarely 0; 3 or 4 rows of temporals; parietals small, broken into small scales at rear margin; postgenials one-fourth size of pregenials. Dorsal scales prominently keeled, but 5-9 anterior rows and 1-4 posterior rows on each side smooth; scale rows 25-35 on anterior third of body (ex- cept immediately back of head), 28-37 at middle of body, and 21- 27 immediately in front of anus; anal plate entire; all subcaudals divided; ventrals 211-236, average 223, in males, and 215-244, average 227, in females; subcaudals 49-67, average 59, in males, and 47-65, average 53, in females. "Ground color above pale biownish-yellow with a median row of 33-73 ( av. 51 ) large brown or black blotches in front of vent; 3 or 4 rows of more or less indistinct small blotches along either side; blo'^ches usually black on forward part of body, brown along middle and black toward posterior end; all blotches black in a few indi- viduals; median blotches broader anteriorly but forming narrower cross-bars toward tail; head speckled with black; vertical margins of upper and lower labials black; 9-15 black bars across upper side of tail; under surface yellowish-white, sparsely or thickly mottled with black, rarely immaculate. " ( Hudson, 1942, pp. 62-63. ) Size large, total length reaching 83 inches; tail 10 to 14 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The four prefrontals are absolutely dis- tinctive of this species of snake, in Kansas. Characteristic also is the high, narrow rostral; in all other species it is not twice as long as broad. The pointed head, yellowish ground color and nearly square dark spots on back are other distinctive features. Habits and Habitat. — This is a terrestrial, diurnal species char- acteristic of plains regions. In wooded areas it occurs in open meadows, fields and grasslands. Upon discovery this reptile usually reacts by vibrating the tail, drawing the head back into a striking position, and hissing loudly through slightly parted lips. The hiss has a considerable similarity to the rattle of a rattlesnake, consisting of a hoarse, vibrating sound. It is produced by forcing air past a median vertical vanelike car- tilage attached at its upper and lower tips to the opening of the windpipe; the cartilage whips back and forth like a flag in the breeze as the air rushes past it, and produces the peculiar vibrating effect of the hiss. The structure bears some resemblance to the 252 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. epiglottis of mammals, and for this reason these snakes were once placed by taxonomists in the genus Epiglottophis (epiglottis-snake). While these snakes ordinarily strike frequently when first cap- tured, they readily become tame and refuse to bite unless provoked unduly. They moreover eat readily in captivity and for these reasons make good pets. The food consists largely of small mammals, which are killed by constriction, unless the prey is too small or in such confining quar- ters that loops of the snake's body cannot be thrown about the food. Mammals as small as young mice and rats are eaten as captured, alive. Others are first killed. The snake usually searches out its prey in burrows, or similar confines, and thus kills by compressing Fig. 190. A bull snake, Pituophis mclanolcucus sayi, X Vs, 9 miles southwest of Clinton, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by R. R. Hanim. the animal against the wall of the burrow. Sight ordinarily is little used by the snake in catching food. When killing or capturing prey, any touch upon the snake's body causes it to attempt to compress or constrict whatever is there; thus several animals may be killed at once, and in fact a snake was once observed to kill three half-grown rats at one time. These snakes are extremely proficient "mousers," Smith: Snakes 253 and will rid barns and other bnildings of rats and mice much more efficiently than cats. Many farmers encourage the snakes to remain about their buildings for that reason, and import them when they are especially needed. It is estimated that an adult snake of aver- age size eats the equivalent of some twelve full-grown pocket gophers every season. On this basis the value of a bull snake has been computed to be about $3.75 per year. There is a certain cycle of activity — feeding, fasting and moulting — repeated about every thirty days. Ordinarily the food is swallowed head-first. Not only are these snakes of great value about human habita- tions, but in the fields they eat large numbers of rodents injurious to agriculture. They wreak havoc in communities of gophers and prairie dogs; gopher snake is the vernacular name applied to this species in several western states, as for example Nevada and Cali- fornia. Unfortunately they occasionally turn to eating birds and eggs. The eggs are crushed as they pass through the esophagus. Ten to sixteen eggs are laid in July and hatch about two months later. The eggs measure 42-52 mm. in length and 28-38 in width. The hatchlings measure approximately 15 inches in total length and shed their skins about ten days later. They apparently do not eat for several weeks; in captivity they may overwinter before eating; others have eaten nine weeks after hatching. Kansan Subspecies. — About eleven races of this species are known, onl>- one of which is recognized in Kansas. It is Pituophis rnelanoleucus sayi ( Schlegel ) with type locahty at Carthage, Jasper County, Missouri. The other races occur throughout most of the United States and in northwestern Mexico. Reference. — Stull, 1940: 91-122, fig. 50a (monograph). Genus Lampropeltis Fitzinger Blotched King Snake Lampropeltis calligaster (Harlan) Coluber calligaster Harlan, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 5. 1827, p. 359 (t>pe localit>' — St. Louis, Missouri). Lampropeltis calligaster Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 255. Range. — State-wide, except northwestern corner. Recorded as far northwest as Republic, Mitchell, Ellis (5 miles south of Martin), Gove, Logan, and Hamilton (1 mile east of Coolidge) counties. Description. — Head thick, blunt, cylindrical, little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; preocular single; supra- labials generally seven, sometime eight; infralabials generally nine 254 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. or ten; temporals two in anterior row, three or four in posterior rows. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale rows 23-25 on anterior third of body, 23-27 (usually 25) at middle of body, 19-21 immediately in front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 194-215; subcandals 44-57, average 51, in males, and 38-52, average 46, in females. Ground color gray or gray-brown; a series of 46-78 (average 60) dark gray, black edged blotches down middle of body, including tail; spots 11-12 scales wide and 2-4 long; two or three series of dark spots on each side, alternating with the middorsal series and with Musaum of Naturol Historjr Univarsily ol Konsas 194$ Fig. 191. Distribution of the blotched king snake, Lampropeltis calligaster, in Kansas. each other; spots usually white-edged; belly whitish, with irregular dark markings. Size moderately large, reaching a total length of 53/8 inches; tail 11 to 15 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — No other snake in Kansas has the com- bination of smooth scales, entire anal, a pattern of blotches, and the belly marked, except Rhinocheilus, which is easily distinguished by having most of the subcandals entire. Elaphe guttata is most fre- quently confused with the blotched king snake probably because the color pattern is remarkably similar. In Elaphe, however, the anal is divided and the dorsal scales are weakly keeled. Another species, not commonly found in the state, resembles L, calligaster even more closely; it is Arizona elegans, and can be distinguished most easily by the complete absence of ventral markings. Smith: Snakes 255 Fig. 192. A blotched king snake, Lampropeltis c. calligaster, X %, 9 miles southwest of Clinton, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by R. R. Hamm. Habits and Habitat. — This species is nocturnal. Individuals are most frequently found wandering about at night in open fields, along roads, about pastures or near barns; they live mostly in prairie areas, in open woods and fields, spending the day under cover of stones, old boards or logs. These snakes are docile and rarely attempt to bite. The bite is painful, but not poisonous. The food consists almost entirely of mice. In captivity other kinds of warm-blooded vertebrates are eaten, but large numbers of these snakes examined in the field have contained only mice. The food is constricted, and probably is killed also by compression in the same way that the bull snake is known to kill its prey. A clutch of eleven eggs, plowed up in a field, has been recorded. They hatched in early September. Kansan Subspecies. — Onl\' two races are known of this widely distributed species, and one occurs in Kansas: Lampropeltis calligaster calligaster ( Harlan). The other race, L. c. rhombomaculata (Holbrook), occurs in the southeastern United States. Reference. — Blanchard, 1921: 115-127, figs. 6, 39. 40 (monograph). 256 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Speckled King Snake Lanipropeltis getulus ( Linnaeus ) Coluber e.etu]us Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 382 (type locality- Charleston, South Carolina). Lampropeltis gctula Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 255. Range. — Probably state-wide, although not re- ported west of Rawlins (4 miles northeast of Lu- dell ) , Logan, Scott, Kearny ( 2 miles east of Lakin ) and Meade ( State Park ) counties. Description. — Head thick, blunt, cylindrical, little wider than neck; head scales arranged much as in Fig. 150; preocular single; supralabials generally seven; infralabials generally nine; temporals two in anterior row, three or four in posterior rows. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale rows 19-21 on anterior third of body, 19-23 at middle of body, and 17-19 immediately in front of anus; anal en- tire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 200-220; subcaudals 37-55. Mgiaum of Noluro< Hiilory Univartily o( Kantos 1945 m Fig. 193. Distribution of the speckled king snake, Lampropeltis getulus, in Kansas. Black or blue-black above; adults with a light yellow spot in the middle of every dorsal scale, the size of the spots increasing laterally so that the scales appear light with a black border; frequently the light spots are so arranged that they form 50 to 100 spotted cross- bars; in such specimens the scales in the middorsal region between the cross-bars frequently have less distinct spots, so that a faint blotched effect is produced; this is especially prominent in young specimens, and the blotched appearance becomes less and less dis- Smith: Snakes 257 tinct as the animals grow. The venter is whitish and is blotched with black. Size moderately large, reaching a total length of 64^ inches; tail 10 to 15 percent of total length. Recogriition Characters. — No other species in the state has a black back on which most scales are yellow-centered. The species is not easily confused with any other. Habits and Habitat. — This is another nocturnal snake, as are the other species of the genus Lampropeltis, and occurs in a rather wide variety of habitats in which ample moisture seems the most char- acteristic feature. The snakes are sometimes plowed up, indicating Fig. 194. A speckled king snake, Lampropeltis gctuhis holbrooki, X V2, K. U. no. 24403, 1 mile north of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. that they spend some part of their time underground, and perhaps they generally live in holes in the ground; they have been found also under stones and logs in hilly areas and canyons. The food is normally more varied than that of L. calligaster, con- sisting of snakes, lizards, eggs, small mammals and some birds. Poisonous snakes are eaten as well as nonpoisonous. Most of the food is constricted, but small animals are eaten without delay. 9—9019 258 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. The snake is more nervous than L. calligaster, striking upon cap- ture and vibrating the tail. After even several months in captivity the snake will \'ibrate its tail when annoyed. It does not eat well in captivity. Little has been recorded of the breeding habits. It is known that mating occurs in May, and that the eggs, six to ten (average 9) in number, are laid in late June; the eggs measure approximately 35 X 18 mm., and hatch from late August to early October; the hatchlings measure about ten inches in total length. Katisan Subspecies. — Ten subspecies of this species are recognized, only one of which occurs in Kansas. It is Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki Stejneger, whose type locahty is the Valley of the Mississippi. The other subspecies occur in the southern half of the United States and in northern Mexico. Specimens of L. g. holbrooki from southwestern Kansas in color pattern approach L. g. splendida, but in other respects are typical of L. g. holbrooki. References. — Blanchard, 1921: 33-42, fig. 32 (monograph); Conant, 1938: 63-66 (habits of a related subspecies, L. g. nigra, Ohio). Red King Snake Lampropeltis triangulum (Lacepede) Coluber triangulum Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Quadr. Ovip. Serp., vol. 2. 1788, tabl. meth., p. 86 (type locality — New York, New York). Lampropeltis triangula Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 256. Range. — State-wide. Not yet recorded south of the Arkansas River except in the southwestern cor- ner of the state and in Sedgwick County, nor in a similar area at the northern border of the state, but to be expected. Description. — Head thick, blunt, cylindrical, little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; preocular single; su- pralabials generally seven; infralabials generally nine; temporals two in anterior row, three or four in posterior rows. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale rows 19-21 anteriorly, 19-23 at middle of body, and 17-21 immediately in front of anus; anal entire; sub- caudals divided; ventrals 176-215; caudals 41-54, average 48, in males, and 31-50, average 46, in females. Ground color whitish or cream, frequently suffused with gray; a series of 19 to 30 large, red, black-edged blotches on body, 0-6 on tail; white spaces between blotches covering 1 to 2/2 scale lengths; red blotches extending laterally to about the third scale row, some- times onto edges of belly; belly thickly mottled with black, the color fused with the black borders of the red blotches. Smith: Snakes 259 Size moderate, total length reaching 41M inches; tail 12 to 16 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The color pattern, of large, red blotches, is completely distinctive of this species. At first glance Rhinocheilus might be confused with this species, but it has most of the sub- caudals single instead of entire. Habits and Habitat. — This snake occurs in a wide variety of habi- tats in the state. It is nocturnal, and apparently has a procliv- ity for burrowing, as it is frequently found in plowing. It is found also under stones and logs. Scflla 10 o ro .oMiItt I [ I I Mutftum of Napc lo- cality— San Diego, California). Range. — Southwestern quarter of state. Recorded as far north as Morton (3 miles north of Elkhart), Finney (Garden City), Ford (Bellefont), Barber (Medicine Lodge) and Harper (5 miles west of Attica) counties. Description. — Head thick, pointed, little wider than neck, cyhn- drical; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; rostral swollen, prominent, as wide as high; usually one preocular; temporals usually two in anterior row, three in posterior row; supralabials 7-9, usually 8; infralabials 8-11, usually 9; posterior genials usually split into 2 or more scales. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale rows 23 Muitiifn of Nolurot Hislofy Un'vt'Silir of K9rtio& 1945 Fig. 197. Distribution of the long-nosed snake, Rhinocheilus lecontei, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. or, rarely, 25 about middle of body, 19 immediately in front of tail; anal plate and at least half the subcaudals entire; ventrals 191-209, average 200, in males, and 181-203, average 195, in females; sub- caudals 50-61, average 54, in males, and 43-54, average 49, in fe- males. Ground color yellowish or cream; a series of 18-35, average 26, dark blotches on body, 6-17, average 10, on tail; blotches equal to length of interspaces, to 2/2 times as long; scales at sides of blotches with light centers; most of sides of body below blotches irregularly 262 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. mottled with light and dark color, sometimes (especially in the young) arranged to form a lateral series of blotches alternating with the dorsal spots; spaces between middorsal blotches unmarked, pink or red in life; lighter areas on sides also at times suffused with pink- ish in life. Belly cream or whitish, unicolor or marked irregularly with black or dark brown. Size moderately large, total length reaching 37 inches; tail 12 to 17 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — With the exception of the pit vipers (the rattlesnakes, cottonmouth and copperhead), this is the only species of snake in the state which has a large proportion ( at least half) of the subcaudals undivided. All others have only divided subcaudals, except for certain variants which may have one to a half-dozen or so plates abnormally entire. Fig. 198. A long-nosed snake, Rhinocheilus Iccontei tessellatus, X Vi, from Baylor County, Texas. Courtesy Louis W. Ramsey. Habits and Habitat. — In southern California, where studied more intensively than elsewhere, these snakes are found chieHy in grassy or bushy, semiarid regions, and to a lesser extent in rocky areas. The snakes are almost exclusively nocturnal, and reach their greatest activity between 8:00 and 9:00 p. m. They wander about when temperatures are as low as 62° F., and as high as 87° F. More individuals are to be found in the open in May than in any other month. They burrow readily in loose soil, but if conditions permit they hide by entering crevices rather than by burrowing in the ground. Six to nine eggs are laid in late June or July; they measure approximately 26 X 16 mm. and hatch in August. Smith: Snakes 263 These are rather docile snakes which bite with some rekictance. The tail is \'ibrated when the snake is annoyed. The food consists of snakes, lizards, lizard eggs, small mammals and large insects snch as grasshoppers. Most of the food is con- stricted. Kansoji Subspecies. — One subspecies, RhinorJiciltis lecontei tessellatus Car- man, occurs in Kansas. Its type locality is Monclova, Coahuila, Mexico. One other race is recognized in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Reference. — Klauber, 1941: 302-308, 320-323, pi. 12, fig. 2, pi. 13, fig. 3 (monograph). Genus Sonora Baird and Girard Plains Ground Snake Sonora episcopa ( Kennicott ) Lamprosoina episcopum Kennicott, U. S.-Mex. Bound. Surv., 1859, p. 22, pi. 8, fig. 2 ( type localitj' — Eagle Pass, Maverick County, Texas ) . Sonora episcopa Stickel, Copeia, no. 4, 1938, p. 184. Range. — Southern half of state; known distribution in regions contiguous to Kansas indicates a wider distribution within the state than do the scanty state records themselves. Selected record sta- tions are Clark ( 2 miles south of State Lake ) on the west and Ellis ( Hays ) , Russell ( 5 miles north of Russell ) , Wilson ( 2 miles north- west of Neodesha), and Crawford (7 miles west of Pittsburg) counties, on the north. Description. — Head somewhat flattened above, but still fairly thick, little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; loreal occasionally absent; 2 posterior temporals; post- genials small or absent; usually 7 upper and 7 lower labials. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale rows 15 throughout length of body (occasionally 14 immediately in front of anus); anal and all sub- caudals divided; ventrals 134-155, average 147, in males, and 140- 162, average 153, in females; subcaudals 39-52, average 44, in males, and 31-44, average 37, in females. Gray, dark brown or red above, cream or whitish below; no mark- ings except sometimes above; back occasionally uniform, unmarked; sometimes a black, collarlike spot on neck; a variable number (1-25) of black, oval crossbands sometimes present on back. Size small, total length reaching 14 inches; tail 16 to 21 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The smooth scales in fifteen rows are absolutely distinctive of this species with the exception of the smooth-scaled green snake {Opheodnjs vernalis); the latter how- ever has postgenials as long as the pregenials, and of course a much diflFerent color and build. The thick, broad head is distinctive. 264 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Scale to o 20 *3MiHi I . I I 1 Museum of No'urol Hi&tory Universily el Konsos 1945 m Fig. 199. Distribution of the plains ground snake, Sonora episcopa, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Habits and Habitat. — These ground snakes are characteristic of plains and are found most frequently under stones and other surface debris on sides and crests of grassy hills. They are apparently nocturnal in habit. The food probably consists of small insects and other arthropods, although no direct observations have been made. The food probably is not constricted. Nothing is known of the breeding habits of this species. A related B Fig. 200. Plains ground snakes, Sonora episcopa, X %• A, locality unknown; courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright. B, St. Clair County, Missouri; courtesy H. K. Gloyd. Smith: Snakes 265 form of southern Texas is known to lay eggs, one specimen laying 6 that measured approximately % X ^^ inches. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished, although a re- lated form in Texas (S. taylori) by some writers has been considered to be a subspecies of S. episcopa. References. —Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 199-200, fig. 64 (description); Stickel, 1938: 183, 184-185 (diagnosis); Cope, 1900: 938-939, fig. 238. Genus TantiUa Baird and Girard Slender Tantilla Tantilla gracilis Baird and Girard Tantilla gracilis Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 132 (type locality — Indianola, Texas). Range. — Eastern half of state, seemingly not reaching the Ne- braska border. Recorded as far west as Riley (Garrison), Geary (4 miles south of Ft. Riley), Chase (3 miles west of Strong), and Sumner counties. Huttum of Noturqt Htstcry Univanlty ol Kantoi 1945 Fig. 201. Distribution of the slender tantilla, Tantilla gracilis, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Head much flattened, little if any wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; one preocular; no loreal; one postocular (seldom 2); six supralabials and infralabials (seldom 7); one anterior and one posterior temporal; postgenials half as long as pregenials. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; fifteen scale rows throughout length of body; anal plate and subcaudals divided; ven- trals 115-127, average 122, in males, and 126-138, average 132, in 266 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. females; subcaudals 44-57, average 51 in males, and 36-48, average 42, in females. Body light yellow-brown above, the color becoming gradually darker on head; belly whitish. Size small, maximum total length recorded SJs inches; tail about 23 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The tantillas and some pit vipers are the only snakes of the state that lack the loreal. When only one scale is present between the eye and nasal, however, it is not always easy to say offhand whether it is a loreal or a preocular; since certain other snakes regularly lack the preocular, confusion can occur. The single scale can be identified as a preocular if it is as high as long (or higher), and as a loreal if it is longer than high. In identifying Fig. 202. A slender tantilla, Tantilla gracilis hallotvelli, X 1, K. U. no. 23689, 3 miles north of Galena, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh and T. P. Lyle. a snake that may be a tantilla, it is helpful to remember that only three other snakes in the state ever have fifteen smooth scale rows and a divided anal. They are: Diadophis punctatus (with a con- spicuous light ring about neck), Opheodrys vernalis (green above, more than 80 subcaudals, postgenials twice as long as broad), and Smith: Snakes 267 Sonora episcopa (postgenials separated from each other and some- times indistinguishable; 2 posterior temporals; much thicker head). The present species, T. gracilis, is most certainly distinguished from T. nigriceps by the gradual change of the color on the body to the darker color of the head; in T. nigriceps the head is darker than the body, but there is absolutely no graduation between the colors on the nape; the black of the head terminates posteriorly at a sharply defined line. Also T. gracilis usually has six supralabials and one postocular, whereas T. nigriceps always has seven supralabials and t\vo postoculars. Since these characters based on scales vary, how- ever, the color characteristic, which does not vary, should be given greater emphasis. A further difference occurs in the number of ventrals: T. nigriceps has no less than 146, and T. gracilis no more than 138. Habits and Habitat. — This snake is commonly found under stones on the hills of eastern Kansas where trees are scarce and the vegeta- tion is chiefly grass. Probably it is nocturnal. The snakes are ex- tremely docile and rarely if ever attempt to bite. While they pos- sess venom, it is so weak, as far as mammals are concerned, that no risk whatsoever attends the capture and handling of these snakes. The food consists of elongate insect larvae and centipedes. These are kinds of animals that would be found underground or under ob- jects where these snakes abound. Probably the food is rendered somewhat helpless by the venom. A pair of enlarged teeth at the rear of the mouth have faint grooves along the side, which facilitate conduction of the poisonous saliva into the wounds made by the teeth. Teeth such as these are termed "pleuroglyph," as opposed to "opisthoglyph" teeth of some snakes of the United States and else- where, in which the sharp teeth have grooves along the front margin. Opisthoglyph teeth occur only at the rear of the jaws. Still other types of teeth are the solenoglyph and proteroglyph types; one is movable (that is, the bone to which it is attached moves), whereas the other (proteroglyph) is fixed; both are types occurring in the front of the jaws, and are possessed by dangerously venomous snakes. In each the groove has closed over so that there is a cavity, or canal, running the length of the tooth, down which the venom is forced, in much the same manner as fluids are forced through a hypodermic needle. The salivary gland which secretes the venom has a direct connection with the base of the tooth, with the result that all of the secretion goes into and through the teeth, rather than being freed loose in the mouth as in snakes with pleuroglyph and opisthoglyph teeth. The venom is a specialized saliva. 268 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. T. gracilis in June and early July lays one to four eggs 13-26 X 4-6/2 mm. in size; they hatch in September. Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are recognized. The one occurring in Kansas is T. g. halloivelli Cope, with type locality restricted to Manhattan, Riley County, Kansas. The other subspecies, T. g. gracilis, occurs in Texas and southern Oklahoma. References. — Blanchard, 1938: 371-372, 376 (diagnosis); Force, 1935: 645-659 (nat- ural history, Oklahoma); Taylor, 1936: 337-339 (variation). Black-headed Tantilla Tantilla nigriceps Kennicott Tantilla nigriceps Kennicott, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 328 (type locality — Fort Bliss, Texas ) . Range. — Entire state except eastern third. Recorded as far east as Riley (4/2 miles south of Manhattan), Douglas and Cowley counties ( the latter two doubtful ) , and as far to the northwest as Hamilton, Kearny (1 mile east of Lakin), Gove, and Rooks (5 miles northwest of Stockton) counties. Mutfuin of Nalgral Hlitorr UAlvtnlli of KonMt 19^9 Fig. 203. Distribution of the black-headed tantilla, Tantilla nigriceps, in Kansas. Description. — Head much flattened, little if any wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; no loreal; 2 postoculars; 7 supralabials; 6 infralabials; 1 anterior and 1 pos- terior temporal; postgenials half as long as pregenials. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; 15 scale rows throughout length of body; anal plate and subcaudals divided; ventrals 146-159, average 143, Smith: Snakes 269 in males, and 150-161, average 155, in females; subcaudals 43-62, average 52, in males, and 35-58, average 44, in females. Body light yellowish brown above, except on top of head; latter black above, the color extending posteriorly on 2-4 scale rows onto nape, there terminating with a V-shaped ( with the apex posteriorly ) extremity; belly whitish. Size small, maximum recorded total length 13'^ inches; tail approximately 20 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of T. gracilis. Fig. 204. A black-headed tantilla, Tantilla n. nigriceps, X %, Congress Junction, Arizona. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd. Habits and Habitats. — Specimens taken in Riley County were found under stones at the crest of the barren, grassy hills in only one restricted area south of Manhattan. Seemingly identical hillsides elsewhere in the vicinity of Manhattan harbored T. gracilis in quan- tity, but no T. nigriceps. The distribution of this form probably is spotty. Its habits are not known to differ from those of T. gracilis. Kansan Subspecies. — One subspecies, Tantilla nigriceps nigriceps Kennicott, occurs in Kansas. The only other subspecies recognized at present occurs in south-central Texas, and adjacent parts of Mexico. References. — Blanchard, 1938: 372, 376 (diagnosis); Taylor, 1936: 342-344, fig. 3 (var- iation ) . Genus Hypsiglena Cope Spotted Night Snake Hypsiglena torquata (Giinther) Leptodeira torquata Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. 5, p. 170 (type lo- cality— Laguna Island, Nicaragua). Hypsiglena torquata Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 32, 1887, p. 78. Range. — Western half of state along its southern border. Re- corded only from 2 localities in Clark County (2 miles south of 270 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. State Lake, and Stevenson Ranch), and two in Barber County (6 miles southwest of Sun City, and 4 miles south of Aetna). Fig. 205. Distribution of the spotted night snake, Hypsiglcna torquata, in Kansas, with in- sert showing range of the species. Description. — Head flattened, pointed, distinctly wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1-3, usually 2, preoculars; 2 postoculars; usually 1, sometimes 2, anterior temporals; usually 2, sometimes 1, posterior temporals; 7-9, usually 8, supralabials; usually 10, sometimes 9, infralabials; pregenials about equal in size to postgenials. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; anal plate and subcaudals divided; scales in 21 or occasionally 23 rows at middle of body, 15 or 17 immediately in front of anus; ventrals 160-199, subcaudals 38-66. Pupil of eye vertical when examined during the day (that is, in Hght). Ground color yellowish white, sprinkled with minute flecks of dark color; a series of 49-70 dark dorsal blotches on body, 10-12 scale rows broad, wider than long and sometimes placed diagonally and even broken into two spots by a split along the median line; 2-4 rows of smaller spots alternating with each other and with the dor- sal series, on either side; 3 rather large spots on nape, including an elongate median spot and a larger lateral one on either side; latter spots continuous or in line with a dark band on side of head passing through eye and bordered above by a distinct white line; lips whitish, stippled; belly immaculate, under side of tail sometimes flecked with gray. Size rather small, total length reaching 20/2 inches; tail 13-16 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The 21 (or 23 at middle of body) smooth scale rows and divided anal are, in combination, absolutely distinctive of this species in Kansas. Note also the vertical pupil. Smith: Snakes 271 Habits and Habitat. — This snake is found to be active only at night and the shape of the pupil (a vertical slit) in the light is addi- tionally indicative of nocturnal habits. It is most often found under stones during the day, but at night wanders about on the ground. Arid and semiarid, particularly rocky areas, are inhabited; open terrain without cover such as rocks and other debris on the surface of the ground seemingly is avoided. This species lays eggs. The food is known to include small lizards. A pair of slightly enlarged teeth at the rear of the upper jaw lacks any connection Fig. 206. A spotted night snake, Hypsiglcna torquuta tcxana, X Vi;, from Palo Pinto, Texas. Courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright. with poison ducts, but the saliva of this species is known to be mildly poisonous to lizards; it has little or no effect upon man and other large warm-blooded vertebrates. The snakes are docile and do not often try to bite; they are so small that the small teeth can do almost no damage to any but the smallest creatures. This species, members of the genus Tantilla, and the deadly veno- mous pit vipers are the only venomous snakes in the state; all others are completely harmless, and of course Tantilla and Hypsiglena are absolutely harmless so far as man is concerned. 272 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. ,Hist. Kansan Subspecies. — One subspecies, Hypsiglcna torquata texana Stej- neger (with type locality "between Laredo and Camargo, Texas"), occurs in Kansas. Ten other subspecies occur in the western United States and Mexico. References. — Van Denburgh, 1922: 779-783, pi. 85 (description, distribution); Tanner, 1944: 51-54 (description, taxonomy ). Genus Natrix Laurenti Yellow-bellied Water Snake Natrix erythrogaster (Forster) Coluber erythrogaster Forster, in Bossu, Travels Through That Part of North America Formerly Called Louisiana, vol. 1, 1771, p. 364 (type locality — restricted by Conant to Parker's Ferry, Edisto River Swamp, Charleston Co., South Carolina). Natrix erythrogaster Clay, Copeia, 1938, no. 4, pp. 181-182. Range. — Southeastern half of state. Recorded as far west as Seward (12 miles northeast of Liberal), Ford, Stafford (Salt Marsh), Dickinson (Abilene) and Doniphan (Doniphan Lake) counties. Mjjssum of Noturol Historjr Univtrtily ot Kontas I94S Fig. 207. Distribution of the yellow-bellied water snake, Natrix erythrogaster, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Head flattened, wider behind than in front, dis- tinctly wider than neck; head scales much as in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 3 postoculars; 2-3 posterior temporals; supralabials generally 8; infralabials generally 11. All dorsal scales keeled, the dorsal most strongly keeled; scale rows generally 25, sometimes 23, at middle of body, 17 immediately in front of anus; anal plate and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 143-157; subcaudals 62-83. Thirty-two to forty rectangular blotches along middle of back Smith: Snakes 273 in young and half-grown individuals; another lateral series of blotches, alternating with the dorsal blotches as far forward as head or second or third dorsal blotch; belly whitish, with anterior margins of ventrals, especially toward sides of belly, black or gray. These markings becoming less distinct in large specimens, and belly be- coming lighter, so that in some the belly is uniform yellow or whitish, unmarked or only dimly clouded, whereas dorsal surface is more or less uniform olive or gray-brown. Size large, total length reaching about five feet (the eastern race has been recorded as reaching 5 feet, 7/2 inches ) ; tail about twenty percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The members of the genus Natrix in Kansas can be recognized by the combination of keeled dorsal scales. Fig. 208. A yellow-bellied water snake, Natrix erythrogastcr transversa, X %, K. U. no. 24395, 5 miles west of St. Paul, Neosho Countv, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. a single anterior temporal, divided anal, and no fewer than nineteen scale rows at middle of body. The present species may be distin- guished from the others of the genus by the absence of dorsal spots combined with an unmarked or only cloudy belly, or, in case the dorsal spots are present, by the fact that they alternate with the lateral spots all the way forward to the head, except sometimes one or two spots back of head, which may be fused with the dorsal blotches to produce three or fewer crossbands. The species N. 274 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. erythrogaster is most often confused with Natrix sipedon, in which the dorsal spots are always visible, and more than three crossbands are present on the neck; in that species the belly is heavily mottled, whereas in N. erythrogaster the belly is unmarked or else the mark- ings ( visible only in young specimens ) are restricted to the anterior edges of the belly scales. The subcaudals toward the tip of the tail are immaculate in N. erythrogaster, but mottled in N. sipedon. Habits and Habitat. — Almost any permanent stream, river or lake harbors this species. It is nocturnal, and during the day can be found under stones and logs at the margin of die water. However on warm days the snakes emerge and bask for several hours in the sun, providing it is not too hot. All efforts to capture food, however, seem to be restricted to the evening. The food is not constricted and probably consists of aquatic ani- mals such as fish, frogs, crayfish, tadpoles and salamanders. Like most other water snakes, these are extremely vicious, and do not become docile even in captivity except when special pains are taken not to arouse their fears. They strike repeatedly upon cap- ture, and at the same time exude small quantities of an evil smelling fluid from the scent glands at the base of the tail. The teeth are long, numerous and sharp, and inflict numerous painful scratches. The snakes do not, however, like some others such as the racers, hold on and chew; they strike, bite and immediately let go. Mating has been observed in the eastern subspecies in late April and May. No eggs are laid, but the females in September and October give birth to 8 to 27 young measuring 8/8 to 101 inches in length. Kansan Subspecies. — Four races are recognized, one of which, Natrix erythro- gaster transversa ( Hallowell ) , occurs in Kansas. Its type locality is the "Creek boundary, near the banks of the Arkansas and its tributaries." The other races occur in the eastern United States. References. — Conant, 1938: 70-74 (natural history of the eastern subspecies, N. e. ery- throgaster); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 224-225 (description, natural history); Cope, 1900: 973-975, fig. 252 (description); Conant, 1949: 12-14, pi. 1 in color (diagnosis, variation, comparisons ) . Graham Water Snake Natrix grahamii (Baird and Girard) Regina grahamii Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 47 (type locality— Salado Creek, Bell County, Texas). Natrix grahamii Cope, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 14, 1892, p. 668. Range. — Eastern half of state. Recorded as far west as Jewell (Jewell) and Pratt (Pratt) counties; records sparse toward west. Smith: Snakes 275 Description. — Head small, narrower than body which tapers some- what anteriorly, somewhat flattened above, and little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; posterior temporals 2; supralabials 7, sometimes 8; infralabials 9-10; postgenials longer than pregenials. Dorsal scales strongly keeled, except those in outer row which are generally smooth; anterior scale rows 19 or 21, at middle of body 19, immediately in front of anus 17; anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 155-170; subcaudals 51-66. More or less uniform brown above; a yellow stripe along either side involving 3 outer scale rows, with an irregular black border below which involves ends of ventrals and outer edge of first scale Scol* ■0 0 K «0Mil«S ■I I I Wui«um of Netural History Uflivtnilr o' Kontot 1945 m Fig. 209. Distribution of the Graham water snake, Natrix grahamii, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. row; vague dark border on inner edge of light stripe; sometimes a feeble, dark-edged median light stripe; ventral surface immaculate or with one or two series of small dark spots; sometimes a median series of small spots under tail. Size moderately large, total length reaching 29^2 inches; tail about 16 percent of total length when complete (tip often missing). Recognition Characters. — The striped pattern is distinctive of this peculiarly marked Natrix. It is the only species in the state com- bining nineteen scale rows at the middle of the body with a divided anal and keeled scales. Tropidoclonion lineatum looks much like the young of the present species, but has an entire anal and 2 rows of large spots down the belly. 276 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Habits and Habitat. — In Nebraska these snakes have been found only near ponds. In Texas, where streams also are frequented, they have been found abundantly in crayfish burrows. The food consists largely of crayfish and to a lesser degree of other aquatic animals. Ten to fifteen young measuring approximately eight inches in total length are born in late August and probably as late as Sep- tember. Fig. 210. A Graham water snake, Natrix grahamii, X %, 7 miles southeast of Waco, Mc- Lennan County, Texas. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished anywhere in the range of this species. References. — Hudson, 1942: 69-70, pi. 13, fig. 1 (description, habits, Nebraska); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 210, fig. 67 (description, habits, general). Diamond-backed Water Snake Natrix rhombifera (Hallowell) Tropidonotus rhombifera Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, 1852, p. 177 (type locality — Tulsa, Oklahoma). Natrix rhombifera Cope, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 11, 1889, p. 398. Range. — Southeastern half of state. Recorded as far west as Meade (State Lake), Stafford (Salt Marsh), Lyon (5 miles north- west of Reading), Jefferson and Leavenworth counties. Description. — Head flattened, large, wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; internasals narrow; 1 preocular or rarely 2; 3 postoculars or rarely 4 or 5; 2 posterior temporals; postgenials longer than pregenials; 7-11, generally 8, supralabials and 10-14, generally 11, infralabials. Dorsal scales strongly keeled, except those on sides which are weakly keeled; anal plate and all sub- caudals divided; 25-29 scale rows at middle of body, 21-29 im- mediately in front of anus; ventrals 133-150, subcaudals 57-81. Smith: Snakes 277 Ground color lij^ht gray; a series of 30-64 small, dark gray blotches down middle of back on body, connected by narrow, sometimes indistinct, dark lines with similar, alternating dark spots in a row on each side; belly yellow; most ventral plates with several semilunar dark spots on their anterior edge. Size large, reaching fifty-seven inches in total length; tail twenty to twenty-three percent of total length; body large and heavy. Recognition Characters. — The members of the genus Natrix are characterized by the combination of keeled dorsal scales, a single anterior temporal, divided anal, and no fewer than 19 scale rows at middle of body. In the genus Natrix, N. rhomhifera is set apart chiefly by its peculiar color-pattern, which is not duplicated in any other Kansan member of the genus or for that matter by any other ScoU 20 40Milt» I ' Mutlum of Notural HIslery Untvtnily of KartMf I94J Fig. 211. Distributfon of the diamond-backed water snake, Natrix rhomhifera, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. snake in the state. The chief peculiarity of the pattern is the small size of the dorsal spots, and their connection with the small lateral spots by diagonal lines passing both forward and backward. Habits and Habitat. — These, like other water snakes, are noctur- nal although they enjoy basking in the sunshine for a part of each day. The basking, as in other species, is done on the branches of trees, on logs, rocks, or other promontories a few feet or a few inches above the surface of the water. Objects at the edge of the water may be used for basking, or objects projecting from it. When bask- 278 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. ing, they are not especially wary, and many individuals can be ap- proached closely enough to be captured. At night when they are seeking food they are more wary but in shallow water can be cap- tured easily. They strike and bite viciously, and their large size makes them the most feared of all the nonvenomous snakes in the state. The long teeth lacerate a person's flesh easily. The food is much like that of other water snakes; items found in stomachs include catfish, small snapping turtles, sunfish, shad, frogs and other aquatic animals. The food can be, and probably often is, captured and swallowed under water; there is accordingly no foun- Fig. 212. A diamond-backed water snake, Natrix r. rho-mbifera. X '/3. K. U. no. 24402, 5 miles west of St. Paul, Neosho County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. dation for the popular belief that snakes cannot strike under water. Eighteen to forty-three, average thirty, young are born in late August and early September. Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies have been defined; one, Natrix rhom- hifera rhombifera ( Hallowell ) , occurs in Kansas. The other subspecies occur on the eastern coast of Mexico. References.— Cag\e, 1937: 179-185, pi. 1, text fig. 1 (variation, habits, Tennessee); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 217-218, fig. 71 (description, natural history); Cope, 1900: 963- 965, fig. 249 (description). Smith: Snakes 279 Common Water Snake Natrix sipedon ( Linnaeus ) Coluber sipedon Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 219 (type locality — ■ New York, New York). Natrix sipedon Kirsch, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., vol. 14, 1895, p. 333. Range. — State-wide except for extreme south- western corner. Recorded as far west as Phillips, Rooks, Logan and Meade (State Park) counties. Not recorded from northwestern corner but to be expected. Muiaum of Norwrql Hittorir Unlvartitf of Kontoi I94S m Fig. 213. Distribution of the common water snake, Natrix sipedon, in Kansas. Description. — Head flattened, broader than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; internasals somewhat narrowed anteri- orly; 1 preocular; 3 postoculars; supralabials generally 8, seldom 9; infralabials 9-11, generally 10; postgenials longer than pregenials. Dorsal scales strongly keeled, those on sides weakly keeled; scale rows on anterior % of body 21-23, immediately in front of anus 17-19; anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 132-149, average 140; subcaudals 66-82, average 75, in males, and 56-74, in females, average 64. A series of 24-50 quadrangular blotches on body, the anterior four or more (average 10) crossbarlike, fused with lateral spots on either side; back of the level of the crossbands, lateral spots alternate with dorsal spots; ground color gray or olive; belly usually rather brightly marked with various hues from dark gray to orange, the darker markings tending to be semilunar in shape and scattered more or less irregularly over the belly; tail similarly, densely marked. 280 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist, Size rather large, total length reaching fifty-one inches; tail twenty to twenty-nine percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — Members of the genus Natrix in Kan- sas may be recognized by the combination of keeled dorsal scales, a single anterior temporal, divided anal, and no fewer than nine- teen scale rows at middle of body. N. sipedon may be distinguished from other species of the genus by the presence of four or more broad crossbands on the anterior part of the body. It is most often confused with N. erythrogaster, which has immaculate caudals at the tip of the tail, an unmarked belly or belly with marks only at the anterior margin of the ventrals, and no more than three complete crossbands on the neck. See discussion of N. erythrogaster. -viia%.r^'- '^^^^v > ^^i^S-^'^ -■ "■Mat, ' ^12^. Fig. 214. A common water snake, Natrix s. sipedon, X Vs, 2 miles south of Townsend, New Castle County, Delaware. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Habits and Habitat. — The habits and habitat of this species are much like those of other Natrix in Kansas. It is, however, by far the most ubiquitous species of the genus in the state. It is the species commonly found about streams, rivers, marshes, permanent ponds and lakes. At times the snakes wander several hundred feet from water. This and other species of Natrix have the very unpleasant habit of exuding the contents of the anal scent glands when captured, while the tail and rear part of body flail about, scattering widely the evil smelling secretion, often mixed with copious quantities of feces. Mating occurs in spring (April and May) and perhaps also in fall Smith: Snakes 281 (September). Ten to seventy-six young are bom from August to October; the number varies with the size of the female; large females have large litters, and small females small litters. There is considerable evidence that any one female will bear young only in alternate years. When born the young measure nine inches in total length. The food consists of aquatic animals, chiefly fish, frogs, sala- manders and crayfish. Mammals rarely are eaten. Some of these snakes die as a result of being impaled on the spines of fins of catfish that they have swallowed. Kansan Subspecies. — Eight subspecies are known, one of which, Natrix sipe- don sipedon (Linnaeus), occurs in Kansas. The others occur in the eastern United States eastward from Texas. References. — Conant, 1938: 81-86, pi. 11, fig. 1 (description, natural history, Ohio); Mc- Cauley, 1945: 106-114, fig. 28 (description, natural history, Maryland); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 219-220, pi. 24 (description, natural history). Genus Storeria Baird and Girard DeKay Snake Storeria dekayi (Holbrook) Tropidonotus dekayi Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp., ed. 2, vol. 4, 1842, p. 53, pi. 14 (type locality — Cambridge, Massachusetts ) . Storeria dekayi Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Kept., 1853, p. 135. Range. — Eastern two-thirds of state. Recorded as far west as Graham and Kiowa (Rezeau Ranch) counties. Fig. 215. Distribution of the DeKay snake, Storeria dekayi, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. 282 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Description. — Head rather thick, sHghtly flattened above, a httle wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2 postoculars; 6-8, usually 7, supralabials and infralabials; 1 anterior and 2-3 posterior temporals; postgenials a little broader and longer than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled, those in outer row rather feebly; scale rows 17 throughout length of body; anal and sub- caudals divided; ventrals 121-131, average 125, in males, and 125- 140, average 131, in females of this area; subcaudals 53-61, average 56, in males, and 41-51, average 46, in females. Gray or olive above, sometimes uniform but usually with a dim middorsal light stripe some three scale rows wide; almost always Fig. 216. A DeKay snake, Storcria dckayi texnna, X 1, K. U. no. 23608, Law- rence, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle. evident is the series of small spots bordering the median stripe on either side; sides of belly finely stippled, venter otherwise whitish or slightly pinkish; a dark spot below eye and on either side of neck. Size small, total length reaching 15 inches; tail 17-27 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — There is no obvious character distin- guishing this species from others of the state. The combination of seventeen rows of keeled scales and a divided anal distinguishes the species from all others except Opheodrys aestivus (a larger snake with more than 100 subcaudals) and Haldea (which has 5 or 6 supralabials and no preocular). The dim, broad, middorsal light stripe combined with the small size are the two most useful char- acters for spot recognition, and for readily distinguishing this species from the other species of snakes with which it might be confused in Kansas. The absence of the loreal is a useful characteristic. Smith: Snakes 283 Habits and Habitat. — This apparently nocturnal species frequents moist situations, generally under rocks, logs or other cover in creek beds and in woods. It is completely innocuous, making no attempts to bite even with severe provocation; it does secrete a rather strong-smelling fluid from the anal glands at least when first captured. Even this defense is later dropped. Slugs, snails and earthworms and but little else are taken as food. In the eastern subspecies mating occurs in late March and April, and 3-24 young are born in July and August; at birth they measure 3/2 to 4^2 inches long. Kansan Subspecies. — Six subspecies are known, of which but one, Storeria dekatji texana Trapido, occurs in Kansas. Its type locaUty is at Edge Falls, 4 miles south of Kendalia, Kendall County, Texas. The other subspecies occur in the eastern United States and eastern Mexico and Guatemala. References. — Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 227-228, pi. 25 (description, natural history); Trapido, 1944: 63-79, figs. 45-50 (description, variation, distribution). Red-bellied Snake Storeria occipitomaculata (Storer) Coluber occipito-maculatus Storer, Rep. Fish Rept. Birds Mass., 1839, p. 230 (type locality — Amherst, Massachusetts ) . Storeria occipito-maculatus Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 137. Range. — Eastern fifth of state. Records from Riley, Phillips (Long Island) and Hamilton counties require confirmation. Seal! 10 0 ta wMilcl litiaum of Notural H'ltfrf Unrv«ritl, ot KanMt I94S Fig. 217. Distribution of the red-bellied snake, Storeria occipitomaculata, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. 284 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Description. — Head rather thick, shghtly flattened above, a little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 2 preocu- lars; 2 postoculars; 1 anterior and 2-3 posterior temporals; usually 6 supralabials; usually 7 infralabials; postgenials a little shorter but wider than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled except those in outer row; scale rows 15 throughout length of body; anal and subcaudals divided; ventrals 112-132, average 121, in males, and 121-133, aver- age 125, in females of this area; subcaudals 42-55, average 49, in males, and 37-51, average 42, in females. Dark gray or brown above, the color extending onto ends of ventrals; remainder of ventral surface whitish anteriorly, generally reddish posteriorly; 3 light spots back of head on nape, and one on side of head below and behind eye. Size small, maximum total length recorded 15 inches; tail 17-29 percent of total length. Fig. 218. A red-bellied snake, Storeria o. occipitomaculata, X 1, K. U. no. 23690, 5% miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh and T. p. Lyle. Recognitioti Characters. — No other species in the state has fifteen keeled scale rows. Habits and Habitat. — This species, like S. dekayi, is restricted to moist areas, where it is found under boards, stones, logs and other surface debris. It is completely harmless and refuses to bite, al- though an interesting reaction has been noted by McCauley in Mary- land: the snakes sometimes, when first discovered, rear backward and curl the upper lip outward, turning the upper jaw bone ( maxil- Smith: Snakes 285 lary) outward at the same time; the action is reminiscent of the "showing of teeth" practiced by some mammals for purposes of intimidation. The reaction has been noted by Conant in Haldea valeriae also. The food consists of earthworms, slugs and small insects. The young are born from July to September in litters of 1-14, average 7, and measure upon birth 2% to 3% inches long. Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies have been recognized in this species, only one of which occurs in Kansas; it is Storeria occipitomaculata occipito- maculata (Storer). The other subspecies occur in Florida and central Mexico. References. — Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 229-230, fig. 74 (description, natural history); Trapido, 1944: 20-33, figs. 11-13, 20 (description, variation, distribution). Genus Haldea Baird and Girard Southern Ground Snake Haldea striatula (Linnaeus) Coluber striatulus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 375 (t>pe localitj' — Charleston, South Carolina). Haldea striatula Cope, Ann. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1898 (1900), p. 1009, fig. 272. Range. — Extreme southeastern corner of state. Recorded only from Crawford (6 miles east of Pittsburg) and Cherokee (3 miles east of Crestline; 2 miles north of Baxter Springs ) counties. Muacwm •! Naiur«i H>ilerf Unlv«ni(r el Kantai IMS Fig. 219. Distribution of the southern ground snake, Haldea striatula, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. 286 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Description. — Head small, thick, rather sharply pointed, not dis- tinct from neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; internasals fused, represented by a single plate (rarely 2); no preocular; loreal and prefrontal in contact with eye; 1 postocular; 1 anterior and 1 or 2 posterior temporals; supralabials 5; infralabials 6; postgenials as long as or a little shorter than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled, except those in outer row, which are smooth; scale rows 17, occa- sionally reduced to 15 immediately in front of anus; anal plate and, with occasional exceptions of 1-10 scales, subcaudals divided; ven- trals 120-135; subcaudals 36-50. Dull gray or gray-brown above and yellow to pink below; head a little darker than body; no markings except (in eastern United States ) sometimes a light band of varying distinctness across middle of parietals. Size small, total length reaching twelve inches; tail approximately seventeen percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — This is the only snake in the state that has the internasals fused together to form a single scale. Only one Fig. 220. A southern ground snake, Haldca striatula, X 1. Tulsa, Okla- homa. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd. other species has five supralabials — Carphophis amocnus, but it has thirteen rows of smooth scales instead of seventeen rows of keeled scales. Habits and Habitat. — This is apparently a nocturnal species, found in the day hidden under logs, bark and leaves, and at night wandering about among leaves on the ground. It occurs in moist areas near streams or pools of water. In Texas the species was collected in large numbers by Edward H. Taylor by raking with the hands in leaves and other debris on the banks of long-deserted gravel pits where small trees and other vegetation provided con- siderable shade during the day; more open spots were avoided. Smith: Snakes 287 The food consists of insects, their larvae, earthworms, spiders and other small invertebrates. The young are born in litters of six to eight, and each measures approximately four inches in total length. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range of this species. Reference. — Schmidt and Davis, 1941:231-232, fig. 75, pi. 25. Western Ground Snake Haldea valeriae (Baird and Girard) Virginia valeriae Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 127 (type localitv- — Kent County, Maryland ) . Haldea valeriae Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Amer. Amph. Rept., ed. 4, 1939, p. 132. Range. — Eastern border of the state. Recorded only from Leavenworth (15 miles northeast of Lawrence), Jefferson (10 miles north of Lawrence, Douglas (Lawrence), Franklin (Ottawa) and Anderson counties. Scela n «3 Milts I I Museum of Natural Hitlory Univ«r»il| ol KontOS 1945 at Fig. 221. Distribution of the western ground snake, Haldea valeriae, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Head little flattened, pointed, scarcely distinguished from neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; no preocular; loreal and prefrontal in contact with eye; 1-3, generally 2 post- oculars; 1 anterior and 2 posterior temporals; 6 supralabials; 6 infralabials; postgenials two-thirds length of pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled except those in 1 or 2 lateral rows; generally 17 scale 288 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. rows throughout length of body; anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 113-131; subcaudals 25-45. Olive above, sometimes suffused with pink; belly whitish; a faint middorsal light streak sometimes evident, bordered on either side by a series of tiny black flecks. Size small, maximum total length measurement recorded, 12/2 inches; tail 13 to 21 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — Only two other species in the state lack Fig. 222. A western ground snake, Haldea valeriae elegans, X 1, San An- tonio, Texas. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd. a preocular: Carphophis amoentis (13 rows of smooth scales) and Haldea striatula ( 1 internasal, 5 supralabials ) . Habits and Habitat. — These are nocturnal, terrestrial snakes which live in wooded areas where they hide beneath stones, logs and other surface cover. In the eastern subspecies, in August, 4-8 young are born, each approximately 2)2 inches in length. The food consists of earthworms, insects and their larvae. In captivity the snakes are said to feed well upon earthworms. Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are known, one of which, Haldea valeriae elegans (Kennicott), occurs in Kansas. Its type locality is "heavily timbered regions of southern Illinois." The other subspecies occurs in the eastern United States. References. — Conant, 1938: 94-96, and McCauley, 1945: 119-121 (habits of the eastern subspecies, H. v. valeriae, Ohio and Maryland, respectively); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 232- 233, fig. 76 (description). Smith: Snakes 289 Genus Thamno})his Fitzinger Marcy Garter Snake Thamnophis marcianus ( Baird and Girard ) Eutaenia marciana Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Kept., 1853, p. '36 (type locality — Slough Creek, east of Hollister, Tillman County, Oklahoma). Thamnophis marcianus Ruthven, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 61, 1908, p. 58. Fig. 223. Distribution of the Marcy garter snake, Thamnophis marcianus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Range. — Western third of state seemingly not reaching the Ne- braska border. Recorded as far east as Sheridan, Trego and Barber (Lake City) counties. Description. — Head somewhat flattened, distinctly wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 3-4 post- oculars; 2 posterior temporals; generally 8 supralabials, infralabials 9-11, most frequently 10; postgenials narrower but as long as pre- genials. Dorsal scales keeled, those in outer row feebly if at all keeled; scales in 21 rows at middle of body, 17 immediately in front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 144-165, subcaudals 62-79. Ground color brownish yellow; a middorsal light stripe covering 1 scale row and a half of each adjacent row, the edges irregular and not sharply defined; a lateral light stripe on the third scale row only anteriorly, the second and third posteriorly; none of the light stripes particularly well defined; between these stripes on either side two series of small, dark, alternating spots, sometimes poorly defined; another series of ill-defined spots below lateral light stripe, encroaching on ends of ventrals; belly yellowish, unspotted; 10—9019 290 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. upper labials strongly barred; well-defined, light, crescent-shaped mark, followed by a dark mark, behind angle of jaws. Size moderate, total length reaching 28/8 inches; tail 19 to 26 per- cent of total length. Fig. 224. A Maicy gaiter snake, Thaitinophis m. viarcianus, X %. New York Zoological Society. Courtesy of the Recognition Characters. — The garter snakes (Thamnophis) may be distinguished from all other snakes in Kansas except Pitiiophis (which has an enlarged rostral and 4 prefrontals) and TropicJo- clonion (which has 6 supralabials ) by the combination of keeled scales and an entire anal. Most easily confused with it is the species Natrix grahamii (Natrix has a divided anal), Storeria (also with a divided anal) and T ropidoclonion; these are the only other striped snakes in the state. The species differs from others of the genus in the restriction of the lateral light stripe to the third scale row anteriorly; in all others it involves the fourth and second row also. Likewise characteristic, although not unique, is the absence of sharply defined, straight edges on the middorsal stripe, and the presence of a crescent-shaped mark back of the head on either side. Habits and Habitat. — This species occurs only in semiarid regions, but like other garter snakes frequents the margins of pools of water and of streams and rivers. The food probably consists of frogs, toads and fish, as well as some invertebrates. Little is known of the life history of this species. It, like other garter snakes, gives birth to living young; a litter of fourteen has been recorded. Litter size probably varies with size of mother. Smith: Snakes 291 Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are recognized. Tlic western one, Thamnophis mairianus nigrolateris Brown, occurs in Kansas. Its type locality is at Tucson, Arizona. References. — Cope, 1900: 1044-1046, fig. 289 (description); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 241-242 (description); Mittleman, 1949: 246-248. Common Garter Snake Thamnophis ordinatus (Linnaeus) Coluber ordinatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 379 (type locality — Charleston, South Carolina). Thamnophis ordinatus Klauber, Copeia, 1948, no. 1, p. 9. Range. — State-wide. Precise locality records are lacking for the entire northwestern third of the state, but records available from adjacent states reliably indicate occurrence throughout Kansas. Description. — Head somewhat flattened, distinctly wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2-4, usually 3, postoculars; 1 anterior and 1-3 posterior temporals; supralabials usually 7, occasionally 8; infralabials 9-11, usually 10; postgenials slightly longer than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled; scale rows 19 on anterior two-thirds of body, 17 immediately in front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 156-178, average 163, in males, and 150-169, average 161, in females; sub- caudals 76-95, average 83, in males, and 65-79, average 74, in females. Three light stripes on body, lateral stripes not always well de- fined, involving second and third rows, middorsal stripe involving one full and two half scale rows; two series of alternating spots on either side between the stripes; spots in upper series generally fused with each other and with the spots in lower row; spaces between these spots reddish; a series of similar dark spots below lateral light line, separated by light areas suffused in part with red; belly gray or greenish, throat and under side of tail lighter; a series of small spots sometimes evident near ends of ventrals; lips barred or not, the markings quite variable. Size moderate, total length reaching 45/2 inches; tail 20-32 per- cent of total length. Recognition Characters. — This is the only species of the genus Thamnophis (see discussion of T. marcianus for its distinctive char- acters) in Kansas which has the light lateral stripe involving the second scale row on the anterior part of the body; it is likewise the only one with the spots of the upper row fused with each other and with the spots of the adjacent row; and only one other species (rarely) has red in the dorsal coloration {T. radix, as an anomaly); ordinarily the presence of distinct red areas on the back can be 292 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Fig. 225. Distribution of the common garter snake, Thamnophis ordinotiis, in Kansas. relied upon as a criterion diagnostic of this species. If the specimen is emaciated, however, and the skin does not show between the scales, the red then may not be evident; the scales should be spread to determine the color of the skin if the red is not visible upon first glance. Preserved specimens tend to lose this color. Habits and Habitat. — This is one of the most ubiquitous snakes of the state. It does not appear to be confined in particular to '■^'^^^r Fig. 226. A common garter snake, Thamnophis ordinatiis parictiiUs, X %, Derby, Colo- rado. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd. Smith: Snakes 293 aquatic habitats, although it occurs there in perhaps greater abun- dance than elsewhere. It is the common garter snake in towns, where it may be foimd in vacant lots and overgrown yards. This, like other garter snakes, is a diurnal species seldom found at night, even under logs, stones or other cover where a person would expect to find it. Its temperament is like that of other garter snakes; that is to say, it is rather nervous and wary. Specimens bite when captured and void foul-smelling fluids from the anus; both reactions are inhibited in captivity. When startled, the snakes tend to flatten the body and spread the skin, thus exposing the red areas to full view. Certain other garter snakes have the same habit. Earthworms, tadpoles, frogs and toads make up the bulk of the food of this species. Presumably carrion fish, small mammals and birds, are sometimes eaten. Mating occurs in May in Maryland (in a different subspecies than that of Kansas), and 14-78 young measuring 6 to 8 inches in total length are born in August and September. Kansan Subspecies. — Eight subspecies are recognized at the present time, one of which, Thamnophis ordinaius parietalis (Sa\), occurs in Kansas. The type locaUty is the same as that for T. sauritus proximus. The other races occur throughout the United States and in southern Canada and extreme northern Mexico. This species has been referred to as T. sirtalis ( Linnaeus ) for much of the past forty years, although that name actualK- was based upon the ribbon snake. The name could be preserved for the present species by fiat decision of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, as indicated in the latest checklist for the United States (Schmidt, 1953, p. 174), but this has not been done. Less confusion results in retention of the name T. ordinatus, actually the first to have been applied to this species. That name has never been appHed commonly (if at all) to any other species, and has been of frequent usage in the past few years. References. — Conant, 1938: 102-107, and \fcCauley, 1945: 124-128 (natural history, Ohio and Maryland, respectively, of a related form, T. o. ordinatus, there called T. s. sir- talis); Hudson, 1942: 78-80, pi. 14, fig. 2 (description, variation, habits, Nebraska); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 253-255 (description, natural history). Plains Garter Snake Thamnophis radix (Baird and Girard) Eutacnia radix Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 34 (type localit\- — Chicago, Illinois). Thamnophis radix Jordan, Man. Vert. Anim. North. U. S., ed. 8, 1899, p. 193. Range. — State-wide. Uncommon or rare in eastern quarter of state, and not recorded in the '^ eastern corners, but records from adjacent states indicate that this species occurs in all parts of Kansas; abundance locally varies greatly. 294 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist, Fig. 227. Distribution of the plains garter snake, Thainnophis radix, in Kansas. Description. — Head somewhat flattened, distinctly wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2-4 post- oculars, generally 3; 1 anterior and 2-3 posterior temporals; supra- labials usually 7, sometimes 8; infralabials generally 9 or 10; post- genials slightly longer than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled; 19-21 scale rows on anterior two-thirds of body, 17-19 immediately in front of anus; anal plate single; subcaudals divided; ventrals 142- 176; subcaudals 73-87 in males, 56-75 in females. Ground color greenish gray to light olive; a distinct middorsal stripe, generally yellowish in color, involving one full and two half scale rows and with straight, sharply defined edges; lateral light stripes, generally well defined, on adjacent edges of third and fourth scale rows anteriorly (on third or second and third posteriorly); two alternating series of spots on each side between stripes, and another series below lateral stripe; lips barred with black; belly whitish, the extreme anterior edges of ventrals black but the color showing chiefly at the edges of the ventrals, where the black ex- pands somewhat to form a small black spot, and thus collectively a series of small black spots down each side of belly. Size moderate, total length reaching 36 inches; tail 20-26 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The genus Thamnophis in Kansas may be distinguished as indicated in the discussion of T. marcianus. From other members of the genus, T. radix may be distinguished most easily by the presence of the light lateral stripe upon the third and fourth rows anteriorly, combined with the presence of dark bars Smith: Snakes 295 on the lips or a tail less than twenty-seven percent of the total length. The only other species with the lateral light stripe involving the fourth scale row is T. sauritus, but in this the lips are not barred and the tail is 25-37 (rarely less than 27) percent of the total length. ^^V* '*^^ >.f *''^ t A-7S;$> Fig. 228. A plains garter snake, Thawnophis radix hayilcni, X Vs, from Scott County, Kansas. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd. Habits and Habitat. — This species is characteristic of the plains, where it is found most abundantly in marshy or swampy areas, along streams or other bodies of water. Snakes of this species do, however, wander far from water and may be found almost anywhere in fairly moist spots. They hibernate on land, in holes or ant hills several inches or feet below the surface of the ground. They are rather aggressive and usually attempt to bite upon capture; also they exude quantities of excreta and secretions from the postanal scent glands. After a time in captivity they become more docile, although never the dependable pets that some other kinds of snakes become. Plains garter snakes eat fairly readily in captivity, and may be fed upon earthworms, frogs and toads. These items form their 296 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. natural food. Insects, tadpoles, fish and other aquatic or subaquatic animals are eaten. Mating occurs in spring (April, May), and in late July through September litters of 13-40 young are born. At birth a young snake measures approximately 7 inches in total length, Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are currently recognized in the range of this species. Thamnophis radix haijdeni (Kennicott), with a type locaUty in Stanley County, South Dakota, is the subspecies occurring in Kansas. The other subspecies occurs to the east. References. — Hudson, 1942: 75-77, pi. 13, fig. 5 (description, habits, distribution, Ne- braska); Ruthven, 1908: 70-87 (variation, distribution); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 250- 251, fig. 80, pi. 26 (description, natural history); Smith (A. G.), 1949: 285-292 (variation, distribution ) . Ribbon Snake Thamnophis sauritus ( Linnaeus ) Coluber saurita Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 385 (type locality — • Charleston, South Carolina, by restr. ). Thamnophis saurita Stejneger, N. Amer. Fauna, no. 7, 1893, p. 210. Range. — State-wide, except perhaps the north- western corner. Not recorded north of Wallace, Graham and Washington (6 miles east of Haddam) counties. Scola lo wyilai I I Mgiawm of Notwat Hillorjr 1949 Fig. 229. Distribution of the ribbon snake, Thamnophis sauritus, in Kansas. Smith: Snakes 297 Description. — Head somewhat flattened, distinctly wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2-3, usually 3, preoculars; 1 anterior and 1-2 posterior temporals; supra- labials 8; infralabials 10; postgenials. slightly longer than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled; scale rows 19 on anterior two-thirds of hody, 17 immediately in front of anus; anal plate entire; suhcaudals di- vided; ventrals 150-179; suhcaudals 75-125. Dark gray or black above, whitish below; a middorsal and 2 lateral light stripes, all well defined and with sharply defined, straight borders; lateral light stripes placed upon third and fourth scale rows, at least anteriorly, posteriorly dropping to the second and third rows; no discernible spots between or below stripes; lips completely immaculate, white; lateral edges of ventrals black; a pair of small, elongate, white spots on either side of the suture between parietal plates on head. Size moderate, total length reaching 44 inches; tail 25-37 percent of total length; body relatively slender. Recognition Characters. — When recognized as a member of the genus Thamnophis (see discussion of T. marcianus), this species can easily be distinguished from others of the genus by the combi- FlG. 230. A ribbon snake, Thotnnophit sauritus firoximus, X '■;, K. U. no. 23688, l^i miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee Countv, Kansas. Photo bv Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh and T. P. Lyle. nation of immaculate lips and a light lateral stripe on the third and fourth scale rows anteriorly. Only T. radix among other Kansas species of garter snakes has the stripe situated on the same rows, but in it the upper lips are strongly barred. The absence of spots between the stripes, and the presence of the small light spots on the middle rear part of the head are also distinctive, but not unique. Habits and Habitat. — This species is more often confined to the immediate vicinity of more or less permanent bodies of water than 298 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. any other species of garter snake in the state. It is generally found along the shores of swamps, lakes and streams, especially where grass and other vegetation comes up to the water's edge. They are diurnal, like other garter snakes, and are frequently startled in grass as they search for food. They immediately retreat to the water, where they proceed to hide in vegetation or swim away. When captured they bite vigorously, and at the same time release the obnoxious secretions of the anal glands and excreta from the colon. Even after some time in captivity they remain somewhat nervous, although with careful treatment they refrain from use of their defense mechanisms. In captivity, they readily eat frogs, salamanders, small fish and probably small insects and earthworms. These items no doubt form their natural diet. Mating probably occurs in spring, as in most other snakes. In July and August 5-20 young ( less than in most other garter snakes ) measuring about QM inches in total length are born. Kansan Subspecies. — Four subspecies are recognized. The one which occurs in Kansas is Tliamnophis sauritus proximus (Say). Its type locality is a stone quarry on the west side of the Missouri River, 3 miles above the mouth of Boyer's River, Iowa. The other subspecies occur in the eastern United States and southward along the Atlantic Coast of Mexico and Central America to Costa Rica. References. — Conant, 1938: 99-102, and McCauley, 1945: 121-124 (habits and natural history of a related form, T. s. sauritus, in Ohio and Maryland, respectively); Hudson, 1942: 77-78, pi. 14, fig. 1 (description, habits, Nebraska); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 256-257, fig. 82, pi. 28 (description, natural history). Genus Tropidoclonion Cope Lined Snake Tropidoclonion lineatum (Hallowell) Microps lineatus Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1856, p. 241 (type locality — Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, by rest.). Tropidoclonion lineatum Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 76. Range. — All except the western border of the state. Recorded as far west as Rawlins (2 miles east of Atwood), Logan, Scott, Sedgwick (Wichita) and Cowley (4 miles southeast of Arkansas City) counties. Description. — Head little flattened, pointed, no wider than neck, narrower than body which tapers anteriorly; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2 postoculars; 1 anterior and 2 Smith: Snakes 299 posterior temporals; usually 5, sometimes 6 supralabials; infra- labials 6 or sometimes 7; postgenials about half size of pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled except those in outer 1 or 2 rows on either side; scale rows in 17 rows on anterior one-third of body, 17 to 19 rows at middle of body, and 15-17 rows immediately in front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 138-146; subcaudals 29-45. Ground color varying from dark to light gray; a poorly defined, light gray middorsal light stripe and a similar lateral stripe on either side involving the second and third scale rows; on a light lui«gm of Nolurol Hi|tof)r Un>«*rst1y of KOnSOS 1945 Fig. 231. Distribution of the lined snakes, Tropidoclonion Uncatum, in Kansas. The range of T. I. lineatum is indicated by the crosshatched area, that of T. 1. annectens by the single set of lines. ground color small black spots are evident bordering the light lines; belly whitish, with two rows (nearer midline than edges of ven- trals) of rounded, well-defined, black spots, a pair of spots on each ventral. Size small, total length reaching 20 inches; tail about 13 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — The two rows of black spots down the middle of an otherwise unmarked belly is absolutely distinctive of this species in Kansas. Other species of snakes have rows of spots nearer the sides of the bellv than its middle, but none has them so distinct and near the middle of the belly as does this species. It most closely resembles Natrix grahamii, which has a divided anal 300 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. (entire in Tropidoclonion) . Garter and ribbon snakes are super- ficially similar, but the former have seven or more supralabials. Habits and Habitat. — These snakes are not infrequently found emerging in the day from hiding places under stones, logs, rock fences and other cover on the surface of the ground. They have been taken as late as early November in Kansas, when they took advantage of late warm spells to emerge from hibernation in a stone fence. Whether they are normally nocturnal or diurnal is un- known; they are said to forage at night, although they have been found moving about in the daytime. The food consists almost en- tirely of earthworms. Fig. 232. Lined snake, Tropidoclonion 1. lineatum. Lower left, X 1, Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society. Upper right, view of undersurface, midway between head and anus, from St. Louis, Missouri, X 1, by courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright. The snakes seldom if ever attempt to bite, but do thrash about and void copious anal excretions and secretions, much like their larger relatives, the garter snakes and water snakes. The young are born in August in litters of 2-12 (usually 7 or 8). Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies have been defined in the range of this species. Two occur in Kansas: T. I. lineafinn, usually with less than 144 ven- trals in females, 143 in males; and T. I. annectens Ramsey (type locality Tulsa, Oklahoma), usually with more numerous ventrals in both sexes. References. — Hudson, 1942: 80-81, pi. 14, fig. 3 (description, distribution, Nebraska); Ramsey, 1947: 15-18 (interesting account of the feeding habits); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 257-259, fig. 83, pi. 29 (description, natural history); Ramsey, 1953: 7-24, figs. 1-4 (tax- onomy, geographic and structural variation, range maps, locality records). Smith: Snakes 301 The Pit Vipers FAMILY CROTALIDAE This family includes only those snakes provided with a facial pit between the eye and nostril. The pit functions as a detector of slight differences in temperature, so that the possessors of the organ can discern the presence of warm-blooded animals without seeing them. Since most species of these snakes hunt at night, and feed mostly upon small warm-blooded animals such as mice and birds, the ad- vantage of such an organ is obvious. The rattlesnakes, cottonmouths and copperheads belong to this family; they are the only representatives in the United States. Many other kinds occur in other parts of the world. The only other poisonous snakes in the United States are the coral snakes, which belong to the very different family Elapidae. They do not occur in Kansas. The rattlesnakes are the most striking members of the family Crotalidae. They comprise a group occurring in the Western Hemisphere from Southern Canada to Brazil. They are not known in the Old World. The rattle is a structure composed of a number of loosely jointed, horny segments which, when vibrated against each other produce a peculiar, characteristic sound. The snake when born has only a simple, blunt, "pre-button" at the end of the tail. When the skin is shed for the first time a few hours later, the rest of the first segment, or "button," of the rattle is formed. Thereafter the snake adds a new segment to the rattle each time it sheds. Shedding occurs two to four times a year, and accordingly the saying that a rattlesnake adds a rattle each year is a myth. The approximate age can be estimated, if the button is present, by dividing the total number of segments by three, which represents the average number of times per year a snake sheds its skin. Generally the series is incomplete, for the terminal rattles wear away until they drop off. A string of nine rattles is unusual, yet at least some rattlesnakes are known to live twenty or twenty-five years. Obviously the rattles wear away much too rapidly to permit age estimation by this method except for very young snakes. Two genera of rattlesnakes are known. They differ chiefly in the size of the scales on top of the head: Sistrurus has large scales, Crotahis small ones. Both genera occur in Kansas. All members of the family Crotalidae are deadly poisonous; all .302 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. significantly poisonons snakes of Kansas belong to this family. They are provided with a pair of large, movable fangs (modified teeth) in the front of the mouth. When the month is closed the fangs are folded back against the roof of the mouth, but when the snake opens the mouth to bite or strike, the fangs may be rotated downward at will so that they project more or less straight down- ward. As the fangs penetrate, muscles contract about the poison glands at the rear of the head, forcing the venom through a duct leading to the fangs and finally through the fangs themselves into the bitten object. The fangs are hollow, much like a hypodermic needle, and have a fine opening at the free tip through which the poison passes to the exterior. The poison of most members of this family affects the blood and any cells with which it comes into contact. Normally it is injected into spaces between the cells, and is slowly swept along in the lymphatic system toward the heart. As it is carried along it breaks down many cells, especially those of vessel walls, and thus contributes to the accumulation of a great deal of lymphatic ooze. Thus it is that considerable swelling occurs at the site of the bite of one of these snakes, and that the swelling accompanies the venom as it moves toward the heart. The venom breaks down the red blood cells as well as other cells, of course, and if death ensues it is brought about chiefly by the loss of too many red blood cells and resultant asphyxiation through the lack of the oxygen which these cells normally carry to the body tissues. If, by chance, the venom is injected directly into the big vessels of the blood circulatory system, it comes into immediate contact with many red blood cells; these are broken down rapidly and death may follow in a few minutes. The action is greatly slowed if the venom is injected into the spaces between the cells and is carried into the blood circulation by the slow movement of lymph. Fortunately, this is the way the venom is most often received. It is obvious that any procedure slowing the rate of entrance of the venom into the blood circulatory system is so much to the good. For this reason loose tourniquets are applied, when possible, near the site of the bite — between it and the heart. As the swelling advances, the tourniquet should be advanced also, always a little ahead of the swelling. Much pain and serious difficulties would be avoided if the victim of a bite would immediotely — with the loss of not a fraction of a second — cut with a sharp knife or razor at the site of the bite, as Smith: Snakes 303 deeply as the fangs penetrated, and then suck out all the blood, lymph and venom that can be extracted. The second or two after the bite is the most critical in the victim's chance for recovery; immediate suction may at once remove as much as seventy-five percent of the venom before it has a chance to diffuse in the tissues. Swift action may mean the difference between life and death, and certainly will reduce very greatly the hazards and pain in the victim's recovery. Care should be taken, of course, to avoid cutting large blood vessels. If one is cut the flow should be lessened as much as possible and the suction applied to one side of the spot. First aid to the extent described should be in the mind of every one who is exposed to possible snake bite. Ordinarily the treatment just outlined is sufficient until the time when a doctor is reached. The steps to be followed have been summarized by Gloyd (1938: 9, 11) much as follows: 1. "Sterilize the skin over the area of the bite and with a sharp knife or razor blade, also sterilized, make cross cuts over each fang mark at least a quarter of an inch deep. Any standard antiseptic, such as iodine or mercurochrome, mav be used for sterilization. If an antiseptic is not available, use the flame from a match. 2. "Do not run or do anything that will speed up circulation; do not use whisky or other forms of alcohol internally. 3. "Apply a tourniquet between the bite and the heart. Do not tie it too tight. Soft rubber tubing, such as that furnished with the various snake bite kits, makes the best tourniquet but a shoe string, handkerchief, or necktie will do. 4. "Apply suction to the incision. If the small rubber bulbs sup- plied with the kits for this purpose are not available, the mouth may be used. There is no danger if there are no cuts or sores in the mouth or on the lips. The venom must get into the blood stream to cause harm. 5. "Continue the suction, loosening the tourniquet every ten minutes for a few seconds. As swelling progresses the tourniquet should be moved and kept just above it, and just tight enough to retard, but not obstruct, the flow of blood in the veins. Great harm may result if it is too tight. It should be loose enough to allow a finger to be slipped under it easily. 6. "Get to a doctor or hospital as quickly as possible. Mean- while continue suction. 7. "If antivenin is available, after about an hour of suction, inject five ampouls (50 cc. ) directly into the bite and the sur- 304 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. rounding areas. An amount smaller than this, according to Doctor Jackson, is of no practical value. 8. "If antivenin has been given as above, wait one hour before resuming suction; otherwise continue the active suction treatment. "By this time you should have reached a physician. If not, continue suction for at least fifteen hours. "It should be strongly emphasized that a snake bitten person should be taken to a physician or hospital at once, if possible. Only a physician is qualified to meet emergencies that may arise during treatment." It is perhaps worth emphasis that the bite of a copperhead or pigmy rattlesnake is not by any means as serious as that of the other pit vipers of the state. There is little chance that an untreated bite of either of these snakes would result fatally; only small chil- dren and persons in poor health would be in danger of losing their lives. If the simple first-aid directions are followed, virtually all chance of fatal results are eliminated. Such is not the case for the true rattlesnakes (Crotalus) nor for the cottonmouth. The bile of either of these can only be considered highly dangerous; only proper treatment will lessen the danger. Genus Ancistrodon Beauvois Copperhead Ancistrodon contortrix (Linnaeus) Boa contortrix Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 273 (type localit>- — Charleston, South Carolina). Agkistrodon contortrix Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Kept., 1853, p. 17. Range. — Eastern third of state. Recorded from as far west as Marshall (Irving), Riley (Manhattan), Geary (Ft. Riley), Lyon (1/2 miles northwest of Reading), Greenwood (Hamilton), and Cowley ( 1 mile south of Winfield) counties. Description. — Head somewhat flattened, considerably wider than neck; nine large plates on top of head, in general as in most colubrid snakes ( see Fig. 150 ) ; a large pit on side of head between nostril at tip of snout and eye; one loreal above pit; several preoculars, sub- oculars and postoculars, all forming a continuous series bordering ey-^ except above, where the supraocular plate lies; several rows of temporals; supralabials 6-10, usually 8; infralabials 8-12, usually 10; postgenials absent. Dorsal scales keeled; 25 scale rows on an- terior part of body, 23 at middle of body, ust.ally 21 immediately in front of anus; anal plate and most subcaudals (all except a few at tip of tail) undivided; ventrals 140-157, average 148; subcaudals 37-54, average about 45, in both sexes. Smith: Snakes 305 Ground color various hues of brown, from light yellow-brown to dark gray-browii and bright red-brown; a series of 10-20 light-edged crossbands on body, each about one-half as wide at middle of body as at sides; ventrals whitish, mottled with dark brown, the most conspicuous markings of which are small spots coinciding with and alternating with the dorsal bands, and therefore twice as numerous as the dorsal bands; a narrow black line from eye to angle of jaws, fading into ground color above, sharply differentiated from clear yellowish lips below; a pair of black dots usually visible on middle of rear part of head, in the parietal plates. Tip of tail yellow in the young. Size moderately large, the total length reaching a recorded maxi- mum of 53 inches; tail 12-15 percent of total length. Sccit .« C K •cMilfl I i 11 Muiaum e( Natural »tttatj Uftlwtrtllr et KansOB I94J Fig. 233. Distribution of the copperhead, Ancistrodon contortrix, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. The range of Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson in the eastern part of the state is indicated by the lined area, and that of Ancistrodon contortrix laticinctus by the stippled area. Recognition Characters. — Members of the genus Ancistrodon are easily recognized by the combination in them of nine large plates on top of the head (as in most colubrid snakes), no rattle, and a deep pit on side of head. Of other Kansas snakes, only rattlesnakes have the facial pit, but in them the rattle is present. The cottonmouth and copperhead, the only members of the genus Ancistrodon in Kansas, are best distinguished by the presence of a loreal in A. contortrix and its absence in A. piscivorus. In the latter species, the large upper preocular is in contact with the nasal plate, whereas in A. contortrix these two plates are separated from each 306 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. other by the loreal. A. piscivorus almost always has twenty-five scale rows, and A. contortrix twenty-three scale rows, but there is some variation in this character and thus some specimens would be erroneously identified by use of it. There are certain diflFerences in pattern but they are so vague that no reliance should be placed upon them. Habits and Habitat. — This species is found in wooded areas, gen- erally on hillsides where rock is exposed. The snake is partial to the more moist eastern part of the state, avoiding the drier western portions. Extremely heavy woods are not inhabited, for there is insufficient penetration of the sun between the trees to warm the Fig. 234. Copperheads, Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson, X Vs, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. snakes in spring and fall. Except in spring and fall, however, when the snakes emerge for the warmth of the sun's rays, they are ex- clusively nocturnal. They have been found rather frequently near streams at night. The food consists chiefly of mice, with occasional birds, and even large insects and larvae of insects. Larger prey is struck and re- leased, and sought after its death, by use of the tongue and the heat-detecting organ, the pit. Smaller prey is held in the mouth un- til the poison of the venom has killed it. Items which do not need Smith: Snakes 307 to be quieted before being swallowed are eaten without delay and without the use of the venom apparatus, except as the fangs are manipulated to help in the swallowing process. Most large items are swallowed head first. All these snakes hibernate but choose relatively few dens for hi- bernation. Therefore, in spring, as they emerge from hibernation, they are concentrated in considerable numbers, and can easily be captured or killed. Later they disperse, or else emerge only at night, and can be found less readily. Throughout the year, however, some can be expected under stones and logs near the hibernation quarters. These snakes appear not to wander so far from their winter quarters as do at least some rattlesnakes. Fig. 235. A copperhead, Ancistrodon contortrix laticinctus. approx. X M, Boerne, Kendall County, Texas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd. These are fairly sluggish snakes, seldom attempting to bite unless unduly provoked. The venom is less powerful than that of rattle- snakes, and even that of large specimens is rarely if ever fatal to full-grown persons unless they are in poor health or are in their old age. To small children the venom has been known to be fatal. Seri- ous secondary infections seldom occur after copperhead bites, al- though they almost always accompany those from rattlesnakes. If permanent damage ever results, almost invariably infections, not venom, are the cause. Two to ten young measuring about 8/2 inches in total length are born in August and September, Mating occurs in April and May. Kansan Subspecies. — Two races occur in Kansas: Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson (Daudin), and Ancistrodon contortrix laticinctus Gloyd and Conant. The type locality of the former is Philadelphia, Penns>lvania, and that of the latter is 26 miles northwest of San Antonio, Texas. Two other races are known. 308 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Gloyd and Conant distinguish the two races occurring in Kansas as follows: In A. c. mokeson, "dorsal markings of body in the form of dark transverse 'dumb-bells' or 'hourglasses,' considerably narrower on the middorsuni than on the sides, and rounded off at the ends, not continuous with the dark markings of the belly." In A. c. laticincius, "dorsal markings consisting of broad, dark cross- bands, not much narrower on the middorsum than on the sides of the belly, and continuous with the dark markings of the belly." Only in Cowley County, in Kansas, do specimens resemble the latter subspecies. The variation occurring in that area indicates that this is an area of intermediacy ( intergradation ) be- tween the two subspecies. The most recent monographers (Gloyd and Conant) are followed in allocation of the Cowley County specimens. References. — Conant, 1938: 107-112, pi. 14, fig. 1 (description, natural history, Ohio); Gloyd and Conant, 1943: 150-153, 156, figs. 1, 3, 7, 9 (description, taxonomy, range); Mc- Cauley, 1945: 128-135, fig. 34 (description, natural history, Maryland); Gloyd, 1934: 587- 604, figs. 1-2, pis. 1-3 (breeding habits, young). Cottonmouth Ancistrodon piscivorus (Lacepede) Crotalus piscivorus Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Serpens, vol. 2, 1789, p. 130 (type locality- — Charleston, South Carolina). Agkistrodon piscivorus Stejneger, Ann. Kept. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1893, p. 406. Range. — Barely enters southeastern part of state; recorded only from the Neosho River at Chetopa, Labette County. MuKum o( Nalurol Hiitofy Univflriity of Koniai Fig. 236. Distribution of the cottonmouth, Ancistrodon piscivorus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Description. — Head somewhat flattened, considerably wider than neck; nine large plates on top of head, much as in most colubrid snakes (see Fig. 150); a large pit on side of head between nostril at tip of snout and eye; 2 large preoculars, the upper in contact with Smith: Snakes 309 nasal scale; no loreal; 3 postoculars; several rows of temporals; supralabials 6-11, generally 8; infralabials 8-13, generally 11; post- genials small or absent. Dorsal scales keeled; generally 27 scale rows on anterior part of body, 25 at middle of body, and 23 imme- diately in front of anus; anal plate and subcaudals entire, except for a few at tip of tail; ventrals 130-142, average 134; subcaudals 37-49, average 43. Young specimens with a light gray-brown ground color; 10-16 crossbands on body, much as in copperheads, narrower medially than at sides; each band usually with a somewhat lighter, trans- verse, central area; belly whitish, becoming black toward anus; under side of tail black. In adults all the dorsal markings become dim as the ground color darkens, so that in large specimens there is usually little or no evidence of the transverse bands. Young speci- mens with well-defined markings look extraordinarily like copper- heads. Tip of tail yellow or greenish yellow in the young. Size large, the body heavy and the head large, maximum recorded total length 58/2 inches; tail about 14 percent of total length. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of the copperhead. Habits and Habitat. — This is an almost completely aquatic snake; it is seldom found more than a few hundred feet from water, and usually in the water. It frequents permanent streams in this state. Fig. 237. A cottonmouth, Ancistrodon piscivorus leucostomus, X Vs, Miller County, Missouri. Photo by H. K. Gloyd. but in parts of its range elsewhere it is found in swamps, marshes, lakes and other permanent bodies of water. The snakes are es- sentially nocturnal, but emerge from their hiding quarters in the 310 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. daytime to bask in the sun, outstretched on the Hmbs of trees, on objects floating in the water, and on promontories at the edge of the water. In general their actions are much hke those of the water snakes (Natrix) with which the cottonmouth will be forever con- fused by those who are not well acquainted with both animals. Unlike the copperhead, cottonmouths are pugnacious; their powerful jaws, long fangs, vicious disposition and potent venom make them a very dangerous animal. The venom is much more powerful than that of the copperhead, and is more nearly compa- rable to that of the rattlesnake. Any bite from this species is to be considered highly dangerous to life. The food normally consists of both cold-blooded and warm- blooded vertebrates; frogs, fishes, turtles, small mammals and birds are eaten. When annoyed these snakes have the habit of drawing the head backward quickly and flicking the jaws wide open, flashing into view the white interior of the mouth. The tail is vibrated as in the copperhead, sometimes producing a sound much like the rattle of a rattlesnake. Mating occurs in March or April. Males at this and other times indulge in a curious combat. They entwine their bodies and lift the anterior parts straight out of the water several times in succes- sion. The young are born in August and September, in litters of five to fifteen, averaging eight. The young measure approximately ten inches in length when born. Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are known, one of which, Ancistrodon piscivorus leucostomtis (Troost), occurs in Kansas. The type locality is 10 miles northeast of Bolivar, Hardeman County, Tennessee. The other subspecies occurs in the extreme southeastern United States. References. — Gloyd and Conant, 1943: 164-165, figs. 5, 13, 15 (description, taxonomy); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 285-287, fig. 94, pi. 30 (description, natural history). Pigmy Rattlesnakes Genus Sistruriis Carman Massasauga Sistrurus catenatus (Rafinesque) Crotalinus catenatus Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag. Crit. Rev., vol. 4, 1812, p. 41 (type locality — Kansas Citj', Missouri). Sistrurus catenatus Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoiil., vol. 8, 1883, p. 118, 176, pi. 9, fig. 2. Range. — Throughout state except northwestern quarter; recorded from as far west as Ford, Russell (5 miles north and 2 miles east of Smith: Snakes 311 Gorham), Osborne and Smith (12 miles north of Downs; not mapped) counties. Description. — A horny rattle or button at end of tail; 9 large plates on top of head, including 2 large plates (parietals) back of eye level, a plate on top of each eye, 1 between the eyes, and 4 in front of eye level; a large pit on each side of head between nostril and eye; on under side of tail most scales entire, not split in the middle; anal scale entire. Dorsal scales usually in 25 rows at middle of body and 19 on posterior part, rather strongly keeled except those in 1 or 2 outermost rows. Ground color gray-brown; a series of 21 to 50 large, squarish or rectangular dark blotches, usually with fine white borders, on back (excluding tail); blotches about twice as large as spaces between Scolt I.I I I MwltHin ol NQIurql MItnrf IMS Fig. 238. Distribution of the massasauga, Sistrurus catenatus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. The range of S. c. catenatus is indicated by the lined area, that of S. c. tergeminus by the stippled area. them; belly dark and heavily blotched, or light with numerous, irregular dark blotches. Usually about two feet long, occasionally slightly exceeding three feet. Recognition Characters. — No other species of snake definitely known in Kansas has the combination of a rattle on the end of the tail and large plates on top of the head. The western subspecies of ground rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliaritis streckeri), which may occur in extreme southeastern Kansas, has this combination, but may be distinguished by the reduction of the scale rows to seventeen on the posterior part of the body and the small size of the dorsal blotches ( about half as long as the spaces occurring between them ) . 312 University of Kansas Publs,, Mus. Nat. Hist. ^^^F.||B^"^ ^^!?J?^!^^ Fig. 239. A massasauga, Sistrtirus catenatus tergeminus, X V2, Ellsworth, Ellsworth County, Kansas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd. . 1. ' /• 'i« >^ , ^L J- , j' "... - ■* '^^?! '■^'J^^ :;^^^' Fig. 240. A massasauga, Sistrurns c. catenatus, X Vz- Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society. Smith: Snakes 313 Habits and Habitat. — Characteristically found in swampy places except in summer when they may move into drier situations. Small terrestrial mammals such as mice form most of the food of these snakes. Frogs are sometimes eaten. They are said to swallow the frogs immediately, while the mice are struck and allowed to die in advance. Young are born in August and September. They number up to 12 and average 8 or 9 per litter. At birth they measure 8 to 9^2 inches. In temperament these snakes are more docile than most other rattlesnakes. They will strike when sufficiently annoyed, however, and the venom is known to be extremely toxic although only two deaths of human beings, caused by the bite of this species, have been recorded. Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies occur in Kansas: The Eastern Massa- sauga, Sistrurus catenatus catenatus (Rafinesque), and the Western Massa- sauga, Sistrurus catenatus tergeminus (Say), with type locaHty at Winfield, Cowley County, Kansas. No other subspecies are recognized anywhere in the entire range of the species. The first-mentioned occurs as far west as Franklin ( Ottawa ) and Anderson ( Garnett ) counties, and as far south as Allen County (4 miles west of Moran). Westward and southward of these localities S. c. tergeminus occurs. The type locality of the latter is not known. The two subspecies differ as follows: catenatus tergeminus 1. Belly dark. 1. Belly relatively Hght. 2. Ventrals average 137 (range 129- 2. Ventrals average 147 (range 140- 150) in males, 142 (range 136-151) 154) in males, 152 (range 148- in females. 158) in females. 3. Dorsal blotches usually fewer than 3. Dorsal blotches usually more than 36, average 32 (range 21-40) in 36, average 38 (range 28-45) in males, 33 (range 24-39) in fe- males, 40 (range 30-50) in fe- males males. Reference. — Gloyd, 1940: 36-55, maps 1-2, pis. 2-3 (complete description, locality rec- ords, range, variation ) . True Rattlesnakes Genus Crotalus Linnaeus Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake Crotalus atrox Baird and Girard Crotalus atrox Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Anier. Rept., 1853, p. 5 (type locality — Indianola, Calhoun County, Texas). Range. — Extreme southern Kansas. Recorded definitely only from a locality six miles west of Pittsburg, Crawford County, and one mile north of Weir, Cherokee County, Kansas. Residents of Rarber, Clark and Comanche counties report its occurrence in that 314 University of Kansas Publs., Mus, Nat. Hist, region, and specimens have been taken immediately south of that area near Freedom, Woods County, Okhihoma. Description. — A horny button or rattle at end of tail; scales on top of head numerous, small; deep pit on each side of head between eye and nostril; ventrals 170 to 196; caudals 16 to 31, for the most part undivided; anal plate entire; dorsal scales in 25 or 27 rows at middle of body, rather strongly keeled except those in the 1 or 2 outermost rows. I ...; L.„L:^^Ss^..._L >...._.L Museum of Nolurol History UoivirtKy of KOOSOE 1S45 Fig. 241. Distribution of the western diamond-backed rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. Ground color gray, gray-brown, or buff; 25 to 45 rhomboidal or diamond-shaped blotches on body (excluding tail); blotches light- edged and sometimes with a dark border inside the light line; tail with prominent, alternating white and black rings, all sharply con- trasting with color of body; a light diagonal stripe back of eye, and sometimes another in front of eye. Frequently up to about 4/2 feet in total length, sometimes ex- ceeding 7 feet. Recognition Characters. — There are three species of snakes in Kansas which possess the combination of small scales on the head and a rattle on the tail. This species can be distinguished from the other two by the combination of rhombic blotches and a tail marked with white and black rings. The prairie rattlesnake has somewhat Smith: Snakes 315 Fig. 242. .\ western diamond-backed rattlesnake, Crotahis atrox, X %, Cache, Oklahoma. Photo by H. K. Gloyd. similar blotches, but its tail is marked much like the rear part of its body, and the pattern of the tail thus does not contrast sharply with the pattern of the body. The timber rattlesnake has chevron-shaped blotches at least on the forepart of the body, 23 scale rows at the middle of the body (the others have 25 or 27) and the tail is black in most adults (ringed in the young). Habits and Habitat. — This species prefers relatively dry plains, canyons and hills, where vegetation is sparse or low. The food consists chiefly of small terrestrial mammals such as rats, mice, and small rabbits. Birds are eaten occasionally. Mating occurs in early spring, and the young are born in the fall or late summer. Litters may include as many as twenty, but usually number around ten. At birth the young measure about a foot in length. Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies are recognized at the present time anywhere in the range of this species. Reference. — Gloyd, 1940: 204-206, map 16, pi. 20, fig. 2 (range, diagnosis, synonymy). 316 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Timber Rattlesnake Crotalus horridus Linnaeus Crotahts horridus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 214 (type locality — New York, New York). Range. — Northeastern sixth of state, and extreme eastern border southward to Oklahoma; recorded as far west as Elk (3 miles east Fig. 243. Distribution of the timber rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus, in Kansas, with insert showing range of the species. of Elk Falls), Bourbon (Xenia), Anderson, Linn (Mound City), Frankhn (Ottawa), Osage (5 miles northeast of Carbondale), Wabaunsee, Geary (15 miles southeast of Junction City), Riley (Manhattan), and Marshall (Irving) counties. Description. — Horny button or rattle at end of tail; scales on top of head numerous, small; deep pit on each side of head between eye and nostril; ventrals 158 to 177, caudals 17 to 25, scale rows at middle of body 23, in subspecies occurring in Kansas; caudals mostly undivided; anal plate entire; dorsal scales rather strongly keeled except those in outer rows. Ground color variable, light to dark gray; 18 to 33 dark blotches on body (excluding tail); blotches in the form of narrow, angular crossbands at least on forepart of body; tail usually black in adults and subadults, no alternating dark and light rings clearly evident. Smith: Snakes 31' Commonly reaches length of 3/2 feet; maximum recorded length 6 feet 2 inches. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of the western diamond- backed rattlesnake. •. ^ Fig. 244. A timber rattlesnake, Crotahis h. horridus, X Vs, 7 miles southeast of Ottawa, Franklin County, Kansas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd. Habits and Habitat. — This species is usually found, at least in Kansas, in wooded hills where there is a limestone outcrop. In summer they probably wander away from the hills into adjacent open valleys and plains, but no observations on their activity at different times of the year have been recorded. The food consists chiefly of small mammals. An analysis of 141 Virginia snakes reveals that 38 percent contained mice, 18 percent rabbits, 5 percent shrews, and 13 percent birds. Kansan Subspecies. — Only one, Crotahis horridus horridus Linnaeus, occurs in the state. Only one other subspecies is recognized; it occurs in the southern half of the eastern United States and is known as the Canebrake rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus atricaudatus Latreille). Reference. — Gloyd, 1940: 168-184, map 12, pi. 12, fig. 2, pi. 13, fig. 1 (synonymy, de- scription, distribution, locality records, variation, phylogeny). 31S University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Prairie Rattlesnake Crotalus viridis (Rafinesque) Crotolinus viridis Rafinesque, Anier. Month. Mag. and Crit. Rev., vol. 4, p. 41 ftjpe locality — Pierre, South Dakota). Crotalus viridis Klauber, Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 8, 1936, pp. 194, 241, figs. 50, .52, 68, 85. Range. — State-wide e.xcept in northeastern quarter of state. Re- corded from as far east as Crawford County (Pittsburg) and Riley County (Manhattan). Rare east of Republic and Barber counties. Score to aoMiltt I I Muaaum of Noiuro' Hittory Univiriltf o( Kontdt 1945 Fig. 24.5. Distribution of the prairie rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis, in Kansas, with insert show- ing range of the species. Description. — A horny button or rattle at end of tail; scales on top of head numerous, small; deep pit on each side of head between eye and nostril; ventrals 164 to 196; caudals 14 to 31, mostly un- divided; anal plate entire; dorsal scales in 25 or 27 rows at middle of body, rather strongly keeled except the outer rows. Ground color greenish gray or greenish brown; 33 to 55 oval, usually white-edged, dark blotches on body (excluding tail); pos- terior blotches becoming crossbands; ground color of tail like that of body; rings on tail similar in color to those on rear part of body, gradually becoming darker toward tip, so that the last 1 or 2 may be black; sides of head dark, with two diagonal white lines; 1 or 2 fine Smith: Snakes 319 transverse white lines on each side of top of the head, over the eyes. Commonly reaches a total length of three feet, and has been re- corded up to five feet. Recognition Characters. — See discussion of the western diamond- backed rattlesnake. Fig. 246. A prairie rattlesnake, Crotalus v. viridis, X Vs. Courtesy of the New York Zoo- logical Society. Habits and Habitat. — Commonly found in prairies, prairie can- yons, and other grasslands. Overwinters in underground cavities, as in rocky hills, caves, and large holes. The species is said to be active mostly in the daytime. The food consists primarily of small mammals such as rats, mice, gophers and young prairie dogs. Litters of young are born every other year ( for any one female ) ; and the number per litter varies from 4 to 21, and averages 12. Kansan Subspecies. — Only one, Crotalus viridis viridis (Rafinesque), occurs in the state. Seven other subspecies are commonly recognized from the Rockies westward. Reference. — Gloyd, 1940: 212-213, map 17, pi. 22 (range, diagnosis, synonymy). 320 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Species and Subspecies of Probable But Unverified Occurrence The following list includes kinds of reptiles and amphibians which have not yet been certainly recorded from Kansas but the occurrence of which in Kansas is indicated by the distributional data from adjoining areas. Probably still other kinds exist within the state. Nevertheless, the list may include most of the kinds which remain to be found and can serve as a guide to the areas in which it will be most profitable to look for them. MARBLED SALAMANDER Amhtjstoma opacum ( Gravenhorst ) The marbled salamander probably occurs in extreme southeastern Kansas. It is a terrestrial species which is widely distributed in the eastern and southern United States. Fig. 247. A marbled salamander, Amhystoma opacum. approx. X 1, 5 miles south of Church Creek, Dorchester County, Maryland. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Phila- delphia. OZARK BLIND SALAMANDER Typhlotriton spelaeus Stejneger This species is known from southwestern Missouri, northwestern Arkansas and northeastern Oklahoma. If a suitable habitat occurs in extreme south- eastern Kansas — a cave with constantly running water — this species almost certainly will be found in it. See Fig. 23a. HAMMOND SPADEFOOT Spea hammondii ( Baird ) The Hammond Spadefoot has been recorded from two northern counties in Oklahoma (Woods and Cimarron). If these records are correct the species probably occurs also in Kansas, in adjacent areas. Smith: Unverified Inhabitants 321 HURTER SPADEFOOT Scaphiopus hiirterii Strecker The Hurter Spadefoot has been recorded from northern Oklahoma in Osage and Cimarron counties, and ahnost certainly occurs in Kansas along the Arkansas and Cimarron rivers. WOOD FROG liana sijlcatica sylvdtica Le Conte Probably the Wood Frog is a resident ot extreme southeastern Kansas. It has been recorded from Washington County in northwestern Arkansas and Stone Coimtv in southwestern Missouri. Fio. 248. .\ wood frog. Rana s. stilvaiica, X lU. Courtes\- of the New York Zoological Society. COMMON MUD TURTLE Kinostemon suhrubnim hippocrepis Gray The record of this species from Kansas City, Missouri (Anderson, 1942, p. 211), and other records for northeastern Oklalioma and southwestern Mis- souri, indicate a strong probability that K. .sul)rubrum occurs in extreme eastern Kansas. Specimens may easily be confused with Sternotherus odomtus, which has similar markings on the sides of the head. The size of the plastron differs markedly, however, as in other species of the two genera. MANY-LINED SKINK Eumeces multivirgatti.s (Hallowell) No authentic records of this species in Kansas are known. Taylor ( 1935:351 ) cites three unacceptable records, for Woodson (Cragin, 1881), Anderson (Burt, 11—9019 322 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. ;1 \ ! I ,%•••. <; ^^ Fig. 249. Many-lined skinks, Eximeces inuUivirgatus. A. Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico, X l*/i. B. Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, X IVz. C, D, E, Weld County, Colo- rado, X 1. From Smith (1946). Photos by E. H. Taylor. Smith: Unverified Inhabitants 323 1928) and Labette (Burt, 1928) counties. These are unquestionably incorrect, through either niis!dentification or erroneous locaHty data. Well authenticated records an- from northern, central and western Nebraska and eastern Wyoming southward through Colorado and New Mexico; the species accordingly possibly occurs in northwestern Kansas, although the preferred habitat (arid high plains) of the species does not enter the state. The eastern limit of range of the species seems closely to correspond with that of Fhrijnnsoma doufijassii (see p. 184; Richard B. Loomis, personal communication). BLANDING TURTLE Emt/s blandingii (Holbrook) The Blanding Turtle should be looked for in tributaries of the Missouri and Kansas (Kaw) rivers in north-central and northeastern Kansas. In Nebraska it has been recorded from as far south as Kearney in Buffalo County. I'^A Tig. 250. Blanding turtles, Ennjs blandingii, X Vs. Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society. FOX SNAKE Elaphe cidpina vulpina ( Baird and Girard) The Fox Snake probabh- occurs in northeastern Kansas. It is known throughout eastern Nebraska, and from as near Kansas as Nemaha County, Nebraska. Cragin believed that he had collected the species in Kansas, but no identifiable material was preserved (Branson, 1904:390). 324 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. BASIN GARTER SNAKE TlumntopJiis cJcgans vagrans (Baird and Girard) This garter snake probably occurs in extreme western Kansas. It has been recorded from northwestern Nebraska ( Sioux Co. ) and northwestern Okla- homa (Cimarron Co.). It should be looked tor in Kansas along streams such as the Cimarron, Arkansas, Smoky Hill and Republican rivers, all of which head in Colorado and New Mexico. Cragin notes a specimen from "Kansas" in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and another from "Ft. Riley" where the species undoubtedly does not occur (see Taylor, 1929:61). Fig. 251. A fox snake, Elaphc v. vtdpina, X V2. Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society. PIGMY RATTLESNAKE Sistrurus niiliariiis streckeri Gloyd Possibly this snake occurs in extreme southeastern Kansas; it has been recorded from southwestern Missouri, northwestern Arkansas and northeastern Oklahoma, and should be sought near water in adjacent areas of Kansas. Smith: Unverified Inhabitants 325 Fig. 252. Basin garter snakes, Thamnophis elegans vagrans, X %. Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society. Fig. 253. A pigmy rattlesnake, Sistrurus miliarius streckeri, approx. X %, Imbodun, Law- rence County, Arkansas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd. 326 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. Glossary abdomen — the belly. ahdoniinal — pertaining to the belly; in turtles, the scutes preceding the femoral scutes which are in broadest contact with the bridge, the third set in front of the rear margin of the plastron. adpressed — in reference to the limbs, laid full length against the sides of the body, with the hind legs pointing anteriorly and the forelegs pointing posteriorly. anal — of or pertaining to the anus; in snakes, the scale covering the anus; in turtles, the scutes or pair of scutes at the rear of the plastron. antepenultimate — the third in a series, counting from the end. anterior — pertaining to, designating, or situated near or toward, the head. anurans — the order of tailless amphibians; popularly, the frogs and toads. anus — the posterior opening of the digestive tract. areolae — a small open space; in patterns, small impigmented areas. boss — a roimded protuberance, as on toj) of the head between the eyes in certain toads. bridge — in turtles, a narrow connection at sides of the belly between the ventral part of the shell ( plastron ) and the dorsal part ( carapace ) . carapace — in turtles, the dorsal part of the shell. chinshields — in lizards, a paired series of enlarged scales diverging posteriorly from the mental or postmental scale; in snakes, one or two median i^airs of elongate scales on the ventral surface of the head, posterior to the mental or to the first infralabial scales which may be in contact on the mid\ entral line. corneous — of a surface texture resembling that of horn; toughened, in refer- ence to epidermal tissue. costal — pertaining to the sides of the thoracic region or to the ribs; in turtles, one of the plates between the series of median (vertebral) and lateral ( marginal ) plates. costal groove — in salamanders, a vertical groo\e on the side of the body between the limbs or positions of the limbs. cranial crests — crests or ridges on the top and sides of the head. cruciform — as applied to reptiles and amphibians, X-shaped. deivlaj) — a \ertical, longitudinal, loose flap of skin on the throat, as in anoles. dextral — of or pertaining to the right, not left. digit — one of the fingers or toes. distal — designating that end of a limb or other part which is farthest from the point of attachment. dorsal — situated on or pertaining to the back or upper surface, as applied to reptiles and amphibians. dorsals — the dorsal scales, counted in a straight line in lizards from the rear of the head, immediately back of the interparietal, to a point even with the rear margin of the hind legs as the latter are held at right angles to the body; in snakes, the scales on the sides as well as the back, including all on the body except the single row of enlarged \entral scales. dorsolateral folds — folds or in reality ridges extending posteriorly along the sides of the back. Glossary 327 envelope — applied to tlio surface of any one of possibly several layers of gelatinous material around amphibian eggs. facial pit — a deep pit on the side of the head between the nostril and eyes. femoral — of or pertaining to the proximal part of the leg (thigh); in turtles, the scutes of the plastron immediately iireceding the rear plates. femoral pores — in certain lizards, a series of i)ores on tlie imder side of the thigh. frontal — in snakes and lizards, the plate on the middle of the upper surface of head between the eyes. frontonasal — in lizards, the plate or plates immediately preceding the pre- frontals. frontoparietals — in lizards, the scales between the parietals and frontal. gills — organs for respiration under water; in amphibians, restricted to pha- ryngeal (neck) region; in salamanders, fluffy structures on the sides of the neck. gill slits — clefts or holes on the sides of the neck of salamanders, situated at the bases of the gills (gills absent in the hellbender). groin — the area on the body anterior to the bases of the hind legs. giilar — pertaining to the ventral surface of the neck (throat); in turtles, a scute or pair of scutes preceding the pectoral plates. gular fold — in lizards, a transverse belt of tiny granules, bordered by or often overlapped from the front by larger scales across the throat, immediately in front of the forelegs; in salamanders, a groove in the skin at the same position. humeral — a scute or pair of scutes on the plastron (ventral portion of the shell) of hard-shelled turtles; the second pair in front of the bridge. immaculate — unspotted, unpigmented. infralahials — the scales on the lower jaw bordering the lower lip. inner metatarsal tubercle — a protuberance on the under side of the heel opposite the first toe. internasals — one or two pairs of scales on the median dorsal surface of the snout between the nasals. interoccipital — one or several small scales in a middorsal area at rear of head immediately back of the interparietal. interparietal — in lizards, a median scale posterior to the frontal on the dorsal surface of the head; in or below it the parietal "eye" occurs. keel — an elevated, longitudinal, straight ridge, either sharp and well defined or broad and obtuse. labium — lip; in tadpoles the upper or lower part of the disk surrounding the beak which guards the opening of the mouth. lamellae — in lizards, the transverse plates on the under sides of the digits. lamina — large, thin, horny plates on the surface of the shell in most kinds of turtles. lateral — situated on or pertaining to the right or left sides. lateral intercalary scales — in skinks, the row of scales wedged at the base of a digit between the two series of plates covering the upper and the lower surfaces of a digit. loreal — pertaining to the region between the eye and naris on the side of the head; the scale or scales immediately above the supralabials between the preocular and the na.sal or postnasal( s); in snakes, if only one lateral scale 328 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. is present between the eye and the nasal, that lateral scale may be regarded as a loreal if longer than wide (high), but that scale is to be regarded as a preocular it wider than long. lower labials — the plates on the lower jaw bordering the lower lip. mandible — a jaw, usually used in reference to a movable jaw, therefore usually the lower jaw only (both jaws in tadpoles). marginals — in turtles, the scutes bordering the upper part (carapace) of the shell. median — situated in the middle. metatarsal tubercle — a tubercle or projection on the ventral surface of the heel. metatarsus — the basal portion of the foot, from the heel to the base of the digits. mouth-disk — a more or less flattened (when spread) disk surrounding the mouth of a tadpole. nares — the nostrils; naris the singular form. nasal — of or pertaining to the nostrils or the passages into which they lead; the scale through which the nostril is pierced. nuchal — situated on or pertaining to the dorsal or lateral surface of the neck; in some lizards, restricted to the enlarged scales immediately posterior to the head; in turtles, the median anterior scute of the margin of the carapace ( dorsal part of the shell ) . occipital — of or pertaining to the occiput, or in horned lizards, to the pair of spines on either side of the middorsal rear point of the head. occiput — the rear part of the head. ocidar — situated on or pertaining to the lateral surface of the orbit; in the blind snakes, applied to the large scale situated immediately over the eye- ball (which may be detected as a small dark spot below the surface in the orbital region). orbit — the space in which the eyeball is situated. outer metatarsal tubercle — a projection or protuberance on the ventral surface of the heel opposite the fifth toe. papillarij fringe — a fringe of papillae (minute fingerlike projections), as around portions of the edge of a mouth-disk. parietals — a pair of scales near the rear of the head; in snakes, they are in contact with each other, are situated immediately posterior to the frontal and supraocular, and form the rear margin of the plated portion of the head; in lizards, they are on either side of the interparietal and usually posterior to the frontoparietal. parotoid gland — in toads, a gland, appearing as a swollen area, on either side of the neck above the level of the tympanum. pectoral — pertaining to the chest and to a forelimb or its girdle; in turtles, a pair of scutes on the plastron immediately preceding the abdominal scutes which lie opposite (or in snapping turtles fonii a part of) the bridge. penultimate — the last but one. phalanges — bones or cartilages in the fingers or toes. pit, facial — a deep pit on the side of the head between the nostril and eye. plastron — the ventral part of the shell of a turtle. plinth — a flattened mass, oval or round. postanals — in lizards, a pair of large scales, surrounded by small scales, near the midventral line a short distance posterior to the anus. Glossary 329 posterior — at or toward tlic liintlcr end of the body; — opposed to anterior. postgenial — in lizards, the rear scale in the series of chinshields; in snakes, the rear ehinsliield. postlabiah — scales posterior to and in series with either the supralabials or the infralabials. postmental — a median, unpaired scale (rarely paired) or series of scales pos- terior to the mental. postnasal — in lizards, a scale, sometimes paired, immediately posterior to the nasal. postorbital crest — in toads, a bony ridge (one of the cranial crests) extending transversely immediately posterior to the orbit. postocular(s) — one or more enlarged scales bordering the orbit posteriorly. prefrontal(s) — one or more scales immediately preceding tlie frontal, between the anterior margins of the orbits. pregenials — in snakes, tlie anterior pair of chinshields. preocular{s) — one or more enlarged scales bordering the orbit anteriorly. proximal — designating that end of a limb or other part which is nearest to the point of attachment. reticulation — a network of lines which cross irregularly and form meshes. rostral — a scale fonning the tip of the snout. rugosity — a wrinkle or corrugation, or the state or property of being rugose, corrugated or wrinkled. scale rows — the longitudinal rows of scales on the back and sides; counted in snakes crosswise on the body from one side of the enlarged ventrals to the other side (see Fig. 150); when unspecified, a scale row number in snakes is the number at midbody. scute — a large scale. serrate — notched on the edge like a saw. shank — the part of the leg between the knee and ankle. sinistral — on or pertaining to the left side. spiracle — an opening into a gill pouch or chamber, when only one opening is present on a side. suharticular — below an articulation (joint). subcaudal — on the ventral surface of the tail; in snakes, the single or paired row of scales on the ventral surface of the tail. subequal — approximately equal or alike. supralabials — scales of the upper jaw bordering the upper lip, except that scale situated at the median anterior point at the tip of the snout. supramarginals — the small scales (in the alligator snapper only) between the marginal scutes and the costal scutes. supranasals — scales bordering the nasal scale above (medially), and lateral to the internasals. supraoculars — scales lying directly above the orbit. temporalis) — on or pertaining to the sides of the head behind the orbits; in snakes and lizards, the scales of that area. primary — the anterior temporal(s). secondary — the second row (transverse) of temporals, immediately posterior to the anterior row. thigh — the part of the leg between the knee and the bod\-. 330 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. truncate — blunt, as if cut off; not tapering. tubercle — a small, often somewhat blister-shaped, projection. tyinpunuin — the ear drum. tipper labials — the scales of the upper jaw bordering the upper lip except the scale at the median anterior point at the tip of the snout. vent — anus; the opening at the rear end of the digesti\'e tract. ventral — on or pertaining to the ventral surface; in snakes, one scute of the series of the scutes on the belly. vertebral — on or pertaining to the middorsal line; in turtles, the scutes on the middorsal line exclusive of the nuchal. vitelline membrane — the fine membrane, usually not visible, surrounding and in contact with the vitellus. vitellus — the egg itself, including the yolk but excluding the enveloping mem- branes. Literature Cited AND Partial Bibliography The following list of publications is, with certain exceptions, as complete a catalog as possible of works referring to reptiles or am- phibians from the state of Kansas. The list excludes only certain old monographs of continental or world-wide scope, all of purely historical interest and completely superseded by other studies. Allard, H. a. 1948. The eastern box turtle and its beha\ior. Journ. Tenn. Acad. Sci., 23: 307-321. 1949. Ibid., 24: 146-152. Allen, E. R., and W. T. Neill. 1954. Keep them alive! Rept. Inst., Silver Springs, Fla., 32 pp. Anderson, Paul. 1942. Amphibians and reptiles of Jackson County, Missouri. Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., 6: 203-222. 1950. The greater five-lined skink, Eumeces laticeps (Schneider), in Kan- sas. Herpetologica, 6: 53. Bishop, S. C. 1941. The salamanders of New York. Bull. New York State Mus., 324: 1-365, figs. 1-66. 1943. Handbook of salamanders. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 569 pp., 1 col. pi., 144 figs., 56 maps. 1944. A new neotenic plethodont salamander, with notes on related spe- cies. Copeia, 1: 1-5. Bishop, S. C, and F. J. W. Schmidt. 1931. The painted turtles of the genus Chrysemys. Ztiol. Ser. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., 18(4): 123-139, figs. 1-27. Blanchard, F. N. 1921. A revision of the king snakes: genus Lampropeltis. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 114: i-vi, 1-260, figs. 1-78. Literature 331 1923. The snakes ot tlic genus \'irginia. Papers Miehigan Aead. Sei., Arts Letters, 3: 343-365. 1924. A new snake of the genus Arizona. Oeeas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 1.50: 1-5. 1924. Tlie forms of Carphophis. Papers Mieliigan .Aead. Sei., Arts Let- ters, 4(1): 527-530. 1925. A key to the snakes of the United States, Canada and Lower Cal- i'ornia. Papers Miehigan Aead. Sci., Arts Letters, 4(2): i-.\iv, 1-65. 1938. Snakes of the genus Tantilla in the United States. Zool. Ser. Field Mus. Nat. Hist, 20(28): 369-376. 1942. The ring-necked snakes, genus Diadophis. Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., 7(1): 1-144, figs. 1-26, tables I-XVII, maps 1-4. BOULENGER, G. A. 1919. Synopsis of the American species of Rana. .\nn. Mag. Nat. Hist., (9) 3 (16): 408-416. 1920. A monograpli of the American frogs of the genus Rana. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts. Sci., 55(9): 413-480. Bragg, A. N. 1936. Notes on the breeding habits, eggs and embryos of Buja co^nnttis with a description of the tadpole. Copeia, 1: 14-20, figs. 1-13. 1937. Observations on Bufo eognatus with special reference to breeding habits and eggs. Amer. Midland Nat., 18(2): 273-284, figs. 1-5. 1940. Obser\'ations on the ecolog>' and natural histor\' of Anura. IL Habits, habitat and breeding of Bufo woodhousii woodhousii (Girard) in Oklahoma. Amer. Midland Nat., 24(2): 306-321, fig. 1. 1940. Observations on the ecolog\- and natural history of Anura. IIL The ecological distribution of Anura of Cleveland Count\, Okla- homa, including notes on the habits of several species. Amer. Mid- land Nat., 24(2): 322-335, fig. 1. 1940. Obser\ations on the ecolog>- and natural history of Anura. I. Habits, habitat and breeding of Bufo eognatus Sa>-. Amer. Nat., 74:322-349, 424-438, figs. 1-8. 1942. A key to the frogs of the genus Rana in Oklahoma. Proc. Oklaho:iia Aead. Sci., 22: 18. 1943. Obser\ations on the ecology and natural history of Anura. X\'. The hylids and microhylids in Oklahoma. Great Basin Naturalist, 4(3 and 4): 62-80. 1943. Common names for frogs and toads in Oklahoma. Proc. Oklahoma Acad. Sci., 23: 39-40. 1943. Observations on the ecology and natural histor>- of Anura. .\\T. Life-history of Pseudacris clarkii ( Baird ) in Oklahoma. Wasmann Collector, 5(4): 129-140, figs. 1-4. 1944. The spadefoot toads in Oklahoma with a summar\- of our knowledge of the group. Amer. Nat., 78: 517-533, figs. 1-5. 1944. Breeding habits, eggs and tadpoles of Scaphinpu.s hurterii. Copeia, 4: 230-241, figs. 1-2. 1945. The spadefoot toads in Oklahoma, with a sunmiar\ ot our knowl- edge of the group. II. Amer. Nat., 79: 52-72, fig. 6. 332 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist. 1950. Frequency of sex calls in some Salientia. Researches Amph. Okla., 8: 117-125. 1950. Data on size range in adults of Bufo w. woodhousii, Girard. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci., 31: 39-40. 1952. Amphibians of McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Wasmann Journ. Biology, 10(2):241-250. 1953. A study of Rana areolata in Oklahoma. Wasmann Journ. Biol., 11 (3): 273-318. 1954. Bufo terrestris charlesmithi, a new subspecies from Oklahoma. Wasmann Journ. Biol., 12(2) :245-254, figs. 1-4. Bragg, A. N., and W. F. Hudson 1951. New county records of Salientia and a summary of known distribu- tion of Caudata in Oklahoma. Great Basin Naturalist, 11 (3-4): 87-90. Br.\gg, a. N., and C. C. Smith. 1942. Observations on the ecology and natural history of Anura. IX. Notes on breeding behavior in Oklahoma. Great Basin Naturalist, 3(2): 33-50. 1943. Observations on the ecology and natural history of Anura. IV. The ecological distribution of toads in Oklahoma. Ecology, 24(3): 285- 309, figs. 1-11. Bragg, A. N., et al. 1950. Researches on the amphibia of Oklahoma. Univ. Okla. Press, 154 pp. Branson, E. B. 1904. Snakes of Kansas. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 2: 353-430, figs. 1-39. Brennan, L. a. 1936. A check list of the amphibians and reptiles of Ellis County, Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 37: 189-191. 1938. A study of the habitat of reptiles and amphibians of Ellis County, Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 40: 341-347. Breukelman, J. 1940. The snake, Haldea striatula in Kansas. Herpetologica, 2(2): 56. Breukelman, J., and R. F. Clarke. 1951. A revised list of amphibia and reptiles of Chase and Lyon Counties, Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 54(4): 542-545. Breukelman, J., and A. Downs. 1937. A list of amphibia and reptiles of Chase and Lyon counties, Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 39 ( 1936) : 267-268. Breukelman, J., and H. M. Smith. 1946. Selected records of reptiles and amphibians from Kansas. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 1: 101-112. Brumwell, M. J. 1940. Notes on the courtship of the turtle, Terrapene ornata. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 43: 391-392. 1942. Establishment of Anolis carolinensis in Kansas. Copeia, 1: 54. Bugbee, R. E. 1945. A note on the mortality of snakes on highways in western Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 47(3): 373-374. Literature 333 BURGEH, \\". L. 1947. A taxononiic and statistical stucl> ot tlic keeled green snake, Opheodnjs aestivus. Bull. Eeol. Soc. Anier., 28(5): 54 (abstract). Burt, C. E. 1927. On the type locality of tlie horned lizard (Phrjrmsonia bre\'irostre Girard). Copeia, 163: 53-54. 1927. An annotated list of the amphibians and reptiles of Riley County, Kansas. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 189: 1-9. 1928. The lizards of Kansas. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 26( 1 ) : 1-81. 1928. Insect food of Kansas lizards with notes on feeding habits. Journ. Kansas Ent. Soc, 1(3): 50-68. 1928. The s\non\m\-, variation and distribution of the collared lizard, Crotaphijtus coUaris (Sa\'). Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich- igan, 196: 1-19, pis. 1-7, 1 map. 1928. A key to the species of lizards definitely reported from Kansas. Privately printed. 2 pp. 1928. A new amphibian record from Kansas, Hyla phaerocrypta (Cope). Science, 67: 630-631. 1929. The synonymy, variation, and distribution of the sonoran skink, Eumeces obsoletus (Baird and Girard). Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 201: 1-12, pis. 1-3, 1 map. 1929. The sexual dimorphism of the collared lizard, Crotaphytus collaris. Papers Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts Letters, 10: 417-421, pi. 23. 1931. A report on some amphibians and reptiles from Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. Proc. Biol. Soc. ^^'ashington, 44: 11-16. 1931. A study of the teiid lizards of the genus Cnemidophorus, with special reference to their phylogenetic relationships. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 154: 1-286, figs. 1-38. 1932. Records of amphibians from the eastern and central United States (1931). Amer. Midland Nat, 13(2): 75-85. 1933. Some lizards from the Great Basin of the west and adjacent areas, with comments on the status of \arious forms. Amer. Midland Nat, 14: 228-250. 1933. Some distributional and ecological records of Kansas reptiles. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 36: 186-208. 1935. Further records of the ecology and distribution of ampliibians and reptiles in the middle west. Amer. Midland Nat., 16(3): 311-366. 1936. A key to the lizards of the United States and Canada. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 38: 25.5-305, figs. 1-71. 1937. The fauna: amphibians and reptiles of "Rock City." Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 40:195. 1949. Baby gartersnake victim of garden spider. Herpetologica, 5: 127. Burt, C. E., and NL D. Burt. 1929. A collection of amphibians and reptiles from the Mississippi Valley, with field observations. Amer. Mus. Novitates, 381 : 1-14. 1929. Field notes and locality records on a collection of amphibians and reptiles, chiefly from the western half of the L'nited States. I. Amphibians. 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Bull., 23: 1-643. Literature 343 1937. Notes and coiniut'iits on certain American and Mexican snakes of the genus Tantilla, with descriptions of new species. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 39: 335-348, figs. 1-6. 1940. Palatal sesamoid bones and palatal teeth in CiiCDiidophorun, with notes on these teeth in other saurian genera. Proc. Biol. Soc. W'ash- ington, 53: 119-124, pi. 2. TlHEN, J. A. 1938. Additional distributional records of amphibians and reptiles in Kan- sas counties. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 40: 401-409. TiHEN, J. A., and J. M. Sprague. 1939. Amphibians, reptiles and manmials of Meade County State Park. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 42: 499-512, pis. 1-3. Trapido, H. 1944. The snakes of the genus Storeria. Amer. Midland Nat., 31(1): 1-84, tables 1-19, figs. 1-60, maps 1-3, plus one additional (termi- nal ) map. Trowbridge, A. H., and M. S. Trowbridge. 1937. Notes on the cleavage rate of Scaphiopus bombifrons Cope, with additional remarks on certain aspects of its life history. Amer. Nat., 71: 460-480, table 1. Turner, F. B. 1952. The mouth parts of tadpoles of the spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus hamnwndi. Copeia, 1952 (3): 172-175, figs. 1-2. TwENTE, J. W., Jr. 1952. Pliocene lizards from Kansas. Copeia, 1952: 70-73, figs. 1-3. Woodbury, A. M., and D. M. Woodbury. 1942. Studies on the rat snake, Elaplie Jueta, with description of a new subspecies. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55: 133-142, tables 1-2, figs. 1-2 (graphs). Wright, A. H. 1914. North American Anura. Life-histories of the Anura of Ithaca, New York. Carnegie Inst. Publ., 197: i-vii, 1-98, pis. 1-21. 1929. Synopsis and description of North American tadpoles. U. S. N. M. Proc, 75(2756): 1-70, pis. 1-9. 1931. Life histories of the frogs of the Okefinokee Swamp, Georgia. New- York, Macmillan Co., xvi, 497 pp., 65 pis. Wright, A. A., and A. H. Wright. 1949. Handbook of frogs and toads. Comstock Publishing Conian}-, Ithaca, N. Y., 640 pp., 126 pis. Yarrow, H. C. 1883. Check list of North American reptilia and batrachia, with catalogue of specimens in V . S. National Museum. Bull. V. S. Nat. Mus., 24: 1-249. YouNGSTROM, K. A., and H. M. Smith. 1936. Description of the larvae of Pseudacris triseriata and Bufo wood- housii woodhousii (Anura). Amer. Midland Nat.. 17( 3) : 629-633, pi. 1. Transmitted hij author December 15, 1954. INDEX The complete discussion of each species of the state is indicated by two numbers separated from each other by a hyphen. Within those pages a dis- tribution map and usually a photograph are reproduced. Illustrations on pages other than these are indicated in italicized numbers. Under common names are cited page numbers only for the discussion of the species, and for any illustration of an individual at any stage of development, whether the common name is cited in the legend or not. Under scientific names are cited all pages where the names appear. Words in the glossary are not indexed. 59, 62 egg, 6-3, 89 30 Acris, 87 crepitans, 51, 57. 87-89 blanchardi, 88, crepitans, 89 gryUus, 51 aestiviis. Coluber, 231 Opheodnjs, 219, 231-233, 237, 282 Agama coUaris, 174 cornuta, 181 douglassii, 184 Agkistrodon contortrix, 304 piscivonis, 308 alleganiensis Cryptobranchus, 26, 31-32 alleganiensis, 32 Salaniandra, 31 alligator, 117 snapping turtle, 121, 131-133 Ambhjsioma tigrina, 40 texanum, 38 Ambystoma, 36 mactdatum, 27, 29, 30, 36-38, 41 opacum, 29, 320 texanum, 27, 29, 30 egg, 38-40 tigrinum, 13, 26, 27 bodv outline, 29, 30 egg, 36, 40-42 mavortium, 41, 42 tigrinum, 42 Ambystomidae, 36 American toad, 5.3 head, 55, 61. 64 egg, 65, 70, 79-82, 84 americanus, Bufo terrestris, 53, 79, 80, 82 amoenus, Carphophis, 215, 222-223, 286, 288 Coluber, 222 Amphibia, 25 amphibians, preservation, 18 Amyda, 157, 162 ferox, 119, 159, 160-162 aspera, 162 emoryi, 119 hartivegi, 162 spinifera, 161 mutica, 119, 157-159, 161, 162 Ancistrodon, 304, 305 contortrix, 212, 304-308 laticinctus, 305, 307, 308 mokesan, 305, 306, 307, 308 piscivorus, 212, 305, 306, 308-310 leucostomus, 309, 310 Anguidae, 207 annectens, Tropidoclonion lineatum, 299, 300 anole, Carolina, 164, 165, 168-170 Anolis, 16, 168 carolinensis, 164, 165, 168-170 carolinensis, 169, 170 Anolitis carolinensis, 168 anthracinus, Eumeces, 166, 167, 188-190, 193 anthracinus. 190 Plestiodon, 188 anurans, 51 handbook, 24 key, 53 Apoda, 25 areolata, Rana, 57, 58 tadpole, 59, 64 egg, 65, 99-101, 107, 110 areolata, 101 Arizona, 248 elegans, 217, 248-250, 254 bhmchardi, 249, 250 arnyi, Diadophis punctatus, 225, 226 aspera, Amyda ferox, 162 atricaudatus. Crotalus horridus, 317 atriceps, Tantilla, 214 atrox, Crotalus, 213, 313-315 attenuatus. Ophisaurus, 163, 207-209 attenuatus, 209 ventralis, 207 (345) 346 Index auriceps, Crotaphyttis coUaris, 176 authors' names, 23 hailciji, Crota])hiitus coUaris, 176 basin garter snake, 324, 325 hcllii. Chryseiuy.s picta, 150, 151 lycrhindieri. Rami pipicns, 109, 111 ])ibli()graphy, 330 bite, salamander, 32, 50 snake, 302, 303, 307, 310 l)laek-hcacled tantilla, 215, 235, 267, 268-269 blaek snake, pilot, 219, 244, 245-248 hlanchardi, Acris crepitans, 88, 89 Arizona ele^ans, 249, 250 Ophciidriis vcrnalis, 236 hlandingii,'Emi,s. 119, 123, 323 Blanding turtle, .'32.3 blind salamander, Ozark, 320 snake, New Mexiean, 212, 220-222 snakes, 13 blotched king snake, 217. 244, 247, 253-255, 2.58 Boa contortrix, 304 Boidae, 210 Boidoidea, 210 homhifrons, Scupliiopus, 66 Spea, 51, .54 toot, 57, 58 tadpole, .59, 66-68 box turtle, Carolina, 123, 1.37-140, 143 ornate, 123, 141-143 brachi/cephaki, Rana pipicns, 109, lid. 111 hrevirostre, Phrijnosoma dotiglassii, 185 brown skink, 165, 186-188 Biifo, 52, 67, 69, 70, 75, 103 cognatus, 53 head, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65. 69-71, 80 compactilis, 52 head, 53, 61, 64 egg, 65, 72-74, 80 speciosiis, 73, 74 dehilis, 52, 53, 60 tadpole, 61, 74-76, 77, 80 debilis, 75, 76 insidior, 7.5, 76 retiformis, 76 ptinctatus, 52, .53, 61. 62 egg, 63, 75, 77-78, 80 terrestris, 55, 61, 64 egg, 65, 70, 79-82, 84 americanus, 53, 79, 80, 82 chark'smithi, 79, 82 copei, 82 terrestris, 82 tcoodhousii, 52 tadpole, 53, 5.5. 61, 64 egg, 65, 74, 80, 81, 83-86 fowleri, 83, 85, 86 tcoodhousii, 83, 84, 86 Bufonidae, 69 bullfrog, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 102-104, 105, 112 bull snake, 214, 215, 250-2,53 button, .301 caeeilians, 2.5 callifiaster, Cohdn-r, 253 Lampropeltis, 217, 244, 247, 2.53- 255, 258 Lampro]U']tis caUigaster, 255 eanebrake rattlesnake, .317 cantahrigensis, Rana sylvatica, 112, 113 canvon toad, 52, .53, 61, 62 egg, 63, 75, 77-78, 80 captivity, care in, 15-17 Carolina anole, 117, 164, 165, 168-170 box turtle, 123, 1.37-140, 143 Carolina, Terrapene, 123, 1.37-140, 143 Carolina, 1.39 Testudo, 137 carolinense, Engystoma, 113 carolinensis, Auolis. 164, 165, 168-170 carolinensis, 169, 170 Anolius. 168 Gastrophryne, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 113-115, 116 Carphophis, 222 amoenus, 215. 222-223, 286, 288 vermis, 223 catenatus, Crotalinus, 310 Sistrurus. 212. 213, 310-313 catenatus. 311, .3i2, 313 catesheiana, Rana, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 102-104, 105 Caudata, 25. 26 cave salamander, 27, 29, 43-44, 45 "chameleon," 16 charJcsmithi, Bufo terrestris, 79, 82 CheJonura temminckii, 1.31 Chelydra, 132, 1.33, 1.34 serpentina, 120, 121, 1.34-1.36 serpentina. 136 Chelydridae, 131 Chorus frog, spotted, .55, 60 tadpole, 61. 64 egg, 65, 90-92. 93, 94 striped, 23, .5.3 foot, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92, 93-94 Chrysemys, 145, 149, 1.52, 1.54, 156 picta. 123, 124, 1.39, 149-151 heUii, 150, 151 chrysoscelis, Hijla versicolor, 99 cinereus, Flethodon, 29 Cinosternum jlavescens, 129 circidosa, Rana areolata, 100, 101 Cistudo ornata, 141 Index 347 clamitans, Rami, 56, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 104-106 clamitans, 105 clarkii, Uclocaetes, 90 Pscuducris, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 90-92, 93, 94 clasping organ, 128, 130 Cnenii(li)p}ioru.s, 204 sexliiwatu.s. 165, 204-206 coachwhip, 219, 240-242 coal skink, 166, 167, 188-190, 193 cognatus, Btifo, 53 head, 60 tadpole. 61. 64 egg, 65, 69-71, 80 collared lizard, 14, 165, 174-176 collaris, Againa, 174 Crotaphyttis, 14, 165, 174-176 collaris, 175, 176 collecting techniques, 12 Coluber, 236, 240, 244 aestivus, 231 amoenus, 222 calligaster, 253 constrictor, 218, 219, 236-239, 247 constrictor, 239 jiaciventris, 238, 239 erythrogaster, 272 fiagclhim, 240 getulus, 256 guttatus, 243 melanoleucus, 250 obsoletus, 245 occipito-maculatus, 283 ordinutus, 291 punctatus, 224 saurita, 296 sipedon, 279 striatulus, 285 triangulum, 258 vernalis, 234 Colubridae, 210, 222 Colubroidea, 210 common five-lined skink, i66, i67, 189 191- 194, 196, 201 garter snake, 217, 291-293 hog-nosed snake, 215, 226-229, 231 mud turtle, 321 musk turde, 122, 123, 126-128 130, 321 snapping turtle, 120. 121, 134-1-^6 tree frog, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 96, 97-99 water snake, 219. 274, 279-281 cornpactilis, Bitfo, 52 head, 53, 61, 64 egg, 65, 72-74, 80 constrictor. Coluber, 218, 219, 236-239 constrictor, 239 consultants, 25 contortrix, Agkistrodon, 304 Aticistrodoii. 212, 304-308 Boa, 304 Hetcrodon. 229 copei, Bufo terrestris, 82 copperhead, 212, 301, 304-308 coral snakes, 301 cornuta, Agatna, 181 cornutum, Phrijnosoina, 163, 181-183 185 cottonmouth, 212 301, 305, 306, 308- 310 crepitans, Acris, 51, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 87-89 crepitans, 89 cricket trog, northern, 51, 57, 59 62 egg, 63, 87-89 Crocodilia, 117 Crotalidae, 210, 301 Crotalinus catenatus, 310 viridis, 318 Crotalus, 211, 213, 301, 304, 313 atrox, 213, 313-315 horridns, 213, 316-317 atricaudattis, 317 horridns, 317 piscivorus, 308 viridis, 213, 318-319 viridis, 319 Crotaphi/tus, 174 collaris, 14, 165, 174-176 auriceps, 176 bailey i, 176 collaris, 175, 176 crucifer, Hyla, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 89, 95-97. 98 crucifer, 96, 97 Cryptobranchidae, 31 Cryvtobranchus, 31 alleganiensis, 26, 27, 30 egg, 31-32 alleganiensis, 32 Bw/o, 52, 53, 60 tadpole, 61. 74-76, 77, 80 debilis, 75, 76 dekayi, Storeria, 215, 281-283, 284 Tropidonotus, 281 Dekay snake, 215, 281-283, 284 Diadophis, 224 punctatus, 118, 215, 224-226, 266 ariiyi, 225, 226 diamond-backed rattlesnake, western, 213, 313-315 water snake, 276-278 dissecta, Leptotyphlops myopica, 222 douglassii, Agania. 184 Phnjnosonia, 163, 184-185, 323 earless lizard, 163, 171-173 348 Index eastern narrow-mouthed frog, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 113-115, 116 newt, 26, 27, 28 head, 29, 30, 33-35 ring-necked snake, 118, 215, 224- 226, 266 eggs, preservation, 21-23 reptile, 118 study of, 21 EhipJie, 243, 254 guttata, 216, 219, 243-245, 247, 254 cnionji, 244, 245 obsoleta, 219, 244, 245-248 ohsoleta, 246, 247, 248 vulpina, 219 vulpina, 323, 324 Elapliis ohsolctiis, 245 guttatus, 243 Elapidae, 210, 301 elegans, Arizona, 217, 248-250, 254 Haldea valeriae, 214, 215, 285, 287-288 Pseudemys scripta, 156 elegant shder, 122, 124, 125, 154, 155-156 emonji. Amy da ferox, 119 Elaphe guttata, 244, 245 Emyidae, 137 Emys, blandingii, 119, 123, 323 pseudogeographica, 147 Engystoma carolinense, 113 Epiglottophis, 252 episcopa, Sonora, 218, 219, 235, 263- 265, 266 episcopuni, Lamprosoma, 263 erythrogaster. Coluber, 272 Natrix, 218, 219, 272-274, 280 erythrogaster, 21 A Eumeces, 163, 166, 188, 189 anthracinus, 166, 167, 188-190, 193 anthracinus, 190 pluvialis, 190 fasciatus, 166, 167, 189, 191-194, 196, 201 laticeps, 167, 194-196 multwirgatus, 321, 322 obsoletus, 14, 166, 167, 189, 197- 199 septentrionalis, 166, 167, 193, 199, 200-203 obtxisirostris, 200, 202, 203 septentrionalis, 200, 201, 203 tetragrammus, 165 Eurycea, 43 longicauda, 27, 29, 43-44, 45 longicauda, 44 melanopleura, 44 lurifuga, 27, 29, 44, 45-46 multipUcata, 27, 29 Eutaenia marciana, 289 radix, 293 facial pit, 301 facultative neotene, 26 false map turtle, 122, 124, 125, 145, 147-148 fangs, 302 fasciata, Laccrta, 191 fasciatus, Eumeces, 166, 167, 189, 191-194, 196, 201 ferox, Amyda, 119, 159, 160-162 first aid (snake bite), 303 five-lined skink, common, 166, 167, 189, 191-194, 196, 201 greater, 167, 194-196 flagellum. Coluber, 240 Masticophis, 219, 240-242 flagellum 240, 241, 242 flavescens, Cinosternum, 129 Kinosternon, 122, 123, 127, 129- 130 flavescens, 130 Platythyra, 129 flavigularis, Masticophis fl/igellum, 242 flaviventris. Coluber constrictor, 238, 239 floridarm, Pseudemys, 125, 152-154, 156 Testudo, 152 fowleri, Bufo woodhousii, 83, 85, 86 fox snake, 323, 324 frog, common tree, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 96, 97-99 eastern narrow-mouthed, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 113-115, 116 gopher, 57, 58 tadpole, 59, 64 egg, 65, 99-101, 107, 110 green, 56, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 104- 106, 112 leopard, 56, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65, 101, 107, 109-111 northern cricket, 51, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 87-89 pickerel, 14, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65, 106-108, 110 spotted chorus, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg. 65. 90-92, 93-94 striped chorus, 23, 53 foot, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92, 93-94 western narrow-mouthed, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 114, 115-116 wood, 59, 64 egg, 65, 107, 111-113. 321 frogs and toads, key, 53 I^^DEX 349 frogs, distinguished from toads, 52 raising, 16-17 garden toad, 52 tadpole, 53, 55, 61, 64 egg, 65, 74, 80, 81, 83-86 garmani, Sceloportis undulatus, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 199 garter snake, basin, 324, 325 common, 217, 291-293 Marcy, 217, 289-291, 294, 297 plains, 217, 291, 293-296, 298 Qastrophriine , 54 body outline, 91, 103, 113 carolinensis, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 113- 115. 116 olivacea, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 114, 115-116 mazatlanensis, 116 olivacea, 116 gentilis, Lampropeltis triangulum, 259, 260 genus, 23 geographica, Graptemtjs, 124, 125, 144-146, 147, 148 Testudo, 144 getula, Lampropeltis, 256 getulus. Coluber, 256 Lampropeltis, 217, 256-258 glass-snake lizard, 26, 163, 207-209 glossary, 326 glossy snake, 217, 248-250, 254 glot/di, Heterodon nasicus, 229, 230, 231 glutinosus, Plethodon, 29 gopher frog, 57, 58 tadpole, 59, 64 egg, 65, 99-101, 107, 110 Gopherus, 118 gracilis, Tantilla. 214, 215, 235, 265-268, 269 gracilis, 268 graJiamii, Natrix, 219, 274-276, 290, 299 Rcgina, 274 Graham water snake, 219, 274-276, 290, 299 Graptemt/s, 144, 145, 150, 154 geographica, 124, 125, 144-146, 147, 148 kohnii, 148 pseudogeographica, 122, 124, 125, 145. 147-148 kohnii, 148 ouachiiensis, 148 pseudogeographica, 148 greater fiye-lined skink, 167, 194-196 green frog, 56, 57, 59, 62 egg. 63, 104-106, 112 rough. 219, 231-233, 237, 282 smooth, 118, 218, 219, 234-236, 263, 266 toad, 52, 53, 60 tadpole, 61, 74-76, 77, 80 ground snake, plains, 218, 219, 235, 263-265, 266 southern, 215, 285-287, 288 western, 214, 215, 285, 287-288 grtjllus, Acris, 51 guttata, Elaphc, 216, 219, 243-245, 247, 254 guttatus. Coluber, 243 Elaphis, 243 Gymnoi^hiona, 25 Haldca. 118, 223, 282, 285 striatula, 215, 285-287, 288 valeriae, 214, 215, 285, 287-288 elegans, 288 valeriae, 288 hallowelli, Tantilla gracilis, 266, 268 Hammond spadefoot, 320 hanimondii, Spea, 55, 320 hartwcgi, Amtjda spinifera, 162 haudeni, Thamnophis radix, 295. 296 lieilbender, 26, 27, 30 egg, 31-32 Helocaetes clarkii, 90 herpetology, 24 Heterodon, 226 contortrix, 229 nasicus, 215, 227, 229-231 glotidi, 229, 2.30, 231 nasicus, 229, 231 plati/rhinos, 215, 226-229, 231 plattjrhinos, 228, 229 hippocrepis, Kinosternon suhrubrum, 321 history, 9 liog-nosed snake, common. 215, 226-229, 231 western, 275, 227, 229-231 holbrooki, Lampropeltis getulus, 257, 258 Holbrookia, 171 maculata, 163, 171-173 maculata, 172, 173 horned lizard, Texan, 163, 181-183 horridus. Crotalus, 213, 316-317 horridus, 317 Jioyi, Pseudemtjs jloridana, 153, 154 hurtcrii, Scaphiopus, 55, 321 Hurter spadefoot, 321 ht/acinthinus, Sceloporus undulatus, 176, 177, 178, 181 //(//«, 95, 103 crucifer, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 89, 95-97, 98 crucifer, 96, 97 350 Index versicolor, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 96, 97-99 chrysosceUs, 99 sandersi, 99 versicolor, 98, 99 Hylidae, 52, 87 Hi/psigletui, 269, 271 torquata, 219, 269-272 texana, 271, 272 Iguanidae, 168 insidior, Bufo dcbilis, 75, 76 kevs, use of, 23 killing, 17-18 king snake, blotched, 217, 244, 247, 253-255, 258 red, 217, 258-260 speckled, 217, 256-258 Kinostemidae, 126 Kinosternon, 129 ftavescens, 122, 123, 127, 129-130 ftavescens, 130 spooneri, 130 stejnegeri, 130 subrubrum, 119, 321 hippocrepis, 321 kolmii, Graptemys, 148 pseudogeographica, 148 labels, 19 Lacerta fasciata, 191 maculata, 36 sexlineata, 204 laminae, 119 Lampropeltis, 210, 2i2, 214, 216, 253, 257 calligaster, 217, 244, 247, 253-255, 258 calligaster, 255 rhombomactdata, 255 ge*u/a, 256 geftdus, 217, 256-258 holbrooki, 257, 258 nigra, 258 splendida, 258 triangula, 258 triangtdum, 217, 258-260 gentilis, 259, 260 syspila, 259, 260 temporalis, 260 triangtdum, 260 Lamprosoma episcopum. 263 laterale, Scincella, 165, 186-188 lateralis, Scinciis, 186 Eumeces, 167, 194-196 Scincus, 194 laticinctus, Ancistrodon contortrix. 305, 307, 308 lecontei, Rhinocheilus, 215, 261-263 leopard frog, 56, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65, 101, 107, 109-111 Leptodactylidae, 52 Leptodeira torquata, 269 Leptotvphlopidae, 210, 220 Leptotyphlops, 212, 220 myopica, 212, 220-222 dissecta, 222 leucostomus, Ancistrodon piscivorus, 309, 310 Tropidoclonion, 217, 275, 298-300 lineatum, 300 lineatus, Microps, 298 lined snake, 217, 275, 298-300 literature cited, 330 live individuals, care, 15-17 lizard, collared, 14, 165, 174-176 earless, 163, 171-173 glass-snake, 26, 163, 207-209 rough-scaled, 165, 172, 176-181 short-homed, 118, 163, 184-185 Texan horned, 163, 181-183 lizards, 163 distinguished from salamanders, 26 handbook, 24 key, 163 preservation, 18-19 longicauda, Eurycea, 27, 29, 43-44, 45 longicauda, 44 Salamandra, 43 long-nosed snake, 215, 261-26:3 long-tailed salamander, 27, 29, 43-44, 45 louisianensis, Notophthalmus viride- scens, 34, 35 lucifuga, Eurycea. 27, 29, 44, 45-46 luteola, Terrapenc ornata, 143 Macroclemys, 131, 135 temminckii, 121, 131-133 macidata, Holbrookia, 163, 171-173 maculata. 172, 173 Lacerta. 36 maculatum, Ambystoma, 27, 29, 30, 36-38, 41 maculosa. Sirena, 48 maculosus. Necturus, 26, 27, 30, 48-50 ynaculosus, 50 majalis, Opheodrys aestivus, 232. 233 Malaclemys, 118 many-lined skink, 321, 322 maps, explanation, 8 map turtle, 124, 125, 144-146, 147, 148 false, 122, 124. 125, 145. 147-148 marbled salamander, 29, 320 marciana, Eutaenia, 289 Index 351 iitarciunus, Tlumniopliis, 217, 289- 291, 294, 297 marrianits, 290 Marcv ^'arter snake, 217, 289-291, 294, 297 iiiassasauga, 212, 213, 310, 313 Mdsticophis, 240 fidficlhwi, 219, 240-242 fitmcllum, 240, 241, 242 flavifitilaris, 242 mavortium, Aniht/stonia tigrimim, 41, 42 nwzatlaiwnsis, Gastroplirt/ne olivacea. 116 inchmoh'ucus. Coluber, 250 Pituophis, 214, 215, 250-253 melanopleura, Eurycea longicauda, 44 ntelanota. Rami chimitans, 106 Microhvlidae, 113 Microps lineatus. 298 miliarius, Sistrurus, 215 mokeson. Ancistrodon contortrix, 305, ■306, 307, 308 mudpuppy, 48 mild turtle, common, 321 yellow, 122, 123, 127, 129-130 multiplicafa, Eurycea, 27. 29 muhivirgatus, Eumeces, 321, 322 musk turtle, common, 122, 123, 126- 128, 130, 321 luufico, Amyda, 119, 157-159, 161, 162 uuitictis, Trio7n/x, 157 myopica, Leptotyphlops, 212, 220-222 myo])icum, Stennstonia, 220 narrow-mouthed frog, eastern, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 113- 115, 116 western, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 114, 115-116 salamander, 27, 29, 30 egg, 38-40 nasictis, Heterodon, 215. 227, 229-231 nasicus, 229, 231 Natricinae, 118 Natrix, 118, 214, 272, 273, 275, 277, 280, 290, 310 crythrngaster, 218, 219, 272-274, 280 erythrogaster, 21 A transversa, 273, 274 grahamii, 219, 274-276, 290, 299 rhomhifera, 219, 276-278 rhomhifera, 278 sipedon. 219, 274, 279-281 sipedon, 280, 281 Necturus, 48 maculosus, 26, 27, 30, 48-50 maculosus, 50 ucotcnic, 26 nereous salamander, 26, 27, 47-48 nereus, Tyjjhlotriton, 26, 27, 47-48 New Mexican blind snake, 212, 220- 222 newt, eastern, 26, 27, 2H head, 29, 30, 33-35 night snake, spotted, 219, 269-272 nigra, Lantpropeltis getulus, 258 nigriceps, Tantilla, 215, 235, 267, 268-269 nigriceps, 269 nigrita, Pseudacris, 23, 5.3 toot, 55, 60 tad- pole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92, 93-94 Rana, 24, 93 nigrolateris, Thamnophis marciamis, 291 northern cricket trog, 51, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 87-89 Notoph tlialm us, 33 viridescens, 26, 27, 28 head, 29, 30, 33-35 louisianensis, 34, 35 viridescens, 35 obligatory neotene, 26 obsoleta, Elaphc, 219, 244, 245-248 obsoleta, 246, 247, 248 obsoletum, Plestiodon, 197 obsoletus. Coluber, 245 Elaphis, 245 Eumeces, 14, 166, 167, 189, 197- 199 obtusirostris, Eumeces septentrionalis, 200, 202, 203 occipitomaculata, Storeria, 214, 215, 235, 283-285 occipitomaculata, 284, 285 occipito-maculatus. Coluber, 283 Storeria, 283 odorata, Testudo, 126 odoratus, Sternotherus, 122, 123, 126- 128, 130, 321 olivacea, GastropJin/ne, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 114, 115-116 olivacea. 116 opacum, Ambystoma, 29, 320 Opheodrys, 231 aestivus. 219, 231-233, 237, 282 majalis, 233 vernalis, 118, 218, 219, 234-236, 237, 263, 266 blanchardi, 236 vernalis, 235 Ophisaurus, 207. 209 attenuatus, 163, 207-209 attenuatus, 209 ventrulis attenuatus, 207 352 Index ordinatus. Coluber, 291 Thamnophis, 217, 291-293 ordinatus, 293 ornuta, Cistudo, 141 Terrapene, 123, 141-143 ornata, 142, 143 ornate box turtle, 123, 141-143 ouachitensis, Grapternys pseudogeo- graphica, 148 Ozark blind salamander, 29, 48, 320 painted turtle, 123, 124, 139, 149-151 palustris, Rana, 14, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65, 106-108, 110 parietalis, Thamnophis ordinatus, 292, 293 peeper, spring, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 89, 95-97, 98 Pelobatidae, 66 Phrynosoma, 181, 183 cornutum, 163, 181-183, 185 douglassii, 163, 184-185, 323 brevirostre, 185 pickerel frog, 14, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65, 106-108, 110 picta, Chrijsemys, 123, 124, 139, 149-151 Testudo, 149 pigmy rattlesnake, 324, 325 rattlesnakes, 304, 310 pilot black snake, 219, 244, 245-248 pipiens, Rana, 56, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65, 101, 107, 109-111 piscivorus, Agkistrodon, 308 Ancistrodan, 212, 305, 306, 308- 310 Crotalus, 308 pit, facial, 301 Pituophis. 250, 290 melanoleucus, 214, 215, 250-253 sayi, 252, 253 pit vipers, 118, 301 placenta, 118 plains garter snake, 217, 291, 293-296, 298 ground snake, 218, 219, 235, 263- 265, 266 spadefoot, 51, 54 foot, 55, 58 tad- pole, 59, 66-68 toad, 53 head, 60 tadpole, 61, 6^ egg, 65, 69-71, 80 platyrhinos, Heterodon, 215, 226-229, 231 platyrhinos, 228, 229 Platythyra flavescens, 129 Plestiodon anthracinus, 188 obsoletum, 197 septentrionalis, 200 Plcthodon rincreus, 29 glutinosus, 29 Plethodontidae, 26, 43 Plethodontinae, 43 pluvialis, Eumeces anthracinus, 190 poison ( see venom ) poisonous turtles, 140 prairie rattlesnake, 213, 318-319 prairie skink, 166, 167, 193, 199, 200- 203 preservation, 17-23 amphibians, 18 eggs, 21-23 fluids. 18 Hzards, 18-19 snakes, 19 tadpoles, 20-21 turtles, 19 Proteidae, 48 proximits, Thamnophis sauritus. 293, 297, 298 Pseudacris, 23, 24, 88. 91. 103 clarkii, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 90-92, 93, 94 nigrita, 23, 53 foot, 55, 60 tadpole. 61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92, 93-94 triseriata, 22, 94 Pseudemys, 118, 145, 152, 154 floridana, 125, 152-154, 156 hoyi, 153, 154 scripta, 122, 124, 125, 154, 155-156 elegans, 156 pseudogeographica, Eiyiys, 147 Grapternys, 122, 124, 125, 145, 147- 148 pseudogeographica, 148 punctatus. Bufo, 52, 53, 61. 62 egg, 63, 75, 77- 78,80 Coluber. 224 Diadovhis. 118. 215. 224-226, 266 racer, 218, 219, 236-239 racerunner, six-lined, 165, 204-206 radix, Eutaenia, 293 Thamnophis, 217, 291, 293-296. 297, 298 Rana, 16, 24, 52, 99, 101, 102, 108 areolata, 57, 58 tadpole, 59, 64 egg, 65, 99-101, 107, 110 areolata, 101 circtdosa, 100, 101 catesbeiana, 57, 59. 62 egg, 63, 102- 104, 105, 112 clamitans, 56 body outline, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 104-106, 112 clamitans. 105 melanota, 106 nigrita, 24. 93 palustris, 14, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65. 106- 108, 110 Index 353 pipiem, 56 body outline, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65, 101, 107, 109-111 berlandieri, 109, 111 brachycephala, 109, 110, 111 sylvatica, 59, 64 egg, 65, 107, 111- 113 cantabrigensis, 112, 113 sylvatica, 113, 322 terrestris. 79 Ranidae, 99 rat snake, 216, 219, 243-245, 247, 254 rattle, 301 rattlesnake, canebrake, 317 pigmy, 324, 325 prairie, 213, 315, 318-319 timber, 213, 315, 316-317 western diamond-backed, 213, 313- 315 rattlesnakes, 301 pigmy, 304, 310 true, 304, 313 red-bellied snake, 214, 215, 235 283- 285 red king snake, 217, 258-260 red-leg disease, 17 Regina grahamii, 274 Reptilia, 2,5, 117, 118 key retiformis, Bufo debilis, 76 Rhinocheihts, 249, 254, 259, 261 lecontei, 215, 261-263 tessellatus, 262, 263 rhombifera, Natrix, 219, 276-278 rhombifera, 278 Tropidonotus, 276 rhomhomaculata, Lampropeltis caUigaster, 255 ribbon snake, 217, 295, 296-298 ring-necked snake, eastern, 118, 215, 224-226, 266 rough green snake, 219, 231-233, 237 282 rough-scaled lizard, 165, 172, 176-181 salamander bite, 32, 50 salamander, cave, 27, 29, 44, 45-46 long-tailed, 27, 29, 43-44, 45 marbled, 29, 320 narrow-mouthed, 27, 29, 50 egg 38-40 nereous, 26, 27, 47-48 Ozark blind, 29, 48, 320 spotted, 27, 29, 30, 36-38, 41 tiger, 13, 26, 27 body outHne, 29, 30 egg, 36. 40-42 salamanders, 26 handbook, 24 key, 27 Salarnandra, aUeganiensis, 31 longicauda, 43 tt'xana, 38 tigrina, 40 Salamandridae, 33 Salientia, 25, 51 sandersi, lUjla versicolor, 99 Sauria, 117, 119, 1&3 saurita. Coluber, 296 ThaninopJiis, 296 sauritus, Thamnophis, 217, 295, 296-298 sauritus, 298 saw-toothed slider, 125, 152-154 sayi. Pit uo phis melanoleucus, 252, 253 ^caphiopus, 54 bombifrons, 66 hurterii, 55, 321 Scelaporus, 176, 177 undulatus, 165, 172, 176-181 garmani, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 199 hyacinthinus, 176, 177, 178, 181 scientific names, 23 Scincella, 186, 189 laterale, 165, 186-188 Scincidae, 186 Sciricus lateralis, 186 laticeps, 194 scripta, Pseudemys, 122, 124, 125, 154, 155-156 Testudo, 155 septentrional is, Eumeces, 166, 167, 193, 199, 200- 203 septentrionalis, 200, 201, 203 Plestiodon, 200 Serpentes, 117, 118, 119 serpentina, Chelydra, 120, 121, 134-136 serpentina, 136 Testudo, 134 sexlineata, Lacerta, 204 sexlineatus, Cnemidophorus, 165, 204- 206 shipping, 24-25 short-horned lizard, 118, 163, 184- 185 sipedim. Coluber, 279 Natrix, 219, 274, 279-281 sipedon, 280, 281 Sirerui maculosa, 48 sirtalis, Thamnophis, 293 sirtalis, 293 Sistrurus, 301, 310 catenatus, 212, 213, 310-313 catenatus, 311, 312, 313 tergeminus, 311, 312, 313 miliarius. 215 streckeri, 311, 324, 325 354 Index six-lined racorunner, 165, 204-206 skink, brown, 165, 186-188 coal, 166, 167, 188-190, 193 common five-lined, 166, 167, 189, 191-194, 196, 201 greater five-lined, 167, 194-196 manv-lined, 321, 322 prairie, 166, 167, 193, 199, 200-203 sonoran, 14, 766, 167, 189, 197-199 slender tantilla, 214, 215, 235, 265- 268, 269 slider, 118 elegant, 122, 124, 125, 154, 155- 156 saw-toothed, 125, 152-154 smooth green snake, 118, 218, 219, 234- 236, 263, 266 soft-shelled turtle, 119, 157-159, 161, 162 snake, basin garter, 324, 325 blotched king, 217, 244, 247, 253- 255, 258 bull, 214, 215, 250-253 common garter, 217, 291-293 liog-nosed, 213, 226-229, 231 water, 219, 274, 279-281 Dekay, 215, 281-283, 284 diamond-backed water, 219, 276- 278 eastern ring-necked, 118, 215, 224- 226, 266 fox, 323, 324 glossy, 217, 248-250, 254 Graham water, 219, 274-276, 290, 299 lined, 217, 275, 298-300 long-nosed, 215, 261-263 Marcy garter, 217, 289-291, 294, 297 New Mexican blind, 212, 220-222 pilot black, 219, 244, 245-248 plains, garter, 217, 291. 293-296, 298 ground, 218, 219, 235, 263-265, 266 rat, 276, 219, 243-245, 247, 254 red-bellied, 214, 215. 235, 283-285 red king, 217, 258-260 ribbon, 217, 295, 296-298 rough green, 219, 231-233, 237, 282 smooth green, 118, 278, 219, 234- 236, 263. 266 southern ground. 215, 285-287, 288 speckled king, 217. 256-258 spotted night, 219. 269-272 western ground, 27-^, 215, 285. 287-288 hog-nosed, 273, 227, 229-231 worm, 215, 222-223, 286, 288 yellow-bellied water, 278, 219, 272- 274, 280 snake-bite treatment, 302-304 snakes, 210 handbook, 24 key, 212 preservation, 19 snake venom, 302 snapping turtle. alligator, 727. 131-133 common. 720, 121. 134-136 soft-shelled turtle, smooth, 77.9, 157-159, 161, 162 spiny, 7 7,9, 159, 160-162 Sonora. 263 episcopa, 218, 219, 235, 263-265, 266 taylori, 265 sonoran skink, 14, 766, 167, 189, 197-199 toad, 52 head, 53. 61, 64 egg, 65, 72-74. 80 southern ground snake. 215, 285-287. 288 spadefoot. Hammond, 320 Hurter, 321 plains 51, 54 foot, 55, 58 tadpole, 59, 66-68 Spea, 66, 103 hombifrons, 51, 54 foot, 55, 58 tad- pole, 59, 66-68 hammondii. 55, 320 species, 23 speciosus, Bufo compactiUs, 73, 74 speckled king snake, 217, 256-258 spehieus, Tijphlotriton, 29, 48, 320 spinifera, Amtfda ferox, 161 spiny soft-sheiled turtle, 779, 159, 160- 162 sphndkla, Lampropeltis getuJiis, 258 spooneri, Kinostenum flavescens, 130 spotted chorus frog, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 90-92, 93, 94 night snake, 219, 269-272 salamander, 27, 29, 30, 36-38, 41 spring peeper, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 89, 95-97, 98 Squamata, 117, 118, 163 stegocephalians, 25 stejnegeri, Kinostemon flavescens, 130 SteUio nndulatiis, 176 Stenostoma nnjopicum, 220 Sternotherus, 126 odoratus, 122, 123, 126-128, 130, 321 Index 355 Storeriu, 118, 281, 290 dekai/i, 215, 281-283, 284 tcxumi, 282, 283 occipiiomacnlaia, 214, 215, 235, 283-285 occipifomoctilata, 284, 285 occipito-nwculdtiis, 283 streckeri. Sistnint.s luiliarius, 311, 324, 325 striatula, Haldea, 215, 285-287, 288 striatulus. Coluber, 285 striped chorus frog, 23, 53 foot, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92, 93-94 subspecies. 24 stjJvatica, Rana, 59, 64 egg, 65, 107, 111-113 sijlvatica, 113, 321 syspila. Lampropeltis triangulum, 259, 260 tags, 19 tadpoles, characters, 52 key, 59 preservation, 20-21 TantiUa, 265, 271 atriceps, 214 gracilis, 214, 215, 235, 265-268, 269 gracilis, 268 hallowelli, 266, 268 nigriceps, 215, 235, 267, 268-269 nigriceps, 269 tantilla, black headed, 215, 235, 267, 268- 269 slender, 214, 215, 235, 265-268, 269 taylori, Sonora, 265 Teiidae, 204 temminckii, Chelonura, 131 Macroclcmijs, 121, 131-133 temporalis, Lampropeltis triangulum, 260 tergeminus, Sistrurus catenatus, 311, 312, 313 Terrapene, 137 Carolina, 123, 137-140, 143 Carolina, 139 triunguis, 138, 140 ornata, 123, 141-143 luteola, 143 ornoffl, 142, 143 terrapins, 118 f^^ west ris Bufo, 55. 61, 64 egg, 65, 70, 79-82, 84 t err est ris, 82 , Rana, 79 tessellatus, Rhinocheilu.s lecontei, 262, 263 Testudines, 117, 118, 119 Testudinidae, 118 Testudo, Carolina, 137 fioridana, 152 geographica, 144 odorata, 126 p/cto, 149 scripta, 155 serpentina, 134 tetragrammus, Eumeces, 165 texana, Hypsiglcna torquata, 271, 272 Salamandra, 38 Storeria dekayi, 282, 283 Texan horned lizard, J 63, 181-183 Amhhjstoma, 38 Ambystoma, 27, 29, 30 egg, 38-40 Thamnophis, 118, 289, 290 elegans vagrans, 324, 325 marcianus, 217, 289-291, 294, 297 marcianus, 290 nigrolateris, 291 ordinatus, 217, 291-293 ordinatus, 293 parietalis, 292, 293 roc//x, 217, 291, 293-296. 297, 298 haydeni, 295, 296 sauritus, 217, 295, 296-298 proximus, 293, 297, 298 sauritus, 298 sirtalis. 293 sirtalis, 293 tiger salamander, 13, 26, 27 body out- line, 29, 30 egg, 36, 40-42 tigrina, Amblystoma, 40 Salamandra, 40 tigrinum, Ambystoma, 13, 26, 27, 29, 30 egg, 36, 40-42 tigrinum, 42 timber rattlesnake, 213, 315, 316-317 toad, American, 53 head, 55, 61, 64 egg, 65, 70, 79-82, 83 canyon, 52, 53, 61, 62 egg, 63, 75, 77-78. 80 garden, 52 tadpole, 53, 55, 61, 64 egg, 65, 74, 80. 81, 83-86 green, 52, 53, 60 tadpole, 61, 74-76, 77, 80 plains, 53 head. 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 69-71, 80 sonoran, 52 head, 53, 61, 64 egg, 65, 72-74. 80 toads. and frogs, key. 53 distinguished from frogs, 52 torquata, Hypaiglcna, 219, 269-272 Leptodeira, 269 356 Index tortoises, 118 transversa, Natrix erythrogaster, 273, 274 tree frog, common, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 96, 97-99 triangiila, Lampropeltis, 258 triangulurn. Coluber. 258 Lampropeltis, 217, 258-260 triarifiiilum, 260 Trionychidae, 157 Trionux miiticus, 157 triseriata, Pseudacris nigrita, 22, 94 Triturits viridescens, 33 triunguis, Terrapene Carolina, 138, 140 Tropidoclonion, 118, 290, 298, 299 lineatum, 217, 275, 298-300 annectens, 299, 300 lineatum, 299, 300 Tropidonotus dekayi, 281 rhombifera, 276 turtle, alligator snapping, 121, 131-133 Blanding, .323 Carolina box, 123, 137-140, 143 common mud, 321 musk, 122, 123, 126-128, 130, 321 snapping, 120, 121, 134-136 false map, J22, 124, 125, 145, 147- 148 map, 124, 125, 144-146, 147, 148 ornate box, 123, 141-143 painted, 123, 124, 139, 149-151 smooth soft-shelled, 119, 157-159, 161, 162 spiny soft-shelled, 119, 159, 160-162 yellow mud, 122, 123, 127, 129-130 turtles, 118 handbook, 24 key, 119 poisonous, 140 preservation, 19 Typhlopoidea, 210 Typhlotriton, 47 nereus, 26, 27, 47-48 spelaeus, 29, 48, 320 undulatus, Sceloporus, 165, 172, 176-181 Stellio, 176 vagrans, Thamnophis elegans, 324, 525 valeriae, Haldea, 214, 215, 285, 287-288 valeriae, 288 Virginia, 287 venom, salamanders, 14 snake, 302 venomous reptiles, capture, 15 recognition, 12 vermis, Carphophis amoenus, 223 vernalis. Coluber, 234 Opheodnjs, 118, 218, 219, 234-236, 237, 263, 266 vernalis, 235 versicolor, Hyla, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 96, 97-99 versicolor, 98, 99 vipers, pit, 188, 301 Virginia valeriae, 287 viridescens, Notophthalmus, 26, 27, 28 head 29, 30, 33-35 viridescens, 35 viridis, Crotalinus, 318 Crofalus, 213, 318-319 viridis, 319 vulpina, Elaphe, 219 vulpina, 323, 324 water snake, common, 219, 274, 279-281 diamond-backed, 219, 276-278 Graham, 219, 274-276, 290, 299 yellow-beUied, 218, 219, 272-274, 280 western diamond-backed rattlesnake, 213, 313-315 ground snake, 214, 215, 285, 287- 288 hog-nosed snake, 215, 227, 229-231 narrow-mouthed frog, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 114, 115-116 wood frog, 59, 64 egg, 65, 107, 111- 113, .32i tcoodhousii, Bufo, 52 tadpole, 53, 55, 61, 64 egg, 65, 74, 80, 81, 83-84 woodhousii, 83, 84, 86 worm snake, 215, 222-223, 286, 288 vellow-bellied water snake, 218, 219, 272-274, 280 yellow mud turtle, 122, 123, 127, 129- 130 D 25-9019 3 3 5 2 IJ 6 I I'' 1 ^ 1 1 1 i ! z t 2 ' < |> IS • 1 ■ u 'l '— . 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