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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL ~ SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

FOR

PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXV.

JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1888.

PHILADELPHIA :
PRINTED FOR THE SOCTETY
BY MAC CALLA & COMPANY.

G1gss.

Jan. 6, 1888.] 1

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vou. XXY. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1888. No. 127.

Stated Meeting, January 6, 1888.
Present, 22 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows: Letters accepting
membership from Prof. J. Szombathy, Wien; Mr. S. Castner,
Jr., Philadelphia.

Letters acknowledging receipt of diploma from Prof. J.
Szombathy, Wien; Hon. Victor Duruy, Marquis de Nadaillac,
Paris; Prof. Edward North, Clinton, N. Y.; Prof. Schele de
Vere, University of Virginia.

Letters of envoy from the Mining Department, Melbourne;
Physikalisches Central-Observatorium, St. Petersburg; Musée
Guimet, Paris; Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London.

Letters of acknowledgment of receipt of Proceedings from
the Geological Survey of India, Calcutta (125); Zodlogical
Gardens at the Hague (125); University Library, Lund (125);
Prof. Richard Akerman, Stockholm (125); R. Statistical So-
ciety, London (124, 125).

A letter from the Pennsylvania Commission on Amended
Orthography, Harrisburg, calling attention to the work of the
Commission, and asking the Society to assist in the examina-
tion of the defects of our orthography by the appointment of
a committee or some other action.

A letter from Harvard University Observatory asking that

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. soc. xxv. 127. A. PRINTED FEB. 20, 1888.

2

(Jan. 6,

the deficiencies be supplied in its series of the A. P. 8. publi-
cations.*

A letter from the Free Public Library, San Francisco, ask-
ing for the Society’s Catalog.*

A letter from Prof. Lewis M. Haupt, acknowledging the
receipt of a communication from the President of the So-
ciety informing him of the award to him of the Magellanic
Premium for his paper on “The Physical Phenomena of Har-
bor Entrances.” :

A letter from the Wisconsin Historical Society requesting
Part LV of the Society’s Catalog.*

Accessions to the library were received from the Société
Impériale des Naturalestes, Moscow; New Russia Society of
Naturalists, Odessa ; Comité Geologique, Physikalische Central-
Observatorium, K. Akademie der Wissenschaften, St. Peters-
burg; Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde, Berlin; Gartenbauverein,
Darmstadt; Astronomische Nachrichten, Keil; Verein fiir
Erdkunde, Zoologischer Anzeiger, Leipzig ; K. Statistika Cen-
tral Byran, Stockholm; Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kuns-
ten en Wetenschappen, Batavia; Société Batave de Philoso-
phie Expérimentale de Rotterdam ; K. Bibliotheek, ’S Graven-
hage; Académie R. de Belgique, Bruxelles; Biblioteca N,
Centrale di Firenze; Société Historique &c. du Cher; Acad-
émie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres de Dijon; Sociétés
d’ Anthropologie, d’Ethnographie, des Antiquaires, Zoologique,
d’L’Enseignement Supérieur; Académie Indo-Chinoise de
France, Musée Guimet, Redaction Cosmos, Ministéres de la
Marine et de l’Instruction Publique, Académie des Sciences
de Bordeaux; Mr. Henri Moissan, Paris; Société des Anti-
quaires de la Morinie, St. Omer; Société de Geographie, Lis-
boa; Royal Society, Royal Meteorological, Astronomical, Geo-
graphical Societies, Society of Antiquarians, Greenwich Ob-
servatory, Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, “ Nature,”
London ; Essex Institute, Salem ; Yale University, “American
Journal of Science,” New Haven; Brooklyn Entomological
Society, Brooklyn Library; Prof. EH. North, Clinton, N. Y.;

* Request granted so far as practicable.

€
1888. ] 3 [Volapiik.

Meteorological Observatory, New York; College of Phar-
macy, ‘“ Medical and Surgical Reporter,” Dr. I. Minis Hays,
Messrs. Thomas Hockley, Henry Phillips, Jr., Mrs. Susan I.
Lesley, Philadelphia; Second Geological Survey of Penna.,
Harrisburg ; U.S. Naval Institute, Annapolis; Director of the
U.S. Mint, U.S. Government Publications, Washington, D.C.;
State Board of Health, Nashville; University of California,
Berkeley; Sociédad Cientifica “ Antonio Alzate,” Mexico ;
Boletin de Estadistika del Puebla; Imperial Observatorio de
Rio de Janeiro.

The Committee on Volapuk presented a supplementary
report, and the original report was, on motion, read as
follows :

THE Committee appointed October 21, 1887, to examine into the
scientific value of Volapiik presented the following report:

Your committee proposes first to consider the desirability of a uni-
versal language ; secondly, what should be its characteristics ; and,
thirdly, whether that invented by the Rev. Mr. Schleyer, called by him
Volapiik, meets the requirements.

1

Thatin the vastly increased rapidity of interchange of thought in
modern times, some general medium of intercommunication would be
welcome, is unquestioned. Wherever there are close commercial rela-
tions between nations speaking different tongues, sueh media are sure
to arise from the necessities of daily life. Thus the Lingua Franca in
the Mediterranean and ‘ pigeon English” in the Chinese ports are dia-
lects which have sprung out of the urgency of business needs. These
mixed languages are called “‘ jargons,”’ and have a very high interest to
the scientific linguist as illustrating the principles of the evolution of
human speech. The English language is a jargon of marked type, and
illustrates what was stated by W. von Humboldt early in this century,
that from such crossings and mingling of tongues, are developed the
most sinewy and picturesque examples of human language. This con-
sideration shows that in adopting or framing a universal language we
need not hesitate to mould it from quite diverse linguistic sources.

The presence of a number of these jargons in different parts of the
world testifies to the desirability for some one simple form of discourse
which could be of general adoption. Another and higher testimony to
the same effect is the need now frequently and loudly expressed for a
uniform terminology in the sciences. For many years it has been urged

Volaptik. ] 4 (Jan. 6,

both in this country and in Europe, that the neologisms required by
the sciences be derived according to a uniform plan from the Greek, and
that those heretofore obtained from Greek or Latin be brought into one
general form. There is no practical difficulty about this except that
which arises from the Chauvinism of some nations which are blinded
by egotism or narrow notions to the welfare of the whole. Such a ten-
dency is observable in Germany, a country once noted for its cosmo-
politan sympathies. Its medical teachers, for example, have of late
frequently dismissed the terms of their science derived from the Latin
and Greek, in order to substitute in their place long, awkward and
inharmonious Teutonic compounds. No effort at a uniform interna-
tional scientific terminology can be successful if the learned in each
nation be governed by national prepossessions.

Another obstacle to a universal tongue, and which at the same time
is a cogent argument for the adoption of one, is the sentimental love of
local dialects and forms of speech by those who have imbibed them in
infancy. To-day there are active societies organized for the preserva-
tion of the Welsh, the Armorican, the Basque, the Finnish and the
Flemish. For many generations nearly all learned writings in Europe
were in Latin. In the eighteenth century the Latin threatened to be
superseded by the French. The Transactions of Academy of Sciences
of Berlin were in French ; so were the articles by the Russian profes-
sors; and in the earlier decades of the present century French pre-
vailed in the reports of the Royal Northern Society of Antiquaries,
and in most scientific publications in Slavic and Northern Teutonic
countries. This is the case no longer. Every little principality claims
that it should print what it has to tell the world of science in its own
dialect, and claims that the world of science should learn this dialect.
Thus we have on the list of our scientific exchanges publications in
Roumanian and Bohemian, in Icelandic and Basque, in Swedish and
Hungarian, in Armenian and modern Greek, in Japanese and in Por-
tuguese, without counting the more familiar tongues. Even a linguist
by profession, such as Max Miiller, has exclaimed against the very
Babel, the confusion of tongues, which exists in modern scientific lit-
erature. He has sounded an earnest appeal to the learned writers of
the world to express themselves in one of the half-dozen languages which
every man of wide education is supposed to read, to wit, the English,
French, German, Spanish, Italian or Latin.

But even with the advantage of a well-developed international scien-
tific terminology, it is a good deal to ask of a student of science that
he should spend the time to acquire a reading knowledge of these six
tongues. In many cases it is wholly impossible for lack of time. But
time could always be spared to learn one language, if that were enough,
particularly if this one were exceptionally simple and easy in its
grammar. :

Again, the commercial and traveling world demands one tongue

at

1888. ] 5 [Volapiik.

only, in addition of course to that which its members learn in infancy,
a tongue facile to acquire, and adaptable to their peculiar wants. The
time is not far off when one system of weights, measures and coinage,
one division of time, one code of international law, one mode of quar-
antine and sanitation, one costume, will prevail throughout the civi-
lized world, and along with this unification of action must and will
come a unification of speech. It is not only desirable, it is certain to
arrive, and as beings of intelligent self-consciousness, looking before
as well as after, it becomes us to employ our faculties to direct the -
course of events so that this one universal language be not left to blind
chance, but be framed and adopted of deliberate choice and with the
wisest consideration.

Lie

Yonvinced, therefore, that the time is ripe for the promulgation of a
general form of speech for the civilized members of the race, we
will now inquire what should be the requirements of such a tongue to
merit the recommendation of this Society.

We begin by the observation that the Aryan stock is now and has
been for two thousand years the standard-bearer of the civilization of
the world; hence, a universal language should be based upon the gen-
eral linguistic principles of that stock. In the Aryan stock the six
principal living tongues in the order of their importance and extent
may be ranged as follows: English, French, German, Spanish, Italian,
Russian. It should be the aim of the proposed general tongue to ally
itself to these somewhat in the order noted; as thus being more readily
acquired by the greater number of active workers in the world at the
present time.

The elements of all languages arrange themselves to the linguist
under three headings—phoneties, grammar and lexicography ; in other
words, the vocal, the formal and the material characteristics of the
tongue; and under these three headings we will sketch the traits which
should make the projected universal language.

I. Phonetics.—We believe all will assent to the following proposi-
tions:

The orthography of the universal language should be absolutely pho-
netic.

Every letter in it should always have the same sound.

This sound should be one common to all the leading Aryan languages,
and hence present no difficulty to a person speaking any one of them.

Diphthongs, digraphs and double consonants should all be omitted as
misleading.

The meaning should never depend on tone, accent, quantity of vow-
els, nor rising and falling inflections of the voice. All these are inade-
quate and unnecessary expedients of the linguistic faculty.

The yowels should be limited to the five pure vowels: a, @, 2,

Volapiik. | 6 (Jan, 6,

0, u, pronounced as in Italian, and all impure or modified vowel sounds,
as the German 4, 6, ii, the French wu, the English u (as in use), 0 (as in
not) and the neutral vowel wu (in but) should be discarded. All the
Aryan tongues named possess the five pure vowels, but not all the im-
pure and neutral vowels.

In the consonantal scheme, all gutturals, aspirates, lisps and nasals
should be omitted. Thus, the German ch, soft or hard, the Spanish z,
the English h and th, the French n ; and likewise all double consonan-
tal sounds, like the Spanish 7%, ll, rr, the German kn, pf, the Russian
schisch, the Italian zz, cc, etc., Should find no place. Of all the Aryan
languages the pure Castilian Spanish comes the nearest to such an
ideal phoneticism, and it approaches very near indeed, a few conso-
nantal heresies and the accent being its only drawbacks.

In the written alphabet of such a language there should be, and there
would be no oceasion for, any diacritical marks whatever. The so-called
Latin or Roman handwriting and type should be employed, but with
the omission of every sign which would require the writer to take his
pen from the paper in the middle of a word, or else return to it in order
to complete it. Hence the 7 should have no dot (as is the case in Ger-
man) nor the j, and the t should not be crossed. No accents should be
needed and no apostrophes.

The sounds of the language should not only be easy; they should
also be fairly agreeable to the ear, and combinations should be sedu-
lously avoided which in any of the leading tongues have indecorous or
degrading associations. :

srevity is of great importance, and each word should be reduced to
its simplest discriminative sound, consistent with sonorousness and
lucidity.

Il. Lexicography.—The vocabulary of the universal language should
be based primarily on the vocabulary which is common to the leading
Aryan tongues. There are 1500 words in German which are almost or
quite the same in English; there are more than this number common
to English, French, Italian and Spanish. A selection should be made
from these similar or identical word-forms as the foundation of the
lexicon. At least a thousand words in common use will be found to
be the same in all these languages, when we allow for the operation of
simple and well-known phonetic laws. Let the learner be taught these
laws and he will at once know a good share of all the more usual terms
of daily intercourse in this new language, and he will pronounce them
correctly without a teacher, because it will contain no sound which is
strange to his ears, and each word would be spelled as it is pronounced.

This existing common property of words, once assorted and presented
in the orthography above set forth, would form one element of the lexi-
con; another will be those words obtained from an international

1888. ] 7 [Volaptik.

scientific terminology, to be decided upon by the committees of inter-
national congresses, appointed for that purpose.

Commercial and business terms are already largely the same, and
there would be little difficulty in obtaining a consensus of opinion about
them which would prevail, because it is of direct pecuniary advantage
to business men to have such a uniformity.

There remain the terms in art, literature, poetry, politics, imagina-
tion, etc., to be provided for. But in the opinion of this committee it
does not seem desirable at this time to urge the formation of a vocabu-
lary which would be exhaustive. Much of it should be left to the
needs of the future, as observed and guided by the international com-
mittees who should have the care and direction of the universal tongue.
These committees should, by common consent, hold the same relation
to it that the French Academy has, in theory at least, to the French
language, enlarging and purifying it by constant and well-chosen addi-
tions. As in France, each writer would enjoy the privilege of intro-
ducing new terms, formed in accordance with the principles of the
tongue, and such terms would be adopted or not, as they should recom-
mend themselves to other writers in the same field.

Ill. Grammar.—By far the greatest difficulty is presented by the
formal or grammatical features of such a proposed tongue.

We may best approach this part of our task by considering how the
grammatical categories, or ‘‘ parts of speech,’’ as they are called, are
treated in the various Aryan tongues, and selecting the simplest
treatment, take that as our standard.

It may indeed be inquired whether in the grammar we might not
profitably pass beyond the Aryan group, and seek for simpler methods
in the Semitic, Turanian, African or American languages. But it is
a sufficient answer to this to say that there is no linguistic process
known to these remote stocks but has a parallel in some one of the
Aryan dialects; and if such a process is very slightly developed in
these dialects, this is probably the case because such a process has been
found by experience to be unsuited to the modes of Aryan thought.

Returning to the grammatical categories or parts of speech, we find
them usually classified as nine, to wit: articles, noun, pronoun, adjec-
tive, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.

The last of these, the interjection, is of no importance, and as for
the first of them, the article, we find that the Latin and the Russian
move along perfectly well without it, and hence we may dismiss it
whether article definite or article indefinite, as needless in the univer-
sal language.

The adjective in Latin has gender, number and case, and in most
living Aryan languages has number and gender; but in English it
has neither, and, therefore, true to the cardinal principles of economy
in the formal portions of speech, in the universal language it should

Volapiik.] 8 [Jan. 6,

have neither. More than this, in colloquial English and German, and
always in English in the comparative degree, there is no distinction
between the adjective and the adverb ; and upon this hint we perceive
the inutility of the distinction and dismiss it as operose only. The
comparison of adjectives should be by words equivalent to more and
most, as is practically the case in the Romance languages, and never
by comparative and superlative terminations, as in English and
German, as our endeavor should always be to maintain the theme un-
changed.

This reduces our nine parts of speech to six, which are proved to be
enough, by the facts quoted.

The noun in German undergoes changes for gender, number and
case. Of these the gender in all Aryan tongues except English and
modern Persian, isan absurdity, without application to the object, and
a most serious impediment to learners. Grammatical gender, there-
fore, should be absolutely dismissed, and material gender expressed by
the feminine adjective of sex, as in English and most American lan-
guages (bear, she-bear, rat, she-rat, etc.).

The Greek has a singular, a dual and a plural number. The dual
has dropped out of modern tongues, and in many instances the plural
is grammatical only and not material. Indeed, as in most American
languages, so often in English and German, the plural form is not used
even when the plural number is meant. Thus, we say, ten head of
steers, six dozen herring, sechszehn Stiick Cigarren, sechs Uhr Abends,
ete. It is probable, therefore, that both gender and number could be
usually dispensed with in nouns.

With regard to the case of nouns, it will be observed that the tend-
ency of all the Teutonic and Romance languages has been to get rid
of them. French and Spanish have succeeded completely ; the Eng-
lish retains the genitive; the German the nominative, genitive, dative
and accusative, in some instances. The cases have been supplied by
the use of pronouns and prepositions, and we shall be wise to respect
this tendency as indicative of linguistic progress. It is historically
clear that to attempt to restore the case endings of nouns would be to
steer directly against the current of linguistic evolution. There has
even been an effort both in English and German to dispense with the
genitive by substituting a possessive pronoun for the case ending, as
* John his book,’’ ‘* Ludwig sein Pferd ;”? while the Berlin dialect of
the lower classes has often but one termination for both genitive and
dative, where pure German has two.

The use of the possessive pronoun to indicate the genitive is simple
and logical; it prevails in most American languages and most jargons ;
and is quite adapted to the end. In fact, some: dialects, such as the
French Creole of Trinidad, Martinique and St. Thomas, contain no
pronominal adjectives, and make out very well by placing the per-
sonal pronoun like any other attributive case, after the noun, as liv li,

1888.] 9 [Volapiik.

‘«his book,” literally ‘book he.’’ It might be queried whether the
universal language would not gain in ease and simplicity by adopting
this method of placement.

The dative, or régime indirecte, could be supplied in a similar man-
ner by a pronoun in an oblique form. There is no necessity for more
than two oblique cases of the pronoun, and they can be added to all
nouns as a substitute for prepositions, when needed for clearness.

The pronouns of the modern tongues, and especially of their collo-
quial dialects, demonstrate that the relative, interrogative and demon-
strative forms can be blended without loss of lucidity. The German
der, the English that, are both relative and demonstrative; the French
qui and ¢a are both relative and interrogative in Creole.

The reflexive pronoun is used very unnecessarily in most modern
Aryan tongues. There is no logical propriety in the French Je me casse
le bras. The use of sucha form should be greatly restricted.

The verb has tense and mood, number and person. It is conjugated
in all Aryan languages sometimes regularly, sometimes irregularly ,
and it has many forms. In studying its history, however, no one can
overlook its steady tendency toward simplification of the form of the
theme and the adoption of the periphrastic method of conjuga-
tion, or that by auxiliaries. By this process the verb loses all inflec-
tions and is reduced to a single form ; person and number are expressed
in the subject, tense and mode by auxiliaries. This should be the
process adopted by the universal language, with perhaps the exception
that the simple past and future might be expressed by terminations,
every verb being absolutely regular. The future termination is now
lost in English and German, and.even the past termination is often dis-
pensed with in both tongues, as “I give,” ‘‘I did give,” “ich that
geben ;”’ but as both are vigorous in the cultivated Romance tongues,
these formal elements might be conceded.

A very delicate question relates to the substantive verb, ‘‘to be.”
Shall we omit it or express it? The Latin rarely introduces it, and
there are numerous tongues in which it has no equivalent. On the
other hand, modern Aryan speech has developed it markedly; the
Spanish has its ser and estar, the German its sein and werden, expres-
sive of shades of meaning included in our verb ‘‘to be.” This promi-
nence of the expressions for existence seems to be connected with
marked psychological advances, and a ripening self-consciousness, as
has been lately set forth by a profound French critic of language, M.
Raoul de la Grasserie. We should be inclined, therefore, to respect this
expression, and allow it ina universal language the prominence it enjoys
in most Aryan tongues of modern type.

The prepositions offer great difficulties in modern languages. The
most of them can be omitted by making all verbs which have an active
meaning govern their object directly, and have the direct object follow
the verb and the indirect object placed later in the sentence. The

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. soc. Xxv. 127. B. PRINTED FEB. 20, 1888.

Volaptik. ] 10 [Jan. 6,

phrase, ‘‘give to the child a spoon,”’ would be just as intelligible in the
form ‘‘ give spoon child,” if we remember that the direct precedes the
indirect object.

The simplification of grammatical forms here proposed involves an
equal simplification in syntax, and this is an enormous gain. But it
involves also the loss of freedom of position, so conspicuous a feature
in Latin, and by some so highly esteemed. But philosophically con-
sidered, thisfreedom of position is solely a rhetorical and artistic gain,
not a logical superiority. Grammarians even of the classical tongues
are perfectly aware that there is a fixed logical arrangement of words
in a sentence, and this, and this alone, is the only arrangement which
a universal language should adopt. This arrangement may be briefly
given as follows: Subject before predicate ; noun before its adjective;
verb or adjective before qualifying adverbs, immediate object before
remote object. This is the logical course of thought and should be the
universal form of expression. It was a dubious advantage to the
Greeks and Latins that their numerous inflections permitted them to
disregard it.

Those languages which rely largely on position obtain rhetorical
grace by a recognized value assigned to alterations of position; and
this would apply equally to the scheme proposed.

Other questions will arise in the projecting of a universal language.
Shall we adopt postpositions as well as prepositions ? Shall we indi-
cate inflections by internal vowel changes ? Shall we have free recourse
to affixes, suffixes and infixes? Shall we postfix conjunctions, like the
Latin? Shall we manufacture entirely new roots from which to form
new words and derivatives ?

To all these questions your committee replies with an emphatic
negative. All such processes are contrary to the spirit which has per-
vaded the evolution of the Aryan languages for the last two thousand
years, and their adoption would violate the indicated rules for the
formation of a universal Aryan speech.

RAB

In applying the principles which have been above set forth to the
creation of the Rev. Johann Martin Schleyer, we find something to
praise and much to condemn in his attempt.

Mr. Schleyer first published a sketch of his proposed universal lan-
guage in 1878, and the first edition of his grammar in 1880. It has
been welcomed with applause in Germany, and efforts have been made
with some success to introduce it into France, England and America.

His scheme is evidently the result of conscientious labor and thought,
and he manifests a just appreciation of the needs of the time; but un-
fortunately the theory of construction he has adopted is in conflict
with the development of both the-Teutonic and Romance languages,
and full of difficulties to the learner.

$

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Eesti NOES gpl

1888. ] 11 [Volapiik.

Beginning with its phonetics we find that he has retained the impure
German modified vowels &, 6, ti, the French j (dsch), as well as the
aspirated f or rough breathing. He has eight vowels and nineteen
consonants where five vowels and sixteen consonants should suffice ;
elsewhere he extends his alphabet to thirty-seven letters. He also in-
troduces various diacritical marks indicating accent, tones, vocal
inflection and quantity, all of which we consider needless and obstruc-
tive. Double consonants are numerous, and the Volapiik is both
written and printed with underscoring and italic letters, necessary to
facilitate its comprehension.*

The lexicography is based largely on the English, about 40 per cent
of the words being taken from that tongue, with phonetic modifica-
tions. These modifications do not regard the other Aryan languages,
and various sounds of the Volapiik alphabet could not be pronounced
by a member of any Aryan nation without special oral teaching. This
we regard as a fatal defect.

Moreover, many words are manufactured from entirely new radicals,
capriciously, or even fantastically formed, and this we condemn.

The article is omitted, which is well; but the nouns are inflected
through a genitive, dative and accusative case, and a plural number.
The signs of these cases are respectively a, e, t, and of the plural s.

Diminutives, comparatives and superlatives are formed by prefixes
and suffixes, and on the same plan adverbs are formed from adjectives,
and adjectivesfrom nouns. Thus, silef, silver ; silefik, silvery ; silefikiim,
more silvery; silefikiin, most silvery ; silefiko, silverly. It will be ob-
served that while this process is not dissimilar to that once frequent
in the Aryan stock, it is not analogous to that which the evolution of
that stock indicates as its perfected form.

In the conjugation the subject follows the verb, bin—ob, I am 3 where
bin=am, ob=I. This we object to as contrary to the logical arrange-
ment of the proposition. We are surprised to see the German third
person plural (Sie) retained by the author as a ‘courteous’ form. It
should be the first duty of a universal language to reject such national
solecisms.

The tense is indicated by prefixes, a, e, 7, for the imperfect, perfect,
and pluperfect active, o and u for the two futures.

The passive voice has the prefix p, the subjunctive by the suffix la,
the optative and imperative by the suffix 6s, the infinitive by the suffix
én. Abstracts are formed by adding al, as mon, money ; monal, love
of money, avarice. These suffixes are to be placed in fixed relations to
the root, and hence often become infixes.

The excessive multiplication of forms lends to Volaptik an appear-
ance totally un-Aryan. The verbal theme is modified by sixteen suf-

* These remarks are based upon the seventh edition of Schleyer’s Mittlere Grammatik
der Universalsprache Volapiik (Konstanz, 1887).

Volapiik.] : 12 (Jan. 6,

fixes and fourteen prefixes. There are a ‘‘durative”’ tense, and a
‘‘jussive”? mood, conjunctive, optative, gerund and supine forms, all
indicated by added syllables, reminding one of the overloaded themes
of Turanian tongues. This mechanism is not only superfluous, but if
any lesson may be learned from the history of articulate speech, it
is precisely the opposite to what the universal language should and
must be.

The meaning is largely derived from placement, as will be seen in
the following example, in which gudikos is the neuter adverbial noun
‘“‘ooodness,”’ das Gute ; plidos, from English ‘‘please,”’ the third singu-
lar indicative.

Gudikos plidds Gode.

Goodness pleases God.

Plidos Gode gudik.

It pleases God the good (the good God).

Plidos gudik Gode.

It pleases well God.

Andsoon. It is acknowledged by the author that obscurities may
easily arise from these transpositions, and there is much dependence on
accents and tones.

From this brief comparative examination of the evolutionary ten-
dencies of the Aryan tongues and the scheme of a universal language
as offered in the works of Mr. Schleyer, it is plainly evident that the
two are in absolute opposition.

Volapiik is synthetic and complex ; all modern dialects become more
and moreanalytic and grammatically simple; the formal elements of
Volapiik are those long since discarded as outgrown by Aryan speech ;
its phonetics are strange in parts to every Aryan; portions of its vocab-
ulary are made up for the occasion ; and its expressions involve una-
voidable obscurities. With an ardent wish for the formation and
adoption of such a universal tongue, and convinced as we are that now
is thetime ripe for its reception, we cannot recommend Volapiik as
that which is suited to the needs of modern thought. On the contrary,
it seems to usa distinct retrogression in linguistic progress. Nor in
this day of combined activities does it appear to us likely that any
one individual can so appreciate the needs of civilized nations as to
frame a tongue to suit them all. Such a task should be confided to
an international committee from the six or seven leading Aryan na-
tionalities.

In conclusion, your committee would respectfully suggest that
it would eminently befit the high position and long-established repu-
tation for learning of the American Philosophical Society, to take
action in this matter, without delay, and to send an official pro-
position to the learned societies of the world to unite in an interna-

\e

y

1888. ] 1 3 [Volapiik.

tional committee to devise a universal language for business, epistolary,
conversational and scientific purposes. As the time once was when
the ancestors of all Aryans spoke the same tongue, so we believe that
the period is now near when once again a unity of speech can be es-
tablished, and this speech become that of man everywhere in the civy-
ilized world for the purposes herein set forth.

Your Committee therefore offers the following resolution :

Resolved, That the President of the American Philosophical Society
be requested to enclose a copy of this Report to all learned bodies with
which the Society is in official relations, and to such other societies and
individuals as he may deem proper, with a letter asking their co-opera-
tion in perfecting an international scientific terminology, and also a lan-
guage for learned, commercial and ordinary intercourse, based on the
Aryan vocabulary and grammar in their simplest forms; and to that
end proposing an international congress, the first meeting of which
shall be held in London or Paris.

D. G. Brinton, Chairman,

HENRY PHILLIPS, JR.,

MONROE B. SNYDER,
Committee.

Supplementary Report of the Committee appointed to Examine into the
Scientific Value of Volaptk, ete.

The former Report having been recommitted, your Committee avails
itself of the opportunity to explain more clearly the aim of the previous
paper, to meet some of the objections offered against particular state-
ments, and, at the request of several members, to enlarge the scope of
the Report, so as to embrace a brief consideration of the two other
universal languages recently urged upon the public, the “ Pasilengua’’
of Steiner, and the ‘‘ International Language ” of Samenhof.

The aim of the Committee was strongly to urge the desirability of

taking immediate steps to establish a universal language, both for
5 ¢ is b 5

learned and general purposes. These steps, it asseverated, should be
taken by the learned world asa body; the form of language adopted
should be endorsed by the scientific societies of all nations; by their
recommendation it should be introduced into schools and universities,
and competent private teachers would soon make it familiar to all who
would have oceasion to use it. The Report distinctly states (p. 4) that
it is in nowise expected that this international language will supplant
any existing native tongue. It is to be learned in addition to the native
tongue, and not in place of it.

The aim of the grammatical portion of the Report was simply to
maintain three theses; first, that the pronunciation of the proposed.
tongue should be so simple that it could be learned by any one speaking

Volapiik.] 14 (Jan. 6,

an Aryan language, without the necessity of oral instruction; second-
ly, that its grammar should be simplified to the utmost; and thirdly,
that its lexicon should be based on the large common property of words
in the Aryan tongues.

Your Committee repeats and insists that these are the indispensable
requisites to any such proposed international tongue. It does not insist
that the individual suggestions and recommendations contained in the
report should be urged at all hazards. They were advanced rather as
hints and illustrations, than as necessary conditions. Nevertheless,
they were not offered hastily, and your Committee desires to refer to
some of the main arguments advanced against them. This it is pre-
pared for the better, through the complaisance of Professors Seiden-
sticker and Easton, who have forwarded to the Committee, at its re-
quest, abstracts of their remarks.

Both these very competent critics attack the principle of deducing
the grammar of the proposed language from the latest evolution of Aryan
speech, to wit: the jargons. Professor Seidensticker accuses such a
grammar of ‘‘ poverty,’ andadds: ‘‘A higher organism is of necessity
more complex than a lower one.’’? Professor Easton denies that the
later is the better form; or, to use his own words, ‘‘ that the change
from an inflected to an analytic tongue marks an advance in psycho-
logic apprehension.’’

These criticisms attack a fundamental thesis of your Committee, and
as they doubtless express the views of very many, they must be met.

In our opinion, they rest upon a radical misconception of the whole
process of linguistic evolution. The crucial test of the development of
language is that the sentence shall express the thought intended to be
conveyed, and nothing more. When this can be attained simply by the
order of words inthe sentence, without changes in those words, such
changes are not merely useless, they are burdensome, and impede the
mind. All paradigmatic inflections, whether of nouns, adjectives or
verbs, are relics of lower linguistic organization, of a barbaric condi-
tion of speech, and are thrown aside as useless lumber by the active

linguistic faculty in the evolution of jargons. Compare a simple Latin

sentence from Cicero with its translation into English, which is a
jargon of marked type, and note how much is dropped, and with what
judicious economy: Romanis equitibus litere afferuntur. ‘Letters are
brought to the Roman Knights.’? One word here will serve to illustrate
all. In Latin the speaker must think of the adjective Romanis as
masculine, not feminine, or neuter; as plural, not singular; as a dative,
not a nominative, accusative, or vocative form ; as agreeing in all these
points with the noun it qualifies; and finally, as of the first, and not of
the second, third, or of some irregular declension. All this needless
labor is saved in the English adjective Loman by the method of posi-
tion or placement. And so it is with every other word in this sentence.
The evidence, both from theory and from history, is conclusive that

1888.] 15 [Volapuk.

the progress of language, linguistic evolution, means the rejection of
all paradigms and inflections, and the specialization of the process of
placement.

Professor Easton maintains that this method (that of placement)

‘introduces an element of great difficulty into the language, and also
doubts the acceptance of the logical order stated in the Report.

To the first of these objections the obvious answer is that the method
of placement is that uniformly adopted in ali jargons and mixed tongues,
which is positive proof that it is the least difficult of any method of ex-
pressing relation. As to the logical order referred to by the Committee,
it is surprising that any exception should be taken to it, as it is that
stated in the common classical text-books.

Some related minor points remain to be noticed. In opposing vocal
inflection signs and accents, on p. 5 of the Report, the Committee re-
ferred only to the written, not to the spoken language. The phonetic
formation proposed is insisted upon only to the extent that no sound

should be introduced which would be strange to the six leading Aryan
languages. The substitution of placement for prepositions, recommended
on page 9, was meant asillustrative merely. The particular statement
that the Berlin dialect (of the lower class) has but one termination for
both genitive and dative is upon the authority of Dr. and Mrs. Seler,
of Berlin, the former a professed linguist, the latter born and raised in
that city. The question whether in the German expression, sechs Uhr
Abends, the word Uhr is asingular form with a plural meaning, is con-
tradicted by Professor Seidensticker; but in view of the strictly analo-
gous Spanish expression, las seis horas de la tarde, the Committee
maintains its original opinion.

Passing from these specific animadversions, there were some general
objections which should be answered. Various speakers maintained
that the project of an international language is impossible of realiza-
tion ; others asserted that it was unnecessary ; others that even if real-
ized, such a tongue could have no figurative or artistic wealth of re-
sources.

To these strictures it is replied that within eight years Volapiik is
claimed to have acquired one hundred thousand students; within a
month it has attracted attention all over the United States; within a
week a number of German merchants have announced to their foreign
correspondents that in future it will be used in their business communi-
cations. If this is the case with so imperfect a language, backed by no
State, no learned body, not even by the name of any distinguished
scholar, what would be the progress of # tongue perfect in adaptation,
and pipported by all these aids to its introduction? In a decade it
would be current among ten million people. That it would be barren
in figurative meanings, or sterile in the expression of the loftier senti-
ments, is inconceivable, because, formed, though it would be , of de-
liberate purpose, the inherent, ever-active, linguistic faculty of the

Volapiik,] : 16

race would at once seize upon it, enrich it, mould it, and adapt it to all
the wants of man, to the expression of all his loves and hates, his pas-
sions and hopes.

Your Committee closes with a reference to the remaining two
tongues now claimants for universal adoption.

The ‘ Pasilengua”’ (Gemeinsprache, ‘‘ Tongue of All’) was intro-
duced by P. Steiner, in 1885, with a small grammar and dictionary,
published inGerman. The ‘International Language” of Dr. L. Samen-
hof, of Warsaw, is an arrival of the present year, and is explained by
him in a small volume, issued in French, in his native city, under the
pseudonym of ‘‘ Dr. ’Esperanto.”’

Both these have pursued the correct path in the formation of their
vocabulary ; they both proceed on the plan of collecting all words com-
mon to the leading Aryan languages, changing their form as little as
possible consistently with reducing them to an agreeable phoneticism,
and when the same word has acquired diverse significations, selecting
that which has the broadest acceptation. The plan of Dr. Samenhof
is especially to be recommended in this respect, and may be offered as
an excellent example of sound judgment. It is remarkable, and re-
markably pleasant, to see how easy it is to acquire the vocabulary of
either of these writers, and this is forcible testimony how facile it
would be to secure an ample and sonorous stock of words, practically
familiar to us already, for the proposed Universal Tongue.

Unfortunately, the alphabets of both employ various diacritical
marks and introduce certain sounds not universal to the leading
Aryan tongues. These blemishes could, however, be removed without
much difficulty.

It is chiefly in the grammar that both err from the principles strenu-
ously advocated by your present Committee. The -asilengua has an
article with three genders, to, ta, te, corresponding to the German der,
die, das; it has also three case endings to the noun, besides the nomi-
native form, which itself changes for singular and plural, masculine
and feminine. In the verb the tenses are formed by suffixes, six for
the indicative, four for the subjunctive; while a number of other sut-
fixes indicate participles, gerunds, imperatives, ete.

In the same manner, Dr. Samenhof expresses the relation of the ele-
ments of the proposition in the sentence ‘+ by introducing prefixes and
suffixes.”? “All the varying grammatical forms, the mutual relation
of words to each other, are expressed by the union of invariable words”?
(Langue Internationale, p. 18). He acknowledges that this is ‘*wholly
foreign to the construction of* Kuropean [he means Aryan] languages,’?
but claims that it yields a grammar of such marvelous simplicity that
the whole of it could be learned in one hour. In reality, it is what is
known to linguists as the agglutinative process, and is found in the
Ural-Altaic tongues, in high perfection.

It will be seen at once that the grammatic theories of both these

[Jan. 6,

cen Strititan alocet

a es

1888, ] 17 [Volapiik.

tongues are directly in opposition to that advocated in the present and
the previous Reports. These are both distinct retrogressions to an earlier,
less developed, and more cumbersome form of language than that
which dispenses with paradigms and inflections of all kinds.

Nevertheless, these repeated efforts go to show that an international
language is needed, that it is asked for, that it is coming, and justify
the propriety of this Society, which as far back as the second decade
of this century marked itself as a leader in linguistic science, taking
the van in this important and living question.

After discussion, during which amendments to the resolution
originally proposed by the Committee were offered by Prof.
Cope and Mr. Dudley, the Society adopted the following reso-
lution by an unanimous vote:

Resolwed, That the President of the American Philosophical Society be
requested to address a letter to all learned bodies with which this Society
is in official relations, and to such other societies and individuals as he
may deem proper, asking their codperation in perfecting a language for
learned and commercial purposes based on the Aryan vocabulary and
grammar in their simplest forms ; and to that end proposing an Interna-
tional Congress, the first meeting of which shall be held in London or
Paris.

The death of Prof. F. V. Hayden was announced December
22, 1887, wt. 60, and the President was authorized to appoint
a suitable person to prepare the usual obituary notice.*

The Secretaries read the report of the Judges and Clerks of
the Annual Election held this afternoon for Officers and Coun-
cil, stating that the following had been duly elected :

President.

Frederick Fraley.

Vice-Presidents.

HE. Otis Kendall, W.S. W. Ruschenberger, J. P. Lesley.

Secretaries,
George F. Barker, Daniel G. Brinton, Henry Phillips, Jr.,
George H. Horn.
* Prof. J. P. Lesley subsequently appointed.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, Xxv. 127. c. PRINTED FEB. 20, 1888.

18 (Jan. 6, 1888.

Councilors for three years.

| Aubrey H. Smith, J. Cheston Morris, Edward D. Cope,
George R. Morehouse.

<a

Curators.

Charles G. Ames, John R. Baker, Philip H. Law.

{|
i
|
Treasurer.
J. Sergeant Price.
|
On motion of Mr. Dudley, Henry Phillips, Jr., was nomi-
nated for Librarian and the nominations were closed.

Prof, Philip R. Uhler, of Baltimore, read a paper on “ The
| Albirupean formation and its nearest relatives in Maryland.”
In the discussion following, Prof. Lewis and Prof. Heilprin dif-
i fered from the writer in their views of the age of the
formations to which he referred, Prof. Lewis considering
them Silurian, and Prof. Heilprin as Paleeozoic and not Meso-
ZOle.

The reading of new nominations Nos. 1178, 1174 and 1175
was postponed to the next stated meeting.

The communication from the Pennsylvania Commission on
Amended Orthography was taken up, and on motion of Mr.
DuBois, the President was authorized to appoint at his leisure
| a committee of three members to consider the subject referred
to and to report the same to the Society.*

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

# Messrs, DuBois, Phillips and MacAlister subsequently appointed.

ee

pre

C
Dec. 16, 1887.] 1 9 (Haupt.

THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENA
or
HARBOR ENTRANCES.
THEIR CAUSES*-AND REMEDIES.
DEFECTS OF PRESENT METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT.

By Lewis M. Haupt, C.E.

(Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Phila.)

This Paper was awarded the Magellanic Premium at a Stated Meeting
of the American Philosophical Society, held December 16, 1887.

Every well-considered plan for improving the entrance to a
harbor must take into account the existing physical conditions
or features of the site, and the causes which have produced
them. These features are composed of the land-drainage, the
inner basin, the gorge, the outer basin, the bar and the ocean.
In passing from the fresh to the salt water system, there may
be one or more channels having some peculiar characteristics,
which are not mere accidents, but the results of certain
forces. Before any radical or permanent improvement can be
effected it is necessary that the forces operating at any point
should be fully understood, and, so far as possible, be measured.
In tracing step by step the causes from their effects, I have
found the circle of investigation unavoidably widening, until
it embraced many of the physical phenomena pertaining to the
North Atlantic Ocean.

The initial point in this study is the form of the bed or
mould of alluvial harbors, supposed to be of material suf-
ficiently plastic to reveal the effect of the forces operating upon
them. I have heretofore elsewhere called attention to the im-

portant deductions to be obtained from noting the position of

Haupt. ] 20 (Dee. 16,

the submerged crest line of bars, as well as from the relative
slopes of sections along the thalweg of the channel or across
the bar, as indicating the direction of movement of the sand
and of the flexure of the outer ends of the channels, after pass-
ing the gorge, either up or down the coast. The immediate
cause of this flexure was asserted to be a littoral component
which rolled up the sand on the flood tide and compressed the ebb
stream against one or other of the adjacent shores. But why
this resultant should have been so constantly operating in
opposite directions at different entrances was not then fully
understood or stated.

It is the object of this paper to collate certain observed facts,
for the purpose of explaining these phenomena and of deducing
therefrom a conclusion of practical value in the economical

solution of the problem of improving our harbor entrances.

TypicaL Forms. (See Plate I.)

In examining the plan of any entrance it is generally found
that the ends of the islands forming the outlying cordon are
elongated into spits or hooks, curving inward, with a smooth
outer and a rugged inner shore line; that one of the points is
sharp, and the other blunt or round headed; that the sharp
point usually recedes from the general coast line; that the sea-
ward slope of a cross section of the bar is less steep than the
inner slope, except where the ebb streams cross it; that the
flood tide usually approaches the entrance at first in a direc-
tion more nearly parallel to the sharper lip and normal to the
blunt one, rolling tp the gentler slope and depositing sand on

or within the crest of the bar, where “breakers” are found ;

that along the shore of the sharp point there is a shallow
channel cut out by the flood, and curving around the blunt, e
projecting lip of the gorge there is the main deep-water chan-

PLATE I.

o

1887.] 21 (Haupt.

nel produced by the ebb. Between these limits are found one
or more secondary or swash channels, which provide egress for
the lateral overflow, so to speak, of the ebb and correspond

to the waste weirs or crevasses of a stream.

CHARLESTON HARBOR.

These characteristics are well illustrated in the harbor of
Charleston, 8. C., as seen on the chart of 1858 (Big. i)
I have selected this early date as it shows the current
movements and condition of channels before extensive im-
provements were begun. Here. the thalweg approaches the
gorge ina direction nearly east and west, and on passing out
it is deflected fully 90°, and extends nearly north and south.
Hugging the northern spit is the flood channel, known as
Maffit’s or Sullivan’s Island channel, with nine (9) feet on
its crest at the daner end. Then appear the breakers of
Jrunken Dick shoal, followed by the weir channels known as
the North channel, with ten (10) feet at its ower end; the
swash channel, nine (9) feet; the main ship channel, eleven
(11) feet, and Lawford’s channel, ten (10) feet.

The shortest distance to the outer eighteen (18) feet contour
from the gorge is three arid one-fourth (34) statute miles,
whilst by the main ship channel courses it is seven (7) miles,
or more than double, so that vessels entering from the north
must make a detour of nearly fourteen (14) miles to cross the
bar.

At the only current station outside the bar the set of the
flood during the first and second quarters (its most energetic
beriod) is parallel to the shore of Sullivan’s Island, or
about west south- west, but it swings around through west
to nearly north-west, or normal to the gorge during the
last quarter. The stations inside of and on the bar show

Haupt. | 22 [Dec. 16,

local modifications of the ‘flood and a movement towards the
entrance, due to the diminution of resistance in that direction,
especially during the last quarters of the flood. The plane of
maximum ebb scour, as indicated by the depth of water on
the bar, is limited to about twelve (12) feet.

Similar features will be noticed at Galveston (Fig. 2)
and at other entrances, but it does not always happen that the
crossing of the bar isso far from the gorge, nor is it always to the
south. The position of this important pointis the resultant of the
internal and external forces which affect the movement of the

main ebb stream.

THE FORCES.

The internal forces are those resulting from the form and
extent of the inner basin, the volume of the tidal prism and
the relative directions of the tidal and river currents as they
approach the gorge. The external effects are those resulting
from the form, position and extent of the banks which have
been piled up by the flood and obstruct the ebb. Hence it fol-
lows, if the flood pressure and movement is from the south
side of the entrance the channel will be to the north, as the
banks will be more extensive on the former side, offering
greater resistance and deflecting the ebb stream and crowding
it in until it is supported on its opposite flank by the shore. If
the flood resultant comes in from the northern side, the reverse
is true.

Again, if the confluent ebb streams of the inner basin are so
directed by natural or artificial constructions as to commingle
and unite their energies, instead of opposing one another, as most
frequently occurs, the momentum of the united stream will be
greater and the crossing on the bar be consequently deepened.
This will be better understood by observing that the inner

Entrance to

Charleston Harbor, S.C,

Entrance to Galveston Harbor, lexas.,

biG - 18

ey Vii) Ll es Lie

on ea

Q Yi eee tg .
N se ae Loy er Te * I
Poo AC, Se
ie fi: ri £

—~—

t

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i
|

1887.] 23 {Haupt.

basin is generally composed of three subdivisions, viz: One
extending along the islands on either hand, and one stretching
to the rear. Atthe ebb of the tide the prisms of discharge

are all approaching the gorge at the same time. In consequence.

of the inward flexure of the spit at this place, one or both of
the lateral currents are reflected into the face of the main
discharge, and thus diminish its energy, which it is the object
of the engineer to conserve.

These general effects can be seen by a comparison of the
position and depth of the bar crossings along the coast line of
the Middle and Southern States. One of the most striking
and typical instances of the effect of the internal concentra-
tion and conservation of energy is that of the Port Royal en-
trance, where there is a depth of twenty-one (21) feet on the
bar, due to the increased intensity of the resultant ebb, pro-
duced by the confluence of the Beaufort, Broad and Cheches-
see rivers, whose thalwegs approach in directions nearly par-
allel. Here, too, is observed the flexure of the outer stream to
the southward, showing clearly the existence of an excess of
flood action from the northward, and the piling up of sand
banks on this side to be eroded by the ebb.

The opposite effect resulting from conflicting internal cur-
rents is il'ustrated in the case of the Galveston entrance
(Fig. 2),

An examination of the various entrances leaves no doubt of
the existence of such a littoral flood movement, whereby the
sands of the beaches are transported to and deposited in front of
the inlets, where the racing waves, no longer resisted by and
reflected from the shore, escape through the break in the bar-

rier which forms the outlying sandy cordon defending the coast.

aaa

Haupt. ] 24. (Dee. 16,

OcEAN DYNAMICS.

The effect of this racing of the waves in search of an escape
from the pressure of the flood tide is to scour off and prolong
the sharper lip at the gorge and to flatten out and beat back
the opposite shore, thus shifting the position of the “inlet”
until insome instances it is transported considerably to one
side of the medial line of the inner bay, or entirely closed.
Thus, the position of the thalweg is made to cross the gorge
obliquely, and furnishes additional evidence of the resultant
direction of the external or flood movement. *These movements
are fully illustrated in the comparative chart herewith sub-
mitted of Barnegat Inlet (Plate IV), from which it is seen that
the flood resultant comes in from the north, prolonging and erod-
ing the northern spit compressing the ebb against the light-
house shore, from which it has cut away so great a volume as
to seriously endanger the structure. The total movement in
about thirty-four (84) years has been half a mile, or about
eighty (80) feet per year. Had this action been previously recog-
nized the lighthouse would probably not have been placed in
so dangerous a position, but on the north spit. During the pre-
vailing north-east winds of this spring the encroachments have
been more rapid and extensive than at any previous time.
The remedy is apparent, but will be stated generally further
on in this communication. The effort of the ebb is not to
oppose the flood resultant directly, but to turn away therefrom
and assume a direction as nearly as may be at right angles
thereto.

Thus the flood will roll the sand up the gentler outer slope to
the crest in a direction normal to the main channel, while the
ebb will sweep acrossits path on the line of least resistance,

*This paragraph was interpolated here after the paper was written, See Sup lement.
paragrap is pp

1887,] 25 (Haupt.

which lies behind and parallel to the barricade formed by the
flood, and effect its maximum result at the point of minimum
resistance, which is that point of the bar farthest removed
from the direct action of the flood. This enceinte formed by
the flood is also the cause of the beach channel lying under the
near spit, since a portion of the flood is deflected by the bar
into the re-entrant between it and the shore, whilst another
portion is rolled along the beach, and these two components
unite in a resultant cutting across the inner angle of the bar
and carrying silt into the gorge.

The action of these forces may possibly be made clearer by
reference to a simple diagram :

A. Point of maximum flood force.

B. Point of minimum flood resistance.

ne
vie ra

X|
3). a)
ols :
Saggy
>! aes
eS
al ¢

ji fe

\Boe2

THe TrpaAn Movements Propucine THESE PHENOMENA.

Thus far I have been considering the local features, and de-

ducing therefrom the general condition of the hydrodynamic
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 80C. xxv. 127. D. PRINTED FEB. 20, 1887.

26 [Dee. 16,

Haupt. ]

forces which have produced the observed effects. It now re-
mains to determine why this resultant should be sometimes
from the north-east and at other times from the south-east.
This leads at once to an examination of the phenomena at-
tending the approach of the tidal wave and the position of
the éotidal lines with reference to the coast line. For this
purpose there are available the general cotidal maps of Prof.
Guyot, and the more detailed maps of Prof. Bache, accom-
panied by the tide tables of the Atlantic coast, as contained in
the United States Coast Survey Reports. Meagre as these
data are, they are yet sufficiently abundant to confirm the ex-
istence of the alleged resultant movements, and to verify in
the most satisfactory manner the reliability of this method of
determining the forces by their effects.

Although the phenomena of tidal movements in the open
ocean are but little understood, it is well known that they are
sensibly modified by the topography of the coast line.

Professor Bache says that ‘‘ where a bay or indentation of
the coast presents its opening favorably to the tidal wave and
decreases in width from the entrance towards its head, it is well
known that the tides rise higher and higher from the mouth
upwards,” while Lentz, in his “Ebb and Flow of the Tides,”
says:

“The intricate, theoretical, tide-generating conditions are
complicated by a number of circumstances, forming a be-
wildering labyrinth of causes and results, through which the
human mind cannot find its way.”

“The numberless tidal waves rushing through the ocean in
all directions may be compared to those formed by throwing
ten (10) or twenty (20) stonesinto a small pond. By watching
these we may learn as much as we know about the tidal waves
moving on our ocean,” and he adds, “this certainly is discour-

¢
1887.] 27 [Haupt.

aging, and we only know that we do not know anything.”
While this conclusion may be true as to the currents in the
open sea, it cannot be applied to those along shore, for an ex-
amination of our coast line reveals some striking and definite
features. These are, the existence of four (4) prominent
salients upon which the tidal crest impinges, and by which it
is broken up into components, which are deflected into the
bays on either side. At the points of incidence there will
generally be found large inner sounds, extensive shoals and
bars, and the heavy precipitation resulting from the checking
of the momentum of the wave, the change in its direction and
the interference and eddies produced thereby. Then follows
the comparatively smooth reach of straight beach, along which
the component tidal waves travel inland from the chord join-
ing the salient capes, and finally, the indented and serrated
shore where the opposing components in the same sinus meet
at the point farthest from the chord, and where the tides are
highest, the marshes most extensive, and the outlying cordon
of sand is replaced by numerous islands and intricate “ back”
channels. Here the tidal wave is brought to rest, and exerts
its energy in a direction nearly normal to the coast, whilst
along the flanks of the bay it is moving obliquely to the shore,
but always towards the bight, except when locally disturbed,
and with adynamic energy, begotten in mid-ocean, which com-
presses the sand upon the shores and transports it in the direc-
tion of that motion.

The motor in the case of the flood tide is chiefly universal
gravitation, which raises the crest of the flood wave from two
(2) to five (5) feet, and rollsit forward upon our eastern coast
line until its acquired momentum is met, modified and ulti-
mately destroyed by the inertia of the mass of sand which it

encounters.

Haupt. ] 28 [Dec. 16.

So far as the ebb is concerned, it merely rolls off from the
fore-shore, chiefly under the influence of terrestrial gravita-
tion, and: having its initial velocity at high-water line, its

| transporting energy is feeble, and it, therefore, exerts no ma-

terial influence in modifying the exterior lines of the coast.

THe SOUTHERN Bay.

These generalities are more clearly exemplified and con-
firmed by the facts exhibited on the accompanying chart
(Plate III). Beginning at Cape Florida, the heights of the tides
at the various external stations are marked in feet, whilst the
cotidal lines are plotted as enlarged from the United States
Survey Report of 1854.

By following the coast northwardly from Cape Florida, it

will be found that the height of the tide increases from 1.5 to
about 7.4 feet at Jekyl Island, between St. Simon and St. An-
drew’s Sounds, which is the most remote point, about two
hundred (200) miles, from the chord of the arc; also, that
the outer ends of the main or ebb channels are flexed
| northwardly, and that even the land drainage extends in
the same general direction. As the bight of the bay is
| approached, the land discharge becomes more nearly nor-
mal to the coast and the shore line more deeply indented,
and after passing this point, the tidal elevations decrease
(with one exception), the directions of the land and
channel discharges are reversed and the shore lines be-
come smoother. ‘This reach of coast is characterized by
three secondary bays, separated by the groins of Cape
Lookout and Cape Fear. These capes are the resultants of
the opposition of the tidal wave to the fresh water dis-
charge, which being unable to effect its escape in the face of
the flood is turned to the west and south by the pressure of the

eo

1887.] 29 (Haupt.

tidal component deflected from Cape Hatteras. An inspection
of any general map of North Carolina reveals the fact that
instead of the rivers being normal to the coast, they are
turned for considerable distances back from their mouths into
a direction nearly parallel with the shore line, and effect their
discharge under the lee of the Cape, thus conforming to the
general law of least resistance.

The capes and bars thus formed by the parallel and con-
fluent fresh and salt water currents deflect the littoral compo-
nent until it is met by the direct flood crest and returned to.
the beach near the middle point of each of the three (8) bays,
Raleigh’s, Onslow’s and Long’s. Here it is resolved into sec-
ondary littoral currents along the ellipses thus formed. The
eastwardly components of these waves compress the ebb chan-
nels against the eastern shores of the outlets, as at Beaufort,
N.C., while those to the westward, reinforced by the original
wave, race along the beach, closing or shoaling the inlets and
forming with the land drainage the long spits above described.

The time of high water is also much earlier outside or to the
eastward of the cape than it is within, in consequence of the
circuitous route required to be taken by the flood. The
suction thus produced causes a draft current to the eastward,
which deflects the ebb discharge from the inlets in this latter

direction and increases the height of the tides inside the capes.

It is also a notable fact that a straight line drawn from Cape
Roman to Hatteras is just tangent to Capes Lookout and Fear,
and that the transverse and semi-conjugate axes of the ellipses
of Long and Onslow Bays are respectively equal, while Raleigh
Bay is somewhat smaller in both directions and has a steeper
scarp than either of the others (due to the incident wave).
The shore to the north of Cape Hatteras is deflected from the
chord of the three bays produced at an angle of 45° for a dis-

Haupt. ] 30 [Dec. 16,

tance of twenty-six (26) miles, when it again bends to the
westward through an angle of 30°, and continues in an un-
broken stretch of ninety-four (94) miles to Cape Henry. The
only outlets on the eastern cordon of Hatteras are near the
point of deflection where the northward component from the
cape and the normal wave commingle.

The cotidal curve of eleven and one-half (11}) hour interval
envelopes the cape in an arc of a circle whose radius is seventy-
three (73) miles, whilst the shore line changes its direction
through an angle of 74°. The limiting radii of this sector
also pass through the main openings of the cordon at Oregon
and Ocracoke Inlets, which are opposite the tangent points of
the arc, and hence indicate the locus of the change of direction
and weakening of the tidal wave. The coast line will also be
found to be inclined to these radii at an angle of 80° which
indicates the direction of the shore component at the points of
intersection. At Ocracoke the chord of the bay lies 10° north
of the tangent, and at Oregon (Plate II) 10° to the west, show-
ing the movements to be east and north.

The velocity of the wave is greatest along the normal at
Cape Hatteras and least along the radii limiting the sector.
An examination of the interval between the cotidal lines shows
also that the rate of movement of the general crest is consid-
erably returded as it approaches the shore. The twelve (12)
hour crest will be seen with its flanks rolling along the receding
shores of the bays, as already described. The earliest points
of contact of the tidal wave are readily discovered from this
chart to be at or near the points formerly indicated in this
paper, whilst the latest point is at Jekyl’s island, which is
found by measurement to be just midway between Capes
Florida and Hatteras, thus making the times of transit to this

point of meeting of the flood components, equal.

PLATE Il.

25

83
39
31 40
s 2 43
re 43
22
ey
yo 2
4 ~ :
oa
+

a9

suayoetd

OREGON INLET .

2. CAROLINA

a

1887.] 31 [Haupt.

THe MiIppLE Bay

Extends from Cape Hatteras to Nantucket, a distance of
about five hundred and forty (540) miles. Its longest ordinate
is that opposite the New York entrance, where it is one
hundred and forty (140) miles. The shore line from Cape
Henry to Sandy Hook being nearly parallel to the chord and
being broken by the two large bays of Chesapeake and Dela-
ware, there is not so great a compression of the two converg-
ing tidal components as was observed in the southern bay, yet
the same general characteristics are observable.

Proceeding north from Hatteras, there is the long sandy cor-
don, with its smooth beach stretching in an almost unbroken
curve to Cape Henry at the mouth of the bay. Here the
flood wave is interrupted and deflected by the opposing Cape
Charles, the outer shore line of which is deeply scored by
sounds and studded with islands and shoals, created by the flood
which cushions upon it. The northern component from Cape
Hatteras practically terminates here and is dissipated by the
bay and the islands of the outer coast as far up as Paramores
Bank. Inasimilar manner the component rolling westerly
from Nantucket, is absorbed by Long Island Sound and New
York and Raritan Bays. The normal flood wave approaching
the coast on either flank of Delaware Bay is resolved by the
most salient points of New Jersey and Virginia into littoral
components one of which travels from a point north of Barne-
gat, northward to Long Island. It is this component which |
has created and maintained Sandy Hook and which is eroding
the beach at Long Branch. (The westwardly, or Long Island
component has made the spit at Coney Island, and the result-
ant of both, maintains the flood channel under this point.)

The other or New Jersey component moves towards Cape May

Haupt. ] 32 [Dec. 16,

and builds the bars in front of Barnegat, Absecon and other
inlets, crowding the channels over against the southern shores
of these inlets, which are thus eroded by the ebb currents.

The same physical features will be found to result from the
components acting north and sonth from a point near Green
Run Inlet, Md., on the coast between Cape Charles and Hen-
lopen.

The tidal observations in this bay are indicated on the map
(Plate ITT) and confirm this theory. The mean rise of the tide
at Cape Charles is only 2.5 feet, because of the relief afforded by
the bay. At Cold Spring Inlet it is 44, and at New York
entrance 4.8. Here it attains its maximum height and thence
diminishes eastwardly to Nantucket. From the secondary
point of reversion near Barnegat on the New Jersey coast, the
littoral currents are indicated by the heights of the tides.
Thus at Barnegat they are 2 feet, at Absecon 3.9, at Cold
Spring 4.4, ete.

The interference of the tidal waves and the great difference
of three (3) hoursin the time of high water which is compressed
in the short space between Martha’s Vineyard and Monomoy,
is too extended a subject to be included in this paper, which
is intended merely for the alluvial coast line south of Long
Island. Its consideration is therefore omitted, but the mean
tides are recorded in part of the northern bay to illustrate the
continuance of the concentration of the tidal energy and pro-
gression as previously observed.

These same laws and phenomena are found to exist on the
Pacific Coast and will explain many of the effects which
have only been casually noted by mariners. The phenomena
are identical with those already described. The laws are of

general application.

PLATE (II.

&l
79
Ee

Sy Pe

- Ob

©
Zi 02 os

“dp
me!
47
TA
t

ott
Ry a
yerar

MW wis
ANS

patize®
‘

C Ang

Levytype Co Phila.

1887,] : 33 [ Haupt.

THe Jerry System As at Present APPLIED.

In applying tidal scour to the improvement of harbor en-
trances in the United States, these three (3) principles have
been laid down as fundamental :

1. The works should be so designed that “they should not im-
‘pede the inflow to such an extent as to prevent the tidal

“basin being filled at every influx of the tidal wave.”

2.“ They should control the outflow to such a degree and in
“such a manner that a channel of the required depth will

“be maintained through the bar.”

3. “They should not to any considerable eaxtent, cause a move-
“ment seaward of the main body of the bar; that ts, the
“general position of the bar should be independent of the
“effects produced between and beyond the heads of the
“ jetties.”

The attempt to reconcile these conflicting conditions as to
concentration of ebb and free admission of flood resulted, after
mature consideration, in a plan involving low or submerged
jetties, which were tried as an experiment both at Charleston
and Galveston. The result has been to push the body of the
bar seaward, without at the same time materially deepening
the water on its crest. The cost of these experiments has
reached nearly $3,000,000.

These plans are defective, not only in their failure to depress
the plane of tidal scour over the bar, but they are so designed
as to divert the ebb stream directly into the face of the flood,
Where the resistance to be overcome is the greatest. The plans
for Galveston have been modified, and it is now proposed to
raise the jetties to high water, at an estimated cost at this port
alone of $7,000,000. But even if this be done upon the two

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, XXV. 127. E. PRINTED FEB. 21, 1888.

34 ( [Dee. 16,

Haupt. ]

lines as proposed, there will still be the serious violation of the
first of the above established principles, and the further serious
objection of directing this diminished tidal prism into the
face of the flood, near its point of maximum energy, with noth-
ing to lower the plane of tidal scour except the small amount
of head due to contraction. This is in violation of the accepted
rule that all works designed for river or harbor improvements
should aid, rather than oppose, nature. To turn an ebb stream
out of its natural bed and deflect it by jetties across a bar is
to impose additional resistance ; first, from the change of
direction, and second, from the additional resistance opposed
by the higher crest and steeper slope of the bar. There is also
a less effective relative area of ingress due to the form of the
converging jetties.

Unless there is a large augmentation of the tidal prism by
land drainage or from some other source during the epoch of
the flood, such works will not, in general, prove beneficial.
The location of the mouth of the jetties and the general de-
sign of the works is evidence that the principles enunciated
in this paper as to the action of the flood and ebb forces have
not been, as yet, fully appreciated in the planning of works
of this description. The South Pass jetties are subjected to
totally different conditions, as the flood tide furnishes but a

very small percentage of the ebb discharge.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HARBOR IMPROVEMENTS.

From what has already been presented as to the origin of
the barsand the relations that exist between the flood and ebb
resultants, it must be evident that the engineer who proposes
to aid nature must so design his external works as to prevent
the flood tide from carrying sand into the channel to obstruct

1887.] 35 (Haupt.

the ebb and require more work of it for its removal. He
should also see that the ebb be not diverted from its course, but
be protected and defended by a line of detached breakwaters.
This will further have the effect of confining the ebb waters,
which would otherwise escape in the swash or weir channels,
to the main stream, and so concentrate their energy upon a single
point of the bar, and that point the one where the bar-building
Forces are the weakest.

This barricade should not in general be joined to the beach at
the shore end, but there should be left a wide opening across
that portion of the bar which corresponds to the flood or
beach channel. This should be deepened by the concentration
of the flood currents, and the sand carried through the gorge
would make fast land inside of the spit. Its quantity could
be regulated by the extent of the opening. Thus the tendency
of the flood to build its own barrier upon which to break
would be aided, and the ebb would be protected in its escape.
It also appears that but one such line of breakwater would in
general be required, and hence the cost would be materially
reduced. As it would occupy asite already dangerous to ves-
sels, it would not increase the risks to navigation, but on the
contrary, as it would project above the surface, it would be a
beacon as well as a breakwater, and would greatly diminish
the difficulties of effecting an entrance by sailing vessels over
the case of a double line of extended jetties with a narrow
pass between them, especially if submerged.

INTERNAL PROJECTS.

In connection with these external works there will be re-
quired in certain harbors regulating deflectors, or reaction
dikes, to prevent the current interferences which produce

hummocks, mounds, and even islands just inside the entrances

Haupt. ] 36 (Dee. 16,

The position, extent and character of these works will depend
largely upon the form and extent of the inner basin. Both the
outer and inner lines should be so adjusted as not seriously to
check the prevailing currents, nor produce shoals where they

might be injurious ‘to navigation.

Tur GENERAL PLAN.

A typical plan for a breakwater which will not produce
eddies or objectionable shoals, nor be eaten away by the
sea, would be one composed of curves whose cusps are
pointed in the direction of the advancing flood resultant,
and having an inshore flank to concentrate the flood upon the
beach channel, where it is both possible and desirable to main-
tain one. Thecurves should have the semi-conjugate diame-
ters equal to about one-fourth (4) of the transverse. The
interferences resulting from this form will produce shoals
in front of the groins, thus reinforcing them, and as the
outer end of the breakwater is pointed so as to receive
the flood point blank, there will be no eddy nor any abrupt
checking of its velocity inside to cause shoaling, yet the
flood will be freely admitted and there will be a circula-
tion created by having the beach end open. During the ebb
there is no interference with the main current, but there is a
concentration of its energy upon the weaker portion of the bar.
For an illustration of this plan reference is made to the location
on the chart of Charleston (Fig. 1), submitted herewith. The
jetties, U. S. J. now under contract, cover a total length
of six (6) miles. Those projected, of but three (8) miles, :d
the latter will make two (2) good channels, one for flood and
one for ebb, while it is very doubtful whether the for ser
will produce any material improvement of the entrance, but
it will advance the general shore line and push the bar

further to seaward.

56

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ENTRANCE

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Reproduced from the

U.S.Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart.

18 83.

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sy
1887.] By [Haupt.

The combination of this external barricade against the sand
with the internal reaction dike for current concentration is
shown in the chart of Galveston Harbor (Fig. 2), where the
general direction of the movement is illustrated by the com-
parative shore lines and by the sand caught and held in the
former channel by the south jetty. At the New York entrance
(Fig. 5) similar effects are observed. Here the flood is com-
pressed under the shore of Coney Island, where the beach
channel is found, while the various ebb channels wind over the
bar to the southward, increasing in depth as they approach
Sandy Hook. The phenomenally deep basin on the bar at the
head of Gedney’s Channel is also seen. The plans as proposed
for utilizing the existing natural forces for increasing the
scour without obstructing any of the channels, are indicated

by the heavy lines on the chart.

THe BREAKWATER.

Jetties as now constructed are frequently composed of rip-
rap stone of small dimensions, which lose nearly half of their
weight when immersed. Hence they are easily displaced, and
the work disintegrates. At Galveston the brush and stone
jetties shrank or subsided during construction 61 per cent.
The plans of the author propose to overcome this serious de-
fect by constructing the breakwater of béton or other material
constructed in barges, or on floats in the back channels, where-
by the resistance of large masses will be rapidly secured to
oppose the flood and protect the ebb. But the details of this
method of construction do not properly constitute a part of
this discovery. What is claimed as meritorious in this com-
munication, and upon which the judgment of the Society is

desired, is:

Haupt. ] 38 (Dee. 16,

le

The determination of the character, direction and relative
intensities of the forces acting upon any harbor entrance,
from a study of the submerged topography and other

local physical features.

. The discovery of the existence of typical forms in the

sandy spits bordering the entrance, which will in general
indicate the direction of the resultant movement.

The recognition of the fact that the proper place for the
ebb discharge, or channel over the bar, is as far removed
as may be from the point of direct attack of the flood
resultant, when the direction of the latter is not normal to
the coast.

The definite enunciation of the principle that the trend of
the coast with reference to the cotidal line will in general

indicate at once the proper position for defensive works.

. The presentation of an original form (in plan) of breakwater,

whereby the natural agencies are materially azded, with-

out serious interference with either the flood or ebb forces.

. A method of improvement whereby the internal currents

are concentrated and conserved for more efficient scour

after passing the gorge.

2

. A plan for utilizing the natural tendencies of the flood to

cut a beach channel which shall be available for the lighter
draught vessels.

The enunciation of the principle that the cause of the an-
gular movement of the ebb stream after egress is due to
the general form of the exterior coast line, which causes
a racing of the tidal crests, from the outer capes towards
the bight of the bay, and that the flood components thus
generated are the principal forces which build the bars
and shift the inlets. This incessant semi-diurnal action of

the flood is the controlling element in the forces affecting

A |

1887.] 39 [Haupt.

the magnitude and position of the bar. Storms and winds
may modify and shift the deposits, but eventually the

flood re-establishes the original conditions.

9. The free circulation and ingress given to the flood by the

detached breakwater, so designed as both to oppose a por-

tion of the flood and produce interfering waves which
deposit sand outside of the channel whilst it also aids the
ebb in its attack on the bar by defending its channel and
concentrating its volume.

10. For a given site and stage of water the flood movement ap-
proaches in the same direction, hence the resisting and regu-
lating works should be placed on the near side of the pro-
posed channel. If on the far side, they would be worse than
useless, unless for shore protection.

11. No artificial re-opening of an outlet which has been closed
by this flood component, can be maintained without
auxiliary works to deflect and modify its action, Dredg-
ing is only justified when the interests of navigation are
sufficient to maintain a continuance of the expense and
no other reasonable methods are available.

12. The ability resulting from these general principles to con-

. struct works requiring a lesser linear development which
will produce greater navigable depths at less cost.

18. The abolition of-the risks and difficulties attending the
navigation of narrow jetty entrances in times of danger.

14, It frequently happens that the requirements of navigation
and tidal concentration are conflicting, the former de-
manding wide entrances, the latter, on account of insuffi-
cient tidal volume, narrow ones. This debars the usual
jetties and prevents improvement. The plans herein
proposed are eminently adapted to meet such exigencies.
As, for example, at Absecon Inlet.

Haupt. ] 40 [Dec. 16,

Such being some of the practical results which it is claimed
must follow from the discovery of the general direction and
mode of action of the flood tide upon harbor inlets, an in-
telligent application of the principles should result in improv-
ing commercial intercourse, reducing the risks of navigation,
lowering the rates of freight and insurance, and cheapening
the cost of the construction of such works to the general gov-
ernment.

All of which is respectfully submitted for your consideration
in compliance with a requirement of the By-Laws govern-
ing applications requiring an impartial but searching investi-
gation.

SUPPLEMENT TO THE PAPER ON THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENA,
Ere.

Since writing the above paper, I have seen and made a copy
of a comparative survey chart of Barnegat Inlet, which so fully
sustains the theory of the cause and direction of the move-
ment and shows so conclusively the practical value of such
knowledge that it is submitted herewith as additional informa-
tion. The notes on the tracing, excepting the date of the sur-
veys, are my own, They will sufficiently explain the direc-
tions of the movements without further elaboration.

It appears from this chart, that the lighthouse erected in
1834 was destroyed by the encroachments of the sea, presum-
ably just prior to the construction of its successor in 1858.
This would give an average rate of scour on the ¢nner beach of
thirty (80) feet per year, due to the retarded flood and ebb
currents at this point.

T'o protect the present structure, which was placed about

eight hundred (800) feet to the south, three (3) or more jetties

PLATE IV.
> { :
i iUsaneutr
) Sih yenel Pee

jobarmanitests ts
jupon the tlood scou
H ut bo cease

eS SES

ebb dicly

The € indicates te proper
site for the Light House, where

nroworks will be required Kr
protecttuon

\ 389° 4.6 26
WA light Brits 1834-
Destrayed)
8 (Relugilt)
/ NOTE

} The park shaded

was all art off during the)
past winter of 1886-7 The}
Second Light House ts row

seriously endangered

B5—.

Nee x |
a
b lo y ‘1. g
’ © }
ae Ss i 8 8
aa x i / Ss
F Scale
*7 6000 4000 300020001000 $00 0
q ———L ou SPE L =e isles I F L I ia FRET BAI TSO sc ilahigilaecnabinceumndnadadaeuaae! *
% hk te o 7 Statute mile

1887.] 41 [ Haupt.

were constructed on the beach to deflect these currents. As
the ends of these structures were nearly normal to the currents,
they created eddies, were soon undermined and gradually
swallowed up by the sea, so that at present but a short stub
remains. Thus these auxiliary works prove but temporary
and ineffectual. Money is continually being expended in futile
attempts to oppose the onward march of the sea which declines
either to be flanked or resisted by shore-protection works
placed on the obstructing spit. By a change of base to the north
spit, the interests of navigation would, doubtless, be as well sub-
served and all the defensive works be rendered unnecessary.
The proper site is indicated on the tracing by a star.

The same conditions existed but a few years since at Abse-
con Inlet, and they are continually recurring wherever the
lights are on the spit opposed to the flood resultant.

So far as permanency of location is concerned, it becomes a
very simple matter therefore to select the proper site. The
local interests of navigation may require it to be nearer the
ebb channel. If, however, the flood or beach channel is im-
proved by the form of breakwater proposed in this paper, the
light may be placed on or just in rear of this structure,
which from its form will not scour deep holes to undermine
its flanks, as they do not cross the path of the flood or ebb
normally, or even at a considerable angle, and thus the ability
readily to locate a lighthouse where it will not be eroded, is

another of the practical benefits resulting from this discovery.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. xxv. 127. F. PRINTED FEB. 21, 1888.

9
Uhiler. } 42 [Jan. 6,

The Albirupean Formation and its nearest relatives in Maryland.
By Pe i. Unter,

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 6th, 1888.)

Near the mouth of the Patapsco river, almost in the path of its ship
channel, and at a distance of nearly one mile from the nearest shore of
Rock creek, there projects above the surface of the water a huge pile of
compact siliceous rock. This conspicuous body of sandstone has been
an object of interest to mariners and tourists ever since the entrance to
the harbor of Baltimore was first discovered. Almost from the first set-
tlement of the region this island of stone has been called the ‘‘ White
Rocks.’’ This name was given to it because of the white color which it
presents when seen from the channel of the river in clear daylight; and
the plural term, rocks, has reference to the several masses inte which the
island has been split by natural agencies. No accurate description of this
remarkable object has yet been published, and as it is directly connected
with one of the great geological features of Maryland, it deserves to be
particularly noticed.

This white quartzite now forms fragments of the great sand-belt which
crosses Chesapeake bay from the vicinity of Elkton in Cecil county, and
runs in-a south-west direction to beyond the great Patuxent river and
grades into the low hills before reaching the East branch of the Potomac
river. Kleven miles north-north-east of the city of Baltimore, it consti-
tutes an extensive superficial bed, projecting two or three feet above the
surface of the sandy loam, exposed over more than half an acre in extent.
At this point it is broken into blocks and chunks, is largely composed of
pebbly conglomerate (the pebbles often angular in form), and extends
down fully ten feet into the sandy loam. South-east of this point for a
distance of three miles or more, the same variety of rock has been reached
at a depth of twenty to twenty-five feet in the excavations made for
wells. .

The next point where this quartzite may be seen is about eleven miles
farther southeast. There much of the rock has an exceedingly dense tex-
ture. It lies in a broad sloping sheet dipping about ten degrees towards
the east-south-east, and appears to be about twelve feet in thickness. This
sheet of rock runs beneath tidewater at the mouth of Back river, and
seems to cover nearly an acre in superficial extent.

About one mile farther to the west and up the Back river a continuation
of this bed makes its appearance on the sloping shore.

The rock next appears in North Point creek about five miles farther
southward, still maintaining the same compact texture. From this place,
however, much of it has been removed, because of its obstruction to
navigation.

Three miles distant, across the channel in the Patapsco river, we reach
the island of stone alluded to at the beginning.

1888. ] 43 (Uhler.

Here we see three oblong masses of sandstone rock, each more than
thirty feet in length, separated by a few feet of water, the more super-
ficial parts of which are a dense quartzite, rising like cliffs ten or twelve
feet above high tide, and dipping from twenty to thirty degrees eastwardly.
This is not the common dip of the undisturbed members of this series, and
probably points to the exercise of tremendous energy in displacing a body
of rock more than twenty-five feet thick, which at the bottom of the
water, even now, covers more than a square acre in extent.

The two masses lying farthest to the north and east are more generally
impregnated with ferric oxide, and being of looser, sandstone texture,
suffer more loss of mass from the disintegrating effects of the water and
atmosphere.

The most north-eastwardly cliff is exposed to the full force of the storms
that beat in from Chesapeake bay, and the heavy ice cakes which are
driven by the high winds of early spring plunge with terrific force against
this side of the rock and dig out cavities near the water line. The most
westwardly of these rocks has been cleft into two great pieces by a longi-
tudinal division, and now lies slanting apart at an angle of about forty-five
degrees. These pieces are composed in great part of dense siliceous
layers, showing no grain, and weather on the upper surface into figures
which resemble large fungi and foliated lichens.

Ferric oxide plays an important part in nearly all the members of this

_ mass, but especially in the more granular and less dense portions. The
iron solution stains the siliceous grains, eats into their figure, solders the
particles into layers, centres around particular spots, enclosing them with
a compact shell, and sometimes develops nodular bodies, such as may be
observed in many parts of the sandy region east of Baltimore.

Proceeding from this island to the south-west shore of the Patapsco
river we fail at first to find the white quartzite, but instead, there are long
and wide stratified beds of brownish sandstone, which run back fifty feet
or more in one exposure, and penetrate to an unknown distance into the
sandy cliff on the northern shore of Stony creek. This is only a disguised
form of our white sandstone which has been almost uniformly stained
throughout by the ferric oxide. On the opposite shore directly at the
mouth of this same creek there is a deposit of the overlying member of
this sandstone series, which originally rested at a higher level than the
sandstone beds on the opposite shore. By reason of the eroding energies
of tide, frost and ice, this upper bed of coarse ferruginous sandstone has
been undermined and thrown upon the bottom of what is now the mouth
of the creek. This bed which now lies in water six to ten feet deep, is
about twelve feet thick, over seventy feet! in length, and perhaps sixteen
feet in width.

It is a wonderful piece of structure from the curious way in which it has
been altered into long hollow pipes, twisted slabs, and serpentine figures,
brilliantly charged with the most intense metallic green, blue, red and
yellow tints. How far it extends back into the adjoining country has

Uhler. ] 44.

[Jan. 6,

not been ascertained, but the unbroken .end still sticks out of the adjoin-
ing cliff, at an elevation of about six feet above the surface of the water.
Broken pieces of this rock lie along the shore in this vicinity extending for
more than a mile in each direction from this creek.

On going back into the country, at a distance of five miles, the white
sandstone again appears in immense deposits from six to twenty-five feet
in thickness, and rests upon the sides or summits of such hills as have
been eroded enough to cut down to the level of this stratuni. The rock
underlies the high hills which stretch across the more south-easterly part
of this (Anne Arundel) county, and appears at various places over a
low plateau or moderately rolling country, where the sand lies exception-
ally deep. South-east of this belt high hills of the greensand Cretaceous
form an obstructing barrier across the entire width of the county, and
render it difficult of access.

In our Albirupean region, however, we rise gradually upon a moder-
ately elevated plateau, which at its highest point midway between the
head of the Severn river and Round bay, reaches scarcely more than
eighty feet above the level of the tide.

The country sinks down in the direction of the Patapsco river, but
rises as we go across the Magothy to the banks of the Severn and beyond
towards the Patuxent.

The next large exposure of the white rock appears near the head of
the Magothy river, where it is a massive variable quartzite and sandstone,
the under-sides and ends of which disintegrate into sand. In many places
only the denser and more compact parts remain as boulders or long
masses connected with the sand, which still shows the form and stratifica-
tion of the original rock; but. which crumbles into a shapeless pile
wherever it is disturbed. Some parts of the sandstone still retains cores
of the hard rock, while the other parts extending to a distance of several
rods farther on have undergone a sort of restratification and take on a
more level bedding.

From the evidences abundantly present in almost every section of this
region, it seems perfectly reasonable to infer that the immense body of
sand spreading so widely and extending in such deep beds all over the
belt, has been derived from the decay of this sandstone, in connection
with the brown sandstone which overlies it, wherever the strata have not’
been too much disturbed.

After crossing the Severn river but few deposits of the white rock come
to view. The sand continues on, but the rock lies decp in the ground, so
that only in the wells, or in the deep ravines, do we reach the sandstone,
and that is usually the upper and ferruginous member of this series.

However, when we reach the vicinity of the fork of the Great Patuxent
river, in Prince George’s county, the surface of the country is depressed
and on a moderately level tract, almost surrounded by an amphitheatre of
hills, the dense white quartzite once more makes its appearance. Here
we observe a broken sheet of the rock, more than half a mile in length

1888.] 45

by three hundred feet in width, and averaging about three feet in thick-
ness, lying almost horizontal in the soil. At present somewhat more than
two square acres of it are exposed to view in an almost continuous
stratum. It rests here in a marshy meadow, surrounded by a mixed
clayey sand, apparently upon the old flood-bed of the Patuxent river. At
this point it is composed of bright, mostly compact silex, of great hard-
ness, but with inconspicuous enclosures of kaolinic material, and closely
resembles the common type of Potsdam sandstone. More than an acre of
its former mass has been carried away to form abutments on the Balti-
more and Potomac railroad.

Here it is more substantial than in the vicinity of the Severn, and seems
to suffer but little loss from superficial disintegration. Much of its con-
tinuation towards the river has suffered from erosive agencies, and lies, in
detached pieces, scattered through the woods. But in that part of the
area, it is less densely compacted, and presents the appearance of a coarse-
grained sandstone.

Beyond this point, in the direction of the Potomac river, no large expo-
sures of the white rock appear, the Cretaceous sands and clays cover the
formation, and it is only in a few of the deepest ravines that we meet
with the coarse ferruginous saud-rock which belongs to a higher level in
the series.

It yet remains to be seen whether this series of rocky strata is continu-
ous with that which skirts the west shore of the Potomac from Mount
Vernon southward to Acquia creek. Such examples of the stone as I
have compared. with the varieties from Maryland are of a different kind of
texture. And, although there are various types of structure ranging all
the way from a coarse conglomerate to a perfectly homogeneous quartzite,
within our territory, those from Virginia are either composed of more
crystalline separate grains, or are more decidedly mixed with drifts of
coarse kaolinic matter.

On the Severn river we find excellent sections, giving nearly all the
members of the series of strata composing the Albirupean formation.
Directly on the river, it occupies a tract of country three and a-half miles
wide ; but it extends in thin deposits, at intervals between the hills on the
northwest, back through a distance of at least ten miles more, thus giving
it, in the widest part, a breadth of thirteen and a-half miles. The more
rocky portions of this belt occupy now, however, a width of about three
miles, and are far from being continuously connected, either along or across
their line.of strike. But they have not been always so re:tricted, for in
nearly every part of the great sand area, decomposing pieces of the stone
with the fresh sand derived therefrom may be found after a short exami-
nation of the surface.

On the eastern shore of Maryland, in Cecil county, the white san dstone
appears on the surface in the form of huge boulders, six to ten or more
feet in length, and from two to four feet in thickness. Considerable num-
bers of these large masses project above the surface at intervals on all the

Uhier.] 46 fJan. 6,

sandy slopes of the lower grounds near the head of the peninsula bounded
on the south by the Elk river. The same rock may also be traced in
smaller boulders over the surface of the Cretaceous, the Eocene and Mio-
cene to the vicinity of the Choptank river. .

In Talbot county, from three to seven miles inland from Easton, it
forms a zone of smaller pieces, as if a barrier of drift-loaded ice had
stranded in a line across the country there, and melting had dropped these
angular pieces in their present position.

The side of the neck of land adjoining the Elk river has been greatly
scooped out by superficial agencies, and apparently a large proportion of
the sandstone which originally formed thé stratum here has been broken
up and transported to a distance.

Some of the larger fragments observed on the surface in Talbot county
have broad grooves cut diagonally across their surface, as if they had
been pushed along under heavy weights which pressed them against sharp
edged stones as they were moved over the surface. One piece in particu-
lar, four feet in length, nearly three feet in width and almost two feet
thick, deserves to be mentioned here, on account of the singular appear-
ance which it presents. It is a nearly flat slab of the very densest and
hardest of the quartzite, very difficult to fracture, and resisting to the edge
of well-tempered steel. But, notwithstanding its refractory nature, its
upper surface composed of dense quartz is mostly polished, and has a
series of three acute-ellipsoid excavations, each nearly three inches in
length, more than a half inch in depth, and perhaps two-thirds of an inch
in width across the middle. The sides of these holes slope towards the
middle line and they are connected in a straight series by narrow
grooves.

In addition to those, there are two diagonal channels, each about a
twelfth of an inch in width cut along through a space of about six
inches.

The piece of stone weighs upwards of six hundred pounds and is not
like any that the Indians were accustomed to use in the preparation of
their food. It was found lying in a field, at a long distance from any
habitation, and does not possess any of the features which might accord
with the architectural proclivities of any people thus far recognized.

In summing up we find the Albirupean to be a formation composed, as
far as our present knowledge extends, of a lower bed of whitish clayey
sand of variable thickness (often of five to twelve feet), followed next
above by the white sandstone ranging fron) five to thirty feet in thickness ;
or where this is replaced by the pure white sand, being as much as ninety
feet in thickness. This in turn is overlaid by thirty feet of black, drab,

1888. ] AT [Uhler.

red or white clay, which in turn grades into sandy clay and sand, from
sixteen to thirty feet in thickness; this is overlaid by five to ten feet of
ferruginous sand, carrying more or less pebbly, compact quartz, and
this in turn is capped by the ferruginous sandstone ranging from two to
twenty feet in thickness, over which, more or less, ferruginous sand, peb-
bles and gritty material, usually only a few feet thick, extends up to the
soil of the surface. Accompanying this upper sandstone small and mode-
rately large boulders of all the varieties of our adjacent Archean rocks,
but particularly of the flaky quartz, similar to that from the mica schists,
occur, and sometimes form thick beds in the neighborhood of old river or
brook channels.

So, by adding together the various members enumerated above, we
reach an aggregate of more than two hundred feet for the full thickness
of this formation, as we recognize it at the present time.

It rests below the green sand of the Cretaceous, which on the western
shore of Maryland is piled up on a ferruginous sand-crust of its own ; but
the Albirupean has a much steeper average dip than the Cretaceous, and
passes unconformably beneath it, as may be seen in the cliffs of the Severn
river near Round bay.

The Albirupean dips eastwardly about ten to twelve degrees, while the
dip of the Cretaceous scarcely exceeds five or six degrees.

Tt is nevertheless a fact that abrupt dips occur in all the alluvial forma-
tions of our tide-water region, but these appear to be due to the wavy in-
equalities of the underlying beds in places where material has been heaped
up into hillocks by the arrest of rapid, loaded currents of water.

A similar kind of deposition of loose material takes place at the present
time, on the bottom of Chesapeake bay and insthe mouths of rivers like
the Magothy, where ‘mud lumps,’’ so-called, accumulate at the points
where currents of water meet.

Thus far but few kinds of fossils have been discovered in the Albirupean
belt, and these have rarely been found perfect enough for identification.
Still, we have one species of Brachiopod, stems of Ecrinites and an An-
nelid-buirrow in the white sandstone, and many unidentified vegetable
forms in the dark clays which overlie the sandstone.

Such are a few of the features which characterize the Albirupean forma-
tion of the State of Maryland. But our sketch would be incomplete if it
omitted to notice some of the peculiarities of the great clay-formation
which lies beneath the Albirupean. Both together have been united in a
common term as forming what has been called the Jurasso-Cretaceous.
But whatever their geological position may be in correlation with the
European formations, we are now accumulating information enough to
show that they have points of difference from those which have been
commonly admitted, and to render it necessary to symbolize them by dis-
tinct names. It is with this view that the term Albirupean is here pro-
posed for the great sandrock system lying beneath the greensand Creta-
ceous, and the term Baltimorean for the conspicuous clay formation which

48 yan. 6,

Uhler. ]

lies near the bottom of the alluvial column on the Archean rocks of
Maryland.

This Baltimorean formation may be recognized in the prominent hills
and ridges of variegated red and white, and lead-colored clays which |
meet the eye near the roads leading along the inner limits of tide-water, |
between the head of Chesapeake bay, in Cecil county, and the Potomac
river, in Washington.

In turning now to the Baltimorean formation, which is especially well-
developed within the limits of that city, we see rather abrupt hills, rising
eighty to one hundred feet above the adjacent level, composed chiefly of
compact clays, alternating with beds of sand, some of which embrace
slender drifts of quartz pebbles and fragments of kaolinic clay.

The formation is made up of numerous strata, constituting altogether a
column of alluvial matter more than five hundred feet deep. That part i
which-we can examine at or near the level of the lower streets in south
Baltimore exhibits a dark lead-colored compact clay, well-stratified, and
resting immediately upon a layer of dense iron clay-stone of only a few
inches in thickness. Often the clay which comes in direct contact with
this stone is stained a bright red color, is of a very fine texture, and is
known as ‘‘puddling-clay.’? On this the distinctly stratified layers of
dark clay, ranging usually from seven to nine feet in thickness, are built, .
and consist of strata varying from three inches to fully two feet in thick- |
ness. Between the finely ground layers, in contact with the smoothest
surfaces, we meet with the remains of trees, shrubs, vines, ferns, equisete,
and, perhaps, alge. These fossil remains occur in the greatest profusion,
accompanied by finely reduced lignite in the upper strata. At least five
such intervening plant-beds are present in the base of Federal hill and its
extension eastwards, in each of which some peculiar form of fern, vine,
or leaf serves to distinguish it from the others. It has been my good
fortune to discover these beds in this region, and to secure ample collec-
tions of all the remains at present found in them, and these are now being
figured and described by Prof. Fontaine, of Virginia.

From the lowest layer I have taken out plants only of a low type of
structure resembling alge and nitellas; from the next layer above, equi-
getee and ferns with strange vine-like structures ; from the layer a few feet
higher, buds and twigs of trees allied to the cypress and redwoods of Cali-
fornia, as also leaves of ferns having the form of those of the Ginko ;
from the fourth layer other ferns, coniferous stems, buds and scales, with
some leaves of dicotyledons resembling sassafras; and from the upper
layer leaves which resemble those of the hawthorn, magnolia, willow, and
hemlock. The less distinctly stratified clay overlying these is rich in |
lignite, often containing the trunks and limbs of nearly entire trees, some of i
which have been found with spruce-like cones and needle-shaped leaves. /

The continuation of this bed upwards is composed of the iron-ore clays
which form such conspicuous hills and ridges along the road leading to :
Washington. In this member of the series lie the extensive layers of

1888.] 49 [Uhler.
carbonate of iron, the richest of which occur near the base, while the
nodules and oxidized lumps are found nearer the surface. The extension
of this bed still higher, at various levels, displays the red and white varie-
gated clays, such as we see in large areas in crossing the country south
and east of the iron-ore hills.

The formation, as far as our present knowledge goes, and disregarding
the iron-ore clays, first appears beyond the head of Northeast river on the
eastern shore of Maryland, extending thence south of south-west—with
an irregular expansion west—down the peninsula between the Northeast
and Elk rivers, crossing the Chesapeake bay to Harford county, and pro-
ceeding across Baltimore county, the upper half of Anne Arundel and a
narrower strip of Howard, Prince George’s and Montgomery counties to
the Potomac river. It is probably the lowest of the alluvial formations
thus far discovered in Maryland resting on the outer, eastward, exposures
of the Archean rocks. ‘Extensive faults in these rocks, besides the ero-
sions, have left deep basins along a wavy line somewhat parallel to the
western shores of Chesapeake bay, and in these depressions the beds of
the Baltimorean formation have been laid down. At the bottom is found
very micaceous sand containing an abundance of that type of compact
quartz which belongs to the mica schists, and such as is seen in the Phila-
delphia micaceous gneiss. *

These micaceous sands form beds in many localities ten feet thick, but
oftener much less than that, and they grade almost imperceptibly into
obscurely stratified beds of white clay.

Next above this, the white clays alternate with sands in uneven beds,
more or less stratified, the sandy members usually carrying drifts of quartz
gravel in the lower portion. In some places the clay forms the chief ele-
ment of these beds, while in others the sands prevail. The entire thick-
ness of this part of the formation ranges from thirty to eighty fect, and is
directly overlaid by whitish mixed sandy clay, upon which rests seven to
nine feet of a coarse, angular sand, commonly pure white, capped by the
thin layer of iron-paint-stone supporting the fossiliferous clay strata and
iron-ore beds.

Above these latter the more or less ferruginous sands, mixed with drift
of all sizes, form conspicuous beds of very variable thickne In Clifton
reservoir they constitute a series of strata and beds rising thirty feet above
the dark or variegated clays, and are overlaid in turn by a few feet of
quartz gravel, at or near the surface. Where the clay hills north of Bal-
timore have been denuded, these gravels are seen at the surface, but
where they are undisturbed, the gravel lies from three to ten or more feet
below the superficial sand or loam.

The region occupied by this formation is a rolling one, and towards the

* In passing it may be worth while to observe that this variety of gneiss has.at one
time formed extensive beds in contact with the more basic rocks on the north side of
Baltimore, but these have been broken up, and now only their shattered remains rest
on, or in, the soil as huge boulders or scattered fragments.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. xXV. 127. G4. PRINTED APRIL 5, 1888.

Uhler.] 50 (Jan. 6,

north, north-east and north-west ascends by a series of sloping terraces,
each grading seventy feet or more, to a level of about five hundred feet
above tide. This is about the highest limit reached by the variegated
clays and gravel which can be shown to belong to this formation. North
of the city the Baltimorean extends back through the country to a dis-
tance of twelve miles, but it does not rise over the tops of the highest hills,
and is often interrupted by the ridges of Archeean and other rocks.

Various changes have occurred to the clays of this formation of which
a few examples may be cited.

Where cuttings have been made for streets ou the north-east side of Bal-
timore, and at a point about two miles further east, the iron clays have
been dislocated, presumably by floods of water, which have transported
and dropped them in large lumps, often two or more feet in thickness.
These are mixed in huge piles, and in two places have been thrust over
the top of the ferruginous sandstone in such a way as to reverse the order
of the series,

About one mile east of the city, the dark lead-colored clay forms a
monumental pile which formerly rose more than eighty feet above the ad-
joining surface, but it has lost a part of one side by a fault that has pro-
duced a downthrow of about seven feet in depth. Another fault, in Fede-
ral hill near the end of Warren street, has pushed up the northern end
fully seven feet above its proper level. The effects of this dislocation
were evident in the broken condition of the beds for about one hundred
feet in that direction, while towards the south and south-east there was no
break or disturbance in the continuity of the strata.

The red and variegated clays which overlie the iron-bearing member are
seen to lie in the hills along the Washington railroad at a much greater
elevation than the mixed sandy loam and ferruginous sands which belong
above them. This is owing to the fact that in many places the iron-ore
series was deeply denuded before the newer beds were laid down; and in
some places there are evidences that the next later deposits have been torn
off and transported to a distance.

The iron-ore masters insist that the iron-bearing clays rest in detached
domes upon the underlying white sand, but this does not correspond with
our observations as far as they have gone. We have traced them in a
continuous series nearly all the way from the Gunpowder river to the
Relay house, a distance of twenty miles, and again on the other side of
Elk ridge to near Annapolis junction.

Beneath the city of Baltimore these clays bend down, but have been
penetrated or passed through by all the deep wells of the region, and they
are found to possess flexures, one of which carries them beneath the mid-
dle and eastern branches of the Patapsco river and brings them up on the
opposite shores. In the southern continuation of Federal hill they dip
down thirty feet in a distance of four blocks, about 1200 feet ; but they
are discoverable at the bottom of the deep channel of the river and again
form hills a mile beyond on the opposite shore. Nine miles south of

1888. ] 51 [Uhler.

Baltimore these strata dip below the surface of tide, pass under the Albi-
rupean at an angle of about twenty degrees and entirely disappear from
view.

Miles.

2. 012345
sienna
sevrrome cd, shynta oe NUNN CP CLLCCORS.

Reviewing the three alluvial formations which are passed over between
the city of Baltimore and Chesapeake bay, we find that each is overlaid
by a system of drift, that of the Baltimorean carrying angular erratics,
mixed with compact quartz pebbles, all derived from the Archian rocks
of the neighborhood, with the exception only of boulders of Potsdam
sandstone probably dropped by floating ice. In the upper part of this
mixed gravel, and commonly above it, rests the stratum of ferruginous
conglomerate so conspicuous wherever this member of the series occurs.

It is possible that this is the position in the series to which should be
referred the thick beds of gravel and quartz drift that now chiefly lie
exposed at or next the tops of some of the low hills north of Baltimore.

Near the summit of the Albirupean, we observe loose strata of gravel
and quartz-drift, capped by a crust of ferruginous sandrock composed of
unusually coarse grains of quartz. This belt of rock is exceedingly thick
in some places, as on the Severn river below Indian landing, where it

Uhler. ] 52 [Jan. 6,

reaches a thickness of at least twelve feet. The drift in this stratum is
chiefly gravel, with small rounded pieces of the compact quartz, and the
pebbles usually enter into the composition of the upper part of the brown
sand-rock, making it more or less of a pudding stone.

As the point near Round Bay is approached where this formation passes
beneath the greensand Cretaceous, the brown sand-rock divides into two
members, the upper one of which is only about a foot in thickness, while
the lower one has a thickness of more than five feet. No large angular
blocks were found in this part of the formation ; but on Valentine’s creek
it is closely packed with round quartz boulders, such as are made in pot-
holes, or in glacial rapids.

Near the top of the greensand Cretaceous a slender drift of small quartz
boulders and pebbles occurs, and over this rests a sinuous, flaky crust of
finer, powdery ferruginous sandstone, the oblong chambers of which are
closely packed with micaceous grayish sand full of glauconite.

The Baltimorean formation seems to have been produced in a region
adjoining the sea where accumulations of sand and aluminous mud were
ground out of the broken members of the Archean rocks. Several large
rivers brought down their quota of this material, spread it out at their
mouths, and piled it up to be farther distributed by the waves and storms
of the ocean. Vast accumulations of clay marked the later part of the
period during which land-locked bodies of fresh water were connected by
narrow channels with the estuaries next the ocean.

On the shores and in the waters of these muddy gulfs and lakes proba-
bly lived the Jurassic Dinosaurus, the Pleuroccelus nanus, Pleurocerus
altus, Allosaurus medius and the Ceelurus gracilis, whose remains have
recently been described from the clays of Prince George’s county by Prof.
Marsh. To these we may add the Astrodon Johnstonii of Dr. Leidy, and
the crocodiles and turtles whose bones have been taken from other parts
of the same beds.

On the land flourished a richly varied and abundant vegetation, with
forests, fern brakes, and trailing vines, while in the rivulets fresh-water
plants spread over the bottom of shallow channels.

Following this came the Albirupean, a more decidedly marine forma-
tion, in which sands form the chief element of deposition, and which,
later, became a distinctly sandstone-forming epoch. Layers of siliceous
plastic mud were spread out over the indurated sands and bound them
together in heavy belts of stone. Steady deposition, in wide irregular
basins, gradually increased the sedimentary beds and quiet periods allowed
the development of aquatic animals. Accordingly in the sandstones of
this area we find the burrows of worms, the stems of encrinites, the cells
of corals and the shells of brachiopods. On the land an ample vegetation
must have existed, since between the layers of an upper bed of clay the
densely packed lignitic remains of coniferous trees and the fragments of
twigs, buds, leaves and seeds of several kinds of plants are found in
abundance. On the south-eastern border of this zone of sand and sand-

1888. ] 53 [Lewis.

stone, the greensand Cretaceous rests piled up in high abrupt hills on the
western shore of Chesapeake bay, crossing the country with an unevenly
defined breadth of about ten miles; On the Severn river, across the
southern part of Round Bay, high domes of these clays and loamy sand
form monumental hills, as for example Mount Misery ; while between
this river and the head of South river almost equally prominent hills arrest
the attention of the observer. Crossing the great Patuxent the Cretaceous
hills again come into view and finally form high and bold prominences
near the Potomac river.

On the eastern shore of the Chesapeake, however, the Cretaceous hills
do not form the bold prominences that have been noticed above, but in-
stead, rise into gentler eminences, sloping towards the water courses in
moderate rolls, and finding their greatest development along the low ridge
which separates the rivers of the Chesapeake from those of the Delaware.

In this formation we have a repetition of the marine conditions of the
preceding, but with the added element of the greensand, which now for
the first time makes its appearance.

The black loamy beds of this formation are packed with the lignitic
remains of trees and plants, while the lower lying greensand, and especi-
ally the upper greensand marl beds, are crowded with the casts and shells
of many kinds of mollusks.

From. what is here recorded it will be perceived that in the State of
Maryland there are three well-defined sedimentary formations resting
below the Tertiaries, and that the first and last are formed of bold reliefs,
while the intervening one is comparatively low and flat.

In reply to the above Professor Carvill Lewis remarked:

That having spent several months in Baltimore and having had some
opportunities of studying the geology of that district, in which he had the
kind assistance of his friend Professor Uhler, he took the liberty of sug-
gesting certain objections to the conclusions of the foregoing paper and
to the adoption of the new term ‘‘ Albirupean.”’

A series of three formations, belonging to the ‘alluvial column,” is
here described, of which the lowest (the ‘‘Baltimorean’’) is a series of
variegated clays and sands, some of which have yielded a fauna and flora
indicating a Jurassic or Cretaceous age. These have long been known and
are marked on Tyson’s Geological Map as the ‘‘iron-ore clays’’ and
appear to be the formation already named the ‘‘Potomac.’’ Upon
these clays Professor Uhler places his so-called ‘‘ Albirupean,”’ consisting
sometimes of sands and clays, sometimes of a massive sandstone or quartz-
ite, containing brachiopods, encrinite stems and annelid burrows ; while
the uppermost of the ‘three alluvial formations’’ consists of Cretaceous
greensand. This latter is also well known, having been described by
Ducatel in 1834.

As to the ‘Albirupean formation,’’ the speaker held that Professor

Heilprin.] 54 [Jan. 6, 1888.

Uhler had here confounded under one name two entirely distinct forma-
tions of very widely separated ages. The specimen of ‘ Albirupean”’
exhibited this evening contains fossils (a brachiopod and encrinite stems)
characteristic of a Paleozoic and not a Mesozoic formation, and the petro-
logical character of the rock is also that of an ancient sandstone, resem-
bling the Medina or Potsdam san@stones. The fossils point to the lower
Silurian age or thereabouts of the sandstone, and it is probably of nearly
related age to the metamorphic limestones which occur in the vicinity of
Baltimore. It is of course incredible that a rock of Paleozoic age could
overlie the ‘‘Baltimorean’’ clays, and Professor Uhler has given no facts
or sections to prove that such is the case.

The mistake has probably arisen in confounding the weathered portions
of the sandstone with the sands and clays of Mesozoic or more recent age
which occasionally overlie the variegated, iron-bearing clays. As a result
of decomposition, the ancient sandstone frequently becomes loose and
sandy, and is marked with ferruginous streaks so as to closely resemble
the much more recent sands and clays of the neighborhood. An example
of this kind may be seen a few miles north of Baltimore. The mistake
of confounding the two formations would therefore be a very natural one,
especially as the younger formation is in large part made out of the older
one, and as outcrops in the region are scarce. Geologists cannot be ex-
pected to accept the term ‘‘Albirupean ;”’ for even if limited on the one
hand to the sandbeds of Mesozoic age, or on the other to the patches of
Paleozoic quartzite, it is, to say the least, unnecessary, while if applied to
both formations it would be a source of confusion.

Professor Heilprin stated that:

From the data and material presented by Dr. Uhler, he was disposed to
agree with Professor Lewis that two or more very distinct formations
were included in Uhler’s ‘alluvial column,’’ and that one of these (form-
ing part of the so-called ‘‘ Albirupean”’ series) was almost unquestionably
Paleozoic. At least, this position was indicated by the brachiopod and
crinoid impressions which are seen on some of the rock fragments exhib-
ited before the Society. Neither of these impressions is very distinct, but
such relationship as they indicate is more nearly with Paleozoic than
with Mesozoic forms. Referring to the formations characterized by Dr.
Uhler as ‘‘Baltimorean’’? and ‘‘Albirupean,’’ and the ‘‘Potomac’’ of
the United States Geologists—the last supposed to be in part synchronous
with the preceding—and to the determination of their age as Jurassic,
Jurasso-Cretaceous, and Lower Cretaceous (Wealden), Professor Heilprin
stated that he failed to find any satisfactory evidence proving the strata
characterized to be older than Upper Cretaceous, and that in all probabil-
ity they are the absolute representatives or equivalents of a portion of the
well-known New Jersey series—the colored clays and sands abutting
upon the Delaware river.

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Dec. 16, 1887.] a) [King.
Epitaph of M. Verrius Flaccus. By Rev. 0. W. King, M.A.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, December 16, 1887.)

The collection of antiquities of Count D’Hérisson, the result of long-
continued excavations. in Apulia and around Carthage, comprised a mar-
ble slab, described in the sale catalogue as ‘“‘The Epitaph of M. Verrio
and his brother, Celsus, with two skulls and an axe.’’ But the Count
could boast of resembling the ‘‘ Divine Williams’’ (as he would call him)
in one point at least—that ‘‘he had small Latin,’ for the merest novice in
that language could easily read the inscription as: ‘‘To Marcus Verrius
Flaccus, son of Marcus, of the Tribe Falerina, his brother Celsus [erected
this].’’ I subjoin a fac-simile of the epitaph, showing the arrangement
and relative proportions of the lettering.

M. VERRIO

M. 7 Bie eA ds © C0

CHLSVS.FRATER.

The inscription is cut in the round, bold character used in the later days
of the Republic, and which did not outlast-the first century of the Empire.
The raaterial is a slab (2 ft. 4in. by 1 ft. 6 in.) of the marble of Paros,
the quarries of Luni (Carrara) were but recently opened when Pliny
wrote. The back of the slab has been left very uneven and rough, for
the purpose of taking better hold upon the bedding of mortar by which
it was inserted in the facade of the tomb, no doubt a brick construction.
The once-polished surface is much weathered, giving evidence of the
many centuries for which it had retained its original position (and, proba-
bly, had witnessed the fall of that Empire with whose birth it was nearly
coéval) before it was buried in the earth along with the ruins of the monu-
ment. About a third of the surface shows more corrosion than the rest,
in consequence of having been covered to this extent by the mortar and
the rubbish.

Before attempting to identify the individual thus commemorated, I
shall remark that the Verria was a plebeian family, and the Yalerina,
in which it was registered, a rustic tribe. ‘‘Flaccus’’ was the actual
name of the deceased; for the ‘““Nomen”’ and ‘“Tribus’’ of the Ver-
rius had been, according to rule, assumed by his father, originally
a slave, on becoming a freedman of that family. That ‘“Flaccus’’ was
a@ word of some Jtalic dialect, ‘perhaps Oscan, in which similar forms
occur, as ‘‘Maccus,’’ etc., and that, with ‘‘ Bassus,’’ ‘‘ Varus,’* and the
like, it denoted some personal peculiarity in the first who bore it, cannot
reasonably be doubted, and it may have been synonymous with pen-

King.] 56 [Dec. 16,

dulus, in the sense of ‘‘lop-eared,’’ * as its derivative flacctdus is ap-
plied to anything that droops. So far, the marble is of little importance
in itself, except as a fine specimen of early Roman epigraphy ; but fortu-
nately, this is one of those very uncommon cases, where the name and
fame of the deceased are embalmed in history, a circumstance that gives
a far higher value to any memorial of the man.

We learn from Suetonius that M. Verrius Flaccus was the son of a
freedman (libertinus) as was the father of his contemporary and name-
sake, Horace. He possessed a remarkable talent for teaching ; his plan
was (apparently an invention of his own) to give his pupils subjects for
declamations in which they should compete with each other for the prize,
which was a book, valuable either for its antiquity or its beauty. The
novelty of his system of education appears to have consisted in this.
Induced by his high reputation, Augustus appointed him Preeceptor
to his grandsons, Caius and Lucius ; with a salary of one hundred sestertia
(£1000) a year. He furthermore lodged him with his whole class (of
twenty boys) in the palace, making, however, the stipulation that he was
not to increase the number of his pupils. Flaccus compiled a Table of
Fasti, which was engraved on marble slabs in the hemicycliwm (alcove)
at Preeneste, where his statue was standing when Suetonius wrote. He
died at an advanced age, under Tiberius.

Ovid refers (Fast. vi, 58) to this work of our Flaccus, where he makes
Juno say ;

“‘Tnspice quos habeat nemoralis Aricia fastos
Et populus Laurens Lanuviumque nemus :
Kst illis mensis Junonius : inspice Tibur ;
Et Preenestinee menia sacra Dee.’’

According to this, the Tables of Fasti were built into the walls of the
celebrated Temple of Fortune, the special Deity of Praeneste. This ex-
planation has been confirmed by a fortunate discovery. In the year 1770,
Foggini, a Roman antiquary, excavated the ancient Forum of Preneste,
and came upon the ruins of a circular [semi-circular ?] building, from
amongst which he recovered the tablets containing the Kalendar for the
months January, March, April, and September, in a perfect state, together
with numerous fragments of the others. +

Our Verrius appears to have been held of high authority in matters of
antiquity, for Pliny quotes him no fewer than seven times, and always
upon curious subjects, as the following will show: ‘‘ That the Romans
upon laying siege to a town, began by evoking the presiding deities of the
place (én quorum Tutela) by promising them equal or greater honors at

* The cognomen ‘‘Flaccus” is probably an Oscan word, denoting a personal peculiarity,
and signifying “ lop-eared.’’

+Prof. Nettleship, of Oxford, has skillfully reconstructed the plan of Verrius’ great
work, ‘‘De Verborum Significatione,’’ in the American Philological Review, Vol. i, p.
258-70, and ii, p. 1-19.

A
1387.] 57 [King.

Rome. A form of evocation was still preserved in the Pontifical Books,
and the true name of the guardian of Rome was kept a secret (like the
Shem Hamephorash of the Jews) for fear some enemy might use it for the
same purpose.’’

“That Vermilion was in such estimation with the ancients, that the face
of Jupiter Capitolinus was painted therewith on the great festivals; also
the faces of generals while they rode in triumph, citing Camillus as an
example.”’

“That Tarquinius Priscus wore a state tunic woven out of gold wire
(as was that of Virgil’s Lausus)—

Molli mater quam neverat auro.—din. x, 818.

and like that worn by Agrippina at the opening of the tunnel draining
Lake Fucinus.’’

That lampreys have thin, eels thick skins, which were by the ancient
laws used for flogging pueros pretextatos, ¢. e., boys under age, because
they were not liable to pecuniary fines ; according to the rule that ‘he
who cannot pay in purse must pay in person.’’’ Verrius had, furthermore,
recorded many instances of swdden deaths (which Pliny considers the
height of felicity) from joy and similar causes. ‘‘ That the Romans, for
the first three centuries, were not. acquainted with wheat, but lived upon
spelt in the shape of porridge (farre e frumento).’’ It is true, that the
earliest coins of Metapontum attest that bearded wheat, triticwm, was the
staple in Southern Italy at a period ranging from 700 to 400 B. C.; but
the Romans had no intercourse with those parts before the war with
Pyrrhus. Spelt is the primitive form of the cereal just emerging from the
state of a grass-seed ; the grains are smooth and very thinly arranged in
along ear. Varro, also, gives the actual date when bakers first came to
Rome from Greece, before which time, the inhabitants used the grain only
as porridge, puls, exactly as the Red Men of our day eat their maize in
the shape of hominy. Similarly, this simple preparation of grain consti-
tuted the national food of the Celts when they had ceased to live entirely
upon the flesh and milk of their cattle, for the ill-tempered Jerome, squab -
bling with the Irishman, Celestinus, despatches him with the sarcasm :

“Hoe non videt Celestinus,
Celtarum pultibus preegravatus.”’

And Ammianus mentions that Julian, in the disastrous retreat from
Persia, eat nothing but ‘‘parum pultis etiam gregario militi fastidiendum,”’
and we must remember that the main strength of the Roman army lay in
the Gauls and Germans who had followed the Emperor from the West.

“That the Romans once (the date is not specified) exhibited fighting
elephants in. the circus; and afterwards, killed them with darts because
they knew not what to do with them; not being willing to bear the ex-
pense of keeping such huge beasts ; or to make presents of them to foreign
princes.’’

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. soc. xxv. 127. H. PRINTED APRIL 5, 1888,

fe
King. ] 58 [Dee. 16, 1887.

These casual extracts sufficiently indicate that had the ‘ Antiquities of
Verrius’’ come down to us, it would have proved as valuable a mine of
information for Roman as the ‘‘ Deipnosophists” of Athenus is for Gre-
cian archeology.

The prenomen borne by Flaccus is not recorded by Suetonius, but
Jerome, in his Chronicle, gives it as ‘‘Marcus,’’ and puts down the gram-
marian as flourishing (florwit) at the same time with the philosopher
Athenodorus of Tarsus. The agreement, therefore, of our inscription
with Jerome in this important particular, is strong evidence that both of
them are to be referred to the same person, whose date, again, is all but
precisely fixed by the archzeological proofs deducible from the monument
itself.

A “TT. Verrius’’ is one of the Decemviri of Saragossa who coined brass
pieces in the name of Augustus in the eleventh year of his reign. Can
this man have been the father of our grammarian? Certainly the name of
his colleague, ‘‘C. Alliarius,’’ has so plebeian a sound that we can hardly
think it beneath his dignity to have been joined in office with a manu-
mitted slave.

Two skulls, an axe, and aniron bangle, came to London with the monu-
ment as having been discovered in the same tomb. These human relics
are very remarkable in themselves. The one is that of a man so advanced
in life that the swtwres are entirely obliterated, yet the teeth are sound,
though much worn down on one side, as if the owner for some cause
had chewed on that in preference to the other. The form is unusually
elongated, the forehead low but very broad, indicating considerable mental
power.

The other skull is the head of a young man, finely-shaped, with teeth
of the most exquisite regularity and enamel. As even an Italian anti-
quarto could hardly attempt to pass them off (like the celebrated duplicates
of Cromwell) as those of the same man in youth and age, or we may
suspect that the mistranslation of the epitaph, as given in the Sale-cata-
logue, suggested the discovery of the remains of the two brothers. We
must attribute them (if really found in company with the marble) to long
subsequent interments in its vicinity. But the question of ownership in
the matter of these relics of humanity is, to me, settled by another con-
sideration. It was as impossible for the corpse of Augustus’ schoolmaster
to have been laid entire in the earth, as it was, but a few years back, for
that of an Englishman of the same status in his profession, to have been
“cremated,’’ That these crania should be given to some of the barbarous
races, who, long after the times of Verrius, so frequently overran Apulia,
may reasonably be conjectured from the articles deposited with them. The
axe, though greatly corroded, preserves the exact form of the missile fran-
cisca, the so much dreaded weapon that got its name from the Franks, And
the bangle, a flat bar one inch in width, meant to be permanently fixed upon
the wearer’s wrist by the hammering-up of the two ends till they overlap,
is an ornament used only by savages. Add to which, the sound condition

Jan. 20, 1888.] 59 [ Lesley.

of the teeth of the elder defunct at so advanced an age, is a sure proof
that he had never enjoyed ‘‘the blessings of civilization.’ (These erania
are now deposited in the Museum of the College of Surgeons.)

It is so rare to meet with the actual memorials of personages named,
ever so incidentally in Roman history, that have escaped ‘‘The Goth, the
Christian, Time, War, Flood, and Fire,’”’ that this marble may justly be
reckoned amongst the most interesting relics of antiquity that have come
down to our times. As the monument of a great scholar, who enjoyed so
high a reputation in the brightest days of literature, no more fitting shrine
for its preservation could have been found than the library of Trinity
College, where the Munes of the ancient Professor will, after so many
centuries of oblivion, hear his name and fame once more echoed by
thousands of voices—and be (let us hope) propitious to the depositor who
has thus carried out the last desire of the tormented ghost:

‘‘Rinfresca la memoria mia che giace.”’

Obituary Notice of Ferdinand Vandevere Hayden, M.D., PhD, Line,
By Prof. J. P. Lestey.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 20, 1888.)

Dr. Hayden was born in Westfield, Mass., September 7, 1829; was
graduated from Oberlin College, Ohio, in 1850; and received a diploma
from the Albany Medical College in 1853. Under the orders of Prof.
James Hall of Albany, he went with Mr. F. B. Meek to collect Cretaceous
and Tertiary fossils in the White River Bad Lands. In 1854-5 he explored
the upper Missouri river region, mainly at his own expense, aided by the
American Fur Company; following the Missouri river to Fort Benton,
and the Yellowstone to the mouth of the Big Horn. His collections of
fossils were sent partly to the Academy of Natural Sciences in St. Louis,
and partly to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. In 1856
he made a summary report of the whole region which he had explored to
Lieutenant Warren, U.S.T.E., and immediately began a general recon-
naisance of the North-west as geologist on Warren’s staff. This survey
extended to 1859. The next three years, to 1862, he explored the Yellow-
stone and Missouri rivers as naturalist and surgeon to Captain Raynolds’
expedition. The Civil War having broken out, Dr. Hayden, in May, 1862,
was appointed Acting Assistant Surgeon of Volunteers and placed in
charge, first of Satterlee Huspital in Philadelphia, and then (February,
1863, as full Surgeon of Volunteers) of Beaufort, South Carolina. February,

Lesley. ] 60 [Jan. 20,

1864, he became chief medical officer of the army in the Shenandoah val-
ley, at Winchester, Va. May, 1865, he was breveted Lieutenant Colonel,
and resigned his medical duties for work at the Smithsonian Institution.

In 1865 he was elected Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, resigning his chair in 1872 on account of his
western explorations; for, in 1866 he explored a second time the Bad
Lands of Dakota, collecting largely vertebrate fossils for the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. From 1867 to 1879, twelve years, he
was United States Geologist in charge of the survey of the Territories.
From 1879 to 1883 he was employed as Assistant Geologist of the United
States Geological Survey in preparing for publication his surveys in the
Territories. Relieved of this literary work in the Spring of 1883, he did
field work in Montana until he resigned his position, in the Autumn of
1886, his health having become so impaired that he was confined for the
most of the time to his bed. He died December 22, 1887.

Dr, Hayden never practiced medicine, but used his medical knowledge
in the superintendence of the army hospitals. He received the title of
LL.D, from the University of Rochester in 1876, and again from the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1886. He was elected a member of the
National Academy of Sciences in March, 1856; of the American Philo-
sophical Society in July, 1860 ; and of many other societies in America and
in Europe.

His fame as a geologist in Europe was extraordinary. It is not too much
to say that his name was more familiar to the geological world in Europe
than that of any other American geologist. This was evident to those of
his collaborators in the science who visited the foreign cities, or were in
correspondence with foreign geologists. It was due to the exceptional
number of his geological contributions, to the freshness of the fields which
he explored, and to the untiring energy with which he published his
observations as fast as they were made, and communicated them, in large
editions, to all the working geologists abroad. The amount of Hayden
literature (as it may be justly called) in every library of the world is sur-
prisingly great. More than fifty octavo volumes, copiously illustrated
with pictures, sections, topographical and colored maps, were published
by him, to make known his territorial surveys from 1867 to 1879. His
report on the Warren survey was published by the War Department; and
in papers read before the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, in
1857 and 1858, and in the Transactions of the American Philosophical
Society of Philadelphia, in 1862, describing not only the geology, but the
living vertebrates, reptiles, fresh-water fish and shells of the region.
Another paper in the Transactions of our Society (of the same date) made
contributions to the ethnography and philology of the Indian tribes of the
Missouri river. The same year he published a sketch of the Mandan
language in the American Journal of Science ; and in 1869 notes on the
Pawnee, Winnebago and Omaha languages in the Transactions of our
Society. His second survey of the Bad Lands produced a memoir for the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, in 1869.

1888.] 61 [Lesley.

Dr. Hayden will be remembered as one of the great discoverers of the
world in the history of the science of geology. He will be recognized as
a man who really opened a new world in the far West to intelligent curi-
osity and detailed exploration. His influence in educating the western
population of the United States was as great as that of Agassiz, in inspiring
the population of the eastern States with an enthusiastic admiration for
natural history. The two men cannot be compared ; for their personalities,
their scientific objects, and their methods of research were in strong con-
trast. Each was an acknowledged leader in his special realm. There
was the same indescribable power exercised over a great number of minds.
Whatever Agassiz asked for in New England was immediately granted,
and with enthusiasm. Whatever Hayden asked for from the people, the
politicians, and the Governors of the new States and Territories was
allowed to be useful and desirable, and the means placed at his disposal.
He represented in science the curiosity, the intelligence, the energy, the
practical business talent of the western people. In a few years they
came to adopt him as their favorite son of science. He exactly met the
wants of the Great West. There was a vehemence and a sort of wildness
in his nature as a man which won him success, codperation, and enthu-
siastic reputation among all classes, high and low, wherever he went. In
the wigwam, in the cabin and in the court-house he was equally at home,
and entirely one with the people. He popularized geology on the grandest
scale in the new States and Territories. He easily and naturally affiliated
with every kind of explorer ; acting with such friendliness and manly
justice towards those whom he employed as his co-workers that they pur-
sued with hearty zeal the development of his plans.

In dealing with the public men of the country he was so frank, forcible
and direct that it was impossible to suppress or resist him. He had the
western people at his back so heartily and unanimously that he was for a
long time master of the scientific situation at Washington. He was a
warm personal friend of some of the highest officials of the Government,
who never failed to support strenuously and successfully his surveys. I
think that no one who knows the history of geology in the United States
can fail to recognize the fact that the present magnificent United States
Geological Survey, now under the direction of Major Powell, is the legiti-
mate child of Dr. Hayden’s territorial surveys.

Dr: Hayden first conceived the idea of setting aside for national use, as
a perpetual park, the region of the Yellowstone geysers. This idea he
urged with such success upon Congress, that a law prepared under his
direction was passed to that effect. Such a notion would probably have
not occurred to the mind of a geologist occupied with the purely scien-
tific details of a new country; and it illustrates excellently well the practi-
cal turn of his character.

Cope.) 62 [Feb. 17,

On the Dicotyline of the John Day Miocene of North America.
By H. D. Cope.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 17, 1888.)

The number of species of peccary-like pigs whose bones are found in
the John Day Miocene beds of Oregon has not been fully determined.
Prof. Marsh first determined their existence in this formation, and named
a species Dicotyles hesperius. He was followed by Leidy, who added
Dicotyles pristinus. Marsh afterwards described two species under the
names of Thinohyus lentus and 7. socialis. The present writer, at a still
later date, added three species under the names of Chenohyus decedens,
Thinohyus trichanus, and Palwocherus subequans. My present object is
to endeavor to determine the relations of these species to each other and
to species and genera of pigs already known.

In the first place none of these species belong to the genus Dicotyles.
Their premolars are quite distinct in composition from the true molars as
in primitive mammalia generally. In Dicotyles the first in both jaws are
identical with the true molars, or nearly so, and the preceding molars
have internal tubercles, which the Miocene species do not possess. In
Dicotyles there is also a preglenoid crest, which is wanting from the spe-
cies in question. In all of these points the latter agree with Hyotherium
von M. (Palwochwrus Pomel), of the Miocene of Europe.

The full descriptions given by Gervais, and especially by Filhol, of this
genus, enable the fullest comparisons with the American species to be
made, at least as regards the cranial and dental characters. From these
it results that the latter must be referred to one or more genera dis-
tinct from Hyotherium. The principal distinction is seen in the develop-
ment of the canine teeth in the American forms, and the adaptation of the
opposed part of the cranium to the inferior canine. The canines are sub-
triangular in section, and the inferior tooth is received into a deep fossa of
the premaxillary and maxillary bones, as in Dicotyles. In Hyotherium
no such fossa exists, and the canine teeth are of relatively small size and
of ordinary form. The Oregon species represent one or more genera in-
termediate in characters between Hyotherium and Dicotyles.

Two generic names have been proposed for these animals—Thinohyus
Marsh, 1875, and Chenohyus Cope, 1879. The former is distinguished
by Marsh from Dicotyles as follows:* ‘‘The most noteworthy differences
seen in the remains under description are, an additional premolar in the
lower jaw, and the extension of the posterior nares between the last upper
molars. The orbit is not enclosed behind, and there is no antorbital
fossa. The brain was small, less than one-half the size of that of a Dico-
tyles of the same bulk—and much convoluted. There is a strong bony
tentorial ridge. The molar teeth have the principal cusps more isolated
than in Dicotyles and the intermediate lobes larger.’’ It will be observed

* American Journal Sci. Arts, 1875, p. 248.

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1888. ] 63

[Cope,

that this description does not refer to the characters of the premolar teeth
which really distinguish these forms from Dicotyles. I also find the tuber-
cles of the molar teeth in numerous examples rather less distinct from
each other than is the case in the Dicotyles torquatus. Nor do I find the pos-
terior nares to advance between the molars in any of my specimens which
are not broken, but, on the contrary, this orifice is generally posterior in
position to that which it occupies in Dicotyles. Disregarding these dis-
crepancies, Mr. Wortman and I attempted to redefine this genus,* so as to
represent the characters of the species known to us. I am now, however,
inclined to think that we were prematute in this endeavor, and that it is
quite possible that we are yet unfamiliar with the true Thinohyus. Asan
attempt has been made to define the genus by Marsh, the name will have
to be retained, but we must await fuller descriptions both of the genus
and of its typical species, before we shall be able to give it its proper place
in the system.

My specimens resolve themselves into two series, those which have three
premolars in the upper jaw, and those which have four. I do not know
of any specimen which has but three premolars in the lower jaw. The
fourth premolar (first of the old nomenclature) of the superior series is a
small tooth, and may be in some instances subject to irregularities. How-
ever, I retain the two genera, and compare them as follows:

Dicotylide with premolar teeth all different from true molars.

Inferior canine received into a deep fossa of the upper jaw; canines sub-
triangular in section ; three superior premolars............ Chanohyus.

Like the last, but four superior premolars...............ss0s Bothrolabis.
Canines with oval section, not received into a fossa of the upper jaw ;
Hyotherium.

It may be remarked of the John Day species, that there is no such ex-
cess of development of the first superior incisor in them as is seen in
Dicotyles, and especially in Hyotherium. Three are constantly present in
each premaxillary bone; but each mandibular ramus may have two or
three.

In the following descriptions the notation of the premolars used by
Kowalevsky and Schlosser has been adopted; viz: p. m. i is the next
tooth to m. i.

Lithographic plates of these species have been printed, but cannot be
published owing to the change of organization of the U. S. Geological
Survey.

CHANOHYUS Cope.

Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Society, 1879, p. 373.

CHANOHYUS DECEDENS Cope, l. c.

This species was established on a large fragment of the cranium, which
includes the orbits and all anterior to it, excepting the dentigerous portion

* Fourteenth Report of the State Geologist of Indiana, 1884, Part II, p. 17. Proceeds.
Amer. Philos. Soc., 1887, p. 384,

Cope.] 64 [Feb. 17,
of the premaxillary bone. It contains the posterior four molars, with the
alveole of the anterior three premolars and the canine of the left side.
The specimen belongs to the collection of Prof. Thomas Condon, of the
University of Oregon, who kindly lent it to me.

The skull is remarkable for the abrupt contraction of its outlines ante-
rior to the orbits, both laterally and vertically, The frontal region above
and anterior to each orbit is swollen, indicating large sinuses. The ante-
rior orbital border is notched twice, the superior emargination being rather
shallow, while the inferior projects in an angle forwards, and the lachry-
mal foramen enters at its apex, just within the facial border. The muzzle
is contracted, compressed, and short. The zygomatic arch springs
abruptly, its external surface meeting the everted facial surface in an ob-
tuse vertical angle. This angle is opposite the anterior edge of the second
true molar. Its posterior base is opposite the second pair of cusps of the ;3
third true molar. The external face of the maxillary bone is directed in-
wards and backwards from this point, and forms a vertical angle opposite
the internal margin of the last molar. Its internal border, commencing at
this angle, extends forwards, but I cannot in the specimen distinguish it
from the adjacent parts of the palatine bone, on account of its injured
state. The palate is flat except next the molars, where its surface is re-
curved. The frontal region is flat, except at the superciliary borders,
where it is slightly decurved.

The nasal bones are narrow, but they expand posteriorly so as to have a
width three times as great as at the middle of the length. The posterior
outline of both is a single convexity, whose middle point is at the line
connecting the anterior border of the orbits. The length of contact of the
nasal with the maxillary bones is 12 to 15mm. The lachrymal bone is
| higher than long, and wider above than below. Its anterior suture is
nearly straight. The anterior part of the malar is deeper than the lachry- :
| mal, and its anterior suture is concave posteriorly.

The lachrymal foramen is single and round. The infraorbital foramen
| is vertical and is above the posterior border of. the first premolar. The
i

incisive foramina are large. The supraorbital foramina are close together,
being separated by an interspace equal one-fourth that which separates |
each from the superciliary border. The grooves which extend from them |
anteriorly diverge gradually and are lost near the apices of the premaxil- |
lary bones. The palatine foramen is opposite the line of contact between
the first and second true molars.

The dental series is remarkable for the rapid diminution of dimensions of
the teeth from behind forwards. The last molar is fully equal in size to the
corresponding tooth in the Bothrolabis pristinus, but the first true molar and
first premolar are very much smaller than in that species. The same rela-
tion exists between this species and the BS. subequans. In comparison with
the B. trichenus, the anterior teeth are smaller, while the last true molar is
larger, in the @. decedens. The crowns of the molars are of simple con-
stitution, They consist of four cusps, two external and two internal, the

35
1888.) 65 [Cope.

latter a little benind opposite the former, and connected with them by an
obscure intermediate tubercle. The latter is so far fused to the other two
as to give a pair of transverse ridges somewhat depressed in the middle.
The posterior intermediate on the last superior molar is a little in front of
the larger ones which it connects, and a third intermediate is situated be-
hind the space between the latter. This third intermediate is an upward
production of a broad cordiform posterior cingulum of the crown. The
external cusps on all the true molars in this species are remarkable for
having their external faces flat, having thus distinct anterior and posterior
edges. The internal face is convex to angular. There is a complete deli-
cate external cingulum, and a wide anterior cingulum, but no internal
cingulum. The first premolar has a nearly square outline instead of being
transverse, as in the other species, and has one external and one internal
cusp, connected by an elevated ridge. No rudiment of external second
cusp. ‘The internal cusp is much smaller than the external. A com-
plete cingulum, except on the internal side; the external a delicate one.
Second premolar with greater anteroposterior extent than the first. Its
base contracts inwards through the obliquity of the external side. The
crown is lost. The internal outline of the last four molars is straight, the
external a little convex. The second premolar’s form adds to the con-
vexity. The alveolar border in front of the second premolar is broken, but
there is no trace of alveoli or roots of another premolar until we approach
the canine alveolus. Here a single root indicates a rather small fourth (or
? third) premolar. Its long diameter is directed inwards and forwards.
‘The canine is large, but the root only remains in the alveolus. Its out-
line is that of an isosceles spherical triangle, with the apex directed pos-
teriorly and outwards. Its alveolus occupies an enlargement of the max-
illary bone, which is excavated on the anterior face to receive the apex of
the inferior canine. This fossa has an acute posterior and superior border.
In front its border is excavated by the alveolus of the large third superior
incisor,

Measurements.
M.

MAPOTORDIa WIGth te see ek tes cede wc a's eeNices aaese 7. 00D
Depth to alveolar border at front of orbit............. .080

Length from orbit (between notches) to canine fossa... .091
Width of palate at p.m.i..... ies cccdvec@enevrs est #0200

ny oc oO ms i Cimiddle) ries. eas woe vbewe > 08d
doeneth Of Molar series... 6.215502). ees Si Cour ee see 00LO

te UPUG DAOLNIN secs ces ce eet 044

ave SM DBEG OL Dally UL viii ssa ect aeee eee eres 6010
Diameters p.m. i f anteroposterior ..... Se aries bare eose eee) OUDD

WIATISVOISC) 0c sc als ous ta vecss ss steesoee ce 00UD
Diameters m. i \ cohmh abietaisahe: eae een ieee: fees ULL
SEMMSVOISO Ss woaes sis00 W008 Jee ea ewes, SOLED

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv, 127. I. PRINTED APRIL 3, 1888.

66 ; [Feb. 17,

Jope.]
Measurements. M.
; saa de SPODOSTELLOL. os vccce eevee escsessesees .018
Diameters m. lil < Antepopostene! :
ViVATISVGISG, .cag oo. @ ee Ee eee Ole
aid i anteroposterior....-sceeeeeeeee 019
Diameters base of canine Raat komad:
U4ranSVerse@ cscs « see es cet Ge NOU"

As compared with the collared peccary this species has a skull of about
the same size, but rather more robust. The posterior molars are consid -
erably more robust.

BOTHROLABIS Cope. Gen. nov.

The species of this genus known to me differ as follows. It may be re-
marked that they differ from those described by Marsh in their superior
size. The latter are represented as being smaller, sometimes much smaller,
than the common peccary. Those now described are equal to or larger
than"that species. The type of the genus is the B. rostratus Cope. It very
probably includes the Hyotherium americanum 8. & O.*

I. Muzzle short; a rudimental second external cusp of superior

p.m: 1.
Superior true molars longer than space from m. i to canine; last superior
molar wide as long; fourth inferior premolar one-rooted ; infraorbital
foramen above middle of p. M. ie.seeeeeseeeeeseeces .B. subaquans.

TI. Muzzle medium ; one external cusp to superior p.m. i.

Superior true molars as long as space between p. m. i and canine ; inferior
p.m. iv two-rooted ; infraorbital foramen above middle of p.m. is
last superior molar longer than wide, with three cross-crests and no
internal cusp at first valley.....-++.-sseeeeeeeceseeree .B. pristinus.

Asin B. pristinus, but fourth inferior premolar with one root, and supe-
rior m. iii with two rows of tubercles, and an internal tubercle at end
of anterior valley.....-- Seach Vic ees Dee e ge oiet .... B. trichenus.

TII. Muzzle long, compressed ; superior p.m. i with one external cusp.

Molars small; true molars shorter than space from m. i to canine, last
longer than wide, with two rows of tubercles; infraorbital foramen
above middle of p.m. ii.....-.--- aia Giles B. rostratus.

These species, with the Chenohyus decedens, form a series, which is
measured by the increasing length of muzzle, and various other but con-
sequent characters, One of these is the forward movement of the infra-
orbital foramen, and the anteroposterior development of the fourth infe-
rior premolar, In addition to these, the series displays a coincident
posterior extension of the base of the zygomatic arch. In the C. decedens
it is anterior to the posterior border of the last superior molar. In the

Bothrolabis subequans it is opposite the same. In the B. pristinus it is

posterior, and in B. rostratus, very much posterior to the last superior

molar.

* Preliminary account of fossil Mammals from the White River formation; Bullet.
Mus. Compar. Zodl., Cambridge, xiii, 5, p. 155, 1885.

1888. ] 67

[Cope.

BoOTHROLABIS SUB4QUANS Cope.

Palwocherus subequans Cope. Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1879, p.
374.

This species is only known to me from a single nearly entire skull with
lower jaw in the collection of Prof. Thomas Condon, of the University of
Oregon. The specimen he kindly lent to me, and my description and
figures are based upon it. It is distinguished among those of its con-
geners by its abbreviated and robust form. This is seen in the steepness
of its profile, the concavity of the side of the muzzle, and in certain
details. Such are the position of the superior p. m. iv within the superior
canine ; the absence of diastemata between the premolars, and the short-
ness of the last true superior molar.

The frontal region is swollen above the anterior parts of the orbits, but
is concave in front of the temporal ridges, except at the median line,
which is obtusely keeled at this point. The profile does not descend ab-
ruptly as in the Chaenohyus decedens, but forms a steeply descending
straight line. In the same way the face is not abruptly contracted at the
front of the malar bones, but slopes rapidly inwards, giving a wedge-
shaped outline from above. Anterior to the compression the facial sur-
face expands laterally and encloses the canine alveoli without abrupt
enlargement. Anterior to these teeth the fossm for the inferior canine are
excavated upwards and backwards to a depth of about one-fourth the
vertical diameter of the muzzle, the molar teeth being held horizontally.
The greater part of the premaxillary bones are broken off. The orbit is
not large. The postorbital process is large and decurved, with its com-
pressed-acute apex pointing downwards, behind the line of the postorbital
process of the molar. The anterior border of the orbit has two notches,
the inferior the larger and including the lachrymal foramen. The supra-
orbital border is nearly straight. The temporal ridges are sharply defined.
The sagittal crest is compressed and deep through the posterior depression
of the brain case, as it does not quite rise to the plane of the facial pro-
file. The occiput is narrow and elevated, and its lateral crests are promi-
nent, enclosing a spoon-shaped occipital fossa. The inion is a narrow
truncate angle less than right. The occipital condyle projects at its
superior part, exterior to the vertical line of the lateral occipital crest.
The crest extends directly towards it without reaching it, and does not
turn anteriorly to bound the temporal fossa below as in most Mammalia,
including the peccary. It follows that the paroccipital and zygomatic
crests originate independently. The latter is prominent, rising abruptly
above and sloping backwards and inwards to a prominent apex nearer to
the occipital condyle than to the postglenoid process. It has a deep trans-
verse groove on its external face. The posttympanic region is a flat bone
Spread out against the posterior aspect of the zygoma as in pigs generally.
Its flat posterior plane is nearly vertical. Below its inferior border projects
the postglenoid process, which is narrow, thinning out and becoming more

Cope.] 68 [Feb. 17,

prominent externally. At the superior border of the end of the post-
tympanic plate the meatus auditorius eaternus issues. The posterior ex-
tremity of the angle of the zygoma rises above it, presenting a concave
triangular face posteriorly, the apex upwards. The glenoid surface of the
zygoma is horizontal in front, but its external half posteriorly rises extern-
ally. The otic bulla is larger than in any of the species here described,
but its entire boundaries have not been exposed. Its transverse diameter
is equal to the space between the apices of the paroccipital and posttym-
panic ridges. The zygomatic arch is rather short, its external face is flat,
and its vertical depth is considerable. Its posterior angle is very promi-
nent and compressed. The occipital condyles are small for the size of the
skull.

The mandibular condyle projects very little vertically or posteriorly,
but has considerable transverse extent. Its posterior face is in fact verti-
cally truncate and the posterior border of the coronoid process rises
directly from the anterior border of its superior aspect. The anterior edge
of the coronoid conceals the posterior extremity of the third inferior
molar. The inferior edge of the ramus is compressed and straight antero-
posteriorly, and a little convex downwards. The symphysis rises ob-
liquely but more steeply than the curvature of the ramus. Its median
suture is preserved. The posterior base of the zygomatic arch is in trans-
verse line with the posterior border of the third superior molar tooth.
In Chenohyus decedens it is anterior to this line, and in Bothrolabis pris-
tinus and B. rostratus it is much posterior to this line. The masseteric
fossa is well marked but shallow in the vertical direction, not descending
below the line of the inferior molars.

The nasal bones are narrow medially, but expand at a point opposite the
anterior border of the lachrymal bone to four times that width. At the
middle line posteriorly they present posteriorly an angle which is about
right. The coronal suture crosses the angle formed by the converging
temporal ridges, in a nearly straight short line. The apex of the premax-
illary does not reach the frontal bone by 835mm. The latter borders the
maxillary by about 10mm. The lachrymal is about as long as deep, and
presents an angular process backwards into the orbit. The malar rises to
opposite the lachrymal foramen, and its anterior border does not project
beyond that of the lachrymal, and retreats a little posteriorly below. The
posterior suture of the malar is not very oblique; it is concave and
reaches the base of the postorbital process. The alisphenoid bone has
little or no contact with the pariétal. The latter descends more than half
way to the base of the zygomatic process, and reaches the inion poste-
riorly. The posterior border of the squamosal is anterior to the lateral
occipital crest.

The infraorbital foramen is above the middle of the first superior pre-
molar, The supraorbital foramina are close together, being separated by
an interspace which is one-seventh of the interorbital space. The Jachry-
mal foramen is single, large, and within the orbital border. There are

|
|
i
|

1888.] 69 [Cope.

three postpariétal foramina, the inferior small and on the squamosal
suture. The mastoid foramen is small, is anterior to the lateral occipital
crest, and is apparently on a suture. There are two supraglenoid fora-
mina, both small, the larger on the inner side of the base of the zygoma.
The meatus auditorius eaternus is small, and is directed upwards and out-
wards. There is a foramen on the inner aspect of the line of contact of
the posttympanic and postglenoid plates, which is probably continuous
with the postglenoid. The stylomastoid foramen is, externally at least,
longer than the postglenoid. The superior border of the foramen mag-
num is an open angle.

Of the superior incisor teeth only the third is preserved. The crown is
oval and of moderate width. There were two inferior incisors in each
ramus. Of the presence of a third Iam very doubtful. They have rather
narrow truncate crowns of equal width, and are directed upwards at an
angle of 45°. The canines are robust. They have a subtriangular sec-
tion, but the inferior triangle has a truncated (anterior) apex. These teeth
differ from those of B. pristinus and B. trichanus in having two grooves
separated by a ridge on the external sides, instead of one groove. The
narrow anterior face of the inferior canine is also shallowly grooved.

The fourth superior premolar is almost entirely within the superior ca-
nine. It is small, but two-rooted. The third is much longer, and is much
compressed. The second is but little longer than the third. Its crown
consists of a single compressed cusp, with an internal cingulum which
expands posteriorly, enclosing a narrow basin, and turning outwards forms
a narrow basal heel. The first premolar has a base wider than long. Its
external tubercle is bifid, the principal one supporting a rudiment of a
second, The internal cusp is connected with the external by a transverse
ridge, which does not reach the apex of the latter. A wide cingulum
forms the internal and posterior outline of the crown. A narrow external,
and no internal cingulum. The true molars are subquadrate in form,
and increase in size posteriorly. The first is not so reduced in relative
proportions as in the Chanohyus decedens. The external cusps are a little
flattened externally, not so conspicuously as in the last-named species.
Intermediate tubercles are present as in that species. An anterior and a
posterior, a faint external and no internal cingula. The posterior cingu-
lum is wide in the second molar and supports a rudimental third interme-
diate tubercle. In the third true molar it is wider and has a plicate border,
but no considerable cusp. The second transverse series of tubercles of
this tooth consists of those tubercles besides the intermediate tubercle in
front of it, instead of two as exhibited by the other species. The external
tubercle of this series is flattened on the external side. The intermediate
tubercle of the first row is large and distinct. The crowns of the inferior
molar teeth are not visible in this specimen. It can be seen, however,
that the only diastemata in the series are very short, and are anterior and
Posterior to the fourth one-rooted premolar.

70 [Feb. 17

>

Measurements.

M. |

Length from I. iitovinion (axidl).. 60. se... eidai iss. 20D :
” fifo Pe DOSTOR DIL a exes iN ve be Var Soe SOD:
i (Pee o> anterior border OL OVDI tase 6 vse C00
Width of occiput (greatest) . Uh die AGG Ode we ee 4d gan. UOD,
| “ at zygoma at auditory proatda. Tie eve ete cae) 6 ns008
sof Drain case Coreatest). <2... s \ case naa. 1025

‘¢ sat postorbital processes... ...5.-...1.- PS Bee A Ves, |

« *“ zygoma at front of orbit......, . .082 |

6 ot TAIL COMBITICHONG ¢siewis s/c meee ens eee USS
He XU CAIN ALVEOLI COXLOINAL) 0%:. 0d tees s 6) alsdiciea's hy) 00

Wuenat ImpenOr bite Within neds Yeti wy eels cence <a «40:10
Elevation of inion above Picea magnum. ss ccneisses UD 4D
Vertical diameter of zygoma behind orbit...........-++ .022 |
ne i ‘ eee ED ca cajaleyas essai sae Re i
‘ ry £5 OLA cds tans 5 sue FEUD e Lae mera 08 I
af i cranium ab front Of Ofbit...0....... .070 i
& uu wh ne At third Premolat, .\n 1.46 050 '
re Me of mandible at p.m. iv..... Pete tie UeD
e ee $ ceded red: ia Fer se
ae i < ay SO My TiN eG eae «seme 6 .039
| Length of superior molar series.......-. : 088
a ‘* superior true molars,......... .048
inmaers superior p.mi {ae ee A 1010
TTSNSV CISC 215 succor scat .012
iia levee { ANLETOPOBLELION, 0. ese ee pe PUA bie 015
{TANISVCLSO.. parce poms ces 4d es) hee erene 014
Tyamnerers sie f BUCEOPOSUEMION (sais. cae sys beavinas culo
NAMEMAVOIRC/ le ciscs ces cece sues s 015
anteroposterior ........ .016

Diameters of superior canine { f 010
THUS VCTSC cos sects bt yet

Diameters crown of inferior f anteroposterior........ .012
canine ETRE VOISO yn e ap che 0095

Width of crown of L. i1inferior.,......... eA cited pexs .0U0
# He LEE SSL SR ee ew ir OPER Ar 9 .. .0055

The skull of this species has-just the length and elevation of that of the
collared peccary, but is more robust.

;
BOTHROLABIS PRISTINUS Leidy,

Dicotyles pristinus Leidy, Report U. 8. Geol. Survey of the Territories,
F. V. Hayden, 1873, I, p. 216; PI. vii, figs. 13-14. Palwocherus pris-
tinus Leidy, Cope, Bulletin U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1879, v, p. 58.

Of what I suppose to be this species I have a nearly complete skull |
without lower jaw, and a lower jaw from which the anterior teeth are |

1888. ] 71 [Cope.

wanting, and a number of tooth-bearing fragments. I found a ramus
with symphysis and part of the other ramus of an individual in Prof.
Condon’s collection, which I refer for the present to this species. The
identification rests on the characters of the last two inferior molars, the
only parts in the possession of Leidy when he described the species.

The skull is in its proportions intermediate between the extremes in the
genus. The profile of the long muzzle is a nearly straight gradually de-
scending line. Viewed from above the muzzle contracts gradually to the
compression behind the canine alveoli, and then expands to contract
abruptly in front of the latter, to terminate in the parabolic outline of the
premaxillary region. The sagittal crest is mostly lost, but it is pretty cer-
tain that it descends from the profile line to the inion, which is below the
frontal level. The ridge of the muzzle does not expand above the canines.
The zygomata are flat. The interorbital region has an undulating surface,
owing to the presence of swellings on each side of the middle line, and of
a depression at the supraorbital foramina, and an obtuse median keel be-
hind them. The postorbital processes are robust and decurved abruptly,
the apices connected with the skull by a transverse plate with horizontal
inferior edge. The superciliary border is carried a little anterior to the
anterior border of the orbit. This border is only distinct above the lachry-
mal foramen ; below that point the passage from the facial to the orbital
surface is uninterrupted. The anterior origin of the zygomatic arch is
equally gradual; posteriorly it arises from the posterior edge of the max-
illary bone, which forms a line posterior to the third superior molar by
5mm. Before reaching the longitudinal line of the malar, the border
turns backwards and terminates in an apex which is directed backwards
and inwards close to the pyramidal process: of the palatine bone, from
which it is separated by a fissure. The postorbital process of the malar
bone is small, compressed and acute. It is anterior to the line of the post-
orbital process of the frontal. The superior edge of the zygoma is acute ;
the inferior beveled and truncate. The lachrymal bone extends down-
wards within the anterior part of the orbit and forms a prominent con-
vexity whose long axis runs downwards and inwards, and it projects
behind the posterior boundary of the maxillary bone. It encloses with
the superior wall of the latter a deep fossa below and continuous with the
orbit. The orbit is bounded posteriorly by a curved ridge which rises
behind the foramen rotundum to near the base of the postfrontal process
and turns forwards and disappears. A much more prominent angle
commences behind the foramen rotundum and rising vertically soon
disappears. The temporal ridges are pronounced, and are concave for-
wards. The lateral occipital crests are prominent and descend to near the
condyles. The posterior temporal ridge is weak and continued subhori-
zontally from the zygoma behind, but it does not reach the lateral occi-
pital crests. The paroccipital process has a robust base which stands at
an angle of 45°, being less nearly vertical than in the B. subequans. It
approaches nearer to the posttympanic plate than in that species, being

Cope. ] 72 [Feb. 17,

separated by a groove at its apex. The posttympanic is a flat fan-
shaped bone appressed close to the postglenoid process. Its inferior
edge forms a ridge running horizontally inwards and posteriorly, and
enclosing a triangular space with the postglenoid, which is pierced by
the postglenoid foramen. Between the foramen and the bulla of the
ear is a small pisiform tuberosity. The otic bulla is small, and its long
axis is longitudinal; its width is a little greater than the space between it
and its fellow, and equals the space between the apex of the postglenoid
process and the nearest point of the paroccipital. The basioccipital is
weakly keeled at the middle line behind, but it is grooved at the anterior
edge through the presence of a tuberosity on each side of the middle line.
The groove soon disappears on the sphenoid. The inferior ala of the sphen-
oid forms with the pyramidal process of the palatine a long wall, which ex-
tends from the posterior contact with the maxillary bone tothe internal base
of the glenoid cavity. Its inferior margin is double, or grooved, the exte-
rior edge being deeper posteriorly, the interior the deeper anteriorly. The
posterior nareal border is divided by an osseous septum of 15 mm. in
length on the inferior edge ; the anterior border of the nares attains the
line of the posterior edge of the last superior molars. The palate is flat,
except a slight recurvature at the bases of the molars.

The sutural boundaries of the nasal bones are about the same as in the
B. subequans. Their anterior extremities are fortunately preserved. They
are deeply notched, so as to be bifurcate, the internal angle being about
as long as the external. The facial part of the lachrymal is subquadrate
and its anterior suture forms a nearly straight line with that of the malar
bone. The superior squamosal suture reaches half way to the sagittal
crest, but not to the lateral occipital. The maxillopalatine extends ante-
riorly to a point opposite the middle of the first true molar. The premax-
illary extends to within 50 mm. of the frontal, while the latter touches the
maxillary by a suture of 10 mm. in length.

The foramen magnum is small. The lachrymal is single. The infra-
orbitale issues above the middle of the p. m. ii. The supraorbitals are close
together, being separated by a space equal to one-eighth the interorbital
width. The /. opticum is rather large and is quite distinct from the
J. rotundum, though near it. The latter and the f. sphenodrbitale appear
to be united into a single large orifice. The f. ovale and f. lacerum anterius
are not distinct. There is no f. lacerum medius, and the f. lacerum pos-
terius is very narrow. The f. stylohyoideum is rather large; the f. post-
glenoideum looks downwards and inwards from between the posttympanic
and postglenoid plates. The f. condyloideum is well isolated ; it is oval
and looks downwards. The f. magnum is a wide transverse oval. The
meatus auditorius externus looks upwards into a triangular groove-like
fossa of the triangular posterior face of the zygoma. There is one large
postparictal foramen. No supraglenoid foramen. Mastoid foramen small,
below the edge of the posttemporal crest. Palatine foramina opposite the
middle of the first true molar.

1888. ] 73 [Cope.

The animal described is mature, and the crowns of the first and second
true molars have lost their patterns by attrition. The fourth premolar is
small, but is two-rooted, the anterior root nearly reaching the posterior
edge of the canine alveolus. The third premolar is like it but larger, the
second is still larger, and has the external cusp and internal cingulum
spreading posteriorly as in the other species. The first premolar is wider
than long and has but one external cusp; it has anterior and posterior,
but no external nor internal cingula. The true molars have all the cin-
gula but the internal. The third true molar has three transverse dentinal
tracts besides the posterior cingulum, indicating three rows of cusps. The
external cusp of the second row is distinct from the others and of conic
form ; it is bounded externally by the cingulum.

The canine has a single external median groove. Its section is trian-
gular, but the anterior face is not su wide, and the posterior edge not so
acute as in the B. subequans. The fossa for the inferior canine enters the
premaxillary to a depth equal one-fourth that of the muzzle at that point.
In the B. rostratus it excavates to a depth of one-half the muzzle. Of the
superior incisive alveoli, the first is a little larger than the third, and the
third a little larger than the second.

Measurements of skull. '
M.

Length from premaxillary bone to probable inion...... .250
ee . a ‘© postorbital apex..... .175

° e ‘¢ preorbital border.... .155
os * a ‘« infraorbital foramen. .080
s My Ss *« superior canine...... .0385
a " S ‘* posterior nares...... .148
den eth: Of Otic: DUUR woe en. ate hee Wieddeassae \OS4D.
Width: of OW Dulles sss. te vows crs ves: jeg usta teas NOLS
Foo Of OGCIPiIt. (HICHLESE yas «sie ee oy vice sue ventas 1020
““ at zygoma at auditory meatus........ ie ect eiee ss LLU
Le (2 ab frOnt Ob OF iti oc css es os oc cee LOU
4¢. Of. bra Case COTestest) .ie..isc ce scnet eovstie 009)
+f Sot: DOStOR DLENPOCCRSOS a sienida wits ce Cee Siiea UGG
+¢ 46 facial CONSITICHON. 4 e.4 63 ss 2d ced ates ee 084
‘<< o CAnING a ly.eOli: (external) 44.6 5 .a twee ee 000
See Me - ON Palate ies Hikes ee Oe
£< between: pr Mid. «sevice es Hise is 2 0ee
af Wy sli es ee TS ae es a eae ee
‘SOL POStOLIOR DULCE) swiss sowie cece ccs ee ewe 0105
“© between otic bull.ac..vce.. ie ecieess cre SOLID
< of foramen magnum, ¢is5scic.s cs aoe se ses. 018
“Det ween-Orbits (least)... s.4bks oes ce css. s sie 081
Vertical diameter of zygoma behind orbit............. .0225
& e es “ UOLOLii se an Bousd. Soovoe 0225

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. soc. xxv. 127. J. PRINTED APRIL 8, 1888.

74 [Feb. 17,

Measurements of skull. M.

Vertical idinmeter of orbites cok wien cevwieees ea cleas . O84
ee sf 4. eranium at front, of orbits. +..02018

# ey ss fs “third premolar. ov sc. 065
Length of superior molar series..........+.. Aer ore .093
Ge o fo tH UGHMOlATS pose es ede Paley sea (O49
‘ 7 ree: SECTIONS ee ces es .0095
Diameters superior p. m. pe enienone si
UWtTANSVeEtsO: i. siege de tea OLs

F ‘ F nieropostenior) . ius uses 018

Diameters superior m. i §:Ralerot

Cipansvendegesas ituscive.vs 2015

‘ 41) WATMONODOSTELION ars a eC pat euiea aad .020
Diameters m. iii 5° I le
LAPADAY eYBOr. avidin seri ian ls eter 0165
anteroposterior... ¢.s.6s..0. .015

Diameters superior canine {
{PENS VONSeah ea. Peele es 1009

The skull of this species exceeds that of the collared peccary, and is
equal to that of the larger Dicotyles labiatus.

The lower jaw belonging to Prof. Thomas Condon, to which reference
has been made, is referred with some doubt to this species. This is be-
cause it is accompanied by a superior posterior molar, which has not the
characters of that of the B. pristinus in the lack of the third transverse
series of tubercles. It is, however, not certain that this tooth belongs to
the animal represented by the lower jaw.

In the latter there are two well-developed incisor teeth and an alveolus
for a much smaller external one on each side. The fourth premolar is
two-rooted and is separated by diastemata from the canine and from the
third premolar of about the same length as itself. The other molars are
in an uninterrupted series. The inferior molars have anterior and posterior
cingula, but no external or internal ones. On the first and second there
are no intermediates; on the third they are represented by median swell-
ings in the bottoms of the transverse valleys. ‘The heel is well developed
supporting a median tubercle and lateral crenate edges. A narrow ante-
rior cingulum. These inferior molars have the characters of the specimens
described by Leidy as typical of the species.

Measurements.

M.
Width between inferior Canimesiicescnws oss sepa ei cess. 1018
Dlaietersok mas i f anteroposterior ../.01...6.. Wain KOLIO
\ transverse ...... vasiimmne cade ies 018
Dihinetete OF me die ANLETOPOSTOTION : 0626 vagoed si sthn. 524081
? GAVHTIAVELSGit 2. Gowen wabeuuniew puis sOLeD
Depth of ramus at Mm. sy ).. 4.5 PAWN views eS p20 00D

BOvHROLABIS TRICH ANUS Cope.

Thinohyus trichenus Cope. Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Society, 1879, p. 373.
Established on a nearly complete dentition of both jaws in place, but

1888. ] 75 [Cope.

sufficiently open to display the crowns of the teeth. The rest of the skull
is mostly wanting, though some parts of the base are probably preserved
in the mass of matrix.

The first incisor is directed nearly vertically downwards. The external
face of the crown is an oblique, wide vertical oval, convex on the internal
and obliquely truncate on the external edge. The crown of the second
incisor is smaller and more acuminate ; there is no such difference in size
between it and the first, as in Hyotherium waterhousei and other species of
that genus, and both teeth are smaller than the corresponding ones in the
Dicotyles torquatus. The superior canine is very robust. Its posterior edge
is sharp, and the external face is flat, with a longitudinal shallow groove
near the middle. The fourth premolar is wanting from both sides, but a
space close behind the canine is probably its alveolus. A short interspace
separates it from the third premolar. The latter has two roots and its
base is nearly as long as that of the second premolar. The crown is lost.
The second premolar is longer than wide, and is wider behind than before.
It consists of an external cusp which has an angular apex of moderate
elevation, and a basal internal cingulum. The latter arises posterior to
the anterior base of the crown as a narrow ridge, and speedily expands
posteriorly, enclosing a basin with the external cusp. It does not rise
into a tubercle. The first premolar is as wide as long, aud has a subquad-
rate base. It has but one, a simple external cusp, from the anterior part
of which a transverse straight ridge extends inwards and ceases abruptly
above the internal base. The posterior base of the tooth is therefore ex-
panded, forming a table, while there is a rudimental anterior cingulum.
No internal or external cingula.

The first and second true molars are of subequal dimensions,and are
larger than the first premolar. The base of the first is subquadrate and
slightly oblique. Its four cusps are connected by wear, so that I cannot
determine the presence of intermediate tubercles excepting one near the
centre of the crown. A cingulum, except on the inner side ; the external
faint. In the second true molar two intermediate tubercles are visible,
but the anterior is fused with the external and internal anterior tubercles,
so as to form a transverse crest, depressed in the middle. The posterior
intermediate is in front of the posterior pair of tubercles, and there is no
third or posterior cingular tubercle. Cingulum present except on inner
side of crown, faint on external side. The third true molar is composed
like the second, with the addition of a heel, and a tubercle on the inner
side stopping the valley between the two cross-crests. The intermediate
tubercles of this tooth are more conspicuous than in the m. ii, and the an-
terior is of equal elevation with the interior and exterior of the first row.
This row is now quite oblique, looking posteriorly inwards. The heel has
a median tubercle about the size of the second intermediate, which is
flanked on each side by a plicated border or outline. The enamel of all
these teeth is smooth.

There are three incisors in each ramus of the lower jaw. Their crowns

Cope.] 76 [Feb. 17,

are of subequal size, but their edges are differently worn. The first and
second are squarely truncate, the third obliquely on each side, so as to
give an angular apex. The inferior canine is robust, with the apex
directed upwards. The section is subtriangular, with a rather obtuse apex
anterior. The external face is flat, and has an open shallow longitudinal
groove, which is cut by the face of attrition not far below the apex. En-
amel smooth. The fourth premolar is a small tooth with one root entirely
behind the canine. It is separated by a very short interspace from the
third premolar. It is not clear whether it has one or two roots. The sec-
ond premolar has a compressed simple crown without cingula. The pos-
terior base is broken off. The first premolar has two subequal closely
appressed cusps, anterior to the middle of the crown. In front there is a
basal angle ; posteriorly a long heel, whose elevated longitudinal ridge is
external to the middle line.

The first true molar is wanting. The second displays a crown a little
longer than wide. It supports four cusps, without intermediates, whose
bases are joined so that wear causes their dentinal centres to become con-
tinuous. A swelling in the valley represents the second intermediate
cusp, while a similar swelling of the posterior cingulum represents the
third. Cingula are represented by a posterior and anterior basal ledge.
The third inferior true molar has two pairs of cusps and a large heel, the
latter embracing a median basin. A low intermediate tubercle interrupts
the middle of the anterior valley, and three low confluent tubercles fill
the basin of the heel. The border of the latter is tubercular, the principal
one being a little exterior to its median point. No cingula, but a short an-
terior ledge. Enamel smooth.

Measurements.
M.

ihength of superior molar seriess..... ccv.vss. cece snes, 091
- & true molanseries,:. .% . Mit swe sia weer eens. 0408
Anteroposterior diameter of superior canine.......... .015
S AMbCTOPOSICTION sin vas sede ds 0115
Utransverse....... be ie ve waste es 6009
COMTOrOpoOsteriOtie. ss. vsseeys os von OLOD

Diameters p. m. ii

Diameters p. m. i

transverse. .... O11
Dinnieters wt J stteropesterior .... 0132
\ transverse. .... Bre 0182
Transverse with crown of superior I. i 910
e As Sao tenor Ii. . secieee sess 40000
Anteroposterior diameter of inferior c. .......... ee 010
Jiength of inferior molar series ....<¢0.0...000% wceetas 009
Me S < MNUG MOT SEIICS 5. ov cscs eee 2000

Diameters nti iarcntipa kage. sie ttebawts ve cess O15

TRANS VETSO 2.6 so illici ives vee sos a Ole
Wismetersn Gi f anteroposterior, ............sseuee 022
UGANSVCTSO iis Hi Man Be bare vlea ne 01S

1888.] 7 . [Cope.

Further investigations may show this species to be identical with the
B. pristinus Leidy. The differences at present apparent are: first, the
one-rooted p. m. iv, two-rooted in B. pristinus ; second, the relatively
rather smaller molars, especially the third superior. In the B. pristinus
this tooth has a transverse series of tubercles on the heel which are rudi-
mental in the B. trichenus, and the internal tubercle which stops the an-
terior valley is wanting in the B. pristinus. As compared with the
Chenohyus decedens this species has 1 longer premolar region, and larger
anterior molars and premolars.

BOTHROLABIS ROSTRATUS Cope. Spec. nov.

A cranium nearly entire, but without mandible, represents this species.
The specimen indicates a species of larger size than the white-lipped pec-
cary (B. labiatus), but of more slender proportions. An important char-
acter is found in the small size of the molar teeth. In this respect it com-
pares with the B. pristinus much as the black bear compares with the
grizzly.

In profile the interorbital region is concave, and the sagittal crest rises
above it. The prefrontal region is gently convex, and the top of the muz-
zle is a gradually descending straight line. Viewed from above the outline
is wedge-shaped to the contraction above the third premolar, and then ex-
panded prominently for canine alveoli. The premaxillary region is not
longer than in B. pristinus, while the facial part of the muzzle is consid-
erably more elongate than in that species. Its profile has no such slope as
is seen in B. subequans, nor abrupt descent as in Chanohyus decedens.
There is no median frontal rib as in B. pristinus. The alveolus of the
superior canine is produced downwards below the remaining alveolar bor-
der, so that the fossa for the inferior canine is excavated into half the depth
of the muzzle instead of only one-fourth as in the species already described.
This may be a character of the males only. The zygomatic arch is pecu-
liar in that the postorbital portion is considerably shallower than the
orbital portion. Its postorbital process is large. The postorbital processes
of the frontal are both broken at the apices, but so far as preserved they
resemble those of the other species. A little process extends into the
orbit from its anterior border, below which the latter is not very well de-
fined. The orbit is not very large, and its long axis is oblique anteropos-
teriorly and in the vertical plane. The posterior apex of the zygomatic
process of the squamosal is broken, but it was evidently not so robust as
in the species already described. The postglenoid is transverse and com-
pressed to an acute free edge, and the posttympanic plate is closely
appressed to it. The paroccipital process is elongate, and the apex con-
tracts from the base. The latter lies at an angle of 45° inwards and for-
wards, rising from the edge of the otic bulla. The occipital condyles are
small, and are laterally expanded. The otic bulle are placed longitudin-
ally and are small regular ovals. Their transverse diameter is less than
the width of the space between them, and equals the space between the
external bases of the postglenoid and paroccipital processes. The basi-

Cope.] 78 [Feb. 17,

occipital is flat posteriorly, but anteriorly it has an open shallow median
groove, with a low ridge on each side.

The occiput is damaged, but the lateral occipital crests descend to near
the condyles without sending a branch to the zygoma. The posterior
temporal ridge commences above the external portion of the occipital con-
dyle. A single prominent angular ridge dividing the temporal from the
orbital fossee continues from the postfrontal process to internal angle of
the preglenoid boundary. The inferior sphenoid ala is continuous from
this point to and with the pyramidal process of the palatine, forming a
vertical plate flared outward at its superior border. The border of the
posterior nares is about as far posterior to the last superior molar as the
length of that tooth, and opposite to the posterior extremity of the maxil-
lary bone. This is further posterior than in any of the other species. The
zygomatic foramen is encroached on by the convexity of the inferior part
of the lachrymal bone which is in this species subhorizontal, and not
oblique as in the B. pristinus. It is therefore continuous with the zygo-
matic expansion of the maxillary bone, and serves to place the posterior
origin of the zygomatic arch much further back than in any of the other
species here described. The outlines of the zygomatic arches are flat, and
slightly wider behind than before. The palate is flat, except posterior to
opposite the last superior molars. It then slopes upwards at an open
angle. The premaxillary palatal face is a little decurved.

As the animal described is old, the sutures are obliterated.

The infraorbital foramen is above the middle of the second superior pre-
molar, and is a vertical oval. The supraorbital foramina are small and
close together, the space between them being one-seventh the interorbital
width. There are two postpariétal foramina placed rather low down, the
inferior on the squamosal suture. A very small supraglenoid foramen on
the inner side of the zygomatic process. The foramen magnum is wider
than deep if we except a deep notch of the superior border. The/. condy-
loidewm is entirely distinct, and is a longitudinal ova]. The f. ovale is
not distinct from the f. lacerum anterius. The f. postglencidewm is at the
inner side of the postglenoid process. The meatus auditorius externus is
lost with the zygomatic angle, but its canal is remarkably small. The f.
palatinum is opposite the first true molor. The ff. incésiva are distinct
from each other, and rather large, the two, with their septum, forming a
CITELE,

The incisive alveoli of the premaxillary are of moderate size, and the
first and third are equal, and the second a little smaller. The canine
alveoli are large and pedunculate ; the crowns are lost. The fourth pre-
molar is separated from the latter by a diastema; it has a simple com-
pressed crown, and is two-rooted. The third premolar is similar but
larger, and is preceded and followed by diastemata, the former as long as
itself, the Jatter a little shorter. The second premolar is like that of the
other species of the genus. The first is wider than long, and has one ex-
ternal and one internal cusp, and posterior and anterior cingula, the for-
mer the wider. The crowns of the first two true molars have lost their

ind
1888,] ras)

[Cope.
pattern through wear. That of the third is but little larger than that of
the second. Its posterior border is obliquely convex, being most promi-

{ nent at the internal side. It has two cross-rows of cusps and a heel, the

i latter with an internal cusplet. The intermediate tubercles are distinct,
and there is one in the valley between the two rows. This tooth has only
a trace of an external cingulum, and no internal one.

Measurements. M.
Length from premaxillary bone to foramen magnum
inclusive......- 270
° o ‘* nostorbital process... .228
. = ‘« preorbital porder .. .185
o ' * «« infraorbital foramen .105
oe ce “e ce

superior canine.... .040

& ue 3 «« posterior nares..... .17¢

fe OL -OUG DUA. soi aie Foes wie Shee Cee eet vated es 0210
Width eee SPE S2 MAG a eae 016
«at zygoma at auditory meatus .....-. oN A098
ee! ee es: front Of OPI. sen as « Peat als
“of brain case (greatest) ........eereecee seeeee + 026
«« at postorbital processes .......+--- Hees a8 083

“© ‘between orbits (least) ..... cece cece reece erence 078
>) at factaliconstrittion. soviet ec. eee ee OE

| «© egnine alveoli (external). ...... Vas 009
ie ae co 60 (ON PAlatOs ce vsissee ee cee elee .036
(© POLWEEH P.M. TG elie eee eek cee se dete cee 029
" (SAIN OUT A Neve ee ee el ee see Widessane 4000
‘of posterior nares ....seeee ee ee eee IR eu e011
«* petween otic bulle ..........eeeeees Piel A016

<€ of foramen MAGNUM. .eeeseee eee eeeee veneers .018
Vertical diameter of cranium at last molar.....eeeeees O79

ee e He ‘third premolar........ -048
" e POPDIL ET hie Oe Pee TNs oes ow 00D
ee ts “« zygoma at orbit .......-- edeeees e024
Oy * c ‘© behind orbit ...0 6.0.5 Le (O16
Length of superior dental series .....+eeeees-eeeeeees 152
ee) tie emmolar So cue lawe eviews sa ees + (089
eas eo Apne MoOlans. cieeeder sds. eer Ode

§ anteroposterior sue ver eclee TOL)

Diameters of p. m. i
I U transverse. ..... Vea IS

fanteroposterior ....++seseseeeees 018
laransverse io set es de. esos Ce O14
anteroposterior ...+++seceeeerees 018
{YANGSVETSE ...ceeeececcesecceces 0125
anteroposterior ......- «016
CTANSVETSO «vs seese eee oe .OLOD
From the John Day bed of Oregon, on Camp Creek. Discovered by

Dr. J. L. Wortman.

Diameters of m. i

Diameters of m. iit {

Diameters canine alveolus {

Cope.] 80 [Feb. 17,

On the Mechanical Origin of the Dentition of the Amblypoda.
By E. D. Cope.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 17th, 1888.)

As the Amblypoda form the only order of ungulate Mammalia with tri-
tubercular superior and tuberculo-sectorial inferior molars, the ques-
tion has arisen in my mind why they did not develop a sectorial den-
tition in the same way, and for the same mechanical reasons, that the un-
guiculate series has done sv. Having recently assigned* certain mechani-
cal reasons for the evolution of the sectorial teeth of the Carnivora, it is
necessary to explain why the Amblypoda, which had apparently the same
mechanical conditions at the start, did not eventually produce the same
result.

In the first place I observe in the families Coryphodontide and Uinta-
theriide of the Amblypoda, that the shearing the inferior molar crests
against the superior molar crests, is from before backwards. In the Cre-
odonta and Carnivora it is from behind forwards. I supposed the latter
movement to be due in these animals to the wedging of the inferior canine
in front of the superior canine, a movement undoubtedly sufficient to
account for such a shearing, other things being equal. But in the Coryph-
odontide the canines are greatly developed, yet the shearing of the molar
crests is in the opposite direction. It is also evident that the development
of the canines cannot have been the cause of the maintenance of any kind of
a shear between alternating parts of molar teeth, otherwise the quadrituber-
cular type of molar would not have come into existence in such families
as have large canine teeth, such as the Suoid Artiodactyla. I do not for
these reasons abandon the opinion that the development of the canines has
not had a great deal to do with the development of the sectorial dentition.
LT only deny that it has been the cause of its origin, that is, of the anterior
shearing of the lower molars on the upper, at its beginning.

The divergence of mammalian dentition into the two types, the tritu-
bercular and quadritubercular, has been, as it appears to me, due to the
adoption of different food-habits. The tritubercular is the primitive, and
is adapted for softer food, as flesh, so that primitive placental Mammalia
were carnivorous or nearly so, The mastication of hard food was impos-
sible until the molars of the two series opposed each other, and this was
not accomplished until the quadritubercular superior molar was produced.
This was accomplished, as I have pointed out, by the addition of a poste-
rior internal tubercle, and I suspect that the mechanical cause of its origin
was the attempt of the animal in mastication to crush substances harder
than flesh against this posterior edge of the superior molar, by applying
to it the anterior edge of the lower molar. In the devouring of flesh this
movement is not necessary or only necessary so far as to produce a shear-

*The Mechanical Origin of the Sectorial Teeth of the Carnivora. Proceeds. Amer,
Assoc. Ady. Sci, 1887, p. 254.

1888.] 81 [Cope.

ing movement to cut a resisting ligament or tendon. The different me-
chanical movements in the two cases were due to the manipulation of its
lower jaw by the animals, just as we may see them to-day endeavoring to
masticate substances in accordance with their hardness, form, ete, It
would appear in the case of the tritubercular superior molar, that the im-
pact during the effort to masticate hard and tough substances, as vegetable
tissues, and seeds, has had its usual effect to stimulate deposit of material.
The shearing movement has had an opposite effect, viz., that of wearing
away the surface subjected to it, and the flattening of the sheared face.
That the development of the grinding mastication should take place in un-
gulate Mammalia is entirely appropriate to the structure of their digits ;
the hoofed structure unfitting them for the seizure of living prey.

In the Amblypoda, however, we have a hoofed order in which the prim-
itive tritubercular superior and tuberculo-sectorial inferior molar re-
mained. Of the three families, the latest, the Uintatheriide, display the
greatest anomaly, while the earliest, the Pantolambdidx (of the Puerco)
give the simplest known type. It is to the intermediate family, the
Coryphodontide of intermediate age (the Wasatch Eocene) that we must
first look for the explanation of the peculiar characters of the order.

Before doing so I give an explanation of the various mechanical types
of mastication :

I. Part or all of inferior molars work between superior molars. Amo-
bodect mastication.
1. The inferior molar shears forwards on the superior molar. Proterotome
mastication ; Creodonta, Carnivora.
. The inferior molars shear posteriorly against the superior molars.
Opisthotome mastication ; Coryphodontide, Uintatheriide.

IL. Molar teeth of both jaws oppose each other. Antiodect mastication.

3. The movement of the lower jaw is vertical. Orthal mastication; Suo-
idea, Tapiride.

4, The movement of the lower jaw is from without inwards. Ectal mas-
tication ; many Perissodactyla.

5. The movement of the lower jaw is from within outwards. Ental mas-
tication ; most Artiodactyla ; some Perissodactyla.

6. The movement of the lower jaw is from before backwards. Proal;
most Rodentia.

7. The movement of the lower jaw is from behind forwards. Palinal ;
Proboscidia (Ryder). :

The methods of mastication of Division I may be also defined by the
terms of Diy. II. Thus the proterotomes are all orthal, and I will show
that the opisthotomes are also ectal. Some of the orthals are opisthotome,
as the Tapiride.

The peculiarities of the Pantodont and Dinoceratous dentition may be
now taken up in order, and their mechanical causes assigned so far as pos-
sible. In lminel take the position that the mastication of the Ambly-
poda was accomplished by the transverse movement of the lower jaw

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. xxv. 127. K. PRINTED APRIL 4, 1888.

~*~

Cope. ] 82 [Feb. 17,

across the upper, and that this is, therefore, the only order in which such
mastication was performed by the primitive dentition, 7. ¢., the trituber-
cular and tuberculo-sectorial. That this is the type of mastication is sug-
gested, but not proven, by the anisognathism of the dental system. But
it is proven by the mark or path made by the posterior external cusp of
the inferior true molar across the crown of the superior molar in
the Coryphodontide. This cusp struck the posterior side of the rudi-
mental anterior external lobe, and passed transversely across the
crown (diagonally to the principal cross-crests), and slid up the apex of
the internal cusp, producing the externally directed angle in its wear,
seen in all specimens of the genera Metalophodon, Coryphodon and
Ectacodon (Fig. 3). I also suspect that this movement is ectal, since the
directions of the V’s of the two dental series will permit no other. An at-

Fic. 1.—Bones and teeth of Pantolambda bathmodon Cope, two-thirds nat. size. From
the Puerco beds of New Mexico. Fig. a, part of maxillary and malar bones from below,
showing true molars, all somewhat broken. Figs. b and c, cervical yertebree, left side ;
v/ and ¢’, do. from below. Fig. d, astragalus from above; a’, from front, showing facet
for cuboid ; d’, from below ; é, navyicular bone from below. Original, from Report U. 8,
Geol. Sury. Terrs., F. V. Hayden.

tempt at an ental movement results in a jamming of the V’s into each
other, and further progress is impossible. It may be objected that the
presence of the large superior canines forbids any considerable lateral
movement of the lower jaw. The superior canines are however so diver-
gent in the Coryphodontide that such movement is possible, and the trans-
versely convex wear of these teeth proves just such a movement of the in-
ferior canines on them. The lateral movement in the old males of the
Dinocerata hag been much restricted, but in younger males and females it
was possible.

A second proposition is demonstrated by the discovery of the Panto-
lambdide. This is, that the superior molars of both the Coryphodontide
and Uintatheriide are derived from a type with two external V’s (Panto-
lambda, Fig. 1), and I propose to show how ‘this derivation has been

sires amnion ero

SLE et estonia ence OTN

roy
roy
S)
a

83

1888.]

ity. Pantolambda also

nical necess

accomplished, and under ‘what mecha

nal, from Vol. iii, Report U.

; Oe canto
right ramus for outer

Cope.] 84. [Feb. 17,

shows that the inferior molar structure of the two types mentioned has
been produced by modifications of a W-shaped type of crown. I note in
passing, that the type of Pantolambda is itself readily derived from the

. .... d-tubercular noe. :
primitive -— iperculat type of primitive placentals and marsupials.

With these propositions established, I proceed to consider first the origin
of the dental peculiarities of the CoRYPHODONTID A.

First, no posterior inner tubercle was developed on the superior molars.
We may regard this as a consequence of the fact that a transverse (ectal)
movement of the lower jaw was established before the appearance of this
cusp, instead of after it, as was the case in other ungulate orders, and
because the shearing has been always from before backwards, instead of

Fic. 8.—Superior molar series of Coryphodontids, two-thirds nat. size, from the Wa-
satch beds of Wyoming. Original. Fig. a, Ectacodon cinctus Cope. Fig. b, Metalopho-
don testis Cope.

overlapping from behind forwards, as in all other Ungulata. The stimulus
already assigned as the cause of the development of the fourth tubercle
is, under these circumstances, wanting. (Tig. 3.)

Second, the anterior cingulum, which extends from the internal cusp to
the anterior external angle of the crown along its anterior base, is greatly
developed. This may be reasonably ascribed to the stimulus produced
by the friction of the posterior limb of the anterior V of the inferior molar
in the transverse movement in mastication. The anterior crest of the
superior molar is developed instead of the corresponding posterior crest of
the superior molar in front of it, because the transverse movement of the

1888.] 85 [Cope.

inferior molar follows a path much more nearly coinciding with the ante-
rior crest of the superior molar than with the posterior crest. That is, it
follows a curved path of which the centre is posterior, and near or be-
tween the glenoid cavities on which the mandibular rami move, as has
been described by Ryder in various other ungulates.* This is the proba-
ble cause of the development of this crest from its originally moderate
proportions in Pantolambda (Fig. 1), and from the unknown ancestor of
that genus, where its dimensions are presumably still less considerable.

Third, the anterior external tubercle or V is reduced to a conical rudi-
ment (Fig. 3a). This is evidently due to the disuse following the great
development of the anterior cingulum which extends from the internal
tubercle to the anterior external angle of the crown. A similar but less
considerable development of this ridge is accompanied by a corresponding
reduction of the anterior external lobe, in some genera of the Lophio-
dontid Perissodactyla. The reason why this V has been extinguished and
not merely pressed backwards, is the fact that the posterior external V of
the superior molar has retained its place, and has not given way to allow
room for the anterior one. This V has retained its place partly on account
of its remoteness from the source of pressure in front, but principally
because it fits the posterior transverse crest of the lower molar in front,
and the anterior oblique crest of the next succeeding lower molar behind,
so that its use has been only possible in its primitive position. :

Fourth, the posterior limb of the posterior external V of the superior
molar is wanting on the last molar in Coryphodon, and from the last two
in Metalophodon (Fig. 3). The absence of this crest from the last supe-
rior molar is due to the absence of a corresponding crest of the inferior
molar (Fig. 4). This is the oblique crest at the anterior extremity of the
inferior molar, and it shears against the posterior limb of the posterior
external V of the superior molar, representing the sectorial blade of Car-
nivora. It is little elevated in the Coryphodontide, owing to the fact that
it is little used, since the crests of the inferior molars shear backwards and
not forwards on those of the upper. The effect of this disuse tends, in the
history of the Coryphodontidex, to become more and more evident. The
non-existence of a fourth molar- behind the third in the lower jaw,
accounts for the absence of the crest in question from the last superior
molar, while the absence of the same crest from the second superior molar
of Metalophodon, indicates the absence or rudimentary condition of the
corresponding crest of the corresponding inferior molar.

* Proceedings Philadelphia Academy, 1878, p. 56.

+I have just detected an error in Plate xlvi, Tertiary Vertebrata, which has been
copied in American Naturalist, 1884, p. 1198, by which the artist has drawn the left ramus
mandibuli of Bathmodon radians in the place of the right one. The two rami are in the
specimen separate from the symphysis, and the artist has simply drawn the ramus in
connection with the wrong branch of the symphysis. I had not noticed this egregious
blunder until the present writing, and no one else appears to have observed it.

Cope.] 86 [Feb. 17,

The above four propositions cover the principal peculiarities of the den-
tition of the Coryphodontide. I now proceed to a consideration of those
of the UINTATHERIIDA.

Fra. 4.—Coryphodon latidens Cope, lower jaw, one-third natural size, from the Wasatch,
epoch of New Mexico. Fig. a, right ramus from internal side. Fig. 6, both rami from
above. Original, from Report U.S. G.G. Surveys W. of 100th Mer., G. M. Wheeler in:
charge. This specimen has an anomalous premolar.

As is well known, the crowns of the superior molars in this family sup-
port two cross-crests, which converge and nearly join at the internal extrem-

1888.] 87 [Cope.

ity of the crown (Fig. 5). The anterior of these crests is pretty clearly the
anterior cingular crest of Corypho-
don, but the homology of the pos-
terior crest is less obvious. In order
to determine this point recourse
must be had to the inferior molars,
which are more readily understood.
In the lower molar of the Uinta-
theriide, we find the anterior tri-
angle of the tuberculo-sectorial
type, but with the anterior limb
rudimental. The posterior part of
the crown differs from that of the
Coryphodontid in having no pos-
terior transverse crest, but in its
stead the diagonal crest which con-
.nects the external extremity ofthe | Fic. 5.—Dinocerata teeth, one-fourth nat.
* * Fi size. Upper figures superior molars of Uin-
posterior transverse with the inte- tatherium leidianum, one-fourth nat. size.
rior extremity of the anterior trans- aacthee ucla er ie oo ed
verse. crest. This oblique crest born, memoir on Uintatherium and Loxolo-
< phodon,

wears the posterior crest of the su-

perior molars on its anterior face, as the anterior transverse crest wears
the anterior crest (cingular) of the superior molar on its anterior face.
(Fig. 6). :

Comparison with the dental structure of Pantolambda (Fig. 1-2), shows

which crests of the two series stand in this relation to each other. The
diagonal crest of the inferior molar in this genus shears in front of the
posterior limb of the anterior V of the superior molar. Guided by this
fact we may regard the posterior cross-crest of the superior molar of the
Uintatheriide, as the posterior limb of the anterior external V. We must
then suppose that the anterior limb of this V has disappeared from this
type of molar, and the anterior cingular crest has taken its place, thus
forming a long V with the posterior limb. The tubercle between the
crests at their open external valley, may be a remnant of this external
crest. A low tubercle on the crown behind the inner extremity of the
posterior crest, may be a rudimental fourth tubercle, or even the apex of
the posterior external V.

The homology of the posterior crest of the superior molar here proposed
is sustained by the fact that there is no posterior transverse crest on the
lower molar.* Had the crest in question been part of the posterior V of
the superior molar, the posterior crest of the inferior molar would have
had use, and would not have disappeared.

If this homology is correct, the Dinocerata were derived directly from
the Pantolambdide, and not through the Coryphodontidee,

* The raised heel on these inferior molars is not the posterior transverse crest.

Cope.] 88 [Feb. 17,

The mechanical causes of the peculiarities of the Dinoceratous denti-
tions are then the following :—

First, development of anterior cingular crest ; cause same as in Cory-
phodontide.

Second, loss of anterior limb of anterior external V of superior molars ;
cause, disuse.

Third, shearing of oblique crest of inferior molar in front of instead of
behind posterior limb of anterior external V of superior molar. Cause,
development of anterior basal cingulum of superior molar, which wedges
Cross-crests of inferior molar anteriorly.

Fic. 6.—Uintatherium, mandible anterior to coronoid process, one-fourth nat. size;
from Bridger beds of Wyoming. From Osborn, memoir on Loxolophodon and Uinta-
therium.

Fourth, loss of posterior cross-crests of inferior molars. The answer
to this question is the answer to the other question, Why was the oblique
crest of the inferior molar developed in the Uintatheriide while it remained
rudimental in the Coryphodontide? The answer to these questions is the
explanation of the principal peculiarities of the former family. The answer
appears to me to be simply that while the movement of the lower jaw in
mastication was probably ectal in the Coryphodontide, it was probably
ental in Uintatheriide. This explanation is largely hypothetical, yet
it accords with the relations between use and the development of the
crests in the two families. In the ectal movement in Pantolambda the
oblique crests of the opposing molars are soon separated from mutual con-

‘tact, so that none of them have use on the internal half of the crown
except the anterior cingular. In the ental movement, on the other hand,
the limbs of the external V’s are used to the utmost. The posterior limb
of the anterior V is most used in Pantolambda, for the reason, as it appears
to me, that the inferior molar is wedged forwards as it moves outwards in
consequence of the guidance of the anterior cingular crest, and the wedge-
shape of the triangular superior molar. While this causes the greatest
use of the posterior limb of the anterior external V, it withdraws the pos-
terior crest of the inferior molar from shear with the anterior crest of the
posterior V, so that it has disappeared through disuse.

In general it may be observed, that the ental movement is the easier to
the Dinocerata because the V’s open exteriorly in both jaws. In the Pan-

todonta the ectal movement is easier, because the V’s of the lower molars

open interionly.

89 [Stowell.

The Glosso-pharyngeal Nerve in the Domestic Cat.

By T. B. Stowell, A.M, Ph.D.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 2, 1888.)

Introduction.—The following study in comparative neurology is a con-
tinuation of the contributions made by the author and already published
in the Proceedings of the Society. [The Vagus Nerve in the Domestic
Cat (Felis domestica), read July 15, 1881 ; The Trigeminus Nerve in the
Domestic Cat, read May 21, 1886 ; The Facial Nerve in the Domestic Cat,
read Noy. 5, 1886.] The object of these contributions has been presented
in the previous papers.

Iam not aware that any one has published the detailed distribution and
relations of this nerve ; this study is therefore offered as-a contribution to
comparative neurology.

Preparation.—As previously recommended, the cats were injected with
the ‘‘starch injection mass.’”” The dissections have been verified upon
alcoholic and upon recent specimens ; the nerves have been traced under
a magnifying power of 15-25 diameters. It is hoped that such a degree
of accuracy has been attained as will render this study serviceable to
students of the nervous system.

DESCRIPTION.

Synonymy.—Nervus glosso-pharyngeus, N. pharyngo-glossus, Glosso-
pharyngeal nerve, Highth pair of cranial nerves (Willis), Ninth pair (Som-
mering).

General Characters.—The N. glosso-pharyngeus is the cephalic member
of a group of nerves whose ectal origin is along a line caudad of the
eminentia auditoria and dorsad of the area elliptica. The common niduses
in man from which the ental fibres of these nerves arise have been desig-
nated the “‘nuclei of the lateral mixed system ’’ (28, p. 747).

The N. glosso-pharyngeus is characterized by the presence of two ganglia
upon the central portion of the nerve-trunk, the central one (Fig. Ebr.)
is within the foramen of exit (Fm. jugulare), the peripheral one (Fig. Pe.)
is about 7 mm. peripherad of the foramen. The presence of the root gang-
lion and the ental origin ally this nerve and the dorsal roots of the myelic
nerves.

The glosso-pharyngeus is specifically the sensory nerve of the pharynx,
of the mucosa of the tympanum, and of the basal (circumvallate ?) papillz
of the tongue. It includes motor fibres which are given to the cephalic
pharyngeal constrictor and to the stylo-pharyngeus muscles. Communi-
cating rami connect the N. glosso-pharyngeus with the N. vagus, the N.
sympathicus, the G. oticum, and with the N. facialis.

The glosso-pharyngeus is peculiarly the nerve of deglutition as well as
the nerve of taste. The importance of having these functions associated

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv. 127. L. PRINTED APRIL 4, 1888.

Stowell. ] 90 [March 2,

in the same nerve appears when the relation of food-stuffs to life is con-
sidered. The inverted muscular reaction which ensues upon the applica-
tion of an unnatural or irritating stimulus is another characteristic of this
nerve. 2

The conflicting evidence of Bell, Longet, Panizza, Reid, Mayo, Bernard,
Chauveau, and other experimenters, leaves grave doubt as to the suscep-
tibility of the N. glosso pharyngeus to receive painful impressions.

I am not aware that the function of the tonsillar branch has been de-
monstrated.

Ectal Origin.—The ental roots (5-6 funiculi) constitute a small nerve-
trunk whose ectal origin is in the depression line dorsad of the oliva, the
line of origin of the dorsal roots of the N. vagus [indeed, the cephalic
funicle of the vagus seems to belong to the root funiculi of the glosso-
pharyngeus]. ‘The trunk so formed lies ventrad of the plexus choroideus
lateralis and passes laterad to the foramen of exit.

Foramen of Exit.—The nerve takes its exit from the cranium through
the foramen jugulare in connection with the vagus and the accessorius
nerves, the jugular vein, and a small arteriole from the A. occipitalis.

Intercranial Course and Root Ganglion.—In the passage through the
jugular fossa the sheath of the N. glosso-pharyngeus is distinct from and
cephalad of the common sheath of the vagus and the accessorius and is
separated by the arteriole above referred to. At the central end of the
fossa the N. pharyngeus bears a small pinkish ganglion (G. ehrenritteri,
G. nervi glosso-pharyngei superius, G. jugulare superius, G. mulleri). This
ganglion lies upon the: ectal surface and the ventral border of the G. jug-
ulare of the N. vagus, but it does not appear to have structural relations
with the ganglion. The ganglion (G.Ehr.) is ectal and does not involve
all of the fibres of the trunk.

Plexus gangliformis, Pl. nodosus.—The central 5 mm. of the ectocra-
nial trunk are closely apposed to, if not involved in the somewhat intri-
cate net-work of vessels and tissues which characterize this region and
form the gangliform or nodose plexus (Fig. Gang.). The apposed trunks
of the glosso pharyngeus, the vagus, the accessorius, the hypoglossus, and
the sympathic nerves by a peculiar interlacing of fibres and by anastom-
otic rami sustain intimate inter-relations. There is reason for thinking
that through this plexus, the glosso-pharyngeus is connected with the
, accessorius (the complications involved in identifying rami in this plexus
leave some doubt regarding the precise structure of this plexus). The
glosso-pharyngeus is ectal in this group and is possibly separable from the
ental nerves.

G. petrosum and its Commiunicating Rami.—At the caudal border of
the plexus gangliformis the glosso-pharyngeus presents a fusiform enlarge-
ment, the ganglion petrosum (Fig. Pe.), ganglion of Andersch. This is
the ganglion of the trunk and is about 2 mm. X 1 mm; it seems to in-
volve the entire nerve-trunk. Its communicating rami are five, as follows:

1888.] 91 [Stowell.

1. A large ramus to the dorso-cephalic border of the G. inferius of the N.
vagus (Fig. 2). 2. A small ramus to the adjacent sympathic ganglion
(G. cervicale cephalicum, Fig. 1). 8. A branch to the plexus, some fibres
of which are apparently traceable to the N. accessorius, in the second or
large accession from that nérve to the vagus (Fig. 3). 4. A slender fila-
ment (Fig. 4) to the auricular branch (Fig. Aur.) which joins the jugu-
Jar ganglion of the vagus with the geniculate ganglion of the facialis.
The auricular ramus crosses the ectal surface of the glosso-pharyngeus
just peripherad of the G. ehrenritteri and receives the anastomotic filament
from the G. petrosum at a point opposite the nerve-trunk (this filament is
frequently broken in dissecting the plexus), These four rami are given off
from the ental surface of the G. petrosum as a single trunk or as several
closely apposed rami. 5. A large branch, the tympanic (Fig. Tym.) which
lies in a fossa entad of the ectal bulla together with a branch from the sym-
pathic. This branch divides in the fossa, into four ramuli, as follows:
a. One (Fig. Pe. maj.) becomes one of the roots of the great superficial
petrosal, which in turn is one of the roots of the vidian nerve. 6. A second
(Fig. Pe. min.) is one of the roots of the small superficial petrosal and
terminates in the otic ganglion. c. A third (Fig. Eus.) forms a plexus
around the eustachian tube. d. The fourth (Fig. Pl. tym.) forms, with
the sympathic, the tympanic plexus upon the ectal surface of the promon-
tory, from which filaments are traceable to the fenestra rotunda and the
F. ovailis. :

Principal Rami.—Peripherad of the G. petrosum the nerve-trunk bends
around the ventral surface of the ectal bulla and lies apposed to an arteri-
ole, a ramulus from the A. occipitalis. 8 mm. peripherad of the ganglion
it gives the first ramus of the trunk (Fig. car.), caudad to the plexus caro-
tideus about the ectal origin of the A. occipitalis. 6mm. peripherad of
this ramus, a branch is sent dorsi-mesad to the sphincter muscles of the
pharynx (Fig. M. phar.)—this ramus seems to be the only distinctively
muscular branch of this nerve ; filaments are also given to the M. stylo
pharyngeus. It is through this ramus that the N. glosso-pharyngeus con-
trols deglutition (the palatal branch, q. v., may possibly reach muscular
fibre in the palatal region, corresponding to the M. palato-glossus, and the
M. palato-pharyngeus. I have not satisfactorily identified these muscles).

N. pharyngeus.—At the origin of the muscular ramus just described a
large ramus, N. pharyngeus (Fig. Phar.), is directed ventrad and caudad ;
this ramus, about 5 mm. peripherad of its origin, divides into two ramuli,
the cephalic one (Fig. Pal.) is distributed to the pharynx in the palatal
region ; the caudal ramulus forms a dense plexus (Fig. Pl. Phar ) with
the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve (Fig. Phar. Vagus) upon the
pharyngeal mucosa laterad of and adjacent to the epiglottis.

A second pharyngeal ramus (Fig. Phar. muc.) is given off 10 mm. peri-
pherad of the first ; this is distributed to the mucosa laterad of the base of
the tongue. A third branch is given off about 5 mm. still peripherad,
which unites in the pharyngeal plexus upon the mucosa.

Stowell.] 92 [March 2,

N. tonsillaris.—About 10 mm. peripherad of the first R. pharyngeus a
ramus (Fig. Ton.) is given to the tonsil and to its enveloping capsule.
The function of this nerve is not known.

N. papillaris.—The terminal filaments (Fig. Papille) may be traced to
the long papille (circumvallate ?) 15 mm. peripherad of the Os hyoides,
upon the base of the tongue. These filaments are in the most restricted
sense, the nerves of taste.

SUMMARY.
A. ANATOMICAL.

Ectal Origin.—By 5-6 funiculi in the depression line caudad of the
eminentia auditoria, dorsad of the oliva and cephalad of the dorsal roots
of the N. vagus.

Foramen of Exit.—Foramen jugulare.

Intercranial Course.—In the passage through the jugular fossa, the N.
glosso-pharyngeus is the cephalic one of the structures which traverse the
foramen. At the central end of the fossa, the nerve bears a ganglion, the
G. ehrenritteri, which is ectal in position and does not involve the entire
trunk,

Ectocranial Trunk.—The first 5-7 mm. of the ectocranial trunk are
intimately associated with the plexus gangliformis which involves the
central portions of the vagus, the accessorius, the hypoglossus, and the
sympathic nerves, from which plexus it is generally distinct, although it
contributes a considerable ramus (possibly this is an accession to the
glosso-pharyngeus from the accessorius). 7% mm. peripherad of the fora-
men of exit the nerve is involved in a small fusiform ganglion.

G. petrosum and its Communicating Rami.—This fusiform ganglion
involves the entire nerve-trunk ; it is easily overlooked in the enveloping
connective tissue and the adjacent plexus. From its ental surface a single
trunk or four adjacent anastomotic rami take their ectal origins as follows :
the ventral one to the cephalic cervical ganglion of the N. sympathicus ;
one just caudad and the largest joins the G. inferius of the vagus nerve ;
dorsad of this ramus the second in size is given to the plexus gangliformis,
a portion of which seems to be traceable to the N. accessorius ; the dorsal
slender filament joins the ramus auricularis from the root ganglion, G.
jugulare, of the vagus to the geniculate ganglion of the N. facialis. From
the cephalic border of the ganglion the large tympanic branch, or Jacob-
son’s nerve, lies in a fossa entad of the ectal bulla tympanica adjacent to
a branch from the cervical sympathic ganglion. The tympanic nerve
divides into four branches as follows: one of the roots of the great super-
ficial petrosal nerve, the principal root of the small petrosal nerve which
terminates in the otic ganglion, a slender filament which joins the eusta-
chian plexus, and the branch to the tympanic plexus.

Principal Rami.

1. Muscular ; a branch to the pharyngeal constrictor muscles (Fig. M.
Phar.) has its ectal origin about 14 mm. peripherad of the G. petrosum.

Proceedings Amer, Philos. Soc, Vol. MXY, No, 127,

n

PL Tym.
Pe. Maj.
Pe. Min.
Eus.
M. Phar:
| ° Tons.
bog
| coy
Qe?
Car.
Phar. i
Fie |
| Phar. Muc.
<i
PI. Phar. S asus!
deceil
Diagram of the Glosso-pharyngeal Nerve.—Stowell.

1888. ] 93 ' [Stowell.

2. Pharyngeal; three rami from the ventral border of the nerve-trunk
to the pharyngeal mucosa.

3. Tonsillar ; a branch, 10 mm. peripherad of the muscular ramus, to
the tonsil and its enveloping capsule.

4. Terminal ; to the long papillee at the base of the tongue.

5. Communicating and anastomotic ;
At the G. petrosum with the G. cervicale cephalicum (sympathicus).

“ « “ «« —G. inferius (vagus).

“ & “ «plexus gangliformis.

ce “ “ c¢ BR. auricularis.

“6 A es it is the origin of the tympanic nerve (Jacobson).

To the plexus carotideus at origin of the A. occipitalis.
In the plexus pharyngeus with the N. pharyngeus (vagus).

B. PHYSIOLOGICAL.

The N. glosso-pharyngeus is the sensory nerve of the pharynx; it is
the special sense nerve of taste; it controls deglutition, and when abnorm-
ally irritated excites an inverted muscular action in the muscles of the
stomach and esophagus, inducing vomiting ; it does not seem to be sus-
ceptible of painful sensations.

EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM.

The diagram is not drawn toa scale. It has been the author’s aim to
present in definite form the principal structures and relations, combining
simplicity and clearness. Aur., the auricular branch trom the jugular
ganglion of the vagus nerve to the geniculate ganglion of the facial.
This nerve crosses the ectal surface of the glosso-pharyngeus just ventrad
of the root ganglion. Car., the anastomotic nerve to the carotid plexus
around the ectal origin of the A. occipitalis. Ehr., the ganglion Ehren-
ritteri, or ganglion of the root. Eus., the branch which forms with the
sympathic a plexus upon the eustachian tube. Gang., the plexus gangli-
formis, or plexus nodosus. Gen., the position of the geniculate ganglion
of the facial nerve. Inf., the ganglion inferius or ganglion of the trunk
of the vagus nerve. Jug., the ganglion jugulare or root ganglion of the
vagus. M. phar., the muscular ramus to the pharyngeal constrictors.
Pal., the branch: of the pharyngeal nerve which is distributed to the
mucosa in the region of the soft palate, and possibly to the palatal mus-
cles. Papillw, the terminal filaments of the papillary ramuli which are
given to the long papille characteristic of the dorsal surface of the base
of the tongue. Pe., the ganglion petrosum or ganglion of the trunk.
Pe. maj., the branch of the tympanic nerve which becomes one of the
roots of the great superficial nerve. Pe. min., the branch of the tym-
panic which becomes the small petrosal nerve and terminates in the otic
ganglion. Phar., the pharyngeal ramus which joins the pharyngeal
nerve from the vagus to form the pharyngeal plexus. Phar. muc., the
rami which form the plexus over the pharyngeal mucosa, Phar. vagus,

Stowell.] 94. [March 2,

the N. pharyngeus, a branch of the vagus. PI. phar., the plexus pha-
ryngeus. Pl. tym., the tympanic plexus over the promontory of the tym-
panum. §., the cephalic cervical ganglion of the sympathic ganglion,
just entad and cephalad of the G. inferius. Ton., the tonsillar branch.
Tym., the tympanic ramus or Jacobson’s nerve. Vagus, the central 10
mm. of the vagus nerve, showing the relations of the ganglia. 1. Anas-
tomotic filament from G. petrosum to 8. 2. Communicating branch to
the G. inferius. 8. Branch to the plexus gangliformis ; this is the doubtful
accession from the N. accessorius. 4. Anastomotic filament to the R.
auricularis,

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

For bibliography consult previous papers. The Trigeminus Nerve in
the Domestic Cat; Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. xxiii, pp. 459-478 ; 1886. Also, The Facial Nerve in the Domestic
Cat ; Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Nov. 5, 1886.

The Accessory Nerve in the Domestic. Cat. By T. B. Stowell, A.M., Ph.D
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 2, 1888.)

Synonymy.—N. accessorius ; Accessory of the Par Vagum ; Accessory
nerve of Willis ; Spinal accessory ; Superior respiratory ; Eleventh pair
of encephalic nerves.

General Characters.—This nerve is called accessory because of its large
accessions to the N. vagus, in the G. jugulare and in the plexus just peri-
pherad, v. description below; it is called myelic and spinal from the fact
of its widely distributed origin along the cervical myel, v. below. The
nerve is an attractive study alike to the anatomist and to the physiologist ;
its origin, distribution, terminal plexuses and its action upon respiratory
movements, laryngeal phonation and the heart are equally distinctive. It
combines a large group of myelic funiculi with a few from the medulla; ;
by virtue of its accessions to the Vagus it sustains structural relations with
the N. pharyngeus and with the -N. laryngeus caudalis (Rami of the
Vagus), indeed a large share of the motor fibres of the Vagus is referable
to the accessions from the Accessorius [Longet, Systtme Nerveux, t. fi,
p. 265 ; Cl. Bernard, Legons sur la Physiologie du Systéme Nerveux, t.
ii, p. 244]; by an anastomotic ramus it joins the N. hypoglossus, and in
its terminal filaments it makes numerous plexuses with the cervical myelic
nerves. M. Claude Bernard by his method of evulsion demonstrated that
laryngeal phonation is due to the action of the accessory nerve. The pro-
longed cries of many mammals seem to confirm his conclusions and are
due, in part, atleast, to the rigidity of the cervical muscles in sustained
expiratory movements. According to Heidenhain, this accession gives
cardio-inhibitory fibres to the Vagus.

1888 ] 95 [Stowell.

D&scCRIPTION.

Ectal Origin and Entocranial Course.—The N. accessorius is peculiar
in its two-fold origin, the medulla and the myel; the cephalic roots arise
in the’ depression line dorsad of the area ovalis and immediately cau-
dad of the dorsal roots of the N. vagus; the caudal roots arise along the
lateral column of the cervical myel, as far caudad as the fifth cervical
vertebra (fibres are not infrequently traceable along the entire cervical
myel). The confluence of these funiculi forms a nerve trunk whose
volume increases from its caudal origin to the foramen of exit. The nerve
trunk thus constituted lies entad of the myelic dura opposed to the lateral
column of the myel, between the dorsal and the ventral roots of the
myelic nerves ; its course is cephalad and enters the cranium through the
foramen magnum ; at the caudal border of the ectal roots of the N. vagus,
the N. accessorius turns laterad and perforates the dura just caudad of the
Vagus (I have not met with two entocranial trunks, as is sometimes the
case in man), and takes its exit from the cranium through the foramen
jugulare in the common sheath with the Vagus and the adjacent Glosso-
pharyngeus.

Just centrad of the foramen of exit the Accessorius is closely opposed
to the G. jugulare (Vagus), to which ganglion it gives a large ramus. This
is the so-called accessory or motor root of the N. vagus.

Intercranial Relations and Foramen of Bxit.—The N. accessorius tra-
verses the jugular fossa, in which it lies caudad and laterad of the N.
vagus, but apparently in a common sheath with that nerve (additional
histological research may disclose a separate sheath for each nerve), and
leaves the cranium by the foramen jugulare. :

Hctocranial Trunk.—The first 5-10 mm. of the ectocranial trunk are
involved in the dense plexus, Pl. gangliformis or Pl. nodosus (Fig. Plex-
us), with the Vagus. This plexus is formed by interlacing fibres of the
Vagus, the Accessorius, a few fibres from the Hypoglossus, with nume-
rous embracing and intertwining filaments of the N. sympathicus, and the
vessels of this region; it is highly probable that the adjacent N. glosso-
pharyngeus with its G. petrosum is involved in this plexus.

Peripherad of the plexus, the N. accessorius lies entad of the A. occipit-
alis and the V. jugularis (a ramule of the A. occipitalis is dorsi-laterad of
the nerve in its ecto-cranial course as far as the A. occipitalis). At the
caudal border of the A. occipitalis, the Accessorius bends dorsi-caudad,
accompanied by a small arteriole and perforates the M. clavo-mastoideus
near its dorsal border, 20-25 mm. caudad of the insertion of the muscle ;
this point is also dorsad of the cephalic end of the thyroid body.

PrincreaL Rami.

N. clavo-mastoideus.—As the Accessorius perforates the M. clavo-
mastoideus a large ramus (Fig. Clv.-Mas. ca.) is given to that muscle ; it
is accompanied by an arteriole, lies upon the ental surface of the muscle,

Stowell.] 96 [March 2,

and may be traced to the caudad extremity (origin) of the muscle, where
it is joined by the anastomosing filaments of the cervical nerves (Fig.
Crv.). From the dorsal border of the nerve at nearly the same point a
corresponding ramus (Fig. Clv.-Mas. ce.) is given to the cephalic end
(insertion) of the same muscle ; this ramus also innerves the adjacent
cephalic extremity of the M. sterno-mastoideus (Fig. Str.-Mas.).

N. sterno-mastoideus.—Upon the ectal surface of the M. clavo-mast-
oideus a large ramus from the Accessorius enters the ental surface of the
superposed. sterno-mastoid muscle. Zhe shorter or dorsal division of this
ramus (Fig. Ster.-Mas. ce.) lies ectad of the trunk of the Accessorius
and supplies the cephalic (insertion) third of the muscle, or that portion
cephalad of the point of init of the nerve; the ventral division (Fig. Str.-
Mas. ven.) is distributed to the thick ventral border of the caudal two-
thirds of the same muscle. About 5mm. peripherad, or at the dorsal
border of the M. sterno-mastoideus, where the muscle is crossed by the
large trunk of a cervical nerve (2°), a second ramus (Fig. Str.-Mas. dors.)
is given from the Accessorius to the thin dorsal border of the caudal por-
tion of the same muscle. This ramus lies ectad of the cervical nerve and
receives from it a large accession. Since this muscle has two sources of
nerve-supply, there is throughout the caudal portion of the muscle a more
or less frequent anastomosis of terminal filaments.

N. clavo-trapezius cephalicus.—This ramus is given off in connection
with the dorsal ramus of the N. sterno-mastoideus; it lies entad of an
artery which supplies the cephalic 20 mm. of the M. clavo-trapezius. The
nerve enters the ental surface of the ventral border of the muscle, with
the artery just named, and sends a ramulus 5-10 mm. caudad of the artery
and is distributed to the cephalic fourth of the muscle; the terminal fila-
ments of the nerve may be traced to the dorsi-meson. Near its ectal origin
this nerve receives an anastomotic branch from the second cervical nerve.

The main nerve trunk lies entad of the M. clavo-trapezius, crosses the
ectal surface of the M. levator clavicule and continues dorsad of the
levator muscle upon the ectal surface of the M. splenius. At the ventral
border of the M. clavo-trapezius the N. accessorius receives a large branch
from the second cervical nerve which crosses its ectal surface in this region.
At the dorsal border of the M. levator clavicule it sends a slender ramus
(Fig. Spl.) to the cephalic portion of the M. splenius.

N. clavo-trapezius caudalis.—A bout the middle of the M. clavo-trapez-
ius, a large ramus, the N. clavo-trapezius caudalis, separates from the
Accessorius and divides into three or four ramuli which enter the ental
surface of the M. clavo-trapezius to be distributed to that portion of the
muscle which lies dorsad of the M. levator clavicule.

Between the clavo-trapezius and the acromio-trapezius muscles, upon
the side of the neck, and dorsad of the levator muscle, is a narrow inter-
muscular interval, the hiatus trapezii (Fig. Hi.), filled with adipose, con-
nective tissue, a large lymphatic, an artery, the accessory nerve and the
cervical plexus of the second and third myelic nerves.

1888. ] 97 [Stowell
N. acromio-trapezius.—In this hiatus a large ramus (Fig. caudad of
Hi.) is sent dorsad to the M. acromio-trapezius, which enters the cephalic
border of the muscle and is distributed by 3-4 termina] ramuli to the dor-
sal portion of the muscle ; caudad of the hiatus several (two shown in dia-
gram) rami from the Accessorius enter the ental surface of the muscle.

Caudad of the hiatus (about 5 mm.) a large accession (Fig. Crv.) is
received by the N. accessorius, from the cervical plexus. This nerve
(myelic) accompanies the artery which appears in the hiatus.

The nerve trunk terminates upon the M. spino-trapezius. The tendon
ectad of the Delta mesoscapul@ marks the caudal border of the acromio-
trapezius muscle and the cephalic border of the spino-trapezius ; entad of
the ventral angle of this tendinous fascia is found the caudal continuation
of the N. accessorius, now designated as the spino-trapezius nerve.

N. spino-trapezius.—At the cephalic border of the M. spino-trapezius,
the accessory nerve divides into dorsal and ventral rami which may be
traced throughout the muscle. Since the muscle is innerved by the thor-
acic nerves (myelic) as well as by the terminal rami of the Accessory, the
terminal filaments of both nerves form an open plexus throughout its
tissue.

SUMMARY.

A. ANATOMICAL.

Ectal Origin.—The N. accessorius arises from the lateral column of the
cephalic myel and the caudal medulla dorsad of the area ovalis; the
myelic roots are apparent as far caudad as the sixth or seventh cervical
vertebra.

Entocranial Course.—The aggregation of these numerous roots forms
a nerve-trunk which increases in volume from the caudal origin cephalad
to the foramen of exit; the trunk is apposed to the lateral column of the
myel, lies entad of the dura between the dorsal and the ventral roots of
the myelic nerves, enters the cranium through the foramen magnum and
extends cephalad in the cranium to the caudal roots of the N. vagus, where
it perforates the dura and is associated with the vagus and the glosso-
pharyngeus nerves in the foramen of exit.

FPoramen of Exit.—The N. accessorius traverses the foramen jugulare
with the associated vagus and accessorius nerves, the jugular vein and a
small arteriole, a ramulus from the A. occipitalis.

Communicating Rami.

1. Accession to the G. jugulare (Vagus) centrad of the foramen of
exit.

2. Several rami to the Plexus gangliformis, 5-10 mm. peripherad of the
foramen jugulare (the first of these is the probable accession to the N.
glosso-pharyngeus).

8. Accession to the G. inferius (Vagus).

4. With cervical nerves.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. xxv. 127. M. PRINTED APRIL 18, 1888.

98 {March 2,

Stowell. ]

Principal Rami—their Ectal Origins and Distributions.
N. clavo-mastoideus.

1. Caudal ramus; origin at the ental surface of the M. clavo-mastoideus
as the nerve perforates the muscle.

2. Cephalic ramus ; origin opposite the dorsal border of the muscle.
These rami are distributed to the caudal and the cephalic portions of the
muscle respectively.

NV. sterno-mastoideus.

1. Dorsi-cephalic ramus ; origin at the ectal surface of the M. clayo-
mastoideus, distribution to the cephalic third of the muscle.

2, Ventral ramus; origin in common with the preceding, distribution
to the thick ventral two-thirds of. the muscle.

3. Dorsi-caudal ramus ; origin at the dorsal border of the M. sterno-
mastoideus in connection with the cephalic clavo-trapezius nerve, distribu-
tion to the thin dorsal border of the caudal two-thirds of the muscle.

NV. clavo-trapeeius.

1. Ocphalic ramus ; origin in common with the dorsi-caudal ramus of
the sterno-mastoid nerve, distribution to the cephalic fourth of the M.
clavo-trapezius ; this nerve joins its platetrope in the dorsi-meson.

2, Caudal ramus; origin about the middle of the M. clavo-trapezius,
distribution by 3-4 palmate ramuli to the ental surface of the caudal por-
tion of the muscle.

N. acromio-trapezius.

1. Cephalic ramus ; origin in the Hiatus trapezii, distribution to the
cephalic portion of the acromio-trapezius muscle; this is the large nerve
and extends to the dorsi-meson.

2, Other rami ; several (two prominent) other rami supply the caudal
portion of the muscle.

N. spino-trapezius.

The terminal rami of the Accessorius unite with the thoracic myelic
nerves in an open plexus to the M. spino-trapezius.

Myelic Accessions.

Two large accessions from the myelic nerves are received by the trunk
of the Accessorius, the cephalic is just caudad of the cephalic clavo-trap-
ezius nerve, the caudal is just caudad of the hiatus-trapezii.

B. PHYSIOLOGICAL.

The N. accessorius is the motor nerve of the sterno-mastoid, the clavo-
mastoid, and the trapezius muscles ; it is possibly the source of the motor
fibre of the Vagus nerve; it seems to be exclusively motor ; its distribu-
tion and physiological experiments indicate the absence of sensibility ; it
is antagonistic to movements of respiration (Cl. Bernard); it controls
laryngeal phonation (Cl. Bernard); it is cardio-inhibitory (Heidenhain).

EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAM.

The diagram seeks to present the principal rami and relations of the
nerve, Actual measurements and perspective are sacrificed to clearness

Vol, XXV, No. 127,

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc

Accessorius

Diagram of the Accessory Nerve.—Stowell.

1888. ] 99 [Stowell.

and simplicity, e.g., the dorsal rami are laterad and the terminal filaments
are dorsad of the line of origin, which relation is not shown.

Acc. Accessions from the N. accessorius to the N. vagus, etc. Acro-
mio-trapezius, the three rami to the M. acromio-trapezius.

Clavo-mastoideus, ca., the caudal ramus of the clavo-mastoid nerve.
Clv.-mas. ce., the cephalic ramus of the same. Clavo-trapezius, the two
principal rami to the M. clavo-trapezius. Orv., cervical myelic nerve.
Hi., the hiatus trapezii. Inf., the ganglion inferius. or ganglion of the
trunk of the N. vagus. Jug., the G. jugulareof the same nerve. Plexus,
the gangliform plexus of the Glosso-pharyngeus, the Vagus, the Accesso-
rius, the Hypoglossus, and the Sympathic nerves, Pl. Crv., the cervical
plexus from which the accession is given to the N. accessorius near the
hiatus. Spino-trapezius, the rami given to the M. spino-trapezius. Spl.,
the branch to the M. splenius. Ster.-mas., ramus to the cephalic extremity
of the M. sterno-mastoideus. Ster.-mas.ce., ramus to the same. Ster.-
mas., dors., ramus to the dorsal border. Ster.-mas., ven., ramus to the
ventral border of the same muscle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

.

For bibliography consult the Trigeminus Nerve in the Domestic Cat.
T. B. Stowell. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol.
Xxili, pp. 459-478, 1886. Also, The Facial Nerve in the Domestic Cat.
T. B. Stowell. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Nov.
5, 1886.

The Hypoglossal Nerve in the Domestic Oat. By T. B. Stowell, A.M, Ph.D.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 2, 1888.)

The reasons for presenting this contribution to comparative neurology
have been given elsewhere. (The Facial Nerve in the Domestic Cat. Pro-
ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Nov., 1886.) The prep-
aration of specimens and the magnifying powers used are described in the
Same paper.

NERVUS HYPOGLOSSUS.

Synonymy.—N. hypoglossus ; N. lingualis medius ; Par nonum; N.
loquens ; Hypoglossal nerve ; Gustatory nerve ; Ninth pair of nerves,

General Characters.—The N. hypoglossus is the motor nerve of the
tongue and of muscles that move the hyoid bone. By virtue of its rela-
tion to the tongue it is directly concerned in mastication, since by the
Movements of the tongue successive morsels of food are thrust between
the teeth or are moved preliminary to deglutition. Its function is fur-
ther shown by those mammals whose food is largely liquid and is secured

Stowell.] 100 [March 2,

by lapping, in which animals the prehension of food is impossible after
section of the N. hypoglossus. Longet’s experiments upon the ento-
cranial trunk after section demonstrated the presence of excitability
without sensibility ; Mayo and Magendie proved the presence of sensi-
bility in the ectocranial nerve. We are forced to accept a mixed function
in this nerve or to attribute its sensibility to the accessions from the
myelic nerves.

The section of the N. hypoglossus destroys movements of the tongue
without disturbing the tactile or the ‘gustatory sensibility [Longet, Anat-
omie et Physiologie du Systéme Nerveux, t. ii, p. 266].

The sensibility of the hypoglossus seems to be muscular rather than
mucosal. Since the section of the N. vagus and the N. glosso-pharyn-
geus is attended by loss of sensibility over the entire surface or dorsum
of the tongue, although the N. hypoglossus is intact. Panizza’s experi-
ments, confirmed by later observations, establish the paralysis of the
pharyngeal muscles involved in deglutition by severing the N. hypo-
glossus. The vaso-motor function of the N. hypoglossus is seen in the
dilatation of the vessels of the tongue when the nerve is severed ; it is
questionable whether the fibres to which this function is referable are
not received from the myelic or the sympathic nerves.

The connection of the N. hypoglossus with distinct articulation is
demonstrated by experiment and confirmed by pathological evidence.
The prominent role in pronunciation performed by the tongue evinces
the importance of this nerve in expressing thought by articulate lan-

guage.

DESCRIPTION.

Ectal Origin and Entocranial Relations.—The N. hypoglossus has its ectal
origin by several (12-16) funiculi along a depression line about 4 mm. lat-
erad of the ventri-meson, and which marks the dorsal border of the cau-
dal half of the area elliptica; these funiculi are grouped into two more or
less distinct bundles which are separated by the first dorsal ramulus of
the A. cerebellosa caudalis. The cephalic bundle embraces 8-12 funic-
uli (when the arteriole is represented by two vessels this cephalic bun-
dle is again divided into two nearly equal portions) ; the caudal bundle
includes about 6 funiculi, the caudal funiculus having its ectal origin
at the cephalic border of the ventral root of the first cervical nerve, just
entad of the A. cerebellosa.

The ectal origin resembles the ventral root of a myelic nerve.

Foramen of Exit.—The confluence of these funiculi forms a nerve trunk,
which takes its exit by the foramen condylare.

Ectocranial Trunk.—The ectocranial course is immediately caudad, lies
dorsad of the A. carotidea and entad of the V. jugularis as far as the A.
occipitalis. The central 5-8 mm. of the ectocranial trunk are intimately
involved in the gangliform plexus (Fig. Pl. gang.) which is made by
the interlacing fibres of the associated glosso-pharyngeus, vagus, acces-

1888. ] 101 (Stowell.

sorius, hypoglossus and sympathic nerves. Peripherad of the plexus the
N. hypoglossus bends abruptly around the caudal border of the A. occi-
pitalis (Fig. Ang.) and crosses the ectal surface of the N. vagus just
cephalad of the G. inferius (vagus), also crosses the ectal surface of the
A. carotidea and lies upon the ectal surface of the A. lingualis, which
it crosses twice (the artery being the more sinuous), first about 8 mm.
peripherad of the origin of the artery (A. lingualis), and again 10-12 mm.
still peripherad. This portion of the trunk lies entad of the M. stylo-
hyoideus, along the caudal border of the M. digastricus.

Communicating Rami of the Trunk.—At the angle (Fig. Ang.) a con-
siderable accession is received from the first cervical nerve (myelic, Fig.
Anas.) ; it is possible that this accession is the true origin of the cervico-
hypoglossal nerve. (The minute anatomy of this region has not been
satisfactorily determined.) Just cephalad of the G. inferius, and per-
ipherad of the plexus a large ramus (Fig. Inf.) joins the ganglion at
its dorso-cephalic border.

PRINCIPAL RAMI.

N. cervico-hypoglossus; N. cervicalis descendens ; N. descendens
noni.—At the angle (Fig. Ang.) where the accession is received from
the myelic nerves, as the hypoglossus curves around the A. occipitalis,
the N. cervico-hypoglossus takes its ectal origin. An anastomotic nerve
joins the myelic nerve and this trunk (Fig. Anas.). The existence of
this anastomosis makes it debatable whether the cervico-hypoglossus
should be considered a ramus of the N. hypoglossus having a myelic
accession, or a myelic nerve having a large accession from the N. hypo-
glossus. Ihave adopted the compound name applicable to either of the
views cited.

The course of the nerve is ventro-caudad, and is at first entad of the
jugular vein ; it reaches the carotid artery about 7 mm. caudad of the
A. occipitalis and continues caudad upon the ectal surface of the artery
about 12 mm. to the origin of the A. thyroidea.

N. omo-hyoideus.—At the origin of the A. thyroidea, a large ramus
is given off ventrad (Fig. Om-Hy. ce.). This ramus lies ectad of the
artery and innerves the cephalic 25 mm. of the M. omo-hyoideus. The
caudal portion of the muscle is innerved by a ramus of the N. cervico-
hypoglossus which takes its ectal origin at the point where the nerve
trunk touches the dorsal border of the M. sterno-thyroideus. This slen-
der caudal ramus crosses the ectal surface of the sterno-thyroid muscle,
enters its dorsal border and may be traced within the muscle to the pre-
Sternum* (Fig. Om-Hy. ca.).

N. sterno-thyroideus.—-Caudad of the A. thyroidea the cervico-hypoglos-
Sus lies in the ental cervical fascia, ectad and ventrad of the A. carotidea.

* The origin of the M. omo-hyoideus is costal instead of scapular, as is the case in
man; the general relations are such that little doubt can exist as to the homology of the
muscle,

Stowell.] 102 [March 2,

At a point opposite the cephalic extremity of the thyroid body, the nerve-
trunk sendsa slender ramus, the cephalic sterno-thyroid (Fig. St.-Thy. ce),
to the cephalic third of the M. sterno-thyroideus : the caudal ramus (Fig.
St.-Thy. ca.) is the caudal 50-60 mm. of the N. cervico-hypoglossus, and
may be said to have its ectal origin at the origin of the ramus to the cau-
dal portion of the M. omo-hyoideus or at the point where the nerve trunk
lies upon the dorsal border of the sterno-thyroid muscle ; it follows the
border of the muscle for about 20-30 mm., when it penetrates the muscle
and terminates within the caudal extremities (origins) of the muscles
(sterno-hyoid, omo-hyoid, sterno-thyroid), which have a common origin
from the lateral border of the preesternum and the first costal cartilage.

Opposite the caudal extremity of the thyroid body the cervico-hypoglos-
sal nerve is joined by a communicating ramus (Fig. communicans) from
the adjacent cervical plexus or loop. This is the N. communicans noni.
This branch does not seem to be constant.

N. thyro-hyoideus.-—The ectal origin of this ramus is entad of the V.
jugularis, immediately peripherad of the origin of the cervico-hypoglossal
nerve ; its course is parallel to the latter nerve and ventrad of it ; it crosses
the ectal surface of the A. carotidea at the origin of the A. laryngea ceph-
alica, whence it bends ventrad and lies caudad of the artery and cephalad
of the N. laryngeus internus; it innerves the M. thyro-hyoideus (Fig.
Thy.-Hy.) and sends two terminal ramuli to the M. sterno-hyoideus,
a cephalic ramulus to the cephalic portion, a cawdal one to the caudal por-
tion of the muscle. This nerve joins its platetrope in the ventri-meson.

N. stylo-glossus._-A bout 15 mm. ventrad of the A. carotidea the A.
lingualis gives an arteriole to the M. stylo-glossus ; centrad of this arteri-
ole the hypoglossus nerve sends a branch, the N. stylo-glossus, to the
muscle having the same name. The nerve lies upon the ectal surface of
the M. hyo-glossus; at the ventral border of the stylo-glossus muscle it
separates into a leash of terminal ramuli which intercommunicate by anas-
tomotic filaments upon the muscle (Fig. Sty.-Gloss.).

N. hyo-glossus.—5 mm. peripherad of the last nerve the hyo-glossal
nerve (sometimes 8-4 ramuli from a common trunk, or more frequently
separate nerves) is given to the fibres of the M. hyo-glossus. The nerve
crosses the ectal surface of the A. lingualis. The terminal filaments inter-
communicate and form a loose plexus (Fig. hyoglossus) with the N. lin-
gualis (R. of N. trigeminus), which in this region lies upon the ectal sur-
face of the ranine artery.

N, genio-hyoideus.—At the dorsal border of the M. genio-hyoideus, the
N. hypoglossus curves cephalad and follows the general direction of the
genio-hyoid muscle, to which it gives from its ventral border the N. genio-
hyoideus, which nerve may be traced 20 mm. cephalad in the muscle
(Fig. Gen.-Hyoid).

N. genio-hyo-glossus.—-Peripherad of the border of the M. genio-hyoid-
eus, the N. hypoglossus bends mesad around the A, lingualis and lies
entad of the artery. As it curves around the artery it gives from its ven-

1888. ] 103 [ Stowell.

tral border several filaments to the M. genio-hyo-glossus (Fig. Ge-hy-gl.);
these filaments by their interlacing form a terminal plexus.

N. lingualis.—The hypoglossal nerve follows the artery along its ental
border and supplies terminal filaments to distal 30 mm. of the tongue
(fig. Ter.).

SUMMARY.
A. ANATOMICAL.

Ectal Origin—-The nerve arises by 12-16 funiculi along a line 4mm.
laterad of the ventri-meson, which line marks the dorsal border of the cau-
dal half of the area elliptica. The origin is nearly surrounded by arteri-
oles from the A. cerebellosa.

Foramen of Exit.—-Foramen condylare.

Principal Rami, their Origins and Distributions.

1. NV. cervico-hypo-glossus (descendens noni) ; origin at the angle as the
nerve bends around the A. occipitalis, distribution to the M. omo-hyoideus
and to the M. sterno-thyroideus.

2. WN. thyro-hyoideus ; origin immediately peripherad of the last nerve,
distribution to the M. thyro-hyoideus and to the M. sterno-hyoideus.

3. IV. stylo-glossus ; arises at a point 15 mm. ventrad of the A. carotidea,
distribution to the M. stylo-glossus.

4. WV. hyo-glossus ; origin (2-8 rami) 5-10 mm. peripherad of the last
nerve, distribution to the M. hyo-glossus ; joins the N. lingualis in a
plexus.

5. WV. genio-hyoideus ; origin at the dorsal border of the M. genio-hyoid-
eus, to which muscle it is distributed.

6. WV. genio-hyo-glossus ; origin as the nerve trunk bends around the lin-
gual artery.

7, NV. lingualis ; terminal filaments to the distal 830 mm. of the tongue.

Communicating Rami.

1. To the cervical sympathic ganglion.

2. To the N. vagus in the plexus gangliformis and in the G. inferius.
3. A large accession at the angle from the first myelic nerve.

4, The communicans noni to the N. cervico-hypoglossus.

5. With the N. lingualis (R. of N. trigeminus) in the terminal plexus.

B. PrysroLo@roan.

The N. hypoglossus is the motor nerve of the tongue ; it innerves sev-
eral muscles which move the os hyoides ; it is directly related to mastica-
tion and to deglutition ; it is essential to distinct articulation ; in function
it is possibly a mixed nerve, the sensibility however is referred by some
physiologists to the accessions from the myelic nerves ; it possesses vaso-
motor fibres, which are possibly derived from the communicating rami.

Jordan. } 104 [March 2,

EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAM.

Anas., anastomotic ramus from first myelic nerve ; this is the disputed
origin of the N. cervico-hypoglossus. Ang., the angle where the N. hyp-
oglossus bends around the A. occipitalis. Ca., caudal ramus. Ce,
cephalic ramus. Communicans, a myelic accession, the communicans
noni. Crv., myelic nerves. Gen-Hyoid, the genio-hyoid muscle. Ge-
Hy-Gl., the genio-hyo-glossal muscle. Hyoglossus, the hyo-glossal mus-
cle. Inf., the ramus to the G. inferius of the N. vagus. Lingualis, the
lingual nerve of the mandibular division of the N. trigeminus. Om-Hy.,
the M. omo-hyoideus. Pl. car., anastomotic filament to the carotid plexus.
Pl. gang., the plexus gangliformis. Sty-Gloss., the stylo- glossus muscle.
St-Thy., the M. sterno-thyroideus. Thy-Hy., the M. thyro-hyoideus.

Aboriginal Pottery of the Middle Atlantic States.
By Francis Jordan, Jr.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 2, 1888.)

In the whole range of archeology there are few subjects deserving of
more thoughtful consideration, or that possess so many instructive and
entertaining features as the study of ceramic art as practiced by primitive
man. Its development is contemporary with the progress of civilization,
and dates from the earliest period of antiquity, beginning with the manufac-
ture of earthenware of the rudest description, exclusively for culinary pur-
poses, from materials that were too obvious even for the semi-barbarian to
overlook. The brief paper I have the pleasure of offering for your consid-
eration is restricted to a discussion of but one of the many branches of this
interesting study, namely, the characteristic features of the prehistoric
pottery of the Middle Atlantic States, of North America, and the condi-
tions under which it has been recovered.

In its fabrication as in all the departments of aboriginal domestic labor,
the work was performed by women, who gave to these rude vessels what-
ever claim to artistic merit they possess, of which the relics of the mound-
builders of the Mississippi valley furnish the best examples.

In form, in decoration, and in the use of pigments, and in their con-
struction, these specimens rank with the early productions of the potters
of the old world, a superiority that was doubtless the result of contact
with the advanced civilization of the Pacific Coast, and a reproduction of
its ceramic forms. The pottery of the Atlantic seaboard is more primitive
in its character, and denotes, both in design and decoration, a more remote
antiquity, a claim, however, that cannot be established if we accept Indian
tradition as authority for the belief that the influx of emigration was from

Proceedings Amer, Philos. Soc, Vol, XXV, Ho, 127,

ae a eae
Ter.
oa Pl. Gang.
| Ge-Hy-Gl. WA Lingualis Lf
= (] Sty-Gloss. Ang.
C |
€n-Hyoid. = Inf. |
= IN.
2
re Anas.
|
>
ag
E o
© ip
) Pl. Sar.
>|
o
3S
fo) A ce.
Es >
afte
: 9 Communicans
3 a ”
‘ o
a)
©
°
g >
x
| E
: e)
w
co
>
G
"I
ro)
Diagram of the Hypoglossal Nerve.—Stowell.

105 (Jordan.

the West. But it is hardly within the scope of this brief paper to enter
into a discussion of the comparative ages of the pottery of the two sections.
In view of the very limited number of perfect specimens which have their
origin in the Middle Atlantic States, a thoroughly satisfactory treatise of
the earthenware of that locality, omitting all other considerations, is
hardly within the realm of possibility.

It may surprise those unacquainted with the data, to learn that the
entire number of unbroken vessels will not exceed twenty-five, and of
these the largest proportion, as well as the most remarkable, was found
in Pennsylvania. On the other hand, many hundreds of the most valu-
able specimens have been recovered in perfect condition from the ancient
earthworks and sepulchral mounds in the district beyond the Alleghanies.
In some instances these tumuli are of vast proportions, but in the absence
of sufticient evidence on which to form anything like an accurate opinion,
their antiquity must remain a matter of conjecture. With their identity
established, and with the knowledge that the Arnerican Indians, following
custom almost universal among semi-barbarous nations, deposited arti-
cles of earthenware with the dead, these ancient tombs may be explored
without subjecting their contents to accidental destruction.

In the Middle Atlantic States, however, where this mode of sepulture
rarely obtained, and where an Indian grave has no visible existence, its
discovery is usually one of chance, and then almost invariably made by the
plough, a medium very apt to efface all traces of its prehistoric character.

Incredible as it may appear, I am informed by Dr. Charles Rau that the
National Museum, at Washington, within two years did not contain a sin-
gle perfect specimen from the Eastern and Middle States in its archxolog-
ical collection. In 1878 Prof. E. Hitchcock, of Amherst, Mass., sent to
the National Museum colored plaster casts of three clay vessels found in
New England. The most remarkable of them is figured in Vol. v, page 14,
of the American Naturalist. This vessel, together with the largest of the
three sent, is in the collection of the University of Vermont, at Burlington.
The original of the third cast is in the possession of Mr. George Sheldon,
Deerfield, Mass., who found it in the lot adjoining his home. ‘‘I know
of but one other vessel of this nature,’’ says Pro!. Hitchcock, ‘‘ever found
wholein New England. Thisisin the hands of Dr. 8. A. Green, of Boston.”’
The pottery of New Jersey possesses no distinctive features, if we are to
be guided by the two or three unbroken vessels that have been uncovered
Within her borders, Dr. Abbott figures but one in his ‘Stone Age”’ of that
State.

Delaware is even more disappointing, as she has thus far failed to con-
tribute a single specimen to aid usin our comparative examination. On the
banks of nearly all her water-courses are to be seen refuse shell deposits,
Many of them of considerable size, and all of great age, indicating a popu-
lation more dense than any of her sister States. Mingled with the remains
of these deserted villages are large quantities of broken pottery, but the
fragments are those of coarse and generally undecorated pots that have

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. Xxv. 127. N. PRINTED APRIL 18, 1888.

Jordan. ] 106 [March 2, 1888.

succumbed to hard usage, and in that condition consigned to the refuse
heap. An unbroken specimen has never been found, and of the sherds,
the largest that I have seen was the base of a pot unearthed near Felton,
where I found it serving the purposes of a soap dish. Extreme plainness
characterized the pottery of this State. In capacity they were scarcely
more than quart pots, shaped like the gourd, with decorations of the sim-
plest description, of which the most elaborate were those having incised
parallel lines encircling the rim.

It is gratifying to be able to say that it has been reserved for Pennsyl-
vania to furnish the best examples of this ancient industry. The Wyom-
ing Historical and Geological Society, of Wilkesbarre, with commendable
zeal, under the enthusiastic direction of the late Harrison Wright, suc-
ceeded in locating several Indian graves in Luzerne county, from which
were exhumcd nine very remarkable perfect specimens. These have been
carefully described and figured in the Proceedings of that society, and
hence it is only necessary to note the fact that although they were all
found within a radius of twenty miles, there are no two identical in shape,
and each has a different ornamentation.

Two more from the same State have been deposited in the museum of
the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, very similar in form and decora-
tion to those found near Wilkesbarre, which, with another discovered
in the mountains near Summit Hill, constitute a distinct, and what I shall
call the Pennsylvania variety, of which the high square decorated mouth
is a prominent characteristic. These pots were made to contain from a
half to one gallon, and are very much larger, as they are also the most
beautiful of the mortuary pottery heretofore described.

In construction, design and decoration, very marked differences dis-
tinguish the specimens from the States under discussion, and in consider-
ing this part of the subject it is necessary to treat first the large undeco-
rated vessels, evidently intended to withstand rough handling, of which
the clay is thick—from a half to one inch—and the materials coarse.
In appearance this class has a strong resemblance to our modern earthen-
ware, but is heavier and apparently stronger, though actual test may dis-
prove this latter quality. In the other grade we cannot fail to notice a
delicacy of construction that pertains alone to the higher class of Indian
pottery, upon which patient labor has been expended, producing a bighly
decorated and carefully finished vessel. Fine sand has been substituted
for coarse clay, and the large particles of pounded shell or quartz, which
are a conspicuous feature of the rude pots, have been eliminated: the
whole showing a more careful preparation.

Of the designs in general it may be said that they occur in an almost
endless variety, which in itself is a conceded merit, and one that
the potters of the old world did not possess in a greater degree. The
difficulties attending the execution of some of the forms is astonishing
when we consider that they were made solely for purposes of utility.
The prevailing shape was that of the gourd, and like it terminated in a

April 15, 1887.] 107 : [ Hancock.

convex base, which required suspension when in use, for which ears pro-
jecting from the rim were provided; and where these did not exist the pot
had to be supported when resting upon the earth. Iam not aware of the
existence of any vessel from this locality having a flat bottom.

In the rude and heavy vessels no deviation was made from the plain
lines of the gourd, but in the finer examples the monotony of this form
was relieved by flaring or contracting the lips, and in constructing double
shoulders.

In some instances the inside, as well as the exterior, was colored a
bright red, as if to conceal the inequalities of their rough surfaces, but
there is no record of the discovery within the district under consideration
of a pot ornamented with colored designs.

Nor are there specimens, so far asI can learn, from the Middle and New
England States of bottle-shaped or long necked vases, so frequently met
with among the mound relics, and in some sections of the South; and no
attempt was made to imitate the human form, or that of birds and ani-
mals. The nearest approach thereto, as I have learned from Dr. Rau, are
little grotesque human heads or masks stuck on the outside of the vessels
below the corners of the rims. A number of fragments thus decorated,
which were collected in the State of New York by Mr. F. H. Cushing, are
in the National Museum at Washington.

When we consider the difficulties under which these ancient potters
wrought their crude materials, the absence of mechanical appliances (un-
aided by the petter’s wheel), their complete ignorance of the first rudi-
ments of artistic knowledge, following only such lines as fancy dictated,
we cannot but express amazement at the accura cy of the workmanship
and the originality, if not the beauty, of the designs.

It was not the beauty of the trained Grecian or Etruscan schools, but
the naturally developed taste of the aboriginee, who sought nature for her
models, and found them in the gourd and melon.

Description of Datames magna Hancock. By Joseph L. Hancock.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 15, 1887.)

Length 46 mm. (including mandibles); abdomen 244 mm.; thorax
4mm.; head 7mm. Breadth, abdomen 9mm.; head 10} mm. ; jaws
103 mm.

Color pale reddish yellowish white, more reddish on head, falces and
tips of last joints of legs ; paler on abdomen, legs and labial palpi. Last
joint (tarsus) of maxillary palpi and longitudinal marking under surface
of tibia of the same member, deep brownish-black, fingers of mandibles
burnished chestnut-brown, becoming black at points ; margin of bristly
hairs surrounding base of fingers, reddish-brown.

Cephalic Shield convexed, broader than long, anterior margin nearly
Straight, outer fourth sloping obliquely outwards and backwards to pos-

sr

108 [April 15,

Hancock. ]

terior border, which is rounded ; corner eminences distinct, pale, obtuse,
the front border on line with eyes ; shield covered with pale rather long
reddish hairs, a bare pale border surrounding shield below, trace of median
strie hardly perceptible.

Byes slightly elevated, small, front border on line with anterior margin
of cephalic plate, encircled with black, pale color with black centre, in-
terval equal to diameter of eye, furnished with hairs, some directed for-
ward longer.

Base of Mandibles together not as broad as head, length of upper sur- -
face when closed 5 mm., furnished with numerous stiff reddish bristles of
various length, becoming longer at base of fingers, fewer posteriorly, base
slightly bulging on outer side, flattened on inner, where there are no hairs
except on upper and anterior borders. Upper inner portion extended for-
ward to form fixed finger, 64mm. in length, bent slightly outward at
base, directed obliquely downward and slightly outward, anterior three-
fourths straight, smooth, tapering to point, unarmed, slightly grooved on
inner side, which is covered with a brush of long reddish bristly hairs
attached to inner side near base, directed forwards, nearly reaching to
points. Below the fixed finger is a conical projection armed in front with
two rows of teeth, as in figure ; on outer side from above downwards five,
first and fifth denticles, second, third and fourth larger and more acute.
The second projecting further forward, traces of more points visible con-
tinued down on outer margin, teeth covered externally with fringe of red-
dish hairs. On inner side, largest tooth above projecting fartherest for-
ward than a smaller one, after which follows two small ones with space
between, trace of points on inner margin below, teeth tipped with black.

Movable Finger 7 mm., with large acute conical tooth near the base
(as in figure), concave behind, convexed in front with point directed up-
wards and backwards, lying close on inner side is another small conical
tooth with point turned more inward and forward, more anteriorly is a
small denticle, trace of one midway between. Median carina extending
on outer side nearly to point, lower finger set slightly posterior to upper,
strongly curved, when closed points pass internal to upper pair, 1mm.
from points, motion vertical, directed from below, inwards, forwards, and
slightly outwards, constricted at points, inner side covered with numerous
fine feathery hairs continuous with fringe of reddish bristly hairs along
inner front margin of base.

Maxillee directed outwards, upwards and forwards, first joint immova-
ble, bulging, triangular, separated from its fellow on opposite side by deep
groove. Elongated on inner margin into a blunt pointed apophysis, sur-
face covered with short pale hairs, second joint short, triangular, with
rounded base directed forward, third joint (femur) length 11 mm., longest
of maxillary joints, fourth (tibia) 10 mm., fifth (tarsus) 8 mm., length
entire 84 mm., femur cylindrical, first half flattened from side to side,
enlarged toward extremity. Inner surface of shaft with row of
reddish spines of various lengths, increasing in length toward outer
end. ‘Tibia more perfectly cylindrical, slightly enlarging toward

1887.] 109 (Hancock.

extremity, four or five reddish spines forming row on inner portion
of shaft, under surface of shaft presenting a longitudinal line of dark
brownish-black, becoming wide at extremity ; femur and tibia covered
witb pale yellow hairs, some exceedingly long ; tarsus cylindrical becom-
ing slightly swollen at end, color deep brownish-black, thickly set with
hairs, some delicate and long, on the under surface very short stumpy
hairs appear, extremity furnished with retractile organ covered with a
double lip.

Labial Palpus. The first joint of the labial palpus is subcylindrical,
nearly as long as first joint of maxilla, to which it is closely adherent,
43 mm. in length, second joint short cylindrical, trapezoidal in form, third
joint. same length as second, rhomboidal in form, first three joints together
8 mm., fourth joint more slender, slightly bent, 6 mm., fifth joint 7 mm.,
sixth joint straight and thinner, 4 mm., seventh joint still thinner and
shorter, 3mm. Anterior surface of first joint clothed with short stiff bris-
tles of reddish color, rest of surface covered with fine pale hairs, as com-
pared to the maxille the labial palpi are very slender, shorter by 8 mm.
Covered with abundant hairs, some of extreme thinness and silky, quite
long.

Thorax small and weak, first segment attached to head closely, pale
reddish hairs radiate from this juncture, other two segments appear con-
tinuous with abdomen but of shorter diameter, on either side and at point
of attachment with head are whitish folds of skin. Each segment sparsely
covered with pale hairs. The under surface presents three pairs of basal
joints, which are immovable, first pair separated by deep groove from
basal plate of labial palpi, separated from each other by a slight median
groove, second and third pairs of basal joints closer together, divided from
first pair by a deep transverse groove, first pair directed transversely
across, second pair inclining obliquely backwards, third pair trifle more
obliquely backwards, triangular space left between last pair connecting
with abdomen pale whitish.

Legs. First pair of legs 23 mm., shortest stout, first joint short, fixed,
quadrangular in outline, rounded, separated by a median indentation from
its fellow on opposite side, clothed with short broken-off bristles on anterior
surface, second joint same length, subtriangular, short reddish bristly hairs
on under surface, third joint longer than second, trapezoidal, bending up-
wards, fourth joint (femur) longer than third, more cylindrical, bending
upwards, fifth joint (tibia) longer and thinner, pends downwards, sixth
joint (metatarsus) shorter and weaker than tibia, bends downwards, tar-
sus one-third as long as metatarsus, two curved palish white claws articu-
late at extremity, sharp at points which appear red and constricted. Sec-
ond pair of legs like the first with additional joint wedged in between
second and third joints, length 29} mm. Metatarsus of first feet with row
of five short red spines on dorsal surface, one more on outer extremity of
tibia which forms a continuous line with the preceding ones, also an im-
perfect row, three in number on inner side of metatarsus. Metatarsus of
second feet with five reddish spines on dorsal surface, continuous with two

Hancock. | 110

[April 15, 1887.

at extremity of tibia. Third pair of legs 42 mm., longest. Appendages on
under surface pale whitish, of a horny consistence, fan-shaped and
attached by foot stalks, ten in number, five on each side, two being adhe-
rent to each of the first two, another to each of the third joints, first joint
fixed, subtriangular, with base directed obliquely backwards and out-
wards, equal in length to first pair of basal joints, second joint longer than
the basal joint, third joint half the length of the second, fourth joint
slightly longer than the third, swollen on under surface changing the
direction of the leg slightly backwards, motion being confined to upward
movement by first three joints (exclusive of the basal joint), fifth joint
(femur) cylindrical and swollen, 10 mm., sixth joint (tibia) more slender,
same length, cylindrical, seventh joint (metatarsus) 7mm. more slender,
‘ eighth joint (tarsus) 34 mm., armed at extremity with two pale-colored
claws, regularly curved, with sharp constricted points of red color.
Abdomen. Composed of ten segments increasing in size to middle seg-
ments which are 3} mm. long and 9 mm. wide, slightly decreasing in size
posteriorly, first joint bears the genital opening on the under surface which
is enclosed by an elevated plate of pale whitish horny substance, orifice
triangular, apex directed forward, which is continued into a longitudinal
slit, free from hairs, second and third segment each have on middle of
posterior border stigmatic openings. The abdomen as a whole is oblong,
oval, elliptic in form, convexed about equally above and below, slightly
compressed, pale yellowish-white, clothed with velvet of pale whitish
. hairs on both sides and under parts ; trace of broad longitudinal band on
upper surface, more naked, beset with pale whitish hairs, band becoming
narrower posteriorly, being 6 mm. wide at second joint ; under surface of
abdomen slightly depressed by a median line, ventral opening a vertical
slit 2 mm. in length on last segment, protected on both sides by narrow
lips.
Habitat, Laredo, Texas; taken in 1883.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

A. Datames magna Hancock, upper surface.
B. Same, under surface.

The following are magnified views :

a, Side view of mandible showing finger and teeth.

b. Front view of mandible showing position of secondary teeth, right
side.

c. Maxillary palpus, left side, under surface, showing spines.

d. Labial palpus, left side, under surface.

e

f.

. Last three joints of third leg.
. Last three joints of second leg, showing spines on dorsal surface of
metatarsus and tibia.
g. Last three joints of first leg showing spines on dorsal and inner sur-
face of metatarsus and tibia.
. General appearance of claws under higher power of microscope.

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc Vol, XX, No, 127,

|

Jan, 20, 1888.] per
Stated Meeting, January 20, 1888.
Present, 24 members.
Vice-President, Dr. RuscHENBERGER, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows, viz.: A letter from
Col. R. Somers Hayes, New York City, N. Y., acknowledging
his election to membership.

A letter from Dr. Aristides Brezina, Vienna, acknowledging
receipt of his diploma and of Proceedings, Nos. 121, 122, 128,
124, and 125.

Acknowledgments for Proceedings, No. 125, from the Obser-
vatory at Tashkend, Russia; Zodlogical Society, Amsterdam ;
R. Accademia dei Lincei and Prof.G. Sergi, Rome; Hssex In-
stitute, Salem, Mass.; Profs. L. M. Haupt, John M. Maisch,
James Tyson, Joseph Leidy, G. I. Riché, and Messrs. F. Graff,
Philadelphia, and the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor ;
Colorado Scientific Society, Denver.

Acknowledgments for 403 packages for foreign transmission
from the Smithsonian Institution.

A letter of envoy from the Bureau of Ethnology, Washing-
ton, D. C.

Accessions to the library were received from the Minister of
Mines, Wellington; Mining Department, Melbourne; Gesell-
schaft fiir Anthropologie, etc., Messrs. Friedliinder & Son, Ber-
lin; Geographische Gesellschaft, Miinchen ; Publishers of “ Der
Naturforscher,” Tiibingen; Prof. E. Renevier, Lausanne; In-
stitution Ethnographique, Société de Geographie, Mon. Victor
Duruy, Paris; R. Academia de la Historia, Madrid ; Sociedade
de Geographia de Lisboa; Society of Arts, London; Royal
Geographical Society of Ireland, Dublin; Mr. A. F. Chamber-
lain, Toronto; Historical Society, New York; Franklin Insti-
tute, Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., Dr. Ruschenberger, Philadelphia ;
Second Geological Survey of Penna., Harrisburg; Johns Hop-
kins University, Baltimore; U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau
of Education, U.S. National Museum, Bureau of Ethnology,
Hydrographic Office, Mr. C. F. Neill, Washington, D.C.; Prof.

di 2 [Jan. 20,

C. L. Herrick, Granville, O.; Kansas Academy of Science,
Topeka; University of California, Sacramento.

A photograph was presented for the Society’s album by Dr.
Aristides Brezina, Vienna.

A letter was read from the University of Bologna, inviting
the Society to be represented at its ensuing eight hundredth
anniversary, and on motion the President was authorized to
appoint at his leisure a suitable person or persons for that pur-
pose. (Subsequently the President appointed Messrs. Giovanni
Capellini, of Bologna, and Henry Phillips, Jr., of Philadelphia.)

A circular was read from the Elizabeth Thompson Science
Fund announcing that its funds were available for scientific
work, and that applications for the same should be sent to Dr.
C.S. Minot, Boston, Mass.

A letter was read from Henry Uhlke, Washington, D. C.,
offering for $200 a portrait of the late Spencer F. Baird. On
motion, the President was authorized to appoint a committee
of three to examine into the matter referred to, and to report
to the Society.

A letter was read from Miss Marie A. Brown, Boston, Mass.,
enclosing a memorial to Congress in reference to a proposed
Viking Exhibition.

A. letter was read from the Jowa State University, Iowa
City, requesting the Proceedings of the Society, and, on mo-
tion, it was ordered to receive the same from No. 96 and the
catalog of the Society’s library.

A prospectus of the American Folk-lore Society was read,
and, on motion, the Society subscribed to the journal.

An obituary notice of Ferdinand V. Hayden, by Prof. Lesley,
was read by the Secretaries.

The stated{business of the meeting was then taken up, and
the election for Librarian being in order, Mr. Henry Phillips,
Jr., was unanimously reélected Librarian for the ensuing year.

On motion, the President was authorized to appoint at his
leisure the!Standing Committees of the Society, which he sub-
sequently appointed, as follows:—

Finance.—Henry Winsor, J. Price Wetherill, William B.
Rogers.

PES

1888, 113

Hall—J. Sergeant Price, William A. Ingham, Charles A.
Oliver,

Publication.—Daniel G. Brinton, George H. Horn, Persifor
Frazer, Samuel Wagner, Patterson Du Bois.

Library —Kdwin J. Houston, William V. McKean, William
John Potts, Jesse Y. Burk, William H. Greene.

Prof. Cope presented the following papers for the Transac-
tions :—

_I. The characteristics of the Vertebrate Fauna of the Puerco
Epoch of North America.

II. Lemurine Reversion in Human Dentition.

III. The Shoulder, Girdle’ and Limbs of the Eryops.

The President was authorized to appoint at his leisure the
Usual committees to examine these papers. (Profs. Heilprin,
Ryder and Lewis were subsequently appointed.)

Nominations Nos. 1173, 1174, and 1175 were read.

And the Society was adjourned by the presiding member.

Stated Meeting, February 3, 1888.
Present, 14 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :-—

Envoys : From the Mining Department, Melbourne; Smith-
Sonlan Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C.;
Prof. Antonio Pefafiel, Mexico.

Acknowledgments: Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.
(Transactions [N.8.], Vols. I-XV, XVI, 1); State University
of Towa, Iowa City (Procs, 96-126, etc.); State Historical So-
clety of Wisconsin, Madison (Catalogue, Parts 1-4, inclusive).

Acknowledgments for Proceedings, No. 126, were received
from Mr, Horatio Hale, Clinton, Ontario; Sir John William

4Wwson, Montreal; Geological and Natural History Survey of
Canada, Ottawa; Toronto University, Canadian Institute, Dr.
‘niel Wilson, Toronto; Historical and Scientific Society,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXV. 127. 0. PRINTED APRIL 30, 1888.

|
|

114 [¥eb. 3,

Winnipeg ; Society of Natural History, Portland; N. H. His-
torical Society, Concord; American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, American Statistical Association, Boston Society of
Natural History, State Library of Mass., Dr. Oliver W. Holmes,
Hon. Robert C. Winthrop, Boston; Museum of Comparative
Zovlogy, Profs. A. Agassiz, Joseph Lovering, Mr. Robert N.
Toppan, Cambridge; Essex Institute, Salem; Free Public Li-
brary, New Bedford; Dr. Pliny Harle, Northampton; Brown
University, Rhode Island Historical Society, Rhode Island So-
ciety for the Encouragement of Domestic Industry, Prof. Thos.
Chase, Providence; Connecticut Historical Society, Hartford;
Yale College Library, Profs. Elias Loomis, H. A. Newton, New
Haven; Prof. James Hall, Albany; Prof. W. LeConte Stevens,
Brooklyn; Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo; Prof. B.G.Wil-
der, Ithaca; Astor Library, New York Academy of Medicine,
New York Academy of Sciences, New York Historical Society,
New York Hospital, University of the City of New York,
Drs. J. 8S. Newberry, J. J. Stevenson, J. A. Allen, Mr. John
Ericsson, New York City ; Vassar Brothers’ Institute, Pough-
keepsie; U.S. Military Academy, West Point; Prof. H. M.
Baird, Yonkers; Rev. J. F. Garrison, Camden; Prof. George
H. Cook, New Brunswick; Prof. W. H. Green, Princeton;
Dr. 0. B. Dudley, Altoona; Dr. R. H. Alison, Ardmore; Rev.
J. A. Murray, Carlisle; Prof. Martin H. Boyé, Coopersburg ;
Profs. Traill Green, T’. C. Porter, Haston; Mr. Andrew 8. Mc-
Creath, Harrisburg; Profs. L. B. Hall, Isaac Sharpless, J. C.
Booth, Haverford; Mr. John Fulton, Johnstown; Linnean So-
ciety, Lancaster; Messrs. P. W. Sheafer, Heber S. Thompson,
Pottsville; Philosophical Society, Messrs. Edwin A. Barber,
William Butler, Philip P. Sharples, Washington Townsend,
West Chester; Wyoming Historical and Geological Society,
Wilkes-Barre; The Athenzeum, College of Physicians, Franklin
Institute, Library Company of Philadelphia, Numismatic and
Antiquarian Society, University of Pennsylvania, Wagner Free
Institute, Zodlogical Society, Messrs. George W. Anderson, John
Ashhurst, Jr., Cadwalader Biddle, George D. Boardman, J. H.
Brinton, Isaac Burk, Thomas M. Cleeman, Patterson DuBois,

1888,] 115

F. A. Genth, Jr., Frederick Graff, George Harding, Henry
Hartshorne, H. V. Hilprecht, Edwin J. Houston, William A.
Ingham, Francis Jordan, Jr.. W. W. Keene, Joseph Leidy,
F.W. Lewis, H. Carvil Lewis, John M. Maisch, E. Y. McCauley,
F. A. Muhlenberg, Isaac Norris, Jr., Charles A. Oliver, C.
Stuart Patterson, Robert Patterson, Henry Phillips, Jr., Frank-
lin Platt, Theo. D, Rand, George J. Riché, Geo. B. Roberts,
W.S. W. Ruschenberger, Oswald Seidensticker, Coleman Sel-
lers, Aubrey H. Smith, George Stuart, W. P. Tatham, H. OC.
Trumbull, James Tyson, William H. Wahl, Henry Winsor,
Henry D. Wireman, Ellis Yarnall, Joseph’ Zentmayer, Phila-
delphia; Wm. H. Canby, Wilmington, Del.; U.S. Naval In-
stitute, Annapolis; Maryland Historical Society, Maryland In-
stitute, Prof. Ira Remsen, Baltimore; U.S. Geological Survey,
Patent Office, U.S. Naval Observatory, Surgeon-General’s Office,
Library of Congress, Signal Office, Messrs. J. H. C. Coffin,
Thos, J. Lee, Wm. Ludlow, Garrick Mallery, Chas. A. Schott,
William Strong, Wm. B. Taylor, Washington, D. C.; Vir-
ginia Historical Society, Richmond; Library of the Univer-
sity of Virginia, Prof. John W. Mallett, University of Vir-
ginia; Elliott Society of Science and Art, Charleston; Uni-
versity of South Carolina, Columbia; Georgia Historical
Society, Savannah; Cincinnati Society of Natural [istory,
Cincinnati Observatory ; Dr. Leo Lesquereux, Columbus; Rev.
Henry §. Osborn, Oxford, O.; Dr. Robert Peter, Lexington,
Ky.; Prof. Daniel Kirkwood, Bloomington; University of
Illinois, Champaign; Rantoul Literary Society; University of
Michigan, Profs. Henry S. Frieze, Alex. Winchell, Ann
Arbor; Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences; State His-
torical Society of Wisconsin, Madison; Colorado Scientific
Society, Denver ; University of California, Prof. John L. Le-
Conte, Berkeley.

Accessions to the Library were announced from the Mining
Department, Melbourne; Ph ysiologische Gesellschaft, Deutsche
Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin; Académie R. des Sciences,
ete., de Belgique, Bruxelles; Biblioteca N. Centrale di Firenze ;
Dr. Giulio Carotti, Milan; Société de Borda, Dax; Royal In-

116 [Feb. 3,

stitution, Geological Society, London; Natural History Society
of Montreal; American Chemical Society, Rev. Josiah Strong,
Publishers of the “Critic,” New York; Rev. 8. F. Hotchkin,
Dr. D.G. Brinton, Messrs. John H. and Edward B. Harden,
Henry Phillips, Jr., Publishers of ‘‘ The American Naturalist,”
Philadelphia; Mr. Ira Remsen, Baltimore; Bureau of Ethno-
logy, Department of State, Signal Office, U. S. Fish Commis-
sion, Washington; Hon. Henry R. Jackson, Atlanta, Ga.; Rev.
S. D. Peet, Mendon, Ill; Davenport Academy of Sciences;
Iowa State Historical Society, lowa City ; State Historical So-
ciety of Wisconsin,’Madison; Prof. Antonio Pefiafiel, Mexico.

The death of Prof. Asa Gray was announced as having
taken place at Cambridge, Mass., on January 30, 1888, in
the 78th year of his age.

Dr. Horn exhibited seven species of Pleocoma from Califor-
nia, of which three were new, and made some remarks on Dr.
Geerstecker’s criticisms on the late Dr. LeConte’s views of their
position. ‘These views Dr. Horn supported and insisted that
the beetle was Laparostict Lamellicon and not a Pleurostict, as
asserted by Dr. Goerstecker. Dr. Horn exhibited some dissec-
tions in confirmation of his position.

Pending nominations Nos. 1178, 1174, and 1175 were read.

Mr. Garrett, from the Committee on the Purchase of the
Humboldt Portrait, reported that the sum required for its pur-
chase, $850, had been subscribed by the members of the So-
ciety.

The President reported that he had received and paid over
to the Treasurer, $182.48, the quarterly interest of the Michaux
legacy due January 1, 1888.

On motion of Mr. McKean, it was resolved that prior to the
next appropriation of the Michaux legacy, the subject of the
proper disposition to be made of it shall be considered by the
Board of Officers and Council.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

1888,] E17
Stated Meeting, February 17, 1888.
Present, 19 members.
President, Mr. Fraury, in the chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows: A letter acknowl-
edging diploma from Dr. Edward Suess, Vienna.

Acknowledgments for Proceedings from Fondation de P.
Teyler, Harlem (125); Brooklyn Entomological Society (125,
126); Philadelphia Library Co., Mr. Thomas Meehan, Phila-
delphia (126); Mr. John F. Carll, Pleasantville, Pa. (126); Lack-
awanna Institute of History and Science, Scranton (126); Kan-
sas Historical Society, Topeka (126); Prof. Joseph LeConte:
Berkely, Cal. (126).

Request for exchanges from the Naturwissenschaftlicher
Verein des Regierungs-Bezirks, Frankfurt a O.; which, on mo-
tion, was granted from Proceedings, No. 96.

A circular from the U.S. National Museum, Washington,
relating to “rude or unfinished implements of the paleolithic
type,” which was referred to the Curators.

Envoys from the Mining Department, Melbourne; Natur-
wissenschaftlicher Verein des Regierungs-Bezirks, Frankfurt
a.0.; Bureau of Ethnology, Washington.

A photograph was received for the album from Mr. Heber
S. Thompson, Pottsville.

Accessions to the Library were reported from Anthropo-
logische Gesellschaft, Wien; Verein zur Beforderung des Gar-
tenbaues in den K. P. Staaten, K. P. Landesanstalt und
Bergakademie, Berlin; Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein des
Regierungs-Bezirks, Frankfurt a.0.; Verein fiir Erdkunde,
Haile a.S.; Verein fiir Erdkunde, Metz; R. Societd Italiana
D'Igiene, Milano; R. Accademia dei Lincei, Roma; R.
Academia de Ciencias Naturales y Artes, Barcelona; Mr.
Horatio Hale, Clinton, Canada; Massachusetts Historical
Society, Boston; Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Harvard
College Observatory, Cambridge; Astor Library, New York ;
American Pharmaceutical Association, College of Physicians,

118 [Feb. 17,

Inspectors of the State Penitentiary, Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr.,
Philadelphia; Interstate Commerce Commission, Washington,
D.C.; Cincinnati Observatory, Society of Natural History, Cin-
cinnati ; Elliott Society of Science and Art, Charleston; Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley ; Observatorio Nacional Argentino,
Buenos Ares.

The Committee appointed to examine the papers presented
for the Transactions by Prof. Cope, reported progress and was
continued,

The President announced the decease of Sir Henry Sumner
Maine (February 3, 1888, zt. 69).

The minutes of the Board of Officers and Council were sub-
mitted.

This being the stated evening for balloting for candidates for
membership, pending nominations Nos. 1173, 1174, and 1175
were read, spoken to and balloted for.

New nomination No. 1176 was read.

Prof. Cope presented, through the Secretaries, for the Pro-
ceedings two papers: 1. On the Dicotyline of the John Day
Miocene of North America. 2. Mechanical origin of the Den-
tition of the Amblypoda.

The following resolution was unanimously adopted:

“‘ Resolwed, That the President and Treasurer be authorized to sell, not
exceeding $10,000 of the Loan of the City of Philadelphia standing in the
name of the Society, and the Treasurer, J. Sergeant Price, be authorized
to make the necessary transfer of the same upon the books of the City.”

The recommendation of Council, that the Society should pro-
cure a fire-proof for the purpose of preserving its more valu-
able business and literary MSS. was, on motion, referred to the
Committee on Hall to consider and report thereon to the So-
ciety.

The tellers reported after a scrutiny of the ballots that the
following candidates had been duly elected members of the
Society :

No. 2148, Charles E. Sajous, M.D., Philadelphia.

No. 2149. Alexander Biddle, Philadelphia.

No. 2150. Edmund B. Wilson, Bryn Mawr.
And the Society was adjourned by the President.

1888 ] 119

Stated Meeting, March 2, 1888.
Present, 18 members.

President FRALEY in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows: Letters accepting
membership from Mr. Alexander Biddle, Philadelphia; Prof.
Hdmund B. Wilson, Bryn Mawr.

A letter offering resignation from membership, from Gen.
Russell Thayer, Philadelphia. On motion the resignation was
accepted.

A letter from the Society of Naturalists, Kieff, Russia,
requesting exchanges, which was so ordered (96-127).

The President presented a letter from the Park Engineer in
reference to an annual appropriation for the Michaux grove,
which on motion was referred to Council.

The Newberry Library of Chicago was placed on the Ex-
change List to receive Proceedings from No. 96.

Letters of envoy from Société Impériale Russe de Géogra-
phie, St. Petersburg; Boston Society of Natural History,
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass.

Letters of acknowledgment from Académie R. Danoise des
Sciences et des Lettres, Copenhagen (124, 125); Geological and
Natural History Survey, Ottawa, Canada (126); Boston So-
ciety of Natural History (123, 124, 125, 126); Boston Public
Library (125, 126); Brown University, Providence (126);
Academy of Sciences, St. Louis (126).

Accessions to the Library were received from the Royal
Society of New South Wales, Sydney; Geological Survey of
India, Calcutta; Société Impériale Russe de Géographie, St.
Petersburg; Dr. L. Samenhof, Warsaw; Académie Royale de
Copenhague, Société R. des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhague ;
Société R. des Sciences de Lidge; Prof. Antonio Favaro, Bib-
lioteca N. Centrale, Firenze; R. Istituto Lombardo di Scienze
Lettere, Milan; Ecole des Mines, Paris; Commissao dos Tra-

1 20 {March 2,

balhos Geologecos de Portugal, Lisboa; Society of Antiqua-
ries, London; Boston Society of Natural History ; Museum of
Comparative Zovlogy, Harvard University, Cambridge ; Prov-
idence Franklin Society; Mr. Charles J. Hoadly, Hartford;
Industrial Education Association, Dr. J. 8. Newberry, New
York; Mercantile Library, Commissioners for the Erection of
the Public Buildings, Messrs. Thomas Hockley, Henry Phillips,
Jr., Philadelphia; Johns Hopkins University, Editor of the
“American Journal of Philology,” Baltimore; Adjutant Gen-
eral’s Office, D. C.; Mrs. L. M. Morehead, Cincinnati; The
Newberry Library, Chicago; Lick Observatory, Sacramento ;
California Historical Society, San Francisco.

The special committee appointed January 20th, to examine
the papers of Prof. Cope, reported in favor of publishing those
on the Eryops and the Puerco Fauna; on that on Lemurine
Reversion it did not report favorably.

Prof. T. B. Stowell presented through the Secretaries papers
on the Hypoglossal nerve, the Accessory nerve, and Glosso-
pharyngeal nerve of the domestic cat.

Mr. Frank Jordan, Jr., presented through the Secretaries a
paper on The Aboriginal Pottery of the Middle Atlantic
States.

Pending nomination No. 1176 was read.

Mr. Philip C. Garrett, chairman of the committee appointed
by the Society to procure for it the portrait of Baron von
Humboldt, painted from life at Berlin in 1856, by Mr. J. R.
Lambdin, at the request of Messrs. Henry D. Gilpin and Alex-
ander Dallas Bache, reported that it had been purchased for
$350, and on behalf of the following gentlemen who had con-
tributed for that purpose, formally presented it to the Society :
Messrs. G. W. Anderson, John R. Baker, R. Meade Bache,
George H. Boker, W. G. A. Bonwill, Geo. W. Childs, E. W.
Clark, J. M. Da Costa, Frederick Fraley, Philip C. Garrett,
Horace Jayne, EH. Otis Kendall, Wm. V. McKean, J. Sergeant
Price, James W. Robins, Moncure Robinson, J. R. Shipley,
Wm. P.. Tatham, Frank Thomson, Richard Vaux, Joseph
Wharton, Henry Winsor and Richard Wood.

1888, 121

Mr. Garrett in presenting the portrait made the following
remarks:

“About the year 1856, while Mr. Alexander Dallas Bache was sitting
to Mr. Lambdin for his portrait, the latter suggested a plan by which the
Smithsonian Institution could materially aid schools in this country in
procuring copies of the best foreign works of art. Having received the
approval of the Board of Regents, Mr. Bache furnished Mr. Lambdin,
who was about to visit Europe, with credentials from the Smithsonian to
various eminent persons abroad, among others to. Baron von Humboldt.
It occurred to Mr. Bache apropos of the latter, that it would afford the
artist a capital opportunity to obtain a portrait of Humboldt, which he
would like to have for the American Philosophical Society, and Mr. Gilpin
joining him in the purpose, they authorized Mr. Lambdin to paint a por-
trait of the savant, agreeing to see it presented to the Society upon its com-
pletion. Mr. Lambdin had an excellent opportunity with the Baron, with
whom he spent the larger part of a day, on his arrival in Berlin. Hum-
boldt was at that time the King’s Chamberlain, and said that he would
shortly have to go to Potsdam to attend the King, but would give Mr.
Lambdin further sittings on his return to Berlin. He was then 87 years
old, alittle man, very much bent, extremely courteous, and was much
pleased that his portrait was wanted for the American Philosophical So-
ciety, expressing gratitude to his friend Mr. Bash (Bache) that he had
thought of it.

“The result is before the Society in an admirable and speaking likeness,
and, to my mind, no more appropriate portrait adorns the walls of a
Society whose scope is so philosophical and broad as that of this learned
body.

‘‘A terse and comprehensive description of the renowned philosopher
is found in the following paragraph from the Edinburgh Review of 1848 :

“Science has produced no man of more rich and varied attainments,
more versatile in genius, more indefatigable in application to all kinds of
learning, more energetic in action, or more ardent in inquiry.’

“The same Review describes him as possessing ‘a genial and kindly
temperament, which excites no enmities, but, on the contrary, finds or
makes friends everywhere. No man in the ranks of Science is more dis-
tinguished for this last characteristic than A. v. Humboldt. We believe
that he has not an enemy.’ :

“Tt only remains for me formally to present the picture on behalf of the
donors, whose names follow, and this I have great pleasure in doing. I
should add that the carrying out of the original intention was prevented
by the illness of Messrs. Bache and Gilpin, before the completion of the
work, followed by their death.’’

On motion the committee was discharged and the thanks of

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv. 127, P. PRINTED APRIL 80, 1888.

|

1 22 [March 16,

the Society were voted to its chairman for his zeal and in-
terest.

The Report of the Trustees of the Building Fund was pre-
sented.

On motion the President was requested, authorized and em-
powered to send with letter referred to in the Resolution of
the Society of January 6, 1888, a copy of the Reports of the
special committee on the value of Volapiik.

On motion the Committee on Volapiik was continued and
requested to report from time to time on any matter kindred
to the subject that may reach its knowledge.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Stated Meeting, March 16, 1888.
Present, 15 members.

Mr. RicHArp VAvx in the Chair.

Miss Helen C. de 8S. Abbott, a lately elected member, was
presented to the Chair and took her seat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

A letter from Dr. C. EH. Sajous, Philadelphia, accepting
membership in the Society.

Letters of envoy from the K. Preuss. Meteorolog. Institut
and K. Geolog. Landesanstalt und Bergakademie, Berlin.

Letters of acknowledgment for Proceedings, No. 125, from
the Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde, Deutsche Geologische Gesell-
schaft, Berlin; K. Sichsischer Alterthumsverein, Dresden ;
Oberhessiche Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde, Giessen ;
Naturhistorische Gesellschaft, Hanover; Dr. Otto Bohtlingk,
Leipzig; Prof. Dr. Diimichen, Strasburg; H. C. de S. Abbott,
Philadelphia ; Dr. Jesus Sanchez, Mexico.

For Proceedings, No. 126, from the Société Géologique de
France, M. Victor Duruy, Prof. Abel Hovelacque, Paris; R.
Meteorological and Astronomical Societies, Board of Trade,

188s, ] 123

Geological Society, Victoria Institute, Society of Antiquaries
Mr. Archibald Geikie, London; H. C. de S. Abbott, Philadel-
phia.

A communication from Dr. W. C. Winslow, in reference to
the Egyptian Exploration Fund, was read.

Accessions to the Library were reported from Dr. Otto: Don-
ner, Helsingfors; Hungarian Academy, Buda Pesth ; K. K. Zool-
ogisch-Botanische Gesellschaft, K. K. Geologische Reichsan-
stalt, Wien; Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Bamberg; K. P.

-Geologische Landesanstalt und Bergakademie, K. P. Meteorolo-
gisches Institut, Berlin; Oberlausitzische Gesellschaft, Gorlitz;
Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, etc., Baron EH. de
Selys Lonchamps, Liége ; Société de Geographie, Paris; Insti-
tuto y Observatorio de Marina, San Fernando; Philosophical
and Philological Societies, Prof. Joseph Prestwich, London;
Dr. George M. Dawson, Montreal; Publishers of the “New
England Magazine,” Boston; American Antiquarian Society,
Worcester; New York State Museum of Natural History,
Albany ; Publishers of “The Brooklyn Medical Journal ;” Dr.
Persifor Frazer, Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia; Signal
Office, Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Dr. Frazer made the following oral communication :

In a recent visit to the eastern portion of Cuba under exceptionally
favorable circumstances, I was enabled to obtain some interesting data on
the geology of this part of the island which I believe to be new and im-
portant, and which when put into form will constitute a paper on these
subjects. As my work on this paper is not complete, I do not intend to
dwell upon any part of it to-night, further than to say that the area which
I was enabled to examine included portions of the Sierra Mestra range
and its foot hills between Guantanamo and Santiago de Cuba; ten miles
north of that city and in the neighborhood of Christo on the Enramados
R. R. ; and south-west of Santiago in the hills surrounding the pretty
village of El Cobre. The many mines of iron, manganese and copper,
and the localities where deposits of these metals were indicated, were not,
however, the only interesting features to the geologist. The rocks them-
Selves told an important tale of the age of this part of the world. Out-
side of an official but not exhaustive examination of this region by Sefior
Castro, and examinations for special purposes by Messrs. Graham, Dr.
J. P. Kimball and others, no serious study of its measures has been made.

124. [March 16,

It will sufficiently indicate the importance of such a general examina-
tion when it is said that there is a strong probability of the occurrence
here of a large part of the Archean rocks which lie between the Lower
Laurentian and the Paleozoic, and that the metalliferous deposits which
are of undoubted value take their places in a manner analogous to similar
deposits in the United States and elsewhere.

It is not intended in these few hasty remarks to present any of the pecu-
liarities of vegetation, climate and customs to the members of this Society
as if these were items of news which many of them had not observed for
themselves, but simply to note a few impressions which may be new to
some of his hearers as they were to the speaker.

Along with the luxuriance of the vegetation, the circumstance which
struck the speaker with most astonishment was the paucity of small ani-
mals and reptiles and birds in the forests. Ants and their mounds are
observed everywhere, and small lizards are not uncommon, but snakes
and toads and field-mice, ete., etc., were conspicuous by their absence.

During a sojourn of some weeks only one Maha, a black snake some
two and a half feet in length, was seen in our journeys and camps through
the forests and over the hills and mountains. The average temperature
during the day, in the shade, was 81° to 86° Fah. (during the month of
January), and at night this fell to 71° to 75°. There were occasional
showers of rain, but as a general rule the weather was delightfully bright
and calm. The temperature of a mountain stream, taken about 2000 feet
above the sea at sunset, was 75° Fah.

[Numerous specimens of coral, modern shells, cocoanuts, bamboo, ete.,
were exhibited, as well as two drinking cups such as are fashioned by the
mountaineers out of the bamboo by cutting a segment and slicing off the
rim in a bevel to form a lip.]

Miss Helen C. de 8. Abbott made the following remarks on
the Occurrence of a Series of New Crystalline Compounds in
Higher Plants:

“In many plants, especially those which belong to the natural orders,
Simarubacer, Polemoniacew, Rubiacese, Ebenacez, Rhodoracexe, and
Composit occur, respectively, a class of compounds which present defin-
ite crystalline forms. They are extracted from the plants most readily
by a light petroleum ether. Boiling absolute alcohol was used to purify
these compounds from fats, wax, and coloring matter, and by fractional
crystallization three distinct forms of crystals were obtained which on ul-
timate analyses represented compounds of different chemical constitution.

“These bodies are characterized by containing a high percentage of
carbon. They are indifferent to alkalies and have high melting points.
The discovery of one of these compounds in Cascara Amarga was made
by me in 1884, and announced at the Buffalo meeting of the American

1888] 125

Association for the Advancement of Science. Since that time my inves-
tigations are continuing and, from these studies, I am able to announce, as
derived from plant sources, compounds which until now have not been
observed.

“Lately, from independent investigations, Prof. Henry Trimble has
also discovered similar compounds in various plants. Our mutual results
will form the substance of a future communication.”’

Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., presented a First Contribution to
the Folk-lore of Philadelphia and its vicinity.

Dr. Oscar Meyer presented (through the Secretaries) a paper
on the Miocene Invertebrates from Virginia.

Pending nomination, No. 1176, and new nomination, No.
1177, were read.

Mr. Phillips, from the Committee on Volapiik, reported on
the Langue Internationale of Dr. Samenhof, of Moscow, and
the Committee was continued.

And the Society was adjourned by the presiding member.

Stated Meeting, April 6, 1888.

Present, 14 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

A letter of acceptance of membership from Prof. Giuseppi
Meneghini, Pisa.

Letters requesting exchanges, from the Royal Mint, Mel-
bourne, Australia; Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Chapel
Hill, N. C., and on motion the requests were granted.

Letters of envoy from K. Siichsische Gesellschaft der W issen-
schaften, Leipzig; Gesellschaft zur Beférderung der Gesamm-
ten Naturwissenschaften in Marburg; Université Royale de
Lund; Meteorological Office, Royal Statistical Society, Lon-
don.

Letters of acknowledgment from Royal Society of New

i 26 [April 6,

South Wales, Sydney (124, 125); Prof. Peter von Tunner,
Leoben, Austria; Prof. I. I. S. Steenstrup, Copenhagen;
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Gesellschaft fiir Hrdkunde,
Berlin; K. Siichsische Alterthumsverein, Dresden; Oberhes-
sische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde, Geissen; Natur-
historische Gesellschaft, Hanover; Dr. Otto Bohtlingk, Leip-
zig; Prof. Dr. J. Diimichen, Strasburg; Université Royale de
Lund ; Dr. Jesus Sanchez, Observatorio Astrénomico Nacional,
Mexico (125); K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und
Erdmagnetismus, Wien; Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu
Bremen; Verein fiir Thiiringische Geschichte “Isis,” Dresden ;
Dr. G. von Rath, Bonn; Dr. Julius Platzmann, Leipzig; K.
Sternwarte, Miinchen; Dr. Otto Schumann, Tiibingen ; Natur-
Histor. Museum, Strasburg; Societé de Borda, Dax, France;
Sociétés D’ Anthropologie, Geologique, M. Auguste Carlier,
Hon. Victor Duruy, Profs. Abel Hovelacque, Remi Siméon,
Paris; Prof. Lucien Adam, Rennes, France; Philosophical
Society, University Library, Rev. 8..8. Lewis, Cambridge,
Eng.; Royal Society, Royal Institution, Royal Astronomical,
Meteorological Societies, Society of Antiquaries, Geological
Society, Board of Trade, Victoria Institute, M. Archibald
Geikie, Sir Richard Owen, Prof. C. Schorlemmer, Manchester ;
Natural History Society, New Castle-on-Tyne; Dr. Henry W.
Acland, Oxford; Dr. James Geikie, Edinburgh; Prof. C. H.
Hitchcock, Hanover, N. H. (126); Physiologische Gesellschaft,
Berlin (96-126, etc.).

Accessions to the Library from the Linnean Society of
New Sovth Wales, Sydney; Geological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta; Royal Asiatic Society, North China Branch, Shanghai;
K. Akademie der Wissenschaften, St. Petersburg; Societé Im-
périale des Naturalistes de Moscow; K. K. Geographische
Gesellschaft in Wien; Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft
“Tsis,’ Dresden; K. Siichsische Gesellschaft, Leipzig; Gesell-
schaft zur Beforderung der Gesammten Naturwissenschaften,
Marburg; K. Statistische Landes-Anstalt, Stuttgart; Univer-
sity of Lund, Sweden; Academie Royale de Belgique, Brux-
elles; Société Americaine de France, “Cosmos,” Paris; Prof.

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1888,] 2G

Joseph Prestwich, Shoreham, Eng.; Bath and West of England
Agricultural Society, Bath; Royal Statistical Society, Meteor-
ological Council, “Nature,” London; Prof. Eben Norton Hors-
ford, New York; Mr. W. J. Potts, Camden; Academy of
Natural Sciences, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Messrs.
Henry Phillips, Jr, Richard Wood, Philadelphia; Elisha
Mitchell Scientific Society, Raleigh, N. C.

A photograph for the album was received from Dr. Julius
Platzmann, Leipzig.

The following deaths of members were reported :

F. Bowyer Miller, Melbourne, September 17, 1887.

James Curtis Booth, Philadelphia, March 21, 1888, eet. 78.

Joseph Zentmayer, Philadelphia, March 28, 1888, et. 62.

On motion, the President was authorized to appoint suitable
persons to prepare the usual obituary notices for Messrs. Booth
and Zentmayer.

Mr. Law presented, for the Proceedings, a paper on “Gildas
and Harly English History.”

Mr. DuBois, from the Committee on Revised Spelling, ap-
pointed January 6, 1888, reported progress, and the commit-
tee was continued until it should be ready to make a final
report.

Prof. Kdwin J. Houston made the following oral communi-
cations :
On Death by the Electric Current.

Several cases of death have resulted from incautious or accidental
touching or handling of the wires employed in carrying the currents used
in electric lighting. It becomes, therefore, a matter of great importance
to inquire into some of the peculiarities of such accidents.

There are, as is well known, two distinct characters of current employed
for the purpose of electric illumination; viz., the direct current and the
alternating current. The direct current, as employed in electric lighting,
is fairly steady and uniform. Its electro-motive force, as a rule, is not
subject to marked changes in value, and the direction of its flow is always
the same. The alternating current, on the contrary, changes both the
value of its electro-motive force and its direction, taking its name from the
fact that it flows alternately in opposite directions. The changes in the
electro-motive force are considerable in amount ; they are not, however,
as is very generally believed, necessarily sudden, since in most cases the

128 . [April 6,

electro-motive force changes gradually from a maximum to a minimum
in both directions.

Death has resulted from the incautious handling or accidental contact
both. with the direct and with the alternating current.

In the case of the direct current, death results sometimes from shock,
but generally, it would appear, from an electrolytic effect on the blood or
other tissues of the body. The gaseous products arising from the decom-
position possibly may, in some cases, be carried by the blood to the heart
and thus stop its action, or, as probably occurs in most cases, death may
result from electrolytic changes produced in the blood itself, or in other
tissues.

Death by the alternating current probably results from shock only.
Resuscitation in cases of apparent death are more frequent with the alter-
nating current than with the direct, most probably from the absence of
actual electrolytic decomposition of the tissues.

Considerable surprise has often been manifested because certain cur-
rents, that, in some instances, have been handled with impunity, in other
cases have caused death. A current of a certain number of ampéres, and of
a certain difference of potential between the points touched, caused death
in one case, while in another case with the same current strength in the
line, two or three times the difference of potential between the points
touched, was received with impunity.

Making due allowance for differences in vitality, or in the condition of
the heart-power of the subject, I think the following explanation will
throw light on many of these cases. I offer it, however, mainly, though
not entirely, from a theoretical standpoint.

The explanation would appear to be found in the portions of the body
at which the current enters and passes out, which would of course neces-
sarily be influenced by the position of the person receiving the discharge.
Nearly all fatal or severe shocks occur from the lines being accidentally
grounded at some point. The person then either deliberately touches, or
is accidentally brought into contact with the line at some other point.
Under these conditions, the electricity either passes into or out of the body
at the feet. The greater or less probability of serious results will depend
on the parts of the body through which the current passes. When any
part of the body is placed in the path of an electric discharge, more of
the discharge will pass through the better conductors, which perhaps will,
generally, be the great nerve trunks and the muscles. Reference must,
therefore, be had to the position of such nerve centres, as well as to the
heart, the lungs and the viscera and other vital organs. The following
contacts are among the commonest.

(1) At the head. This contact is apt to be among the most dangerous,
as the discharge in all probability takes place through some of the vital
organs, such as the brain, the upper part of the spinal cord, or through
some of the organs in the abdominal cavity, or their principal nerves.

(2) At the shoulders, This is probably somewhat less dangerous than

1888.] 129

the preceding, as the brain is not in the path of the direct discharge. The
vicinity of the upper part of the spinal cord is, however, very dangerous.

(3) At one of the hands. If the person is standing on both feet, this
may be fatal, since the organs of the abdominal cavity and its nerve cen-
tres are in the path of the discharge. If the person is standing on one
foot, then if this foot be on the same side of the body as the hand that is
touched, the discharge will probably not be fatal, since the discharge does
not necessarily pass through the organs of the abdominal cavity. If,
however, the foot on which the person is standing be on the other side of
the body from the hand that touches the wire, that is if the person be
standing on the right foot and touches the wire with his left hand, the
discharge, if powerful, is apt to be fatal, since the organs of the abdominal
cavity and its nerves are necessarily in the path of the discharge.

(4) On the back, especially in the upper portion. This is apt to be fatal,
since the spinal cord is dangerously near the path of the discharge. The
muscles of the back are also very large and would thus determine the
passage of much of the current in this direction.

(5) Discharges ensuing on touching the wires with each hand are apt
to be fatal, since the heart lies in the path of the current.

Those exposed to electric discharges would be protected from the effects
of accidental grounding of the conductors, by wearing plates or discs of
any high insulating material on the soles of the shoes, or inside the same.

Death by lightning probably results from the effects of shock, combined
with those of electrolysis. In discharges of such enormous difference of
potential as exist in lightning, disruptive effects may also be produced.

The almost instantaneous and consequently painless nature of death by
the electric shock has, as is well known, led to the suggestion that it
be employed in public executions in place of hanging or decapitation.
Should such suggestion be adopted, the character of the apparatus em-
ployed should be such as to cause death by shock, followed, to avoid the
possibility of resuscitation, in case of apparent death, by the passage of an
electrolyzing current.

On the Paillard Palladium Alloys in Watches.

I have concluded my experiments on the Paillard watches. The fol-
lowing results were reached ; viz.,

I am satisfied that a watch whose balance-wheel, hair spring, and es-
capement are made of the Paillard palladium alloys can not have its rate
sensibly affected by the influence of any magnetic field into which it is
possible to bring it while on the person of its wearer.

In order to test this, such watches were carried into exceedingly power-
ful magnetic fields, and although carefully rated, both before and after
exposure, no sensible change in their rate could be detected.

Experiments showed that the palladium alloys are entirely destitute of
any paramagnetic properties. As far as the amount of the alloys at my

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 800. xxv. 127. Q. PRINTED MAy 10, 1888.

130 [April 6,

disposal permitted, experiments failed to show that they possessed any
diamagnetic properties.

A number of these alloys are made by Mr. Paillard. The composition
of four described by him in his U. S. patents, and numbered for conve-
nience Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, is as follows, viz:

Palladium Alloy No. 1.

PaWsQuiin een. cays tase Wessels bob 9/0 s,¥n 64m, 00. LO.40,, DALIS,
CODDER c.0 01 bid tees 56s 66 sislecs wig «a the” bcos 0 4 10.10 205 0
ATOM ge cbt ose sss noe Ra he ic Oe
Palladium Alloy No. 2.
PRAUTUM Oieeee ces ee cect Cees veeeees DOO 70) parts
COPPE! PAN Clee GeV ieee er. 20'to 802 **
Tron Pe: SUCL ODDO Canon uct Teveserurest DO OlOU tty
Palladium Alloy No. 3.
PSUS UU vese:s'scln os HN owt cthinis wen ¢i¢ee 05.0 ().parta,
CODD GIs ais views. ais os os Geese vhlante « sanedOst0:20 -y 6!
INICK GL) coo Acneiice cilia Vig sd das os ae seaieds tO Die 0
GONG jeiacdiaary dieie'sieteeted 6 crys iotais:s Sse NG arent wa hs tO Bde
PACU UN ds steipis t's: 3'e «0 eters Fenn eaiie li, owible Ah tOr ce
SUID assis tise «005s VAIS hin deine Tuas Hi Sa lee sew 1010).
Dieeliss cy ajeieiti ss pA bisa ic avers w hid iain Xs 110,20).
Palladium Alloy No. 4.
BUSOU Gs urs veeaie agin doe Gis os aoe seeeee-.40 to 50 parts.
BUVGLi cy evista e suse teen ts Hur pe oe see0 tO 20) 2 <*
COpnel ss. Me eh ssh ceCl peak becuse sees cesses 10. U0 60
Golds... paesseiaccss te oiN cess crs tee tiers a U0 O°
IGUMMNUMIC sete stue tree cles Tile cet ea ee BO Oro
Nickels... eu Oo

Steel... .

co
o
Ss
°
ct

The complete masking of the paramagnetic properties of some of the
ingredients of these alloys is of considerable interest, and would seem to
indicate a true chemical union of their constituents. The most interesting
results of my experiments, however, were those in which it was estab-
lished that no matter of what materials the balance wheel or hair spring
may be made, provided they are conductors of electricity, their move-
ments through a magnetic field, when the moving masses properly cut
the lines of force, must result in a change in their rate of movement, and
consequently in a change in the rate of the watch ; or, briefly, it was es-
tablished that @ watch placed in a magnetic field acts like a dynamo-elec-
tric machine.

The amount of this action is exceedingly small. In order to detect it,
a very powerful magnetic field must be employed, and the watch sub-
jected to its influence for an hour or more,

1888. ] 131

In order to obtain this field, and to properly concentrate it on the rim of
the balance wheel (thus placing said rim in a position analogous to the
copper disc in the well-known experiment between the poles of an electro-
magnet), I mounted massive conical pole pieces, of soft iron, inside the pole
pieces of the armature field of an Excelsior arc-light machine, whose arm-
ature had been removed. The space left between the opposing ends of
these pole pieces was just sufficient to permit the introduction of the
watch.

The watch was then securely fixed in place, with its face upwards, so
that the lines of magnetic force, concentrated on that part of the edge of
the balance wheel nearest the edge of the watch, passed through it at
right angles to the plane of its movements. After an exposure of one
hour to the influence of this extraordinary field, the watch was found to
have gained fifteen seconds.

I believe that the cause of the gain is to be ascribed to a decrease in the
are of oscillation of the balance wheel, which would thus result in an in-
crease in the rapidity of its movements.

The fact that the watch, after its removal from this powerful field, did
not manifest any sensible change in its rate, shows the extent of the pro-
tection the palladium alloys give it against the effects of external mag-
netism.

The Committee on Volapiik reported that it had considered
the communications from Prof. P. Steiner, of Darmstadt, in
reference to the claims of Pasi/engua for adoption as a univer-
sal language, and those of Prof. G. Bauer, of Agram, in refer-
ence to his improved Volapiik, entitled Speling, and offered
the following resolution for the consideration of the Society.

The Society having considered the communications from Dy. Steiner in
reference to Pusilengua, and Dr. Bauer in reference to Speling, in view of
its resolution of January 6, 1888, proposing a Congress to consider the
project of an International Scientific Language, while recognizing the full
value of Dr. Steiner’s labors and the changes made by Dr. Bauer, must
decline to commit itself in advance of any action by such Congress to any
individual scheme, however meritorious.

The resolution was, on motion of Mr. Vaux, unanimously
adopted.
Pending nominations Nos. 1176 and 1177 and new nomina-

tion No. 1178 were read.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Law.] 132 [April 6,
Observations on Gildas and the Uncertainties of Early English History.
By Philip H. Law.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 6, 1888.)

Historians and antiquarians have been inclined to base their statements
too much on guesses. Pyramids of very doubtful conjecture have been
erected on a foundation of a very few facts: and those facts very uncer-
tain. The pregnant aphorism of Dr. Johnson that history written from
facts not recorded at or near the time of their happening is a mere work
of the imagination, should be constantly present to their minds. But,
alas, it is generally ignored, for if it were applied it would reduce the vast
volumes of archeological learning to a very small compass.

Any one reading the early history of England in the popular historians
and of its conquest by the so-called Anglo-Saxons, but who called them-
selves the Ainglisk, would believe that our knowledge of the events of its
conquest were certain ; at least, as certain as the events of the reign of
Edward I.

But if we examine the sources of information we will find them to be
profoundly unreliable. That a conquest did occur, a severe and drastic
one, cannot be doubted or denied. The great change of language estab-
lishes this ; absolutely proving the obliteration or enslavement of the
native population. The latter was, according to the probabilities, the case.

The captive of a rude and warlike people is too useful to be slain ex-
cept in the heat of battle. The barbarian hates persistent work ; his labor
is war; his enjoyments are the chase and the wassail bowl; and land,
without slaves to work it, is for him but of little use.

The historians of the Anglo-Saxon Conquest draw their facts from the
monk Gildas. And to these the writers of the picturesque school, such
as the late Mr. Green, add facts drawn from their imagination ; for exam-
ple, Mr. Green in his special history of the period describes, as if he was
an eye-witness what is a matter of pure conjecture, giving a most vivid
account of the sack of Anderida, the line of march taken by the different
Saxon bands, how they fought, and what they did.

But as to these we have but one authority who has even pretensions to
be a contemporary—Gildas, the British monk. A few casual but not con-
nected remarks occur in Continental writers. Britain in the days of the
Roman Empire was a very obécure and very unimportant dependency. It
‘was not more important to the Roman Empire then than New Zealand is
now to the present English Empire. Naturally, therefore, very little im-
portance was attached to what happened there ; indeed, the whole Latin
literature of the time, except in theology, is scanty. The Anglo-Saxons
were completely barbarous and without letters. No record was kept by
them of their conquest. Gildas, therefore, is our only authority, and if
his authenticity is disproved, complete darkness will cover the subject of

1888. ] 135

[Law.

the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, except such inductions as we may form from
change of language.

I will, therefore, examine the claims of Gildas. He is reputed to have
heen a Welsh monk who wrote about 520 A.D.; and his youth would have
been nearly contemporaneous with the Saxon invasions. The book is in
Latin and bears the title of ‘“‘De Excidio Britannize ;’ and covers about
fifty or sixty pages of a small duodecimo volume. It is composed of two
parts, distinct in their nature; the first containing the history of. the in-
vasions; the second, a long, rambling account of remarkable events
which occur in the Biblical narrative. The style is most singular. It is
not a mere dry narrative of events like most of the so-called Chronicles,
interspersed with naive and quaint remarks; but it has a distinct lyrical
tone and manner, with a kind of rhythmical flow of the sentences ; indeed,
it reads like a prose chant. It commences with a description of the
wickedness of the Britons, ascribing to them all manner of sins. After
the departure of the Roman armies they fall into divisions and civil
wars. The Picts attack them, and upon their doleful complaints to the
Romans, the Romans return, drive out after many battles the Picts, and
to secure them from further attacks, build the great wall. Upon their
departure the Picts recommence their attacks. The Britons send again
for the Romans, who, after conquering the Picts, build another and larger
wall from sea to sea, protected by large castles erected upon it. But this
does not prevent the Picts from entering and commencing fresh attacks,
harrying and destroying the whole country. The Romans returning to
their frantic appeals a deaf answer, Vortigern, one of their kings, calls in
the Saxons, and here occurs the well-known tale of Vortigern and Ro-
wena. The Saxons, from being merely auxiliaries, quickly take advantage
of the weakness of their allies and proceed to subjugate them ; and, being
joined by numbers of their kinsfolk from across the sea, gradually conquer
the whole of Britain.

This is the account found in almost all the English histories as the reli-
able account of the Saxon Conquest. Historians desirous of forming a
connected account, naturally do not like to acknowledge ignorance of the
most important event and revolution in the annals of the country ; no less
than a complete change in its language and probably a partial change in
the blood of the people, certainly of that of the ruling class.

But to archeologists who require proof, Gildas has always appeared
a most unhistorical writer and of no authenticity. Several facts which
lie patent in his book have always struck them as entirely inconsistent
with a contemporary author such as he claims to be ; and first, his pecu-
liar style, which is utterly unlike what a contemporary historian would
use, It appears much more like a poem turned into prose than a dry
narrative of facts. And second, from his notorious errors in history, in
which he narrates as contemporaneous, events which had occurred long
before ; for instance, his describing the civil wars of Maxentius and Con-
stantine as occurring about that time when they occurred nearly a cen-

Law.] 134 [April 6,

tury before. And, above all, from his describing as then being built, the
two great northern walls of defense, while we know that one of them had
been built by Hadrian nearly three hundred years, and that the other, the
wall of Severus, nearly two hundred years. These facts, in my opinion,
are crucial tests. It is possible, perhaps, for a contemporary to be mis-
taken as to the civil wars, but how could it be possible to make such a
mistake about a fact which was so patent as the building of those great
walls?

As well could a person who pretended to live in A. D. 1888 in Phila-
delphia, assert that the great city hall was erected by William Penn.

Such a statement would stamp at once its author, whatever his preten-
sions might be, as not a contemporary.

Besides this many of the facts which we know from the Roman rec-
ords and from the remains of the burials and other records, are incon-
sistent with the common story of the Saxon Conquest.

From the Notitia Imperii, which was a survey of the Roman Empire
taken in the end of the fourth century, we learn that the whole of the
east coast was already called the Litus Saxonicum, the Saxon Shore ; and
was governed by a special Count, thus probably indicating that a large
population of that race was already there settled.

From the remains disinterred from the tombs it appears that the Saxons
and Britons were frequently buried side by side, each corpse in the re-
spective national manner.

Another remarkable fact also appears from the inspection of these
tombs, that scarcely any appearance of Christian burial has been found.
From this it would seem that most of the British population still remained
Pagan ; a fact which will perhaps explain why the Saxons did not, like
the Franks, the Goths, the Allemanni, adopt Christianity.

The information furnished by the Welsh chroniclers seems always to
have been particularly unreliable. They are full of inventions which are
plainly the work of their own fancies. In Nennius, who is a Welsh
writer on the history of Britain, and who cannot be later than the com-
mencement of the tenth century at the farthest, the legend of King Brute
and his Trojans already begins. This was finally developed in Geoffrey
of Monmouth, a Welsh Bishop about 1150 A. D., who starting from King
Brute develops a long line of Kings until the time of Julius Cesar. He gives
their names, the incidents of their reigns, their personal peculiarities and
their speeches, with a detail and a certainty almost amazing. Frequently
these contradict the well-known facts related in the Roman historians.
The Roman history, though well known.at the time from the manuals like
Orosius and others which were extensively copied and read in the middle
ages, does not seem to inspire him with any doubt. It has always struck
me as a most singular historical problem why such fables and inventions
could have been so readily accepted. They were given place in almost all
the histories of England which were written until the time of the Renais-
sance, and were apparently accepted as completely credible, and indeed
almost to the commencement of the seventeenth century.

1888. ] 135 [ Meyer.

Also they scarcely seem to have been the result of conscious invention.
Geoffrey of Monmouth was apparently a man of good character and a
Bishop of the church. His position, therefore, seems to render it improb-
able that he committed a complete literary forgery like that of George
Psalmanazzar ; and if he did not, what was the origin of these tales?

I conjecture, although I have very little proof to offer, that it may have
originated something in this way. The Welsh chieftains were all fond
of poetry, and kept in their service bards to sing their praises and that
of their ancestors. Long genealogies were spun out connecting them
with the great of the olden time. The license of song and verse would
naturally increase the facility of invention.

This poetry would gradually in an uncritical age become considered
véritable history, and finally, clipped of its ornaments, be turned into
sober prose, and make its appearance as authentic history. An enormous
mass of Welsh poetry is, I believe, in existence, mostly unprinted, and
it would be very interesting and instructive if some scholar learned in
Welsh, and with access to the manuscripts, would examine if the legend-
ary history of Britain did not originate in this manner.

The same causes would explain the legendary history of Scotland, the
darkness of which is incomparably greater than that of England. Indeed,
it seems to me that with the exceptions of the glimpses afforded by the
occasional notices of English chroniclers, nothing definite is known until
about the time of Edward I of England.

A long series of kings is given with the events of their reigns, yet no
explanation is given of the change from a Celtic-speaking people to an
English-speaking people, apparently about the year 1000 A. D. The low-
lands of Scotland were a people who used Gaelic and were governed by
kings with characteristic Celtic names of Macbeth, MacDuff, Duncan,
Malcolm, and with institutions of the regular clan or tribal nature. But
when the light of history becomes bright and clear, they speak a dialect
of English, their institutions are of the feudal rather than the clan type—
their kings and nobles have names either Teutonic or Norman in the ety-
mology ; and yet of this great revolution there is not a word in history.

On Miocene Invertebrates from Virginia (With Plate).
By Otto Meyer, Ph.D.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 16, 1888.)

Prof. J. J. Stevenson, of the University of New York, has collected a
quantity of Miocene material near Yorktown, Va. In his collection there
are quite a number of specimens of large species in fine preservation,
like Mercenaria tridacnoides Lam. sp., Panopea reflexa Say, Ecphora

Meyer. ] 136 (March 16,

quadricostata Say sp., and others. He transmitted to me recently for
examination some little shells and some sand adhering to some of these
large shells, in which material the species enumerated below were found.
Partly they are already known to occur in Yorktown, for their greater
number, however, they are described from other localities of the Atlantic
Miocene. <A few forms are new or new to the American Tertiary.

Some of the determinations were made from the published descriptions
and figures, but in many cases these are insuflicient for a determination,
especially as far as the smaller species are concerned. Therefore, fre-
quently the type-specimens in the collection of the Academy of Natural
Sciences were compared and especially the forms described by H. C. Lea,
from Petersburg, Va.,* had to be studied. My thanks are due to the
Curator in charge of the Academy, Prof. A. Heilprin, who enabled me
to study a great number of fossil types. Besides, I am obliged to the
Curator of Molluscs of the Academy, Mr. Geo. W. Tryon, Jr., who gave
me the opportunity to compare recent material. +

It is here not attempted to give the ultimate names of all the enume-
rated species, for this would presuppose a nearly complete working up of
the Atlantic Miocene paleontology, including a comparison with recent,
Eocene and European forms. But the opportunity is used at least in some
cases to unite species, which, in my opinion, are synonyms. The fol-
lowing list of smaller species from Yorktown, Va., will probably be in-
creased considerably in future, as the quantity of examined sand was only
a small one.

I. SPECIES KNOWN FROM THE ATLANTIC MIOCENE.

Lamellibranchiata.

Ostrea sp. (juv.)
Anomia Ruffini Conr.
Plicatula marginata Say.
Lima papyria Conr.
Pecten eboreus Conr. :
Arca centenaria Say. :
Arca carolinensis Conr.
Pectunculus lentiformis Conr.
Pectunculus subovatus Say.
Nucula diaphana H. C. Lea.
Leda acuta Conr.
(= Leda carinata H. C. Lea.)
Yoldia levis Say sp.
Carditamera arata Conr.

* Transact. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. ix, pp. 229-274.

+ Since the above was written, Science has lost a valuable worker in Mr. G. W. Tryon,
Jr., whose death occurred on Feb. § 88.

1888.] 137 [Meyer

Venericardia granulata Say.
Venericardia tridentata Conr.
Astarte vicina Say.
Astarte undulata Say.
Crassatella undulata Say.
Gouldia lunulata Conr.
Chama congregata Conr.
Kellia levis H. C. Lea sp.
Erycinella ovalis Conr.
Lepton mactroides Conr.
Diplodonta acclinis Conr.
| Lucina crenulata Conr.
(= Lucina Leana d’Orb.)
(= Lucina lens H. C. Lea.)
Venus cortinaria Rogers.
Circe metastria Conr.
Tellina lusoria Say.
Tellina producta Conr.
Semele subovata Say sp.
Saxicava arctica Linné, var. bicristata Conr.*
Mactra modicella Conr.
Corbula cuneata Say.
(= Corbula ineequalis Say.)

Glossophora.

Dentalium attenuatum Say.
| Cadulus thallus Conr. sp.
| Chiton transenna H. C. Lea.
Fissurella catilliformis Rogers.
: Adeorbis concava H. C. Lea sp.
hi (= Delphinula lipara H. C. Lea.)
i" Teinostoma subconica H. C, Lea sp.
: Delphinula costulata H. C. Lea.
Trochus torquatus H. C. Lea. :
(= Trochus Ruffini H. C. Lea.) é
Trochus lens H. C. Lea.
(= Delphinula trochiformis H. C. Lea.)
Natica spherulus H. C. Lea var.
Crucibulum grande Say.
(= Infundibulum concentricum H. C. Lea.)
Crepidula fornicata Lam.t+

# See Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1884, p. 108.

q + Most of the species of Crepidula, described from the Atlantic Miocene, if not all of
> them, are apparently synonyms of this form. It is very variable and specimens of dif-
ferent age, shape and ornamentation have received specific names.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, xxv. 127. R. PRINTED MAY 10, 1888.

Meyer.] 138 [March 16,

Turritella terstriata Rogers.
Turritella quadristriata Rogers.
Turbonilla exarata H.C. Lea sp.
Turbonilla daedalea H. C. Lea sp.
Turbonilla eburnea H. C. Lea sp.
Turbonilla subula H. C. Lea sp.
Odostomia granulata H. C. Lea sp.
Eulima eborea Conr.

(= Pasithea levigata H. C. Lea.)
Cerithiopsis clavyulus H. C. Lea sp.*

(= Cerithium annulatum Emmons.)
Oliva ancillarixformis H. CO. Lea.
Tornatina Wetherilli J. Lea sp.

(= Tornatina cylindrica Emmons.)
Bulla subspissa Conr.

Balanus concavus Bronn.

A tergum of a Lepadide, apparently of Scalpellum magnum Wood, Dar-
win, unfortunately was lost, together with a very minute specimen of an
Ostracod, Cythere sp. No species of an Ostracod has been “found hereto-
fore in the Atlantic Miocene. Scalpellum magnum,t however, has been
found at Petersburg, Va., but misinterpreted. The carina has been
described by H. C. Lea as Patella acinaces,} and the scutum as Avicula
multangula,§ and these species appear in the Miocene lists of Conrad ||
and Meek.{ Prof. A. Heilprin, in his list of Tertiary fossils from Virginia,
also enumerates Patella acinaces,** while Avicula multangula is put
among those species of H. OC. Lea which are ‘‘based upon young shells,
or upon such as barely admit of characterization. ++

As my opinion about these fossils differs so essentially from that of a
number of authors, I consider it necessary to give the figures of the type-
specimens in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Phila-
delphia (Fig. 11, 11a, 12, 12a), so that others may be able to form their

own judgment. The original figures of H. ©. Lea are not sufficient for
‘this purpose.

* One of my specimens has three embryonic whorls preserved. They are smooth and
this apparently shows that the species is not identical with the Eocene Cerithiopsis con-
stricta H.C. Lea sp., although adult specimens without nucleus look alike. See Be-
richte d. Senckenberg. Naturf. Gesellsch., Frankfurt a. M., 1887, p. 8, Pl. 2, fig. 28; and
see Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1884, p. 105.

+ Darwin, fossil Lepadide, p. 18, Pl. 1, fig. 1.

t Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. ix, p. 247, Pl. 35, fig. 36.

§ Ibid., p. 245, Pl. 35, fig. 81.

|| Proce. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1862, p. 570, p. 579.

{ Smithson. Miscell. Collect., 183, Noy. 1864, p. 14; p. 6.

** Contrib. to the Tertiary Geol. and Palzont. of the U. 8., p. 57.
tt Ibid., p. 48.

arene

1888. ] 139 [Meyer.

II. Sprcirs New To THE AMERICAN TERTIARY.

Caecum stevensonin. sp. Figure 4.

Relatively large; regularly and well curved. Shell thick. Surface
closely covered by strong longitudinal coste, which are usually alterna-
ting. Septum mucronate.

If the shell is kept horizontal, its convexity towards the observer, the
mucronation of the septum appears on the left side. Its size and position
is variable, sometimes it is nearly marginal, sometimes subcentral. The
cost are usually broader than the interstices between them and alterna-
ting, but in some specimens they are nearly equal. The younger part of
two specimens shows indications of rings, producing a very slight can-
cellation. There is a contraction at the aperture, but it is confined to the
margin of the aperture and nearly imperceptible. Besides the regular
form there occur smuller specimens of equal ornamentation, but different
shape. They have a less cylindrical tube, the increase in width towards
the aperture being much larger. The same small and tapering form occurs
with the following species. Wood observed the same form occurring with
the Crag species of Ceecum. He considered them at first as distinct spe-
cies, and then described them as varieties (see Crag Mollusca, Vol. i, p.
116, Pl. 20, fig. 40). I think they are the adolescent state of the species.

I have not become aware of a form of the European Tertiary, with
which to compare C. stevensoni, and no costated Cecum is known from
the American Tertiary. Specimens of the recent Ceecum cooperi Smith
were compared and proved to be somewhat similar, but specifically differ-
ent. They have fewer and thinner ribs, are distinctly cancellate and have
a different shape. CO. stevensoni is quite common in Yorktown.

Cacum virginianum n. sp. Fig. 3.

Relatively large ; regularly but slightly curved. Shell thick. Septum
prominent, angular. Surface smooth, with concentric strie of growth.

The mucronation of the septum is situated and is variable, like in the
preceding species. Specimens of the adolescent state have a more taper-
ing form, as in the preceding species.

A similar European fossil is apparently Cecum mammillatum Wood,*
from the Crag ; which, however, is more curved and has a less angular and
more mammillated septum. About the differences with other smooth spe-
cies of the American Tertiary see below. Similar recent species are appa-
rently Caecum chinense de Folin + and Caecum leeve Adams.{ I have not
been able to compare specimens of these two species. C. chinense, accord-
ing to De Folin’s figure, seems to be more slender and more tapering and
the septum seems to be different. C. lieve is described as shining and is
apparently a shorter species.

* Wood, Crag Mollusca, Vol. i, p. 116, Pl. 20, fig. 4.

+ De Folin, Fonds de la mer, Vol. i, p. 80, Pl. 9, fig 3-4.

t See Tryon’s Manual of Conchology, Vol. viii, p. 215, Pl. 66, fig. 52.

Meyer. ] 140 ‘ [March 16,

Caecum glabrum Montague var. Fig. 5,

Dentalium glabrum Mont., Testacea Britannica, p. 497.

Small ; regularly curved ; cylindrical surface smooth, shining. Septum
not prominent, convex, very slightly mucronate.

Those specimens of the recent C. glabrum which I was able to compare
had a septum as regularly curved as a watch glass and without any mucro-
nation. The septum of the Yorktown specimens, however, though at
first sight also regularly convex, shows at a closer examination in nearly
all cases a slight mucronation, and for this reason I consider it necessary
to call the Yorktown specimens a variety. The Crag species which Wood
described as C. glabrum* resembles perhaps more to this Miocene form
than to the recent one. C. glabrum is not rare in Yorktown.

The following is a brief review of the species of Caecum known as yet
from the American Tertiary :

Hocene.—1. Cecum solitarium Mr.,} Vicksburg, Miss., of middle size,
regular curvation, smooth surface and contracted at the aperture. 2. Cx-
cum alterum Mr.,{ Jackson, Miss., similar to the preceding, but slightly
annulated.

Miocene.—3. Cxecum annulatum Emmons,$ North Carolina. <A speci-
men is in the collection of the Academy. It is very strongly annulated.
4, Ceecum stevensoni Mr., Yorktown, Va., coarsely costated. 5. Caecum
virginianum Mr., Yorktown, Va., smooth, large, thick, rather straight,
septum prominent and angular. 6. Caecum glabrum Mont. var., York-
town, Va., smooth, small, thin, curved with flattened septum.

Pyramis promilium n. sp. Fig. 1.

Small, subulate. The dextral nucleus is followed by five adult whorls.
They are somewhat convex, ornamented by revolving punctuate strie,
about four on each whorl. Base rounded, covered by similar strie.
Mouth oval. Inner lip with a small receding fold. Outer lip thin.

The figured specimen is not entirely adult and though not specifically
different differs somewhat from the rest. It is less slender and the only
one in which the punctuate nature of the revolving stris can be distinctly
recognized. ‘he fold on the columella is hardly perceptible when the
mouth is perfect, as in the type-specimen, but is more conspicuous in
broken specimens.

While in the Yorktown material most of the small species described by
H. C. Lea from Petersburg, Va., were found, Acteon milium H. C. Lea
was not detected. But, as it’were in place of it, above similar species
occurs. At first sight Actseon milium seems to be very different, because
it has a stout form and a stronger fold. The amount of slenderness, how-

* Crag Moll., Vol. i, p. 117, Pl. 20, fig. 6.

} Bull. i, Geol. Survey Ala.,p. 68, Pl. 8, fig. 9.
t Ber. d. Senckenberg. Naturf. Gesellsch., 1887, p, 6, Pl. 1, fig. 8,
2 Emmons, Geology of North Carolina, p. 274, fig. 190,

"
fl

1888.] 141 [Meyer.

ever, seems to be not quite constant, and the species are apparently allied.
The only similar recent shell seems to be Pyramis striatula Couthouy *
(=? Menestho albula Fabr.), which form, however, is much larger and
without visible fold, apart of other differences.

Turbonilla paucistriata? Jeffreys. Fig. 2.

? Odostomia paucistriata Jeffreys ; Proc. Zodl. Soc., London, 1884, p.
361) Pl 2%) fe. 6H
The sinistral nucleus, which is twisted outwards, is followed by five

‘adult whorls. They are flattened and covered by broad, flat, straight ribs,

about fifteen on the last whorl. Suture impressed. Base rounded, smooth.
Mouth pear-shaped. Outer lip thin.
The interstices between the ribs are mere furrows.’ On the younger

“whorls these furrows are not equal and not regularly arranged. Only two
‘specimens were found, and they are, probably, not quite adult. The fig-

ured one has a volution less than the other, but a perfect mouth.

Turbonilla exarata H. C. Lea sp., of the same locality, is less slender,
its whorls are more convex and the ribs are strong and obliquely set.
Turbonilla subula H. C. Lea sp., of the same locality, is considerably
stouter, has convex whorls and strong ribs. Turbonilla eburnea H. C.
Lea sp., of the same locality, has sharply cut revolving strie between the
ribs. The form agrees with the description and figure of T. paucistriata
Jeff., but I have not been able to compare specimens of this recent species
and therefore am not entirely certain about this determination.

Astarte orbicularior n. sp. Fig. 6.

Shell, thick, flat. Suborbicular, umboneal margins more or less straight-
ened, ventral margin rounded. Beak very small, medial. Lunule flat,
lanceolate. Hinge broad, cardinal teeth strong. Muscular impressions
suboval, about equal, anterior one with separate auxiliar. Margin entire.
Surface smooth or with a few concentric undulations.

The species is flatter and more orbicular, than any one that has been
described from the Atlantic Miocene. It is variable in form and young
specimens are more convex, more trigonal, and the beak is turned more

* Boston Journ. Nat. Hist., ii, p. 101, Pl. 1, fig. 6, and Gould, Invert. Mass., p. 269, fig.
174.

+J.G. Jeffreys, On the Mullusca procured during the Lightning and Porcupine Expe-
dition. On page 364 the genus Mathilda is placed in the Pyramidellide. I considered
this position of Mathilda probable in the Berichte d. Senckenberg. Naturforsch.
Gesellsch., 1887, p. 6, without having been aware, at that time, that Jeffreys pronounced
the same idea in 1884.

On page 365, Pl. 27, fig. 10, Jeffrey’s describes the new genus Gegania. Iam not aware
of any generic difference of this genus and Tuba J. Lea, and the recent Gegania pinguis
Jeffreys, and the Eocene Tuba striata J. Lea (Contrib. to Geology, p. 128, Pl. 4, fig. 117)
seem to be rather allied species.

Meyer. ] 1 42 [March 16,

distinctly anteriorly. They approach in their form Astarte coheni Conr.*
and Astarte symmetrica Conr.{ and indicate that the species has been
derived from the usual trigonal form of Astarte. A similar recent shell,
judging from the figure, seemed to be Astarte quadrans Gould, but a
comparison of specimens proved that there is no resemblance.

Leda pygmea ? Muenster. Fig. 7, 7a.

?*Nucula pygmea Muenster, Goldfuss, Petref. German. Vol. ii, p. 157,
Pl. 126; fig. 17.

Small ; triangularly ovate ; subequilateral. Without distinct lunule or
corselet. Shell rather thick. Hinge broad, with about fourteen teeth
altogether. Pallial sinus small. Surface smooth.

Only the figured specimen was found and no opportunity has yet been
found to compare it with the German typical specimens. What Wood
describes as Leda pygmiea Muenst. from the Crag§$ has been separated by
Weinkauff || from the German species and identified with the recent Leda
tenuis Philippi.4/ It seems to have a thinner shell and more teeth than
the German Oligocene form. The Yorktown specimen has a solid shell
and relatively few teeth.

Modiolaria petagne Scacchi. Fig. 8.

Modiola Petagnee Scacchi, Philippi, Enum. moll. Sic. Vol. ii, p. 51;
Vol.4, P10, fig. al.

Oblong; ventricose; angular posteriorly. Anterior side contracted,
extending beyond the umbo. Anterior and posterior surface radiately
ribbed, the ribs decreasing in size towards the middle and not existing on
the middle. Whole surface moreover irregularly concentrically striated.
The radiating ribs crenulate the inner margin. Inside somewhat nacreous.

Both the concentric and radiating ribs are not regularly arranged, taking
their origin by bifurcation of other ribs. By the crossing of the ribs the
anterior and especially the posterior surface appear cancellate.

The shell agrees with the Crag form, which Wood described as Modiola
costulata Risso,** comparing it with the figure of Philippi in the Enume-
ratio molluscorum Sicilie, Vol. i, p. 70, Pl. 5, fig. 11, referred by Philippi
himself in Vol. ii, p. 51, to M. petagnee Sc. But Wood considered M.

* Conrad, Mioc. Fossils, p. 48, Pl. 21, fig. 5.

+ Ibid., p. 44, Pl. 21, fig. 7. I have seen specimens labeled with Conrad’s handwriting
“« Astarte coheni,’’? but with entire margin, while he describes this species with crenu-
lated margin, like A. symmetrica. Altogether I am not aware of any specific difference
between the two forms, even if the margins should.differ.

{ Gould, Invert. Mass., p. 81, fig. 48.

2 Crag Moll., Vol. ii, p. 95, Pl. 10, fig. 11.

| Weinkauff, Conchilien d. Mittelmeeres, Vol. i, p. 211.

q Phil., Enum. Moll. Sic., Vol. i, p. 65, Pl. 5, fig. 9.

#* Crag. Moll., p. 60, Pl. 8, fig. 6.

i
1
[

1888.] 148 [Meyer.

costulata and M. Petagne only as varieties of the same species. A com-
parison of specimens of the two recent forms, however, convinces me,
that they are different, and this is apparently the general opinion. The
Yorktown form agrees specifically with specimens of M. Petagne from
Greece, and agrees in every detail with specimens of M. Petagne from
the Canary islands. The recent M. lateralis Say, though generally stouter,
is similar and perhaps might be united with M. Petagne.

Modiola phaseolina Philippi. Fig. 9.

Philippi, Enumer. mollusc. Sic., Vol. ii, p. 51, Pl. 15, fig. 14.

Nacreous. Oblong-ovate. Ventral margin straight or subsinuated,
dorsal margin subangulated. The small cardinal area is finely striated
and the interior part of the dorsal margin is minutely crenulated within.
Surface with strise of growth.

Modiola ducatelli Conr.* from the Atlantic Miocene is 4 large, elongated
and flattened species of apparently very different form. The type and
only specimen has only the outside exposed so that interior characters can-
not be determined. More similar seems to be Modiola inflata Tuomey &
Holmes.+ But this species is founded on a single and incomplete impres-
sion and I am unable to determine its specific characters. The Yorktown
specimens agree with Philippi’s description and figure of M. phaseolina
from the Crag { and with recent specimens from the coast of England.

Semele ? virginiana n. sp. Fig. 10, 10a.

Only the figured right valve of this form has been found. As the shell
is solid, the adductors are well marked and the pallial line very strongly
impressed, I think the specimen is adult, or at least adult enough to show
its generic and specific characters. Its main peculiarity is the position of
the cardinal teeth, which are not below the beak. Altogether I do not
think that the shell can be properly placed into the genus Semele or any
other existing genus, but it may be named this way until more material is
found. It may be described in the following way.

Minute; compressed ; not gaping. Subcuneiform, posterior side short,
beak being rather terminal. Anterior margin regularly rounded, poste-
rior margin truncate. Anterior muscular impression orbicular, sinuated
anteriorly ; posterior muscular impression elongated, sinuated posteriorly.
Pallial sinus deep. Below the small beak there is a subquadrangular car-
tilage pit, anterior to which there is vertical and rather strong cardinal
tooth. A second cardinal tooth adjoins it, which is obsolete, oblique and
formed by a slight increase of the continuation of the anterior lateral
tooth. Lateral teeth strong ; the anterior one is long, the posterior one of

* Conrad, Mioc. Foss., p. 58, Pl. 28, fig. 2.
+ Pliocene Foss. South Carolina, p. 88, Pl. 14, fig. 3.
} Crag Moll., p. 59, Pl. 8, fig. 4.

Houston. ] d 44 [April 20,
about half its length. Surface regularly, closely and strongly concentri-
cally ribbed, the ribs disappearing near the umbo. Lunule small; in-
distinct.

Miliolina seminulum Linné sp.

One specimen has been found only and has been determined as above
by Mr. A. Woodward, in New York. Though no foraminifera is men-
tioned in Meek’s Miocene Check List (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions, 1864), J. Lea has described a species from the Miocene of Maryland
as Miliola marylandica,* and it is very probable that this name is a syno-
nym of above.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. Pyramis promilium n. sp. .......... Yorktown, Va.

«* 2. Turbonilla paucistriata ? Jeffreys..... ui S
«« 3. Cecum Virginianum n. sp....... weds a .
“<4, Caecum stevensoni n: sp.is.65..0. 06. es ef

“ “

‘¢ 5, Cecum glabrum Montague var......
j

‘¢ 6. Astarte orbicularior n. Sp....s.seeee-

«4, Ya. Leda pygmeea ? Muenster........ - ‘
<¢ 8. Modiolaria petagnee Scacchi......... - &
“« 9. Modiola phaseolina Philippi. ........ © .

“ 10, 10a. Semele ? virginiana n. sp........

“11, 11a. Carina of Scalpellum magnum. .Petersburg, Va.
(type of Patella acinaces H. C. Lea.)

“12, 12a. Scutum of Scalpellum magnum. . a hy
(type of Avicula multangula H. C. Lea.)

On some Possible Methods for the Preparation of Gramophone and Telephone
records. By Prof. Hdwin J. Houston.

(Read before the American Philosophical Socéety, April 20, 1888.)

Phonograph records, of the type employed by Mr. Berliner in his gram-
ophone, 4. ¢., those obtained by causing the point or stylus attached to the
vibrating diaphragm to move parallel to the recording-surface instead of
perpendicular thereto, can be prepared more readily, and by a greater
variety of methods, than is possible with record-surfaces of the old forms.

In a study of the later forms of phonographic apparatus, several methods
of preparing gramophone plates have suggested themselves to the author,
which he hopes soon to be able to put to the test of actual trial. These
methods, though particularly applicable to records horizontally traced,

* Contrib. to Geology, p. 215, Pl. 6, fig. 227.

1888.] 145 [ Houston.

may, in certain cases, By. slight modifications, be applied also to those ver-
tically traced.

In order to place some of these methods on record, a brief description *
will be given of a few of the most promising. At the same time, the
author admits that serious difficulties may lie in the way of practically
carrying out some of the methods proposed.

Mr. Berliner, as is well known, prepares his record-surfaces by moving
the tracing point over the surface of a plate of inked glass or metal, cov-
ered with a uniform deposit of lamp-black. The record thus obtained is
either mechanically copied on a metal surface, or is reproduced thereon by
the process of photo-engraving, or etching. I would suggest the follow-
ing methods, viz.:

(1.) After the record on smoked glass is obtained in the usual manner,
expose the plate to the action of a regulated sand-blast so as to obtain cut-
tings or groovings on the surface of the plate, suitable for the movements
of the reproducing diaphragm. Roughness in the edges of the lines so
obtained would probably cause screaming sounds in the words reproduced,
which might be removed by a few applications of an emery- cover ed trac-
ing point.

Should the action of the sand-blast remove the coating of lamp-black
and ink on the covered portions of the plate, these portions might be ren-
dered more adherent by the freer use of a more viscous ink, and the depo-
Sition of finer spiculee of carbon.

(2.) The phonogram record-surface is composed of a smooth surface of
hardened wax, on a composition of wax and resin which is locally heated
so as to slightly agree the surface directly under the tracing point or
stylus.

In order to ensure the rapid cooling and hardening of the surface, im-
mediately after the impression has been impressed thereon, the heating
must be local and not general. To more thoroughly ensure local cool-
ing, a light blast of cool air might be directed on the surface almost im-
mediately after the tracing has been made. To prevent the air so applied
from cooling the surface that is being warmed in order to receive the
record, a suitably arranged diaphragm may separate adjacent cooled and
heated portions.

(8.) Instead of heating the record-surface itself, a local source of heat
may be used to heat the tracing point or stylus. This heat may be either
ordinary heat, or that of electrical origin. When the stylus, instead of the
record-surface, is heated, the latter may be made of much harder material.

Any tendency of the record-surface to run and thus mar the correctness
of the recorded sounds, may be checked by the use of a properly directed
blast of cold air as already suggested under (2).

It is evident that the use of cold air, or its equivalent, is much more
Suitable in this case than where the record-surface itself is heated.

Any tendency of the surface or tracing-point to clog may be remedied
by suitably shaping the cutting-surface of the point, or the composition of

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv. 127. 8. PRINTED MAy 15, 1888.

Houston. ] 146 [April 20,

the record-surface, or the degree of temperature employed for the
softening.

(4.) The record-surface consists of a glass plate covered with a thin
layer of wax. Either the record-surface itself, or the marking stylus, is
locally heated as before, only the layer of wax is so thin as to leave the
glass exposed after the passage of the tracing-point. The cooling blast of
air, and the separating diaphragm described in (3) are applicable to this
process.

A permanent record is then etched in the surface of the plate so pre-
pared either by the sand-blast process, or, preferably, by the action of
hydro-fluoric acid.

Before the application of either the sand-blast or the acid, care should
be taken to see that the lines traced are free from wax.

(5.) Instead of employing the records on the lamp-blackened glass sur-
face as a photographic negative for the purpose of reproducing them by
photo-engraving or etching, they may be used for transferring the record
to a glass surface covered with a film of sensitized gelatine. The por-
tions of the, glass that are left uncovered after the plate is fixed are then
deeply cut or etched by treatment with either gaseous or diluted liquid
hydro-fluoric acid.

I have treated a gelatine-covered glass plate printed from a photo-
graph by means of this process, and find that it produces a very fair and
permanent picture on the glass.

It is evident that this process will leave the design either in relief or
intaglio according as a photographic negative or positive is used.

(6.) The recording diaphragm, in its movements to and fro, is caused to
deposit, on the surface of the record-plate, a uniformly thick line or layer
of some rapidly hardening substance. This substance is contained in a
vessel provided with a pointed outlet tube, and attached to the diaphragm,
The material either runs out by its weight and is deposited on the record-
surface, or is forced out by the movements of the diaphragm itself.

The substance may be rendered fluid while in the containing vessel by
the action of heat, hardening on cooling, which latter may be hastened by
a suitably directed blast of cooled air.

A record, thus prepared, would consist of a uniformly thick, sinuous
ridge of the hardened material. The reproducing stylus, or that giving
motion to the diaphragm that reproduces the speech, could, it is evident,
be operated either from the upper or the lower surfaces of the sinuous
ridge independently, or from both simultaneously.

(7.) If the movements of the receiving diaphragm of a telephone be
sufficiently amplified or intensified to permit it to trace or cut a sinuous
record on a suitably prepared record-surfuce by any of the methods pro-
posed in this article, or by any other method, then there would be pro-
duced a simple, yet effective method for obtaining not only a permanent
record of a telephonic dispatch, but as well a means of reproducing it as
often as might be desired.

1888. ] A! 47 { Houston.

Success could hardly be looked for by means of any device that left the
record on the record-surface by movements at right angles thereto ; for,
Since the movements of the telephone diaphragm are exceedingly minute,
and the amount of energy represented thereby exceedingly small, it is
hardly to be expected that a record of any value could be so produced.
But with a record recorded by movements parallel to the surface, and
received on a surface whose resistance to motion is small, the difficulties
would not appear to be insurmountable.

It should be carefully borne in mind that a telephone record may be
made of very small dimensions. Indeed, in the case of any phonographic
apparatus, where it is not intended that the record should reproduce the
sounds by direct mechanical movements of the diaphragm, large records
are not always necessary nor are they even desirable; for, such repro-
duction may be effected electrically.

Where the telephone record-surface has been prepared, no effort should
be made to cause it to reproduce the telephonic despatch mechanically.
An electrical method of reproduction is far the preferable one.

(8.) The following method would appear to promise excellent results.
Employ the telephone-record to act mechanically on a lever or other
device, but instead of attempting to cause the movements of such a lever
to impart audible, articulate motion to a receiving diaphragm, cause them
to act directly on a variable resistance in the circuit of which is included
a voltaic battery and a receiving telephone. Since, for such an operation,
very slight movements of the variable resistance contacts are required, it
is by no means improbable that some of the methods proposed, or, obvious
modifications thereof, will, in practice, be found applicable for the produc-
tion of a permanent telephone record.

The advantages of a telephonic record thus obtained arise not only from
its permanency, but also from the possibility of preparing a phonographic
record of the voice or message, and sending the same for telephonic trans-
mission over a line to a distant point.

(9.) Before concluding this brief sketch, it might be well to suggest the
following plan, which would appear to be particularly suitable for obtain.
ing a telephone record : Mount a concave mirror at the centre of the dia-
phragm of the receiving telephone ; or, better yet, from the entire dia-
phragm of a concave mirror, shaping the magnet pole of the telephone to
conform to the approximated surface thereof. When the telephone is
receiving transmitted speech, allow the light reflected from the diaphragm -
mirror, and suitably concentrated by a lens, to fall on a sensitized photo-
graphic plate placed in a plane at right angles to the plane of the dia-
phragm, so as to receive the spot of light parallel to its surface. The
Photographic plate must, of course, be moved mechanically at right angles
to the direction of movement of the spot of light. The plate thus acted
On is then developed, fixed, and used to reproduce the record by any of
the well-known methods of photo-engraving, etching, etc. The record
thus obtained may be used either mechanically to reproduce the trans-

148 [April 20,

mitted speech in an ordinary phonographic apparatus, or, preferably in
connection with a variable resistance contact, electrically in a receiving
telephone. :

There can be no doubt, whatever, that this method will be found opera-
tive in practice, since the engraving stylus, a pencil of light, is destitute
of weight, and therefore offers no resistance to the free movements of the
telephone diaphragm.

C05 Instead of causing the voice, as in the ordinary form of phono-
graphic or gramophonic apparatus, to act. mechanically on the record-sur-
face, cause it to move a suitably focussed pencil of light over the surface
of a photographic plate. A very complete record could thus be obtained,
in which it would be possible to impress on the plate all the minute pecu-
liarities of the overtones, on which the quality of the voice depends. In
this manner there.could be obtained and preserved records of the voice of
distinguished individuals.

The photographic method just described would possess, among others,
the following advantages, viz.:

ist. The ease with which it could accurately reproduce in all their min-
utise the tones involved in the production of articulate speech.

2d. The readiness with which such a record could be magnified to any
desired extent, thus rendering possible an increase in the amplitude of the
reproduced vibration.

3d. The aid such magnified, accurate sound-records wouldafford in the
study of the same with a view, not only of ascertaining their peculiari-
ties, but even with a view of being able to read articulate speech directly
from the diaphragm record.

CrnTRAL Hien ScHooL,

PHILADELPHIA, April 6, 1888.

Stated Meeting, April 20, 1888.
Present, 14 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

A letter from Washburn College, Topeka, Kansas, request-
ing exchanges; on motion, ordered to receive Proceedings
from No. 96. . :

A letter from Prof. Joseph Prestwich, with change of ad-
dress (Shoreham, Sevenoaks, Kent).
~ A letter of envoy from the Meteorological Office, London.

1888. ] 149

Letters acknowledging receipt of Proceedings, No. 126, from
Sir William Thompson, South Kensington Museum (London)
and M. Claudio Jannet, Paris.

The President reported that he had received letters in re-
sponse to the circular in reference to a Congress to consider
the question of an International Language, from James M.
Taylor, President of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; D.
C. Gilman, President of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Md.; Prof. W. LeConte Stevens, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Prof. B. L.
Gildersleeve, Baltimore, Md.; President of the University of
South Carolina; Director of the U.S. Nautical Almanac.

Accessions to the Library were received from Prof; George
Bauer, Agram, Austria; Prof. P. Steiner, Darmstadt; Natur-
wissenschaft Verein, Frankfurt, a. O.; Geographische Gesell-
schaft, Hanover; Prof. Giuseppi Sergi, Rome; R. Academia di
Ciencias, Madrid; Rousdon Observatory, Devon; Meteorologi-
cal Council, British Association, Dr. B. W. Richardson, “The
Karth,” London; Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba,
Board of Trade, Winnipeg; Archeological Institute of Amer-
ica, Boston; Museum ‘of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge;
R. I. Historical Society, Providence; New York State Mu-
seum of Natural History, Albany; Buffalo Historical Society;
Academy of Sciences, Prof. J. 8. Newberry, New York; Mr.
W. J. Potts, Camden; Geological Survey of New Jersey,
Trenton; University of Pennsylvania, Mercantile Library,
Profs. Lewis M. Haupt, Edwin J. Houston, Messrs. Henry
Phillips, Jr., Richard Vaux, Com. E. Y. McCauley, Philadel-
phia; Departments of Justice, State and the Interior, Captain
John G. Bourke, Washington, D. C.; University of Virginia ;
Prof. N. H. Winchell, St. Paul; California Academy of
Sciences, San Francisco; Prof. Mariano Barcena, Mexico.

The President stated that pursuant to the resolution of the
Society, he had appointed P. DuBois, Esq., to prepare the
obituary notice of Prof. James Curtis Booth, and Dr. John A.
Ryder that of Joseph Zentmayer, and that they had accepted
the appointments by letter.

Prof. Houston presented a communication on Some Possible

150 [April 20,

Methods for the Preparation of Gramophone and Telephone
Records.

Mr. Phillips exhibited some specimens of Physa heterostro-
pha found in water from the pipes of the drinking supply fur-
nished by the Schuylkill river this and last Spring.

Prof. Houston and Dr. Morris spoke in relation to the im-
purity and insufficiency of the water supply of the city.

The President referred to the volume and condition of the
water passing over the Fairmount dam, stating that the area
of the pool has diminished but very little in later years, and
that in his opinion the drinking water of the city was as pure
as that supplied to New York and better than that to Boston.
The President stated that he possessed a manuscript essay by
Henry Campbell, C. E., of this city, containing a project for
supplying City of New York with water by putting a very
high dam some distance above the city, so as to prevent the
salt water running up, and thus utilizing all the fresh water
supplied by the Hiadaon river.

For Philadelphia, he proposed to collect the rain water in
tanks and distribute it as needed.

Dr. J. Cheston Morris said that perhaps the supply water-
pipe referred to by Mr. Phillips contained some bend in
which the ova lodged and were hatched from time to time—
the ova subjected to heat in the hot water-pipe being killed.
Observation of our ordinary Schuylkill supply would soon
satisfy one of the frequent existence in it of many forms of
animal life. We greatly need in this city sufficient reser-
voirs for subsidence ; our supply would then be comparatively
good, and free from much of the present cause of complaint.
The scouring of the pools and basins of the dams of. the
Schuylkill, which occurs during the freshets, would then re-
move much noxious material.

Prof. Houston having suggested the great lakes as probably
a good future source of supply for our Hastern cities, Dr. Mor-
ris said, the results of their employment at Chicago were not
such as to encourage us. And New York would hardly like
to take the Hrie canal as its source.

1888.] 151

A serious question is that of change occurring in waters long
impounded in reservoirs; but he believes, with Mr. E. F.
Smith, that the waters of such reservoirs drawn from a dis-
tance of at least six or eight feet below the surface and as much
above the bottom, so as to avoid the confervoid and bacterial
growths near the surface, and the organic remains of previous
life which settle to the bottom, would give the best results at-
tainable. It has been shown also, by experience, that water
contaminated with organic matter has a tendency to purify it-
self, in rapidly flowing streams interrupted by cascades or rif-
fles, by the growth of animals and plants of the lower orders.
While speaking on the subject, he would allude to the excel-
lent character of the water supply from the Schuylkill as to
its solid ingredients. Water may be too pure, ?.e., deficient in
those salts and earthy matters which tend to maintain tissue-
metamorphosis and growth; lime salts in moderate quantity
are beneficial, while magnesian are irritant, purgative and un-
satisfying to the thirst—as are the waters of the Paris basin——
while excess of lime salts, as in the Mississippi Valley, gives
rise to calculous concretions. Many diseases can thus be traced
to defective water supply.

The greater amount of organic matter in the water of the
upper Delaware is the result of its drainage from the swamps
and vegetable decaying matters on the mountains above the
Water Gap. Much of the impurity of the Schuylkill is gotten
rid of in the precipitation which occurs in its course from the
traversing by its waters, acidulated from the mines, of the
limestone bed of rocks above Reading.

Mr. McKean was of the opinion that the assumption, be-
cause there is some albuminoid matter in the water we get
from our hydrants, it is therefore unwholesome, was unfounded.
He was doubtful if it had been made clear that the albuminoids
and other matters presumably unwholesome, found in the sup-
ply of drinking water as furnished to us, are really unwhole-
some unless accompanied by antecedent extraneous fever
germs. He adverted to the low death-rate of London and
Philadelphia as militating against the theory of the great un-
wholesomeness of their drinking water.

152 [April 20,

In reply to a question by Mr. McKean, as to the proof of
disease resulting from waters containing ammonia, Dr. Morris
said we should carefully distinguish between albuminoids, and
albuminoid ammonia and free ammonia. No one would doubt
the unhealthiness of water contaminated with decaying or pu-
trescent albuminous matters. The amount, however, of albu-
minoid and free ammonia—with the chlorides and nitrites—
enables us to trace the previous life history of the water. As
to such a supply being injurious to health, the record of the
U.S. Army during operations along the Chickahominy, and
the experiences of Dr. Livingstone and Stanley in Africa, af-
forded the illustrations required.

Dr. Keenig was of the opinion that the Schuylkill water was
very much abused and was better than it looked. Its looks
could be easily remedied by filtering. The substances in solu-
tion in Summer and Winter only differed by a few milliyrams
to the litre. The purifying action of the forebay was very
great ; that there was no appreciable difference in free ammo-
nia above and below the dam.

Dr. Keenig believed that the danger of infection from dis-
ease germs from fecal matter in running water was very much
overrated.

Dr. Horn and Mr. Burke also spoke on the subject.

The Lves’ Stratigraphic Geological, Map was exhibited and
explained to the Society.

Pending nominations Nos. 1176, 1177, and 1178, and new
nominations Nos. 1179 and 1180 were read.

The Committee on the Library reported having held a full
meeting and having agreed on the purchase of a number of
Hneyclopedias, Dictionaries, etc., and works of reference, as
ordered by the Society.

On motion, the Society authorized the construction of
book-cases to contain these works of reference, at a cost not to
exceed $50.

The Publication Committee reported having authorized the
publication of Prof. Cope’s papers on the Hryops and on the
Puerco Fauna, and that the same would finish the second part

1888.] 1538

of the XVIth Volume of the Transactions, which would then
be issued.

The President reported that he had received and paid over
to the Treasurer $132.76, the quarterly interest due April 1,
1888, on the Michaux Legacy.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Stated Meeting, May 4, 1888.
Present, 29 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Prof. W. P. Wilson, a lately elected member, was presented
to the Chair, and took his seat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows, viz.: Program of
the Annual Poetic Contest for the Prizes awarded by the Acad-
ernia Regia Nederlandica.

Letters of envoy from Société de Litterature Finnoise, Hel-
singfors; K. Siichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leip-
“lg.

Letters of acknowledgment from Société Royale des Sciences
de Liege; Prof. G. Sergi, Rome; Radcliffe Observatory, Ox-
ford, England; Buffalo Library (126); Newberry Library,
Chicago; Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Chapel Hill, N.
C. (96-126); Prof. C. V. Riley, Washington, D. C. (119).

The President reported that he had received, in answer to
the proposed invitation for a congress to consider the project
of an international scientific language, letters from Institute
of Technology, Boston, Mass.; W. EH. A. Axon, Manchester,
England; Dr. L. Samenhoff, Warsaw, Russia; Yorkshire Geo-
logical and Polytechnic Society; Dr. F. S. Krauss, Vienna,
Austria.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv. 127. T. PRINTED MAy 15, 1888.

154 [May 4,

Accessions to the Library from Prof. G. vom Rath, Bonn;
K. Nordiske Oldskrift-Selskab, Copenhagen; “Flora Batava,”
Leiden ; Nederlandsche Bontanische Vereeniging, Nijmeguen ;
R. Academia de Ciencias, Madrid; R. Meteorological, R. As-
tronomical Societies, London; Canadian Institute, Mr. James
T. V. Ives, Toronto; Society of Civil Engineers, Boston ;
Providence Public Library; American Oriental Society, New
Haven; Buffalo Library ; New York Meteorological Observa-
tory; Messrs. William Harden, B.S. Lyman, Henry Phillips,
Jr., Philadelphia; Light House Board of the United States,
Washington, D. C.; Prof. John C. Branner, Little Rock, Ark.;
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Iowa State Historical
Society, lowa City ; University of California, Berkeley ; Direc-
cion General de Estadistica, Guatemala, S. A.

The Committee appointed December 16, 1887, to prepare
the Magellanic Medal, reported that the same was now ready
and delivered it to the President, who gave it to Prof. L. M.
Haupt with the following address :

“Prof. Haupt, it is a great gratification to me, both personally and offi-
cially, to present to you the Magellanic Premium, which has been awarded
by the American Philosophical Society for your essay on ‘The Physical
Phenomena of Harbor Entrances, their Causes and Remedies.’ This essay
treats of matters of great national importance, and your discussion of them
will greatly tend to the improvement of the methods now in use for effect-
ing the permanent removal of the obstacles in our harbors and rivers,
which are so dangerous to navigation and are so full of risk to the lands and
buildings along their shore-lines. A glance at the map of the United
States will show the great number of our navigable rivers and the vast ex-
tent of coast-lines, and their valuable and important harbor entrances.
And it is therefore important that the money appropriated for their im-
provement and enlargement shall be wisely and scientifically expended.
I think your suggestions will be found very valuable in securing stability
to all artificial structures that may be erected in our great waters for their
protection and convenient use, and you are therefore entitled to be hon-
ored as a public benefactor. The Magellanic Premium was established
in the year 1786, and the records of the Society show that only six awards
of the medal and one honorary pecuniary premium have been made within
the century. Yours is therefore the seventh premium. It is thus shown
that the terms under which the premium can be claimed are difficult to be

1888.] 155

met, but you have filled them, and I sincerely and cordially congratulate
you on your success.’’

Prof, Haupt made the following reply:

“Mr. President and fellow-members of the American Philosophical
Society :Accepting this estimable token of approval, which this distin-
guished Society has conferred upon the results of my investigations, it
gives me great pleasure to express to you my grateful obligations for this
unusual mark of approbation.

“The conditions accompanying applications for the Magellanic Pre-
mium being such as to eliminate entirely all personal elements, I felt that
the opportunity of obtaining a critical and impartial investigation of my
researches was thus admirably presented, and that no more competent
body, organized for scientific research, could be found to pass judgment
upon a matter which I deemed of great importance to the commercial,
scientific and engineering development of our country.

‘*T was pleased, therefore, to embrace this opportunity of presenting
the paper on ‘The Physical Phenomena of Harbor Entrances’ to the
American Philosophical Society for consideration and action. Whatever
value the paper may have, and the weight and influence it may exert in
the future, in modifying the plans for meeting the difficult requirements
of maritime works, are chiefly due to the careful and deliberate considera-
tion which your Society and committees have given to the subject; and,
deeply as I feel the honor, as well as the responsibility, which this ap-
proval of my labors places upon me, I earnestly hope you will permit me
to state that, whatever may be my share of the merit conferred, it is but
the reflection of that emanating from yourselyes as members of this
learned Society.

““To me your endorsement is at this time particularly encouraging, for
already I find myself in the position of the pioneer who breaks Joose from
the well-trodden highways and seeks to discover a new path through the
trackless waste. His task is full of responsibility, and he needs to keep
well in view his landmarks; sometimes ahead, at others behind him.
So I find myself looking back for my bearings whilst I am pressing for-
ward toward the goal, which is the introduction of these plans at some
suitable port of entry along our coast.

‘«The difficulties which I expected to find, and do find, in this effort are
those resulting from conservatism and inertia of the Government mu-
chinery ; but they are inherent to all development and furnish additional
evidence of the soundness of the conclusions you have already reached.
It is, therefore, with peculiar satisfaction that I look upon this medal, the
seal of your approbation, not as upon an dgnis fatwus, to lure me on to
destruction, but as a talisman to encourage me in pursuing the way I have
taken as one leading to a laudable end.

156 [May 4,

“The discussions, which opposition must provoke, should result in
elucidating more clearly the principles embodied in these physical studies
and in removing them more and more from the domain of theory and
planting them upon the firmer foundations of fact.

“ By this means they will be brought to the knowledge of the unpro-
fessional reader and receive the support of those most directly interested
in their application.

“T have observed that in dealing with physical questions, involving
only inert matter, the problems are comparatively simple, whilst those of
a social character which enter the domain of mind become exceedingly
complex, yet these two classes appear to be almost inseparably related.
In developing an engineering project, the first stage is that of mental con-
ception and evolution; the second, that of education and propagation; and
the third, that of execution or construction. It is in the second stage
where the greatest. difficulties are encountered, for it is always a difficult
task to undertake to modify prevailing impressions. The contest is an
unequal one, but when the changes proposed are based upon and allied to
Truth they must ultimately prevail. Otherwise, they must as certainly
fail, and this is therefore the crucial stage.

‘A distinguished philosopher says: ‘The best way to come to Truth is
to examine things as really they are, and not to conclude they are as we
fancy of ourselves, or have been taught by others to imagine.’

“Tf we could but lay aside previous impressions and prejudices it would
be an easy matter to apply this advice to see things ‘as really they are,’
but, unfortunately, judgment is too often blinded by habit or education.
This prevalent propensity of accepting statements without investigation, or
of reaching conclusions from superficial observations, has led mankind
into many errors which can only be removed by searching and impersonal
discussions. Such discussions, therefore, should be welcomed as tending
to the perfection of knowledge and the revelation of Truth.

“The studies which I have submitted to you have been my recreation
and delight, and in pursuing them I have realized the truth and beauty
contained in these lines from ‘Thalaba :’

«Learn thou, O young man,
God hath appointed wisdom the reward of study!
’Tis a well of living waters,
Whose inexhaustible bounties all might drink,
But few dig deep enough.’

«The treasures of wisdom are only to be unearthed by digging deeply,
and I believe it accords with the experience of every investigator, that the
deeper he delves the more treasure he discovers. Especially is this true
when applied to investigations relative to the laws of the physical world,
and, as each increment of knowledge is added to that already gleaned,
the mind of the devout student becomes more and more fully impressed
with the sense of his own impotence and of the infinite majesty and wis-

1888. ] 157

dom of Him who, from the beginning, conceived, created and continually
maintains the universe; to whom belongs all the glory, praise and honor
of our feeble efforts forever. :
“This idea of our dependence upon the Supreme Being your committee
have very happily embodied in the motto which they have placed upon
the medal: ‘ Non mutare Det leges, sed in hominum usum adhibere.’”? *

On motion, the Society recommended that Prof. Haupt ac-
cede to the request of Messrs. Bailey, Banks & Biddle for a
temporary loan of this medal, it being, according to their state-
ment, the finest they have ever made.

The following communications were made for the Proceed-
ings of the Society :

By Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, “On the Classification and Nomen-
clature of the Metalline Minerals.”

By Dr. EK. D, Cope, “On the Ear Bones of the Permian Ba-
trachia.”

Dr. Alfred Dugés (Mexico) presented through the Secreta-
ries a paper on “Deux Especes Nouvelles des Ophidiens de
Mexique.”

* Notr.—The Medal is of gold, oval in form, two and a quarter inches long by one and
seyen-cighths wide. The inscription (in alto-relievo) on the obverse is :
THE
PREMIUM

OF

JOHN HYACINTH

DE MAGELLAN,

oF LONDON.

Around the margin and separated from the panel by a heavy laurel wreath, is the
motto prepared for the committee, which reads ‘‘ Non Dei leges mutare, sed in hominum
usum adhibere.”

On the reverse,

AWARDED
BY THE
AMERICAN
PHILOSOPHICAL
SocIETY
TO
LEwis M. Haupt,
for his discovery in
Physical Hydrography
and for his invention of
a System of Harbor
Improvement.

Around the margin :

Philadelphia, Pennsylyaniensis,
December, MDCCCLXXXVII.

158 [May 4, 1888.

Prof. C. V. Riley referred to a possible error of transcrip-
tion in the volume of Harly Proceedings (No. 119) on pages
14, 15, as to the word Hessian fly.

On motion, the Committee on Hall was requested to con-
sider the desirability of speedily procuring the fire-proof safe
ordered by the Society on February 17, 1888.

The Society, on motion, approved the bill of Bailey, Banks
& Biddle for $170, for the dies and metal of the Magellanic
medal, and ordered that the same be paid.

Pending nominations Nos. 1176-1180 were read.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

159 [Phillips.

March 16, 1888. |
PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USERUL KNOWLEDGE,

VOL. XOX. JuLy To DECEMBER, 1888. No. 128.

First Contribution to the Folk-lore of Philadelphia and tts Vicinity.
By Henry Phillips, Jr.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 16, 1888.)

The present paper contains only such popular superstitions as have
come under my notice. To make the subject cover a larger ground, say
the State of Pennsylvania, or the United States, would be to open the
door to a liability to error; and more good can be done by efforts
of individual observers, each taking his own surrounding district, than
by grasping after too great a number of items of folk-lore, perhaps too
readily accepted as universal, while really only local. To the local searcher,
therefore, must the bulk of such work be confided, knowing that from
the mass of entirely reliable individual collections, the general principles
that underlie them all will be ultimately evolved from correct data. All
of these are at least a half century old, unless where otherwise stated.

Brrts, DEATH AND MARRIAGE.

1.— Who changes her name and not the letter,
Marries for worse and not for better.

2.—Rice is thrown over a bride so that some of it falls in her bosom
(a custom that has originated in the past twenty years).

3.—An old shoe is thrown after a departing couple after marriage.
4,—When one shivers some one is walking over their grave.

kK

ov

The child that’s born on Sabbath day

Is blithe and bonny, good and gay.
Monday’s child is fair of face,

Tuesday’s child is full of grace,
Wednesday’s child is born for woe,
Thursday’s child has far to go,

Friday’s child is for loving and giving,
Saturday’s child has to work for a living.

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv. 128. U. PRINTED SEPT. 11, 1888.

Phillips. ] 1 60 [March 16,

6.—Marriages have the following results, according to the day on
which celebrated : ;
Monday for health, Tuesday for wealth, 4
Wednesday the best day of all,
Thursday for losses, Friday for crosses,
Saturday no day at all. —
Variant. Monday for wealth ;
Tuesday for health ;
Wednesday the best day of all;
Thursday for crosses ;
Friday for losses ;
Saturday no luck at all.

7.—It is unlucky to marry in May.

8.—A bride must wear
Something old and something new,
Something borrowed, and something blue.
The borrowed is apt to be a handkerchief; the blue, garters.
9,—A child must first be taken up stairs before it is taken down ; other-
wise it will never rise in life.
10.—Women lose a tooth at every confinement.
11.—A piece of wedding-cake if placed under one’s pillow will bring a ‘
dream of one’s future spouse. |
12.— Find nine peas in a pod, put them over the door,
The first one that enters is yours evermore.
13.—It is bad luck to rock an empty cradle as the child to whom it
belongs will soon die.

14.--In order that a dying man should die easily the windows of the

room must be thrown open. ;
15.— Happy the bride the sun shines on,
Happy the corpse the rain rains on. ba
Variant. Lucky the bride that the sun shines on, .

Blessed the corpse that the rain falls on.
16.—A big blue vein over the nose is a sign of a short life.
17.—The builder of a dwelling house dies before he can live in it a long
while.

18.—If a dog howls at night it is a sign of death to some one near by ;
a sick person will surely die. Some say the same of the screeching of a
cat at night, especially if a woman be sick. :

19.—To break a mirror or other object of glass is unlucky ; the former
announces death.

1888.] 161 [Phillips.

20.—The fall of a mirror or of a picture announces death.

21.—It is unlucky to wear black if not in mourning ; some relation will
die, and give occasion to wear it.

22.—A wedding ring must never be taken off the finger when once put
on.

23.—A baby’s nails should never be cut, as it will make the child light-
fingered.

24.—A corpse will bleed at the touch or in the presence of its murderer.
23.—T wins seldom both reach maturity.
26.—A six months’ child can live; a seven months’, never.

27.—W hoever is the possessor of a caul cannot be drowned. It is very
lucky to be born with one ; it should not be parted with.

28.—If two persons break the wishbone of a fowl, the one who gets
the shortest end will be married the first.

29.—If one meets a white mule, and afterwards counts forty white
horses, he or she will then meet the future spouse.

30.—It is unlucky to cross through the line of a funeral procession.

31.—The hooting of an owl presages death to one of those who hear it,
Within the year. To avoid the evil effects of the omen one of its hearers
must take off a shoe and turn it over to counteract the bad augury.

32.—If four persons accidentally cross hands when shaking hands in
taking leave, it is a sign of a marriage.

33.—If the wishbone of a fowl is placed over a door, the person who
places it there will marry the first person of the opposite sex who enters
under it.

34.—A child born on a Sunday will never lack for bread.

35.—If one sews with black thread on a white garment, the same needle
Will soon be used for the person's shroud.

36.—If one removes the skin of an apple whole and whirls it three times
around the head with the left hand, it will assume, on falling, the initial
letter of the name of one’s destined spouse.

37.—It is unlucky to postpone a wedding.

WEATHER AND SEASONS.
(a) — Celestial :
1.— If Candlemas-day be bright and clear
There’ll be two winters in the year.

2.—If it rains on Candlemas-day the winter is over; if clear it is but
half done,

Phillips. ] 162 [March 16,

3.— If Candlemas-day is fair and bright,
Winter will take a rougher flight. |

4,—Of a storm : ‘ :
Long foretold, long last, |
Soon come, soon past. 2
i. A red sky in the morning is the sailor’s warning, F
A red sky at night is the sailor’s delight.
6.—A halo around the moon denotes falling weather.
7.—The rainbow presages that the rain is over; also that no other uni-
versal deluge will ever take place.
8.—When the new moon lies with its horns up, it is a sign of dry
weather. If the horns are downturned, it is a sign of rain.
9,—It always rains Quaker meeting week.
10.— When the wind veers against the sun,
Trust it not, for back it will run.
When the wind is in the south
It is in the rain’s mouth.
11.— Evening gray and morning red,
Traveler wise will keep his bed. |
12.— If February gives much snow
A fine summer it doth foreshow. f
13.— A rainbow in the morning is the sailor’s warning,
A rainbow at night is the sailor’s delight.
14.—If it rains when the sun is shining people say, ‘‘the devil is beat-
ing his wife.”’
(b)— Terrestrial :
1.—If the groundhog sees his shadow on the second of February, he |
: goes back to his hole in the ground for another six weeks’ doze, as he H
[| knows that the winter will endure so much longer ; per contra, if he cannot
see it, he stays out, for he knows that the severe weather is past. ‘
2.—When cats wash their faces it is a sign of rain.
3.—If the oak gets into leaf before the ash, the year will be a fine and
productive one; if contrary, it will be wet and backward.
4,—When a spider elongates his web it is a sign of fair weather ; when >

he shortens it, the weather is about to be stormy.

5.—If the Cicadas sing loud at nightfall ’tis a sign of a clear warm day
to follow.

6.—A green Christmas predicts a fat churchyard.

1888. ] 163 [Phillips.

7.--Fresh ant-hills presage pleasant weather.
8.—-Cobwebs on the grass indicate a clear day.

9.—The croak of a tree-frog indicates rain.

10.—-The cry of the ‘‘rainbird ”’ or cuckoo presages rain.

11.--The weather of the ensuing winter can be known by inspection of
the breastbone of a goose : it will be cold in proportion to the intensity of
color of any dark spots that may be seen on its side.

12.-When smoke ascends it is a sign of fair weather : if it. descends, of
rain.

13.—The weather changes with the phases of the moon.

14.--When many crows gather together and chatter it isa sign of bad
weather. ;

15.—If a cock crows at an unaccustomed hour of the night the weather
is about to change.

16.—St. Patrick’s day is expected to be stormy.

FoLtk MEDICINE.

1.—A wedding-ring rubbed on a sty will cure it.
2.—Fasting spittle will cure a sore eye.

3.—To cure a bite use a hair of the dog that caused it : it is sometimes
placed between two slices of buttered bread and eaten as a sandwich.

4,—Anointing any instrument that caused a wound will heal it.
5.—If one sneezes seven times it will be a sure relief for a cold.

6.—It is best to sleep with the head towards the North.

7.—A horsechestnut carried in the pocket will cure piles.

8.—A. potato carried in the trousers’ pocket will cure the rheumatism.

9.—A horsechestnut carried in the pocket will bring good luck; by
some persons it is carried as a cure for rheumatism.

10.—A cold key dropped down the back is a sure cure for a bleeding at
the nose.

.

11.—Children can be cured of the whooping cough by inhaling the am-
moniacal fumes at gas works.

12.—A cockroach stewed in sweet oil will relieve ear-ache if the decoc-
tion be poured in the ear.

13.—Ifa piece of bacon is rubbed on a wart and buried under a stone
the wart will disappear with the decaying meat.

,

>
Phillips.] 164 {March 16,

14.—A pain in the side caused by fast walking can be cured by sitting
on a stone by the wayside, after spitting beneath it.

15.—Hiccoughs can be cured by holding the breath until fifty are counted, 4
during which time the end of one’s finger must be intently regarded ; at }
the end of that period a small spider will make its appearance on the tip
of the finger. a.

16.—Seven sips of water will cure hiccoughs.

17.—A young person ought not to sleep with an older one, as it robs
the younger one of its vitality.

18.--To wash the face with dew newly fallen on the first of May will
remove freckles.

19.—The rays of the moon falling on the face of a sleeping person will
produce nausea: some say, delirium or insanity.

20.—A piece of rope with which a person has been hung will cure by
its touch fits, epilepsy, etc.

21.--Jaundice in children can be cured by giving them their own water
to drink.

22.—Boys believe that by urinating on their limbs before going in to
swim they can be protected against the cramp.

SIGNS AND OMENS, PORTENTS AND SUPERSTITIONS. :

1.—If one wears out a round hole in the centre of the sole of a shoe,
it is a sign that one will want bread.

2.—It is lucky to touch a hunchback’s hump.
3.—It is lucky to see three hunchbacks in succession in one walk.
4,—If a fire kindles quickly and briskly, one has a smart lover.

5.—If the bottom of a woman’s gown is turned up at the back, it is a
sign of a new dress. Also, that one’s lover is thinking of her.

_ 6,—If the soles of the feet itch, it is a sign of walking on strange a Y
‘ground.
7.—If the elbow or knee itches, it prognosticates a change of bed-
fellow.
8.—If a piece of bread falls from one’s hand, some one is coming a beg |
ging.
9.—If one takes a second piece of bread while the first is still uneaten,
it is a sign that some one grudges it to you; «liter, some one is coming
a, begging.

10.—The air bubbles in a cup of tea, coffee, etc., denote money coming.

1888. ] : 165 (Phillips.

11.—Sparks flying towards one from a fire denote money coming.
12.—It is bad luck for a white cat or pigeon to come to a house.

13.—It is unlucky to dress one leg entirely before anything is put on
the other.

14.—The left leg is always to be partly dressed first.
15.—Lucky at cards, unlucky in love, and vice versa.

16.—To find a spider or vermin on one’s clothing, is a sign of good luck,
generally money.

17.—One must always go out by the door one enters. Never go out of
the back door if you have entered by the front, and vice versa. It is most
unlucky. The idea here seems to be that of crossing or dividing the house.

18.—Hair and nails should be cut with the waxing moon.
19.—To sneeze three times before breakfast is the sign of a stranger.
20.—If one sings before breakfast he may cry before supper.

21.—Boys always spit on new clothes for good luck : they call the prac-
tice ‘‘ wetting it.”

22.—A present of a knife or uther sharp-pointed instrument will cut
friendship ; it is customary when receiving such a present to give a small
coin in exchange.

23.—It is unlucky to pass under a rope or a ladder.
24.—It is bad luck to meeta cross eyed person on first leaving the house.
25.—It is unlucky ever to open an umbrella in a house.

26.—-Friday is an unlucky day ; anything begun or done on that day
will turn out badly.

27.—A new pocket-book should be given with some money in it.
28.—The first money received on a day is to be spat on for luck.

29.— If the nose itches it is a sign of danger,
Of seeing a fool, or kissing a stranger.

30.—A fire won't burn if the sun shines on it.

31.—If the right hand itches it is a sign of receiving money ; if the left,
to pay it out.

32.—Clothing put on accidentally wrong side out signifies a piece of
good luck ; in this case it must be so worn until night.

33.—To spend money on New Year’s day before having received any,
is a bad sign, as it foreshadows more outlay than income during the year.

34.—If the first person one: meets on leaving the house on New Year’s

Phillips. ] 166 [March 16,

day isa person of the opposite sex, it foretells good luck for the rest of
the year ; if of the same sex it is a bad omen.

eo

5.—It is wrong to spit towards the sky.
36,—It is wrong to place a veil over the face, or to counterfeit death.

37.—One’s bed must not be made up in such a manner that the feet are
towards the door, as thus the dead are carried out.

58.—If two persons interlace their little fingers it will stop a dog from
defecating and will oblige him to change the place which he has chosen
for the performance.

39.—White spots in the nails indicate presents.

40.—If a horse hair be thrown into water it will become a snake.
41.—For every gray hair pulled out seven will come.

42.—Small ears are a sign of avarice; large, of generosity.
43,.—Children who play with fire will wet the bed.

44,—Old maids are to lead apes in hell.

45.—If when about to say anything it is forgotten, it is a lie.

46.—If one falls upstairs, he or she will not be married during that year.

47,—It is lucky to have money in one’s pockets when the new moon is
first seen: it must be turned over several times for increase. If one has
not money then, it is a bad omen.

48.—It is unlucky to destroy a swallow’s nest.
49.—Speak of a person and one will hear from or see him or her.
50.—A black cat is considered especially unlucky by sailors.

51.—It is unlucky to point a loaded weapon at a person, as the devil
loads them on such an occasion.

52.—The shell of an egg should always be broken into pieces, or else
witches will use them to ride in.

53,—To spill salt is unlucky ; the omen can be averted by three pinches
of salt being thrown over the left shoulder.

54.—Once having gone out it is unlucky to return; in this case the ill-
luck can be averted by taking a seat before making a fresh start. Some
say you must sit down and cross your legs,

55.—If the right ear burns it is a sign that some one is speaking well of
one; if the left, bad.

56.—Thirteen persons are unlucky at table or any other gathering, as
one will die within the year.

1888. ] 167 [Phillips.

57.—A horse shoe must be picked up, if seen in the street and brought
home, and hung over a door for luck.

58.—Meat exposed to the light of the moon will spoil sooner than if ex-
posed to the sun.

59.—There is a peculiar coldness in the rays of the moon.

60.—That there is a face in the full moon. Every one can see the face
of his or her absent lover.

61.—Any wish formed during the shooting of a star will be fulfilled.
2.—That cats have nine lives.

63.--To keep a cat from running away from a strange house one must
anoint its paws with butter.

64.--Hares sleep with their eyes open ; similarly weasels.

65. Children are told that to get behind a door and eat a piece of gristle
will make the hair curl.

66.-- A whistling woman and a crowing hen
Will never come to a good end.

67.--When one sneezes it is proper to say, ‘‘ God bless you.”’
68.--One who looks in a mirror at night will see spirits looking over
his shoulder.

69.—If two people by chance say the same thing at once, neither must
speak till a wish has been formed.

70.—The wear of shoes :
Wear at the toe, live to see woe ;
Wear at the side, live to be a bride ;
Wear at the ball, live to spend all;
Wear at the heel, live to save a deal.

Variant : Wear at the toe, pay as you go;

Wear at the heel, pay a good deal ;
Wear at the ball, live to spend all.

71.— Sneeze on a Monday, you sneeze for danger;
Sneeze on a Tuesday, you kiss a stranger ;
Sneeze on a Wednesday, you receive a letter;
Sneeze on a Thursday, you’ll get something better ;
Sneeze on a Friday, expect great sorrow ;
Sneeze on a Saturday, get a sweetheart to-morrow ;
Sneeze on a Sunday, your safety seek,
The devil will chase you the whole of the week.
72.— Cut your nails Monday, you cut them for news ;
Cut them on Tuesday, a pair of new shoes;
Cut them on Wednesday, you cut them for health ;
Cut them on Thursday, ’twill add to your wealth ;

PROC. AMER. PHILOS, 800. xxv. 128. v. PRINTED SEPT, 11, 1888.

Phillips. ] 168 [March 16,

Cut them on Friday, you cut them for woe ;
Cut them on Saturday, a journey you'll go;
Cut them on Sunday, you cut them for evil,
All the week long you’ll be ruled by the devil.

73.—Children are told that to eat crust will make their legs fat : aliter,
their hair curl.

74.—If the rays of the moon fall on the face of a sleeper, he can be made
to answer any question truly and to reveal secrets.

7).—That if one meets a red-haired woman in the street, she will be im-
mediately followed by a white horse. (This has only come into vogue
in the United States within the past two years.)

76.—It is bad luck for a bird to fly into a room.

77.—Crops will only prosper when planted in the right signof the moon.

78.—It is unlucky for a girl to give her lover a pair of slippers.

79.—To find a ‘‘measuring worm’’ on one’s clothes indicates a new gar-
ment. Some say it is a sign of shroud,

80.--If a ‘‘ W’’ appears on the back of the cicada (locust), it forebodes
war; ifa ‘“‘P”’ can be traced, it is a sign of peace.

81.—One who is going away in a carriage must never be looked after by
those remaining in the house as it will bring the person bad luck.

82.—-If threads are left unbasted ina garment it is a sign that it is not
paid for,

83.—If a hair-pin falls, or a woman’s skirt becomes loose or drops, it is
a sign that one’s absent lover is thinking of her: aliter, that he is false.

84.—If a fly buzzes persistently around a person it is a sign of news to
come, or a stranger.

85.—If one forgets a glove, handkerchief, or other article by accident
on leaving a room it is unlucky to return for it.

86.—-A red dog is proverbially worthless ; equally so a yellow dog.

87.—Shoes and slippers when not in wear must be placed on the floor
with their heels almost joining and the toes pointing outward at an acute
angle.

88.—Letters should be torn up, never burned nor thrown away whole ;
otherwise it is unlucky.

89.—It is very lucky to be followed in the street by any stray domestic
animal.

90.—A horse with one or more white feet is considered more or less im-
paired in value:

Four white feet and a white nose—
Throw him to the crows.

1888. ] 169 [Phillips.

91.—It is unlucky to pait the fingers of any one with one’s own hand ;
it betokens a violent quarrel.

92.—-A hole in one’s stocking signifies a letter in the post-office.
93.—It is extremely lucky to walk accidentally in ordure.

94.—If a bird should defecate on a person passing underneath it is a

sign of great good luck.

95.—When the wick of the candle has grown long and sputters it is said
to have a coffin in it.

96.—When a coal jumps out ofa fire it is a sign ofa stranger: aliter, of
a coffin,

97.—A knife, fork, scissors, etc., falling on the floor and sticking up-
right is the sign of the coming of a stranger.

98.—If a knife falls on the floor without sticking up in it, it is a sign of
a strange woman coming: if a fork, a man.

99.—Bread baked on a Sunday is never good.
100.—Dreams go by contraries.
101.—A dream told before breakfast is sure to come true.

102.--It is very lucky if the first person met on leaving the house in the
morning be a negro.

103.— See a pin and pick it up,
All that day will have good luck :
See a pin and let it lay,
Bad luck sure for all that day.

104.—Moles on the flesh are signs of good portent.
105.—Hairy people are of strong constitution.

106.—It is unlucky to wear a black pin in one’s clothes if not in mourn-
ing.
107.—It is unlucky to try on mourning clothes if not in mourning.

108.—Odd numbers are lucky.

109.—Midnight to one o’clock in the morning is the hour especially
chosen for spirits to appear on earth.

110.—A. person who drinks from the same vessel as another, if he puts
his lips in the place where his predecessor drank from, will know all his
secrets.

111.—When sparks fly from a candle it indicates the arrival of a letter :
the direction towards which they go shows the quarter whence it may be
expected.

Hunt. ] 170 [May 4,

112.—It is bad to drink water before seating oneself for a meal.

113.--A coin with a hole in it should be kept as a pocket piece for good
luck.

114,—It is unlucky to eat in the street.
115.—It is unlucky to burn bread or other food.

116.—-Children are told that if a dog should get one of their extracted
teeth, they will get a dog’s tooth in its place.

117.--Children are told that if they refrain from putting their tongue
in the cavity from which a tooth has been extracted, that they will have
in its' place a golden tooth.

118.—To stop a dog from howling at night one’s shoes must be turned
upside down when the sound is heard.

119.—To find any lost article a key is placed in a Bible or large book,
then fastened and held in such a manner that it can move. At the men-
tion of the place where the lost article is, or the person who took it, the
book will make a movement.

120.—It is very unlucky to stumble.
121.—It is unlucky to kill a lady bug.
122.—To kill a lady bug will produce a thunder storm.

Norr.—According to the eminent scholar, D. Alejandro Guichot y
Sierra, the following of the foregoing superstitions are likewise current in
Andalusia :

Birth, Death and Marriage—Nos. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20; Weather, Celestial
—Nos. 2, 6, 7,8; Weather, Terrestrial—Nos. 2, 15 ; Medicine—Nos. 6, 16.

General Superstitions—Nos. 81, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,
45, 01, 62, 55, 66, 62, 68, 64; 67, 68, 81, 88, 89, 109, 111, 112, 114.

The Classification and Nomenclature of Metalline Minerals.
By T. Sterry Hunt.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 4, 1888.)

1. The writer in April, 1885, presented to the National Academy of Sci-
ences the project of A Natural System in Mineralogy, which was farther
elaborated in an essay before the Royal Society of Canada in May of the
same year, published in Volume III of the Transactions of that Society,
and with revisions and additions, in his Mineral Physiology and Physiog-

inom is

1888, | itt (Hunt.

raphy in 1886 (pp. 279-401).* In this essay it was maintained that such a
system cannot be established on the sensible characters of the species
alone, as taught by the school of Mohs, nor yet on chemical composition
and relations, to the neglect of such characters, in accordance with the
views of the Berzelian school, or of those who propose a chemico-crystal-
lographic scheme like that of Groth. It was the aim of the writer to show
that the hardness, the specific gravity, and moreover the greater or less sus-
ceptibility to chemical change in species, are intimately related to chemical
constitution; and that a natural system of classification, which, in the words
of John Ray, ‘‘neither brings together dissimilar things, nor separates
those which are nearly allied,’’ must take into account all these various
characters and relations, alike dynamical and physical. The error of
attaching an undue importance to a single subordinate character is illus-
trated in the case of crystalline form, which may vary, while specific
gravity, hardness, color, lustre and chemical composition all alike remain
unchanged, as seen, for example, in the native sulphids of zinc and of
silver.

In pursuance of these ideas, the whole inorganic kingdom was declared
to belong to Mineralogy, although as a branch of Natural History it is
generally confined to native species. The real position of mineralogy, as
distinguished under its various heads of Systematic, Descriptive and Phy-
siological Mineralogy, is set forth in the following tabular view of the
natural sciences, copied, with slight revision, from the volume just cited.

|
| INORGANIC NATURE. ORGANIC NATURE.
> MINERAL PHYSIOGRAPHY. BIOPH YSIOGRAPHY.
8 a ee ihe oo
1 2 > = aS) |
is 5 oe
| x BS S Astronomy, descriptive. Organography.
Pe ae | Ss
bo S XQ 3 Mineralogy, Botany and Zodlogy,
eg: = ia, ; a
| A 5 ‘3 descriptive and systematic. descriptive and
= q
H § F
io) & Geognosy. Geography. systematic.
n es “ a Ree
5
S; A a MINERAL PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSIOLOGY.
ce = a
| fA So — . |
Ae ee ee
a = 2 3 Dynamics. Chemistry. Biotics. |
“1S 1a So ‘ " |
a a 3 z Astronomy, theoretical. | Organogenesis. Morphology. |
Z 4 5 5 | i
va] s s Fi + ia |
sal s = (Mineralogy, physiological. Botany and Zoology,
S >=
| & RS) ; ‘ ;
| a Geogenesis. : physiological.

2. The classification then proposed by the writer, divides the mineral

*See also, Supplement to A Natural System of Mineralogy, Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. for
1886, Vol. iv, Part 3.

Hunt.] 172 [May 4,

kingdom into four classes, namely: I, Metalline; II, Orydized ; III,
Haloid, and iV, Pyricaustate (combustible or fire-making) species. These
again are divided into orders, and in some cases into suborders, as was
set forth on page 382 of the already cited volume. In the large and im-
portant order of the Sriticares, the only one then considered in detail,
there was recognized in each one of its three suborders of Protosilicates,
Protopersilicates and Persilicates—five tribes, designated Hydrospathoid,
Spathoid, Adamantoid, Phylloid and Colloid (or Porodic); called, in some
cases, by other more distinctive synonyms, as Pectolitoid, Zeolitoid,
Ophitoid and Argilloid ; in farther extension of which, we may say Am-
phiboloid, Feldspathoid, Granatoid, Topazoid, Talcoid, Micoid, ete., for
the other tribes. The characteristic species of these tribes werc then crit-
ically examined as regards chemical composition and the relations of this
to specific gravity and to hardness. These relations were shown in sepa-
rate tables for the various tribes, and farther in three synoptical tables of
the suborder (loc.ctt., pp. 899-401). The orderof the OxyDATEs (included,
like the last, in the class of the OXY DACE AZ) was, at the same time, more
briefly considered, and shown to include representatives of five similar
tribes (p. 876). In various orders of the same class, such as CARBONATES
and BoratEs, as likewise in the suborders of the HALOIDACE 4, suchas
CuLorips, the soluble and sapid species were recognized as forming tribes—
Carbosalinoid, Borosalinoid and Chlorosalinoid—contrary to the teaching
of Mohs and his followers, who made these characters the basis of a class-
distinction. It should be added that the species of all these various tribes
have farther to be arranged in genera, and, to complete the system, re-
quire a binomial Latin nomenclature.

3. In the study of the various species of the order of Silicates, notice
was, in every case, taken not only of the specific gravity of the species,
but of the relations between this and its equivalent or so called molecular
weight, as shown in what is generally known as its atomic volume, calcu-
lated by the formula, p+d=—=v. For the purpose of thus comparing
related species it was necessary to fix a simple unit for p. As we have
since said, in the study of the species of Classes II and III: ‘‘ We assume
as the unit for p a weight including that of H = 1.0, of Cl. = 385.5, or of
O-+-2=8.0. By thus adopting a combining weight of 8.0 for oxygen,
as a basis, we get a unit which gives a common term of comparison for
oxyds, sulphids, chlorids, fluorids, and for intermediate compounds like
the oxysulphids and oxyfluorids common in native species. It is, of course,
a hypothetical unit, which, for elemental species, and for fluorids, chlorids,
ete., corresponds with the normal vaporous species ; but for oxydized spe-
cies is some fraction thereof, as in the cases of water-vapor, H,O, of
spinels, and other oxyds.

“We may readily extend this system of hypothetical units from sili-
cates to carbonates, sulphates, phosphates, and more complex species, by
dividing in all cases the empirical equivalent weight by twice the number

ae
1888.] 173 [Hunt.

of oxygen portions (O = 16.0), plus the number of chlorine or fluorine
portions. We have for example :— ‘

| Ds

? WOrSteTIIGy cha. es Sivlo.O7 == 140 + S00. 65. aes, 1 OU
Caleitewns ou. sao, <CCaQ, = 100, = 6.52. iad dak voi 1000
Katstenité,, s9i.c, CHO, = 136 = 8... 17.00

Gy PSM. 30: ieee es DOdO (HO). == 173-19... 14.88
Apatite... ais. 0. oF, 0a,O,)) Cal, = 908 50,2... 18.16

“In the writer’s late essay on A Natural System in Mineralogy, the
values of p have been thus determined. These silicates are there repre-
sented by a new notation, which employs symbols in small letters to rep-
resent quantivalent ratios ; the combining weights of the elements being
divided by their valency, and in all cases followed by their coefficients.
The formula of forsterite thus becomes (mgjsi,)o, that of orthoclase,
(k,al,$i,.)0y¢, and that of topaz, (alysi,)o,f,.

‘‘While a similar unit is equally applicable to all haloid species, it has
j been found more convenient for the metalline species which constitute
| Class I, including unoxydized metals and their compounds with one an-
other and with arsenic, antimony, sulphur, selenium and tellurium to
divide the formula by the sum of the valencies therein represented ; so
that for all such species the unit p gives not the mean integral weight of
an oxygen compound in which O = 8, but that of the element, corre-
sponding to S = 16, to Fe = 28, to Ag = 108, to As = 25, Sb = 40, and
( Bi,= 69.3,”’* represented respectively by s,,: fe,, ag), as,, 8b,, bi,.

4, The law of crndensation and of expansion by volumes, familiarly
known in the chex):stry of gases and vapors at ordinary pressures, is, as the
writer has endeav red to show, still further exemplified in the case of the
very dense vapors into which, under much greater pressures, liquids like
water, alcohol, hydrocarbons, and theoretically, all chemically stable
liquids, pass when heated sufficiently ; that is to say above their so-called
critical points, when they necessarily assume the vaporous condition. The
conversion of all gases and vapors, by reduction of temperature and aug-
mentation of pressure, into liquid and solid forms, helps us to understand
that the same laws of combination by weight, and of condensation or in-

: tegration of volume, apply alike to gases and vapors on the one hand, and
to liquids and solids on the other. The relation of condensation (repre-
sented by specific gravity) to equivalent weight, which thus becomes a
fact of fundamental importance, is shown by comparing the quotient got
by dividing the received equivalent (so called atomic or molecular) weight
by the specific gravity of the body, as determined for all liquid and solid
species, taking water as unity, as in the formula p + d==». The equiva-
lent weight 7p is, as we have seen. that deduced from the empirical chemi-
cal formula calculated from hydrogen as unity.

* A New Basis for Chemistry, 2d Edition, § 139; also the author on Chemical Integra-
tion, American Journal of Science, August, 1887. 2

Hunt. ] 174 [May 4,

Thus hydrogen being 1 = H, the equivalent weight of carbon dinoxyd,
whether as gas, liquid or solid is assumed as 44 = CO,; that of water in
any of its states is taken as 17.96 = H,0, and that of the various forms of
silica as 60 = SiO, ; while that of carbonate of lime, whether as calcite or
aragonite, is 100 = CCaO,. These weights in the case of gaseous bodies
are really the weights of equal volumes, compared with that of hydrogen
at the same temperature and pressure, and are truly equivalent weights.
The law of condensation, however, shows us that in the case of liquid and
solid species we have to deal with much more complex formulas than
these. In fact, the minimum equivalent weights deduced from analy-
ses of the chlorids of the ammonio-cobalt bases give numbers of 500 and
upwards, and in the case of a certain metaphosphate, equal 2,540. The
complex potassio-cobaltic nitrite is represented by a formula giving an
equivalent weight of not less than 958. These weights are surpassed by
those deduced for the complex silicotungstates, and prosphotungstates,
ourknowledge of which has been much extended by the late researches of
Wolcott Gibbs on what he has called ‘‘the complex inorganic acids.”’
Therein he has made known the existence of progressive or homologous
series, the successive terms of which differ by 2WO,, and rise from
4WO, to 24WO,, and even 60WO,; having formulas from which the
minimum molecular weights deduced are represented by many thousands,
H=1. Thus the golden insoluble crystalline compound of tungsten,
oxygen and sodium described by Wobler is probably, according to Gibbs,
16WO,. 4WO,. 7Na,0 = 5,002., while to another crystalline species, sol-
uble in water, and hydrous, he ascribes the formula,

G0WO,, 3P,05. 2V,0; VO,. 18BaO + 144H,0 = 20,058,

This, according to him, has ‘‘the highest molecular weight yet observed.”
The studies of Gibbs and of many others, whose work in this field has
been briefly summarized by the writer (Mineral Physiology, etc., pp.
386-889), unite in showing that a great complexity of composition may
exist in definite crystalline compounds, and moreover that very small
portions of different substances may not only occur as necessary elements
in such a compound, but may even change essentially its chemical rela-
tions. Thus in a complex tungstate containing 12WO, = 2784, the addi-
tion of SiO, = 60, suffices to determine the production of a new type,
with changed basicity. In like manner the addition to a compound con-
taining 24WO, = 5568, of P,O; = 142, gives a new and distinct acid type.
Moreover, oxygen in these bodies may be in part replaced by fluorine ;
while platinum, selenium, tellurium and many other elements may enter
in small but definite amounts into the polytungstates and polymolybdates,
as well as organic radicles, such as methyl, ethyl and phenyl. These
remarkable results are regarded by Gibbs as forming ‘‘ a new department
of inorganic chemistry.’’ In commenting upon them, however, it has
been elsewhere said :

“Tt will be remembered that I had already, in 1853, proclaimed that

sill

1888. ] 175 [Hunt.

the whole chemistry of solids and liquids is only intelligible when re-
garded as a history of just such complex inorganic acids and salts; that
the distinction between organic and inorganic chemistry is no longer tena-
ble; that the same principles of homology and polymerism are applicable
alike to the bodies of the carbon series and the silicon series; that the
native crystalline carbonates, or carbon-spars, are polycarbonates, with
equivalent weights of not less than from 1500 to 2500 ; that the pyroxenes,
feldspars, and tourmalines are polysilicates of equally complex constitu-
tion, and are represented by formulas which show the existence among
them both of polymers, probably homologous, and of anisomeric homo-
logues. These conceptions, all of which were explicitly set forth and
defended in 1852 and 1853, underlie the writer’s philosophy of the mineral
kingdom, as then enunciated, and as persistently maintained to the pre-
sent date.’’*

5. It was not, however, until a much later date that a farther attempt
was made to fix the integral weight, as I have designated the so-called
molecular weight of solid species. By extending to such species the law
of equivalent volumes, the conclusion was reached that their integral
weights were even far greater than had been suspected by the writer in
1858. In fact, that of water itself, the unit of specific gravity for liquids
and solids, being in round numbers 21,400,+ the weights for these various
species must be as much greater as their specific gravities are higher than
this unit. We thus find that the solid forms of carbon dinoxyd and sili-
con dinoxyd, of carbonate of lime, and even of the ammonia-cobalt salts,
and the highest members of the polytungstate series, represent in all cases
polymeric or condensed derivatives of the normal species ; which is for the
most part unknown, or appears, as in the case of CO, and H,0, in a gase-
ous form. <A species like calcite of specific gravity 2.729, is represented
by 584CCaO, or by C5g,CasgyOj752 = 58,400. In like manner other min-
eral species must be represented by formulas more complex, and weights
far higher, than those deduced by Gibbs for his polytungstates. In the
case of such compounds, partial substitutions and small additions, affect-
ing but slightly the centesimal composition of a species, may nevertheless
be essential to its chemical constitution, as shown by Gibbs in the cases of
silicic and phosphoric oxyds added to the polytungstates. In the formula
above assigned to calcite, with Ca... the substitution of Mg,), would in-
troduce into the species only 0.72 of magnesia. Such substitutions and

* A New Basis for Chemistry, 1887, § 27.

+ In liquid water 1192 volumes of water-vapor at standard temperature and pressure
are condensed into a single volume, which if H2O = 17.96 gives an integral weight of
21,408 ; but in view of the uncertainty still prevailing as to the precise weight of oxygen,
hydrogen being unity, the number 21,400 is adopted as a close approximation. In former
publications by the writer, by an error in calculation, instead of 1192Hz0O the formula
of water has been given as 1628H20, which with H20 = 17.9638, gave an integral
weight of 29,244. This mistake was corrected in a note on The Integral Weight of Water,
in the L. E. and D, Philos. Magazine, for April, and in the American Journal of Science, for
May, 1888. See also the author’s New Basis for Chemistry, 2d Edition, passim.

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv. 128. Ww. PRINTED ocT. 18, 1888.

Hunt.] 176 [May 4,

small additions would, however, if found in ordinary analyses of mineral
species, be disregarded, as impurities not essential to the composition. In
like manner the small amounts of fluorine, of chlorine, of hydrogen, of
boron, and of phosphorus, so often met with in native silicates, are not to
be looked on as accidental ingredients, but as essential parts of highly
complex integers. Farther and more critical chemical analyses are neces-
sary before we can fully know the constitution of dense insoluble species,
and the great difficulty is to decide how far these small portions of ele-
ments are due to impurities, and how far they are elements necessary to
the constitution of the species; questions which in many cases can only
be solved by much care and study.

6. The non-oxydized metalline minerals, embracing the metals, their
alloys, and all their compounds with sulphur, selenium, tellurium, phos-
phorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth, are, in the natural-historical classi-
fication of Mohsand his followers, comprised in four orders—-Pyrites, Metals,
Glances and Blendes (Pyrites, Metalli, Lamprites and Minia of Breithaupt).
All of these we have included in Class I, METALLACE A, embracing
but a single order MrratuatTa, which is, however, divided into two
suborders. The reasons for including the metals and their various alloys
in the same order with sulphids, selenids, tellurids, phosphids, arsenids,
antimonids, bismuthids, sulpharsenids, sulphantimonids, etc., are two-fold ;
first, the resemblances between the typical and malleable metals, such as
gold, silver, lead, copper, nickel, and iron, and the elementary metalline
species, tellurium, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, are such that the com-
pounds of these with the metals above named cannot well be separated
from alloys. Another reason is to be found in the complex nature of many
artificial products known to us as metals. Thus the cast irons from the
blast-furnace are compounds, apparently homogeneous, of iron with small
quantities of sulphur or of phosphorus, with silicon, and with carbon ;
while copper may in like manner contain small quantities of phosphorus,
of arsenic, or of silicon. These constitute sulphids, phosphids, arsenids,
silicids and carbids of iron and of copper, in which the amounts of the
added elements, though proportionally small, nevertheless, modify pro-
foundly the character of the compounds, affording additional illustrations
of the principle insisted upon above in speaking of oxydized species.

". The division of the Metallata into two suborders, which we have des-
ignated Meta]lometallinea and Spatometallinea, is based upon the radical
differences which distinguish the great groups of the Glances and the
Blendes. The first suborder, like the Glances, includes alike simple sul-
phids like galena, argentite, chalcocite, metacinnabar, stibnite and molyb-
denite ; selenids like eucairite and clausthalite ; tellurids like altaite, syl-
vanite and tetradymite ; sulpharsenids like enargite ; sulphantimonids like
pbournonite and stephanites; ulphobismuthids like emplectite and kobel-
lite. To the Metallometallinez also belongs the order Pyrites of Mohs. This
not only includes the harder simple sulphids as marcasite, pyrite, siegen-

i
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i
]

1888, ] 177 [Hunt.

ite and laurite, and as pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and millerite ; but arsenids
‘such as smaltite, leucopyrite and niccolite ; antimonids like breithauptite,
horsfordite and dyscrasite ; sulpharsenids like arsenopyrite and cobaltite ;
sulphantimonids like ullmannite ; and sulphobismuthids like grunauite.
In this same suborder, for reasons already given, belong the metals and
alloys, including metallic arsenic, antimony and bismuth, and also the
metallic forms of selenium and of phosphorus.

In the second suborder the metals are not represented by any known
species, but by the non-metallic forms of selenium and phosphorus, and
by the various modifications of sulphur. This suborder includes, more-
over, simple sulphids like sphalerite, wurtzite, greenockite, hauerite, old-
hamite, cinnabar and realgar ; sulpharsenids like proustite and tennantite ;
and sulphantimonids like pyrargyrite and miargyrite. The opacity and lus-
tre of the compound species of the first suborder, and their occasionally sec-
tile character, connect them closely with the typical metals. On the other
hand, the transparency, the absence of metallic lustre and aspect from the
species of the second suborder recall the physical characters of oxyds like
zincite, cuprite and senarmontite, with which they are connected through
the oxysulphids, voltzite and kermesite. It is to recall these resemblances
to the sparry Oxydates that we have called this suborder, Spatometallinea.
It is worthy of note that not only the elements selenium and phosphorus,
but the sulphids of mercury and of antimony are found in two distinct
specific forms, and belong to both of these suborders; and there seems
some reason to believe that under the head of fahlerz or gray copper may
be included, besides the species belonging to the Spatometallines, others
which pertain to the Metallometallines.

8. In proceeding to divide into tribes and genera the various groups of
species indicated in the preceding review of the order of Metallata, we are
guided alike by the composition, as shown by chemical analysis, and by
the physical characters of hardness and condensation. The latter, as
indicated by the value of 2, calculated for the elemental unit as already
defined (§ 8), is the reciprocal of the coefficient of condensation. This
value will be seen to diminish with the increase of hardness of the species,
as represented by degrees given on the scale of Mohs, in which the hard-
ness == E100, 4552 10:0;

In fixing the value of p for those metals which like iron and chromium,
like copper, mercury, gold, tin, palladium and platinum, yield two dis-
tinct chlorids, we have in all cases taken the amount of metal which, in
the ferrous, chromous, cuprous, aurous, stannous, palladous and platinous
compounds, is combined with one portion (85.5 parts) of chlorine. A simi-
lar rule, as already shown (§ 3), is applied in the case of arsenic, antimony
and bismuth, This unit-weight of the metal = p, when divided by d—
the specific gravity, water = 1.000—gives the value of v.

(1.) The metals and their alloys, which we include in the tribé of the
Metalloidex, present, unlike the other tribes of the order, wide differences

Hunt.] 178 [May 4,

in hardness, condensation, fusibility and chemical characters, which can
now only be briefly noticed. Of the hard and less fusible metals, chro-
mium, manganese, iron, nickel and cobalt with p = 26—29.5, give values
for o == 3.4 — 3.6; while the denser group of palladium, rhodium and
ruthenium, with p = 52 — 58, and also the still heavier group of plati-
num, iridium and osmium, in which p = 97 — 99, agree in having v =
4.5 —4.6. The softer and more fusible metals, gold and silver, give » =
10 — 10.5. ; the value of » for solid mercury being 13.9, for lead 9.2, for
tin 8.0, and for cadmium, copper and magnesium 6.5 — 6.9. With these
it is instructive to compare the values of o for the alkali metals, cesium =
70, rubidium = 56, potassium = 44, sodium = 24, and lithium = 12; as
also barium, strontium and calcium, in which » is from 12.5 to 17.5.

(2.) The tribe of the Galenoidex is conveniently divided into the three
subtribes of sulphids, selenids and tellurids, which we designate Thiogal-
enoidex, Selenogalenoides and Tellurogalenoidee. Of these, the first in-
cludes the typical genus Thionites, embracing the native sulphids of lead,
silver and copper, together with metacinnabar, stibnite and bismutite ;
having H=2—3;0=%7—8. The subtribe of the Selenogalenoids in-
cludes a genus which may be called Eucairites, embracing besides eucair-
ite (cuproso-argentic selenid) various other selenids of lead, silver, cop-
per, mercury and bismuth ; H = 2—3; »—8—9.5. The subtribe of
Tellurogalenoids includes various tellurids of silver, gold, lead, mercury,
nickel and bismuth, with H = 2.5 — 3.5 ; o = 8 —10.5 ; which we include
in the genus Tellurites. The soft flexible foliated sulphids like sternbergite,
argyropyrite, friesite, covelline, and perhaps molybdenite, may constitute
a second genus of the first subtribe, with the name of Thiophyllites ; while
tetradymite and nagyagite perhaps may form a similar division of the
Tellurgalenoids, as Tellurophyllites.

(3.) In the third tribe we include many sulphids which are near in hard-
ness, in condensation, and in other characters, to the last, and are chiefly
sulphids of lead, copper and silver united with sulphid of antimony, of
bismuth, or more rarely of arsenic. The antimonial species of this tribe
are represented by the well-known species, bournonite ; from which the
name of the tribe, Bournonoidex, and the genus Bournonites ; having
H = 2—3.5; 0» =7— 8.5. The large group of bismuthic species, having
similar values for H and 2, and many other points of resemblance, of
which emplectite is a representative, constitute the genus Emplectites.
These two genera present instructive examples of progressive series,
especially in the double sulphids of antimony and lead, Sb,8,. »PbS in
which m has values of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and, in a related species, even equals
12. The species enargite is an arsenical bournonoid, and to this tribe may
perhaps belong some of the forms of fahlerz or gray copper ore.

(4.) The next three tribes are distinguished from the two preceding—
which correspond to, the Glances of the natural-history system—by their
much greater hardness and condensation, and were included in the order

seg

|
t

stage

on

1888.] 1 79 (Hunt.

Pyrites of the same system, but are here divided on chemical grounds.
The tribe of the Pyritoideee may be divided into two genera, the harder
designated as Pyrites with H = 5.5 —6; 0 =—3.8 — 4.5, includes cubic
and prismatic iron pyrites, with linneite, siegenite, carrolite and laurite ;
while the genus Pyritinus, H = 3.5 — 4.0; v 4.5 — 5.5, embraces troilite,
pyrrhotite, allabandite, millerite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, cubanite, and
probably stannipyrite.

(5.) The tribe of Smaltoidez includes the various arsenids of cobalt,
nickel, and iron, of which leucopyrite and smaltite are representatives,
and which we have included in the genus Smaltites, with H = 5 — 6;0 =
3.6 — 4.5. The arsenids of copper, with less hardness and a higher value
for v, will form a distinct genus, Algodonites. Closely related to Smal-
tites is the antimonial species, breithauptite; while the antimonid of
copper, horsfordite, and apparently dyscrasite, are near to Algodonites.

(6.) The tribe of Arsenopyritoidex, embracing the genus Arsenopyrites,
includes the compounds of sulphid of arsenic with sulphids of iron,
cobalt and nickel, of which arsenopyrite or mispickel is a type, H=5—6;
© = 2.9 — 3.5. Near to these are some little known double sulphids
holding antimony and bismuth, as ullmannite, corynite, alloclasite and
grunauite.

(7.) Passing now to the suborder Spatometallinea, we have in the tribe
Spatometalloides those forms of phosphorus and of selenium which are
wanting in the inetallic characters, including the colorless and the ordi-
nary red phosphorus, apparently two forms of selenium, and the various
known species of sulphur.

(8.) The tribe Sphaleroidex includes the genus Sphalerites, embracing
sphalerite, wurtzite, christophite, greenockite, hauerite, oldhamite, and
cinnabar, having H = 2.5 —4.0; 0 =6—¥7. Here also belong the red
antimony sulphid, metastibnite,* and the arsenical sulphids, realgar and
orpiment.

(9.) The tribe Proustoides includes the genus Pyrargyrites, under which
we may include, in two subgenera, both the arsenical and the antimonial
red silver ores, including proustite, pyrargyrite, miargyrite, etc.; with
H=2—3;v=8-—49. In this tribe also are included the arsenical and
the antimonial forms of fahlerz as members of a genus, Tennantites, in
which moreover are placed, binnite, dufrenoysite, livingstonite, etc.,
having H = 3.5 — 4.5; 0 = 6.5 — 77.5.

The following table gives a synoptical view of the tribes and genera
above proposed for the order of the Metallata. Further studies may prob-
ably show reasons for further subdivision of some of these genera, and
for the establishment of new ones.

* The native red sulphid of antimony, Sh2S3, occurs abundantly as an amorphous
deposit from thermal alkaline sulphurous waters, with sulphids of arsenic and cinnabar,
at Steamboat Springs, Washoe county, Nevada, according to a private communication
from Dr. G. F. Becker, who suggests the name of metastibnite.

180

Order METALLATA.

Suborder A. METALLOMETALLINE A.

Tribe 1, METALLOIDE (Metals, alloys, metallic Se and P).
« 2. GALENOIDE, including three subtribes :
a. Thiogalenoidee ; Thionites, Thiophyllites.
b. Selenogalenoidee ; Eucairites.
c. Tellurogalenoidee ; Tellurites, Tellurophyllites.
. BOURNONOIDE® ; Bournonites, Emplectites.
. PyriTorpEa ; Pyrites, Pyritinus.
. SMALTOIDE# ; Smaltites, Algodonites.
. ARSENOPYRITOIDE ; Arsenopyrites.

a Ok PB CO

Suborder B. SPATOMETALLINE &.

Tribe 7. SPATOMETALLOIDE® (Sulphur, non-metallic Se and P).
“« 8. SPHALEROIDEA ; Sphalerites.
« 9. PRroustoipE# ; Pyrargyrites, Tennantites.

The writer has prepared tables, giving for each species in the order of
the Metallata besides hardness, specific gravity and crystalline system, the
chemical formula, represented by a simplified notation, as indicated in
§ 38, together with the unit-value for p, and the value of o calculated
therefrom. For each species moreover, besides its trivial designation, are
given its generic and specific Latin names. Thus, for example, we
have for the species above named under the genus Pyrites ; P. cubicus,
P. prismaticus, P. cobalteus, P. niccolocobalteus, P. cuprocobalteus and
P. rutheneus ; while the named species of Pyritinus are ; P. ferrosus, P.
magneticus, P. manganeus, P. niccoleus, P. ferroniccoleus, P. cupreus,
P. subcupreus and P. stanneus. Again, the above-named species of the
genus Sphalerites are; S. zinceus vulgaris, 8. zinceus hexagonus, 8. fer-
rozinceus, 8. manganeus, 8. calcareus, 8. mercureus and 8. stibeus. A
similar task, except so far as regards generic and specific names, has
already been accomplished for the order of the Silicates in the essay
published in 1886, already cited, and is now well advanced for most of
the other orders. When completed, the whole will be published with
explanatory and critical details, as a Systematic Mineralogy, to be fol-
lowed by a Descriptive Mineralogy.

_naesaaemnentemnt tci

1888. ] 1 81 [Dugés.

Sur deuw espéces nouvelles des Ophidiens de Mewique.

Par Alfredo Dugés.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 4, 1888.)

ERYTHROLAMPRUS GRAMMOPHRYS A. Dugés.

Ce petit Ophidien me parait €étre un opistoglyphe, autant que j’en puis
juger par le maxillaire supérieur dont les dents postérieures, bien séparées
des antérieures, sont cassées 4 la base: les outres dents sont relativement
courtes et assez longues. Au premiér aspect on pense & une Rhadinea ou
& un Liophis, mais cet individu n’a pas les dents égales comme la premieré,
ni un pore aux écailles comme le derniér. En le jugeant d’aprés mes
dessins, le Prof. E. D. Cope 1a comparé 4 Erythrolamprus fissidens Ginth.,
mais celui-A a au moins 19 rangs d’écailles et 8 labiales supérieures, dont
les 4éme et 5€me touchent |’ceil; sa coloration est différente.

Fig. 1.—Erythrolamprus grammophrys Dugés.

Ecailles sans pores, lisses, rhomboidales, un peu plus grandes sur les
flancs, et d’un luisant comme huileux. En regardant de profil, ou voit une
petite portion des gastrostéges. Ventre un peu aplati, mais le tronc lége-
rément comprimé quoiqu’il paraisse cylindrique au premier abord. Can-
thus rostralis plat. Les 9 plaques céphaliques ordinadires avec les carac-
teres qu’elles ont chez les érythrolampres: rostrale non saillante : deux
nasales avec la narine entre les deux: une frénale allongée horizontale-
ment et touchant en haut & la 2éme préfrontale qui est rabattue sur les
cétés & angle mousse: une pré- et 2 postoculaires: temporales 1 + 2—=
3: sept suslabiales, les 8¢me et 4¢me sous l]’ceil, la sixieme plus grande :
préoculaire étroite en bas: rostrale arrondie en haut, plus large que haute,
non rabattue sur Je museau : 8 sous-labiales : 4 sous-maxillaires allongées,
les deux postérieures écartées & leur extrémité ; 5 sous-labiales en contact
avec elles. Ou compte au milieu du corps 17 rangs d’écailles ; 175 gas-
trostegés ; anale double ; 41 urostegés doubles? (l’éxtremité de la queue
est un peu tronquée. )

Longueur de la téte, 0™,013: largeur, 0™,008.

Milieu du corps: hauteur 0™,0075 ; largeur 0™, 007.

Dugés.] 182 [May 4,

Corps avec la téte, long: 0™,80; queue : 0™,06 (probablement 0m,075.)

Coloration. Dos brun ardoisé. Flancs brun-roux. Dessous du corps
jaunatre sans taches. Dessous de la téte blanc jaunatre finement pointillé
de gris clair surtout en dehors des gulaires. Une ligne blanche interrom-
pue commence au bord externe des internasales, passe en haut de la portion
rabattue des préfrontales, traverse l’angle supérieur des predculaires, les
post oculaires supéricures, l’angle antéroexterne des pariétales et termine
3 la partie postérosupérieur des premierés temporales. Les labiales supé-
rieures et la rostrale sont grisitres dans leur moitie inférieure er brunes en
haut, les deux couleurs étant séparées par une ligne blanche au dessous de
laquelle le gris est plus foncé. Sur les flancs on distingue assez vagues
ment une bande brune longitudinale qui, par places, parait formée de troi-
lignes. Patrie: Tengohecho, Etat de Michoacan.

HEMIGENIUS VARIABILIS Alf. Dugés.

Ce petit serpent a des grands rapports avec la Storeria Bd. et Girard mais
il n’a qu’une paire des plaques mentonniéres et une plaque loreale, char-
actéres sur lesquelles je propose d’etablir le genre nouveau Hemigenius.

“oe
a

Fig. 2.—Hemigenius variabilis Dugés, 2,

Longueurs. Téte..... 0™,009 Gastrostéges.......122
Corps.s + O80” Urostéges doubles.. 43
Queue... .0™, 048 Anale divisée.

Rangées d’écailles...15

Total.0™, 214

Les écailles qui touchent les plaques ventrales sont lisses et du double
plus grandes que celles du milieu du dos: toutes les autres sont carénées,
un-peu échancrées 4 la pointe et sans pores. L’extrémité de la queue est
emboitée par un petit étui corné, pointu et sillonné en dessus ; sur la
queue on voit une légére aréte formée par les carénes des écailles. Neuf
plaques sur le sommet de la téte ; verticale plus courte que la symphyse
des temporales, suballongée, plus étroite en arrieré et presque carrée en
avant. Deux préoculaires; la supériture plus grande, est separée de la
frontale par l’extrémité de la palpébrale. Une frénale a peine plus haute
que large. Nasale double ; la narine ouverte & la partie postérieure de
ja premiéie. Rostra'e plus large que haute, triangle 4 angles arrondis et

1888. ] 183 [Krauss.

échancrée en bas. Deux post-oculairés. Une grande temporale suivi de
trois ou quatre petites. Sept labiales supérieures dont le 8éme es 4éme tou-
chent l’ceil et les 5é¢me et 6¢me la grande temporale. Sept labiales infécieu-
res: les deux premiéres se touchent sur la ligne médiane, de sorte que les
premiéres sous-maxillaires ne touchent pas la mentonniére. Il y a cinque la-
biales en contact avec les sous-maxillaires : celles-ci sont au nombre de 4,
les deux premiéres grandes, les autres plus petites et séparées entre elles
par une ou deux gulairés, les dernierés varient, car tant6t il n’y en a qu’
une, tantdt il y en a un assez grand nombre.

La téte est peu distincte du corps; le museau arondi; 1’ceil assez grand,
la pupille ronde.

La langue est noire, l’iris rouge. La couleur générale varie du brun
jaunatre au rouge biique sur les parties supérieures avec une étroite ligne
médiodorsale plus pale et limitée sur les cOtes par deux lignes longitudi-
nales formées de points noiratres. La gorge est blanche et le dessous du
corps varie du rouge brique au blanc jaundtre. Entre les écailles la peau
est jaune. Les tempes sont d’un brun pale. Sur la téte, et dépassant un
peu les pariétales il y a une large tache marron, cardiforme en arriére ot
elle est plus foncée et comme divisée par une ligne mediane claire qui s 4-
vance entre les pariétales. Sur les extiémités des gastrostéges il y a un
nuage de trés-petits points grisatres.

Un autre individu d’un brun cannelle en dessus porte le long du dos un
grande nombre de petites raiés transversales formées de points bruns et
accompagnées sur les flancs par de petites taches verticales de la méme
apparence : la ligne dorsale pale est & peine visible.

J’ai trouvé ce petit serpent 4 la Barranca de Portillo (Guadalajara) et
aussi 4 Guanajuato. II est tout-4-fait inoffensif.

Ibrahim Nukit. Hin Guslarenlied der Mohammedanischen Slaven in der
Hercegovina.

Von Dr. Friedrich 8. Krauss (Vienna).
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 7, 1888.)

Wer slavisches Wesen erkunden will, geht irre, falls er die s. g. alt-
slavische Literatur und vielleicht zur Erginzung die modernen slavischen
Kunstliteraturen durchstébert. Jene bietet ihm nichts dar als haufig
ganz wertlose Uebersetzungen der hl. Schriften des alten und neuen
Testamentes und unsiiglich naive Heiligenlegenden, die Kunstliteratur
der Slaven weist dagegen vorwiegend Nachbildungen abendlandischer
Muster auf. Erst in neuerer Zeit hat man als die richtige Quelle der Er-
kenntniss slavischen Wesens das slavische Volkstum erkannt. Die Cul-
turzustiinde der Slaven iiberhaupt, insbesondere aber des Serbischen

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. xxv. 128. x. PRINTED OcT. 18, 1888.

Krauss. ] 184 [Sept. 7,

Stammes in Bosnien und der Hercegovina, sind ungleich einfacher und
durchsichtiger als bei den Deutschen und Romanen. Die Hercegoviner
und Bosnier befinden sich z. B. noch gegenwirtig’zum grossen Teil in
einem epischen Zeitalter, trotz oder vielleicht gerade wegen der vielen
zu intensiven Beriihrungen mit deutschen, romanischen und tiirkisch-
orientalischen, der slavischen unendlich tiberlegenen Culturen.

Mit tibersttirzender Eile verfliichtigt sich in aller neuester Zeit in Bos-
nien und der Hercegovina der Altere slavische Volksstamm. Fir den
Ethnographen gilt es noch zu retten und zu bewahren, was zu retten und
bewahren ist. In diesem Behufe habe ich in den Jahren 1884 bis 1885 die
genannten Provinzen bereist und durchforscht. Ueber die Ergebnisse
meiner Forschungsreise habe ich mehrfach eingehénd berichtet. Die
Ausbeute an neuen Materialien fiel tiber alle Erwartung gross und umfang-
reich aus. Ich will nur eine Kategorie davon hier hervorheben, die epi-
schen Dichtungen, deren ich tiber 160,000 Verse aus dem Volksmunde zum
grossten Teil selber aufgezeichnet habe. Von besonderer Bedeutung sind
die mohammedanisch-slavischen Epen, die sich sowohl durch poetische
Ausdrucksweise und grosse Mannigfaltigkeit des Inhaltes als auch durch
bedeutenden Umfang sehr vorteilhaft gegeniiber den bisher bekannten
Serbischen Hadjuken und verwandten Epen auszeichnen. Ich habe in
meiner Sammlung z. B. ein Epos von 3157 Versen und iiber ein Dutzend
solcher die mehr als 1600 Verse zihlen. Neu und eigenartig ist ein jedes
einzelne Guslarenlied darunter. Einige habe ich wohl schon im Texte
mit ethnographischen Erérterungen und auch vereinzelt mit einer Ueber-
setzung versehen herausgegeben. Hier mége als Muster ein kleineres
Lied dieser Art Platz finden. Das Lied commentirt sich von selber in
seiner anspruchslosen Einfachheit. Die wenigen Fussbemerkungen sol-
len bloss zur Hrinnerung, nicht etwa zur Belehrung dienen. Ich besitze
auch ein Lied vom Ende des Helden Ibrahim Nukié; dasselbe riihrt aber
von einem altgliubigen Guslar her. Es soll, woméglich einmal zur Ver-
gleichung mit dem vorliegenden mohammedanischen, gleichfalls in dieser
Zeitschrift Platz finden.

Bemerken will ich, dass die Handlung vor etwa 250 Jahren sich abge-
spielt haben mag und dass die im Liede genannten Persdnlichkeiten
auch anderweitig wohl beglaubigt erscheinen.

Zu Udbina an der Kaiserbriicke
in der weissgetiinchten Kneipe sitzen
an des griinen Longja-Fliisschens Ufer
dreissig Edelleute von Udbina
5 und ergetzen sich an kiithlem Weine.
Zwischen ihnen sitzt der greise Gejvan
und an seiner Seite Fahnrich Nukié.

ZaV.1. Udbina, gegenwiirtig ein kleiner Bezirksort in der Lika, wird nun zu Kroa-
tien gerechnet.

Zu V.5, Die mohammedanischen Slaven verschmiihten das Weintrinken nicht, im
Gegensatz zu den tibrigen, strenggliiubigen Mohammedanern,

1888. ] 1 85 [Krauss.

Da erscheint im weiten Feld ein Tatar ;
und der Tatar ist schon gleich zur Stelle,
10 schwingt sich flink herab vom braven Résslein
und tritt zu den Herren ein ins Wirtshaus.
— Selam alej¢, Herren von Udbina !
rief er ihnen gellend zu auf Tiirkisch.
— Alejé selam! gaben in der Runde
15 — einzeln ihm die Edlen gleich zur Antwort.
Und der Tatar greift in seinen Busen,
zieht heraus den kaiserlichen Ferman
und er reicht ihn dar dem greisen Gejvan.
Gejvan liest den Ferman, und ihm perlen
20 iiberm weissen Bart die Thriinen nieder.
Fahnrich Nukié fragt ihn drob verwundert :
— O mein Ohm, du hochbetagter Gej van,
was verfliesst du so in Thrinen schrecklich ?
Sprich, woher ist dieser Brief gekommen?
25 Moécht ihn lodernd Feuer doch verzehren !
— O mein Schwesters6hnchen Fahnrich Nukié,
dieser Brief so zierlich kraus beschrieben
ist ein Ferman mit des Sultans Siegel.
“‘Hinzufangen ist Vrek Gnjatijevié
30 in dem griinen Hochgebirg Tihanja,
denn der Rauber lagert auf den Strassen
und mit dreissig seiner Raubgesellen
sperrt er ab den einen Weg zu Lande
und zwei andere die vom Meer ausfithren.
35 Keine Kaufmannswaaren zieh’n des Weges—
keine Ballen, keine Maultierladung,
noch des Kaisers Steuergeld gewaltig.
Fang mir bald den Gnjatijevi¢ Vrek ein.
Sende mir sein Haupt hieher nach Stambol;
40 kannst du’s nicht, so schick’ den eig’nen Kopf her !’?
Nun, mein Ibro, muss ich denn nicht jammern
weil ich jenen Ker] nicht kann erwischen?
— Liebster Ohm, mein Viterchen, mein Alter |
sei nicht traurig, lass den Mut nicht sinken,
45 denn dem Kaiser muss man stets gehorchen
Jetzo gilt es einen Plan zu fassen,
auf die Wiiste Tihanja zu ziehen
und den Rauber im Gebirg zu suchen.

ZuV. 8 Tataren waren die offiziellen Courriere in der Tiirkei.

zu V.12. Tirkisch richtig: selamaleikum—Friede mit Euch !

ZaV.17, Ferman, Persisch: Brief.

Za VY. 30. Tihanja heisst im Volksmunde das nunmehr verkarstete Berggebiet im
Stidwesten von der Lika und dem chorvatischen Kiistenland. Gemeint ist offenbar die
alte Handelsstrasse, die von Zengg (Senj) nach Bosnien fiihrte.

Krauss. ] 186 [Sept. 7,

ty

Nimm du mit an dreissig Kiimpen tiichtig,
50 die ein Loch im Leibe wenig achten,
wenn die Kugel einem durch den Leib dringt,
und den jaihen Tod, mein Ohm, verachten.
— O mein Ibro, du mein teu’rer Neffe,
du musst mit, sonst wiir’s kein rechter Kriegspfad.
55 O mein Viterchen, mein Gej vanaga,
gerne zége Ibro auf Tihanja
mit zum Fang des Raiubers Gnjatijevié;
doch ich hab ’ne Maid erst jiingst erworben,
des Bab Ahmetovié von Otoka
60 holde Tochter, die viel edle Zilka.
Morgen kehrt mir heim mein brauner Renner,
auf ihm kommt sch6n Zilka hergeritten,
mit ihr hundert schmucke Hochgezeiter.
Vorwirts, Ohm, du sammle deine Mannen,
65 fiihr’ die Mannen nach Karamanovci,
dorten wirst du deines Ibro harren
bis mein braunes Schlachtenrésslein heimkommt.
Dreissig Mannen schaarten um den Greis sich ;
Fort zog Gejvan nach Karamanovei.
70 Ibro blieb daheim auf schlanker Warte.
Doch schon nah'n die schmucken Hoch gezeiter ;
unter Zilka das braune Streitross.
Ibro sattelt wieder auf den Braunen,
und begibt sich auf die Ober-Warte,
vi) legt da ab die schone Festtagskleidung
und legt an die helle Waffenriistung ;
festigt um den Gurt den scharfen Sibel,
zwei Pistolen steckt er in den Gurt ein
und dann nimmt er in die Hand die Flinte,
80 seine blanke Damaszenerflinte.
Seine Mutter harrt im Hofraum seiner
und sie hiingt sich um den Hals dem Sohne :
— “O mein Nukié, deines Mutter Freude !
nein, du darfst nicht in’s Tihanj-Gebirge,
85 nach dem Rauber Gnjatijevié jagen.

ZuV.59 Otoka, gegenwirtig eir Dirfehen unweit des Stiidtchen Krupa, an dem Una-
Fliisschen. Die Ruinen der Burgwarte Ahmetovié’s sind noch ziemlich gut erhalten.
Bab Ahmetovié war ein hochberiihmter Held, wie ihn das Volkslied der Mohamme- i
daner darstellt.

mV. 60. Zilka ist der slavisirte Name von Sulejma, bezw. Suleika.

Zu V. 62. Die Braut wird vom Hochzeitszug, nach ttirkischem Brauche, dem Briiuti-
gam zugefithrt. Der Zug wird yon den Eltern des Briutigams ausgeriistet.

Zu V.66. Es ist eine Kigentiimlichkeit der serbischen und zum Teil auch der an-
deren Volksausdrucksweise, dass der Erziihler hiiufig yon sich als wie von einem
dritten erzihlt.

1888. ] 1 87 [Krauss,

Ach, ich hatte neun, 0 weh’ mir, Séhne,
Gejvan hat mir alle neun entfiihret,
doch nicht einen je zuriickgefiihret.
Sohn ! noch jeder ist mir umgekommen,
90 Nun bist du mein einz’ger Trost ; Ibrahim,
deine Mutter hat nur dich auf Erden !”’
— ‘‘Dennoch, Mutter, zich’ ich mit dem Oheim,
ja, ich schwor’s bei dieser Welt und jener !’’
Als sie sah, dass sie’s ihm nicht verwehren
95 und Ibrahim gar nicht kann bekehren
bat sie ihn von wehem Leid ergriffen :
““Geh mein Ibro auf die Wartekammer,
wo ich euch das Brautbett bergerichtet,
und erfreu dich deines Brautchens Zilka.
100 Ach, vielleicht entspriesst dem Bund ein Spréssling,
dass mein Feuerherd nicht ganz verdde !’’
Ibro geht nun auf die Oberwarte,
auf das Zimmer unterm Dach der Warte,
nimmt die Tambura aus Perlmutter,
105 klépfelt hell darauf und singt ein Liedchen :
«‘Weilt mein Ohm schon auf Karamonovei ?
harrt er dort schon seines Faihnrichs Nukié?”’
Bis zum hellen Morgengrauen spielte
er die ganze Nacht hindurch und wachte,
110 mocht’ der Liebe Freuden nicht geniessen.
Gegen Morgen gab er seiner Zilka
in die Hand wohl dreimalhundert blanker, gelber
ungarlind’scher Golddukaten.
— ‘“‘Nimm da, Zilka, in Empfang die Mitgift
115 und dann noch nach Gebiihr das Achtel,
komm ich jemals oder niemals wieder,
du bist ein fiir allemal gesichert.”’
Ibro sprang nun auf und schritt zur Thire,
lief hinab im Nu zu seinem Braunen,
120 schwang sich auf den zierlich schlanken Braunen,
ritt durch’s Griin der Udbinaer Auen.
Als er in Karamanovci ankam
sah ihn schon von fern der greise Oheim ;
rasch erhob sich da der greise Gejvan
125 kiisste seinen Neffen auf die Stirne.
Und Ibrahim hub nun an zum Greise:
— ‘“O mein Ohm, mein edler Gejvanaga,
Za V.97. Die Brautkammer war in den Ritterburgen das oberste Gemach der Warte.
Za V. 104. Tamburaist eine Art diinnbiiuchiger, schmalhalsiger Mandolinen mit 4 bis
6 Stahlsaiten bespannt.
Za V. 115. Er gibt ihr den achten Teil seines eigenen Besitzes, das der Mann im

Falle einer Ehescheidung der Frau auszahlen muss.
Zu V.126. Manner kiissen einander auf die Stirne zwischen die Augenbraunen,

130

135

140

145

150

155

160

165

170

188

noch ist abgehetzt mein braunes Risslein ;
lass uns diese Nacht allda noch nachten,
morgen fahnden wir dann nach dem Rauber.’’
Und der Greis befolgt den Rat Ibrahim’s.
Als am Morgen friih der Morgen graute,
schaute Ibro nach den braven Rossen.
Alle hatten aufgezehrt den Hafer,
nur der Braune nicht einmal verkostet.
Voller Unruh’ wiehert schrill das Résslein,
reisst die Hiirde um und scharrt den Boden.
Ibro sagt davon dem greisen Gejvan.
Drob, vergiesst der greise Cejvan Thriinen ;
— ‘‘Weh, ein bises Zeichen ! denn es kostet
mich mein Leben oder dich das deine,
oder wird dein braunes Streitross enden |”
Tranken drauf den Morgenbranntweinschoppen,
bis nach einer Weil’ der greise Gejvan
seiner Schaar von Waffenbriidern zurief :
— ‘‘Wessen Mutter mag sich dess berithmen,
dass sic einen Heldensohn geboren,
wessen Schwesterlein sich dessen riihmen,
dass sie auf dem jungfriulichen Schoosse,
mir den tapf’ren Kiimpen grossgezogen,
der mit meiner Schaar wiir’ ausgezogen,
um im griinen Hochgebirg Tihanja
jene Felsenl.éhlung auszukunden,
ob sich Vrek noch im Gebirge aufhalt
in der Kiihle, unter Felsenwiinden?’”’
Da verstummten alle die Gefiihrten,
senkten feig den Blick zu Boden nieder,
nur Ibiahim Nukié kiihn verwegen
schaute fest dem Greis in’s braune Auge.
— “Greiser Gejvan, hier ist solcher Kimpe,
der sich traut nach Tihanja zu gehen
Lings der zwilf verengten Felsenpiisse ;
da kann Mann an Mann nicht vorwiirts schreiten
mag da keiner vor dem ander’n weichen
muss das scharfe Schwert den Pfad erweiten.
Horch nun auf, mein greiser Cej vanaga,
sollt Ibrahim schwer in Not geraten,
geb’ ich Feuer meinen Paar Pistolen,
wirst du eiligst Hilf’ in Not mir bringen.”’
‘Ja, mein teu’res Kind, ach ja, mein Ibro !’”
Kiissten sich und nahmen letzten Abschied.
Ibro schwang sich auf sein braunes Résslein,
zog entlang der sonnverbrannten Piisse
und durchzog sie atle heil und gliickl'ch.

’

=e aati

1888.] 189 [Krauss.

175 Als er in die Felsenhohl’ gelangte,
fand er speisenreich gedeckt die Tische
und mit Wein gefiillt die vollen Humpen.

Keiner von den Riubern war zugegen.
Darauf spornte Ibro an den Braunen,

180 jagte weiter ins Tihanja-Gebirge
bis er die Cisterne dort erspahte,
wo sich dreissig Rauber hingelagert,

Vrek Gnjatijevié an ihrer Spitze ;
der gewahrte bald den Fahnrich Nukié ;

185 sprach darauf zu seinen dreissig Riubern :
— ‘‘Legt nicht auf Ibrahim an die Flinten,
denn ich hab’s gelobt beim Namen Gottes,
nie der Mutter einz’ gen Sohn zu tédten.
Seiner Mutter einzig Kind ist Ibro

190 und zudem ein Held ganz sonder Gleichen.
Legt nicht auf Ibrahim an die Flinten!”’

Doch Ibrahim rief er zu die Warnung :
— ‘He, fiir dich ist hier kein Wein bereitet !"’
Ibro sprach darauf zu ihm vom Braunen :

195 — ‘‘Muss da meinen Braunen erst befragen,

ob fiir mich bei Euch kein Wein bereitet sei.’’
Alsbald ziickte er den Sabel gliinzend,

stiirmte dreimal auf und ab im Kreise,

saibelte die dreissig Rauber nieder. .

200 Vrek Gnjatijevi¢ zur Flucht sich wendend,

nahm aus seinem Giirtel zwei Pistolen,
, beide silbern und dazu vergoldet,

und bedrohte jetzt den Helden Ibro,

um Ibrahim Einhalt zu gebieten.

205 Zwei, ja dreimal rief ihm zu der Riiuber :
— ‘“Hetz mich linger nicht, Ibiahim Nukié,
denn ich hab’s gelobt beim Namen Gottes
nie der Mutter einzig Kind zu tédten !’’

Ibro lisst sich dadurch nicht beirren,

210 ~—- sondern greift noch heft’ger an den Rauber.
Vrek reisst sich vom Leib drei goldne Buckeln
um Ibrahim dadurch aufzuhalten,

Ibro mag die Buckeln gar nicht anschau’n,
stiirmt noch béser los auf Vrek, den Rauber.

215 ’S ziickt Vrek sein grimmig scharfes Krummschwert

Zu V.181. Im Karst findet man iiusserst selten Quellwasser. Die Karstbewohner
trinken ausschliesslich Regenwasser aus Cisternen.

Zu V. 186 ff. Derartige Geliibde gelobt jeder Riiuber, so z. B. ist ein allgemeines Riiu-
bergeliibde, keine Frauen noch Kinder zu tédten oder Miidchen zu vergewaltigen.

Zu Y. 210. Buckeln, faustgrosse, geplittete Knépfe auf dem Wams.

Krauss. ]

220

225

230

240

245

260

Zu V. 230. Kolben, d. h. den Streitkolben, der mit hervorste henden, scharfen Spitzen
versehen war,

190 [Sept. 7,

und rief aus voller Heldenkehle :
— ‘Jag mich nicht mehr weiter, Fahnrich Nuk ié,
denn ich tat bei Gott ein hoch Geliibde,
nie den Miittern ihre einz’gen Kinder,
ihrer alten Tage Trost zu tédten.”’
Ibro achtet dieser Reden gar nicht,
sondern jagt den Rauber Alpen abwarts.
Vrek ermiidete auf dieser Hetzjagd
und verbarg sich hinter einem Baumstrunk,
vor dem Aug erblitzte ihm die Flinte,
seine helle Damaszenerflinte ;
und es traf den Falkensohn Ibrahim
bés die Kugel mitten in die Leber.
Blut begann ihm aus der Brust zu quellen.
Ibro spornte schirfer an den Braunen
ohn’ der heissen Wunde nur zu achten.
Dreimal schwang er seinen schweren Kolben,
liess auf Vrek ihn dreimal niedersausen,
nahm dann aus dem Busen rasch die Fesseln,
fesselte die Hiinde Vrek, dem Rauber.
Qualen schufen ihm die Todeswunden
die ihm Vrek’s Gewehr und Hieb verursacht;
und er zog heraus das Paar Pistolen
gab zugleich den beiden lobend Feuer,
da befiel-ihn finster schwer die Ohnmacht.
Als der Greis die zwei Pistolenschiisse
die ihm Kunde taten, jetzt vernommen,
sprang er augenblicklich auf die Beine,
schwang sich hurtig auf sein Ross, den Tauber,
und ihm folgten seine dreissig Mannen,
Grinzer sind es, auserles’ne Kampen.
Als der Greis auf's Hochgebirg gelangte,
auf’s Gebirge zum Cisternenwasser,
fand er dort die dreissig Réuberleichen.
Man besah der Reihe nach die Leichen,
doch darunter war nicht Faibnrich Nukié.
Alsdann folgt er rasch der Spur des Braunen |
und er fand die kleinen zwei Pistolen,
fand darauf drei gold’ne Buckeln gliinzend,
und erblickte bald in naher Ferne
unterm Braunen, unterm Falkenrésslein \
Fahnrich Nuki¢ matt und kraftlos liegen,
wie er sich im eignen Blute badet.
Neben Ibro sah er Vrek, den Rauber,
fest an einen Tannenbaum gebunden.

1888, ] 1 9 1 (Krauss.

Bei Ibrahim sinkt der Greis zur Erde
nieder und bedeckt ihn heiss mit Kiissen.
‘‘Kannst du, Ibro, diesen Schmerz verwinden ?
265 glaubst du nicht, die Wunden werden heilen
wenn ich, Sohn, nach Udbina dich schaffe?’’
— ‘Ach, die Wunden iiberleb’ ich nimmer ;
nimm mir lieber ab die Riistung prichtig,
giirt mir die Gewaffen ab und Kleidung,
270 iibergieb sie Halil, Mujo’s Bruder.
Migen sie von Held zum Helden wandern,
mag er lebenslang sich ihrer freuen
und des Bruders seiner Wahl gedenken !”’
Darauf nahm der Greis ihm alle Kleidung
sammt der Riistung uud den hellen Waffen,
zog dann heim in’s Udbinaer Flachland
wohl mit Vrek Gnjatijevic, dem Rauber,
fiihrte heim den wohlgenihrten Braunen.
Als ihn Nukié’s Miitterchen erblickte
280 lief sie auf die Strasse ihm entgegen,
in den Handen hielt sie zwei Pistolen
und sie legte beide auf den Greis an.
Ein Gewehr versagte, nur das and’re
gab sogleich ein Feuer, doch die Kugel
285 sauste durch die Luft am Gre’s voriiber.
Alsdann zog der Greis nach Sarajevo
in die Stadt zum Hasan-PaSa Kahlkopf
um Vrek Gnjatijevié auszuliefern.
_ Um des Riiubers willen war der PaSa
290 von Istambol nimlich hingekommen.
Vor den PaSa bracht’ der Greis den Riuber.
Darauf sprach zum Greis der edle PaSa:
— ‘Nun, wie geht’s dann meinem Wahlverwandten,
meinem teu’ren Bruder Fahnrich Nukié?’’
— “Ausgezeichnet geht’s dem Fahnrich Nukié,
hat sich doch der Bruder deiner Wahl erst
jiingst beweibt und jetzo kost und herzt er
tags und nachts sein trautes Eheliebchen.”’
Und der Pasa schmunzelte vergniiglich

~
~s
or

~
Je)
oO

Zu V. 271. Halil der Falke, der Bruder Mustapha Henjica’s (Hasenschwarte), des
Herrn von der Burg Kladusa, unweit Udbina. Beide Helden, viel gefeiert und geehrt
im Volke,

Zu V.273. Ueber die Wahlbriiderschaft bei den Siidslaven, vergl. “ Sitte und Brauch
der Siidslaven,’’ von Krauss, Wien, 1885, Cap. xxx,

Zu V. 287. Kahlkopf (Goso) ist der Spitzname. Es war der in der bosnischen Ge-
schichte berithmte Hasan-Pasa-Tiro, der auch Gouverneur yon Ofen war und die letzte
Belagerung yon Wien mitmachte.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XXV. 128. y. PRINTED oOcT. 20, 1888.

Krauss, ]

300

305

310

820

330

340

192

und dann frug er weiter aus den Alten:
— ‘‘Nun, wer hat den Strolch da eingefangen?’’
— ‘‘Vrek? den hab’ ich selber eingefangen.”’
Doch von riickwarts fallt ihm in die Rede
Vrek, der Rauber, ein: ‘‘O, was, du Stelze
willst den Rauber eingefangen haben?
Mich hat wohl ein Falke eingefangen
mutterseelenallein der Fahnrich Nukié.’’
Drob ergrimmte wild der edle PaSa
und befahl den Greis mitsammt dem Hindeng
Gnjatijevié in dem allertiefsten
Kerker von Sarajevo einzusperren.
Auf der Alpe war der Falke Ibro
einsam sterbeletzt zuriickgeblieben,
Horch ! ein Jauchzen! Dreier Alpenvilen
hell Gejauchze schallt von Berg zu Berge.
Kin Alpenvila jauchzt am Abhang
unten tief der Alpe Romanija
und die zweite Vila jauchzt in Mitten
von der waldbedeckten Romanija,
doch die dritte jauchzt auf héchstem Gipfel
aller Bergesh6hen Romanija’s.
Alsbald waren alle drei beisammen,
alle drei mit Nuki@ wohlverschwistert,
wandten hin und her den Fahnrich Nukié,
und sie riefen alle drei auf einmal :
«‘Diese Wunden lassen sich noch heilen !’’
Volle sieben Wochentage pflegten
seiner nun die Vilen ; auf die Wunden
legten sie so manches kriiftig Kriutlein,
bis nach Ablauf voller sieben Tage
Nukié [bro auf die Beine aufsprang
heil und munter ; und er griff nach einem
Tannenstab und zog fiirbass des Weges
immer abwarts lings Karamanovei.
Auf das eb’ne Udbina gelangte
bald der Falke ; kaum erschauten ihn die
dreissig Grinzer, brachen aus die Mannen
in ein endlos Jubeln ob der Heimkunft.
Ibro riistete dann aus ein Résslein,
plieb zu Nacht zwei Nichte bei der Mutter,

Zu V. 304, Im Texte: Sijaka, “‘Stelze,” ‘“Kriicke,” d.h. Cejyan brauche Kriicken, um
vorwirts zu kommen,

Zu V. 314,

Vilensind Waldfrdulein, urspriinglich als Baum- und spiter als Luftgeister

gedacht. Die Vilen schliessen sich als Wahlschwestern besonders guten und wackeren

Menschen an,

1888,] 193 (Krauss.

darauf machte er sich reisefertig
fort nach Sarajevo. Da bemerkte
Tale von OraSje: ‘‘O mein Wahlfreund,
ich begleit’ dich ; denn mein greiser Alter
345 sitzt zu Sarajevo eingekerkert.”’
Ibro gab sich dess zufrieden, und sie
schwangen sich auf ihre feisten Pferde,
und es zogen fort die beiden Tiirken
wiitig tiber Berge hin und Tiler,
350 gliicklich kamen sie an in Sarajevo.
Im Serail sitzt Hassan-Pa$v-Tiro.
Kaum erschaut der PaSi seinen Wahlfreund,
so befiehlt er, dass aus Kriegskanonen
Pdllerschiisse seine Freude kiinden.
Ks begriissten sich die Wahlgebriider,
legten in einander ihre weissen
Hinde und begaben Hand in Hand sich
in die weichen Stuben, die mit Pélstern
und mit Teppichen so reich bedeckt sind.
360 Und sogleich erkundigte sich Ibro,
wo sein greiser Ohm bis nun geblieben.
— ‘‘Dort, im dunkeltiefen Burgverliesse
schmachtet er zusammen mit dem Rauber
Vrek Gnjatijevié ; es soll dein Alter
365 augenblicklich freigelassen werden.
Doch nun sprich, mein teuerster Ibrahim,
was fiir Lohn begehrst du jetzt vom Kaiser ?’’
— ‘Bruder meiner Wahl, ich wiinsch’ mir einzig
nur ein Schwert mit kaiserlichem Sigel
370 wonach ich befugt war’ und berechtigt,
allezeit nach eigenem Ermessen
unbehelligt von dem Landeshauptmann,
in das Grenzgebiet auf Raub zu ziehen.”’
Ohne weiters gab ihm’s Schwert der PaSa,
875 ohne drauf noch ein Wort zu sagen.
Alsdann sprach er zum OraSjer Tale :
— “Sag nun du, bei Gott mein Bundesbruder,
sag’, womit ich dich nun kénnt’ erfreuen ?”
— “Ich verzicht auf’s Kampfschwert unterm Sigel

oo
ot
or

Zu V. 843, Tale (tiirk. Narr) war der Schalksnarr unter den Helden, ein grimmer
Degeu, mit dem nicht zu spassen war.

Zu V. 351. Serail, vom Pers. seraj, kéniglicher Hof. Slavisirt saraj. Davon der
Name der Stadt Sarajevo oder Serajevo (zum Serail gehorig).

Zu V. 369 ff. Sablja pod muhurom. Solche Ehrensiibel mit dem obgedachten Rechte,
wurden nur den ausgezeichneisten Grenzhauptleuten verliehen. Auch Muslapha
Henjica besass einen. Nach dem Ableben des Helden, musste der Sibel zuriickgegeben
werden,

Smith.]

380

885

390

400

405

408

194

insolang ich meinen dicken Kolben
mit den Buckeln habe ; kann, o Bruder,
auch mit ihm auf Kriegespfaden wandeln,
schenk mir lieber Geld auf Reisegehung.
Da beschenkte ihn der Paga reichlich
wohl mit einer halben Maultierladung
lauter weisser Talerstiicke, die in
einem Steinkrug aufbewahrt gewesen.
Tale von OraSje lachte hell auf.
Alsdann schwangen sie sich auf die Rosse,
stiegen auf die Rosse auf im Hofe,
und sie ritten fort, der Greis als Erster
und als Zweiter folgte nach Ibrahim,
und als letzter Tale auf dem Fahlen.
Als sie in der Handelsstrasse waren
bei den Handelsleuten in Sarajevo
streute Tale aus die weissen Taler
um sich ringsherum auf beide Seiten.
Hei, wie sich darum im Gassenkote
laut im Streit die flinken Jungen balgten!
Wie nun Tale in der Kneipe abstieg,
da besass er nicht einmal ein Kleingeld
um sich einen kitthlen Trunk zu zahlen,

sondern musst’ nach altem Brauche pumpen.

Darauf zogen unsere Helden heimwarts.
Was fiir Taten einst sich zugetragen
dess gedenke man in unser’n Tagen
wie des Georgstags vor allen Tagen
wie des Helden kiihn vor allen Magen.

[Sept. 7,

>

Action of the Gas from As,0, and HNO, upon m-Oxybenzoie Acid.

By Hdgar F. Smith (Springfield, Ohio).

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 7, 1888.) |

In Volume viii, No. 2, of the. American Chemical Journal, it was shown
that when the vapor arising from arsenic trioxide and nitric acid was per-
mitted to act upon the ethereal solution of methyl salicylate that both the
a- and the #-nitrosalicylic acids resulted.

Since then I prepared the ethyl ester of m-oxybenzoic acid and sub-

jected it toa similar action.
from the cooled ethereal solution.

A

A. powder of a brick-red color separated
The ethereal filtrate from the powder

was carefully evaporated upon a water-bath when there remained an oil

of a dark-red color.

—_

1a 195

The red powder was boiled for some time with a potassium hydroxide
solution, the latter concentrated and acidified with hydrochloric acid, when
a yellow mass was precipitated. This was dissolved in hot water, from which
it crystallized, on cooling, in yellow leaflets. These melted constantly at
230° C. By reference to Berichte, 20, 404, it will be seen that four distinct,
nitro-m-oxybenzoic acids exist ; of these the @-acid melts at 230° C., and
crystallizes in yellow leaflets. Other points of similarity show that the
acid obtained by me is identical with that termed § nitro m-oxybenzoic
acid. ;

The red oil exhibited no signs of crystallization, although I allowed it
to stand undisturbed for several months. It was also boiled with concen-
trated potassium hydroxide for ten hours. After concentration it was
allowed to cool, when rather large and well-defined monoclinic prisms,
having a deep chrome-red color, appeared. The salt was purified by re-
crystallization from water, and analyzed. Two estimations of the potas-
sium gave 13.02% and 13.00% K. On heating the salt explodes with
violence. The free acid crystallizes from water in long needles having a
light yellow color. It melts at 111°. Like its salt it explodes when
heated. Its taste is intensely bitter. In all respects it resembles the tri-
nitro-m-oxybenzoic acid mentioned by Griess, Annalen, 117, 28, and Beil-
stein, Annalen, 139, 11. These chemists, however, make no mention of
the melting point. The percentage of potassium required by an anhy-
drous salt of this acid is 12.58%.

The difficulty experienced in obtaining large quantities of the acid is
due to the fact that there are other products formed in the nitration pro-
cess, and these cling tenaciously to the acid, defying the most persistent
efforts to effect their removal.

Stated Meeting, May 18, 1888.
Present, 15 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

Letters of envoy from Institut Egyptien, Cairo; Institut
Méiéorologique de Roumanie, Bucharest; Museum of Com-
parative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass.

Letters of acknowledgment from Institut Egyptien, Cairo
(125); Magyar Tudomainyos Akademia, Buda-Pesth (125) ;
Prof. Edward Suess, Vienna (125, 126); Verein fiir Geogra-

196 [May 18,

phie und Statistik, Frankfurt-am-Main (126); Prof. Paul Al-
brecht, Hamburg (126); Société Entomologique, Bruxelles
(126); Prof. W. B. Dawkins, Manchester, Eng. (126); Mr. i!
Joseph Prestwich, Shoreham, Kent, Eng. (125, 126).

Accessions to the Library were reported from Institut Egyp-
tien, Cairo; Institut Météorologique de Roumanie, Bucharest ;
K. P. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin; K. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften, Gottingen ; K. Siichsische Gesellschaft der Wis-
senschaften, Leipzig; R. Accademia dei Lincei, Biblioteca N.C.
V.E., Rome; R. Geological Society of Cornwall, Penzance; Mr.
R. A. Macfea, Edinburgh; Messrs. J. R. Leeson & Co., Boston ;
New York Academy of Sciences, Dr. J.S. Newberry, Pub-
lishers of “The Globe,’ New York; Mr. W. J. Potts, Cam-
den; College of Pharmacy, Zoblogical Society, Dr. J. Cheston
Morris, Philadelphia; Pennsylvania Geological Survey, Har-
risburg; Departments of State and of the Interior, Washing-
ton, D. C.; Mr. M. C. Read, Hudson, O.; Museo Michoacano,
Morelia, Mexico.

The death of Dr. Gerhard vom Rath was announced as
having occurred on April 23, 1888.

Pending nominations Nos. 1176 to 1179 were read and
spoken to and balloted for.

Pending nomination No. 1180 was postponed.
The Proceedings of Officers and Council were submitted.

The following persons were reported as having been duly
elected members of the Society :

Mr. Talcott Williams, Philadelphia,

Prof. J. McKeen Cattell, Philadelphia,

Prof. Alphonse Favre, Geneva.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

197

Stated Meeting, September 7, 1888.
Present, 2 members.

Vice-President, Dr. RUSCHENBERGER, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

Letters desiring exchanges from the Observatorio Meteoro-
légico-Magnético Central-Mexico, and the Deutsche Wissen-
schaftliche Verein, Santiago; New Haven Colony Historical
Society. On motion, the requests were granted.

Circular from the R. Society of N.S. W. offering premiums
and medals for 1888, 1889, 1890.

Circular from the Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris in rela-
tion to the proposed exposition in 1889.

Circular from the International Congress of Americanists in
regard to the meeting to be held at Berlin in October, 1888.

Circular from the University of Bologna, thanking the
Society for sending a delegate to its 800th anniversary.

The following deaths were announced:

Sir George Burrows, London.

Rev. James Freeman Clarke, Jamaica Plains, Mass., June
8, 1888, xt. 78.

Rev. Charles W. King, Cambridge, England, March 25,
1888 (born Sept. 18, 1818).

Mr. Philip H. Law, Philadelphia, May 22, 1888, set. 49.

Prof. Henry Carvill Lewis, Philadelphia, July 20, 1888,
act. 36.

On motion, the President was authorized to appoint at his
discretion suitable persons to prepare the usual obituary notices
for Messrs. Law and Lewis.

Prof. Coleman Sellers presented his photograph for the
Society’s Album.

Letters of envoy were received from the Mining Department,
Melbourne, Victoria; Linnean Society of New South Wales,

198 eon Ty

Sydney; Geological Survey of India, Calcutta; Naturfor-
schender Verein in Briinn; Physikalisch-medicinische Socie-
tit, Erlangen; Verein fiir vaterliindische Naturkunde, Wiirt-
temberg ; Soci¢té de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle, Gendve ;
Bibliothéque de l’Université R. de Norvige; Royal Statistical
Society, Christiania ; Meteorological Office, London; Literary
and Philosophical Society, Manchester ; Royal Irish Academy,
Dublin; Bureau des Longitudes, Musée Guimet, Profs. Jules
de Guerne, E, Levasseur, Paris; Gen. H. L. Abbot, New York;
Gen. C. W. Darling, Utica; Elliott Society of Science and
Art, Charleston ; Indiana Society Civil Engineers and Survey-
ors, Remington; Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica,
México; Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires; Museu Nacional
do Rio de Janeiro.

Acknowledgments were received from the Royal Society of
Victoria (126) ; Royal Society of New South Wales (126); Lin-
nean Society of New South Wales, Sydney (96-126); Geo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta (126); Prof. Peter von
Tunner, Leobon, Austria (126); K. K. Geolog. Reichsanstalt,
Drs. Matthaeus Much, Dionys Stuer, Wien (126); Prof. Otto
Donner, Helsingfors, Finland (126); Comité Geologique de la
Russe, Imp. Russian Geographical Society (126); Profs. Serge
Nikitin, J. Pomialowsky, St. Petersburg (126); Observatoire
Astronomique et Physique de Tashkend, Russia (126); Deutsche
Geologische Gesellschaft, Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde, K. Preuss,
Meteorologisches Institut, Berlin (126); University of Bonn
(126); Verein fiir Hrdkunde, Dresden (126); Naturwissen-
schaftlicher Verein des Regierungs-Bezirks, Frankfurt a. O.
(96-127) ; Oberhess. Ges. fiir Natur und Heilkunde, Giessen
(126); Geographische Gesellschaft, Hannover (125); Bibli-
othek des Vogtl. Alterthumsforschender Vereins, Hohenleuben
(96-126, etc.); Zoologischer Anzeiger, Leipzig (126); Verein
fiir vaterlindische Naturkunde in Wiirttemberg, Stuttgart
(125, 126); Prof. C. L. Riitimeyer, Basle, Switzerland (126) ;
Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle, Gendve (Trans.
XVI, 1, and Proc. 124, 125); Bibliotheque de l'Université R.
de Norvége, Christiania (117-124, etc.); Prof. Japetus Steen-

.
pe

1888.] 199

strup, Copenhagen (126); Société R. de Zoologie, Amsterdam
(126); K. Zoologisch Genootschap, The Hague (126) ; Fonda-
tion de P. Teyler van der Hulst, Harlem (126) ; Maatschappij
Nederl. Letterkunde, Biblioteca N. C., Firenze (126); Dr. ©.
Leemannsg, Leiden (126); R. Instituto Lombardo, Milan (126) ;
Acad. R. des Sciences, Lettres et Arts, Modena (117-122, ete.) ;
Prof, G. Meneghini, Pisa (126); R. Accademia dei Lincei,
Roma (126); R. Osservatorio Astronomico, Torino (126) ;
Station Séricole, Montpellier (126); Société de Histoire de
France, Paris (126); Prof. Léon de Rosny, Paris (125) ; Société
Polymathique, Vannes (126) ; Bath & West of England Society,
Bath (126); Prof. J. P. Postgate, Cambridge (126); Rev.
George Rawlinson, Canterbury (126); Messrs. Tritbner & Co.,
London (119); Royal Society of Edinburgh (120-127); Oneida
Historical Society, Utica, N. Y. (125, 126, etc.); Academy of
Natural Sciences, Mercantile Library, Mr. Richard Wood, Phila-
delphia (126); Newberry Library, Chicago (96-126, ete.) ; Ob-
servatorio Meteorologico Magnetico Central (102, 108, 104,
106, 107, 108, 116, 125, 126), Observatorio Astronomico Na-
cional Mexicano, Tacubaya (126); South African Philosophi-
cal Society, Cape Town (124, 125); Bishop Crescencio Car-
rillo, Merida, Yucatan (126).

Accessions to the Library were announced from the Royal
Society of Victoria, Department of Mines and Water Supply,
Melbourne; K. K. Sternwarte, Prag; Naturwissenschaftlicher
Verein, Frankfurt a. O.; Archives Néerlandais, Haarlem ;
K. Zoologisch-Botanische Genootschap, ’S Gravenhage ; Bib-
lioteca N. C. V. E., Rome; Linnean, R. Statistical, R. Astro-
nomical, R. Geographical Societies, London; R. Irish Academy,
Dublin ; New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord ; Ameri-
can Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston; Museum of Com-
parative Zodlogy, Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge ;
New Jersey Historical Society, Newark ; Prof. F. A. Genth,
Philadelphia; Signal Office and Surgeon-General’s Office (War
Department), U. S. Department of Agriculture, Dr. Albert 8.
Gatschet, Washington, D. C.; Colorado Scientific Society,
Denver; Dr. L. Darapsky, Santiago de Chili.

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOc. xxv. 128. Z. PRINTED OCT. 20, 1888.

200 [Sept. 21,

The following papers were presented through the Secre-
taries :

“Ibrahim Nukit, ein Guslarenlied der Hercegovina,” by Dr.
Frederick S. Krauss (Vienna).

“ Action of the Gas from As, O, and HNO, upon m-Ozy-
benzoic Acid,” by Prof. Edgar F. Smith (Wittenberg College,
Springfield, Ohio).

“The Cretaceous and Tertiary Geology of the Sergipe
Alagoas Basin of Brazil,” by Prof. John C. Branner (Little
Rock, Arkansas).

On motion the paper of Dr. Branner was referred to a Com-
mittee of three to examine and report if desirable for the
Transactions.

The Chairman appointed Messrs. Heilprin, Leidy and Rand
as such committee.

Mr. Phillips, delegate for the Society to the celebration of
the 800th anniversary of the foundation of University of
Bologna, presented an oral report.

Pending nomination 1180 was read.

And the Society was adjourned by the presiding member.

Stated Meeting, September 21, 1888.
Present, 8 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

The Indiana Society of Civil Engineers and Surveyors,
Remington, Indiana, requested to be placed on the exchange
list; on motion it was ordered that it should be so placed.

Letters of acknowledgment for 127 were read as follows:

Prof. Franz Ritter v. Hauer, Vienna; Gesellschaft fiir Hrd-
kunde, Berlin; Dr. Paul Albrecht, Hamburg; Naturhisto-
rische Gesellschaft, Hannover; Verein fiir Thiiringische Ge-
schichte und Alterthumskunde, Jena; Dr. C. A. Dohrn, Stet-
tin; Prof. Remi Siméon, Société de Geographie, Paris; Prof.

>

1888.] 201

Lucien Adam, Rennes; Royal Society, Royal Institution, Royal
Astronomical, Meteorological, Statistical Societies, Linnean
Society, Society of Antiquaries, Victoria Institute, Science and
Art Department, Mr. William Blades, Prof. William Crookes,
London; Cambridge Philosophical Society, University Library,
Mr. J. CO. Adams, Prof. J. P. Postgate, Cambridge; Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society ; Sir Henry Ackland, M.D.,
Oxford; Sir William Thomson, Glasgow ; Mr. Everard F. im
Thurn, British Guiana; Geological and Natural History Sur-
vey, Dr. A. R. ©. Selwyn, Ottawa; University of Toronto ;
Historical and Scientific Society, Winnipeg; Portland Society
_of Natural History, Maine Historical Society, Portland; New
Hampshire Historical Society, Concord; Northern Academy
of Arts and Sciences, Prof. Charles H. Hitchcock, Hanover,
N. H.;. Mass. Historical Society, State Library of Massachu-
setts, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston Society
of Natural History, Mr. Stephen P. Sharpless, Hon. Robert C.
Winthrop, Boston; Harvard College Library, Museum of Com-
parative Zodlogy, Profs. Alexander Agassiz, Joseph Love-
ring, J. D. Whitney, Mr. Robert N. Toppan, Cambridge; Free
Public Library, New Bedford; Dr. Pliny Earle, Northampton ;
Essex Institut, Salem; American Antiquarian Society, Wor-
cester; Brown University, Providence; Franklin Society,
Rhode Island Historical Society, Prof. Thomas Chase, Provi-
dence, R.I.; Prof. W. LeConte Stevens, Brooklyn; Society of
Natural Sciences, Buffalo; Prof. Edward North, Clinton ; Prof.
B.G. Wilder, Ithaca; Astor Library, N. Y. Academy of Medi-
cine, N. Y. Historical Society, N. Y. Hospital Library, Uni-
versity of the City of New York, General H. L. Abbot, Dr.
Joel A. Allen, Capt. Richard Somers Hayes, Dr. J. 5S. New-
berry, Mr. R. W. Raymond.

Accessions to the Library were announced from Prof. Serge
Nikitin, St. Petersburg; Physiologische Gesellschaft, Berlin;
Société Zoologique de France, Marquis de Nadaillac, Paris;
Royal Society, Editors of “ Nature,” London; Penzance Natu-
ral History and Antiquarian Society, Plymouth; Geological
and Natural History Survey of Canada, Montreal; Boston

202 [Sept. 21,

Society of Natural History; American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Cambridge; Essex Institute, Salem; Connecticut
Academy of Arts and Sciences, New Haven; Dr. J. 5. New-
berry, New York; College of Pharmacy, Prof. EH. D. Cope,
Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia; Prof. Ira Remsen, Bal-
timore; Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley, Cal; Dr. J. J. Stevenson, New
York City; Vassar Brothers’ Institute, Poughkeepsie; Oneida
Ilistorical Society, Utica; Prof. Henry M. Baird, Yonkers;
U.S. Military Academy, West Point; Rev. J. F. Garrison,
Camden; New Jersey Historical Society, Newark; Prof. Geo.
H. Cook, New Brunswick; Prof. C. A. Young, Princeton; Dr.
Robert H. Alison, Ardmore; Rev. Joseph A. Murray, Carlisle ;
Dr. Traill Green, Prof. Thomas C. Porter, Kaston; Mr. An-
drew 8. McCreath, Harrisburg; Haverford College, “Profs,
Lyman B. Hall, Allen C. Thomas, Haverford College; Mr.
John Fulton, Johnstown; Linnean Society, Lancaster; Mr.
Peter Rothermel, Linfield; Mr. John F. Carll, Pleasantville;
Mr. V. W. Sheafer, Pottsville; Lackawanna Institute of His-
tory and Science, Scranton; Mr. M. Fisher Longstreth, Sharon
Hill; Philosophical Society, Mr. Philip P. Sharples, Hon.
Washineton Townsend, West Chester; Wyoming Historical
and Geological Society, Wilkes-Barre; Academy of Natural
Sciences, Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, College of
Physicians, Engineers’ Club, Franklin Institute, Historical
Society of Pennsylvania, Profs. John Ashhurst, Jr. F. A.
Genth, F. A. Genth, Jr, HV. Hilprecht, M.-H. Haupt,
H. Carvill Lewis, John M. Maisch, Geo. Inman Riché, James
Tyson, W. P. Wilson, Revs. F. A. Miihlenberg, H. Clay
Trumbull, Drs. J. H. Brinton, Persifor Frazer, W. W. Keen,
Morris Longstreth, Isaac Norris, Charles A. Oliver, Ruschen-
berger, William H. Wahl, Messrs. R. L. Ashhurst, Cadwal-
ader Biddle, Charles Bullock, Isaac Burk, Thomas M. Clee-
mann, Patterson DuBois, Jacob B. Hekfeldt, Philip C. Garrett,
Frederick Graff, J.S. Harris, W. W. Jefferis, Benj. Smith Ly-
man, C. Stuart Patterson, Henry Pemberton, Samuel W. Pen-
nypacker, Theo. D. Rand, G. B. Roberts, L. A. Scott, Coleman

— 7

1838] 203

Sellers, Aubrey H. Smith, W. P. Tatham, Richard Wood,
Com. E. Y. McCauley, Philadelphia; Mr. William M. Canby,
Wilmington, Del. U. S. Naval Institute, Annapolis; Johns
Hopkins University, Maryland Institute for the Promotion of
the Mechanic Arts, Baltimore; Smithsonian Institution, Library
of the Surgeon-General’s Office, U. S. Geological Survey, Sig-
nal Office, War Department, Col. William Ludlow, Gen. Mont-
gomery ©. Meigs, Col. Garrick Mallery, Prof. J. H. C. Coffin,
Messrs. Albert S. Gatschet, Charles V. Riley, Charles A.
Schott, William B. Taylor, Washington, D.C.; Leander Mc-
Cormick Observatory, Prof. J. N. Mallet, University of Vir-
ginia; Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Chapel Hill, N. C.;
Elliott Society of Science and Art, Charleston; University of
South Carolina, Columbia; Georgia Historical Society, Savan-
nah; University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa; Prof. E. W. Clay-
pole, Akron, O.; Cincinnati Observatory, Prof. James M. Hart,

Cincinnati; Dennison University, Granville, O.; Rev. Henry

S. Osborn, Oxford, O.; Prof. Edgar F. Smith, Springfield; Dr.
Robert Peter, Lexington, Ky.; Tennessee Philosophical So-
ciety, Columbia; Profs. Henry S. Frieze, Alexander Winchell,
Ann Arbor, Mich.; Prof. Daniel Kirkwood, Bloomington, Ind.;
University of Illinois, Champaign; Chicago Academy of Sci-
ence, Chicago Historical Society, Newberry Library, Chicago;
Rantoul Literary Society, Rantoul, Il.; Prof. John C. Branner,
Little Rock, Ark.; Davenport (lowa) Academy of Natural
Sciences; State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison ;
State Historical Society, Washburn College, Topeka, Kans.;
Colorado Scientific Society, Denver; University of California,
Profs. John and Joseph LeConte, Berkeley, California.

The deaths of the following members were announced :

Prof. Richard A. Proctor (born, September 3, 1837; died,
September 12, 1888).

Mr. John Price Wetherill (born, April 4, 1828; died, Sep-
tember 17, 1888).

On motion, the President was authorized to appoint a suita-
ble person to prepare the usual obituary notice of Mr, Weth-
erill.

DuBois. ] 204. [Oct. 5,

The President reported that, pursuant to the request of the
Society, he had appointed Dr. D. G. Brinton to prepare an
obituary notice of the late Philip H. Law, and Prof. Lesley
that of the late H. Carvill Lewis.

A paper by Dr. H. A. Hare was presented for the Transac-
tions entitled, “The Pathology, Clinical History and Diag-
nosis of Diseases of the Mediastinum other than those of the
Heart and Aorta;” which, on motion, was referred to Drs.
Ruschenberger, Allen, and Sharp, as a committee to examine
and report thereon.

Pending nomination 1180 was read.

The President reported that he had received and paid over
to the Treasurer $188.07 interest due July 1, 1888, from the
Michaux legacy.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

James Curtis Booth, Ph.D., LL.D. By Patterson DuBois, Philadelphia.
(Read before the American Philosophical Soctety, October 5, 1888.)

The life of the individual, like the history of a people, is generally
divisible into a more or less well-markt series of epochs or periods. The
life of Dr. Booth falls naturally into three such divisions, each quite dis-
tinct in kind, yet all animated by the same principles of intellectual ac-
quirement, the same moral of motive, the same love of learning, the same
ardor in teaching, the same activity in business, the same hearty devotion
to the bettering and uplifting of his feilow-men.

The first period in the career of James Curtis Booth was his preparatory
or student life. For convenience’ sake, we must include here the record
of his parentage and birth. He was born in Philadelphia, July 28, 1810.
His father was George Booth, of New Castle, Delaware ; his mother was
Ann Bolton, daughter of John and Eleanor Bolton, of Chestertown,
Maryland.

After his preliminary schooling in Philadelphia and at the seminary of
Hartsville, Bucks County, Pa., he entered the University of Pennsylvania,
where he was graduated in 1829. He subsequently spent a year at the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y. But the great bent of his
mind was for chemistry ; and chemistry to him was a thing beyond mere
theory ; it had for him a meaning quite apart from the beauties of black-
poard demonstrations and of symbolized reactions. His great thought
was to find in the laboratory a miniature factory ; in the factory a mam-

1888, ] 205 (DuBois.

moth laboratory. To this thoroughly utilitarian end he lookt. How
fervently he cherisht this thought, how determined he was to accom-
plish his purpose, may be in some degree inferred from his pushing beyond
the sea at a time when fashion had not yet conceived the real or nominal
virtues of an education abroad. He was, indeed, the first American student
in analytical chemistry who had so ventured into Germany. There being
no such thing on either side of the Atlantic as a students’ laboratory, he
spent the year 1833 in Prof. Friedrich Wéhler’s private laboratory in Hesse- *
Cassel. He next practiced for nine months in the laboratory of Prof.
Gustav Magnus, at Berlin. The remainder of his three-year term abroad
was spent in attending lectures in Berlin and in Vienna, and also in visit-
ing various manufacturing establishments on the Continent and in Eng-
land. With his return to his native city in the latter part of 1835, or early
in 1836, we may consider his student or formative period (while he was
in his twenty-sixth year) to have come to a close.

Obstacles to progress often become, in the end, the surest means of ad-
vancement. It was no doubt largely owing to the difficulties which Mr.
Booth had to surmount that he conceived the educational scheme which
was the parent of all our existing laboratories for students in applied
chemistry. With the establishment of his students’ laboratory in 1836
(which two years ago celebrated its semi-centennial), we may consider
the second, or teaching period of our subject’s career, to be fairly inau-
gurated. This, though the shortest of the three, was preéminently the
creative period of his life.

I call it creative, because it called into being a method of technical edu-
cation which has, probably more than anything else, resulted in establish-
ing chemistry as a factor in commerce, and in gaining for the chemist a
recognized position in the economy of the world’s work. In fact, the
students’ laboratory, as instituted by Mr. Booth, bore a relation to mere
class-room teaching analogous to that which the ‘‘natural method” in
languages bears to the more bookish method of study by the set rules of
grammar and rhetoric. ;

But it was no part of Mr. Booth’s idea to make the laboratory course
usurp the rightful position of the text-book and the lecture. He saw the
great want of a supplementer rather than a supplanter. How truly he
discerned what the scientific as well as the commercial world required,
and how fully he met that requirement, needs no expansion here. The
students’ laboratories all over the country—if not beyond—as well as the
throng of students who have come into and gone from his own laboratory
during the past half.century—all attest the foresight, the judgment, the
independence, the energy, of a scientist and a business man.

But the chemical workshop was not enough. He received an appoint-
ment from the Franklin Institute as Professor of Chemistry Applied to
the Arts, in 1836 ; and during the nine successive winters (1836-1845) he
delivered three courses of lectures, each course occupying three seasons.
During this period, also, he filled the chair of chemistry (1842-1845) in

206 [Oct. 5,

DuBois. ]

the Central High School of Philadelphia. Nor was he wholly content
with his sphere as a teacher. His studies had reacht out across and be-
yond the confines of his specialty into the neighboring territories of min-
eralogy and geology.

Concerning this field of ouv subject’s labors, no one is so well qualified
to speak as Prof. J. P. Lesley ; and I am indebted to him for the follow-
ing paragraphs regarding the geological surveys of Pennsylvania and
Delaware. He says: ‘‘Prof. Booth and John Frazer, then a young man,
were appointed by Prof. Rogers, in the spring of 1836, his two assistants
in prosecuting the work of the First Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.
From Spring to Fall they traveled along the Susquehanna and Juniata
valleys, blocking out the order of the great formations. Prof. Booth was
sent by Prof. Rogers up the Potomac to make a section which could be
compared with the Juniata section ; and when the three met at Hunting-
don, he announced, to the astonishment of Mr. Rogers, that the moun-
tains which fill the middle belt of Pennsylvania were made by two sepa-
rate formations, now known as No. IV and No. X. Mr. Rogers was un-
willing to accept this conclusion, and instructed Mr. Frazer to go to the
Huntingdon-Bedford line and make a cross section from the Broad Top
coal down to the limestone of Morrison’s Cove. At the end of the week
the three met again in Huntingdon, and Mr. Frazer confirmed the state-
ment of Prof. Booth. Mr. Rogers was still dissatisfied, and then went
himself to repeat the section made by Mr. Frazer, finding it correct, and
then accepting Prof. Booth’s Potomac section. Thus the grand column
of our paleozoic formations was establisht, and the credit of it is due to
Prof. Booth.”

Prof. Lesley adds that : ‘‘ Both Prof. Rogers’ assistants resigned at the
end of the year; and Mr. Booth was then appointed, immediately, or not
long thereafter, State Geologist of Delaware. His work in Delaware was
publisht in his Report, an octavo volume, now so rare that it is impossi-
ple to obtain a copy. My belief is that Prof. Booth abandoned field work
very early in his career, and devoted himself to his chemical laboratory.
At all events, he is known in science altogether as an accomplisht chem-
ist, with a great reputation for diligence and accuracy, especially in the
field of mineral analysis.” To Prof. Lesley’s statement I may add that
the Geological Survey of the State of Delaware was in Mr. Booth’s charge
during 1837-8 ; the reports were publisht as the Annual Reports of the
Delaware Geological Survey (Dover, 1839), and after that he issued the
“«‘ Memoir of the Geological Survey of the State of Delaware with Applica-
tion to Agriculture’ (Dover, 1841).

Mr. Joseph E. Hover, an old friend and co worker with Prof. Booth,
thus writes of another venture :

“Tn the year 1845, Prof. Bouth visited Mine la Mott, a mining locality
in the State of Missouri, and began the mining of cobalt, which, I think,
had but recently been discovered there. After a time he had mined.a
large amount of cobalt, which he forwarded to England. But this enter-

1388.] 207 [DuBois.

prise proved unsuccessful, as the article was not found to be pure. The
result was its reshipment to this city. In the old chemical works of the
late Dr. Uhler, situated in the upper part of this city, the Professor began
with his usual energy to prosecute the work of acquiring a knowledge of
the best method of refining cobalt. ‘This question of the refining of this
metal was one that was obscure to all outside of the then existing cobalt
refineries in the world, so the task the Professor had undertaken was one
fraught with perplexing difficulty. But the effort was successful.’’

Mr. Booth’s achievements early in his career gained him a membership
in this Society, January 18, 1839. Though of recent years he seldom
visited these rooms—his residence being at Haverford College—yet he
always had a warm spot in his heart for the associations of our venerable
hall, and a true regard for the honor of a seat upon this floor.

He contributed to the Transactions, N. S., VIII, p. 185, in connection
with Prof. Martin H. Boyé, a paper on the Conversion of Benzoic Acid
into Hippuric Acid.

These ventures into the field of scientific literature were enlarged by
Reports from the Franklin Institute Committee on Science and the Arts,
which were of Prof. Booth’s writing ; by a report on ‘Recent Improve-
ments in the Chemical Arts,’’ published by the Smithsonian Institute in
1852; and by his most conspicuous effort in literature, well known as the
“‘ Encyclopedia of Chemistry” (Phila., 1850). This was written chiefly
by himself. Dr. Campbell Morfit rendered much assistance, however, on
the last half of the work ; and Prof. R. 8S. McCulloh contributed articles
on Electricity and the Hydrometer, while Dr. Boyé contributed articles
on Alcohol Analysis, and some other subjects.

This brings us to the close of the second period. Asan instructor, Mr.
Booth seems to have had unusual success. Dr. Alexander Mucklé, for some
years past an assistant to the Melterand Refiner of the Mint, an early pupil
of Mr. Booth, and subsequently himself a student under Wéhler and
under Bunsen, says: ‘‘ With this experience of teachers and means of
comparison, I can say that Mr. Booth had few if any superiors as a teacher
of practical chemistry, that he kept abreast of the times by constantly
securing the best and latest scientific books and periodicals.’ But. tes-
timony of this sort is barely necessary. A course in his laboratory, says
the Scientific American, ‘was considered necessary for the chemist of that
time, and was regarded of more value than a college diploma.’”? * * *
“This institution soon acquired considerable distinction, * * * and
during the course of a few years nearly fifty students availed themselves
of his instruction, most of whom have since acquired distinction.” It
would be interesting, if it were possible, to calculate the influence that
through them he has wielded and still wields upon the vast manufactur-
ing and economic interests of a busy world.

The third period begins and ends with Prof. Booth’s official life.
Through his friend, Secretary Meredith, the office of Melter and Refiner
of the Mint was placed at his disposal, and the appointment was made by

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXv. 128, 24. PRINTED ocr. 31, 1888.

DuBois. ] 208 (Oct. 5,

President Taylor. Prof. Booth assumed the duties of office, December 10,
1849. ‘The date,’’ says Mr. Robert Patterson, ‘‘ was nearly coincident
with the discovery of gold in California, and the pressure of deposits from
that source had already become heavy.

“The gold reacht the Mint for the most part in its native state, and
required intricate and at the same time accurate and prompt metallurgic
treatment to fit it for coinage. In one particular the Mint was ill prepared
to sustain the pressure brought to bear upon it. The California gold being
naturally alloyed with silver in excess of the amount admissible in the
coinage, it was necessary to extract the superfluous metal by chemical
treatment. The appliances at the Mint, which had proved suflicient to
treat bullion received anterior to the California discoveries, were quite in-
adequate thereafter. It was necessary to reconstruct the whole plan of
the parting apparatus, and this work devolved upon Mr. Booth. Under
his supervision a process which had before been little more than one of
the laboratory expanded into that of a manufactory. To this work, as
well as to all the other labors of his department, he brought the full
knowledge of theory and practice derived from former professional experi-
ence, and further showed, what is not always the case with chemists, a
capacity to apply his knowledge in the larger way required for commercial
results. Some little impatience at the delay in introducing the needful
changes had been exhibited by bullion dealers and others, ignorant of the
obstacles attendant thereon ; but all difficulties were overcome, and the
parting (or refining) capacity of the Mint was soon, under Mr. Booth’s
energetic and capable management, enlarged to meet promptly every de-
mand. ‘This time of trial, at the very outset of his Mint career, proved
the man and the officer.”’

There were, naturally, many trying times during the long years that
followed the California gold discovery ; there were periods of changes in
the coinage, changes in method, changes in administration ; there were
periods of extraordinary losses through the nature of the bullion, as. well
as from other causes; there were the annual settlements, the annual trials
of the pyx, and trials less than annual and more than annual of the nerves
of the operative officers—trials such as only devoted servants of a soulless
government can understand. But there were many matters of new inter-
est, new study, new relations, new processes to try, to lighten the bur-
dens, relieve the tedium, and divert the mind from a wearying and ex-
hausting sense of its peculiar responsibilities.

A paragraph from Mr. W. E. DuBois’s sketch of Mr. Jacob R. Eck-
feldt, then Chief Assayer, is in place here as an illustrative bit of history :

“The gold pressure continued for about five years, when it was relieved
by the creation of a Government Assay Office in New York, and a Branch
Mint at San Francisco. But directly sequent to this came the change of
standard in silver coin, causing an immense recoinage in small pieces.
Thus our daily assays continued to count by hundreds. This lasted for
some years. When it began to slacken off, a law was passed for calling
_in the large copper coins, and issuing in their stead pieces of copper-nickel

1888. ] 209 (DuBois.

alloy of much smaller size. After this came the substitution of the bronze
alloy ; and this called for another process of assay, and brought us a great
deal of work.’’

_ Among the later improvements in process adopted by Prof. Booth was
that of gold-refining. In his letter to the Wastage Commission he says ;
‘‘T refine usually to 993 and 995 m. and sometimes, to make a finer gold,
T heat the alloy of gold and silver with parting acid, so as nearly to sepa-
rate them, and then heat the residue with oil of vitriol and saltpetre, at a
steam heat, by which I have brought the gold to 998 m. The process is
my own, and not known outside the Mint.” Ina paper read before
the American Chemical Society and publisht in their Journal (Sept.,
1884), he describes some methods of toughening gold and silver. In the
same publication (June, 1884), he describes ‘“‘A General Method of
Toughening Gold and Silver in the Melting Crucible ;’ and in June, 1885,
he printed, in the same Journal, an article on “The Smelting Furnace of
the U. 8. Mint.’’ At the risk of, seeming too technical, I venture to quote
a characteristic paragraph from the latter article. ““My last improve-
ment, which is still practiced, consists in the very simple operation of
melting all the iron residues from the furnaces, even including grate-bars,
and keeping them in a quiet melted state, so as to allow the heavier gold
and silver to settle out of the iron. When the mass is cold, the precious
metal is knockt off the bottom by a hammer as a single tough king, with
scarcely a trace of iron in it; while the iron mass above it has never
yielded a trace of gold or silver to the assayer. Instead of spending three
weeks, of annual vacation from melting, in hammering tons of accumu-
lated iron, we now melt through the year, whenever convenient, from
five to fifty pounds of iron residues at atime. We gathered in one melt-
ing, last autumn, a cake of a few ounces of gold and silver from a mass of
over fifty pounds of iron in part of a day, and the latter was entirely free
from the precious metals. When I first succeeded with this process, I
could hardly believe in the perfect separation from iron, and the late Mr.
J. R. Eckfeldt, the best assayer in the United States, doubted it, until, by
numerous tests made from a piece of some thirty pounds of iron, he found
the total absence of gold and silver.’’ It is just to add that Prof. Booth
was greatly aided by suggestions from his foreman, Mr. Garrigues, in per-
fecting this process.

Prof. Booth was a man of varied interests, and of large general culture.
He was especially fond of linguistic studies ; and in this domain he long
ago made a specialty of phonetics, particularly with reference to short-
hand writing, and the reform of English orthography. He took up the
study of Isaac Pitman’s Phonography, which he pursued with ardor until
he mastered it. This of course was more of an achievement forty years
ago than itis now. He formed the opinion that this art should be ac-
quired as one of the elementary branches of education. In his judg-
ment, an obstacle to that end lay in the unsatisfactory form of the books
of instruction provided for the study. He therefore determined to prepare
an elementary work designed to teach the art, and, in 1849, this was pub-

DuBois. | 210 (Oct. 5,

lisht under the title, ‘‘Phcnographic Instructor; being an introduction
to the Corresponding Style of Phonography, with engraved illustrations.’’
This was republisht with a Key in 1850, and again in 1856. The book was
based on the inductive method, and an especial merit apart from the clear
exposition of principles was in its set of progressive exercises so arranged
that nothing once learned had to be unlearned, thus avoiding the discour-
aging confusion incident to the study as commonly taught. The book was
successful, and proved the capacity of its author in elementary instruction,

That Prof. Booth was highly esteemed in social and religious as well
as scientific circles is attested by the diversity and duration of his mem-
berships, no less than by his honorary degrees. In 1867 the Univer-
sity of Lewisburg conferred upon him the degree of Doctor of Laws ;
and, in 1884, the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute added the Ph.D. to his
name. In addition to his memberships already mentioned, he was elected
to the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, in 1842; to the Academy of
Natural Sciences, in 1852; to the Maryland Institute for the Promotion of
Mechanic Arts, in 1858 ; to the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agri-
culture, about 1859; to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, in 1884.
He was President of the American Chemical Society of New York, in
1883 and in 1884, and declined reélection for a third term—that honor
never having been offered to any of his predecessors. He was Assistant
Secretary of the Diocese of Pennsylvania from 1865 to 1871. He was
‘actively interested in various philanthropies. He was one of the Building
Committee of Christ Church Hospital. With him and Mr. Joseph E.
Hover originated the Seamen’s Floating Church of the Redeemer, now
on terra firma at Front and Queen streets. He was also an active mover
in the Children’s Hospital connected with the Free Church of the Good
Shepherd, at Radnor, Pa,

In addition to the publications already mentioned, Prof. Booth pub-
lisht papers ‘‘On Beet Root Sugar’’ (1842); ‘‘Chrome Iron Analysis’
(1842) ; ‘‘Constitution of Glycerin and Oily Acids” (1848) ; ‘‘Recent
Improvements in the Chemical Arts’’ (1852), anda ‘‘ Report on the Water
Supply of Philadelphia’’ (1862). He is better known, however, as the
editor and annotator of a translation from the French of Regnault’s
‘Elements of Chemistry’ (2 vols., Phila., 1853).

Prof. Booth was married November 17, 1858, to Margaret M. Cardeza.
His widow and three daughters survive him, Personally, he was a gen-
tleman of refined manners, pleasing address and cheerful disposition,
The latter quality was, however, often obscured by his nervous intensity ;
and a painful anxiety seemed of late years to be ineradicably scored into
his very life. His great responsibilities in exact manipulation of millions
and millions of dollars in all forms of bullion, for whose safe custody he
was also legally accountable, told heavily upon his physical constitution,
and left him, long ere the year of his death, a wreck of his former self.
Indeed, his noticeable failure dates from the great ‘‘wastages’’ of 1872,
together with subsequent difficulties in the recoinage of seventeen. millions
of our own gold coin in 1873.

1888, ] 211

[DuBois.

The unusual developments in this remelting, the difficulty of obtaining
homogeneity, led Prof. Booth to conclude that gold-copper alloys were
unstable and subject to segregation. This was contrary to all past experi-
ence ; and it is due to the scientific world to say that the theory was never
accepted in the Assay Department nor (I believe) by the leading experts
in the sister Mints of this country. Subsequent experiments show that
Prof. Booth’s conclusions were based upon a misapprehension. The in-
stability of standard gold-copper alloys has never yet been apparently
demonstrated, much less proved ; and the theory must be regarded as un-
tenable. But the difficulties alluded to were none the less harassing to
the Melter and Refiner, and they workt upon him disastrously.

It is often asserted that the civil service isa bed of roses. But Prof.
Booth’s shattered constitution and rapid decline, while yet apparently pos-
sessed of right to vigor and power, are but another witness to the peculiar
wear and tear upon the minds and bodies of many public servants who
honor their calling and give dignity and character to their positions. For
two or three years past he had seriously contemplated resigning his office ;
but it was not until August, 1887, that he could bring himself to sever the
attachments of thirty-nine years.

Since writing this, a private letter has been shown to me, written by Dr.
Booth in October last. I make a few extracts, as follows: ‘‘The whole
truth is, that the constantly increasing business of the Mint beyond its
capacity for bullion storage has been increasingly weighing down my
anxious thoughts for its safety, and you may add to that the consciousness
that I was personally responsible for every ounce of bullion received, and
then you will readily perceive sufficient ground for a constant anxious care,
which I sometimes imagined to be as the square or cube of the extra
quantity of bullion continually poured in. * * * It was that constant
and constantly augmenting ounce-for-ounce responsibility that finally
affected my mind, and I rather think brokeme down. I went home quite
sick from the Mint early in April, and lay on my back for about three
months. I suppose that such a statement will be quite sufficient to explain
my present position. Iam glad to say that I had sufficient strength to
resign from my place in the Mint, although no one is yet appointed to
take my place. However, I do not go more than once a week to the Mint,
and shall be glad when the string of union is severed. * * * From
my age, over seventy-seven, I hardly expect restoration of full strength,
and am satisfied with what Providence designs.”’ ‘

His resignation was to take effect on the appointment of his successor.
But an office demanding such high trust as well as technical knowledge
and practical experience was not easy to fill; and before a successor had
been found, Death, on March 21, 1888, struck Dr. Booth’s name forever
from the roll.

He died peacefully. Faith lightened the burden of the last days of a
career that has left a name worthily interwoven with the great fabric of
the world’s onward and upward progress.

Brinton]. 21 2

The Language of Paleolithic Man.
By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 5, 1888.)

Archeologists tell us that the manufacturers of those rude stone
implements called paleeoliths wandered up and down the world
while a period of something like two hundred thousand years was
unrolling its eventless centuries. Many believe that these early
artisans had not the power of articulate expression to convey their
emotions or ideas; if such they had, they were confined to inarticu-
late grunts and cries.

Haeckel proposed for the species at this period of its existence
the designation Homo adalus, speechless man. Anatomists have
come forward to show that the inferior maxillary bones disinterred
in the caves of La Naulette and Schipka are so formed that their
original possessors could not have had the power of articulation.
But the latest investigators of this point have reached an opposite
conclusion.t We must, however, concede that the oral communi-
cation of men during that long epoch was of a very rudimentary
character; it is contrary to every theory of intellectual evolution
to suppose that they possessed a speech approaching anything near
even the lowest organized of the linguistic stocks now in existence.
By an attentive consideration of some of these lowest stocks, can
we not form a somewhat correct conception of what was the char-
acter of the rudimentary utterances of the race? I think we can,
but, as I believe I am the first to attempt such a picture, I offer it
with becoming diffidence.

The physiological possibility that paleolithic man possessed a
language has, as I have said, been already vindicated; and that he
was intellectually capable of speech could, I think, scarcely be
denied by any one who will contemplate the conception of sym-
metry, the technical skill, and the wise adaptation to use, mani-
fested in some of the oldest specimens of his art; as for example
the axes disinterred from the ancient strata of San Isidro, near
Madrid, those found forty feet deep in the post-glacial gravels near

*“T/homme chelleen n’ avait pas la parole,’’ Mortillet, La Prehistorique Antiquilé de
Vv Homme, p. 250 (Paris, 1883).

+See Dr. H. Steinthal, Der Ursprung der Sprache, S. 264, et seq. (Berlin, 1888), who re-
hearses the discussion of the point with sufficient fullness,

1888.] - . 2 1 3 [Brinton

Trenton, New Jersey, or some of those figured by De Mortillet as
derived from the beds of the Somme in France.* We have evidence
that at that period man made use of fire; that he raised shelters to
protect himself from the weather; that he possessed some means of
navigating the streams; that he could occasionally overcome pow-
erful and ferocious beasts; that he already paid some attention to
ornamenting his person; that he lived in communities; and that
his migrations were extensive.t In view of all this, is it not highly
improbable that he was destitute of any vocal powers of expressing
his. plans and his desires? I maintain that we should dismiss the
fTomo alalus as a scientific romance which has served its time.

More than this, I believe that by a judicious study of existing
languages, especially those which have suffered little by admixture
or by distant removals, we can picture with reasonable fidelity the
character of the earliest tongues spoken by man, the speech of the
Paleolithic Age.

This primitive utterance was, of course, not the same everywhere.
It varied indefinitely. But for all that it is almost certain that in
all localities it proceeded on analogous lines of development, just as
languages have everywhere and at all times since. By studying
simple and isolated languages, those which have suffered least by
contact with others, or by altérations in conditions of culture, we
can catch some glimpses of the character of man’s earliest signifi-
cant expressions, the ‘‘ baby-talk of the race,’’ if I may use the
expression. I have gleaned a certain number of such traits in the
field of American linguistics, and present them to you as curiosities,
which, like other curiosities, have considerable niaceaporneetnd to those
who will master their full purport.

The question I am about to consider, is, you will observe, quite
different from that which concerns itself with the origin of Anguistic
stocks. Many of these unquestionably arose long after man had
acquired well-developed languages, and when the cerebral convolu-
tions whose activity is manifested in articulate expression had
acquired a high grade of development through hereditary training.
How such stocks may have arisen has been lucidly set forth by my
learned friend Mr. Horatio Hale. He demonstrates by many ex-

*See, for instance, Plate x of Mortillet, Musée Préhistorique; Cartailhac, Ages Préhis-
toriques de ? Espagne, plate on p. 27.

+1 have collected the evidence for this in an Essay on Prehistoric Archeology, in the
Iconographie Encyclopedia, Vol. ii.

Brinton.] 21 4 [Oct. 5,

amples that in the present cerebral evolution of man, infants develop
an articulate language with the same natural facility that any other
species of animal does the vocal utterances peculiar to its kind.*

But in this essay Iam contemplating man as he was before hun-
dreds of generations of speaking ancestors had evolved such cere-
bral powers.

I begin with some observations on the phonetic elements. These
are no other than what we call the alphabet, the simple sounds which
combined together make up the words of a language. In all Euro-
pean tongues, the mere letters of the alphabet, by themselves, have
no meaning and conyey no idea; furthermore, their value in a word
is fixed; and thirdly, arranged in a word, they are sufficient to
convey its sound and sense to one acquainted with their values.

Judged by certain American -examples, all three of these seem-
ingly fundamental characteristics of the phonetic elements were
absent in primitive speech, and have become stable only by a long
process of growth. We find tongues in which the primary sounds
are themselves significant, and yet at the same time are highly vari-
able; and we find many examples in which they are inadequate to
convey the sense of the articulate sound.

As exemplifying these peculiarities I take the Tinné or Athapas-
can, spoken widely in British America, and of which the Apache
and Navaho in the United States are branches. You know that in
English the vowels A, E, I, O, U, and the consonants, as. such, F,
S, K, and the others, convey to your mind no. meaning, are not
attached to any idea or train of ideas. ‘This is altogether different
in the Tinné. We are informed by Bishop Faraud,} a thorough
master of that tongue, that its significant radicals are the five primi-
tive vowel sounds, A, E, 1, O, U. Of these A expresses matter,
E existence, I force or energy, O existence doubtful, and U exist-
ence absent, non-existence, negation or succession. ‘These vowels
are ‘‘put in action,’’ as he phrases it, by single or double conso-
nants, ‘¢ which have more or less value in proportion as the vowel is
more or less strong.’’ ‘These consonantal sounds, as we learn at
length from the works on this language by Father Petitot, are also
materially significant. They are numerous, being sixty-three in

* See his address on “The Origin of Languages and the Antiquity of Speaking Man,”

in the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. xxxy,
p. 279,

+ Dix-huit Ans chez les Sawvages, p. 85.

1888. ] 215 : {Brinton.

all, and-are divided into nine different classes, each of which con-
veys a series of related or associated ideas in the native mind.

Thus, the Jabials express the ideas of time and space, as age,
length, distance, and also whiteness, the last mentioned, perhaps,
through association with the white hair of age, or the endless snow-
fields of their winter. The dentals express all that relates to force
terminating, hence uselessness, inanity, privation, smallness, feeble-
ness; and also greatness, elevation, the motor power. ‘The nasals
convey the general notion of motion in repetition; hence, rotation,
reduplication, gravitation, and, by a singularly logical association,
organic life. The gutturals indicate motion in curves; hence, sinu-
ousness, flexibility, ebullition, roundness, and by a linear figure
different from that which underlies the Latin vectitudo, justness, cor-
rectness. ‘The H, either as an aspirate or an hiatus, introduces the
ideas of command and subjection, elevation and prostration, and
the like.*

You will observe that in some of these cases the signification of
a sound includes both a notion and its opposite, as greatness and
smallness. This is an interesting feature to which I shall refer later.

Turn now to another language, the Cree. Geographically it is
contiguous to the Tinné; but, says Bishop Faraud, who spoke them
both fluently, they resemble each other no more than the French
does the Chinese. Nevertheless, we discover this same peculiarity
of materially significant phonetic elements. Howse, in his Cree
Grammar, observes that the guttural K and the labial W, constitute
the essential part of all intensive terms in that language, ‘‘ whether
the same be attributive, formative, or personal accident.’’ Indeed,
he maintains that the articulate sounds of the Cree all express rela-
tive powers, feebleness or force, independent of their position with
reference to other sounds.

You may inquire whether in the different groups of American
tongues the same or a similar signification is attached to any one
sound, or to the sounds of any one organ. If it were so, it would
give countenance to those theories which maintain that there is
some fixed relation between sound and sense in the radicals of lan-
guages. I must reply that I have found very little evidence for this
theory ; and yet some. For example, the N sound expresses the
notion of the ego, of myself-ness, in a great many tongues, far

* Petitot, Dictionnaire dela Langue Dénée Dindjié, Introduction.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXV. 128. 2B. PRINTED oct. 81, 1888.

Brinton.] 216 [Oct. 5,

apart geographically and linguistically. It is the sound at the basis
of the personal pronoun of the first person and of the words for
man in numerous dialects in North and South America. Again,
the K sound is almost as widely associated with the ideas of o¢her-
ness, and is at the base of the personal pronoun of the'second per-
son singular and of the expressions for superhuman personalities,
the divine existences.* It is essentially demonstrative in its power.
Again, in a long array of tongues in various parts of the world
the subjective relation is expressed by the M sound, as has been
pointed out by Dr. Winkler; and other examples could be added.
Many of these it is impossible to attribute to derivation from a
* Without carrying the comparison of the linguistic stocks beyond those most familiar
to the ethnologist, I add the following comparisons to confirm the statements of the text:

Dialects in British America.

i man thou divinity
Eskimo, wonga innuit wootik
Athapascan, ni-yun tinné
Cree (Algonkian), ni iyin ki okisikow
Haidah, e-hlin tun-ka
Bilhoola, insh
Tshimshian, neuio
Kawitshin, un-sa enika ni ki
Chinook, ni ka kah-tin mi ka
Shahaptani, ein uk wins

Dialects in the United States.

I man thou divinity
Lenape (Algonkian), ni lenni ki oki
Choctaw, unno ch-
Muskoki, unneh
Dakota, on, un, (pl.) wakan

Dialects in. Mexico.

ui man thou divinity
Huasteca, nana inic 2:42). 42 ae ku
Othomi, nuga nyoeh n’ge oqha
Nahuatl, ni
Tarasca, ni :
Maya, in, en uini¢ ech ku
Zapoteca, naa

Dialects in South America.

'

I man thou divinity
Qquichua, noka khani kam huaka
Aymavya, na huaka
Araucanian, in-che
Abipone, aym. akami
Carib (dialects), n k

On the astonishingly wide distribution of the n and k sounds as primitive demonstra-
tives, compare H. Winkler, Uralaltaische Vélker und Sprachen, s. 86, 87 (Berlin, 1884). For
other comparisons, see Tolmie and Dawson, Vocabularies of Inds. of British Columbia,
p. 128.

1888. ] 21 7 (Brinton.

common source. Some writers maintain that sounds have a subjec-
tive and fixed relation to ideas; others call such coincidences
‘blind chance,’’ but these should remember that chance itself
means merely the action of laws not yet discovered.

You might suppose that this distinction, I mean that between se/f
and other, between /, thou and he, is fundamental, that speech could.
not proceed without it. You would be mistaken. American lan-
guages furnish conclusive evidence that for unnumbered generations
mankind got along well enough without any such discrimination.
One and the same monosyllable served for all three persons and
both numbers. The meaning of this monosyllable was undoubtedly
‘‘any living human being.’’ Only after a long time did it become
differentiated by the addition of locative particles into the notions,
‘«T—living human being,’’. ‘‘ Thou—living human being,’’ ‘‘ He—
living human being,’’ and so on. Even a language spoken by so
cultured a people as the ancient Peruvians bears unmistakable
traces of this process, as has been shown by Von Tschudi in his
admirable analysis of that tongue; and the language of the Baures
of Bolivia still presents examples of verbs conjugated without pro-
nouns or pronominal affixes.*

The extraordinary development of the pronouns in many Ameri-
can languages—some have as many as eighteen different forms as
the person is contemplated as standing, lying, in motion, at rest,
alone, in company, etc., etc.—this multiplicity of forms, I say, is
proof to the scientific linguist that these tongues have but recently
developed this grammatical category. Wherever we find over-
growth, the soil is new and the crop rank.

In spite of the significance attached to the phonetic elements
they are, in many American languages, singularly vague and fluctu-
ating. If in English we were to pronounce the three words, /o//,
nor, roll, indifferently as one or the other, you see what violence we
should do to the theory of our alphabet. Yet analogous examples
are constant in many American languages. Their consonants are
‘‘alternating,’’ in large groups, their vowels ‘‘permutable.’’ M.

* “Rs hat offenbar eine Zeit gegeben, in der ka alleiniges Pron. pers. fiir alle drei Perso-
nen war, erst allmihlich entwickelten sich fio ka, ego, ka m, tu, ka y, ille.’ J.J. von
Tschudi, Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, 8. 184 (Leipzig, 1884). In the language of the
Baures of Bolivia when the verb takes the negative termination apico, the pronominal
signs are discarded ; thus, era, to drink, a drink ; erapico =I, thou, he, we, you, they, do
not drink, Magio, Arte de la Lengua de los Indios Baures, p. 82 (Paris, 1880). This reveals
a time when both affirmative and negative yerbals dispensed with pronouns altogether.

Brinton. ] 218 [Oct. 5,

Petitot calls this phenomenon ‘literal affinity,’’ and shows that in
the Tinné it takes place not only between consonants of the same
group, the labials for instance, but of different groups, as labials
with dentals, and dentals with nasals. These differences are not
merely dialectic; they are found in the same village, the same
family, the same person.» They are not peculiar to the Tinné; they
recur in the Klamath. Dr. Behrendt was puzzled with them in the
Chapanec. ‘No other language,’’ he writes, ‘‘has left me in such
doubt as this one. The same person pronounces the same word
differently ; and when his attention is called to it, will insist that it
is the same. ‘Thus, for devil he will give Zixamdi and Stsaimbui ;
for hell, Makupaju and Nakapoti.’* Speaking of the Guarani,
Father Montoya says, ‘‘ There is in this language a constant chang-
ing of the letters for which no sufficient rules can be given.’’+ And
Dr. Darapsky in his recently published study of the Araucanaian
of Chile gives the following equation of permutable letters in that
tongue :
B=W=F=U=tU=I1=E=G=GH=HUt

The laws of the conversion of sounds of the one organ into
those of another have not yet been discovered, but the above ex-
amples, which are by no means isolated ones, serve to admonish us
that the phonetic elements of primitive speech probably had no
fixedness.

There is another oddity about some of these consonantal sounds
which I may notice in passing. Some of them are not true elemen-
tary sounds ; they cannot stand alone, but must always have another
consonant associated with them. Thus, the labial B is common in
Guarani; but it must always be preceded by an M. In Nahuatl the
liquid L is frequent; but it is the initial of no word in that lan-
guage. The Nahuas apparently could not pronounce it, unless some
other articulate sound preceded it.

Albornoz, in his Grammar of the Chapanec Tongue§, states that
the natives cannot pronounce an initial B, G, Y, or D, without
uttering an N sound before it.

The third point in the phonology of these tongues to which I
alluded is the frequency with which the phonetic elements as graphi-

* Apuntes sobre la Lengua Chapaneca, MS,
+ Arte dela Lengua Guarani, p. 93.

t La Lengua Araucana, p. 15 (Santiago de Chile, 1883),
2 Albornoz, Arte dela Lengua Chapaneca, p. 10.

1888,] 219 (Brinton.

cally expressed, are inadequate to convey the idea. I may quote a
remark by Howse in his Cree Grammar, which is true probably of
all primitive speech, ‘* Emphasis, accent and modifications of vocal
expression which are inadequately expressed in writing, seem to
constitute an essential, perhaps the vital part of Indian language.’’
In such modifications I include tone, accent, stress, vocal inflection,
quantity and pause. These are with much difficulty or not at all
includable in a graphic method, and yet are frequently significant.
Take the pause or hiatus. I have already mentioned that in Tinné
it correlates a whole series of ideas. M. Belcourt, in his Grammar
of the Sauteux, an Algonkin dialect, states that the pause may com-
pletely change the meaning of a word and place it in another class;
it is also essential in that language in the formation of the tenses.*
This is the case in the Giiarani of South America. Montoya illus-
trates it by the example: Peru o’u, Peter ate it; but Peru ou, Peter
came; quite another thing you will observe. t

The stress laid on a vowel-sound often alters its meaning. In the
Sauteux, Belcourt points out that this constitutes the only distinc-
tion between the first and second persons in participles. In the
Nahuatl this alone distinguishes many plural forms from their sin-
gulars ; and many similar examples could be cited.

With difficulties of this nature to encounter, a person accustomed
to the definite phonology of European tongues is naturally at a
loss. The Spanish scholar Uricoechea expresses this in relating his
efforts to learn the Chibcha of New Granada, a tongue also charac-
terized by these fluctuating phonetics. He visited the region where
it is still spoken with a grammar and phrase book in his hand, and
found to his disappointment that they could not understand one
word he said. He then employed a native who spoke Spanish, and
with him practiced some phrases until he believed he had them per-
fect. Another disappointment. Not one of them was understood.
He returned to his teacher and again repeated them; but what was
his dismay when not even his teacher recognized a single word !
After that, Uricoechea gave up the attempt.

Leaving now the domain of phonology and turning to that of
lexicography, I will point out to you a very curious phenomenon in
primitive speech. I have already alluded to it in quoting M. Peti-

* Principes de la Langue des Sauvages appellés Sauteux. Introd.

t Arte dela Lengua Guarani, 6 mas bien Tupi. Por el P, Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, p. 100.
t Gramatica dela Lengua Chibcha. Introd.

Brinton, ] 220 [Oct. 5,

tot’s remark that in Tinné a sound often means both a notion and
its opposite ; that, for instance, the same word may express good and
bad, and another both high and low. To use M. Petitot’s own
words, ‘a certain number of consonants have the power of express-
ing a given order of ideas or things, and also the contradictory of
this order.”’? In Tinné, a great many words for opposite ideas are
the same or nearly the same, derived from the same significant ele-
ments. Thus, som good, sona bad; tezo, sweet, tezon bitter ; ya
immense, ya very small; zw/a one time, zn/asin every time; and
so on.

This union of opposite significations reappears in the ultimate
radicals of the Cree language. These, says Mr. Howse,* whose
Grammar I again quote, express Being in its positive and negative
modes; ‘* These opposite modes are expressed by modifications of
the same element, furnishing two classes of terms widely different
from each other in signification.’’ In Cree the leading substantive
radical is e/h, which originally meant both Being and Not-Being.
In the present language e// remains as the current positive, 2¢i as
the current privative. /¢ means within, w¢ without ; and like par-

_ allelisms run through many expressions, indicating that numerous
series of opposite ideas are developments from the same original
sounds.

I have found a number of such examples in the Nahuatl of Mex-
ico, and I am persuaded that they are very usual in American
tongues. Dr. Carl Abel has pointed out many in the ancient Cop-
tic, and I doubt not they were characteristic of all. primitive
speech.

To explain their presence we must reflect on the nature of the
human mind, and the ascertained laws of thought. One of these
fundamental and necessary laws of thought, that usually called the
second, was expressed by the older logicians in the phrase Omais
determinatio est negatio, and by their modern followers in the formula,
‘« 4 is not not-A ;’’ in other words, a quality, an idea, and element
of knowledge, can rise into cognition only by being limited by that
which it isnot. That by which it is limited is known in logic as
its privative. In a work published some years ago I pointed out
that this privative is not an independent thought, as some have
maintained, but that the positive and its privative are really two

* See Howse, Grammar of the Cree Language, pp. 16, 134, 135, 169, ete.

1888. ] 221 : (Brinton.

aspects of the same thought.* This highly important distinction
explains how in primitive speech, before the idea had risen into clear
cognition, both it and its privative were expressed by the same
sound; and when it did rise into such cognition, and then into
expression, the original unity is exhibited by the identity of the
radical. Thus it happens that from such an unexpected quarter as an
analysis of Cree grammar do we obtain a confirmation of the start-
ing point of the logic of Hegel in his proposition of the identity
of the Being and the /Vo/-derng as the ultimate equation of thought.

The gradual development of grammar is strikingly illustrated in
these languages. Their most prominent trait is what is called zzcor-
poration. Subject, verb, direct object and remote object are all
expressed in one word. Some have claimed that there are Ameri-
can languages of which this is not true; but I think I have shown
in an essay published a few years ago,} that this opinion arises from
our insufficient knowledge of the alleged exceptions. At any rate,
this incorporation was undoubtedly a trait of primitive speech in
America and elsewhere. Primitive man, said Herder, was like a
baby; he wanted to say all at once. He condensed his whole sen-
tence into a single word. Archdeacon Hunter, in his ‘‘ Lecture on
the Cree Language,’’ gives as an example the Scriptural phrase, ‘I
shall have you for my disciples,’’ which, in that tongue, is expressed
by one word.}

So far as I have been able to analyze these primitive sentence-
words, they always express deing im relation; and hence they par-
take of the nature of verbs rather than nouns. In this conclusion
Iam obliged to differ with the eminent linguist Professor Steinthal
who, in his profound exposition of the relations of psychology to
grammar, maintains that while the primitive sentence was a single
word, that word was a noun, a name.§

It is evident that the primitive man did not connect his sentences.
One followed the other disjointedly, unconnectedly. This is so

*® The Religious Sentiment; Its Source and Aim. A Contribution to the Science of
Religion. By D. G. Brinton, p. 81 (New York, 1876). The statement in the text can be
algebraically demonstrated in the mathematical form of logic as set forth by Prof.
Boole, thus: 4A = not (not - A); which, in its mathematical expression becomes,
« = a. Whence by transposition and substitution we derive, xe =1; in which equa-
tion 1= A. See Boole, An Investigation into the Laws of Thought (London, 1854).

t On Polysynthesis and Incorporation, in Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society, 1885.

t On the Grammatical Construction of the Oree Language, p. 12 (London, 1875).

2 Steinthal, Gramatik, Logik und Psychologie, 8, 825.

Brinton. ] 222 [Oct, 5,

plainly marked in American tongues that the machinery for con-
necting sentences is absent. This machinery consists properly of
the relative pronoun and the conjunction. You will be surprised
to hear that there is no American language, none that I know,
which possesses either of these parts of speech. That which does
duty for the conjunction in the Maya and Nahuatl, for instance, is
a noun meaning associate or companion, with a prefixed possessive.*

Equally foreign to primitive speech was any expression of dime
in connection with verbal forms; in other words, there was no such
thing as tenses. We are so accustomed to link actions to time, past,
present, or future, that it is a little difficult to understand how this
accessory can be omitted in intelligible discourse. It is perfectly
evident, however, from the study of many American tongues that
at one period of their growth they possessed for a long interval only
one tense, which served indifferently for past, present, and future ;+
and even yet most of them form the past and future by purely ma-
terial means, as the addition of an adverb of time, by accent,
quantity or repetition, and in others the tense relation is still un-
known. tf

In some tongues, the Omagua of the upper Orinoco for example,
there is no sort of connection between the verbal stem and its signs
ot tense, mode or person. ‘They have not even any fixed order.
In such languages there is no difference in sound between the words
for’! marty," and: ‘ my wife;’” ‘1 eat,’’and: ** my, food,’ be-
tween ‘* Paul dies,’’ ‘‘ Paul died,’’ ‘‘ Paul will die,’’ and ‘‘ Paul is
dead.”’§ Through such tongues we can distinctly perceive a time
when the verb had neither tense, mode, nor person; when it was
not even a verb nor yet a verbal, but an epicene sound which could
be adapted to any service of speech,

”?

* In Maya the conjunction “and” is rendered by yetl, a compound of the possessive.
pronoun, third person, singular y, and ef, companion. The Nahuatl, ihuan, is precisely
the same in composition. ‘

+ Die meisten amerikanischen Sprachen haben die Eigenthiimlichkeit, dass in der
Regel die Haupttempora in Anwendung kommen und unter diesen besonders das
Priisens, selbst wenn von einer bestimmten, besonders aber von einer unbestimmten
Vergangenheit gesprochen wird, J.J. von Tschudi, Organismus der Khetsua Sprache, s.
198. The same tense is also employed for future occurrences. What classical gram-
marians call ‘‘the historical present,” will illustrate this employment of a single tense
for past and future time.

{ The Chiquita of Bolivia is an extreme example. ‘La distinction du passé, du pré-
sent et du futur n’existe pas dans cette langue ¢trange.”’ Arte y Vocabulario dela Lengua
Chiquita. Por L. Adam, y V. Henry, p. x.

2 On the Verb in American Languages. By Wilhelm yon Humboldt. Translated by D.
G. Brinton, in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1885. :

1888. ] 223 (Brinton,

It is also evident that things were not-thought of, or talked of,
out of their natural relations. ‘There are still in most American
tongues large classes of words, such as the parts of the body and
terms of kinship, which cannot stand alone. ‘They must always be
accompanied by a pronoun expressing relation.

Few American tongues have any adjectives, the Cree, for instance,
not a dozen in all. Prepositions are equally rare, and articles are
not found. These facts testify that what are called ‘‘the gram-
were wholly absent in the primitive speech of

matical categories ”’

man.

So also were those adjectives which are called zumerals. ‘There
are American tongues which have no words for any numerals what-
ever. The numerical concepts one, two, three, four, cannot be
expressed in these languages for lack of terms with any such mean-
ing.* This was a great puzzle to the missionaries when they under-
took to expound to their flocks the doctrine of the Trinity. They
were in worse case even than that missionary to an Oregon tribe,
who, to convey the notion of sowd to his hearers, could find no-
word in their language nearer to it than one which meant ‘‘ the
lower gut.”’

A very interesting chapter in the study of these tongues is that
which reveals the evolution of specific distinctions, those inductive
generalizations under which primitive man classified the objects of
the universe about him. These distinctions were either grammatical
or logical, that is, either formal or material. That most widely
seen in America is a division of all existences into those which are
considered living and those considered not living. ‘This consti-
tutes the second great generalization of the primitive mind, the
first, as I have said, having been that into Being and Not-being.
The distinctions of Living and Not-living gave rise to the animate
and zvanimate conjugations. A grammatical sex distinction, which
is the prevailing one in the grammars of the Aryan tongues, does
not exist in any American dialect known to me.f

It is true that abstract general terms are absent or rare in the

* A striking example is the Chiquita of Bolivia. ‘‘ No se puede en chiquito, ni contar
dos, tres, cuatro, ete., ni decir segundo, tercero, etc.’’ Arte y Vocabulario de la Lengua
Chiquita, p. 19 (Paris, 1880). :

+ Those distinctions, apparently of sex, called by M. Lucien Adam anthropic and met-
anthropic, arrhenie and metarrhenic, found in certain American tongues, belong to the
material, not the formal part of the language, and, strictly speaking, are distinctions not
really based on sexual considerations. See Adam, Du Genre dans les Diverses Langues
(Paris, 1888).

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. XXV. 128. 2c. | PRINTED NOY. 24, 1888.

Brinton.] 224 (Oct. 5,

most primitive tongues. On the other hand, we find in them a great
many classificatory particles. These correspond only remotely to
anything known in Aryan speech, and seem far more abstract than
generic nouns. I will illustrate what they are by an example taken
from the Hidatsa, a dialect of the Dakota.

The word for sled in that dialect is m¢da-maidutsada. ‘The first
part of this compound, mda, means anything of wood or into which
wood enters. Fire is médé because it is kept up with wood. With
the phonetic laxity which I have before noted, the first syllable mz
may as correctly be pronounced @ or w?. It is a common nominal
prefix, of vague significance, but seems to classify objects as distinc-
tives. JZa designates objects whose immediate use is not expressed ;
7 denotes instrument or material; dw, conveys that the cause of the
action is not specified; ¢sa intimates the action is that of separa-
ting; da, that this is done quickly (¢sa-da, to slide).*

Thus by the juxtaposition of one classificatory particle after an-
other, seven in number, all of them logical universals, the savage
makes up the name of the specific object.

This system was probably the first adopted by man when he be-
gan to set in order his perceptions within the categories of his un-
derstanding with the aim of giving them vocal expression. It is
a plan which we find most highly developed in the rudest languages,
and therefore we may reasonably believe that it characterized pre-
historic speech.

The question has been put by psychological grammarians, which
one of the senses most helped man in the creation of language, or
to express it in modern scientific parlance, was primitive man a
visuaire or an auditaire 2 Did he model his sounds after what he
heard, or what he saw? ‘The former opinion has been the more
popular, and has given rise to the imitative or ‘‘ onomatopoetic”’
theory of language. No doubt there is a certain degree of truth in
this, but the analysis of American tongues leans decidedly toward
classing primitive man among the swaires. His earliest significant
sounds seem to have been expressive of motion and rest, energy and
its absence, space and direction, color and form, and the like. A
different opinion has been maintained by Darwin and by many who
have studied the problems presented by the origin of words from
a merely physical or physiological standpoint, but a careful investi-

* Washington Matthews, Grammar and Dictionary of the Language of the Hidatsa
(New York, 1878).

1888, ] 225 : | Brinton,

gation shows that it was the sense of sight rather than of hearing
which was the prompter to vocal utterance. But the consideration
of the source of primitive significant sounds lies without the bounds
of my present study.

It will be seen from these remarks that the primitive speech of
man was far more rudimentary than any language known to us. It
had no grammatical form; so fluctuating were its phonetics and so
much depended on gesture, tone, and stress, that its words could
not have been reduced to writing, nor arranged in alphabetic
sequence ; these words often signified logical contradictories, and
which of the antithetic meanings was intended could be guessed
only from the accent or a sign; it possessed no prepositions nor
conjunctions, no numerals, no pronouns of any kind, no forms to
express singular or plural, male nor female, past nor present; the
different vowel-sounds and the different consonantal groups conveyed
specific significance, and were of more import than the syllables
which they formed. The concept of time came much later than that
of space, and for a long while was absent.

Obituary Notice of Philip H. Law, Esq. By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 19, 1888.)

In one of the conversations of his later life, Goethe said, that some of
the most remarkable men whom he had met in his career had never ac-
quired distinction in any line of effort. Something of the same kind is
stated by Hugh Miller, the geologist, in his ‘‘ Autobiography.’’ I am re-
minded of these expressions in preparing a biographical notice of our late
member, Mr. Philip H. Law. Those who knew him best will, I think,
agree with me in pronouncing him a remarkable man ; although it is diffi-
cult to point to anything that he accomplished which would justify the
epithet. This lack of accomplished deeds may in part be explained by the
circumstances of his life. He was the only son of parents enjoying pecu-
niary ease, and as he never married he lacked that potent stimulus to
effort—necessity. :

His birth took place in Baltimore, February 17, 1839. When he was
about eight years of age, the family removed to Philadelphia, where Mr.
Law resided the rest of his life, rarely leaving the city even in summer
fora single day. Some of his youthful experiences were in the office of
his father, who was a broker, and the glimpses he there obtained of Third
street methods were never forgotten by him.

226 (Oct. 19,

Brinton.]

His earlier education was completed at the University of Pennsylvania,
and a few years later he was admitted to the bar, which was his ostensible
profession for the rest of his life. In later years he paid but little atten.
tion to it, preferring to give his hours to general reading and intellectual
conversation. Legal practice was distasteful to him, though I am in-
formed by those more capable of judging than myself, that his knowledge
of the theory of the law was sound and extensive. Te was well versed
in certain branches of it rarely explored by ordinary lawyers, for instance,
the Roman and Norman codes, and the history of the development of
English Common Law and Procedures.

Mr. Law had a remarkably retentive memory and I cannot now recall
any person of my acquaintance who surpassed him in a knowledge of
general prose literature. On various occasions when I had been attracted
by some little-known author I would air my newly acquired knowledge
in his presence and would usually find that he had dipped more or less
deeply into the volumes. Thus, on one occasion I had been looking up
the life and works of Charles von Bonstetten, sufficiently little known in
this country, but I found he was no stranger to my friend Law. At another
time we tried him with Jomini’s works on the art of war; but he was
singularly familiar with them. Such examples were constant.

He had read extensively in the memoirs and biographies of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, both French and English. His knowl-
edge of the former language was lexicographically good, and he had kept
up and increased his knowledge of Latin imbibed at college, and perused
the Roman authors frequently. F

To one branch of literature he always manifested an aversion. This
was poetry, especially its modern forms. I once persuaded him to read
aloud Swinburne’s ‘‘Our Lady of Seven Sorrows.’ He did so with
“good accent and good discretion,’’ but at the close threw the volume
aside with an expression of contempt. This aversion I attribute to a
natural and cultivated predominance of the intellectual over the emotional
elements of character. He once informed me that never, even as a youth,
did he have the common experience of falling in love. His family and
friendly affections, which were strong, were directed by natural sympa-
thies, or by a sense of duty, rather than by unconscious emotion.

To the claims of music he was even more indifferent. Of this art he
was accustomed to say that it should be placed on a level with cookery,
the one titillating the palate, the other the ear, neither conveying any
ideas to the intellect ; at most, perhaps, like Plato, he might have con-
ceded that music is useful in teaching boys proper etiquette.

His sense of truth was keen, and I have often heard him inveigh against
the modern historians who strive to conceal the discredible sides of their
heroes’ characters. He held up as a model for ali biographers the im-
mortal pages of Plutarch, who never hesitates to reveal the vanity of a
Cesar, the meanness of a Cato, or the adulteries of an Alcibiades. I never
met a man who more clearly perceived than did Law that the cause of

prr
1888.] 227 [Brinton.

truth and justice is not benefited by lying, even that quasi-lying which
consists in the deliberate concealment of the truth.

In business matters his judgment was sound and clear, and I and
others of his friends benefited much by his advice. He laughed at those
who suppose that abstract studies disqualify for dealings with men, and
quoted Schopenhauer’s reply when some one expressed surprise at his
business ability : ‘‘Do you think because I am a philosopher, that I am
therefore a fool?”’

In his conversational powers, Law was a marked figure when he chose
to give them play. This he rarely did in a large company. At such
times he was apt to remain silent. But it was the reverse among those
with whom he felt sure he would not be misunderstood. Then, indeed,
the complaint might be that he would monopolize the conversation, His
style was somewhat Johnsonian, crowding down less voluble speakers,
but himself saying what the company generally wished to listen to. For
some years he was a conspicuous member of a small association of men
who desired to turn their minds to subjects higher than the affairs of daily
life, an association which ambitiously styled itself ‘‘The Philosophers.’
Whatever else we learned in that assembly, we did not discover the elixir
of life, for the association became extinct in a few years.

He was not gifted ag a public speaker, and it was rare that he occupied
the time of the various learned societies of which he was a member. He
was, however, an appreciative listener and there were few topics of
modern research in which he did not take an intelligent interest. He
occupied a position as an officer in this and other societies, and was al-
ways prompt and careful in the performance of any duties thus imposed
upon him. :

While an omnivorous reader, he had some topics of predilection. One

_ of these was metaphysics. He had been educated in the usual doctrines

of one of the Protestant denominations, but, as he told me on one occa-
sion, had his intellectual slumber broken by reading Sir William Hamil-

ton’s celebrated treatise on the ‘‘ Philosophy of the Unconditioned.’’ He
learned later that Hamilton’s views are really little more than an expan-

sion of Kant’s famous antinomies of the human understanding, and Law

agreed with Lewes in the opinion that that wonderfully acute critique
destroyed forever the foundation of all speculative philosophy. That

Kant avoided this conclusion, he characterized as subservience to authority ;

that Hamilton did not push his theory to this extent, he attributed to

timidity ; and that Hegel pretended to have framed a new logic which
avoided it, was a claim in his opinion proved false by its failure.

By this ratiocination Mr. Law was led toward the Comtian doctrines,
which he studied with much care. They persuaded him that that philoso-
phy known as the Positive is alone the body of principles which are con-
sistent with the demands of modern science and social-relations. In the
many discussions [ had with him on this topic I could never. gain any
concessions from him in favor of the idealistic or even the monistic doc.

Brinton. ] 228 [Oct. 19,

trines. What to me seemed the abstractly true, as for instance, the formu-
le of the higher mathematics, he rejected, in accordance with the tenets
of the Positivists, as merely formal and not real expressions, idole furt
et scholw ; yet with native intellectual fairness, he clearly saw and freely
acknowledged that the Platonic doctrine of archetypal ideas, if it could
be established, would be a far grander cosmic conception than Positivism
presents. But he insisted on the total illogicality of the evidence in its
favor.

His favorite authors in this domain were Aristotle, Bacon, Hobbes,
Locke and Hume. He did not, as many, speak of these great names
through reviews, encyclopedias, and other second-hand sources of infor-
mation, but from frequent and attentive perusal of their works. To him,
this long line of rationalistic thinkers expressed the sober, sound and
real intelectual advance of the race, holding man’s mind down to what
he can certainly know, and dismissing as vain and hurtful all pretended
intuitions, inspirations, and emotional imaginings.

Jonsistently with this dismissal of the pursuit of primary causes—the
search for the unsearchable—he welcomed the Darwinian hypothesis of
transformation as a complete and satisfying explanation of the phenomena
of organic life by the assignment of known and intelligible proximate
causes. Though little interested in natural history, he was well acquainted
on its philosophic side with the great controversy over evolution.

That marvelous genius, Pascal, spent the latter years of his life in pre-
paring material for a work on the grandeur and the baseness of human
nature. Mr, Law fully appreciated this seeming paradox. His estimate
of the conscious motives of men was very low. He held that greed, lust,
hatred, vanity and self-interest are the prime movers in most deliberate
actions ; but he also constantly pointed out the enormous personal sacri-
fices which most men make, unconsciously or nearly so, for their families
and their country. He was unwilling to acknowledge motiveless evil in
human nature. I once asserted that some men take an innate pleasure in
witnessing pain. He warmly denied this, and maintained that such an
opinion arose from an incomplete analysis of the fact.

The study of ethics had particular attractions for him, and he had
familiarized himself with the leading treatises on that branch, from Aris-
totle down. He delighted, with all the zest of Montaigne, to point out
the mutations of the ethical standards in“different periods and climes.
He loved extreme examples ; as that in ancient Persia it was a particularly
meritorious deed for a son to take his own mother to wife ; or that to-day
in India, prostitution is a sacred profession. Consequently he regarded
all ethical prescriptions as of temporary force only. In one conversation
he summed them up under three heads: National ethics, which defines
the rights of mea in communities and are roughly synonymous with the
laws of the commonwealth ; Social ethics, in which is included all that
pertains to etiquette and good breeding ; and Personal ethics, which em-
braces the care of the person, and prudence and foresight with regard to

1888, ] 229 [Brinton.

one’s own needs. This classification impressed me as comprehensive and
just, and was, I am quite sure, original with him.

The amelioration of society in modern times he explained as due to the
evolution of the benevolent emotions and of the sense of justice through
enlarged social relations, and not to religious dogmas. All such dogmas
and doctrines he looked upon as transient forms of man’s intelligence in
its progressive development toward clear materialism, which teaches that
beyond the properties of matter, its elements and laws, there is nothing.
Such an opinion may in the future prove to be the ripened fruit of the
tree of knowledge; or new discoveries in the field of psychic research
may pronounce it narrow and fallacious. No mortal can say. At present,
the advocates of such tenets are few, and their presentation unwelcome,
especially in this country. A considerable degree of moral courage is
required to maintain them, and this should always be placed to the credit
of those who conscientiously attach themselves to a small and unpopular
minority.

Finding his pleasure almost exclusively in such studies, themes purely
of the intellect, he cared little for the beautiful in art or nature. He
quoted with approbation Dr. Johnson’s reply when asked to stroll through
the fields near London, ‘‘ Let us walk down the Strand ; let us see men.’’
Equally indifferent was he both to what is called society, and to the
games and amusements in which most men pass their leisure. I never
knew him to take a drive for pleasure, nor to play a game of cards or
billiards, nor to go gunning or fishing, nor to attend a concert, nor to
visit a picture gallery. Through this narrowness of his tastes he became
almost a recluse in his later years, and was frequently misunderstood by
those whom he did meet. He devoted his time to reading, being of the
opinion of Lord Bacon, that ‘‘Reading is converse with the wise; but
action is, for the most part, commerce with fools.’’

Law was averse to the labor of composition. He prepared a few papers
for reading before the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, whose meet-
ings he attended with regularity, but I believe nothing he wrote was
published in full. Most of these papers were ‘descriptive of historic
sociological conditions, either in this country or in Europe. Mr. Isaac
Myer, the competent historiographer of the Numismatic and Antiquarian
Society, has given their titles, together with a number of genealogical and
biographical details in the necrology of Mr. Law which he laid before that
Society.

Such limited regults of a life of leisure mainly devoted to literary and
historical study is a phenomenon common enough in this age. It was
not altogether due to indolence or timidity. The pursuit of fame, pro-
nounced a disease by Milton, and overtly despised by Shakespeare, be-
comes the most trivial of motives to one who is accustomed to compare
the momentary duration of human life with the infinite measures of time
and space. All his intimate friends know that this was a familiar topic of

230 [Oct. 19,

Brinton. ]

conversation to Law, and undoubtedly on him it reacted disastrously, as
it did on Amiel, whose Journal Intime bears constant traces of it.

Our friend was a lover of good cheer, but it was far from filling the
requirements of his nature. No one could content himself with humbler
fare or cared less to pamper himself with luxuries. Yet no one appreci-
ated more highly the delights of a nobly spread board, and the merits of
a bottle of sound wine, when combined with friendly companionship and
intellectual conversation. Any one capable of appreciating the best
qualities of heart and mind, who met Mr. Law at such times, could not
fail of bearing away sentiments of affection and respect for him.

He was careless with reference to dress, and this not only as matter of
habit, but of avowed principle. He shared Carlyle’s contempt for clothes,
and maintained that fora man to attach much importance to his garb is a
sign of mental backwardness. He referred to the picturesque and beauti-
ful costumes of men of past centuries, and explained their disappearance
asa mark of evolution. That women are as devoted as ever to such fine
feathers he adduced as evidence in favor of his avowed belief in their
mental inferiority as a sex. He was an earnest advocate of the virile
power, as against feminine influence. He thoroughly agreed with Thacke-
ray’s opinion, as expressed in ‘‘ Henry Esmond,”’ that a man or a country
ruled by the influence of priests or women is on the high road to decad-
ence,

In politics Mr. Law was a Democrat, and in political economy a Free-
trader. These were not merely inherited opinions. He had read very
widely the authors on modern political history, and set forth clearly both
the many fallacies of the protective theory as a national policy and also
that it is in open conflict with the brotherhood of man. The doctrine
that each nation should take care of its own interests, without reference
to its neighbors, he characterized as on the same level of morals as the
common expression, ‘‘ Every man for himself and the devil take the hind-
most,’”’ both absolutely at issue with the grand Comtian motto, Vivre pour
qutrui. Altruism, he contended, is the highest moral principle both for the
individual and the State, and its repudiation by either will work no ulti-
mate good result. National selfishness he condemned as just as unphilo-
sophical, and for that matter just as un-Christian, as individual selfish-
ness.

At the time of his death, Mr. Law was not yet fifty ; but he had already
reached an age greater than the average of his male ancestors in either
branch as far as they*could be traced. None had attained advanced years,
and thoroughly acquainted as he was with the doctrine of heredity as
applied to longevity, he did not flatter himself with the expectation of
long life. When I left for Europe in February last, he expressed serious
doubts whether he would be alive on my return, as he was not. This
anticipation was not owing to physical debility. He was of a large, pow-
erful frarae, weighing about 210 pounds, and had never been sick except
on one occasion, from a temporary surgical affection. His death was sud-

1888. ] 4 231 . [Keyes.

den. On the morning of the 22d of May he fell dead in the street from
heart disease or apoplexy, it is not known which.

We have lost in him a member who, perhaps, more than any one of
us, deserved to be an associate in a Philosophical society, and one whose
philosophy, however different from that popular in this community,
prompted him all his life to be an affectionate son and brother, a warm
and sympathetic friend, and a man of honorable instincts.

On the Attachment of Platyceras to Paleocrinoids, and its Effects in Modify-
ing the Form of the Shell.

By Charles R. Keyes.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 19, 1888.)

Attention has lately been called to the sedentary habits of Platyceras,*
and to the variable configuration of the apertural margin in different indi-
viduals of the same species—the confirmatory evidence being partly from
analogy among living forms closely allied to the fossil ; partly, and more
directly, by the actual occurrence of various Platycerata attached to palee-
ozoic crinoids. The association of these gasteropods with the crinoids had
long been known, but prior to the recent discovery of a rich crinoidal
fauna in the Keokuk rocks of Indiana illustrative examples of this kind
were numerically very limited. The recorded instances of such findings
have usually been accompanied by more or less brief explanatory remarks,
but until 1868+ the interpretations were for the most part incorrect, chiefly
on account of erroneous conceptions relative to the functions of various
organs in the crinoid. It was, however, noted that the molluscan shells
were nearly always on the ventral side of the crinoid in the proximity of
the vault opening and encompassed by the arms—a fact which was
thought to afford conclusive proof of the carnivorous habits of the crin-
oids, which were, at the moment of perishing, in the act of devouring the
mollusks. The examination of several fossil crinoids having shellfish in-
closed by thearms led the Austins} to some general conclusions relative to
the food of all the crinoids; and they give a vivid though highly imaginary
account of the capture of Producti and univalves by the ‘‘rapacious”’
echinoderm. Another explanation of this phenomenon was subsequently
advanced to the effect that the gasteropods were parasitic in their habits,
but this also now appears to require considerable emendation. Later in-
vestigations among recent and fossil crinoideans show that the food of the
species now extant consists in great part of animalcules and microscopic

* Keyes, Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. xxxvi, p. 269, 1888.

+Meek.and Worthen, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1868, p, 310.
t Monog. Recent and Fossil Crinoidea, p. 73, 1843,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv. 128. 2p. PRINTED NOV. 24, 1888.

Keyes. ] 232 (Oct. 19,

plants; that in the palexocrinoids* the mouth is subtegumentary, instead
of being externally visible as in the recent crinoids, and that the aperture
in the vault is the anal opening. With these considerations in view the
association of these calyptreean shells and paleozoic crinoids assumes an
entirely different phase from that originally entertained.

The genus Platyceras was founded by Conrad} in 1840 for a paleozoic
group of gasteropodous shells ‘‘suboval or subglobose, with a small spire,
the whorls of which are sometimes free and sometimes contiguous ; the
mouth generally campanulated or expanded.”’ Hitherto these fossil shells
had been referred to the genus of modern mollusca Capulus, proposed by
Montfort} in 1810; or to Péileopsis, founded by Lamarck§ in 1822 for the
same group. Conrad’s name for this fossil group was not, until within
the past few years, generally accepted, preference having been given by
most European writers, and also by some American authors, to Acroculia
of Phillips, || notwithstanding the fact that the type of Phillips’ genus was
a typical form of Platyceras. Some European writers even now question
the propriety of generically separating Platyceras from Capulus, and con-
tinue to describe specimens belonging to the former group under the latter
genus. Among living Calypiraide it has been observed that both color
and form are dependent upon individual environment and hence in forms
of the same species there may be many varietal phases. It has further
been noted that the majority of the members of this family attach them-
selves while yet quite young to stones and shells of other mollusca, and
having found a suitable situation seldom, if ever, remove from the spot
where first they became stationed. The character and contour of the sur-
face on which they have settled would therefore determine to a great
extent the form and outline of the apertural margin. The evidence here
presented manifestly proves that the fossil representatives had, with per-
haps one exception, similar habits and were subjected to like conditions
of environment.

I. History.

1843. Among the first to note the intimate connection of molluscan
shells and crinoids were the Austins, {[ who, in their description of Pote-
riocrinites crassus, discuss at length the ‘‘carnivorous’’ propensities
of the crinoids in general. Particular mention is made of Producti being
the victims of the ‘‘predatory explorations’’ of the Potertocrint; and
there is reference also to ‘‘other crinoids having been found with uni-
valves inclosed within their rays, in such a position as to leave but little

*Tt must be bornein mind that paleocrinoidea and palwxozoic crinoideaare not coexten-
sive terms.

+Ann. Rept. Paleo. N. Y., p. 205, 1840.

{Conch Syst., Vol. ii.

2His. Nat. des Animaux sans Vertébres, 1815-1822.
|| Palee. Foss. Cornwall, p. 93, 1841.
{ Monog. Recent and Fossil Crinoidea, p. 73.

1888. ] 233 [Keyes.

doubt that a sudden death had overtaken them in the midst of their
repast.’’

1844. De Koninck,* though possessing no specimens in which these
gasteropods were associated witb crinoids and probably having in mind
living forms, states that in consequence of the habits which the animals
of this genus (Caupulus) have of attaching themselves to foreign bodies
and remaining fixed during life, the margins of the shells become adapted
to all the irregularities of the surface in contact.

1847. In America the first mention of the association of Platyceras and

* fossil crinoids was by Yandell and Shumard.} - The specimen they refer
to was afterwards described by the formeras Acrocrinus shumardi. These
authors seemed to have adopted the views of the Austins, and remark that
they believe ‘‘the carnivorous habits of the crinoideans have been clearly
made out.”’

1851. L. P. Yandell,t in a paper On the Distribution of the Crinoidea
in the Western States, corroborates the statement made four years previous,
and is ‘‘ satisfied as to the carnivorous habits of the crinoidea.’? At Cin-
cinnati he noticed several specimens of Glyptocrinus decadactylus Hall
with gasteropods entangled in the arms. Reference is also made toa
Platycrinus from Warsaw, Ill., and several specimens of Actinocrinus§
with Platycerata attached.

1855. Yandelll| described and figured Acrocrinus shumardi with a
Platyceras attached to the vault. It is the same specimen referred to by
Yandell and Shumard in 1847, and the views there expressed are here
repeated.

1862. Richard Owen{ considered that the Platycerata constituted the
principal food of certain crinoids and therefore gave without description
the name Platyceras pabulocrinus to a gasteropod ‘found on Platycrinus
hemisphericus.

1866. In Meek and Worthen’s discussion** of the genus Platyceras two
paragraphs are devoted to the consideration of the probable habits of the
species of this group. An instance is cited in which the calyptreean shell
is attached to the side of a Pentremites godoni so as to entirely cover one
of the pseudo-ambulacral fields and two of the intermediate areas, the line
of contact being such as could not have resulted from accidental pressure.
The improbability of the earlier views that the crinoids were in the act of
devouring the gasteropods is here clearly shown.

1867. H. Trautschold{{ figured and described Capulus parasiticus on

* Desc. des Anim. Foss. (de Belgique), p. 332, 1842-4.
+ Contributions Geol. Kentucky, p. 25, 1847.
t Proc. Am. Asso. Ady. Sci. 1851, p. 234.
§ Actinocrinus as then used has since been subdivided into a number of genera.
| Amer. Jour. Sci., (2), Vol. xx, p. 185.
91. Surv. Indiana, p. 364, 1862.
*# Geol. Illinois, Vol. iii, p. 384.
tiEinige Crin. und andere Thierreste des Jiingeren Bergkalks im Gouy. Moskau, p. 41,
1867.

Keyes. ] 234 [Oct. 19,

Cromyocrinus simplex. He remarks that the gasteropod was attached to
the anal plate crowded between the arms of the crinoid, and that very
probably the Capulus was dependent for its food upon the crinoid, or per-
haps fed upon the excrementitious matter. The closely allied Cromyo-
crinus gemmatus had not been found with the Capulus affixed.

1868. Meek and Worthen* in their notes on the Structure and Habits
of the Paleozoic Crinoids refer to the attachment of Platycerata to two
species of Crawfordsville, Ind., crinoids. Their remarks also appear in
the American Journal of Science+ and in the report of the Illinois Geo-
logical Survey.{ The somewhat prolix discussion there presented, how-
ever, is directed more toward the real functions of the vault aperture in
the crinoid than to the Platyceras itself. Special mention is made of
Platycrinus hemisphericus Meek and Worthen and Ollacrinus tuberosus
Lyon and Casseday from the Keokuk of Indiana. It was observed that
Platyceras infundibulum M. & W. was usually attached to the former spe-
cies, and that the anterior side of the mollusk was always directed upward,
while in regard to, the latter species ‘‘it is worthy of note, that it is always
another, subspiral, Patyceras (very similar to P. equilaterum) that we
find attached to this crinoid, so that here, at least, it would seem that each
of these two crinoids has its own particular species of Platyceras.”’ It is
also here shown that the contact of the gasteropod and crinoid is more
than transient, as the sinuosities of the margin of the shell is adapted ex-
actly to the irregularities of the surface of the crinoid.

1869. EE. Billings$ in answering some objections urged against his
views on the structure of the crinoidea, etc., supposes that when the Platy-
ceras covers the ventral opening, which he regards as the mouth, there
must have been space left for a stream of water to pass under the edge of
the shell into the mouth of the crinoid. He adds: “ The view I took of
the subject in my paper was that the gasteropod ascended the stalk of the
crinoid and thrust its proboscis into the mouth of the latter. The crinoid
then slowly drew its arms together and held the shel] fast until both
died.’’ ‘

1879. Wetherby,| describing some new species of crinoids from the
Kaskaskia group of the Subcarboniferous, states that all of the specimens
of Pierotocrinus acutus Weth. and P. bifurcatus Weth. have a gasteropod
resting on the vault.

1879. H. Trautschold{ figured and redesciibed Cromyocrinus simplex
Trauts. with a Platyceras attached. “He suggests that the process on the
anal side was built by the crinoid for protection against the parasitic mol-
lusk, but adds that the gasteropod may have fed on the refuse matter of
the crinoid.

*Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1868, p. 340, et seq.
f 2d Series, July, 1869, p. 25, ef seq.

ft Vol. v, 1873, p. 834.

#Am. Jour. Sci. (2), Vol. xlix, p. 235.

| Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. His.. Oct., 1879, p 2.
{ Die Kalkbriiche yon Mjatschkowa, p. 119, Moskau, 1879.

1888. ] 235 [Keyes.

1881. Wachsmuth and Springer* mention a gasteropod generally cov-
ering the anal aperture of Pterotocrinus depressus.

1883. Julien Fraipont,f in his Recherches sur les Crinoides du Fam-
ennien de Belgique, mentionsa Capulus affixed to aspecimen of Melocrinus
globosus Dew., and in such a position as to indicate that the Capulus did
not form the food of the crinoid.

1885. Hinde, describing a new species of crinoids with articulating
spines, remarks that three out of eleven specimens discovered of Hystri-
crinus carpentert (= Arthroacantha punctobranchiata Williams) have a
Platyceras resting on the vault, which it nearly entirely covers ; and there
is no doubt that the gasteropod derived its support from the materials
rejected by the crinoid.

1888. Keyes,§ in the American Journal of Science, gives a brief sum-
mary of the sedentary habits of Platyceras, and mentions six species of
crinoids having gasteropods attached.

II. DescripTion OF SPECIMENS.

It has been intimated elsewhere that the direct paleontological evidence
of the sedentary habits of the mollusca belonging to the genus Platyceras
is found chiefly in the attachment of gasteropod shells to the calyces of
certain species of paleozoic crinoids. The diverse structural differentia-
tion of the crinoidal vault and the well-defined surface ornamentation in
the various genera, presents, in those species in which the association of
the univalves has been observed, determinate features for an adequate
consideration of the variability in the apertural margin of the calyptrean
shell. Numerous illustrative examples of the following species of crinoids
have been examined :| Ollacrinus tuberosus Lyon and Casseday, O. typus
Hall, Actinocrinus verrucosus Hall, Physetocrinus ventricosus Hall, Stroto-
erinus regalis Hall, Dorycrinus immaturus{, Wachsmuth and Springer,
Marsupiocrinus celatus Phillips, Hucladocrinus millebrachiatus Wachs-
muth and Springer, Platycrinus hemisphericus Meek and Worthen, <Ar-
throacantha punctobrachiata Williams, Pterotocrinus acutus Wetherby,
and Oromyocrinus simplex Trautschold.

In Ollacrinus the vault is comparatively large, nearly flat, with the anal
opening eccentric, and the plates are more or less convex or nodose. In
some specimens of 0. tuberosus L. & C. from the Keokuk of Crawfords-
ville, Indiana, this nodosity of the ventral plates reaches a high devel-

* Revision Paleeocrinoidea, pt. ii, p. 90, 1881.

+ Annals Soc. géol. de Belg., t. x, Mémoires, 1883, p. 62.

t Annals and Mag. Nat. His., Aono 1885, p. 172.

2Am. Jour. Sci. (8), Vol. xxxvi, p. 269, 1888.

| The observations herein noted are based principally upon numerous exemplifications
in the extensive and unrivaled series of paleozoie crinoids in the collection of Messrs.
Wachsmuth and Springer, to whom sincere thanks are tendered for free access to their
cabinets.

{It may be stated that this species has been figured and describedin the eighth vol-
ume of the Ilinois Geological Survey, now in press.

Keyes. ] 236 [Oct. 19,

opment. The nodes of certain plates are much more pronounced
than others, and are more or less confluent, forming a conspicu-
ous stellate figure, the points of which are directed interradially.. More
than one-half of the Crawfordsville specimens of this species have resting
on the vault a Platyceras—usually P. eqguilaterum Hall. The specimens
illustrate well the adaptation of the apertural margin of the shell to the
irregularities of the crinoidal surface, for it is clearly observable, as was
first pointed out by Meek and Worthen, that the contact of the gasteropod
shell and crinoid is not the result of accidental pressure, but that the mol-
lusk adhered to the surface of the crinoid for a considerable period, as is
shown by the sinuosities of the peristome corresponding exactly to the
inequalities of the surface beneath. In young shells the sinuosities of the
apertural margin are comparatively much more pronounced than in older
individuals. Many of the latter exhibit much irregularity in the lines of
growth, which might at first appear to be due to a change of situation,
but closer inspection shows that this is not the case.. When the plates of
the vault are nodose, as in Ollacrinus tuberosus, the lines of growth in old
shells, contrary to the more usual manner among gasteropoda generally,
are far from being even approximately parallel to one another ; and in the
margin of the shell a sinus caused by a nodose plate at one period of
growth may be represented in the next by a projecting lobe which had
extended into a deep depression between the nodes of two contiguous
plates. From an examination of the impressions made by the calyptrean
shell on the vaults of Strotocrinus and some other genera, it appears that
the anterior end of the Platyceras is always stationary at the margin of
the anal opening, and that as the growth of the shell continues the poste-
rior portion is removed farther and farther from the ventral aperture in
the crinoid. Platyceras equilaterwm, when stationed on the flat vault of
Ollacrinus, has the spire much more depressed, and the aperture compar-
atively much larger than is usual with this species. 'Tbis fact is also in
accordance with observations among the living representatives of a closely
allied genus, Capulus, in which it has been found that individuals attached
to flat surfaces have the shells much more depressed than those that
have settled on convex bodies. If Platyceras wqutlaterum was entirely
sedentary in its habits, as there is reason to believe, it would seem, from
the diverse forms, that its habitat comprised a variety of objects other
than crinoids. Indeed the shell of this gasteropod is extremely variable
in form, some specimens being nearly hemispherical with a small spire
subcentrally located, while others are nearly flat and the spire projects far
beyond the posterior margin of the aperture. Of the many examples of
crinoids with attached Platycerata only two instances have been noted in
which these gasteropods are associated with Actinocrinus, or other genera
having a prolonged anal tube—the so-called ‘‘ proboscis.’’ Meek and
Worthen* knew not asingle case of this kind, and state that it is ‘‘prob-
ably due to the fact that in species with a ‘proboscis’ there is much less

* Geol. Ill., Vol. v, p. 335.

1888, ] 237

[Keyes.

room for attachment to the vault.”’. If the gasteropods of this genus sub-
sisted upon the excrementitious matter from the crinoid the reason is
obvious for their non-occurrence on species having a prolonged anal tube.
In one of the cases referred to the Platyceras was just visible between two
of the arms of the crinoid, but the matrix was too compact to permit of
removal, and in the other, A. verrucosus Hall, the molluscan shell was at
the base of the anal tube, which, however, appeared to have been injured.
It is very probable that on account of this deformity there was an addi-
tional opening at its base.

But few illustrative instances are furnished by Physetocrinus. In P.
ventricosus Hall the dome is low, hemispherical, but the univalve asso-
ciated is remarkable for its comparatively large size, covering nearly the
entire vault. Strotocrinus presents numerous interesting examples. S.
regalis Hall, from the Burlington limestone, has the vault relatively very
large and flat as in Ollacrinus, but the dome plates are small and nearly
plane. Like in the Ollacrinus from Crawfordsville, Ind., the undeter-
mined Platyceras found on this crinoid is very much depressed, the aper-
ture ample and nearly circular in outline. In several specimens the uni-
valve has been carefully removed, revealing a series of concentric impres-
sions which, as has been previously stated, mark the different stages in
the growth of the shell. Perhaps one of the most notable examples is an
undescribed Dorycrinus* from the Kinderhook of Marshall county, Iowa.
In this species the dome is convex with broad radial elevations which
become more pronounced toward the arm bases. ‘On the posterior side of
the calyx there is a prominent ridge, at the top of which is situated the
anal opening, just below the central dome plate—the latter being rather
large and produced into a high conspicaous node. The arms are twenty
in number, equally divided among the rays, and equidistant from each
other, forming a close, almost continuous circle around the periphery of
the vault. The associated Platyceras is of the P. infundibulum type, but
instead of being attached laterally between the two posterior arms—as in,
the case of the Crawfordsville species of Platycrinus—it is stationed
directly on the vault, with the anterior portion of the shell over the anal
opening. In this position the mollusk has its anterior extremity directed
toward the posterior side of the crinoid, instead of the usual opposite
direction ; it also covers the subspinous process of the central plate, and
the apertural margin reaches to the arm bases on all sides except the two
postero-lateral. When thus covering nearly the entire vault the de-
pressed interradial areas give to the aperture of the shell a marked quin-
quelobate appearance.

The Platycrinide present both numerically and structurally the finest
series of illustrative examples, but they are unequally distributed among
three genera: Marsupiocrinus, Hucladocrinus and Platycrinus—the typical
genus furnishing the large majority of the specimens. In Marsupiocrinus

*This Dorycrinus has been defined by Wachsmuth and Springer, in the eighth volume
of the Nlinois Geological Survey, now in press.

Keyes. ] 238 [Oct. 19,

celatus Phillips, from the Upper Silurian of Dudley, England, the vault
is composed of a large number of small plates, and the anus is subcen-
tral. In Platycrinus and Hucladocrinus the vault is more or less hemi-
spherical with the simple anal aperture lateral in position. Platycrinus
hemisphericus M. and W. isa common species in the Keokuk shales of
‘rawfordsville, Indiana, and like Ollacrinus from the same locality a large
proportion of the specimens have attached Platycerata—usually P. infun-
dibulum M. and W., though not unfrequently P. equilaterum Hall is also
found associated with this Platycrinus. The former is a straight, elongate-
conical shell with numerous longitudinal plications ; while the latter is a
mote or less depressed, subspiral form, with a very large aperture. The
attachment of these gasteropods to Platyvrinus is somewhat different from
that of the other genera mentioned, being at the side between the arms,
instead of on the vault. As the growing shell increased in size it encom-
passed the bases of two postero lateral arms, and in some cases the poste-
rior portions of the univalve even extended to and enclosed the stem of
the crinoid. Hucladocrinus, from the Burlington limestone, presents the
same general features as Flatycrinus in the attachment of Platycerata ;
and it is worthy of note that this gasteropod from the Burlington is
remarkably similar to P. infundibulum from the Keokuk. In Arthroacan-
tha, Platyceras erectum Hall is found on the vault. Hinde* mentions two
species of Platyceras associated with this crinoid, P. erectwm Hall and P.
dumosum Conrad. In Pterotocrinus the vault is entirely different from
those of the other genera here mentioned. It is much elevated, being two
or three times as high as the dorsal cup. The first radial dome plates are
produced into monstrous alate processes, leaving a small summit which is
perforated for the anus. The anal opening is usually covered by a very
small Platyceras. In a number of examples the summit of this crinoid
became too small for this little gasteropod, and the margin of the growing
shell has followed closely the depressions between the radial dome plates,
which have given rise to large deep sinuosities in the apertural margin.
Oromyocrinus simplex Trauts., from the subcarboniferous of Russia, sup-
ports a broad subspiral Platyceras described as Oapulus parasiticus Trauts.
Trautschold} in describing the crinoid calls attention to a cylindrical pro-
cess lying above the anal plate, and to a gasteropod frequently found
attached to this region of the calyx, he then adds: ‘ Es ist nicht unmog-
lich, dass der oben beschriebene cylindrische Processus der Analplatten
zum Schutz gegen diese Verfolger des Cr. simplew aufgebaut ist.’”? The
‘cylindrical process’? here referred to is manifestly a ventral sac, and
both its structural and functional character were entirely misunderstood.
The occurrence of Platycerata attached to some other species of crinoids
has been noticed, but opportunity for personal examination has not been
offered. Yandell{ mentions that gasteropods are sometimes enclosed in

* Ann. and Mag, Nat. Hist., March, 1885, p. 172.
+Die Kalkbriiche von Mjatschkowa, p. 119.
} Proc. A, A. A. S., 1851, p. 234.

i

1888, ] 23 9 [Keyese

the arms of Glyptocrinus decadactylus Hall. This writer in his descrip
tion* of Acrocrinus.shumardi also calls attention to a Capulus on the vault
of that species as clearly proving the carnivorous habits of the crinoid-
eans: Jelocrinus globosus Dewalque, with a Platyceras adhering, has
been found in the schistes de Frasnes & Senzeille by Fraipont,+ who says :
‘*Cette position du mollusque sur de crinoide vient apporter une preuve
de plus contre l’opinion des paléontologues qui soutiennent que les Capu-
lus rencontrés sur ces crinoides servaient de nourriture & ceux-ce.’’
Finally, Meek and Worthen} mention a Platyceras adhering to the side of
a Pentremites godont ‘so as to cover one of the pseudo-ambulacral fields
and two intermediate areas ”’

Ill. Summary.

When attention was first directed to fossil crinoids having Platycerata
attached, conclusive proof of their carnivorous habits was thought to
be established, and inasmuch as it was then considered that the aper-
ture in the vault was the mouth, this explanation for a long time ap-
peared very plausible. Consequently the conclusion was very naturally
reached, that the crinoid when it perished was in the act of devouring the:
mollusk. Meek and Worthen§ seem to have been the first to demonstrate
that the prevalent opinions regarding the intimate association of crinoid
and Platyceras were erroneous, and that the gasteropod was undoubtedly
stationed on the crinoid for a protracted period, and very probably even’
for the greater portion of its life. But notwithstanding the fact that the
univalve was almost invariably situated over the ventral aperture, and
that this opening was recognized as the anus, these writers do not appear
to have entertained for a moment the idea that the gasteropod may have
been nourished on the refuse matter from the crinoid. The latter view
was more recently advanced by Wachsmuth, and has since been favorably
received by other paleontologists. In all of the specimens lately exam-
ined—probably upwards of one hundred and fifty—the Platyceras covers
the anal opening of the crinoid, and as far as observable, it is always the
anterior portion of the molluscan shell that is directed towards the vault
aperture. In those examples in which the shell has been removed, its
impression made on the ventral surface shows that the anterior margin of
the peristome was at the edge of the opening in the dome—a position that
would have brought the mouth of the mollusk directly over the anal aper-
ture of the crinoid. The food of recent crinoids consists chiefly of ani-
malcules and microscopic plants, and the living Calyptreide subsist on
food of a similar nature, From analogy it might be inferred that the food
of the fossil crinoids and mollusks must have been like that of their recent
representatives. So far as these echinoderms are concerned, there appears

* Am. Jour. Sci., (2), Vol. xx, p. 135.

+ Annal Soc. géol. de Belgique, t. x, Mémoires, 1883, ‘p. 62.
t Geol. T1l., Vol. iii, p. 386.

§ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1868, p. 340, et seq.

PROC. AMER, PHILOS. SOC. XXV. 128. 2H, PRINTED DEC. 21, 1888.

'

Keyes, ] 240 (Oct. 19,

to be no serious objections to this inference ; but with the univalves their
position through life indicates that their food was in great part at least of
an entirely different nature, and this is one of the considerations that
suggest a possibly much wider generic separation of Platyceras and Cap-
ulus than is apparent from a comparison of the shells. The anatomy of
the crinoid and the position of the molluscan shell are opposed to the sup-
position that the gasteropod may in any way have been nourished on the
food of the crinoid. This would imply that the mollusk was parasitic in
its habits, a view which, though held by some writers, does not appear to
be structurally sustained. While no doubt the Platyceras derived the
greater portion of its food from excrementitious matter, nourishment from
other sources may also have been obtained, and in all probability it was
very similar to that of the crinoids and living Calyptreide. Furthermore
there does not seem to be the slightest indication that the crinoid was in
any manner inconvenienced by the attachment of the gasteropod, except
perhaps in a few cases where the molluscan shell has encircled the postero-
Jateral arms which were in consequence slightly pressed outward. The
only really noticeable effect of the presence of Platyceras on the crinoid
is a comparatively shallow depression or groove on some of the vault
plates—marking the position of the shell margin; yet in the majority of
specimens this feature is scarcely perceptible.

In considering the structural peculiarities of the Platyceras shell three
features—the general form, the configuration of the aperture, and the sur-
face markings—appear to have been susceptible of considerable modifica-
tion as the result of the sedentary habits of the mollusk. An examination of
a large series of certain species of Platyceras reveals that the variant ten-
dency in all three of these particulars is much greater than might be sup-
posed, but when the attachment of these gasteropods to foreign bodies is
taken into consideration the causes for such varietal development become
manifest. It has been shown that the mollusk doubtless remained fixed
throughout a greater portion of life, and that the surface upon which it
first settled determined in great part both the form of the shell and the
shape of its aperture. When the surface of attachment was flat, as in the
vaults of Ollacrinus and Strotocrinus, the shell was greatly depressed and
the peristome ample, but when the foreign body was strongly convex the
shell was more conical with a comparatively much smaller aperture. It
has been shown elsewhere that, in regard to the second of the three variant
features observable in the calyptreean shell, the margin of the peristome
partakes of all the inequalities of the surface to which the gasteropod
adheres. Few of the species attached to crinoids may be said to have true
surface ornamentatiom, but the longitudinal folds or plications in tbe shell
are in many cases due largely to the character of the surface of attach-
ment. In some specimens of Platyceras infundibulum M. and W. there
has been observed in addition to the undefined longitudinal folds, series of
small conspicuous nodes ; but in all examples these nodes appear to have
resulted from the peculiar nodose ornamentation of Platycrinus hemi-
sphericus with which these univalves were associated.

Ye

1888, ] 241 [Keyes

Recapitulating the salient features relative to Platyceras as here pre-
sented, it appears: (1) that many, if not all, of the Platycerata were sta-
tionary during life; (2) that the nourishment of these gasteropods was
derived in great part at least from the excrementitious matter of the
crinoid ; and (3) that the forrn of the peristome and its marginal configu-
ration, being dependent upon the surface of attachment, have small value
as characters for specific distinction. The first and third of these propo-
sitions are consonant with observations made upon living Calyptreeide,
while the second does not seem to present in this group any living ana-
logue, and this fact is indicative of perhaps a wider separation generically
of Platyceras and Cupulus than has hitherto been considered.

The species of Platyceras in which sedentary habits are positively
known from the attachment of the gasteropods to foreign bodies, are :

Platyceras equilaterum Hall, P. infundibulum M. and W.
P. parasiticum (Trautschold), P. chesterense M. and W.
P. erectum Hall, P. dumosum Conrad,

P. formosum Keyes, and five undetermined species.

IV. Desorrerions or Four New Sprrcius or PLATYCERAS FROM THE
LowEr SUBCARBONIFEROUS OF Iowa.

Platyceras capaa, nov. sp. (Plate, figs. 14 and 15).

Shell below medium size, ovate, subspiral, forming scarcely one volu-
tion, rapidly and regularly expanding, both transversely and in the
opposite direction, to the aperture. Apex small, obtuse, free, but more or
less incurved toward the body of the shell, which is strongly arcuate ;
very slightly deflected dextrally. Aperture nearly circular in outline,
margin attenuated, and but slightly sinuous. Surface marked by distinct,
often somewhat imbricated lines of growth.

Horizon and locality. Burlington limestone near Burlington, Iowa.

This species approaches, nearer than any other, some forms of P. aquil-
aterum of Hall from the Keokuk limestone, but differs in having the body
of the shell more arcuate and in uniformly expanding much more rapidly
in the direction of the longitudinal diameter of the aperture. The apex
is also farther removed from the body of the shell than in the Keokuk
species, and there is no indication of longitudinal folds.

Platyceras obliquum, nov. sp. (Plate, figs. 12 and 13).

Shell of medium size, irregularly oblong, subspiral, forming one volu-
tion, regularly enlarging, slightly more rapidly transversely than in the
opposite direction, to the aperture. Apex large, obtuse, far removed from
the body of the shell, which is broadly arched ; very noticeably oblique
to the plane of general curvature in the body of the shell. Aperture
irregularly quadrangular in outline ; lip sharp, and more or less sinuous.
Surface marked by several undefined longitudinal plications, which some.
times form longitudinal series of obscure nodes; these are crossed by
numerous sinuous often subimbricated lines of growth.

Horizon and locality. Limestones of the Upper Burlington at Burling-
ton, lowa.

Keyes. J 242 [Oct 19,

Platyceras latum, sp. nov. (Plate, figs. 10 and 11).

Shell large, depressed, forming about one and one-half volutions, very
rapidly expanding from the apex to the aperture, but enlarging trans-
versely much more than in the opposite direction ; posterior side compar-
atively very short. Apex small, incurved, but free from the body of the
shell, and nearly in the same plane as the general curvature. Aperture
very large, campanulate, transversely elliptic ; lip attenuated and slightly
sinuous. Surface marked toward the aperture by a few small nearly
obsolete folds, and by numerous sinuous lines of growth.

Horizon and locality. Burlington limestone at Burlington, Iowa.

Platyceras formosum, nov. sp. (Plate, figs. 8 and 9).

Shell curved, slightly oblique, enlarging rather rapidly to the ample
irregularly pentalobate aperture, posterior side rather short and concave,
lateral slopes nearly straight. Apex apparently obtuse, Aperture rather
large, somewhat pentalobate. Surface marked by five broad well-defined
longitudinal plications, each of which are composed of several smaller
folds ; these are crossed by sinuous lines of growth.

Horizon and locality. Kinderhook beds of Marshall county, Iowa.

The two specimens of this species found are both attached to the vaults
of specimens of a Dorycrinus which has been described in the forthcom-
ing volume of the Illinois Geological Survey now in press.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of Platycrinus hemisphericus M. and W. with Platy-
ceras infundibulum M. and W. attached to anal side.

Fig. 2.—Lateral view of Platycrinus hemispharicus M. and W. with
Platyceras equilaterum Hall attached to the anal side, partly enclos-
ing the postero-lateral arms and the stem.

Fig. 3.—Portion of the vault (viewed obliquely) of Ollacrinus tuberosus
Lyon and Casseday with Platyceras equilaterum Hall covering the
anal aperture.

Fig. 4.—Portion of the vault of Pterotocrinus acutus Wetherby with

Platyceras chesterense M. and W. attached and covering the anal
opening. 7, 7, the fractured surfaces of the monstrous alate radial
dome plates.

Fig. 5.—Portion of the vault (viewed from above) of Plerotocrinus acutus
Weth. with Platyceras chesterense attached; another specimen
showing the five prominent folds in the gasteropod shell. 7, 7, the
radial dome plates.

Fig. 6.—Lateral view of Oromyocrinus simplee Trautschold with Platy-
ceras parasiticum (Trauts.) attached to the anal side. From the
Subcarboniferous of Russia.

Fig. '7.—Portion of the vault of Strotocrinus regalis Hall with the Platy-

ceras removed, showing the anal aperture of the crinoid and the

concentric impressions made by the lip of the gasteropod shell at
different periods, which mark the growth of the shell.

os
>
)
a
S
—
—=
—
a
=
—<
-
mo
=
=<
a
a>
os
S
=
— wy

Keyes on Platyceras.

1888. ] 2 43 [ Mooney.

Fig. 8.—Dorycrinus (species undescribed) with Platyceras formosum
Keyes attached.

Fig. 9.—Another view of Platyceras formosum Keyes from the Kinder-
hook of Marshall county, Iowa.

Figs. 10 and 11.—Platyceras latum Keyes from the Burlington limestone.

Figs. 12 and 13.— Platyceras obliquum Keyes from the Burlington lime-
stone.

Figs. 14 and 15.—Platyceras capax Keyes from the Burlington limestone.

Figures 1 to 9 are from specimens in the collection of Messrs. Wachs-
muth and Springer; figures 10 to 15 from specimens in the collection of
the writer.

The Funeral Customs of Ireland.
By James Mooney ( Wushington, D. C.).
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 19, 1888.)

SYNOPSIS. I. Ancrent.

Primitiv Ideas of Spirit World.—Tying the ghost—driving off ghosts—
offerings at grave—heaven and hell—purgatory and transmigration—leads
to embalming, etc.—modern ideas developd from the old, as shown by
archeology and survivals.

Early Races of Ireland.—Fomorians—Firbolgs—Tuatha-de. Dananns—
Milesians—the first probably not Aryan.

Ancient Burial Types.—Disjointed burial—extended burial—cremation
—mounds, kistveens and urns—cremation nearly universal—Australian
and other parallels of disjointed burial—generally indicates lowest status
of savagery—extended burial may be Danish—examples—cremation—
New Grange, etc.—urn burial—body sometimes cremated within the tomb
—battle of Moytura and burial notices—funeral sacrifices and cannibal-
ism—the round towers, not sepulchral—royal burial and Indian parallel
—brain balls as trophies—legend of King Conor MacNessa.

II. Moprrn,

Causes of decay of old customs—Omens—the Banshee—fairy influence
in sickness and death —instances—feeding abducted persons—fairy chan ge-
lings—malignant spirits—feathers at death—burying the disease, parallels.
PRELIMINARIES—hoarding for the funeral—ceremonies of the dying bed—
laying out the corpse—the Maistinid'—watching the corpse. THE WaKke—
origin and purpose—the gathering—the Cavine or funeral lament—

Mouney.] 244 [Oct; 19;

English specimen—Gaelic Caoine. Wake Games—former dramatic
games described by authors—Broigin—Cloif air Bas—Broigin or Haire-
haire—Fag'ailt Ceird—Cleas a tsoipin—Ceannac't a G-caora—Sagart a
Parraiste—Dam'sa na @-coinninid'—Gleus Loinge—marrying games—
other games from Carleton. Tum FuneRat—leaving the house—carrying
the corpse—beliefs—the lament—curious custom and legend—garlands—
circuits about crosses—murder funeral in the north—Fairead’’n Team-
poll—Kilranelagh churchyard and child burial—churchyard ceremonies
and beliefs—digging the grave and legend—family burial and beliefs—
Kerry legend—sacred cemeteries—Templeshambo cemetery, for men and
women—funeral cures and charms—the murder test—the Feur Gortac'-—
Carns or Leaoc’ra—history of a Kerry leac'ta—leac‘tas at Cong. THE
Furoure Lirs—transmigration, butterflies, seals—dying in debt—salt and
wool—visiting ghosts—hallow.eve—meeting a ghost—transmigration of
inanimate objects and instances.

As all religions are based upon the belief in a future life, so the funeral
customs of a people, as embodying their conception of the nature of this
future life and the necessary preparation for entering upon it, furnish the
surest index of the character of the popular religion.

In the lower stages of fetichism, where all the ideas of a future life ar
vague and unformd, no special abiding place is assignd to the disembodied
spirit, which is supposed to hover unseen about its accustomd haunts, to
the sore annoyance of its former friends among the living. Hence the
funeral ceremonies ar intended rather to get rid of the troublesome ghost
of the deceased than to provide for his comfort in the next world or to
perpetuate his memory in this. For this purpose the Fijians and Austra-
lians tied the feet of the corpse that the ghost might not be able to rise
out of the grave,* other savages returned by a roundabout way from
the grave to the village so that the spirit might be unable to find the road
back, while stil others compeld the widow to bathe in the river immedi-
ately after the burial of her husband, in order to ‘“‘ wash off the ghost,’’
or perhaps rather to throw it off the scent. This probably explains also
the Indian custom of changing the name upon the death of a near friendt
and the universal unwillingness of savages to pronounce the name of
the dead, a dislike which some tribes carry to such an extreme as even to
discontinue the use of any words which might suggest the unseen
presence.

As fetichism took on a higher development the floating ideas of the

*Lorimer Fison, Fijian Burial Customs, in Jour. Anth. Inst., x, London, 1881; A. W.
Howitt, On Some Australian Beliefs, Jour. Anth. Inst., xiii, 190, London, 1884,

+ This custom existed among the tribes on Albemarle sound in 1585 (Hariot, in Hawke
Hist., N. C., i, 1859), and was found nearly three centuries later among the Chinooks on
the Pacific coast (Swan, Northwest Coast, 189, New York, 1857).

1838.] 245 [ Mooney.

earlier stages wer combined into a mythologic system in which the spirit
world was localized and the future life became a shadowy counterpart of
this, with the same passions, pleasures, pursuits and necessities. Accord-
ingly the soul about to set out for the land of the dead must be provided
with food during the journey—which among the northern Indian tribes
was generally supposed to occupy four days—with weapons of war and
the chase, with cups, dishes and cther utensils, with dresses, beads and
rings for personal adornment, with horses to ride and slaves to do its bid-
ding. A remarkable survival of this idea among the colord people of
Washington is exemplified at Graceland cemetery, where the graves of
children ar coverd with the toys prized by their owners in life, from dolls
and sets of toy dishes down to whips, balls and old oyster cans. The
animism of the savage recognized the existence of a spirit in every object
about him, from rocks, trees and animals down to the commonest articles
of every-day use. He knew that in death, altho the body remaind behind,
an invisible enlivening something was gon, and according to his philoso-
phy this anima escaped from the mouth with the last breath of the dying
man or past out from the gaping wound with his life blood. When
the pot was broken, altho the fragments might be joined together again,
the clear, musical ring was gon—the anima had escaped and the pot was
dead. Reasoning from these premises he shattered the bowls, tore the
garments and slaughterd the dogs, horses and slaves about the tomb in
order that their imprisond spirits might be releasd the more quickly to
follow their master to the land of shades.

When a man’s importance grew to be directly commensurate with the
extent of his possessions in goods, horses or slaves, the same principle was
held to apply to the next world, and it became a matter of duty and pride
with the survivors to contribute to the dignity of the dead chief by adding
to the number of the funeral offerings and swelling the train of victims,
until, as in the case of a Dahoman ora Zulu king, we find whole armies
butcherd that their shades may accompany the dead tyrant to the spirit
land. The duty of the slave became the privilege of the nearest friend
of the deceasd, and led the Natches Sun and the Hindu Suttee alike to
sacrifice themselves over the corpse of the loved one that their spirits
might be united in the other life.

In the primitiv community a man’s acts wer good or bad only as they
affected the welfare of the tribe at large, and any wrong-doer met swift
punishment at the hands of the aggrievd individual or clan. With the
development of civilization came the idea of abstract morality or virtue,
and the establishment of a code of morals whose infraction might merit
punishment not only here but also hereafter. This involvd exclusion
from the abode of the happier shades, but as the idea of a hel was of slow
growth, the natural result was the doctrin of metempsychosis, the most
common form of which belief held that the soul passd a probationary
period as the unwilling tenant of the body of some animal—a horse, a
dog, a wolf or even a worm—suffering all the animal vicissitudes while

Mooney. ] 246 [Oct, 19;

retaining its human and spiritual nature, and transferd from the body of
one animal to that of another, by a series of changes varying in number
and character according to the degree of punishment merited, until, puri-
fied by suffering, it was allowd to return once more to its original human
body and enter with it into happiness.

‘It was an essential point of this doctrin that the body must be pre-
servd from decay, or rather from dissolution into the elements, otherwise
the soul, unable to enter again into its earthly tabernacle, would be com-
peld to return to its animal prison or become a lonely wanderer through
all eternity. Hence the pains taken among early nations, by embalming
or by the erection of huge funeral mounds, to prevent the destruction
of the body or the scattering of its ashes. A similar idea seems to under-
lie the belief that a failure to perform the customary funeral rites doomd
the soul to wander in outer darkness. This belief seems to hav been
general among the northern Indians, as evinced by the desperate efforts
they invariably made to bring off their dead from the field of battle, by
their anxiety to ‘‘cover the bones”’ of their murderd friends, and by the
Iroquois custom of driving away the ghost of a tortured prisoner with
shouts and hideous noises after the blackend and mutilated corpse had
been thrown out from the village to lie unburied in the forest.* It was
evidently held also by the ancient Irish, as is shown by some of their old
popular tales.

THe EARLy RaActrs.

As the human mind, under ordinary circumstances, develops by regular
stages, so there is a regular sequence in the beliefs and customs which
mark this development. The most highly civilized nations of to-day hav
risen through all the intermediate grades from savagery, and in studying
their national life we shal find lingering remains of customs which can be
explaind only through a knowledge of the existing beliefs of more primi-
tiv peoples, and if we can pursue the investigation into the domain of
archeology we must expect to meet evidences of former practices which
ar now relegated to the lowest savages. In treating of the funeral cus-
toms of Ireland, a country especially rich in the remains of antiquity, it
is necessary to a proper understanding of the subject to go back to the
earliest period of which we hav any monuments. It is not, however,
practicable within the limits of this paper to enter into a detailed account
of particular structures or to institute a comparison with similar works on
the continent.

The Irish, like every other historic nation, ar a mixt race, and the native
annals, which unquestionably go back to a remote antiquity, recount sev-
eral invasions or colonizations of the island long before the Christian era.
The aborigines of the country, or, more correctly speaking, the earliest
colonists, wer known as Fomorians, which, however, was not their true
name, but that imposed by their conquerors. They ar said to hav come

* Greenhalgh (1677), in Doc. Hist., New York, i, 16.

€
1888.] 247 [Mooney.

originally from Africa. Then we hav accounts of successiv colonies which
made no permanent impression until the landing of the Firbolgs (pro-
nounced Firbullag), supposed to hav taken place about seven hundred
years before Christ. The Firbolgs conquerd the country, establishd a
regular form of government and drove the aborigines before them until
the remnant took refuge on the islands which skirt the western coast,
where they earnd the name of Formorians or Pirates (Gaelic, Homoraigh)
by their forays upon the settlements of the invaders upon the mainland.
About one hundred and seventy years later another people, the Tuatha-
de-Dananns (pronounced Thua-dhé-Dhan-yawn), landed upon the eastern
coast and demanded a portion of the island. This demand being refused,
the invaders advanced rapidly into the interior while the Firbolgs retired
before them until the latter, having apparently been joined by the Fo-
morians, concentrated all their forces on the plain of Moytura, on the
southern border of the County Mayo. Here about five hundred and thirty
years before Christ, took place the most celebrated battle in the ancient
annals of Ireland, the struggle lasting four days and resulting in the total
defeat of the Firbolgs and the death of their king. The magnitude of the
confiict is attested by the number of sepulchral mounds and monumental
pillar stones extending for miles and giving to the plain the appearance of
one vast cemetery, as it is in fact the grave of the Firbolg nation. ‘Ehe
survivors wer allowd to remain in the western province of Connaught
and the adjacent islands, where the remnant of the Fomorians stil ex-
isted. Here they wer joind by their kindred from all parts of the island,
while the conquerors took possession of the other portions of the
country.*

Stil later the Milesian invaders, from whom the ruling families of Ire-
Jand traced their descent, obtaind control of the island, but they seem to
hav differd from the Tuatha-de-Dananns chiefly in the degree of their
civilization. It is notable that all of these invasions ar said to hav come
from the continent, instead of from the adjacent island of Britain,

Here we hav the names of three distinct peoples successivly ruling in
Ireland—the aboriginal Fomorians, the Firbolgs and the Tuatha de-Dan-
anns—and tbe question arises, Who wer they? As Gaelic is a Keltic lan-
guage we may assume that the Tuatha-de-Dananns, who left the final
impress upon the country, wera Keltic race ; but with regard to the others
it seems equally certain that one at least was not Keltic, if indeed it be-
longd to the Aryan stock at all. In the manuscript Book of Mac Firbis,
written about 1650, we ar told that ‘‘every one who is black, loquacious,
lying, tale-telling or of low and groveling mind, is of the Firbolg de-
scent,’’ while ‘‘every one who is fair-haired, of large size, fond of music
and horse riding, and practices the art of magic, is of Tuatha De Danaan

* The original MS. account of the Cat:Mag' Tuiread: or Battle of Moytura is preserved
in the library of Trinity College in Dublin, besides which there ar two or three copies.
An excellent summary of this account, with an identification of the locations, is given
by Sir Wm. Wilde, Lough Corrib., Dublin, 1867.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. S00. xxv. 128. 2F. PRINTED DEC. 21, 1888.

Mooney.] 248 [Oct. 19,

descent.”’* These two distinct types—one large-bodied and blond, the
other darker and generally more slender—exist in Ireland to day, and the
difference has been noted by every observant traveler. The blond race is
most numerous east of the Shannon, the portion occupied by the Tuatha-
de-Dananns, while the darker race is found chiefly along the west coast,
to which the old Fomorians and Firbolgs retired when their power was
broken. The inroads of the Danes and later invaders ar not sufficient to
account for this difference. The testimony of most ancient writers goes
to show that the Kelts wer of the blond type, but the Firbolgs ar expressly
described as a dark race, inferior in intellect to their conquerors, the
Tuatha-de-Dananns.. Nothing is said of the physical type or mental
status of the Fomorians, but the indications ar that they wer but little
removed from savagery. If the Firbolgs wer Kelts they cannot hav dif-
ferd greatly from the Tuatha-de-Dananns, and it is possible that the Mac
Firbis confounded under one name the Firbolgs and the earlier Fomo-
rians, who wer both driven to take refuge along the western coast, where
they became allies against the common enemy. At all events we hav
evidence of the former existence in Ireland of a pre-Keltic dark race,
physically and intellectually different. from the conquering race, and
there is good ground for the opinion that either the Firbolgs or the Fomo-
rians wer a part of that ancient people who preceded the Kelts in western
Europe, and who, under the various names of Silures, Iberians and per-
haps Ligurians, hav left traces of their former presence in Britain, France,
Spain and Italy, but whose limits hav been contracted by centuries of
conquest and absorption, until their modern descendants, the Basques,
ar now confined to the valleys of the Pyrenees. How far this hy pothesis
may be true must be left for the philologist and archzeologist to decide by
a critical study of the language and antiquities of Ireland, and their com-
parison with the prehistoric languages and antiquities of the continent.

DisPosivion OF THE BoDY—GRAVE TYPEs.

In studying the funeral remains of ancient Ireland we find the body
disposed of in three distinct ways, by disjointed burial, by extended
burial and by cremation, the last method being by far the most common.
The process of embalming or mummy burial seems to hav been unknown
as well as the contracted burial, so frequent in English mounds and prob-
ably belonging to the early Saxon period. The burial structures may also
be divided into three classes, the mound, the subterranean kistvaen and
the simple urn. The character of the structure, however, is no indication
of the condition of the human remains, as the mound may cover either

*Quoted from Eugene O’Curry’s translation, by Sir Wm. Wilde, The Boyne and the
Blackwater, 2d ed., Dublin, 1850, 218 and 221. The rendering is somewhat different in
O’Curry’s Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish History (reissue, 228-4,
Dublin, 1878), and the detailed description there given of the descendants of the Fir-
bolgs shows that they wer held in utter contempt by the later races. The fact that
magic powers ar attributed to the Tuatha-de-Dananns probably indicates their superior-
ity to the earlier races in the arts and in general knowledge.

1838.] 249 [Mooney.

a skeleton or a cinerary urn, while in many cases the skeleton and the
cremated remains ar found together.* The two methods of disjointed
and extended burial belong either to two distinct races or to widely sepa-
rated periods, while cremation appears to hav been practiced at all times
and by different races, As Fomorians, Firbolgs and Tuatha-de-Dananns
each in turn held sway over the whole island until restricted and hemd
in by a late invasion, it follows that, we may expect to find the remains of
any one people most numerous where their dominion was earliest es-
tablishd or where they held out longest against their conquerors. An
archeologic map of Ireland, which should indicate the character and
number of the prehistoric remains in each district of the country, would
be invaluable in this connection, but without this we ar obliged to depend
upon descriptions of isolated monuments, and it is therefore impossible to
mark out race areas.

As cremation cannot be assignd to any particular period, we shal speak
first of disjointed burial, which evidently belongs to a very ancient and
distinct race type. According to Wilde, the disjointed skeleton is usually
found beneath the surface in ‘‘a kistvaen, or small stone chamber, roofed
either with a single flag or covered in with that form of arch resembling
a beehive dome. There is no tumulus or heap of earth to mark the site of
these sepulchres, several of which have been turned up with the plow.
Within this small square vault the bones are generally placed in a regular
manner, the small ones at the bottom, the long ones, as the legs and arms,
at the top, and the whole is crowned with the skull.’’} In one instance,
in the Queen’s county, the stone chamber was found in the outer circle of
arath, or prehistoric earth fort, and close beside the skeleton was one of
the most beautiful cinerary urns ever found in the country. From the
general form and symmetry of some of the skuls found with this mode of
interment, Wilde is inclined to think that the owners belongd to one of
the highest types of the Indo-European race.

A remarkable mound opend in the County Sligo, one of the last strong-
holds of the Fomorians and Firbolgs, was found to contain a large kist-
vaen, within which wer the remains of six human interments. In each
case the bones wer piled in the manner described and surmounted by the
skul, but the smaller bones wer all half-burnd, while around each pile

* According to Rooke Pennington, such is the case also in England. In an article on
the “Relative Ages of Cremation and Contracted Burial in Derbyshire,” he says: ‘‘In
fact, it is the rule to find interments in the two modes in the same barrow.” Jour, Anth.
Inst., iv, 271, London, 1875.

+W. R. Wilde, The Boyne and the Blackwater, 2d ed., 231, Dublin, 1850. The distin-
guished author, the late Sir William Wilde, was the master spirit in Irish archeology.
To avoid needless repetition it may be here stated that, unless otherwise noted, the fol-
lowing descriptions of the prehistoric sepulchral remains at New Grange, Dowth and
elsewhere, ar based mainly upon the statements in the valuable chapter on “ The Eth-
nology of the Ancient Irish”’ in the work above quoted. The statements there given
hay been compared with those of Holden, Kinahan, Lewis and others in the volumes of
the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, and such conclusions drawn
as seemd warranted by the facts.

Or
Mooney.] 250 [Oct. 19,

was collected a quantity of the bones of birds and small quadrupeds and
mollusks.

It is evident that the bones could not hav been arranged in this manner
until by some process the skeleton had first been denuded of the flesh.
This practice was common to many tribes of America, Africa, Australia,
and Polynesia. The body was gene rally buried until the flesh had had
time to decay, when the bones wer taken up and cleand and afterward
laid away in a place set apart for that purpose. Some tribes allowd the
body to decay on scaffolds above ground, while the Australians first skind
the corpse and then cut the flesh from the bones, roasted it over a fire and
partook of the cannibal feast.* With the Hurons, Choctaws and other
Indian tribes the final disposition of the bones was made the occasion of
a solemn feast of the dead,{ and when the tribe removed to a new loca-
tion the bones wer carefully packd up and taken along by the surviving
relativs, just as the Chinese returning from America to their nativ land
bring with them the bones of their deceasd friends whose bodies hav
been temporarily deposited in foreign soil.

We may assume that the people who practiced this method wer earlier
and lower in the scale than those who practiced extended burial or sim-
ple cremation, as we know from analogy that disjointed burial, as a
national custom, is found only among savages. The existence of ossuaries
in Paris, Naples, and other large cities on the continent, as wel as the prac-
tice of bone exhumation in Ireland, is due to the lack of grave space in
the regular cemeteries, while in these ancient Irish interments each dis-
jointed skeleton is commonly isolated in a separate grave. The beautiful
pottery sometimes found in the vault is no evidence of a high develop.
ment, as it is wel known that the rudest tribes frequently excel in this art.
The shape of the skul shows, if it shows anything, not the degree of civili-
zation to which the race had attaind, but the degree of which it was
capable, while the very method of burial, with the attendant sididadon
of human as wel as animal sacrifice, proves that while this race may hav
been of the Aryan stock, it was a race which had as yet made hardly the
first step toward civilization.

The examples of entire or extended burial ar rare. The kistvaen in
this case is enclosed in a mound and contains one or more skeletons in a
recumbent position, A mound of this class in the Phoenix park, Dublin,
opend in 1838, containd a stone chamber with two perfect male skeletons
and parts of another, with a single bone, apparently that of a dog. Under
each skul wer a number of small sea shels, which may hav formd a neck-
lace or an amulet. A small bone fibula, resembling those found in Den-
mark, and a flint arrow head, wer also found. Within the mound, but

* Albert McDonald, Mode of Preparing the Dead among the Natives of the Upper
Mary River, Queensland, Jour. Anth. Inst., ii, 116-9, London, 1873; Edward Palmer,
Notes on some Australian Beliefs, Jour. Anth. Inst., xiii, ne London, 1884. For the
method in use among the Choctaws, etc., see Adair, Am. Inds., 183, London, 1775.

+ Francis Parkman, The Jesuits in North America, 71-8, Sivests 1867; James Adair,
Hist. Am. Inds., 183, London, 1775.

1888.] 251 { Mooney.

not within the kistvaen, wer found four urns containing incinerated
human remains. These wer either a later burial or wer the remains of
victims sacrificed to the manes of the heros intombd within the kistvaen.

In 1849 four skeletons wer found near Cushendall, County Antrim.
“What adds particular interest to these human remains is, that a small
stone celt or hatchet, and two bronze celts, wer found along with them ;
these weapons enable us to form some conjecture of the probuble age of
the skuls, and also show that the bronze and stone weapons wer used at
the same time in this country ; but that which fixes the date of the inter-
ment of these skeletons was the discovery of two small Saxon silver coins |
of the early part of the ninth century.”’ * :

Several considerations render it probable that the instances of extended
burial ar not of Irish, but of Danish origin. The Danish and Seandina- |
vian pirates began their inroads upon the east coast of Ireland in 795, and
\ continued their plundering expeditions for over two centuries until their
power was broken by the battle of Clontarf in 1014, During this period
they establishd themselves so firmly in the principal seaport towns that
Dublin itself became a Danish settlement. The.few instances of extended
burial ar found chiefly along the east coast, within the area of Danish in-
vasion, while the articles found in the tombs correspond with the contents
of Danish sepulchres. The Saxon coins found in the tomb at Cushendall
fix the date within the Danish period, at a time when the Danes wer as
much dreaded in England as in Treland. Moreover, we hay the testimony
of Mallet that at this period—just before their conversion to Christianity—
the Danes and Scandinavians practiced this mode of burial.+ The pres-
ence of stone implements along with those of bronz has been noted also
in the English mounds by Rooke Pennington, who is of the opinion that
) this may be due ‘to a veneration for the stone instrument as an amulet
after it had been superseded in actual use by the metal weapon. t

We come now to cremation and those large burial mounds which hav
their typical example in that of New Grange. As this celebrated tumulus
is the largest and most elaborate of its kind in Western Europe, a some-
what extended notice is here in place. Tt must be stated at the outset
that, altho its purpose is undoubtedly sepulchral, there is no proof that
human remains hav ever been found within it, but from the account of
the first writer who described it in 1699 there is every reason to believ
that it had been enterd and despoild long before, probably by the Danes,
who bad one of their principal settlements at Drogheda, in the immediate
vicinity of New Grange. It would be the more likely to suffer at their
hands as it was the most conspicuous monument in that region. Indeed,
we hav the positiv statement in the Annals that the principal grave

* W. RB. Wlide, The Boyne and the Blackwater, 2d ed., 239, Dublin, 1850.
+P. UL. Mallet, Northern Antiquities, Bohn’s edition, 203-211, London, 1847,

¢~ Tumuli and Stone Circles near Castleton, Derbyshire. Jour Anth. Inst., iv, 383,
London, 1875, The same idea is advanced by an author noted in Mallet’s Northern An-
tiquities, Bohn’s edition, 211, London, 1847.

oft

Mooney. ] 252 [Oct. 19,

mounds of Brugh-na-Boinne wer plunderd_ by the Danes in the year 862.
Brugh-na-Boinne was the royal cemetery of the Tuatha-de-Danann kings
and their Milesian successors, who held their court at Tara, and stretchd
for a mile in width along the north bank of the Boyne from Slane in the
County Meath toa point about three miles below. Within or adjoining
this area ar more than twenty mounds of various sizes, the largest of
which is New Grange, while several others ar but little inferior to it, and
the whole surface is honeycombd with sepulchral remains.
The New Grange tumulus has sufferd at the hands of builders and
road contractors, but is stil about eighty feet high and covers an area of
nearly two acres. It was formerly surrounded by a circle of enormous
stones placed about ten yards apart. Some of these stil remain, but the
pillar stone which once crownd the summit has disappeard. The body of
the mound, under the surface layer of earth, is formd of small stones
gatherd in the neighborhood, while the immense stones of the interior
passages ar generally different in character from any rock found in the
vicinity, and some of them must hav been transported from the Mourne
mountains, forty miles distant. The mound is enterd by a passage, running
nearly north and south, which is sixty-three feet long and is formd of large
upright stones roofd with immense flags, supported partly by the upright
stones and partly by masonry on the other side. The height of the pas-
sage for about three-fourths of its length is about six feet, when it rises so
as to slope gradually into the roof of the central chamber. Some of the
stones forming this part of the wall ar ten feet high. The average width
of the passage is three feet. This passage, with three offsets running out
at right angles from the central chamber, giv the interior the ground plan
of across. One of these offsets is eight feet deep, nine feet high, and
seven feet wide. The central chamber is elliptical and is eighteen feet in
its longest diameter from the entrance to the opposit wall. The walls ar
formd of large upright stones about ten feet high supporting a dome-
shaped roof formd by several courses of somewhat smaller stones, each
course projecting beyond that below it until the dome is closed by a sin-
gle flag at the top. This manner of constructing the dome was common
to many early nations, and shows that the builders had not yet discoverd
the principle of the arch. The height to the centre of the dome is nine-
teen and one-half feet. The stones of the interior, as wel as one or two
near the entrance, ar coverd with curious carvings, chiefly lozenges, zig-
zags and volutes, sometimes standing out in relief. A remarkable fact in
this connection is that on some of these stones the carving not only covers
the exposed portions but also extends over a part of the surface which had
been completely conceald from view and out of the reach of a tovl until
uncoverd within recent times, showing that these stones must hav been
carvd before they were placed in position in the mound, and perhaps
formd part of some structure stil more ancient. In regard to these stones
Miss A. W. Buckland thinks that they ‘‘ were evidently sculptured before
they were placed in their present position, and indeed, indications are not

1888 .] 253 [Mooney.

wanting that some of the blocks are, perhaps, more profusely ornamented
at the back which is coverd by the earth, than on the side exposed to
view.’’* In each of the three recesses is an oval stone basin about three
feet long. This, Wilde considers ‘“‘a rude primitive sarcophagus,’’ and
sums up his impressions as to the general purpose of the tumulus as
follows: ‘‘ We believe, with most modern investigators into such subjects,
that it was a tomb or great sepulchral pyramid, similar in every respect to
those now standing by the banks of the Nile.’’+

The large adjacent mound of Dowth is similar to that of New Grange
in structure and general arrangement of the interior, excepting that there
is no central chamber, the offsets running out directly from the main pas-
sage. Some of the stones ar carvd with wheels and concentric circles
resembling those sometimes found on Scandinavian dolmens. There ar
also leaf carvings so perfect as almost to be taken at first sight for fossils.
Within the inner passage is a stone basin similar to those at New Grange,
but much larger. It was found in fragments, the pieces having been
scatterd through the passages, probably by the Danes, who plunderd the
mound in 862. Mixt with the accumulated rubbish within the passages
there hav been found at different times heaps and scatterd fragments of
burnd bones, many of which wer human, together with numerous un-
burnd bones of birds, deer and domestic animals. With these wer also
found ‘glass and amber beads of unique shapes, portions of jet bracelets,
a curious stone button or fibula, bone bodkins, copper pins and iron knives
and rings.’’t{ A stone urn has also been found within the passage and
another in a kistvaen in the mound.

It is probable that both these mounds wer originally designd to hold
the incinerated remains of some of the royal line of the Tuatha-de
Dananns, whose ashes may hav rested within the stone basins already
mentiond, or perhaps wer placed in urns upon them.

The most common form in connection with cremation is the urn burial,
concerning which Wilde says that ‘‘the cinerary urn containing the re-
mains of burned human bones has been found not only as a separate and
distinct form of burial, but also in connection with the cairn, the crom-
lech, and the kistvaen or small stone chamber. Moreover, we have in-
stances of bones being found partially or completely burned in some of
the larger sepulchres, without any trace of the urn whatsoever.”’$ In
1842, while working a quarry near Drogheda, a farmer came upon
from one hundred to two hundred urns of unbaked clay, of various
sizes, nearly all placed in an inverted position and each containing incine-
rated human bones. They wer placed a few feet apart, without any
apparent regularity and without any flag or stones to protect them, so that

* Notes on some Cornish and Irish Prehistoric Monuments, Jour. Anth. Inst.. ix, 1652,
London, 1880.

+W. R. Wilde, The Boyne and the Blackwater, 2d ed., 201, Dublin, 1850.

¢ Idem, 209,
2 Idem, 232.

Mooney.] 254 (Oct. 19,

most of them had been prest in and broken by the weight of the earth
above. One of those examind containd the remains of several individuals,
together with bones of birds and some small animal. In another wer
found a flint arrow head and a small bone needle.

The urn is also found in connection with the dolmen, as in the
mound in Phoenix park, already mentiond, where four urns containing
ashes and burnd bones wer found inclosed in small separate stone cham-
bers in different parts of the tumulus, but not within the central dolmen
itself. Several kistvaens containing urns hav also been found near Cum-
mer, County Wexford, one of which containd a large urn with a smaller
one, handsomely ornamented, inside of it, but so far as known no orna-
ments or implements of any kind wer found in connection with any of
them.* A third disposition is shown in the Queen’s county interment
previously noted, where the urn was placed by the side of the skeleton
and within the kistvaen.

The cremation was sometimes accomplishd within the tomb, as appears
from the account of a small kistvaen, approachd by means of a narrow
passage way, discoverd immediately adjacent to the great mound of New
Grange. ‘In it were a quantity of human bones and those of small ani-

mals, pigs, sheep, dogs, and fowl; some burned and some not bearing
any marks of fire; but the most remarkable circumstance about it was
that the bottom of this little chamber was lined with stones, the upper
surfaces of which bore evident marks of fire—in fact, were vitrified —
showing that the victim, or the dead body, was burned within the
grave.’’+

Three distinct methods of urn burial in the County Antrim hav been
described by Mr. J. S. Holden.{ In the simplest form, several urns ar
found imbedded in a layer of earth within a dolmen placed immediately
upon the natural surface, without the protection of a surrounding mound.
Tn another instance the kistvaen was approachd by a coverd passage and
the whole structure inclosed in a parallelogram, sixteen by thirty-five feet,
composed of twenty-six large pillar stones. The chard bones and frag-
ments of urns wer found scatterd through the passage, showing that the
tomb had been previously enterd and plunderd. In another instance a
large urn was inverted within a small kistvaen placed at one end of a
pavement formd of basaltic slabs, the whole inclosed in a mound. Within
the mound, but outside the kistvaen, wer the fragments of several smaller
urns, ‘The remains in the principal urn seemd to be those of an old man
of low stature, The urns found in each case wer similar and of very rude
manufacture and wer frequently inverted upon a slab. Numerous flint
instruments wer found and one glass bead, but no remains whatever of

*G, H. Kinahan, On a Circular Structure at Cummer, Co. Wexford, Jour. Anth. Inst.,
xii, 318-322, London, 1883,

f W. R. Wilde, The Boyne and the Blackwater, 2d ed., 203, Dublin, 1850.

{On Some Forms of Ancient Interments in County Antrim, Jour, Anth. Inst., i, 219~
221, London, 1872,

1888.] 255

[ Mooney.

metal. With regard to the authors of these Antrim tombs, Mr. Holden
Says: “Though the structural forms of interment differ so much over so
small an area, yet it is highly probable that all were erected by the same
race and people, who thus showed their reverence and respect for the
dead, according to the rank they held while living. The total absence of
metal, and presence of worked flint, do not allow their civilization to be
placed higher than the Neolithic period.”

In the manuscript narrativ of the Battle of Moytura, already referd to,
there is an account of a Firbolg hero who lost his life in defending that of
his king. The Firbolgs came up soon after, and each one taking a stone
in his hand, they erected a monumental carn over the body, calling it the
‘Carn of the One Man.”’ After reading the detaild account in the manu-
script and going carefully over the ground, Sir William Wilde became
convinced that the tomb was identical with a mound, crownd with a circle
of standing stones, situated on the southern border of Lough Mask and
known under the name of Carn Minin Uisge.* The chief point in the
identification was the vicinity of a remarkable wel, at which, according
to the account, the king was surprised by his enemies. Procuring some
men, Sir William put thera to work excavating the mound, telling them
beforehand that if it had not been already opend, they would find within
it a chamber containing the remains of the Firbolg hero. True to the
prediction they soon came upon a large horizontal flag, below which was
another somewhat larger. On removing this latter it wag found to cover
a small square chamber twenty-eight inches high and thirty-seven wide,
the walls of which wer tormd of small stones. Within this chamber was
found a small urn, of beautiful design and ornamentation, containing in-
cinerated human bones. *‘Here, no doubt,” says Wilde, ‘‘the body of
the loyal Firbolg youth was burned, and his ashes collected and preserved
in this urn. Perhaps a more convincing proof of the authenticity of Irish
or any other ancient history has never been afforded.’’+

From this it seems evident that the Firbolgs practiced cremation, and
the same account specifies four different classes of burial structures—
mounds, hillocks, pillar stones and simple graves—which they erected
over the slain, according to the rank of the warrior. The monumental
pillar stone, sometimes bearing an Ogham inscription, in connection with
the tomb, is frequently mentiond in the old manuscripts, and stone and
tomb alike took their name from the hero whose remains wer there
interd. :

In the same manuscript is an account of a carn which the Firbolgs
erected over the head of one of their slain heroes, which they recoverd
from the enemy, while on the other hand the Tuatha-de-Dananns erected
a monument over the severd arm of one of their champions, who after-
ward became king of Ireland under the title of Nuadhat (Nuath) of the

* Pronounced, Carn Meeneen Ishga, probably signifying “carn of the little watery
plain.”

t W. R, Wilde, Lough Corrib, 226, Dublin, 1867,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XXV. 128, 2G. PRINTED DEC, 27, 1888,

Mooney. ] 256 (Oct. 19, |
Silver Hand, the place of the missing member being supplied by an arti-
ficial substitute. As if in confirmation of these statements there is an
instance on record where a stone coffin was discoverd in the County
Wicklow, ‘‘just large enough to contain a small urn, which was inverted
over two small bones belonging to human fingers and toes, and no other
part of the body.’’* |

The stone dolmens, sepulchral or otherwise, ar popularly known :
throughout Ireland as ‘‘giants’ graves,’’? and many stories ar current
of giant skeletons found within them. It is hardly necessary to state that
no such skeletons hav been found, the supposed giants’ bones being prob-
ably those of some of the larger domestic animals which formd a part of
the funeral sacrifice. The mounds and circular earthen forts, on the
other hand, ar universally attributed to the fairies or ‘“ good people,’’ who
ar supposed to dwell within them, and so deeply is this belief rooted in
the minds of the people that very few of the older ones would venture to
lift a spadeful of earth or even to cut a bush from the neighborhood of
such a structure. In some instances burial kistvaens have been found in
the outer circumference of the rath, or earthen fort. |

We hav thus seen that the ancient inhabitants of Ireland disposed of
their dead by cremation, by disjointed burial and by extended burial, the
first method being almost universal, while the last mentioned is rare and
apparently of intrusiv origin. The human remains wer inclosed within
an urn or stone coffin, the urn itself being sometimes within the coffin.
The place of burial was sometimes unmarkd, at other times distinguishd 3
by a pillam stone, a hillock, a dolmen, or an immense mound. Weapons, |
ornaments, and probably amulets wer buried with the dead, and there is
abundant evidence that both human and animal sacrifice frequently accom -
panied the funeral ceremonies, The human victims wer probably prison-
ers taken in war and perhaps wer of a different race from that of the
principal occupant of the tomb, while the animals slaughterd wer gene-
rally such as might hav furnishd a funeral feast to those in attendance.
Should this picture seem dark to the patriotic Irishman he may find com-
fort in the reflection that exactly the same thing may be said of probably
every nation in Europe.

Strabo asserts that at the beginning of the Christian era the Irish prac-
ticed cannibalism and regarded it as an honorable deed to eat the flesh of
their dead parents.{ With regard to this statement it may be said that,
while this practice is widespread among savage tribes—founded, as it is,
on the natural idea that by partaking of the flesh they imbibe the desira-
ble qualities of the dead man}t—the Irish at that period wer already a

* W. R. Wilde, The Boyne and the Blackwater, 2d ed., 234, Dublin, 1850,

+ Strabo, iv, 6, 2 and 4, quoted by Fligier, Mittheil. Anth. Gesell., ix, 249, Wien, 1880.

t Speaking of Australian funeral customs, a competent authority says: “I am, as I
said, obliged to confess that the natives eat the flesh of some of their departed friends,
and evidently think by so doing they are both benefiting themselves and conferring an
honor upon the déad__ It is not done altogether from a craving after human flesh. * * *
The reason, I am told, is that by partaking of the flesh of a person they inherit the vir-
tues of that person.’? Albert McDonald, Mode of Preparing the Dead among the Natives
of the Upper Mary River, Queensland, Jour. Anth. Inst., ii, 179, London, 1873.

e a

|
|

el,

= ——S

1888, 257 (Mooney.

civilized nation and not a horde of savages. As the island was never con-
querd by the Romans the early geographers knew’ very little of the peo-
ple or customs of the country, and Strabo’s statement might be more
worthy of attention had he not followed it up with an assertion which
even the worst Hibernophobe wil hardly credit.

Tue Rounp TowErs—Royau BurIAL.

Before leaving the ancient burial monuments it is necessary to speak of
the round towers, concerning which there has been so much discussion.
There ar nearly one hundred of these towers stil existing in Ireland in
different degrees of preservation, the perfect specimens varying from
seventy to one hundred and thirty feet in height and from eight to fifteen
feet in diameter. Excepting in two or three instances the entrance is at a
considerable distance above the ground, and each of the lower stories is
lighted by a single window, while the uppermost story has four windows,
facing the cardinal points. They have been assignd to every period from
prehistoric antiquity down to the twelfth century, and their origin Las
been ascribed to Druids, Danes and Christian saints, while different
writers hav seen in them sun temples, phallic monuments, beacon towers,
minarets, burial structures, belfries, depositories for sacred vessels, peni-
tential cels, anchorite hermitages and baptisteries. With all these theo-
ries, the balance of evidence is in favor of their remote pagan origin and
connection with the ancient fire and sun worship of Ireland. Human
skeletons, and sometimes cremated remains, hav been found interd within
a number of those which hay been examined. In some instances the in-
terment was evidently comparativly modern, a supposition renderd the
more probable by the proximity of an old burying ground, but in at least
one instance—that of the tower of Ardmore—the indications wer that
the bodies had been laid to rest before the foundations of the tower had
been completed.

In 1841, “‘Mr. O’Dell, the proprietor of Ardmore, in the county of
Waterford, intended to erect floors in the tower there, and explored the
interior of the tower down to the foundation. With considerable difficulty
he caused to be removed a vast accumulation of small stones, under which
were layers of large masses of rock, and having reached as low down as
within a few inches of the external foundation, it was deemed useless and
dangerous to proceed any further, and in this opinion some members of
the society who had witnessed what had been done, coincided. In this
state of the proceedings a letter from Sir William Betham was forwarded
to Mr. O'Dell, intimating that further exploration would be desirable,
upon which the latter gentleman, at great peril, commenced the task
again. He now found another series of large rocks so closely wedged
together that it was difficult. to introduce any implement between them;
after considerable labor these were also removed, and at length a perfectly
smooth floor of mortar was reached, which he feared must be regarded as
ane plus ultra ; but, still persevering, he removed the mortar, underneath

Mooney. ] 258 (Oct. 19,

which he found a bed of mould, and under this, some feet below the out-
side foundation, was discovered lying prostrate, from E. to W., a human
skeleton.’’*

In this instance it seems there can be no question that the interment

ras made at the same time that the building of the tower was begun. In
some cases, however, the interment seems to hav been of secondary
importance and rather accidental, and as before stated, the weight ot
evidence is against the sepulchral theory. Might not the Ardmore
remains be those of a victim sacrificed to the earth spirit to insure the
stability of the structure? Such sacrifice in connection with the erection
ot a new temple, bridge or fortress was one of the most widespread cus-
toms of antiquity, the victim being generally walld up alive within the
masonry. The practice—now changed into animal sacrifice—stil exists
among the peasantry of Servia and other countries in Southeastern Europe,
and some popular house-building ceremonies point to the former existence
of a similar custom in Ireland. Human sacrifice was one of the most im-
portant Druidic rites, and where would it seem more appropriate than in
connection with the building of a Druidic temple ?+

In the ancient Irish Annals we find a number of interesting statements
in connection with royal burial in the early part of the Christian era.
Thus the corpse of King Dathi, before being consignd to the tomb, was
placed upon a bier by his clansmen and carried to the front of the battle
to inspire courage in themselves and terror in their enemies. A similar
incident took place within more recent times in an encounter between the
rival forces of O’ Neill and O’Donnell, subsequent to the Norman inva-
sion. King Cormac Mac Art, who embraced Christianity long before the
coming of Saint Patrick, is said to hav lost his life in consequence of the
magic spels of the Druids, whose religion he had renounced. In his last
moments he orderd that he should be buried at Ros-na-righ (now Rosna-
ree in Meath) instead of with his royal predecessors at Brugh-na-Boinne,
because the latter was a pagan cemetery. After his death his attendants,
in despite of his injunctions, made three several attempts to convey his
body to Brugh-na-Boinne, but were prevented each time by a sudden
rising of the waters of the Boyne, until, regarding the occurrence as an
omen, they finally dug his grave at Ros-na-Righ in accordance with his
wishes. Laoghaire (Lairy or Leary), who ruled at Tara on the arrival of
Saint Patrick in 432, was buried in a standing position in the outer ram-
part of his fortress, with his weapons and war dres upon him, and with
his face turnd southward toward his enemies, the Leinstermen. This
brings forcibly to mind Catlin’s account of the burial of Blackbird, the
great chief of the Omahas.}

* Mr. and Mrs. 8. C. Hall, Ireland : Its Scenery, Character, etc., ii, 57 note, new ed. R.
Worthington, importer, n. d. (written about 1850). On page 203, Volume iii, of the same
work, it is stated that two skeletons were thus found in the tower.

+See M. J. Walhouse, Some Vestiges of Girl Sacrifice, ete., in India and the East, Jour.
Anth. Inst., xi, 415, London, 1882; F. 8. Krauss, Das Bauopfer bei den Stidslaven, Mit-

theil. Anthrop. Gesell., xvii, 16, Wien, 1887.
t George Catlin, North Am, Inds,, 3d ed., ii, 5, New York, 1°44.

SN eee

|

1883 ] : 259 { Mooney.

The pagan Irish wer accustomed to bring home from the battlefield the
heads of their slain enemies. The brains wer then taken out, mixd with
lime and formd into a ball, which was hardend by exposure to the sun,
and was afterward exhibited on public occasions as an evidence of bravery
and a trophy of victory. There is an old legend that Mesgedhra, King of
Leinster, lost his life in an engagement with the forces of Ulster, who
took out the brains from the head and prepared them in this manner. But
there was dread in Ulster, for a prophecy had gon forth that the dead
Mesgedhra should yet avenge himself upon the men of Ulster. The brain
ball afterward fel into the hands of the Connaught men, one of whom,
placing it ina sling, threw it with such force at the king of Ulster that it
was buried two-thirds of its depth in his forehead. The royal physician
examind the wound and told him that to remove the ball would be instant
death, but that he might liv for many years by abstaining from any undue
excitement which might tend to loosen it. There was no appeal, and the
king was forced to forego the battlefield, the chase and the banquet-hall,
and become a solitary recluse. The years went on until one day, while
sitting in lonely musing, an awful terror came over the king as he saw the
noonday brightness suddenly darkend, while a single flash of lightning
darted through the gloom and a peal of thunder shook the palace to its
foundation, He sent for his druid to learn the meaning of the awful won-
der, and was told that at that moment the Son of God had expired upon
the cross. The druid went on to tel of the Savior’s love, of the great
atonement and of the agonizing death upon the cross, and how, even at
the last, He prayed, not for justice or vengeance, but for mercy for his
enemies.

‘‘ With a bound from his seat rose King Conor, the red flush of rage on his face,

Fast he ran through the hall for his weapons, and snatching his sword from its place,

He rushed to the woods, striking wildly at boughs that dropped down with each blow,

And he cried : ‘ Were I midst the vile rabble, I’d cleave them to earth even so!

With the strokes of a high King of Erin, the whirls of my keen-tempered sword,

I would save from their horrible fury that mild and that merciful Lord.’

His frame shook and heaved with emotion; the brain ball leaped forth from his head,
And commending his soul to that Saviour, King Conor Mac Nessa fell dead.’ *

In treating of the funeral customs of modern Ireland it must be stated
at the outset that most of the beliefs and practices described ar rapidly
dying out and ar now almost unknown to the younger generation in many
parts of the country. They ar stil fresh in the memory of the older peo-
ple, however, and ar yet in ful force in the remoter districts along the
west coast, especially in Connemara. The decay of these customs is due
largely to the rapid spread of education, which has taught the people the
folly of many of the old beliefs, while the stirring political events of the
last forty years hav left them little time for the observance of former cere-
monies. Another cause is the general introduction of hearses and other
wheeld vehicles, which hav to a great extent done away with “walking

* Death of King Conor Mac Nessa, by T. D. Sullivan.

Mooney. ] 260 [Oct. 19,

funerals,’ as they ar calld. Another most important factor is the deter-
mind fight which the Catholic priests hav always made against the prac-
tices of the wake, until at last they hav almost succeeded in abolishing
the custom. Thé old observances, however, had a strong hold upon the
minds of the people and frequently come to the surface again when least
expected. This was exemplified in a striking manner a few years since in
the south of Ireland. A young man had died in a district in which the
funeral cry had long fallen into disuse. Just as the procession was leaving
the house his mother, or some near female relativ, broke into a passionate
eulogy of the dead, when instantly every woman present, as if movd by
a common impulse, raisd the uwllagone and took her place behind the
leader, and once more the wild wailing of the caoine floated over the hills
until the corpse reachd its final resting place. Such is the power of an
old custom acting upon impressionable natures at a critical moment.

OmEns—THE BEAN-SIGHE AND Farry INFLUENCE.

The Irish hav a number of death omens, most of which ar common to
the rest of Europe, and therefore need not be described here. Many of
these ar taken from the actions and appearance of animals. Thus the
howling of a dog presages the death of a member or relativ of the family,
according as the animal looks toward the hous or away from it at the time.
For this reason it is customary in Connemara when a dog howls at night to
send some one outside to see which way the animal is facing. In the same
way a dul ringing or crying sound in the right ear betokens the death of a
near friend; in the left ear, that of a distant relativ. The same belief is
held in Scotland. The croaking of a raven near the hous is also a fatal
omen. Should a rooster fly up in the rafters and crow before midnight, it
is regarded as a sign of an approaching death, and the omen is considerd
infallible if the bird be a Ootileach Martain (pronounced QOul-yakh Marr-
than) or ‘March cock,’’ that is, one hatched in March from an eg laid in
the same month. There ar a number of strange beliefs in connection with
the Coilleach Martain, which is thought to possess occult powers. The
untimely crowing of a rooster is regarded as a death omen throughout
Europe, and also in China, where several precautions ar taken to avert the
threatend calamity.* Flics lighting upon the body of a sick person, or
putterflies hovering about in the sick-room, also presage the approach of
death, while of magpies it is said that

“One is for sorrow, two for luck,
Three for a wedding, and four for death.” +

Great attention is also paid to dreams and to a hundred other things
which are lucky or unlucky in their consequences, such, for instance, as

* A.M. Fielde, Chinese Superstitions, in Popular Science Monthly, xxxii, 798, New
York, April, 1888.
+ In Scotland it runs thus: ‘‘One bodes grief, two's a death,
Three’s a wedding, four’s a birth.’’
James Napier, Folk Lore or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland, 113, Paisley, 1879,

1838.] 261 [Mooney.

carrying fire out of a hous in which some one is lying sick, or meeting a
hare or a red-haird woman when starting on a journey, all of which ar
regarded as unlucky. Among the Galway fishermen a sudden blast of
wind from the ocean is a sign that some one has just been drownd at sea.
According to Lady Wilde, they say also that such an accident is often
preceded by low music issuing from beneath the water—the melodies of
the fairies who ar about to charm away the victim.* The same author
states that there ar certain death omens connected with particular fami-
lies. Thus in.one family the omen is a mysterious crashing sound and a
sudden blast of wind through the hous. The death of, an officer in the
Crimea was announced in this way, the news following immediately after
the warning sound.} It is also believed that the spirit of one who is soon
to die, altho perhaps in perfect health at the time, sometimes lJeavs the
body by night and appears to some near friend, who thus has a certain
warning of the approaching death.

But of all the beliefs in regard to death omens, the wildest and the most
peculiarly Irish is that of the Bean-sighe.{ This is the disembodied spirit
of a woman who in former days was connected in some way with one of
the old princely families of Ireland. The Bean-sighe never concernd her-
self with any of the upstart breed of the foreigner, but faithfully attended
those of the ancient race even when, deprived of their possessions by war
and confiscation, they sank to the level of peasants and laborers, and in-
stances ar related where she has even followd their decaying fortunes in
their exile beyond the ocean. Her mission is to giv warning, by a plaintiv
wailing cry, of the near approaching death of one of the fumily, and this
cry is repeated at the moment when the soul leavs the body. This be-
lief, which has been called ‘‘the wildest and grandest of all the Irish
superstitions,’ has its parallels on the continent, the most notable example
being that of the spectral ‘‘White Woman’ who waits upon the royal
family of Prussia, but these ar isolated cases, while in Ireland the Bean-
sighe is a part of the popular belief throughout the country. The spirit
is generally heard at night, sometimes at midday, and very rarely in the
morning. The mournful cry is generally the only indication of her pres-
ence, but in a few instances she has been seen for a moment as a rapidly
receding figure having the appearance of a witherd old woman clad in

* Lady Wilde (Speranza), Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms and Superstitions of Ire-
land, i, 151, London, 1887. While this work—in two volumes—necessarily contains a
number of valuable points, it is a real disappointment when we consider the exceptional
opportunities enjoyd by the author during a life-long residence in Ireland, half of
which was spent in the wildest districts of Galway, Of legends there ar hardly any
beyond a few local traditions, while the statements in regard to the popular customs and
beliefs ar all loose and fragmentary and ful of vague theorizing. The best portions of
the book ar those taken from the writings of the late Sir William Wilde, the distin-
guished husband of the authoress, and a man wel versd in all that pertaind to the
national life of the people.

+ Idem, i, 266.

{ Pronounced, and commonly written, Banshee. From bean “woman” and sighe
“spirit.”

Opes |
Mooney. ] 2 2 [Oct. 19, i

flowing white drapery. The Bean sighe is generally anonymous, like the
Puca or Leprechén, but a few of the more noted ones hav special names.
Thus the Bean sighe of the O’Neils, the ancient royal race of Ulster, is
called Maoveen. She frequented their ancestral seat, Shane’s Castle in 4
the County Antrim, where it is said that ‘to hint a doubt of the existence
of the Banshee of the O’Neils would, in the estimation of their people,
be tantamount to blasphemy.”’* The cry of the Bean-sighe, which has ‘
been likend to the sound of the caoine, resembles the mournful sighing

of an autumn wind, tremulous, rising and falling, and audible at a great

distance, while something human runs through all the tones. At times

she seems to clap her hands while wailing, like the women around a

corpse. The cry is usually heard by all those in the hous, but in some

cases is distinguishd only by one specially gifted. A few instances wil

illustrate this belief. The first, from Hall’s Ireland (iii, 106 note), wag

related by an old school-master concerning one of the MacCarthys, once

a ruling family in the south of Ireland :

““*My father’s family,’ said he, ‘were ill of ‘ ‘the sickness’ ’—so the
fever is commonly called—< his neighbor, a poor widow, one MacCarthy,
had her son sick also; my father went to her and begged her not to
screetch when the life left the boy, for fear of frightening my mother.
She promised that with God’s help she wouldn’t. Well, at midnight we
heard a scream—a loud and sorrowful and awful scream : we all heard it ;
and my father went out to the widow to complain that she had broken her \
word. He found her at home: she said her son was dead, but she hadn’t &
crossed the doorway, keeping the grief in her heart. So he went home-
wards, and again he heard the voice ; and he followed it for above a mile:
and at last it left him at the north end of a stream.’ ”’

The Bean-sighe sometimes givs warning of the death of a relativ in
another country. Of this we have an instance in the work just quoted (iii,
page 108 note), related by a respectable woman who solemly averd its truth :
‘“When a little girl her father and mother had gone out to a wake and
had left her, along with her younger sisters and brothers, in care of thé :
house. They were all, four or five in number, gathered round the fire.
Suddenly they ‘heard a melancholy cry, as of a woman approaching the
house. They ran to the door, supposing it might be the daughter of the ee
deceased person, who was coming to borrow something for the wake ; but,
to their great dismay, saw no one, though they still heard the cry, passing
as it were by them and down along on their right. Upon their father’s
return they told him what had occurred. ‘Don’t mind, girls,’ said he,

* Mr. and Mrs. 8. C, Hall, Ireland, Picturesquely Illustrated ; Its Scenery, Character,
etc., iii, 104, new edition, New York, n. d. (about 1850). This is one of the best general
books upon Ireland ever written, as the authors wer wel acquainted with the country
and thoroughly understood the character of the people. It abounds in valuable folk-
lore material. Although stories of the Bean-sighe ar common among the people, I
have chosen rather to give these published instances on account of their typical char-
acter and in order to call attention to the work quoted.

ats
1888. ] 263 [ Mooney.

‘perhaps the person whom that cry lamented is not one of us, or it may
be that he is far away.’ In a fortnight after they received intelligence
from London that an uncle of theirs, a physician, had died there on the
very night they had heard the Banshee cry. They were MacCarthys by
the father’s side and O’Sullivans by the mother’s.’’

The spirits of the dead ar sometimes allowd to revisit the earth to
join in the lamentations over the corpse of one of the family. On the
river Flesk in Kerry is a high clif overhanging the water and taking
its name from a young girl called Reinarth Bresnahan. Years ago she
went out one day to look for some cows which had strayd into the
mountains. She never returnd, but when last seen alive she was
standing on the top of this clif and may have fallen into the water
below. At each successiv funeral in the family from the time of her
disappearance she would be seen to enter the room, appearing in dres
and features just as she did on the day she left the houg for the last
time, and would join in the caoine over the corpse. The others could
see her, but wer afraid to speak to her. Once she was heard crying
outside the hous, and soon after came the news that one of the family
had died in America. The last of the Bresnahans died about fifteen
years ago, when she came once more to join in the caoine and then
disappeard forever.

The belief that sickness and death ar due to the evil influence of spirits
is common to all savage races as wel as to the uneducated classes
among civilized nations. In Ireland, where the fairy mythology reachd
a high development, this belief is carried stil further, and it is thought
in many cases that the sickness or death is only apparent, the supposed
invalid or corpse being merely a substitute left by the fairies instead of
the real person, whom they hav carried away.* Altho seeming to
lead a joyous existence, dancing by moonlight in the green fort to the
sound of soft music, or holding high revel in their underground pal-
aces, the fairies ar constantly haunted by the fear of eternal condemna-
tion at the last judgment. To avert this doom they seek to ally them-
selvs with the mortal race, and ar constantly on the watch to carry off
‘men, women and children to serv as husbands, wives or nurses in the
fairy court. The prisoner, however, must be releasd at the end of a cer-
tain period, unless he should be so unwise as to taste of the fairy food
in the meantime, in which event he becomes dead to his friends and can
never return. Exactly the same belief is held by the Dakota Indians, as
appears from ‘‘A Yankton Legend,’’ one of the collection of Siouan
myths and stories by J. Owen Dorsey, which will appear in the forth-
coming Volume vi of Contributions to North American Ethnology. The
people tel many stories of persons who wer thus carried off by the fairies,
but found means to warn their friends to leav food where they could get

* For a more extended notice of the fairy influence in sickness, see the author’s paper

on ‘‘The Medical Mythology of Ireland,” in Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society, xxiv, 133-166, Philadelphia, 1887.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXV. 128, 2H. PRINTED DEC. 27, 1888.

Mooney.] 264 [Oct. 19,

’

it while on their nightly excursions with the ‘‘ good people,’’ who wer
consequently compeld to releas them at the end of the term of three,
five or seven years. I hav talkd with a number of persons of fair intel-
ligence and education, and of varied experience, who believ and insist
that their own parents, brothers or sisters wer thus carried off by the
fairies, altho to all appearances they died and wer buried in the regular
way. On the west coast, when a man is drownd and his friends fail to
recover the body, it is known that he has been taken by the fairies and is
stil alive in their caves at the bottom of the ocean. They ar sometimes
seen by their former friends on their fishing trips, and in a few instances
hav been allowd to return to the land of the living.. A single story, told
by a Roscommon woman, wil show the belief on this subject. It was
related as an incident within her own knowledge, and the fairy fort
referd to was in her uncle’s field near Ballintubber.

A woman named Nancy Flinn was one day going to see her sister when,
as she was passing near the fort, she saw a number of young men, all of
whom wer strangers to her, playing hurley in the field. As she came up
one of them approachd her and said, ‘‘My good woman, you go back
and take another road to your sister’s.’’ She paid no attention, but kept
on, when he again warnd her to turn back. Some time after, while milk-
ing, she suddenly fel down and began calling for help. As her husband
came running up she cried out, ‘‘O, Ned, hold me!’’ He could hear
the sound of blows, while she screamd at every blow. He carried
her into the hous and put her to bed, but she lingerd only a short time
and then died. A neighbor and his wife went to see her in the evening,
and left the hous just as she drew her last breath. On their way home
they stopd at the narrator’s hous, pale and trembling with fear, and said
that in passing the fort they had seen it all lit up with a thousand lights,
and had heard sounds of rejoicing and voices crying, ‘‘ We hav her at
last, we hav her at last; but, Nancy, it was hard to get you.”

When it is suspected that the dead person has really been carried off by
the fairies, his friends ar accustomd to leav food or milk where he can get
it during his nightly visits in company with the ‘‘good people,’’ in order
that he may not be obliged to partake of the fairy food. On this subject
Lady Wilde incorrectly states that ‘‘ it isa very general custom during
some nights after a death to leav food outside the house—a griddle cake
or a dish of potatoes. If it is gone in the morning the spirits must have
taken it, for no human being would touch the food left for the dead.’’*
The truth of the matter is that the food is lefr, not for those who ar
known to be dead, but for those who ar believd to be stil alive, altho
held in captivity by the fairies. On November night, however, food is
left in readiness for the spirits of the dead, who then revisit their for-
mer homes, while it isa common thing to propitiate the fairies in like
manner at all seasons of the year.

* Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends of Ireland, i, 225, London, 1887.

—

ie

=

ee. ae

1888.] 265 [Mooney.

Immediately after death the soul appears before the judgment bar, and
is sometimes condemd to return and reanimate the body during a further
term of sickness until by suffering it has been renderd worthy to enter
heaven. ‘The fairies take advantage of its temporary absence to put one
of their own number into the body, so that when the soul returns it finds
its place occupied and is obliged to go with them. When this is thought
to be the case—as evidenced by the lingering, altho plainly hopeless,
nature of the ilness—the friends of the sick man put a piece of lus-mér
(pronounced lusmore, Gaelic ‘‘great herb’’) or foxglove under his bed.
If he be a changeling the fairies wil at once be compeld to restore, in good
health, the person taken away. If the invalid be really present in his
proper person he wil not recover, but die. The idea that the destruction
or loss of the body forces the soul to become a wanderer is common to
many primitiv nations,-and is at the bottom of Egyptian embalmment as
wel as of the Christian horror of cremation. I have not met with any
other indication of such a belief in Ireland, but in one of Lady Wilde’s
legends the fairies, who hav captured a wicked old hag, ar represented as
saying: ‘‘Her soul will never rest in peace, because we shall cut up the
body in little bits, and the soul will not be able to find it, but wander
about in the dark to al! eternity without a body.’’*

Properly speaking, the fairies hav no power to take life, but there is
another class of spirits altogether malignant, which haunt particular
localities, hovering invisible in the air overhead, and visit destruction upon
all who come within their reach. Should an unaccountable sickness or
death occur in a new hous, it is ascribed to the presence of one of these
spirits, and the owner will tear down the hous and rebuild it in another
place.

Dyina Rrres—Layine OutT—THE MAIsTINIDH.

The Irishman obeys the injunction to remember his last end, and his
constant prayer is to be deliverd ‘‘ from a sudden or unprovided death,”
and to have a ‘‘decent funeral.’”? The poorest old woman wil hoard up
year after year from her slender means in order that she may be buried
respectably when life’s struggle is over, and above all, that she may not
have a pauper’s funeral, while the most poverty-stricken family wil strain
every nerv to perform the same office for the departed father, mother,
brother or sister. In-Scotland, ‘‘The first care of the young married wife
was still, in my young days, to spin and get woven sufficient linen to
make for herself and her husband their dead claes.”’+ So strong is this
feeling that the clergy frequently find it necessary to warn their people
against the reckless extravagance common on such occasions. The ancient
and widespread practice of expensiv funeral feasts and ceremonies un-
doubtedly had its origin in the desire that the soul should enter the spirit

* Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends of Ireland, i, 188, London, 1887.
+James Napier, Folk-Lore, 55, Paisley, 1879.

Mooney. J 266 [Oct. 19,

land with all its wants wel provided for, altho in modern Europe it has
come to be regarded only as a fitting tribute of respect to the departed.

As soon as an ilness assumes a serious character the priest is sent for to
hear the sick person’s confession and help him arrange his affairs, after
which the dying man awaits the end with composure and resignation.
There is a general desire that death, when it comes, may occur upon
Friday, the day on which Christ died, and in the west the prayer is for
Bés Aoine, guide Saturn agus ad‘lacad: Domnac.* «A Friday death, a
Saturday prayer and a Sunday funeral.’? When it is evident that death is
near at hand the priest is again calld in to administer to the dying man
the last sacraments of the church. The blessed candles, which hav been
consecrated in the church on some previous Candlemas day, ar then
lighted in the room and the friends recite the prayers for the dying. In
Kerry and other parts of the west twelv small wax tapers which hav been
thus blest, and corresponding to the number of the apostles, ar fixd up-
right around the edge ofa plate and past from hand to hand ina circle from
right to left around the head of the dying man, by relativs standing near,
who recite during the while the following prayer: @uét'im Peadar, guid’ -
im Pol, guidtim Muir’ oig: agus a Mac, guid‘im a dé easpal déag, gan tu d'ul
ann eug gan a g-cead,t ‘‘Timplore Peter, implore Paul, I implore the
Virgin Mary and her Son, I implore the twelv apostles, that you may not
enter death without their permission.’’ When death comes, after reciting
this prayer, it is thought to be in accordance with the wil of God and the
saints. In the western islands twelv lighted rushes ar placed around the
bed of the dying man.{ A similar practice probably prevaild formerly
in the east, according to the statement of a woman of the County Meath.
Her father past away so quietly that it was several minutes before the fact
of his death was discoverd, when his wife, who was alone with the chil-
dren, lighted a taper and held it between his claspd hands while she
recited the prayers for the dying. This was fifty years ago, when Gaelic
was stil the language of the district. The dying person takes “three
breaths of life ’’ just before expiring, and a man always falls asleep at the
approach of death, while a woman remains awake. Along the coast we
find also the old belief that life goes out with the ebbing tide.

When the dying man seems to suffer great agouy it is thought to be
due to the presence of chicken feathers in hig bed, and his friends wil
sometimes lift him up and place him upon the floor to réliev him. Some
persons go so far as to say that feathers of any kind wil caus the sick one
to “die hard.’’ It is possible that there may be some physiologic reason
for this belief, as the senses of the sick ar frequently alive to odors and
atmospheric influences imperceptible to those around them.

* Pronounced in Connemara, somewhat incorrectly, Baws Ena, gwiva Sddrn ogus tel-
akhawn Dhonakh.

+ Pronounced in Kerry, Gweeim Pddhar, gweeim Poel, gweeim Mwir’ oeg égus a Moe,
gweeim a dhaw awspal jaeg, gun thu ghul an yaeg gun a gadh,

} Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends of Ireland, i, 224, London, 1887.

__ acuatiainicaiai

7
)

1888.] 267

[Mooney.

In Connemara when one is dying of consumption it is customary to tie
some unsalted butter in a piece of cloth and hang it up in the rafters.
Just as the sick person is at his last gasp all of his blood relativs leav the
hous and remain outside until he is dead. As he draws his last breath the
consumption leavs his body and enters into one of his relativs, should any
be present, but finding none of them in the room, it goes up into the but-
ter, which is then taken down and buried. In some parts of Galway this
is said to keep off the disease only for a term of seven years. On asking
how long the friends remaind outside, my informant replied, ‘‘ They stay
out til he’s dead—and wel dead.”’

From Jeremiah Curtin, of the Bureau of Ethnology, I learn that a
somewhat similar practice formerly existed in Vermont, where within
living memory the dead body of a consumptiv was dug up, and the heart
taken out and burnd, under the impression that this would prevent the
recurrence of the disease in the family. Among the Jews, also, the near-
est relativs leav the hous just before the death struggle comes on.

As soon as life is found to be extinct the neighbor women take charge
of the body, which is washd and drest and stretchd upon a board resting
on a table or the backs of chairs. The corpse is generally drest in a
shroud, together with the scapular or other insignia of any religious order
of which the deceasd may hav been amember. The shroud, towels and
other clothes used in connection with the funeral ceremonies ar all of
linen and ar commonly preservd in each family for this purpose alone.
After the funeral the towels, etc., ar washd by the nearest female relativs
of the deceasd, no indigo being used in the process. The corpse is laid
out facing the east, or rather the south-east, that is, with the head to the
west and the feet to the east, and is buried in the same position whenever
possible. The custom of burying the dead facing the east is common to
many European and Oriental peoples, having also been practiced formerly
by the Choctaws and other Indian tribes of the Southern States,* and had
its origin in sun worship. The Irish explain it by saying that the east or
south-east is holy, while the evil spirits always come from the north—and
here again we see the remains of the old element worship which regarded
the rising sun, the warm southern breez and the cold northern blast as
good or bad spirits according to their effects. In allusion to this custom
there is a current saying in Connemara, when one person quarrels with
another, Nar bud: fada go d-ti'n ceann caol siar duit,} ‘‘May it not be long
until the little end of you is to the west.’’ In the east they say, ‘‘May I
liv to see you stretchd on the board.’’

Two evil spirits known as the Mdistinid" Mor (Mawshchenee Moer) or Great
Mastifs ar constantly waiting to seiz the soul before it can reach the judg-
ment bar of God. They ar asleep, but spring up at the first sound of
grief. For this reason the corpse is laid out as soon as possible, and no
cry or lamentation is raised, im theory, for three hours after death, by

* James Adair, Hist. Am. Inds., 182, 1775.
t+ Pronounced, Nawr bd fodha ga jee’n can cueel sheer ghueeth.

Mooney.] 268 [Oct. 19,

which time the soul stands in the presence of its Maker and ig safe for the
time being. It is there weighd in the scales of the Archangel Michael
and receivs its sentence of reward or punishment according to the meas-
ure ofsits iniquity. The belief that the souls of the dead ar weighd by
the angel Michael prevails all over Europe, and is noted in one of Rals-
ton’s Russian Fairy Tales. The idea comes down to us from remote
antiquity. At the ruins of Monasterboice abbey, near Drogheda, founded
in the sixth century, is a sculpture representing the judgment,.in which
one figure is weighing the souls in a balance,* and precisely the same
thing is portrayed on a Japanese picture of the judgment, recently ex-
hibited in Washington, the original of which date» back for centuries.
Should its load of sin carry the soul to the bottom of the scale, the Mdis-
téntd: seiz it and drag it down into hel. There seems also to be an indis-
tinct belief, common to many primitiv peoples, that the soul hovers near
the body until the latter is finally laid at rest in the grave. As the Mdis-
tinid* ar particularly alert just before daybreak, great care is taken that
there shal be no crying at that time during the few days intervening
between death and burial, and one of the most dreaded maledictions in
the west of Ireland is Sgreada na maid'ne ort,t ‘‘The cry of the morn-
ing on you!’’ In some districts, according to Lady Wilde, ‘‘ when a death
was expected it was usual to have a good deal of bread ready baked in the
house in order that the evil spirits might be employed eating it, and so let
the soul of the dying depart in peace.’’t

The manner of laying out the corpse preparatory, to the wake differs
somewhat in various districts, but the principal details are the same. In
Meath the body was placed upon a board frame like a door, which rested
upon a table, but was somewhat wider than it, so as to project beyond it
on the right side. The frame and table ar coverd with a white sheet
reaching down to the floor. The body, drest in its shroud, is extended
upon this sheet, with the feet toward the east, being placed upon that part
of the frame resting immediately upon the table. Another sheet is thrown
over the corpse so as to conceal it from view. Along the projecting edge
of the frame ar placed several plates containing pipes and tobacco for the
watchers and attendants at the wake. In this part of the country the
plate was never placed at the head, foot or upon the breast of the corpse,
Between the plates ar large blessed candles, which ar lighted and kept
constantly burning as long as the corpse is in the hous, the rule being to
keep the body for two nights and bury it on the third day. During all
this time the body is never left alone, but is watchd day and night by
friends of the deceasd, of about the same age, the men sitting up all
night until relievd by the women in the morning. In some districts the
body of an adult is sometimes adornd with black ribbons, that of an un-
married person with white ribbons and that of a child with flowers. In

*.W. R. Wilde, The Boyne and the Blackwater, 2d ed., 803, Dublin, 1850.
4) Pronounced, Shgrdidha na ménya urth.
t Ancient Legends of Ireland, ii, 118, London, 1887,

x

1888.] 269 [Mooney.

the west and some parts of the north the plate of tobacco is placed upon
the breast of the corpse. According to Hall,* a quantity of salt is usually
placed upon it also. JI hav not met with this practice, but in Connemara
those who attend the wake or funeral put some salt into their pockets
before leaving home, and take some in their mouths before eating any-
thing on their return. Salt is believd to keep spirits at a distance, and
the spirit in this instance seems to be the ghost of the deceasd. In Scot-
Jand a plate of salt was formerly placed upon the corpse, the purpose
being to keep the devil from disturbing the body.+ In Ireland, as else-
where, there ar many curious beliefs in regard to salt. In Cork the tobacco
and pipes ar placed-just above the feet of the corpse, while in Antrim they
ar placed on a separate table. The corpse thus laid out is said to be os
cionn clair (6s cin clawr) or ‘‘over board.’’? In Carleton’s account of the
old wake ceremonies in some of the northern counties he says that the
corpse is sometimes laid out wnder a deal board (under board) with a sheet
thrown over the body so as to conceal it, or is sometimes allowd to rest
in the bed, with the face uncoverd, while sheets with crosses upon them
ar pind up about the bed on all sides excepting in front.t He also refers
in another place to a curious belief of whose existence in Ireland I hav
no further knowledge, altho it is common to many uncivilized tribes, viz. :
That if the corpse be buried with the feet tied the spirit will be hinderd in
its movements in the next world.§ If there be a clock in the hous, it is
stopd until after the funeral, a custom observd also in Scotland. Should
the corpse remain ‘‘lumber’’ (limber) after laying out, there will soon
be another funeral in the family.

THE WAKE AND CAOINE.

We now come to the Wake, calld in Gaelic téram* (thoru), concerning
which most of us hav heard so much and yet know so little. There is a
prevalent impression among some who should know better that the Irish
wake is a mere drinking orgy on the occasion of a funeral, but to the
student of human development it appears something very different—a
survival of an ancient death rite which is older than history and was once
almost as widespread as the human race itself. While the wake, with its
curious mingling of grief and hilarity, of wild lamentation and boisterous
revelry, seems strangely inconsistent when viewd in the light of our

* Mr. and Mrs, 8. C. Hall, Ireland, Picturesquely Illustrated, i, 222, n.d., New York,
R. Worthington, importer.

+ James Napier, Folk Lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland, 60, Paisley,
1879.

{ Wm. Carleton, ‘‘ Larry McFarland’s Wake,” in Traits and Stories of the Irish Peas-
antry, i, London, 1853. This work—consisting of five volumes in this edition—is invalu-
able to the student of Irish folk-lore, the more so as it describes customs and beliefs
prevalent seventy years ago in eastern Ulster, a part of the country from which they hay
now almost entirely disappeard. The author was an Irishman by birth and education
and thoroughly in sympathy with the people.

2 ‘The Party Fight and Funeral,’’ idem, ii, 118, London, 1853. See also page 244, of this
paper.

Mooney.] 270 [Oct. 19,

modern civilization, it would appear perfectly natural and proper to the
nativs of almost any part of Asia or Polynesia, or to the people of an-
cient Greece, Rome, Carthage or Egypt.

Among ancient and modern nations the original purpose of the wake,
with its games, watching and lighted tapers, appears to hav been two-
fold: To divert the grief of the survivors and to protect the body from
the attacks of evil spirits until it was safely disposd of by cremation or
burial. In addition to this it must’ be rememberd that with the peasant
class of modern Europe, whose toils ar constant and amusements few, a
wedding or a funeral affords almost the only opportunity for a friendly
gathering of neighbors to break in on the dul monotony of every-day life.
Napier, in his work on Scotch’ folk-lore, describes wake customs similar
to those of Ireland and says : ‘‘ The reasons given for watching the corpse
differed in different localities. The practice is still observed, I believe, in
some places, but probably now it is more the result of habit—a custom
followed without any basis of definite belief, and merely as a mark of
respect for the dead ; but in former times, and within this century, it was
firmly held that if the corpse were not watched the devil would carry off
the body, and many stories were current of such an awful result having
happened.’”’ And again: ‘‘The wake in the Highlands during last cen-
tury was @ very common affair. * * * Pennant, in his tour through
the Highlands, 1772, says that at a death the friends of the deceased .
meet with bagpipe or fiddle, when the nearest of kin leads off a melan-
choly ball, dancing and wailing at the same time, which continues till
daybreak and is continued nightly till the interment. This custom is to
frighten off or protect the corpse from the attack of wild beasts, and evil
spirits from carrying it away.”* Whatever we may think of the wake,
it is certain that those who take part in it believe they ar paying a tribute
of respect to the dead, altho in former days the intemperate use of liquor,
together with the strong factional feeling of the last generation, frequently
led to disgraceful scenes, while the whole practice is so incompatible with
modern ideas that for years the clergy hav made every effort to abolish it
entirely.

As soon as the news of the death gets abroad the friends begin to arrive
to pay their respects to the deceasd. They never enter the hous singly,
but should one come alone he waits on the outside until joined by one or two
others, when they open the door a little way, take off their hats and recite
in an undertone the prayers for the dead. Then entering the room, they
salute those present, take seats and join in the conversation. As a rule,
only near relativs join in the caoine or kneel down to pray by the side of
the corpse. The friends arrive all through the day, some coming from
long distances, and by nightfall there ar as many present as the hous can
wel accommodate. In the ordinary cabin, consisting of but two rooms,
the corpse is laid out in the middle of the kitchen, while seats ar arranged

* James Napier, Folk Lore or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland, 62, 65-6,
Paisley, 1879.

1888.] 271 [ Mooney.

around the wall for the visitors. When the hous has several rooms the
company assembles in one, leaving the corpse to be guarded by a few
watchers in another room, and if there be a barn close at hand the young
folks usually adjourn to it early in the evening in order to enjoy themselvs
without interruption. The men, and frequently the women as wel, help
themselvs to the pipes and tobacco, and in the old times whisky was also
servd out at intervals to the entire company. For each pipe of tobacco
used the smoker is expected to say a short prayer for the repose of the
soul of the dead, the regular Gaelic formula being : Seac't lan reilic P-ad‘-
ruig agus tomba C*rtosd go breannac'taib: le h-anam na marb,* “Seven
fuls of the cemetery of Patrick and the tomb of Christ of blessings with
the soul of the dead,’’ while the English speakers say, ‘‘God hav mercy on
the soul of the one this pipe was over.’’

While the family and the caoiners sit or stand about the corpse the
others pass the time in smoking, gossiping, telling stories, singing songs
and playing games, all of which seems strangely out of place in the pres-
ence of death. At intervals one of the company will say, ‘‘ Let us repeat
a Pater and Ave for the soul of the dead,’’ when all rise and say a short
prayer in silence, after which the talk and merriment go on as before.
The only other interruption is that occasioned by the caoine, which is
raisd when the body is first laid out, and repeated on the entrance of each
relativ or near friend.

The custom of a public funeral lament for the dead comes down to us
from the earliest times, having been common to all the nations of antiq-
uity, and is stil practiced in India, Arabia, Abyssinia, Australia and among
some tribes of the American Indians. Numerous references in the Bible
show that it existed among the Hebrews. Homer represents the women
as wailing and reciting eulogies over Hector’s dead body, and in ancient
Rome we find laws in regard to the prafice or mourning women. From J.
Owen Dorsey, of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, I hav obtaind a
description of a funeral lament which he heard among the Osage Indians,
in which the words, the intonation and the motions of the wailers wer
exactly similar to what we find in the Irish caoine. According to Francis
La Fléche their kindred, the Omahas, hav but one formal lament. Among
all nations this duty seems to hav been left to the women, as beneath the
dignity of a man.

In Ireland the funeral lament is calld caoine (almost cena) by the Gaelic
speakers, while the corrupted form, keen, is used by the rest of the popu-
lation. The woman who leads the lament is calld the Bean Caointe (ban
ceencha) or ‘‘crying woman,” and is generally selected for her fine voice
and skil in improvising. When she is a near friend of the deceasd she
givs her services as a labor of love; otherwise she receivs a small sum
according to the ability of the relativs. It must be rememberd that it re-
quires some special qualifications to lead the caoine properly, and that

* Pronounced Shokhth lawn rel-yie Fuwrig ogus thonba Khreesdh g6é vinakhthee lae honam
na moraw’. .
PROC, AMER, PHILOS. SOC. XXV. 128. 21. PRINTED DEC. 28, 1888,

Mooney.] 272 [Oct. 19,

every wake necessitates an attendance of several days. In Galway there
is a class of women known as knitters, who travel about from place to
place knitting stockings, mittens and caps for the peasantry, and from their
intimate acquaintance with the life histories of their customers, and their
readiness of expression in song or story, they ar usually in demand on
such occasions,

As soon as the body is laid out the friends kneel down and pray. Then
rising, the women range themselvs around the corpse, and the Bean
Caointe, advancing, stretches out her hands for a moment over the body,
and then, lifting them suddenly over her head, breaks out into the wild
lament. When she pauses at the end of a stanza, the other women take
up the mournful chorus, moving their bodies slowly to and fro and clap-
ping their hands in front of them in keeping with the measure of the
ehant. Then the Bean Caointe begins another stanza, which is followd
by the chorus in the same way, and so on to the close. The caoine is re-
peated each night about 10 o’clock, each morning soon after daybreak,
and on the arrival of any relativ who may not hav been in at the begin-
ning of the wake. In the latter case the new comer kneels down beside
the corpse and recites a short prayer, then rising together with the women
he joins them in repeating the cry, after which he takes his place with the
rest of the company, who ar indulging in jokes and small talk, games and
stories during the intervals of the caoine.

As the funeral leavs the hous the women form in line behind the coffin
and the caoine is raisd again, the wailing chorus now swelling loudly
upon the breez and again dying away into silence, until the churchyard
is reachd. As the coffin is lowerd into the grave the cry rises for the last
time with all the agony of the final parting, and the excitement for some
moments is something awful. In Meath all the women of the neighbor-
hood formerly walkd behind the coffin, from three to five abreast, and
the cry was raisd by those in the first row, then taken up by those in the
second, and so on to the last, when those in the front row began again.
The cry while walking with the funeral is generally only a wailing cho-
rus. It may be heard to a great distance and long before the funeral is in
sight. In this county it used to be said of one noted for attending wakes,
‘*You’re as fond of a funeral as Denning’s dog.’”’? Denning lived in Na-
van and ownd.a dog which used to jump up whenever he heard the cry
and follow the funeral until it reachd the churchyard. In Connemara
there is no caoine during the procession. In Kerry one-half the women
walk in front of the coffin while the others come after it, and the cuoine is
raisd alternately by each party. In the north also the women frequently
walk in front.

The impression made by the caoine, with the passionate eulogy of the
Bean Caointe and the wailing chorus of the women, is thus described by
competent witnesses: ‘‘The Irish language, bold, forcible and compre-
hensive, full of the most striking epithets and idiomatic beauties, is pecu-

liarly adapted for either praise or satire—its blessings are singularly touch-

1888. 278

[Mooney.

ing and expressive, and its curses wonderfully strong, bitter and biting.
The rapidity and ease with which both are uttered, and the epigram matic
force of each concluding stanza of the keen, generally bring tears to the
eyes of the most indifferent spectator, or produce a state of terrible excite-
ment. The dramatic effect of the scene is very powerful: the darkness
of the death-chamber, illumined only by candles that glare upon the
corpse—the manner of repetition or acknowledgment that runs round
when the keener gives out a sentence—the deep yet suppressed sobs of the
nearer relatives—and the stormy, uncontrollable cry of the widow or be-
reaved husband, when allusion is made to the domestic virtues of the
deceased—all heighten the effect of the keen; but in the open air, wind-
ing round some mountain pass, when a priest, or person greatly beloved
and respected is carried to the grave, and the keen, swelled by a thousand
voices, is borne upon the mountain echoes—it is then absolutely magnifi-
cent.

The music of the caoine has its traditional origin in the wail of the
Bean-sighe, and in the manuscript Book of Ballymote there is an ancient
funeral lament which is recorded as having been sung by a chorus of
invisible spirits over the grave of an Irish king in the tenth century.+
With regard to the subject matter of the caoine it is difficult to say much,
or to give specimens, as the principal part is usually improvised on the
spot and forgotten with the occasion which calld it forth. It is recited in
a’ measurd chant, each line ending in a crescendo, dying away at the
beginning of the next. The wailing chorus is.a long tremulous ochdn,
ochon eile, ullulu or ullagén. In Connemara the criers use ochén, ochén
eile, ochda eile (okhoén ella), while in the south ullagén is more common
and may be a corruption of the same expression. Ochdén is the Gaelic
equivalent for alas/ and eile signifies another, so that ochon, ochon eile,
may be rendered, ‘‘ Alas, and again alas!’’ The stanzas ar composd the
more readily from the fact that Gaelic rhymes ar vocalic only, and it is
sufficient that the final vowel sounds of corresponding lines be the same.

The caoine itself strikingly resembles the Indian death song. Itisa
lament for the dead in which the speaker eulogizes the virtues of the
deceasd and makes touching allusion to little incidents in his history, and
should it be the case that he has come to his death by violence, as has
happend too often in the troubled condition of the country, the most wither-
ing curses ar calld down upon the head of the slayer. We giv here speci-
mens of caoines which hav been preservd among the people, but as before
remarkd the great majority ar forgotten almost as soon as utterd. There
ar, however, numerous elegies of more finishd composition, written by
Gaelic poets within comparativly modern times, which ar wel known in
the districts of the south and west where the language is stil commonly
spoken. The first is given in Hall’s Ireland as the literal translation of a

* Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall, Ireland: Picturesquely Illustrated, i, 225, n. d., New York.

t Idem, ii, 408 note.

Mooney.]

caoine stil preservd in Antrim. It is said to hav been composd by a
daughter of the O’Neils over the body of a former lover, who, having
gon to some foreign land, returnd after a long absence, only to find that
she had yielded to the persuasions of her relativs and was about to become
another, The news struck him down like a blow and the

the bride of
girl did not

The next, from Kerry, was obtained from an old man who is one of the
few having a literary acquaintance with the Gaelic. It is the lament of a

274.

long survive the shock :

“My love, my love, and my treasure,
Many a day have you and IJ spent
Beneath the shade of yonder tree,

Thy fair head on my lap.

Sweetly didst thou kiss me;

And it was not a kiss without love

That than didst press upon my lips:
But woe is me! women believe not men,
There is so much deceit and falsehood.

‘My love, my love, and my treasure,
Did I but know then
Half what I do know now,
I would plough with thee the hills,
I would swim with thee the seas,
Though my kindred might upbraid me :
But what were that to me,
If he who loved me were mine?

‘Beloved of my bosom,
Thy heart found no repose,
When my story was told thee
That I was the bride of another—
Yet Heaven knows, the only Son knows,
That I would prefer thee
To all the gold of Erin—
To young oxen on the hills,
And to him with all his herds.
And the only Son knows
That I will never lay beside him
My right side nor my left.’’*

woman over the body of her son’s wife:

* Mr, and Mrs, §. C. Hall, Ireland, Picturesquely Illustrated, iii, 113, n. d., New York.

Bud: deas liom a t-seasam: t'u agus bud* d‘eas liom a t-suid'e tu,
’S bud: g'eal-dearg air m'argad’ an rig'e d'uit,

A diol do c'uid t’orrt'a ’s a glacad’ do c*iosa.

Nuair-a trainic tu a b-aile nior t'roid agus nior bruid*ean duit,
Act breit' air do leanb* agus é c'asad* er a cin cugad— Ullagon !

Ts minic-a c'onnarcsa bean mic agus mat* air céile
Mar b'eid‘ead’ cat agus luc’ air agaid: a e°éile ;
Ni mar stid-a brid*innse agus mo c*eud-seare.
Do bi dr d-toil do g'ul a e°éile;
Do bi dr n-daonnac't ag imeac't a n-aonac't. »
96 mo cruad'tan oir luatad* eugais
Go d-teic* do t'uarasg air fad na h-Eireann !—Ullagon !

[Oct. 19,

1888. ] 27 5 {Mooney .

Is mait* ata frios agamsa an la t'asduig*ead* tu uaimsce—
Ld na cuiginne brisead* agus do b'uailead’,

Ldn lion a e*uir a g’crioc* go luat’ d-am,

Lé na bairg'eana léat‘ad* agus do s*uait‘ead*,

La mo e'uid eudag* néatac’ truarad’,

Agus lé mo b*dis mo’edn cruad: t'u !—Ullagén !*

Which may be thus rendered :

You wer beautiful to me standing and you wer beautiful to me sitting,
And you wer fair and rosy in the king’s market,

When selling your produce and receiving your rents.

When you came home you wer not fighting and quarreling

But taking your child and turning it on your bosom.—Ullagon !

Often hay I seen the son’s wife and the mother-in-law

Eying each other as a cat watches a mous;

Not thus was I and my Hundred Loves,

Our desires were in unison ;

Our bounty went together.

My sorrow that you hay died so soon,

Before your fame had gon through the length of Ireland! Ullagén!

Wel I know the day I shal want you!

The day of the churning, to break and to beat (the cream) ;

The day of the flax, to prepare it speedily for me;

The day of the cake, spreading and kneading it ;

The day of my clothing,} neatly bleaching it—

And the day of my death my hard sigh wil be for you! Ullagén!

THE WAKE GAMES,

We come now toa very ‘different phase of the wake ceremonies—the
games indulged in by the younger portion of the company. Funeral
games and feasts wer known to the Greeks and other nations of antiquity,

* Pronouuced in Kerry :
Bit yds lum a chiisaw’ hu dgus bu yds lum a thee hu,
Sbt yol-dhtrag er woraga’n ree ghuith,
A dheel dho khuij dra’ sa gloica dhé khyeesa.
Nur-a hdnic thu a wola neer hréj dgus neer breen duith,
Okh braeh er dho linaw’ bgus ae khdsa er a khyeen ghudh.

Iss minic’a khitnicsa ban mic dgus mawhar caela
Mur vy’ tikh coth ogus liikh er aeg a khyaela ;

ve mur shoodh-a veensha bgus mo khyaedh-shore.
Dhé veeh awr dhel dhé ghul a khaela ;
Dhé veeh awr nan-yakh ag imakhth a naenakhth.
Shae mo khruathan er luaha aegish
G6 jaekh dho huarasg er fidh na Haeran !

Iss moh a thaw’s 6gamsa an law hasthoe thu wimsha—
Law na cuiginya, brisha dgus dhé woala,

Law’n leen, akhuir agreeh gd lua ghum,

Law na béréna laha dgus adhd huha,

Law mo khuij aedhig naetha huara,

Ogus law m6 wawsh mo ’khawn crua hu.

+ The day when the newly-woyen linen is spread out to bleach.

or,
Mooney. ] 276 (Oct. 19,

among whom they partook of a religious character and wer intended to
dispel the grief for the dead from the minds of the living. There is evi-
dence that such was their original nature and intent in Ireland also, but
Christianity and advancing civilization hav degraded the wake games,
along with other lingering pagan ceremonies, from their former high
estate, until they ar now little more than the rough sports of overgrown
children. They hav degenerated greatly even during the last half century,
and it might be safe to say that they wil soon disappear entirely had not
the same thing been predicted by every writer on the subject for the last
hundred years.

Lady Wilde gives an account of some games of a diamatic character
which wer enacted at a wake in the south of Ireland some fifty years
ayo. Altho supposed to be related by an old man who was present on the
occasion, it is evident that the language is not his own. It is also proper
to state that the poetic fancy of the author is continually detecting a
symbolic significance in things which appear very commonplace to ordi-
nary mortals. As the games described seem to be entirely unknown to
the present generation, we quote that portion in ful : :

«“When a great space was cleared in the centre of the barn, the first set
of players entered. They wore masks and fantastic garments, and each
carried along spear and a bit of plaited straw on the arm for a shield.
At once they began to build a fort, as it were, marking out the size with
their spears, and using some rough play with the spectators. While thus
engaged a band of enemies appeared, also masked and armed. And now
a great fight began and many prisoners were taken; but to save slaughter
a horn was blown and a fight demanded between the two best champions
of the hostile forces. Two of the finest young men were then selected
and placed at opposite ends of the barn, when they ran a tilt against one
another with their spears, uttering fierce, loud cries and making terrible
demonstrations. At length one fell down as if mortally wounded ; then
all the hooded women came in again and keened over him, a male voice
at intervals reciting his deeds, while the pipers played martial tunes. But
on its being suggested that perhaps he was not dead at all, an herb doctor

vas sent for to look at him; and an aged man with flowing white beard
was led in, carrying a huge bundle of herbs. With these he performed
sundry strange incantations, until finally the dead man sat up and was
earried off the field by his comrades with shouts of triumph. So ended
the first play.

“Then supper was served and more whisky drunk, after which another
play was acted of a different kind. A table was set in the middle of the
barn, and two chairs, while all the people, about a hundred or more,
gathered round in a circle. Then two men, dressed as judges, took their
seats with guards beside them, and called on another man to come forth

and address the people. On this a young man sprang on the table and
poured forth an oration in Irish, full of the.most grotesque fun and sharp
allusions, at which the crowd roared with laughter. Then he gave out a

be
1888. ] 27 ‘ [Mooney.

verse like a psalm in gibberish Irish and bade the people say it after him.
It ran like this, being translated :

Yellow Macauly has come from Spain,

He brought sweet music out of a bag,

Singing See-saw, Sulla Vick Dhau,

Sulla, Sulla Vick Dhau righ.*

“Tf any one failed to repeat this verse after him he was ordered to prison
by the judges, and the guards seized him to cut off his head ; or if any
one laughed the judge sentenced him, saying in Irish, ‘Seize that man, he
is a pagan ; he is mocking the Christian faith. Let him die!’ ’’}

Another of these dramatic performances, which seems also to be un-
known at present, is thus described by the same author: ‘‘The Hiero-
phant (sic) or teacher of the games, orders all the men out of the room ;
a young girl is then dressed with a hide thrown over her and horns on her
head, to simulate a cow, while her maidens form a circle and slowly dance
round her to music, on which a loud knocking is heard at the door. ‘Who
wants to enter?’ asks the Hierophant. He is answered, ‘The guards de-
mand admittance for the bull who is without.’ Admittance is refused, and
the maidens and the cow affect great alarm. Still the knocking goes on,
and finally the door is burst open and the bull enters. He is also robed
with a hide and wears horns, and is surrounded by a band of young men
as his guards. He endeavors to seize the cow, who is defended by her
maidens, forming the dramatic incidents of the play. A general mock
fight now takes place between the guards and the maidens, and the scene
ends with uproarious hilarity and the capture of the cow.’’t

The modern games ar generally simple tests of endurance or agility,
rough practical jokes perpetrated upon innocent victims or courting games
resembling “‘forfeits.’’ It is a common thing for some activ young fellow
to open the proceedings by jumping up, throwing off his coat and climb-
ing hand over hand along the rafter to the highest point of the roof and
down to the wall on the other side in the same way. This is at once
accepted as a challenge by every athletic young man present and for a
few minutes they ar swarming along the rafters like so many monkeys.

Then come tests of endurance, in which the young men of two parishes
or townlands ar generally ranged against each other. In one of these
known as Broigin (Brogeen), ‘‘The Slipper,’’? one man kneels down with
his open hand held out in front of him, while another stands over him
with a short piece of rope or a knotted handkerchief, which is sometimes
dipd in water so as to giv a more stinging blow. Bracing himself firmly,
he brings the rope down with all his force on the open palm of the kneeler,
who endeavors to grasp it as it strikes him, and must endure the blows
until he succeeds, when it is his turn to inflict the same punishment upon
some one of the opposite party. This is the play describd by Carleton

* Properly (Genitive case), Solomon, Mic Ddib‘i rig’; ‘‘ Solomon, son of King David.”
+Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends of Ireland, i, 229-231, London, 1887.
tIdem, 233.

Mooney. ] 278 [Oct, 19,

under the name of ‘‘Standing Brogue,’’ in which one man stands up with
his hands, locked together, hanging down in front of him, and trys to
catch between them the brogue or slipper with which he is struck by the
other.

Another game of the same character is calld in the west Cloif air Bas
(clif er bis) or ‘‘Blow on the Hand’’ and is also described by Carleton,*
as formerly playd in the north, under the name of Hotloof, which is prob-
ably derived from the Gaelic term. There ar several forms of the game.
In one the victim Jeans over with his open hand, palm upward, resting
behind him on his hip. One of the other side then steps up and strikes
the open palm with his fist, sometimes with such force as to disable the
sufferer for the rest of the night. Any flinching would bring disgrace
upon the side to which the coward belongd, but the striker is at once
challenged by some champion of the opposing party and must submit to
the same infliction, which is given with all the force that can be put into
the blow. No exhibition of il-temper is allowd and anyone who should
get angry would hav to deal with the whole party. At many of these
gatherings there ar persons regularly selected to preserv the peace.

In another form of the game the players stand in a line, those of oppo-
sing sides alternating, each one with his left arm in front of his face, and
the open hand resting, palm out, over his right ear. The first then gives
his neighbor a stinging slap on the open palm, sometimes with suflicient
force to send him spinning into the middle of the room. Number two
does the same for number three, and so on to the last, who wreaks his
vengeance upon number one.

Another game, also calld Bréigin, is sometimes known in the east as
“The Slipper’’ and is mentioned by Carleton under the name of ‘‘ Sitting
Brogue.’’ In this, one man stands in the middle while the others sit in a
circle around him and, keeping their hands behind them, or under their
drawn-up knees, pass a shoe or slipper rapidly from one to another.
While he endeavors to find which one has the shoe some one wil strike
him with it from behind, but when he wheels quickly around he finds all
holding up their hands innocently in front. He must continue his search
until he hits upon the right one, who then takes his place in the ring.
This game is described by Goldsmith in the Vicar of Wakefield as playd
at a social gathering, and as the author was himself an Irishman it is
probable that he first saw it enacted at an Irish wake. It is also known
as Hatre-Haire (Horra-Horra), from an exclamation used by the players
to distract the attention of the one in the centre. Plays of this nature,
together with the various forfeit games, ar engaged in by young men and
girls alike. It is hardly necessary to state that men alone take part in the
tests of endurance already described.

In another game, known in the west as Mag'ailt Ceird (Fawleh Cierch) or
‘Getting a Trade,’’ one man personates a tailor, shoemaker or some other

* All the wake games described by Wm. Carleton ar mentiond in ‘‘ Larry McFarland’s
Wake,” in his Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, i, London, 1853.

7
1888.] 279 [Mooney.

tradesman, and selects two others as assistants. The candidates for
apprenticeship, who ar always sure to be persons unacquainted with the
game, ar then sent out of the hous, the door being fastend after them.
A rope is next thrown over a rafter near the door, anda running noose
fixd at one end, while one of the assistants holds the other. The employer
then opens the door on a crack and, putting his head out, announces to
those outside that he is in want of an apprentice to learn the trade. It is
always a point to keep the applicants outside until they ar tired waiting,
and if it be a cold night in winter they ar generally glad to get back into
the hous on any terms by the time the door is opend. A candidate steps
up to offer his services and is allowd to squeez through the doorway,
which is at once closed behind him. His employer then advances as if to
shake hands; instead of which he slips the noose over the wrist of the
“apprentice, when one assistant, with a sudden haul on the other end of
the rope, quickly puls the arm of the victim to a perpendicular above his
head, while the other helper, grasping his free arm with one hand, pours
a stream of cold water down the uplifted sleev on the other arm. In spite
of his surprise at such treatment the victim is pretty sure to make no out-
cry which would giv the alarm to those outside, and he takes his place in
a warm corner to look on with grim satisfaction as ‘they enter one by one
to receiv the same dose. They hay their revenge at the end, however,
when the door is thrown open and the employer and his assistants run for
their lives into the darkness over fields and ditches, pursued by the out-
raged apprentices, who hav ful permission to pound and pinch them to
their heart’s content if they can catch them.

In another game of this kind the employer asks each one what wages
he requires and when payment must be made. The servant may demand,
for instance, ‘‘Ten pounds, twice a year,”’ that is, ten pounds in two half-
yearly instalments. When all hav been hired they ar sent outside and
admitted one at a time to receiv their pay. The two assistants then hold
the hired man in a stooping position while the employer proceeds to pay
him his wages by sticking him with a pin according to the number of
instalments agreed upon. A light stick is sometimes used to drive home
the pin, and if the victim be an unpopular character his salary is raisd
with a surprising liberality.

Another game is calld Cleats a T-soipin (clis a thépeen) or ‘Game of the
Wisp.’’ In this two young fellows assume the character of lovers, one
being drest as a woman, while both ar fantastically deckd out with wisps
of straw along their arms and about their heads so as to conceal the fea-
tures. As soon as they enter the room the lover espies the girl and makes
toward her, while she retreats to one of the benches occupied by the com-
pany. He follows and attempté to sit down beside her, when she pushes
him away, and in the scuffle the occupants of the bench ar generally
landed in a heap on the floor. She escapes to the other side of the room
and the same scene is re-enacted. Throughout this rough courtship the
presence of the company is totally ignored and they climb over benches

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxv. 128. 25. PRINTED DEC. 28, 1888.

Mooney.] 280 [Oct. 19,

and overturn stools in apparent unconsciousness of the fact that these ar
occupied. Finally some one produces a broom, which is laid upon the
floor, when the lovers jump over it and ar then pronounced man and wife.
This, by the way, is familiarly known as a tinker’s wedding. The honey-
moon lasts about two minutes, when there is a family quarrel, and the
wife brings down the broom over the shoulders of her husband, who
takes refuge behind one of the benches, followd by his enraged partner,
who rains down blows alike on the just and on the unjust, so that there
is a general scattering until she finally chases him out of the room.

In Ceannach na G-caora (cénakh na gera) or ‘‘The Purchase of the
Sheep”’ the ‘‘sheep”’ sit down in a row on the floor, one behind another,
each one with his feet projecting beyond the one in front, who holds them
firmly against his side. The owner of the sheep then enters accompanied
by the prospectiv buyer, who carries a stout stick. The purchaser pro-
ceeds to examin the sheep to see if they ar sound, which he does by tap-
ping them on the head with the stick and blowing into their eyes, while
he judges of the quality of the wool by pulling out liberal handfuls of
hair. Those who ar posted on the game ar let off easily, but the others,
especially any who ar disliked by the crowd, pay dearly for the fun,
while all the struggles of the victim ar ineffectual because his feet ar
held by his neighbor. At last having bought the sheep the purchaser
brands them by drawing a line of soot over their faces, but for fear that
should rub off he puts his earmarks upon them by pinching their ears in
an instrument of torture made by breaking the stick nearly in two in the
middle until the two parts close back upon each other like a hinge. The
buyer then discovers that he has not money enough and asks some one to
‘pail’? him. Should any looker-on be so innocent as to volunteer his
help, he is seizd and held while the creditor exacts payment with a stick
or a pin according to the amount of the debt. Finally the victims ar
releasd and chase their tormentors over the fields, as already described.

Another game, known in the east as ‘‘ Priest of the Parish,’ is known also
in the west under the Gaelic equivalent Sagart a Prarrdiste (Sogarth a
Frawsheha), but as the formula in both causes isin English, the game j
probably of late introduction in the west and may be of foreign orig
altogether. The ‘‘ priest’ sometimes puts on a wig or a gown of some kind
to ad dignity to his appearance. Another of the players is calld ‘‘Man
Jack,’’ while the rest take such names as White Cap, Black Cap, Blue
Cap, Cabbage Cap, and so on. On entering the room the priest stands
before the players and recites the formula :

‘I’m the priest of the parish,
That lost my 'sidherin’* cap—
Some say this and some say that,
But I say my Man Jack.’’
Man Jack instantly asks, ‘‘ What, me, sir?’’
5 Yes, yOu, sit.

* Considering,

a

1888.] 281

[Mooney.

““You’re a liar, sir.’’

“Who then, sir?’’

‘*Black Cap, sir.”

And unless Black Cap at once calls out “ What me, sir?’ and so on, he
suffers the penalty, which is usually a daub of soot on his face or a smart
slap on the cheek. This game is described also by Carleton. The mark-
ing with soot occurs in some Scandinavian children’s games, and also
among the Greenland Eskimo, who may have taken it from their Norse
neighbors. *

In another game known in Galway as Dam'sa nu G- cotnntnid’, the
“Dance of the Rabbits,’’ the players hop about the room in a stooping
position singing :

Dam'sa na g-coinninid’, “The dance of the rabbits
Gard‘ad: a h-eorna,— In the garden of barley—
A coinnin is oige The youngest rabbit,
B'ris 8€ @ C'08.} He broke his leg.”

The one who first trips and falls is the unfortunate “youngest rabbit.’

Lady Wilde mentions a play called Hold the Light, ‘‘ where the passion
of the Lord Christ is travestied with grotesque imitation’? and another
known as the Building of the Ship, in which she sees “a symbolic rite
still older than Druidism and probably a remnant of the primitive Arkite
worship.”’ She goes on to say that ‘‘It was against these two plays that
the anathemas of the Church were chiefly directed, in consequence of
their gross immorality, and they have now entirely ceased to form any
portion of the wake ceremonial of Ireland. Hindu priests would recog-
nize some of the ceremonies as the same which are still practised in their
own temples; and travelers have traced a similarity also in these ancient
usages to the ‘big canoe games’ of the Mandan Indians.’’+ With regard
to the first mentiond play I know nothing. Of the other, known in
Gaelic as Gleus Loinge, ‘‘ Dressing of the Ship,’’ or Cuiread: Orann air a
Long,§ ‘Putting a Mast on the Ship,’”’ it may be briefly stated that the
so-called symbolic rite is simply a coarse practical joke at the expense of
some innocent victim, and so far is it from being extinct that my informa-
tion concerning it was obtaind from a young man who witnesd its per-
formance at a wake at about the very time the lines above quoted wer
written and almost within sight of the author’s mansion in Mayo.

There ar several marrying games known as Marrying, Frimsy Framsy,
the Zinker’s Marriage, etc. In each of these the master of ceremonies,
who is usually fixed up to represent a priest, calls out from the company

*E. B. Tylor, Old Scandinavian Civilization among the Modern Esquimaux, Jour.
Anth. Inst., xiii, 854, London, 1884,

+ Pronounced, Dhaw’ sa na giineenee,

Goru a h’yoerna,
A ctineen iss oiga
Vrish shae a khus.

t Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends of Ireland, i, 282, London, 1887.

¢ Pronounced, Glaes Linga and Ctiru Crawn er a Lung.

282 [Oct. 19,

Mooney.]

some young man or woman, who is told to choos a partner of the oppo-
sit sex. The person thus designated comes or is brought up to the first
one calld out, when the priest recites a mock marriage service over the
pair, after which the husband kisses his bride, in which he is followd by
the minister. Another couple is then brought out in the same way, and
so the game goes on. In one of these plays the question put to the first
one calld, who is generally a girl, is, ‘‘ Fair maid, Frimsy Framsy, who’s
your fancy ?’’, In another the formula is, ‘‘ Daughter, daughter, choos
your partner.’’

The descriptions of the following games ar taken from Carleton’s work
already referd to, quotations being given without the dialect. In Weds or
Forfeits, also called Putting Round the Button, the master of ceremonies
receivs from each player some forfeit, a pocket knife, handkerchief or
something of that kind. Each one stoops in turn while the leader holds
a forfeit over his (or her) head and bids him name the penalty by which
the owner may redeem the property. The owner is generally commanded
to sing a song, to kis some boy or girl of the company, or perhaps to carry
some old man three times around the room, and it is a great point in the
game to compel a coquettish girl ora roguish young fellow to kis some
toothless old man or withered-up grandmother in the company.

Another is calld Horns or The Painter. The players form a ring about
the leader, who sits in the centre with his two forefingers extended upon
his knees. He begins, ‘‘ Horns, horns, cow horns !’’ and raises his fingers
with a jerk high above his head. Every one in the room must instantly
do the same, because the animal named has horns. He begins again,
‘Horns, horns, goat horns!’’ and up go all the fingers again, because a
goat also has horns. He goes on, ‘‘Horns, horns, horse horns !’’ and
raises his fingers as Wefore, but wo to the unlucky one in the circle who
lifts a forefinger, for a horse has no horns, and the penalty for his careless-
ness is a stroke of soot across his cheek. The game requires quickness of
thought and action, and as may easily be seen it occasions much sport.

In The Silly Old Man the one who personates that character stands in
the middle of the floor, while the others, boys and girls alternately, join
hands in a circle about him and begin to sing :

Here’s a silly old man that lies all alone,
That lies all alone, that lies all alone;
Here’s a silly old man that lies all alone,
He wants a wife and he can get none.

The silly old man must then select a wife from one of the girls in the
ring. The one chosen enters the circle along with him while the others
sing: :

Now, young couple, you’re married together,
You’re married together, you’re married together,
You must obey your father and mother,

And love one another like sister and brother—
I pray, young couple, you’ll kiss together.

And there is seldom any objection raisd in regard to this part of the

earereeeeneneelt

srxrmemeneeenal

1888.] 283 (Mooney.

ceremony. It may be remarkd, in parenthesis, that, with an Irishman,
none rhymes with alone, while again rhymes with remain.

The White Cockade brings up to memory one of the most dramatic
events in the sad history of Ireland, when, after the fall of Limerick in
1691, its heroic defenders, abandond by the cowardly James II, and disap-
pointed in their hopes of French assistance, spurnd the profferd service in
the army of the conqueror, and almost the entire body of fourteen thou-
sand of the flower of Irish manhood turnd their backs on their nativ land
forever to follow the white cockade of the kings of France. The game is
thus described by Carleton: ‘‘The man that leads the sports places them
all on their seats—gets from some of the girls a white handkerchief, which
he ties round his hat as you would tie a piece of mourning. He then
walks round them two or three times, singing :

Will you list and come with me, fair maid?
Will you list and come with me, fair maid?
Will you list and come with me, fair maid?
And follow the lad with the white cockade?

When he sings this he takes off his hat and puts it on the head of the girl
he likes best, who rises up and puts her arm round him, and then both go
about in the same way, singing the same words. She then puts the hat
on some young man, who gets up and goes round with them, singing as
before. He next puts it on the girl he loves best, who, after singing and
going round in the same manner, puts it on another, and he on Ais sweet-
heart, and soon. This is called the White Cockade. When it’s all over,
that is, when every young man has pitched upon the, girl that he wishes
to be his sweetheart they sit down and sing songs and court, as they
did at the marrying.’’*

Investigation would probably show that some of these games wer
brought over from the neighboring island by the Scotch and English set-
tlers in the north. While the young folks ar indulging in such plays the
older ones look on or pass the time in singing and telling stories. It
was formerly considered an honor to be known as ‘a great hand at a
wake,’’ but the tendency of late years is to eliminate the more boisterous
features and to confine the proceedings to the less noisy games and to
story-telling. Of course the immediate friends of the deceasd do not
join in the merriment, but they ar sometimes compeld to laugh in spite of
themselvs, even through their tears, and, as before stated, the original pur-
pose of funeral games seems to hav been to banish the grief of the survi-
vors. All this does not argue an unfeeling nature. On the contrary, the
sorrow is deep in their hearts, for Irish affection is strong and constant,
and outlasts life itself, as is shown by the fact that second marriages ar
universally abhord and almost unknown in Ireland.

No one should take a child in his arms after being at a wake, without

* Wm. Carleton, ‘‘ Larry M’Farland’s Wake,’’ in Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasan-
try, i, 258-9, London, 1853.

Mooney. | 284 Oct. 19,

first dipping his hands into holy water; neither should any cne visit a
sick person on coming from a wake.*

THe FUNERAL PROCESSION AND BURIAL.

The wake generally continues until the morning of the third day, when
the friends make the final preparations for the funeral. Until of late years
the priest rarely attended the funeral or was present at the burial, but it was
customary to celebrate a requiem mass, known as the “ month’s mind,”
at the hous of the deceasd one month after the death. Another, known as
the ‘‘ year’s mind,”’ was sometimes celebrated in the chapel on the first
anniversary. , It is a matter of congratulation if the funeral occur upon a
Sunday, as that is the day upon which Christ ascended into heaven, and a
shower is accepted as a sign that the fires of purgatory wil soon be
quenchd for the soul. <A saying, quoted by Napier, indicates the exist-
ence of a similar belief in Scotland.+ On the other hand, it is unlucky to
dig the grave on Monday, probably because the week would be unfortu-
nate if begun in such a manner. The corpse is not put into the coffin until
the procession is about to start, when the friends kiss the face for the last
time and the lid is then fastend down, holy water being frequeutly sprinkled
upon the coffin and attendants at the same time. In some parts the coffin
is then brought out and placed on chairs outside the door, while the can-
dles which hav been kept constantly burning about the corpse ar ranged
on other chairs around the coffin and remain so until the procession begins
to move. Should the corpse be that of husband or wife, the friends of
either party frequently endeavor, as soon as the coffin has been taken out,
to overturn the table or chairs upon which the body rested, in order that
the next death may be among the relativs on the other side of the family,
and this has sometimes occasiond a struggle even in the hous of death.
Instances of this practice hav occurd in Washington. The lid must not
be naild on the coffin of a new-born child, or, according to Lady Wilde,
the mother who bore it will never hav another.

In districts where hearses hav not yet come into use the coffin is carried
on a bier or on poles supported on the shoulders of four or six men. In
some districts of Ulster, according to Carleton, the bearers formerly kept
their arms hanging down in front, with the end of the pole resting upon
the breast, until the churchyard was reachd, when the near relativs took
the coffin upon the shoulders and made the circuit in the ordinary way.t

It is always carried with the feet of the corpse to the front, and when
set down at any time before or after reaching the churchyard the face is
always toward the east. The bearers are relievd at intervals, all the men
in attendance usually assisting by turns, as this is considerd a mark of

*Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends of Ireland, ii, 119, London, 1887.

t+James Napier, Folk Lore or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland, 65, Paisley,
1879.

{ Wm. Carleton, ‘The Party Fight and Funeral,’ in Traits and Stories of the Irish
Peasantry, ii, 114 and 126, Loudon, 1853.

°

ma
1888.] 285 [Mooney.

respect to the dead. In Connemara the one who carries in front must,
when relievd, take the place of the one behind him, and so on with the
others, so that after the first start each man takes a turn at both front and
back. In other parts of the country all the bearers ar relievd at the same
time. Shoulda man fall while carrying the coffin he wil die within a
year. If there be several ways of reaching the churchyard the longest
road is always chosen, as it is thought disrespectful to the dead to take ¢
short cut. No one should look at the passing funeral from the threshold
or through the window, but must stand in the middle of the room or out-
side the door until the procession has gon by. Any person violating this
rule runs the risk of being the next corpse, as does also the one who
should attempt to cross in front of the procession. It is also unlucky to
let a corpse fall to the ground, or to meet a man on a white horse while
going witha funeral. Any one coming from the opposit direction wil
turn back and take Zi Coisméid na Trécaire,* ‘three steps of mercy,”’
with the funeral. In some parts it is customary, on coming to a crosroad,
to halt fora moment and offer up a prayer for the deceasd, a practice
which formerly existed also in Wales.+ In some parts of Ulster it is cus-
tomary to set the coffin down for a moment on coming to the boundary of
the farm or garden plot upon which the dead man resided and here the
caoine is raised again.

While the procession thus moves on toward the churchyard the women
raise the icaoine as already described. In the neighborhood of Bally-
bunion, Kerry, the men, instead of the women, raise the caoine while
passing through a town, if the deceased was a man of special worth or
promis. The reason given for this custom throws a curious light upon
some other Irish beliefs: In the old days, when a young man fel in love
with a girl whos parents objected to him he raisd his faction and carried
her off by force without waiting to get her consent. On one occasion a
young lover, with the help of his friends, had thus seized a girl about
midnight and was bearing her away to his own district, holding her
in front of him on the horse, ‘‘ because he wouldn't trust her behind him.’’
As they gallopd through a town she scieamd out for help, when the men
instantly raisd a caoine to drown her voice. The people who wer awak-
end by her screams heard the caoine and supposed that it was raisd over
the corpse of some one who had died ina foreign land and was being
taken home by ‘‘his good people’’—the fairies attached to his family —
to be buried in his ancestral cemetery. Through fear of the fairies they
kept inside, so that the lover escaped with his bride, and the custom re-
mains to this day to commemorate the event.

In Roscommon, Meath and the north-eastern counties, the caoine is
never raisd for a child or young unmarried person. Instead of this the
young friends of the deceasd, of the same sex, prepare what are calld
‘‘garlands,’’ made by wrapping strips of scallopd white paper in a spira]

* Pronounced Chree cushmaej na throcara.
f Pennant, quoted in Jour. Auth. Soe., vy, 425, London, 1876.

Mooney.] 286 [Oct. 19,

fashion around light sticks about a yard in length, the scallops pointing
upward, These ar carried in procession on each side of the coffin, and ar
afterwards driven into the earth above the newly-made grave so as to form
two lines with the tops meeting in the centre. From a passage in Carle-
ton* it would seem that in some parts of the north the garlands ar fixd
upon hoops instead of upon straight sticks.

In several of the larger towns there was formerly an ancient stone
cross standing in some prominent place, and around this every funeral
procession passing through the town made a circuit. Most of these
crosses hav long disappeard, but the old custom is stil kept up, the circuit
being made around,the former site. Thus at Navah, in Meath, the proces-
sion goes round the market-place, where it is probable a cross once stood, +
and a corpse passing through Fethard, in Tipperary, ‘‘is always carried
round the pump, because the old cross stood there in former times; and
there is a certain gate of the same town—for a considerable part of the
fortifications remain—through which a corpse is never carried, though in
the direct course, because it was through that gate that-Cromwell entered
the town.’’t

A curious observance in connection with the funeral of a murderd per-
son is described by Carleton as formerly existing in the north of Ireland.
The custom seems now to be extinct: ‘In Ireland when a murder is
perpetrated, it is usual, as the funeral proceeds to the graveyard, to bring
the corpse to the house of him who committed the crime, and lay it down
at his door, while the relations of the deceased kneel down and with an
appalling solemnity utter the deepest imprecations and invoke the justice
of heaven on the head of the murderer. This, however, is usually omitted
if the residence of the criminal be completely out of the line of the
funeral, but if it be possible, by any circuit, to approach it, this dark
ceremony is never omitted. In cases where the crime is doubtful, or
unjustly imputed, those who are thus visited come out, and laying
their right hand upon the coffin, protest their innocence of the blood of
the deceased, calling God to witness the truth of their asseverations ; but
in cases where the crime is clearly proved against the murderer, the door
is either closed, the ceremony repelled by violence, or the house aban-
doned by. the inmates until the funeral passes.’’§ In the funeral described
the mourners wore a profusion of crimson ribbons, to show that they bore
the corpse of a murderd man, and on passing the spot where he receivd
his death-blow the coffin was again laid down and the caoine raisd.

The spirit of the corpse last buried must fairead" ’n teampoll (foroo’n

*Wm. Carleton, ‘The Party Fight and Funeral,” in Traits and Stories of the Irish
Peasantry, ii, 128, London, 1853.

+ W.R. Wilde, The Boyne and the Blackwater, 134, 2d ed., Dublin, 1850.

{Mr. and Mrs. 8. C. Hall, Ireland Picturesquely Illustrated, i, 231, note, n. d., New
York,

§Wm. Carleton, ‘‘ The Party Fight and Funeral,’ in Traits and Stories of the Irish
Peasantry, ii, 145, London, 1853.

1888. } 287 [Mooney.

chomputl), ‘watch the cemetery,’’ aud carry water in purgatory to the
souls of all the others buried there until relie¢vd by the soul of the one
next interd, On this account, should two funerals be approaching at the
same time, there is a contest for priority which becomes a serious matter
if they meet at the churchyard. This has frequently led to disgraceful
and even bloody scenes, which hav sometimes required the personal inter-
vention of the clergy, especially in the old days of the factions. Instances
hav occurd even within a few years past, but their recital would serv no
useful purpose.

Just outside the wall of Kilranclagh churchyard, near Baltinglass, in
Wexford, is a deep round wel, above which is a curvd recess in the wall.
In this recess ar several ledges upon which ar a number of wooden cups.
Every one interring in the churchyard the body of a child under five
years of age provides one of these cups, in which the soul of the last
corpse buried carries water from the wel to its predecessors in purgatory.*
In Scotland there was the same struggle for precedence, but there, accord-
ing to Napier, it was the duty of the one last buried te see that no suicide
or unbaptized child was interd in consecrated ground.+

On entering the churchyard the procession goes three times around it
on the inside following the course of the sun—a custom also observd in
Scotiand—while the people recite in a low voice the prayers for the dead.
In some districts the coffin is then brought directly to the spot where the
grave is to be dug, but in the eastern counties it is generally laid down
upon a flag or a fragment from the old ruins. In making the cireui in
an ancient churchyard at Slane, in Meath, the coffin is always set down
for a few moments at a curious old tomb, locally known as a “‘pagan’s
grave,’’ having two gable-shaped flagstones sunk in the earth about six
feet apart, and groovd, evidently to receiv the stones which once formd
the roof.t While the coffin is resting on the flag the nearest friends dig
the grave. In accordance with the usages of the Catholic church the
bodies of unbaptized children, suicides and those who have died intoxi-
cated or without fulfilling their religious obligations, ar never buried in
consecrated ground, but ar deposited in unblest earth adjoining the north
wall of the cemetery, this part being known as ‘the wrong side of the
churchyard.’ In the west and south there ar many small cemeteries,
called Cillin (Kil-yeen), exclusively devoted to children. When a Catholic
is buried in a Protestant cemetery, as sometimes happens in the north, a
portion of clay is first consecrated by the priest and sprinkled over the
coffin in the grave. According to Carleton, the priest in the same dis-
trict would also throw the first three shovelluls of earth upon the coftin

* Patrick Kennedy, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts, 187, London, 1866.

+ James Napier, Folk Lore or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland, 63, Paisley,
1879.

t This tomb is mentioned by W. R. Wilde, The Boyne and the Blackwater, 182, 2d ed ,
Dublin, 1850; and by A. L, Lewis, Notes on Some Irish Antiquities, in Jour. Anth. Inst :
ix, 141, London, 1880.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXV. 128. 2K. PRINTED DEC. 17, 1888.

Mooney.] 238 [Oct. 19,

in the name of the Trinity.* In the west, according to Lady Wilde, when
the grave is dug a cross is made of two spades and the coffin is carried
round it three times before being placed in the grave, after which the peo-
ple kneel and recite the prayers for the dead.+| The bodies of those lately
buried turn over in their coffins when a suicide is deposited among them.
So strong is the feeling in regard to self-destruction that in the rare in-
stances where suicide has occurd the neighboring cemeteries hav some-
times been guarded for days by parties determind to prevent the burial
of the body near their departed kindred. The same watch is also kept
up when there is reason to fear grave robbers. Shoulda pregnant woman
stumble in the churchyard, the child wil hav crooked legs. It is also un-
lucky for a man to stumble at the grave, and if he should touch the clay
in his fall he will die before the e:d of the year. Should a woman tred
upon a grave she must instantly kneel down and make the sign of the
cross three times upon the sole of her shoe; otherwise her next child wil
hav a club foot. t

In digging the grave it is customary to cross the spade and shovel above
the coffin in the hole, a practice founded on the following old legend :
Saint Patrick’s servant had once gon a long distance from the hous in
search of firewood, and being delayd in consequence, was in great trouble,
when he was approachd by a stranger who askd him what was the matter.
The servant replied that he was in trouble because he wasa long way from
home and could not get back in time to prepare his master’s supper. ‘‘What
wil you giv me to bring you home before he’l expect you?’’ asked the
stranger. ‘‘I wil giv anything you ask,’’ said the poor servant, and with
that the stranger, who was the devil himself, took him up in the air and
in a moment set him down at the door long before the saint could get
home. ‘‘ Now,’’ says the devil, ‘‘come back on such a day, at a certain
hour, to the spot where you met me, and I’] take you for myself.’’ So
when Saint Patrick returnd from his prayers he found his servant crying
and groaning in worse trouble than ever. ‘‘ What’s on you?” says the
saint. ‘‘O,’’ says the servant, -‘I sold myself to the devil in order to hav
your supper hot and warm for you when you’d be coming in, and now
on such a day and at such an hour I must go back to where I met him
and he’l be there to take me off with him.’’ ‘‘ Never mind,’’ says Saint
Patrick, ‘‘but do as I say.’”’ So on the day appointed the servant was at
the place by daylight and dug a grave at the spot. Then he stretched
himself out in the grave and crossd the spade and shovel above him. At
the hour agreed upon the devil appeard and when he saw the man lying
n the grave he told him to come up out of that. ‘‘Come yourself and
take me,’’ says the servant ; but the devil couldn’t come near the cross,
and after waiting until his hour was up he had to go away without the

* William Carleton, The Party Fight and Funeral, in Traits and Stories of the Irish
Peasantry, ii, 127, London, 1853.

+ Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends of Ireland, i, 155, London, 1887.
} Idem ii, 104,

1888.] 289 [Mooney.

man. From that day to this the practice is never omitted, because the
devil cannot come near the corpse which has a cross over it.

FAmILy BurtiAL—SacrED CHuRCHYARDS AND CHARMS.

It is the universal custom to bury all the members of a family not sim-
ply in the same ancestral cemetery, but in the same grave, the last body
being put down on top of those preceding it. Of course in time the grave
becomes so fild up that each new interment disturbs the bones of those
buried long before, where the coffins hav decayd. When the bones ar
thus thrown up by the spade, the smaller ones ar carefully put back, while
the larger ones, as the skul and thigh bones, ar pickd out from the heap
and piled within or about the ancient church attachd to the cemetery.
Every old abbey ruin in Ireland is fild with piles of bleaching skuls which
hav accumulated in this way. Some years ago the proprietor of the estate
on which ar situated the ruins of Mucross abbey at Killarney had a large
pit dug, in which he buried all the ghastly remains scatterd about the
place. The work occupied four men during five weeks, between seven
and eight hundred cart loads being taken away.* Such a practice would
breed contagion in almost any country but Ireland, where the constant
sea breez carries off every pestilential vapor. Strange as the custom may
seem, it has its origin in the strong ties of family affection, and bids fair
to liv after the cacine and the wake ar forgotten. In one instance, in
Meath, a woman, at her own request, was buried with her parents at
Clady instead of with her husband at Kilcairn, because so many of his
relativs wer buried in the same grave with him that “she was afraid her
bones would not touch his.’”” I hav been informd by an eye-witness of a
case, occurring during a fever epidemic, in which nine coffins, lying three
abreast, wer placed in the same grave. The same feeling actuated the
Choctaws and kindred tribes, who formerly ‘‘ reckoned it irreligious to
mix the bones of a relation with those of a stranger, as bone of bone, and
flesh of the same flesh, should be always joined together.’’} There is a
prevalent belief that the bones thus taken up would not remain under
ground if reinterd. In Connemara, when one coffin is put down upon
another, a small hole is always broken in the lid of the lower coffin. The
reason given is that if this wer not done there would soon be another
death in the same family, but the original purpose was probably to leav a
door through which the soul might pass in and out. This idea is also
quite common in other parts of the world, and in the stone tombs of the
Kassia hills, in India, the entrance slab is perforated with a round hole,
apparently fot the same purpose.{ Throughout Ireland it is customary to
use fragments from the old ruins in place of tombstones.

* Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall, Ireland Picturesquely Illustrated, i, 221, note, n. d., New
York, R. Worthington, importer.

t+James Adair, Hist. Am. Inds., 184, 1775.

yA. W. Buckland, Cornish and Irish Prehistoric Monuments, Jour. Anth. Inst pees tanh
London, 1880.

Mooney. ] 290 [Oct. 19,

The people hav a strong attachment to family cemeteries, and a horror
of burial at the hands of the stranger. The sustaining hope of the poor
man in his affliction, and the constant wish of the emigrant in his exile, is
that he may die at home and lay his bones among his own people. The
friends always try to carry out the wishes of the deceasd in this regard
whenever possible, even though the cemetery designated should be at a con-
siderable distance from the place of his death. There ar several curious
beliefs on this subject, and stories ar told of persons who, having died in
foreign lands, wer brought home for burial by the fairies attachd to the
family. Should a corpse be buried with those of another family, the souls
wil quarrel—a belief which seems to hav been held also by the Indian
tribes of the Gulf States*—and if the cemetery be not selected in accord-
ance with the wishes of the deceasd, the corpse wil take up its coffin and
remove to another. There is also an idea, which is brought out in several
old stories, that the soul of an unburied corpse must wander about and
find no rest until the day of judgment.

The Kerry fishermen of Ballyheigh hav a legend of a ruind church
which is sometimes visible below the waters of the bay. It marks the site
of the ancient cemetery of the Cantillons, which was overwhelmd years
ago by an encroachment of the sea. From that time, whenever a death
occurd in the family, the body, in its coffin, was brought down to the sca-
shore at night and left where the tide could reach it. In the morning it
had disappeard, and it was known that the fairies had taken it away for
burial in the churchyard under the sea. The spel was finally broken
through the curiosity of a man who attempted to watch the spirits while
at work. As soon as they discoverd him they abandond the coffin and
disappeard forever. +}

There ar several ancient cemeteries which ar regarded as peculiarly
sacred, and to which the dead ar sometimes brought from long distances
for interment. Chief among these ar Saint Kevin’s cemetery at Glen-
dalough, in Wicklow. It is said that owing to the prayers of the saint, any
one buried here is sure to be saved at the day of judgment. Another is
at the ruins of Saint Senan’s church on Holy island, near the mouth of
the Shannon, where, according to popular belief,

No hel wil after death torment
True Christians who ar buried in’t.

It is accounted a sacrilege to disturb or pluck up any plants growing in
a churchyard, and as a consequence the cemeteries ar overgrown with
grass and weeds, excepting in the cities, where modern ideas ar bringing
about a change. In the middle of a fertil field near Duncannon fort, in
Wexford, is a small area overgrown with briers and furz, which has lain
thus undisturbd for centuries, from a tradition—which seems to refer to
a siege of the fort by Cromwell’s forces in 1649—that here were buried

* James Adair, Hist. Am. Inds., 183, 1775.
+Legendsand Fairy Tales of Ireland, 282, Haverty, publisher, New York, 1882.

: 1888. ] 291 [Mooney.

the dead in some ancient battle.* On the hil of Tara, in Meath, is a tall
pillar stone which marks the graves of the insurgents who fell there in
1798. The grass above these ‘‘croppies’ graves ’’ is peculiar in being
green upon one side of the blade and red upon the other, Owing, as the
people firmly believ, to its springing from the blood of the croppies.

Near Templeshambo, in Wexford, is an old cemetery concerning which
a curious legend is given by Kennedy. A monstrous serpent was deso-
lating the country, but was finally slain by a young champion, who deter-
mind to show his gratitude by building a church. He prayd for some
sign to direct him where to build it, and the next day he saw two ducks
flying through the air, and followd them until they came to Temple-
shambo. ‘“ There they lighted, the drake on the near side of the stream,
and the duck on the far one. So he built a monastery on the one side and
a nunnery on the other, and even when there wasn’t a stick nor
a stone of either of them left, there was not a woman buried on
one side, nor a man on the other, till the devil bewitched the people of
Ballinlugg to bury Blue Cap on the men’s side.’ Blue Cap was the
nickname for a woman of the imported Palatine settlers. The people re-
sented this violation of an old custom so much that they raisd the coffin
at night and set it up against the church door. After two reinterments
the Palatines buried her on the other side of the stream, and there she
was allowd to rest.+

There ar a number of cures and charms in connection with cemeteries
and the dead which merit some notice in this connection. The same im-
portance is attachd to the relics of saints and other holy persons that is
common all over Europe and the east. The most noted of these was
probably the Miacail Padruig (Feekhal Forig), or tooth of Saint Patrick,
which was formerly preservd at the abbey of Cong, in Mayo, and was
held in great repute in the cure of various diseases. The clay from cer-
tain venerated graves, as those of Saint Patrick at Down patrick, in Down,
and of Saint Declan at Ardmore, in Waterford, is also regarded as effica-
cious in curing disease, and asa protection against fire and evil spirits.
For this purpose it is kept in houses, and put into medicine or boild with
milk and drank, and is frequently carried as a safeguard by emigrants
coming to America. At the ruins of Monasterboice, in Louth, the moss
from one of the old crosses is held to be a cure for the chin cough (hoop-
ing cough) when gatherd by sinless hands, for which reason a child is
generally sent to procure it.t The dead hand—or in some cases a skele-
ton hand—is in Ireland, as in Britain and on the continent, considered
invaluable in the cure of disease by stroking in gathering butter in the

*Mr. and Mrs. 8. C. Hall, Ireland Picturesquely Illustrated, ii, 143, note, n. d., New
York, R. Worthington, importer,

+ Patrick Kennedy, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts, 246 and note 351, London
1866.

{ Mr. and Mrs. 8. C. Hall, Ireland Picturesquely Illustrated, ji, 419, note, n. d., New
York, R. Worthington, importer.

¢
Mooney.] i 292 [Vet 19,

churn and in preserving the cream from witches, and has also been used
by burglars in connection with a candle as the ‘“‘hand of glory.’’ A piece
of the linen sheet used in laying out the corpse wil cure a headache or
swelling when tied around the affected part, while the wake candles ar
esteemd for curing burns, and ar also used to singe the hair from the udder
of a cow before milking her for the first time after calving. Another old

_belief, found also in England and Scotland, is that blood wil gush from the

mouth and nose of the corpse of a murderd person when touchd by the
murderer, either with his hand or with a rod. Suspected persons hav been
subjected to this ordeal within recent years, and in some districts of the
west it is even stil regarded as a regular legal procedure. The rod must
never be cut from a holly tree, as in that case the blood would gush forth
even tho the holder wer innocent. According to Lady Wilde, a seeming
corpse, if not quite dead, wil utter a loud cry if touchd by the hand of
che nearest relativ.* On the spot where a corpse bas lain a peculiar grass
known as Meur Gortac (faer gurthakh), or ‘‘hungry grass,’’ springs up,
and any one stepping upon this grass will be seizd with such a sudden
feeling of weakness and hunger that he wil be unable to leav the spot
without help. An oaten cake or some oatmeal carried in the pocket coun-
teracts the evil influence. By some persons, however, a fairy origin is
ascribed to this grass.

LracHTaA—THE Future Lire.

Rude stone heaps or Leachta (l'ydkhtha), erected in memory of the dead,
ar found in Ireland as wel as in almost every other vart of the globe, this
form of monument being at once the most ancient and universal, from the
fact that it is the most simple in construction, while the necessary materials
ar almost always at hand. The leachta ar most numerous in the extreme
west and south, where they ar stil built, but ar more or les common all
over the island. They ar not tombs, but simple memorials of the dead,
and ar known by the names of the persons whom they commemorate. I
hav been informd that in Connemara the leachta sometimes cover actual
graves ; but, if so, this is not in accordance with the general custom with-
in the Christian period. They ar frequently, and perhaps usually, built
in memory of some one who has met with a violent death, by murder or
accident, in which case the monument is erected upon the site of the
tragedy. They ar also erected by the nearest friends of the deceasd
wherever the coffin is set down fora moment while on its way to the
churchyard, the spot chosen being usually at the meeting of two roads.
It is probable also that they ar sometimes intended to commemorate per-
sons lost at sea, whose bodies cannot be recoverd for burial. The leacht
is usually a simple heap of stones of convenient size carelessly thrown to-
gether, but in some cases the stones of the original structure ar selected
and piled up with some degree of care, and brightend up from time to
time with a coat of whitewash, and the whole is surmounted by a cross.
* Lady Wilde, Ancient Legends of Ireland, i, 154, London, 1887.

1888. ] 293 [Mooney.

avery one passing that way throws another stone upon the heap and recites
a short prayer at the same time for the soul of the deceasd, but in those
‘cases where the monument commemorates the death of a man regarded
as an enemy of the people there is reason to believ that the prayer is
omitted. The idea of thus inviting the prayers of the traveler for one who
has met with a sudden death is in entire accord with the character of the
people, who regard it as a great misfortune to die without some previous
time for preparation. When a funeral procession passes one of these piles
it is customary to halt and lay the coffin down for a moment, while all the
people, standing with uncoverd heads, recite a short prayer for the soul
of the corpse, after which the coffin is again taken up and the procession
moves on. The custom of building leachta is now perhaps extinct in the
east, but existed down to a recent period. Thirty years ago there wasa
cross on the road between Navan and Donaghmore, in Meath, at the base
of which was a large heap of stones, to which every passer-by added an-
other. According to Kennedy, Kilranelagh churchyard east of Baltin-
glass, in Wexford, is situated on the crest of a hill and surrounded by a cir-
cular wall formd of loose stones. ‘‘ Every man attending a funeral brings
a stone picked up on its way, and throws it on the circular fence, and so
the mighty ring has grown.’’*

From an old Kerry man was obtaind the history of one of these mon-
uments, known as Leacht-Conway, near Ballybunion, which had been
built within his recollection. It is a good illustration of the manner in
which such memorials originate. Conway was a tithe-server for a minis-
ter of the Church of England, and was consequently much disliked by
the people, who found it hard enough to pay an exorbitant rent without
giving a tenth part of their produce toward the support of a foreign
church. He had been several times warnd to giv up the business, but
paid no attention, until at last the people became restless under his exac-
tions. He calld one evening at the hous of a man known to the narrator,
and was told that it would not be safe for him to go home that night and
urged to stay until morning. He refused to stop, and started home, but
had hardly gone a mile from the hous when he was waylaid and kild and
his dead body was found in the road next morning. The people raisd a heap
of stones on the spot, and for many years every one passing that way added
another stone, until the pile might make ten cart loads. Most of the
stones wer small, but some wer as large as could wel be carried. The
leacht stil remains, but the traveler seldom throws astone upon it in these
later days. When askd if every one who threw a stone offerd up a prayer
for the soul of Conway, the old man replied : ‘‘I’m afraid there wasn’t
much praying for him, becaus the people that prayd didn’t like him, for
he was an enemy to the poor.”’

Along the road just outside of Cong, in southern Mayo, there ar several
hundred of these rude monuments, the unusual number here being due
to the fact that this town was formerly held in peculiar veneration on ac-

* Patrick Kennedy, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts, 187, London, 1866.

294 [Oct. 19,

Mooney.]

count of the presence of a celebrated monastery to which bodies wer
brought for burial from all parts of Ireland. Many of them ar built with
more than the usual care, and ar thus described by observers: ‘‘ Upon
death occurring the primitive tumulus is built—if that may be called
building which consists in placing a few large stones upon a spot pre-
viously unoccupied. Each relative of the dead adds to the heap, and in ,
time it becomes a ‘mountain’ of tolerable size. Each family knows its
own particular monument ; and a member of, or a descendant from it,
prays and leaves his offering only at that especial one. * * * In each
of them we observed asmall hollow, which the peasants call ‘a window ;’
most of these were full of pebbles, and upon inquiry we learned that
when one of the race to whom the deceased belongs kneels by the side of
this record to his memory and offers up a prayer for the repose of his soul,
it is customary te fling a little stone into this ‘cupbord,’ the belief being
that gradually as it fills, so gradually the soulis relieved of punishment in
purgatory ; when completely full the soul has entered paradise.’’*
Inregard to the future life there ar a number of interesting beliefs,
many of which hay come down from Druidic times. It is held that the
souls of those whose sins wil not allow them to enter heaven at once after
death ar frequently condemd to spend their purgatory on this earth, gen-
erally invisibly, but sometimes in'animal forms, and in this state to endure
all the miseries of cold and hunger, weariness and thirst, that attach to
mortal life. A white or spotted butterfly is held sacred as the embodiment
of one of these spirits and is never intentionally injured. The same belief
exists in China.t The spots indicate the number of sins yet to be atoned
for, while the white butterfly is the purified soul on its way to paradise.
For this reason a butterfly hovering about a sick-room is regarded as an
omen of death, and should one alight on a corpse it is known to be the
liberated soul of the dead man, and the duration of his purgatory is esti-
mated from the number of spots on the wings of the insect. On the west
coast seals ar held to be the embodied souls of the dead, and their plain- j
tiv cries ar wails of sorrow in their misery. They ar never molested by
the fishermen, who believ that swift punishment would follow any attempt
to harm one. According to Hall, they ar the embodied spirits of those
who perishd in the Deluge. }
No one who dies in debt, or with a vow unfulfild, or in possession of
stolen property, can enter heaven until full satisfaction has been made,
either by the soul in purgatory or by the friends upon earth. Stories ar
told of persons who hav died owing small sums, and whose spirits hav
appeard soon after to their surviving relativs to ask them to pay the
amount of the debt. Persons often vow to make a pilgrimage, or ‘‘ goa

{Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall, Ireland Picturesquely Mlustrated, iii, 376-7, New York, n. d.,
R. Worthington, importer.

+ Chinese Superstitions, Popular Science Monthly, xxxii, 797, New York, April, 1888.

+ Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall, Ireland Picturesquely Illustrated, iii, 408, n. d., New York,
R. Worthington, importer.

COR
1888. ] 290 [Mooney.

round,’’ to some holy place in gratitude for recovery from sickness or for
some other reason, and should death prevent the performance of the en-
gagement, some near relativ of the deceasd wil undertake its fulfilment,
that the soul may not suffer on account of the unredeemd promis. Stolen
property, no matter how trifling in value, also blocks up the way to par-
adise. They tel astory in Galway of a young man who appeard to his
mother soon after death and told her that the only thing that was keeping
him out of heaven was ‘‘the ful of a stocking of oats’? which he had
stolen and desired her to return in his name. It is especially unfortunate
to die without having returnd borrowd salt, as the soul wil be loaded
down in purgatory with a hundred times the weight of the amount bor-
rowd until atonement has been made. On this account salt lent to a
neighbor is generally considerd as a free gift which need not be repaid,
the giver saying. ‘‘I won’t lend it to you, but if Irun short I’l come to
you for some.”” When it is considerd as lent, however, the loan must be
repaid with a greater quantity to make sure.

The dead often mingle unseen with their former friends, watching over
them and taking note of their actions. In general ghosts ar regarded with
dread, but when the spirit is supposd to be that of some dear friend or of
some sufferer in purgatory the feeling is one of loveand pity. The lights
sometimes seen at night on the surface of the ocean along the west coast
ar the spirits of the dead moving about, and the howling of the blast on a
stormy night is the wailing of the suffering souls wandering to and fro in
search of shelter, On such nights the children ar told to go to bed and
make room for them to come in, while the parents sweep the floor and
arrange seats near the fire for the accommodation of the unseen visitors.
On November night, or Hallow E’en, the dead all rise from their graves
and revisit their former haunts, and on this night the houses ar set in
order and food and water left so that the spirits can help themselvs and be
merry until daylight reddens in the east. Should any one feel the pres-
ence of a ghost and call it by its ful name it wil be obliged to make itself
visible. One must not turn round at night when he hears footsteps follow-
ing him, as the sound may be caused by a ghost, whose glance would be
fatal. Neither must one turn back on seeing a ghost, or try to avoid it,
but go directly up to it and ask it in the name of the Trinity, ‘‘ Who ar
you and what do you want?” There is along prayer known as the Pas-
sion Prayer, which releases a soul from purgatory every time it is recited
on Saturday.

There is a general belief in the transmigration, not only of souls but
also of bodies and inanimate objects. For this reason small articles ar
sometimes buried with the corpse for its greater comfort in the other
world, and the body which has been deprived of its proper adornment
through the poverty or meanness of the relativs. wil suffer in the next
world on account of the neglect. In Hall’s Ireland is an account of a man
who came into the shop of a merchant in Clonmel, in Tipperary, in order
to get a suit of clothes for his father. The merchant told him that he

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. xxv. 128. 21. PRINTED DEC. 17, 1888.

©
Mooney. ] 296 [Oct.19,

must bring his father with him to be measured, when the man replied that
his father was dead and that he intended to wear the clothes himself. On
being questiond he explaind that when his father died he could not
afford to dres the corpse for the grave as he wishd, so he was now about
to get a new suit and wear it in his father’s name, and as it wore away
upon himself it would go to clothe his father in the other world. On fur-
ther inquiry the merchant was told by another man from the same district
that this was ‘‘as true as the light.’’*

An intelligent gentleman from the city of Cork states:that in a cabin on
the outskirts of that city he once saw a corpse laid out with the feet in-
cased in heavy hobnailed shoes. On asking the reason he was told by one
of the attendants that this was done to protect the feet of the dead man
when walking over the fires of purgatory.

The following story from Clare illustrates this belief in connection with
fairy seizure, and is given just as it was told by a woman who knew the
parties: There was a traveling woman (beggar) who used to stop at our
hous near Milltown-malbay whenever she was in that part of the country.
She would get up in the middle of the night and come back with her eyes
blackend, and say she had been with the fairies and they had beaten and
batterd her. There was a strong farmer near us named McMahon, and
his son died and his wife sold his shoes to the servant boy. Some time
after this the woman came into the neighborhood again, but she had a bad
piece of news. She said she had seen the “« good people’’ playing hurley
at night and that Tom McMahon was with them, and his feet wer all cut
and bleeding with the stones, because he was barefoot on account of his
mother selling his shoes. When the mother heard of it she was in a great
way, so she went to the woman and asked her what she should do to giv
her son relief. The woman told her to get back the shoes again and to
return the money she was paid for them, then to sprinkle them with holy
water and to give them to some poor person ‘‘for the honor of God and
the good of her son’s soul.’’ The mother went to the servant boy and
got back the shoes and returnd him the money. Then she sprinkled
them with holy water and gave them to him again. Some time after the
woman came to her and told her she had seen her son again with the fai-
ries, and this time he had on his shoes.

*Mr, and Mrs. 8. C. Hall, Ireland Picturesquely Tlustrated, iii, 2&4, note, n. d., New
York, R. Worthington, importer. * *

1888. ] 297
Stated Meeting, October 5, 1888.

Present, 20 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Mr. Alexander Biddle, a newly-elected member, was: pre-
sented to the Chair and took his seat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

A letter from Prof. Alphonse Favre, Geneva, accepting mem-
bership.

A letter from Capt. R. S. Baas New York, acknowledging
receipt of diploma.

A circular from the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, an-
nouncing “ Awards for Meritorious Discoveries and Inven-
tions.”

A letter from Dr. D. G. Brinton, Philadelphia, accepting the
appointment by the President to prepare an obituary notice of
the late Philip H. Law.

A letter from Prof. J.P. Lesley, Philadelphia, accepting the
appointment by the President to prepare an obituary notice of
the late Henry Carvill Lewis.

Mr. Richard Vaux, at the request of the writer of the fol-
lowing letter, communicated it to the Society, with some
prefatory remarks,

“* To the Honorable Frederick Fraley, President,
and the Members of the American Philosophical Society :

‘I herewith present to the American Philosophical Society the
sum of Five Thousand Dollars as an endcwment fund, to be by its
direction invested, and the income thereof devoted to the payment
for a prize for the best Treatise on the Science and Philosophy of
Jurisprudence, or any subject included in that term.

“¢Tt is my wish that the rules regulating the management, by the
American Philosophical Society, of Zhe Henry M. Phillips Prize
Lssay Fund, which I hereby endow as a tribute to the memory of

my brother, who was a member of the Society, shall be made by

298 [Oct. 5,

the Society as in its best judgment is deemed proper and neces-
sary.

““If I may be permitted to make a suggestion, it would be that
this Endowment Fund and its purpose be entrusted to a special,
permanent or standing committee of the Society, to perform such
duties as the rules governing the committee may require.

‘‘ With great respect,
(Signed) CML PRUE,
‘¢ PHILADELPHIA, October 1, 1888.”’

Mr. Vaux moved that the gift be accepted, which motion
was carried by an unanimous vote. Mr. Vaux then handed
to the President the: check of Miss Emily Phillips, to the
order of the Society, for $5000, which the President accepted
on behalf of the Society.

On motion of Mr. Vaux, it was unanimously resolved, “That
the subject be referred to a special committee of five members,
to be appointed by the President at his leisure, who should
report to the Society such rules and regulations as are best
fitted to carry out the intentions of the donor.’*

Accessions to the Library were announced from the Bata-
viaasche Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen; Pulk-
ova Observatorij; Physikalische Gesellschaft, Berlin; Garten-
bauverein, Darmstadt; Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Freiberg,
i. B.; Prof. G. D. E. Weyer, Kiel ; Physikalisch-Oekonomische
Gesellschaft, Konigsberg; Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Re-
geusburg; Mr. A. Wallis, Stockholm; Royal Meteorological,
Zodlogical Societies, Meteorological Office, Society of Antiqua-
ries, “ Nature,” London; Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, Edinburgh ;
Royal Society of Canada, Mr. Henry Mott, Montreal; Geologi-
cal and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa; “ Ameri-
can Journal of Science,” New Haven; New York Shakespeare
Society, “The Korum,” “ Literature,” “The Academe,” New
* Henry M. Phillips was born at Philadelphia, on June 30, 1811; was elected a mem-
ber of the American Philosophical Society on January 20, 1871, and died on August 29,

188f. His obituary notice was read before the Society by Hon. Richard Vaux, on De-
cember 18, 1884 (Proc. xxii, 72).

1838.] 299

York . D. Jayne & Son, Messrs. Henry Phillips, Jr., and
Isaac Mel Philadelphia ; a S. National Museum, U.S. Geo:
logical Survey, Surgeon-General’s Office, “The American
Monthly Microscopical Journal,” Washington, D. C.;- Univer-
sity of California, Sacramento.

A photograph was received from the Rev. Dr. George W.
Anderson, Bryn Mawr, for the Society’s album.

The Special Committee appointed to examine a paper for
the Transactions, by Prof. J. C. Branner, entitled “ The Creta-
ceous and Tertiary Geology of the Seryipe-Alayoas Basin of
Brazil,” reported in favor of its publication, and, on motion,
the committee was discharged and the paper ordered to be
printed.

Mr. Patterson DuBois read, by appointment, an obituary
notice of the late James C. Hoo:

Dr. Daniel G. Brinton read a paper on “The Language of
Paleeolithie Man.”

Pending nomination No. 1180 was withdrawn.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Stated Meeting, October 19, 1888.
Present, 15 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

A letter from Mr. J. Sergeant Price, Treasurer of the So-
ciety, acknowledging the receipt from the President of the
check for $5000 given to the Society at its last meeting by
Miss Emily Phillips.

The President communicated a copy of the letter sent by
him to Miss Phillips acknowledging her gift.

A letter from the President of the Society stating that he
had appointed as the Committee authorized by the Society at
its last meeting to report to the Society rules and regulations

300 LOct, 19,

for the ‘Henry M. Phillips’ Prize Essay Fund,” the following
members—Messrs. Richard Vaux, Chairman, Henry Phillips,
Jr, William V. McKean, Furman Sheppard, and Joseph C.
Fraley. ie

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Asiatic
Society of Japan, Yokohama; Royal Society of Tasmania;
Publishers of the “ Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift,”

Berlin; Mr. Leopold Einstein, Niirnberg; Société Fribour-
geoise des Sciences Naturelles, Fribourg; Philological Society,
Cambridge, Kng.; Mr. R. A. Macfie, Clinton, Scotland; Boston
Society of Civil Engineers; Rev. Edward KE. Hale, Roxbury;
Board of Directors of City Trusts, American Academy of
Music, Pennsylvania Historical Society, Messrs. Henry Phillips,
Jr., L. Voission, Philadelphia; Pennsylvania Geological Sur-
vey, Harrisburg; University of Nebraska, Lincoln; Société
“ Alzate,” Mexico.

A photograph was received for the Society’s album from
Prof. Dr. Friedrich Miiller, Vienna.

Letters of envoy from the Physikalische Gesellschaft, Berlin ;
K. Siichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig; Mete-
orological Office, London; U.S. Geological Survey, Washing-
fon, D, Ci

Letters of acknowledgment for 126 and others, from the
Institut Hgyptien, Cairo (126, 127); Societas pro Fauna and
Flora Fennica, Helsingfors (126); Imp. Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg (126); Prof. Dr. Friedrich Miiller, Vienna (126);
Naturwissenschaften Verein, Regensburg (125); Académie R.
Danoise des Sciences et des Lettres, Copenhagen (126); Acadé-
mie R, des Sciences de Lisbonne (119, 120, 121, 122, 124, and
Report on Volaptik); Prof. J. D. Whitney, Cambridge, Mass.
(126); Prof. J. W. Moore, Easton (126, 127); Smithsonian In-
stitution, Washington, D. C. (two boxes of exchanges); Ob-
servatorio Meteorologico Central, Mexico (102, 103, 104, 106,
107, 108, 116, 125, 126); Dr. Jesus Sanchez, Mexico (126).

Letters of acknowledgment for 127 from the Comité Géo-
logique de la Russe, Imp. Academy of Sciences, Russian Geo-
graphical Society, St. Petersburg; Dr. Mattheeus Much, Vienna;

1888.] 30u

Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urge-
schichte, Physiologische Gesellschaft, K. P. Meteorologisches
Institut, Berlin; Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen;
K. Sachsischer Alterthumsverein, Verein fiir Erdkunde, Dres-
den; Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Emden; Oberhessische
Gesellschaft fiir Natur und Heilkunde, Giessen; Prof. Japetus
S. Steenstrup, Copenhagen; R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome;
Station Séricicole, Montpellier ; Société de |’ Histoire de France,
Paris; Royal Dublin Society; Rev. Edward EH. Hale, Rox-
bury, Mass.; Conn. Historical Society, Hartford; Prof. W. D.
Whitney, New Haven; Dr. Charles B. Dudley, Altoona; Rev.
Dr. Geo. W. Anderson, Rosemont; Dr. Benjamin Sharp, Phila-
delphia.

A letter with change address from Der Naturforscher to
Die Wissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, Berlin (N. W. 6),
Preussen.

The Committee on Publication reported that it had exam-
ined the paper of Prof. Branner and was of the opinion that it
should be published, which, on motion, was so ordered.

The Special Committee appointed to examine-a paper for
the Transactions by Dr. R. A. Hare, entitled “The Pathology,
Clinical History and Diagnosis of Diseases of the Mediastinum
other than those of the Heart and Aorta,” reported that it was
not desirable for publication, being too technical; and, on mo-
tion, the Committee was discharged and paper returned to
the author.

Dr. D. G. Brinton read, by appointment, an obituary notice
of the late Philip Howard Law.

Prof. Cope presented a paper by Charles R. Keyes (Burling-
ton, Iowa), on “The Attachment of Platyceras to Pallio Crin-
oids and its Effects in Modifying the Form of the Shell.”

A paper by Prof. Charles Sprague Sargent, Cambridge,
Mass., entitled “‘The Diary of André Michaux in the United
States and Canada, 1785-1796, with an Introduction and
Notes,” was presented through the Secretaries.

On motion, the paper was referred to a special Committee

&
302 [Nov. 2,

of three members to be appointed by the President at his
leisure, to examine and report thereon to the Society.

A paper by Mr. James Mooney (Washington, D. C.), entitled
“The Funeral Customs of Ireland,” was presented through the
Secretaries.

The President reported that he had received and paid over
to the Treasurer of the Society the sum of $132.44, quarterly
interest on the Michaux Legacy, due October 1, 1888.

The President read a letter in reference to the collection of
the same from Drexel, Harjes & Co., Paris, dated August 7,
1888, and the following resolution was unanimously adopted:

Resolved, That, as the President of the Society has requested to be re-
lieved from the collection of the interest on the French Rentes constitu-
ting the Michaux Legacy, Messrs. Drexel, Harjes & Co.. of Paris,
France, and Messrs. Drexel & Co., of Philadelphia, Pa., be and they are
hereby requested and authorized to pay the said interest as it accrues and
is collected by them to the Treasurer of the Society.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Stated Meeting, November 2, 1888.
Present, 7 members.
Vice-President, Dr. RUSCHENBERGER, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

A letter from the K. Sichsischer Alterthumsverein zu Dres-
den, requesting Proceedings Vol. xx, No. 110.

A circular from Miss Marie A. Brown, requesting pecuniary
aid, to enable her to investigate the manuscripts in the Vati-
can relating to the pre-Columbian discovery of America.

Acknowledgments for Transactions xvi, ii, from the Boston
Public Library; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam-
bridge; American Antiquarian Society, Worcester; Yale
University, New Haven; State Library, Albany; Buffalo Li-

1888. ] 803

brary; New York Historical Society, Astor Library, New
York; New Jersey Historical Society, Newark; Pennsylvania
State Library, Harrisburg; Historical Society of Pennsylvania,
Franklin Institute, The Athenzeum, Philadelphia; U.S. Mili-
tary Academy, West Point; The Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C.; State Historical Society of Wisconsin,
Madison; University of California, Berkeley.

Acknowledgments for Proceedings (126) from the Central
Physical Observatory, St. Petersburg; Chicago Historical
Society. :

Acknowledgments were received for Proceedings (127) from
the Scientific Committee of the Navy, Comité Geologique de
Russie, St. Petersburg; R. Zovlogical-Botanical Society, The
Hague; K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmag-
netismus, Wien; Naturhistorischer Verein in Bonn; Prof. L.
Riitimeyer, Basle; Prof. E. Renevier, Lausanne; R. Comitato
Geologico Italia, Rome; R. Astronomical Observatory, Turin;
Prof. Abel Hovelacque, Paris; American Statistical Associa-
tion, Boston; Academy of Sciences, New York.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Gesell-
schaft fiir Erdkunde, Berlin; Prof. Leopold Hinstein, Niirn-
berg; Académie Royale de Belgique, Bruxelles; Prof. L. Riiti-
meyer, Basle, Switzerland; Royal Society, Meteorological
Office, London; Royal Geological Society of Ireland, Royal
Dublin Society, Dublin; Nova Scotian Institute of Natural
Science, Halifax; Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston ;
American Chemical Society, New York; Mercantile Library,
Editor of the “Medical and Surgical Reporter,” Mr. Ch. P.
Hayes, Mr. Thomas Hockley, Hon. Richard Vaux, Philadelphia;
Prof. A. S. Packard, Providence; Historical Society, Chicago,

A communication was received from Dr. P. Steiner, Darm-
stadt, in reference to his lately invented language, “ Pasilingua.”

A communication was presented from Dr. L. Einstein, Niirn-
berg, in reference to La Linguo Internacia.

The President reported that he had appointed as the Com-
mittee to examine the paper presented by Prof. C. 8. Sargent

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. XXv. 128. 2M. PRINTED DEC, 29, 1888.

304 [Nov. 16,

at the last meeting, Prof. J. T. Rothrock, Chairman, and
Messrs. Thomas Meehan and Aubrey H. Smith.

The Committee appointed to examine Prof. Sargent’s paper
on the Diary of André Michaux, reported it worthy of publi-
cation and suggested that it be issued in the Proceedings of the
Society, which, on motion, was so ordered and the Committee
was discharged.

The Committee on Henry M. Phillips’ Prize Hssay Fund
reported progress and was continued.

The Secretaries were authorized to print Mr. James
Mooney’s paper in the Proceedings of the Society.

Mr. Henry Phillips, Jr., gave a short historical sketch of the
founding and progress of the Congo Free State.

New nominations Nos. 1181 and 1182 were read.

And the Society was adjourned by the presiding member.

wStated Meeting, November 16, 1888.
Present, 16 members.
Mr. Tuomas H. Dupiey -in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows:

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Musée
@’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique, Bruxelles (126); ZLodlogical
Society, Amsterdam (127); Teyler Museum, Harlem (127);
Maatschappij der Nederl. Letterkunde, Leiden (127); Prof. G.
Sergi, Rome (127); Prof. James Geikie, Edinburgh (127); Dr.
J. H. Packard, Philadelphia (127).

Letters of envoy were received from the Mining Depart-
ment, Melbourne, Victoria; K, P. Akademie der Wissen-
schaften, Berlin; Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesell-
schaft, Frankfurt a. M.; Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y
Estadistica, Mexico.

Circulars were received from the U. 8. Commission to the
Paris Universal Exposition of 1889.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Depart-

1838.] 805

ment of Mines, Melbourne ; Comité Géologique, St. Petersburg;
Sociétés Impériales des Naturalistes de Moscou et d’Odessa ;
Prof. G. Bauer, Agram; K. P. Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Berlin; K. Sachs. Alterthums- Verein, Dresden; Sencken-
bergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Frankfurt-am-Main;
Dr. Julius Platzmann, Leipzig; Musée Royale d’Histoire Na-
turelle de Belgique, Société R. Malacologique de Belgique,
Observatoire R. de Bruxelles: Baron Selys de Longchamps,
Litge; Prof. Guiseppe Menenghini, Pisa; Revue Retrospec- .
tive, Paris; Canadian Institute, Toronto; Mr. Lorin Blodget,
Prof. E. D. Cope, Gen. O. W. Darling, Utica; Col. J. P. Nich-
olson, Dr. Charles A. Oliver, Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia;
Wm. John Potts, Camden: Commissioners of Pensions and of
Labor, Washington, D.C.; Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia
y Estadistica, Mexico.

The Committee on the Henry M. Phillips’ Prize Hssay Fund
reported progress and was continued.

The Minutes of the Board of Officers and Council were sub-
mitted.

Prof. John C. Branner presented through Dr. Brinton a
paper entitled, “Notes on the Botociidus and their Ornaments,”
accompanied by some plates which, on motion, the Secretaries
were authorized to reproduce in the Proceedings.

Pending nominations Nos, 1181 and 1182 were read.

The Society then took up the consideration of the matters
acted upon by the Council.

On motion of Dr. Ruschenberger, the Society approved of
the recommendation of Council that Prof. J.T. Rothrock be
authorized to permit abstracts of and illustrations for his lec-
tures delivered under the auspices of the American Philo-
sophical Society, to be published in “ Forest Leaves,” as re-
quested, provided that no loss or expense shall be chargeable
to the Society connected with such abstracts or illustrations,

The resolution of Council relative to the Michaux legacy
was considered, and a discussion ensued in which Mr. Price
explained the present status of the fund, and stated what had.
been done thereunder.

306 [Nov. 16,

After which, on motion of Dr. D. G. Brinton, it was resolved
to postpone all further consideration of the matter until the
presence of the mover in Council.

The following resolution, recommended by Council, was then

taken up:

“That Council recommends that all papers presented for publication by
the Society must be complete and ready for the printer at that time when
so presented, and that they shall not be substantially altered after such
presentation without the express permission of the Society ; and further,
that no paper shall be received that is not complete.”’

The Treasurer spoke of the heavy bills for printing the
Society’s publications, of which a great proportion of the ex-
pense was incurred for authors’ alterations.

Dr. Brinton offered the following addition to the motion as

an amendment :

“And that all alterations, duly authorized by the Society, shall be
printed at the expense of the author.”’

The resolution as amended was then unanimously adopted
by the Society.

The Society then proceeded to consider the Library of the
Society’s being opened from 10 A.M. to 3 P.M. on such days as
it is required to be open.

Prof. Snyder moved to refer the resolution and all the subject
connected with it to the Committee on Library. Dr. Brinton
moved to lay the whole matter on the table, which motion,
being put to a vote, was adopted.

Dr. Brinton called to the attention of the Society the desira-
bility of reproducing the MSS. of the Aztec tribute roll,
owned by the Society, and moved that the Chair appoint a
committee of three members to ascertain the cost of its repro-
duction and. publication in the Transactions of the Society,
accompanied by suitable letter-press.

The resolution being put to a vote was adopted, and the
Chair appointed as such Committee, Messrs. Brinton, Phillips,
and Morris.

And the Society was adjourned by the presiding member.

307

Stated Meeting, December 7, 1888.

Present, 19 members.
President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Letters of envoy were received from the Mining Department,
Melbourne; Musée Teyler, Harlem; Maatschappij der Neder-
landsche Letterkunde, Leiden; Royal Observatory, Greenwich ;
Royal Statistical Society, London.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Geo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta; K. K. Geologische Reichs-
_anstalt, Drs. Aristides Brezina, Friederich Miiller, Dionys Stiir,
Vienna; Dr. Julius Platzmann, Leipzig; Dr. Henri de Saus-
sure, Geneva; K. Istituto Lombardo, Milan; Mr. A. Des
Cloizeaux, Mr. Victor Duruy, Paris; Radcliffe Observatory,
Oxford; Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society ;
Mr. Henry Reed (127), Dr. W. J. A. Bonwill (126), Philadel-
phia.

Letters of acknowledgment for diplomas were received
from Prof. Dr. Conrad Leemans, Leiden; Prof. Dr. Adolph
Bastian, Berlin; Dr. Julius Platzmann, Leipzig; Prof, Dr. A.
Réville, Dr. Paul Topinard, Paris; Capt. Richard Somers
Hayes, New York.

Accessions to the Library were announced from Mr. Julius
Lott, Vienna; Mr. Henry Roller, Berlin; “Zoologischer An-
zeiger,” Leipzig; Dr. F. von Holtzendorff, Stuttgart; Musée
Teyler, Harlem; Maatschappij van Nederlandsche Letter-
kunde, Leiden; Instituto y Observatorio de Marina, San Fer-
nando (Spain); Sociedad de Geografia, Lisbon; Royal Obser-
vatory, Greenwich; Geological and Natural History Survey of
Canada, Montreal; Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cam-
bridge; Dr. J. S. Newberry, Capt. Jas. E. Cole, New York;
Geological Survey of New Jersey, Trenton; University of
Pennsylvania, Drs, Charles W. Dulles, Charles A. Oliver, Mr.
Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia; Department of State, Lieut.
A. W. Greely, Washington; Observatorio Astronomico Na-
cional de Tacubaya; Free Public Library, San Francisco.

A letter, presented by the Treasurer, from Dr. R. P. Harris,
resigning from the Society, was read, and, on motion, the resig-
nation was accepted.

A letter was presented (dated West iington, November 27,
1888) from the Forestry Division, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, in reference to an exhibit at the Paris Exhibition.

A letter was read (dated Washington, November 15, 1888)
from Prof. Cleveland Abbé, asking for information relating to
the life of the late Prof. James P. Hspy.

Pending nominations Nos. 1181 and 1182 were read.

Mr. Price, from the Michaux Committee, presented the fol-
lowing report and resolution, which, on motion, the Society
unanimously adopted :

To the American Philosophical Society :

The Michaux Committee respectfully reports that, at a meeting of the
Committee, held on Friday, November 30, 1888, letters were received from
Prof. J. T. Rothrock, stating that he had made preparations for the usual
annual course of lectures to be delivered under the auspices of the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society. The subjects of the seven lectures for this
year are:

. Forest Regions of North America,

. Fungal Foes of the Farmer.

. Some Big Trees.

. Home Plants and Home Health.

Trees in Literature and Mythology.

What Forestry is Practicable in Pennsylvania.
. Evolution in Plants.

Iorronr

Four of these lectures will be illustrated by lantern slides from photo-
graphs taken by the lecturer under former resolutions of the Society. He
proposes to deliver these lectures on Tuesday evenings in January and
February, 1889, as follows: January 8, 15, 22,«and 29, February 5, 12, and
19, and has suggested that they be given at the hall of the Franklin Insti-
tute, on Seventh street above Chestnut street, which can be obtained ata
cost of five dollars a night, and where excellent and convenient arrange-
ments can be made for the use of the lantern and the supply of gas under
the direction of Mr. Frederick E, Ives.

The suggestion of Prof. Rothrock met with the full approval of the
Committee, and it recommends the expenditure of two hundred and fifty-
five dollars from the appropriation of the Michaux Fund as follows :

808 [Dee. 7,

IO ens reset

in ci

1888.) 309
Seven lectures...........:. wee speed viene ijeais <'siceou wok see. U0
Wse60f: Nalh for the, COUSSC si.56.0:0'0.0.0.6 0.0 dine Genie s « S's.0 015 35. 00
ACVGLUSING 165 0cccus oo ade vices j See pies oe oud ies 50 00
PTI (CKCtS 2c cbc cscs sate eg cot cs aS fess Secu 10.00
Gas for lanteen, CtCy fovea cst ee ese ees eese 2000

Prof. Rothrock also presented to the Committee an application made to
him by the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, asking for the use
of part of the negatives in his possession, belonging to the Society, for the
purpose of having enlarged positives made from them, to be exhibited at
the Paris Exposition next year. Prof. Rothrock stated that the Chief of
the Forestry Bureau had assured him that at the Exposition full credit
would be given to the American Philosophical Society for furnishing these
illustrations, and he also said that the enlarging would be done in this
city and that the negatives during the process would be practically under
his own observation. The Committee approved of the application, and it
accordingly recommends the adoption of the following resolution :

Resolved, That the report of the Michaux Committee be approved, and
that Prof. Rothrock be authorized to allow the Chief of the Forestry
Bureau of the United States Government to have the use of the negatives
in his possession, belonging to the Society, for the purpose of having en-
larged prints made from the same at the expense of the Bureau, to con-
stitute an exhibit of the American Philosophical Society at the Paris
Exposition. By order of the Committee,

J. SERGEANT PRICE, Secretary.

The Publication Committee reported that during the past
year the Second Part of Volume XVI (New Series) Transac-
tions had been issued by the Society, and that the Third Part
had been begun.

The Treasurer presented his annual report, which was read
and referred to the Committee on Finance.

The Committee on the Aztec MS. (Codex-Poinsett) reported
progress, and was, on motion, continued.

The Committee on the Henry M. Phillips’ Prize Fund Essay
presented the following report:

The Committee appointed by the American Philosophical Society,
held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, to report to
the Society such rules and regulations as are best fitted to carry
out the intentions of the donor of the Henry M. Phillips’ Prize
Essay Fund, respectfully reports :

That it has met several times and has carefully considered th

310 [Dee. 7,

matters referred to it. It has the honor to submit, for the approval
of the Society, a draft of a preamble and regulations for the said
Fund.

It is of the opinion and recommends that the first prize to be
awarded by the Society shall be for the best Treatise on the History
and Growth of the Philosophy of Jurisprudence, divided into An-
cient, Mediaeval and Modern Periods, presenting a complete con-
spectus of the literature, bibliography, and opinion pertaining to
the subject.

It also recommends that the first prize to be awarded by the
Society shall be the sum of one thousand dollars, lawful goid coin
of the United States of America, and that all treatises in compe-
tition therefor shall be in the possession of the Society before the
first day of January, 1893; this date being fixed upon to allow time
sufficient for authors to gather proper material for their treatises.

The Committee recommends that all matters relating to the sec-
ond and following prizes shall be relegated to the Standing Com-
mittee, to be hereafter appointed by the Society.

Your Committee would beg to offer the following resolution for
the consideration of the Society:

Resolved, That this Society tenders its thanks to Miss Emily
Phillips for her generous gift of five thousand dollars to found the
Henry M. Phillips’ Prize Essay Fund, which it has accepted with
sincere satisfaction.

THe Henry M. Puitiirs’ Prize Essay Funp.

Miss Emily Phillips, of Philadelphia, a sister of Hon. Henry M.
Phillips, deceased, presented to the American Philosophical Society,
held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, on October
5, 1888, the sum of five thousand dollars for the establishment and
endowment of a Prize Fund, in memory of her deceased brother,
who was an honored member of the Society. The Society, at a
stated meeting, held October 5, 1888, accepted the gift and agreed
to make suitable rules and regulations to carry out the wishes of the
donor, and to discharge the duties confided to it. In furtherance
whereof, the following rules and regulations were adopted by the
Society at a stated meeting held on the seventh day of December,
AsiD. 1883:

first. The Prize Endowment Fund shall be called the ‘* Henry
M. Phillips’ Prize Essay Fund.’’

1888.] 311

Second. The money constituting the Endowment Fund, vz.,
five thousand dollars, shall be invested by the Society in such
securities as may be recognized by the laws of Pennsylvania, as
proper for the investment of trust funds, and the evidences of such
investment shall be made in the name of the Society as Trustee of
the Henry M. Phillips’ Prize Essay Fund.

Third. The income arising from such investment shall be appro-
priated as follows :

(a) To making public advertisement of the prize and the
sum or amount in United States gold coin, and the terms on which
it shall be awarded.

(6) To the payment of such prize or prizes as may from time to
time be awarded by the Society for the best essay of real merit on
the Science and Philosophy of Jurisprudence, and to the prepara-
tion of the certificate to be granted to the author of any successful
essay.

fourth. Competitors for the prize shall affix to their essays some
motto or name (not the proper name of the author, however), and
when the essay is forwarded to the Society, it shall be accompanied
by a sealed envelope containing within the proper name of the
author, and, on the outside thereof, the motto or name adopted for
the essay.

Fifth. At a stated meeting of the Society, in pursuance of the
advertisement, all essays received up to that time, shall be referred
to a Committee of Judges, to consist of five persons, who shall be
selected by the Society from nomination of ten persons made by
the Standing Committee on the Henry M. Phillips’ Prize Essay
Fund.

Seventh. All amounts of interest accruing and unexpended on
each and every occasion on which no prize shall be awarded, shall
be considered and taken as accretions to the principal of the said
fund.

Eighth. All essays may be written in English, French, Dutch,
Italian, Spanish, or Latin ; but, if in any language except English,
must be accompanied by an English translation of the same.

LVinth. No treatise or essay shall be entitled to compete for the
prize that has been already published or printed, or for which the
author has received already any prize, or profit, or honor, of any
nature whatsoever.

PROC, AMER PHILOS. SOC. Xxv. 128. 2N. PRINTED DEC. 29, 1888.

9
312 [Dee: 7,

Tenth. All essays must be clearly and legibly written on only
one side of the paper.

Leleventh. The literary property of such essays shall be in their
authors, subject to the right of the Society to publish the crowned
essays in its Transactions or Proceedings.

Twelfth. A Standing Committee, to consist of six members and
the Treasurer of the Society, shall be appointed by the President,
which shall continue in office during the pleasure of the Society,
and any vacancies that may occur in said Committee shall be filled
by new appointment by the President.

Thirteenth, The said Committee shall have charge of all matters
connected with the management of this endowment and the invest-
ment of the same, and shall make such general rules for publishing
the terms upon which said prize shall be competed for, and the
amount of the said prize, and, if it shall deem it expedient, desig-
nate the subjects for competing essays. It shall report annually to
the Society, on the first Friday in December, all its transactions,
with an account of the investment of the Prize Fund, and of the
income and expenditures thereof.

All of which is respectfully submitted,

RICHARD VAUX,
EYENRY PHILLIPS, JR.,
Wituiam V. McKean,
FuRMAN SHEPPARD,
JosepH C. FRALEY.

Philadelphia, November 20, 888.

On motion of Mr. Vaux, the report, with all its resolutions,
was unanimously adopted.

On motion of Mr. Dudley, the Secretaries were directed ‘to
have a sufficient number of copies of the same printed sepa-
rately for general distribution.

The Committee on an International Language presented the
following report:

Supplementary Report of the Committee Appointed to Consider an
International Language.

Your Comniittee desires to present a Report of Progress at this time
with reference to its former observations on the adoption of an Inter-
national Language and the success of the proposal of the Society to
call an International Congress to consider this project.

1888. ] 313

We may begin by saying that the general subject has visibly increased
in importance in the minds of the public. A number of new plans to
achieve the end in view lave been suggested, and modificaticns of those
existing have been offered. A reference to some of these may not be
out of place, as proving that the subject in which the Society has in-
terested itself is not a sterile or insignificant one.

Two of these works are by American authors, and advocate the adop-
tion as a universal language of English, more or less modified. One is
entitled ‘‘ World-English, the Universal Language,’’ by Prof. Alexander
Melville Bell, author of ‘‘ Visible Speech,” etc. His claim is that Eng-
lish in its present grammatic form is simple and clear, and in all re-
spects adapted for general adoption but for its incongruous orthogra-
phy. This he proposes to remedy by a new phonetic alphabet, which
he presents and illustrates. It contains forty-two letters, many of
them new in form, others old in form, but distinguished by diacritical
marks. The accent on the vowels is represented to the eye, and the
print is consequently highly complex. :

The numerous difficulties of English grammar and lexicography are
of course not in the least abated by the phonetic system of Prof. Bell.
What these difficulties are has been urged with much earnestness by
the second writer to whom we refer, Mr. Elias Molee, of Dakota, in
his work, ‘‘ Plea for an American Language or Germanic English.”
After setting forth the insuperable obstacles to the general acceptation
of English, he proposes to remove them by introducing a series of
modifications into its alphabet, its grammar and its lexicon. Various
new letters and a quantity of diacritical signs are called in to represent
the sounds. The inflectional grammatical system is selected, and the
additions to the yocabulary are chiefly from the Teutonic languages.
It is obvious, from what we have previously said on the evolution of
the Aryan tongues, that this form of grammar is a recurrence to obso-
lescent principles, and the preference awarded to the Teutonic group
is inconsistent with the broad princip les on which a modern universal
language should be founded.

European writers have also not been without their suggestions to-
wards the same end. One of the most noteworthy, if not for its prac-
ticability, at least for its scholarly presentation, is the work of Prof.
Dr. Aug. Boltz, of Darmstadt, entitled Hellenisch die Allgemeine
Gelehrtensprache der Zukunft, in which the author presents for adop-
tion a modified form of the classic Greek. This, he thinks, has claims
superior to any modern language, and advantages beyond any new
creation in language which could be devised. It is not at all likely
that he will count many disciples, the Greek alphabet alone being suf-
ficient to frighten most men of modern times.

A certain degree of popularity has been obtained by the Spelin of
Prof. George Bauer, of Agram, in Croatia. It is based upon Volapiik,
and adopts the same grammatic devices, but with greater simplicity ;

314. [Deei7;

it is much more euphonious than the creation of Schleyer, and to
those who favor a language on any such plan must commend itself by
its greater consistency. It requires but six vowels and fifteen consonants
to express its repertory of sounds. Of course, its synthetic and inflec-
tional character is, in our opinion, a return to worn-out and barbarous
expedients certain not to be acceptable to the civilized man of the
future and contrary to linguistic evolution.

It was to be expected that the opinions advanced by your Committee
—opinions in many respects both novel and positive—should have been
met in various quarters with opposition. This has been the case. The
most noteworthy rejoinder is that of the well-known linguist, Mr.
Alexander J. Ellis, speaking for the Philological Society of London.
In a paper, some forty pagesin length, published in the Transactions
of that Society, this writer actively combats both the theories advo-
cated by your Committee, and the call for a Congress to consider the
question. Not, however, that Mr. Ellis underestimates the desirability
of a universal language or considers the project utopian or untimely.
On the contrary, he is an earnest advocate of the scheme. He heartily
coincides with everything in that direction which any one will urge.
What, then, is the animus of his long, labored and acrid opposition to
the modest proposal that a Congress of competent men should be con-
vened to consider it ? The explanation isin a word. He isa Volapiikist,
a committed Volapiikist, and the Philological Society is hasty enough
to allow itself to be officially committed likewise to the imperfect in-
vention of Schleyer, not even opening its mind to the consideration
of any other and perhaps better plan. If this is the position assumed
by a society calling itself scientific, its appreciation of the spirit of
science is indeed unfortunate.

What are Mr. Ellis’ censures of the Committee’s Report ? He makes
much of some typographical errors; he meets a number of our censures
of Schleyer’s Volapiik by stating that ‘‘ other writers’? upon that inven-
tion do not adopt the features to which we objected; a statement
totally irrelevant, as our remarks applied solely to Volapiik proper, and
not to its dozen variants and imitations; he cannot and does not deny
the needless diffigulties of the Volapiik alphabet; and he takes great
offense that we recommended the Aryan languages, especially the half-
dozen most cultivated and extended of them, as the proper basis for
the hoped-for universal tongue. This latter is really his main objec-
tion, and it is an objection which we shall not pretend to answer in
this connection. It is enough to reaflirm what seem to us the two
sun-clear principles for the formation of a world-language, if one ever
is formed: First, that it should be based, phonetically, grammatically
and lexicographically, on the languages of the five or six most culti-
vated nations in the world (all of whom happen to be Aryan); and,
secondly, that these languages should be studied for this purpose in
their most recent evolutions, in order to imprint on this world-speech

1888.] 315

those characteristics toward which Aryan speech has for thousands of
years been trending.

It seems to us that any one who denies the latter principle can have
no proper conception of the philosophic relation of speech to thought,
of logic to grammar, of grammatic matter to grammatic form, and
must be blind to the indisputable fact that the changes in language
mean the evolution of language from lower to higher stages, from inad-
equate to adequate expression. It seems incredible that any one ac-
quainted with the distinction between form-languages, like the English,
and formless languages, like the Ural-Altaic group, could give the
preference to the latter; and yet Volapiik distinctly associates itself
with the latter.

Its deficiencies have been repeatedly pointed out since the publication
of our Report. Our fellow-member, Mr. Horatio Hale, has dealt with
it trenchantly in The Critic (October, 1888); Prof. Addison Hoge, in
The Nation (Feb. 9, 1888), has exhaustively analyzed it and shown its
weak points; and a number of other periodicals have been forwarded
the Society containing similar expressions of opinions,

Certainly if we have not accomplished more, we have aided in dis-
playing the ineffective character of the claims of Volapiik to become
a world-language; and that we have accomplished this is the true
secret of the labored attack of Mr. Ellis and the London Philological
Society.

The justice of our strictures has been recognized both at home and
abroad. Thus Leopold Einstein, of Nuremberg, in a work on ‘* The
International World-Language Problem’’—himself for years a zealous
advocate and teacher of Volapiik—says that of all the critics of that
scheme, ‘‘ especially the American Philosophical Society” has pointed
out where its short-comings are, and himself renounces it in favor of
the Aryan principles (La Linguo Internacia, p. 1, Niirnberg, 1888). Dr.
F. 8. Krauss, of Vienna, fully acknowledges that the defects we
pointed out will prove fatal to Mr. Schleyer’s scheme, and adds, *‘ Bei
uns ist fiir Volapiik kein Boden!”

Herr Julius Lott, another Vienna linguist, for years a zealous apostle
of Volapiik, has been so completely converted, chiefly by the Report
of your Committee, that in his late work on the world-language prob-
lem, he expresses himself thus: ‘‘I consider that any substantial bet-
terment of Schleyer’s language, on the plan of the Volapiik, is wholly
impossible, because the inventor, in its very construction, pursued a
false route, or, plainly, he put the halter on the horse’s tail,” p. 7. He
therefore passes over entirely to the Aryan system which we have so
strongly urged, and is now publishing a work in numbers to explain
the scheme—and a work, we are glad to add, of signal merit.

Whether Mr. George J. Henderson, whose book, ‘‘ Lingua, an Inter-
national Language,’’? which appeared in London last spring, was fa-
miliar with our Report or not, he does not say; at any rate, he fully

316 [Dee. 7,

recognizes the radical defects of Schleyer’s plan, and ranges himself
positively with those who seek to place the proposed international
tongue on an Aryan basis.

Of course the delivery of the London Philological Society, bound
hand and foot into the Volapiik camp, excited high jubilation among
the warriors beneath its banners. The Volapiik journal in Vienna,
Titund um die Welt, begins a four-page leader with the heartfelt shout,
* Gottlob, es wird Tag!” ‘ Thank God, the day breaks !?? And the
editor goes on to say that from the 15th of June, 1888, when Mr. Ellis’
Report was read, a new epoch began in the history of Volapiik. Other
advocates of the system were not less gratified at the Philological So-
ciety’s questionable procedure.

There were Volapiikists, on the other hand, who saw that at least
some of the objections urged by your Committee were unanswerable,
and sought to avoid them by charging them to the ‘ eccentricities and
crudities of Mr. Schleyer,’”’ adding the explanation that the Volapiik
academies had removed most of these objectionable features from the
worthy father’s invention. This, however, excited the ire of Father
Schleyer himself, and he came out in June of this year with an em-
phatic ipse dixit which must have set the Volapiik academicians in
some confusion. ‘t Any resolution,’’ says Herr Schleyer, ‘‘ any resolu-
tion of the Academy not accepted by the inventor is null, even if the
whole of the members united against the inventor.”’

It is quite evident that our Report has let in some light among the
Volapiikist, as the Rund um die Welt says, but not exactly in the man-
ner the editor of thitt journal supposes. By that light it is plain to see
that Volapiik even among its warmest adherents is splitting up into
dialects and dissimilarities which will soon bring its advocates into the
confusion of the builders of the tower of Babel.

A far more important Report than that of Mr. Ellis was one pre-
sented to the Société Zoologique de France, by MM. M. Chaper and
Dr. P. Fischer, relative to the proposition emanating from the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society. We name it as certainly the reply the most
scientific in spirit and intelligent in grasp of any we have received, and
we distinguish it as such in spite of the fact that it attacks with earn-
estness the position your Committee has assumed on many points.
Thus it is very severe ou our opinion that modern mixed languages or
jargons should receive especial attention in forming a proposed world-
language; indeed, it denies that there is need of forming any new
language at all, and declares in favor of the adoption of some now liv-
ing tongue as the international scientific and commercial speech. On
the other hand, it is equally emphatic in the opinion that such a gen-
eral language is most desirable, and cordially seconds the proposal of
our Society for a Congress to consider the question.

Similar published approvals have come to us in the pages of La
Cronica Itosa, Messina, Italy ; El Correo, Madrid, and various other

1888,] al?

periodicals. The members of the Committee have even been individ-
ually honored by a dedication to them of Dr. P. Steiner’s Uebungen zur
Pasilingua, in recognition, as he expresses it, ‘‘ of their philanthropic
efforts in linguistic science.”? The well-known English scientific period-
ical, Nature, thought the Report of sufficient value to republish it in
full, and an extended analysis and criticism of it were published in
German by Prof. George Bauer, while another one was written in
French in thé Cosmos, May 5, 1888.

Of direct adhesions to the proposal for a Congress we may especially
mention in our own country the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, which, at its meeting in August, 1888, appointed
representatives to attend the Congress should it be convened. ‘The
University of South Carolina writes through its President: ‘‘ The
effort of the American Philosophical Society commands our hearty
approval and sympathy; ” and the distinguished linguist, Prof. F. A.
Marsh, President of Lafayette College, says: ‘‘The object seems a
worthy one, and [am glad that the American Philosophical Society
has undertaken to promote it.”

The Senate of the University of Edinburgh officially ‘‘ express sin-
cere sympathy with the object ;’’? the Royal Danish Academy of Sci-
ences and Letters ‘‘ acknowledges fully the scientific importance of the
subject ;”’? the Geographical Association of Halle considers the aim
‘¢one most desirable both in the interests of science and ordinary inter-
course ;”’ the Batavian Society of Rotterdam expresses the hope ‘‘ that
these efforts will be most successful,’ and similar expressions of cor-
dial approval have been received from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, the Georgia Historical Society, the Colorado Scientific
Society, the Royal Society of Victoria, the Yorkshire Polytechnic So-
ciety, and the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Of individual expressions of opinion by distinguished specialists, we
permit ourselves to quote the following from a letter from Prof. James
Geikie, of Edinburgh: ‘‘I agree with the conclusions come to by your
Society, and think that the time has come for the serious consideration
of the question of a new language.” The Rev. W.S. Lach-Szyrma,
himself a prominent linguistic scholar, writes: ‘‘ I believe, in spite of
the decision of the London Philological Society, that the plan you sug-
gest is the sole mode of introducing a universal language.’’ The Hon.
Robert C. Winthrop, of Boston, says: ‘‘I can see nothing but good to
result from the resolution of your Society,’’ and the President of Haver-
ford College states that the Report of the Committee meets his cordial
endorsement.

It is gratifying to your Committee and complimentary to the Society
to have received such outspoken recognition of their efforts as the
above extracts exhibit. They completely set at rest the fears felt in
some quarters that the Society had ventured upon a subject of doubt-
ful importance or uncertain judiciousness.

Naturally several of the societies who fully approve the plan of a

'

318 [Dec. 7,

Congress are, for financial or other reasons, not in a position to send
delegates to a Congress; of the total number of replies received, about
twenty have expressed their willingness to do so, As some months
may be allowed to elapse before a call for a Congress is issued, your
Jommittee does not recommend any present action, and desires to be
continued.

Di Ge BRINTON, MD.;

HENRY PHEGLIPS; Jar,

M. B. SNYDER,

Conmittee.

On motion of Mr. Dudley, the report was approved and the
Committee was continued. The Secretaries were directed to
cause to be printed separately a sufficient number of copies of
the said report for general use.

Dr. Brinton offered the following resolution :

Resolwed, That the books of reference belonging to the Society be not
loaned from the Society’s hall.

Mr. Dudley offered an amendment, striking out the words
“of reference,” which was accepted by the mover of the pro-
position, A debate ensued upon the question, and Mr. Winsor
moved that the matter be referred to the Committee on
Library, with instructions to consider and report upon the same.

Prof. Snyder raised a point of order that the provisions of
the laws could not be changed by a mere resolution of the
Society.

The Chair decided that the resolution did not conflict with
the laws.

Mr. Winsor’s motion was then put to a vote and declared
to be lost.

The question then recurring upon the original motion as
amended, Dr. Hays desired the opinion of the Chair as to
whether it clashed with the laws of the Society; the Chair
decided the point in the negative, and, a vote being taken on
the motion, it was declared lost.

Mr. Winsor moved that the whole subject of removal of
books from the Library be referred to the Committee on
Library, with instructions to consider the same and report
thereon.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

|
{
j

canes

1988, ] 319

Stated Meeting, December 21, 1888.
Present, 24 members.
President, Mr. FRAuEY, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

A letter from M. Tommaso Caunizzaro, Messina, acknowl-
edging receipt of diploma.

A letter from the University of Cambridge, England, in
reference to “the important project” of the Convention, pro-

' posed by the Society, to frame an international language.

Letters of envoy were received from the Muste Guimet,
Paris, and K. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin.

Letters of acknowledgment were received for Proceedings,
No, 127, from Prof. J.S. Newberry, New York; Academy of
Sciences (also, Transactions XVI, ii), New York City, and
Prof. J. P. Lesley, Philadelphia.

Accessions to the Library were received from the K. Akad-
emie der Wissenschaften, Wien; Dr. Adolph Bastian, Ber-
lin; Verein fiir Liibeckische Geschichte und Alterthumskunde,
Liibeck; Société de Physique et d’ Histoire Naturelle, Genéve;
Société Hollandaise des Sciences, Harlem; Société d’Emula-
tion, Abbeville; Société d’Histoire et d’Archiologie, Chalon-
sur-Saone; Alliance Scientifique Universelle, Sociétés d’An-
thropologie, and de Géographie, Marquis de Nadaillac, Paris;
Société Historique, Littéraire, Artistique et Scientifique du
Cher, Bourges; R. Academia de la Historia, Madrid; Dr. B.
W. Richardson, London; Philosophical Society of Glasgow ;
Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.; Yale University, New
Haven; Messrs. Philip C. Garrett, Thomas Hockley, Henry
Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia; Pennsylvania Geological Survey,
Harrisburg; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; United
States National Museum, Bureau of Education, Washington ;
Georgia Historical Society, Savannah; Academy of Sciences,
St. Louis; Dr. Antonio Peiiafiel, México.

PROC, AMER. PHILOS, 80C, xxv. 128. 20. PRINTED JAN. 5, 1889.

320 [Dece. 21;

A biographical sketch of the late Thomas U. Walter, by
Mr. Joseph M. Wilson, was read.

The death of Dr. Caspar Wister (December 20, 1888, set. 71)
was announced, and, on motion, the President was authorized to
appoint a suitable person to prepare the usual obituary notice.

This being the evening for balloting for candidates for mem-
bership, the pending nominations Nos. 1181 and 1182 were
read and spoken to and voted upon.

The following communication from Mr. Aubrey H. Smith
was read:

‘In Boott’s illustrations of the genus Carex, we have Carex miliaris
Michaua, figured from the original specimens of Michaua, preserved in the
Herbarium Richard, at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. Boott says: ‘This
species is the only one of those described by Michaux which has not been
satisfactorily ascertained by recent observers.’ Mr. Charles E. Smithand
I collected a Carex on the gravel bars of the Kennebec river, at the outlet
of Moosehead lake, in the years 1865 and 1867, which was thought by
Gray to be 0. miliaris (see Manual, ed. 5, 1867). C. E. Smith afterwards
found it in other places on Moosehead lake. I collected it about 1872 on
the gravel bars of Marguerite river and Lake St. John, Lower Canada.
My specimens agree with the engraved figure in Boott, and were sub-
mitted to T. C. Porter and Olney, and by them recognized as Carex
miliaris.”’

Dr. .D. G. Brinton read a paper on the Zai-Ki and the
Swastika in America.

A-paper by Dr. W. J. Hoffmann (Washington, D. C.), en-
titled ‘‘ Grammatic Notes and Vocabulary of the Pennsylvania
i German Dialect,” was presented through the Secretaries.

F On motion, the Secretaries were authorized to print the
\ same in the Proceedings of the Society if so desired by them.
| Prof. Lesley presented a paper entitled “ Description of
New Species of Fossils from the Clinton, Lower Helderberg,
Chemung and Waverly groups,” by George B. Simpson,

On motion, the paper of G. B. Simpson was. referred to a
special committee of three, to be appointed by the President at
his leisure, to examine for the Transactions. (Subsequently
the President appointed Messrs. Lesley, Horn and Heilprin as
such committee.)

1888,] 821

The Committee on Finance reported that it had examined
the Annual Report of the Treasurer, submitted at the last
meeting, and that it was correct, and would report on the ap-
propriations at the next meeting.

The Committee on the Library recommended that the works
of reference in the Society’s Hall be not permitted to be re-
moved; that, in its opinion, the other books should be loaned
as heretofore.

On motion, the recommendations were adopted.

The Committee on the Codex-Poinsett reported progress,
and, on motion, was continued.

On motion of Mr. Vaux, the Society reconsidered Section 12
of the Report of the Committee on the Henry M. Phillips’
Prize Hssay Fund so that it should read as follows:

Twelfth. A. Standing Committee, to consist of five members and the:
President and the Treasurer of the Society, shall be appointed by the
President, which shall continue in office during the pleasure of the So-
ciety, and any vacancies that may occur in said Committee shall be filled
by new appointment by the President.

The motion was put to a vote and adopted unanimously.

The Tellers reported, after a scrutiny of the ballots, that the
following candidates had been duly elected members of the
Society, viz. :

No. 2154. Arthur Biddle, Philadelphia.

No. 2155. Il Marchese Autonio dé Gregorio, Palermo.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Wilson.] 322 (Dec. 21,

Biographical Notice of Thomas Ustick Walter, A.W, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Late Member of the American Philosophical Society.

By Joseph M. Wilson, A.M, C.H.
(Read before the American Philosophical Soctety, December 21, 1888.)

In the year 1749, an orphan boy, owning nothing but the clothes on his
back, friendless and alone, was put up at auction in this city of Philadel-
phia, and sold as a German redemptioner.

This boy was Frederick Jacob Walter, the grandfather of Thomas Ustick
Walter, the subject of this memoir.

Emigrating from Germany with his parents, both of whom died at sea
with the plague, leaving no information whatever behind them, the poor
lad literally commenced life anew. Passing his youth as a servant in the
old Carpenter mansion, on Chestnut street, above Sixth, where afterwards
stood the Philadelphia Arcade (now replaced by other buildings), when
he became free, he took up the trade of bricklaying, and, at a later date,
as master bricklayer, was associated in partnership with Frederick Graff,
grandfather of a prominent and well-known civil engineer of this city—
the present Frederick Graft.

He was twice married, Joseph Saunders Walter, one of his sons by his
second wife, born May 15, 1782, on Fifth street, below Arch, being the
father of Thomas Ustick Walter.

This son early showed a disposition in favor of the arts of construction,
and not inclining toward the business of a tobacconist, to which he had
been apprenticed, he followed his father in the trade of bricklaying, as
goon as he was at liberty to do so, adding to it that of stone masonry, and
earning for himself a solid reputation in this city, where he carried on
building operations with success for more than forty years, and where he
wags connected with much prominent work. He was associated, under a
special partnership, with Daniel Groves, in the construction of the United
States Bank; now the Custom House. The Philadelphia Exchange was
also built by him.

He was a popular and esteemed citizen, an attractive and fluent speaker,
and occupied several offices of public trust with honor. He was an ardent
and devoted Christian, a member of the Baptist Church, on Second street,
below Arch, and a deacon for many years.

Thomas Ustick Walter, the eldest of seven children, was born in
Philadelphia, September 4, 1804, and was named after the Rev. Thomas
Ustick, the former pastor of his parents. He received a liberal, although
nota collegiate, education, and, asa boy, developed a great fondness for
mathematics; at the same time showing a marked talent for drawing,
with an inclination toward the profession of architecture and building
construction.

At the age of fifteen, his scholastic studies were suspended, and he en-

aoc
1888. ] 3 23 [ Wilson.

tered the office of William Strickland, a prominent architect of the day, as
a student. Under Mr. Strickland’s eye, he became proficient in linear
drawing, and, at the same time, acquired some insight into the professional
practice of architecture. He did not remain with Mr. Strickland more
than two years ; and undoubtedly soon discovered his deficiencies in theo-
retical knowledge, as it is found that he resumed his general studies, and
took a thorough, special course in mathematics. For seven years he de-
voted himself to the study of the physical sciences, and to the arts of
drawing and painting, taking lessons in landscape painting, in water-
colors, with Mason, a celebrated teacher of that time. He also endeavored
to obtain a thorough knowledge of the details of mechanical construction.

In those days, technical schools did not exist. There were no prepared
courses of study, and few or no books relating to the subjects in question.
The student of to-day can hardly appreciate all of the difficulties under
which young Walter labored ; and the foresight and determination which
he displayed in his preparation for the profession to which he had deter-
mined to devote himself were certainly very remarkable. The results
showed in after-years. And his exceptional progress, when once fairly
started in his business, must have been largely due to this previous training.

In 1828, he again became a pupil of Mr. Strickland, and, under the
latter’s instructions, he remained for two more years, devoting himself
exclusively to the study of architecture.

How few would have done this! One would have thought that, after
these seven years of study, the temptation to commence business for him-
self, now at the age of twenty-four, would have been irresistible. But it
was not until the year 1830 that he commenced the practice of his profes-
sion.

The following year he designed the Philadelphia County Prison, his
first important work (his appointment as architect taking place on October
14, 1831), and the entire structure was erected in accordance with his
plans, and under his personal superintendence.

Tn 1838, the Select and Common Councils of Philadelphia adopted his
design for Girard College, the corner-stone of the main building being laid
on the fourth of July of the same year, and the structure carried on to its
completion in 1847, altogether from his designs, and under his charge.

The Building Committee of the college sent him to Europe in 1838, in
order that he might examine into the practical workings of the various
institutions of learning in Great Britain and on the Continent, as to ques-
tions of health, convenience, and comfort; so that the experience of these
institutions, and a study of the various devices and appointments there
adopted for furthering these ends, might prove useful in fitting up and
furnishing the buildings of the college. His instructions also included
the investigation of building improvements in general.

He left New York July 7, reaching Liverpool on the 28th of the same
month, and returned November 22, after a boisterous passage of thirty -
two days, making a trip of about four and a half months.

G
Wilson. ] 324. [Dec. 21,

When it is remembered that fifty years ago very few railroads existed,
and that a considerable quantity of Mr. Walter’s time was consumed in
crossing the ocean by packet ships, it will be seen that he accomplished
a large amount of work in a very short period, and that he displayed great
energy in his mission. For it is found that he examined the leading insti-
tutions of England ; then went to Paris, and thence to Italy, stopping at
Dijon and Geneva, crossing the Alps by the Simplon, and spending some
time in Milanand Florence. Afterthis he went to Rome, and then crossed
over, by post, to Civita Vecchia, where he embarked on a Mediterranean
steamer for Marseilles, taking Leghorn and Genoa on his way. From
Marseilles, he went, by post, back to Paris, and, after further researches
there, returned to London. His journey continued to Liverpool and Dub-
lin ; thence, by way of the north of Ireland, to Scotland, and back, through
Newcastle-on-Tyne, York and Manchester, to Liverpool, whence he
sailed for home. One could hardly have done better, even in these days
of rapid railroad traveling.

The valuable information which he gained was submitted in an elabo-
rate report, containing a full account of the improvements and devices
which had been adopted, in the various institutions he had visited, for
promoting cleanliness, comfort, and convenience ; and the Girard College
buildings were afterward finished and fitted up in accordance with his
suggestions.

Mr. Walter was requested by the Government of Venezuela, in 1843, to
visit La Guayra, and to make an examination of the port, for the purpose of
considering the feasibility of building a mole, or breakwater, that would
shelter the quay from the violence of the sea, and would allow more
facility in the discharging of cargoes.

He sailed in July of that year, arrived at La Guayra, after a voyaged of
twenty days, and immediately proceeded to Caracas, for the purpose of
consulting the authorities ; after which he returned to La Guayra, made a
survey of the harbor, took soundings, studied the tides, currents, and
winds, and gathered historic data in connection with the question. He
then prepared his designs, specifications, and estimates, all of which were
approved by the Government; and on October 12, 1843, he entered into
a contract for the execution of the work.

He returned home at once, and, after making all the necessary prepara-
tions, departed again for La Guayra, on October 12, 1844, with some
competent workmen, and a cargo of materials, machinery, and other appa-
ratus—all of which arrived safely at their destination. The work was
commenced immediately, pushed with vigor, and rapidly brought to
completion.

Mr. Walter’s eldest son accompanied him, as assistant engineer, but
died of the fever of the country soon after his arrival.

There were many difficulties to encounter, but they were met with his
usual energy ; and the work was finished, and officially accepted by the
Government, October 24, 1845.

1888, ] 325 { Wilson.

On June 11, 1851, Mr. Walter was appointed architect of the exten-
sion to the United States Capitol, at Washington, by Millard Fillmore,
President. His plans for the work were adopted, and he was directed to
proceed with their execution. The new dome to the building, which was
not at first intended, was afterwards included in his commission.

This work was really the crowning achievement of Mr. Walter’s life,
and he was well worthy of the appointment. No man in the profession,
at that day, was more deserving of it ; and his studies and training pecu-
liarly fitted him for the type of architecture which the problem demanded.

Standing in view of that building to-day, enlightened with all the ad-
vancement in architecture that has taken place in this country, with such
immense strides, during the past fifteen years, the most exacting .critic
must acknowledge that it is anoble and commanding pile, with its incom-
parable dome crowning the mass, and adding dignity and repose to the
whole.

Mr. Walter held this appointment for fourteen years, and, during. the
same time, planned and executed, for the Government, the extension of
the General Post Office, and the east and west wings of the Patent Office.
He also designed the new Treasury building, the Marine barracks at
Brooklyn, N. Y., and at Pensacola, Florida, and the Government Hospital
for the Insane, at Washington. :

In 1852, after the old Congressional Library was destroyed by fire,: Mr.
Walter was engaged to prepare designs for its reconstruction, which he
afterwards executed. The work comprised many new features in archi-
tectural practice, and was, in its construction, ‘fire-proof throughout,

On the completion of his work on the Capitol building, in 1865, Mr.
Walter resigned from his position and returned to Philadelphia, retiring
from the active practice of his profession, and intending to devote his time,
for the balance of his life, to scientific and literary pursuits, and to the
advancement of art. In addition to the works already mentioned, he had
designed and executed numerous public buildings in his native city and
throughout the country ; besides which, he had had an extensive private
practice. :

But Providence does not always dispose of things as man proposes.
Unfortunate investments reduced the'savings of years so seriouslythat,
in 1873, Mr. Walter was compelled to dispose of his comfortable German-
town home, to take a smaller and cheaper house in the city, and, at‘the
age of nearly seventy years, to recommence the practice of his profession.

To illustrate the character of the man, it may be said here, that he .en-
tered the service of the writer (who was then an officer of the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad Company), as an assistant by courtesy, although really
with the duties of a draftsman, occupying a position far below: his
capacity, it being the only available opportunity for immediate regular
employment ; and with Christian cheerfulness and resignation he attended
to the daily work devolving upon him for more than a year, until the
architect of the City Hall was enabled to offer him a position more in-ac-
cordance with his professional standing.

wrkon.] 326 [Dec. 21,

Tt was in this close personal relation with Mr. Walter that the writer
learned to know, to love and to respect him; to cement a friendship and
té acquire an admiration for him which never were broken

Mr. Walter continued his connection with the architectural department
of the City Hall until his death, which took place at 7 A.M., on Sunday,
October 30, 1887, at the ripe age of over eighty-three years.

“The days of our age are three-score years and ten ; and though men be
sq strong that they come to four-score years, yet is their strength then but
labor and sorrow ; so soon passeth it away, and we are gone.”

Providence was kind to him; and while his later years were full of
labor and sorrow in one sense, yet the sorrow was tempered with his own
habitual cheerfulness, the love of his family and friends, a house to cover
his head, and provision for daily wants, if no more.

Mr. Walter possessed naturally a vigorous and healthy constitution ;
and although rejected at one time by a life insurance company on account
of a supposed heart trouble, yet he told the writer once that he had never
had an illness in his life that required the attendance of a physician.
While in his later years, his powers gradually failed, still he held out,
even to the end, and was up and about the house the day before he died.

Mr. Walter was twice married ; and he had thirteen children, seven of
whom still survive him. His descendants include thirty-four grandchil-
dren and eleven great-grandchildren.

Mr. Walter received the honorary degree of Master of Arts from the
Madison University of New York, in 1849; that of Doctor of Philosophy
from the University of Lewisburg, Pa., in 1853, and Doctor of Laws from
Harvard University in 1857. In the year 1860, he delivered a course of
lectures on ‘Architecture’ before the students of Columbia College, D.
C.; and he also delivered from time to time many popular lectures on the
same subject in Philadelphia and its vicinity.

In 1836, he endeavored, with some others, to form an American Insti- ,
tution of Architects; but the efforts to make a permanent organization
failed, on account of the members of the profession in this country, at that
time, being few in number, and widely scattered. When a second effort
was made in 1857, and the present American Institute of Architects was
founded, Mr. Walter took an active part in the work, and continued it
through his life. He was made a Fellow in that year, and, on the retire-
ment of its first President, in 1876, he was elected President—an oflice he
filled continuously from year to year until his death. Mr. Walter was
elected a member of the Franklin Institute in 1829, and one of its Board
of Managers in 1830. He took great interest in matters connected with
that Institute, was a frequent contributor to the pages of its Journal, and
was elected Professor of Architecture in 1840. The Report of the Boar
of Managers for that year states that ‘“‘ Mr. Walter has just closed his
series of lectures for the present season ; and the Board feel that, in bring-
fng a mind like his, clothed with all the knowledge and experience which
ptaces the resources of that art, both ancient and modern, tributary to the

1888. ] . 327 [Wilgon.

illustration of his subject, they have not only contributed to the advance-
ment of the class in a proper appreciation of the beautiful in building, buat
likewise connected that knowledge with the expressive and high-wrought
poetry with which the grand but crumbling monuments of skill have
been commemorated.”’

Mr. Walter held the position of Chairman of the Board of Managers of
the Franklin Institute during the year 1846.

Mr. Walter was elected a member of the American Philosophical So-
ciety on October 18, 1839, and at the time of his death had been a mem-
ber for forty eight years. His deep interest in scientific research and in
all matters connected with the promoting of useful knowledge, led him to
take an active part in the Society ; and his face was a familiar one at is
meetings, so Jong as his age and physical condition allowed him to attend
them.

He was a true Christian gentleman of the old school; a Baptist by pro-

«fession, active in his church, courteous and dignified in his manners, and
one whose presence will be missed by his friends until they, too, follaw
him.

He fulfilled his mission in this world well; and, at an age beyond that
usually allotted to man, he departed to his reward.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXv. 128. 2p. PRINTED Jan. 5, 1889.

[NDE TOOL aay.

Stated Meetings Held.

Page. Page.

US88; Jamueny Or. e. oie a en 1 | 1608, MAYES Secs i ea eee os A 195

PONURLV ZO ee ge Sex oer eas 111 September 7

MObTUedtyeD Ji cc aienies sh cnllarh cs 118 | September 21 oils

POOUURIV 17. ci, sb a ek i7,| WOCOCT Ose ea ae a sc

Math Aor Gra a eg Pet eres 119 | October 192 a. 4

March l6.. Rie Wet: 8 122 November 2.

ADT Ger os gee ee we 125 November 16

POE ee et. 8s 148 | December. 7s... =

Mave ie Pte be ip | December gre. Eos IU)

New Members Elected.
February 17, 1888.

NG, 2146, Ci, BAjOUS ek 118 | No. 2149. Alexander Biddle... .... 118
No. 2150. Edmund B. Wilson. ..... 118

May 18, 1888.

No. 2161, Talcott Williams... . . . .486 +o. 2152, J. McK. Cattell. . . 2 02. 196
No. 2153. Alphonse Favre.:...3.. 196

December 21, 1888.

No. 2154. Arthur Biddle... ..... . 821| No. 2155. Marchese Antonio dé Gregorio.321

Decease of Members.

WV, ayer ses iak as Gerd ee aie a cdo uh abo Fitey BI:h vay yO CLD al Ng eeN ag ae es 19
UGA GRA Cia a er ot Hy dG Rev. CW. King of coe eo ae 197
Hetiny Sumner Maine. . 43 66 Soe 118 | Rev. J. Freeman Clarke... . 3.3197
By Bowyer Miller. sc: 4.5, vas oes 127 | Sit George Burrows 7... G esis LOL
DMULOS Op eOOb Os os Ameuleent bos da Ore Convilli Lewis ¢ 228: gS 197
JOSEP ACHIIMAVEN 5440 iS 2. i aceet To bichard) Al Proctomavcd . Qaucsic a Se0B
GOV GM IRRUN ae Soe as Soe iv6 | Jonn Price Wether[.. . 2... 2. 2 O08
Unspar Winter. ss a 320

Resignation of Members.
Russell THAVer. 6 so. 2s 6 ss eee 2110 | Robert Pa Marhign a) og oS ee OUS
Written Communications.

AgBport, H. C. DES.
On the Occurrence of a Series of New Crystalline Compounds in Higher Plants , 124

Brinton, DANIEL G.

The Language of Pateolithic Man... 55. eel. soe : Sein <eWl oe 4 ct ee

Obituary Notice Pailin Bi: Laws kant at wae Pet ou obs
Copr, E. D.

On the Dicotyline of the John Day Miocene of North America. ...... « « 62

On the Mechanical Origin of the Dentition of the Amblypoda (illustrated)... 80

Du Bots, PATTERSON. :
Obituary Notice of James C; Booth: .. . 0. eo eS Oia we A gon so ee 4 204

330

Duets, ALFREDO. Page.
Sur deux espéces nouvelles des Ophidiens de Mexique (with illustrations) . . . 181

FRAZER, PeRSIFOR.
Report on the Geology of Eastern Cuba. .... ar nire cree er gan ae May ia 123

Hancock, Josepra bL.
Description of Datames magna Hancock (with a plate). .... Bia ogne 6a » 107

Haupt, L. M,

Physical Phenomena of Harbor Entrances (with seven maps and plates)... . 19

Houston, E. J.
On some Possible Methods for the Preparation of Gramophone and Telephone
INCOUIGS aia oo Wee aiteun Gere sym eee wes ME Pore Cr RCs ja vesarn OE pracy y ak SA!

Hunt, T. Sterry.

The Classification and Nomenclature of Metalline Minerals. .......... 170
JORDAN, FRANCIS, JR.

Aboriginal Pottery of the Middle Atlantic States 25... - woes be ee wee 104
Knyes, CHARLES R.

On the Attachment of Platyceras to Paleocrinoids, and its Effects in Modify-

ing the Form of the Shell (with plate). .... BG 8 Sulc Fen ate FR ee 231
Kine, C. W.
Epitaph of Mi Verrlus PACs. >is iwi w sul we) ee WW 6 ele sie ee Me Cenawne 55

Krauss, Frieprericu 8.
Ibrahim Nuki¢. Ein Guslarenlied der Mohammedanischen Slaven in der Her-
Cegovined «Gas Ww hae ek OE! DR oe ee eae HN Soe 183

Law, Puriir H.
Observations on Gildas and the Uncertainties of Early English History... . . 182

Lrstty, J. P.
Obituary Notice of Werdinand V, Haydét.2 133346 ke 8 A Vhs OO

Meyer, Orro.
On Miocene Invertebrates from Virginia (with a plate). ......6...e.-. 135

Mooney, JAMES.
The Kuneral Customs of: Ireland, . 1.55 26. be eit ey ew tee Wh ke es 243

Puiiures, Henry, JR.
First Contribution to the Study of the Folk-lore of Philadelphia and its Vicinity 159

Smith, AuBREY H.
Catex MiInaris MICHAUR ¢ osc es nbs 6s we ee AN ieee Joab eee O20.

Smitu, Epear F.
Action of the Gas from As,03 and HNO: upon m-Oxybenzoic Acid... ..9.... 194

STOWELL, T. B.

The Glosso-pharyngeal Nerve in the Domestic Cat (with aplate)........ 89
The Accessory Nerve in the Domestic Cat (with a plate).......... . 94
The Hypoglossal Nerve in the Domestic Cat (with aplate) ........e.e. 99

Unter, P. R.

The Albirupean Formation and its Nearest Relativesin Maryland (with a map) 42

tt

331

Wiuson, Joserx M. Page.
Biggwphical Novice:of Thomas Us Waltetes vc cirvks oy ele ee ea a hk «O22

Miscellaneous.

Amended Orthography, Letter from the Commission of the Legislature of Pennsyl-

vania relating to... . 7. : Sore ec te, Camus eee ee
Committee appointed to consider thee BANG 5. tg oa ele owe eet aE)
Annual Hlection of Oficers and Council reported... . 2... 6... i
Aztec MSS,, Committee Appointed to ascertain Cost of their Reproduction... . 306, 809
lection of Members. .-. 652.57. s 67 i ane ert vee reat? 2 (ACen) oes ety iu 8 118, 196, 320
MX CHAN ECS OTUCLCM ee ieee cus se 6s 197, 200
Henry M. Phillips’ Prize Essay Fund.
Letter from Miss Emily Phillips presenting $5000 to found same... ....... 297
Society accepts the gift, and appoints a Committee to consider and draft rules for
the administration ofthe same .......... Be ar es 298
Committee Reports: .. 2... oS Nee a aie eon Sc bee SIO 804, 805
URE DOTU OOO PICU ilar eh ery Oy ge woe 2 B09
Rules and Regulations forthe same........., Sonne ee are A 3809
Horn, Dr., exhibits Pleocoma from California... ..... ice any ree hee 116
Humboldt’s portrait presented... ......... ee pe error Eas + 42.16,120
(IDTB TIAN OMIM ACO. eevee oY 8 Me Abe ds Ga ue a a 18
MISCtGG: vsti ie eta a a See rer oa es Lig
Linguo Internacia. .... eels ese Chie ee ie es ge ee ee 6 5 OUD
Magellanic Premium, receipt of, ecenewiedeed by Brot; DM) Haupt... 2 fs 8
Michaux Committee reporta <2 7.) 66h es Fbretp es 4G 4 ye ar iy, shee, 3808
Michaux Legacy, interest tecelved 3.66 hse 6 Sa cs bees os 116; 204 302
Appropriation of, to be considered by Council... ...... Cee re a 116
TO bemeid to the Treasurer 6 6 oe es ei i ee - 802
Lectures to be delivered by Dr. Rothrock ......... Mi Were we eee gre ts 305
Miniites of Oiicers and: Council submiltiedis si. 66 so ee eG 118, 196, 805
Nominations read. .... Ree ea nh rere Meise eer 196, 200, 204, 304, 305, 308
NVIUHGUAWH, S00 sca ce Cee ee te ee es eG ee 299
Pasilingusec.6 val. 5 es Woe We Sees See ee eo a ee vs LOL, 808
Phillips, Henry, Jr., gives an account of the origin of the Congo Free State... ... 804
Pleocoma €xhipited ;-.3... 2... 6. We OE, 5 eae ores Sits on eV biel ee ce ose eee dO
Publicatiou-Committee reports... 64's 6 4. sen se ee Misti s Be se 809
Sargent, Prof., prepares for publication the Diary of André Michaux... .. ool a 3 002
Committee reports in fayor of its publication... ...5........% rae ic)
Society appoints Delegates to the celebration at Bologna. ......... «ee 4 dle
Authorizes sale Of 610,000 Clty odin Tecate we a 118
Authorizes the printing of Mooney’s paper. .......... Ce Me an - . 804
Breanne? s PAPEL 4 5. ss wa es ek ee 5 UO
MOMmocrepaper. . i 6 eet ee ee + 6 O20
RaTSONi A PRED. 666. we ee cr Paaeaae oe 0 66 O04
Discusses the Water Supply of Philadelphia... ....... Sie eee ee eo 150
Orders papers to be complete upon presentation, and all alterations to be at
BHUtHOrs: OXPense 6 6a ee es EE OE OS Fess ae we O00
Receives Report of Delegate to Bologna. ..... ee er at oak as Cates ae 4 LUO
Resolves to call a Congress to frame an International Language.......... 17
Receives gift of Portrait of Alexander von Humboldt... ......406. 116, 120
MiG CIS COM MITCER APOLLO: iisrw cet ecace ys we eons yee ee bude Mul Uo ae 118
Transactions, papers Offered for the. 0). 5. eee ee ee 118, 118, 120, 200, 204, 299, 801
Baro. LE Vol. Xvi, IsSSQeG <6. 2. vk eee ore a Pe oes erty)
renter Report Dreseuted cs ke 209

Volapiik, Committee to examine into the scientific value of, reports .... . . 8,18, 312

ALY § PROCEEDINGS

VA "6 ee ce : OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AY PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

A Vou. XXV. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1888. No. 127.
. TABLE OF CONTENTS.
@ PAGE
: Stated Meeting, January 6, 1888.........00000e * 1
: Report on, Vola pik: sc cs ce os eee cece ee een eee iss 3
i. Physical Phenomena of Harbor Entrances. By ‘Lewis M. Haupt
i CUTE SOUR MAPA ONLO, DUMNES) o60 3s Ce ee ws Owes ei tie eee 19
b The Albirupean Formation and its Nearest Relatives in Maryland.
c By 2 RUiler Obith & map). 22s cts es oo es 42
Hiptiaph of My Verrius Elaccus. By Rev, 0. W. Ming... .c..c.cc: 55
} Obituary Notice of Ferdinand V. Hayden, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D.
ge heey CIR ee aS ee ee 59
On the Dicotyline of the John Day Miocene of North America.
BY M.D Cope 6s ove iba ee pee 62
On the Mechanical Origin of the Dentition of the Amblypoda. By
HD. Cope Quasir (hed). es se on ot ss oc, Sens ec 80
The Glosso-pharyngeal Nerve in the Domestic Cat. By T. B
Stowell (with @ Plate)... 1s. cereecreec seer eceeee esse csencecenees 89
The Accessory Nerve in the Domestic Cat. By 7. B. Stowell (with
UO DUGNE) ai ny se eds se og aspect ey seeder. o 8 94
The Hypoglossal Nerve in the Domestic Cat. By "TB. Stowell
GUI PONE) rs os vs wa sk we oe se es oe ae 99
Aboriginal Pottery of the Middle Atlantic States. > By Francis Jor-
LOE AP EE CORO NS GA GI Fn a 104
Description of Datames magna Hancock. By Joseph L. Hancock
CA0TUle DLE oak en fe Nk en Ocean Sess eee 107
Stated Meeting, January DO TSSB. er as ee
Stated Meeting, February 3, 1888.1... sete sas 113
Stated Meeting, February 17, 1888........00.006 a Bis
Stated Meeting, March 2, 1888....... ters ccege 119
Stated Meehny, March 16, 1888 «avec ees. es 6 122
Siated Meeting, April 6, 1888. 6.360, ok ae ce ces 125
Observations on Gildas and the Uncertainties of Early English
History: 2 BY PUD Ae 0a ie mes oh oy eects Vaubee 132
On oo Invertebrates from Virginia. By Otto Meyer (with a -
DUGLE) soe Sutera as Sales Cogn Uo ose osu oh cee sere ental ors 135
On oe Possible Methods for the Preparation of Gramophone and
oeenene Records. By Hdwin J. Houston..... ere estes sce 14d
Stated Meeting, April 20, 1888....... mee bis Cl . 148
: Stated Meeting, May 4, 1888... Se: 153

(es It is requested that the receipt of this number be acknowledged.
(aS In order to secure prompt attention it is requested that all corre-
spondence be addressed simply ‘‘To the Secretaries of the American |

Philosophical Society, 104 8. Fifth St., Philadelphia.”

PUBLISHED FOR THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY —
BY 2
MacCALLA & COMPANY, —
NOS. 237-9 DOCK STREET, PHILADELPHIA,

EXTRACT FROM THE By-LAWS.

CHAPTER XII.

OF THE MAGELLANIC FUND.

SEcTION 1. John Hyacinth de Magellan, in London, having in the year
1786 offered to the Society, as a donation, the sum of two hundred guineas,
to be by them vested in a secure and permanent fund, to the end that
the interest arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in pre-
miums, to be adjudged by them to the author of the best discovery, or
most useful invention, relating to Navigation, Astronomy, or Natural
Philosophy (mere natural history only excepted); and the Society
having accepted of the above donation, they hereby publish the condi-
tions, prescribed by the donor and agreed to by the Society, upon which
the said annual premiums will be awarded,

CONDITIONS OF THE MAGELLANIC PREMIUM.

1. The candidate shall send his discovery, invention or improvement, —

addressed to the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society,
free of postage or other charges; and shall distinguish his performance
by some motto, device, or other signature, at his pleasure. Together
with his discovery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a

sealed letter containing the same motto, device, or signature, and sub- -

scribed with the real name and place of residence of the author.

2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be ad-
mitted as candidates for this premium.

8. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.

4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.

5. All such communications shall be publicly read or exhibited to the
Society at some stated meeting, not less than one month previous to the
day of adjudication, and shall at all times be open to the inspection of
such members as shall desire it. But no member shall carry home with

*

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE,

Von. XXY. .. JuLY TO DECEMBER, 1888. No. 128.
TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE.
First Contribution to the Folk-lore of Philadelphia and its Vicinity.
By Henry) Pipa Its, eos, v6 veh esas aes oinihs so cose le ote e 159
The Classification and Nomenclature of Metalline Minerals. By 7.
Sterry Hunt...» BORE OAS RAN iC ene TNO a dcae se CncociD 170
Sur deux espéces nouvelles des Ophidiens ds Mexique. Par
AUUCUODUGES cca se eelcl acess Se case cet ces eees is edocs SL
Ibrahim Nukié. Ein Guslarenlied der Mohammedanischen Slaven
in der Hercegovina. Von Dr. Friedrich 8. Krauss... .....<5<+6 183
Action of the Gas from As,O; and HNO, upon m-Oxybenzoie Acid.
By BOG0i TBM Nese sce Oo ete sie ca cs wslek « 8% a ee GOs 194
Stated Meeting, May 18, 1888....... Pee er re sen AE)
Stated Meeting, September 7, 1888. ....e.cceeees 197
Stated Meeting, September 21, 1888..........4 200
Biographical Notice of James Curtis Booth, Ph.D., LL.D. By Pat-
terson’ DuBois......0.. Geie Sos Whee 6s SE a ewsigiah Ove pee ames Os 0 oe 204

The Language of Paleolithic Man. By Doe G. Br inton, MD: 212
Obituary Notice of Philip H. Law, Esq. By Daniel G. Brinton,

MD oe s.4 dives SOc eos Us EVN vous) ces cee pe en ee eee eu)
On the Attachment of Platyceras to Paleocrinoids, and its Effects

in Modifying the Form of the Shell. By Charles R. Keyes (with

NGO) vnc sa oes eae Wibweeee ase os pial np aiding es ee a Scat ee Ok
The Funeral Customs of Ireland. By James Mooney...........+ . «248
Stated Meeting, October 5, 1888.....+. e008 ie te Ue
Stdted Meeting, October 19, 1888...... Fe serene 299
Stated Meeting, November 2,°1888., <<. cscs ae eats OOS
Stated. Meeting, November 16, 1888.....e.ceeeees 804
Stated Meeting, December 7, 1888... ......00.005 307
Stated Meeting, December 21, 1888...-...--.. 319

Biographical Notice of Thomas Ustick Walter, A.M., Ph. 5,
LED. By Joseph I, Wils0iipce. cos ccs caecs cess sts SS ee 822

(2§" It is requested that the receipt of this number be acknuwledged.
ies" In order to secure prompt attention it is requested that all corre-
spondence be addressed simply ‘‘To the Secretaries of the American

eM EN ulate 104.8. Fifth St., Philadelphia.”*

PUBLISHED FOR THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

BY
MacCALLA & COMPANY,
NOS. 237-9 DOCK STREET, PHILADELPHIA,

EXTRACT FROM THE BY-LAWS.

CHAPTER XII.

OF THE MAGELLANIC FUND.

SECTION 1. John Hyacinth de Magellan, in London, having in the year
1786 offered to the Society, as a donation, the sum of two hundred guineas,
to be by them vested in a secure and permanent fund, to the end that
the interest arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in pre-
miums, to be adjudged by them to the author of the best discovery, or
most useful invention, relating to Navigation, Astronomy, or Natural
Philosophy (mere natural history only excepted); and the Society
having accepted of the above donation, they hereby publish the condi-
tions, prescribed by the donor and agreed to by the Society, upon which
the said annual premiums will be awarded.

CONDITIONS OF THE MAGELLANIC PREMIUM.

1. The candidate shall send his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society,
free of postage or other charges ; and shall distinguish his performance
by some motto, device, or other signature, at his pleasure. Together
with his discovery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a
sealed letter containing the same motto, device, or signature, and sub-
scribed with the real name and place of residence of the author.

2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be ad-
mitted as candidates for this premium.

3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.

4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.

5. All such communications shall be publicly read or exhibited to the
Society at some stated meeting, not less than one month previous to the
day of adjudication, and shall at all times be open to the inspection of
such members as shall desire it. But no member shall carry home with

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