- €alcutta:

(LA &
PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA

HISTORY “G &%

OF THE PRINCIPAL DRU
OF V#HGETABLE UORIGIR,
BRITISH INDIA

BY.
WILLIAM DYMOCK,
BRIGADE-SU RGEON, RETIRED,
LATE PRINCIPAL MEDICAL STGREKEEPER TO GOVEKNMENT,

C. J. H. WARDEN, DAVID HOOPE: 2, Ghar
SURGEON-MAJOR, BENGAL ARMY, QUINOLOGIST TO THE GOV14RN- ee
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN AND ay
THE OALCUTTA MEDICAL
COLLEGE,

MENT OF MADRAS,

OCOTACAMUND,

aeaaekt (VC

| Zonton:—KUGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Go “Lo,
| Bombay :—EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS, BYCULLA.
—THACKER, SPINK & Co.

1892,

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA... By W. Dymocr, C. J. H.
WarpDEN, AND Davip Hooper. Parr IV.*

Tux undertaking of the authors, in the preface of the first volume,
to supplement the previous work published by Dr. Dymock with
original investigation concerning the chemical composition and
physiological action of Indian drugs, and to give toxicological
statistics relating to the more important drugs, has been most
conscientiously carried out. Consequently the present part, which
completes the second volume, does not extend further than Nicotiana
Tabacum, and the two volumes already published contain, as nearly
as possible, twice as much matter as can be found in the ‘ Materia
Medica of Western India,’ up to the same point, Yet there still
remains enough matter to be treated of to fill at least one more
volume. Several new alkaloids have been discovered during the
chemical examination to which some of the hitherto unexamined
articles of materia medica have been subjected. Of these some have
received a name, but of others only sufficient has been obtained to
indicate their presence, Of those which have received a name may
be mentioned—Bahmanine from red behen root; Nyctanthine from
Nyctanthes arbor tristis; Jasminine from Jasminum grandifiorum ;
Salvadorine from Salvadora persica; Tylophorine from Tylophora
asthmatica ; Demine from Demia extensa; and Cuscutine from a
species of Cuscuta. A neéw glucoside, to which the name of Dregein
has been given, has been discovered in Dregea volubilis, an asclepia-
daceous plant, and another, viz., gymnemic acid, in Gymiema
ileite>, a plant belonging to the same natural order.

Toxicological statistics form a marked feature in the present
volume, the recorded cases of poisoning by Plumbago rosea, Nertum
odorum, nux vomica and stramonium are given in a tabulated form.
The last two appear to be the poisons most commonly in use for
criminal purposes in India, for the tables extend over twenty-seven
pages in the case of nux vomica and thirty-two in that of
stramonium. In some instances interesting information is contri-

© Saliten « Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co. 1891. Demy
pp. 305-644,

i

buted concerning plants that are common in this country, but of
. which the medicinal properties are almost unknown here. . Thus
Anagallis arvensis is said to be used in India as a fish poison and to
kill leeches, and Orfila’s statement to the effect that three drachms
of an extract of the plant proved fatal to a dog, and M. Gronier’s
that the plant has a poisonous effect on hares is probably known to
but few. Sonchus oleraceus, a common weed in this country, is
mentioned as possessing active hydrogogue properties and being
likely to be useful in ascites and hydrothorax, Pharatedographick
Indica’ thus forms a work, the usefulness of which is by no means
confined to India. Being brought quite up to date, it will be found
very valuable for purposes of reference on materia medica generally.
Here and there throughout the volume interesting historical notes
appear. In one of these, nepenthe is identified with henbane, Baron
Hammer Purgstall’s observation to this effect being quoted.
“ Bendj,” the plural of which in Coptie is ‘“*nibendj,” re without
doubt the same plant as nepenthe, which has so much perplexed the
commentators of Homer, Helen evidently brought the nepenthe
from Egypt, and bendj is there still reputed to possess all the
wonderful qualities which Homer attributes to it.
‘ Pharmacographia Indica,’ like its namesake, isa work of reference
that no student of materia medica can afford to be without, and
which is not only valuable for the accuracy of its statements, but so
far as its historical matter concerns cannot fail to prove most
interesting to the student of Eastern languages, almost as much so
as to the student of materia medica. The articles on poisons also _
_ should prove of great value to medical. jurists, more particularly in
‘India. Even the indefatigable searcher for new remedies will pro-
bably find scope for his energies in the long list of articles of
medica as yet untried in this country. One of the most
promisi. -§ of these seems to be Cosmostigmu racemosum, the root=
bark of which, in doses of five grains, has been found by the
authors to be “ a most efficient. cholagogue, without purgative effect,
but restoring the natural colour of the stools after the usual reme-

dies, “mineral, Or dee red ete., had bases aban-
doned in despair.

iii

©. J. H. Warden, David Hooper, authors. Part ay pages 305—
642, with Index to second volume.
In noticing preceding numbers of this monk which have come. to
hand we have remarked that these authors are doing work for the
materia medica of India, which for completeness, value and interest
entitled it to compare with the work done by Fliickiger and Han-

bury in their famous Pharmacographia.

In the present number we have in the pages before us an account
of about 100 drugs, which represent the following orders: Com-
posite, Campanulaces, Ericacese, Plumbaginex, Primulacee, Myr-
sinew, Sapotacee, Ebenacew, Styracee, Oleacew, Salvadoracee,
Apocynaces, Asclepiadew, Loganiacew, Gentianacee, Boraginer,
Convolvulaceee, Solanacee.

The excellence of the contributions will receive the acknowledg-
ment of all botanists, and the reliability of the material is assured
from the names of the authors, hence the work may be regarded as
having all the information at present known of the respective drugs —
mentioned. The contributions to science by these gentlemen entitle
them to warm praise. (Pharm, Record. July 30th, 1891.)

Pharmacographia Indica,—A History of the principal Drugs of
Vegetable Origin met with in India, By Wm. Dymock, Brigade-
Surgeon, retired, ete,; C. J. H. Warden, Surgeon-Major, Bengal
Army, ete.; and D. Hooper, als etc. _ tou don: Kegan
Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. 1891

Part IV. of this work, now oe us, completes its second volume,
and besides several orders of minor importance treats of the drugs
procured from the orders of Sapotacem, Styracem, Apocynacee,
Asclepiadew, Loganiacew, Gentianacew, Convolvulacex, and Solan-
acewx, This part is characterized by all the excellencies upon which
we have commented in connection with the preceding parts on their
publication. Among the plants a number are noticed which are
either indigenous or spontaneous in North America, like chicory,
taraxacum, Sonchus oleraceus, Anagallis arvensis, dulcamara, Stin<
monium, ete.; while others are cultivated either for ornament OF
other purposes, like Tagetes erecta, calendula, jessamine, oleander, =
Ipomea Bona-nox, capsicum, tobacco and others. Far more nasi
ous are those plants which are either indigenous to India or have
become naturalized there from other tropical countries, (Ame

Tourn, of Pharmacy. Ca 1891,) foe

iv

Part VI is in the Press and will be ready at-Midsummer.
pendix, together with a copious Index of more than 1 0

app
double-column pages, is under preparation, and will be published as
soon as the work is completed, ve

PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA.

SCROPHULARINE.

VERBASCUM THAPSUS, Tann.

Fig.—£ng. Bot. viit., t. 549; Woodv. Med. Bot., #. 125,
Great Mullein (Zng.), Bouillon blanc, Moléne (F*.).

Hab.—Temperate Himalaya. Westwards to Britain,
The root, leaves, and flowers.

Vernacular.—Philla, Ban-tambéké ( Hind.),

History, Uses, &c.—The Hindi names for this plant
are well chosen: Phiilla signifies “covered with flowers ” and
Ban-tambaékt “wild tobacco.” As far as we know it is not
mentioned by Sanskrit medical writers. The Arabians describe
it under the names of Adin-ed-dubb, “ bear’s-car,”’ and Mahizah-
raj, ‘‘fish poison’’; it is also called Sikrén-el-hut, ‘fishes’ hem~
lock,” and in modern Arabic, idat-el-baida, “ white felt
plant, ” and Busir.

Mahizahreh and Busir are Persian names for Mullein, which
is deseribed very exactly by Haji Zein in the Ikhtiérét.

Mahometan physicians consider it to be hot and dry i in the
third degree, and ‘prescribe it in gout and rheumatism in com-
bination with aperients. They identify it with the ¢dspos or
Propis of the Greeks of which several kinds are described by
Dioscorides as useful in diarrhwa and cough, and externally
as an emollient; one kind, $Aoyis kuywris, was used for

— The nareotic action of cn

g SCROPHULARINES.

be well known to the Arabs and Persians. According to
Dr. Stewart, the roots are used in Northern India as 4
febrifuge.

In Europe Mullein has ae had a reputation in the pul-
monary diseases of cattle, on which account it bears the name
‘of Cow’s Lungwort. In Germany the plant is placed in grana-
ries to drive away mice. The stalks covered with pitch were ~
formerly used as flambeaux, from this practice the plant derived
its names of Cierge de Notre-Dame and Fleur de grand Chandeler
in France,-and High Taper in England. The leaves and flowers
are considered to be demulcent, diuretic, anodyne, and anti-
spasmodic, and have long been in use in diarrhea and pulmonary
affections. An infusion of the flowers is used in France as 4
diuretic, anda cataplasm of the leaves as an emollient. The —

seeds are said to be narcotic, and to have been used in asthma 4
and infantile convulsions. In 1883 Dr. F. J. B. Quinlan (Brit. a :
Med. Journ.) drew attention to the popular use of the leaves 4 :
boiled in milk as a remedy for phthisical cough and diarrhea in 4
Treland, and stated that the plant was cultivated in gardens on

rather an extensive scale.
and curative powers similar to those possessed by cod liver oil.
~ Description.—The root-leaves are from 6 to 18 inches 10 a

He claims for it weight-increasing q ;

length, the cauline oblong, the upper ones being acuminate and q 1
sessile on the stem, more or less crenate, thickly covered with

what bitter taste, and a disagreeable odour when fresh, which is : |
lost on drying. |
The flowers form a spike 6 to 10 inches in length, the corolla : ’
| only i is collected. It is from 4 to ?inch in diameter, bright —
~ yellow, 5-lobed, smooth - aboye, and - stellately tomentose
_ beneath; attached to the tube are the stamens, of which the |

_ thre 1 ae lower jonger, and se |

it, whitish, stellate hairs. They have a mucilaginous some: s

+

ON es ol ll

4

| water acidified with hydrochloric acid. When agitated with
__ petroleum ether the acid solution yielded some colour to it,

Pada to be an easily , daca compo

SOROPHULARINES. er.

The seeds are about z', of an inch in length, cone-shaped,
finely pitted, very tough and difficult to powder, nearly
inodorous, and have a somewhat acrid taste.

Chemical composition.—Morin (Journ. Chim. Med. w., p. 223)
obtained from the flowers a yellow volatile oil, a fatty acid, free
malic and phosphoric acids, malate and phosphate of lime,

_ acetate of potash, uncrystallizable sugar, gum, chlorophyll, and

a yellow resinous colouring matter.

_ Adolph Latin submitted the leaves to proximate analysis and
found the constituents to be 0°50 per cent. of a crystalline wax,
a trace of volatile oil, 0°78 per cent. of resin soluble in ether,
1:00 per cent. of resin insoluble in ether, but soluble in absolute
alcohol, a small quantity of tannin, a bitter principle, sugar,
mucilage, &c.. The moisture in the air-dried sample amounted
to 5°90 per cent., and the ash to 12°60 per cent. He concludes
that the plant contains many of the usual constituents, and a
bitter principle which may be prepared by exhausting the drug
with alcohol, dissolving the alcoholic extract in water and
agitating with ether or chloroform. Several trials failed to
secure this substance in a crystalline condition. It was found |
to be soluble in water, ether, alcohol, and chloroform, and to
possess a decidedly bitter taste. It responded to none of the
tests for a glucoside or alkaloid. (Am. Journ. Pharm
Feb. 1890. E. Li. Janson (1890) found that petroleum ether aia
stronger ether used successively, extracted from the flowers
about 4 per cent. in each case. A decided change i in the colour
of the ei was noticed after the extraction with ether, which
removed the yellow colour, leaving the residue of a dark green.

_ The yellow colouring matter was either a part of, or else it was
retained by, the resin dissolved by ether, and it was not found

possible to Separate it in the pure state. The drug after
exhaustion with ether yielded 10°06 per cent, to absolute alcohol.
A considerable portion of this alcoholic extract was soluble in’

4 SCROPHULARINEZ.

crystalline extractive was obtained by making the above acid —
solution of the alcoholic extract alkaline and agitating with
ether; while chloroform subsequently extracted a red-brown
amorphous mass.

ere 7

Both of these extractives reduced Fehling’s solution, and many
changes in colour were noticed, indicating that these substances
take some part in the colouring matter of the flowers. 4

The drug was also found to contain 2°49 per cent. of mucilage,
11-76 per cent. of carbohydrate corresponding to dextrin, 5°48
per cent, of glucose, 1:29 per cent. of saccharose, 16-76 per cent.
of moisture, 4°11 per cent. of ash, and 82°75 per cent. of —
cellulose and lignin. No reaction indicating tannin was
obtained with iron salts, but an aqueous solution of the alcoholic —
extract yielded a slight precipitate with gelatin. The seeds —
yielded to petroleum ether 20°75 per cent. of a bright green fixed
oil. The acrid principle was obtained.from the aleoholic extract
soluble in water by agitating with petroleum ether. The mois- —
ture was 10°86 per cent., and the ash 3-90 per cent. (Amer. 4 |
Journ. Pharm., Dec. 1890.).

on

gi a

Celsia coromandeliana, Vahl, Wight Ic., ¢. 1406, is 7
an annual plant having the characters of Verbascum, which is |
‘common in many parts of India -in the cold weather, usually —
appearing in fields or in the beds of rivers, It has much the —
same medicinal properties as Verbaseum Thapsus, and has been —
brought to notice by Dr. B. M. Chatterjee asa sedative and —
gent in diarrhea. (Phar. of Ind., p. 161.) The plant is —

‘tightly bitter and abounds in mucilage. The natives usually
express the juice (ang-ras) and administer it in ounce-doses as @ —
cooling medicine in fever, skin eruptions, dysentery, and such —
_ diseases as they consider to be due to heat of blood. :
__ The plant is herbaceous, pubescent, and viscid; lower leaves
lyrate, floral cordate, stem clasping ; 5 Lor longer than the
_ calyx; calyeine segments ovate, sli y toothed, or oblong-
Si ace a

eS PK ee ee ee ee ee See ee —

SCROPHULARINEA:. dD

SCHWEINFURTHIA SPHAROCARPA, .
A. Braun.

Fig.—Burm. F. Ind., t. 39, f. 2; Wight Ic., t. 1459.
Hab.—Aind, Biluchistan, Afghanistan. The herb in fruit.
Vernacular.—Sannipat (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—In Hindu medical literature and
in popular use, San-nipdta is a term which signifies a combined
derangement of the three humors, Vata, Pitta, and Kafa (air,
bile, and phlegm), which is supposed to produce Sannipdtazvara,
or fever with typhoid symptoms, The remedy for this condition
is said to be.a plant called Sannipéta-nud, “ driving away sanni-
pat,” and Nepala-nimba, “‘Nepal Neem ”’ or ‘“ Nepal. bitter.”
At the present time the drug sold in the shops is S. spherocarpa,
but whether it is the original Nepal Neem is difficult to decide,
as at present we do not even know whether this plant is found

in Nepal. In typhoid conditions the drug is considered-to act

asa tonic, to promote diuresis, subdue fever, and remove the
derangement of the humors. We are not aware of any experi-
ments having been made with it by European physicians in
India, though its near relationship with the Antirrhinums,
which contain glucosides similar to those of Digitalis, would, we
should have thought, have excited eur sin in regard to its
physiological action.

Description.—The drug consists of the Bast in’ fruit,
broken up into small pieces. The fruit is a globular dry papery
mucronate capsule, firmly attached to the calyx; the upper part
of the capsule to which the placenta is attached is double; the

placenta, which is large and oblong, is supported upon a thick

peduncle, and occupies the centre of the capsule; to it are
attached numerous straight 5-angled wedge-shaped seeds,
which are packed closely together and fill the remaining space.
The calyx is 5-partite, the upper segment very large and extend-
ing over the fruit like a hood. Leaves ovate, leathery, about
1 inch long with short blunt hairs; margin much lighter in col ae
than the rest of the leaf; seed straight, wedge-shaped, if

6 SCROPHULARINE &.

prominent longitudinal ridges ; testa tubercular, each tuberele ’
minutely granular. The portions of stem, which are numerous, :
are woody and covered by a thin grey bark; the central pith is =
very large. The drug has a slightly bitter somewhat tea-like 7
taste.

Chemical composition.—The powdered drug. treated with ether '
yielded a dark olive-green extract, consisting of chlorophyll _
and uncrystallizable fatty matter. Subsequent percolation
with alcohol removed a deep brown extract, from which
cubical crystals of alkaline chlorides separated on evaporation. J
An aqueous solution of this extract had a saltish taste and gave :
distinct precipitates with alkaloidal tests. The alkaloid was
removed by ether in an amorphous condition, and gave no well- |
marked colour reactions with the strong mineral acids. By
continuing the exhaustion of the powdered drug with water, a a
deep reddish brown extract was obtained having a bitterish and
nauseous taste, and containing saccharine and. other matters
which readily fermented. In order to ascertain if the drug
contained a substance similar to digitalin, a fresh decoction of
the powder was filtered and precipitated by tannin, the preci-_
pitate washed, mixed with an excess of alkali, and shaken with

ether. The result was the separation of an alkaloid similar to ~
that previously found. As more recent investigators prepare

. digitalin by exhausting with alcohol after treatment of the drug”

with water, this process was adopted with Schweinfurthia.

_+he resinous matter collected had an acrid taste, but no princip! :
could = be obtained possessing the properties of digitalin,
digitonin or digitoxin, to which, according to Schmiedeberg, the

_ Poisonous qualities of digitalis are due. Besides the alkaloid,

call ioe

a.

ae ere

which we consider to be the active principle, the drug yielded
18°6 per cent. of mineral matter,

, Lindenbergia urticefolia, Lem, Hook. Ie. Pls

= K8r5, EER Cagn Plant throughout [India upon walls and

ih nea tenia the Concanin chronic bronchitis, and

SCROPHULARINEZ. 7

Marathi name in the neighbourhood of Bombay is Dho/. Rox-
burgh, under the name of Stemodia ruderalis, gives the following
description of it :—‘‘ Root ramous, seems perennial. Stems many,
ascending, ramous, herbaceous, woody, somewhat viscous, the
whole plant about 12 or 18 inches high. Leaves opposite,
petioled, ovate, deeply serrate, soft, a little hairy; about an inch
long. Petioles shorter than the leaves, channelled. Stipules none.
Flowers axillary, subsessile, solitary, opposite, small, yellow.
Calyx 10-furrowed, 5-toothed, permanent. Corol personate ; tube
the length of the calyx; both lips projecting, and shut; apex of
the under lip broad, depending, 3-toothed, of the upper one very
narrow, bifid; inside of both hairy, and beautifully marked with
small purple dots. Jilaments and anthers as in the genus.

Stigma slightly 2-lobed.” (Flora Indica, I11., 94.)

LIMNOPHILA GRATIOLOIDES, Br.
Fig.—Lheede, Hort. Mal. iv., t. 85, and xii., t. 36,
Hab,.—Throughout India, in swamps. The plant.
Vernacular.—Kuttra (Hind.), Karpur (Beng.), Ambuli (Mar.),

Manga-néri (Ma/.). |
History, Uses, &c.—This small aquatic plant, in Sans-
krit Ambu-ja, “water born,” and Amra-gandhaka, having’ an
odour of mangoes,’ is considered to be antiseptic by the Hindus,
and its juice is rubbed over the body in pestilent fevers.
Rheede notices its use for this purpose, and also internally in
dysentery combined with ginger, cumin, and other aromatics.
He also states that a linimentis made from the plant with
cocoanut oil which is used in elephantiasis. Roxburgh, under
the name of Co/umnea balsamea, describes the plant and notices
its grateful odour and aromatic taste. The Bengal name signifies
“camphor.” The odour of the fresh plant is remarkably refresh-
ing and agreeable and calls to mind that of camphor and oil of
lemons.

————— eh ee VP eeeee et,
ih

E

q
3

L. gratissima, Rheede, Hort, Mal. 2., 6, has similar pr
perties and bears the same vernacular names; it. is also 1

8 SCRKOPHULARINEA.-

medicinally as a cooling medicine in fever, and given to women
who are nursing when the milk is sour.

Description.—In its most common form a simple or ~

branched plant 4—8 in. high, with whorled pinnatifid leaves
4—? in. long, which, in wetter places, appears to acquire a few i

emersed, opposite, entire leaves at the top of the stem, and

numerous capillaceo-multifid ones at its base. The stems are

stout or slender. Very small specimens from Rohilkund S|

(Kuttra, Edgeworth) have very wiry simple stems 3 in. high, :
and capillary peduncles three times as long as the leaves; E
others have stout stems and peduncles, the latter shorter than _

we’ leaves.” Calyx t=} in. long, rarely larger. Corolla } in., :
blue. (FV. Br. Ind.)

HERPESTIS MONNIERA, J¥. B. et K.

Fig.—Bot. Mag., t. 2557; Roxb, Cor. Pi. ii., t. 178; Bheede, ©
Hort. Mal. x., t.14. Gratiole de Inde (Fr.). a

Hab.—Throughout India, in marshy ground. The —
herb. q
Vernacular.— Sufed-chamni, Barambhi ( Hind.), Dhop-chamni, 4
Brihmi-sék (Beng.), Nir-brami, Bdmba (Mar.), Nir-brami —
(Tam.), Sémbr&éni-aku, Sémbrni-chettu (Tel.). |

_. History, Uses, &c.—Dutt states that this plant is
the Brahmi of the native physicians of Calcutta, where it is 4
__ considered to be a nervine tonic useful in insanity, epilepsy, _
fever, &c. Itis certainly not the Brahmi of the Nighantas, but —
would appear to be the plant called J ala-brahmi or “ Water —
_ Brahmi” by Sanskrit writers. Owing to a similarity in the —
_ ames it has frequently been confounded with Hydrocotyle
' asiatiea, which is the Brahmi or Brahmi-manduka of the

.

Ainslie says that in Southern India the Gratiola '
considered ‘diuretic and : per nd useful in that sort o

-SCROPHULARINEZ. 9

stoppage of urine whichis accompanied with ebstinate costiveness.
Roxburgh mentions the use of the juice mixed with petroleum
as an external remedy in rheumatism. These accounts do not
agree with the properties ascribed to Brahmi by Sanskrit writers.
Rheede says of it: —“Ex frequenti hujus plant usu, vacearum
ubera lacte turgent; sit ef decoctum ex illa in lacte vaccino et
recenti butyre, centra delirium temporibus inunguendum ;
Pipere, Calamo aromatico, Myrobalanis et aqua oryze trita et
assumpta, vocem redditsonoram.” In Pondicherry itis considered
to be aphrodisiac, and in Ceylon, under the name of Loonoo-
eweela, it is prescribed in fevers,

Description.—Stems several, annual, creeping, round,
jointed, smooth, succulent; leaves opposite, sessile, obovate,
wedge-shaped, or oblong, smooth, entire, ebtuse, fleshy, dotted
with minute spets ; peduncles axillary, alternate, solitary, reund,
smooth, shorter than the leaves, one-flowered ; flowers blue; bracts
2-awled, pressing on the calyx laterally; calyx 3-leaved, the
exterior three leaflets large, oblong, the two interior small, linear,
all are concave, smooth, pointed and permanent, corel campanu-
late, border 4-partite, nearly equal; anthers 2-cleft atthe base,
blue; stigma large, somewhat 2-lobed ; capsule ovate, 2-celled,
2-valved; seeds very numerous, (Roxb., Flora Ind., 1., p. 141.)

Chemical composition.—For the analysis the whole plant was
used, dried at a low temperature and exhausted with 80 per cent.
alcohol. The aleohol freed extractive was then agitated with
petroleum ether; ether from an acid solution, and again with
ether from an alkaline solution, and finally with chlosotived from
an alkaline solution. Operating i in this manner, a trace of oily
matter was obtained, soluble in alcohol with acid reaction ; two
resins, one easily soluble in ether, the other soluble with difficulty,
but both soluble in alkaline solutions and reprecipitated by acids ;
an organic acid, and a tannin affording a green coloration with
ferric chloride. An alkaloidal principal was also isolated, soluble
in ether and in chlorefeorm, and affording a cherry red colora- oe
tion in the cold with Fréhde’s reagent. No a tet reacly o
were no

12

vey

10 SCROPHULARINEA.

PICRORHIZA KURROOA, Benth.
Fig.—Royle Ii., t. 71.

Hab.—Alpine Himalaya; from Cashmere to Sikkim.
_ The root.

Vernacular.—Katki, Kutki (Hind., Beng.), Katuku-rogani —

(Tam.), Katuku-roni (Ze/.), Bal-kadu (Mar.), Kutaki (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—This well-known drug is the |

Kutaki of Sanskrit writers, who speak of it as Dhanvantari-

grasta, “the plant eaten by Dhanvantari,” the physician of the
gods, whe was produced at the churning of the Ocean, holding © )

a cup of amrita in his hands; he was the author of the
Ayurveda. In the Nighantas it bears the following synonyms:

Rohini, Katu-rohini, Vakragra, Matsya-pitta, Matsya-vinna, ~

Kanda-ruha, Krishna-bhedi, Dvijéngika, Asoka-rehini, Saku-

ladani and Chakriénga. It is described as digestive, bitter, _
pungent, dry, aperient, light and cold; andis recommended
4s a remedy for worms, asthma, bile, phlegm, and fever. —

Kutaki is a favorite remedy in bilious dyspepsia accompanied
by fever, and is given daily in decoction, with liquorice, raisins,

and Neem bark, half.a tola (90 grains) of each, water 32 tolas, .
In dyspepsia and dysentery itis —
combined with aromatics and is given in doses of ten to

boiled down to one-fourth,

twenty grains.
which the secretions are scanty and the bowels costive, and is
often prescribed for children suffering fr
Marathi name Bélakadu, “ children’s bitter.”

for black Hellebore,
and its medicinal prope:
European writers upon Indian

describes the drug in

Pree:

It is considered to be specially indicated in those cases in

om worms, whence the ©

and unmistakably describe the latter plant _

thes. This mistake has misled most _
ian drugs, but Ainslie, though he 4
his article upon black Hellebore _

ees

SCROPHULARINEZ. 1]

(Mat. Ind.,1., p. 164), has the following remarks :—“ I have given:
the names Kadagoreganie end Kali-kootkie as the Tamool and
Dukhanie appellations of the black Hellebore, as the root
procured in the Indian bazars is commonly said to be so; but
I have great doubts of it, and I here offer a caution respect-
ing it, as it by no means. agrees in appearance with the black
Hellebore of the European shops.”

Royle (Z7/. i, p. 291) notices that the root of P. Kurrooa
possesses much bitterness and is employed medicinally by the
natives. Irvine (Mat. Med.,. p. 58) mentions the use of Kutki
as a tonic, but owing to a general impression that the bazar
drug was Hellebore root, European medical men appear to have
generally avoided making experiments with it. Mr. Moodin
Sheriff was the first modern writer to clearly demonstrate that
the bazar drug has no dangerous properties, but is a valuable
tonic and antiperiodic. He also identified it with the
P. Kurrooa of Royle, an identification which we are now able to
eonfirm through the kindness of Mr. J. F. Duthie who has
supplied us with a specimen of the plant collected in Kumaon.
As regards the medicinal properties of the drug, the accounts
given by Sanskrit writers appear to be correct. Mr..M. Sheriff
speaks favourably of it as a powerful bitter tonic and anti-
periodic. Other medical men in India have expressed a similar
opinion, and we can state from personal observation that it is
used. successfully as an antiperiodic in native practice; its slight
laxative action is rather beneficial than otherwise. The dose
as a tonic is from 10 to 20 grains, as an antiperiodic from 40 to
50 grains; it is best administered in combination with aromatics.

Description.—The drug consists of a. rhizome, generally
about the size of a goose-quill, but often no larger than a crow-
quill, the lower portion of which is covered by a shrivelled,
greyish-brown, corky bark, and marked by prominent. scars,

the remains of rootlets; towards the: upper end it becomes

larger (} inch in diameter),.and is thickly. set with dark greyish-

brown scales, and terminates in a scaly leaf-bud or stem. The

rhizome is generally broken into short pieces, from 1 to.2

12 SCROPHULARINEZ.. 2

inches long; the fracture is short, the root very fragile and: a
light, and black internally; it has no odour, and a very bitter —
taste. |
Microscopie structure.—The corky bark is made up of numer-
ous rows of empty brick-shaped cells ; within this is a cellular —
parenchyma of oblong brown cells, containing a little granular —
matter; next a dark brown line composed of wood cells, form- 4
ing the boundary of the inner column of the root; within this
several very large bundles of dotted vessels arranged so as to —
form a broken ring, which surrounds a central cellular paren- —
chyma. 2
Chemical composition—A proximate analysis of this drug
showed the following percentage composition :—

i ot nt

=e ee eae 1:06
Bitter principle (Picrorhizin) ...... ooo 14°96
D>: pees 3-85
Organic acid ppt. by lead .......... oot
Glucose 11°53
Cathartic acid, &e. (water extract)... 9°33
Substances dissolved by NaHO ...... 7°62
Arabin bodies from erude fibre ...... 14°56 .
Fibre .... | 24:00
Moisture 5-73
Ash 3°82

__ The bitter principle is a glucoside Picrorhizin, freely soluble _

in water and alcohol, but. almost insoluble in pure ether. Itis _
acid in reaction, is not precipitated from solution by lead salts
or tannin, but is absorbed by animal charcoal together with
any colouring matter that is present. Itis best obtained by ©
exhausting the powdered drug with crude ether, and is left, _
after the evaporation of the ether, in brown resinoid drops —
which form ramified crystals on standing. It is difficult to
obtain the picrorhizin in a crystalline conditi a
or after ion i :

SCROPHULARINE Zi. 18

picrorhizin is decomposed by hydrolizing it with a boiling
I per cent. solution of hydrochloric acid for three hours, and a
decomposition product, which we have named Picrorhizetin,
is formed together with glucose. In obtaining 0-7 gram of
picrorhizetin *368 gram separated during the first hour, -219
gram in the second hour, 113 gram in the third hour, and none
in the fourth. Weighed quantities of the picrorhizin, after
drying at 100°C., afforded, on hydrolysis, 62°48 and 62:79 per
cent. of bicrorhizetin: as the result of two experiments. The
glucose obtained from the decomposition was inactive towards
polarized light. An infusion or tincture of the root boiled with
diluted acid gradually loses its bitterness, and a large increase
in the sugar is detected by Fehling’s solution. Picrorhizetin
is a red-brown, brittle, resinous, tasteless body soluble in
aqueous alkalies. It is insoluble in water, and its solution in
alcohol is precipitated by ether. By heating with strong
sulphuric acid or when being burnt it evolves an odour of
benzoin.

The wax after bleaching, and purifying by reerystallization
from hot alcohol, had a melting point of 51°C. The organic
acid. separated by lead was red-coloured and gave a greenish
colour with ferric salts. No tannic acid’ was present. Some —
picrorhizetin was naturally formed in the drug, and existed
in a much smaller proportion in the freshly dried rhizome.
After removing the bitter principle by continued percolation
with alcohol, the mare was dried and exhausted with water,
the dark red-brown solution was evaporated to dryness, and
*2 gram of the residue was found to act asa decided purge.
The aqueous extract treated with four volumes of alcohol
afforded precipitates containing 145 and 15:3 per cent. of
mineral matter, and with six volumes a precipitate was obtain-
ed with 10°8 per cent. of ash. We rely upon the physiological
action of this extract in considering cece ies acid to bea
constituent.

Commerce.—Value, Rs. 9 per maund of 374 a Kumaon . =
annually exports about five tons of this drug. -

14, SCROPHULARINEZ.

Plants of minor importance belonging to this order, which

have a certain amount of medicinal reputation, are :—

Torenia asiatica, Linn., Rheede, Hort. Mal. iz., t. 53,

the juice of which is given on the Malabar Coast for
gonorrhea,

Vandellia erecta, Benth., Rheede, Hort. Mal. iz., t. 51,
called Vaka-pushpi, or “crane flower,” in Marathi, is also used —
in a ghrita as a remedy for gonorrhea, and the juice is given t0 ~
children who pass green-coloured stools. V. pedunculata, —
Benth. Griff. Ic. Pl. “As., t, 418, 7. 2, in Marathi Gadagvel, 18 _

considered to have similar properties.

Veronica Beccabunga, Linn. Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ, —

t. 1701, is used in Northern India under the name of Tezak,

‘‘cress,” as a diuretic and antiscorbutic. It is the Bachbunge

of the Germans, Cressonée of the French, and Brooklime of

the English. V. Anagallis, Linn. Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ.

t. 1762, which has similar properties, takes its place in otha
parts of India.

Sopubia delphinifolia, G. Don, Roxb. Cor. Pi. él

¢. 90, is an elegant annual, common in wet fields in the rainy
season. The juice is applied by field labourers to their feet to
heal sores caused by exposure to wet; it is astringent and
stains the skin yellow at first but afterwards black. ‘Fhe plant
was formerly named Gerardia, after John Gerarde, our old

i botanist, and author of the “Herbal,” published it

Pedicularis pectinata, Waill., and several other species
are used in Northern India under the name of Mishran on
| account of their astringent and hemostatic properties.

Sip pada lat
er

or

BIGNONIACE. 15

BIGNONIACEZ.

OROXYLUM INDICUM, Pent.
Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 13387; Bureau Monogr. Bign., t. 9;
Rheede, Hort. Mal. t., t. 48.
Hab.—Throughout India, The root-bark.

Vernacular.—Arlu, Phalphala, Sona (Hind.), Nasona, Sona
(Beng.), Mulin, Talpalang, Miringa (Punj.), Tetu, Jagdala
(Mar.), Tetu( Guz.), Vanga adanthay ( Tam.), Tigdu-mara, Sone-
patta (Can.), Pamania, Dundillam (Zel.), Peiani (Mai.).

History, Uses, &c.—This is a small tree, remarkable
for its terminal spikes of large fleshy lurid flowers, which
appear at the commencement of the rainy season, and are follow-
ed by very large, retrofracted, transversely compressed, some-
what curved pods, with the convexity upwards. ‘The seeds are
numerous, membranaceous, surrounded with a large, delicate,
membranaceous wing. ‘The leaves are supra-decompound, and
from four to six feet long., The root-bark is of considerable
importance in Hindu medicine, as it is an ingredient of the
Dasamula (see Tribulus terrestris); it is considered to be astrin-
gent, tonic, and useful in diarrhoea and dysentery. Saran-
gadhara recommends the juice of Syonaka expressed from the
roasted bark in combination with Mocharas (see Bombax mala-
baricum) as a remedy in diarrhoea and dysentery. He also says
that the root-bark boiled in Sesamum oil is a good application in
otorrhea, In the Nighantas the tree bears many synonyms,

‘ amongst which may be mentioned Prathu-simbih, “ having broad
_ pods,” Siika-nasa, “having a nose like a parrot’s beak,” in

allusion to the flower buds, Aralu, and Bhalluka-priya, “dear to
bears.” It is described as digestive, appetising, bitter,
astringent, cold, pungent; a remedy for wind, phlegm, bile, and
cough. The bark is much used by the agricultural classes as an
application to the sore-backs of draught cattle. It is ground to

_ apaste with water and an equal proportion of turmeric, and
_ rubbed on the part. Rheede notices the use of the bark as an s

which are

a

16 BIGNONIACE A

application to wounds, fractures, &c., and of the root in decoction
in dropsy. =z

found it to be most powerfully diaphoretic; the drug has slig
anodyne properties; also a bath, prepared with the bark,
have frequently employed in rheumatism. Twenty-eight cases
of acute rheumatism were treated with this drug, and in all the ~
results have been most satisfactory. The dose of the powder
is from 5 to 15 grains, thrice daily; of the infusion (1 oun¢
of bark to 10 ounces of boiling water) an ounce three times 4 —
day. Combined with opium it forms a much more powerful —
sudorific than the compound powder of ipecacuanha, The drug —
does not. possess any febrifuge properties.” —Jndian Medica
Gazette, February and March, 1875, .

Description.—The bark of the root is brown externally
yellow internally, thick,. breaking with a short fracture. ‘Tha
of the stem is soft and spongy externally, and of a pale brow2
colour, furrowed longitudinally ; the internal surface is fibrou
and greenish yellow. The minute’ structure does not eall fo
remark, but upon placing a section of the fresh bark under
__ microscope in a little water the whole field is seen to be fille
___-with-delicate needle-shaped crystals which have escaped fro

_ the cut cells of the parenchyma; in entire cells the erystal:

e of an inorganic nature, can be scen in situ. The b

80.

BIGNONIACEZ. 17

vegetable wax, which was subsequently identified as such after
re-solution in limited quantities of ether and separation there-
from. The latter on evaporation gave a brownish-yellow residue
small in quantity and crystalline. When further purified by
extraction with ether and the ethereal residue by benzol it was
golden yellow, unctuous to the touch, and pronouncedly aerid.
Under the microscope it presented the appearance of long, wavy,
branching crystals, which dissolved readily in aleohol, chloro-
form ether, petroleum ether, and benzol,

B. The mare was next percolated with cold ether. After
distilling off the greater portion of the ether, and allowing the
remainder to evaporate spontaneously, a yellow mass studded
with minute interlacing crystals was obtained, which when air-
dried weighed about 4 grams. This product was treated with
boiling proof spirit and filtered while hot; on cooling small
yellow crystals fell out of solution, When quite cold the crop
of crystals was collected and subjected to the action of boiling
petroleum ether until freed from every trace of fat. It was
then cystallized from boiling proof spirit until it had a con-
stant melting point, and was no longer contaminated with un-
erystallizable matter. The resulting crystals were dried under
the receiver of an air-pump, and when constant weighed 0:9
gram, They were of a lemon yellow colour, about } inch in
length, and melted at 228:5°—229° C. Alcohol, ether, glacial
acetic acid, and hot benzol dissolved them readily, but they were
practically insoluble in water hot or cold. The following
reactions in connection with this interesting body have been
noted, of which the most striking is its behaviour with the
caustic alkalies. A minute quantity brought into contact with
one drop of a weak solution of sodium potassium or ammonium
hydrates causes it to assume immediately a cherry-red colour,
which quickly passes into brick-red and olive- green.

Owing to the insolubility of the crystals in water a proof

‘Spirit solution was used in applying the following tests:—

1. A solution of silver nitrate in proof spirit produced a

bluish-black colour immediately, and after the liquid had sto
IIL.—3 . ; ee

18 BIGNONTACE.

fora few minutes black particles of reduced silver were preci~
pitated.

2. A solution of neutral acetate of lead in proof spirit g gave a
ahi bulky precipitate insoluble in boiling acetic acid.

8. Lime water imparted an orange colour, which quickly
changed to olive-green, followed by a precipitate of the same
colour.

4. An aqueous solution of sulphate of copper gave a golden
yellow colour, quickly followed by a dirty brown precipitate,
the supernatant liquid being distinctly greenish.

5. Solution of ferric chloride (acid) produced a brownish-red
colour, which, in a few minutes, turned smoke-colour.

6. Solution of subacetate of wines gave a golden yellow precipi-
tate.

7. An aqueous solution of ; mercuric chloride produced a white
precipitate. 3

8. An aqueous solution of permanganate of potash, acidified
with sulphuric acid, was instantly decolorized.

ae 3 solution of the crystals in proof spirit did not. reduce
Fehling.

The authors say :-—“ We have attempted to Lvackrss this
body, by subjecting a strong alcoholic solution to the prolonged
action of 10 per cent. solution of paces acid at a boiling ©
temperature, but without success.

v have also inquired into its nature and sentosimal com=—
n, bi t the results so far obtained are not sufficiently con-
rp rated in this paper. We hope to be able

; i gablisk “ehortly a eseipemnentary. note Pores with ae
in Lenton of in Mea

BIGNONTACEA. 19

examination, proved to be largely composed of the yellow
crystalline body oroxylin. The cold proof spirit solution of the
alcoholic residue was evaporated to dryness and the extract
treated with water and filtered. ‘The filtrate was treated
successively with neutral and basic acetate of lead, and the
“precipitates after washing were suspended in water, decom-
posed by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen and the resultant
plumbic sulphide removed by filtration. Sulphuretted hydrogen
was also passed through the iiltrate from the basic or plumbic
acetate and the pr pol pitated lead sulphide removed by filtration.

The three liquids thus obtained, which for convenience may
be denominated i., ii., iii., were then evaporated down and the

respective residues examined.

(i.) It was dissolved in the smallest quantity possible of cold
water and diluted with many timesits volume of alcohol. After
setting aside for twenty-four hours a precipitate.fell, giving the
general characters of parapectin. The supernatant liquid on
evaporation left a scaly residue, astringent to the taste, and
perfectly soluble in water. Its aqueous solution reduced Feh-
ling and gave a copious bluish black precipitate with ferric
chloride. Lime-water produced a bright golden-yellow colour,
followed by a reddish-brown precipitate. From the tannins —
proper it differed in that it was not precipitated by solution of
gelatine.

(ii.) This residue apparently consisted of pectin Salsriised
with small portions of No. iii.

(iii.) This was a dark uncrystallizable treacly-looking resi-
due, which imparted to the palate a feeble sensation of sweet-
ness. It was very soluble in water and reduced Febling’s
solution abundantly. A strong aqueous solution was precise
tated by absolute alcohol.

D. The mare from the alcoholic extraction was finally perco-
lated to exhaustion with cold water, The liquor was evaporat-
ed down and the extract obtained taken up with hot’ water, A
considerable amcuat of albuminous matter, which ‘rem:
insoluble, was removed by filtration. The filtrate was

20 BIGNONIACEA.

successively With neutral and subacetate of lead and the preci- —
pitates decomposed in the same manner as described under @. ~
‘The three liquids obtained, i., ii., iii., were evaporated down.
(i.) This residue was the smallest of thethree. After stand- 4
ing for a considerable time some crystals were deposited, which
on examination proved to be citric acid. |
ii.) Nothing of a crystalline nature was found in this resi- ~
due. It appeared.to consist chiefly of extractive matter. 7
(iii.) This residue after treatment with alcohol had the same 3
characters and oma the same properties as C. i, It was
not further examin
The result of our examination of this bark may be summariz-

ed by stating the different principles which we have found—
(1) crystalline fat; (2) wax; (3) acrid principle ; (4) oroxylin
(8) chlorophyll; (6) pectinous substances; (7) Fehling-reduc-
ing principle; (8) astringent principle; (9) citric acid; (10) :
extractive matter.—Pharm. Journ. pees 27, 1890. .

: -STEREOSPERMUM SUAVEOLENS, De.
Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 1342.

_ Hab.—Throughout the moister parts of India. The root
3 bark and flowers. ee

oe tn ay Hisdas Pédri-gida (Can. : Padri, Pandan (Guz.).
: a ; ine Madana-kama-pu (South India).

History, Uses, &c.—This tree is the Pétala or Pita

of Sanskrit writers, the flowers of which are said by the poets

to so intoxicate the bee that he is unable to distinguish +

‘flower from another. The tree is sacred to Durga, the wife 0

Siva. it bears among other - aebage thos

BIGNONIACEZ. 21

is described as cooling, sweet, diuretic, and tonic, and is recom-
mended in dyspepsia, dropsy, cough, and heat of blood.

P. 8. Mootoosawmy says that in Tanjore the flowers are
taken in the form of aconfection as an aphrodisiac. The flowers
pounded with honey are said to stop troublesome hiccough, and
the ashes of the bark are used in preparing alkaline ley and
caustic pastes. The bark is in use throughout India from its
being one of the ingredients in the Dasamula or “ten barks.”
(See Tribulus terrestris.) Tn parts of India where this tree is not
found, various substitutes are allowed to be used. In Malabar
and in the Concan 8. chelonoides, DC., is used as PAdri. (See
Kiheede, Hort. Mal, vi., t. 25; Ainslie, Mat. Ind. it., p. 272.)

Description.—Trunk tolerably erect, though not straight.
Bark ash-coloured, and somewhat scabrous. Leaves opposite,
pinnate, with an odd one, from 12 to 24 inches long. Leaflets
opposite, from two to four pairs, oval, with lon g bluntish, narrow
points slightly serrate, having both sides downy while young,
and when full grown not downy and feeling harsh ; the exterior
pair and odd one about six inches long, by three or four broad;
the inferior pair, or pairs, smaller. Petioles swelled at the base, —
roundish, when old scabrous. Panicles terminal, composed of a
few spreading branchlets; the first and second pairs thereof
opposite; the superior dichotomous, with a solitary pedicelled
flower in the forks; all are downy, and somewhat viscid.
Flowers large, of a dark, dull crimson colour, exquisitely fra-
grant. Calyx campanulate. Border 4-cleft ; upper divisions
with two minute points, outside a little villous. Corol, throat
ample, woolly, convex above, flat and plaited beneath. Border,
the upper divisions shorter, erect ; the three inferior ones longer
and projecting, with the margins ofall much curled, Filaments
4, fertile, and between them a small sterile one. Anthers twin.
Germ oblong, elevated on a glandular receptacle. Stigma
2-lobed. (Rovburgh.) Sir W. Jones gives the following descrip-
tion of the flowers: —Corolla externally light purple above, ae
brownish purple below, hairy at its convexity ; internally dark
yellow below, aimethystine above, exquisitely fragrant; prefe ee

22 BIGNONIACE Z.

by bees to all other flowers, and compared by the poets to the —
quiver of Kamadeva (the Indian Cupid) £3

Chemical composition.—An infusion of the dried flowers con a
tained saccharine, mucilaginous and albuminous matters, but no ~
alkaloid could be detected in either the aqueous or alcoholic ~
extract. Ether removed a small quantity of a wax-like solid a
from the powdered corollas.

STEREOSPERMUM CHELONOIDES, D¢. q
Fig.—Wight Ic. t. 1841; Bedd. Fh. Sylv., t. 72: Rheede, —
| Hort. Mal. vi, 26. Favas da Cobre (Port.), Adderbonen
(Dutch). :
Hab.—Throughout the moister parts of India. The
flowers, leaves, and root. —
Vernacular.—Pader, PaAdri (Hind.), Dharmara (Beng.),
Padal (Mar.), Padri (Zam., Mai.), Tagada (Zei.), Padrigida
Can.). : . 4

History, Uses, &c.—In the Concan and Malabar,
where S. suaveolens is not found, this tree is used as the Pétala
of the Nighantas. Rheede says of it :— '
intolerabilem dispellit foliorum decoctum. Limonis hujusque
commixti succi medentur manie. Corticis vero succus, cum
3 fructu Pere subactus, immodicum inhibet fluxum menstruum.
5 Radicis cutis cum Calamo aromatico, zinzibere contrita, folio-

-Tumqué Padri succo admixta exhibetur morsis & putrefaciente

_ colubro, Malabaribus Polenga dicto.” Ainslie (ii., 272) says:—
This pleasant tasted root, as well as the fragrant flowers of the
tree, the Vytians prescribe in infusion as a cooling drink in

“Viscerum rigorem

fevers.” :
: The tender fruit and flowers of S. chelonoides are used as
vegetables by the natives of Western India. oo
Deseri iption.—Tronk strajoht. ats va hi

_ Description. —Trunk straight, of a greatheight and thie
pee thick, scabs hace ae 1g |
the inferior | orizo

BIGNONIACEZ. 23

more erect to the top ; leaves opposite, pinnate, with an“odd one;
about twenty inches long; leaflets opposite, short petioled, gener-
ally four pair, the inferior smallest, obliquely oval, pointed,
sometimes slightly notched about the margins, when young
downy, afterwards smooth, about 4 inches long by two broad ;
petioles about 9 inches long, channelled, smooth ; stipules none ;
panicles terminal, the larger ramifications decussate, the smaller
or terminal 2-forked, with a sessile flower in the cleft; pedun-
cles and pedicels round, covered with oblong grey scabrous
specks; bracts small, caducous; flowers pretty large, yellow,
very fragrant; calyx 5-notched ; nectary, a yellow fleshy ring
surrounding the base of the germ; filaments, there is a fifth
sterile one between the lower pair; anthers double; stigma
2-cleft; silique very long, slender, twisted; receptacle of the
seeds spongy, white, with alternate notches on the sides for the
seeds to lodge in. (Rozb., Fl. Ind., II1., 106.)

STEREOSPERMUM XYLOCARPUM, Wigit.
Fig. Wight Ic., t. 1335-6 ; Bedd. Fl, Sylv., t. 70.
Hab.—Deccan Peninsula. The wood and tar.
Vernacular,—Kharsing (Mar.), Ghansing (Can.). oe
History, Uses, &c.—This tree is a native of the forests

of Western India from Khandesh to Malabar. It wasintroduced

by Dr. Andrew Berry into the Botanic Garden at Calcutta, and
is minutely described by Roxburgh. -

The natives by a rough process of the same nature as that 1
which tar is obtained from Pine wood, extract from the wood a
thick fluid of the colour and Boscistence of Stockholm tar, which:
they use asa remedy for scaly eruptions on the skin. Two
globular earthen pots are used, the upper contains the wood in
small pieces; it has a perforated bottom and is fitted with a

cover, and is luted to the mouth of the lower pot. Cowdung

cakes are then piled up round the two pots and set fire to. 2

q Dr. Gibson appears to have been the first to draw attention |
_. the use of this substance by’ the natives. From— some _

24 BIGNONIACE#.

which we have made with it, we conclude that its prope 1
are similar to those of Pine tar.

Description.—The wood is hard, but easily split ; when
sawn across it presents a yellow resinous surface; section
examined with the microscope show that the yellow colou
due to a solid resinous deposit in the pitted vascular system

The tar has exactly the odour, colour, and consistence. of
Stockholm tar.

Heterophragma Roxburghii, DC., Roxb. Cor. Pl
#., ¢. 145, yields a similar product. Its vernacular names are
Waras (Mar.), Baro-kala-goru (Tam.), Bondagu (Te/.).
- Dolichandrone Rheedii, Scem., is the Nir-pongelion
of Rheede (vi., 29), who states that the seeds with ginger and
Pavetta root are administered in spasmodic affections, and that

name and Bocks tee 2 as he Dutch,

Dolichandrone falcata, Seem. Bedd. Fl. Sylvs
i. 7], a native of Oudh, Rajputana, Central and South India,
has the reputation of being used to procure abortion, and the
bark i is, it is stated, used as a fish poison.
Dr. Lyon, Chemical Analyser to the Government of Bombay,
| found, however, no ill effects to follow the administration of #

which are about a foot in length by 3 of an inch in ©

Weoue and somewhat curved, may be used as abortion
sticks,

CRESCENTIA CUJETE, Linn.

Fig.—Jacq. Amb., t. 111; Plumb. Gen., t. 109. Calabash: —
| tree (Eng.), Calebassier (F.), sake

-Hab.—South Specie “Cullivated 3 in India, ‘The fra te

Vernavul a

ees ’

fete pet

BIGNONIACEA, | 25

History, Uses, &c.—The Calabash - tree - introduced
from South America is now pretty well known in India, and.
latterly we have observed the fruit being offered for sale by the
herbalists for use as a pectoral in the form of a poultice of the
pulp applied to the chest. In the West Indies a syrup is made
from the pulp, which is much used in dysentery and as a
pectoral, The tree has. oblong cuneate, often obovate, entire,
shining leaves, and flowers variegated with green, purple,
red and yellow. The fruit is large, gourd-like and green ; it
varies much in size, being from 2 inches to a foot in diameter.

Dr. Peckolt, of Rio Janeiro, states that an alcoholic extract of
the not quite ripe fruit in doses. of 0:10 gram. acts as. a mild
aperient, and that 0°5 gram. proves strongly drastic, without
griping or ill effects. As an application against erysipelas, the

fresh pulp is boiled with water until it forms a black paste, to
_ which vinegar is added and the whole boiled together and
spread upon. linen.

Corre and Lejanne state that in Western Africa the: leaves,
along with those of Adansonia digitata, are boiled and eaten, and
the seeds are eaten roasted. The pulp of the fruit macerated
in water is. considered to be depurative, cooling, and febrifuge ;
it is applied to the head in headache caused. by insolation and
to burns: roasted in ashes it is mildly purgative and diuretic,
according to P, Labat; in the Antilles, Chevalier has recom-—
mended it in dropsies. ae ee

Description.—Fruit ovoid or nearly round, with a hard,
green, woody shell: very variable in size. It is filled witha
_ white, slightly acid pulp, in which are contained the flattened,
somewhat cordiform seeds.

Chemical composition.—A chemical examination of the fresh
_ fruit pulp yielded a new organic acid, crystallizing in plates,
_ to.which the name ‘erescentic acid’ has been. given. It was
_ obtained by exhausting with water an alcoholic extract -6f
_ the pulp, treating. the aqueous solution with lead acetate,
4 suspending the lead precipitate in water. and decomposing ang 7

nee 5: a as ee

a

_ prolonged penance. The

26 PEDALINEZ:.

removing the lead, then evaporating to a syrupy consistence and
leaving it to crystallize in a cool place. Besides crescentic acid,
there were found tartaric, citric and tannic acids, two resins, a
bitter and an aromatic extractive substance, and a colouring
matter that appeared to resemble indigo. (Peckolt, Pharm
Rundschau, Aug. 1884; Year Book of Pharm., 1885, p. 168.)

PEDALINE.

_SESAMUM INDICUM, DC.

Fig.— Wight Ili., t. 163; Bot. Mag., t. 1688; Benti. ant
Trim., t, 198. Sesame (Eng.), Sésame de l’Inde (Fr.).

Hab.—Throughout the warmer parts of India, cultivated.
The leaves, seeds, and oil.

Vernacular.—Til (Hind., Beng.), Ellu (Tam.), Nuavvula

(Tei.), Ellu, Kérellu (Mai), Yellu (Can.), Mothetil (Mar.), Tal
(Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—In Hindu mythology Sesamum |
seed is symbolic of immortality. According to the “Brahma —
purana,” Tila was created by Yama, the “king of death,” after
Grihyasutra of Asvaléyana directs 7
in honour of the dead, SesamuD

PEDALINEA. 27

Hindus hope to obtain delivery from sin, poverty, and other
evils, and secure a place in Indra’s heaven. These acts are,
tilodvarti, “ bathing in water containing the seeds” ; édasnay?,
‘anointing the body with the pounded seeds ”; ¢idahomi, ‘making
a burnt offering of the seeds”’ ; tilaprada, “ offering the seeds to
the dead”’; tilabhuy, “eating the seeds”; and tilavapi, ‘throwing
out the seeds.” Water and Sesamum seeds are offered to the
Manes of the deceased. In the first act of Sakuntala this prac-
tice (called Ti/-anjii) is alluded to by the anchorite’s daughter
in love with King Dushyanta, when she tells her companions
that if they do not give their assistance, they will soon have to
offer her water and Sesamum seeds. (De Gubernatis.) In
proverbial language a grain of Sesamum signifies the least quan-
tity of anything—Ti/ chor so bajjar chor, ‘‘who steals a grain
will —_ a sack”; Til til ka hisab, “to exact the uttermost
farthing.”

A worthless person is compared to wild Sesamum (J artila,
Sans.) which yields no oil—ZIn tilon men tel nahin, ‘there is no.
good in him.” Dutt remarks :—‘ The word Taila, the Sanskrit
for oil, is derived from Tila; it would therefore seem that Sesa-
mum oil was one of the first, if not the first oil manufactured
from oil-seeds by the ancient Hindus. The Bhavaprakasa
describes three varieties of Til seeds, namely, black, white, and
red. Of these the black is regarded as the best suited for
medicinal use ; it yields also the largest quantity of oil. White
Tilis of intermediate quality. Til of red or other colours is said
to be inferior and unfit for medicinal use. Sesamum seeds are
_ used as an article of diet, being made into confectionery with
_ Sugar or ground into meal. Sesamum oil forms the basis of most
_ of the fragrant or scented oils used by the natives for inunction
before bathing, and of the medicated oils prepared with various
vegetable drugs. It is preferred for these purposes from the
circumstance of its being little liable to turn rancid or thick, and
from its possessing no strong taste or odour of its own. Sesa-
mum seeds are considered emollient, nourishing, tonic, diuretic,
and lactagogue. They are said to be especially ——-
by regulating the bowels and removing cons

eee te eer et

4
:
:

28 PEDALINEZ.

poultice made of the seeds is applied to ulcers. Both the seeds
and the oil are used as demulcents in dysentery and wnnniet?
diseases in combination with other medicines of their class.”

(Mat. Med. of the Hindus, p. 216.)

Mahometan writers describe the seed under the Arabic name
of Simsim. In Africa it is called J uljuldn,* and in Persia Kun-
jad. The Mahometan bakers always sprinkle the seeds upon
their bread, the sweetmeat-makers mix them with their sweets.
The following Delhi street-ery indicates the properties attribut-
ed to them by the latter class of people : — :

é “Til, tikhur, tisi, dana,
Ghi, shakkar men sana
Khaé buddha, hoe javana,.””
* Sesamum, tikhur, and linseed,
Butter and sugar, Poppy seed,
Old men it makes quite young with speed.” (Fallon.)
» Phe oil, which is called in Arabic Duhn-el-hal, is used for the
Same purpose as olive oil is in Europe. Sesamum is considered
fattening, emollient, and laxative. In decoction it is said to
be emmenagogue; the same preparation sweetened with sugal
is preseribed: in cough; a compound decoction with linseed
is used as an aphrodisiac; a plaster made of the ground seeds
is applied to burns, scalds, &c.; a lotion made from the leaves
is used as a hair-wash, and is supposed to promote the growth
Of the hair and make it black; a decoction of the root is said
to have the same properties; a powder made from the
_ Yoasted and decorticated seed is called Réhishi in Arabic and
== That which is Ugla (a thing) great in estimation. (ibm —
_ Abbad in T4j-el- ) —
~ _ nd)—The fruit of Coriander. (Sigh, Mughrib, Kémis.)
_ Ora) Sesame. (Sibih, “Ez-Zamakhsher}, Mughrib, T4j-el- Aris-)
. Gece before itis reaped. (Sihéh.) The grain of Sesame:

*y

’s core.

PEDALINEA,. 29

Arwah-i-Kunjad in Persian ; it is used as an emollient, both
externally and internally,

Sesamum (ovjrapov) 18 frequently mentioned by Greek and
Latin authors. Lucian (Pise. 41) speaks of a onoapaios ee
this was probably similar to the t:7 ka laddu of India.

Sesame oil was an export from Sind to Europe, by way of the
Red Sea, in the days of Pliny. In the Middle Ages the plant
was known as Suseman or Sempsen, a corruption of the Arabic
Simsin or Samsim, It is now called by Europeans, both in
India and Europe, Jinjili, Jugeoline, Gigeri, Gengeli, or Gingelly,
which appear to be corruptions of the word Juljulén. The oil is
one of the most valuable of Indian vegetable oils; it keeps for
a long time without becoming rancid, and is produced in large
quantities in almost every part of the Peninsula. The following
mode of preparation is described in the Jury reports of the
Madras Exhibition :—“The method sometimes adopted is that
of throwing the fresh seeds, without any cleansing process,
into the common mill, and expressing in the usual way. The
oil thus becomes mixed with a large portion of the colouring
matter of the epidermis of the seed, and is neither ‘so pleasant to
the eye nor so agreeable to the taste as that obtained by first
repeatedly washing the seeds in cold water, or by boiling them
for a short time, until the whole of the reddish-brown colour-
ing matter is removed and the sceds have become perfectly
white. They are then dried in the sun, and the oil expressed -
as usual. The process yields from 40 to 44 per cent. of a very
pale straw-coloured ee oil, an excellent substitute
for olive oil.”

Hydraulic presses are now in use in the more civilized parts
of India for extracting the oil, but have as yet by no means -
superseded the native oil mill.

Sesamum oil may be used for plaster-making, but it takes
more oxide of lead than groundnut oil, and does not make so

light-coloured or so hard a plaster. After a prolonged trial at

the Government Medical Store Department in me its use :
was abandoned in favour of the latter. oil for the

30 PEDALINE.

reasons :—The rolls of Sesame oil plaster soften in hot weather.
The plaster has a disagreeable odour. It darkens in colour
when kept for any time. For liniments and ointments, except
Ung. Hydr. Nitratis, it appears to be a perfectly satisfactory
substitute for olive oil. F. H. Alcock (Pharm. Journ. [3], Xv-s
282) recommends its use in making Lin. Ammoniz B. P. Sesame
or Benne leaves, preferably in the fresh state, are much used
in America as a demulcent in disorders of the bowels; they
yield an abundant mucilage,

Description.—Annual, 2 to 3 feet; leaves opposite or
upper ones alternate, ovate, oblong or lanceolate, the lower ones
often 3-lobed, or 3-divided, feather-nerved ; at the base of the
peduncles are remarkable yellow glands ; flowers solitary in the -
axils, resembling those of the fox-glove, from dirty white to
rose-coloured, capsule velvetty and pubescent, mucronate, at
first 2-celled, afterwards 4-celled; seeds numerous, without
wings, ovoid, flat, white, brown, or black, rather smaller than
linseed.

: "Chemical composition.—The following table shows the relative
composition of the brown or Levantine, and yellowish or Indian,
seeds :—

Levantine. Indian.

Oil 55°63 50°84

; Organic matter...........; 30°95 35°25
Re Aah... Perey i 6-85
oo ee aS 3:90 7-06

the albuminoids fen equal to 21°42 and 22-30 per cent.

respectively i in the two varieties.

In the manufacture of the oil the seeds are generally
pressed three times: twice cold. and the third time warm. In
i. Calcutta, where the seeds are Oany. pressed twice, the average
yield is—

ee ‘Ast Pressing of fine Oiler phen der 88 = cent fig 6:

PEDALINE, 31

The oil-cake has the following composition :—
Water : sees O20
Fat 7°63
Non-nitrogenous matter,..... 40°90
Albumenoids containing 5:25
per cent. nitrogen ......... 32°82
AB As . 10°40 (Brannt.)
For further information on Sesame oil we would refer
the reader to Vol. II. of Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis,
and to Brannt’s work on Oils and Fats. The authors of the
Pharmacographia say :— The oil is a mixture of olein, stearin,
and other compounds of glycerin with acids of the fatty series.
We prepared with it in the usual way a lead plaster, and treated
the latter with ether in order to remove the oleate of lead.
The solution was then decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen
_ evaporated and exposed to hyponitric vapours. By this process
we obtained 72°6 per cent. of Elaidic acid. The specimen of
Sesame oil prepared by ourselves, consequently, contained 76-0
per cent. of olein, inasmuch as it must be supposed to be present
in the form of triolein. In commercial oils the amount of |
olein is certainly not constant. ee
“As to the solid part of the oil, we succeeded in removing
fatty acids, freely melting after repeated crystallizations at
67° C., which may consist of stearic acid mixed with one or
more of the allied homologous acids as palmitic and myristic.
By precipitating with acetate of magnesium, as proposed by
Heintz, we finally isolated acids melting at 52°5 to 53°, 62 to
63°, and 69-2° C., which correspond to myristic, palmitic, and
stearic acids.

“ Sesame oil contains an extremely small quantity of a sub- _
Stance, perhaps resinoid, which has not yet been isolated. It
may be obtained in solution by repeatedly shaking five vol

32 PEDALINEZ.

of the oil with one of glacial acetic acid. If a cold mixture
of equal weights of sulphuric and nitric acids is added in like
volume, the acetic solution acquires a greenish yellow hue.
The same experiment being made with spirit of wine substi-
tuted for acetic acid, the mixture assumes a blue colour, quickly
changing to greenish yellow. The oil itself being gently
shaken with sulphuric and nitric acids takes a fine green hue,
as shown in 1852 by Behrens, who at the same time pointed
out that no other oil exhibits this reaction. It takes place
even with the bleached and perfectly colourless oil. Sesame oil
added to other oils, if to a larger extent than 10 per cent., may
be recognised by this test. The reaction ought to be observed
with small quantities, say 1 gram. of the oil and 1 gram. of
the acid mixture previously cooled.”
_ J. F. Tocher recommends the use of hydrochloric acid with a
little pyrogallol for detecting the presence of Sesame oil;
14 parts of the acid and 1 part of pyrogallol are to be placed
with an equal proportion of the oil to be tested in a test tube,
which is corked and well shaken. The tube is then to be allowed
to stand for five minutes, when, the upper layer of oil having
been removed by a pipette, the acid solution is boiled for five
minutes. If Sesame oil is present, it will show a purple colour
when viewed by transmitted light, and a blue colour by reflect-
ed light ; the latter colour is best observed when the fluid 1s
poured into a porcelain capsule. After a time a slight blue
‘precipitate is thrown down. Olive oil tested with this re-agent
afforded a faint yellowish colour, almond, groundnut and rape
‘oils no colour, and cotton-seed oil a very pale red. An admix-
‘ture of 1 to 2-per cent. of Sesame oil with olive oil may thus be
detected.

eye 4: 9 alee ee eas

PED ALINB. |.

with hydrochloric acid, collected on a filter, thoroughly washed |
to free it from acid, and dried over a water bath. It was then
soluble in alcohol and crystallized on cooling from its alcoholic
solution in Jong needles melting at 117—118° ©. The needles
were soluble in benzene, oil of turpentine, bisulphide of carbon,
chloroform, and glacial acetic acid, but insoluble in water, alka-
line solutions, and hydrochloric acid. They were neutral to
test paper, and gave no colour reaction with the hydrochloric
acid and pyrogallol solution, showing that this reaction is due
to another principle in the oil which has not yet been isolated.
(Pharm. Journ., Jan. 24th, 1891.)

Sesame oil xiii by ether has a sp. gr. of 0°919 at 23° C,

Commerce.—Sesamum is commonly cultivated in India; there
are two varieties, the black-seeded and the white-seeded; the
former being generally known as fi/, and the latter as til.
Til ripens rather later than ti, and is more commonly grown,
mixed with high crops, such as Sorghum vulgare, while tili does
best when mixed with cotton. Tvli oil is preferred of the two
for human consumption. (Duthie and Fuller.)

The quantity of seed shipped from British India in the year
1871-72 was 565,854 ewts., of which France took-no less than
495,414 ewts. In 1881-82, the exports from Bombay alone
were 994,120 ewts., valued at Rs. 64,84,475. France continued
to take about 4-6ths of the total exports. Besides this, 105,344
gals. of oil, value Rs, 1,12,122, were exported to Eastern ports.
Tn 1884-85, the exports from the whole of India were 2,654 _
thousand ecwts., and in 1887-88, 187 thousand tons, but in
1888-89 the exports fell to 77 thousand tons. This fall was
probably due to an unfavourable season. No statistics of the
consumption of the oil in India are available. It must be
enormous, as Sesame oil i is the food oil of all who can afford it.

PEDALIUM MUREX, Lon

Fig. —Burm. Fi. Ind; t: 45, f.-2.° @artn: Fruct. i, 2+ oes ee 2

Wight Ie., t. 1615; Rheede Hort. Mal. ®ay (3s pips

Hab. —Deccan Peninsula, Ceylon, The leaves, ae mn
TiL—5 zi

4 PHDALINEZ..

Vernacular.—Bara-gokhru (Hind., Beng.), Peru-nerunji
(Tam.), Pedda-palleru (Ye/.), Kéttu-nerinnil (Mai.), Anne- -
galu-gida (Can.), Kadva-gokhru (Guz.), Karonta, Ubha-gokhru,
Malvi-gokhru ( Mar.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant does not appear to
have been used medicinally by the ancient Hindus, nor do
we know of any Sanskrit name for it. It is supposed by
Dr. Moodin Sheriff to be the Farid-biti (herb F arid), the plant
upon which Shaik Farid-ed-din Shakar Ganj,* a Mahometan
ascetic and poet, sustained life while he acquired the everlasting
treasure of knowledge (Ganj-i-la-yaz4l-i-madrif). The follow-
ing quatrain is attributed to him :—

Shabnist keh khin-i-dil-i-chamnak narikht. {
Riizi neh keh 4brié-i-man pak narikht, ||
Yak sharbat-i-4b-i-khtish nakhdrdam hameh ’umr. |
Kan niz 2’rah-i-dideh bar khak narikht. ||
By night I am consumed with grief,
By day I am overwhelmed with shame,
No drop of sweet water passes my lips,
But it pours in tears from my eyes.

_ 2. Murex is the Caca-mullu of Rheede, who states that the
powdered leaves are given in two-drachm doses with milk and
sugar in gonorrhoea and gonorrheal rheumatism. The fresh
plant agitated in water or milk renders it gelatinous without

terially altering its taste, colour or odour. This thickening
disappears after some hours. A watery infusion of this kind
sweetened with sugar is a favourite and excellent demulcent in
acute gonorrhea. The dried fruit is the Bara-gokhru of
“ great Gokhru” of the shops, and a decoction of it is used
when the fresh plant is not obtainable. In the Concan 4
Paushtik, or “ strengthening medicine,” is made of the

* Shakarganj or “ sugar store.” Poison in his mouth became sugar—
Mo 95 SS ,) e839 323 ae 02395 yp 9f-5 1 Cry Br) a <O

_His shrine is at Pak-pattan, or the Ferry of the Pure; be died A. H. 664,

aad Pirie ne eee aye ak batten is in the Panjab, between Babwalpir

PEDALINEH. 35
powdered fruit with g/i, sugar, and spices; it is taken with
ilk. : 2 :

Dr. Emerson has observed that the juice is used as a local
application to aphthe.

P. Murex must not be confounded with the great Gokhru or |

Hasak of Mahometan medical writers, which is Xanthium
Strumarium.

European writers upon Indian drugs bear evidence to the
correctness of the native estimate of the medicinal value of
Gokhru, and it has lately been introduced into European practice
as a remedy for nocturnal seminal emissions, incontinence of
urine and impotence. (Practitioner, XVII., 381.) It has been
given in an infusion of 1 oz. of the fruit to 1 pint of boiling
distilled water, this quantity being taken daily.

Description.—A spreading, low succulent plant with oval,
dentate, obtusely pointed leaves; pedicels axillary, 1-flowered,
shorter than the petiole, 1 to 2, or more dark-brown glandular
bodies situated near the axils; flowers yellow; tube of corolla
about 1 inch long; fruit pendulous, about 3 an inch long, and
+ inch in diameter at the base, 4-angled, with a straight
spine at the base of each angular ridge; above the spines is a
narrow portion which is inserted into the 5-clawed calyx ;
when dry the fruit is corky, it is divided into two cells; the
seeds are elongated, narrow, and four in number. The young
branches, petioles, under-surface of leaves and immature cap-
sules have a frosted appearance, which is due to the presence of
numerous small, sessile, brilliant, crystalline, 4 to 5-partite
glands. The substance of the fruit consists, in great part, of
dense fibro-vascular tissue, forming a kind of 4-winged nut;
the corky part consists of delicate cellular tissue; when fresh
it is green and succulent. The fresh plant has a peculiar dis-

agreeable musky odour, Simple agitation of the young — :

branches in water, without any crushing, produces a viscid

mucilage like white of egg. We find from experiment that _
the glandular crystalline bodies deseribed above are the source

of the mucilage; if they are gently scraped from the u

36 ACANTHACEZ,.

surface of the leaf and mixed with water, the viscidity is at
once produced. The mucilage has a faint peculiar taste, but i8
not disagreeable...’ .
Chemical composition.—The fruits contain a greenish-coloured
fat, a small quantity of resin, and an alkaloid in the alcoholic
_ extract. The mucilage separated by water is precipitated by
acetate of lead solution and alcohol, and in these respects
resembles the mucilage of gum arabic. The ash of the air-
dried fruit amounts to 5-43 per cent.

Martynia diandra, Ginx. Bot. Rep. 575, “tiger's claw :
or “devil’s claw,” is a native of Mexico, but has become quite
naturalized in India, making its appearance on waste ground
during the rainy season.

The plant is herbaceous, has large cordate leaves, and hand-
some flowers like those of Sesame. The fruit is a green fleshy
capsule which contains a hard, black, woody, wrinkled nut '
with two anterior hooks, having something the appearance of @ fF
beetle. The natives liken it to a scorpion, hence the names
Vinché and Vichhidé ; they suppose it to have a curative effect
upon the sting of that reptile, the nut being rubbed down with
water and applied to the injured part. It is sold in the shops.

ACANTHACE A.

HYYGROPHILA SPINOSA, 7 dnd.

oa lee Wight Te., t. 449; Rheede, Hort. Mal us, 4 45.

ACANTHACESS. 37

eyes like the Kokila, or Indian Cuckoo.” The blue flowers are
used in the Lékholi ceremony, which is an offering to Mahadeva
of a lakh each (100,000) of the five grains ( ¢4yt=4 ), and a lakh
each of a number of different flowers. Counting these occupies
the women of the house for about a month. As a medicine the
Hindus consider H. spinosa to be cooling, diuretic, and strengthen-
ing; the root, seeds, and ashes of the plant are in general use,
and are prescribed i in hepatic obstruction with dropsy, rheuma-
tism, and urinary affections. The seeds are one of the Pancha-
vija, or “five seeds,” the others being those of Celastrus, Fenu-
greek, Ajwan, and Cumin. There are, however, several other
sets of five seeds. Mahometan writers mention the use of the
plant for the same purposes, and also its external application in
rheumatism, but they notice more especially the use of the seeds
as an aphrodisiac given either with sugar, milk or wine in doses
of from one to three dirhems, Ainslie, speaking of this plant,
say :—‘ This root, which has got its Tamool name from growing
near water, is supposed to have virtues similar to those of the
Moollie-vayr (Solanum indicum, Linn.) already mentioned. The
plant is the Bahel-schulli of Rheede, who tells us that on the
Malabar Coast a decoction of the root is considered as diuretic
and given in dropsical cases and gravelish affections; the dose
is about half a teacupful twice daily. The species in ques-
- tion is a native of the Western Coast of India, whence the
root is brought across the peninsula to the medicine bazars of
the Carnatic. Our article is called Katu-irki by the Cingalese.”’
(Mat. Ind., II., p. 236.) In the Pharmacopeia of India several
European contributors bear testimony to the diuretic properties
of the plant, but no mention is made of the use of the seeds as
an aphrodisiac and diuretic. In Bombay they are very gener-
ally used and are to be found in every druggist’s shop.

RRM POR eee

Description.—Roots often biennial , tapering, with numer-
ous rootlets; stems herbaceous, ascending or erect, ramous,
jointed, a little flattened, hairy, from 2 to 3 feet high; branches
opposite, like the stem, and also nearly erect; leaves an —— a
opposite, sessile pair at each joint, within these and subalternate
with the spines, several small ones in a verticel : all are linear.

wa ae

38 ACANTHACES.

lanceolate, margins often revolute, hairy, almost bristly, size
various ; spines 6 in each verticel, between the leaves and flowers,
awl-shaped, spreading anda little recurved; flowers verticelled,
numerous, sessile, large, of a bright blue; bracts lanceolate,
margins and outside bristly; calyx of two pairs of nearly equal
leaflets, clothed with soft hair; corol 2-lipped, lips nearly equal;
upper 2-parted, with the division emarginate, the under one
3-parted, with the division also emarginate, in the under a
coloured body like a large oblong anther; filaments connected
at the base, second pair larger than usual in the genus; anthers
sagittate ; stigma subulate, involute, with a fissure on the upper
side. (Roxb.) The seeds are small and flattish, of irregular form
and brown colour, the largest yy of an inch long and ;; broad.
When placed in the mouth they immediately become coated
with a large quantity of extremely tenacious mucilage, which
adheres to the tongue and palate and is of rather agreeable
flavour.

Microscopic structure.—When a section of the seed is placed
under the microscope with a drop of water the development of
the mucus may be observed. It appears fo spring in filaments
from the columnar cells of the testa; these spread rapidly ™
every direction and form a network which resembles the growth
of some of the lower forms of algee; it does not dissolve whet
much water is added.

Chemical composition.—The roots with the lower portion of
the stems were air-dried, contused, and exhausted with 80 per
cent. aleohol. On concentrating the tincture, white cauliflower
‘like masses separated. After the whole of the alcohol had been
evaporated off, the extract, which had a very strong acid
reaction, was mixed with water and agitated with petroleum
ether, then with ether, and finally, after having beet

the form of white cauliflower-like nodules, and a crystalline
deposit on the sides of the dish. Examined microscopically,

both the nodules and the deposit were seen to consist of |

rod-shaped crystals: After repeated crystallization from |

a

:
|

Bee ee ee eye

ACANTHAOEZ. 39

alcohol, and pressing the crystals between blotting paper, by
which much colouring matter and a trace of oil was separated,
the residue, which was nearly white, possessed the following
properties :—On being heated between watch-glasses it melted
into an amber-coloured fluid, and after the lapse of some hours
the glasses were filled with a white, wool-like sublimate. In
water the principle was insoluble, and it was not acted upon by .
ammonia or dilute sodium hydrate. In concentrated sulphuric
acid it dissolved with a yellow coloration, and on dilution the
solution became milky. On gently heating the sulphuric acid
solution and then diluting with water, a pinkish turbid fluid
resulted; when chloroform was agitated with this fluid it
became coloured either pink, violet, greenish or even blue, the
tint appearing to depend on the degree of heat applied to the acid
solution before dilution with water. The principle dissolved
in chloroform, and the solution when agitated with an equal
volume of concentrated sulphuric acid, failed to give the colour
reaction in the chloroform layer for cholesterin, but the sulphuric
acid stratum exhibited a very marked green fluorescence.

Evaporated to dryness with nitric ‘acid a yellow residue was
left, which, on the addition of ammonia, became of an orange-
yellow colour, but without any trace of redness. When the
solid principle was evaporated to dryness with HCl and ferrie
chloride, it was difficult to say what colour the residue was,
The test, however, applied as described by C. Forti (Stay. Sperim.
Agri. Ital. 18, 580), by first dissolving the principle in chloro-
form, adding a little strong ferric chloride and concentrated
hydrochloric acid, and evaporating to dryness, left.a dark-
coloured residue; this, when dry and cold, was treated with
chloroform and gently warmed, when a fine violet-
solution was afforded. The acid ethereal extract ¢
yellow colouring matter and possessed an aromatic. odo
alkaline ethereal extract contained @principle which
a marked degree alkaloidal reactions,- but - we. faile
any special colour tests.

The seeds are glutinous, besides being mucilaginous, Thiegi
contain 4-92 per cent. of hitrogen,-which is equivalent to 31-14

coloured
ontained
ur. The
afforded in
d to obtain

40 ACANTHACES.

per cent. of albuminoids, traces of an alkaloid, and 23 per cent.
of a yellow fixed oil. The mucilage is not affected by ferric
chloride, plumbic acetate, or by two volumes of alcohol.

Commerce. ~The seeds are kept by all druggists. Value Rs. 6
per maund of 374 1bs. The root is an article of commerce it
Southern India; elsewhere it is generally supplied by the
herbalists. 3

Several species of Strobilanthes yield stems as thick as 4
walking-stick and quite straight, which are used, like bamboos,
in the construction of mud walls and fences. The aromatic
flower spikes of some of these plants are used as a rusti¢
medicine by the natives. The bark of S. callosus, Nees, with an
equal quantity of Undi bark (Calophyllum inophylium), is used
in Western India as a fomentation in tenesmus ; the bark- -juice,
with an equal quantity of Mika-juice (Eelipta alba), boiled to
one-half, is mixed with old Sesamum oil, a few peppercorns
and ginger, heated and applied in parotitis ; equal parts of the
juice of the flowers and of those of Randia dumetorum are used
as an application to bruises.

The flower spikes of this plant resemble hops in shape and
sine, and are covered with a viscid resinous exudation called Mel,
having a musky and resinous odour.

BLEPHARIS EDULIS, Pers.
- Fig.—Burm. Fl. Ind., t. 42; Delile Fl. Ay., t. 33, f. 3.
aa Hab.—Punjab, Sind, Persia. The seeds.

Vernacular.—Utanjan (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—-Under the local name of Utanjat
and the Persian name Anjurah, an Acanthaceous seed is sold in
the Indian bazars. From an examination of the capsules
which are sometimes found mixed with the seeds, there would

appear to be little doubt that they are those of the plant placed
at the head of this article. Utanjan is a standard native remedy

and is universally kept in the cage! shops. The author of —

AGANTHAORAL — Al

the Makhzan-el-Adwiya (article Anjurah) gives us the follow-
ing account of it, from which it would appear that the true
Anjurah is the Urtica prima of Matthiolus (U. pilulifera,
Linn.),* and that the seeds now in use in India have somehow
come to take the place of the genuine article. He says :—
_ “ Anjurah is a Persian word ; it is the Kariz of the Arabs, the
_ Kurnah of Shiraz, the Kajit of the Turks, the Utanjan of the
: Indians, the Urtikparim of Latin writers, and the Harkitah of
Gilan. The plant has numerous serrate leaves, which are armed
with prickles, the stem is still more prickly ; when it comes in
contact with the body it causes redness, burning, and itching.
The flowersare yellow. The seedssmooth and shining, flattened,
of a brownish colour, larger than those of Sesamum, and alto-
gether not unlike linseed. They are the officinal part, and if
good should be heavy and of a brown colour.” Medicinally
they are considered to be attenuant, resolvent, diuretic, aphro-
disiac, expectorant, and deobstruent.t

Description.—The Utanjan of the Indian shops consists
of the seeds mixed with a variable proportion of broken pieces
of the capsule and a few entire fruits. The latter are mitre-
shaped, about 3%; of an inch long and 1% broad, laterally
compressed, sides furrowed, surface polished, of a chestnut
colour; capsule 2-celled, 2-seeded; seeds heart-shaped, flat,
_ covered with long, coarse hairs; when soaked in water the hairs
disintegrate and produce a large quantity of viscid mucilage.
; Microscopie structure.—Each hair is made up of several
_ columnar cells, each of which contains a spiral fibre, which
} upon the solution of the cell wall uncoils and imparts an
_ unusual stringiness to the mucilage.

Chemical composition.—The bitter principle of the seeds is a
white crystalline body soluble in water, amylic and ethyliec
alcohol, but insoluble in ether and petroleum ether. It gives

ee ee ee

; nd RES AE Sea
* The Roman Nettle, Uriica prima, Matth. Valgr. v. 2, 469. It has
brown polished seeds. re
t Conf. Dios, iv., 89. rept axadigys, also Galen; they recommend it as —
an expectorant. sce
“ Tih—e

42 ACANTHACE.

‘a reddish colour with sulphuric acid, green at the margin if
impure, and is best distinguished by the fine violet colour 18
solutions impart when brought into contact with ferric salts.
With H*S0* and K°CR20’ an agreeable odour of salicylous
acid is evolved. It is associated with a substance which
reduces Fehling’s solution. Another white crystalline principle
is present in the seeds which is not bitter, and does not give
colour reactions with sulphuric acid and ferric salts. The
latter crystals melted on the surface of heated mercury at 225°.
The aqueous extract of the seeds contained much mucilage and
vegetable albumen. The ash amounted to 7:1 per cent.

Commerce.— Utanjan is imported into Bombay from Kgypt.
Value Rs. 13 per lb. In Sind and Northern India it is collected
locally.

ACANTHUS ILICIFOLIUS, Linn.

Fig.— Rheede, Hort. Mal. ii., t. 48. Holly-leaved Acanthus
(Eng.).
_ Hab.—Sea Coasts of Malabar, Ceylon, and the Sunder-
bunds. The plant and root.

Vernacular.—Harkichkanta (Hind., Beng.), Méraudi (Mar.)
Moranna (Gfoa.), Paina-schulli (Mai.).

History, Uses, &c.—Roxburgh states that the Sanskrit
name of this plant is Harikasa, but we cannot find any plant
bearing this name mentioned by Hindu medical writers. '

Ainslie calls the plant “ Holly-leaved Acanthus,” and say*
that Rheede mentions the use of the tender shoots and leave
ground small and soaked in water as an application to snake-
bites. Bontius commends its expectorant qualities. It is #
plant in great request among the Siamese and Cochin-Chines®,
and is called by the latter Cay-o-ro, who consider the roots to be
cordial and attenuant, and useful in paralysis and asthma.
(Flora, Cochin Chin., Vol. I1., p. 875.) In the Concan a decoc-
tion of the plant with Sugar-candy and cumin is given iD
dyspepsia with acid eructations. In Goa the leaves which —

ACANTHACES, 3 43

abound in mucilage, are used as an emollient fomentation in
rheumatism and neuralgia.

Description.—A common shrub in and on the edges of
salt or brackish lakes, marshes, &c. Roots ramous, stems many,
erect; branches few, bark smooth; prickles stipulary, four-fold,
short, but very sharp. Leaves opposite, short-petioled, oblong,
scolloped, waved, spinous, dentate, polished on both sides,
of a firm texture, from four to six inches long, and about two
broad. Spikes generally terminal, sometimes axillary, erect.
Flowers solitary, opposite, large, blue, inodorous. Capsule
oblong, ovate, smooth, size of an acorn, 2-celled, 2-valved,
Seeds two in each cell, obliquely cordate, compressed.

Chemical composition—The powdered leaves yielded to ether
a quantity of fatty matter coloured strongly with chlorophyll
and some soft resins. Alcohol removed more resin, an organic
acid, and a bitter alkaloid. The alkaloid gave a reddish-brown
colour with sulphuric acid, and was precipitated from its
solutions by the usual reagents, including the volatile and fixed
alkalies. Some soluble saline matter was present ~in the
extracts of the leaves, and contributed largely to the 16-4 of oe
cent, of total ash obtained from the air-dried leaves.

‘~

BARLERIA PRIONITIS, th

Fig.—lheede, Hort. Mal. iat. t. 41; Wight Ie., 452 ; Rumph.
Herb. Amb, vii., 13.

Hab.—tTropical India. The plant.
-Vernacular.—JShinti, Katsareya® (Hind.), Kantajéti (Beng:),
Vajradanti, Kalsunda, Pivala-koranta (M/ar.), Shemmulli, Vara-

mulli (Tam.), Midlu-govinda ( Tel.), Kanta-shelio(Guz.), Goratige,
Gor ati (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—This small shrub is the Kuranta,
Kuruvaka or Kuravaka of the Hindu poets, who compare its
yellow flowers to a flash of lightning. In the Gita Govinda the

Brion ms and —

44 ACANTHACE..

jealous Radha pictures to herself the absent Hari binding them
in the floating locks of the Gopis. Other Sanskrit names are
Amlana, Pitajhinta, Mahasaha, and Kuruntaka. Though not
mentioned in the Nighantas, its medicinal properties appear to
be very generally known; it is the Coletta Veetla of Rheede,
and the Hystrix fruter of Rumphius.

The natives apply the juice of the leaves to their feet in the
rainy season to harden them, and thus prevent the maceration
and cracking of the sole which would otherwise occur. Ainslie
says that the juice of the leaves, which is slightly bitter and
acid, is a favourite medicine of the Hindus of Lower India in
those catarrhal affections of children which are accompanied
with fever and much phlegm ; it is generally administered in @
little honey or sugar and water in the eet) of two table-
spoonfuls twice Bact, (Materia Indica, IL., p. 376.

In the Concan the dried bark is given in whoopmg cought,

and 2 tolas of the juice of the fresh bark with milk in anasarcé-

Dr. Bidie observes that it actsas a diaphoretic and expect
orant.

A paste is made of the root which is applied to disperse bails
and glandular swellings, and a medicated oil, made by boiling
the leaves and stems with sweet oil until all the water has been
driven off, is used as a cleansing application to wounds.

: _Description.—stem short, erect; branches numerous,

site, erect, round, smooth; the whole plant two or three

Ars feet ae Thorns axillary, generally about four, straighb
| ne slender, sharp. Leaves opposite, decussate, short-petioled,
: oblong, somewhat waved, mucronate, smooth. Flowers axillary,

aera solitary, sessile, large, yellow. Capsule conical,
2-seeded, one seed in each cell. Root woody, perennial, with

numerous lateral rigid rootlets.
Chemical composition. —With the exception of the large amount
Seger in light petroleum ether, 7
cted : =... of.

aE ee ae ee fe ae

Oe Sera ey eS gee eee ee a

iy
5

eee a ep ees ee

Seer Te Oe.

To a 3

ACANTHACEA. 45

Barleria noctiflora, Linn. Dr. Mootooswamy says
that in Tanjore a decoction of this plant is a good adjunct to
and substitute for human milk.

The following plant is classed by the natives along with the |
Barlerias, of which B. cristata and several other species appear
to be included by the Sanskrit names Kuruntaka, Kuruvaka,
and Artagala. In Hindi Jhinti is a kind of general name
for these plants, and in Marathi Kordénta and Aboli.

Crossandra undulzfolia, Salish. Bot. Mag. 2186;
Wight Ic., t. 461; Rheede, Hort. Mal. ix., 62, is a native of the
Deccan Peninsula and Ceylon, and is much cultivated about
Hindu temples in other parts of India, probably on account
of the colour of the flowers, which is like that of the dress of the
Bhikshu or penitent. The plant bears the synonym of Priya-
darsha, “pleasant to look at,” and the flowers are much worn
by Brahmin women in the hair. The capsules, which resemble

. grains of barley, are described in the Makhzan-el-Adwiya under

the Arabic name of Aséba-el-usiil as highly aphrodisiac ; they
afford much amusement to children from their peculiarity of

suddenly bursting with a crack when moistened and projecting

their seeds.

Dedalacanthus roseus, 7. And., a native of Western
India, has tuberous, spindle-shaped roots, usually ten in
number, as thick as a quill, several inches in length and covered
by a dark-brown bark; leaves elliptic, glabrous, scabrous
on the veins beneath; spikes axillary-peduncled, imbricated ;
bracts oval, somewhat wedge-shaped, acute, ciliated, with long
hairs, reticulately veined ; tube of corolla very long and slender;
flowers deep blue, turning bright red as they fade. The root
boiled in milk is a popular remedy for leucorrhcea ; dose one
drachm. In the Southern Concan it is given to pregnant cattle
to promote the growth of the fetus. The Marathj name is
Dasamuli, “ having ten roots.”

Neuracanthus sphzrostachyus, Dal. Hedi £e -
Pi, t. 835, is a native of Western India. - It is powdered: ada

46 ACANTHACEA:.

made into a paste which is used to cure ringworm, and the roots
are administered in that form of indigestion in which fatty or
saponaceous grape-like masses are observed in the stools. ‘They
resemble Serpentaria in appearance, but may be distinguished
by the thick covering -of white, silky hairs upon the root stock.
The roots have hardly any taste. The Marathi name is
Ghosvel.

ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA, Nees.

Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t. 197 ; Wight Ic., t. 518; Rheede,
Hort. Mal. ix., t. 56.

Hab.—Throughout India, wild or cultivated. The herb.

Vernacular.— Kiryat (Hind.), Olen-kiraita (Mar.), Kalmeg
( Beng.), Shirat-kuchchi, Nila-vembu (Tam.)}, Nela-vemu (7 el.),
Nila-veppa (Mal.), Nela-bevinagida (Can.), Kirydto (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—Concerning this plant, Dutt
(Hindu Mat. Med., p. 216) states that there is some doubt
regarding its Sanskrit name. He says:—“A plant called
Yavatikté, with synonyms of Mahatikta, Sankhini, &c., is said
by some to mean this herb, but the term Mahitikta, when
occurring in Sanskrit prescriptions, is usually interpreted 45
Melia sempervirens, Sw.,* and Yavatikté has not been noted by me
as having occurred in any prescription, so that I am inclined to
think Andrographis paniculata was not used in Sanskrit medi-
eine. The plant is well known in Bengal under the name of
Kalmeg, and is the principal ingredient of a domestic medicine
ealled Alui, which is given to infants for the relief of griping,
irregularity of the bowels, and loss of appetite.” It is prepared
in the following manner:—Take equal parts of cumiD,
randhani (fruit of Carum Roxburghianum), aniseed, cloves;
capsules of greater cardamoms, and pound them thoroughly with
the expressed juice of the leaves of the Kélmeg. The mass thus
prepared is divided into small pills and dried in the sun. ‘The
dose is one pill rubbed down in human milk.

_* M. Aszedarach, Linn.

acti

ACANTHACE. 47

Both Hindu and Mahometan medical writers would appear
to have confounded this drug with chiretta.* According to
Forskahl, it is common in Arabia, and is there called Wizr.
(Forsk. Flor. Aeg. Ar., CII.)

Moodin Sheriff points out that Cara Caniram, the name given
to this plant by Rheede, signifies ‘‘ Black Strychnos ;” he there-
fore thinks it must be incorrect.

Ainslie speaks of the plant as having been brought to the
southern parts of the Indian Peninsula from the Isle of —
France.

Flickiger and Hanbury in their Pharmacographia point out
that it has been wrongly supposed to be a constituent of the
famous bitter tincture called by the Portuguese of India Droga
amara. Inthe Pharmacopwia of India it has been made official,
and directions for making a compound infusion and compound
tincture are given. Quite recently, under the name of Ha/lviva,
which appears to be a corruption of the Bengali word alu or
alvi, a preparation of the drug has been advertised in England
as a substitute for quinine. The herb is very common in shady
situations as a weed of cultivation, and is much used by the natives
as a domestic remedy for fever in combination with aromatics,
especially with lemon-grass. The dose of the dried leaves is
about ten grains combined with twenty grains of black pepper.
In the Concan, Kirait, Ginger, and Dikamali are given in fever,
and the fresh juice with black pepper, rock salt, and Asafetida
in colic. In the chronic febrile condition known as Bariktdp,
Kirait, Ginger, Picrorhiza root, wild dates, and Conessi bark are
infused and given with honey every morning. A, echioides,
ees, is said to have similar medicinal properties; it isthe
Peetumba of Rheede (ix., 46), who says that the juice is
given in fever. Haplanthus verticillaris, Nees, and
H. tentaculatus, ees, bear the name of Kala-kirait
in Western India, and are used medicinally. The Hindi
name for these two _ is Kastula and the —
Shankara.

* The name Kityat is loosely applied to many biltes drugs.

48 ACANTHACEA:.

Description.—Annual, 1 to 3 feet; stem quadrangular,
pointed, smooth; leaves opposite, on short petioles, lanceolate,

entire upper surface dark-green and shining, under surface paler

and finely granular : they vary much in size, but the larger are

usually about 3 inches in length and 1 inch in breadth ; calyx — q |

deeply 5-cleft ; corolla bilabiate; lips linear, reflected, upper
one 3-toothed, lower one 2-toothed; flowers remote, alternate,
on long petioles, downy, rose-coloured, or white streaked with
purple ; capsules erect, somewhat cylindrical; seeds 3 to 4 in
each; root fusiform, simple, woody, with numerous fine
radicles.

Chemical composition.— According to the authors of the
Pharmacographia :—* The aqueous infusion of the herb exhibits
a slight acid reaction and has an intensely bitter taste, which
appears due to an indifferent, non-basic principle, for the usual
reagents do not indicate the presence of an alkaloid. Tannic
acid, on the other hand, produces an abundant precipitate, £
compound of itself with the bitter principle. The infusion 1s
but little altered by the salts of iron; it contains a considerable
quantity of chloride of sodium.”

Commerce,—A. paniculata is not an article of commerce, but
the fresh plant is sold by the herbalists and gardeners.

JUSTICIA.

a species of Justicia are reputed to be medicinal amongst
2. the peasantry,

‘Justicia Gendarussa, Linn, f., is the Vedakodi of
Rheede (Hort. Mat, ix., t. 42), who says that the juice with -
- mustard is used as an emetic in asthma, and a bath of the leaves
in rheumatism. According to ~ it is emetic and very

efficient in the- agli of es n Réunion it is called
“< Guerit petit colique.”

Description.—In coer it is. Seally seen in a stunted
form, as it is kept closely cut ; ——— 1¢

ots have a smooth

ACANTHACEA. 7 49

green or purple bark; from the joints, which are somewhat
tumid, spring secondary shoots. The leaves are opposite, short-
petioled, lanceolar, obtuse, frequently a little scolloped, smooth;
nerve and veins purple, or green, according to the variety, from
3 to 6 inches long, and 4 to 1 inch broad ; spikes terminal, erect;
flowers dirty white, spotted with purple. The odour of the
plant when crushed is ferny, the taste peculiar, and not dis-
agreeable. ; :

Justicia procumbens, Linn, Wight. Ic., t. 1539, a
native of the South Deccan and Ceylon. [ Vern.—Gh4ti-pitpapra
(Mar.), Nereipoottie (Zam.)] is a small plant, very abundant
in the rainy season. The whole herb is gathered when in flower
and dried. It has a faintly bitter disagreeable taste, and is used
as a substitute for Fumaria, the true Pit-pépré. According to
Ainslie the juice of the leaves is squeezed into the eye in cases of
ophthalmia (II. 246).

Description.—Stem procumbent, diffuse; leaves lanceo-
late-elliptic or rounded, glabrous or ‘sparingly hairy; spikes
compressed, slender ; calycine segments lanceolate, membranous
on the margin, minutely ciliated; bracts of the same shape and
shorter than the calyx ; flowers small, pale purple ; root slender,
long, woody, straight, with numerous slender stems spreading
from the crown, The bitterness of the plant is due to an
alkaloid,

Justicia picta, Roxb. Rheede, Hort: Mal. vi., ¢. 60; Bot.
Mag., t. 1870, a well-known garden shrub, is used medicinally
_ in the same manner as Adhatoda Vasica. The variegated variety
_ is called ‘White Adulsa,’ and the dark-leaved kind ‘ Black
_ AAdulsa’; the first is, according to Rumphius (vi., 35), used
pounded with the milk of the cocoanut to reduce swellings.
Loureiro states that the leaves are emollient and resolvent, and
notices their use as a eataplasm to inflamed breasts caused by
obstruction to the flow of milk.

Justicia Ecbolium, now Ecbolium Linneanum,
Kura, Wall, Pl. As. Rar. iii, t. 108; Bot. Mag., t. 1847, isa sy
1 a ——

50 ACANTHACEZ:.

shrub, the roots of which have a reputation in the Concan in
jaundice and menorrhagia. Rheede (Hort. Mal. ii., 20) notices
the use of the whole plant in gouty affections and dysuria.
Description.—Stems several, straight, jointed, and
swelled above the joints; woody and round below, quadrangular
and tender above; leaves elliptic-oblong, attenuated at both
ends, pubescent, or glabrous ; spikes terminal, tetragonal ; bracts
oval, quite entire, ciliated, mucronate, as long as the capsule;
flowers azure-coloured ; capsule half an inch long, 2-seeded.

_ADHATODA VASICA, Nee.

Fig.—Lam. II, t. 12, f.1; Bot. Mag., t. 861; Griff. Le. Pi.
As.,t. 424; Rheede Hort, Mal, iz., t. 48. Malabar nut tree (Eng.)

Hab.— India, from the Punjab and Assam to Ceylon. The
leaves, root, and flowers,
_ Vernacular .—Artsa, Riis, Bansa (Hind.), Adilsa (Mar.),
Bakas (Beng.), Addlso, Bansa (Guz.), Adatodai (Zam.), Addas-
-aram (Tel.), Ata-lotakam (Mai.), Adasala, Adasoge (Can.)-

History, Uses, &c.—This shrub has a considerable rept"
tation all over India as an expectorant and antispasmodic, and

is largely prescribed in consumption and other chest affections
attended with cough and hectic fever. Sanskrit writers call

it Vasaka, Vansa, Vrisha, Sinha-mukhi “lion-mouthed” Sinha-.

-patni “lion-leaved,” and Atarfsha, Atarusha or Atardshaka,
and direct the fresh juice of the leaves to be given in doses of one
tolé (180 grs.), with the addition of honey and long pepper,
cough. Dutt,in his Hindu Materia Medica, gives several com
_pound preparations of the drug extracted from Sarangadhara
and the Bhavaprakasa, and remarks that there is a saying tha!
‘no man suffering from phthisis need despair as long as the
Vasaka plant exists, In the Nighantas it is described *
removing phlegm, bile, and impurities of the blood, a remedy for
asthma, cough, fever, vomiting, gonorrhea, leprosy, and
‘phthisis. Persian writers upon Indian Materia Medica notice

|
|
2

the plant under its Hindustani name of Arésa. The author of —

Boiss 5-1 1.0 sie a eel

Es a ep aE

ACANTHACES, ~ 51

the Makhzan-el-Adwiya describes it correctly, and says that the
wood is used to make toothpicks and gunpowder. Medicinally
the flowers are useful in hectic, heat of blood, and gonorrhea,
the root in cough, asthma, febrile disturbances, and. gonorrhea ;
the fruit is sometimes hung round the necks of children to
keep them from catching cold. Ainslie states that “In
Ceylon, the Malabar nut tree is said to grow to the height of
fourteen or fifteen feet, and is there called Wanapala. The
flowers, leaves, and root, but especially the first, are supposed to
possess antispasmodic qualities; and are prescribed in certain
cases of asthma, and to prevent the return of rigor in intermit-
tent fever; they are bitterish and sub-aromatic, and are adminis-
tered in infusion and electuary. In the last mentioned form
the flowers are given to the quantity of about a teaspoonful
twice daily.” (Mat. Ind., I1., p. 3.) Roxburgh remarks that
the wood is well fitted for making charcoal for gunpowder.
Strong testimony in favour of the remedial properties of the
drug was furnished to the authors of the Pharmacopeiu of India
by Drs. Jackson and Dutt, who employed it with marked
success in chronic bronchitis, asthma, and other pulmonary
and catarrhal affections. Cases illustrative of its effects in
eatarrh, bronchitis, and phthisis have been published by Mr. O.
C. Dutt. (Indian Annals of Med. Sci., 1865, Vol, X., p. 156.)
In Bengal the leaves are smoked in asthma; good evidence of
their value when thus used has. been collected by Dr. G. Watt
in the “ Dict. of the Economic Products of India.” Dr. Watt has
also brought to notice the use of Adhatoda leaves in rice cul-
tivation in the Sutlej Valley. The fresh leaves are scattered
over recently flooded fields prepared for the rice crop, and the
native cultivators say that they not only act as a manure, but
also as a poison to kill the aquatic weeds that otherwise would
injure the rice. Experiments.conducted by us show that the
infusion acts upon the cells of these plants in the same manner
as certain chemical reagents, by contracting their contents and
causing their disintegration; it also proves poisonous to any
animalcules, frogs, leeches, &c., present in the water; on the

higher animals the leaves do not have this effect. i

52 ACANTHACE&.

Description. A small tree or large shrub, flowering —
in the cold season; trunk straight; bark pretty smooth, ash-
eoloured ; branches sub-erect, with bark like that of the trunk,
but smoother; leaves opposite, short petioled, broad lanceolar,
long, taper-pointed, smooth on both sides, about 5 to 6 inches
long and 1} broad; spikes from the exterior axils, solitary,
long-peduncled, the whole end of the branchlet forming a leafy
panicle, flower-bearing portion short, and covered with large
bracts; flowers opposite, large, white, with small ferruginous
dots, the lower part of both lips streaked with purple; bracts
3-fold, opposite, 1-flowered, exterior one of the three, large,
ovate, obscurely 5-nerved interior pair much smaller, end sub-
lanceolate, all are permanent ; calyx 5-parted to the base, divi-

sions nearly equal; corolla ringent, tube short, throat ample,
upper lip vaulted, emarginate, lower lip broad and deeply
8-parted, both streaked with purple; filaments long, resting
under the vault of the upper lip; anthers twin. (Rovb.)

Chemical composition.—The powdered leaves have a light
preen colour with a strong peculiar odour and a bitter taste.
One of us has published the following report of a chemical
examination: “Soaked in water and then boiled, the powder
afforded 34 per cent. of a reddish-brown extract having the
characteristic properties of the leaves. Incinerated at alow red

eat 17 per cent. of ash was left. A remarkable alkalinity pet-
vaded the drug, which was noticeable in the cold aqueous infu-
_ sion, in the distillate obtained by boiling with water, and in the

fumes given off when burning; the leaves when smoked in 4
pipe produced no narcotic effect; the chief result of the smoking
was the evolution of much ammoniacal vapour among other

products of combustion, and to the inhalation of this vapour 18
probably due the efficacy of the leaves in the relief of asthma.
_ A well-defined alkaloid appears to be the most important con-
stituent; it constitutes the bitter principle, and to all intents
and purposes is the active principle. It occurs in white trans-
parent crystals belonging to the square prismatic system,with-
out any odour, but with a decidedly bitter taste. It is soluble —
in water with an alkaline reactio 1, and in ether, but more soit

_ACANTHACE.. 53

alcohol. It readily forms salts with sulphuric, hydrochloric,
nitric, and acetic acids; these salts are crystalline, and their
solutions may be evaporated without apparent decomposition. It
is precipitated by potassio-mercuric iodide, iodine in potassium
iodide, tannin, and Nessler’s reagents. A solution of the sul-
phate, observed in a Laurent’s polariscope, possessed a slight

right-handed rotation. Heated on platinum foil it fused to a

yellowish and then to a fine red mass, which afterwards black-
_ ened and decomposed. Distilled with strong potash it yielded
an oily body resembling chinoline, together with ammonia and.
other volatile bases. I propose to call this alkaloid “ Vasicine,”
after the Sanskrit name of the plant. In a proximate analysis
of the leaves, petroleum ether was first used to remove the —
volatile oil, or stearopten, which formed one of the odorous
principles. Ether was then employed to extract chlorophyll,
wax, resins, and a small quantity of alkaloid. The alcoholic
extract was the most interesting, as it contained most of the
alkaloid in neutral combination with an organic acid. This
extract was of a reddish colour when concentrated, and some soft -
resin was separated by treatment with water; the aqueous solu-
tion evaporated spontaneously fell into a mass of crystals exhi-
biting right-angled ramifications. On adding neutral acetate
of lead to some of the solution, nearly all the colouring matter
was removed as an orange precipitate, and an almost pure solu-
tion of the acetate of the alkaloid was left in the filtrate.

The organic acid, presumably the colouring agent of the
leaves, when liberated from its lead salt by sulphuretted hy-
drogen, had an acid reaction, was soluble in water and spirit,
_ and gave a dark olive-green colour with ferric chloride, The
colouring matter was intensified by the addition of the fixed and
volatile alkalies, and was not immediately precipitated by the
mineral acids. Its lead salt after gentle ignition left 28-3 per
cent. of oxide, I would suggest for this organic body the name
of “ Adhatodic Acid,” after the South Indian name of the plant.
The occurrence of this organic acid and the alkaloid in’ the —

_ aqueous solution of the alcoholic extract would indicate thejr
_ hatural existence in a state of combination, so that adhatodate

ee es

54 ACANTHACESS.

of vasicine has scientific claims to be regarded as the active
principle of the leaves of A. Vasiea. The analysis of the leaves
reveals certain principles resembling those found in tobacco, as,
for instance, an odorous volatile principle, an alkaloid, but not
volatile like nicotine, one or more organic acids, sugar, mucilage,
and a large percentage of mineral salts. The leaves of
Adhatoda submitted to dry distillation evolved substances similar
to tobacco under the same conditions. At first water condensed,
and an intolerable odour arose from a yellow oily liquid which
followed. Then a brown oily substance came over, associated
with the pungent vapour of ammonia ; and finally a thick brown
semi-crystalline solid was driven from the retort to the con-
densor. These products were all strongly alkaline. The follow-
ing table gives the results of the proximate analysis of the
leaves :—

Volatile odorous principle 0:20
Chlorophyll, fat, resins, and alkaloid ex- 3-20
tracted by ether ....

Adhatodate of vasicine, resin, and sugar ) 19.59
extracted by alcohol }
UML see

i oor
Colouring matter, precipitated by lead... 483
Other organic matters and salts oe 10°38
y water ....
Extracted by soda solution .., 4°72
Residue organic 40°71
» . inorganic cue POO
Moisture and loss wssee 10-00
The ash was constituted as follows :— =
Soluble in water ..,....., 23°38
Soluble in acid......... 75°12
Residue ........, : ve pEROO
100-00

The portion soluble in water was alkaline, and contained
chlorides and sulphates. (Pharm, Jour., April 7th, 1888.)

ee aa ae

Pe ee eee

ACANTHACE. 55

Commerce-—The dried flowering branches are sold in the
shops. Value, Rs. 3} per maund of 37% lbs.

RHINACANTHUS COMMUNIS, JNees.

Fig.-—Bot. Mag., t. 325; Rheede, Hort. Mal. iz., t. 69.
Hab.—Deccan Peninsula, Ceylon. Cultivated throughout

India. The leaves and root.

Vernacular.—Palak-juhi (Hind.), Joi-pani (Beng.), Gajkarni
(Mar.), Naga-malli (Zam.), Négamalle (Tel.), Puzhuk-kolli,
Pushpa-kedal (Mal.), Néga-mallige (Can.), Gachkaran (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—-Indian works on Materia Medica
give various prescriptions for the use of the juice of the leaves,
and the root bark of this plant as a remedy for the affection
of the skin known to Europeans in India as Dhobie’s itch,
Malabar itch, &e. (Tinea circinata tropica.) Whichever part
of the plant may be used, it is directed to be made into a paste
with lime juice or with aromatics, and applied for several suc-
cessive days to the affected place. Native testimony in favour of
its efficacy is very strong. (Confer. Makhzan-el-Adwiya, article
“Palak-Juhi.”) Ainslie, speaking of the Justicia nasuta, Linn,,
says:—“This root fresh, when bruised and mixed with lime
juice, is considered as a sovereign application for ringworms
and other cutaneous affections; the leaves are also employed
for the same purposes. The plant is the Pulcolli, also Peelcolli,
of the Hort. Mal. (IX., p. 135, t. 69). I have taken the liberty
of giving it the English name of Nagamullie, by which it js

_ universally known in Lower India.” (Mat. Ind., IL., p. 216.)

Roxburgh in his Flora Indica (I., p. 121) states that be-
sides its use as a remedy for ringworm, milk boiled on the
roots is reckoned by the Indian physicians aphrodisiacal ; the
roots, he also says, are used for the bite of poisonous snakes,
hence the Telinga and Tamul name Naga-mulli, or Jasmine of
the Cobra-di-capello. R. communis is very common in gardens ©
and grows wild upon the Western Ghauts, Roxburgh gives

_ Ythikaparni as the Sanskrit name, but this name is applied by _ :

56 ACANTHACEZ!.

Hindu writers to a kind of Jasmine. Latterly, under the name
of Tong-pang-chony, Rhinacanthus has found considerable favour
in Europe as a remedy for chronic eczema and some other skin
affections of a similar character. An extract of the plant
appears to be the best preparation.

an "

Description.—A thin shrub, about 5 feet in height.
Root woody, ramous ; stems many, erect, ramous, the old woody
parts round, and covered with pretty smooth, ash-coloured bark,
the tender branches and young shoots jointed, smooth, and
obscurely 6-sided; leaves opposite, petioled, broad-lanceolate,
point obtuse, above smooth, below a little downy, entire, from
2 to 4 inches long and from } to 2 broad ; panicles corymbiform,
axillary, and terminal, always 3-cleft, as also the sub-divisions ;
peduncles and pedicels short, round, a little downy ; bracts
minute ; flowers small, white; corol with a long, slender com
pressed tube, under lip broad, 3-cleft, upper lip erect, linear
‘sides reflected, apex bifid; nectary, a fleshy ring surrounding
_ the base of the germ; anthers without the tube, twin. (Rowb.)
_ The leaves when chewed have a pungent taste something like
eassia bark ; their odour when crushed is disagreeable.

Chemical composition.—Liborius has analysed the root in the
Dorpat Laboratory, finding in it 13-51 per cent. of ash and 1°87
per cent, of Rhinacanthin, a quinone-like body, besides the
ordinary constituents of plants. ;

_. Rhinacanthin is a dull cherry-red resinous substance, which —
contains no nitrogen, and does not reduce copper solution. $4
seems to be related to chrysophanic and frangulic acids. TW?
ultimate analyses gave a mean of carbon 67°55 per cent., hydro
gen 7°36 per cent. The formula C'*H**O* corresponds with
67-20 C and 7:20 H. Its presence in the plant is said to be
limited to certain intercellular spaces occurring in the bark,

Sion

the cellular tissue of this part appearing to be filled with
intensely red substance, supposed to consist of a compound of
rhinacanthin with an alkali. It is obtained by exhaustion of the _
powdered root fibres with absolute alcohol. Rhinacanthin has —
the peculiarity of forming with bases beautiful red compounds 3

Sa Ny

i

VERBENACEZ. 57

that are easily decomposed by certain neutral solvents, such as
petroleum spirit, which dissolves the rhinacanthin and assumes
a yellow colour. (Pharm. Zeitch. f. Russi., Feb. 1881; Year
Book of Pharm., 1881, p. 197.)

VERBENACE.

LIPPIA NODIFLORA, Rich.

Fig.— Wight Iil., t. 173 b, fig. 2, and Ic.,t. 1463'; Sibth, FV.
Gr., t. 553; Lam. Iil., t. 17.

Hab.—Throughout India and Ceylon. The herb.

Vernacular.—Bukkan (Hind.), Bhii-okra (Beng.), Ratolia,
Vakkan (Mar.), Ratavalio (Guz.), Podttalai (Tam.), Bokenakfi
(Te/.).

History, Uses, &c,—According to Ainslie, the Sanskrit
name is Vasira, but the Nighantas do not mention any plant
bearing this name. aft, with the synonym of Vasuka occurs,
however, in Sanskrit literature, as the name of a plant. L.
nodiflora is considered by the Hindus to be febrifuge and
diuretic, and is administered in gonorrhea combined with
cumin seed. Locally it is applied in the form of paste to
promote suppuration. The author of the Makhzan-el-Adwiya
describes it under the name of Bukkan as hot and dry ; he states
_ that an infusion is useful in the febrile stage of colds, and
_ that it is diuretic and useful in lithiasis. A poultice composed
_ of the fresh plant is a good maturant for boils,

Ainslie has the following notice of it: “The tender stalks
and leaves, which are in aslight degree bitter, the native practi-
tioners prescribe, when toasted, in infusion, in cases of children’s
indigestions, to the extent of two ounces twice daily; it is also

58 VERBENACE®.

on it, it being the Blairia nodiflora of Geertner, the Zapania

nodiflora of Lamarck, and the Vervena capitata of For- —

skahl. The stem is herbaceous, creeping, from 3 inches to a
foot in length, sub-divided, rounded, marked with lines, and
smooth. The spike is terminating, roundish, composed of small
whitish or rose-coloured flowers; it has two seeds, roundish,
flatter on one side than the other.’ (Materia Indica, Vol. IL,
p. 313.)

VERBENA OFFICINALIS, Zinn.

Pig.— Hayne Pl. Off. 5, t. 42; Sweet Brit. Fl. Gard. iii.
#. 202. Vervain (Eng.), Verveine, Herbe sacrée ( Fr.).

Hab.—Himalaya, Bengal Plain, and Persia. The herb.

Vernacular.—Pamtkh (Hind.), Féristariun or Béristariut
(Ind. Bazars).

eeemtory, Uses.” €c.< Vecvwsis inthe meprorepedy OF
meptorépiov of the Greeks; the word signifies “a dovecote,” and
the plant was so named because doves were supposed to be
particularly fond of it. It was also called icpoBordyn or “holy
wort,” because it was used in sacrifices, purifications, and as an
amulet. Dioscorides states that the leaves of the Verbena
have a reputation asa local sedative and vulnerary. Pliny
_ (25, 59) says:—< Among the Romans there is no plant that
: enjoys a more extended renown than Hierabotane, known t?
: some persons as Peristerion, and among us more generally a8
Verbenaca. It is this plant that we have already mentioned

= (22, 3) as being borne in the hands of envoys when treating

with the enemy, with this that the temple of Jupiter is cleansed,
houses are purified and due expiation made.
re are two varieties of it: the one, that is thickly covered
with leaves (V. supina) is thought to be the female plant ; that
With fewer leaves ( V. officinalis), the male.” Pliny then notices
the ridiculous Superstitions of the Magi in reference to the
Plant, and remarks that the plant bruised in wine is used 48

VERBENACEA. 59

a remedy for the stings of serpents. De Gubernatis states
that Verbena was held in much the same estimation among the
Romans as Kusa grass and the Tulasi plant among the Hindus.
It bore numerous synonyms, such as Tears of Isis, Tears of
Juno, Mereury’s Blood, Demetria, Cerealis, &c. In the Middle
Ages Verbena was held in high estimation by the Christian
priesthood. Piperno (De Mayicts Affectibus, Napoli, 1635)
states, on the authority of Savonarola, that ‘*‘ Verbena manducata
non permittit per septem dies coitum” It was considered
to be a purifying herb which enforced chastity. In Sicily
it is used as a charm to cure diseases at the present day along
with fennel. The following is the prayer used in curing
polypus with it :—

Zittu, Lucia, non lacrimari,

Scinut ni lu me orta (come into my garden)

Scippa pampini di brivina e finocchiu

(Gather the leaves of Verbena and fennel)

Seu li to mano la chiantasti (thon hast planted it),

Ceu li to pedi la searpisast (thon hast trodden upon it) ;

La testa di lu purpu (polypus) cei scaceiasti,

S’iddu @ sangu sfissira (will melt away)

Siddu @ purpu a mori va. :

The exorciser then makes three signs of the cross on the
polypus with a clove of garlic. In some parts of Piedmont
the people believe that rubbing the palm of the hand at sunset
with Verbena will ensure the soodwill of the first person whose
hand they grasp.

In England Vervain (ferfaen) was eed by the Druids in
their sacred rites, and was gathered by them with much the
same ceremonies as the mistletoe. In Egypt it was sacred to
Isis. In Europe it has been extolled as a remedy for most
diseases, but is now generally considered to have only slighs
febrifuge and astringent properties. Quite recently G. Ricci
(Lo Sperimentale, 1890, Vol. LXVI., p. 483) has again drawn
attention to the plant, which he states has febrifuge properties, _
The root is still sometimes worn as a necklace against the king’s
.. evil _ by the peasantry.

60 VERBENACL®.

Mahometan physicians describe Verbena under the Arabic
name of Rai-el-hamam (¢4='! ©) ) or as Féristariun or Baris-
tariun corruptions of the Greek mepiorépiov, They state that it
is tonic and astringent, useful in paralysis and amenorrhea,
and thata plaster of the leaves promotes the healing of wounds.
An ointment is recommended for swellings of the womb, anda
vinegar in skin diseases. In Persia it is called Gao-mashang
and Div-mashang “ fairies pea,’’ According to Stewart, it is
used as a tonic and febrifuge in the Punjab. In Cochin-China
it is known as Co-roi-ngua, and is considered useful in nervous
complaints and as a deobstruent in dropsy. (Loureiro, Flor.
- Coch. Chin. i., p. 27.)

Callicarpa lanata, Linn., Bedd. Anal. Pl. 21, f. 6;
Wight Ill., t. 173 6, f. 5, and Ic., t. 1480; Rheede, Hort. Mal.
wv., t. 60, is a tree of the Deccan Peninsula, the Circars, and
Ceylon, which, though not noticed by Sanskrit medical writers,
has a popular reputation on account of its mucilaginous and
emollient properties. It is also subaromatic and bitter. Rheede
states that the leaves boiled in milk are used as a wash for
aphthe of the mouth, and that the bark and root boiled in
water yield a decoction which is used to lessen febrile heat and
remove hepatic obstruction and herpetic eruptions. Ainslie
records the use of the plant as an emollient by the Javanese and
as a diuretic by the Malays. Dr. G. Watt (Dict. Econ. Prod.
Ind.) on the authority of Dr. Trimen, states that the leaves;
roots, and bark are used by the natives of Ceylon in skin diseases.
e. lavatais from 20 to 4
cranamoneous, shaggy and woolly, the leaves 4 to 8 inches long;
ovate lanceolate, stellately tomentose beneath ;if the tomentum 1s

removed, numerous oil glands are visible. Both leaves and bark
are fi intly aromatic and

: bitterish, and afford much mucilage when
boilel. The vernacular names are Bastra (Hind.), Masandari
ae (Tam.), Iswar, Meras, Tondi-karavati
ee ot ee Rheede states that the

Ort iguese call the plant Fodtas d the
Duteh Groot Rijf-blad, - ats csi eam

*

0 feet in height, the young branches are

ever ares

WA es oe

VERBENACEE. 61

TECTONA GRANDIS, Linn. 7
Fig.— orb. Cor. Pl. 1, 10, ¢t. 6; Brand For. Fi, 354,
t. 44; Bedd. Fl. Sylv., ¢. 250; Rheede Hort. Mal. iz., t. 27,
Teak tree (Zng.).

Hab.--W. Deccan Peninsula, Central India, Burmah,
The wood, fruit, and tar.

Vernacular.—Sagtin (Hind.), Segun (Beng.), Sag, Sagwan
(Mar.), Tekku-maram (Tam.), Teku-ménu (7el.), Tegu (Can.),
Sagach (Gus.).

History, Uses, &c.—The teak tree is the Séka of
Sanskrit writers and the S4j of Arabic and Persian books on
Indian Materia Medica. The natives recommend a plaster of
the powdered wood in bilious headaches and for the dispersion
of inflammatory swellings ; taken internally in doses of 90 to
200 grains it is said to be beneficial in dyspepsia with burning
pain in the stomach arising from an overflow of bile, also as a
vermifuge. ‘The charred wood quenched in Poppy juice*
and reduced to a smooth paste is applied to swellings of the
eyelids, and is thought to strengthen the sight. The bark is
used as an astringent, and the oil of the nuts, which is thick
and has an agreeable odour, is used for making the hair
grow and removing itchiness of the skin. (M akhzan-el- Adwiya,
article ‘“S4j.”’) Rheede states that from the young leaves a
purple dye is prepared. This colour is due to the reaction of
alkalies upon a crimson body, soluble in ether, which is contained
in the leaves ; it forms soluble compounds with lead and baryta.

Endlicher states that the flowers are diuretic ; this is confirmed
by Gibson, who says that the seeds have a similar property ; in
two cases he saw marked diuresis follow the application of an
epithem of the bruised fruit to the pubes. Inthe Pharinacopwia

* The word used in the Makhzan is Mimitha, an Arabic name for the
Argemone of the Greeks and Romans. Two kinds of Mémitha are described
by Arabic and Persian writers—one with red flowers, the other with yellow.

(Conf. Dios. ii, 168, 169.) In India Argemone mexicana is used for :
Mamitha. a ae

62 VERBENACEZ!.

of India a paste made from the powdered wood is said to allay
the pain and inflammation caused by handling the Burmese
black varnish which is obtained from Melanorrhea usitatissima.
Col. Burney (Journ. Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, Vol. I., p. 170) has
published some interesting remarks on its use. A tar is
extracted from the wood, which is used as an application to the
sores of draught cattle to prevent maggots breeding. As a Tule
white-ants will not touch teakwood, and the use of teakwood
tar has been suggested as a remedy against these destructive
pests. The wood is also not easily affected when exposed to
damp weather, and baskets for holding orchids are commonly
made of teak in Burmah ; while orchids are also preferably
mounted on teak blocks.

Ata meeting of the N ilgiri Natural History Society in 1887,
Mr. Lawson showed a specimen of a whitish mineral substance
found in a teak tree growing in the Government Plantation at
Nilambir. This peculiar secretion is not altogether unknown
to officers in the Forest Department, and its composition has on
more than one occasion been investigated by chemists.

In 1870 the fact of calcareous masses occurring in timber
was brought to the notice of the Asiatic Society of Bengal by
Mr. R. V. Stoney, who stated (vide P. A. 8. B., May 1870,
p. 185) that many treesin Orissa had pieces of limestone or cal-
careous tufa in their fissures, but principally Asan (Zerminalia
tomentosa, W. and A.), Swarm (Zizyphus rugosa, Lam.), Sisst
ee. Sissu, Roxb.), and “Abnus (Diospyros melanoxylon;
£ \ CE - :

Tn 1880 Mr. V. Ball, in making a geological survey in the
Central Provinces, met with this concretion, and thus alludes to
x in his * Jungle Life in India ” > Some white marks on thecut
stumps of an Asan tree caught my eye, and these on examlpa-
a to be sections or laminze of calcareous matter which

‘ernated with the ordinary rings of wood The rocks
gc or : : of woody growth. e rock
about were gneisses and schists, and I could discover nothing in
the soil to account fort peculiarity. In some cases irregularly
shaped pieces seven inches long by two inches thick wer?

VERBENACES. 68
met in the trunks at a height of about six feet from the ground.
By the natives the lime is burnt and used for chewing with pan.
On examination it was found there was no structure in these
masses, which would justify a conclusion that they had been
formed by insects. Some included portions of decayed wood
and seemed to be cemented together by the lime.”

Major-General Morgan, late Deputy Conservator of Forests,
Madras, speaks of it in the following terms in his “ Forestry of
Southern Iidia”’: “It is a curious fact that in the Wynaad
though there is no free lime in the soil, yet Teak ( Tectona gran-
dis) and Blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia), if wounded near the
ground, contrive to absorb large quantities of lime. It may be
seen encrusting the tree on the surface as far as four feet in
height, from three inches to a foot in width, and two or three
inches in thickness. The lime is so hard that it destroys cir-
cular saws, and the Carumburs use it for chewing with betel.”

Desctiption.— Trunk erect, growipg to an immense size;
bark ash-coloured and scaly; branches numerous, spreading ;
young shoots 4-sided, sides channelled ; leaves opposite, petioled,
spreading, oval, a little scalloped, above scabrous, below covered
with whitish rather soft down, they are larger at a distance
from the flowers, and on young trees, viz., from 12 to 24 inches
long and from 8 to 16 broad; petioles short, thick, laterally
- compressed ; panicles terminal, very large, cross-armed, divisions
dichotomous, with a sessile fertile flower in each cleft, the whole
covered with a hoary, farinaceous substance; peduncles common,
quadrangular, sides deeply channelled, angles obtuse; bracts
opposite, lanceolate, two at each sub-division; flowers small,
white, very numerous; ealyx and corolla oftener six than five
cleft; nectary very small, frequently wanting, stamens often
six; germ superior, round, hairy, 4-celled, with one ovule in
each attached to the axis; stigma 2-cleft, divided, obtuse, spread-
ing; drupe within the enlarged, inflated, dry calyx obtusely —
4-sided, woolly, spongy dry; nut exceedingly hard, 4-celled.
(Roxb.) The wood has a peculiar aromatic odour. The tar
obtained from it is black and opaque when properly made, but

64 VERBENACE.

when prepared from partly dried wood it is mixed with the sap

and forms a greyish brown emulsion, The seeds are of the

size and shape of Sesamum seeds; they are very oily, but the

difficulty of extracting them from the nuts would make the ail

very expensive ; it is a bland, fatty oil, free from any peculiar
our.

Chemical composition.—Abel in 1854 showed that the wood of
teak frequently exhibits cracks and cavities of considerable
extent lined with a white crystalline deposit consisting chiefly
of hydrocaleic orthophosphate, Ca H PO*, H?0, with about 114
per cent. ammonio-magnesium phosphate. (Chem. Soc. Qu. J. 2?»
91.)

This white deposit in the wood of teak has also been examined
by Thoms, who found it to consist of monocalcic orthophosphate
Ca H PO* (Landw. Versuchs, St. xxii., 68; xxiii., 413.) More
recently still Professor Judd has found in teak a specimen of
erystalline apatite, a well-known mineral containing a larg?
proportion of calcium phosphate.

“The formation of this deposit indicates that the wood itself
must contain a considerable quantity of phosphoric acid, and
the analysis shows this is really the case, as the ash of teak wood
is composed as follows :—

CaO MgO FeO K?0 Na’O SiO* SO* P20*° CO’ Cl

31:35 9°74 0°80 1:47 0:04 24-98 2-22 29°69 0°01 0°01

The percentage of carbon and hydrogen are higher than i?
_ most woods, and this, together with the richness in calcium

_ phosphateand silica, may perhaps account for the great hardness
of teak.” (Watts’ Dict. Chemistry, 3rd Suppl., p. 1894.)

Mr. D. Hooper says :—“ The sample from Nilambar was in

the form of a rounded flattened cake about ten inches in diame

te

VERBENACEZ, 65

similar to prepared chalk, with a dark-coloured gummy matter,
and a small quantity of crystalline quartz sand. The following
is the composition :—

Calcium carbonate e + get a
Tricalcic au a ae a ae 2°89
Quartz sand ak sa es 9°76
Organic matter — Tr Wee «- 14°30
Moisture +. ae cae ap 3°00

100-00

The analysis shows that the principal compound is calcium
carbonate, and the concretion approaches nearer the chalk or
limestone formation than-that of the apatite or phosphatic found
by other investigators, An examination of deposits from other
trees might show greater differences than these, but it seems
enough has been done to preve that the calcium element forms
the base.

The sand, probably blown up as dust and made to adhere by
the organic matter, isa mechanical ingredient. The deposit
contained no salts of sodium or calcium soluble in water, nor any
aramoniacal compounds; this would stand to reason, as the heavy.

Pepe oe ee a ee eek eles Me ee Ne tem re RTT nL Se err are me wrener ere
saint : q

q anything soluble on the trees.

The scanty amount of lime present in the soil, and the as
amount found in the tree, show what an enormous quantity must
have been taken up by the sap. I have shown elsewhere that

_ slaked lime), not concentrated by abnormal development in one
place, but distributed in all its parts. A teak tree from its
_ Size and ash contents would have a much larger supply than a
cinchona, and yet, it seems, is able to excrete it in some abun-

4 determine. The calcium enters the plant in a soluble form as’
_ Sulphate, The calcium unites with oxalic and other acids and is

_n—g9

_ rains to which this district is subjected would. rise lence

_ a full-sized cinchona tree contains about 10 ounces of lime (as

dance. In what manner this takes place is not easy to _

4 precipitated, while the sulphuric acid parts with its sulphur ton
q form organic compounds, A wound in the treeis liableto

i

66 VERBENACEZ:.

render these processes abnormal by causing the vegetable acids
to ferment by exposure to the air and to yield carbonic acid as
one of the products, and this meeting with the calcium in the
ascending sap exuding from the wound might convert it into
an insoluble calcium carbonate which would harden in the
cavity of the tree and form the deposit.”” (A paper read ata
Meeting of the Nilgiri Natural History Society, Ootacamund,
November 7th, 1887,)

Teak wood yields on distillation with water an opalescent
distillate impregnated with resinous matter, but no trace of
essential oil could be obtained when operating with 126 lbs.
of fresh sawdust from Indian teak. For the extraction of the
tar two earthen pots were used luted together ; the upper with
a perforated bottom contained the wood in chips; the product
was a rather liquid black tar having much the odour of coal
tar. One pound of the sawdust exhausted with alcohol yielded
@ resinous extract, which, after having been well washed with
hot water, weighed half an ounce ; the resin is black, and has
the peculiar odour of the wood,

The late R. Romanis (Jn. Chem. Soc., 8-11-87) found that
alcohol extracts a soft resin from teak wood, but no oil or varnish.

~ On distilling the resin he obtained a crystalline substance which

he also found to be present in considerable quantity in the

tar resulting from the destructive distillation of teak, The

__, analyses which he has made of the crystals point to the empirical

. formula C° H?° QO; on oxidation with nitric acid they yield
‘what appears to be a quinone of the formula C1810”,

_ PREMNA INTEGRIFOLIA, Lin.
Fig.—Wight Ic, ¢. 1469; Rumph. Herb. Amb. iii., t. 134

Hab.—Ooasts of India from Bomba ilhet
y to Malacca, Silhet,

and Ceylon. The leaves and root,
Vernacular.—Arani, Ganiari (Hind.), Bhut-bhiravi (Beng.)s
Munni (Zam.), Ghebu-nelli, Pinna-nolli Tel.), Avani (Mar),
Takckilé, Taggi (Qn), Mothicarani (@ui.)° = 6M“

VERBENACEA. 67

_ History, Uses, &c.—This shrub, in Sanskrit Arani,
‘Harimantha, Agni-mantha, and Vahnimantha, ‘producing fire
by friction,’”’ is so named on account of its wrond being one of
those used to obtain the sacred fire. Gamble states that in
Sikkim the hill tribes habitually make use of the wood of
. latifolia and P. mucronata for obtaining fire. Of the two
ieces of wood used by the Hindus for this purpose, the lower or
ft wood is called in Sanskrit Adhardrani, and the upper or hard
ood, with which friction is made, is called the Pramantha;
1ey are considered to be symbolical of the Yoni and Upastha
organs of generation).

In the N oes Arani is described as hot, an expellant of
phlegm and win

Its root is one of the ingredients of the Dasamula, and the
_ leaves are a popular remedy in the exanthematous fevers.
Ainslie states that the root has a warm bitter taste and agreeable
ell, and is prescribed in decoction as a gentle cordial and
‘stomachic in fevers, Rheede calls the plant Appel, and notices

rata aromatica. In Ceylon it isknown as Maha-midi or Midi-
Atkinson states that the leaves rubbed with pepper are
ministered in colds and fevers, and that externally a decoction
the whole plant is used in rheumatism and neuralgia.

Description.—A large shrub or small tree, blossoming
the rainy season. Trunk short; branches numerous, often
ocumbent and rooting ; bark smooth, dark brown, leaves oppo-
te, petioled, cordate, serrate on the anterior margins, acute
inted, smooth on both sides, from 1 to 6 inches long and from
1 to 3 inches broad; flowers in corymbs, terminal or between
two branchlets, primary divisions opposite, the last 2-forked,
wers minute, numerous, of a pale greenish-white; berries

dour and an acidulous and astringent taste.

lack, the size of a pea. The plant has an agreeable aromatic — ae

68 VERBENACHA,

Chemical composition.—The root-bark of this plant afforded a
yellowish-brown powder giving an orange-brown tincture with

alcohol. The tincture when evaporated left a reddish-coloured A

tasteless resin and some extractive matter. The resin was solu-
ble in ether and in alkaline liquors; from the latter solution it
was precipitated in greyish-brown flocks by acids. Warm
with soda, the resin evolved an odour of lemon similar to that
of Kamala resin; heated with sulphuric acid a transient purple
colour was developed and a fragrant odour evolved. It showed
no disposition to crystallize. The watery solution of the
alcoholic extract had a sweetish taste in small quantities and was
nauseous in larger quantities. It contained a bitterish amor-
phous alkaloid, a substance reducing Fehling’s solution, and an
astringent body, striking a green colour with ferric chloride,
but giving no precipitates with gelatine. The alkaloid gave 00
distinct colour reactions with the strong mineral acids.

PREMNA HERBACEA, Lozi.

Fig.—Griff. Ic., t. 447, lower figure; Ferguson, Pamphl.,
Colombo, 1887.

_ Hab.—Sub-tropical Himalaya and South Deccan Penin-
sula. The root.

Vernacular.—Bharangi ( Hind.), Bamanhati (Beng.), Shiratek
(Tam.), Gandu-barangi (Tel.), Bharanga-mila (Mar.), Gantu
bhérangi, Ndyityéga (Can.), Kanta-bhéranni (Ma/.), Barang
(Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is frequently col
founded with Clerodendron serratum, Spreng., the roots and
stems of which are sold under the name of Bharangi. In
Sanskrit Bharangi bears the names of Bhérgi, Brahmayashtika,
Hangika, Bringa-ja, and Vardhaka, and is described in the
Nighantas as hot, bitter, pungent, and digestive ; a remover of
dropsy, cough, phlegm, asthma, fever, and rheumatism. The
juice of the root is given with the juice of ginger and

bl

VERBENACEL. 69

warm water in asthma, and it enters into the composition of
several compound decoctions for diseases of the lungs. A
confection called Bhargi-guda is prepared with a decoction
of the root, and the ten drugs called Dasamuia, chebulic

myrobalans, treacle, and aromatics. An oil prepared with the

root is recommended for external application in the marasmus
of children. (Chakradatta.)

The properties of P. herbacea agree much more nearly with
those attributed to Bhérangi in the Nighantas, than do those
of Clerodendron serratum, although the latter plant is at the
present time in use as Bhaérangi throughout the greater part of
India. Dutt attributes the drug to C. Siphonanthus, but the
samples we obtained from Bengal consisted of the stems of
C. serratum. Bombay was formerly supplied from the Circars
with P. herbacea, but now uses C.serratum. Although the root
of P. herbacea has been known from ancient times, it is only
within the last few years that its botanical origin has been
identified, It was exhibited at the Madras Exhibition of 1855,

. under the name of Gantu Bharangi, among several chemical

<

and pharmaceutical products. It is mentioned in Sir Walter
Elliot’s Flora Andhrica, published in 1859, and referred to an
unknown species of Clerodendron, which, he says, might be
called acaulis ; the plant is there said to grow about Lammasingi
to the west of Vizagapatam, whence it is exported to Madras
and Bombay to the amount of several thousand rupees yearly.
W. Ferguson in 1861 identified the Gantu Bharangi of South-
ern India with P. herbacea, and in a pamphlet published at
Colombo in 1887 gave a figure of the plant and its root.
Description.—A small undershrub ; flowering branches
1—4 inches, springing up after the jungle fires. Leaves 4 by
2—3 inches, obtuse, mature microscopically dotted above,
minutely deciduously pubescent beneath, nerves 5 pair.
Corymbs 1} inch in diameter, pubescent, somewhat dense;
peduncle 0—13 inch. Calyx ;5 inch, closely pubescent ; lobes
ovate, obtuse. Corolla 4 inch, greenish-white, hairy in the
throat, 4-lobed, obscurely 2-lipped. Drupe } inch in diameter,

70 VERBENACEX.

globose. Roots about as thick as a crowquill with numerous
almost globular woody knots.

Chemical composition.—The constituents of this root resemble
toa great extent those found in P. integrifolia, An orange-
brown acid resin soluble in ether, alcohol and alkaline solutions,
and traces of an alkaloid are the most important. There isa
quantity of starch in the root, and an entire absence of
astringency.

Premna tomentosa, Willd., Wight Ic., t. - 1468,
Naguru-chettu (Te/.), Pedanganeree, Kollay-cottaynellay (Zam.),
is used medicinally in Southern India. Dr. P.S. Mootooswamy
states that the leaves are diuretic, and are given internally and
applied externally in dropsy. An infusion of 10 drachms of
the leaves and 2 drachms of coriander in ten ounces of boiling
water has been used by him with advantage in acute dropsies.

Dr. Mootooswamy has seen the natives using the leaves soaked
in goat’s urine or in onion juice for dropsy ; sometimes chebulic
myrobalans are added if the bowels are costive.

GMELINA ARBOREA, Liny.

Fig.—Rovb. Cor. Pl. iii., t.246; Wight Ic., t. 1470; Bedd.
Fl. Sylv., t. 253; Rheede, Hort. Mal. 4, 2. 41.

Hab.—Deccan Peninsula, and Ceylon to N.-W. Himalaya.
The root and fruit.

Pernacular.—Kambhéri, Gumbér, Shevan (Hind.), Géméri
(Beng.), Shivani, Shevana (Mar.), Shivannigida (Can.), Gumadi
(Tam.), Gumar-tek, Peddagomru (7el.), Kumbulu (WMai.),
Shewan (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—In the N ighantas this tree bears
the Sanskrit names of Ghambhéri, Sriparni, Kasmari, &. The
root is described as bitter, tonic, stomachic, laxative, and useful in
fever, indigestion, anasarca, &c. It is an ingredient of the Dasa-
mula, or “ten roots,” and is therefore much used in a variety
of diseases. Bangasena says that Gambhéri root taken with

VERBENACEL. val

3 liquorice, honey, and sugar increases the secretion of milk. The
_ fruit is bitter-sweet and cooling, and enters into the composition
of several cooling decoctions which are recommended for fever.

‘The following is an example: Take of the fruits of G. arborea
and Grewia asiatica (parushaka), liquorice root, red sandal wood, |
and the root of Andropogon muricatus (ushira), equal parts, in all
two tol4s (360 grains), water thirty-two tolds, and boil till reduced
to one half. (Chakradatta, quoted by Dutt, Hind. Mat. Med.,
. 218). The juice of the young leaves is used as a demulcent
gonorrhea, cough, &c., alone or with other demulcents
(Pharmacopeia of India, p. 164). The bark of the tree is used
by arrack manufacturers in the Madura district to regulate
the fermentation of toddy.

The wood of this tree on account of its lightness and tough-
ness is much valued for carriage-building and all ornamental
work; it is light yellow with a reddish heart wood, close and
_ even-grained, easily worked, and readily takes paint or varnish.
_At the Government Medical Store Depdt Workshops it has
been found to be the best wood for making artificial limbs,
_ stethescopes, &c. It turns well. Weight 30 to 40 Ibs. per
_ cubic foot.

_ Description.—An unarmed tree, sometimes attaining 60
- feet, deciduous, flowering with the young leaves. Leaves 9 by
_ 6 inches, more or less acuminate, entire, mature glabrate above,
stellately hairy beneath; petiole 3 inches, top glandular.
_ Panicles often one foot in length, terminal; bracts 4 inch;
flowers numerous. Calyx 4 inch, teeth very small or obsolete.
_ Corolla brownish-yellow, upper lip shortly bifid, longer than the
‘lower. Drupe ? inch, ovoid, usually 2 to 1 seeded. The roots

is bitter-sweet and mucilaginous.

Chemical composition.—The root reduced to fine powder lost
8°39 per cent. at 100°C. The ash amounted to 14:4]

4 per cent.,
and was free from any trace of manganese, Epo ae

f

_ day, and that only those roots which turned towards the north

72 VERBENACEZ.. ©

On analysis the following results were obtained :—

Petroleum ether extract ..,... 1°80 per cent,
her geo. oc ay Rennes . »”» ”

Alcoholic i Keies i

Aqueous i oto SS

The petroleum ether extract consisted of a yellow viscid oil, —
with slight siccative properties. On standing, white grains
separated, which were non-crystalline when examined micros: |
copically. In alcohol the extract was partly soluble: no —
alkaloid was present. The ether extract was yellowish-white, —
and contained a trace of oil; it gave no reaction with ferne
salts : in addition to resins a trace of benzoic acid was present.

The alcoholic extract was yellow and brittle: with water? —
turbid mixture was obtained, which had a bitter taste. In ~
addition to resins a trace of an alkaloidal principle was detected,

The aqueous extract was sweetish and slightly bitter, and 1
easily reduced Fehling’s solution on boiling. 4

The fruit contained butyric acid, with a trace of tartaric acid, 4
a trace of astringent matter giving a greenish coloration with q
ferric chloride, an alkaloid, and a white principle, non-cry*
talline, and neutral, with resin and saccharine matter. 4

The alkaloids present in the fruit and in the root appear 1
be identical, The amount present in each case was very small,
not exceeding a trace.

Several species of Gmelina are sometimes used as demulcents. ‘

G. asiatica affords the Radix Deipare or Rais madre de
Deos of the Portuguese. Rumphius (Hort. Amb., i., p. 129)
relates that formerly its roots were dug only on St. Mary's

were selected for use. It was in great request in Goa as al
antidote to every poison, and a remedy for every disease 2
former days. The roots are slightly bitter, astringent, and
aromatic. Loureiro says:—“ Valent in doloribus articulorum,
et affectibus nervorum, radix intern sumpta; folia externe
applicata.” (Flor. Cochin-Chin ti, p.376,). The Tamil. name

VERBEN ACE. vo

is Nilacimal, and the Telugu Nela-gimédi. (Ainslie, Mat.
Ind., ii., p. 240.)
4 VITEX NEGUNDO, Linn.

Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 519; Rheede, Hort. Mal. vi., t. 12.

VITEX TRIFOLIA, Linn.
Fig.—Bot. Mag., t. 2187 ; Rheede, Hort. Mal. ii., t. 11.
Hab.—Throughout India and Ceylon. The leaves, root,

g and fruit.

Vernacular.—Sambhalu, Nisinda (Hind), Nisinda (Beng.),
Vanai, Nigudi, Lingur (Mar.), Vellai-nochi, Nir-nochi ( Tam.),
4 Talia-vhv i Niru- vijn (Tel.), Nochi, Nirnochi (Ma/.), Lakki,
Karé-lakki (Can.), Niguri (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—These two shrubs, the properties of
which appear to be identical, are described by Sanskrit writers
under the names of N irgundi, Sindhuvira,* Sephalika, Sveta-
pushpi, Pushpanilika, &e. Two varieties are recoguised: one
with pale blue flowers (Svetapushpi), and the other with blue
flowers (Pushpanilika). Among the Tamils, one of these plants
is supposed to be male and the other female, and for this
reason they are usually combined together in their pre-
scriptions. In the Nighantas, Nirgundi is described as cephalic,
pungent, astringent, bitter and light; a remedy for colic, swell-
_ ings, rheumatism, worms, leprosy, dyspepsia, phlegm, and boils.

The leaves are generally used as a discutient fomentation in
sprains, rheumatism, swelled testicles, contusions, &e. The root
_ is thought to be tonic, febrifuge, and expectorant, and the fruit
nervine, cephalic, and emmenagogue.

Mahometan physicians use these plants as substitutes for
_ Vitex Agnus-castus, the fruit of which is imported into India and -
_ sold in the bazars as Sambhélu-ke-bij.

* Sinduka, Sinduvara or Syandavéra, from being used to preveny a
_ flow of humours, is probably more correct.
I1I.—10

74 VEEBENACEZ.

V. Negundo is the Lagondium of Rumphius, who states that
the leaves are used to preserve rice and clothes from insects ~
and to drive them away; and that the Javanese women make an —
extract from it which they usé as a carminative and emmena-
gogue. In India the leaves are often placed between the leaves
of books to presetve them from insects.

V. trifolia, Linn., is highly extolled by Bontius. (Diseases
of India, p. 226.) He speaks of it as anodyne, diuretic, and
emmenagogue, and testifies to the value of fomentations and
baths prepared with ‘this noble herb,’ as he terms it, in the _
treatment ef Beri-beri, and in the allied and obscure affection,
burning of the feet in natives. Of V. Negundo, Fleming ~
remarks (Asiat, Researches, Vol. XI.) that its leaves have a
better claim to the title of discutient than any other vegetable
remedy with which he is acquainted. ‘The mode of application
followed by the natives is to put the fresh leaves into am
earthen pot and heat them over the fire till they are as
hot as can be borne without pain; they are then applied
to the affected part, and kept in situ by a bandage; the e
application is repeated three or four times a day until the

swelling subsides. Pillows of the dried leaves are sometimes

used to lie upon for cold in the head and headache. Dr. Hové
(1787) states that the Europeans in Bombay call it the fomen-
tation shrub, and that it is used in the hospitals there as 4
foment in contractions of the limbs occasioned by the land winds. 3
Tn the Concan the juice of the leaves with that of Maké(Helipla
alba) and Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) is extracted, and Ajwan
seeds are bruised and steeped in it, and given in doses of six
~ massas for rheumatism. The juice in half tol4 doses with ghi
and black pepper is also given, and in splenic enlargement —
2 tolas of the juice with 2 tolds of cow’s urine is given every
morning. very interesting account of the treatment of
_ febrile, catarrhal, and rheumatic affections, as practised by the
people of Mysore, by means of a sort of rude vapour bath pre-
pared with this plant, is furnished by Dr. W. Ingledew.
(Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ., Oct. 1817, p. 530.) Roxburgh
mentions the use of baths prepared with the aromatic leaves in

VERBENACEH. 7D

_ the puerperal state of women in India, According to Ainslie,
the Mahometans are in the habit of smoking the dried leaves in
cases of headache and catarrh. The dried fruit is deemed
vermifuge. (Phar. of India, p. 163.) 3

Description.—A shrub growing in patches; branchlets,
_ panicle, and underside of the leaves white, with a fine tomen-
tum; leaves petioled, 3 to 5 foliolate; leaflets lanceolate, long,
uminated, entire, or coarsely cut and crenated; panicle termi-
al, pyramidal; flowers bluish-white to blue; berry black, the
size of a pea. The habit of the shrub is variable ; when grow-

the leaflets being attenuated into the petioles; inland, the shrub
_has a more delicate appearance; the petioles of the leaves are
- much longer and the leaflets, from 3 to 5 in number, are often
serrated. The serrated variety is preferred for medicinal
purposes, andis called Kétri. The leaves of both varieties
appear to be equally aromatic; the odour reminds one of the
English Bog Myrtle (Myrica Sake Linn.) ; the taste is bitter
and nauseous. The berry is very feebly aromatic. In’ Anthony
Collin’s French Translation of Clusius, Lyons, 1602, there are
figures of both plants, which, though old and quaint, —
the general appearance very fairly.

Chemical composition—The leaves contain principally an
essential oil and a resin. The oil possesses the odour of the
drug and is neutral and almost colourless. The resin dissolves
in alkaline solutions with a reddish-brown colour, softens below
40° C., and gives off aromatic vapours when heated. A tincture
f the drug gives a green colour withferric chloride. The ash
of the air-dried leaves amounts to 7°75 per cent.

The fruits contain an acid resin, an astringent organic acid
giving a green colour with ferric salts and a precipitate with
gelatine, malic acid, traces of an alkaloid and colouring matter.
The fruits previously dried at 100° gave 6-8 per cent. of ash.

_ Vitex Agnus-castus, Zinn. Mahometan physicians, ;
under the Arabic name of Athlak and the Persian Panjang =

76 VERBENACEZL

describe the dyvos of the Greeks and the Vitex of the Romans.
The berries under the names of Hab-el-fakad and Sambhilu-ke-
bij are imported into India and are considered to be astringent,
resolvent, and deobstruent, and useful for removing obstructions
of the brain and liver ; they are also given for enlargement of 3
the spleen and dropsy. V. Agnus-castus is also called by the Arabs q
Zu-khamsata aurék, “ the five-leaved,” and in Egypt is known a
as Kaf Miryam, “the hand of Mary.” Among the ancients
it was sacred to Esculapius, and was considered symbolical os
chastity. In the Middle Ages the fruit was known as “ Monks
pepper.” The fruit is sold in Bombay as Rénuwka, the true
rénuka (Piper aurantiacum) is not known in Western India.
Description.—A small, dull gray, ovoid fruit, the size
of a duckshot, half enclosed in the calyx, to which a portion of
the peduncle remains attached. Upon section it is found to be
extremely hard, and, if perfect, to consist of four cells, each

containing a small flat seed, Generally one or more of the
cells are abortive.

Chemical composition.—The seed of V. Agnas-castus has been
found to contain a peculiar bitter principle called Castine, ®
volatile acrid substance, a large quantity of free acid and fat
oil. In Greece the fresh and rather unripe berries are said 4
be added to the must of the grape to render the wine more
intoxicating, and prevent it from turning sour. (Landerer,
Buchn., Repert. liv., 20; UXXXI., 229; Buchn. N. Repert.,
IiL., 392.)

y

CLERODENDRON INERME, “i.

Fig.—értn. Pret. T., 857, J.1; Rheede, Hort. Mal, ts ;
t 49,

Hab.— India and Ceylon, near the sea. The leaves.

Vernacular.—Sangkupi, Chhoti-arni (Hind.), Isamdbéri_
(Dukh.), Shen-gankuppi (Tam.), Pishinika, Utichettu (T¢l:)
Banjoi (Beng.), Koivel, Vanajai, Lahén-khéri-narvel (Mar’)

+).

ei a

VERBENACEZ. 77

History, Uses, &c.—This is a shrub the medicinal pro-
perties of which are widely known in the East. Some identify
it with the Kshudrégnimantha of the Raja Nirghanta. It is
the Gambir-laut of Java, the Wel-bu-reenda of Ceylon, and the
Sanfu-mun of Cochin-China. Ainslie says the juice of the
leaves and root is considered alterative in scrofulous and
venereal affections, the dose being a tablespoonful with or with-
out a little castor oil. Rheede speaks of the use of the dried
leaves for the same purpose, and of a poultice of the leaves
to resolve buboes; he ‘also says a bath prepared with them is

“used in mania, while the root boiled in oil affords a lintment

useful in rheumatism. OC. inerme is the Jasminum litoreum and
Pharmacum litoreum of Rumphius (Lib. vii., cap. 47), who says
the Amboyna name is Wale-puti-lohaha, which means ‘white
strand cord.” The Malays and Macassars administer the .
berries or the root to people poisoned by eating unwholesome
fish ; the leaves smeared with oil are heated over the fire and
applied to recent wounds; they are also one of the leaves used
for preparing the green rice of the Malays; he concludes
by saying “larga ac fausta natura in cunctis fere litoribus

hance obviam profert plantam.” In Bombay the plant has a

great reputation as a febrifuge ; the juice of the leaves is used
in doses of half an ounce. It is mucilaginous, very bitter,
somewhat saline, and with a fragrant, apple-like odour.

The medicinal properties of C. inerme closely resemble those

_ of Chiretta. The dried leayes have been found to be quite as —
_ efficient as the juice of the fresh plant ; they should be dried in
_ the shade to preserve their aroma, and may be administered in
_ decoction with aromatics, or powdered and made into pills. A
__ tincture has also been found to be an efficient preparation.

Description.—A straggling shrub, 3—7 ft.; shoots grey-
pubescent. Leaves opposite, rarely ternate, 3-11 in., when
young somewhat grey- pubescent, base cuneate; petiole § 3 in.
Peduncles }—1} in., allaxillary, 3—7 fid. ; heat 3p in., linear;

4 pedicels }—4 in., ealys grey-pubernlous . or glabrate. Corolla ee
- white, tube i in., glabrate, lobes} in. , oblong. Drapes by 3 in. 2

78 VERBENACEZ,

spongy, hardly succulent, smooth, hardly sulcate, separat- A
ing into four woody pyrenes. Or the leaves may be mostly
ternate or sublinear and larger. The drupe also may vary in 4
size. Some on this account make Rumphius’ plant a separate
species under the name of (C. neritfolium, but Bentham and 4
Kurz consider it only a variety. a

Chemical composition.— A proximate analysis of the leaves —
gave the following results :—

Ethereal extract .., 4°77
Alcea! 2 6s 3, Bee 5°70
Aqueous __,, di 15°54
Alkaline ,, 11°48
Organic residue ........ 50-06
Inorganic __,, 6°44
Bioistiie 2 6:01
Total ...... 100-00

Ash soluble in water 44:14
” ” in acid 47°10
Sand and silicates 8°76
Total ...... 100°00

Sodium chloride in ash ‘ ' 94-01

The bitter principle is entirely removed by ether, and the —
subsequent treatment by alcohol and water affords extracts
which are free from any bitterness. Ether, alcohol, and water —
independently exhaust the leaves of this principle, but the former _
removes it with less admixture of forei gn substances. The :
ether extract evaporated and mixed with water will give up the —
bitter property to the solvent, and this by gradual evaporation
leaves it in an almost pure condition. It is obtained as a viscid
mass, which, in process of time and by exposure to the air, hardens, |
and may be reduced toa non-hygroscopic powder. It is solubl
in water, with a slightly acid reaction, and is partially rendered _
insoluble by neutral plumbic acetate, thus giving evidence of -
its compound nature. The portion precipitated by the lead —

salt, when liberated from the metal by hydrogen sulphide, was 4

a

a

3 plant are used as a vermifuge, and that the root rubbed dows bho os

VERBENACE. 79

light-coloured amorphous acid powder, soluble in water, spirits
of wine and ether, and reducing Fehling when in aqueous solu-
tion. The bitter principle that escaped precipitation by
plumbic acetate was readily shaken out of the acid filtrate with
ether. This was a whitish amorphous powder soluble in water,
with a neutral reaction, and did not reduce Fehling’s solution;
it was not precipitated by alkalies, and was not coloured with

, ferric chloride; it was chiefly distinguished by its being pre-
: cipitated by tannin and affording a transient red-brown colour
with strong sulphuric acid. The dual nature of the bitter

principle seems to show a very remarkable resemblance with
that found in Chiretta (Siwertia Chirata), a gentianaceous plant.
Chiretta has been investigated by Hohn, who found the drug
to contain Ophelic acid C}* H®° Q!° and Chiratin C?° H* O15, an
acid and neutral bitter principle respectively, and representing
the activity of the herb.

The leaves, when distilled with water, yield a stearopten-like
body having the fruity flavour of the fresh plant. The ether
extract was fragrant, green, and of a greasy consistence. The

alcoholic extract contained some resinous matter, and much of

the salt, which was left as cubical crystals when evaporated,
Water dissolved out gum and brown colouring matter. Neither

_ tannin nor starch was present in the leaves. They left on

gentle incineration as much as 15°29 per cent. of ash, and the
large amount of salt in this ash indicates the habitat of the

: plant as being in close proximity to the sea, (Hooper in Pharm.
Record, Aug. 1st, 1888.)

CLERODENDRON INFORTUNATUM,

Girtn.
Fig.—Rheede, Hort. Mal. ii., t. 25; Burm. Zey., t. 29.
Hab.—Throughout India. The leaves.

Vernacular.—Bhant (Hind.), Bhat (Beng.), Chitu (Nepal),
Bhindir, Kari (Mar.), Karé (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—Rheede states that the leavesof this -

80 VERBENACH As.

buttermilk is administered in colic and lientery. Dr. Bholanath
Bose has drawn attention te the leaves as a cheap and efficient
substitute for Chiretta. (Pharmacopwia of India.) Brigade-
Surgeon J. H. Thornton considers the expressed juice of the
leaves to be an excellent laxative, cholagogue, and anthelmintic;
also a valuable bitter tonic, and useful as an injection into the
rectum for the destruction of ascarides. These opinions are
supported by those of six other medical officers quoted by Dr.
G. Watt in the Dictionary of the Economie Products of India, Dy
p. 373. M.C. Dutt gives Bhandira as the Sanskrit name, but—
this name does not occur in the Raja Nirghanta, and is usually
applied to other plants. In Western India it has <
identified with the Kari of the Raja Nirghanta. a

Description.—A gregarious shrub spreading by under.
ground suckers, 3 to 6 feetin height. The leaves are from 8 to
10 inches long, and from 7 to 8 inches broad at the base, ovate-
cordate, hairy on both sides, odour disagreeable, taste bitter,
slightly astringent. The inflorescence forms large, terminal,
cross-armed panicles, flowers white, streaked with pink, sweet-
scented ; after they have fallen, the calyxes enlarge and turn red.

Chemical composition.—A proximate analysis of the leaves
gave the following result :—

~E

Ethereal extract 10°81
Alcoholic _,, 16°40
Aqueous __,, 15°20
Alkaline 8:97
Organic residue 38°47
Thorganic __,, 5°93
Moi 4-22

Total,,.... 100°00

Ash soluble in water 16°83
” ” in acid 72°86
Sand and silicates 10°30
Total...... 100-00

Sodium chloride in ash v.sssssessessessewessee 5°38

VHRBENACHA. ~ 81
The leaves of C. infortunatum were devoid of the odorous

constituent when boiled with water. The etherextract contained
a quantity of resinous matter, and gave up the bitter principles
when heated with water; the extract was of a less fatty consistence
than that from the C. ixerme leaves. The spirituous extract was
also much larger thanin the previous sample, and was differently
constituted, inasmuch as it almost entirely consisted of a tannin,

giving a green colour with ferric chloride. These leaves con-
tain much more soluble organic matter than the former, but

inorganic salts are much smaller. The ash of these leaves
amounted te 12°3 per cent. (Hooper in Pharm. Record, Aug. 1st,
F 1888.)

Clerodendron Siphonanthus, Br., Lam. Iii., t. 79,
SJ. t.; Wight Ii., t. 173, is stated by M. C. Dutt to be in use in
Bengal as Bh4rangi, but the samples of that drug which we
obtained from Caleutta and Cawnpore proved to be the stems
and roots of C. serratum, Spr., Wight Ic., t. 1472; Bot.
Mag., t. 2536, Fyvom enquiries we have made there is no doubt
that the latter plant is largely used in many parts of India as

if we regard the root of O. serratum as the true Bharangi, and
the root of P. herbacea as the Gantu (or knotted) Bharangi,
there will be no confusion. ©. serratum has a light-coloured
- root, very often contorted, and seldom more than an inch in
_ diameter, A light brown epidermis and thin bark cover the
_ tough woody portion, which shows well-marked medullary rays
and concentric rings. The drug contains much starch, it is
_ faintly bitter, and has no peculiar odour. The young tops and
light blue flowers are used as a vegetable by the natives.

The root of @. serratum did not yield anything of great
activity when examined chemically, which proves that there is

TL—11

principle noticed in the former species, and yielded no volatile _

the percentage composition of the ash shows that the soluble

a substitute for Premna hervacea, the true Gantu Bharangi, but

_ little to recommend it asa medical agent. " The wood of the root
_ is almost inert and tasteless ; the iis bark constitutes only one-
4 &fth of the weight of rear dried root and contains a small

82 VERBENACEZ.

quantity of the peculiar bitter principles, dissolved. by
_ ether; associated with an acrid resinous substance, and some
fatty material. It is interesting to observe, however, that the:
reactions of the bitter principle, although occurring in such
small quantity, were identical with that obtained in the leaves
of the other two species, where it formed from } to 1 per cent,
of the total.

AVICENNIA Sos ea niall Linn.
Fig.— Wall. Pl. As. Rar. iii., t. 271; Wight Ic., t. 1481;

Rheede, Hort. Mal. iv., t. 45. i White Mangrove (Eng.)s
Palétuvier blanc (F*.).

Hab.—Mangrove swamps of Deccan Peninsula and
Ceylon. The seeds and bark.

Vernacular.—Bani (Beng.), Mada-chettu, Nalla-mada ( Tel.)
Upputi (Mal.), Tivara (Mar.), Timmar (Sind).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant derives its generic name
from the celebrated Arabian physician Avicenna (Ibn Sina). The
green fruit mixed with butter and boiled is made into a plaster,
which is used for softening and maturing tumours, and to promote
the healing of the ulceration caused by small-pox. This property
of the fruit is alluded to by Camoens in the “ Lusaid”—

“ Wide forests there beneath Maldivia’s tide
From withering air their wondrous fruitage hide.
The green-hair’d Nereids tend the bowery dells,

+ Whose wondrous fruitage poison’s rage expels.”

__ The bark is astringent and is used by tanners. In Madras
the ashes of the wood are used by washermen for washing clothes.
The wood is valued on account of its durability under water,
and asa fuel for heating furnaces it is preferred to other kinds
of wood on the West Coast of India. The seeds are bitter, but
are sometimes eaten.

Description.—A ak or tree with opposite evergreen
leaves, which are oe entire, wo covered beneath with a
white pubescence. _ The flowers ai ed in. * eae

;
4
E
3
os
4
4
4

LABIATH, - as

terminal bunches, and are of a dirty yellow colour. The fruit is
a broad, “compressed capsule, one inch in length, dehiscing by
tivo thick valves; seed erect, cotyledons large, plaited.length=
wise, radicle inferior, villous. The roots stand out of the mud in
which they grow, overarching each other in erect angled masses,
and send up coat geal shoots from their underground
parts.
Chemical composition —The bark of A. officinalis is used in
Madras asa dyeing agent rather than asa tan. It contains a red
colouring matter strikinga greenish colour with ferric chloride:
but giving no precipitate with gelatine. The colouring matter
is precipitated by acids and redissolved by alkalies. The ash
of the air-dried bark amounts to 11°4 per cent., and is
_. deliquescent.

roy siadas

7 SP RRN EE aero eo

‘LABIATH.

OCIMUM BASILICUM, Linn. :

Fig.—Wight Ic., t. 868; Jacy. Hort. Vind. iii., . 72:
_ Rheede, Hort. Mal. x., t. 87. Sweet Basil (Eng. , Grand Basilié r
(Fr).
_ Hab.—Persia, Punjab. Cultivated throughout ints. The
herb and seeds.
Vernacular.—Nazbo, Sabza (ind. ); Sabja oc »» Guz),
Nasbo, Sabja, Baboi-tulsi (Beng.), ee renal { Tam.),
‘ibudi-pattri (Zed.), Kam-kasturi (Can
_ History, Uses, &c.—The Hindus dislike the smell of
this plant; the Mahometans on the other hand are very partial
to it. The Arabs call it Rihén or “the herb,” andthe Persians
_Shahasperham or “ king of herbs,” and Nazbu, “having a
delicate odour ”’; it is also known in Persia as Habak-i-Kirméni, _
‘Kirman mint,” from its abundance in that province. The
uuthor of the Makhzan states that it is the pre! Seas of oe

“gs

84 LABIATE.

Envropeans, who call the large-leaved variety Ocimum magni,
and the small-leaved Ocimum partum, The plant is considered?
_ to be hot and dry, deobstruent, carminative, and stimulant, and’ z
_ the seeds taken wholé are much valued on account of their
mucilaginous properties: when ‘crushed they are said to be
astringent, and are prescribed in fluxes from the bowels. The:
Juice of the plant snuffed ‘up causes sneezing and clears the
brain. 0. basilicum is probably the @x:nov of Dioscorides, but
perhaps not of Theophrastus, who describes é«ioy as a shrub.
The Ocimum of Pliny is probably a kind of clover which also.
bore this name, as he states that it is given to mares and
asses to promote conception. _- /

De Gubernatis (Myth. des Piant, ii., 35) gives an interesting
account of the history of Basil in Europe where it is considered:
to be erotic and funereal. In Southern Italy it is worn in the
waist or bosom of young girls and in the hair of married womed, ©
and is called Bacia-nicola ; the youths stick a sprig of it above
the ear when they go courting. In Tuscany the Basil is called
Amorino. In Crete it is a sign of mourning, but is universally
cultivated in window gardens ; Boceacio’s story of Isabetta of
Messina is too well known to require repetition. De Guber-
natis is of opinion that all the superstitions concerning this
plant current in Southern Europe are of Byzantine origit-—

According to the Apomasaris Apotelesmata, to dream of Basil
is unlucky.

to possess the advantage of not tending to produce unpleasant |
_ Symptoms. Its essential oil was formerly in vogue as a carma® «7
tive and hervine. (Med. Record, xvi., 325.)

ae Description, —Three forms of this plant are common i8
India: the mint-like garden basil, with large flowers and greed

LABIATH, 85.

4 pleasant lemon odour; and a small variety common in gardens
and on waste ground having a marked peppermint odour, and.
hardly different from O. canwm. The ordinary garden basil has
brown nutlets, but those of the pilose variety are black and

th other, at the beso there is a small projection with a white
_ They have no odour, the taste is oily and slightly
When moistened they become coated with a semi-
~ opaque mucilage.

Chemical composition.—The leaves distilled with water yield
about 1-56 per cent. of a yellowish-green oil, lighter than water
(Raybaud, J., Pharm. 20, 447), which, when kept, solidifies,
almost w holly. as crystallised bas7l-camphor; the solid oil
4 crystallised from alcohol forms 4-sided prisms, having a faint
_ smell and taste; crystallised from water, it forms white, trans-
parent, nearly jth tetrahedrens, It is neutral. Formula
_ O° H°6 HO. (Bonastre, Dumas and Peligot in Gimelin’s Hand=

OCIMUM GRATISSIMUM, Linn.
he —Jacqy. Ic. Pl. Rar. iii., t. 495; Rheede, Fort. Mal. z.,

Vernacular.—Ram-tulasi (Hind. Mar. Beng.), Elumicham-
tolashi (Zam.), Nimma-tulasi (7e?,.), K4ttu-tuttuva (Mai.),
Kada-tulasi (Can.).

History, Uses, &c,—This plant is the Varvara, Barba-

ably grateful lemon odour and taste, and are made into a acl

_ Ta, and Ajvalla of the Nighantés. The leaves havea remark- _

86 LABIATAE.
by the Hindus, and.are also weed as a cooling remedy in gonor ;

im the treatment of rheumatism and. paralysis. A decoction off ’
the mucilaginous seeds is used as a demulcent. This plant)

fi i these names bear no resemblance to those of O.
simum.

" Description. —Stem erect, woody, perennial; bark asl
coloured; branches opposite, erect, 4-sided, when young smooth,
glossy and green, whole height of the plant from 4 to 8 feet;
leaves opposite, long-petioled, drooping, oblang, ventricose,
remotely serrate, pointed, smooth on both sides, often 6 inches
long, including the petiole, which is about a third of the whole;
racemes doriiiinal, pretty long, rigidly erect, with the verticels
of six flowers pretty close; bracts short petioled, reflexed, cor
date lanceolate; calyx, upper lip marked with three nerves+
corol short, scarcely larger than the calyx, ofa pale yellow under-
neath, oblong, concave, and entire; filaments longer than the
corol, witha large tuft of dark yellow hairs on the vee of
the large pair near the base. (Rorb.)

OCIMUM SANCTUM, Linn.

Bip, —Burm. Thes. Zeyl. 174, t. 80, ff. 1, 2; —, Hi
Amb. v., t, 92, f.2. Holy Basil (Zng.).
Hab.—Throughout India. The leaves.
. Vernacular.—Tulsi (Hind., Guz.), Tulasi (Tam., Tel., Mal.
Beng., Mar., Oan.).
History, Uses, &c.—The Tulasi plant is ccacaiall ;
in India by the Hindus like the Vervein was amongst the

Romans. Its worship is Ss in the odenitoner ent little
book composed of two parts :- their b g the Tulasikavagam

LABIAT: 8h

proper. or ‘Tulasi amulet,” from the Tulasimdhdétmya of: the
Brahmanda Purana, and the second, a hymn in honour of ‘the
plant by a certain Pundarika. The Tulasi is invoked for the
protection of all parts of the body in life and death, and espe-
cially in its quality of putradah putrakdnkshindm, or “ giver of
children.” The plant is the beloved of the’ gods and of pious
persons, to whom it affords its amrita (ambrosia) ; it is especially
dear to Vishnu and Lakshmi, whence its synonyms Haripriya,
_ Vishnupriya and Lakshmipriya. The divine Nérada has sung.
_ the praises of this immortal plant, which contains in itself
_ every perfection, cures every ill, and purifies and guides to the
heavenly paradise those who worship it. The mystery of the
Tulasi is the mystery of the Creator. eo

The worship of the plantis strongly recommended to Vishnuites
in tlie latter part of the Padmapurana, and it is also worshipped.
by the followers of Siva. Krishna, the popular incarnation of
Vishnu, has adopted this herb for his cult, whence the name.
_ Krishna-tulasi. Sita, according to the Ramayana, was turned
into a Basil plant, which on this account bears the synonym

_ Sitahvaya. The connection between the Tulasi and the Amrita

_ is indicated by the suspension over the plant of a dropping pot
_ of water in the month Vaisaki. Worshippers of Vishnu wear a

» O blessed one, every work
_ is vain ; that is why I pluck thee ;'O goddess, be propitious to
_ me. As I gather thee with care, be merciful to me; O Tulasi, ~
- mother of the world, I beseech thee”? |. ie bedi

‘eae eee ie aan ‘ Rp

88 LABIATA.

In eeernee the plant, it is addressed as the goddess 4
Sri or Lakshm .
Sakhi, a Papaharini, oeaeg Namaste,
Naradanute, Narayanamahahp !
O beloved, O beautiful, O pwitet er of the wicked, O purifier;
Hononr to Si O bes ioas, Seinowaee of Narada, O dear to the heart of

The tied 4 is besought to protect the head (¢iras), the —
forehead (vhdlam), the aight (drigas), the nose (g ‘ahnam) ™ a §
her quality of sugandha or perfumed, the face (mukham) in her
quality of swmukhi or fair of face, the tongue, the neck,
the shoulders, the body (madhyam) in its quality of puny yada, Ser,
down to the feet. (De Guber natis.)

The Tulasi plant may be often seen occupying a prominent
position in front of Hindu houses ; when thus kept it has to be
watered and worshipped daily. Itis often grown on the top
of the Brundavanas* or square brick structures erected in the
outer courts of temples, and in Calcutta, even in Europeaa—
compounds, there is hardly a hut occupied by a Darwan oF
Ooriya bearer without a pot of Tulsi close to the door
Frequently in the evenings a light is kept burning near the
plant. Sanskrit writers make two varieties of this plant (founded
upon some difference in the colour of their leaves), namely, white
and black ; the plant, irrespective of colour, is called in Sanskrit
Tulasi and Parnasa. According to the Raja Nirghanta, it
removes cold, destroys intestinal worms and evil spirits, @

alleviates vomiting.

“The leaves are said to be expectorant, and are prescribed
eatarrhal affections. The dried leaves powdered are used 25 @
snuff in a disease called peenash (ozena). Ainslie mentions
the use. of the root in decoction in febrile affections. In the
Concan a decoction of the leaves with the flowers of Carey4
arborea and black pepper is given in remittent fever. ae = is
also an ingredient in prescriptions for rheumatism. (See V7
Ri ) The seeds are mucilaginous and demulcent.

* reat (¥rindarann) t is a raised. pein of earth or masonry on which
the worshippers of shna plant and pr ¢ the Tulasi. ;

CARATS Ss)

_ Description.—Stem short, woody, perennial ; branches
numerous, opposite, round, usually dark-purple, hairy; leaves
vpposite, petioled, oval, serrate, downy, about 14 inch long
and 1 inch broad; racemes terminal, erect, usually dark-
purple, hairy, 4-sided; bracts opposite, petioled, cordate, reflex,
3-flowered; seeds black, oblong, about j, of an inch long,
slightly arched on ene side and flattened on the other, blunt-
pointed.
Other labiate plants, officinal in the East. en account of their
mucilaginous nutlets, are :— $e
Salvia plebeia, Br., and S. egyptiaca, Linn. var.
pumila Bth. Dene. in Jacq. Voy. Bot. 128, ¢. 183. The former
plant is common in many parts of India, and the latter in the
Salt Range and Trans-Indus, extending to Sind and Belu-
ehistan. : fig
The nutlets of S. plebeia are very small, 3'5 of an inch long,
ellipsoid, smooth, and of a brown colour; they are valued on
account of their mucilaginous properties, and are administered
internally in gonorrhea. They are supposed to have strengthen-
_ ing properties, and are given to promote the sexual powers»
_ like many other mucilaginous drugs. The statement that they
are used for killing vermin is a mistake. The plant is known
as Sathi and Samundar-sok in the Punjab and Sind, and the
seeds are sold in the bazars under the name of Kammar-lus
_ or “strong-back.’”” Theophrastus (H. P. ix., 19) mentions a
kparaloyovos or “strong-back” which has not been identified.
_ The Greeks were acquainted with S. officinalis, the Elelisphakos
__ or Sphakos of Theophrastus (H. P.vi., 1, 2), and the Elelisphakia
f modern Greece. ~
The nutlets of 8. egyptiaca var. pumila are much larger (;!s of
an inch), and are used in the north of India as a substitute for
Tukm-i-bélung.
: Chemical composition.—The seeds of S. plebeia have the follow- -
_ ing composition :—Water, 10°44; oil, 18°68 ; albuminoids, 11-90;
_ gum and fibre, 43°98; ash, 15 per cent. No alkaloid is present,
4 The nitrogen amounts to 1-88 per cent, = taba
IiL—12 a

ice

ee Ne ay ere ee 2
" ee eee 2
la

*

90 LABIATA:

‘sold in the bazars as Tukm-i-bdélung. It is a plant of the Salt

described by Persian medical writers as having a clove-like

Lallemantia Royleana, Benth., furnishes the nutlets

Range and Trans-Indus, extending to Persia, from whence the
drug is imported od Bombay. ;

As met with in commerce, they are black, }. of an inch
in length, oblong, smooth, 3-angled, tapering towards the
umbilicus, which is marked by a white spot ; one side of the seed
is broader than the other two, and slightly arched, The seeds
when moistened become immediately coated with a tenacious,
opaque, tasteless, grey mucilage.

Under the name of Faranjmishk or Biranjmishk, Arabic forms
of the Persian name Palangmishk, the nutlets of an unidentified ;
labiate plant are imported from Persia.

They are about ;!5 of an inch in length, brown, oblong;
smooth, 3-angled, tapering towards the umbilicus, which is
marked by a white spot. When moistened they become coated —
with a transparent mucilage. ‘The taste is feebly pungent.

The plant from which they are said to be obtained i8

aaont, on which account it is often called Karanfal-i- -bustant,
“garden clove.” According to Abu Hanifeh, it is the same a8
the plant called by the Arabs As/ba-el-fatiydt (Oulaminthe
Clinopodium, Benth., the Wild Basil). It is considered to
cephalic, pilctgiant: cardiacal, ~~ and carminative.

COLEUS AROMATIC US, Benth.

- Fig.— Wight Iu. ii, t 1753 Bot. Regn, t, 1520. cr
Borage (Eng.).

~ Hab.—Moluceas. Cultivated throughout India and cssiaa
The ‘leaves,

_ Vernacular, > Padhigr cbse (Hind., Beng.), Pén-ova (Mar.).

History, Uses, &C.—This plant, found in every Indian
garden, is the Coleus aromaticus of Loureiro, who describes it 23
resolvent, tonic and cephalic, and useful in asthma and chronic

LABIAT A), 91

cough; also in epileptic and convulsive affections. Roxburgh
_ (Fi. Ind., iii., 22) remarks that the leaves and all parts of the
plant are delightfully fragrant, they are frequently eaten with
bread and butter, also bruised and put into country beer, cool
tankards, &c., being an excellent substitute for Borage. Amongst
_ the natives of India the juice is a domestic remedy in colic and

_ and irritation caused by the sting of the centipede. The chopped
leaves, made into pellets and dipped in a paste made of the
" flour of the chickpea, are fried in butter and eaten. Food pre-
_ pared in this manner is a favorite Indian dish and is called ust
| (bhajen). Dr. Wight speaks of the plant as a powerful aromatic
carminative, given in cases of coli¢ in children, in the treatment
- of which the expresssd juice is prescribed mixed with sugar or
* other suitable vehicle. In his.own practice he observed it. to
_ produce so decidedly an intoxicating effect that the patient, a

had to discontinue it, though otherwise benefiting under its use.
_ The Rev, J. Long (Journ. Agri-Hort. Soc., Ind., 1858, x., p. 23)
also notices its intoxicating properties. In the Dict. Econ.
_ Prod. of India, ii., 504, itis stated on the authority of Dr. A. C.
_ Mookerjec that the expressed juice of the leaves is considered
an anodyne and astringent, and is applied round the orbit in
eases of conjunctivitis. One of us has taken large doses of the
fresh juice of the leaves without observing any intoxicating
fiect, and Mr. J. G. Prebble, who has experimented with a
_ succus prepared from the fresh herb, informs us that in large

ect. The swecws, a sample of which he has kindly supplied,
had the smell and taste of weak infusion of liquorice root.

Description.—The leaves of C. aromatieus, which. are
road, ovate-crenated, and very thick, are about 3 inches long,
nd thickly studded with hairs, which on the upper-surface are
rincipally jointed and tapering, but a few are simple and
surmounted by a globular, transparent, brilliant gland like a

most numerous, and give rise to a frosted appearance. |

4 dyspepsia, and the crushed leaves are applied to relieve the pain _

_ European lady, who had taken it on native advice for dyspepsia,

nd repeated doses it did not’ produce the slightest intoxicating

~

inute dewdrop. On the under-surface the glandular hairs are _ Z é

92 LABIATZ.

epidermis is provided with numerous simple stomata, The —
venation is reticulate, and remarkably prominent on the under-
surface of the leaf. A few oil globules are met with in the —
parenchyma, but the aroma is chiefly situated in the glandular
hairs. The taste of the leaf is at first pleasantly aromatic, after-
wards very pungent; the odour is agreeable and refreshing. »

ANISOCHILUS CARNOSUS, Wal.

Pig.— Wight Ii., t. 176 6, f. 1; Linn. Amen. Acad, «., 59,
t. 3; Rheede, Hort. Mal. z., t..90.

Hab.—Western Himalaya, Central and Southern India.
The leaves and essential oil, 4

Vernacular.—Pin-jira (Hind.), Képérli, P4n-jiren (Mar)
Karpptra-valli (Zam.), Roga-chettu, Omamu-aku (Zel.), Cho-
mara, Karkha (Mal.), Dodda-patri (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.— Ainslie states that the fresh juice

of the leaves mixed with sugar-candy is prescribed by the Tamil
physicians in cynanche, who also prepare with it, in conjunction

with the juices of other herbs and gingelly oil, a cooling lini-: 4

thent for the head. Dr. G. Bidie (Madras Quart. Med. Journ,

1862, Vol. V., p. 269) describes it as a mild stimulant expec Be

torant. Its properties depend upon a volatile oil.

In the Dict. Econ. Prod. of India it is stated on the authority
of Surgeon-Major North that the juice of the leaves mixed
with sugar and human milk is a popular domestic remedy for
children’s coughs in Mysore.

Description.—Stem erect, tetragonal; leaves petioled, —
ovate-rounded, obtuse crenated, cor date at the base, or rounded,
thick, fleshy, hoary and tomentose, or villous on both sides;
spikes long peduncled, at length cylindric; floral leaves ovate-
obtuse; upper lip of calyx acute, glabrous, membranaceous,
ciliated on the margin ; lower lip truncate, quite entire ; corol
bilabiate; upper lip bluntly 3 to 4-cleft, lower lip entire;
flowers lilac. ¢ i Se eo

I

LABIATE. 93

LAVANDULA STC:CHAS, Linn.

a Fig.— Barrel. Ic., t. 301. Arabian or French Lavender
3 (Zng.), Steechas Arabique (/’r.).

3 Hab.— Mediterranean Coasts to Asia Minor and Arabia.
_ The flower spikes.

| Vernacular.—Dharu (Hind.), Ustukhudus (nd. Buzars).

History, Uses, &c.—Dioscorides states that this plant
is called Steechas from its growing on the Stochades, a group
" of islands on the South Coast of Gaul near Massilia, now called
“Isles d’Hyéres. It is the Cxyolbs! or Cw sighs! of Ibn Sina.
It is much used by Mahometan physicians, who consider it
to be cephalic, resolvent, deobstruent and carminative, and
prescribe it in chest affections ; they also think that it assists in
expelling bilious and phlegmatic humors. (Cf. Dios. iii., 28 ;
Paul. Zig. vi.; Plin. 26, 27.) :

_ The author of the Makhzan-el-Adwiya devotes a whole folio
_ page to a description of its properties, and especially enlarges
_ upon its cephalic virtues; he concludes by saying, “In short
_ Ustukhudus is the broom of the brain, it sweeps away all
phlegmatic impurities, and removes obstructions, strengthening
_ its powers, expelling vain crudities, and rarifying the intel-
& lect.” ;

In Western India the drug is best known, though incor-
_ rectly, under the Portuguese name of Alfazema,* which is
_ corrupted by the natives into Alphajan. In European medicine
the flowers furnish the base of the sirop de stechas composé,

d are sometimes distilled for the sake of their essential oil,
which is known as “false oil of Spike,” the true oil of Spike
being the produce of LZ. Spica.

ZL. Stechas is known in Spain as “Romero Santo” (sacred
rosemary). Its essential oil (also that of D, dentata) is there
4 obtained for household use by suspending the fresh flowering ©

q * Lavandula vera, L. Stechas, is called Rosmarinho by the Portuguese _
a in Europe. re o —

94, LABIAT A.

~ stalks, flowers downward, in closed bottles and exposing them for
some time in the sun’s rays; a mixture of water and essential —
oil collects at the bottom, which is used as a hemostatic and
for cleansing wounds. (J, C. Saver.)

Description.—The purple flowers occur in short-stalked
spikes and are situated in the axils of downy, heart-shaped
bracts. The upper bracts, which are abortive, form a purple
tuft at the top of the spike.

a reddish-yellow colour, recalls that of oil of rosemary.

Chemical composition—The specific gravity of Spanish oil
of I. Stechas is 0:942 at 15°C. It boils between 180° and
245°. (J. C. Sawer, Chem. and Druggist, 1891, No. 567.)
Commerce.-—The drug is largely imported from Europe.
Value, Rs. 8 per maund of 37} lbs. :

JADEH.

‘The 8942 of the Arabian physicians is generally considered
be the Fuliyun (gédvor) of the Grecks; by some supposed to be th
Poley-Germander (Teucrium Polium, Linn.).; it is described
deobstruent, diuretic, anthelmintic, and tonic. (Diosc. iii., 1195
Plin., 21, 60, 84.) Dumolin, however, maintains the ré\.ov af the

the “Lavender Cotton” of our gardens.
Jadch as gid! wee 53, “a kind of Spaeanoal. Persian writers:
on Materia Medica give Gul-i-urba and Amberbed as its:
synonyms.

Dr. Jayakar, Civil Surgeon at Muscat, and a distinguished
Arabic scholar, forwarded to one of us in 1885 a plant growing
on the hills near that town which is called Jadeh, and also 2
specimen of the Jadeh of the Muscat shops which comes from
Bandar Abbas. Both of Dr. Jayakar’s specimens are woody,
labiate plants, with linear leaves and terminal crowded spikes of
flowers, both are densely a with. é cotton-like down, more

8

LABIATAE. 95

very closely related ; they are used in febrile affections by the
Arabs, one ounce being steeped in cold water all night, and
the infusion strained and taken in the morning. In infantile
fevers the body is fumigated with the drug. =
The specimens were forwarded to Kew, but have not, as far as
we know, been identified. The Bander Abbas Jadeh, as sold in
_ the shops, consists of the flowers mixed with a few leaves and
stems. The flowers are about 3, of an inch long, and only
_ protrude a little from the cottony calyx; they are permanent
q and firmly attached to the seeds, which are black, rugose, and ¢
somewhat kidney-shaped. The odour of the drug somewhat
resembles that of wormseed, while that of the Arabian plant is
more like lavender.

POGOSTEMON PARVIFLORUS, Benth.
Syn.—P. purpuricaulis, Dalz, in Hook, Kew Journ, ti., 336.
: : Hab. —Sub-tropical Himalaya, Decean Peninsula. The root
and leaves,
Vernacular.—Pangala, Phangala (Mar.).

History, Uses, &c,—This plant hardly differs from
_ P. purpurascens, and is very closely related to P. plectranthoides,
_ P. glaber, and the variety suavis of P. Patchouli, It does not
_ appear to be mentioned by Sanskrit medical writers, but the
_ root has a popular reputation as a styptic. In the Ratnagiri
_ District of Western India, the root has long been’ in use
mongst the natives as a secret remedy for the bite of the
hitirsa snake, and in February 1871, Mr. H. B. Boswell, the
lector, addressed the Civil Surgeon in the following terms :—
‘I have the honor to send you a specimen of a root which
I have reason to believe to be a cure for the bite of the Phiarsa
_ snake, and I shall feel very much obliged to you if you can in -
_ any way ascertain its medicinal properties and its effect on any
_ one so bitten, 3
“* Tt is said to stop all the after ill-effects of this ‘poisonous - e

ite, which is more than Liquor Ammonie will, I

.
id

96 LABIAT A.

often do. The patient is to eat as much of it, after it has been :
washed, as would make in bulk the size of the first joint of one’s
first finger. This he is to do three times a day for seven days, —
Tt is also to be applied externally to the wound. I cannot, of 3
course, vouch for the truth of this, or the efficacy of the cure, but E
one of my sepoys, who was bitten by a Phiirsa a week ago, has
been doctored by the Patel (village headman) of this place, in
this manner, and is now apparently well. The Patel after much
persuasion has shown me the root and the plant, one [know ~
well, but the name of which I am not at liberty at present to
mention. He also assures me that this is all he uses.”
_ The plant was forwarded in April 1871 to the: Chemical
Analyser to Government, who identified it as a species of
Perilla, and expressed an opinion that it was highly improbable
that a plant belonging to the Labiatze would prove to be 4 —
specific for snake-poisoning, and suggested that some trustworthy
evidence of its value should be obtained before he undertook an
analysis. In June of the same year, Dr. C. Joynt, the Civil
Surgeon, reported the following case: —“ A sepoy, aged 27, was
admitted on the night of the 29th; Liquor Ammoniz was applied
to the wound after incising; next morning there was hemorrhage ~
from the wound, and also free hemorrhage from the gums and
tongue, the blood escaping had a bright arterial hue. A
scruple of the root was ordered three times a day. The first dose
decidedly relieved the vertigo which he complained of, and»
- next day there was a marked diminution in the haemorrhage
_ from gums and tongue, which entirely ceased on the fourth day. _
No other medicine was given.” Dr. Joynt remarked :—“The-
employment of the root in this case appears to have been
_ singularly beneficial, and to deserve further investigation.”
Unfortunately, Dr. Joynt left Ratnagiri shortly afterwards
and was unable to continue his investigations. In the Annual
Report of the Ratnagiri Police Hospital for the year 1873-74, |
the following remarks by Dr. E.H. R. Langley, the Civil
_ Surgeon, occur :—‘Snake-bites furnished two ‘cases; these-
injuries were caused by snakes called ‘Phiirsa’ by the natives —
(Echis carinata of-ophiologists). A rapid cure was effected by

LABIAT#. 97

_ the internal administration, together with local application of
_ the root of a shrub, ‘the Pogostemon purpuricaulis,’ very common
all over the Concan.” In 1874 Dr. Langley made the follow-—
ing report to the Deputy Surgeon-General :—“Thirteen cases
arising from the bites of poisonous snakes were treated in the
Civil Hospital, Ratnagiri. The only remedy used was the
_ pounded root of a plant called Pang/a, the ‘ Pogostemon purpuri-
_ caulis of botanists’; the root of this plant is given internally as
ell as applied as a paste locally ; all these cases did well, and
ere discharged from two to four days after admission.”
In 1884 Dr. H. McCalman, Civil Surgeon, Ratnagiri, for-
_ warded a communication, ‘‘On the treatment of Phoorsa bite by
_ Pangls, root with illustrative case,” to the Bombay Medical and
_ Physical Society,from which we extract the following remarks:—
_ “The Echis curinata, a viperine snake, is very commen in the
_ Ratnagiri District. Fayrer describes it as fierce, active and
_ aggressive, always on the defensive, and ready to attack. The
_ bite is eventually highly dangerous, although the symptoms may
_ be slow in developing. In fatal cases death usually occurs in
_ from 4 to 6 days, and is preceded by giddiness, great lethargy
_ and depression, hemorrhagic discharges, albuminuria, and
occasionally lockjaw.” : . . =
*Pangla root, chewed in a fresh state, has been used for some
years by Drs. Joynt, Langley, Barker and myself in the treat-
ment of Phoorsa bite, and with invariable success.”
The following is Dr. McCalman’s illustrative case :—Rowjee
alsawant, Hindoo, police constable, aged 45, was admitted
hospital on the 14th June 1884, at 6 a.m. An hour
Previously he was bitten on the dorsum of the foot by a
Phoorsa snake, afterwards recognized and killed. He was im-
mediately given Pangla to chew, and a poultice of the leaves
applied locally. At 9 a.m. there was. much pain in the part,
_ edematous swelling of the foot and ankle, extending half-way
4 up the leg, giddiness, a feeling of great depression, and hzmor-
_ rhage (dark-coloured) from the gums, under surface of the

_ ©xpectorated did not coagulate. This bleeding had begun —
q IIL.—13 oS

_ tongue and buccal mucous membrane generally. The blood

98 LABIATZ.

6 a.m., an hour after the man had been bitten. Pulse 72, tem- 4
perature 98° F., no dyspnea. Finding the hemorrhage un —
checked by the remedy, some perfectly fresh root just dug up wa
substituted for that first given. The effect was soon apparent.

At 2 p.m., giddiness less, pulse 78, temperature 99"
expression tranquil, urine dark-coloured, depositing @ sligh
flocculent sediment, reaction acid, sp. gr. 1012, albumen to
considerable extent. Pain of the foot less.

6 p.m., bleeding from the mouth practically stopped, giddiness —
increased, pulse 72, temperature 99°4. Urine shows bl
corpuscules under the microscope.

15th.—No hemorrhage from the mouth; urine contains
considerable quantity of blood; vertigo less. Swelling of i
less. Pulse as yesterday and of fair volume.

16th.—No hemorrhage whatever. No giddiness. Us
pale, no sediment, no albumen, sp. gr. 1008. Pulse 66. Stiffness —
of foot, but no real pain,

17th.—Swelling rapidly disappearing. No head symptom
Urine very pale and plentiful, sp. gr. 1004.

18th.—Pangla omitted. His convalescence was uninterrupt

ed, and he left the hospital on the 22nd perfectly well.

Dr. McCalman remarks :—‘‘I do not pretend to explain th :
action of Pangla; that the remedy acts generally and physiolo- :
gically is apparent from the early drying up of remote hemers
rhages (¢.g., bleeding from the urinary tract) and the relief
_ cerebral symptoms, effects due to a restoration of the natural
‘state of the blood, and, through it, of the nervous centres. Th.
drug may also stimulate organs concerned in the elimination ©
the poison. The subject is one which calls for further careful
experimental research.”

Through the courtesy of Surgeon-General Pinkerton we have
been supplied with further extracts from the records of the
Ratnagiri Civil Hospital, which show that Pangla root is still
used with the same success in the treatment of Pharsa bite

. LABIATA. 99

Only one fatal case is recorded, and in that the remedy was
administered in the form of tincture instead of in the usual
manner. |
Mr. G. W. Vidal, C.S., in a letter to the Bombay Gazette,
dated January 30th, 1890, states that the bite of the Phirsa snake
is apparently fatal in about 20 per cent. of cases, and the action
of the poison is slow. He says: “In collecting materials for an
account of the snakes of Ratnagiri for the Bombay Gazetteer,
I found (in 1878) records of 62 fatal cases treated at the Civil
Hospital. These cases showed that death occurred on an aver-
age in four and a half days, though in some instances patients
had lingered up to twenty days.’ In 1855-56 Dr. Imlach, then
Civil Surgeon of Shikarpur, in a description of the ‘ Kapar’
(Echis carinata), published in the Transactions of the Bombay
Medical and Physical Society (Vol. iii., New Series, p. 80), wrote
that ‘‘a reference to police returns will show that in by far the
majority of cases serious injury and death have been caused by
the bite of this species.” In an article upon the “ Venomous
Snakes of North Canara” (Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Bombay,
Vol. v., No. 1, p. 69), Mr. Vidal says :—“ Thereis indeed no doubt
that the Echis is a far more potent factor than any other venomous
_ snake in swelling the mortality of the Bombay Presidency, and
_ it is important that this fact should be more generally known
and recognised than it has been hitherto. It is, of course,
_ impossible to show the exact percentage of the deaths from
_ snake-bite for which the Echis is responsible. In the returns no
_ attempt is made to discriminate the species to which the recorded
deaths are attributable, and little if any reliance could be placed
in the statistics, even if such an attempt were made. But the
conclusion stated above may, I think, be fairly drawn from the
fact, which is very clear from the returns in their present shape,
that in all those districts, where the Kehis is known to abound,
the average mortality from the snake-bite is markedly high,
while conversely, the mortality is insignificant in other dis-
_ tricts where the Echis is either rare or absent. The following
_ table, which I have compiled with some care and labour from
3 the official returns for the eight years, 1878—85, shows the

as ba a

ae

'

I believe, in these Deccan

100 LABIATZ.

population, the actual average mortality, and the mortality per
mille of each district in the Bombay Presidency :—~

Average
Populetion actual a
— Tote? b mortalit Pe
District. 7 y mille,
Census of from snake- 1878 to
1881, | bite, 1878 | "7685
to 1885 :

1» Hydrabad .....,sececeeee 754,624 18i7 0°247
Thar te Parkar 48°7 0-239
Karac 478,688 87:2 0:18
: atnagiri 997,090 154°5 0-155
Thana 908,548 108:8 07119

aneh Mahals 255,479 30°5 0-119
hikarpur 852,986 72:8 0-085
urat 614,198 415 0-067
EPR Savendsvenie ais ciesbe ees 804,800 47-2 00586

Broach 326,930 19:1 0.0584
Upper Sind Frontier ... 124,181 6°7 0:053
Kolaba 1,649 19-8 0°052
PEE SSE et te ee eee 56,324 39-6 0-046
Sattara 1,062,350 41-0 0038

Cana’ 421,840 16-0 0°037
7 loaum 864,014 30°2 0-034
900,621 18°6 0-020

) ose : 882,907 17-6 0-019

Khandeish 1,237,231 93-1 0-018
Bijapur 638,493 11:0 0-017
Nasik 781,206 108 0-0138
Ahmednagar | 751,228 10°3.| 0-0137
Sholapur 582,487 2-9 0 003

Thus three Sind districts and Ratnagiri, in all of which the
Echis swarms in suitable localities, sional well at the top of the
list with an average mortality, taking the four districts togethet

: of “205 per 1,000. On the other hand, in the last four districts

on the list, ciz,, Bijapur, Nasik, Ahmednagar and Sholapu,

the combined average mortality per mille is only -0118.

other words only one man dies of snake-bite in about 100,000

in these Deccan districts, while in the Echis-ridden tracts one
man dies in every 5,000. Daboias and kraits are probably
nowhere so common in Western India as to have much appre-
ciable effect on the mortality. But cobras are quite as common,
Norse a ey are in el or

LABIATA. 101

Sind. This shows, I think, pretty conclusively that the Echis
—and not the cobra, or any other venomous snake—is chiefly .
responsible for deaths from snake-bite in Bombay.”

The fresh leaves of P. parviflorus have a pungent taste, and
when bruised are in general use in the Concan as a cataplasm
to clean wounds and sores, and to stimulate healthy granulation.
| Description.—A stout, erect, branched shrubby plant ;
glabrous, pubescent, or scaberulous. Leaves long-petioled, ovate
or ovate-lanceolate, singly or doubly crenate-toothed or serrate,
3 base cuneate, whorls subglobose, in dense cylindric or one-sided
_ softly hairy spikes, bracts elliptic-ovate, exceeding the hirsute
calyx, calyx-teeth short, triangular-lanceolate, ciliate. Nutlets
very small, black, shining. The whole plant has a strong black
currant odour. Roots woody, knotted; bark light brown,
_ scabrous, with an aromatic odour like that of the plant, and a
a pungent taste, benumbing the tongue and palate when chewed.
Chemical composition. —The most interesting principle detected
in the plant was an alkaloid. After repeated purification it
was left as a yellow varnish with slightly bitter and mouse-like
_ flavour. It was more soluble in chloroform than in ether.
_ No special colour reactions were noted. We also detected the
_ presence of trimethylamine, and a volatile principle with a
_ cedar-wood odour. Resinous principles were also present, with
astringent matter. We provisionally call the alkaloid Pogoste-
monine.

MENTHA SYLVESTRIS, Linn.
Fig.—Reichb. Ie. Fl. Germ., t, 82; Eng. Bot. 686. Wild
int (Eng.), Menthe sauvage (F.).
Hab.—Temperate W. Himalaya, Persia. The herb.

Vernacular.—Pudina or Pidina (Hind., Tam., Beng gi, Gus. ),
: Chetni-maragu (Can.), Vatalau, Pudina ( (Mar.).

History, Uses, &c.—A fragrant plant named pivéa je
ivén, in Latin Mintha or Mentha, was known to the Greeks and
Romans (Theophr., ii., 4; Plin., 19, 47; 20, Gia which was —

102 LABIAT&.

probably a kind of mint. According to Pliny, the name of this
plant was afterwards changed to j#dvocpoy on account of the q
sweetness of its smell. It was used as an ingredient in sauces
and for medicinal purposes ; it is impossible to determine with —
certainty which species of mint was used by the ancients, but it 4
is generally supposed to have been M. sativa, Linn. J

Ovid tells us that Myntha was a nymph beloved of Pluto, —
who was turned into a plant by Proserpine out of jealousy. —
De Gubernatis (Myth. des Plant., ii., 226) says:— Les Frangais
Vappellent Menthe de Nostre Dame, les Allemands Unser Frauen
Miintz, Pietro de Crescenzi, Herba sancte Marie. Dans la Na
turale et generale Historia dell’ Indie Occidentali (Ramusio) on
lit: “L’herba buona, che in aleune parti chiamano herba
santa, e in molto altre menta.’ Dans les Allégories d’.Azz Eddin,
traduit par Garcin de Tassy, la menthe semble jouer, au
contraire, un assez vilain réle. Le basilic en parle ainsi au jasmin? —
“Tu auras peut-étre entendu dire qu’il existe un délateur ( :
menthe) parmi les étres de mon espéce ; mais, je t’en prie, ne hut
fais pas de reproches; il ne répand que sa propre odeur; il ne di-
vulgue qu’un secret qui le regarde; il ne dévoile enfin quece qui
peut découvrir.” Quelle allusion peut contenir cette allégorie?
Est-il possible que la vieille équivoque latine entre les mots
mentha et mentula se soit répétée dans une langue orientale? :
Quant a la premiére, elle est certaine, et les poétes porno-
graphiques italiens en ont bien abusé. II faut sans doute en-
core songer a cette équivoque, pour comprendre Vorigine de la
superstition Sicilienne de Caltavuturo, dans la province de Pa-
lerme; on y croit que si la femme dans ses mois s’approche de la
menthe, la plante périra; autrefois, au lieu de menta, on enten-
dait probablement mentula: d’od la croyance qui, autrement,
serait inintelligible,

=

=

Apulée, De Virtutibus Herbarum, indique le rite qu’il faut
sure pour cueillirla menthe : “Lege eam mense Augusto, mane
primo priusquam sol exeat, mundus, ad omnia sic dicens: Te
precor, herba hedyosmos, per eum qui nasci te jussit, venias ad me

oS OS alla a a
* Immovero sic est, aixi idem valet.

LABIA? A. 103

hilaris cum tae a ee et effectu tuo, et ea mihi prestes que
de a te posco.”

Mint does not appear to be mentioned by Sanskrit medical
writers. In Arabic @*) (naanaa) and Gi (habak) are
general names for the mints, but they are best known as Fuda-
_ naj, the Arabic form of the Persian word Pidina or Padang.
_ The author of the Makhzan describes three kinds of Fiidanaj,
_ wild, mountain, and water mint; the latter, he says, is the Cala-
_ mintha of the Greeks. Mountain mint is described as having
4 hoary leaves, but it is impossible from his description to form
any opinion as to the exact species to which he refers, The
mints are considered to be hot and dry, and are prescribed in
dyspeptic affections, fluxes, and dropsy. Different kinds of
_ mint are much cultivated in Indian gardens, and are used as
_ domestic remedies on account of their stimulant and carminative
_ properties. They are often made into a medicinal chutney,
q which is eaten to remove a bad taste in the mouth in febrile
_ conditions of the body, e.g., Piidina, khérik (dry dates), black
_ pepper, rock salt, raisins, and cumin in equal proportions are
_ rubbed into a chutney with limejuice.

In colic, mint juice with a little black pepper and honey is is
given.

Description.—W. sy/vestris has leaves broadly or narrowly

blong, obovate or lanceolate subacute, serrate, hoary beneath,

horls in terminal spikes, calyx-teeth triangular or lanceolate,

corolla hairy, glabrous within. Nutlets usually pale, smooth,

etimes brown anddelicately reticulate. (#7. Br. Ind.)

The plant varies much insize and habit. Aitchison observed

Another variety was collected by him on the Harirud valley.
: Mentha viridis (spear-mint), M. piperita and M. incana (pep-
permint), Jf. sativa, and M. aquatica, oceur in Indian gardens,
nd as escapes. M. arvensis is a native of the Western

104, LABIATA.

Chemical composition—The most important constituent is th
volatile oil, which has the same composition as oil of peppermin
but differs from it in odour and flavour (see p. 107).

The plant contains a little tannin,

Commerce.—The dried plant of M. sylvestris is a reg
article of import from Persia into Bombay. Value abou
2 annas per lb,

MENTHA ARVENSIS, Linn, var. piperascens.

Hab.—China and Japan. The essential oil, and Men!
or Peppermint camphor. .

Vernacular.—The oil.—Lin-tsao (Ohin.), Hakano Al
(Japan), Pédine-ka-tél or atar (Hind. Beng.), Va
cha-tél (Mar.), Phudino-nu-tél (Gus.), Pudina attar or
-(Tam.), Pudina-attara or tailamu (TZel.), Pudina-attar
yanne (Can.). Menthol.—Po-ho-yo (Chin.), Hatsca (J
Pudine-ke- phil (Ind. Bazars). :

History, Uses, &c.—-Peppermint was in use
China and Japan at least 2,000 years ago. The Fuda
el-tays, ‘Mentha hircina,” of Ibn Sina appears to have
peppermint; he describes it as a very efficacious kind of
anda good diuretic. Haji Zein el-attar (1868) men
kind of mint called Filfilndn, te, “having the qualities
pepper,” also known as Pidinch-i-kohi or “hill mint.” 20
the Arabs and Persians appear to have been well acquainted
the value of this mint in neuralgic affections, It is interesti
= to observe that in Hull’s British Flora, Manchester, 1799, pepPe
mint is named Mentha hircina. Peppermint is not mentioned by
Sanskrit writers on Materia Medica. From the Pharmacogré
we learn that peper-minét was first observed by Dr. Eales
communicated to Ray, who noticed it in his Synopsis in 1

mintsas aremedy for weakness of the stomach and for ¢

5 Sa

_ DABIATH. 105

7 Upon the Continent of Europe peppermint became practically
_ known about the latter end of the last century (op. cit., 2nd ed.,
p. 481). Peppermint camphor was first described by Gmelin in
1829, who obtained it from the European plant. Pereira and
3 Guibourt notice the menthol of China, and in 1862 a memoir
on crystallized oil of peppermint from Japan was presented to
_the Chemical Society by Oppenheim, who speaks of it as
_ coming to Europe in earthenware jars, and often adulterated
_ with sulphate of magnesium to the extent of 10 to 20 per cent
_ This, however, was not the case with a sample examined by Moss
' and also by G. H. Beckett and C, R. Alder Wright in 1874,
_ When first brought to Europe it was used asa remedy for head-
4 ache and neuralgia, and was known in France as Gouttes
| Japonaises. In 1879 Mr. Archibald Duncan, a student of the
_ University of Edinburgh, drew attention in the Lancet to its
_ value as an antiseptic. Dr. A. Rosenberg (Lancet, 1885) recom-
~mended an alcoholic or ethereal solution as a local anssthetic
in affections of the nose, pharynx, and larynx. The use of
menthol for these purposes has now become general in Europe
and America. Dr. Lahnstein (Therap. Monatsh., 1890, No.5) é
_has used menthol with striking success against vomiting in a
child with traumatic peritonitis where opium and morphine
d failed. — cae
_ Dr. Drews (Therap. Monatsh., 1890, No. 7) has conditionally
eonfirmed the communications of Gottschalk and Weiss con-
cerning its value in obstinate vomiting of pregnancy. :

Dr. Bronner of Bradford reported at the 62nd meeting of
rman Scientists and Physicians in Heidelburg on the success
ained by him with menthol (a few drops of a 20 per cent.
olution in olive oil poured on pieces of pumice stone) in
tinate swelling of the tubes as well as in some cases of
lerosis. (Therap. Monatsh., 1890, No. 8.)

_ Dr. Jones (Deutsch. Apoth-Zeit., 1890, p- 143) has used
“Menthol successfully in 20 per cent. alcoholic solution for
ir halation in asthmatic cases. Lastly, the suecess obtained
with menthol against diphtheria must be mentioned. _
. wi.“ oo

106 ee LABIAT A.

‘Dr. Hermann Wolff (Therap. Monatsh., 1890, No. 9) has
exhaustively reported on his experience of two years with the

oil of peppermint, which is largely imported from Chi
and Japan. One of us has found a large rectal injection
essence of peppermint in warm water afford marked relief
renal colic.

- Description.—Chinese oil of peppermint is general!
high coloured and very pungent, with a bitter after-taste.

it from the Indian market. The menthol of China and Ja
occurs in long hexagonal erystals, resembling sulphate of r
nesium, which contain much water. E. B. Kyle (Amer. Jo
of Pharm., 1885) mentions the following among the prope bee
ofmenthol. When thrown upon water, currents are produced
and from the dissolving crystals. Menthol liquifies with chlor
thymol, and camphor ; and this action is particularly noti
with thymol, crystals of the two substances placed in eontat
being in a few minutes transformed into a thick. oily liqu

On gently heating a mixture of 1 drachm of the aqueous sol
tion of menthol with half a drachm of a solution of 1 grain
iodine and 5 grains of potassium iodide in two drachms of

agreeable odour, andon the addition of a little potassi
mate becomes chrome-green, the colour remaining unal

_ for several weeks. Menthol slightly warmed with nitric
yields a thick, wine-coloured, oily liquid, and at a higher
heat red fumes are given off; on neutralizing now with ammonia,
® precipitate is observed which is soluble in alcohol, and th
solution when evaporated yields an indistinctly erystalli
eae ee a cong OE eae

EABIAT A. 107

The oil of M. arvensis, var. piperascens, distilled from the fresh
plant, grown at Mitcham, by Moss had a decided yellow colour,

. and asp. gr. of ‘9107 at 62° F. With the barometer at 30 in,
it boiled at 402° F.

The sp. gr. of the oil after determining the boiling point,
was found to be ‘9117 at 62°F.
Other specimens: of cil distilled in England from. the dry im-
wrted herb; were found by Moss to be different'in. appearance
d physical properties from: that distilled by him, One
fabelled “non-rect.” was distinctly green; and had. a sp. gr. of
91 67 at 62°F, ; a second, labelled “‘ rect.,” was pale in:colour, with
a faint green tis oe, and had asp. gr. of 9098. The sp. gr. of
_ these alls confirm Todd’s generalization that pure coils fall
' between 908 and -917. (Pharm. Journ., p. 446, 1886.) None of
- the three oils gave any coloration when subjected to the test
a giv en in Todd’s paper above mentioned. It consists in adding’
ene drop of oil to a mixture ef 25 drops of alcohol with one drop
ef nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:2. With the oil of M. piperiia a
permanent blue er bluish-green colour is developed. |

Chemical composition.-—Oil of peppermint owes its peculiar
our to menthel (mint camphor, mint stearopten), C!°H°0,

sting the oil to fractional distillation. [t forms colourless
isms which fuse at 42°C. and beil at 212°C. Distilled
th phosphoric anhydride, it yields menthene C!H!8, which
a colourless liquid of an agreeable odour. According to
loriga {1881), oil of peppermint contains probably leo an
of the formula C'°H'®O, which may be prepared from
thel by oxidation with potassium bichromate; but by
tment with fuming nitric acid menthol yields at first an
osive oil, afterward crystals of an acid (C°H°O ty2 H20,
melting at 97°C.; this compound is not identical with pyro-
‘tartaric acid, with Viel it agrees in composition. A compound
someric with borneol had been found by Beckett and Wright...
(1875) in the liquid portion of Japanese peppermint oil, but, So

sccording to Fliickiger and Power (1880), is not present in

hich is chiefly contained in the last portions obtained on sub-

108 LABIATZ.

the oil distilled at Mitcham, which contains, besides menthol, —
several hydrocarbons of the formulas C!°H'® andC¥H", and —
having a terebinthinate somewhat lemon-like odour. (Stillé q
and Maisch.)

Commerce.—Chinese oil of peppermint and menthol are
imported into India in quarter-catty flat bottles, bearing 4
Chinese label. Four or more of these bottles are packed in a tin

box. The Japanese oil is packed in tins of various sizes and

has generally an English label, much of it is of very inferior

quality, the menthol having been separated. Cocking’s isthe

best brand, and is packed in glass bottles with paper cases.
Value—oil, Rs. 4 to 5 per lb.; menthol, Rs. 8 per Ib. 4
Indian substitutes for peppermint are Mentha incané, a
Wiild., much cultivated in gardens, and wild in Northern Tndia, 4
and Micromeria capitellata, Benth., a native of Behar,
the Western Himalaya and the Western Ghats, described by
Dalzell as rivalling the peppermint in its aromatic and carm
native properties,

ORIGANUM MARJORANA, Linv.

Fig.-—Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 165. Sweet Marjoram (Eng),
Marjolaine (Fr.),

Hab.—Portugal to Western Asia. Cultivated in India q
The herb. ; 4
_ Vernacular.—Marwa (Indian Bazars). 4
_ History, Uses, &c.—The name op/yavov, in modern Greek a
-Ptyars, Was applied in ancient times to plants of this genus, but
- O. marjorana was distinguished by the names capyvuxov aD
spapaxes, A Greek myth informs us that Amaracus was a page
to the king of Cyprus, who one day on letting fall a vessel of
perfume became so frightened that he was turned into this
plant. The Greeks and Romans decorated the newly married
with it. Catullus says :—
Cings tempora floribus

LABIAT&A. 109

It is the Marjolaine of the French. De Gubernatisstates that
in Southern Europe it is the symbol of honour and the protector
of married women. It is the Maruva and Jambhira of the Raja
Nirghanta and the Marwa or Marzangush of the Persians,
Ibn Sina calls it Marzanjush. The Persian word signifies
*‘mouse-ear,”’ a name given to it on account of the greyish downy
character of the leaves, which is more marked in the Persian
variety than in the European plant. Marjoram is cultivated as
a pot-plant in most Indian gardens, and is used as a substitute
_ for thyme in cookery. At Bandora, near Bombay, it is grown
as a garden crop to supply bouquets for the Bombay market,
which are much worn by women in their hair. The medicinal
uses of Marjoram in the East are similar to those of mint.

Description,—An annual herb. The leaves are spatu-
late or oval, very obtuse, entire, gray green, soft-hairy, and
pellucid punctate. The flowers are aggregated in small heads ©
and have a small whitish corolla. The plant is agreeably and
pungently aromatic.

Chemical composition.—The volatile oil (Oleum majorane) is
thin, yellowish, of the specific gravity 0:89, boils above 163°C.,
__ is readily soluble in alcohol, has the aromatic odour of the herb, —

and, according to Beilstein and E. Wiegand (1882), contains a

terpene boiling at 178° C. and forming a liquid compound with
HCI; the fraction boiling between 200° and 220° C. has the |
_ composition C'*H*60, and is not affected by metallic sodium.
_ (Stillé and Maisch.)

THYMUS SERPYLLUM, Linz.
Fig.— Engl. Bot., wvii., t. 1514. Wild Thyme (Eng.), Ser-
polet (Fr.).

Hab.— Western Temperate Himalaya, Persia, Europe. The
herb.
Vernacular.—Masho (Panj.), Hashé (Pers. Ind. Bazars).
History, Uses, &c.—Hishé is the Persian name of ce
T. serpylium, but it has been adopted by the Arabian and Persian

110 LABIATAE.

physicians as the equivalent of the 6%pos of Dioscorides, a plant
concerning the identity of which there is much doubt: some
supposing it to be the Satureia capitata of Linneus, and others
the Thymus vulgaris or T. Zygis of the same botanist. Ibn Sina
in his description of Hash& quotes what Dioscorides says con-
cerning pos, and does not notice the éprvAdos of the same author —
usually identified with 7. serpy/lum, Haji Zein el-Attar follows
Ibn Sina in identifying Hashé with the ios of the Greeks,
and describes it as a kind of mountain mint with very numerous
small flowers of a purplish colour, slender stems, and leaves lik
the Jadeh. His description of its medicinal properties hardly
differs from that of Pliny (21, 89), which is as follows: —“ Thyme

it dispels chronic fluxes of the fauces, ag well as various
affections of the, stomach and bowels; still, however, it must
be used in moderation, as it ‘is of a heating nature, and acts
as an astringent on the bowels. In cases of ulceration of the
intestines, the dose should be one denarius of thyme to one
sextarius of oxymel ; the same proportions, too, should be taken
for pains in the sides, between the shoulder-blades, or in the
thoracic organs. Taken with oxymel, it is used for the ewre of
intestinal diseases, and is administered in cases of alienation of
the senses and melancholy. Thyme is given also for epilepsy,
‘when the fits come on, the smell of it reviving the patient;
it is said, too, that epileptic persons should sleep upon soft
thyme. It is good also for hardness of breathing, and for
asthma and obstructions of the catamenia. A decoction of
thyme water, boiled down to one-third, brings away the dead
foetus, and itis given to males with oxymel, as a remedy for a
flatulency, and in cases of swelling of the abdomen or testes and.
of pains inthe bladder, Applied with wine, it removes tumours —
and fluxes, and in combination with vinegar, callosities and
warts. Mixed with wine, it is used as an external application

~ LABIATZ. 111
for sciatica; and beaten up with oil and sprinkled upon wool,
it is employed for diseases of the joints and for sprains,
It is applied also to burns, mixed with lard. For maladies of
the joints of recent date, thyme is administered in drink,
in doses of three oboli to three cyathi of oxymel. For loss
of appetite it is given beaten up with salt.”

oe eR eT

ss lela
ie

3 eye

The ancients appear to have been acquainted with the anti-
septic properties of thyme. . Virgil (Georg. IV., 241) speaks of
the fumigation of beehives with the smoke of the burning
plant, and the name @vyos is derived from 4%, to burn incense.
Macer Floridus (De Vir. Herb) recommends thyme as a
remedy for the bites of venomous animals. In the Punjab
the seeds of 7. serpyl/um are given as a vermifuge. (Stewart.)
The plant is an indifferent substitute for 7. oulgaris, as it
contains hardly any thymol. The latter principle is, however,
afforded abundantly by the seeds of Oarum copticum, a plant
_ largely cultivated in India. Thymol is a powerful antiseptic ;
when absorbed it paralyses the nerve centres in the cord
_ and medulla, and like carbolic acid lessens reflex action;
_ slowing the respiration, and lowering the blood-pressure
and temperature. In poisonous doses it causes weakness,
_ drowsiness, coma and death. It differs from carbolic acid
in being less volatile and less easily oxidised. Its action
as a disinfectant is more permanent and at the same time
more powerful than that of carbolic acid. It is less irritating
_ to the skin or mucous membrane, and does not act as a
eaustic like carbolic acid, and is a less powerful poison to
ammals. Its action on the nerve-centres is a paralysing one
from the first, and is not preceded by excitement as in the case
f carbolic acid. While in the body it appears to effect tissue-
‘metabolism, for in animals poisoned by it the liver is found
quite fatty, as in phosphorus-poisoning. It appears to be elimi-

nat by the respiratory and urinary organs and

rane is extremely congested, the secretion of mucous increased ce
ae lungs congested, and sometimes consolidated; the kidneys

EY2 LABIATA,

inflamed, and the urine albuminous or bloody. Thymol has ‘
been used as an antiseptic, as an application to skin diseases,
ringworm, eczema, psoriasis; as a gargle, spray, or inhalation
in sore-throat, bronchiectasis and phthisis, or as an injection
imozena. Internally it has been usedin diabetes and vesical —

eatarrh. (Lauder Brunton.) _o

Dr. Gross (Pharm. Zeitsch., 1890, p. 261) reports on the sue-
cessful results obtained with thymol in the treatment of diph-
theria, having found it the most effective remedy in 280 cases.
He prescribed, according to the age of the child, a 0-1 to 0°3 per —
cent. solution in doses of 10 to 12 drops every 5 to 10 minutes,
according to the severity of the case. The solution was flavour-
ed with some pleasant-tasting syrup and in severe cases a few —
_ drops of brandy were added. The children soon become accus-

™\

LABIATAE, 113

_ has an aromatic thyme-like odour and a warm, pungent but
_ scarcely caustic taste. It dissolves sparingly in water, requiring

_ its weight of alcohol, ether, and chloroform, in 2 parts of soda
solution sp. gr. 1:16, and freely in benzol, benzin, carbon
_ disulphide, glacial acetic acid, and fixed and volatile oils. It
| forms with soda a crystallizable and readily soluble compound,
and does not change the colour of a solution of ferric chloride.
Symes (1879) ascertained that on being triturated with one-half
rt fo ten times its weight of camphor, a colourless syrupy liquid is
3 “obtained, butit does not liquefy with chloral hydrate. According
_ to Gerrard, the strongest aqueous solution of thymol available
is 1 in 1,000, and a solution of 4 grains of it ina fluid ounce of
_ alcohol is miscible with water without becoming turbid;
_ 3 grains of thymol are dissolved by 1 grain of caustic soda and
4 1} grains of caustic potash. Solid fats, when heated, are
4 excellent solvents of thymol. A solution of 1 part of thymol
_ in 100 parts of warm glycerin remains clear. Thymol is also
soluble in 4 parts of cold sulphuric acid; the solution has a
3 ‘yellowish colour, and, on being gently heated, becomes rose-red.

the mixture with an excess of lead carbonate, and filtering,
, e liquid becomes violet-blueon the addition of ferric chloride.
This reaction is due to sudphothymoliec acid, C'°H"*SO’, discovered
By Lallemand (1853). Hammarsten and Robert (1881) give
the following as the most delicate test by which one-millionth
thymol may still be detected: Mix the liquid with oue-half
its volume of glacial acetic acid, then with at least an
ual volume of sulphuric acid, and warm gently, when a bright
lish-violet colour is produced which is not destroyed by
ing. Acco ceording to Hirschsohn (1881), a solution of thymol
60,000 parts of water is rendered turbid by bromine-water,
ut, according to Hammarsten, the precipitate is not crystalline
e tribromophenol, (S¢il/é and Maisch.)
Chemical composition.—The volatile oil of Thymus Serpyllum,

11L.—16

at 15° C. 1,100 to 1,200 parts for solution, but is solublein half -

n pouring this solution into 10 volumes of water, digesting —

n.» according to EH. Buri (1879), contains two phenols which
not congeal at—10° C., and of which one imparts a relletiaies 2

~

- atl1d5° C. was 0°917.

, _ describe it as having properties similar to those of thyme and —
ae mint. Dr. J ayakar of Muscat found the plant in flower in

114 LABIATA,

green colour to ferric chloride, and yields a sulphonic acid, the 4
salts of which, like the thymol sulphonates, produce with ferric
salts an intense blue colour. Jahns (1880) reported also the 4
presence of a little thymol and carvacrol. Messrs. Schimmel a
& Co.(Report, April 1891) obtained by distillation of the leaves
and stalks 0-3 per cent. of an oil having a very pleasant melissa a
like aroma with a slight soupcon of thyme. Its specific gravity

Thymus vulgaris, Linn., is the chief source of thymol i in Europe;

upon Carum copticum. (Vol. ii., p. 116.)

- Féidanaj-i-jibali, also called Pudineh-i-kohf, «hill mint,” is
identified by Mahometan physicians with the Calamintha of re
ancients (cf. Matth. Vaigr. v., 2, 76. J), Calamintha culgaris;
Sweet, Hng. Bot. 1676. We bees not met with this drug in the

Indian Bazars, but three species of Calamintha occur in the
Himalayas.

ZATARIA MULTIFLORA, Boiss.
Hab.— Arabia, Persia. The herb in flower.
Vernacular.—Saatar (Ind. Bazars).

_ History, Uses, &c.-—The Mahometan physicians of the
East identify this drug with the épiyavey of the Greeks,

May 1885. on the hills near Muscat in Arabia, and kindly
forwarded specimens, which were identified at Kew as Z. multi-

flora. The drug i is much used in India in infusion 2s aD
agreeable aromatic stimulant and diaphoretic; many other
properties are ascribed to it in Persian medical works which it
is unnecessary to recapitulate.

LABIAT&. 115

q and numerous minute flowers, forming knotted clusters upon a
_ slender spike ; each flower is furnished with a small bract, and
' when magnified the bracts and calices are seen to be densely
_ eovered with jointed hairs. The calyx is unequally 4-cleft, the
4 corolla labiate, and of a red colour, the calyx and flower after
q being soaked in water for 24 hours only measured 4 inch in
length. The leaves when magnified present a mossy surface,
hich is thickly pitted, each pit containing a granule of red,
sinified essential oil.

Chemical composition.—The leaves contain an aromatic essen- —
al oil having a minty odour, a red, tasteless, acid resin, and
some tannic acid giving a green precipitate with ferric chloride. -
The bitterness is not due to an alkaloid, The leaves containing
10 per cent. of moisture yielded 15 per cent. of ash.

ZIZIPHORA TENUIOR, Lina.
Hab.—Persia, Beluchistan. The herb.
Vernacular.—Mishk-i-taramashia (Jnd. Bazars).
History, Uses, &c.—The Mahometans of the East

d dry. Haji Zein in the Ikhtiardé states that it is called ==
ng in Shiraz, and that the milk of poats feeding upon it
omes bloody. He describes it as a valuable expectorant and

uses hematuria. He also mentions its use by Galen asa
ppository in painful affections of the uterus, and by Ishak asa
rininative addition to purgative medicines. The drug is also
to be a powerful aphrodisiac. 2 oats states that the

Description.—A very small plant, 2 to 3 inches high ;
t as long as the plant, single, woody, with a few small fibres.
The stems, which are 2 to 5 in number, are also woody, and
branch from the ground; they are thickly set with jonree and

entity this plant with the fvys or “wild thyme” of theGreeks.
is the eso! yhSi.0 of Ibn Sina, who describes it as very hot

116 LABIATA,

flowers, which reach to the apex and form a spike. The leaves 4
are linear-lanceolate, and have several prominent straight veins —
on each side of the midrib. The calyx, which is purple, .
encloses four oblong seeds of a brown colour, and is marked with .
numerous ribs, and ends in five sharply cut claws; it is studded 4
with simple hairs, and is 3,ths of an inch long. The odour —
and taste of the drug is pleasant, like peppermint, but sweeter.

Zufah-i-yabis.* From an examination of the drug it

which, is woody; root woody, seldom branched; flower heads —
numerous, oblong; calyx striated, hairy, purple, with five sharp
teeth ; seeds naked, four in number, oblong, 3-angled, of a pale :
brown, studded with rows of small round tubercles ;on one side —
of the hilum there is a fringe of smaller tubercles very closely
set, and on the other two elongated. white prominences. AS
found in commerce the plant is much broken up; it has a pleasant
Odour like sweet hay. Taste bitter ; properties, according

to native writers, stimulant, anthelmintic, and deobstruent.
The drug is generally attributed to Hyssopus officinalis, OD
_this cannot be correct, as the flowers are in oblong spikes. {tis
imported from Persia, se

-€

a. Parviflora, Benth., is a native of the temperate
Himalaya.

= Chemical composition.—Besides tannin, resin, fat, sugar, mucl-
tage, &c., the most important constituent of Hyssop is ot/ of :
_hyssop, of which the fresh herb yields } to 4 per cent. It 18
pale-yellow or greenish, limpid, of about the specific gravity
0°94, and freely soluble in alcohol; it contains oxygen, and com-—
mences to boil at 142°C., the boiling-point rising to 180°C.
It has the odour and taste of the herb. The hyssopin of Her-
berger (1829) was found by Trommsdorff to be impure
sulphate of calcium. ne
* Sibthorp states that Satureea price, Linh; is the ccuxe of WE
Tatil daa 22 on pe el

nei
me! r,

DA BI ATH. 1 17

Badranjboya, © Baklat-el-Utrujiya (Arabd.). Imported
from Persia. ao

Description.—Calyx striated, hairy, 5-fid, not so long as
that of Zifah-i-y4bis, and not coloured; seeds four, naked,
brown, 8-angled, nearly smooth, a white patch on each side of
the hilum; flowers in axillary clusters of about 6, upon a short
peduncle; leaves ovate, margin deeply dentate, somewhat
hairy. The drug is always much broken and consists chiefly of
stem and fruit; the former is quadrangular, much larger than
that of Zifah, of a purplish tint. Taste bitter, odour faintly
aromatic. This herb is supposed to represent the pedrcoodvddov
of Dioscorides and Theophrastus, generally known in Latin as
Apiastrum. Virgil (G. 4, 63) calls it Melisphylla, and Theo-
phrastus (4, 25) evodns pedirera. It is a plant beloved by bees, the
Balm Gentle or Melissa officinalis of our gardens. When fresh
it has a pleasant lemon odour, which is not retained by the dry
plant. It was formerly valued as a corroborant in hypochon-
driacal affections, and the Persian drug is still used for this
purpose by Indian hAakims. In Europe, Balm tea is still a
domestic remedy, and is given as a grateful diluent in febrile
affections: it has a place in the French Codex. The different
species of Melissa are widely diffused, being found in note,
Central Asia, and North America.

Chemical composition—The leaves of I. officinalis contain,
besides the common constituents of plants, a small quantity of
tannin and bitter principle, and about } to ¢ per cent. of volatile
oil, which is colourless or yellowish, has a specific gravity of
about 0°89 ; dissolves in about 5 parts of alcohol, sp. gr. 0- 85,
and contains a stearopten.

ee Mee ee

MARRUBIUM VULGARE, Linn. -
Fig.—Reichb. Ic. Fi. Germ., t. 1224, J- 1; Eng. Bot. , 410;
Bent. and Trim., 210, es White Horcksnnd (Hing.);
rube blane (F'’r.).
Hab. — Western Temperate Selarsto Bas The herb,
Vernacular.— Farasiytm (Ind. Bazars), 3

118 LABIATH.

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is the gpéowy of Theo-
phrastus(vi., 2), who mentions twokinds. Dioscorides (iii., 110)
relates its medicinal uses, which are also noticed by Hippocrates
(681, 3), Celsus (v., 11), and Pliny (20, 89). The ancients —
considered it to be a general stimulant, expectorant, deobstruent, —
carminative and local anodyne. Horehound has still a consi-
derable reputation in Europe as a remedy for chronic bronchitis
with Copious expectoration, and as a stomachic tonic in dys-

expressed juice with honey, both internally and as a local appli-
cation to foul ulcers and diseased mucous surfaces.

Horehound is the Fardsiyin of Ibn Sina and other Arabian
physicians, who reproduce the account given by Dioscorides of
its medicinal uses. Hakim Ali Gildni, in his commentary upon
the Kanun, gives Saf-el-ard, ‘‘earth wool,” and Hashishat-el-
kalb, “dogs’ herb,” as Arabic names for the plant; he Bays that
dogs always piss on smelling it. s

Owing to the similarity between the Greek words tpaovor and

Muatamid-el-muluk Syud Alyikhin points out this error, but
falls into another, inasmuch as he identifies it with Arusa-
(Adhatoda Vasica). Mahometan writers also mention a second
kind of Far4siy(n called Baliti; this is our Black Horehound
(Ballota nigra, Linn.). e
M. vulgare is a common plant in Persia; Aitchison observed
it growing abundantly i in Khorasan, In the bazars of the plains”
of India it is not obtainable; if demanded, either Arusa, oF 4
kind of squill called Farésiy4n-i-piydzi, is supplied.
Description. —The branching stem is about a foot high,
rangular, much-branched, and covered with a white felt.
The leaves are opposite, petiolate, about an inch long, roundish-
ovate, somewhat heart-shaped or rounded at the base, obtuse,
serrate or * coarsely crenate, wrinkled by the pong 7

LABIAT&. 119

7 pale-green and downy above and hoary beneath.. The
flowers are in dense axillary whorls, with woolly, linear, and
hooked bracts, a tubular ten-ribbed calyx divided into ten short,
spreading, stiff, and hooked teeth, and a white bilabiate corolla
enclosing four stamens. The four achenes are dark-brown.
The herb has a peculiar aromatic and somewhat musky odour
da pungent bitter taste; if kept for any time, the aroma dis-
pears.

Chemical composition.-—The plant has been recently examined

y J. W. Morrison (Am. Journ. Pharm., 1890, p. 327). A

roximate analysis gave the following result :—

Per cent.

Fat, wax and traces of volatile oil .....c...... sesseesee 2°05

Crystalline compound, soluble in ether ..............- “48

BPRAOPODEY! B50 TAG ele, cece tesisis sanconceniess crednas 2°29
Resin and bitter Ses aoe soluble in absolute

alcohol 1°94

4°94

. 67

Extractive, soluble in water 5-93

Albuminoids 4:48

Pectin and undetermined antes . §93

2°30

Cellulose and lignin 37°48

6°72

ie 24 30

"49

The fat was soluble in hot 95 per cent. alcohol, and melted at.
6° C. The wax was insoluble in this solvent, but dissolved in
carbon bisulphide. The crystalline principle was extracted
from the drug with stronger ether, and purified by repeated

atments with animal charcoal. The crystals were it sol

erystallization from hot 95 per cént. alcohol, with one or more — te

120 | LABIATA.

in water and in solution of potassium hydrate, very sparingly” 4
soluble in boiling water and in cold alcohol. Soluble in hot —
95 per cent. alcohol, also in ether and chloroform. They melted
at 152° to 153° C. They were at first tasteless, but developed,
when held on the tongue, a decided bitterness. The alcoholic
solution was very bitter.

Sulphuric or nitric acid gave a dark-brown colour, hydrochloric —
acid produced no change and ferric chloride produced no change.

This principle: reduced Fehling’s solution slightly by boiling,

then on heating with Fehling’s solution an abundant precipitate
of cuprous oxide was produced, thus showing it to be an easil,
decomposable glucoside.

A small quantity of a bitter principle was extracted from the
drug by absolute alcohol, along with the resin. This appeared
to be different from the previous one extracted by ether,
for the purpose of further investigation, a larger quantity

e drug was exhausted with ether, the solvent recovered
the residue treated with petroleum ether to remove fat and W
The remaining portion was dissolved in hot alcohol, trea
with animal charcoal and crystallized. The crystals were pa
fied by repeated crystallization and treatment with a
charcoal. Melting point, 152° to 153° C.

The Srerene of two combustions was:—

Found. Calculated fore =
(C+0H*80°)

20-95 70°38
eee 8:42 8-50
Oe 21°33 PA ie B:
100-00 100°00

Three samples of rystals, presented with a thesis of last yeat

oe by Frederick G, Hertel, Ph.G. (American Journal of Pharmacy
1890, p. 278), and obtained by. him from the fluid extract, ¥

LABIAT A. 121

Bis: examined, One of these, which e had crystallized from
4 cold aleohol, melted at 153°5° to 154°5° C., was evidently near =
ure ; the Ayetnge: of three combustions ——

Cc 70°54
H a , B 9-08
O | 3 20°38

100-00

The other samples were evidently the same compound in an
mpurer condition, as was found by combustion and melting
point. The author here remarks :— ;

“This compound as well as that obtained by myself is

- evidently the marrubiin discovered by Mein in 1855. Harm

(Archiv der Pharmacie, No. 83, p. 144) stated the melting point
be 148°C.

“Tn a later communication (No. 116, page 41), on elementary
nalysis he found the substance to contain 8°52 per cent. of .
ydrogen and more than 69 per cent. of carbon.
“Kromayer (Archiv der Pharmacie, No. 108, p. 257). ‘gives e
he yield of marrubiin as about 2 grams from 25 pounds of the

hat itis not a glucoside. My results indicate its. composition
o be very close to that of absinthiin, C*°H®*0°, but they do not”
gree with all the properties of that substance as described by

bsinthiin melts at 120°to 125° ©. Many of the properties,
ever, are common asd both = prominent ‘among

he residue treated with water and filtered.

The filtrate, on agitation successively with ether and chloro 2
form, yielded to the former a. very. bitter = substan
—TIL—16

g, and states the melting point to be about 160°C.,. and

ae angled; leaves ovate-lanceolate, crenately serrated at the uppé
a 2a about 5 inches long, and 13 inch broad; cal ;

122 LABIAT.

with a narcotic odour, and to the latter a brownish substance

especially after heating with dilute acid, during which process

to the presence of two bitter principles besides marrubiin, whie
isin agreement with Hertel’s statement, that after the separatio
of marrubiin the fluid extract appeared to be as bitter as bef

Anisomeles malabarica, Br. Bot. Magq., t. 2071
Wight Ic., t. 164, is well known in Southern India, where i
called Peyameratti in Tamil and Mogbira in Telugu.
phius, speaking of the juice of the plant, says:—“ Idem begat
succus cum binis guttis olei sesamini propinatus, prodest mirifi
asthmaticis, vel tussi mala laborantibus, quem in finem syru
quoque preparatur ex foliorum succo cum saccharo cocto.
(Hort. Amb. v., 8,65.) It is a native of Malabar, where |

is called Karintoomba, and is noticed by Rheede. (Hort. Mal.
p- 185, #93.) ‘Wight, Ainslie, and others mention that
infusion of the leaves is given to children in colic, dy oP
and fever arising from teething; in ague an infusion of
leaves is used to promote perspiration ; a decoction of the
or the essential oil distilled from it, is used externally
rheumatism. The plant appears to have medicinal proper
very similar to those of Horehound.

Description.—Shrubby, 2 to 5 feet; branches ob

=e)

5-cleft, thickly covered with long white rather viscid pubescence
upper PI er lip of corolla entire, white, under one 3-cleft with the
lateral divisions reflexed ; anthers deep purple ; whorls dispose
in simple racemes,

LEUCAS ASPERA, Spreng.
_ Fig.—Rheede, Hort, Mal. x., t. 91. s
Hab.—Plains of India, The herb.

LABIATA. 123

LEUCAS LINIFOLIA, Spreng.

— ~-Fig.—Jacg. Ie. Pl. Rar. i., 11, 4. 111; Rumph. Herb.
_ Amb. vi., t. 16, f. 1.

Hab.—Plains of India. The herb.

LEUCAS ZEYLANICA, Br.
Fig.— Wight Il., ¢. 176. Herbe Tombée (Fr.).
Hab.—Assam to Ceylon. The herb.

LEUCAS CEPHALOTES, Spreng.
Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 337; Desf. in Mem. Mus. at., 8, t. 4.

: Hab.—Himalaya. Plains of N. India and Deccan. The
4 herb.

—~ Vernacular. —Ttimba-phél, Kimbha-phil, Bahdphili (Mar.),
- Goma, Madha-péti (Hind.), Tigadi (Can.), Kibo, Kélén-né-phiil
_ (Guz.), Tumba (Mal), Gul-dora, Chatra (Punj.), Halkasa
(Beng.), Tumi (Zvi,). :

History, Uses, &c.—At least four species of Leucas
are used in Hindu medicine under the Sanskrit name of Drona-
pushpi or “cup-flower,” so called from the resemblance of the
calyx of these plants to a little cup. The synonyms for these
plants are Kumbha-yoni, Kurumba, Kharva-yattra, Chitra-
| pattrika, Chitrékshupa and Su-pushpa ; they are described in the
Nighantas as heavy, dry, sweet, hot, and aperient, generators
# wind and bile, and are prescribed for jaundice and to expel
phlegmatic humors and worms; they are also considered to be

timulant and diaphoretic.

_ In the cough or catarrh of children, Tumba juice 1 part, -
’ with 2 parts of honey and a few grains of Borax, may bemixed,
4 and in intestinal catarrh

124 - LABIATAi.

These plants are also used in Hindu-ritual ; during-the cere
monial bath, early in the morning on the Naraka Chaturdasi,
first day of the Divali, the religious manuals direct the whirlin,
round the body, while bathing, of a sprig ef Drona- spushpt
Re anthes aspera (apamarga), and of Cassia Tora ( prapund

Vol. IL., p. 65. The Mahometan physicians have given th
ae the name of Siséliyis, and use them as a substitute

Rheede notice’ the use of L. aspera in Malabar, and the sam
species is given in amenorrhea at Réunion. Under the name¢
Herba admirationis a species of Leucas, probably L. linifolia,
_ described by Rumphius. In Western India JZ. zeylanica 7
much used, and in the Punjab D. eephalotes. These plants
a popular local application to itch and mange, and the
the leaves snuffed up by the nostrils is used as a remedy in
bites, and for headache and colds. An infusion is known
insecticide, and planters and others on the Nilgiris find that
and insect pests may be kept away from trees by a dt
application of this remedy. The flowers are offered i
' Hindu temples. In Réunion L. zeylanica is known as F
Tombée, and is considered to be stimulant and antirheuma

eto

- Description.—L. aspera is annual, erect or diffuse
stout, hispid or scabrid, leaves 1 to 3 inches, linear or ©
ichttia, entire or crenate, whorls large, terminal and a3
bracts long, linear and filiform, calyx } to ¢ of an inch, t
lar, = smooth below, green and ribbed and scabrid aboy
tracted above the nutlets, mouth small, glabrous,

- flowers ese plant

Dead-nettle (Lamium cin but D. aspera is more 2 fra

than the others, |

* : ; iteniéal avr
afforded a very.
decoction of the herb

DLABIATHA, | 125

"given off, and on sondeeeie the vapour, ammonia and a volatile

: alkaloid were detected in the distillate. The alkaloid was com-
_ bined in the plant with an acid giving a green colour with ferric
salts, The air-dried plant afforded 7°3 per cent, of ash.

Leonotis nepetzefolia, Br. Bot. Reg., t. 281; WightIe. i
£.867; Vern. Fee and (Beng. oa oot Matisil (Guz. )>.

‘It is easily recognised by its globular spinous heads of
orange-coloured flowers. Roxburgh gives the following
description of the plant:—“Stem anual straight, four-sided,
simple, from 4 to 6 feet high. Leaves opposite, spreading,
_ petioled, cordate, serrate, pointed, downy, from 4 to 8 inches
long, and 2 to 3 broad. Floral leaves (dractes verticillorim)

- the plant about 5 inches asunder. Involucres many, subulate:
Flowers numerous, of a deep rich orange colour. Calyx,
10-striated, 8-toothed ; corol, under lip ~~ short, eencesaie
at all times of a dirty withered colour.” ge O
_ The ashes of the flower-heads mixed with curds are aie Be
to ringworm and other itchy diseases of the skin. Dr, A. Fee

at a decoction of the leaves is used as a tonic, the juice is also
pressed and taken with limejuice. and rum asa febrifuge.
r, Amadeo has used it in- combination with Piglanthas
truri in intermittents. ,

uliun (odor ), the Poly-Germander ( Teucrium Polium, L. ‘
skurdiyun (cxop8iov), the Water-Germander (7. Scordiumy,
and Kamazariyus (xa#ddpus), the Wall-Germander (7.
Chamcedrys), are treated of in the Materia Medica of the Indian
Mahometan physicians, but none of these plants are, as far as

ant has an odour of garlic, and i is one of the augdienie t.

Amadeo states that it is called. Rascamoito i in Porto-Rico, ‘and

r experience goes, obtainable in the bazars, although x Score —
un is a native of the Western Himalaya and Cashmere. This: a

(126 PLANTAGINE. j
Tiryak-ieFarik or Theriaca Andromachi, which is still sold in —
the bazars of India. T. Polium is a native of Persia, and was 3
found by Aitchison in Khorasan, but he did not observe that it
was used medicinally. He also notices 7. serratum, Benth., as
having a strong odour of asafcctida. 7. Chamedrys was formerly
used in Europe as a remedy for gout, and was an ingredient in
the celebrated antiarthritic or Portland powder.

PLANTAGINEZ.

PLANTAGO OVATA, ssk.
Fig.—-Benti. and Trim., t.211. Syn. P. Ispaghula. —

Hab.—Punjab, Sind, Persia, The seeds. Spogel s
(Eng.).

Vernacular.—Isbaghol (Hind.), Esabgol (Mar.), Eshop: ol
( Beng.), Esopgol, Uthamu-jirun ( Gus.), Ishappukol-virai (TZ
Isapagéla-vittulu (Te/.), Isabakolu ( Can.). |

History, Uses, &c.—The seeds are not mentioned :
the old Hindu writers, but the Guzerathi name appears to be |
Sanskrit origin. In all the vernaculars corruptions of t
Persian name Jspaghil are in use. This word is a compe !
of y! ‘a horse,” and Js “the ear,’’in allusion to the shape
the seeds. In Mahometan works the seeds will be f
described under thename of Bazr-i-Katina. The author
Makhzan states that Kalién is the Greek, Isparzah the Isfah
and Bangist and Shikam-daridah the Shirazi names for |
In India, they are considered to be cooling and demulcent, am
useful in inflammatory and bilious derangements of the di
tive organs. The crushed seeds made into a poultice with vi
garand oil are applied to rheumatic and gouty swelli
With the mucilage a cooling lotion for the head is made.
to three dirhems moistened with hot water and mixed
sugar are given in dysentery and irritation of the ix

PLANTAGINEA. 127

_ canal to procure an easy stool, The decoction is prescribed in
a cough. The roasted seeds have an astringent effect, and are use-
ful in irritation of the bowels in children, and in dysentery.
_ The natives have an idea that the powdered seeds are injurious,
and consequently always administer them whole. Fleming,
wining, Ainslie, and others speak very favourably of the use
of Ispaghil in the treatment of chronic diarrhea. Twining
ives the dose for an adult as 24 drachms mixed with half a
achm of sugar-candy. (Diseases of Bengal, Vol. I., p. 212.)
n the Pharmacopwia of India the seeds have been made
fficial, and directions are given for the preparation of a
decoction.

Description.—The seeds are boat-shaped, about { of an
inch long and rather less than +; broad, translucent, with a pinkish
tinge and a faint brown streak upon the convex side. Thecon-

avity is covered with a thin white membrane. Soaked in water

is free from taste and odour, The epidermis of the seeds is
omposed of polyhedral cells, the walls of which are thickened
y secondary deposits, the source of the mucilage; between
¢ and the albumen is a thin brownish layer. The albumen
| formed of thick walled cells which contain granular
natter.

P. amplexicaulis, Can, tes it., t. 125, a plant of the
unjab Plains, Malwa and Sind, extending to Southern Europe,
arnishes the brown Ispaghdé/ not unfrequently to be met with
the Indian bazars. The seeds have the same boat-shaped
m as those of P. ovata, but are rather larger, averaging
f an inch in length. They are probably as efficient as the true
aghil seeds.

Commerce.—Large quantities of these seeds are imported ~
nto Bombay from Persia. Value, Rs. 4 per maund — :
74 Ibs.

They differ in colour, some being brown and some nearly
ite-with a pinkish tinge; the latter are prelee

428 PLANTAQINEEE.

PLANTAGO MAJOR, Linn.

Fig,— Wight Iil., t. 177; Eng. Bot., 1558. Greater Pla
tain (Zng.), Grand Plantain (F*.).
Hab.— Temperate India, Persia, Europe. The seeds.
Vernacular,—Bartang, Barhang (Indian bazars).
History, Uses, &c.—Under the name of apyoyAcaoor
corides describes two varieties of Plantago, the greater and
Jesser, and states that the first is the best and most gen
‘used. - These plants were known tothe Romans as Plantago,
according to Sibthorp are the P. dagopus and P. altiss
modern botany ; they were considered to be very effectu
arresting the fluxes known by the Greeks as “rheuma
or “‘griping pains in the bowels” (Plin. 25, 39 ; 26, 47).
leaves and roots were considered to be astringent an
fuge (Galen). The Arabian physicians describe them
‘the name of Lisén-el-hamal, and state that they
‘Sabaat-azlaa and Kasrat-el-azlaa of Dioscorides (Arabi
lations of énrdmevpor, and mohvvevpov) meaning ‘ seven:
‘many-ribbed’ ; they repeat what the Greeks have wie!
few trifling additions. The seeds of P. :

-was cured by these seeds when suffering from the disease d
_ his travels in-Khorasan. The root and leaves are still
_ Europe as domestic remedies on account. of their m i
properties
The seeds of P, Psyllium, fon. a native of the
‘Punjab, extending to Southern Europe, are used in a
manner. This plant is often stated to be the source |
Persian: Birhang, ae we pays ae obtained .
_sowing these seeds. _
Dipactintias Stn eed are rata
‘aerkerg with waved, sin apa sslerniede) 3

dar ker

PLANTAGINEE. 429

_ with a scar showing the attachment to. the ovary. They
are insipid, and have an oily smell when crushed. Soaked in
water they become coated with a transparent mucilage.
Chemical composition.—The leaves of P. major have been
examined chemically by Dr. Rosenbaum, but the results
_ obtained do not indicate any active principle. He found that
petroleum benzine extracted 4 per cent. of wax and chlorephyll,
- the extract fusing at 83° C. Ether dissolved 4:4 per cent. of
2 resin and chlorophyll. Alcohol extracted 10 per cent., of which
_ 6 per cent. was soluble in water and contained a considerable
~ amount of sugar; the remaining four parts were soluble in
ammonia. Watertook up 13 per cent.,of which 7-2 per cent. was
insoluble in 66 per cent. alcohol. Soda solution dissolved 6 per
cent., and diluted acid 10 per cent., the latter containing a
notable quantity of calcium oxalate. It may be noted here that
Th. Koller, in 1868, found citric acid and oxalic acid in the
_ three species, P. major, P. lanceolata, and P. media, besides the
_ ordinary plant constituents, chlorophyll, resin, wax, albumen,and
pectin. These constituents do not account for the reputation as
a styptic and vulnerary in which the plant was held by ancient
writers. The presence of sugar indicates the possibility of a
_ glucoside being contained in the plant. The value of the seeds
in diarrhea and dysentery is no doubt due in some measure to
the quantity of mucilage they afford. (Amer. Journ. Pharm.,
Sept., 1886.)
__ Plantago mucilage is neutral in reaction, is not altered
by iodine or precipitated by borax, alcohol, or perchloride
of iron. It is only sparingly soluble in water.

Sa dat sgt

ompound with phenylhydrazine. Wood-gum can be obtained

soda and precipitating with alcohol and HCl. When this is

hydrolysed, it yields Koch’s wood-sugar or xylose. Xylose

sely resembles arabinose in all its properties, and, like
Ul.—17 | , like

trom beech wood, jute, or deal, by extracting with 5 per cent. _ os

a NYCTAGINEH.

latter, is dextrorotatory ; when treated with acids, it yields consi-
derable quantities of furfuramide, but no levulose. The pheny 4
osazone has the composition C!7H®°N40%, so that xylose is 4
penta-glucose C°H?°O5, When treated with nitric acid, it is

obtained, give thecherry-red coloration of arabin when warmed
with phloroglucinol and hydrochloric acid. This reaction’ oat
be employed for the detection of xylose and arabinose, (Journ,
Chem. Soc., LVT., pp. 233, 847.)

NYCTAGINE.

BOERHAAVIA REPENS, Linn,

Fig.—Delile, Fl. £4., t. 3, f.1; Wight Ic., t. 874; B.
Hort. Mal. vii., t. 56, Spreading Hogweed (Hng.), Pa
(f*.). ;

Hab.—Throughout India. The herb and root.

Vernacular.—Sént, Thikrt (Hind. ), Purna, Punarnaba (B
Khipra, Punanava, Kélivasu, Ghetuli (Mar.), Mékku-

(Tam.), Atika-m4 midi (Tel.), Vakha-khaparo, Sétod{ .
(Guz.), Ganajali, Biléganjali (Can.).

ae History, Uses, &c.—This plant is called by Sant
medical writers Punar-naya, Punar-bhava, and Punar-bhu,
account of its perennial habit, and Sothagni from its use a8
remedy for dropsy. It is described in the Nighantas as pun;
dry, hot, swee
diuretic, and stomachic in jaundice
“nal inflammations, A compound de
made of the roots, dried Neem bark, leaves of Trichosanthes dioica,
dried ginger, root of Picrorhiza Kurrooa, chebulic myrobs
stem of Tinospora cordifolia, and dried wood é
(Dérhalad), each one quarter tola, water 32 tolas,

NYOTAGINE AI. - Fi

down to one-fourth, which is to be taken during the 24 hours,
An oil and electuary are also used.

Ainslie mentions the use of the root in powdelya in the
quantity of a teaspoonful twice daily, as a laxative. In the
Pharmacopeia of India its successful use as an expectorant in
asthma is noticed, and it is said to act as an emetic when given’
in large doses, This has been confirmed by the experience of the
_ French in the Antilles, where the plant is called Patagon or
_ Patagonelle-Valeriane. In Western India the herb is used as a
_ diuretic in gonorrhea, and as an external application the
pounded leaves are applied to dropsical swellings. In the rainy
season, when luxuriant, it is eaten as a potherb, after having
been well boiled to remove its medicinal properties. The use of
the root in gonorrhea appears to have been introduced by the
Portuguese ; in the West Indies the plant is known as Bejuco
_ de purgacion, and is the popular remedy for that disease. A

_ decoction (1 oz. to a pint of water) is used in doses of a
_ wineglassful every hour.

a oe

_ Description.—A common creeping weed on waste ground
: and roadsides ; stalks numerous, about two feet long, slender,
_ procumbent; leaves cordate-ovate, unequal, opposite, ed,
_ waved, tinged with red ; flowers small, sessile on the apex of the
pedicels, peduncles Scan the axils and ends of the branches; fruit
_ oblong, dull green, or brownish, viscid, about the size of a
_ caraway, longitudinally 5-grooved, studded all over with glan-
q dular hairs ; root twisted, often as thick as the finger when
q fresh, whitish, fleshy, 2 to 3-branched, a foot long or more;
3 taste bitterish, nauseous. A microscopic section shows that
_ the parenchyme is loaded with needle-shaped crystals, other-
: _Wise there is nothing peculiar.
_ There are two varieties of the plant, one with white and
the other with red flowers; in Bengal the former is called
Svetapurna and the latter Gudha-purna.
4 Chemical composition—The whole plant was used for the :
examination, and, with the exception of minute traces of a
nciple soluble in ether, and affording reactions - with "

182 NYOTAGINES,

alkaloidal reagents, nothing of interest was detected. Ni
principle reacting with ferric salts was present.

MIRABILIS JALAPA, Linn.

Fig.— Bot. Mag., t. 871 ; Rheede, Hort. Mal.w., t. 75. Mi
vel of Peru (£ing.), Belle de nuit (Fr.).
Hab.—West Indies. Cultivated in India. The |
and root. ©
Vernacular.—Gul A’bbas (Pers., Ind.), Krishna: keli (B
Anthinarlu, Patharachi (Zum.), Batharachi (2
Madhyénhamallige (Can.), Antimalari (Mal.), Gulbés, Gu:
-(Mar.). .
History, Uses, &c.—Five varieties of this pla
red, white, yellow, red and white, and red and yellow
were introduced from the West Indies in 1596, and must
been carried by the Portuguese to the East shortly a
as the plant is said to have been introduced into Persia
reign of Shah Abbas the first, and was established
Malabar Coast in the time of Van Rheede. It was at
supposed to produce the Jalap of commerce. UM. J
been given the Sanskrit name of Sandhyakali, or
re but is best known by its Persian name of G
“flower of A’bbés” ; it is a favorite flower of the Per

“belle de nuit”; it is the Fula quadrohoras, or * four
flower,” of the = eae: as its flowers open at
in the afternoo
In India the — boiled in water are applied as oat u
boils and buboes, and the j juice, which is considered to
cooling, is applied to the body to allay the heat and itching
urticaria arising sage Sere cutee the U. seit T.ab ti
by bilaie: 18

: NYCTAGINE. 133)

but Loureiro remarks, ‘‘ Hee radix non est apta ad medicinam,
4 nisi per aliquot annos in viva planta senescat ; tuncque sit subro-
2 tunda, rugosa, exterius subnigra, intus fusco-pallida, circulis.
_ concentricis nigricantibus distincta.’’ In the Goncan the dried
3 root powdered, and fried in ghi with spices, is given with milk
asa paushtik or strengthening medicine, and rubbed down with
_‘ water to a paste it is applied to contusions,

the same quantity of root with 24 drachms each of nutme >
mace, and Atis root, ghi 1 oz., sugar and milk of each 10 ounces,
Dose as above.

Dr. Mootooswamy finds the root to act as an astringent in
these preparations. Ainslie, quoting Fleming (Cat., p. 29),
states that the root was tried as a purgative by Drs. Hunter and
_ Shoolbred, but found to have so feeble a purgative action as to
_ be useless. He also tried it himself with the same result. _

_ According to Thunberg, the Japanese prepare a kind of white
_ paint for their complexions from the seeds, __ ee
_ _Description.—The root of young plants is cylindrical
above and tapering below, but in old plants it becomes napiform

or subrotund, the external surface is dark brown and marked with
numerous circular rings; internally it is dirty white or greyish.
When dry, very old roots become hard, compact and heavy,
and deepen in colour, but younger roots are of a lea
consistence. It has a faintly nauseous odour, and a sweetish,
subacrid taste. A transverse section of the root shows numer-~
ous concentric rings of a darker colour than the intervening
substance ; it shows numerous acicular crystals when magnified,
Chemical composition.—The roots were collected in
into slices, and exposed to warm air, then
d the desiccation completed at 100° (,

FR eR Ta a
ae wees ee

ere

rene

thery

reduced to powder

July, cut

134 NYCTAGINEZ. -

The fresh roots dried over sulphuric acid lost 81°136 per cent.
in weight; the ash amounted to 6-135 per cent., and was free
from manganese.

The proximate analysis was made with the powdered roo

dried at 100° C., and was conducted according to Dragendorfi’s
plan with the following results :—

Light petroleum ether extract 0-580 per cei
Ether extract, soluble in water 0:09 per cent.
alcohol 0-222

Residue insoluble in water

or alcohol sows 0028. 5, OBA ae
Absolute alcohol extract ......... 3040 ,,
Aqueous extract containing glucose 1-6 per

cent., saccharose or allied carbohydrate

#o0 per cent. i.icis.. 30°62

a)

The petroleum ether extractive was soft and pale yellor
in colour, non-crystalline, and without any special odour.
consisted of wax, anda pale yellow oil, soluble in absolute alco
with neutral reaction. :

The ethereal extract was soft and yellowish. The portic
soluble in water had an acid reaction, but gave no colora
with ferric chloride. Acidulated with sulphuric acid a slig!
precipitate was afforded with Mayer’s reagent. The residue
the ethereal extract soluble in alcohol was also yellowish, |
| on standing became indistinctly crystalline. Treated

reactions; with alkalies on gently warming it was slight

soluble, with pale yellow coloration : the colour being destroy}

wi i aa he

AMARANTACEM. 435.

ve js eet

|
) amounted to 0°384 per cent. and contained a small amount of
alkaloid with much colouring matter. An attempt was made to
purify the alkaloid by reagitating this extract from an acid
solution with ether, and then neutralizing and again agitating
with ether ; an unweighable amount of the alkaloid was, however,
obtained. No special colour reactions of the alkaloid were
noted. An alkaline solution of the alcoholic extract was only
slightly precipitated by acids, the solution remaining dark-
_ coloured. e aqueous extract contained 1°6 per cent. of
_ glucose calculated on the roots dried at 100°C. After boiling
_ with dilute sulphuric acid a second determination with Fehling’s
solution was made, and the result calculated as saccharose,
which was equivalent to 7°97 per cent.

SARS tee er ers

In order to determine whether the plant had any injurious
properties, the alcoholic extract from 10 grams of the dried
and pounded roots was mixed with a few drops of ammonia
and water and injected into a cat’s stomach; the cat vomited
once, but was not otherwise inconvenienced.

AMARANTACEA.

ACHYRANTHES ASPERA, Linn.
Fig.— Wight Ic., ¢. 1780. Prickly Chaff-flower (Eng.).
Hab.—Throughout India and tropical Asia. The herb.

_ -Vernacular.—Unga, Latchira, Chirchira (Aind.), Apang
_ (Beng.)., Pandhara-4ghada, Aghada (Mar.), Sufed-4ghado
_ ( Guz.), Na-yurivi (Tam.), Uttareni, Antisha (Te/.), Uttaréni,
’ Uttaréni (Can.), Katalaéti (Ma/.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant has given a name to the
sacrificial offering called Apamarga Homa, which consisted of a
handful of the flour of the seeds offered at daybreak, but which
is not now, as far as we know, practised in India. According to
the Black Yajurveda, Indra, having killed Vritra and other
emons, was overcome by Namuchi and made peace with him,
romising never to kill him with any solid or liquid, neither by
nor by night. But Indra collected some foam, which is

= = The ashes with honey are given to relieve cough; the root y
doses of one told is given at bedtime for night blindness, am

136 AMARANTACEZ.

neither solid nor liquid, and killed Namuchi in the mornin
between night and daybreak. From the head of the demon
sprung the herb Apamarga, with the assistance of which Indr
was able tokillalldemons. Hence this plant has the reputati
of being a powerful talisman, and is now popularly suppose

day of the Divali (new year) festival.

The Sanskrit synonyms for the plant are Shikhari, Kini
Kinihi, Khara-manjari “having a rough flower-stalk,” Adh
shalya “roadside rice,” Shateliorties: Pratyak- -pushpi “havin
reverted flowers,” and Mayuraka “crested.” It is described it
the Nighantas as purgative, pungent, digestive; a remedy 10
Bidcom. wind, inflammation of the internal organs, piles, iteh
abdominal enlargements, and enlarged cervical glands.
ashes are used by the Hindus in preparing caustic alkaline pre
parations. The diuretic properties of the plant are well kno
to the natives of India, and European physicians agree as to
value in dropsical affections; one ounce of the plant may be bout
ed in ten ounces of water for 15 minutes, and from 1 to 2 ow
of the decoction be given 3 times a day. (Pharm. of Ti :
p- 184.)

Different parts of the plant are ingredients in many native
prescriptions in combination with more active remedies.

In Western India the j juice is applied to relieve toothac

Tec:

rubbed i into a paste with water it is used as an anjan (eye salve,
in opacities of the cornea. The seeds are often used as a famine
food in India, especially in pigeteos, where the plant is called

Bharotha, wat (er ass).
nee =e common weed, with 4 an erect, striated
pubescent stem, generally about two feet high, but sometimes
muchmore. Sid de branches in ie ree leaves antes :
* Count with Serioaies Seow i 1 sy )

are reco

-AMARANTACEA. -. io¢

3 from the presence of a thick coat of long simple hairs, obovate,
undulated, very obtuse, acuminated, base attenuated ; petiole
_ short ; spikes long, lax ; flowers green; bracts rigid, prickly.
Sections of the stem do not show any crystalline deposit in
_ the parenchyma. The seeds are oblong, of a brown colour,
from ,5, to $ of an inch in length; on one side a grooved
prominence is séen which indicates the position of the embryo
_ where it curves round the mealy albumen. The starch granules
e very small, and areso closely packed that the large irregular-
aped cells which contain them have almost the appearance of
parenchymatous cells.

Chemical composition.—The whole plant collected in August
_ wasused. A proximate analysis failed to indicate the presence
' of any principle of special interest. No alkaloidal body was
detected, and the alcoholic extract contained no principle reacting
_ with ferric salts.

For the ash determination, the roots, stems and leaves were
separately examined with the following results:—

| Leaves. Stems. Roots.
ede ears es 3°0257 2°6939 1°8594
o* as fend 39°7192 12-9716 21°4219
wiv os 00 2°653
BU) cangiven sot 13°8893 13-1233 12°9335
oeevie 3°4778 3°5149 4419
17°8454 32-0008 28:5830
Wied). ae PEER tas ‘9860
See beecws sae 2°7931 3°0352 5 6297
eine, Traces, not jNot estimated. | Not estimated.
estimated
: 57 4) 2s rer
ee 11770 15261 3-2951
socvay caus i 2°0651 |Not estimated. |Not estimated.
8-8687 13-629 110057
sapien "3297 ‘5525 \Not estimated.
100-2526 95-2232 95:1085

IlL—18

138 AMARANTACE.

The leaves, stems, and roots dried at100°C. afforded respectiv aly
the following percentages of ash :—Leaves, 24'334 ; stems, 8°672 ; :
roots, 8°863. The large amount of sand present in the ash is due
to the fact of the plants having been collected during the rains,
and when received they were coated with finely divided silicious
matter,

The total potash calculated as K*O was equivalent in the leaves
to 21:4986 per cent., in the stems to 38-0122 per cent., and m
the roots to 28-5830 per cent. It is possible that the plant
~ might be of yalue as a cheap green manure on account of its
potash content. (Warden, Chem. News, Vol. ii., 1891).

Amarantus spinosus, Linn., Willd. Amar. 38, t.4,f.83
Vern.—Tanduliya (Sans.), Kaénteméth (Bomb.), Kéntanatia
(Beng.), Mulluk-kirai(Tam.), Kéntélo-dambho ( Guz.), possesses
mucilaginous properties. The Hindu ph ysicians prescribe the
root in combination with other drugs in menorrhagia. It is
considered to be a specific for selin. A poultice of the leaves
was officinal in the Bengal Pharmacopeia.

The authors of the pit ehe aoe of India regard the pla

F 4ERUA JAVANICA, Juss.
Fig.—Wigit Ic., t. 876.
. Hab.—Plains of India. The herb,

— ZERUA LANATA, Juss.

Fig. —Wight Ic., t. 723; Rheede, Hort. Mal, w., t, 29.

Hab.—Plains of India. The herb, :

laser nt nee Beng.), Bhui-kallén (Puvj-);

- _Kumra-pindi, teres sp naper phi (Mar, ), Pindiconda,
_ Kamiupulai, Ni Nilapulai (7% ; ru Sirru-pulai (Pole

AMARANTACEZ.. 139

History, Uses, &c.—These plants ave used by the
4 natives of India as diuretics, and are considered to be of great
value in lithiasis; they are also thought to be antidotal in cases
_ of poisoning by arsenic. ‘The flowers are sold in the bazars of
_ Northern India under the name of Bhui-kall4n. 42. Janata is
the Scherubala of Rheede, and Ainslie states that the Vytians
consider the root to be demulcent and prescribe a decoction
3 in strangury; in the Concan it is used as a diuretic. _Z. java-
nica has a great reputation in Hyderabad, Deccan, as a reme

for lithiasis, and the flowers have been brought to us for iden-
tification by the medical attendant of a gentleman in Bombay,
who had been in the habit of obtaining them from Hyderabad
under the Marathi name of Kumra-pindi, which is equivalent to
_ the Telingi Pindi-conda, and signifies ‘“ cock’s pinda”’; we

' use. These plants resemble Achyranthes aspera in their
_ medicinal properties. The flowers are very soft and woolly,
and are used for stuffing pillows and mattresses in Sind and in
_ Egypt. In Southern India the natives use the flowering
4 spikes during the Pongul festival for decorating their houses.
; Description.—The plants have a white tomentose appear-
_ ance. The leaves are alternate. The minute flowers are in
_ dense terminal or axillary spikes, those of 2. javanica being
_ much the largest, often 4 to 5 inches in length ; they are herma-
q phrodite, with three concave persistent bracts. The calyx

q stamens are united into a cup at their base; the Ovary is one-
3 celled, with a single ovyule in each cell. The fruit is.a roundish
4 utricle,

{ CELOSIA ARGENTEA, Linn.

Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 1767 ; Rheede, Hort. Mal. 2, t. 38, 30;
Hab.—Throughout India and tropical Asia. The seeds.

Vernaculay.—Sarwali, Suféd-murgha (H ind.), Svet-

eng.), Lapadi (Guz.), Kurdu (Mar.), Gurugu (Zel.), Gor,
Can.) saat

with an equal quantity of sugar-candy, taken, daily in a

the French, and Wasserampfer of the Germans. ea

140 AMARANTACEZL.

History, Uses, &c,—This common annual plant is con- —
sidered by some to be the Vitunna of Sanskrit writers ; wh
young and tender it is eaten as a vegetable, but is considered t
be very heating. The seeds are considered an efficaci
remedy in diarrhea. Indian Mahometan writers on Mate
Medica have adopted Sarwéli as a substitute for the Aperavey ¢
Dioscorides, and the Herba Britannica of Pliny, which has b
identified by Prof. Muntingius of Groningen as Rumer Hy¢
lapathum, Huds., our Water Dock, the Patience aquatique (

of the Muffaridat-i-Nasiri states that 180 grains of the

milk, is a most powerful aphrodisiac.

Dr. Watt (Dict. Econ. Prod. Ind.,ii, 240) states, on the antih
of the Rev. A. Campbell, that the Santals extract a medici
from the seeds.

- Description.—Stem 1 to 3 feet, stout or dcndaes sim
branched ; leaves 1 to 6 inches, narrow ; spikes soli
many, | to 8 by } to 1 inch; : pidanals slender ; flows w
tipped with pink, glistening; bracts much shorter than thes
sepals. Seeds lenticular, brown, ‘polished, ~; of an im “a
diameter. :

Chemical composition.— The following is an analysis
Snel powdered seeds :—
; On re
- Resin, soluble in ether .........02........ ‘81

Alocoholid-oxtract —....cwaiieie a 198
WRF GRUNER sires ccccinitc .. 24°70
Miah, See Sosehs coven EO
BUDE eveswnciy sate cend doce osteherspg cay. A hae

Ash ‘ 3 |
Moisture cgi Sehgal delat he Mek SRY Se PT i me 10°80 r

CHENOPODIACEE 141
The alcoholic extract contained an alkaloidal- principle

precipitable by alkalies, soluble in ether, and giving a rose
colour with strong sulphuric acid.

CHENOPODIACE.
USHNAN.

Genera.—Arthrocnemum, Caroxylon, Salicornia,
Salsola, Suzeda, Soda plants.

History, Uses, &c.—Sarjikakshara has doubtless been
prepared in India, as it is at the present time, from avery early
date. In the time of Pliny a mineral alkali appears to have
been prepared in Egypt from the ashes of certain plants and to
have been known as Natrum, or in Greek vitpov (Plin. 31, 10),
and Strabo, as cited by Beckman, mentions an alkaline water
in Armenia used for washing clothes. (Hist. of Invent. iii.,
p. 233,) The plants from which Barilla was prepared were
known to the Greeks as 7¢ dAwoy or salt-worts. (Theophr. H. P.
iv., 20 ; Diosc.i.,105.) The Arabsalso were early inted with |
the same substance, which seemsto have been sometimes potash,

or a mixture of soda and potash in various proportions, and to
which they gave the name of «J! El-kali or alkali. The
Arabian writers describe Ushnén as good for the mange or
scab, and the itch; clearing to the complexion, cleansing,
emmenagogue and abortive, and a substance with which clothes
and the hands are washed. The author of the Makhzan,
speaking of Ushndén, states that it is a name applied to
several plants, one of which has slender branches instead of
leaves, upon which knob-like bodies form (Sueda fruticosa?).
_ This plant is always fresh and j juicy, and isa large herb with
q round woody stems. He then describes the manner in which

:
:
4

Bee te,

pea So

other plant with reddish stems and leaves

three deep, at the bottom of which one or more inverted earthem

142 CHENOPODIACEZ.

‘i
side and green on the other (Chenopodium atriplicis ?), yielding
& juice which stains black ; this plant he says is very common —
in Sind and Miltan, and is used for staining the black pattern
on the Sind pottery. Lastly, he mentions a plant called Khuri-
el-’asafir (sparrow’s dung) with white leaves (Chenopodium
album ?), and another which is called in Persia Ghasool, and

gives the following list of plants which are used in the manu-
facture of Sajji-khar or Barilla :—
Arthrocnemum indicum, Mov.
Caroxylon foetidum, Moy.
ar Griffithii, Moq.
Salicornia brachiata, Roxb.
Salsola Kali, Wild.
Sueeda fruticosa, Forsk.
99 indica, Moq.
- nudiflora, Mog. ;
Aitchison states that the name Ishlan (probably a mispronun=
ciation of Ushnén) is applied in the Hari-rud Valley to Anabasts
erispoda, Benth. et Hook. f., which is used in preparing barilla.
In the Report on Punjab Products, it is stated that the plants
oS are cut down during the cold months, dried and burnt in @ pit
of a hemispherical shape, about six feet in circumference

pots, having small holes in their bottoms, are sunk. Th
holes are kept closed at first, but when the alkali begins to run,
they are cleared to allow it to fill the pots ; when cool it forms 4
porous mass of a greyish-white colour, consisting of carbonates”
of soda and potash, sulphate of soda, and organic matter. :
native practice this substance is prescribed like our preparations —
of the caustic alkalies. It is the Sarjikékshdra of the Raja
_ Nirghanta and the Saji of the bazars, | ee

CHENOPODIACE&. 143

SHUKAIT.

Hab.—Persia. The herb.
Vernacular.—Shukai Und. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—This drug is described in Maho-
metan works as the Akran‘k(* or Afsharniki of the Greeks.
_ Other Arabic names given are Shaukat-el-baida, Shaukat-el-
_ Arabiya, and Kathir-el-rakab. Ibn Sina says it is the same as

Baézaward (Bédaward, Pers.) Muhammad Husain very truly

denies this; he says the Persian names are Charchah and

Kangarkhér, and describes two varieties, one with a white

flower and more slender stems than the other, which has purple

flowers, and is the kind generally used. The latter, he says,
has triangular stems, the size of a man’s finger or less, and thick,
small, triangular, downy leaves terminating in thorns; the seeds
are small, triangular, and of a greyish colour. The whole drag
is of a yellowish white colour and sweetish taste. The plant
_ and fruit are generally used, but the root is to be preferred.
Shukai is more drying and astringent than Bédaward; it is
_ attenuant and deobstruent, &c., &c. (Makhzan-el-Adwiya,
article Shukai) Haji Zein-cl-Attar states that it is useful in
_ palsy and other diseases caused by cold humors. He quotes
Galen as recommending its use in melancholia, and Paulus as
_ saying that it is useful in leprosy. In Persia it is said to have
areputation as a remedy for ague. The dose is from 2 to 5
_ dirhams.
4 Description.—The drug as met with in India consists of
all parts of the plant broken up, but very little of the root is
present. The portions of the stem are of a greenish-yellow
colour, round, crooked, channelled, with numerous branches
springing from the axils of the leaves ; the external surface of
the stem is siliceous, hard, and pubescent; internally it is full of
soft pith. The petioles of the leaves are stem-clasping, the
lower ones completely so. The lower leaves are of considerable

ree ee Nee ar Ie ee eMe Hen Tee

.

aE ty eee

= terminates in a thorn.

Possibly from dxpévuxos, on account of its thick leaves, each — of aS

144 CHENOPODIACE Ai.

size with a triangular midrib, channelled on the upper surface,
and short, thick, spinous lobes which vary much in shape.
The plant has a gummy, rather disagreeable taste. The fruit
is occasionally found mixed with the drug in considerable quan-
tity. It is a woody nut, } of an inch long, formed by the
fusing together of the different parts of the perianth and ovary,
somewhat triangular in form; at the base are spines formed by
the calycine segments; at the apex the perianth forms a number
of tooth-like processes which surround the top of the ovary:
The seed is ovoid, horny, and has a terebinthinate odour.
Chemical composition—The chopped plant, air-dried, was
treated for several days with warm 80 per cent. spirit, the
resulting tincture distilled to remove alcohol, and the residue
finally deprived of the last traces of alcohol by spontaneous eva
poration. The extract. was then mixed with water acidulated
with sulphuric acid and agitated with petroleum ether.

other alkaloidal reagents.
ed of a bright yellow hue; basic acetate of lead gave a bright
yellow precipitate, a similar precipitate, but smaller in amount, :
being also afforded by lead acetate. The soft resinous residue
ee ‘insoluble i in proof spirit, after standing deposited a smal] amount
of bright yellow matter which was destitute of crystalline
structure on microscopic examination. In ammonia the ac
was insoluble.
During agitation of the extract with petroleum ether a consi-
derable amount of dark, soft resin separated ; this resin had @
marked peppermint odour, and was only partly soluble in ether-
After repeated washing with ether, it was left as a dark, soft
mass which could be kneaded by the fingers; on drying at
100°C. a nearly black brittle mass B wanlalt, easily pul

ace Merny ee

ee Serene ere ee

CHENOPODIACEE. —=————«‘4.45

and forming a dark olive-brown coloured powder, odourless and
tasteless, but bitter in an alcoholic solution, soluble in ammonia,
forming a deep yellowish brown solution, from which it was
reprecipitated by acids in dirty yellowish white flocks. In
alcohol the resin was easily soluble with acid reaction; with
ferric chloride the alcoholic solution was slightly darkened in
tint,

After agitation with petroleum ether the acid aqueous solution
was agitated with ether: the ether extract was small in quantity,
and though some small points separated on the sides of the dish
which appeared crystalline on naked-eye inspection, on micros-
copic examination no crystalline forms were visible. In water
the extract was partly soluble with strong acid reaction : the
aqueous solution gave with ferric chloride a dirty bluish-green
precipitate, changing almost instantly to dirty whitish-brown.
With alkalies a bright yellow coloration was afforded; the
solution did not precipitate gelatine and gave no reaction with
cyanide of potassium. The ether extract was treated with
ammonia, in which, with the exception of some flocks, it
appeared to be wholly soluble. The solution exhibited a marked
greenish fluorescence; it was agitated with ether. The ether
extractive formed a non-crystalline yellow varnish, soluble in
alcohol without fluorescence, with a very bitter taste and neutral
reaction; treated with dilute sulphuric acid a small portion dis-
solved, and the solution afforded marked reactions with all alka-
loidal reagents. The alkaline aqueous solution was acidulated,
which caused whitish flocks to separate, and agitated with ether.
The ether extract was a non-erystalline yellow varnish, partly
soluble in water with strong acid reaction, the solution affording
similar reactions to the original sortie solution of the ether ex-
tract. Th solution exhibited a greenish fluorescence.

The original aqueous acid solution was now rendered alkaline
and reagitated with ether; a yellow varnish was obtained after
spontaneous evaporation of the ether. The extract was treated
with dilute sulphuric acid and agitated with ether, the ether

separated, the aqueous solution rendered alkaline, anda a
agitated with ether, in order to purify any alkaloidal princi ple oe

1IL—19

146 CHENOPODIACEZ.

which might be present. The purified ether extract dried toa E
yellow varnish; the solution in sulphuric acid gave a very
marked yellowish precipitate with: Mayer’s reagent; a white
precipitate with alkalies; with Fréhde’s reagent, a precipitate:
first yellowish, rapidly changing to pale blue, and darkening,
on standing or warming, to deep prussian blue; chromate of
potash gave a yellow precipitate; bichromate of potash and
concentrated sulphuric acid, a dirty orange-red ; ferric chloride
no reaction; the solution was destitute of any bitter taste.
Considerable loss of alkaloid occurred during its purification,
the sulphate was somewhat soluble in ether.

Finally the original alkaline aqueous solution was acidulated
with sulphuric acid, and agitated with amylic alcohol. On
evaporating off the amylic alcohol, a deep orange-red varnish
was left, partly soluble in water with strong acid reaction, the
solution giving an olive-brown coloration with ferric ‘chloride;
no precipitate with gelatine; a bright yellow coloration with
alkalies ; a bright yellow precipitate with basic acetate of lead
and it reduced Fehling’s solution on boiling. The residu
insoluble in water, was dissolved by ammonia, forming a deep
orange-yellow solution from which acids afforded a whi
precipitate, the yellow colour being destroyed,

SPINACIA OLERACEA, Linn.

_ Fig.—Lamk. Encycl., t. 814; Wight Iv., t. 818. Spinach

_ (4ng.), Epinard (F+.). Syn. S. tetrandra, Stev. :
‘ ~Hab.—Persia. Cultivated in India. The herb and fruit.
_ Vernacular.—Palak ( Hind.), Palang (Beng.), Vusayley-keeray

(Tam). 7 :

History, Uses, &c.—This potherb is a native of Persia;

it is described in the Persian Burhén under the name of chee
(ispanékh) as a potherb much used in broth. The name is
now often incorrectly pronounced Ispand, ians, and
Isfai.dj or Isfénaj by the Arabs. The plant has been int
into India by the Mahometans, and is now cultivated in mam:

CHENOPODIACEA. 147

parts of the country. The African Moors brought it to Spain,
whence its use gradually spread to other parts of Europe. It
was known in England as Spinach in 1568, and is noticed in
Turner’s Herbal, published in that year, as “lately introduced
and not much in use.” Aitchison, in his Botany of the Afghan
Delimitation Commission, remarks that it grows profusely in the
vicinity of Simkoh in the Badghis, and is collected as a potherb
by the natives. He says:—‘‘I have no doubt Mr. De Candolle
is correct in assuming QV. tetrandra to be the wild form of
S. oleracea.” Spinach is much valued by the Mahometans on
account of its cooling and emollient properties, and the seeds
are sold in all the Indian bazars, A decoction of the plant is
prescribed in febrile affections, in lithiasis, and in inflammation
of the lungs or bowels. The juice of the leaves is also used asa
_ diuretic and as a gargle in sore-throat. Poultices of the leaves
___ or boiled seeds are applied to soften tumours and promote the
maturation of boils. The herb is considered one of the most
digestible and wholesome of vegetables.

Het SORES ere
See
c

Description.—The plant has large, thick, succulent, deep-
green leaves, of a somewhat triangular form, produced on long
foot stalks. The stem is erect, large, round and hollow, about
_ two feet high. The male plants are distinguished by their long
_ terminal spikes of green flowers, while those of the females are
axillary, sessile and clustered. The fruit is prickly in some
varieties and smooth in others.

Chemical composition.—Besides a large quantity of mucilage
spinach contains so large a proportion of nitrates, that the water
in which it has been boiled may be used for making touch-
paper. The following figures give the mean percentage com-
‘position of three samples of spinach recorded by Kénig :—

ter 88°47
Nitrogenous matter a. Sa
Fat ‘ 0°58
Sugar 0°10
Nitrogen-free extractive ...........s06. 4°34
Fibre 0-93

Ash . Oa

148 © POLYGONACEZ.

Anhydrous spinach contained, as the mean of three analyses
of different samples,— :
Nitrogen 4°94
Carbohydrat 37°93
Basella alba, Linn., Wight Ic., t. 896, is known as Indi
spinach, or Malabar Nightshade, and the juice of the lea :
which is demulcent and cooling, is a popular application —
allay the heat and itching of urticaria arising from dyspep :
an affection which the Hindus consider to be indicative of
in the blood. The boiled leaves are also used as a poul
This herb is extensively cultivated as a vegetable, and bears
vernacular names of Poi (Hind.), Maydl (Mar.), Vasala
- Bachchali (7el.), and Bili-basale (Can.). The generic n
derived from the Tamil. The Sanskrit name is Potaki or Upodil
Many plants of this order are used as potherbs in the East.
Persia and Biluchistan, Chenopodium Botrys, Linn., (
Blitum, Hook. 7., and Atriplex Moneta, Bunge, are
used. On the Indian coasts, Arthocnemum indicum
a plant of the salt marshes, is used as a vegetable, and —
pickled. Fryer, who visited Bombay in 1694, calls it “samphi
Plants more generally known as vegetables are Cheno
dium album, Linn., C. ambrosioides, Linn., E
vulgaris, Iénn., and Atriplex hortensis, Lian. Th
of the Beet are sold in Indian Bazars for medicinal use,
- the-name of Chukandar.

—

- POLYGONACEA,

_POLYGONUM AVICULARE, Linn.
Fig.—Eng.. Bot., 1252, Knot-grass (Eng.), Renouée
oiseaux (Fr.),
~ Hab.—Northern
The root and seeds.

Vernacular.—Machoti, Bijband, Kesri (Hind

Asia, Europe. Introduced into

).

per ee

POLYGONACEZ:. 149

History, Uses, &c.—This plantis identified by Fée with
the male modtyovey of Dioscorides, a vulnerary and astringent
herb, the Polygonos of Pliny (27, 91). It was used by the
ancients to arrest hemorrhage, the seeds were considered to be
3 laxative and diuretic and to arrest defluxions. For burning
_ pains in the stomach the leaves were applied topically, and
were used in the form of a liniment for pains in the bladder
and for erysipelas. The juice was administered in fevers,
_ tertian and quartan more particularly, in doses of two
eyathi, just before the paroxysms. Scribonius (Comp. 46) says
that it received its name ‘“ polygonos” from its being found
everywhere. Ibn Sina and other Arabian physicians call
the plant A’sa’r-ra’i-(cse lJ !Las) and Batbat (£45:); they
consider it to be cold and dry, and reproduce what the Greeks
_ have said concerning its medicinal uses. The Persians call
_ it Hazar-bandak. It is the Polygonum mas of Matthiolus
| {Vaigr. ii., 800).

In India the plant is still used by the Hakims in the diseases
_ named by Dioscorides.

_ __ _Inour own times Polygonum root has-been used asa tebrituge
_ in Algeria, and has been reported upon as being an excellent ©
_ remedy for chronic diarrhoea and stone in the bladder. Its
_ value has apparently been much exaggerated. (J. RF. Jackson,
_ Amer. Journ. Pharm., 1873, 247.)

In the Lancet (1885, 658) it is said to be used in ee
4 under the name of Homeriana, as a popular remedy in lung
_ affections. Dr. Rotschinin, who has experimented with the
_ drug, found it really valuable in several cases of bronchitis, two
= of which were capillary; also in three cases of whooping cough.
It was tried in phthisis, but no definitely satisfactory results
were obtained. A tumblerful of the decoction was given three
times a day.

Description,.—Root fibrous, long, very tough, and some-
hat woody; branched below, simple at the crown. Stems
veral, spreading in every direction, generally prostrate, much

nee Oa

150 POLYGONACE.

branched, round, striated, leafy at the numerous knots or joints. 4
Leaves alternate, stalked, hardly an inch long, elliptic |
lanceolate, entire, obtuse, single-ribbed, smooth except at t

rather cori ,colour greyishor glaucous. Flowers variegated
with white, crimson and green. Seeds acutely triangular, of
shining black.

Polygonum Bistorta, Linn., is the Anjubar of the
Western Arabs, and their description of it is still reproduced in -
Indian medical works. P, viviparum, Linn. a nearly
allied species, is used as a substitute for it in the Punjab, under
the same Arabic name, and is called in the vernacular Maslun ané
Bilauri. The Anjubar-i-Rumiof the bazars, imported from
Persia, is a thick reddish-brown astringent root-bark, evidently
obtained from a tree or shrub of some size, and it may.
observed that Aitchison found an arboreous species of Polygonum
growing in the Badghis and Paropamisus. |

Other species of Polygonum which have been used medicin~
ally, and which occur in India, are:—

P. glabrum, Wilid., P. Hydropiper, Linn., P. molle,
Don., P. barbatum, Linn., and P, alatum, Ham, All these
plants are astringent, but P. Hydropiper also contains a pangen
volatile principle having acrid properties.

-Chemical composition—Dr. ©. J. Rademaker (Amer. Journ:
Pharm., Nov. . 1879) separated from P. Hydropiper a a

: bat . Trim

the plant with the following results:—They found that =
peculiar pungent principle, although present in a
alcoholic tincture, disa sappeared on distillation, the pungent
taste of the herb being absent both from the distillate and the
residue in the reto:

From these experiments they conclude that the active prit-
ciple is decomposed on ee eaing: and that the only

POLYGONACEX. 151

q proper preparation of the drug would be one made without the
application of heat. They prepared the polygonic acid of
Dr. Rademaker, and conclude from their experiments that it is
only a mixture of impure tannic and gallic acids,

The following summary shows the amount of the most impor-
tant constituents :— _

4 : Per cent.

a petroleum spirit —
solution.

_ Resin and chlorophyll ......... 154 From ether solution.

Resin, tannin, andchlorophyll. 5-14 From alcoholic solution.
i 1:44

*55 & From aqueous solution.

00
} From alkaline solution.

57°45

97°25
parately determined : tannin, 3°46 per cent. ; ash, 7°40 per cent.
ear-Book of Pharm., 1885, p. 160.)
Dr. C. J. Rademaker (Amer. Journ. Pharm., June 1886)
asserted the existence in this plant of the active crystalline
rinciple, described by him as polygonic acid, and supplied
further details respecting its extraction and properties, together
th a wood-cut illustration of its crystals. Hesays:— “ Poly-

owing it to macerate for 24 hours; or by precipitating

152 POLYGONACE.

a fluid extract with basic acetate of lead. In each case separate
the base by means of sulphuric acid, and the organic acid b
means of ether. Allow the ethereal solution to evaporate,
treat the residue with distilled water, and filter; this sepa
the resin (resinous acid). The filtrate is then filtered thro
animal charcoal repeatedly, until all colouring matter is remo
The filtrate is next treated with solution of gelatine, in order '
remove any tannic acid that might be present, again filte
and evaporated to dryness, redissolved in ether, and the ethere:
solution allowed to evaporate spontaneously. Polygonie act
thus prepared crystallizes in needles, Its solution in wate:
not precipitate gelatine nor produce a bluish- -green colora
when added to a mixture of ferrous and ferric salts in so.
showing absence both of gallic and tannic acids. It is
soluble in water, less so in ether, and insoluble in pe
spirit. The heat of a water-bath does not destroy any
properties. ( Year-Book of Pharm., 1886, p.210.) -

The other species of Polygonum which have been ex#
contain starch and tannic and gallic acids. Bowman
obtained 21 per cent. of tannic acid from Bistort root. In
Bengal Chemical Examiner’s Report for 1884 we meet wit
following notice of P. glabrum : “ Several specimens of @
called Bish-kurki were sent from Cachar for examination.
was stated that the plant was frequently added to ¢ :
spirit, which it was believed might have thus communicated!
it some specially noxious property. The plant was iden
by Dr. G. King as Polygonum glabrum, and on chemical
nation and oe application was not found to |

~ toxic —

‘RHEUM OFFICINALE, Baillon.

lg —Bentl. and Trim., t. 213. Rhubarb (Eng), 3
barbe (Fr.). .

Hab, South-Basor Witt, Chinn _ The a oa

POLYGONACEA.. 153
RHEUM PALMATUM, Linn.
| Fig.—-Bentl. and Trim., t. 214. Rhubarb (E£ng.), Rhu-
___ barbe (F.).
| Hab.—South-Eastern Tibet, China. The root.
Vernacular.—Rewand-chini, Lakri-rewand-chini(Znd. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—The Chinese appear to have been
acquainted with the properties of rhubarb from a period long
anterior to the Christian era, for the drug is treated of in the
herbal called Pen-king, which is attributed to the Emperor
Shen-nung, the father of Chinese agriculture and medicine, who
reigned about 2700 B.C. The drug is named there Huang-hing,
_ yellow, excellent, and Ta-huung, the great yellow. The latter
name also occurs in the great Geography of China, where it is
stated that rhubarb was a tribute of the province Si-ning-fu,
eastward of Lake Kuku Nor, from about the 7th to the 10th
_ centuries of our era.

As regards Western Asia and Europe, we find a root called
pa or fnov, mentioned by Dioscorides as brought from beyon
_ the Bosphorus. Pliny describes a root pee & Rhacoma, which,
_ when pounded, yielded a colour like that of wine, but inclining
_ to saffron, and was brought from beyond Pontus. The drug
_ thus described is usually regarded as rhubarb, or at least as the
_ root of some species of Rheum. Lassen has shown that trading
™ caravans from Shensi in Northern China arrived at Bokhara as
2 early as the year 114 B.C. (Pharmacographia.)
__ Riwas (the plant Ri in the Zend language) was known to the
ancient Persians, and the same name is still applied to a species
of Rheum in the province of Gilin in Persia. Aitchison found —
f. Kibes, Gronov., on the Paropamisus range, to be known to
the peasantry as Rewash, Rewand and Chukri; he states that
the flowering branches are eaten, and the root used in colouring
leather. Inthe Hari-rud Valley he found R. tataricum, Linn., £.,
to be known as Rewash-i-dewina, “ fools’ rhubar a the oh
it and root being used as a purgative. Ibn! “sina ae 8)
11I.—20

Sas

He

: _ flowers are red, and have a slightly acid and sweetish taste. The

154 POLYGONACES,

notices both the plant Ribiés (Riw&s, Pers.) and the drug q
R4éwand (Rewand, Pers.) —the first an acid plant, and the second .
evidently Chinese rhubarb. Mesue, early in the 11th century,
distinguishes between Chinese and Khorasan rhubarb, and Haji
Zein-el-attér, writing in 1368, says:—I consider Rewand to be
the same as Ribdés. Ibn Jazla, the author of the Minhaj, states
that there are two kinds, China and Khorasan rhubarb, and th
the latter is known as R4wand-el-dawabb, and is used in vete 1-
nary practice, whilst the Chinese is reserved for human beings.
The latter is the best kind, and, when powdered, is of a saffron
colour; the fractured surface has the grain of a cow’s hump, and
is friable; it is called Rewand-i-lahmi (meaty rhubarb), and
should be in large pieces like a horse’s hoof, and not»worm-eaten.
In my experience there are three kinds of rhubarb—Chinese,
Khorasan, and Indian. Masih (Mesue) states that rhubarb is
hot in the third degree and dry in the first.” (Jkhtiarat,
article Rdwand.) a
The author of the Makhzan-el-Adwiya, himself a native of
Khorasan, has the following account of Ribés:—‘<It is called in
Persian Riw4s, Riwaj and Chukri, and is an herbaceous plant
cubit in height; from the centre spring one or two flattened
2 fingers by 1 finger in thickness, having a pubescent bark, th af
lower portion of which is purplish and the upper green, like the
stem of alettuce. Internally the stem is white, soft and juicy
has a sour and somewhat astringent taste. The top of the stem
branched, and between the branches are green rough bracts ;

Mm

_ plant grows in the cold snowy mountains ; the best is the Pe
white, delicate, succulent and subacid, with a stout tall stal
The root of this plant is rhubarb (Raéwand), which has already
been described, and it is called ‘ Ribés-i-Mu’ammiri,’ because
one Mu’ammir of Nishapur was the first to discover this.” Fo :
the history of rhuharb in Europe, the reader is referred to the
Pharmacographia, ‘

Rhubarb is not an article of the Hindu Materia Medica, but

oe

cd

the modern Hindus have become acquainted with its prope
through Mahometan and European physicians, _ sf

POLYGONACE. 150

In the use of rhubarb as a medicine, the Mahometans quote
and follow Galen, Oribasius, Paulus, Rézi, Ibn Sina and Masih,
whose opinions it is unnecessary to reproduce. In India it is
chiefly used as a stomachic, tonic, and mild aperient.

The rhubarb found in the Indian bazars is of a very inferior
kind, in long stick-like pieces, shipped to Calcutta and Bombay
from the Eastern ports. It comes from China, and has
hardly any aroma, a bitterish taste, and but slight purgative
action. When fresh, it is covered with a yellow dust, like
ordinary rhubarb. ‘The natives use it as a tonic and
stomachic. None of the commercial rhubarb known as East
Indian is imported into Bombay unless specially ordered from
China, but it often passes through the port on board the
P. and O. Company’s steamers. Bombay druggists, Native
and European, usually obtain their rhubarb from London.
On account of its low price, the former always import English
rhubarb. In the Pharmacopeia of India, the bazar rhubarb of
India is attributed to Rheum emodi, RK. Moorcroftianum, and
| R. Webbi , all Himalayan species ; it is said to be of two kinds,
a large and emall : “The first in cylindrical pieces. of various
sizes and shapes, furrowed; cut obliquely at the extremities,
4 about four inches long and an inch and a half in diameter ; of a
3 dark-brown colour, feeble rhubarb odour and bitter astringent
taste; texture radiated, rather spongy, not presenting on frac-
ture the marbled texture characteristic of ordinary rhubarb ;
pulverized with difficulty ; ; powder of a dull brownish- -yellow
colour, The second consists of short transverse segments of the
root branches ; of a dark-brownish colour, odourless or nearly
o, with a very bitter astringent taste.” (Op. cit.,p. 187.) The
first kind so exactly corresponds with the stick rhubarb im-
ported from China, that we are of opinion that it was not —

Himalayan rhubarb, whilst the second probably was of Indian
origin. Trials made with Himalayan rhubarb by Prof. Royle
(Calcutta Med. and Phys. Trans., iii., p. 439) and Mr. Twining
(Diseases of Bengal, i., p. 220) are reported to have been satis-
factory, and Dr. ftwwsh Cleghorn (Madras Quart. Med. Journ.,
2, v., p. 464), who furnishes some interesting remarkson

a it would appear to consist of the smaller branches of the

156 POLYGONACEZ,.

Himalayan rhubarb, states that it is only an inferior variety
sae reaches the plains of Hindustan. He tested the action

fresh root, and found it to resemble the action of Russian
ee (Op. cit., p. 188.)

Description. —China Sb te conmists of portions ofa mas
sive root which display iderabl ity of form, arising fron
the various operations of paring, slicing and trimming to whie
they have been subjected. Thus some pieces are cylindrical
rather barrel-shaped, others conical, while a large propo
are plano-convex, and others again are of no regular shape
These forms are not all found in the same package, the d
being usually sorted into rownd and flat rhubarb. - The
are from 3 to 4 inches long by 2 to 3 inches in bre
Many pieces are pierced with a hole. The drug is dusted
_ with a bright brownish-yellow powder, on removal of which
surface is seen to have a rusty-brown hue. The character
most readily distinguishes the rhubarb of China is that
developed pieces, broken transversely, display dark lines ar
as an internal ring of star-like spots. In good rhubar
interior is compact and veined with reddish-brown and
sometimes mixed with iron-grey. The root when chewed
gritty, by reason of the crystals it contains of oxalate of cal
but it is, besides, bitter, astringent and nauseous. ‘he o

peculiar. (Pharmacographia.) The characters of the
stick rhubarb which is used in India have already been noti

1 have been removed in preparing the drug for Eure

= Chemical composition. —The purgative principle of rhub . I
Cathartie acid, a glucoside discovered by Kubly (Budi. Soc. Chi

Spe substance Emodin, CHO! =; a Sania C OE", eer
eo-tannic acid by a resins and m |
Small quantities of a a ' aoe

POLYGONACEZ. . 157°

sugar have also been met with in rhubarb. The amount of the
mineral constituents is exceedingly variable: Fliickiger and_
_ Hanbury obtained from two good samples of China Rhubarb,
dried at 100°C. and incinerated, 12°9 and 13°87 per cent. of ash;
- another pale sample yielded no less than 43°27 per cent. The
ash consists of carbonates of calcium and potassium,

_ The following analyses by Elborne show the percentage
- composition of three samples of English Rhubarb and two of
- the Eastern drug :—

$$ —____

R. offi the offci |
Pale, or- nale, bh R, rha- see oe Russian
cultiva piel =i — dkoiads Rhubarb.
ne | 6:06 | 7-9 5°57 S4"P ize
| 933] 49 | 79 | 9981 668
Bias (soluble i in a) ceeiseesl 65 48 41 40 55
Wathartic acid .... oy Tee 32 B:3 Ad Ms is
‘ann hry ‘soph 1an 143 17 4126 7 11-0
| 33 | 22 | 15 1 30 | 4:5
substances soluble in :
2-6 2:0 3°4 46 §:2
_ Fat and free chrysophanic acid
soluble in petroleum ether......... 0-4 0-3 0-2 0°7 V5

Rumex vesicarius, Linn., Campd. Rum.,129,t. 8,f.1.8;
‘Chika (Hind., Beng., Bomb.), Chitkra (Sans.), is cultivated all
over Asia, and is used just as sorrel is in Europe; excellent
‘potage a Voseille’ may be made withit The plant is, doubt-
less, one of the kinds of Hamaz (Dock) mentioned in Arabic
works, and is much esteemed for its medicinal properties. The

Pasidered very eta and of use in ae of stomach, and
xternally as an epithem to allay pain, especially that caused
by the bites or stings of reptiles and insects. _ The seeds are said
o have similar properties, and are prescribed roasted in dysen+ oe
and as an anfidote to scorpion —— ‘The root is a ae
icinal, | rae

158 ARISTOLOCHIACEE.

Description.—The fruit sold in the shops as Gulhaméz
_ (Dock flowers) is reddish-brown, about j5 of an inch long, and
consists of three fringed, leaf-like expansions, each furnished
with an oblong glandular body and attached at the base
short thick pedicel; they enclose a triangular, polished, dark-
brown seed. :

Bijband.—Shining angular seeds (nuts), evidently derive
from a species of Rumex. They are used as an aphrodis
Murray states that the fruit of Polygonum aviculare, Lin
is known as Bijband or Endran{ in Sind. According
Atkinson, Rumex Wallichii, Meissn., referred by Hooker
R. maritimus, Linn., yields the Bijband of the bazars. Proba
the seeds of several species are collected.

Rumex Patientia, which Hooker thinks, along
R. aquaticus, Linn., might be united with R. orientalis, Be 1D
has been examined by W. Dahlen, who gives the followin
percentage composition :—Water, 92:18; N. itrogenous mat
2°42; Oil, 0°48; Sugar, 0°37 ; Nitrogen-free extractive, 3°
Fibre, 0°66 ; Ash, 0-82.

This plant is a native of the Western Himalaya and exte!
westward to Asia Minor, Syria and Greece ; it was named
Hayne R. Dioscoridis (Arnzeik. xiii., 5,}¢. 5), from its ha
been identified with the \amdov of the ancients, and it is §
Called Aazao in Greece.

ARISTOLOCHIACEA,

ARISTOLOCHIA INDICA, Linn.
Fig.— Wight Ie., t. 1858; Griff. Ic. Pl. Asiat., t. 529; Rheede,
Hort. Mal. viii., t.25. Indian Birthwort (Eng.).
Hab.—Throughout the low country of India. The stem
and root.
Vernacular.—Isharmil, Rudrajata (Hind.),Ishormil (Beng
Sépsand, Ishvari, Rudrajata (Mar.), Sapsan, Ishwari (Gi

ARISTOLOCHIACEZ, 159

- Ichchura-mula, Peru-marindu (Zam.), Ishvara-veru, Govila
_ (Zel.), Ishvari-beru, Nanjin-beru (Can.), Karalvekam, Ishvara~
q muri (Mal.), Sapis (Goa).
History, Uses, &c.—This scandent shrub is the Rudra-

jata of the Raja Nirghanta; other Sanskrit names for it are
_ Arkamila, “lightning root”; Ishvari, “goddess”; Sunanda,
_ “pleasing”; and Sudhy-upésya, “worthy of worship.”’ It is con-
_ sidered to be attenuant, deobstruent, emmenagogue, antarthritic,
and a valuable medicine in the bowel affections of children who
are teething. In the Mahometan Materia Medica it is known as
Zarawand-i-Hind{, and is admitted as an Indian substitute for
_ Zarawand (Aristolochia longa). The early Portuguese settlers
| in India gave it the name of Raiz de Cobra, on account of its
_ supposed efficacy against the bite of that snake.
__ The plant was first described by Rheede, who compares its
odour to that of fresh ginger, and states that boiled in oil it is
applied as a liniment to snake-bites, and a decoction given
internally. It is also administered, rubbed toa paste with water
or in decoction, in cold fevers, headache, flatulent distention,

and dysuria. As a lotion it relieves gouty pains, and the pow-
r with pepper and hot water stops bloody fluxes. .

hing, and says they sometimes call the drug Talashroolivayr.
also says that the powder is taken internally in cases of
e-bites and applied to the bitten part. Loureiro (Flor.
in-Chin., vol. ii., p. 528), speaking of the plant, says:
“Prodest in colica, cibi inappetentia, febribus intermittenti-
us, obstructionibus, hydrope.” Fleming (Catalogue of Indian
Plants, p. 8) notices its use in Upper I
e and antarthritic. 3
The plant is placed in the secondary list of the Pharmacopeia
India, but no further information with regard to its medicinal __

ndia as an emmena-

160. ARISTOLOCHIACE. |

properties is given. In Bombay Sdpsan is chiefly prescribed im
the bowel complaints of children and in cholera; it is regarded
as a stimulant tonic, and is also applied externally to the
abdomen. Babu T. N. Mukharji states that the juice of the
fresh leaves is very useful in the croup of children, by induc-
ing vomiting, without causing any depression. (Amster
Cat., p. 21.)

- Description.—The drug as sold in the shops consists
the root and stem, the latter in by far the larger proportion
many parcels the stem only is to be found. It is either in
pieces, or the whole stem may be twisted into a kind of ci
bundle. The thickest portion of the stem is 4 to } an inch ¢
more in diameter, and has a central woody column made up ®
about ten wedge-shaped portions. he bark is thick and cor

projections; itis of a yellowish-brown colour. The ta
bitter and camphoraceous, and the odour aromatic and agreea
* Microscopic structure—The wedge-shaped woody columns
teavenied by large vessels, the medullary rays are distinct
easily traced into the bark; in the latter, which consists
starchy and corky parenchymatous tissue, there is a cil
zone of large yellow stone-cells.
- Chemical composition.-—The air-dried roots were contused §
digested for several days with warm 80 per cent. alcohol. |
greater part of the alcohol from the resultant tincture
removed by distillation, but the last traces could be separa
by spontaneous evaporation with difficulty, owing 6 *
resinous matter separating and floating on the earls oe
preventingevaporation. The extract still
which possessed.a strong smell of the drug, was soined wih
and agitated with light petroleum ether. During agiless
dark viscid resinous mass separated, as well as a small «
of a bright yellow powder, The clear aqueous ue
separation of the petroleum ether, was gently heated to
alcohol, and the residue acidified with sulphuric
agitated with ether. tee seperation of the ether, the

ARISTOLOCHIACE. 161

solution was rendered alkaline and reagitated first with ether,
_ then with chloroform, and lastly with amylic alcohol.

The dark resinous matter which separated on agitation with
petroleum ether was repeatedly shaken with ether, in which a
portion was soluble. The ethereal extract was of the consistence
of honey, had ataste and smell like that ofa mixture of turpentine
and peppermint, and was also bitter: in alcohol it was
_ soluble with acid reaction ; it was dissolved by ammonia, forming
a dark reddish orange-coloured solution, and was reprecipitated by
acids in yellowish flocks. The residue insoluble in ether was soft
when moist and dark chocolate in colour: on drying at 100°C. it
became brittle, and could be easily reduced by pressure between the
fingers to a yellowish powder which possessed neither taste nor
odour: in alcohol it was soluble with acid reaction : in ammonia
the greater part dissolved, and was reprecipitated in yellow flocks
by acids. The bright yellow powder was soluble in ether, and
_ was left on spontaneous evaporation as a bright yellow varnish,
destitute of crystalline structure. In warm water the greater
part dissolved, forming a pale yellow solution which became
turbid on cooling and which had a marked acid reaction.
In alkalies it was soluble with deep orange coloration, and
_ was reprecipitated by acids in pale yellow flocks: with ferric
chloride it gave a dirty brownish-red precipitate: with basic —
acetate of lead, yellowish flocks: with baryta water no
precipitate, only a deep yellow coloration.

rs aie ofa ee

et

The light petroleum ether extract was soft and brownish in
colour, and had a strong odour of turpentine ; on gently heating
in a small retort, a trace of a distillate was obtained which
had a most powerful terebinthinate odour and taste.

The extract obtained by agitating the original aqueous acid
solution with ether was a bright yellow, transparent, soft, var-
nish-like mass, from which slowly separated a few small yellowish
nodules, which, on microscopic examination, were found to consist
of bundles of rod-shaped crystals. The extract was soluble in
alcohol with strong acid reaction, the solution exhibiting a w
marked greenish fluorescence, as did also an ethereal

il,—21

~ solution rendered alkaline, a

162 ARISTOLOCHIACE,

The taste was very bitter, aromatic, and also somewhat terebin-
thinate. On treatment with ammonia the extract was partly dis-
solved, yielding a deep orange-red solution, which was agitated
with ether, the ether showing a marked greenish fluorescence.
On evaporating off the ether, a bright yellow, viscid, trans-
parent extract was left, with a bitterish taste, accompanied by a
strong one of turpentine. In alcoholic solution the extract was
neutral in reaction, the solution exhibitinga murked fluorescence.
The ammoniacal solution, after separation of the ether, was acidu-
lated with sulphuric acid and reagitated with ether. Onevapora-_
tion of the ether, a bright yellow, soft, varnish-like residue was
left ; on heating with water the greater part dissolved, forming 4
clear solution which became turbid on cooling. With alkalies
the extract gave a deep orange-red solution: with ferric
chloride a dirty brownish-red precipitate: with basic lead
acetate yellowish flocks were precipitated : with lime and baryta
water a yellowish coloration, but no precipitates. After ;
boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, F'chling’s solution was reduced. —
The reactions of this acid were, therefore, similar to those of the |
yellow powder which separated on agitation with petroleum ether.
The original solution after addition of sulphuric acid was”
rendered alkaline with ammonia and agitated with ether. OD —
Spontaneous evaporation of the ether, a yellow, soft, non-
crystalline, transparent, varnish-like extract was left. This was
treated with alittle dilute sulphuric acid, in which a portion only :
dissolved, and agitated with ether, which removed resinous

matte

ae
Set

tter. The ether was then separated, and the aqueous
nd reagitated with ether.
yellow non-crystalline extract was obtained, which was nearly
wholly soluble in dilute sulphuric acid, and which afforded the
following reactions : with ammonia a white precipitate soluble in
excess : with caustic soda a similar precipitate,only slightly soluble

in excess: with platinie and auric chlorides yellow precipitates:
marked yellow

precipitate with Mayer’s reagent, and with other
alkaloidal reagents: with strong nitric acid a yellowish color
ation: with Fréhde’s reagent adeep-blue coloration in the cold,
no alteration in tint on gently heating, After boiling with

ARISTOLOCHIACEA. — 163

dilute sulphuric acid, the liquid slightly reduced Fehling’s
solution,

After agitation with ether, the liquid was agitated with’
chloroform, which separated an alkaloidal principle mixed with
much colouring matter. The reactions were similar to those
yielded by the principle extracted by ether.

Finally the liquid was agitated with amyliec alcohol, the
alcohol exhibiting very marked greenish fluorescence. The
amylic alcohol extract contained a large amount of resinous
matter insoluble in dilute sulphuric acid ; the acid solution
afforded, however, very marked evidence of the presence of a
principle reacting with alkaloidal reagents, the colour reactions
being similar to those yielded by the principle separated by ether
and chloroform. It would be premature for us to definitely

_ state that the principles extracted by ether, chloroform, and

__ amylic alcohol were either identical or different.

Lowicotogy. —Dr. 8. M. Shircore of Moorshedabad states that
it is undoubtedly used to procure abortion.

Commerce.—The drug can hardly be called an article of —
commerce, as it is supplied to the shops by herbalists or —
country people. It is very abundant in the Southern Conaste -
Value, annas 6 per pound. mee

ARISTOLOCHIA BRACTEATA, Retz. —
Hab.—Deccan Peninsula to Bandelkand, Sind, si lon.

Vernacular.—Kiramir, Gandhani (Hind.), Kiramar ((uz.),
Gandhan-gavat, Géndhéni (Mar.), Ganajali-hullu, Kattagiri
(Can.), Adutina-p4lai (Tam.), Gadide-gadapara-aku, Kadapara
(Tei.), Atutinta-pala (Ma/.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is the Dhiémra-pattra
of the Raja N i lei i.e., the plant with grey leaves. The

hva, Su-labhé, Svayam-bhuva, Gridhra.
patra, Gridhréni, Krimi-ghni, Srima-lapaha. It is s much used

164 . ARISTOLCCHIACE:

by Hindu physicians on account of its bitter, purgative, am
anthelmintic properties. The leaves are applied to the navel t
move the bowels of children, and are also given internally :
combination with castor oil as a remedy for colic. The juice

application to sores to destroy maggots. In the
District, when the sazza is attacked with insects, a long 1
soaked in the juice of the plant, and with the leaves of the
plant attached, is drawn over the crop. Dr. Hové, who visited”
Bombay i in 1787, found the plant growing in great abundane
in Guzerat. He states that the root and leaf are remarkably
bitter, and yield a thick yellowish juice, which is mixed with
boiled milk and given in syphilis, and combined with opium is
used with great success in gonorrhea. Ainslie notices
application of the leaf, when bruised and mixed with castor OU).
to obstinate psora (the Carpang of the Tamils), The plan is.
also thought to stimulate uterine contraction, and is adminis
ed in tedious labour and as an emmenagogue. In Dalzell
Gibson’s Flora of Bombay (p. 225) it is spoken of as posse zt
a merited reputation as an antiperiodic in intermittent fe r
The native doctors in Bombay make a paste with water, of
plant, along with the seeds of Barringtonia acutangula, Celasi
paniculata, and black pepper, and rub the whole body with it
the cure of malarial fevers.

The evidence collected by Dr. Watt (Dict. Econ. Prod. In
Hy 314) shows that it is the opinion of several European py~
sicians in different parts of India that the plant has a decided
action upon the uterus, and increases or induces uterine ©

tions. There appears to be no doubt as to its anthelmint
properties.

Description. —The drug consists of the whole plant ™
fruit; the stems are striated, slender, and about as thick a§

a piece of whipcord; the leaves are of a pale, glaucous gree?,
obtuse, heart-shaped, with my edges, about 2 inches long a0!
14 inch broad, when dry they are blackish ; the capsules
ovate, 7 of an inch long, 1 ribbed, de

ARISTOLOCHIACEM. 165

each cell contains a column of heart-shaped flat seeds, closely
packed, The appearance of the seeds is peculiar, they look as
if they had been cut out with a punch ; one side is flat, black,
and rough from a number of irregular projections; the other is
almost entirely occupied by two brown comparatively smooth
lobular projections of a soft corky structure; these under the
microscope are seen to be entirely composed of ovate, empty,
dotted cells, The whole plant is nauseously bitter.

Chemical composition.—The plant contains a nauseous volatile
substance, an alkaloid, and a large quantity of salts, The
alkaloid is amorphous and gives no colour reactions with the
strong mineral acids. The bitter concentrated tincture on
standing deposited cubical crystals of potassium chloride. The
ash calculated on the air-dried plant was 17°75 per cent., and
strong alkaline fumes were given off from the plant when
burning.

Commerce. —Value, Rs. 3} per maund of 37 lbs.

Zarawand-i-gird (Pers., Ind. Bazars). The imported root
of Aristolochia rotunda, Linn., Guib. Hist. Nat., ii., p. 371, a small
plant with slender stems and almost sessile, obtusely cordiform
leaves. ‘The flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves,
tubular, yellow without, and orange brown within. The whole
plant is acrid, aromatic and bitter. The root is tuberous,
placentiform, hard and heavy when dry, more or less mam-
millated on the under surface, of a reddish-brown colour; on
the upper surface are the remains of several stems or small pits

_ showing where they were attached ; on the under surface one

central scar marking the attachment of the rootlets. The
substance is very hard and horny, and has a bitterish somewhat
aromatic taste, and camphoraceous odour.
Zarawand-i-tawil (Pers., Ind. Bazars), The imported
root of Aristolochia longa, Linn., Mill. Ic., ¢. 51, J. 2, a plant
much resembling A. rotunda, and having a similar habitat. It
differs from the latter plant in having petioled leaves, yellow

4 _ flowers striped with brown, and a cylindrical root which has much

the same taste and odour as that of A. rotunda. Mahometan

166 PIPERACEZ.

physicians describe it as resolvent, deobstruent, diuretic, —
emmenagogue, alexipharmic, and vermifuge.* =

These Aristolochias were formerly considered to be antidotes —
for snake-bites. Albertus Magnus (De mirabilibus Mundi) says:—
“Si vis statim interficere serpentem, accipe ex Aristolochit
rotunda quantum vis et tere illam bene, et accipe ranam

Aristolochia, et pone cum eo aliquid ex incausto, et scribe cum
eo in charta aut aliquo quod plus amas, et projice ad serpentes.’
Zarawand-i-gird, or mudahraj, is considered by Persian writers
on Materia Medica to be the female of Aristolochia longa. Mir
Muhammad Husain tells us that at Ispahan it is called”
ukhud-i-alwandi. Mahometan physicians describe it as resol-
vent, stimulating, pectoral, stomachic, and cephalic ; they pre-
scribe it in jaundice and gout. True Zardwand-i- gird is very
scarce in India ; most of the druggists, when asked for it, supply
the small siarebys inert tuber of an arum.t .
The Aristolochias are still collected by herbalists in Sou
Europe for medicinal use.

PIPERACE 4,

PIPER NIGRUM, Linn.
Fig.—Mig. Ill. Pip. 50, t. 50; Bot. Mag., t. 3139; Bentl
and. Trim., t. 245; Black Pepper (Eng.), Poivre noir (Fr-)-
a Travancore and Malabar. Cultivated elena
The fruit

Vernacular.—Mirach h, Kéli-mirach (Hind.), @clznaeel

— (Beng.), Milagu (Tam.), Miriy4lu (7el.), Kuru-mulaka (Mal. Jn
“wenasu stale -), Miri, Kali-miri (Mar.), Kalo-miri (Guz.).

pare > with 2 ee ae * aon = Aristolochias in a Discve

ie ele Tenore, the Sang-pwan-hea of the Chinese growing
wheat Pekia (Hance, Iuinn. Journ. Bot, xiii. (1872), 88), fi sured and de>
scribed by Hanbury. "Beince Papert; 9 382) nda i

PIPERACER. 167

pepper bears the same names with the addition or substitution
of the adjective “ white.”

History, Uses, &c.—The earliest travellers from the
West who visited India, found the pepper vine in cultivationon
the Malabar Coast. Theophrastus (H. P. ix., 22) mentionstwo
kinds of pepper (térept or wémept) in the fourth century B. C., and
_ Dioscorides (ii., 148) mentions «vxov rémepi, white pepper, Haxpév
méemept, long pepper, and péAav mereps, black pepper. Pliny says:—
“Tt is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so
much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use,
it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance, —
_ that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it —
__ that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry,
its only desirable quality being a certain pungency ; and yet it
is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was
the first to make trial of it as an article of food ? and who, I
_ wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself, by
4 hunger only, for the satisfying of a greedy appetite?” (12, 14.)
In the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written about A.D. 64,
it is stated that pepper is exported from Baraké, the shipping :
_ place of Nelkunda. in which region, and there only, it grows in ee
_ great quantity. These have been identified with places on the =
_ Malabar Coast between Mangalore and Calicut.

__ Long pepper and Black pepper are among the Indian spices
_ on which the Romans levied duty at Alexandria about
_ A.D.176.

Cosmas Indicopleustes, a merchant, and in later life a monk,
who wrote about A.D. 540, appears to have visited the Malabar
Coast, or at all events had some information about the pepper-
plant from an eye-witness. It is he who furnishes the first
particulars about it, stating that it is a climbing plant, sticking
close to high trees like a vine. Its native country he calls
Male. The Arabian authors of the Middle Ages, as Ibn
Khurdadbah (circa A.D. 869-885), Edrisi in the middle of the |

2th, and Ibn Batuta in the 14th century, furnished nearly
similar accounts. .

168 PIPERACE.

Among Europeans who described the pepper-plant with a
Some exactness, one of the first was Benjamin of Tudela, who
visited the Malabar Coast in A.D. 1166. Another was the —
Catalan friar, Jordanus, about 1330 ; he described the plant as
something like ivy, climbing trees and forming fruit, like that
of the wild vine. “ This fruit,” he says, “is at first green,
then, when it comes to maturity, black.”’ Nearly the same
statements are repeated by Nicolo Conti, a Venetian, who, at
the beginning of the 15th century, spent twenty-five years im
the East. He observed the plant in Sumatra, and also described :
it as resembling ivy. ( Pharmacographia.) j

The high cost of pepper contributed to ineite the Portuguese
to seek for a sea passage to India, and the trade in this spice
continued to be a monopoly of the Crown of Portugal as late
as the 18th century.

It is worthy of remark that all the foreign names for black
pepper are derived from Pippali, the Sanskrit name for long
pepper, which leads one to suppose that the latter spice was the
first kind of pepper known to the ancient Persians and Arabs,

a particle of light or fire,” and appears to
have been first applied to the aromatic berries known as Kakkola;

diners d in the Nighantas as bitter, pungent,
os — se and dry ; Synonyms for it are Valli-ja “creeper
grown shana Tiksh na “pur : re : =
oe reer pungent,’’ Ma black,’
&c, Tt is said to be useful in intermittent ee? ee

, pens

wVYOR, See

PIPERACEA. 169

dyspepsia, cough, gonorrhea and flatulence, and to promote the
secretion of bile. Together with long pepper and ginger it
forms the much-used compound known as Trikatu, “the three
acrids, ”’ or ‘‘ Ushana-chatu-rushana.” Externally, pepper is
used as a rubefacient and stimulant of the skin. In obstinate
intermittent fever and flatulent dyspepsia, the Hindus administer
___ white or black pepper in the following manner :—A tablespoon-
ful is boiled overnight in one seer of water, until the water is
reduced to one-fourth of its bulk, the decoction is allowed to cool
during the night, and is taken in the morning. The pepper is
then again boiled in the same manner and the decoction taken
at night. This treatment is continued for seven successive days.
A compound confection of pepper (Prénada gudika) is given as
a remedy for piles ; it is made in the following manner :—Take
of black pepper 82 tolas, ginger 24 tolas, long pepper 16 tolas,
Piper chaba (chavya) 8 tolas, leaves of Tawus baceata (talisa)
8 tolas, flowers of Mesua ferrea (nagkesar) 4 tolas, long pepper
root 16 tolas, cinnamon leaves and cinnamon one tola each,
cardamoms and the root of Andropogon muricatus (usira) 2 tolas
each, old treacle 240 tolas; rub them together. Dose about 2
drachms. When there is costiveness, chebulic myrobalans are
substituted for ginger in the above prescription. (Chakradatta.)

The use of pepper for the cure of intermittents is strongly
recommended by Stephanus in his commentary on Galen, and
recently some cases of refractory intermittent fever, in which,
after the failure of quinine, piperine has been administered
with advantage, are reported by Dr. C. S. Taylor (Brit. Med.
Journ., Sept., 1886). In one case, immediately on the accession
of an attack, three grains of piperine were given every hour,
until eighteen grains had been taken, and on the following day,
when the intermission was complete, the same dose was given
every three hours.

Mahometan physicians describe black pepper as deobstruent,
resolvent, and alexipharmic; as a nervine tonic it is given
internally, and applied externally in paralytic affections; in
toothache it is used as a mouth-wash. Asa tonic and diges-
tive, it is given in dyspepsia. With vinegar it forms a good

IIL,—22

;
;

170 - PIPERACE Zi.

stimulating poultice. With honey it is useful in coughs and
colds. Moreover, it is diuretic and emmenagogue, and a good
stimulant in cases of bites by venomous reptiles. Strong friction
with pepper, onions, and salt is said to make the hair grow again
upon the bald patches left by ringworm of the scalp. They
notice the use of the unripe fruit, preserved in salt and water
as a pickle, by the natives of Malabar.
De Gubernatis draws attention to the following passage from
the travels of Vincenzo Maria da Santa Caterina (iv., 3) with
reference to white pepper being offered by the Hindus to th
gods in Malabar:—“Da Malavarié tenuto in stima grandissima,
eli Gentili d’ordinario Voffrono a ‘loro Dei, si per la rarita come
per la virti salutifera e medicinale, che da quello sperimentan
riportandolo poi alli infermi.” For the early history of pepp
in Europe, the Pharmacographia may be consulted.
Cultivation.—Its cultivation is very simple, and is effected b
cuttings or suckers put down before the commencement of
rains in June. The soil should be rich, but if too much moistut
be allowed to accumulate near the roots, the young plants
apt to rot. In three years the vine begins to bear. They
planted chiefly in hilly districts, but thrive well enough in
low country in the moist climate of Malabar. They are usual
planted at the base of trees which have rough or prickly
such as the jack, the erythrina, cashewnut, mango-tree, ail
others of similar description. They will climb about 20 or
feet, but are purposely kept lower than that. During t
growth it is requisite to remove all suckers, and the vine sho
be pruned, thinned, and kept clean of weeds. After the ber
_ have been gathered, they are dried on mats in the sun, turning
from red to black. They must be plucked before they are q

are smaller, of greyish-white colour, and have a less aromatic oF
pungent taste. The pepper-vine is very common in the hilly
districts of Travancore, especially in the Cottayam, M
and Chenganacherry districts, where, at an average

PIPERACEHA. iva

about 5,000 candies are producedannually. Itisa Government
monopoly. (Drury.)

Description.—The immature fruit, known as Black
Pepper, is globular, about 4 of an inch in diameter, much
wrinkled, and of a brown-black colour; on one side are the
remains of the peduncle, and on the other of the style and
stigmas. ‘The pericarp is closely adherent to the seed. The
latter consists of a thin reddish-brown testa and a copious

albumen, the exterior portion of which is horny and the
interior farinaceous. The embryo is wndeveloped. The mature
seed, knownas White Pepper, is less acrid than Black, as the
pericarp has been removed; it is also rather smaller and of a
grey colour, striated from base to apex by about a dozen light
stripes.

The transverse section of a grain of black pepper exhibits a
soft, yellowish epidermis covering the outer pericarp. This is
formed of a closely-packed yellow layer of large, mostly radially
arranged, thick-walled cells, each containing in its small cavity
a mass of dark-brown resin, The middle layer of the pericarp
consists of soft, tangentially-extended parenchyme, containing
an abundance of extremely smallstarch granules and drops of oil.
The shrinking of this loose middle layer is the chief cause of
the deep wrinkles on the surface of the berry. The next inner
layer of the pericarp exhibits towards its circumference,
tangentially-arranged soft parenchyme, the cells of which
_ possess either spiral striation or spiral fibres, but towards the
interior, loose parenchyme free from starch and containing very
_ large oil cells.
___ The testa is formed in the first place of a row of small yellow

thick-walled cells. Next to them follows the true testa, as
_ a dense, dark-brown layer of lignified cells, the individual out-
__ lines of which are undistinguishable.

The albumen of the seed consists of angular, radially arrang-
, large-celled parenchyme. Most of its cells are colourless
" loaded with starch ; others contain a soft, yellow, amorphous
s. If thin slices are kept under glycerine for some time,

172 PIPERACEZ.

these masses are slowly transformed into needle-shaped crystals @
of piperin. (Pharmacographia.)

Chemical composition.—Black pepper contains an acrid resif,
a volatile oil, starch, gum, a small quantity of fatty oil in the
mesocarp, and about 5 per cent. of inorganic matter, besides
alkaloid piperine, and a volatile alkaloid which is probably iden-
tical with piperidine. The acrid resin is dark-green, soluble in
alcohol, ether and alkalies, and, in connection with ot
constituents of pepper, also in water. C. Heisch (Analyst
186-190) has shown that pepper should contain not less than
per cent. of starch, which is characterised by the smallness of
granules. The essential oil has been examined by L. A.

0°87352 at 15° C., and showed a Shige: 2 colour, due neit
chlorophyll nor to copper. At 22° the oil had a leevorot
power of 3-2°in acolumn 100mm. long. On recti
a very small quantity passed over at 160°. Fractions obte
at 170°, 176° and 180° were colourless; that obtained at
faint green, and that at 250° green, that passing over at
brown-green. Above 310° a brown, tenacious residue
obtained in which phenol could not be detected. The ee
tion, when rectified under reduced pressure, gave a
boiling at 164°—165°, and showed a Tet herded 9
of 7°6° in 100 mm.; it gave numbers agreeing wi
formula C*°H"*..

The composition of the other fractions was much the
this. The oil consists of a levorotatory terpene and i
compounds of higher boiling point. (Journ. Chem. Soe
1887; Year-Book Pharm., 1888.

_ Pure piperine crystallizes in colourless flat, four-sided p'
of a glassy lustre and almost tasteless, As usually met with,
is of a yellowish colour, inodorous, and has at first a sligh

ti a sharp.

PIPERACEH. 173

and in 1 part of boiling 80 per cent. alcohol ( Witéstein), and
freely in acetic acid; the last two solutions are precipitated on
the addition of water. It is likewise soluble in chloroform, ©
benzol, and benzin. At 129° C. it melts like wax to a
yellowish oily liquid, which on cooling congeals toa mass
of resinous appearance ; when fused it may be ignited, and burns
with a bright flame, leaving a light charcoal, which is readily
consumed by heating it in the air. Sulphuric acid colours it
blood-red, the colour disappearing on the addition of water,
leaving the piperine unaltered if the action of the acid has not
_been prolonged (Pelletier). The solution of piperine in sulphuric
acid is yellow, becoming dark-brown, and finally green-brown
(Dragendorff). Nitric acid colours piperine successively greenish-
yellow, orange, and red, and dissolves it with a yellow colour,
the solution separating yellow floccules on the addition of water ;

by prolonging the action of the acid, oxalic acid and a yellow
bitter compound are produced (Pelletier). The resin resulting

_ from this reaction becomes blood-red on the addition of potassa,
and on heating the mixture piperidine is given off (Anderson,
1850). Piperine is a very weak base, and its salts are decom-
posed by water; crystallizable double salts, soluble in alcohol,
may be obtained with the chlorides of mercury, platinum, and
cadmium. By dry distillation with soda-lime piperidine is —
obtained. Boiled with alcoholic solution of potassa, piperine was
_ found by Babo and Keller (1856) to be resolved into piperic
acid, C”’H'°O*, and piperidine, C?H'*N. Piperic acid is in hair-
like, yellowish, needles which fuse at 150° C., and at a higher
temperature volatilize partly unaltered, at the same time
giving off a coumarin-like odour. Piperidine is a colourless
liquid of an ammoniacal and pepper-like odour, and when largely
diluted of a bitter taste. It boils at 106°C., has a strong alkaline
reaction, dissolves freely in water and alcohol, and yields with
acids crystallizable salts; the piperate of piperidine crystallizes
in silky scales, which, on being heated, give off a part of the

4

‘Pyridine with sodium. (National Dispensatory.) Heisch

174 PIPERACEZ.

(Analyst, ne 8 Ler the following analysis of pure and com-

2/28
Sieelos ls es 23
Pe eet bss 1s Esl 3 Pee
5 Sy agian Gee ae a ee
3 $ |g8/25/23 \438| 8 | se
4 ae < BEY. ae an |<
9-22) 4°35) 1°54| 1-51] -36| -73| 48°53
Black berry “) to t to to | to
14-36] 8-93) 3°34 | 8-83) 4-38 |1-57| 56°67
¢| 18°67) 1-28) -217) -84) +22 |... | 76-27
White berry ... t t ° oO to
(| 17-32, 8-78] -618| 2-8o| -69 | -22| 77-68

Fine — saree
vee L890, 1. “DSL “16 A, “531. ef TORE

Bas pepne er vs. 12°15) 13°48) 2°28 | 5-52) 5-68 | -53) 58°78
Aes
ound .. ..s...1 11°12) 14°7 | 2°02 | 4-07] 8-61 | -78| 35°85

W. Johnstone (Chem. News, Nov., 1889) has shown
pepper. contains a volatile alkaloid probably identical 1
piperidine. Black pepper yielded 0°56 per cent., and the bi
alone 0:74 per cent., of this base. White pepper yielded it:
but in smaller qienkty and the larger proportion of pi
in the husk, the author considers to be an explanation of
greater pungency of black pepper as compared with ¥
pepper. Long pepper was found to yield 0°34 per cent. ‘
alkaloid. (Year-Book Pharm., 1889.)

Commerce.—The exports of pepper from the Malabar C
: —_ —_ a 6 years have been—

oe ee me e

PIPERACE. 175

Aduiter ation, —As pepper is always sold whole in India, it is
seldom adulterated. We have occasionally met with an admix-
ture of the berries of Embelia Ribes, and the fruit of Mirabilis
Jalapa is stated to be sometimes mixed with it.

The abortive berries of P. troicium, Rovd., now considered
to be the wild form of P. nigrum, are known in Western India
as Pokali-miri, and the plant as Kokervel in Marathi and Murial-
tiga in Telugu. Garcia d’ Orta notices the drug under the
name of Canarese pepper, and observes that it never finds its
way to Portugal, but is valued as a medicine by the natives to
purge the brain of phlegm, to relieve toothache, and as a remedy
for cholera.

This plant was first described by Roxburgh, who f6und it
growing wild in the hills north of Samulcotta.

It was growing plentifully about every valley among the
hills, delighting in a moist rich soil, and well shaded by trees;
the flowers appearing in September and October, and the
berries ripening in March. Roxburgh commenced a large
plantation, and in 1789 it contained about 40,000 or 50,000
pepper-vines, occupying about 50 acres of land. The produce
was great, about 1,000 vines yielding from 500 to 1,000 lbs. of
berries. He discovered that the pepper of the female vines did
not ripen properly, but dropped while green, and that when
dried it had not the pungency of the common pepper; whereas
the pepper of those plants which had the hermaphrodite and
female flowers mixed on the same ament was exceedingly pun-
gent, and was reckoned by the merchants equal to the best
Malabar pepper.

Pliny (12,14) mentions abortive pepper seeds known by the
name of ‘‘ Bregma,” a word which in the Indian language sig-
nifies ‘dead. ’’ He remarks that it is the most pungent kind
of pepper.

Lendi-pipali. Globular catkins of a Species of pepper

occasionally found in the Bombay market, said to come from
_ Singapore, They are of the size of the pellets of sheep’s dung,
hence the name Lend{-p{pali. The taste is very hot and acrid.

176 PIPERACEL.

The individual fruits are nearly as large as cardamom seeds, the —
whole catkin having much the appearance of a small black
berry.

PIPER CHABA, Hunter.

Fig.—Miq. Ill. Pip., t. 34; Hayne, Arnz., Gewachs.
t. 21; Wight Ic., t. 1927. Long Pepper (Zng.), Poivre to
(Fr.).

Hab.—Cultivated in India and the Malay Islands.
fruit and stem.

Vernacular.—Chab (Hind.), Chai (Beng.), Chavak (Mar.).

PIPER LONGUM, Linn.

Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t. 244; Mig. Ill. Pip., t. 30; #
Arnz. Gewachs. wiv., t. 20; Wight Ic., t. 1928; Rheede
Mal. vii., ¢. 14.

Hab.—Hotter provinces of India. The fruit and re

Vernacular.—The fruit.—Pipal, Pippali (Hind.),
(Zam.), Pippallu (Tel.), Tippali (Mai.), Yippali (Can.
(Beng.), Bangéli-pipali(Mar.), Pipara (Guz.). The root
palscart Pipla-mil, Pipla-mur (Hind.), Tippili-mulam, »
pili-vér (Zam.), Modi, Pippali-katta (Tei.), Tonia Q
epee (Beng.), Pipali-miil (Mar., Guz.).

e History, Uses, &c.—Aswe have already stabil we

_ ithighly probable that long pepper was the kind of pepper
| known to the ancient inhabitants of Western Asia a au
(See P. nigrum.) In Sanskrit works on medicine, P. 1
described under the name of Pippali, and bears the evn
Chapalé, Péla, Mgadhi “growing in South Bihar,”
: Shaundi, &c. It is considered to be digestive, sweet, cold,
_- oMpeeoliont and io ‘useful in rheumatism, aoe

PIPERACEA. 177

equal parts, is prescribed by several writers as a useful com-
bination for catarrh and hoarseness. As an alterative tonic,
long pepper is recommended for use in a peculiar manner.
An infusion of three long peppers is to be taken with
honey on the first day, then for ten successive days the
dose is to be increased by three peppers every day, so
that on the tenth day the patient will take thirty at one
_ dose. Then the dose is to be gradually reduced by three daily,
and finally the medicine is to be omitted. Thus administered,
it is said to act as a valuable alterative tonic in paraplegia,
_ chronic cough, enlargements of the spleen and other abdominal
__ viscera. Long pepper and black pepper enter into the composi-
tion of several irritating snuffs; boiled with ginger, mustard
oil, buttermilk and curds it forms a liniment used in sciatica
and paralysis. In the Concan the roasted aments. are beaten
ap with honey and given in rheumatism; they are also
given powdered with black pepper and rock salt (two. parts
of long pepper, three of black, and one of salt) in half tola
doses for colic. Mahometan writers, under the name of
Darfilfil, describe long pepper as a resolvent. of cold humours;
they say it removes. obstructions of the liver and spleen, and
_ promotes.digestion by its tonic properties; moreover, it is.aphro-
disiacal, diuretic, and emmenagogue. Both it and the root
_ (Filfil-muiyeh) are much prescribed in palsy, gout, lumbago,
_ and other diseases of a similar nature. A collyrium of long
_ pepper is recommended for night blindness; made into. a lini-
_ ment it is applied to the bites of venomous reptiles. We learn
_ from Roxburgh ( Flora Indica, L., p. 155) “that it is in Bengal
only that Piper longum is cultivated for its pepper. When the
ament is full-grown, it is gathered and daily exposed to the.
sun till perfectly dry; after which it is packed in bags for sale,
The roots and thickest part of the creeping stems, when cut into
small pieces and dried, form a considerable article of commerce
all over India, under the name of Pippali-mula, for which pur-
pose it is particularly cultivated in many of the valleys ae
e Sircar mountains. This sort is more esteem d bears
a higher price than that of Bengal, where by fin, pe ae 3
TH.—23

178 ‘PIPRRACEA.

portion is cultivated. It, as well as the pepper, is chiefly 4
employed medicinally, and the consumption of beth these drugs a
is very great.” Piper longum was formerly cultivated at Poway,
near Bombay; it appears to grow well in gardens in Bombay,
but requires plenty of manure. =
Pippali-mula, with the synonyms Kana-mula, Katu-granthi, :
Ushana-granthika, Chataka and Chataka-shira, is described m
the Nighantas as having the same properties as long pepPe?
P. Chaba, which produces the long pepper of European bens!
merce, is the Chavi, Chavika and Chavya of Sanskrit writers.

_It is considered to have the same properties as P. /ongw™. The
aments are sold in the bazars as Mothi pippali, and the stem a8
Chab, Chai or Chavak, —

The oblong black pepper of Theophrastus (H. P., ix., 22) was
probably long pepper. Dioscorides, in his article upon the three
peppers, mentions a pepper root, and says it resembles Costus, has :

a hot taste, and causes salivation when chewed. This drug was

“probably Galangal, which is known as Pén-ki-jar or root <

e Piper Betle, because its odour somewhat resembles that ©
_ Betle leaves.

ig tate

men, © : is oceupied by the sm
embryo. The colourof commercial long aie is greyish-white,
as if it had been rolled in some earthy powder. When washed

_the spikes are reddish-brown, The drug has a burning arom® —

PIPERACE4. 199

aroma, but in the process of drying it gradually developes an
aromatie taste and odour.

Pippali-mula, or pepper root, when fresh, is a fleshy, crooked,
and knotted root about the size of a goose-quill, with many
smaller rootlets branching from it. The cortical portion is very
thick, and covered by a thin smooth brown epidermis. The
central woody column is.soft and divided into from 4 to 6 wedge-
shaped portions by from 4 to 6 very conspicuous medullary rays,
Microscopie structure.—The epidermis of the root consists of
several rows of tangentially extended brown cells. ‘Fhe paren-
chyme of the cortex is chiefly composed of large thin-walled cells
loaded with starch, and containing drops of essential oil.
Amongst them are scattered cells containing a refractive yel-
low substance (resin). The central woody column is also loaded
with starch, and contains as many resin-cells as. the cortex,
The medullary rays are abundantly provided with large scalari-_
form vessels.

Chemical compoesition.—The constituents ef long pepper are
the same as those of black pepper.

A third kind of long pepper is met with in the bazars, which
is known as Swaheli or Sugandhi-pippali, and is imported from
Zanzibar. It has a peculiarly fragrant odour, and is a

tered with honey as a remedy for cough; it has not the svi

_ of the other long peppers.
: he aments are from 1 to 24 inches in length, flexuose, mang
_ of them barren or nearly so, only one or two fruits having come
_ to maturity. These aments are almost filiform. The peduncle
is about one inch long. The mature fruit after being soaked in
water is 345 inch in diameter, pyriform, mucronate {the mucro
bifurcated), sessile ;it consists of a pulpy envelope enclosing a
somewhat pyriform seed resembling in structure that of other
peppers.

Commerce.—Three kinds of long pepper are met with in the
Indian market—Ilst, Singapore, which is identical with the long
pepper of European commerce ; 2nd, Bangéli, the produce of
P. longum, cultivated in Bengal; 3rd, Srenliclig imported from

180 PIPERACER.

Value, Singapore, Rs. 7 to Rs. 12 per maund of 41 Ibs.
Bengal, Rs. 9; Zanzibar, Rs. 5. Pippali-mul is also of three
kinds: Mirzapore, Rs. 10 to Rs. 40; Bengal, Rs. 7 to Rs. 18
Malwa, Rs. 50 per maund of 41 lbs.

PIPER CUBEBA, Linn. f.
Fig.—Benti. and Trim.,t.248. Cubebs (Eng.), Cubébes (Ei)
Hab.—Java. The fruit.

Vernacular.— Kabéb-chini, Kankol (Hind. ’), Kankola (I
Val-milaku (Zam.), Toka-miriyalu, Chalava-miriyalu (1
Val-mulaka (Ma/.), Bala-menasu (Can.), Chini-kabab (@

- History, Uses, &c.—Cubebs were introduced
medicine by the Arabian physicians of the Middle 4
Masudi in the 10th century stated them to be a production |
- Java, The author of the Sthah, who died in 1006, desert)
Kababeh as a certain medicine of China. Ibn Sina, about t
same time, notices it as having the properties of madder, b
more agreeable taste, and states that it is said to possess
and cold properties, but is really hot and dry in the
degree, a good deobstruent, and useful as an applica’
putrid sores and pustules in the mouth ; it is also good for
voice and for hepatic obstructions ;a valuable diuretic, expe
gravel and stone from the kidneys and bladder. He con
by stating that the application of the saliva, after chew
increases “the sexual orgasm. Later Mahometan writer
similar accounts of Kababeh, and say that it is called Hab-e
“ bridegroom’s berry,” and that Greek names for it are Ma
_ (#axAév?), and Karfiyun, evidently a corruption of xapmnqio%
_ name of an aromatic wood mentioned by Paulus Aigineta. —
appears that cubebs were at one time known as Fructus cay
siorum in Europe. In the Raja Nirghanta, which was writt
about 600 years ago, cubebs appear under the name of K
and the samename appears inthe Hindi and Marathi Nighat
Madanpal gives Katuka-kola, “pungent pepper,” as a synony
for it. All the Sanskrit names appear to be of compere
recent origin, The authors of the ree

we

PIP#RACEA. 181

attention to the fact that the action of cubebs upon the urino-
genital organs, though known to the old Arabian physicians,
was unknown to modern European writers on Materia Medica at
the commencement of the present century. According to
Crawfurd, its importation into Europe, which had long been
discontinued, recommenced in 1815, in consequence of its
medicinal virtues having been brought to the knowledge of the
English medical officers serving in Java, by their Hindu
servants. (Op. cit., 2nd Ed., p. 585.) In earlier times cubeb
pepper was used in Europe asa spice, as it still is, to some
extent, in the East.

Description.—The fruits are elevated on a kind of stalk,
formed from the contraction of the base of the fruit itself, so
that they are not really but only apparently stalked.

The dry berries are spherical, wrinkled, of a brown colour,
and are easily distinguished from black pepper by the pedicel
at their base; beneath the pericarp is a nut which contains the
seed. The albumen is white and oily. As the fruit is gathered
when immature, the drug usually consists of little else than the
pericarp. The mature fruit which is sometimes met with in
the Indian Bazars should be rejected.

Microscopie structure.—The pericarp consists of an epidermis,
beneath which is an interrupted row of small thick-walled cells.
Within this the parenchyme is composed of cells containing
starch and oil; in the latter, bundles of needle-shaped crystals
of cubebin may be observed; lastly, the innermost layer of the
pericarp is formed by several rows of tangentially extended
cells containing essential oil. The nut is yellow and brittle
The seed when present is seen to contain crystals of cubebin,

Chemical composition.—The most obvious constituent of cubebs
is the volatile oil, the proportion of which yielded by the drug
varies from 4 to 13 per cent. The oil, when freshly distilled, is
slightly greenish, but becomes colourless on rectification, It
has the odour of cubebs, and a warm aromatic comphoraceous
taste. Its density varies between 920 and 936 at 15°C. The

causes of the great variation in the yield of oil may be found in-

dissolves freely i in §iolling alcohol, but is mostly deposites

182 PIPERACE A.

the constitution of the drug itself, as well as in thse alterabilit
of the oil, and the fact that its prevailing constituents d
not begin to boil below 264°C. Cubeb oil was shown Db
Ovlialore to be a mixture of a turpene boiling at 158°
163°, which is present to a very small amount, and two
of the formula C'°H**, boiling at 262° to 265° €. One
the latter deviates: the plane ‘of polarization strongly to th
left, and yields a erystalline compound, "HCl, melti
at 118°C. The other hydrocarbon is less lwvegyrate,
does not combine with HCl. (Deut. Chem. Ges. Ber.,
1357.) Cubeb oil mixes with glacial acetic acid in all
tions; iodine gives a violet coloration without perceptil
reaction ; with nitric acid it becomes opaque, and on heating
pale red tint is afforded. (Brannt.) One part of oil, dil
with about 20 parts of bisulphide of carbon, assumes at irs
greenish, and afterwards a blue coloration, if one drop af
mixture of equal weights of concentrated sulphuric and niti
acids is shaken with “the solution. The oil distilled f
cubebs, on cooling after a time, is stated to deposit large,
parent, inodorous octohedra of camphor of cubebs, C?°H* + 2
belonging to the rhombic system, which melt at 63°,
pablime at 145°. But the authors of Pharmacographia f
to obtain crystals after keeping the oil of fresh cubebs for
years in contact with water, to which a little nitric acid
been added.

' Another constituent of cubebs is ( Mubebin, crystals of
© may sometimes be seen in the pericarp even with a commo
~ It was discovered by Soubeiran and Capitaine in 1839 ;
inodorous substance, crystallizing in small needles or
melting at 125°, having a bitter taste in alcoholic solution.

ited u ;

cooling; it requires 30 parts of cold ether for solution, and is
—_— soluble in chloroform. Fliickiger and Ha
d this solution to be slightly levogyre, a to turn
ee of concentrated sulphuric acid. If the soluti
eubebin in chloroform is shaken with phosphoric anhyd1
tees turns ~ and gradi red 0: n abso

PIPERACEZ. 183

moisture. Cubebin is nearly insoluble in eold, but slightly
soluble in hot water. Bernatzik (1866) obtained from ecubebs
0°40 per cent. of cubebin, Schmidt (1870) 2°5 per cent. The
crystals, which are deposited in an alcoholic or ethereal extract
of cubebs, consist of impure cubebin. Cubebin is devoid of
any remarkable therapeutic action ; its composition, according to
Weidel (1877), answers to the formula C’*H"°O* ; by melting it
with caustic potash, if is resolved into acetic and protocatechuic

acids. :
2 The resin extracted from cubebs consists of an indifferent
portion nearly 3 per cent., and of Cubebic Acid, amounting to
about 1 per cent. of the drug. Both are amorphous, according
to Schmidt, like the salts of cubebic acid. Bernatzik, however,
found some, as the barium salt, to be erystallizable. Schulze
(1873) prepared cubebic acid from the crystallized sodium-salt,
but was unable to obtain it crystalline. The resins, the
indifferent as well as the acid, possess the therapeutic
properties of the drag. Schmidt further pointed out the
presence in cubebs of gum (8 per cent.), fatty oil, and malates
of magnesium and calcium. The yield of ash, according to
Warnecke, is 5°45 per cent.
Commerce.—Bombay is supplied with the dreg from Singa-
pore. There is a good demand for it, and the consumption in
native practice appears to be increasing. Value—Formerly
cubebs was obtainable in the Indian markets at from 4 to 5
annas per lb., but for the last eight years the price has been
seldem less than Re. } per lb.

PIPER BETLE, Linn.

Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 2926 ; Mig. Til. Pip., ¢. 39; Bot. Mag.,
€. 3132; Rheede, Hort. Mal. vii., t.15. Betle Pepper (Enyg.),
Porvrier de Betel (Fr.).

Hab.—Cultivated in the hotter parts of India, Ceylon, and
Malay Islands. The leaves. —

Vernacular,—Pan (Hind., Beng., Guz., Mar. ), Vettilai ( Zam.),
Naga-valli (7el.), Vetrila (Mad), Viledele (Can.).

184 , PIPERACE.

History, Uses, &c.—According to the Hitopadesa, the
Betle-leaf (taémbila) has thirteen properties (Tambilasya tray
dasha gunih svarge’pi te durlabhah). It is sour, bitter, heatin,
sweet, salt, astringent ; it expels flatulence (vataghna), phlegm
(kaphanisana), worms (krimihara); it removes bad odours
beautifies the mouth, cleans it, and excites voluptuous sensations.
According to Hindu tradition, the plant (Ndga-valli) wa
brought from heaven by Arjuna, who stole a branch of it, which
he planted on his return toearth. The leaves with Betle-nut and
spices form the vira, or pén-stipari, so much used by the nativ
India as a token of civility oraffection. Itisalso given in confirm
ation of a pledge, promise, or betrothal, and, among the Raj
is Sometimes exchanged asa challenge; thus the expression
uthana signifies “to take up the gauntlet,” or take upon ©
self any enterprise ; bira dalna, “to propose a premium” #
the performance of a task: the phrase originated in a cus

instance, in the first story of the “ Vetalapanchavinshati,”
king, when he sends the courtesan to seduce the penitent W4
was suspended from a tree, nourishing himself with a sm Kt
gives her a bira, ira dena signifies “‘to dismiss” either |
courteous sense or otherwise. A dira is sometimes the ¢¢
of a bribe, and a bira of seven leaves (sat pan ka bira) 18 8&2
by the father of the bride to the bridegroom as a sign ©
betroth: t marriages the bride or bridegroom places a vi"
cigarette-shaped viva between the teeth, for the other party .
partake of by biting off the projecting half; one of the tricks
played on such occasions is to conceal a small piece of stick
_ this viri, so that the biting it in two is not an easy matter.
The betle-leaf was probably the Malabathron or Indian 1
of the Greeks, sometimes called simply “leaf” (¢vAAsv), and sold
in rolls in a dried state. Dioscorides speaks of its being thread-
ed on strings to dry, a practice which, before the introduction
_ of steam carriage by sea, was common in Bombay among the
Indian traders who sent the leaves to their friends at foreig®
ports. The passage in Dioscorides év tT@ pedavitely re dpavator ei

PIPERACEA. 185

oAdcAnpov is probably corrupt, and should be as suggested by his
commentator, M. Vergilius, €v Tw padaki€ew te GOpavorov Kai édoxAnpov,
a reading which he found in one manuscript. As regards the
fabulous growth of Malabathron as recorded by Dioscorides, it
may possibly have originated from a confused account of the
method of ripening betle leaves followed in some parts of India.
The author of the Makhzan states that the leaves, which, when
plucked, are always green, are packed in a large kind of basket
and covered with rice or wheat straw. A hole is then dug in
the ground, of the size of the basket, and a fire lighted
in it until the ground becomes warm. The fire is then removed,
and the basket of leaves is placed in the hole and covered with
stones or any heavy weight so as to press the leaves together;
it is kept in this position for 24 hours, and after removal the
basket is exposed to the night dew, if it is the hot season, or
kept in a warm place, if it is the eold season, until the leavesare
of a pale yellow colour and become brittle. That Malabathron
was not a cinnamon leaf, is, we think, clear from Dioscorides
in his chapter on Cassia, describing its leaves as like those of
the pepper plant, thus showing that he was acquainted with
cinnamon leaves as distinct from Malabathron.

Ibn Sima describes Témbitil as cold and dry, astringent and
desiccative, and notices its use by the Hindus. The author of
the Makhzan-el-Adwiya, who wrote in India, gives a full account
of the different varieties of Betle-leaf produced by cultivation;
of the method of ripening the leaves for the market; and of
their properties and uses.

Dott (Hind. Mat. Med., p. 244) has the following concise
account of their uses:—< The leaves of this creeper are, as is
well known, masticated by the natives of India. The poorer
classes make their packet of betle with the addition of lime,
catechu, and betle-nuts. The rich add cardamoms, nutmegs,
cloves, camphor, and other aromatics; betle-leaf thus chewed
acts as a gentle stimulant and exhilarant. Those accustomed to
its use feel a sense of langour when deprived of it. The ancient
Hindu writers recommend that betle-leaf should be taken early
in the morning, after meals and at bed-time. According to

IIT,—24

Jena, has found that the essential oil is of much use in cata

186 PIPERACED. a

Susruta, it is aromatic, carminative, stimulant, and astringent
It sweetens the breath, improves the voice, and removes all
foulness from the mouth. According to other writers it acti
as an aphrodisiac. Medicinally it is said to be useful in diseases
supposed to be caused by deranged phlegm, and its juice
much used as an adjunct to pills administered in these diseases,
the pills being rubbed into an emulsion with the juice of

used as a domestic remedy in various ways. ‘The stalk of the
leaf smeared with oil is introduced into the rectum in consti]
tion and tympanitis of children, with the object of inducing
bowels to act. The leaves are applied to the temples in headae
for relieving pain, to painful and swollen glands for promo

checking the secretion of milk. Pén leaves are u
a Aseeey for foul ulcers, which seem to improve 4
them

The spittle, after chewing pan sipéri, is red, and is fi
ejected by natives, preferably over recently white-
walls ; the dry stains are often mistaken by the police for bl
stains, and pieces of plaster, leaves, grass, &c., thus we
have frequently been forwarded to the Chemical Exam
Bengal, for detection of blood !

Of late years the medicinal properties of betle leaves
been investigated in Europe. Dr. Kleinstuck of Zwatzen,

Culdination, —The betle mer (pdén-mala) is a work of |
The best site is the well-drained alluvial bank of a river or stream- :
The vine is rather fond of an iron ob but lime, salt, or soda are
fatal toit. The well must last throughout the year, be perf
sweet, and not more than forty Se feet at deep, otherwise the .

| PIPERACEA. 187
j

raising the water eats up the greater part of the profits, The
betle-leaf, it is said, cannot be grown from channel water, which
is very cold. After the site has been chosen, the next point is
to fence it from cattle, thieves, and strong winds. First is an
outer line (kumpan) of substantial wicker-work, split bamboos,
Zizyphus twigs, or other pliable material. Inside of this fence
is a thick milk-bush hedge.* Then comes a belt of the large
___ castor plant, and last of all, a row of plantains. The garden is
laid out in an invarying pattern. The whole, crosed by water
_ channels and roads, forms beds of different shapes and sizes.
Each bed, known by a particular name, such as the cheritang,
the bertang, and the véfu, is stocked with a certain number of
vines, so that the outturn and other particulars of a garden can
be calculated with great nicety. After the ground has been
laid out and properly levelled, tree seeds are sown for the vines
_ totrainon. Round the edge of each bed is a line of shevri (Ses-
bania egyptiaca), and in thecentre from two to three feet apart,
the seeds of hadga (Sesbania grandiflora) and pangéra (Erythrina
indica), and from four to six feet apart, single seeds of the nimb
(Melia Azadirachta), are planted. In addition to these, the popar
(Oarica Papaya), singly, and plantains in pairs are dotted about,
according to the amount of shade required. These seeds are
sown in the first week in June (mriga nakshatra), and after
that, hand-weeding and watering every eight days is all that is
wanted up to the end of December (pushya nakshatra), when
the nurse-trees are eighteen inches to two feet high, or large
enough for planting the-vines. From the tops of the best ripened
_ shoots, in the old plantations, seven-inch cuttings are taken,
_ They are first made into small bundles, wrapped in plantain
leaves, soaked in the water they have been accustomed to,
carried to the new plantation, soaked in the new water, and all but
the tips buried in the ground. For some time water is given
daily ; later on once in two days ; and afterwards, except during
the hot months when it is given every other day, once in six
days. From each unburied tip a shoot springs. When they
are a few inches long, the shoots are led up the stems of the

* Euphorbia neriifolia. s

> 3k i haa,

188 PIPERACE.

nurse-trees, and lightly tied with strips of a dried sedge —
(path), so elastic that, without untying it, the pressure’ of
the growing vine keeps it loose. When the vine has grown
to the proper height, it is turned back and trained down
until it reaches the ground, where it is layered in the earth —
and again turned up. This is repeated until the tree-stem is”
fully clothed with vines, when the whole is firmly tied with th
dried reeds of the davéla* grass. After this the management of
the plantation closely resembles the cultivation of the grape vine
in Southern Europe. Leaf-pickmg may be begun eighteen
months after planting, but in the best gardens it is put off ti
the end of the second year. The leaves may be gathered green
and ripened artificially, or they may be left to ripen on me —
vine, though this reduces their value. Theleaf-picker uses both —

which nip the leaves clean off without wrenching the p
_ Fhe vine-grower is either himself a leaf-dealer, or he sells his
crop in bulk to a leaf-dealer. 'Fheir table of measures is: 40
leaves make a kavli; 44 kavlis a kurtan; and four kurtans
70,400 leaves an ojhe. Im retail the leaves are sold at f
p. 174.) 9

Description.—The leaves are about five inches I
broadly ovate, acuminate, obliquely cordate at the base, 5 to i
nerved, coriaceous, and. glossy on the upper surface : they hav

a burning, aromatie and bitter taste. 2

Ms cashed composition.—L.. 8. Kemp of Bombay (1885), b

peculiar odour of the leaf, but the light oil being more aromatic.
These oils oxidised rapidly, losing their characteristic ethereal
odour. The heavy oil was freely soluble in aleohol and ether;
sparingly so in chloroform. It had a specific gravity of 1-046
at 84° F'., and was slightly levogyre, (a) j=—'54 for a eolumD
100 mm. long, Prof. J. F. Eijkman’s results with oil of betle,

reper oot
by this ata > » and mene wees Rak, are both

PIPERACE, 189

distilled by himself from fresh leaves, which had been in part
reported in 1888, have been communicated to the German
Chemical Society (Berichte, 1889, pp. 2736-2754). The oil was
pale greenish-yellow, became golden-yellow and brown on
exposure, was slightly leevogyre, and had the sp. gr. 0-969 at
15°C. Caustic potash removed from the oil chavicol, a phenol of
sp. gr. 1-030 at 15°C., boiling between 236° and 238°C., and
having a peculiar odour, somewhat resembling that of creasote ;
its composition is C9H'!°O ; its aqueous solution is coloured
blue by ferric chloride, the colour disappearing on the addition
of alcohol; its constitution is expressed by the formula
OH (1)
OF oops (3).

The crude chavicol seems to contain a small quantity of
a phenol of somewhat higher boiling point, and in aleoholic
solution becoming blue with ferric chloride. Betle oil,
freed from phenol, did not yield, on fractional distillation,
a pure compound in sufficient quantity for examination. The

~ fraction between 173° and 176° contained several terpenes, but

no pinene, and hada very agreeable lemon-like odour, while
a mint-like odour was observed in the fraction between 190°
and 220°, From the higher boiling fraction a hydrocarbon,
sesquiterpene, was obtained, having a slight odour, boiling at
260° C., and in acetic solution acquiring a deep indigo-blue
colour with bromine. Eijkman calls attention to the betle oil
_ obtained by Schimmel & Co. from dried leaves, and shows that
_ the oil did not contain the above compounds to which the fresh
_ leaves owe their characteristic odour, and which must have been
dissipated by drying, or oxidised by exposure, or lost by
remaining dissolved in the water; the use of steam under pres-
sure may have volatilized more of the high-boiling phenol than
is obtainable by ordmary distillation.

The oil distilled from the dry leaves by Messrs. Schimmel
& Co. was a slightly brown-coloured liquid, sp. gr. 1024 at 15°C.
It consisted up to about % or 3? of a phenol, the boiling
point of which in partial vacuum, under a pressure of 12 mm.,
lay at 131°—132° C,; under ordinary atmospheric pressure it

190 PIPERAOE.

underwent decomposition on boiling. The sp. gr. of the phenol —
was 1-067 at 15°C. Examination of the oxidation products,

acetyl compound and methyl ether, showed that this compound
was not eugenol, but an isomer, the composition of the new
compound (iso-eugenol) and of eugenol being represented as
follows :— aa

Tso-eugenol, Eugenol.
Or (1) O° H® ¢f)
O° H® {on (3) ag Be } ocr (3)
OC H* (4) H (4)

The second constituent of the oil boiled practically between —
250° and 275° C., had a very agreeable tea-like odour, a
consisted for the greater part of a sesquiterpene Cc’
cubebene, which is characterized by its dihydrochlorate mé
at 117°—118°C. (Berichte von Schimmel & Co., 1887.)

_ At the Narturforscher Meeting in 1888, Professor Eijkm
reported that among the constituents of the essential oil distill
from fresh betle leaves, he had found a characteristic compout
having the odour of the leaves and the constitution of p
phenol, which he designated “chavicol,”? About the same u
Messrs. Schimmel announced that the phenol present in
higher-boiling factions of the oil distilled from air-dried
leaves corresponded completely with eugenol, though su
sequently they hey & ee ee Ere, ee ae ph 1 oht: !
ed by them was not eugenol, but an isomer (Pharm. Journ.
xix., 803.) With a view to clearing up the apparent ¢
diction, Prof. Eijkman has re-examined the oil distilled
himself from the fresh leaves, and some distilled from dry | ae
Messrs. Schimmel, with the result of confirmin g the presence
in the former of chayvicol, boiling at 236° to 238° C., and in thé
latter of the isomer of eugenol, boiling at 254° to 255°, which
‘proved to be orthomethoxychavicol (Berichte, xxii., 2735)
_ It would seem probable, therefore, that both phenols occur in the
leaves, and that chavicol being the more volatile, had practically
disappeared from the dried leaves, while the method of distill:
Hon adopted by Messrs. Sc aimmel favoured the more comp!

PIPBRACER. | 191

removal of the higher-boiling compound. Some experiments
made with chavicol are said to have shown it to be a powerful
antiseptic, it being five times stronger as a bacteriacide than
carbolic acid, and twice as strong as eugenol, (Pharm. Journ.,
Nov. 30th, 1889.)

A sample of oil distilled from fresh betel leaves in Manila,
at the request of Messrs. Schimmel, is described as of a golden
yellow colour, possessing a pronounced odour of betelphenol
and having a specific gravity of 1-044 at 15° C, The phenol
was separated from the oil by the method of Bertram and
Gildemeister, and during the purification by distillation at a
_ pressure of 11 mm. it passed over quite regularly between 128°
4 and 129°, a behaviour that pointed to a homogeneous body.
_ By treatment of the phenol with benzoyl chloride a benzoyl
4 compound was obtained that crystallized in scales and melted
4 at 50°. It was evident that this was not a mixture of benzoyl
_ compounds, as the portion that crystallized first had the same
a melting-point as that which crystallized last; it followed,
_ therefore, that it represented no other phenol than betelphenol.
_ Other constituents occur in this oil only in a small quantity,
and of these, to judge from the boiling point, terpenes form
only a small fraction. The results of the examination of betel
oil up to the present time may therefore be summed up as
follows :—

(1) Oil distilled from fresh leaves from Java (Eijkman),
contained besides terpenes and other bodies, chavicol and
betelphenol.
_ (2) Oil from dried Siam leaves consisted of sesquiterpene and
betelphenol.

(3) Oil distilled from fresh leaves (Java) contained terpenes,
betelphenol and a small quantity of another phenol (probably
chavicol), the nature of which could not be determined, from
want of material (melting point of the benzoyl composed
72°-73°).

(4) Oil from fresh leaves distilled in Manila contained no
her phenol than betelphenol.

J

192 MYRISTICEA.

Betelphenol was contained in all the oils, whether derived
from Java, Siam or Manila, or from fresh or dry leaves;
. would therefore appear to be a characteristic constituent |
betle oil. (Berichte v. Schimmel & Co., Oct. 1891.)

MYRISTICE,

MYRISTICA FRAGRANS, Houtt.

Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t. 218 ; Reichb. des i. t. 276-2
Nees, Pl. Med., t. 1383; Rumph. Herb. Amb., ii., t. 4. Nut
(Zing.), Muscade (Fr.), Mace (Eng.), Macis (F).

Hab.—Moluccas. Cultivated in Penang, Malay I
and Zanzibar. The seeds and arillus.

Vernacular.—Nutmegs—Jaiphal (Hind., Beng., Guz.
Jadikai (Tam.), Jaji-kaya (Tel.), Jéjikayi (Can.), Jatikka
Mace—Javitri, Jépatri( Hind.), J&dipattiri (Tam.), Jépatri
Tel.), Jétipattiri (Mal.), Jotri (Beng.), Jayapatri (Mar),
oe Japatri (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—Natmegs, in Sanskrit Tati
Jatiphala, are mentioned by Susruta, and in the Nighantas
various synonyms, such as J&ti-kosha, Jati-sara, Shélika,
Majja-sdra ; they are considered to be hot, digestive, ca mi
expectorant and anthelmintic. Mace iscalled J. Ati-pattri, a
said to have similar properties. Both of these spices provi
became known in India through the Hindu colonists in Java
the Eastern Islands. From India they would appear
reached Persia and Eastern Europe. The authors
Pharmacographia remark that nutmegs were probably kn sant
Constantinople about the year 540. The Arabs e
first became acquainted with nutmegs through the Pe
as their name Jouz-bawwa is a corruption of the P
Gauz-i-buya, “fragrant nut.” Masudi, who travelled in |
East in A.D. 916—920, oe ons they were

MYRISTICR ZA. 193

from the Zerbid Islands. Ibn Sina describes both nutmegs
and mace (Basbiseh). Edrisi, who wrote in the middle of the
12th century, mentions both nutmegs and mace (Basbdseh)
as articles of impert into Aden. By the end of the 12th
century both of these spices were well known in Continental
EKurope.

Mir Muhummad Husain says that the Dutch keep the trade
in their own hands, but that he has heard that the tree is now.
____ cultivated inSounda in Southern India. Whether he was rightly
informed with regard to Sounda, we are unable to say. But
that his information was substantially correct, there can be no
doubt, as Ainslie tells us that in his time the true nutmeg tree
was growing in the Tinnevelly District, and produced pretty
good fruit. The tree has also been introduced into Ceylen and
Zanzibar, and appears to flourish in the warm moist climates of
those islands.

Mahometan doctors describe nutmegs and mace as stimulating,
narcotic, digestive, tonic, and aphrodisiac, useful in choleraic

external application in nervous headache, palsy, &c.; applied round
the eyes it is thought to strengthen the sight. The expressed
oil of nutmegs is imported into India from Banda, andis known |
as Jawitri-ka-tel (oil of mace). It was formerly exclusively
brought into European commerce v?é Holland, in oblong cakes
having nearly the form of common bricks, but somewhat
smaller, and packed in monocotyledonous leaves, commonly
_ called “flag leaves.” At the present time much of the oil is
_ Manufactured in Europe, and put up in the same shape, but
packed in paper. When discoloured and hardened by age, the
oil is called “ Banda soap.” Oil of mace is manufactured by
exposing imperfect and broken nutmegs, reduced to a paste
and enclosed in a bag, to steam, and then pressing the bag
_ between heated iron plates. The yield is about 20 to 23 per

cent. (Brannt.) The bark of the tree is astringent. (Pereira,
Mat. Med., ii., p. 475.) We have found nutmegs and their —
T.—25

194, MY RISTICEZ.

essential oil a valuable adjunct to other drugs in the treatmen
of diarrhea and dysentery ; they appear to relieve the pain.

Description.—The following excellent description of the
nutmeg fruit is taken from the Pharmacographia :— The fr
of Myristica fragrans is a pendulous, globose drupe, abo
2 inches in diameter, and not unlike a small round pear. It
marked by a furrow which passes round it, and by which a
maturity its thick fleshy pericarp splits into two pieces, exhi-
biting in its interior a single seed, enveloped in a fleshy foli
ceous mantle or arillus, of fine erimson hue, which is m
The dark-brown, shining ovate seed is marked with impressions
corresponding to the lobes of the arillus; and on one side, whick
is of paler hue and slightly flattened, a line indicating t
raphe may be observed. _

The bony testa does not find its way into European commerce
the so-called nutmeg being merely the kernel or nacleas of #
seed. Nutmegs exhibit neatly the form of their outers
with a corresponding diminution in size. The London des
esteem them in proportion to their size, the largest, which a
about one inch long by 8, of an inch broad, and four of w
will weigh an ounce, fetching the highest price. If not dre
with lime, they are of a greyish-brown, smooth yet coarsel
rowed and veined lon gitudinally, marked on the flatter si
with a shallow groove. A transverse section shows that
inner seed coat (endopleura) penetrates into the albume
long, narrow brown strips, reaching the centre of the s

aromatic fragrance, with a spicy rather acrid taste.” The
expressed oil of nutmeg is of the consistence of tallow,

_more friable, orange-coloured, and of a fragrant, spicy 1
and odour. It has a Sp. gr. of 990 (Brannt), 2

MY RISTIOCLA. 195

Microscopie structure.—The brown covering of the nutmeg is
formed by the endopleura, which also dips in and forms numer-
eus processes which divide the albumen in every direction; it
is composed of soft-walled brown cells, which on the external
surface are small and flat, but much larger in the processes
already mentioned. The cell-structure of the albumen is load-
ed with starch and fatty matter, some of which is crystalline.

Herr A. Tschirch states that the aril of Myristica fragrans
furnishes a good illustration of the presence of amylodextrin as
a normal cell-content in the place of starch. It is distinguish-
ed from true starch by being stained reddish-brown instead of
blue by an aqueous solution of iodine. The grains of amylo-
dextrin are from 2 to 10 » in diameter, and do not appear to
contain even a nucleus of starch. They have usually some-
what the form of a rod, and are often curved or coiled ; less
often they are roundish or disc-shaped; they do not usually
exhibit any evident stratification.

Chemical composition.—Nutmegs contain from 2 to 8 per
cent. of volatile oil, 25 to 30 per cent. of fat, starch, protein
compounds, &c. The most volatile portion of the oil, after treat-
ment with sodium, was found, by Cloéz, to be a levogyre hy-.
drocarbon, C!°H'®, having the odour: of the nut, and boiling at
165°C. It is the myristicene of Gladstone, who named the oxy-
genated portion myristicol, C!°H!*O ; this is dextrogyre, boils at
224° C., and does not, like menthol and carvol, yield a crystalline
eompound with H’S, The nutmeg camphor of John, or myristicin
of Gmelin, which separates sometimes.on standing, was ascer-
tained by Fliickiger to be myristic acid. From the expressed
oil of nutmeg or nutmeg butter, cold alcohol dissolves about
6 per cent. of volatile oil and 24 per cent. of fat, accompanied
by brown-yellow resinous matter, which has not been further
examined. The remaining: pulverulent white fat is myristin,
C°H*(C*H"0*)*, which crystallizes from hot alcohol or ether
and fuses at 31°C. Heintz found the melting-point of
myristic acid to be 53°8°C. Schmidt and Remer found 3 to 4

_ per cent. of free myristic acid, with a little stearic acid.

-—

: old Mahometan physicians ‘have been confirmed by
Rumphius,

196 MY RISTICEA.

The most important constituent of mace is the volatile o
which is present to the amount of about 8 per cent., bul

terpene, C'°H"®, called macene, which yields a crystallizab
compound with ee acid gas, and appeurs to be aa
to, but, by Koller, considered identical with, the myristicene ¢
oil of nutmeg. The oxygenated portion of the volatile
is still less known than the terpene. Henry found red
soluble, and yellow fat insoluble, in alcohel, but the 24°5 per ¢
residue obtained. by Fliickiger (Pharmacographia} with boil
ether and drying at 100° C. appeared to have consisted sol
resin and semi-resinified volatile oil. The same author 0
with aleohol I 04 per cent. of uncrystallizable sugar,
hot water 1-8 per cent. of a body which turned blue,
drying reddish-violet, with iodine, and is probably inte
between starch and mucilage. (Wational Disp.) J. &
( Berichte, 23, 1803) has faolatad: by fractional distillation
mace or rather nutmeg oil, a bod sessing the I
of mace, which he jitls fh yristictn, and which has. the com
represented by C’*H'"O*. The correctness of the fo
controlled by the preparation of a bromine derivative
myristicin, C’*H'*Br? O*, which melts at 105° C. |

According to Warnecke, powdered nutmegs yield 41-2
cent. of fat when boiled for two hours in a reflux cond
with benzol, and the dried residual powder gives 3°77 per
of ash. Mace yields 1:39 per cent. of ash, and after 1
of 30°13 per cent. of fat, 2°74 per cent.

| Toxicology.—The narcotic effects of nutmegs noticed D

Lobel, Schmid and Cullen, and more ook
ments upon man and animals agree in showing | that

have a narcotic and intoxicating: ection. Ina a case
Cullen, tw,

MYRISTICEA,. 197

Commerce.—Value, Re. 1-4-0 to Re. 1-8-0 per Ib. The nut-

megs imported into India run from 100 to 180 to the pound; the

larger seeds never make their appearance in this market. In-

deed the native retail dealers prefer small seeds, as they buy by
weight and sell by number.

MYRISTICA MALABARICA, Lamk.
Fig.—Bedd. Fl. Sylv., t. 269; Rheede, Hort. Mail. iv., t. 5.
Hab.—Concan, Canara, N. Malabar. The seed and arillus,
Vernacular.—Ran-jaiphal, Rémphal (Mar.), Panam-palka

(Mal.\. The Mace—Rémpatri (Mar., Guz.).
History, Uses, &c,—This drug does not appear to have
been known to the older Hindu and Mahometan medical writers,
_ but the following extract from the Makhzan-el-Adwiya seems
_ toapply toit. Speaking of true nutmegs, the author says :—
_ ‘Latterly the English have discovered a kind of nutmeg in
_ Southern India, which is longer than the true nutmeg and
softer, but is much inferior to it in oiliness, odour, and medicinal
properties,” (Makhzan, article “ Jouz-bawwa.”’)

Itisthe Vue myristiea mas of Clusius, and the Panam-palea of

_ Rheede, who says that the Turkish and Jewish merchants use
_ the nutmegs and mace for adulteration. Rumpbius (i.,185)
notices it under the name of Mannetjes-nooten, and states that it
is used by the Javanese and Malays asa remedy for headache and
as an aphrodisiac, and is worn round the neck as a protection
from boils. It is also used by the Indians in Amboyna, com-
bined with opium and roasted unripe plantains, in dysentery.
According to the editor of the Pharmacopeia of India, the
seed is used medicinally in the Madras Presidency; it yields,
when bruised and subjected to boiling, a considerable quantity of
- concrete oil, analogous to expressed oil of nutmeg, which is said
_ to be an efficacious application to indolent ulcers, allaying pain
_ and establishing healthy action. An ointment may be made by
_ melting it with sweet oil. The seeds are used for similar pur-
poses in Bombay in the form ofa /ép, and the oil is also extracted.

198 MYRISTICEZL.

Recently, the arillus, under the name of ‘Bombay mace,” has —
made its appearance in the European markets, for the purpose
of adulterating true mace. (Confer. A. Fschireh in Phaxmaceut.
Zeitung, 1881, No. 74.) In Bombay it is used as a spice. :

Description.—M. malabarica bears an oblong, tawny,
hairy fruit, 24 to 3 inches long, with a lucumose arillus, the
lobes of which are twisted and folded into a cone at the top
and are longer and thinner than those of true mace. 41
arillus is of a dark brownish-red colour, and on the inside h
adhering to it a thin papery membrance of a light-brown colou
The shell § is hard and brittle, and contains an elongated kernel
resembling a nutmeg, and from 1} to 2 inches long; when cv
in two it is seen to have the same ruminated structure, but t
odour is fruity, with hardly any aroma, Similarly, the
is deficient in odour and flavour. |

Microscopic structure—The epidermal cells of the arillus
radially elongated, narrow, and twice as high as those of |
mace, which are tangentially elongated ; their walls show q
cellulose reaction with iodine and sulphuric acid, and with chi
ride of zinc and iodine swell and turn faintly blue. The ¢
cells are very numerous, located near the epidermis on bo
sides, often close together in groups. of two or three, 0
shape, somewhat radially elongated, and contain a dark-y I
usually, resinified oil, frequently also a brownish resin.
Tschirch.) The external covering of the seed is formed by the
compressed cells of the endopleura, and is thicker than that of
the trué nutmeg; the processes which penetrate the albu
are composed of very large cells loaded with a viscid reddish-
brown substance, which has an astringent and somewhat
taste. The albumen is composed of -large cells loaded with
starch ; some of the cells and their contents are of a reddit
brown colour. There is no crystalline fat visible.

Towicology. —Rumphius relates that in 1683 a minister of
Amboyna was given by his wife three roasted nuts, in mistake
for ~ideepe. * to cure a chronic diarrhea; in a few hours he

became giddy, ~— —— ee and aed ic nor

LAURINEZ. 199

_ did he get any relief until he had taken several cups of tea and
_ been blooded. He then slept profoundly and perspired very
_ freely. On waking, no bad effects remained, and the diarrhea
_ had ceased. Rumphius remarks that if he had taken three real

nutmegs, he would have suffered much more.

— Commerce.—Rémpatri is now worth about Rs. 10 per maund

of 373 lbs.; formerly it was much cheaper. The nutmegs fetch

Rs. 2 per maund of 37% Ibs. According to Dr. Hefelmann, the

4 adulteration of powdered mace in Germany generally consists

in the addition of Bo.nbay mace, or of other vegetable material

(leguminous fruits) coloured with turmeric. The presence of

_ the latter is shown by the presence of starch cells which are not

" present in mace. Bombay mace may be detected by boiling the

suspected sample with alcohol and filtering through a white

_ filter; in the case of pure mace, the filter is stained a faint

_ yellow, but in the presence of Bombay mace, the filter, especially |
4 the edge, is coloured red. Another more delicate test is to

_ add Goulard’s extract to the alcoholic filtrate; with pure mace

_ only a white turbidity is occasioned, but when Bombay mace

- is present, a red turbidity is obtained. The reaction given by

_ turmeric is similar, but it may be distinguished from that of
_ Bombay mace in the following manner:—A strip of filter
paper is saturated with the alcoholic solution, the excess of
fluid removed, and the strip drawn through a cold saturated
solution of boric acid; when Bombay mace is present, the paper

remains unchanged, but in the presence of turmeric it turns

orange-brown. Ifa drop of potassium hydrate solution is now

Placed on the strip of paper, it causes a blue ring if turmeric

‘is present, and a red ring if the adulterant is Bombay mace,—
(Pharm. Zeit, 1891,.122.)

LAURINEA.
CINNAMOMUM CAMPHORA, Nees.
Fig. —Bentl. and Trim., t. 222; Woodv. Med. Bot., t, 286;

Nees, t. 180; Berg. et Sch., t. 10, €.; Wight Ic., t. 1818. Cam-
-phor (£ng.), Camphre (Fr.),

200 LAURINEA.

Hab.—China, Japan. Camphor and Oil of Camphor.

-Vernacular.—Kafér (Hind.), Karppiram, Shédan (7 am.), i
Karptram (7el., Mal.), Karpura (Qun.), Kapir, Kaphtr (Beng.),
Kapir (Mar., Guz.). f

History, Uses, &c.—<As has been already mentioned
(see article “ Dryobalanops’’), Sanskrit writers, under the name

obtained from the wood of C. Camphora. The researches ot
Flickiger and Hanbury show that the only camphor known in
early times was that found in the trunk of Dryobalanops aromatiea.
Karly Chinese writers on'y speak of C. Camphora as producing
a valuable wood, and we have no information as to the date of
the first extraction of camphor from it. Garcia d’Orta, who
‘wrote at Goa about the middle of the sixteen century, was well

also luted to the top of the furnace, In Bombay four of thes?
furnaces are built together, so that the tops form a square

= the sides and top; it is at once removed and thrown int
Shas water. Camphor sublimed in this way is not stored, but

‘LAURINE®. 201

distributed at once to the shopkeepers before it has time to lose
weight by drying. Itis sold at the same price as the crude
article, the refiner’s profit being derived from the introduction
of water. Experiments by Clautrian (Berichte, xxiv., 2612)
have proved that camphor possesses considerable hygroscopic
properties which are not shared by thymol. 40 grains of cam-
phor will absorb -054 gram of water from air saturated with
aqueous vapour at 16°C, The absorption of moisture by cam-
phor would appear to be a purely physical phenomenon. Both
China and Japan crude camphor is imported into Bombay,
but the latter is preferred, as itis cleaner. From Japan is
also imported refined camphor in large square cakes an inch
and a half thick, witha hole in the centre; it is nearly equal
in quality to that refined in Europe. The method of
obtaining crude camphor in Japan will be found fully described
by H. Oishi in the Journ. Soc. Chem Ind., 1884, p. 353. Cam-
phor is largely used in India in performing the érti (sedi), a
ceremony performed in adoration of some god by waving, in a
circle before the image, a platter containing a five-wicked burn-
ing lamp, flour, and incense ; the lamp being fed with camphor.
The same rite, only substituting a bridegroom for the idol, is
called d;/a, and is performed on the arrival of the bridegroom
at the house of the bride. In Sanskrit this light is called
naan (dritrika). -

Description.—Crude China camphor is in small dirty-

white or brown grains, more or less moist from the presence of

water ; it arrives in tin-lined boxes which hold one quintal.
Crude Japan camphor is also in grains, which often adhere
_ together in masses ; it isdry and often quite free from dis-
coloration ; sometimes it has a = tinge. It is imported
in double butts.

Refined Japan camphor is imported in tin-lined. eases, which
hold about 90 Ibs. Bombay refined camphor is in porous cakes
_ quarter of an inch thick, and contains much water. Owing

__ to the method of preparation already described, the cakes haye
no particular form.
IIT.—26

4

202 LAURINEZL.

Chemical composition.—Camphor, C'°H**O, by treatment wit
various reagents, yields a number of interesting products: th
when repeatedly distilled with chloride of zine or anhy
phosphoric acid, it is converted into Cymene or Cymol, CH’
a body contained in many essential oils, or obtainable theref
Camphor, and also camphor oil, when subjected to ee
oxidising agents, absorbs oxygen, passing ee lly
crystallized Camphorie acid, C’°H**O* or C°H'* (COOH)’, 1
and carbonic acid being at the same time eliminated.
essential oils, resins, and gum-resins likewise yield these
when similarly treated. By means of less energetic oxid
camphor may be converted into O.y-camphor, O° H"O
retaining its original odour and taste. (Pharmacographia
a full account oe the reactions of camphor and its derivativ
reader is referred to Watts’ Dict. of Chem., 2nd Ed., V:
p- 669. The constituents of camphor oil found up ac
are :—

Boiling point. Constituent. Formula. ©

158°—162° Pinene.
170° Phellandrene.
176° Cineol, =
180° Dipentine. & CH
4° Camphor. Clon
215°—218° Terpineol. Cun
232° Safrol. Ces
248° Eugenol. Oe
274° Sesquiterpene. CS H

-Toricology. ~-Instances of poisoning by camphor

LAURINEE. Be ss:

om Canton in chests lined with lead or tinned iron weighing
bout 1 cwt. each, and from the Japan ports in double tubs
hich contain about the same quantity. The imports into
ndia have an average annual value of seven lacs of rupees.
efined camphor from Europe now forms an important item
these imports, and some years ago refined camphor was
so imported from J. apan, but lately it has disappeared from
the market. The price of camphor in India is now regulated
by the European market, and of late has been extremely
variable.

CINNAMOMUM CASSIA, Blume.

Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t. 223. China cinnamon, Cassia
(Zing.), Cannelle de Chine (F*.).
_ Hab.—China, The bark and essential oil.
Vernacular,—Darchini (Hind.), Dalchini (Beng., Mar., Guz.),
avanga-pattai (Zam., Tel., Mal.), Lavanga-patte (Can.).
History, Uses, &c.—Cinnamon and Cassia are men-—
tioned as precious odoriferous substances in the Mosaic writ- -
gs and by Theophrastus and many other writers. of brea ie
The Greek and ka S oo
Phenician, and are tie: same as foes used by the Hsisiws.

possible to say for certain what these substances were, but it

rk of the Indian cinnamon trees. Dioscorides describes
ral varieties of cinnamon and cassia, and we know that
several very distinct varieties of Cinnamon bark are still sold in
Indian bazars, That Ceylon cinnamon was not known to the
ancients appears to be certain, as the sacred books and old

rk began to be collected in the island is unknown. Kazwini —
in the 13th century is the first writer who mentions it, and ‘it oe
not cultivated before 1770,

204 LAURINE 4. i

Cassia, under the name of Kvei, is mentioned in the earliest
Chinese herbal, said to have been written 2700 B.C., and a
in the Chinese classics. In the Hei-yao-pen-tsao, written in th
8th century, mention is made-of Tien-chu-kwei, Tien-chuis th
ancient name for India. (Pharmacographia.)

The bark of several species of cinnamon growing in di

Tvach, ‘‘bark,” Guda-tvach, “sweet,” or “sugar le ,
and the trees producing it as Tvak-séra, ‘having exe |
bark,” and Tvaksvadvi, ‘having sweet-bark.” Thea
tribes still scrape the bark from these trees and use ‘it
season their food, and have probably done so from pre
times,

- The Arabians, through whose hands most of the cinné
the ancients reached Europe, called the spice Kirfat-ed-
or more shortly Kirfah (the bark par excellence), and itis
to observe that the same word in the corrupted form of I
still the commercial name of Malabar cassia in Bombay.
sini is the Arabic form of the Persian Dérchini, and
“China tree,’’ dar being an old Persian name for a tree
therefore probable that the Arabs first obtained the Bae
the Persians by the overland route fromChina. Thesamené
is still current in India for Chinese cinnamon, whet
Indian bark is properly called Taj, a word derived
Sanskrit T'vach, although in popular language Dalchini
are loosely applied to any kind of cinnamon. Ibn Sina t
_ Dioscorides in his description of the different kinds of ¢
(dérsini) and cassia (salikheh), but later Mahometan wri

er informed, and are evidently well acquainted
difference between Ceylon cinnamon, China cassia, and I
cassia. Haji Zein (1368), speaking of Darchini, — ee
is that which comes from Ceylon” ; concerning § ;

says :—“It is hte they call cassia (445), and is ‘the
tree called Salkh; there ;

LAURINE. 205

‘tolded sticks with a small central hollow like Airfah; that which |
s dark-coloured is bad.” Of Kirfah he says, “it has not the
weetness of China cinnamon, and tastes like cloves.” In
Southern India cassia is called ‘‘clove-bark” in several of the
_yernaculars.
he author of the Makhzan remarks:—“From Ceylon to
e Dekhan the quality of the cinnamon grown Eeaially
teriorates, the bark getting thick and mucilaginous.”’
_ For the history of cinnamon and cassia in Europe, we would
fer our readers to the Pharmacographia, where much interesting
ormation will be found.
Cassia and cassia oil imported from China are used medicin-

mainder is mostly composed of liber, in which are situated
nerous large cells which contain the essential oil. Latici-
rous vessels containing a gummy substance are also present —

Chinese cassia oil is imported in tins, which contain sa -
eatties each ; it has a similar odour and colour to oil of ci

but is less agreeable.

Chemical composition.—The authors of the Phi
; k: “Cassia bark owes its aromatic

206 LAURINEA.

essential oil, large quantities of which are shipped from
Canton. In a chemical point of view, no difference can
be pointed out between this oil and that of Ceylon cinnamon.
The flavour of cassia oil is somewhat less agreeable, and, as it
exists in the less valuable sorts of cassia, decidedly different 2
aroma from that of cinnamon. We find the sp. gr. ofa Chinese
cassia oil to be 1-066, and its rotatory power in a column 00 m
long, only 0-1° to the right, differing consequently in t
respect from that of cinnamon oil.
“If thin sections of cassia bark are moistened with a dilu
solution of perchloride of iron, the contents of the parenchy-
matous part of the whole tissue assume a dingy brown colour
in the outer layers the starch granules even are colou
Tannic matter is consequently one of the chief constituents of '
bark; the very cell-walls are also imbued with it. A decoe
of the bark is turned blackish-green by a per salt of iron.
“Tf cassia bark (or Ceylon cinnamon) is exhausted by
water, the clear liquid becomes turbid on addition of iodine
same occurs if a concentrated solution of iodide of potasst
added. An abundant precipitate is produced by addition -
iodine dissolved in the potassium salt. The colour of iodl
then disappears. There is consequently a substance pre
which unites with iodine; and, in fact, if to a decoction
cassia or cinnamon, the said solution of iodine is added, itst
a bright blue coloration, due to starch. But the colour qu
disappears, and becomes permanent only after much of the
has been added. We have not ascertained the nature of ©
substance that thus modifies the action of iodine ; it cam hé
be tannic matter, as we have found the reaction to be the sam
when we used the bark that had been previously repeate®)
treated with spirit of wine and then several times with boiling
ether.
“The mucilage contained in the gum-cells of the thinner qa“
cassia is easily dissolved by cold water, and may be precip!
tated together with tannin, by neutral acetate of lead, but notl
alcohol. In the thicker barks it appears less soluble,

swelling into a slimy jelly.”

LAURINEZ. 207

Oil of cassia, like oil of cinnamon, consists chiefly of
_ Cinnamic aldehyde, C°7H5(CH)*COH, together with a variable
_ proportion of hydrocarbons, The oil easily absorbs oxygen,
_ becoming thereby contaminated with resin and cinnamic acid,
_ C°H5(CH)*COOH. Ina sample examined by Messrs. Schimmel,
_ the cinnamic aldehyde amounted to 777 per cent., the distilla-
tion residue to 5-5 per cent., and the cinnamic acid to 0°7 per
cent. After one year’s free exposure to light, warmth, and air,
the percentage of cinnamic acid in this oil had increased to 8°5,
and of distillation residue to 12°6, whilst the cinnamic aldehyde
had decreased to 68°5, showing that the most important change
in the oil is the conversion of cinnamic aldehyde into cinnamic
_ acid, and a slight increase of resinous matter, to the extent ofa
_ few per cents., namely, of one part of the 7 per cent. increase of
_ the residue remaining after distillation at 290° C. This point
_ is of importance, as interested parties have attempted to explain
_ the presence of 30 to 40 per cent. of resin in the commercial oil
: as formed by a natural process. Messrs. Schimmel have shown
- that in good samples of oil, such as the Cheong Loong and Yan
_ Loong brands, we may expect to find from 6 to 8 per cent. of
soft distillation residue, and in adulterated oils from 20 to 30 or
even 40 per cent. of a hard residue, indicating adulteration with

_ proposed the following simple test for the oil :—If to a solution
of cassia oil in 70 per cent., alcohol in the proportion of 1:3 is

ded, drop by drop, to half its volume, a solution (saturated at

temperature of the room) of lead acetate in alcohol of the

same strength, itshould show no precipitate, otherwise colophony

or a similar resin is present. For further information on the
adulteration of this oil, the reader is referred to the Berichte von
Schimmel & Co., Oct. 1890.

Commerce.—The annual imports of Chinese cassia range from
about 15 to 20 thousand ewts. in alternate years. The greater
part of it is shipped from Hong-Kong to Bombay, some goes to
leutta, and a very small quantity to Madras. The following
bles show the imports and re-exports for 1884-85 :—

-eolophony. E. Hirschsohn (Pharm. Zeitsch. f. Russ., 1890) has

208 LAURINE A.

Imports.

Presidency to | Se Country from na i
which imported, @*ntity-| Value. | which imported. [2uartity:/ Valu

Cwts. Rs. Cwts. Rs.

Bombay .........| 12,308 |2,01,944 | Aden ...ccsre.| see 3

Bengal ......... 2,996 | 41,460] China .........0. 13,557 |2,24,805

Madras .........| 235 | 4,940 | Straits 1,212 | 2
————

~ Total......| 14,769 |2,48,3.44 Toul... 14,769

Re-exports.

Presidency from

; Country to =
which exported. Quantity.; Value. with exported. pcsatinss
Cwts. Rs. Cwts.
Bombay...) .4,07¢0 | 81,114 | * Persia .o..c0.ce « 2,785
to Sabeal ese 13 225 | Arabia 980
oc Bea ovenl.. uk 4 55 | Turkey in Asia “715
Other countries 212
Total......| 4,692 | 81,394 Total.s:.s. 4,692

—(Dictionary of Econ. Prod. India, Vol. I1., p. 823.)
_ Chinese cassia fetches in Bombay from 3} to 4 annas *
pound. Malabar cassia about Rs. 5 for the maund of 374 Ibs.
Chinese oil sells for about. Rs. 24 per catty. oo
Taj or Kalfah, Indian cassia or cinnamon, is chiefly
product of C. Tamala, and C. iners and nitidum, consid

: cinnamon odour. and taste, but is deficient in sweetness.
3 now ay sent, into the market, tied up in bundles, to :

4 LAURINES. | 209

China cassia, the outer layer of the bark having been to a great
extent removed ; this is probably prepared for exportation as
cassia lignea. Some trees of cassia lignea are cultivated by the
_ Madras Forest Department in the Wynaad. Indian cassia may
readily be distinguished from the China bark by its yielding
_ aglairy mucilage when infused in cold water, which gives
_ aropy precipitate with corrosive sublimate and neutral acetate
of lead, but not with alcohol.

No oil is distilled from these barks in India.

Talisha-pattiri, is the leaf of the species of Cinnamomum,
already mentioned as yielding Taj or Indian cinnamon. The
_ drug is the Taméli of the R4ja Nirghanta, and is considered to
_ be hot and light, and useful for the expulsion of phlegmatic
_ and rheumatic humors; it is prescribed in flatulence and
__ dyspepsia.
_ Cinnamon leaves are the Sinag-t-Sinds of the Indian
_ Mahometans, and are much used both as a condiment and
_ medicine in India. The author of the Makhzan describes them
as yellowish, coriaceous, ovate-lanceolate leaves, with five nerves
extending from the base to the apex, and says that they are
produced by a large tree growing in the mountains of Sylhet,
the bark of which is used as cassia. He considers: them to he
carminative, stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, lactagogue and
deobstruent
Desctiption: <Thhe leaves vary a good deal in size, the
largest are 6 inches long or more, and 13 inch broad, oblong,
obtuse-pointed, entire, with three principal nerves and two
Iler ones which are sometimes quite marginal; the venation
between these nerves, which run from base to apex of-the leaf,
is finely reticulated. The leaves are of an olive-green colour,
the upper surface is polished. They have a pleasant odour like
_-a mixture of cloves and cinnamon. Value, Re. 1} per 374 Ibs.
_ According to Professor E. Schmidt (Chem. Zeit., Sept. 26, 1891,
_ p- 1376), the essential oil of cinnamon leaves consists of almost
s eugenol, with a little terpene and cinnamic aldehyde,
| HL

Tajpat or Tamalpatra, and in Southern India only

210 LAURINED.

while the oil from the root also contains eugenol and terpene,
together with much safrol and benzaldehyde. Both of these —
oils, therefore, differ from the essential oil from the bark, which
consists of cinnamic aldehyde and terpene. ;
K4la Nagkesar.—Under this name the immature fruit
of the trees yielding cassia is imported into Bombay from Chi
and Southern India.
Kdlé Négkesar (known in Europe as cassia buds) consists
a small brown mucronate berry, the size of a grain of mi
enclosed in a 6-partite calyx half an inch long, which is articu-
lated to a slender pedicel ; the calyx and pedicel are of the dark-
brown colour of the clove, and have a strong cinnamon
and taste. The properties of the spice would appear to be
same as thoseofecinnamon. Two kinds are found in the Bomba}
market, Chinese and Malabar ; they are used as a spice by the
Mahometans. Mohideen Sheriff says that the native drugg
in Madras substitute cassia buds for Naghesar-ke-phu
flowers of Mesua ferrea and Ochrocarpus longifolius; the
drugs being never met with in the bazars. For an accoul
the use of the Chinese buds as a spice in Europe from the
century up to the present time, see Pharmacographia, Zod
p- 533. Hamburg in 1876 imported 1,324 ewts. (Op. cit.)
Pishin-puttai (Gum-bark), Several mucilaginous b
are sold and used under this name in Southern India. Mo :
Sheriff refers the Madras drug to Tetranthera Roxburghit
next article). A specimen supplied by Dr, Mooteosawmy *™
Tanjore had a yery pleasant and lasting aroma, and ap be.
belong} to an arboreous cinnamon. It is used for its mui
“ laginous and demulcent properties in medicine, and also
_ Mahomedan perfumers for making incense or flayouring-sticks
(“Samburany-vathe ”) from the powdered bark. We have
also received three other drugs of this name from Travan
One was a thick red fibrous bark like that of a Litseea, and
an article of trade among sugar and jagary makers om
Western Coast. The second was a lighter coloured bark
quite free from odour and taste; this was recognised as .

| LAURINER, | 211
.

calycina. The third sample was sent by the Conservator of
Forests for Travancore, who supposed it to be from a species of
Cordia. It was light coloured, very fibrous and free from odour
and taste, and is used in native medicine in the State under its
Malyalim name avi-tholi. Mucilaginous barks are largely em-
ployed in India by arrack makers in regulating the fermentation
of toddy and precipitating albuminous matters.

The Tanjore pishin-puttai gave no reaction indicating the
presence of an alkaloid, but the red bark from Travancore gave
marked reactions for /awrotetunine.

LITSZA SEBIFERA, Pers.
Fig,—Bot. Reg., ¢. 893 ; Roxb. Cor. Pl. wi., t. 147. Syn.
Tetranthera laurifolia, Jacq.
: Hab.—Throughout the hotter parts of India. The bark.
. Vernacular. —Maida-lakri (Hind.), Mushaippé-yett,, Maida-
lakti (Tam.), Naramimidi, Méda (Te/.), Kukur-chita (Beng.),
Méda-lakadi (Mar.), Maeda-lakari (Gwz.).

History, Uses, &c.—We have been unable to trace
the history of the use of this bark as a medicine. It is one of
the best known and most popular of native drugs, being used
internally, on account of its demulcent properties, in diarrhea
and dysentery, and externally as an emollient application to
bruises, &c. Maida-lakri, as far as we know, is not men-
tioned by Sanskrit writers, but from the vernacular names it
would appear to be used as a substitute for the Méda of the
ancient Hindu physicians, one of the Ashtavarga, and unknown
to the modern Hindus. In Bengal Asvagandha is used. In
- Mahometan works it is briefly noticed under the names of
Maghath-i-Hindi and Kilz. The author of the Makhzan-el-
Adwiya states that it has the same essential properties as
Maghath, being resolvent, astringent, and a nervine tonic useful
in paralysis. It would appear then to have been adopted by
Mahometan physicians in India as a substitute for an Arabian
drug called Maghath, the botanical source of which is uncertain.

212 DLAURINEZ

L, sebifera is called Miri by the Maratha peasantry, from the
resemblance of its globular fruit to a corn of black pepper:
The seed is oily and yields a solid white fat. The leaves have
a pleasant odour of cinnamon.

Description,.—The bark varies in thickness from jg to
#5 of an inch; externally it has several layers of whitish,

scabrous, corky tissue, the remaining portion is of a chocolate a

brown colour, The odour is feebly balsamic; when placed in
water it affords a large quantity of bland mucilage, having #
faint agreeable aroma, If the bark is old, the aroma disappears,
but the mucilaginous qualities remain unimpaired.

The parenchyma, which is chiefly composed of mucilage cells,
contains abundance of reddish-brown colouring matter. ere
js a zone of stony cells, but no distinetive characteristics.

Chemical composition.—This bark, an authentic specimen of

which was supplied by Mr. Hollingsworth of the Madras Medir —

cal College, gave, on an air-dried sample, 4°6 per cent. of ash,
and 14°2 per cent, of alecholic extract, affording very strong
reactions with alkaloidal tests. On separating the alkaloid i6
was found to agree with the characters of Laurotetanine, aD

alkaloid which has been discovered by M. Greshoff in three —

species of Litsea in Java, and im several other plants of
the natural order Laurinese. Laurotetanine is crystalline,
has a strong tetanic action on animals; it is sparingly soluble
in ether, more readily in chloroform. It is precipitated
by sodium carbonate from solutions of its salts, but readily
redissolves in an excess of potash or soda, and is precipitated
by the usual alkaloidal reagents. It gives a dark indigo-blue
coloration with Erdmann’s reagent, a pale rose-red with pare
sulphuric acid, and a reddish-brown with nitric acid. A
base, which seems to be identical with laurotetanine, is also
found in the varieties of Tetranthera, Notophwbe, Aperuld,
_ Actinodaphne and Iiligera pulohra. Yt is also possible that
Laurotetanine is the alkaloid discovered in 1886 by Eijkman

in Haasia squarrosa, Z. et M, (Meded. wit S’Lands Plantentwin,

vii., Pp: 77-101.)

- LAURINEZE. 213

Commerce.—The bark is largely collected in the Central
Provinces, and comes to market in large half quills from one
to two feet in length and two to three inches in diameter. As
met with in the retail shops, it is generally broken into small
pieces a few inches in length. Value, Rs. 6 per maund of
41 pounds.

Litszea Stocksii, Hook.f, in Marathi Pisi, is a tree of

the hilly districts of the Concan and Canara; when in fruit
its scarlet berries make it a conspicuous object. A cold infusion
of the leaves is mucilaginous, and is used in irritation of the
bladder and urethra. The oil of the seeds, Pisa-tai/a, is used

Bas an application to sprains and itch.

Description.—Leaves 4 to 6 inches, penninerved, coria-
ceous, oblong-lanceolate or oblanceolate, rarely obovoid acute
or acuminate, glaucous beneath, greenish above with impressed
nerves, petiole 4 to 4 inch. Berries apiculate, scarlet, about
the size and shape of a small acorn, pulp yellow, seed brown,
polished, oblong, testa thin, brittle; kernel oily, white, the cut
surface turning red on exposure to the air; taste aromatic,
pungent like cubebs; the expressed oil solidifies into a white
solid fat; as prepared by the natives it has a reddish colour,
due to admixture of resinous matter. The bark and leaves are
mucilaginous and not aromatic.

«Chemical composition —The dried and powdered red fruits of
this tree yielded to ether 31°6 per cent. of extract consisting
mainly of crystalline fats. Petroleum ether separated this
_ extract into a soluble fatty portion, and an insoluble neutral
reddish resin. The petroleum ether solution left on eva-
poration some fatty acids melting at 39° and solidifying
at 35°, but which, on crystillization from boiling alcohol
and pressure between filtering paper, afforded some purely
white crystals melting at 42°5. The fatty acids would
appear to consist of lauric acid with a small admixture of
_ oleic aci
The resin in the fruits was associated with a volatile oil to
which the fragrance is due. The alkaloid detected in the

i
f

214 LAURINEZ.

spirituous and the watery extracts of the drug had the reactio
of laurotetanine. The dried fruits left after ignition 4:77 p
cent, of mineral matter,

LAURUS NOBILIS, Linn.

Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t. 221. Laurel Bay “

Laurier (Fr.).

Hab.—Southern Europe. The aii.
Vernacular.—Hab-el-ghar (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—Bay berries were introduoaad nt

eo

India ty the Mahometans, and are still kept by their druggis

in all the larger towns. The Bay or Noble laurel is the Dap

(8a¢vn) of Dioscorides, which he describes as hot, demuleem

astringent and stomachic, and recommends the berries in.

ancients, who relate that the nymph Daphne, when pursu
Apollo, and on the point of being overtaken by the god, pra ie
for aid, and was changed into a Bay tree. Prof. Max

Pururavas. The Bay was also used in conjuration ; the
Bei who had been forsaken in the second idyl of Theocritu
sac

Aeddis ey’ dviacev. éeyw & émi Adds Sacbvav
Ato. x’ os abrad dakei péya, xammupicaca,
Kngarivas abn, xovdé orodsy aope av’ras,
Otra rot kai AéAdqus evi proyi wapr’ apabvvo..
‘The priestesses of Apollo consulted the tree and ate of 6
aa before delivering the oracles at Delphi. Hesiod tells”
that the muses held branches of it in their hands, and
are still ly crowned with a laurel wreath. It was
an emblem lam of Pig and was used by the Romans in many |

olive oil, ‘lied —

\

LAURINEE. 215

the south of France. The leaves are also considered to be

stry. In America the dry leaves are largely distilled for
e essential oil, which is used for the preparation of Bay
Rum, a favorite hair-wash, the disinfectant action of which
is due to the eugenol contained in Bay oil. Bayberry oil

dried berries. The fresh berries are bruised, boiled in water,
and pressed in a-sack. The expressed oil is then mixed with
the decoction, and when cold the oil is found floating on the
Dried berries are first exposed to steam, and then
subjected to pressure between heated metallic plates. The oil

our is greenish, taste bitter and aromatic, with an odour like
at of the berries. It melts at 86°—95° F. It is wholly soluble
ether, but alcohol only dissolves green colouring matter and
e volatile oil. The solubility in ether affords a test of its
ity ; if admixed with lard, the ethereal solution is turbid and
milky. (Brannt.)

Description.—Bay berries are oval or subglobular

black or blsckieh- brown, slightly wrinkled, and fragile, the

two plano-convex brownish cotyledons, which have an aromatic,
oily, and bitter taste.
Chemical composition.—The eaves and fruit contain a volatile
. The volatile oil of Bay berries is pale yellow, sp. gr.
, it congeals at a low temperature, contains oxygen,
d is easily soluble in alcohol; it contains hydrocarbons,
O'°H'*, boiling at 171° C. and 250° C., and four oxygenated
constituents (Staub). Gladstone (1863) had found eugenol,
while Blas (1865) could not detect this, but proved the

from old berries ‘22 per cent. of volatile oil. The
ain, according to Bonastre (1824), about 20 per cent.

febrifuge, and are used in all European countries for flavouring

r expressed laurel oil is obtained from both the fresh and

}

has a butyraceous consistence, and granular appearance. Its

drupes about } to} aninchlong. When dry, they are —— :

integuments, including the reddish-brown endocarp, being thin ©
and brittle. The loose oval seed is easily separated into the

presence of a little lauric acid. Bley (1834) obtained
seeds

216 LAURINE EE.

of fat, 2 per cent. of volatile oil, and 1-5 per cent. of |
resin. The expressed fat was analysed by A. Staub (1879)
who determined, besides volatile oil and chlorophyll, the ©
presence of a little acetic acid and the glycerides of oleic,
linoleic, laurie, myristic, palmitic, and stearic acids. Laurie acid,
C!*H2402, discovered by Marsson (1842), has been found in
many vegetable and a few animal fats ; it melts at 43°5° C., an
volatilizes with the vapours of boiling water (Goergey, 1848)
Schmidt and Roemer found little free acid in the freshly

expressed oil, but the fruit contained 2 to 8 per cent, of fa
acids. (National Disp.)

Cassytha filiformis, Linn., Rheede, Hort. Mal. |
t.44; A’késvel (Mar.), Amarbeli (Hind.), A’késavalli (Sans.
a common parasite on bushes ; it consists of a tangled mass
tough dark-green stems, branched, marked longitudinally wi
delicate pale green lines, the largest are the size of a crow-quill;
the branches are provided with small round suckers, like th
of the common dodder. Sections of the stem shéw a strong”
fibro-vascular layer and loose central pith. The fruit i
globular, of the size of a pea, and surmounted by the remé in
of the sepals; on removing the outer envelope, which is tou,
an inner envelope is exposed, which consists of two layers,
outer cartilaginous, the inner fleshy and lined with white
hairs, each containing a delicate spiral filament; within
central cavity is a third delicate membranous envelope cover
with hairs, of a similar description, and containing the ovule.
The whole plant is used in native practice as an altera-
_ tive in bilions affections and for piles. In Southern

THYMELHACEH, 217

_ FrGhde’s reagent dirty blue. Dr. Greshoff believes that on
a closer investigation of this alkaloid, it will be found to
_be identical with laurotetanine [described under Litsea
sebifera,

THYMEL/ACE.

AQUILARIA AGALLOCHA, ozb.
_Fig.— Roxb. § Coleb. in Trans. Linn. Soc. xxi., t. 21;
E Boyle ts, +30, ). 1.
a Hab.—Eastern Himalaya, Bhotan, Assam, Khasia Mts, i
_ Silhet and Tippera Hills, Martaban Hills.

; AQUILARIA MALACCENSIS, Lamth.
4 Fig.—lLamk. Iil., t. 356; Cav. Diss. vit., t. 224; Rumph.
Amb. ti., ¢. 10.
_ Hab.—Malacca, Malay Islands. Eagle or Aloe wood
(Eng. ), Bois de Calambac (/7.).
Vernacular.—Agar, Agaru (Indian Bazars). Z
History, Uses, &c,—The use of this precious wood as
_a perfume and medicine is of great antiquity. Together with
myrrh, cassia, and other products of the East, it is mentioned
in the sacred writings of the Jews (Num. 24, 6; Psalm. 45,8;
Prov. 7,17; Cantic. 4,14) under the name of Ahalot or Ahalim.
iti is the ayd\Xoyxor of the ancient Greeks, which is described by
. -Dioscorides asa wood brought from India and Arabia. Later
writers, from Aétius’ time, call it vAd\o7 or “aloe wood,” the
ame by which itis still known in Europe. The same sub-
“stance is the Agaru of the Hindus, the Garu of the Malays, and
the Chin-heang of the Chinese. In Sanskrit medical works it
bears the synonyms of Rajirha “worthy of a prince,” Visva-
upa ‘‘taking all forms,’ Krimi-ja “produced by worms,”
rimi-jagdha, Anarya-ja “ Sey in a non-Aryan country,”
naka “golden,” Kaliya “black,” &c., andis described as hot,
ITI.—28 emer

Be

| = . consider black aloe wood better than grey, and the best black i 18

- formation of aloe wood.” The Arabian travellers give much the —

218 | THYMEL AACE. .

light, and cholagogue ; removing diseases of the ear, nose and
eyes. In native practice Agar is used as a deobstruent, stimu
lant, carminative, and tonic; it is said to relieve the pain in
gout, and to check vomiting. Susruta directs Aguru, Guggula,
Sarjarasa, t Vacha,+ white mustard, Nim leaves and salt
be made into a paste with ghi to form an anodyne fumigation
for surgical wounds, called in Sanskrit Vedandrakshoghnair
dhupath, As aloe wood bears the Sanskrit name of Anarya-
it is probable that it was used by the aborigines of Eastern Asia
before it became known to the Hindus, but that at a V
early date it was carried overland to Central Asia and Persia,
and from thence reached Arabia and Europe.

The early Arab travellers appear to have collected a
deal of information concerning the commerce and sources
supply of the wood.

Yohanna- ~bin-Serapion mentions Sar kinds, Hindi, Mandal
Sinfi and Kaméri, and Ibn Sina in the 10th century
the following account of it:— The best is called Mandali from
the more central parts of India; next is the Indian for z
aloe wood, which has the advantage over Mandali of preserving
clothes from lice. Some say that Mandali and Indian aloe
wood are the same. One of the best kinds is Samandiér
from Sofala in India; again there is the Kamdri and the
Samfi from the same parts, and there is Kdékuli, and Kismirt
which is moist and sweet; and the worst kinds are Hali
Kamtii, Mabatéi, Lawathi, or Rabatéthi. Mandali is the
best ; then Samandiri, of a grey colour, fat and oily, La
_ Without any white streaks, and which bums slowly.

the Kaméri, without white streaks, fat and oily, which burns
sony. In short, the best aloe wood is black, hard, and heavy,
sinks in water, is not fibrous when powdered ; that which does

not sink is bad. The tree is said to be buried to promote the

Enea Saari of Boewallin errata

THY MEL ACER, 919

ame names to different kinds of the wood. Ibn Batuta speaks
fri as soft, like wax. Abu Zaid calls it Kamardni, and

Kamariin Mountains. Kakuliis said to derive its name from
Takaleh in Java. The epithets Mawardi, Saimuri and Jéwi
are also applied by some writers to aloe wood. As regards the
identification of these localities, we would remark that Sees is
J robably derived from Champa, a province in Cambe
ndali, from Mount Mandar or Mandal, south of the ages
on of Bhagalpur in Bengal; Kamari or Kamaruni, from
arun, the Arab name for Cape Comorin; Saimiri, from
Saimur or Samar, an island in the Eastern Archipelago ; Halai-
may possibly be derived from the Ilala Mountains between Sind
and Beluchistan, as Abu Zaid says that the best aloe wood is
brought for sale by Multanis. _ -
- Haji Zein-el-Attar (1358) calls aloe wood Vod-el-jaj, and in
ersian, Ood and Balanjaj. After translating Ibn Sina’s
article on Ood, he gives his own opinion in the following terms :
“The author of this work (Ihhtiarat-i-badiaa) says the best ig
_ ealled Kalambak (S+)S), and comes from the port of Jena, which _
" is ten days’ sail from Java; it is sold for its weight in gold; you
would think it odourless, but when warmed in the Hand it kas 2
" very sweet persistent odour ; when burnt, the odour i is uniforn
sweet until the wood is consumed. N ext is Mandali anc
Samandixri, both from Sofala in India, the best of these is of a
golden colour and heavy. Kikuli is like the Indian, and is
erally in large pieces, marked with black and yellow lines ;
there is Kamari, golden-brown, without white streaks, it
mes from Kamartin and Sofala; then Safi, from Samp,
is very hard and sweet; then Sakdli and Afasi, a moist
kind from China; then Mantai, Randi, Halai, and Lanfi, all
of about equal value. And in Manta there is a tribe who call
the wood Ashbéh, and it is of two kinds: one of these is in
large pieces weighing from 5 to 50 maunds, without much
: odour, and used for making combs, knife handles, &e. :
Mir Muhammad Husain (1770) writes:—‘ Ood, in Hindi
, is the wood of a tree which grows in the Jaintiya

220 THYMELAACE.

near Sylhet, a dependency of the Stibah of Bengal, situated
towards the north-east of Bengal Proper. The tree is also fou
in the islands to the south of Bengal, situated north of t
Equator, and in the Chatian islands belonging to the town

Nawaka, near the boundaries of China. The tree is very large,
the stem and branches generally crooked, the wood soft. Fr
the wood are manufactured walking sticks, cups, and ot

vessels; it is liable to decay, and the diseased part the
becomes infiltrated with an odoriferous secretion. In orde

expedite this change it is often buried in wet ground, Ps
which have undergone the change above mentioned become
heavy, and black. They arecut out and tested by being thro
into water ; those which sink are called Gharki, those W?
partly sink Nim Gharki, or Samdieh-i-aala, and those Wi
float Samdieh ; the last kind is much the most common. Ghar!
is of a black colour, and the other qualities dark and igh
brown.”’

x The best kind for medicinal use is Gharki Ood from Sy

iD

other kinds are considered inferior. In most receipts Taw
(Ood-i-kham) is enjoined to be used to prevent the use of ¥
from which the oil has been abstracted by crushing and mac’
ration in water, or by crushing and admixture with almo
which are afterwards expressed.* This precaution is the ™
necessary as Ood shavings are an article of commerce in I
under the name of Chitra agar ; they are often adulterated W
chips of Sandalwood, or Taggar, an odoriferous wood, com
oe in India. :

joinam, and in Cochin-China. This tree has been described !
Cee under the name of Aloexylon Agallochum. The second
kind, called Garo, is the product of Aguilaria malaccensis, Lam

THY MELHACE. 921

_ which he figures. This is the Chin-heang of the Pun-tsaou-
kang-muh or great Chinese Herbal. (See Hanbury Science

_ Papers, p. 263.) His two kinds of false aloe wood he attributes
to Michelia Champaca and Excecaria Agailocha.

Roxburgh and other botanists have examined the Aquilaria
in Sylhet, and recently an Agui/aria has been ascertained to be
the tree which produces aloe wood in the islands of the Mergui
Archipelago. Gamble says that “ Akyau (the Burmese name
for aloe wood) is the most important produce of the forests of

South Tenasserim and the Mergui Archipelago. It is found in

_ fragments of various shapes and sizes in the centre of the tree,

and usually, if not always, where some former injury has been
received.”

si: gle

Pe Ty eo Cee

Aloe wood is used throughout the East as an incense and as
a perfume, and was formerly used as a medicine in Europe
for the same diseases for which it is still prescribed in
India.

Oollection.—In Sylhet, the collection of aloe wood is a preca-
rious and tedious business; those engaged in it proceed some
_ days’ journey into the hilly districts, where they fell any trees
they may find, young or old, and then, on the spot, search them
_ for the Agar, as the valued wood is called. This is done by
___ chopping off the bark, and into the wood, until they observe dark
coloured veins, indicating the proximity of wood of valuable
quality, which generally extends but a short distance from the
centre of a trunk or branch. In this manner a whole tree is

searched through, the collectors carrying away only such pieces
as are rich in odoriferous resinous matter. In some districts it
is customary to facilitate the extraction of the resinous wood by
burying portions of the tree in moist ground, or by allowing
the entire tree to remain a length of time after it is cut down,
the effect of which is to cause decay in the non-resinous wood,
and thus render it easily removable by an iron instrument.
Aloe wood is sorted by the collectors into various qualities,
the finest of which, called Gharki, is worth in Sylhet from
6 to 8 rupees per pound. (Hanbury Science Papers. -

\
222 THYMELAACE.

Description.—The wood occurs in irregular pieces, which
vary in colour from grey to dark-brown, according to the amo
of resin which they contain; both light-coloured and darl
pieces are marked with longitudinal veins of a darker colo
The best pieces show numerous cavities and sinuses produ
by the cutting away of wood less impregnated with resin ;
sink in water. When a portion is chewed, it softens bet
the teeth; the taste is bitter and aromatic ; when burn
diffuses an agreeable odour

Mr. J. G. Prebble has Gnidiy furnished us with the folloy r
interesting remarks upon the aloe woods of the Bomb
market :—‘“ The true Agar woods are imported into Bom!
boxes holding about 1} cwt., from Bankok, and usua
Singapore or Batavia. Some of the Parsee dealers in
silks also import Agar from Hongkong, in small recta
parcels holding about 1 Ib. each, and bearing a yellow label
the name of the packer in the Chinese character. This -
which I have examined is the Gaguli variety (4. 4
and has been carefully dressed, and polished or painted
One or more false Agars composed of heavy resinous wood
also imported from Singapore. The true Agars vary consid I
in the amount of resin they contain ; old and decayed sa
consist largely of resin. A good specimen yielded to iis 1
48 per cent. of matter soluble in rectified spirit. Compact
not apparently very resinous samples of Gaguli and M
Agar, treated successively with petroleum ether, ether,
__ aleohol, gave :—

aes Resin soluble
V olatileoil. mgt?

2 ‘Gaguli .........] 4 per cent. /13°8 per cent.

“Mawardi — 1 ‘6 per cent. |11- 6 per cent.) 9°0 per ¢

* The volatile oil is of | a

“yellow colour, soe

THYMELHACEH. 232

ration with sulphuric acid. The ether resin is soluble in
us solution of potash, with a reddish-brown colour, from
. the resin is precipitated by acids. The two true Agars
i and Mawardi are composed of rather thin-walled wood-
8, traversed with numerous one-celled rows of medullary

iphery of the stem.* In Mawardi Agar the vessels are
. larger and more numerous than in Gaguli Agar. The
sels, rays and cellular passages are filled with resin. On
mparing sections of the stems, § inch thick, of herbarium
pecimens, kindly sent by Dr. King from the Calcutta Herbarium,
f Aguilaria Agallocha and A. malaccensis with the Agars, it

CI

ardi Agar is also probably derived from A. malaccensis,
false Agars have thick-walled wood-cells, less numerous
Is than in the true Agars, and no well-defined medullary
ts.

se Tagegar wood is a heavy, dark-coloured, oily and
ous wood, the botanical origin of which is unknown,
ported into Bombay from Zanzibar. It sinks in water, and
aqueous infusion has a yellow colour with a greenish
escence. From Bombay it is sent to the large cities of
rthern India, Delhi, Lucknow, &c., where it is distilled with
ingredients to form some of the compound attars, so much
emed by the natives.

BD tording to Dr. Royle’s Catalogue, Taggar wood was sent
from Delhi to the great Exhibition of 1851. Twenty pounds
of the ground wood submitted to distillation with water during
three consecutive days, with frequent cohobation, yielded six
juid ounces, equivalent to two per cent. of a yellowish oil
* oa gate Comparative Anatomy cf the ‘Phanerogams and Ferns,

224 THYMELAACE.

which quickly changed to a reddish-brown colour. The oil is 3
neutral, of sp. gr. ‘9546, bitter, and with an odour resembling, _
but distinct from sandal wood oil. It dissolves in all propor-

tions of alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzol and petroleum ether.
It dissolves iodine without violent reaction, and yields no

characteristic reaction with sulphuric acid, being only darkened a

in colour. Exposed to the air in a thin layer, it acquiresa
crimson colour. At alow temperature, by keeping in ice, the
oil remains clear and free from any deposit, but becomes very
thick and viscid, and develops a strong greenish fluorescence
which vanishes or nearly so at a higher temperature, 85° F.
The finely powdered wood, treated successively with petroleum
ether, ether, and alcohol, yielded to the petroleum ether 8:75
per cent. of a mixture of volatile oil and resin, which deposited
on the sides of the evaporating dish a few small tabular crystals.
On drying at 110 C., this mixture of oil and resin lost volatile
oil equivalent to 5-75 per cent. The ether extracted a resily
6-4 per cent., soluble in aqueous solution of potash, with a deep
reddish-brown colour and greenish fluorescence, in solutions of
ammonia and of carbonate of soda. The resin is precipitated
from these solutions by acids. Strong sulphuric acid dissolves

the resin with a red colour, from which it is precipitated by é
water in yellowish-brown flocks, It is readily soluble in ‘glacial

acetic acid, but no crystals were obtained on the spontaneous
evaporation. It is insoluble in benzol and petroleum ether
and in boiling alum solution. The resin probably contains 4
anthraquinone derivative allied to Emodin and Chrysophanle
Acid, but I have not yet succeeded in isolating it. Alcoho

eS extracts a resin, 4:12 per cent., insoluble in ether. Tagg@

wood is valued in Bombay at about Rs. 3 per maund of 28 lbs.”

Mazariyun.—The Mezereon of Mahometan physicians is
described in their works upon Materia Medica as a leaf.
— It is considered by C. Bauhin to be the Qneorum tricoccom,
__ and is probably the same as the Chamelea of Scribonius, of which
oe = bode % Purgat belle chamelea, que herba olive folia similia

as

TH YMELHAOCEH, 295

‘leius Platonicus has the following notice of it :—“ Alii pyros
en, alii heracleon, alii bdelyram, alii coccon gnidion,
nani citocacium, nonnulli oleaginem, quidam oleastellum
ant.” (De Vir. Herb., 26.)

Mir Muhammad Husain says there are three kinds, viz.,
ite with large thin leaves, called Ashkhis, yellow with
owish thick leaves, smaller than those of the olive, called in
n Haft-barg and Musht-ri, and black with black leaves!
e white is to be preferred as the least acrid; but even the

for medicinal use. Having bien thus sisi they are to
e washed and dried, and peunded with almond oil. This pre-
‘paration may then be given in combination with purgatives,

hydrogogue and drastic cathartics, to the extent tof 24 grains,
Mulla Ahmad Nabtf, in his Tarikh-el-hukama, tells a story of a
ropsical patient, who was cured by eating locusts which had
een feeding upon Mezereon leaves; they acted as a hydro-
ue cathartic.

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus, Dene, Wight Ic,
1859-60; Jacq. Voy. Bot., t. 150, a native of the Deecan
eninsula sai Ceylon, is a aivals with leaves like the willow, and
ninal heads of flowers, surrounded by an involucre of oblong,
ther hoary leaflets, Itis common on the hills of Western
dia, and the bark is a powerful vesicant, _which has not, as

he peasantry are, however, acquainted with its properties, and
n they have a lean ox or cow te take te market, rub the skin
a deeoetion of the bark, which causes swelling and an
appearance of plumpness, which disappears in a few days much
to the discomfiture of the purchaser.
Dr. J. Y. Smith, in his Matheran Hill, its People, Plants
Animals (p. 35), says “the Rametha bushes are often.
stripped of their bark, which is used for

IfI.—29

226 THYMELEACER,

The bark consists of an outer suberous portion which is of —
a light-brown colour and divided by numerous transverse and —
longitudinal fissures, so that it can be easily separated, and ofan —
inner layer which is white, tough, and silky like Mezereon.
wood-cells are easily separated and form pretty microscopic —
objects, as they are beautifully transparent. The taste is acrid.

Chemical composition.—The fresh bark was beaten into a
paste ina mortar, and the mass divided and placed in two”
bottles, one containing ether and the other spirit of wine ; they
were both shaken occasionally and the mixture allowed to
macerate for 24 hours. The ether extract was filtered off and
- evaporated at a very low temperature until a thick, green,
greasy substance was left. This was washed with warm water
and a small piece placed upon the skin of the arm and spread —
so as to cover a space the size of a rupee. In about two hours ©
irritation of the skin was produced, and, on removing
covering of the arm, it was found that several small blisters

g

evaporated at a gentle heat. The residue contained very li
of the green-coloured resinous matter, but a large quantity
saccharine substance, which was non-crystalline. This ¢ ee
' was applied to the skin as in the previous experiment, but the
application was followed by only a slight reddening due to

small amount of resin in the dried extract. The resin appe@7s_
to be the source of the vesicating principle of the bark. It has
an acid reaction in neutral solvents, is soluble in ammonl@
with a yellowish-brown colour, and is associated in the ethereal
pon with a fatty base which facilitates its use as a blister™S

_ The roots of Daphne oleoides, Schreb., Royle 1! ¢. 81,
_ are used in Afghanistan as a purgative. Aitchison (Flora Y

Kuram Valley) says: “Camels will not eat this shrub except
when very hungry. It is poisonous, producing Meer”
te diarrh ers I feel certain that much of the mortality of camels
_ fntheRinam Divas war duet the revel of

LORANTH ACE, 227

LORANTHACEZ.

VISCUM ALBUM, Linn.
Fig.— Lng. Bot. xwi., t. 1470; Woodv. Med: Bot., suppl.,.
#270. White Mistletoe (Zng.), Gui (F.).
Hab.—tTemperate Himalaya. Westward to the Atlantic.
The berries.
Vernacular.—Kismish-kawali (Ind. Bazars),
History, Uses, &c.—Mistletoe is the ‘fos of Theo-
phrastus and. Dioscorides, and was considered by the ancients to
have discutient properties. It was applied to disperse tumors
and to mature abscesses, and was given internally im enlargement
of the spleen. Matthiolus and Paracelsus recommend it im
epilepsy, and Kélderer, Cartheusar, Colbatch, Loseke, Van
- Swieten and others have stated that they found it beneficial not
_ only in this disease, but in other convulsive affections. This
_ plant was formerly held to be sacred in Europe, and in ancient
Britain it was cut with a golden sickle by a Druid in white
robes, amid the sacrifice of victims and the fasting of devotees.
Thus obtained, the Gwid was considered a heal-all, a charm
- against disasters, and the emblem of fertility. As such it was
aspecial object of worship with the ancient Britons, who called
|

it wchelfa, a high place, uchellawr, the most exalted, uchelwydd,
- the lofty shrub, awyrbren, the ethereal tree, prenpuraur, the
tree of pure gold, &c.—names still surviving in the Welsh
language.
_ Pliny (xvi., 93, 94, 95) describes the Viscum, and the
_ method of making birdlime from it; he also notices the super-
stitions held concerning it by the Gauls, and its worship on the
fifth day of the moon, the day which is the beginning of their
months and years. <A festival in honour of the mistletoe called
Guilanleu or Guilanneuf (gui de l’an neuf) was heldin Franceas
late as the 16th century, and in England the plant still hangs | >
‘in the hall at Christmas.

298 LORANTHACEA.
The dried berries sold in the bazars as Kismish-kawali, of
more correctly Kismish-i-kdwaliydn, are also called Muizak-i-asli,
and in Arabic, Dibk. a
Kéwali or Kauli is the name of a gipsy tribe in Persia. 4
Baron ©. A. de Bode, in his Travels in Luristan and Arabistan —
(Vol. IL., p. 100), mentions his being shown in the forests of :
the Zagros mountains, on the road from Kirmanshah to Baghdad, “
a fruit called by the natives Angur-1-Kault, or grapes of the 3
Kauli, which grow on the Mazu or gall-tree (oak), of a yellows —
ish transparent colour, sometimes used as glue.
The hakim Déwid says of Dibk (in a passage which i¢
imperfect in the Téj el Ards) “it is found upon the tree in like
manner as lichen (¢asJ!), but is a berry, like the ehiekpea
ween) im roundness; . . . . the best thereof is the
smooth, soft, with much moisture, inclining, in its exterior, to
greenness, and it is mostly found upon the oak; when it is
eooked with honey and ,.--? o (juice of fresh dates, &c.) .
and drawn out into longish strings, and put upon trees, the
birds become caught by it.” (Madd el Kémis.) The author of
the Makhzan-el-Adwiya has the following account of it A
berry ~smaller than the seed of Cicer arietinum, green whet
fresh, but when dry shrivelled and of a brown colour, the com
tents are moist and viscid, the seeds about the size of poppy”
seeds. The plant is parasitic upon the pear and other tree
and consists of several branches, the leaves are like those of the
pomegranate, and of a pale green. Properties resolvent and
laxative, a solvent of corrupt humors which it withdraws from
the system. When steeped in hot water, strained, and beaten
up with the kernels of the walnut or castor oil (which is the
usual form of administration), it clears the system of adust bile
and phlegm, removes obstructions, and is a remedy for Tambago,
piles, &c. Applied externally it promotes the suppuration, oF
barber the dispersion of tumors or enlargements. SportsmeP
use it as birdlime, and dyers as a mordant for crimson.”
_ OF recent years, mistleloe has again attracted attention a8 # —
medicine. Dr. W. H. Long (New Remedies, 1878, p. 112) aftets

ja
ti

SSRAME Righelig Wai a

LORANTHACEH, 299

ten years’ experience of it as an oxytocic, arrived at the conclu-
sion that it is superior to ergot. He used it also in the forms
of infusion, tincture, decoetion and fluid extract in many cases
of menorrhagia and post-partum hemorrhage with gratifying
results. He conceived that it incited the nataral, rather than
the tonic, contraction of the uterus. A physician in South
Carolina refers to three cases of abortion in negroes produced
by this plant. (Ded. Rec., xvii., 276 ; Stillé and Maisch., Nat.
Disp., 1884, p. 1617.) Dr. R. Park speaks of a tineture of
Viscum album as-a valuable substitute for Digitalis; the ecbolic
action of the plant, he says, is more energetic than that of
ergot. Dose, 10—60 grains.

Description.—The dried berries are about 4 of an inch
in diameter, soft, brown, and shrivelled ; they contain a small
seed about the size of a poppy-seed. When crushed they are
very sticky.

Chemical composition.—M. Pavlevsky (Bull. Soc. Chim. (2),
xxxiv., 348) has obtained from the leaves of V. album a
erystallizable acid corresponding to the formula CH*O* or
(CH?0*) HO. It forms large prisms insoluble in alcohol
and ether, slightly soluble in water, and fusing at 101—103°C.
It is obtained by boiling the leaves with water acidulated with
nitric acid, and allowing the decoction to cool. The silver salt
of this acid is explosive. (Year-Book of Pharm., 1881, p. 63.)

The berries contain a substance which has been named Viscin
by Reinsch, who obtained it from birdlime by digesting it with
90 per cent. alcohol as long as it coloured that liquid yellow,
after which it was boiled repeatedly with alcohol to remove

“wax. The remaining yellowish-brown mass, when treated five
or six times with ether, gave up viscin, whilst viscaoutchin and
woody fibre remained undissolved. The ethereal solution was
then evaporated, and the viscid yellow mass thus obtained
kneaded with alcohol so long as it gave off colouring matter,

It was then kneaded under water, and heated to 120°, without

access of air, until the whole of the water was expelled.
Viscin is a clear transparent mass, of the consistence of honey

230 EORANTHACE 2.

at ordinary temperatures, and capable of being drawn. out: into
long threads; fluid at 100°, like oil of almonds; sp. gr. 1.
It produces a greasy stain on paper, is nearly inodorous and
tasteless, and has an acid reaction. Formula C*°H“0".
Viscaoutchin remains behind, together with woody fibre, after
the extraction of viscin by ether as above, and is taken up by 01

of turpentine. After distilling off the turpentine, the yellowish

mass is dissolved in ether, in which it has now become soluble; _

the ethereal solution is evaporated, and the residue is washed
with alcohol and water, and dried at 120°. At ordinary
temperatures it is viscid, and resembles vegetable wax; at 120°
it is of the consistence of olive oil. It is very elastic, and
may be drawn out into long threads; sp. gr. 0°978. It is
tasteless, of faint odour and neutral reaction. Formula
C*°H370°. (Gmelin, xvii., p. 352.)

Viscum et Loranthus, sp. var. In the Pharmacopwia
or India, the leaves of a Viscum, doubtfully referred to

. monoicum (Kuchila ke molung), growing on Nux Vomica
trees in the neighbourhood of Cuttack, are stated to possess
poisonous properties similar to those of the tree on which the
plant grows. The subject was investigated in 1837 by Sir Ww.
O’Shaughnessy, who is said to have detected in the powdered
leaves the presence of strychnine and brucine: and the leaves
were for a time used by Dr. Duncan Stewart and others 48 a
substitute for Nux Vomica. A case of what is stated 1?
have been fatal poisoning by the leaves is mentioned by
Norman Chevers in his work on Indian Medical Jurisprudence.
The symptoms were those of strychnia poisoning. In 1861
Mr. Leon Souberain (Pharm. Journ., p. 568) published an
account of a poisonous species of Loranthus found on the
Nilgiris, growing on Nux Vomica trees, and known to the
natives as Poulourivi,
: In Pudukota, a decoction of a species of Loranthus called
Pillooroovi or Kooroonthoo, probably the same plant, is applied
to skin diseases to relieve itching. ;
Under the name of Bandékpushp, the flowers of Loranthus
longiflorus, Desrouss., Rheede, Hort, Mal., z., t. 4, have been sent

LORANTHACEH. 231

tous from Poona as having a reputation among the Hindus
as a remedy in consumption, asthma, and mania; they are
astringent.
Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton, when in Mysore, was shown the
— Loranthus faicatus, Linn. (‘Wotu,’ Canarese), the bark of which
was used by the poorer natives in place of betel-nut; with
_ quicklime it tinges the saliva and mouth of a fine red, brighter
_ even than that communicated by the Areca.
In Travancore, the Loranthaceous parasites on the Nux
_ Vomica are called Kanjiram-eitthal in Malayalim, and are used in
_ medicine by the natives, but when the parasites are scarce, the
young leaves of the Nux Vomica tree are used as a substitute.
A contribution by M. A. Chatin to the Paris Academy of -
_ Sciences entirely contradicts the statement we have extracted
from the Pharmacopeia of India, and the belief of the natives
that these parasites partake of the nature of the plants upon
_ which they grow; so that the old ideas concerning the non-
_ elaboration of sap by parasitic plants will have to be abandoned.
__ M. Chatin finds that the tannin of the mistletoe is not
identical with that of the oak on which it grows, but gives a
_ green colour and not a blue-black with iron salts; that the
_ Loranthus, which grows on Strychnos Nuw Vomica, does not, as
has been asserted, contain a trace of either strychnine or —

colour of the wood of its host plant, nor does the Orobanche of
he hemp possess the odour of the latter ; while Hydnora
yfricana, used as food in South Africa by the Hottentots, grows
m anacrid and even vesicating Euphorbia. It is evident,
therefore, that the sap absorbed from the host plant must be
modified by the parasite to form its own peculiar products.
_ (Pharm. Journ., May 2nd, 1891.)
The Forest Officer of Ganjam, a district where the Strychnos
grows so plentifully, sent to one of us a specimen of a species
Viscum taken from these trees, which was identified as e

232 SANTALACE.

V. articulatum. The sample was asmall one, but it was sufficient
to determine by analysis that the trace of alkaloid present was
neither strychnine nor brucine. The leaves contained a pecu-

iar tannic acid, giving a green precipitate with ferric salts, and
a resin soluble in ether and alcohol, striking a blood-red colour
with strong sulphuric acid. The chemical constituents of the
leaves of the parasite were altogether different to those of the
leaves of the Nux Vomica tree.

SANTALACE/.

SANTALUM ALBUM, Linn.

Fig.— Bedd, Fl. Sylv., t. 256; Hayne, Arne. Gewachs. @,
f.1; Bentl. and Trim., t. 292; Rumph. Amb, ii., t. 11. San-
dalwood (£ng.), Santal blanc (F’r.).

Hab.-—Deccan Peninsula. The wood and essential oil.

Vernacular.—Chandan, Sufed-chandan (Hind.), Sandanak-
kattai (Tam.), Gandhapu-chekka (Te/.), Chandana-mutti (Mal.),
Gandhada-chekke (Can.), Chandon, Sada-chandon ( Beng-)s
Chandana, Sukhada (Guz.), Chandana, Gandha-che-khor
{Mar.).

History, Uses, &c.—Sanskrit writers make two kinds
of Chandana: the darker, heartwood, they call Pitachandana, or
yellow Sandal ; and the lighter wood, Srikhanda, or white Sandal.
Chandana is mentioned in the Nirukta, or writings of Yaska, the
oldest Vedic commentary extant, said to be written not later
than the 5th century B.C. It is also referred to in the ancient
epic poems of the Hindus, the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

According tothe Kathdsaritségara, it is one of the trees of the
Buddhic paradise, and the chariot of the sun is made of it
wood bound with gold. |

Sanskrit medical writers describe sandalwood as_bittet

cooling, astringent, and useful in bilious fever and heat of body +

SANTALACEH. 033

FS? ROAST NEON Sel ee EM
zi

a paste of the wood is directed to be applied externally to in-
: flammatory affections of the skin, and is adomestic remedy forall
kinds of pains andaches. Under the name of gandh (perfume),
it is largely used in Hindu ceremonial, being smeared upon
idols and upon the foreheads of their worshippers. The wood
‘is chiefly consumed at the chita or funeral pile, even compara-
tively poor people spending as much as fifty rupees upon it.
The Parsees also use it at their funeral ceremonies. Mahometan
medical writers, commencing with Masih and Ibn Sina, call
the wood Sandal, and follow the Hindus in distinguishing the
dark-coloured portion from the light. The author of the
Makhzan describes it as cold anddry, cardiacal, tonic, astringent,
alexipharmic, antaphrodisiac, a resolvent of inflammatory
swellings, &c. He recommends an emulsion in bilious fever, on
account of its cooling and protective influence over the heart,
brain, stomach, &c, Asan external application a paste made with
rosewater and camphor, or with sarcocolla and white ofegg, may
be applied to relieve headache, or to any kind of inflammatory
swelling or skin affection. Sometimes the paste is made with the
juices of herbs, such as purslane, nightshade, &c. Ainslie states
that in Southern India sandalwood given with milk is regarded
as a valuable remedy in gonorrhea. Rumpbhius (ii., p. 42)
mentions a similar use of it at Amboyna. In the Concan
sandalwood oil with cardamoms and bamboo manna is given in
gonorrhea, and mixed with limejuice and camphor it is used as
a cooling application to eruptions, &c. A conserve of sandal-
wood is also made by boiling the wood cut in small pieces in
bangar-khér (impure carbonate of potash) and water (4 seers
sandal, half a seer bangar-khér, and 32 seers water), until it is
quite soft. It is then preserved ina thick syrup. Sandalwood
_ was known to the Greeks from the time of Alexander. Arrian
mentions éiAa cayadiva among the Indian imports into Oman in
the Persian Gulf. Constantinus Africanus, a physician of
the School of Salerno, appears to have been the first to use
it medicinally in Europe. In the Pharmacopeia of India,
Dr. Ai. Ross is stated to have subjected the wood to me: and
_ found that whilst its effects as a stimulant were be? &
III.—30

‘Si
URAC arts

Cees re yee a lee eee eee 2. oS Ae ee ee eee) eds ba
*

TE Ee ee SO a CT en ree ee

Ce ee

;
d

“284 SANTALACEZ.

secondary effect was that of a sedative on the circulation. In
remittent fevers in which it was administered, it acted asa
diaphoretic, diminishing at the same time the rapidity rather
than the violence of the heart’s action. Dr. Henderson, of
Glasgow, and, in France, Drs. Panas, Gubler and Simmonet, have
directed the attention of European physicians to the valuable
properties of the oil as remedy for gonorrheea, in doses of from
30 to 40 minims three times a day, and there is new some
demand for it in India for this purpose.

Petes

Dr. Henderson asserts that he always found it inoffensive, evel
in strong doses ; that at the expiration of forty-eight hourscom- =
plete relief is effected ; besides, it has the important qualification :
of pleasing the patient and being agreeable to the stomach ; itis
superior to copaiba and cubebs, succeeding where the latter have
failed, and with a delicate subject it is to be highly valued as @
remedy uniting a real stomachic to a great specific action,
and that, in short, during the last five years, he is indebted to
it for a great number of successful cases. (Medical Times and
Gaz., June 1865.) In a communication to the Paris Chirurgical
Society, Dr. Panas (1865) equally advoeated ita use. Oleum
Santali has also been prescribed in chronic catarrh of the bladder,
where it performs the same offices as oil of turpentine, without -
its injurious effect on the kidneys and alimentary canal. In all
cases it is best administered in the form of Midy’s Capsules, teB
to twelve of which may be given daily at first, divided into three
doses, each of which may be taken a quarter of an hour before
meals; the number of capsules taken daily may be gradually
increased to 24, but as soon as the discharge becomes serous, the
dose should be gradually diminished. M. CO. Méhw has observ
that after the internal administration of oil of sandalwood, #
resinous substance is found in the urine having the odour of the
wood, which appears to be kept in solution by phosphate of
soda, and which has the properties of a very weak acid. Tb
resinous substance can only be obtained in very small quantities

= eG ee thea Fe
ee PRT Wily a oe tba PENI AES Rf Se OF
SS SRT NP tase tk ho et. eda | oo ae

by shaking the urine with ether ; to obtain it in larger quantity;
an acid must be used (phosphoric or tartaric), which makes ¢

he resinous matter, Ifthe utné

Pon.

3 SANTALACE®, 235

P is now shaken with ether, and the ether evaporated, the resinous
matter is obtained of a light-brown colour, and having the odour
_ f sandalwood. This substance in contact with concentrated

pure oil of sandalwood, M. Méhu has also observed that the
pure sandal oil does not communicate a violet odour to the urine,
as is the case when the oil is adulterated with copaiba and tur-
pentine. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Sept. 1st, 1886.) The
fact ofa resin being precipitated by acids from the urine in
eases in which sandalwood oil has been administered, has
therefore to be remembered in testing for albumen with nitric

: Description.—Sandalweod logs are about a yard in length
and 5 to 6 inches in diameter; they are stripped of the bark
and a portion ef the sapwood. Andreas Petersen of Copen-
hagen, who mde in 1886 a very careful investigation of the
Rood, says :—‘‘ It is very homogeneous, rather hard and pon-
; derous, although it does not sink in water. The heartwood is
pale reddish, with darker reddish-brown and brighter yellowish
concentric zones, which, when examined under the microscope,
_ prove to be annual rings. In the inner part of the wood they
q are sometimes very wide, measuring, for instance, as much as
seven millimetres. Possibly, charafone they do not correspond
_ to one year’s growth, but to-that of a longer period.

“The transverse section, examined by means of a lens, dis-
_ plays the numerous narrow medullary rays ; the vessels are
_ partly empty, partly loaded with yellow resin. In the bright
yellowish sapwood both vessels and medullary rays are less
distinct. The sapwood is scentless, whereas the heartw ood,
especially when freshly cut, is in a high degree possessed of
the very agreeable and remarkably persistent odour of sandal
oil.

‘‘ The miscroscope shows the prevailing part of the tissue of the
wood to be made up of ligneous fibres (libriform), the thick walls
of which are marked with small annular pits (behétte Tiipfel).
e woody tissue is traversed by medullary rays consisting of

the same difference, although less distinctly. Thus the dark

236 SANTALACEA.,

one or two rows of somewhat irregular cells. On a transverse
section, the distance of the medullary rays from each other is
very different. According to the size and position of the
vessels, the medullary rays are somewhat undulated. Most of
the vessels are very large, the largest as much as 89 mkm. im
diameter. They are very regularly distributed, either isolated,
or in groups of two or three, very seldom more. Their walls —
are very thick, being marked with numerous annular pits,
communicating with those of the surrounding cells, There is
also to be met with in the wood, parenchymatous tissue to some ~
extent, which is made up either of isolated cells or of short
tangential or oblique rays of two to five cells; these parenchy-
matous layers very seldom run from one medullary ray bed
another. Crystals of oxalate of calcium are also found; and
in longitudinal sections they are seen to be enclosed in long
ducts, containing each 10—15 crystals. As to the concentri¢
zones of darker and brighter tint, as mentioned above, the ;
vessels of the latter zones are much smaller and less numerous —
‘than those of the dark ones; the libriform cells likewise show

zones in all probability represent the wood built up in spmng
The vessels have an average diameter of 74 mkm., those of the —
vessels in the other rings being only 47 mkm. ;
_ “The darker colouris due partly to the actual cell-walls, partly
to the resin contained in numerous vessels, On the whole, the
concentric markings or zones are more distinct to the naked ey®
than under the microscope. On a vertical section the medullary
rays are seen to be built up of usually less than eighteen layoyy”
ch consisting of two or three rows of cells, The position
lullary rays and pits does not allow this wood to be classed
among the woods which were described by Héhnel as showing
the remarkably regular arrangement of layers or series Ke
stories, which he termed a ‘stockwerkihnliche’ structure. If
these slices of the wood are boiled for some minutes with nitric.
acid (1°185), a little chlorate of potassium being added, the
single cells are easily isolated. The libriform cells are
distinotly Seen to e: typic form alluded to above, a few

4

SANTALACEH, 037

them reminding one extremely of the fibres, of which the
ynewood is made up. I have also noticed intermediate
fibres, marked with both true annular and laterally extended

pn

3 Bisuring matter. The parenchymatous part of the wood,
the medullary rays and numerous vessels are loaded with a
yellow-brownish resinous matter. Thin slices, examined under
water or glycerine, display a great many smaller and larger
ops, soluble in alcohol and reducing osmic acid (1 part dis-
ed in 100 parts of water); no doubt they are drops of essential
These drops, flowing out of the ducts, on thin sections are
most abounding along the primary membranes of the cells
in their pits. But if rather thick sections are treated with
mic acid, the woody parenchyme and the medullary rays also
sume a black colour, due to reduced osmium. If, on the con-
y, the sections, before being treated with osmic acid, have
| well washed with alcohol, the just mentioned parenchyme
ot at all or but extremely faintly blackened. The cells

chromate of potassium and chloride of iron, the reduction of
6 osmic acid is consequently not due to tannic matter. Small
of the heartwood were further treated for some days with
lution of osmic acid, then extracted by means of alcohol and
ed. When sections were made from these pieces, I ascertained
that nearly all the parenchymatous parts had assumed a black
colour. Sometimes also the libriform cells contain a small
nount of oil, but the experiments just mentioned prove the
nchymatous tissue of the wood to be the principal seat of the
ial of, When treated with a mixture of ei pa

238 SANTALACE.

glycerine and solution of potash (5 per cent.), oil drops are also
distinctly seen in the parenchyme. I ascertained that
there is no corky membrane in the walls of these cells, like a
that occurring in many other cases. From a physiological —
point of view, the absence of corky walls of the cells
the heartwood might be expected.” (Pharm. Journ. (8)
xvi., 757.)

Pe

Chemical composition.—The wood treated with boiling alcohol —
yields about 7 per cent. of a blackish extract, from which a
tannate is precipitated by alcoholic solution of acetate of lead. —
Decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen, the tannate yields a —
tannic acid having but little colour, and striking a greenish
hue with a ferric salt. The extract also contains a dark resin.
(Pharmacographia.) The most interesting constituent of sandal-
wood is the fragrant essential oil. It is a yellowish, remark:
ably thick liquid, having a high specific gravity (usually more
than 0-960); and is a mixture of hydrocarbons and oxygenated —
oils, boiling at a very high temperature. The specific gravity
of a pure sample of oil distilled at Hunsur from the roots was
0°9745 at 15°-5. M. Chapoteaut (Bull. Soc. Chim., XXXIV
303) has shown that it is composed of two oils, one boiling
at 300° and the other at 310°, and that the composition of
the oil boiling at 300° is C%H240, and of the oil boiling
at 310° CHO, This chemist has been able to obtain
with the latter oil a series of ethers under the influence
of the different acids he brought to act upon it, and has
announced the important fact that the oil C!*H°*O is a
_ alcohol, the aldehyde of which is the oil ©'5H24O. Phosphori¢
anhydride absorbs water from both, converting them into.
hydrocarbons of the formule C1°H?? and C!#H?+, respectively.
By the Indian process only 2°5 per cent. of oil is obtained from
the wood, but the powerful apparatus of Messrs. Schimmel & Oo.
of Leipzig affords as much as 5 per cent.

8 Collection and Commerce.—Mr. C. E. M. Russell, Superinten™
_ Sent of Forests in Mysore, in a Report upon sandalwood (1889),

~~ cee — ‘ood is the most important source of Forest

~

SANTALACEH, 239

evenuein Mysore. Itisamonopoly of the Mysore Government,
d, except by Government Agency, no sandal tree can be
uprooted or cut down even upon land which is private property.
The only exceptions are the Jahgirdar of Yelandur and the
Guru of the Sringeri Matt, who are permitted to cut and dispose
£ the sandalwood of theirown Jahgirs. The tree is plentifulin
e Mysore country, and occurs also, but in far less quantities,
in those portions of the Madras territory which border upon

ysore; for practical purposes, however, Mysore may be
said to almost hold the monopoly of the sandal supply. It isa

dent upon a volatile oil which is contained in the heartwood
only, and in order that this oil may be developed in the highest
: Bele degree, it is necessary that the growth of the tree
should be slow, consequently sandalwood grown in arid
situations on poor stony soil is, though small, of far more value
han is that produced by large well-grown trees growing in
moist situations and in richer soil. The maturation period of
‘the sandal tree is variously stated at from 40 to 60 years,
Sandalwood is not eaten by white ants, and its contained oil
reserves it from decay in a remarkable degree, of which the
. collection of old sandal roots left in the ground for

. a custom not to uproot, but to fell, sandal trees, whereas for
“many years past the trees have been uprooted, and the roots,
which contain a higher percentage of oil than the wood, are in
great demand and command high prices.

_ “Even in periods of depression of the sandal market, a fair
demand for roots has always been noticeable. The method of
preparation is as follows :—

“ The trees having been uprooted are roughly deprived of bark

jnto the nearest of the sandal Kothis, of which nine exist in the
Mysore Province,

240 SANTALACEZ.

“The distribution of the various sandal Kothis and their
names are :-—

District. Number of Kothis. Names.

Mysore 2 Hunsur and Seringapatam.

Bangalore 1 Bangalore.

Shimoga 4 Shimoga,
Tirthahalli,
Anantapur, and
Shikarpur.

Hassan x Hassan.

Kadar — Chikmagalur.

“On arrival at the Kothis, the trunks are sawn off above the

roots, cut into lengths, all the white wood removed, the billets

adzed and subsequently planed and smoothed, the roots adzed
and freed of all adhering bark, mud, and white wood, and the
various products —billets, ‘ehigs, small pieces, hollow wood, saw
powder, &c.—collected and classified according to the classes
represented by the specimens forming the sandal trophy:
About the months of November and December auction-sales of
the various classes are held in all the Kothis of the Province,
and are so arranged, as regards the dates fixed for holding the
same, that purchasers may, if they choose, attend the sales in
Shimoga, Kadur and Hassan, and yet be in time for those in
Mysore and in Bangalore.

if Tir

Mysore. Shimoga, Bangalore, Hassan. Kadur

Years, a , di ; di ; d ; a ‘

i Sold. 5 i Sold. 3 : od i Sold. i fe

5 a jo @ jcoia| a | 5 a |5|a| @

Tons. ‘Tons. Rs. | Tons.| Tons.| Rs, |Tons/Tons) Rs. | Tons.| Tons.| Rs. ee Tons} Rs.
1882—83...... 574] 260} 96,877) 817} 849} 2,70,716)141%) 393) 17,049) 1853) 1623) 47,180)225 124 | 39,644
1883—84...... 217%} 808%) 73,728) 806 | 845] 2,71,626)108 ? 615] 241%) 2114] 70,550]1153) 90 | 20,220
1884—85...... 809} 3933) 1,15,082} 8843) 140 75,643) 13/2282) 52,595) 2603! 1933] 63,489] 683) 482) 12,954
1885—86...... 2613; 454) 1,57,308) 2612) 580 | 1,79,489]182 |1583) 38,405] 2273) 2743) 94,218] 782.1453 45,492
1886—87......| 521}, 493%) 1,46,367! 8963) 754}! 2,58,471,113 '164 | 63,604! 1874 194 71,490) 1662033) 75,480
1887—88......} 9403] 866$| 2,28,215) 798%| 8353] 2,58,893]184 159%) 56,811) 2309) 2543) 95,245.2119144}) 47,281

eee ;

ay 2,762 8,17,027 8,964) $,9938| 18, 04,788}7293,7533| 2,29,079] 1,333}) 1,291| 4,43,172. 8653) 756) 2,41,071

—:savok 9 OF soinsy ey} Ure}TOD MoTOq

SyUeMIE}e}S OY], ‘“WAOF Ivnqvz ul uUAOYS oq ATJUeTUaATOO UvO

WOIfo1EY} Peatlop onuUsAdI oy} puv ‘poo jo pyerk ‘esuvr oy,

—pooaynpuny ‘uwoif pansap anuaaay pun ‘fo pax pun abun ,,

TFG

WHOVIVINVS

942 SANTALACEA.

Average Summary calculated on the 6 years.

District, Collection, Sold. Revenue. pipes
Tons. Tons. Rs.
Shimoga District...... 6603 666 | 2,17,465 326}
Mysore do. s.s+ 4702 463 | 1,36,171 294
Hassan do. wu... 999% 215 | 78,862 3435
Bangalore do. ...... 1212 125 38,180 305%
Radar < do. ~...... 1442 126 40,178 319
po rate
Years. Collection, Sold, Revenue. | per ton sold
Tons, Tons. Rs.
1882—83 ....... 1,9123 1,4843 | 4,70,966 3284
1888—84 weccceee( 1,489 1456 | 4,36,739 300
1884—85 .....ceeee| —1,5238 1,0433 | 3,19,718 3064
1885-66... ent 1,568 5,14,862 3295
1886—87 veorsererversee} 1,844 | 1,8093 | 6,10,412 |. 3978
1887—88 .....ccecse0e] 2,9653 2,261 6,82,445 302
Perna 2a
ee 9,7163 9,568 | 30,35,137 3i7

_ “Thus, the revenue from sandalwood in 1887-88 amounted to

_ ho less than Rs. 6,82,445, while the average revenue for the
6 years reaches Rs. 5,05,856,

“ There i ae but a slight variation between the prices obtained

~ for the various classes of sandal at the sales held in the yarious

$ Kothis of the Province, so the prices obtained last year in the

sete paint, Boat x a lower than those obtained in

Sh font ke tela

== a fair idea of the value of

- SANTALAOEZ, 243

“Rates obtained in auction in the Mysore Districtin December

.
=

Rs. per ton

Ist coe taekentes logs) «O14

2nd clas 496
Sud nis (aS) gi 486
4th class (do) sa OT
5th class (logs) Cevecys 2 ANE
Roots . 883
Jajpokal (ordinary commer cial) . ee
Bagaradad (do. inferior) ..... 372
Powder . vee
Ain Bagar (inferior wood) 311
Ain Chilta (common chips) Bee a 3
Hutri Chilta ‘saris do.) 168
Basola Bukni (adzed do.).. 47
Milva Chips (mixed do.) ....ce.ecssesey exe. Seay 85

“The yield of sandalwood from the Mysore Province is cap-

_ able of expansion. Until recently little attention was paid to
artificial reproduction and the encouragement and artificial
_ enhancement of natural reproduction, the supply being obtained
solely from natural growth. Now, however, extensive measures,

pone for their object Sandal reproduction throughout the
~ Province, are being carried out, and no practical limit to the gs
_ possible supply of this valuable tree, beyond the necessary ae
question of demand, is conceivable. ee

“ Ohief Markets for Sandalwood.—It will be matter for surprise

that so valuable a wood, and one of- which a single Province
_ may almost be said to hold the monopoly; should be so little
_ known outside India.

“The fact is that the trade in Mysore sandalwood has hitherto
_ been confined to a ring, consisting chiefly of Muhammadan Seits,

_ who either as principals or as agents of Bombay Firms, attend
_ the local sales and send the sandalwood purchased by them to
Bombay. The transit to Bombay from the coast is by sea in
native craft. The Railways might perhaps secure this traffie

if they offered special rates.

eee «SANT ALACH AR.

“The carts that convey the sandalwood to the coast are hired
at low rates, as they are certain of return loads of salt and other
merchandise to Mysore. Until recently, nearly all the sandal-
wood sold in the auctions held by the Mysore Government, went
to Bombay, but a demand haying lately arisen for sandal oil for
medicinal purposes, some direct shipments of wood for extrac-
tion of oil to France and Germany, and, probably, also to
America, have been made.”’

A small quantity of sandalwood is produced in the Madras
Presidency, and in the Bombay districts of North Canara and
Dharwar. The following figures show the revenue obtained

‘from the wood in the Madras distwicts § in 1889-90 :—

North Arcot...... Rs. 5,688 Average price, Bag ; per owt,
South Arcot... Page 385 a) ”» ras
PHN se 9 5,679 ry) ” ” 18 9
North Coimhatore ,, 194 39 % yw 1a x
ESA oa vecee <h: B,al8 9 » glo 3. yy
Total...4.18, 18,562

Statement of Sandalwood collected in the North Canara and
Dharwar Districts in 1889-90 and sotd by auction at Kumpta.
Nese ad

2
No. | Class of Sandalwood. i oe Quantity. Rate. | Amount,
i SERRE stam rT nag
K. m. 1b.*| Rs. a. p.| Rs- a P
1 | Ist class -.........4/ 363 | 18 720) 142 4 812,616 2 2
Bp nd do. aero 472 | 18 8 19140 1 7/1,847 0 9
3 | 8rd do. : 436 | 7 0 9136 611) 95 8h
14th do. 933 | 12 010, 188 6 81,663 7 5
5 | bth do. 546 | 4 011,133 0 of 534 OTF
6| 6th do. .. 1,424 5 0 6 120 0 oO Gol 4 ¢
7 | Roots ..{ 1,056 9 12 26 130 0 01,254 0 &
S| dupeke ........ 53 14 034 0-0 140
9 | Small pieces... ... mi 01 9 7 0 4 SSE
10 | Trimmings Bags ...... 88 | 3 716 38 0-0} 128 6
M1 | Sawdust do. ....{ 3 0 417 990 0 2001 9
12} White wood...) 573 | 8 7 7 16 0 o| 13312 9
Total......| . ine ies 4 $2 15 3 een eet one 9,907 12 2
- erence

kandy of 20 maunds of 28 Ibs.

lea isis ars coe ay

-
rier eal 5

¥.

/ SANTALACEA). 845

In 1889-90 the total quantity of sandalwood offered for sale
in Mysore was 2,384 tons, ewts., 63 Ibs. Of this quantity only
-- 2 tons, 16 cwts., 105 Ibs., were placed in the first class. The total
revenue yielded was Rs. 8,82,031.

The quantities sold at the different Kothis were—Hunsur
Kothi, 673 tons, 13 ewts., 58 lbs.; Seringapatam Kothi, 4389
fons, 11 ewts., 28 lbs.; Hassan Kothi, 180 tons, 9 ewts., 28 lbs.;
Piitnangalnr Kothi, 132 tons, 14 cwts., 70 lbs; Jirthaballi
Kothi, 233 tons, 13 ewts., 48 lbs.; Shimoga Kothi, 471 tons, 14

673 tis, 13 ewts., 58 lbs. offered for sale at Hunsur Kothi,
only 148 tons, 4 ewts., 28 lbs., consisted of logs, which were
classified as follows:—

Tons. ewts. Ibs. Price given.
Ist class be 10 28 Rs. 601 per ton.
2nd ,, 6 5 84 9° O96
mr 60. 4 84 », 079 to 582 per ton.
e 4th ,, 21 3 56 5 O10 MOT4. -. 5,
foth ,, 6 »» 504

The roots fetched prices ranging cy ble Rs. 416 to Rs. 449, the
sawdust Rs. 420, and the chips and trimmings from Rs. 70-8 to
Rs. 301.

Sandalwood oil,—-The ‘Mysore Government has long had
establishments for extracting the oil, which is sold at the
- annual auction along with the wood, and chiefly bought up for
exportation to China and Arabia. It is procured from the wood -
by distillation, the roots yielding the largest quantity and
finest quality of oil. The body of the still is a large globular clay
_ pot with a circular mouth, and is about 2} feet deep by 64 in
circumference at the bilge. No capital is used, but the mouth
of the still, when ihusped, is closed with a clay lid having a small
hole in its centre, through which a bent copper tube about 54
feet long is passed for the escape of the vapour. The lower end
of the tube is conveyed inside a copper receiver, placed in a large

dal for distillation, the white or sap wood-is rejected, and the

ewts., 6 lbs.; Shikapur Kothi, 252 tons, 7 cwts, 49 lbs. Ofthe

porous vessel containing cold water. When preparing the san-

a SANTALACEZ.

heartwood is cut into small chips, and distillation is slowly
carried on for ten days and nights, by which time the whole of
the oil isextracted. As the water from time to time gets low in
the still, fresh supplies are added from the heated contents of
the refrigerator. The quantity of oil yielded by wood of good
quality is at the rate of 10 ozs. per maund, or 2°5 per cent.
It is transparent and of a pale yellow colour, and has a resinous
taste and sweet peculiar smell, which is. best appreciated by
rubbing a few drops of the oil on the warm hand. _ Its specific
gravity is about 0°980. (Bidie.) The average price in India is
about Rs. 8 per lb.

From Mr. Russell’s report we learn that recently Messrs. F.
Smith, of Bangalore, and W. F. Petrie Hay, of Hunsur, have,
with permission, been, making experimental distillations. Their
samples were clear and good, but it has been brought to notice -
that the use of iced-strainers would be necessary to prevent the
oil becoming thick or cloudy when exported to colder regions. -

False Sandaleoods of Eastern Commerce.—The wood of
Santalum Preissii (South Australian sandalwood) is dark-
brown in colour, with unusually close tenacious texture, and

extraordinarily hard and heavy. Itis much sought for im. |

China, where the oil is used for medicinal purposes and to
perfume soaps. Messrs. Schimmel & Oo. distilled 75 kilos of
the wood and obtained 3 kilos, 800 grams, of oil. The wood,
therefore, is one of the richest sandalwoods for oil. In many
respects the latter is characteristic and interesting; it is
viscid, of a cherry-red colour, and specifically heavier than
water. At 15°C. its sp. gr. is 1:022. The oil possesses the
property of solidifying at medium temperatures and separating
acicular crystals, so that in the process of distillation the
cooling must be very carefully effected, otherwise the con-
densing tubes become blocked. This phenomenon occurs espe-
cially in the medium fractions of the oil. The rasped wood has

an agreeable balsamic odour with a suggestion of rose oil which
is not perceptible in the normal oil. By separating the oil into

= a number o can be recognised in some

Ne ees

BUPHORBIACEA. OAT

= of the middle fractions. (Berichte von Schimmel & Oo., 1891.)
The wood of Santalum cignorum (West Australian san-
dalwood) has a sharp odour which distinguishes it from true
3 ~ gandalwood. ‘The oil, which has the same peculiarity, has a sp.
gr. of 0-953, rotation +5° 20.

African Sandalwood (botanical origin unknown) is
_ reddish-brown in colour, and very hard and close. Distilled
with water it yields 3 per cent. of a ruby-red oil having the
consistence of true sandalwood oil. Its sp. gr. at 15° C. is
0:969. The odour resembles that of West Indian sandal oil.
(Berichte von Schimmel & Co., 1891.) This wood is largely
imported into Bombay; a sample kindly supplied by Messrs.
Schimmel & Co. was found to agree exactly with that sold in
the bazaar. It is used in India as a cheap substitute for true
sandalwood.

4 EUPHORBIACE.

EUPHORBIA PILULIFERA, Linn.
Fig.—Jacq. Icon., t. 478; Burm. Thes. Zeyl., tt. 104—105,
#1. : : fo
Hab.—Throughout the hotter parts of India. The herb.
Vernacular.—Dudhi (Hind.), Bara-keru (Beng.), Goverdhan,
Mothidudhi, Nayeti (Mar.), Dudheli (Guz.), Amumpatchai-arissi
(Tam.), Bidari, Nanabala ( Te/.), Gentikasa, Barasu (Can.).
History, Uses, &c.—This plant is not mentioned by
Hindu medical writers, nor does there appear to be any Sanskrit
name for it. It is known, however, as a popular remedy for
‘worms, bowel complaints, cough ‘and gonorrhea, and as a local
application for the cure of ringworm, the Marathi name Nayeti
signifies ringworm. Ainslie (ii., 99) remarks:—“If we may

a
me

‘most extraordinary qualities, such as a few tropa of the dee

believe Piso (De Med. Brazil), and Barham (p.180), it possesses

248 HUPHORBIACEA,

of it killing serpents; its efficacy in venereal complaints and
dry bellyache; and its being an antidote to poisons. |
Recent investigation has, however, thrown more light upon
the properties of the plant. Marsset has discovered that it kills
small animals by paralysing the respiration and the heart,
through its direct action on the respiratory and cardiac centres.
The active principle is eliminated by the liver, for in all the
animals which died during the experiments the gall-bladder
was found to be distended with bile. He has published
excellent results obtained with it in the dyspnea of asthma,
a emphysema and bronchitis, these good results depending upon
a particular modification of the functions of the pneumogastric.
(Contrib. a. étude bot. phys. et therap. de VEuphorb. pil.
Paris, 1884.) Tison and Beaumetz obtained very satisfactory
results from it in dyspnea of cardiac origin. It appears to act
beneficially upon spasmodic dyspnea, from whatever cause
arising, and it unquestionably is a remedy of great power and
promise. (Whitla.) Its action is not cumulative. The active
principle being soluble in water and dilute alcohol, an abundant
watery vehicle should therefore be employed. An extract made
_ with water or weak spirit keeps well. In decoction, 1 oz. of the
fresh plant or 3 oz. of the dried plant may be used with 2 quarts
of water, and be reduced by simmering to one quart ; the addition

of 13 to 2 ozs. of alcohol will prevent it from spoiling in a 0
climate, but in India the decoction should be made fresh every
2days. The extract may be given in 1 gram doses, dissolved in
= Syrup or water ; it should not be prescribed in pill, on account of
its irritant action on the gastric mucous membrane. The decoc-
tion is given in doses of a wine-glassful three or four times 4
day ; both preparations are best given after meals or immediately
: before them. Attention has been redirected to this drug, 2S of
: value im the treatment of hay asthma and coryza, by Dr. Rose
eco Workman (Therap. Gaz., July 15, 1890), who states that
in thirteen cases of hay asthma, prompt relief was obtained

oo ase: ~ — the other cases partial relief was obtained, and

_ in the remaining three cases the results were negative |
fluid extract. soles ee ee .

o Ree of 30 to 60 minims every |

Rie.

x

EUPHORBIACEA. = 249

r hours. In nearly all the above cases iodide of potassium
arsenic had been previously used. In nine cases of coryza,
d results were obtained in six, the sneezing and rhinal
pete or diminishing within ee hours after the

y three or four hours. In five cases of asthma of frequent
‘rence and long standing, marked relief was experienced
e case: the dyspnoea soon disappeared and the attacks
e always shortened. In the other four cases no good effects
obtained.

Description. —Annual, hairy, obliquely-erect, with the
apices recurved; leaves opposite, obliquely-oblong, serrulate;
flowers small, numerous, in globular, axillary, shortly-peduncled
clusters; seeds ovoid. The acute leaves, hispid hairiness, and
small fruit render this species easily recognizable.

= Chemical composition.—The plant has been examined by J. H.
_ Bunting (Amer. Journ. Pharm., 1888, 552), whose analysis
ws the presence of the following constituents : wax, caout-
c, chlorophyll, resin, tannin, sugar, mucilage, carbo-
ates, albuminoids, calcium oxalate, and other salts.
0 thing i is known of the active principle beyond the facts
it is soluble in water and weak spirit, and insoluble in
hol of 90°, ether, chloroform, bisulphide of carbon and oil of
rpentine; it is supposed to be a gum-resin. The watery —

substance, having a vitreous fracture, hardly any taste and a
strawberry odour. (Bardet et Egasse, Form. des Nouv. Remédes,
Paris, 1886.)

EUPHORBIA THYMIFOLIA, Burm.
Fig.—Burm. Thes. Zeyl., t. 105, f. 2; Rheede, Hort.
Mai. a., t. 33.

_ Hab. — Throughout India and Ceylon, Central Asia, onda :
countries, except Australia. age
IiI.— 32

250 EUPHORBIACEZ.

Vernacular.—Chhoti-dudhi, Nigdchini (Hind.), Rakta-keru, a
Dudhiya (Beng.), Chin-amam-patchai-arissi, Sittrapal4di(Zam.),
Bidari-néna-biyyam (T7e/.), Dakti-dudhi, Lahan-nayeti (Mar.),
Dodhuk, Hazdrdéna (Punj.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is not mentioned in
the standard Sanskrit medical works, but, along with the allied —
species EF. granulata, Forsk., E. microphylla, Heyne, and —
E. Clarkeana, Hook f., which the natives do not distinguish from _
it, it is used medicinally in most parts of India and the East.
The author of the Khuldsat-el-tqjérib states that it is a small
milky prostrate plant with slender reddish stems, and opposite —
leaves about the size of a split lentil seed, very Common about
Mery in sandy ground. It is hot and dry in the first ofthe
third degree; the expressed juice or powdered plant with wime=
is given as a remedy for the bites of venomous reptiles, and is
applied externally to the bitten part; with milk if acts as @
purgative and expelsall noxious humors fromthe body. Accord-
ing to Ainslie, the Sanskrit name is Rakta-vindu-chhada, which
would imply that itis a remedy for Rakta-vindu, “ gonorrhea
with sanious discharge,” Heremarks:—‘‘The very small leaves
and seeds of this low-growing annual plant, which, in their
dried state, are slightly aromatic and a little astringent, are
given by the Tamool doctors, in worm cases, and in certain
bowel affections of children; they are commonly administered
in the form of powder, and in buttermilk, to the quantity of
one pagoda and a quarter weight in the course of the day on an
empty stomach. The leaves when carefully dried smell some-
thing like tea.” (Mat. Ind., ii., 75.) Irvine states that it is used
as a stimulant and laxative in Northern India. In the Concan
the juice is used to cure ringworm, and mixed with chloride of
ammonium for the cure of dandriff. O’Shaughnessy says that
the Juice is a violent purgative, and that the fresh plant is, by
the Arabs, applied to wounds, Inthe Dict. Econ, Prod. of
oan ie Saenee os the authority of the Rev. A. Campbell,

? use the root of this plant, which they call
Nanha-pusi-toa, as a remedy for amenorrhea,

we

HUPHORBIACER. - 95]

Description.—A much branched annual prostrate plant,
e or less hispidly pubescent, leaves opposite, } to 4 inch,
oled, obliquely-oblong, obtuse, crenulate, glabrous or vribiae:
t beneath, stipules elongate, involucres subsolitary, very
ute, axillary, especially in the crowded terminal branchlets,
bes short ciliate, glands very minute, stipitate; capsules erect,
tusely keeled, ee seeds with 5 to 6 shallow transverse

Chemical composition—An alcoholic extract of the whole
plant was mixed with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and
successively agitated with petroleum ether and ether, and then
reagitated with ether from the solution rendered alkaline with
sodic carbonate. The petroleum ether extract contained a
large amount of colouring matter; it had a very faint bitter
taste; on standing, dark, and what appeared to be crystalline,
Soints separated, but which, on microscopic examination, were
destitute of regular structure. Euphorbon was specially
sought for, but we arrived at no definite conclusion relative to
presence.

The acid ether extract was of a islet colour, and partly

uble in water, the solution giving a greenish coloration with
tric chloride, and precipitating gelatine, but giving no
reaction with cyanide of potassium.

After washing off by cold alcohol the extractive adhering

to the sides of the capsule, and which was insoluble in water,

a sulphur-yellow deposit was left, which, on microscopic

examination, consisted of very minute needles. This principle

was present in only minute traces, and was soluble even

in warm alcohol with difficulty; it gave the reactions of
quercitrin.

The aqueous original acid solution, before the addition of
sodic carbonate, was of a bright claret colour ; on the addition
of the alkali sage-green flocks separated, the addition of acids
causing solution, and reproducing the original claret-coloured
solution ; but after standing, the flocks became insoluble in acids, :

952 EUPHORBIACEZ.

and see a faintly yellowish-red tint was produced by their — 3
addition s
The inti ether extract contained an alkaloidal pine
which crystallized in fine colourless feathery erystals ; ‘i
possessed no bitter taste. With Frohde’s reagent in the cold
a very faint-yellow tint was produced, which was changed to
greenish on gently warming. Concentrated nitric acid gave @
yellowish tint. Sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate 10
colour reaction.

EUPHORBIA TIRUCALLI, Tinn.

_ Fig.—Bheede, Hort. Mal. ii., ¢t, 44. Milk-bush (Boa) e
Euphorbe antivenérien (Fr.). =)

Hab.—Africa. Cultivated in India and the East. The
juice and bark. :

Vernacular.—Bér-ki-thohar, Bar-ki-sehund (Hind.), Kéda-
nivali (Mar.), Netrio-thora, Thora-dinadalio (Gws.),
kombu (Tam.), Kaéda-jemudu (Tel.), Bonta-kalli, Kéda-nevali
(Can.), Tiru-kalli (Mal.), Lanka-sij (Beng.).

History, Uses, &c —This shrub has been introduced ie
into the East from Africa, and is much used for making fences
round cultivated fields, as cattle will not break through it
owing to the acrid nature of the milky j juice. The earliest notice
of E. Tirucalli that we know of is in the Kémus, which was
written about the middle of the 14th century; it is there called
ee (dihan), the name by which it is still known in Arabia”
baer ), and is described as a noxious plant, used to poisoD

wild beasts. The plant is not mentioned in the Nighantas,

but the juice is in general use among the natives of India as @
purgative, and, applied locally, as a counter-irritant. Rheede
ee that a m of the root is given in certain cases of
: colic, and that the milky juice mixed with melted butter is

ce ved asa purge. It is the Ossifraga lactea of Rumphius,
ee who says that the bark is Ze in Java to fractures. Accord>
ing to ‘Horsfield, t ee call it Kayoo-oorb, also use

LEE

sh te Ae

HUPHORBIACEA. O53

itasavesicant. Virey (i ist. Nat., p. 299) says :—II guérit tras
bien |’affection venérienne ; il est aussi purgatif et vomitif.”
Loureiro notices its caustic nature: ‘‘Occulos si tangat ex-

eocat.” (Ainslie, Mat, Ind., ii., 183 and 425.) In the Concan

1 to 4 drops of the milky juice are given with treacle or the
flour of Cicer arietinum as a purge, and the charcoal, which is
very light, is used in making pastilles. Dr. G. Y. Hunter
speaks of the j juice as a good application in neuralgia. In Goa
it is used for poisoning fish.

Description.—A shrub or il tree, 15—20 feet, with
numerous slender branches, smooth, and of a bright~green colour,
having afew, most minute leaves at the extremities, which soon
fall off ; as the plant grows older, the stalks become stronger, and
at length woody and of a brown colour. The wood of old trees
is white, close-grained and strong ; it produces a good charcoal
for gunpowder and other purposes.

Chemical composition.—See next article,

EUPHORBIA NERIIFOLIA, Jinn.

Fig.--D0. Plant. Grasses, ii., t.46 ; Rumph. Herb. Amb. iv.,
t. 40.

Hab.—Deccan Peninsula, Beluchistan, Malay Islands.
Cultivated elsewhere. The juice and root. .

Vernacular,—Sehund, Thohar (Hind.), Mansa-sij, Pata-sij
(Beng.), Nevadunga, Mingtt (Mar.), Thohar-kantéro (Gus.),
Tlaik- kalli (Tam.), Sioa ( Tel.), Yale-kalli (Can.), Elak-
kalli (Mal.).

EUPHORBIA ANTIQUOROD\M, Linz.
Fig. — Wight Ic., t. 897 ; Rheede, Hort. Mal. i., ¢. 42.
Hab .—tThroughout the hotter parts of India and Ceylon.

The juice and root.

Vernaculor.—Tidhaéra-sehund (Hind.), Tekéta-sij (Beng.), —
Tridhéri-nevadunga, Nara-seja (Mar.), Shadhurak-kalli (Tam),

254, EUPHORBIACEA.

Bomma-jemudu (TZe/.), Mudu-mula-kalli (Can.), Katak-kalli
(Mal.), Tandhari-thohar (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—These two plants are included
under the Sanskrit names of Snuhi, Sehunda, Vajra, Vajra-tundi,
Vajra-dantaka, Gandira and Maha-taru, and are supposed to
ward off lightning strokes, on which account they are sometimes
cultivated in pots placed on exposed positions in Hindu houses,
They are sacred to Mansé, the goddess of serpents. In some
parts of India, in July and August, on Tuesdays and Thurs-
days, the natives approach the trees with offerings of rice,
milk, and sugar, praying to be delivered from snake-bites.
They also employ the root mixed with black pepper as 4
medicine for the cure of snake-bites internally and externally.
Dutt informs us that in Bengal, on the fifth day after the full
moon of the month Srawan, E. neriifolia is planted in the court-
yard of Hindu houses and worshipped.

In Western India there is a curious custom among the Con-
cani Brahmins in connection with this plant. At the time of
the Dewali they cut a portion of the stem, hollow it out, and
fill it with oil, in which they place a wick. The little lamp
thus formed is lighted and carried from house to house with
the object of depositing it unextinguished in the house of
some friend or acquaintance, saying at the same time, “A s0D-
in-law for you,” that is, wishing them good fortune (Neva-

dunga). The people of the house pretend not to want it, and

try to extinguish the light by throwing water at it. These
lamps are also placed upon little heaps of cowdung and
_ worshipped.

Tn the Nighantas the plants are described as purgative, pu-
gent, digestive, bitter and heavy, and are said to be useful in
constipation, flatulent distention, tumours, swellings, abdominal
enlargements, rheumatism, spleen, leprosy, mania and
jaundice,

They abound in an acrid milky juice, which is a popular
application to warts and other cutancous affections. The

native doctors purity ‘arsenious acid by packing it in a hole

lie aes ics io

EUPHORBIACEZ. 255

made in a piece of the stem, closing the -hole and exposing
the stem to the action of fire until it is charred. The milky
juice of £. neriifolia is usually administered internally by
soaking other purgatives and aromatics in it, so that by
absorption of the juice their purgative properties become

increased. A similar method is adopted when the juice

is applied externally, a tent or issue pea being prepared with
some finely powdered drug and steeped in it. Ainslie tells us
that the native practitioners prescribe the juice as a purge and
deobstruent, in those visceral obstructions and dropsical affec-
tions which are consequent of long-continued intermittent
fever, the quantity given for a dose being about 4 of a pagoda
weight (20 grs.). Externally, mixed with margosa oil, it is
applied to limbs which have become contracted from rheuma-
tism. (Mat. Ind., Vol. II., p. 97.) In Bombay the root is mixed
with country liquor to make it more intoxicating, and the juice
is used to kill maggots in wounds, and is dropped into the ear
to cure earache, a practice common to many parts of India,
In the Concan the stem is roasted in ashes, and the expressed
juice, with honey and borax, given in small doses to promote
the expectoration of phlegm; sometimes the juice of Adulsa
isadded. For asthma, Mudar flowers, Aghada root, and Gokaran
root are steeped in the juice, powdered and given with honey
and chebulic myrobalans. Dose about 4 grains. The author of
the Makhzan-el-Adwiya, under the name of Zakim (Euphorbia),
describes four Indian species, which are probably E. antiquorum,

E. neriifolia, E. Nivulia and E. Tirucaili. The milky juice of

the first, he says, is mixed with the flour of Cicer arietinum,
roasted, and administered in pills as a remedy for gonorrhea.
It has a strong purgative action. The juice of the second and
third species is heated and dropped into the ear for the cure of
earache ; heated with salt it is given as a remedy in whooping
cough, asthma, dropsy, leprosy, enlarged ‘spleen, dyspepsia,
jaundice, flatulence, colic, calculus, tumours, &c. The fourth
species yields a milky juice, having similar properties. Spren-
gel identifies H. neriifolia with the -i!o~° (Mahtdéneh) of Ibn
Sina, also called Hab-el-mulik, a purgative seed of a reddish

256 EUPHORBIACE.

brown colour and like avetch.* The author of the eol& jocosely
remarks that the name should be -3lé) 4,4 and says:—
Sod G8 Ald po 73) cg! mitiy m4 cg! “it is sufficient as a
purgative without the assistance of any other drug.” Ibn Sina
describes Mahidaneh as tricoccous and like a large filbert; he
says, the name of the plant isShibib. It cannot be LZ. neriifolia,
which has seeds no larger than a grain of mustard. In the
Dict. of Econ. Prod., published by the Government of India, itis
stated, on the authority of Dr. J. H. Thornton, that the juice of
E. antiquorum mixed with burnt borax and common salt is used =
as an application to painful joints and swellings. Dr. Thornton
‘says:—“The fresh milky juice is a direct irritant both when

taken internally and applied externally. Taken in very small
quantities, it is a drastic purgative.” EE. trigona, Haworth,
the Kattimandu or “‘knife medicine” of the Telugus, so named
because it is used for fixing knife blades in their handles, and
E. Nivulia, Ham., have similar properties.

Description.—Z. neriifolia is a small, fleshy, glabrous tree
or shrub, branches jointed, cylindric or obscurely 5-angled, with
short, sharp stipular thorns arising from thick tubercles ; leaves
deciduous, fleshy, obovate oblong or obovate-acute; involucres in
small, stout, dichotomous, short-peduncled cymes from the
sinuses, hemispheric, smooth, styles connate high up, undivided,
cocci compressed, glabrous; the fruit is tricoccous, but so deeply
divided that it has the appearance of three radiating slender
follicles. The seed is about the size and shape of a grain of
mustard, and of a greyish-brown colour.

: #. antiquorum is an erect, fleshy, glabrous tree or shrub,
branches terete or obscurely 3—6 angled, branchlets with 3—9
thick sinuate wings, and a pair of sharp stipular thorns in the
sinuses; leaves few and small, from the sides of the wing’;
fleshy, obovate oblong, tip rounded; involucres 3-nate,
forming short-peduncled cymes in the sinuses, styles free,

2-lobed, cocci compressed, glabrous.

oes E, Nieulia and EB. trigona are very similar shrubs.

pe _* Hab-el-muliik is the seed of Croton Tiglium.

A,

EUPHORBIACEZ, - ogy

Chemical composition.—Henke (Archiv/ d. Pharm., Vol. 224
6), 729—759) has ascertained that the dried juice of Katti-
du (EF. Nivculia) contains 35 per cent. of Huphorbon, 25°40
er cent. of resin soluble in ether, 13-70 of resin insoluble in
her, 1:50 per cent, of caoutchouc, and the other constituents of
mmercial gum euphorbium. The dried juice of H. Tirucalh
s also found to be of a similar nature, and to contain 4 per

euphorbon, so that we may fairly suppose it, as well as an acid
sin, malate of calcium, and caoutchouc, to be a constant
constituent of the milky juice of all the plants belonging to the
genus. (See next article.)

EUPHORBIA RESINIFERA, Berg.
Fig.— Jackson, Account of Morocco, t. 6; Berg. et Sch., t. 34d,
M—X; Benti. and Trim. 240.
Hab.—Morocco. The dried juice (Gum Euphorbium).
Vernacular.—Farbiyun, Afarbiyun, Farfiyun (Znd. Bazars).
History, Uses, &c.—Euphorbium was known to the
ancients. Dioscorides and Pliny both describe its collection on
Mount Atlasin Africa, and notice its extreme acridity. Accord-
ing to the latter writer, the drug received its name in honour
of Euphorbus, Physician to Juba II., King of Mauritania.
This monarch, who, after a long reign, died about A.D. 18,
was distinguished for his literary attainments, and was the
author of several books, which included treatises on opium and
euphorbium. The latter work was apparently extant in the
time of Pliny.
- Euphorbium is mentioned by numerous vale early writers
on medicine, as Rufus Ephesius, who probably flourished
during the reign of Trajan, by Galen in the 2nd century, and

_ by Vindicianus and Oribasius in the 4th. Altius and Paulus

_ A®gineta, who lived respectively in the 6th and 7th centuries,
. were likewise acquainted with it; and it was also a tothe

I1I.—33

F 258 ; HUPHORBIACEZ.

Arabian school of medicine. In describing the route from —
Aghmat to Fez, El-Bekri of Granada, in 1068, mentioned the
numerous plants of A/-Farbiyun growing in the country of the
Beni Ouareth, a tribe of the Sanhadja. (Pharmacographia.)
Ibn Sina notices the drug under the name of Farbiyun; Haji
Zein states that it is called Farbiyun, Afarbiyun, Farfiyun
and Taékib, and that the men who collect it have to tie up their
faces to prevent the dust entering their mouths, as it would —
cause all their teeth to fall out. He says that as soon as it is
collected, it is mixed with husked beans to preserve its strength,
and that when fresh it is of a yellow colour, translucent, and
easily soluble in olive oil; when old it turns,reddish-yellow, the
odour is acrid. As regards its medicinal properties, he states
that it is a useful application in sciatica, palsy, colic, lumbago, ;
and removes phlegmatic humors from the joints and limbs;
internally administered it acts as a purgative of bile and phlegm. —
However used, it should always be diluted with such substances
as oil of roses (fatty extract), bdellium, extractof liquorice,
tragacanth or gum arabic; the dose is from one carat to one dang-
When given internally to women, it causes abortion, but a pessary
containing one grain of euphorbium causes the mouth of the
uterus to contract and prevents abortion. Mixed with honey it
is used in purulent ophthalmia. Three dirhams is a fatal dose,
causing ulceration of the stomach and intestines; the antidotes
_ for it are sour milk, the juice of sour pomegranates, and cam-
_ phor.
_ The author of the Twhfat-el-muminin gives almost a literal
lation of what Dioscorides says about euphorbium, and
‘oduce: a great part of Haji Zein’s account of it; he men-
: tions its use as a snuff, when diluted with beet juice, in certain
affections of the brain, as a dusting powder to remove proud flesh,
and as an enema in obstructed menses. In modern medicine,
euphorbium is ‘never given internally, but it is still sometimes
employed as an ee after having been largely diluted with
ili. in amaurosis, deafness, and other chronic
irritant is now almo

¢

=e

EUPHORBIACEA. 259

Description.—The drug consists of irregular pieces,
eldom more than an inch across and mostly smaller, of a dull
ellow or brown waxy- -looking substance, among which por-
ions of the angular spiny stem of the plant may be met with
he substance is brittle and translucent, and has a somewhat
mnatic odour; it is extremely acrid, and the dust is

| emical composition. —An analysis of selected Leoiuiite free

rom extraneous matter by Flickiger (Vierteljahresschrift fur
prakt. Pharm., xvii. (1868), 82—102) shows the composition of
the drug to be as follows:—

Amorphous resin, C!°H'®O? 38
Euphorbon, C'°H?20 22
Mucilage 18
Malates, chiefly of calcium and sodium .. 12
Mineral compounds 10

100

e amorphous resin is readily soluble in cold 70 per cent.
petrol. The solution has no acid reaction, but an arsine

From the he deprived of the nial resin ethene or pu:
leum takes up the Euphorbon, which may be obtained in colour-

free from acrid taste, but by repeated erystallizations, and finally
boiling in a weak solution of permanganate of potash, may
be so far purified as to be entirely tasteless. Euphorbon is
insoluble in water; it requires about 60 parts of 80 per cent.
alcohol for solution at ordinary temperatures. In boiling
alcohol it is freely soluble, also in ether, benzole, amylic alcohol,
_ chloroform, acetone or glacial acetic acid.

odour. By dry distillation a brownish oily liquid is obtained,

Euphorbon melts at 113 to 116° C. without emitting any a.

260 EUPHORBIACEZ.

which requires further examination. If euphorbon dissolved
in alcohol is allowed to form a thin film in a porcelain capsule,
and is then moistened with a little concentrated sulphuric acid,
a fine violet hue is produced in contact with strong nitric acid
‘slowly added by means of a glass rod. ‘The same reaction 1s
‘displayed by lactucerin, to which in its general characters
euphorbon is closely allied. If a few drops of an alcoholic
solution of euphorbon are allowed to dry on a piece of filtering
paper, and then touched with adrop of nitric acid, a blue colour
will be developed,

Pure euphorbon, according to Henke, melts at 67° to 68°;
its composition was found to be C*°H*O. Its rotatory pow
dissolved in chloroform was [a]p= +15°°88. Hesse assigns be
euphorbon the formula C’°H?*O.

The mucilage of euphorbium is precipitated by neutral
acetate of lead, as well as silicate or borate of sodium, it there-
fore does not agree with gum arabic. a

If an aqueous extract of euphorbium is mixed with spirit
of wine, and the liquid evaporated, the residual matter assumes

a somewhat crystalline appearance, and exhibits the reactions —

of Malic Acid. Subjected to dry distillation, white scales and
acicular crystals of Maleic and Fumarie acids, produced by the
‘decomposition of the malic acid, are sublimed into the neck of
the retort. (Pharmacographia, 2nd Ed., p. 560.)
Toxicology.—Kuphorbium causes the eyes to weep and grow
ed, the nose to run with watery and even bloody mucus,
and saliva to flow abundantly from the mouth. To prevent

‘these effects, says Pereira, some drug-grinders employ

masks with gilass-eyes, others apply a wet sponge to the
: nose and face; while others cover the face with rape.

I was informed, he adds, of
7% ‘ly insane by it, and

¥

EUPHORBIACEA. 261

rrew suddently delirious, and presently became insensible and
fell in a fit. His face was red and swollen, his pulse frequent
and full, and his skin very hot. On being bled, his conscious

ess returned and he complained of great neadache. 3

_ Under Euphorbiaceex, Norman Chevers, quoting Dr. H.
"Cleghorn of Madras, says:—‘‘There are several species of
Euphorbia, as the E. neriifolia, antiquorum, acaulis, and others
ich abound ina milky juice. This produces a blister when
rubbed on the integuments, and serious inflammation if dropped
‘into the eye. Several cases have happened within my
_ knowledge, where the sight has been endangered frem this
~-eause.” (Indian Med. Jurisprudence.)
Other species of Euphorbia found in India, and occasionally
used medicinally, are E, helioscopia, Linn., the Sun Spurge,
anative of Afghanistan and the Punjab, E. hypericifolia,
Linn., and E. Royleana, Boiss., a native of the outer
Himalaya.
E. helioscopia is used as a hydragogue cathartic, and the
juice is applied to remove warts. Dr. Baudry (Bull. Med. du
Nord, 1887) has reported a case of severe ulceration esis p
from the application of a poultice of the bruised plant.
E. hypericifolia has not unfrequently been mistaken for
E. pilulifera, but may be distinguished readily by its not having -
the hairy stem of the latter plant: In Réunion it is used as an
astringent in dysentery under the name of Herbe Jean-Robert.

PHYLLANTHUS EMBLICA, Linn.
Fig.— Brand, For. Fl., ¢. 52; Bedd. Fi. Syiv., t. 258;
A. Juss. Tent. Euphorb., t. 5, f. 15; Rheede, Hort. Mal. i., t. 38.
Emblic myrobalan (£ng.), Emblic officinal (/r.).

Hab.—Throughout tropical India. The fruit, bark, and
flowers.

Vernacular.—Anvula (Hind.), Amlaki ( (Beng.), Avala, Aval-

kéthi (Mar.), Nelli-kai, Toppi (Zam.), Nelli-kaya, Usirike-kay;
(Tel.), Nelli-kaya (Mai), Nelli-kayi (Can.), Ambala (Guz.).

262 EUPHORBIACE.

History, Uses, &c.—The fruit of this tree is the
Dhitriphala, Amritaphala, Amalaka or Sriphala of the
Nighantas, and is described as having all the properties of the
chebulic myrobalan. It is used both fresh and dried ; in the
former condition it is considered to be refrigerant, diuretic and
laxative ; in the latter, astringent. It is pickled by the natives,
and, on account of a peculiar flavour which it imparts, some of
the forest tribes eat it before drinking water. A sherbet of
the fruit, sweetened with sugar or honey, is a favourite cooling
drink for sick people ; it is said to be diuretic. A country-side
prescription for biliousness in the Concan is Avala, 4 massas,
to be soaked all night in water, and in the morning
be pounded and mixed with a quarter seer of milk and
flavoured with sugar and cumin. Emblic myrobalans are a0
ingredient in many compound preparations described in
Sanskrit works. A selection of these prescriptions will be
found in Dutt’s Hindu Materia Medica; the following, translated
from Chakradatta, may be taken as an example :—

“ Dhatri lauha.—Take of powdered Emblic myrobalans 64
tolas, prepared iron 32 tolés, liquorice powder 16 tol4s, mix
them together, and soak in the juice of Tinospora cordifolia
seven times successively. This preparation is given in jaundice,
anzmia and dyspepsia, in doses of from 20 to 40 grains.”

Mahometan physicians esteem this myrobalan equally with
the Hindus; they describe it as astringent, refrigerant, cardia-
cal, and a purifier of the humors of the body. It is much
prescribed by them in fluxes, and is also applied externally on
_ account of its cooling and astringent properties. The Arabic
name is Amlaj, and the Persian Amala. Ainslie states that
the flowers, which have an odour resembling that of lemon peel,
are supposed by the Vytians to have virtues of a cooling and
aperient nature, and are prescribed in conjunction with other
articles in the form of an electuary. (Mat. Ind. ii 244.)
fn the © veils Tila at. Ind., ii., p. 2*
of Dr. 28. Ross, that the root by. oo ae
yields an astringent extract equal to Seach Godk od eaicihel

EBUPHORBIACEH. 263

poses and in the arts; the chips of the wood or small
oches thrown into impure or muddy water, according to the
e authority, clear it effectually. In the Concan the juice of ©
fresh bark, with honey and turmeric, is given in gonorrhea.
Description.— Fresh Emblic myrobalans are globular,
, smooth, six-striated, of a yellowish-green colour, and
imes as large as a walnut; they contain an obovate obtusely
cular, 3-celled nut, each cell of which contains two triangu-
The taste of the pulp is acid, astringent, and some-
at acrid. The dried fruit is the size of a cob nut, sub-
gonal, wrinkled, of a grey-black colour if it has been
ollected when immature, but yellowish- -brown if mature; the
latter upon pressure breaks up into six parts, each of which
consists of a section of the pulp and nut, and contains one
triangular brown seed.

Chemical composition—The pulpy portion of the fruit dried
ee and freed from the nuts, had the following composi- ~

Ether extract (gallic acid, &c.) ......... ee ae
Alcoholic ,, (tannin, sugar, Go.) Wiriesws 36°10
Aqueous ,, (gum, &c.) 435 ARE
Soda jy~ (albumen, 407) i acheniens 13°08
Crude cellulose 17°80
Mineral matter 4:12
Moisture and lose... cis. cies ce cui OSS
100-00

The acidity of the fruit was found to be equal to 9°6 per
cent., calculated as acetic acid. The amount of tannic acid,

estimated with acetete of lead solution, was 35 per cent., and 10’
per cent. of glucose was estimated by means of Fehling’s solu-
ion on an infusion of the pulp after the removal of the tannin,

Lowe considers this tannin to be identical with the ae
mnie acid of Divi-divi.

264 EUPHORBIACEZ.

Commerce.—Two kinds of Avala are found in commerce,
one entire, and the other cut up, and the nut removed. The ~
fruit is collected in many parts of India. Value, about Rs, 32
per candy of 7 ewts.

PHYLLANTHUS RETICULATUS, Pair.
Fig.—A. Juss. Tent. Euphorb. 19, t. 4, f.1; Wight Ie,
t. 1899; Burm, Thes. Zeyl., t. 88.
Hab.—Throughout tropical India. The leaves and bark.
Vernacular.—Pénjoli (Hind.), Pélagtda (Tel.), Pilavayt
(Tam.), Panktishi (Beng.), Pavana, Puvana (Mar.), Kamobi
(Sind.), Datwan (Guz.), Katu-nirdri (Ma/.).
History, Uses, &c.—Ainslie (Mat. Ind., ii., 223) le
Krishna-kémboji as the Sanskrit name of this plant. i 3
“coming from Kamboj,” is applied in that language to severm®
plants, but none of them have been identified with P. reticulatus, 4
nor does it appear to be mentioned in the Nighantas under |
other name. The leaves and bark are used as a diuretie and
cooling medicine and as an alterative. Ainslie says :— =
bark, as it appears in the Indian bazars, is commonly =
pieces about a foot long, and as thick as the wrist, of c
dark colour outside,.and of a faint sweetish taste; ce
considered as alterative and attenuant, and is prescribed 3
decoction, in the quantity of 4 ounces or more twice daily.
the Concan the juice of the leaves is made into a pill with ~~
phorand cubebs, and dissolved in the mouth asa remedy for bleed
ing from the gums; it is also, along with the juice of —
erative plants, reduced toa thin extract, and made into?
vith aromatics. This pill is given twice a day, rubbed dow”
\ alterative in heat of blood.

__ Deseription.—Shrubby, climbing, primary branches
: twiggy ; young shoots pubescent ; floriferous branchlets ese d

leaven. av sobtus , bifarious; flowers axillary, aggres® i
saree Ke usually one female; male flowers purplish ;

le. This plant is common a
ere it is found in the forests *

i

bs ay Spas aoe ace ae Oily he ears

EUPHORBIACEZ. 265

great size, climbing to the tops of the highest trees. (Bomb.
_ Flora.) The flowers have a peculiar and disagreeable smell.
The bark is dark-brown externally, and thickly studded with

little elliptic warty rings; beneath the suber is a deposit of
chlorophyll, bit the substance of the bark is of a dull-red
colour. Taste sweet and astringent, Microscopically there is

little to remark beyond masses of deep purple pigmentary

matter and groups of large stone cells.

Chemical composition.—The leaves contained a tannic acid
similar to that separated from other species of this genus,
but no alkaloid. A crystalline principle soluble in ether was
removed from the aqueous solution of the alcoholic extract; it
gave a yellowish-brown colour with sulphuric acid, a brown
colour with Fréhde’s reagent, anda yellow solution with alkalies,
The powdered air-dried leaves afforded 7°83 per cent. of ash,
and when mixed with water became very mucilaginous, and it
was very difficult to filter this mixture through paper.

Phyllanthus madraspatensis, Linn., Wight Ic.,
1895, f. 3, yields the Kanocha seed of the bazars. The seeds are
polished, triangular, of a grey colour, prettily marked with
delicate dark-brown lines like basket-work; length 74 of an
inch; breadth somewhat less; one side is arched, the other
presents. two sloping surfaces united to form a longitudinal
ridge, at the pointed end is asmall scar marking the attachment
to the ovary; the testa is hard and brittle. When soaked
in water they immediately become thickly coated with a semi-
opaque mucilage ; the kernel is oily and has a sweet nutty taste;

i the sceds are used medicinally on account of the mucilage

which they afford.
PHYLLANTHUS NIRURIJ, Linn.
Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 1894; Rheede, Hort. Mal. tig 8. 1De
PHYLLANTHUS URINARIA, Linn.
Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 1895, f. 4; Rheede, Hort. Mai. z., t. 16.

Hab.—Throughout India. The herbs. saiiaks
IIL—s4 kA

266 EUPHORBIACE.

Vernacular,—Bhumi-a’nvala (Hind.), Bhui-amla (Beng.),
Bhui-a’vala (Mar.), Kizhkay-nelli (Zam.), Nelli-usirika (Tei),
Kizha-nelli (Mal.), Kiranelli-gida (Can.), Bhui-amali (Gus),
P. urinaria is distinguished by the addition of the adjective red
to the above names.

History, Uses, &c.—These plants are common weeds
which appear in the cold season. They are called in Sanskrit
Témra-yvalli (P. urinaria) and Bhumy-dmali (P. Nirwri), and
bear among other synonyms those of Tamalika, Bhu-dhétri, and
Bahu-pattra, “having many leaves.’”’ Hindu physicians consi-
der them to be deobstruent, diuretic, astringent and cooling, an
prescribe the dried plant in powder or decoction in jaundice.
The dose of the powder is about a teaspoonful. Mir Muham-
mad Husain in the Makhzan states that the milky juice As
-a good application to offensive sores, and that a poultice
of the leaves with salt cures scabby affections of the skin;
without salt it may be applied to bruises, &c. From Ainslie we
learn that these two plants are the Herba meroris alba and rubra
of Rumphius, and that an infusion of the leaves of P. Nu"
with fenugreek seed is considered a valuable remedy in chronic
dysentery, also that the leaves are a good stomachic bitter. — In
Bombay P. Niruriis used as a diuretic in gonorrhea and acidity
of the urine. The dose is 2 tolds of the juice with 2 tolés of
ghi twice a-day. The root rubbed down with rice-water
given in the Concan as a remedy for menorrhagia.

Dr. A. J. Amadeo states that the plant is known as Yerba
de quininic at Porto-Rico, and is used in decoction in inter-
_ mittent fevers ; he thinks favourably of it, and uses a tincture
in 2-drachm doses; it acts as a gentle purgative, and: 38
especially useful when the liver and spleen are infarcted. It
is diuretic,

Description.—P. Niruri: Annual, erect-branched;
branches herbaceous, ascending ; floriferous branchlets fili-
pi sare elliptic, mucronate, entire, glabrous ; male on

mae Mowers in separate axils, male on the lower On0S>
dehiscence of anthers transverse ;. glands in the fe

EUPHORBIACEZ. 267

nd trifid; capsule globose; two smooth seeds in each cell;
eds triangular.
P.urinaria:; Root generally annual, though in some soils
biennial and even perennial. Stem erect, striated, of a pale
reddish colour; branches several, ascending, striated from
the insertions of the stipules; leaves scattered, spreading,
pinnate, from one to two inches long, th Mpa ; leaflets
nate, linear oblong, entire, smooth, ¢ of an inch long, and
broad ; petioles compressed, somewhat triangular ; stipules of
the petioles 3-fold, acute, membranaceous, those of the leaflets
_ two, lateral; male flowers, exterior leaflets axillary, 2 to 3,
subsessile ; Billy, nectary and stamens as in P, Niruri; female
flowers, lower leaflet axillary, solitary, sessile ; calyx and nec-
tary as in the male; capsules scabrous, 3-celled, 6-valved;
_ seeds, two in each cell, transversely striated on the outside. It
is immediately distivpulahed from P. Niruri by its sessile
flowers and scabrous eapatiles: (Rowb.)
_ Ohemical composition.—The alcoholic extract from the whole
plant was mixed with water acidulated with sulphuric acid,
and agitated first with petroleum ether, then with ether, and
ly rendered alkaline and reagitated with ether.
The petroleum ether extract was dark-coloured, and soft,
with a tea-like odour, and extremely and persistently bitter.
It was mixed with 8 per cent. caustic soda solution and reagi-
tated with petroleum ether, which removed the bitter principle
contaminated with traces of oil and colouring matter. This
extract gave the euphorbon colour reaction when treated with
sulphuric and nitric acids. For the bitter neutral principle,
we propose the name of pseudochi atin.
The acid ether extract contained green colouring matter, and
was partly soluble in water with acid reaction, the solution
giving a dirty bluish-green coloration with ferric chloride,
slightly precipitating gelatine, but affording no reaction with
_ cyanide of potassium,
The alkaline ether extract contained an alkaloidal principle,
which, after purification, was obtained in white feathery erystals

268 - RUPHORBIACE®

‘without any special taste. With Frohde’s reagent it gave a
light yellowish-red coloration, changing to blue on heating;
with concentrated nitric acid, yellowish. No reaction with
dichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid.

BRIDELIA RETUSA, Spreng. ;

Fig.—Baill. Etudes Gen. Euphorb., t. 25, f. 25—34; Bedd,
Fil. Sylv., t. 260 ; Rheede, Hort. Mal. ii., t. 16,

Hab,—Throughout the hotter parts of India. The bark.

Vernacular.--Khéja, Kharaka, Lamkana (Hind.), Mullv-
vengai (Zam.), Dudhi-maddi, Kora-maddi (TZe/.), A’séna,
Phattar-phoda, Paléhasan, Kéntehasan, Hasdni (Mar.), A’sdna,
Gurige (Can,).

History, Uses, &c.—The astringent properties of the
bark of this tree appear to be well known throughout India, a8
it is in general use for tanning leather. The wood is also much
used, on account of its durability under water, for making
well-curbs. In Western India the bark has a reputation as a
lithontriptic, and is in general use as an astringent medicine.
The tree is with or without thorns, according to situation and
soil; the natives of Western India consider the thornless tree
to be a distinct species, and call it Pdlehasan, whilst the
thorn-bearing tree is known to them as Kéntehasan. When
wounded, the bark exudes a blood-red juice, which stains the
hands, and is very astringent.

EUPHORBIACE. 269°

Chemical composition—The bark afforded 41°7 per cent. of
water extract, containing 39-9 parts of tannic acid. The
tannic acid gave a greyish-green precipitate with plumbic
acetate, and a blue-black colour with ferric chloride. The air-
dried bark left 7°35 per cent. of ash on incineration. Although
this is one of the most astringent barks in India, it does not
appear to be known to, or used by, Europeans in the arts.

CLEISTANTHUS COLLINUS, Benth.

Fig.—Beddome, Foresters’ Man., 203, t. 23, 7. 9 ; Roxb. Cor.
Pleii., 37, ¢. 169. Syns.: Lebidieropsis orbicularis, Mull-Arg.,
Cluytia collina, Roxb.

Hab.—Dry hills, in various parts of India, from Simla tt
Behar. Deccan Peninsula.

Vernacular.—Oduvan, Woodacha, Nachuta (Tam.), Kadishe
(Te/.)., Kodasigina, Bodadaraga (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—Under the name of Andrachne
Cadishaw, Ainslie describes the poisonous properties of the nut
of this tree, called Wodoowunghai. He says:—‘ About one
pagoda weight, pounded, the Tamools believe to be sufficient
to kill a man; the leaves and roots of the plant are also
considered poisonous; the first, which no animal will touch,
is, in conjunction with Kadukai (chebulic myrobalans), supposed
to be a good application to foul ulcers. (Mat. Ind., ii., 487.)
Roxburgh remarks:—“ The bark or outer crust of the capsule is
reported to be exceedingly poisonous.” (F7. Ind., iii., 733.)

Description.—Capsule 3 of an inch in diameter, sessile,
woody, rounded-3-gonous, top not lobed, dark-brown, shining
and wrinkled when dry. Seeds 4 of an inch in diameter,
globose, chestnut-brown; albumen scanty.

Chemical composition.—The active principle of the plant does
not appear to be an alkaloid, but, though its chemical nature has
not yet been fully investigated, Mr. Newman, Assist. Chemical
Examiner, Madras, has discovered that it gives a purple
reaction with sulphuric acid, which disappears on oxidising with

270 EUPHORBIACEZ.

alkaline dichromate, and with nitric acid a blue colour changing
to green; these tests serve to identify it with some degree of
probability. An extract of the leaves and fruit acts as a
violent gastro-intestinal irritant. (Report, Madras Chem.
Examiner; 1885.)

Toxicology.—The Madras Chemical Examiner reported in 1885
that the poison had been found in two cases from South Arcot.
“In one case a man being detected in an intrigue with his
mother-in-law, her relations threatened to excommunicate her;
whereupon both are supposed to have taken this poison and to
have died very soon—from half an hour to an hour—after taking
it. Both vomited. In the second case vomiting and purging
were followed by recovery.” In 1886 .the same Chemical
Examiner reported that the expressed juice of certain leaves
(of Oduvan), the residue of which was sent for examination
mixed with common salt, was supposed to have been taken by
aman to cure itch. He suffered from vomiting and died ina
few hours. In 1887 Odwvan was found, in a case from South
Canara, in the stomach of a woman who poisoned herself when
her husband was dying. She was suddenly seized with
vomiting and died rapidly. In 1889 a woman was suspect
of attempting suicide by poison; the leaves found in her
possession were identified as those of this plant. In 1890 @
pregnant woman died with symptoms of gastro-intestinal
irritation, after taking an abortifacient ; from her stomach was
extracted a non-alkaloidal poison which gave reactions similar to
those obtained from the extract of this plant.

_ ‘The bark of Flueggia Leucopyrus, Willd., Wight Ie.
¢. 1875, ashrab of the Punjab Plain, the Deccan Peninsula, and
Ceylon, is used both in Madras and Bombay as a fish-poiso”-
The Sweet, white berries do not appear to have any injurious
properties, as they are eaten by children, who call them adh
thenag) The juice of the leaves is used to destroy worms 12

.

Ohenieat: composition.—The bark contains 10 per cent. of a
a ae Siving a-violet-black colour with ferric chloride,

EUPHORBIACEZ. 271

* and the mixture becomes red on the addition of ammonia. An

alkaloid is also present, giving a purplish-red colour, afterwards

turning to green, with Fréhde’s reagent, and a violet colour

with strong sulphuric acid and permanganate of potassium.
The alkaloid is soluble in excess of alkalies, The infusion was
somewhat frothy, but no sapogenin could be isolated from it
after boiling with acid. —

The bark of Flueggia microcarpa, Blume, Wight Ic.,
t. 1994, supplied by Mr. Hollingsworth as one of the South
Indian fish-poisons, was in thin papery light-brown strips, and
the powder had no odour and very little taste. Air-dried, it
afforded 11°4 per cent. of mineral matter, and contained 8°9 per
cent. of a tannin, giving a blue-black colour with ferric salts.
The aqueous solution of the alcoholic extract furnished an
alkaloidal principle similar in its reactions to that obtained
from the bark of F. Leucopyrus.

Breynia rhamnoides, Mill-Arg., Wight. Ic., t. 1898, is
a shrub or small tree of tropical India. According to Ainslie, it
was brought to Dr. F. Hamilton, while in Behar, as a medicine
of some note; the dried leaves are smoked like tobacco, in cases
in which the uvula and tonsils are swelled. The bark is
astringent.

Description.—Shrubby ; young shoots angular; leaves
alternate, short-petioled, spreading, broad-oval ; exterior ones
largest, below whitish, entire, half to three-quarters of an inch
long; male flowers racemed from the lower axils ; female
flowers in the upper axils, solitary, short-peduncled, drooping;
capsule size of a pea.

The nuts of Putranjiva Roxburghii, Wa//., in Sanskrit
Putra-jiva or Putram-jiva, ‘that which makes the child live,”
are hung round the necks of children to keep them in good
health. They are mentioned in the Nighantas as being also
Garbha-kara, “productive of impregnation,” and medicinal pro-
perties are attributed to them. The hard wrinkled nuts are
generally worn only as a charm, but are sometimes given inter-

__ nally in colds on account of their supposed heating properties;

272 _ HUPHORBIACE Z#.

they are called Jivapota in Hindi, Kurupale in Tamil, Kabra-
juvi in Telugu, Pongalam in Maliyali, and Jivanputra ia
Mara thi.

=

JATROPHA GLANDULIFERA, Roxwb.

Hab.—Deccan Peninsula, Bengal, Northern Circars, and
sparingly elsewhere. The juice, root, and oil.

Vernacular.—Underbibi, Rén-erandi, Tadki-crandi (Iu),
Lal-bherenda (Hind., Beng.), U’dalai (Tam.), Nela-amudamu
( Tei.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant appears to have been
introduced into India, but it is not known from whence.
Graham, in his Catalogue of Bombay Plants, published in 1839,
says that in his time it was only to be found at Punderpore
in the Deccan (a place much frequented by pilgrims, who
come to visit the temple of Vithoba). There is a fabulous
legend that it suddenly made its appearance at this place.
The following is the story, for which we are indebted to
Dr. Shantaram V. Kuntak of Punderpore :—“ A certain
cultivator was sowing his field on the 10th day of Ashadh,
during the Ashédhi fair; whilst thus engaged he was
accosted by numbers of pilgetons who were passing by
his field, on their way out of the town, to meet the
palanquins of Dnydnoba, Nimdeo and Tukéram, which are
brought to Punderpore at this season from Paithan, Alandi, and
Dehu. All the pilgrims asked him what he was sowing, until
the man got tired of answering their questions ; in a short time

another pilgrim came up and asked the same question, —the
man, » vexed beyond endurance, answered that he was sowing 4

(membrom virile). It is said that this last pilgrim was the
god Vithoba in disguise, who was going to meet the palanquins
of his wen ee and — » annoyed at the cultivator’s answer, he

g, ‘ As you sow, so may you reap.’ So when
harvest time came, instead of the usual crop, the whole field was

covered — s igs ‘thick-stemmed plant.” Until within |

EUPHORBIAOER. : 273

the last few years the field was called after the strange crop
- which it bore. It is now cultivated by a Mahometan, an
produces a regular crop, but the Jatropha has not been entirely
extirpated. Since Graham’s time the plant has spread rapidly,
and may be seen on waste ground in most parts of the island
of Bombay, probably introduced along with the Castor seed of
commerce. An oil is prepared from the seeds by roasting
them in a perforated earthen vessel, fitted upon another vessel,
- into which, when the whole apparatus is heated in a pit filled
_ with burning cowdung fuel, the oil drops. This oil is valued
as an application to chronic ulcerations, sinuses, ringworm, &e.
The root brayed with water is given to children suffering from
_ abdominal enlargement; it purges, and is said to reduce
__ glandular swellings. The juice of the plant is used in various
parts of India as an escharotic to remove films from the eyes ;
it is greenish and viscid. The expressed oil of the seeds is
yellow, has a specific gravity of 0-963, and solidifies at 5°C.
(J. Lepine, Jour. Phar. [31, xl., 16.)
|
;

Description.—A small shrub, remarkable for the shin-
ing reddish-brown colour of its young foliage. The leaves are
palmate, 3 to 5-cleft, panicles terminal, short, few-flowered ;
flowers small and red. The young branches and petioles of
the leaves are thickly studded with sticky red glandular hairs.
The capsules are 3-celled and 3-seeded, with an outer adherent
fleshy epicarp, which dries up as the fruit ripens; when
this takes place, the three triangular woody cells of which it
is composed divide into six pieces suddenly with a sharp report,
and the seeds are projected to a considerable distance; it is,
therefore, necessary to gather the fruit before it is quite
ripe and dry in a covered place. The seeds, including the
strophiole, are three-tenths of an inch long and two-tenths
broad ; they are of a grey colour with two brown stripes on
the dorsum, which is convex, the underside has two flat
surfaces, divided by a central ridge. The kernel is without
smell, and very oily ; it has a sweet, nutty taste.

Reena pee
x «

Chemical composition.-—See Jatropha Curcas.
IIL,—35

274 HEUPHORBIACEZ.

Jatropha nana, Dailzei/, Kirkundi (Mar.), is a rare
plant, found in waste, stony places near Poona. The juice
is employed as a counter-irritant in the same manner as
that of J. glandulifera.

Description.—A shrub 1 to 14 foot high, all smooth ; root
tuberous, woody ; root-bark thick and full of milky juice; stem
round, smooth, very little branched ; branches erect; leaves
large for the size of the plant, sessile or shortly petioled,
broadly ovate, entire or trilobate ; lobes obtuse, central much the
largest, 4 to 6 inches long and broad, pale beneath, 3-nerved,
flowers panicled, terminal, few, 3 to 5 on each division ;
stipules minute; flower solitary, pedicelled, subtended by a
subulate bract half its length ; calyx leaves six, small, subulate;
fruit obovoid, flattened at the top, slightly six-suleated, as
large asa nut. (Da/zeli.)

JATROPHA CURCAS, Linn.
Fig. — Jacq. Hort. Vind. iti., t. 63; A. Juss. Tent. Euphorbe
‘t. 11, p. 84 A. Physic Nut (Eng.), Medicinicr (F.).
- Hab,—Throughout India and Ceylon, naturalized.
Vernacular .—Baghrénda, Bagh-bherenda (Hind., Beng-);
Moghli-erandi, Jepal (Mar.), Galamark (Goa), K4ttAmanakku
(Zam.), Pépdlam (TZel.), Kétté-vanakka (Mai.), Bettada-haralu
(Can.), Jangli-arandi (Guz.).
History, Uses, &c.—This tree, introduced from
AL ler ica, is called by recent Sanskrit writers Kanana- eranda.
. seeds are sometimes used as a purgative and alterative by
Ein oo but on account of their uncertain action

( ieation to iteh, herpes, chronic i octal and
<— ma states that the blacks of Rio
— “the oil with the ashes of the Papaya, and use

1 to heal the wounds caused by circumcision.
| ubefacient and discutient, and a
the secretion of milk in

ee Saleen, Tey sea
a ae v

eee Pe

EUPHORBIACE. 95

yomen. ‘The viscid juice which flows from the stem upon
ncision is painted over cuts and wounds'to check bleeding and
mote healing ; this it does by forming a thin film when dry
ike that produced by collodion. The author of the Makhzan
1so notices this use of the juice, and calls the plant Baghréndeh.
. Udoy Chund Dutt notices the haemostatic properties of the
, and Dr. Evers has injected a drachm of it into a varicose
rism. He says :— ‘ The result was astonishing ; in twenty
tes time the pulsation was so faint that no non-professional
son could have detected it; and by evening all pulsation
ceased, and a good firm olct had been produced. No ill-
: effects resulted fron the injection.” J. Curcas is said to have
‘been introduced from Brazil by the Portuguese ; it is now quite
naturalized in many parts of India, and is a common hedge-
plant in the Concans. The oil is used for burning. The juice,
when dried in the sun, forms a bright reddish-brown, brittle
ubstance like shell-lac, which may Ae be put to some useful

he
God rubbed with Castor oil are used by the natives as a

J eae oil was formerly employed as a purgative by Hhire-
pean physicians, under the names of Olewm Ricint majoris and
Oleum infernale. At the present time it is much used for burn-
ing and for soap-making; also for adulterating olive oil, and
seemingly for making ni 8 oil. (#. WM. Horn, Zeit. Anal.
~Chem., xxvii., 163—165.

Description.—The young rootsare soft, fleshy, and taper-
ing, with a whity-brown sealy epidermis, and a few thin rootlets,
bark yellowish-white internally, with a peculiar perfume like
tuberose when freshly removed ; wood white and very soft. On —
section the bark is seen to contain oil globules and very numer- oe

ous conglomerate raphides; the vascular system | is full o a

276 EUPHORBIACE 2.

yellowish viscid secretion; the wood is loaded with starch,
The taste of the bark is acrid.

The fruit is ovoid, 6-striated, tricoccous and fleshy ; when ripe
it is of a pale greenish-yellow; as it gradually dries up it
becomes black and partially dehiscent. There is one seed in
each cell. The seeds (Pignons d’Inde) are of the same shape as
Castor seeds, 3 of an inch long and rather less than half an
inch broad ; the dorsal surface is arched and marked by a hardly
perceptible ridge about the middle; the ventral surface has a
well-marked ridge. At one end of the seed is a white scar.
The testa is of a dull black and irregularly fissured all over,
the fissures are yellowish. The kernel is enclosed in a thin,
white membranous covering like that of the Castor seed.

The cotyledons are foliaceous, the radicle short and thick, the
_ albumen copious and oily.

Chemical composition.—The kernels of the seeds of J. Cwreas
were found by Arnaudon and Ubaldini ( Kopp’s Jahresber., 1858)
to contain 7:2 per cent. water, 37:5 oil, 55°3 sugar, starch,

bumin, casein, and inorganic matters. The kernels yielded
4°8 per cent. ash, and 4:2 per cent. nitrogen; the kernels and
husks together 6 per cent. ash, and 2-9 per cent. nitrogen. The
oil yielded by saponification, glycerine and an acid, which,
well as the unsaponified oil, produced caprylic alcohol by
distillation with hydrate of potassium. Bouis had previously
separated from it a liquid and solid fatty acid, and named the
latter Isoacetic Acid, C'5H5°O%. Cadet de Gassicourt (1824)
found in the seeds an acrid resin.
__ F.M, Horn (Zeit. Anal. Chem., xxvii., 163—165) states that
the oil begins to crystallize at 9°, and is completely solid at
0°, at 15° its Sp- gr. is 09192. It differs from Castor oil in
its very sparing solubility in alcohol. It appears to saponily

. readily in the cold, but in reality forms only acid soaps;
__ for complete saponification heat is required, and solid potash
acts better than solution, _
‘The fluid oleic acid obta; : doubtless be
‘rogurded as ricingleioaeidy OS® ™Y

EUP AQE AA 277

| According to Dr. H. Stillmark, the seeds contain mess the
onous principle of Castor seeds (see Ricinus).

Toxicology.—Christison (Poisons, p. 591) found from 12 to
15 drops to have generally the same effect as an ounce of Castor
oil. Stillé and Maisch remark that it is more like Croton oil
in its action. The acrid emetic principle resides chiefly in the
mbryo. It is stated that if the embryo is wholly removed,

- or five of the seeds may be used as a purgative without
producing either vomiting or griping. This opinion is sup-
ted by experiments upon dogs. A number of cases have
occurred of poisoning by eating the seeds entire. In one case,
a man who had eaten five of them soon complained of burning
in the mouth and throat, and the whole abdomen felt distended
andsore. Inafew minutes vomiting occurred, and was repeated
five times in the course of an hour, accompanied with active
purging. The pain continued; the patient complained of
_ feeling hot and giddy ; ; he then became delirious, and afterwards
insensible. On regaining consciousness several hours later his
face was pale, his hands cool, the pulse 110 and weak. He
recovere

| ae cases of accidental poisoning by the seeds have been
= recorded in India, and Chevers mentions one in which, in
addition to the usual symptoms, muscular twitchings, deafness,
impairment of sight, and loss of memory were observed.

Jatropha multifida, Linn., Salisb. Hort. Paradis.,
t. 91, the Medicinier d’Espagne of the French, and Coral
tree of the English, is a common ornamental shrub in Indian
gardens; it is not used medicinally, and only requires a brief
notice on account of its seeds, which are powerfully purgative
and emetic, sometimes giving rise to accidents when eaten by

children. The plant is easily recognised by its multifid leaves
and beautiful, red coral-like panicles of flowers. The fruit is
bright-yellow when ripe, as large as a walnut, six-angled and ~
_three-celled, each cell contains a scabrous black seed resembling
that of J. Curcas, We have found limejuice and stimulants to
be the best remedies in cases of poisoning by the seeds. The

278 _ EUPHORBIACEZ.

plant appears te have been introduced by the Portuguese 4
from Brazil, where the oil of the seeds is known as Pinhoen oil, i
and is used as an emetic. /

=

At Martinique it is called Zeca pays, on account of its being
used in a similar manner ; one seed acts as an emeto-cathartic,
Corre and Lejanne state that the Creole women used to prepare
an “Orange purgative”’ by macerating an orange in the oil for a
month, and then drying it; this orange, when rubbed in the
-hands and smelt, was believed to act as a purgative.

According to Soubeiran, the oil of these seeds is very
similar to, if not identical with, that of J. Curcas. .

Towicology.—Cases of accidental poisoning by the fruits have
been recorded in India, chiefly among children who have heen
attracted by their temptiag colour. The symptoms have been
similar to those produced by J. Curcas.

=

ia

ALEURITES MOLUCCANA, Willd. —
Pig.—Lamk. Wi, ¢. 791; A. Juss. Tent. Buphorb., t. 12;
Rumph. Amb. ii., t. 58. Candleberry tree (Zng.), Aleurit des
Mollugues (Fr).

Hab,—Pacific Islands. Cultivated in India. The oil-
Vernacular.—Jangli-akhrot (Hind.), Rén-akhrot, J aphala
(Mar.), Jangli-akhroda (@uz.), Nattu-akhrotu (Tam., Tel.),

Nat-akrodu (Can.).
History, Uses, &c.—Rumphius (iii., 12) states that the
ese and Macassars make candles of the seeds of this al
ided and mixed with cocoanut or cotton seeds, or simply

seeds are known as Indian walnuts. Whet
arge proportion of oil, used as a drymg
as country walnut oil, bankoul-nut

lon it is called Kekuni oil, and

EUPHORBIACEE. © | 279 s.

bout 10,000 gallons are annually produded: It has been
orted into Europe for soap-making, but not to any
msiderable extent, and fetches about £20 per imperial
ton. The oil is stated to possess powerful desiccative properties.
The cake, after the oil has been expressed, is esteemed
a manure. The root of the tree affords a brown dye,
ch is used by the Sandwich Islanders for their native
hs. In India the oil is used as a dressing for ulcers ; its
icinal properties were examined by Dr. O. Rorke bina: ade
rap., 1899, p. 117), who found that in doses varying from
to 2 ounces it acted as a mild and sure purgative, producing in
from three to six hours, after ingestion, free bilious evacuations,
its operation being unattended either by nausea, colic or other
ill-effects. (Phar. of India, p. 203.) From more recent experi-
ments it appears that half an ounce of the oil is a sufficient
_ aperient. MM. Corre and Lejanne (Résumé de le Mat. Med. et
_ Tox. Coioniale) remark :—“ There is no doubt that the properties
of this oil differ when the oil is prepared in different ways.”
When cold drawn from the fresh nuts, Heckel, who used it at
the Military Hospital at Nouméa, found that it was only
purgative in 80 gram doses, that is to say, it simply acted as a
fatty oil ; he found that the drastic resinous constituents remained
the oil-cake. M. Jugant, at Nosi-Bé, found that the oil
tracted by the hot process acted freely as a purgative in 40
gram doses. Many observations were made in the Military

from 1 to 3} hours. Dr. Grasourdy considers the oil to equal
castor oil in purgative properties. The oil, if intended to be
used as a purgative, should be extracted by pressure between

Description.—A tree of considerable magnitude, attain-
ing the height of 30 to 40 fect. The leaves are alternate,
four to eight inches long, stalked and without stipules, either

See

_ the young parts covered with a whitish starry pubescence
The flowers are small and white, growing in clusters
_ of the branches, the —_ and females tog

oval-acute and entire, or fiom three to five-lobed, and like all a

280 EUP ACER

same cluster, the former being the most numerous. The fruit

is 2-celled, fleshy, roundish, and, when ripe, of an olive colour,
its greatest diameter about 24 inches; each cell contains one
ovoid somewhat flattened nut, the shell of which is very hard
and thick ; the kernel is conform to the nut, white and oily.

Chemical composition.—The nuts have been examined by
Nallino (Gaz. Chim. Ital., ii., 257), who found the average
weight of the husks to be 6°5 grams, of the almonds 3°3 grams.
Composition of husks: water, 3°71; organic matter, 89°90;
mineral matter, 6°39. Composition of almonds: water, 5°28;
fat (extracted by carbon sulphide), 62°97 ; cellulose and other
organic matters, 28°99; mineral matter, 2°79. Composition of
the ash of the almond: lime, 18°69; magnesia, 6°01; potash,
11°33; phosphoric anhydride, 29°30. The fatty matter

_ extracted from the almonds by carbon sulphide at ordinary
temperatures forms a transparent, amber-yellow, syrupy liquid.
en cooled to —10°, it becomes viscous, but neither loses its
transparency nor changes colour. According to Brannt, the
oil has a specific gravity of 1:940 at 59°F. It consists of an
olein resembling linolein, besides myristin, palmatin and stearin.
The purgative principle is probably an. acrid resin. The oil-
cake from Indian and Tahitian seeds has respectively the
following percentage composition :—

Indian. Tahitian.
Oil es 8-93 9-20
Organic matter 7404 74°24

8:96 9°36

7:07 7°20

were respectively equal to 52 and 51-7 per

Aleurites cordata) has been examined by
harm. Journ, [3] xv., 636). It is the
aarkable drying properties. 7°

is ted b,

EUHPORBIACEZ:. : 281

sh to convert one thousand grams of oil into potash soap.
fatty acids amounted to 94°] per cent., melting at 39°,
ntaining some white crystalline plates melting at 67°.

CROTON TIGLIUM, Linn.
Fig. —Bentl. and Trim., t. 239; Rheede, Hort. Mal. ii.,
3. Purging Croton (Hng.), Croton cathartique (fr.).
-Hab.—China. Cultivated in India. The seeds and oil.
PP ernacular. —Jaypél, Jamélgota (Hind.), Jaypal (Beng.),
palo (Guz.), Jamélgota (Mar.), Nepéla (Can., Tel.), Nervalam
(Tam.), Nirvélam (Mal.), Kanako (Burm.).
History, Uses, &c.—Croton seeds were not known to
the ancient Hindu physicians ; in recent Sanskrit works they —
are noticed under the names of Jayapila, Tittiriphala and
akaphala, and are described as heavy, mucilaginous and
gative, useful in fever, constipation, enlargements of the
ominal viscera, ascites, anasarca, cough, &c., expelling bile
phlegm. They are directed to be boiled in milk, the outer
and embryo having been removed, to fit them for internal
inistration. The following prescription from the Bhava-
casa may be taken as an example :—
- Mahanaracha rasa.—Take Chebulie myrobalans, pulp of
Jassia fistula, Emblic myrobalans, root of Baliospermum axillare
amt Pier orhiza Kurrooa (tikta), milky juice of Euphorbia

m to a coarse powder, and boil in four seers of water
the latter is reduced to one-eighth. Then take a told of
ked Croton seeds, tie them in a piece of thin cloth, and boil
them in the abovementioned decoction, till the latter is reduced
to the consistence of a fluid extract. To this extract add a
powder composed of eight parts of purified Croton seeds, three
parts of ginger, and two of black pepper, mercury, and sulphur —
quantity sufficient to make a pill mass; rub them together
twelve hours, and make into two-grain pills. These are
IIl.—36 Sree

282 EUPHORBIACEZ.

given with cold water in tympanitis, colic, ascites, &e., as a
drastic purgative. After the operation of this medicine, rice
should be given with curdled milk and sugar.

The Indian names for Croton seeds lead us to suppose that
they were first introduced into the country through Nepal.
Under the name of Dand they were known to the Persians at
a very early date, and were doubtless introduced into that
country from China by the Caravan route through Central Asia.
The Arabs retained the Persian name, but also called them
Hab-el-khatai, “ Cathay seeds,” and Hab-el-saldtin, “Sultans”
seeds.” Ibn Sina describes them under the name of Dand-el- :
sini, ‘China Dand,” and also mentions an Indian Dand of
smaller size (probably Baliospermum seeds). Ainslie states
that Croton seeds were known to the Arabs under the name of
Fill, but this is incorrect, as may be seen by referring to Tha
Sina, who describes Fil as an Indian drug having the properties -
of the Mandrake. Mahometan physicians describe the eed
as detergent, a purgative of phlegm, black bile, and adus
humors; and recommend their use in dropsy, calculus, gout, :
and other diseases arising from cold humors, On account of
its irritant action upon the fauces, the seed, after having been
boiled in milk, is to be crushed and enclosed in a raisin for
administration, The author of the Makhzan remarks that the
Hindus give small doses with fresh ginger tea, to children, as
a remedy for whooping cough: He also notices its irnitan
action upon the skin, and its use as an external application to
tumours, &e,; should excessive purging occur, he directs
_limejuice to be administered. The envelopes of the seed and
: plumule must always be rejected. Croton Tigliwm was first
described by Christoval Acosta in 1578, afterwards by Rh
in 1679, and Rumphius in 1743. In 1812, Drs, White and
Marshall brought the use of the seeds as a purgative to the
notice of Europeans in India. The former gentleman gives
_ the following directions for their administration, which he
‘Feceived from a learned Parsee Vaidia of Surat :—“ After

= having removed the shells from the seeds, tie the kernels n sg
small piece of like a bag; then put this into as mut

EUPHORBIACER. 283

ung water as will cover the bag, and let it boil; secondly,
boiled, split the kernels in two and take a small leaf
hem, which is said to be poisonous; and thirdly, pound
hole into a mass, to which add two parts of Katha
), and divide into pills of two grains each, two of
e sufficient for one dose.’ The addition of the Katha
correct the acrimony of the drug, and to ‘prevent any
of the bowels. ,
e (Mat. Indica, Vol. I., p. 105) notices the use of the
oil (nervalum unnay) by the Tamils as an external
ution in rheumatic affections, but it does not appear to
‘been used for internal administration until the year 1821.
r. London Medical Depository for January 1822.)
In modern European medicine, croton oil, more or less diluted,
ed externally as a counter-irritant, and causes an abundant
ar eruption. This effect is increased by the addition of
alkali to the liniment. Internally it is given in doses
tol minim asa purgative, and is particularly valuable
cases in which the condition of the patient prevents
om swallowing; it may be placed on the back of the
The oil has also been used with success as an anthel-
In modern pharmacy its chief consumption is in
ation of castor oil capsules.
Yescription.—Croton seeds (graines de Tilly) are oblong,
t half an inch long, and not quite 3 of an inch broad.
dorsal and ventral surfaces are arched, the former more
ninently than the latter. The testa is black, but covered for
10st part by a thin cinnamon-coloured membrane; it is thin
brittle, and contains an abundant oily Dien enclosed.
delicate white membrane (endopleura). Between the two
sof the albumen are two foliaceous cotyledons, and a
thick radicle. The structure of these parts closely
resembles that of the albumen and embryo of Ricinus communis,
_ Chemical composition—The fats present in croton oil are
ycerides of stearic, palmitic, myristic, and lauric acids, and of
al volatile acids of the same series, like acetic, butyric, and

284 - _ EUPHORBIACEZ.

valerianic acid; also the volatile ¢iglinic acid, C5H®O?, which
was recognized by Geuther and Frélich (1870), but had
previously been observed by Schlippe (1858), who considered it
to be identical with angelicic acid. However, it melts at 64° C.,
boils at 198°5°C., and is identical with Frankland and Duppa’s
methylerotonic acid. In the fraction boiling above the
temperature named, capronic, cenanthylic, or similar acids are
probably present. They did not succeed in obtaining from croton
oil an acid having the composition of Schlippe’s erotonie acid,
C*H°O’, E. Schmitt(1879) corroborated these statements, and
found among the volatile acids also formic acid, Schlippe’s
erotonol, C'8H*80*, has likewise not been obtained by other
chemists; it was stated to be a yellowish viscid mass of a faint
odour, and to be the rubefacient principle of croton oil. The
drastic rubefacient properties, according to Buchheim (1873),
reside in crotonoleic acid, which is present in the free state and
as glyceride, and which seems to be related to ricinoleic acid,
since, like the latter, it yields with nitric acid cenanthic acid,
and on the distillation of its sodium salt gives cenanthol.
(Stitlé and Maisch.) :
_H. Senier (Pharm. Journ. [3], XIV., 446, 447) has shown
that when alcohol (sp. gr. *794—-800) is mixed in equal
volumes with English pressed croton oil, perfect solution takes
place, the mixture being permanent at all ordinary tempet@
tures, and this is equally true when any less quantity of
alcohol is used; when, however, the proportion of alcohol to
croton oil becomes as seven volumes to six, or any large?
proportion of alcohol, then a part of the croton oil separate’
This part varies in quantity in the case of different samples of
oil. That part of the croton oil which separates when the
alcohol is in excess is afterwards insoluble in any proportion of
alcohol. But that portion of the oil dissolved by alcohol is;
whee Separated, soluble in all proportions. The author has
shown that the part of croton oil soluble in alcohol contains the
ORE Principle, while the portion insoluble in alcohol 18
viene non-vesicating. He also shows that the purgative
Properties of croton oil reside entirely in this insoluble,

EUPHORBIACEZ. 285 ©

-vesicating part. The author has endeavoured to ascertain to
hat constituent of the soluble portion of the oil the vesicating
properties are due, and has traced these properties to the non-
volatile fatty acids, chiefly to those which have the lowest
melting points, are least readily saponified by alkalies, and are
first liberated when the alkali soap is decomposed by acids.
attributes the purgative action not to the free acids, but
the combination in which they exist in the oil,

These conclusions not appearing satisfactory to Brcko

heydt, a pupil in the University of Dorpat. Upon the basis
of the results obtained, Professor Kobert now (Chem. Zeit.,
April 6, 1887, p. 416) attributes the activity of croton oil, both
asa vesicant and as a purgative, to crotonoleic acid, not to be

free state, in which it is freely soluble in alcohol, and in
combination as a glyceride. The glyceride does not possess
poisonous properties, but the free acid acts as a powerful
irritant to the skin and the intestines (purgative). According
to Professor Kobert, the crotonolglyceride is attacked and
split up like other glycerides by the ferments of the juices of —
the stomach, and the crotonoleic acid being set free then
exercises its purgative influence. <A similar result may be
_ obtained by administering crotonoleic acid as a pill enclosed in
keratin. Kobert is not of opinion, however, that the solubility
of croton oil is dependent upon the proportion of crotonoleic
_ acid it contains, but considers it to be connected with the age
_ of the oil. Crotonoleic acid may be prepared by treating the
portion of croton oil soluble in alcohol with a hot saturated
solution of baryta in a water-bath, washing the stiff white paste
that forms with cold distilled water to remove excess of baryta,
and barium compounds with acetic, butyric and tiglinic acid,

removing by heat traces of water, and repeatedly treating with
_ ether, which only takes up the barium oleate and crotonoleate,
The crotonoleate is separated by dissolving it out in alcohol,

286 EUPHORBIACEZ.

decomposed carefully with sulphuric acid, and the solution
containing the free acid evaporated. (Pharm. Journ., April
380th, 1887.) According to Dr. H. Stillmark, croton seeds
contain Ricin, the poisonous principle of castor seeds. (See
Ricinus.)

Toxicology.—The seeds are said to be used in Java for killing
fish, and the oil has been shown to have the same effect upon
the carnivora as upon man. When eaten, the seeds cause
nausea and eructation, followed by flatulent distension of the
abdomen, colic and diarrhea. <A single seed is reported to
have proved fatal. The oil, in the dose of 1 drop, occasions
more or less of an acrid and burning sensation in the fauces
and cesophagus, a sense of warmth in the stomach, nausea, and
sometimes vomiting. In an hour or two, some gurgling oF
slight colic is perceived in the bowels, followed somewhat
suddenly by a watery stool with tenesmus, and heat about the
anus. Within 24 hours eight or ten more stools follow, and
there is but little general disturbance of the economy, except
considerable weakness. Sometimes, instead of producing
evacuations, the oil causes epigastric uneasiness and oppression,
palpitation of the heart, headache, feverishness, perspiration,
and sleep. It would appear that the acrid principle of the

oil is not the scle cause of its cathartic operation, for even after -

being thoroughly washed with alcohol and rendered mild to
the taste, as well as incapable of pustulating the skin, it is still
strongly purgative. (Stillé and Maisch.) No cases of poison-
ag by croton seeds or oil in India appear to have been recorded.

During the expression of croton oil in India, the workmen,
who are naked, with the exception of a cloth round the loins,
“have been observed to suffer from redness and irritation of the
_ skin, evidently produced by some volatile constituent of the oil.

CROTON OBLONGIFOLUS, 2or?.
_ Hab.— —Bengal, Silhet, Behar, Centrak India, Deccan
Pins, hatches ee “odo The root-bark, leaves, and

ee

eS ee

ernacular.—Chucka, Bardégach (Beng.), Arjuna (Hind.),
e, Putol (Ma/.), Bhutan-kusam (7e/.), Ghanasura (Mar.),
(Santal), Kurti, Konya, Kuli, Poter (ioi.), Gonsurong

rod).

rvine .the use of the seeds as a purgative. From the Dict.
‘Prod. of India we learn that the Santals use the bark
root as a purgative and alterative. We have been unable
) find any notice of the drug in native works on Indian Materia

forests near Calcutta, is silent upon the subject. Dalzell and
Gibson, in the Bombay Flora (p. 231), remark that “the plant
is used medicinally by the natives to reduce swellings.” The
author of the Mat. Med. of West. India remarks :—‘* When ona
‘Yisit to Goa in 1876, my attention was drawn by the native doc-
_ tors to the root-bark of a small tree as being one of the most
raluable medicines they possessed ; this plant, unknown to me
at the time, proved on subsequent investigation to be C. oblongi-
olius. The Goanese and inhabitants of the Southern Concan
dminister the bark in chronic enlargements of the liver and in

1 applied externally. As an application to sprains, bruises,
rheumatic swellings, &c., it is in great request. In lar

it is said to be purgative.” Fliickiger and Hanbury (Phar-
macographia, p. 510) state that the seeds are said to be sometimes
substituted for those of 0. Tiglium. The tree is rare in the
Bombay Presidency, and has only been found in the Southem
Concan, where it has a reputation as a remedy in snake-bites.
In Goa it is more common.

Description.—Trunk straight; bark ash-coloured, and
pretty smooth; leaves petioled, alternate, and thickly set about

-BUPHORBIACEA. 990

History, Uses, &c.—Brandis has noticed the use of ©
e bark, leaves and fruit of this plant in native medicine, and —

fedica. Roxburgh, though he describes the tree as common in ~

mittent fever. In the former disease it is both taken internally ;

the ends of the branchlets, spreading or drooping, oblong,
serrate, obtuse-pointed, very. smooth on both sides, from six to
twelve inches long, petioles round and smooth, with a lateral
gland on each side of their apices; stipules small, caducous ;

at

288 EUPHORBIACE.

racemes terminal, generally solitary, erect, shorter than the
leaves ; flowers solitary, a few female ones mixed with many
male ones, small, of a pale yellowish-green ; bracts 3-fold, one-
flowered, on the inside of each of the small lateral bracts is a
round permanent gland, asin Sesamum indicum; male calyx
deeply 5-cleft, petals six, smaller than the calyx, very woolly;
filaments twelve, distinct, nine in the circumference and three
in the centre, woolly towards the base ; female calyx and corol
as in the male; stamens none; germ globular ; styles three, each
divided into fwo very long, variously bent segments ; capsules
globular, fleshy, six-furrowed, tricoccous. (Rorb.)

The root is twisted, often somewhat flattened, bark thickish,
externally light-brown and scaly, internally yellowish, mottled
with brown, substance compact and resinous, odour highly
aromatic, taste peppery and camphoraceous. Wood white, soft.

Microscopie structure.—Sections of the bark show that the
epidermis consists of about five rows of elongated cells placed
horizontally; their walls are much thickened by a dark-brown
deposit, which produces a patchwork appearance. The paren-
chyma is loaded with large globular or oval highly refractive
bodies of a yellowish colour; there are also numerous dark
purplish-brown particles, which are sometimes single but
usually arranged in irregular concentric rows; they appeat “sf
_ be due to a deposit in the vascular system of a resinous natures

Chemical composition —The fresh root-bark was contused, and
exhausted with warm 80 per cent. alcohol. The tincture was
of a red colour. The alcoholic extract was mixed with water

and agitated with petroleum ether, when reddish flocks
separated. The solution was acid in reaction, The petroleum
ether solution left on spontaneous evaporation a transparent
_ viscid yellow residue, possessing a camphoraceous and peppe!-
_ like édour and taste. With the exception of some white flocks,
__ the extract was soluble in cold alcohol with acid reaction; the
oF oS coloration with ferric chloride.
oe citer aqueous: solution, after separation of petroleum

r, was sited ith ether, emcat solution of the reddish

EUPHORBIACEA. 989

ks referred to as having separated on agitation with
yetroleum ether. The ether was separated from the turbid
queous layer, and agitated with dilute sulphuric acid to
eparate any alkaloidal principle. The acid aqueous solution
s then rendered alkaline and reagitated with ether. The
ereal solution left on spontaneous evaporation a slightly
mish transparent varnish-like residue, partly soluble in
lilute sulphuric acid, the solution affording marked alkaloidal
eactions. With Fréhde’s reagent a dirty red to purple colour
s observed, but no other special colour reactions were noted.
The original ethereal solution, after the agitation with
sulphuric acid, left on spontaneous evaporation a brittle, trans-
parent, yellow residue, soluble in alcohol with strong acid
‘reaction, but affording no colour reaction with ferric salts.
By the action of dilute aqueous caustic soda a part of the
ethereal extract was dissolved with a deep port-wine red
coloration. The portion insoluble in the alkaline solution
was yellowish. The alkaline solution, on the addition of dilute

leaving a transparent yellow varnish on spontaneous evapor-
ation, with a slightly bitter taste and acid reaction in alcoholic
‘solution. The reddish flocks insoluble in petroleum and
ordinary ether were separated from the original aqueous
solution, and, when dry, formed a dirty reddish friable mass
without taste or odour. In dilute alcohol this principle was
soluble with acid reaction, the solution being of a port-wine
- colour, and possessing a slight spicy odour and taste. The
solution, after being neutralized with ammonia, which deepened
the tint, afforded. a dirty plum-coloured precipitate with
_ acetate of lead. To the original now clear aqueous solution of
the alcohol extractive carbonate of soda was added, which
caused a carmine-coloured precipitate, and the liquid agitated
with ether, which failed to dissolve the precipitate. The
ethereal solution left on evaporation a trace of residue, partly
soluble in dilute suphuric acid, the acid solution reacting with
alkaloidal reagents. With Fréhde’s reagent the colour wa
dirty red to purple, and, like the principle first oe y

111.—37

acids, afforded yellow flocks, nearly wholly soluble in ether, and

290 EUPHORBIACE&.

ether from the acid aqueous solution, yielding no other special
colour reactions. The carmine flocks precipitated by the
alkali, and which were insoluble in ether, were separated by
filtration, the filtrate being of a logwood colour, and washed
cold water in which they were slightly soluble: on
ignition an alkaline ash was left. By dilute acids the carmine
precipitate was changed to salmon-yellow, the original colour
being restored by alkalies. An aqueous solution gave a
carmine-coloured precipitate with acetate of lead.

The original aqueous alkaline solution was lastly acidified
with dilute sulphuric acid, which caused the separation of
salmon-coloured flocks, and agitated with amylic alcohol. The
amylic aleohol extract was reddish-yellow, becoming of a deep
carmine hue with alkalies, and afforded a carmine precipitate

_ with acetate of lead; acids destroyed the colour and caused 4
precipitate of sinkiasdainel flocks practically insoluble in
ether. By heating with zinc dust, the dried principles, which
gave coloured precipitates with alkalies and acetate of lead,
afforded no crystalline sublimates. The freshly contused root-
bark afforded on steam distillation a small amount of a colourless
volatile oil possessing a marked camphoraceous and pepper-like
odour and taste.

In this investigation the principles which afforded coloured
precipitates with alkalies were the most interesting, and these
principles would appear to have been acids. It will be noted

_ that the original aqueous solution of the alcoholic extract was
not treated with any foreign acid prior to agitation with
é petroleum and. ordinary ether. The flocks which separated
during agitation with petroleum ether, and which were insoluble
“in ether, gave from an alcoholic solution a different coloured

hein Sibinge acetate of lead, from the acids which were

as subsequently acidified before
an one Siathol "Tho list two acids referred to
» identical. The sodium salt of the acid was
ter, ills the free acid was at best

BUPHORBIAOBE 291.

y slightly soluble in ether. The addition of sodic carbonate
ace caused the precipitation of the greater part of the sodium
a small amount only remaining in solution. The
uent addition of sulphuric acid decomposed the sodium
solution, with separation of the free acid in salmon-
ed flocks. As regards the identity of this acid with the
ginally separated on agitation with petroleum ether, and
though the colour of the lead salt was different, it might _
due to the presence of foreign matters, and we are
d to the view that these acid principles were similar.
alkaloidal principle from the first ether extract, and that
tained from the alkaline ether, were also probably identical.

od

ACALYPHA INDICA, Linn.
Pig.— Wight Ic., t. 877 ; Rheede, Hort. Mai. x., t. 81.
Hab.—Hotter parts of India.

ACALYPHA PANICULATA, Miquel.
Fig.—2heede, Hort. Mal. «., t. 83.

Hab.—Deccan Peninsula. The herb. :
ernacular.— Kuppi, Khokali (Hind., Mar.), Dadaro ( Guz.), =

S Gde

1, Murkanda-chettu, Puppanti, Harita-manjari (Z¢l.), —
m sates, Kuppi (Can.), Kuppa-mani (Ma/.)
? _ History, Uses, &c.—The medicinal properties of Age
jlants are well known in India, but we have been unable to
\ Py notice of them in the standard Sanskrit medical works.
Ainslie gives Aritamunjayrie as the Sanskrit name, which is
ently meant for Harita-manjari, “a plant with clusters of
green flowers,” a very appropriate name. Rheede describes two
species of Acalypha, Cupameni (A. indica), and W élia-cupameni
(A. paniculata); he gives Manjara-sejari as the bateneete
name of the first, and states that the juice, made into a |
ment with oil, is used in rheumatism and venereal pains wie
uptions, and, with the addition of lime, in skin dipsapees that

juri, Shwet-basanta (Beng.), Kuppaimeni ( Zam.),Kuppai-

292 EUPRORBIACEZ.

the root rubbed down with hot water is given as a cathartic;
the leaves with water as a laxative, and in decoction to relieve
the pain of earache. Of the second, he says that when rubbed
down in rice-water and applied locally, it relieves pain, and that
the juice with sesamum oil is useful in erysipelatous inflammation,
hemorrhoids, and the pain in the belly called by the Malabars
Guinao. Ainslie says of A. tndica:—‘ The root, leaves and
tender shoots are all used in medicine by the Hindus. The
powder of the dry leaves is given to children in worm cases, also
a decoction of them with the addition of a little garlic. The
juice of the same part of the plant, together with that of the
tender shoots, is occasionally mixed with a small portion of
margosa oil, and rubbed on the tongues of infants for the pur-
pose of sickening them and clearing their stomachs of viscid
phlegm. The hakims prescribe the Koopamaynee in consump-
tion.” Inthe Pharmacopeia of India (p. 205), the following
reference to this plant by Dr. G. Bidie, of Madras, will be

und :—‘‘ The expressed juice of the leaves is in great repute,
wherever the plant grows, as an emetic for children, and is
safe, certain, and speedy in its action. Like Tpecacuanha, it
seems to have little tendency to act on the bowels or depress the
vital powers, and it decidedly increases the secretion of the
pulmonary organs. The dose of the expressed juice for an
infant is a teaspoonful.” Dr. 2. Ross speaks highly of its use
as an expectorant, ranking it in this respect with senega ; he
found it specially useful in the bronchitis of children. The
purgative action of the root noticed by Rheede is confirmed by
_ Dr. H. E. Busteed, who has used it as a laxative for children.

3 _ In Bombay the plant has a reputation as an expectorant, hence —
_ the native name Khokli (cough). Brigade-Surgeon Langley,

_ in acommunication to Dr. Watt, Dict. Econ. Prod. Ind., Vol. L,
_ writes: —“This plant is called in Canara Chdiméri as well
ee Kuppi. : The natives use it in congestive headaches : @ piece

of cotton is saturated with the expressed juice and inserted into
this relieves the head symptoms by causing

om the nose. The powder of the dry leaves is
ds attacked by worms. In asthma

OE ta ae i

BUPHORBIACEM. 293

and bronchitis I have employed it with benefit both for children
and adults.” Dr. Langley recommends a tincture of the fresh
herb made with spirits of ether (3 ozs. to one pint), dose 20 to
- 60 minims, frequently repeated during the day, in honey ; ; it acts
as an expectorant and nauseant ; in large doses it is emetic.

Description.—A. indica.—Stem erect, from 1 to 2 feet
high, branchy, round, smooth ; leaves scattered, petioled, ovate-
cordate, 8-nerved, serrate, smooth, about 2 inches long and
14 broad ; petioles as long as the leaves; stipules small, subulate ;
spikes axillary, generally single, peduncled, erect, as long as
the leaves, many-flowered, crowned with a body in the form of
a cross, the base of which is surrounded with a 3-leaved
calyx, the arms of the cross are tubular, with their mouths
fringed, from the base of the cross on one side issues a style-like
_ thread, with a fringed stigma, the body of the cross contains
an ovate seed like substance ; male flowers numerous, crowded
round the upper part of the spike, calyx 4-leaved, leaflets
cordate, filaments minute, numerous; female flowers below the
male, remote; involucre cup-formed, with an opening on the
inner side, striated, smooth, toothed, from 2 to 4-flowered ;
calyx 3-leaved. (Roxb SP

A. paniculata is a pubescent under-shrub or herb, with long-
petioled ovate-acuminate leaves which are coarsely and equally
serrated. e male flowers are in axillary, filiform spikes,
and the female in axillary and terminal racemes or panicles ;
the bracts are minute and not enlarged in fruit. Capsule 14
inch in diameter, 3-lobed, glandular, styles 3—7-partite.

Chemical composition.—The whole plant of A. Indica was dried
at a low temperature, reduced to powder, and exhausted with
80 per cent. alcohol. The alcoholic extract was mixed with
water, acidulatedwith sulphuric acid, and agitated with petroleum
ether, and ether; the solution was then rendered alkaline and
agitated with ether. During agitation with petroleum ether, a
quantity of dark matter separated, which was partly soluble in
ether, and in alkalies, and contained much colouring matter. _
The petroleum ether extract was dark and viscid, and had an —

294: EUPHORBIACEZL.

aromatic odour, but did not yield any crystalline deposit on
standing: in absolute alcohol it was soluble, and on spon-
taneous evaporation some yellow matter separated, which was
destitute of crystalline structure on microscopic examination,
The alcoholic solution had no special taste, The ether extract
was yellow, and had an aromatic somewhat tea-like odour, and
on standing became indistinctly crystalline. In warm water
_ a portion dissolved, the solution possessing a strong acid
reaction, and affording a dirty reddish coloration with ferric
chloride : it did not precipitate gelatine, and gave no reaction
with cyanide of potassium. The portion insoluble in water
was dissolved by ammonia, affording a deep yellow coloured
solution with a somewhat camphoraceous odour, the addition
of acids causing the precipitation of whitish flocks.

The ether extract obtained from the original aqueous solution,
after it had been rendered alkaline, contained a well-mark
alkaloidal principle, which after purification afforded the
following reactions: with Fréhde’s reagent pinkish in the cold,
dirty blue on warming ; with sulphuric acid yellowish-red ; 00
reaction with sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate; 2°
reaction with ferric chloride; with nitric acid a yellow color-
ation ; it was not precipitated by chromate of potash from an
aqueous solution acidulated with sulphuric acid; taste harsh,
without bitterness. “We propose provisionally to call this
principle Acalyphine.

Ainslie notices the use of A. fruticosa, Forsk., a5
stomachic and alterative, an infusion of the leaves being used.
(Mat. Ind., ii. 388.)

! TREWIA NUDIFLORA, Lin.

Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 1870—1; Baill. Etud. Gen. Euphorb.,
4. 18, f. 18—23; Rheede, Hort. Mal. i., t. 42.
_ Hab.—Hotter parts of India. The root.
2 Pernacular—Pindéra, Témri, Bhilaura (Zind.), Pitdh
Soa Pitéri, Sivani (Mar.), Két-kumbla (Cav.), Kéneht

nee se spe adel

EUPHORDIACE Z. 295

History, Uses, Biren This tree bears the Sanskrit
‘names of Pindara, Karahéta, and Kurangaka. It is described
in the Nighantas as sweet and cooling, useful for the removal of -
swellings, bile and phlegm; the root is prescribed in gouty or
rheumatic affections. Rheede describes the plant under the
name of Canschi, and states that the root in decoction is used
to relieve flatulence, and is applied locally in gout.
Description.—The root has a thickish bark, which is.
light-brown colour externally, nearly smooth, and studded
here and there with a few small lenticular corky worts. On
ibbing off the thin brown suberous layer a dull-red surface is
exposed. The bark is fibrous and tough, and has a subaromatic,
astringent and slightly bitter taste. ‘he wood is white and
soft.
Chemical composition.—The fresh root-bark was contused and
exhausted with 80 per cent. alcohol; the alcoholic extract
mixed with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and agitated
successively with petroleum ether, and ether; then rendered
alkaline with sodic carbonate and agitated first with ether and
lastly with amylic alcohol.
_ During agitation with petroleum ether a large amount of

acid and ether, it was separated into two portions, a portion
luble in ether, which Seed the ee part of the

_ The acid ether extract was small in amount, partly soluble
in water with acid reaction; the solution giving a blue-black
_ coloration with ferric chloride, and precipitating gelatine, but
_ giving no reaction with potassium cyanide. On adding
_ ammonia to the ether extract, a yellow to brown sherry colour
_was produced. The ammoniacal solution was agitated with
ether, which removed a small amount of whitish resinous —

296 EUPHORBIACEZL.

matter, insoluble in water and containing no alkaloidal principle, _
The ammoniacal solution contained resinous matter.

The alkaline ether extract contained traces cf an alkaloid,
which, after purification, gave a very faint-yellow coloration
- with Fréhde’s reagent in the cold, the colour becoming faintly
greenish on warming; concentrated nitric acid gave a —
yellow coloration.

The amylic alcohol extract contained some resinous matter,
and an alkaloidal principle in larger amount than was present
in the ether extract, but which we consider to be- identical.

The resinous matter which separated on originally shaking»
the aleoholic extract with petroleum ether, and which was
insoluble in it, also failed to dissolve in ether; it was also
insoluble in aqueous sodic carbonate, and had the properties of
phlobaphene.

MALLOTUS PHILLIPPINENSIS, Miill-Arg.
Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t. 236; Bedd. Fi. Sylv.,t. 2895

Roxb. Cor, Pi. ii., t. 168; Rheede, Hort. Mal. v., 21, 24.

- Hab.—Throughout Tropical India. The glands and

leaves.
Vernacular.—Kapéla, Kamala (Hind.), Kamila (Beng. )y

Kapila, Kapita, Kamila (Mar.), Vasdré, Chandrahittu (Can. ),

K4mpilla (Guz.), Kapli, Kapila (Tam.), K4pila-pod (Te/.).

History, Uses, &c.—The glandular powder obtained —
_ from this plant has bee used as a dye in India from a very
‘remote period. It was probably collected, as at the present
time, by the aboriginal tribes, who call it Rudin, before the
a invaded India. In Sanskrit it is known as Kampilla,
and bears the synonyms of Rochanika, Rochana-rakta and

_ Lohita-rakta, in allusion to its red colour. In the Nighantas
‘itis described as useful in removing phlegm, bile, stone, worms,

. enlarged glands, boils, &c., and the leaves are said to be
— astringent and cooling. In the Bhavaprakasa one tola with —
treacle is enid to to kill an Sapa oll 3 intestinal worms. It

RUPHRORBIACEE. oe

also prescribed for worms in combination with the seeds
of Embelia Ribes (vaverang), chebulic myrobalans, carbonate
of potash, and rock salt. (Chakradatta.) The Arabs became
acquainted with Kampilla at an early date, and through them
it appears to have reached Europe, and to have been known to
the later Greek physicians about the 7th century. Ibn
Massowiyeh, physician to the Caliph Haroon-el-Raschid, speaks
it as highly astringent, a good anthelmintic, and a useful
application to moist eruptions of the skin, which it soon dries
up. It is also mentioned by Razi, Tamimi, Baghdédi, Ibn
Sina, Ibn Baitar and others, all of whom appear to have been
in much doubt as to its nature, but distinguish it from Wars,
_ a product of Arabia, the source of which they were acquainted
_ with. Ibn Sina says of Kanb{l:—‘“ It is in grains like sand,
red, but less so than Wars, hot and dry in the third degree ;
_ Ibn Massowiyeh considers to be highly astringent; it kills
worms and flukes of the intestines and expels them.” Of
Wars, he says :—‘‘It is a substance like powdered saffron, of an
_ intense red colour (,.i45 +=!), brought for sale from Yemen ;
_ they say that it is scraped from a plant; it is hot and dry in
_ the third degree, astringent ; a useful application to pimples,
freckles, &c.”’ (A number of skin eruptions.are named, the exact
nature of which is doubtful.)
The author of the Makhzan, who wrote in India (1770), is
strangely ignorant of the source of this drug. He says:—
“Kinbfl is an Arabic form of the Persian Kampilla and Hindi
Kamila”; he then recapitulates the various opinions held
as to the source of the drug, and concludes by saying :
“T have heard that it is the pulp of the fruit of a mountain-
tree like the Ma’asfar, but its leaves are rather larger, and it is
armed with tong stiff thorns, and has fruit like a lime, which
_ is green when young and red when ripe; when ripe it bursts
open and a dull-red substance escapes and falls on the ground:
this is collected, and is Kinbil.” Regarding its properties, he
says that in doses of from 1 to 2 dirhems rubbed into an
emulsion with any suitable vehicle it expels all kinds of intes- :
tinal worms, and at the same time acts as a purgative.
IfL.—38

298 EUPHORBIACEZA.

‘of Wars, the same author says that there is a black kind, which
comes from Ethiopia, and is called ‘ Hadshi,’ and a dull-red
kind which is called Indian, and is the worst (as a dye); he
concludes by saying the seeds of the Wars are like Mash
(Phaseolus radiatus). There is no mention of its use as al
anthelmintic; it is described as an aphrodisiac, lithontriptic,
and remedy for ringworm, pityriasis and freckles. Sprengel
thought that the source of Wars was Memecylon tinctorium.
(Confer. Hist, Med., t. IL., p. 444, ed. tert.; also Hist. ree
Herb., t. 1., p. 258.) E

Rheede first figured and described the plant; he states that
the leaves, fruit and root with honey are applied to poisoned —
bites, bruises, &. Buchanan (Journey through Mysore in 1801)
notices Kamila ; it has also been noticed by Ainslie, Roxburgh,
and Royle, but Mackinnon of Bengal, in 1858, was the first to
introduce it into European practice in India ; since then it has
been used with success by many medical men in India and
Europe. Previous to this, Vaughan had sent Kamala to Hanbury
from Aden under the name of Wars, and had described its use
asa dye, and asa remedy in certain skin diseases. (Pharm.
— Journ., Vol. xii., p. 886, 1853.) The true Arabian Wars does
not appear to have attracted attention in Europe until 1867,
when it was imported by Messrs. Allen and Hanburys of
London. The source of Wars remained unknown until 1884,
_ when it was ascertained to be the glands of the pod of Fleming’ =
Grahamiana, a leguminous plant common in Arabia and
India. (See Flemingia.)

ie totived “in: the Phar. macographia, the names Kanbil
dnd Kaméla are not in use in the bazars at Aden; the
Indian Kaméla being now commonly known there as Wars.
“The dose of Kamila is from one to two drachms, or one to
three fluid drachms of a saturated tincture may be employes ho
it does not cause much hausea, colic, or purging. The parasite
is generally discharged dead, and it appears to be equally
“efficacious in removing all kinds of worms. The dose s
be sinc several times + of ubout three hours.

_ Description.—Kamila is a red powder, which varies in
of colour, mixed with it are greenish-yellow fragments of

s admixture with water. Alcohol and ether dissolve a
Berable portion of it, and the solution i in water
a melon-like odour.

oscopie structure.—Each grain of Kaméla is a spherical
onsisting of an outer delicate membrane within which
r be seen a structureless mass of yellow colour, in which are

< ends outwards; in order to examine fess cells the drug
st be exhausted of its resin by alcohol or potash. The
irs which are found mixed with the glands are stellate, each
hair being one-celled and thick-walled.

Ohemical composition.—Pure Kamala contains only between *d
3°5 per cent. of moisture, and yields to ether, alcohol, amyl
hol, glacial acetic acid, or carbon disulphide, about 80 per
mnt. of resin, which is also soluble in alkalies, but not in benzine,
ad whose alcoholic solution is coloured dingy-green by ferric
hloride, (Flickiger.) Leube (1860) analyzed a sample of Kamala
ch yielded nearly 29 per cent. of ash, 47°6 of resin, and
of other soluble matters, consisting of citric, oxalic, and
nic acids, gums, &c. Cold alcohol dissolved a resin,

C*H!205, melting at 191°C. Both resins are brittle,
h-yellow, soluble in alkalies with a red colour, not altered
ute acids, and when treated with nitric acid yield oxalic
Leube could not obtain Anderson’s Rottlerin, C'!H'!°Q3
H?°0° (1855), which crystallized from the concentrated
al tincture in yellow silky needles. Groves (1872)
rtained that it is easily modified by .exposure to air,
is consequently obtained only from the recent drug.
Fliickiger subsequently observed that on being fused with
potassa, rottlerin yields paraowybenzoic acid. Anderson’s resinous

easily soluble in alcohol and ether, and yields with lead acetate c

- EUPHORBIACEZi, 299

dded numerous club-shaped cells, arranged with their

Sele of the plant ; like lycopodium it is inflammable and _

?

1sT1804, fusible at 80°C., and left a more sparingly soluble ;

louring matter has the compositiom C5°H*°0’, melts at 100° C., ae

300 EUP ACR A

an orange-coloured precipitate. By treating Kaméla with boil-
ing alcohol, and cooling, amorphous floccules of the composition
C*°H>40* are obtained, which are sparingly soluble in cold
alcohol and ether, and are not precipitated bv lead or silver
salts. (National Dispensatory.)

Messrs. A. G. Perkin and W. H. Perkin, Junr.(Berichte, 1886),
have recently separated from Kamala a substance which they
name Mallotorin, C'.H}°O? or C!®H'605, It was obtained
by shaking powdered Kamala with bisulphide of carbon,
evaporating the solution, and treating the residue with just
enough bisulphide of carbon to remove the resinous impurities.
It was finally purified by crystallization from benzine oF
toluene. It formed small flesh-coloured needles, soluble in
alkalies, aleohol and acetic acid, but insoluble in water. It
appears to be identical with the rottlerin of Anderson. Later
still, L. Jarvein (Ber., xx., 182) obtained a yellow crystalline
substance from Kaméla, melting at 200°, to which he gave the
same name and formula as Anderson’s rottlerin.

The bark of this tree is astringent, and Professor Hummel
found it to contain 6°5 per cent. of tannin.

Carefully selected, Kaméla, according to P. Siedler, will not
contain more than 1°5 per cent. of ash, whilst the commercial
article yields from 21°8 to 49-1 per cent. By sifting, fractions
may be obtained containing as low as 5-2 and as high as 25 pet
cent. High percentage of mineral matter may be due to careless
collection, or to adulteration ; in the latter case, the ash may
range from 50 to 80 per cent. The percentage of ash has notably
increased of late, and by sifting it is often impossible to get the
drug containing less than 14 per cent. of ash. Of 45 samples
examined by the author, only three contained less than 6 pet
cent. (Pharm. Zeitg., 1891, 162.)

Commerce.—Kaméla is collected in the N.-W. Provinces, the
Concan and Madras, and is distinguished by the collectors a5 ©
two qualities, Kapila and Kapili; the latter is the best, and is
obtained by shaking the fruit only in a basket to separate the
glands. Kapila consists of the glands and other parts of the

plant, and has a greenish tinge. The collection of the drug is
industry of the hill Khonds in Ganjam, who sell a few
measures for a few measures of rice or a yard of cloth.

_ The average value of the best red Kaméla is Rs. 11 per
maund of 41 lbs. The high winds laden with dust, which often
prevail in India, cause a certain amount of impurity in the drug
from the adherence of dust to the capsules and leaves of the
Native dealers test the drug by taking it up on the
moistened finger and rubbing it firmly upon a piece of white
per; if of good quality, a smooth paste is formed and the
paper is stained of a bright-yellow colour.

RICINUS COMMUNIS, Linn.

Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t. 237; Sibth. Fl. Gree. x., t. 952 ;
Hayne, Arneigew. x., t. 48; Rheede, Hort, Mal. ii., t. 32. Castor
plant (Hxg.), Ricin commun (F’r.).

_ Hab.—Africa P Cultivated throughout India. The leaves,
seeds, root, and oil.

_-~Vernacular.—Arandi (Hind.), Erandi (Mar.), Bherenda
a (Beng.), Amanakkam-chedi (Tam.), Amudapu-chettu (Te.),
_ Avanakku (Mal.), Karala-gida (Can.), Erando (Guwz.).

2 History, Uses, &c.—The Castor plant is called in
: Sanskrit Eranda, Ruvu, Ruvuka and Uruvuka, and the red
_ variety Raktairanda; the root and the oil obtained from the
__ seeds have been used medicinally by the Hindus from a very
remote period, and are mentioned by Susruta.

Both root and oil are described as purgative and useful in
costiveness, flatulence, rheumatism, fever and inflammatory
affections; on account of its efficacy in rheumatism the plan
bears the synonym of Vatéri (vdta-dri). As a purgative the
oil is directed to be taken with cow’s urine or an infusion of
ginger or the decoction of the ten roots known as dasamula (see
‘Vol. I., p. 248). The seeds freed from the husks and germs, and

boiled in milk and water, form a decoction which is given in
_ rheumatism; a decoction of the root with carbonate of potash

Fea et ee) ey et eye
ae :

309 EUP. ACER

is also prescribed, and most compound medicines given in
rheumatic and neuralgic affections contain the root. The leaves
are applied to the breast to stop the secretion of milk, and,
boiled with the root in goat’s milk and water, they are used
as a local application in ophthalmia. When applied to the
abdomen they are popularly thought to promote the menstrual
flow; in Govardhana (203), the halikavadhu, or “ peasant
woman,” is represented as lying in pain upon the leaves of the
Eranda.

In the proverbial language of the Indians the Castor plant is

emblematic of frailty ; they say :—Naukri arand ki jar hai (ser-

vice is like the root of the Castor plant). The Arabs appear to
have first become acquainted with the tree in India, as they
call the seeds Simsim-el-hindi, “Indian Sesamum,’’ and the
plant Khirvaa (¢ 5»), a word which signifies any weak or

frail plant; the properties they attribute to it are also those

mentioned by Sanskrit writers. Again, in the Saptasataka of
Hila, we find the large and swelling breasts of the peasant
girl likened to the Eranda leaf, and in Arabic we have the
expression é©) 4 31,<! applied to a beautiful and tender gitl.

R. communis is the Bidanjir and Kinnatu of the Persians ; it
also bears various local names, such as Gerchak in the Shahpur
District, and Buzanjir, “goat’s fig,” in Khorasan.

Aitchison notices its cultivation round the borders of fields
in the latter province, and in the Harirud District, for the sake
of the oil which is used asa lamp oil, and says that the peasantry
are unacquainted with its purgative properties. The plant was
cultivated in Southern Europe at a very early date; it is the
xixe of Herodotus, the «pérev of Theophrastus (H.P.i.,16 ; C.P. ii.),
and the «ike or xpérov of Dioscorides (iv., 155), who observes
that the name «pirey is given to the seed on account of its
resemblance to an insect known by that name (Ixodes Ricinus,
Latr.). He also notices Castor oil and its medicinal use. It
is the Ricinus or Cicus of Pliny (15, 7), ‘a tree which grows
in Egypt in great abundance ; by some it is known as croton,
by others as sili, an ther oenin, as wild sesamum : it is

ee
eh ae a ee ee

EUPHORBIACEM. 303

not so very long since this tree was first introduced here,
Eaten with food the oil is repulsive, but it is very useful for
’ burning in lamps.”

The Jews and Abyssinian Christians say that it was under
this tree that Jonah sat, but in the English version the Hebrew
word * Kikajon” is translated “gourd.” For a history of the
plant in Europe, the Pharmacographia may be consulted.
-Mahometan medical writers describe two kinds, red and
white: the red is said to be the most active. They consider —
_ the oil a powerful resolvent and purgative of cold humors, and
_ prescribe itin palsy, asthma, colds, colic, flatulence, rheumatism,
dropsy and amenorrhea ; of the seeds, 10 kernels rubbed down
with honey are sufficient as a purge. A poultice of the
crushed seeds is used to reduce gouty and rheumatic swellings,
and inflammation of the breasts of women during lactation.
The leaves have similar properties, but in a less degree. The
fresh juice is used as an emetic in poisoning by opium and
other narcotics; made into a poultice with barley meal it is
applied to inflammatory affections of the eye. The root-bark
is used as a purgative and alterative in chronic enlargements
and skin diseases ; it is also applied externally.

In modern medicine Castor oil is much valued as a non-irritant
purgative ; a drop is sometimes dropped into the eye to allay
irritation, and, strange to say, the leaves are applied locally in
_ Europe to promote the secretion of milk, whereas in India the
native practice of applying them to stop the secretion of milk
is recognised in the Government hospitals under European
_ superintendence. A fluid extract of the leaves has also been
_ recommended in Europe asa lactagogue. As a purgative the
oil is best administered in the;early morning on an empty
stomach, when about one drachm will usually be found sufficient,
at other times at least half an ounce will be required. Various
fluids have been recommended to conceal the taste of the oil,
such as brandy, peppermint water, &c., but the decoction of fresh
ginger, as used in India, is, we think, the best vehicle.. The.
above remarks apply to cold drawn oil; the bazar oil extracted _

pepe Se or oy ne ee Pe eee a Se eee Ser eT 7 Po SS TSS Oe a eee nny Ce, Set es fe ame tC Se eta

304 EUPHORBIACEA.

by boiling is more active, and, as it is not always carefully
prepared, it may contain the acrid principle of the seed and —
give rise to disagreeable symptoms. The alleged antirheumatic —
properties of the plant so insisted upon by Hindu and Maho-

metan physicians are worthy of being tested by careful clinical —
observation.

_ M. H. Meyer (Pharm. Zeitsch. f. Russland, xxx., p. 282, —
1891), in order to decide the question as to the purgative
properties of ricinoleic acid, prepared that substance perfectly
pure, also its glyceride, and ricinelaidic acid. All these
preparations were administered to cats, and acted as purgatives.
The author concludes that there is no reason to suppose that
Castor oil contains any purgative principle other than — :
ricinoleic acid.

Dr. H. Stillmark has discovered in the seeds an albuminoid
body which he has named “ Ricin.” This, however, does nob
appear to be the purgative principle. Its action, whether given e
by the mouth or hypodermically, is to produce hemorrhagic ~
inflammation of the gastro-intestinal tract, affecting primarily
the small intestines, and probably obstructing the bile duct,
since there is usually extreme fullness of the gall bladder; the
inflammation also extends to the vesical mucous membrane.
Diarrhea is by no means constant. The drowsiness and
convulsions which occurred in some of his experiments on
animals he attributes to possible thrombosis of the cerebral
vessels. The lethal dose of ricin for man he calculates to be
6-0 milligrams for a man weighing 60 kilograms, this generally
being equal to about ten ordinary seeds, although Christison —
once had a fatal case, where only three seeds had been swallowed,
and, on the other hand, a case is on record in whicha persoB
who had eaten 17 seeds, recovered.

Ricin appears to have a peculiar effect upon blood, causing
a rapid conglomeration of the red corpuscules, together with
the formation of a substance like fibrin. One part of ricin to
60,000 of defibrinated blood is sufficient to cause a separation of
the serum, so that the latter is capable of being passed through

BUPHORBIACEZ. oo ee

afilter. Crotonoleic acid, which exists in croton seeds, was
found to be quite distinct from ricin.

- The results obtained by Dr. Stillmark find further confirma-
tion in a note in the Medical Recorder (July, p. 299), in which
is stated that fifteen children, under six years of age, poisoned
by eating castor seeds, suffered from severe vomiting
prostration, but not from catharsis.

- Ehriich (Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., No. 32, p. 976, 1891)
reports some interesting experiments with ricin. He found

three milligrams per kilo of body-weight ; taken internally it
is a hundred times less active, but still so poisonous that 0°18
gram is a fatal dose for an adult man. He found different
animals to be unequally affected by it; guinea pigs were
especially susceptible to the poison, but white mice much less
so. The symptoms were diarrhoea and prostration: on post-

hemorrhagic condition of the intestines and often of the
subcutaneous cellular tissue.

_ Ehrlich also succeeded in rendering animals insusceptible
to the poison by administering gradually increasing doses
internally : at the end of two months of this treatment he found
that mice could bear a dose of 5 decigrams of ricin (sufficient
to kill an adult man), the fatal dose for an unprotected mouse
being 35 milligrams.

The immunity obtained was still more marked in experiments

inflammation, but after several weeks of protective treatment
the strongest solution could be freely applied without producing
any effect.

The establishment of the immunity appears to commence
suddenly on the sixth day, and continues to increase from that

IIl.—39

time. The author insists upon the similarity between Et ]

306 ‘EBUPHORBIACE &.

sudden immunity and the critical subsidence of fever in certain
acute diseases, such as pneumonia, measles, &c., which he
considers may also be regarded as indicating the establishment
of an immunity in those diseases.

Animals in which an immunity to the ricin poison had been
established, were found, six months after the cessation of all
treatment, to be incapable of being affected by the poison-
Ehrlich has also made similar experiments with abrin, the
active principle of Abrus precatorius, which he reserves for
early publication.

Description.—There are many varieties of the plant
which have been produced by cultivation; they may be divided
into the large red-seeded kinds, and those with grey seeds
marked with brown blotches; the latter are preferred for
medicinal use.

The roots are tolerably straight, and give off a few rootlets ; ao

they are covered by a light-brown bark, nearly smooth, but
marked with little transverse warty ridges. The wood is white
and soft. The bark has an acrid taste. :
The seeds are contained in a tricoccous capsule, one in each
cell; they are oblong, from } to 4 an inch long and about 3 of
an inch broad, the dorsal surface is more arched than the
ventral. The apex is somewhat pointed, below it is a tumt
earuncula, on the removal of which a dark depressed cicatrix is
seen. The testa is grey, marked with brown blotches. The
kernel is enclosed in a delicate white membrane, and consists of
a@ copious white albumen, in the axis of which are situated two

leafy cotyledons and a short stout radicle. x

Microscopic structure.—The epidermis of the seeds is com-

posed of tabular cells, which are here and there coloured in

patches which correspond to the spots on the seed. The testa
consists of cylindrical cells in close apposition. The kernel
is a mass of closely-packed cells with granular contents, but if
ng oo in contact with the section, oil globules separate
rom

albumen. In the latter may be demonstrated the 2

Lehrbuch der Botanik, p.554.) The root-bark shows numerous
ells filled with a yellow refractive substance which appears to
be resinous; in other respects it is not remarkable.

Chemical composition.—The most important constituent of

els afford at most half of their weight.

xe authors of the Pharmacographia say :—

“The castor oil of commerce has asp. gr. of about 0°96, usually
a pale yellow tint, a viscid consistence, and a very slight yet
rather mawkish odour and taste. Exposed to cold, it dees not
in general entirely solidify until the temperature reaches —18°C.
In thin layers it dries up to a varnish-like film.

_ proportions with glacial acetic acid or absolute alcohol. It is
even soluble in four parts of spirit of wine (*838) at 15° C., and
mixes without turbidity with an equal weight of the same
solvent at 25° ©. The commercial varieties of the oil,
however, differ considerably in these as well as in some other

ni The optical properties of the oil demand further investiga-
tion, as we have found that some samples deviate the ray of
polarized light to the right and others to the left.

“By saponification, castor oil yields several fatty acids, one
of which appears to be Palmitie Acid. Another acid (peculiar
to the oil) is Ricinolete Acid, C’*H**O*; it is solid below
0°C.; does not solidify in contact with the air by absorption
of oxygen, and is not homologous with oleic or linoleic acid,
neither of which is found in castor oil. Castor oil is never-
theless thickened, if 6 parts of it are warmed with 1 part of
starch and 5 of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1°25), Ricinelaidin being
thus formed. From this, Rivinelaidic Acid may easily be
obtained in brilliant crystals, : i

“As to the albuminoid matter of the seeds, Fleury (1865)

EUPHORBIACEH. 30"

Aleurone crystals which are found in many seeds, (Sachs .

the seeds is the fixed oil called castor oil, of which the peeled —

“Castor oil is distinguished by its power of mixing in all ;

‘

obtained 3-23 per cent, of nitrogen, which would answer to

308 EUPHORBIACEZ..

about 20 per cent. of such substances. The same chemist | j

further extracted 46-6 per cent. of fixed oil, 2:2 of sugar and
mucilage, besides 18 per cent. of cellulose.

“Tuson, in 1864, by exhausting castor oil seeds with boiling
water, obtained from them an alkaloid which henamed Ricininé.
He states that it crystallizes in rectangular prisms and tables,
which ,when heated, fuse, and, upon cooling, solidify asa
erystalline mass; the crystals may even be sublimed. Ricinine
dissolves readily in water or alcohol, less freely im ether or

benzol. With mercuric chloride, it combines to form tufts of

silky crystals, soluble in water or alcohol, Werner (1869), om
repeating Tuson’s process on 80 Ibs. of Italian castor oil seeds,
also obtained a crop of crystals, which in appearance and
solubility had many of the characters ascribed to ricinine, but
differed in the essential point that when incinerated they left a

residuum of magnesia. Werner regarded them as the mag-—

nesium salt of a new acid. Tuson repudiates the suspicion that
-ricinine may be identical with Werner’s magnestum compound.
E.S. Wayne of Cincinnati (1874) found in the leaves af
Ricinus a substance apparently identical with Tuson’s ricinine ;
but he considers that it has no claim to be called an alkaloid.
“The testa of castor oil seeds afforded us 10-7 per cent. of

ash, one-tenth of which we found to consist of silica. The ash |

of the kernel previously dried at 100°C., amounts to only 3°
per cent.” (Qp. cit., 2nd Ed., p. 569.)
_ K, Hazura and A. Griissner (Moniteur Scient., Ap. 1889)
infer from their experiments that the liquid acid of castor oil
_ is not a single compound, as has been hitherto supposed, but a
mixture of two isomeric acids of the composition C18H*0%,
one of which, ricinoleic acid, yields on oxidation trioxystearic
acid, whilst the other, ricinisoleic acid, yields isotrioxysteari©
acid. The proportion of these acids is about 1 of the former to
pbs Proliant er no dioxystearic acid has been obtained
on . . » Ye
escalate aN Riggs enya ci oneal
_is the only one which contains no oleine, _

fatty oils hitherto examined, castor -
} bere

EUPHORBIACE. 309

_ The leaves, stem, and root of R. communis contain the same
active principles as the seeds; a proximate analysis by A. L.
— Beck (Amer. Journ. Pharm., 1888) gave the following
results :—

| Leaves. Stem, | Root.
Extracted by petroleum spirit 4°582 0-275 0:380
»» ether 2°575 0:316 0°338
is i, oie 2°490 0°833 aebvce
yy m 12°699 -|. - vedewn ofrogeeeme .
ms “ diluted ay: eae 1°200° | | uses PS ee
“4 _” ig Bree ee 2193 6] a ta ee
Loss by chlor 5:4dQ (| rédstee = | Fee
Residues, act OCs seen sevboeces ausnesl COO OO) ke bhesaa FL sens
Ash 11220 5466 7°050
Moisture 12°700 6°100 7083
Loss Wek Cie. 2 eee

The poisonous principle present in castor oil seeds has been
variously represented as an alkaloid, a_ glucoside, and an
organic acid. But as the result of an exhaustive chemical and
pharmacological investigation, recorded in a lengthy treatise
( Arbeit. d. Pharmakol. Inst. Dorpat, Part III., p. 59), Herr Still-
mark has come to the conclusion that it is an albuminoid body,
identical with the “ B. phytalbumose,” separated from the
dried juice of Carica Papaya by Sidney Martin, and belonging
to the class of unformed ferments. This substance, which he
has named “ricin,’” may be prepared by exhausting well-
pressed peeled Ricinus seeds, reduced to epee with a 10 Per
cent. solution of sodium chloride, saturating the clear j at
the ordinary temperature with magnesium sulphate and sodium
sulphate, and keeping it in a cool place, when, besides large
crystals of the two sulphates, a white precipitate, easily separable
from these, is formed. This is placed in a dialyser, with
frequent changes of water, for six days, after which the residue
is removed and dried over sulphuric acid, and can then be
reduced to a snow-white powder, which still contains 10 to 20
per cent. of sulphate. This substance is a most powerful poison,

310 EUPHORBIACE.

exercising a remarkable power of coagulation, so that the blood

coming into contact with a minute quantity that has been

absorbed is coagulated, blocks the lumina of the intestinal
capillaries, and causes thrombosis and ecchymosis. Even when
introduced subcutaneously, the principal action of the poison
appears to occur in the intestinal canal, and not at the place of
injection. The lethal dose for a man weighing sixty kilograms
is estimated as 0°18 gram, and it is stated tHat this quantity is
contained in the press-cake from 3 grams of peeled seeds, In
view of this fact, that the residue from the pressing of castor
oil contains such large quantities of a tasteless poison exceeding
arsenic in toxic power, and at present not to be detected in
the body by any known method, Herr Stillmark raises the
question, whether it should not be made compulsory upon
manufacturers to burn the cake, or render it harmless by 4
process of boiling that would destroy the ferment. Experiments
were also made upon the seeds of nine other species of Ricinus,
as well as those of Croton Tiglium and Jatropha Curcas, and in
each case a poisonous albuminoid substance was separa
similar to, if not identical with, ricin, and belonging to the
class of ferments, It is pointed out by the author that the
coagulating power of ricin explains the external application
in some countries of crushed Ricinus seeds as a haemostatic.
(Pharm. Journ., Nov. 2nd, 1889.)

Commerce.—Several varieties of the castor plant are cultivate
ed in India: they may be divided into large-seeded and small-
seeded. The seeds of the latter variety only are exported,
those of the former being used in India for the preparation

of an inferior kind of oil which is used for lubricating

a. iohined ye,

The exports of seed from 1885-86 to 1888-89 were :—

1885-86 ...... 34,000 tons, valued at 30 lakhs of Rupees.
- 1886-87 . eee 3l ,000 29

1887-88 teens 36 ,000 » 2? 34 » 3>
1688-80 W000 i

_ Most of the castor seed goes to Italy,

*

-

BUPHORBIACES. 811

The exports | ot oil, mostly from Bengal, during the same

ee ” ” ” ” ” ”
888-89...2°7 ce) : ” ” 26 93 3%)

BALIOSPERMUM AXILLARE, Blume.
3 Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 1885; Rheede, Hort. Mal. z., t. 76.
~Hab.—Tropical and Subtropical Himalaya. Deccan

Peninsula. The root and seeds.

Vernacular.—Danti (Hind., Beng.,Mar.,Gus. sogsinshiaee =
(Tel.), N4ga-danti (Tam., Ma/.).

_ History, Uses, &c.—This plant, in Sanskrit Danti,
Nag4danti or Danta-mulika, with numerous synonyms, such
as Upachitra, Makulaka, &c., is much used in Hindu medicine
where purgation is indicated, the root being generally prescribed.
_ The seeds (Danti-vija) are also used, and are sometimes sold in the
shops as croton seeds. The following formula from Chakradatta

_ will show how the root is prescribed :—

~~ § Danti haritaki.—Take 25 large chebulic myrobalans and
enclose them ina piece of cloth, then take of the roots of
Baliospermum axillare and Ipomea Turpethum, each 200 tolas,
water 64 seers, boil them together till the water is reduced to
8 seers. Strain the decoction, take out the chebulic myrobalans
and fry them in 32 tolas of sesamum oil. To the strained
decoction add 200 tolas of old treacle, then boil till reduced to
the proper consistence for a confection. Now add to the mass
the following substances : powdered root of Ipomea Turpethum

32 tolas, long pepper and ginger, each 8 tolds, and stir them _

312 EUPHORBIACEZ.

well; when cool, add 32 tolas of honey ; cinnamon, cardamoms, d

tejpat leaves, and the flowers of Mesua ferrea, each 8 tolas, and
prepare a confection. The chebulic myrobalans should be kept
embedded in the medicine. ‘Two tolas of the confection and
one of the myrobalans are to be taken every morning.”

A more. simple formula from the Bhavaprakasa is the
Gudéshtaka. Take of danti, trivrit (Ipomea Turpethum), and
plumbago root, black pepper, ginger and long pepper root,
equal parts in fine powder; treacle, equal in weight to all the

other ingredients, and mix. Dose about a tola every morning, —

in flatulence, anasarca, jaundice, &c.

Rheede says of Danti:—Folia, radix atque fructus, tanta
purgandi pollent energia, ut solus odor catharsin excitet: folia
extrinsice applicata articulari medentur morbo.”

Roxburgh remarks :—“ The seeds are esteemed by the natives
a good purgative ; they administer one seed bruised up with water

for every evacuation they wish the patient to have. There ©

would appear to be little doubt that the seeds of this plant were

the original Dand of the Arabian physicians, but were sub-
sequently superseded by those of Croton Tiglium, as has been the
case in India.

Description.— Roots nearly straight, seldom branched,
about as thick as the finger; bark brown, scabrous; wood yellow-
ish-white, soft and tough. The outer layer of the bark consists
of several rows of brick-shaped brown cells, mostly empty, but
some of them containing a dark reddish-brown resin ; within this
the parenchyma is so loaded with conglomerate raphides that
its structure is with difficulty seen ; it has many cells filled with

resin as in the suber, and very numerous yellow liber cells.

The wood is loaded with starch.

The seeds weigh about one and a half grains each, and are
exactly similar to very small castor seeds.

Commerce.—The seeds are no longer found in the bazars,
having been superseded by the imported croton seeds; the root
is also difficult to obtain, that sold in the shops us Danti-mul

being usually the root of Ricinus communis.

A
: HISTORY 4
THE PRINCIPAL DR
OF VEGETABLE ORIGIN

BRLIISH INDEA,

BY ,
WILLIAM DYMOCK,
BRIGADE-SURGEON, RETIRED,

"LATE PRINCIPAL MEDICAL STOREKEEPER TO GOVERNMENT,

PC. J. H. WARDEN, DAVID HOO! E
SURGEON-MaJOR, BENGAL ARMY, QUINOLOGIST TO THE Gol
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN AND MENT OF MADRAB, e
THE CALCUTTA MEDICAL = ;
COLLEGE, |

OOTACAMUND.
We; Bot. Garden,

PAK? Vi.

Zonvon: KEGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co, Lp.
Bombay :—EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS, BYCULLA.
Galeutta:—THACKER, SPINK & Co.

PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA.

A
HISTORY
THE PRINCIPAL DRUGS
OF VEGETABLE ORIGIN

BRITISH INDIA,

a

WILLIAM-.DYMOCK,
BRIGADE-SURGEON, RETIRED,

LATE PRINCIPAL MEDICAL STOREKEEPER TO GOVERNMENT,

). J. H. WARDEN, © DAVID HOOPER,
: re GEON-MAJOR, BENGAL ARMY, QUINOLOGIST TO THE GOVERN-
MENT oF MADRAS,

OOTACAMUND.
COLLEGE,

PART Vi.

“Zouvon:—KEGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Lp.
pmbay EDUCATION SOCIETY’S PRESS, BYCULLA. —
tta: THACKER, SPINK & Co.

1893.

Fak

“PRINTED AT THE EDUCATION 5

ae » tah

ray hr cong ey Sr

Dr. William Dymork.

issuing the sixth part of the “ Pharmacographia Indica,”
with much regret we have to announce the death of the

d was educated first at. Bristol, then at Rugby, and after-
wards at Oxford where he took a B.A. degree. After a course
_of medical studies, he became M.R.C.'S. Eng., he then joined
the Indian Medical Service, and was appointed to the Bombay
residency in 1857. He saw active service during the Mutiny
“with the Kathiawar Field Force against the Wagheers, and was
present at the capture of Dantal Hill. For two years he was

England he was appointed in 187 1 to be Principal of ne
Medical Store Department, ee and in this capacity he

He largely increased the local manufacture of galenical pre-
garations, and introduced modern and improved machinery in
the Depét laboratory. For his skilful and efficient manage-
ment he was thanked by Government on three separate
occasions. Dr. Dymock was proficient in Arabic, Persian,
mskrit, Hindustani, Mahratti and Guzrati; he was familiar
sh Greek and Latin, and corresponded freely in F ench
German and Portuguese. He was a Fellow and I ne

author. This sad event, caused by influenza combined ae
h cystitis, took place on the 30th April 1892, at his re-
lence on Malabar Hill, Bombay, in the fifty-eighth year of
his age. William Dymock belonged to the west of England, —

ttac the Indian Navy, and visited the ports of the
Persian Gulf and the East African Coast. In 1868 he served

{

2

the University of Bombay, and being an eminent linguist he
was for many years a member of the Presidency Board for the
examination of officers in Oriental languages. Bombay being
the drug market of the East, he TR himself of the many
Gincslanitios of examining new and rare vegetable products,
and having a good knowledge of botany, he was often able to
identity dhs sources of the drugs. He was for some years
Professor of Materia Medica i in fie Grant Medical College, and,
as a teacher of this science, he was said not to have a rival aa
India.

Dr. Dymock’s literary contributions to the Pharmaceut
Journal commenced in 1875 with a paper on “ The Asafeti
das of the Bombay Market,” this was followed by others on
*“ Ammoniacum and Dorema Root,” “ Myrrh” and “Chaul-—
moogra Oil.” In 1876, the well-known “ Notes on Indian
Drugs ” first appeared, and were a feature of the Journal for
the next four years. Specimens of these drugs were at the

1888, and next year the first part of the ane ee
Indica” was issued. The greater responsibility of this wor
rested with him, and to it he gave his whole time until Ee total
illness compelled him to cease from his labours a few days —
re he died. The manuscript of the sixth part, as far as he
uld prepare it, was written, and he compiled an index and an

dix which will be printed as soon as possible.

4/t. Dymock was one of the founders of the Anthropologica
ys of ‘Bombay, and most actively supported the Society 2
<< Sevibens of member of the Council, President

ad Literary SeerMery... The ocho his
. India P

Anthropogonic Trees,” ‘On the Narcotics and Spices of the
ast,” “The Flowers of the Hindu Poets,” On the use of es
‘urmeric in Hindu Ceremonial and “On the use of Ganja
1d Bhang in the East.” He also read papers before the. S
abay Natural History Society and the Medical and Physical
He was honorary member of the Pharmaceutical and
learned societies. In 1887 he was awarded the Hanbury
Medal, for his researches in the natural history and
y of drugs.
a scientific investigator Dr. Dymock was thorough and
ientious; in his literary researches he was careful and
staking ; his disposition was kind and obliging. Although
man of varied and great talents he was of very retiring
habits, and had very few social acquaintances. His sub-
ordinates regarded him as a father, and his correspondents in
different parts of the world could always count upon a
“punctual and friendly reply to their enquiries. He was the
reatest pharmacognoscist in this country, and many besides
ourselves will mourn that such a useful career was so suddenly
rminated, ide

C. J. H. WARDEN.

bia delphinifolia ..,
edicularis pectinata we

BIGNONIACER,

hee ee

ACANTHACER.

phila spinosa eve
= a wo

Ecbolium Linneanum Poe

Adhatoda Vasica ... . ..,
Rhinacanthus communis ...
ee
Lippia nodifiora ie
Verbena officinalis ., iw a
allicarpa lanata .. Wad
Tectona grandis
Premna integrifolia re
». herbacea ... ‘
tomen oe
Gmelina arborea
Vitex Ne a a
» trifolia ee Bee
Agnus-castus wae
Olerodendron inerme
we infortunatum
es ne oe
35 oo
Avicennia officinalis
Ocimum basilicum... —..
vi gratissimum si...
9? be rae
Salvia plebeia sae we
“9D a5 ar
Coleus aromaticus st
lus carn .
Lavandula Steechas ma
2: eee oe .
‘0 mon parviflorus
Mentha sylvestris ...
arvensis ve
Aieromeria capitellata ‘
rigan mary} jorana eee
aceite w ipvviaaatin
Zataria multifiora ...
iziphora tenuior ..,
Melissa officinalis ..,
arrubium vulgare
Anisomeles malabarica
ucas aspera, &c.
Leonotis nepetefolia _

PLANTAGINES.

‘Plantago ovata .. a.
ms ed se chy

- Nycraginen.

Boerhaavia ms .., ise
Mablisdeaa

AMARANTACER,
Achyranthes aspera ae
Amarantus spinosus
ffrua javanica,

eee coe

ca ata
Celosia argentea .., ae

aN CHENOPODIACER.

130
ee 132 = Vise

CONTENTS.

PAGE THYMELMACE.

. 126 Aquilaria Agallocha we
Ly) 126 Malaccensis ...

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus ,.,

LORANTHACES.

album.
Toantna sp. sae ee

SANTALACER.
s636
. 138° Santalum album ... ate
ye 20d
weutee EUPHORBIACE2.
gag 408 tht
Euphorbia pilulifera ss...
ne thymifolia ...
» ‘Tirucalli ...
wiscd4] “ neriifolia a
» 143 is antiquorum ...
. 146 resinifera 2

Payllantivas 2 Emblica...
j ticulatus ...
te:

eset vs 2

arina equisetifolia ..,
CUPULIFERZ.

Betula utilis = ta

‘ Salix Caprea eos ooe
GNETACER.
Ex vulgaris .. iis
ia pachy: clada.
ConIFERm.

Juniperus communis __...
‘Taxus baccata we por

CycaDAcER

OxcHIDER.
campestris tos
macraei :
ghii te

.
wae

Canna indica

TRipEz.
Tris oe
TOCUS Sa’
Pasdanthus 0 es
AMARYLLIDER,

Curculigo So epigr
Crinum asiati

BRoMELIACE2R.
'Ananas sativa wes

CoMMELINACER.

Commelina bengalensis
Tradescantia axillaris

XYRIDER.

Xyris indica ie

cifer:
Borassus flabellif liformia
poetics ee

< alhte Beas
PANDANACER.
Pandanus odoratissimus ...
TYPHACER
Typha angustifolia ee
AROIDER,
Acorus Calamus
en officinalis
Alo ocasi ia indica
eam antiquo

morp. hophall ‘campansiatas
‘ ynanther

Se Lr
( metptood e spiralis
] icaria

CONTENTS,

PAGE

ve. 507

. 538

GRAMINER.

Andropogon Schcenanthus
re niger

lanig: re
i citratus tee
- Nardus *
an odoratus..,
a ite
Coix1 :
Era

agrostis eynosnrades és
Cynodon dactylon .. ies

a entaceum ...
Paspalum scrobiculatum ,..
Hygrorhiza aristata ca
Eleusine coracana .., fou
Sorghum saccharatum...

BBTA -ve0 fhe

Saccharum

Fiticss.
Polypodium vul vo
quenieulaeel
Adiantum venustum AP

es prc dss
falcatum tee
LicHENEs.

Parmelia mrscenmer
perla °

oon oo

Fonat.
Mylitta lapidesoens prs
Boletus val ae
Pol seer ; odie inalis oa

AIG.

2?

cornenm ... tes
Gracilaria lichenoides_ _...
Laminaria saccharina...

RUPHORBIACES. — 813

TRAGIA INVOLUCRATA, Linn.
Fig.—Burm. Zeyl., t. 92; Rheede, Hort. Mal. ii. t. 39;
cannabina, A. Juss. Tent. Euphorb., t. 15, 49 B.
Hab.—Thronghout India. The root.
Vernacular.—Barhanta (Hind.), Bichati (Beng.), Kanchuri, —
Karchkuri, Khajkolti (Mar.),- Dulaghondi Feb),

?

. Betory. ses. .. tie very variable plant, of which
varieties are described in the Flora of British India, is the
hik4li of the Raja Nirghanta, where it is said to bear the
name in Marathi and to be called Haligilu in Canarese. It
$ recommended in bilious fever, and as a diuretic and alterative.
theede says of it:—‘‘ Conducit in febre ossium, ac servit pro
pruritu corporis; in decocto data urinam suppressam movet.”
Ze also notices its use on the doctrine of signatures as a
emedy for the sting of the Ray fish.
Ea inalic (ii., 61 and 389) says :—‘‘ The root, which is sometimes
alled Coorundootievayr,’ has in its dried state but little taste or
, though in its more succulent condition it has a rather
sit odour ; it is considered as diaphoretic and alterative,
is prescribed in decoction, together with other articles of
e virtues, to correct the habit in cases of mayghim (cachexia),
in old venereal complaints, attended with anomalous
symptoms ; an infusion of it is also given as a drink in ardent
r, in the quantity of half a teacupful twice daily.”
n the Concan the roots of these plants are used to aid the
ti of Guinea-worm, a paste made from them being
lied to the part. A paste of the roots with Tulsi juice is
o used as a cure for itchy eruption of the skin. In Tanjore,
root is boiled with cow’s milk and taken at bedtime for dry
ough.
Description.—Shrubby, climbing, 4 to 5 feet high;
leaves petioled, 3-divided, serrate, hairy, 2 to 4 inches long ;
ipules half lanceolate; racemes erect, many-flowered ; male
wers humerous on the upper part of the Bee's very su
IIl.—40

314 EUPHORBIACE.

yellow, each with three bracts; female flowers beneath the
male, two on each raceme, with the calyx leaflets pinnatifid.
The plant stings like the nettle. For a description of its
varieties, the reader is referred to the Flora of British India.

EXCACARIA AGALLOCHA, Linn.

Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 1865 B; Rheede, Hort. Mal. v., t. 45,
Blinding tree, Tiger’s milk tree (Eng.), Arbre aveuglant (F’.).

Hab.—Tidal forests of India. The juice and cork.

Vernacular.—Gaoura, Uguru, Gangwa, Geria (Beng:), Chilla
(Zel.), Haro (Can.), Gevi, Phungali, Hura (Mar.), Tillai-cheddi

(Zam.).

History, Uses, &c.—This tree was named Agallocha by
the old botanists, from a supposition that a kind of Aloe-wood
was yielded by it; but Loureiro, speaking of EH. cochin-chinensis,
remarks, “nec agallochum, quamvis spurium, in illa inveneri.”
The wood is white, soft, and spongy, and has no aromatic pro- —
perties. All parts of the tree abound in an acrid milky juice,
which causes intense pain if it gets into the eyes; this juice 1s
said to be used in Australia and New Guinea to cure ulcers,
leprosy, &c. If collected it hardens into a kind of caoutchouc,
a grain or two of which is used by the boatmen on the Western
Coast of India as a purgative. Ainslie (ii., 438) states that @
decoction of the leaves is occasionally given by Hindu doctors
in epilepsy, in the quantity of a quarter of a teacupful twice

daily. This decoction is also used as an application to ulcers.
Smith (Zeon. Dict., 5) states that in Fiji the plant is employed
for the cure of leprosy, its mode of application being very
singular. The body of the patient is first rubbed with the greet
leaves ; he is then placed in a small room and bound hand and
foot, and 8 small fire is made of pieces of the wood, from which
rises @ thick smoke ; the patient is suspended over this fire, and
_ ‘Femains for some hours in the midst of the poisonous smoke,

enduring the most agonising torture and often fainting. When
thoroughly smoked, is removed, and the slime is scraped

EUPHORBIACEA. 315

from the body; he is then scarified and left to await the result,
which, if the patient survives, is said to be a cure.

From the lower part of the trunk and roots of this tree a soft,
light, reddish suber is obtained, which is sold by the itinerant
medicine men of Western India, under the name of Tejbul, as
an aphrodisiacal tonic. It occurs in irregular-shaped pieces
about half an inch thick, and often as large as the palm of the
hand, from which the epidermis has been removed by scraping

d trimming. The structure is that of coarse cork, the cells
being about six times the size of ordinary cork cells. This sub-
stance has a glistening appearance, and is always kept saturated
h water, so that on breaking it, it appears to be full of juice.

On some parts of the Coast it is said to be used for making
floats for fishing nets.

Description.—A small evergreen tree or shrub, growing
along with Rhizophora and Avicennia, and sometimes called the
“milky mangrove.” Leaves ovate, between fleshy and coria-
_ eeous, 2 to 4 inches, entire or sinuate crenate, pale brown when
dry, base acute or rounded; nerves many, very faint, sub-
horizontal; petiole $ to 1 inch. Flowers fragrant, male spikes
numerous, 1 to 2 inches; female racemes few, 4 to 1 inch,
Bracts of male spike with one flower and several minute
bractioles. Filaments much lengthened after flowering. Styles
free nearly to the base. Seeds subglobose, smooth. The
‘variations in the size of the fruit and seeds are remarkable.
(FI. Br. Ind.)

Plants of minor importance belonging to this order, which
are used medicinally, are:—
- Macaranga Roxburghii, Wight Ic., t. 817, a small
_ tree of the Deccan Peninsula, with peltate, cordate leaves, small
green flowers, and fruit the size of a pea, The young shoots
and fruit are covered with a clammy, reddish secretion having
an odour like turpentine. The country people use the following
_in Jarandi (Angl., Liver):—One part of the young shoots, 7
8 parts of the young shoots of Khoréti (Ficus asperrima), are

316 URTICACEZ.

sprinkled with hot water and the juice extracted; in this is
rubbed down 2 parts each of the barks of both trees. The
preparation may be administered twice a day in doses of } of
a seer. The Marathi name is Chéndvar. The bark contains
18°4 per cent. of tannic acid, giving a blue-black precipitate
with ferric chloride, and the air-dried bark leaves 11. per cent.
of mineral matter on incineration.

Chrozophora plicata, A. Juss., Burm. Ind., t. 62, f. 1,
isa common weed on cultivated ground, and in the bottoms of
dried up tanksin many parts of tropical India in the cold season.
It is reputed to have alterative properties, and is mentioned by
Ainslie as a plant which Dr. fF. Hamilton had brought to him
in Behar, as one of those which was supposed to have virtues in
leprous affections; the dry plant is made into a decoction to
which is added a little mustard. (Mat. Ind., ii., 398.)

Sebastiania Chamezlea, Muill-Arg., the Cadi-avanace
of Rheede (ii., 34), and the Bhui-erandi otf the Concan, is a small
plant, with linear, finely serrated leaves and small spinous cocci,
the juice of which in wine is used as an astringent; a ghrita
of the plant is considered to be tonic, and is applied to the
head in vertigo.

URTICACEA.

GIRONNIERA RETICULATA, Thuaites.

- Fig.—Bedd, Fil. Sylv., t. 313. Syn., Celtis reticulata.
_Hab.—Sikkim, Himalaya, Assam, Burma, Pegu, Deccan
Peninsula, Ceylon. The wood.

Vernacular.—Koditéni (Tam.), Kho-manig (Nilgiri), Narakiya-
ood (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—This wood does not appear to be
mentioned by Indian medical writers, nor can we find any
i: record of ite. collection in India for medicinal use, the bazars
_____ being supplied from Ceylon, where it has probably been in use

_ Thunberg says :— “The tree is called by the Dutch Strunt-
hout, and by the Cingalese Urenne, on account of its disgusting
odour, which resides especially in the thick stem and the larger
branches. The smell of it so perfectly resembles that of human
-ordure, that one cannot perceive the smallest difference between
them. When the tree is rasped, and the raspings are sprinkled
with water, the stench. is quite intolerable. It is neverthe-
less taken internally by the Cingalese as an efficacious remedy,

hen scraped fine and mixed with lemon juice, it is taken
‘internally, as a purifier of the blood in itch and other cutaneous
eruptions, the body being at the same time anointed with it
externally.” (Zhunberg’s Travels, iv., 234.)

- Thunberg obtained leaves and young plants of the tree, but
no blossoms; the plants were all killed by cold in the English
Channel.

The Portuguese call the wood Pao de merda or Pao sujo. In
‘India it is burnt as a fumigatory to mre away evil spirits; the
bazar name signifies ‘‘ hellish incense.”” In Ceylon, according
to Mr. J. Alexander, it is hung up near dwelling-houses as a
charm to keep away evil spirits. As sold in the bazars it is a
_ light-brown wood in irregular-shaped pieces, having a pene-
trating odour, exactly similar to that of fresh human ordure.

Chemical composition.—The wood has been examined by Prof.
W. R. Dunstan. By distillation with water a minute quantity
of a solid crystalline substance was obtained. It possessed a
- fecal odour, and after purification melted at 93°5°C. Its
physical and. chemical properties were not those of a-naph-
thylamine. It afforded a crystalline picrate, by the analysis of
which the substance was shown to possess the composition of
- methyl-indole (C29H9N), and by its physical and chemical
_ properties it was proved to be identical with the Pr. 3 methyl-
indole, or skatole, which Brieger isolated in 1877 from human
feces, and Salkowski soon afterwards obtained from among the
putrefaction products of animal proteid. Nenchi has observed
the formation of the same substance when potash is fused with

URTIOACEZE. 317

albumen, and it has also been prepared synthetically. Skatole 7

318 URTICACEA.

from G. reticulata corresponds in all its properties with
syuthetical skatole from propylidene phenyl-hydrazide. The
occurrence of skatole in a plant has not hitherto been observed;
it has appeared to be a characteristic product of the bacterial
resolution of animal proteid. (Pharm. Journ., June 15th, 1889.)

The nomenclature followed is that which has been proposed
by Emil Fischer. The benzene nucleus of indole being desig-
nated by Bz, and the pyrrole nucleus by the contraction Pr, the
nitrogen of the pyrrole nucleus is numbered 1, as well as the
corresponding carbon atom of the benzene nucleus; thus the
formula of skatole is—

CH

Holoptelea integrifolia, Planch., Wight Ic., t. 1968;
Roxb. Cor. Pl., t. 78; Bedd. Fl. Sylv., t. 810, a tree extending
from the Lower Himalayas to Travancore, has a mucilaginous
bark, which is boiled and the juice squeezed out and applied
to rheumatic swellings; the exhausted bark is then powdered
and applied over the parts covered by the sticky juice. The
vernacular names of the tree are Papri (Hind.), Aya (Zam.),
Nayili (Tel.), Vavala (Mar.), Rasbija (Can.)

CANNABIS SATIVA, Linn.

Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t, 231; Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ.,
t. 655; Rheede, Hort, Mal. z., tt. 60, 61. Hemp (Eng.),
Chanvre (Fr.).

Hab.—N.-W. Himalaya, Cultivated in India. The leaves,
female flowering tops, resinous exudation, and seeds.

URTICACER. 319

Vernacular.—The leaves—Bhang, Sabji (Hind., Beng., Mar.),
anja-ilai, Bangi-ilai (Zam.), Ganja-aku, Bangi-aku (Te/.),
anchéva-ela (Mal.), Bangi (Can.), Bhang (Guz.). Flowering
—Ginja (Hind., Beng., Guz.), Ganja (Tam., Tel., Mar.),

cha (Mai.), Bangi (Can.). The resin—Charas (Hind.,
ong., Guz., Mar.), Ganja-pél (Tam.), Ganja-rasam (Tel.),
nchava-péla (MMal.), Bangi-gondu (Oan.). The seeds—
nje-ke-bij (Hind.), Ganja-virai (Tam.), Ganja-vittulu( Ze/.),
nchava-vitta (Mai.), Bangi-bija (Can.), = — )
anga-cha-bi (Jar.), Bhéng-nu-bi(Guz.).

: History, Uses, &c.—The hemp plant, in Sanskrit
ga and Indrasana, ** Indra’s hemp,” has been known in the
East asa fibre plant from prehistoric times. It is mentioned
along with the Vedic plant Janjida, which has magic and
medicinal properties, and which is described in the Athavaveda
_ (ix., 34, 35) as a protector, and is supplicated to protect all
animals and properties. The gods are said to have three times
created this herb (oshadhi). Indra has given it a thousand eyes,

d kiillng all monsters ; it is praised as the best of remedies,
is worn as a precious talisman; along with hemp it
prevents wandering (vishkandha), fever and the evil eye.
De Gubernatis says that in Sicily the peasant women still
believe in hemp as an infallible means of attaching their
sweethearts. On Good Friday they take a thread of hemp and
twenty-five needlefuls of coloured silk, and at midnight weave
them together, pate the following lines:—
Chistu é c4nnavu di Christu

Servi pi attaccari a chistu.
“This is the hemp of Christ; it serves to attach this man.’
“They then enter the Church with the thread in their hands, and
‘at the moment of the consecration of the host, they make three
knots in it, adding at the same time some hairs of the man they
are in love with, and invoke all the demons to attract him to
his sweetheart. (Cf. Mattia ’di Martino, Usi e eredenze popolari

_ Siciliane, Woto, 1874.) Burns in “ Halloween” notices & a

320 URTICACE 2.

closely-allied superstition. The intoxicating properties which
the plant possesses in its Eastern home appear not to have been
discovered until a more recent date, but in the fifth chapter of
Menu, Brahmins are prohibited from using it, and in the sacred
books of the Parsis the use of Bana for the purpose of procur-
ing abortion is forbidden. In Hindu mythology the hemp
plant is said to have sprung from the amrita produced whilst
the gods were churning the ocean with Mount Mandara. It is

called in Sanskrit Vijaya, “ giving success,” and the favourite |

drink of Indra is said to be prepared from it. On festive
occasions, in most parts of India, large quantities are consumed
by almost all classes of Hindus. The Brahmins sell Sherbet*
prepared with Bhang at the temples, and religious mendicants
collect together and smoke Ganja. Shops for the sale of pre-
parations of hemp are to be found in every town, and are much

resorted to by the idle and vicious. Hemp is also used medi- |

cinally ; in the Rdja Nirghanta its synonyms are Urjaya and
Jaya, names which mean promoter of success, Chépala “the
cause of a reeling gait,” Ananda “the laughter moving,” Har-
shini ‘the exciter of sexual desire’; among other synonyms

are Kashmiri “coming from Kashmir,’’ Matdldni ‘the mater-_

nal uncle’s wife,” Mohini ‘‘ fascinating,” &c. Its effects on man
are described as excitant, heating, astringent ; it destroys phlegm,
expels flatulence, induces costiveness, sharpens the memory,
excites appetite, &c. Susruta recommends the use of Bhang to
people suffering from catarrh. In the Réjavalabha, a recent
work in use in Bengal, we are informed that the gods through
compassion on the human race sent hemp, so that mankind by
using it might attain delight, lose fear, and have sexual
es

The seductive influences of hemp have led to the most extra-
vagant praise of the drug in the popular languages of India,
but in truth it is one of the curses of the country ; if its use is
persisted in, it leads to indigestion, wasting of the body, cough,
melancholy, impotence and dropsy. After a time its votary
ies av Sabji, an infusion of Bhang with black pepper, anise and

“sugar. In Bengal milk, and cucumber and melon seeds are added.

i
4
aaa
=
Bes
Pte

URTICACER, 301

becomes an outcaste from society, and his career terminates
in crime, insanity, or idiotcy.

Ganja pie gur-gyan ghate, aur ghate tan andar ka,

Khokat, khokat dam nikse, mukh dekho jaisa bandar ka.

Who ganja smoke do knowledge lack, the heart burns constantly,

The breath with coughing goes, the face as monkey’s pale you see.

Fallon.

a According to tradition, the use of hemp as an intoxicant was
first made known in Persia by Birarslan, an Indian pilgrim, in
the reign of Khusru the first (A.D. 531—579), but, as we have
already stated, its injurious properties appear to have been
_ known long before that date.

There can be no doubt that the use of hemp as an intoxicant
was encouraged by the Ismailians in the 8th century, as its
effects tended to assist their followers ia realising the tenets of
the sect :—

QSAT ob GHIIUI po 295 eS
Se WF Ex) Band gLF Qeh Lyle

We've quaffed the emerald cup, the mystery we know,

Who’d dream so weak a plant such mighty power could show!
Hasan Sabah, their celebrated chief, in the 11th century
notoriously made use of it to urge them on to the commission of
_ deeds of daring and violence so that they became known as the ©
Hashshdshin or “ Assassins.”” Hasan studied the tenets of his
sect in retirement at Nishapur, doubtless at the monastery
noticed by O’Shaughnessy (Bengal Dispensatory), in the following
- terms:— “ Haidar lived in rigid privation on a mountain between

Nishapur and Rama, where he established a monastery; after
having lived ten years in this retreat, he one day returned from
a stroll in the neighbourhood with an air of joy and gaiety; on
being questioned, he stated that, struck by the appearance of a
plant, he had gathered and eaten its leaves. He then led his
companions to the spot, who all ate and were similarly excited,
A tincture of the hemp leaf in wine or spirit seems to have been
the favourite formula in which Sheikh Haidar indulged himself. ;
An Arab poet sings of Haidar’s emerald cup, an ey

IIl,—41

322 : URTICACE),

allusion to the rich green colour of the tincture. The Sheik
survived the discovery ten years, and subsisted chiefly on this
herb, and on his death his disciples at his desire planted it in
an arbour round his tomb. From this saintly sepulchre the
_ knowledge of the effects of hemp is stated to have spread into
Khoras4n. In Chaldea it was unknown until 728 A.H., the
kings of Ormus and Bahrein then introduced it into Chaldea,
Syria, Egypt and Turkey.”

Taki-ed-din Ahmad, commonly known as Makrizi, who wrote
‘a number of treatises upon Egypt in the 14th century, mentions
the lease of the monopoly for the sale of Hashish in that
country, and its abolition in (1286) by the Sultan.

Haji Zein in the Ikhtiérat (1368), after noticing the two
kinds of Kinnab mentioned by the Greeks, states that Indian
hemp is known as Bang or Sabz in Shiraz; after describing its
properties, he says that in cases of poisoning by it vomiting
should be induced by the administration of butter and hot water
to empty the stomach, and that afterwards acid drinks should
be administered.

The Greeks were acquainted with hemp more than 2000
years ago; Herodotus (iv., 74, 75) mentions it as being
cultivated by the Scythians, who used its fibre for making
their garments, and the seeds to medicate vapour baths.
Dioscorides mentions two kinds of «avvdfs, the wild and the
cultivated; the former is the Althea cannabina of Linneus, and
the latter Cannabis sativa; he states that the seeds, if eaten too
freely, destroy the virile powers, and that the juice is used to
relieve earache. Galen and the early Arabian physicians, such
as Ibn Sina and Riazi, follow Dioscorides in his opinion of the
properties: of hemp, and do not notice its having any -intoxicat-
ing properties, and unless the Gelotophyllis of Pliny (24, 102)
was Indian hemp, there is no evidence to show that the ancients
_ were acquainted with them. Pliny says :—“The Gelotophyllis

—— leaf) is a plant found in Bactriana, and on the banks
sorts a tom Taken internally with myrrh and wine,
iL sorts of visionary ee aent themselves, and excite the

A ae S ees fers = Sy
ee ece ea, A. ee ee

URTICACEA, 323

ost immoderate laughter, which can only be put an end to
taking kernels of the pine nut, with pepper and honey, in
yalm wine.” The earliest Western medical writer who dis-
tly mentions the intoxicating properties of hemp is Ibn
Baitar, a native of Africa, who died in Damascus in 1248. AIT
later Mahometan physicians describe the two kinds of

a ana, the Russian Kanopla, the Irish Canaib, the Iceland
the Saxon Heenep, and the old German Hanaf.

Yundni name, and Kanabira as the Syrian, and also mentions a
number of cant terms which are applied to it, such as Wark-el-
khy4l, Hashish, Hashishat-el-fukaré, Arsh-num4, Chatr-i-akh-
gar, &e. Charas is described, and the practice of smoking it.
The Bengal-grown hemp is said to be less intoxicating than that.
grown in more Northern climates. Hempseed is called in Per-
‘sian Shahdénah, “royal seeds.” The leaves are made into Sherbet
and conserves for intoxicating purposes. The properties of
mp are described as cold and dry in the third degree, that iy
timulant and sedative, imparting at first a gentle reviving heat,
and then a refrigerant effect, the drug at first exhilarates,
improves the complexion, excites the imagination, increases the

cheea, to the extent of a quarter drachm of bhang.
Charas is only mentioned in comparatively recent medical

works. The word is said to be derived from the Sanskrit 4a

eauthor of the Makhsan-el-Adwiya gives Udifartinas*as the

-* Some such word may have been manufactured by the Syrian monks
jn the Middle Ages, possibly from é and 8:apepo as an equivalent to the |
askrit ‘ Vijaya.’ ihe

324 URTICACEZ.

a skin, but it occurs in Persian with the primary signification
of a piece of leather or cloth, the four corners of which are tied
up so as to form a wallet, such as beggars carry ; in Hindi it
signifies a leather bag for holding water, &. The Charas
collected in Central Asia is stored in leathern bags by the cul-
tivators. Among European writers in the East, Rheede and
Rumphius figure and describe the Indian plant ; the latter states
that the kind of mental excitement it produces depends upon
the temperament of the consumer, He quotes a passage from
Galen, lib. I. (de aliment. facult.), in which it is asserted that in
that great writer’s time it was customary to give hempseed to
the guests at banquets, as a promoter of hilarity and enjoy-
ment (the seeds are still roasted and eaten in the East).
Rumphius adds, that the Mahometans in his neighbourhood
frequently sought for the male plant from his garden, to be
given to persons afflicted with virulent gonorrhea or with
asthma, and the affection which is popularly called “ stitches in
the side.” He tells us, moreover, that the powdered leaves
check diarrhoa, are stomachic, cure the malady named Pitao,
and moderate excessive secretion of bile. He mentions the use
of hemp smoke as an enema in strangulated hernia, and of the
leaves as an antidote to poisoning by orpiment.

In the Bulletin de Pharmacie (1810, p. 400), we find it briefly
described by M. Rouyer, apothecary to Napoleon, and member
of the Egyptian Scientific Commission, in a paper on the
popular remedies of Egypt. With the leaves and tops, he tells
us, collected before ripening, the Egyptians prepare a conserve,
which serves as the base of the berch, the diasmouk, and the
bernaouy. Hemp leaves reduced to powder and incorporated
with honey, or stirred with water, constitute the Jerch of the
poor classes,
| Ainslie notices Majin, a confection made with hemp leaves
to be used as a Sweetmeat, the composition of which varies in
different parts of the East, and to which are often added other
es drugs. O'Shaughnessy in the Bengal Dispensatory
see BAYOR & detailed account of its preparation in Calcutta.

URTICACEA. A .,

_ The medicinal properties of Cannabis have now been inves-

tigated by many European physicians in India. O’Shaugh-
nessy tried it with more or less success in various diseases,
especially in tetanus, hydrophobia, rheumatism, the convulsions
of children and cholera. Subsequent experience has confirmed
the value of the drug as a remedy in tetanus and cholera. In
the former disease we have obtained most satisfactory results,
large doses are required, and the patient must be kept under
the influence of the drug for some days.

In cholera its action may be compared with that of opium; it
is most likely to be successful when resorted to early in the |
‘disease. People suffering from painful chronic diseases, such
as rheumatism, are completely relieved of their pains by hemp,
but as the effects of the drug go off, the pains return; some of |
O’Shaughnessy’s patients became cataleptic whilst under its
influence. Christison, speaking of Indian Hemp, says:—

**T have long been convinced, and new experience confirms the
conviction, that for energy, certainty, and convenience, it is
the next anodyne, hypnotic and antispasmodic, to opium and its
derivatives, and often equal to it.”

Among the “ special opinions”’ collected by Dr. Watt for the
Dict. of the Econ. Prod. of India, we observe that Dr. 8. J. Rennie
recommends the tincture in doses of from 15 to 20 minims three
times a day in acute dysentery, and states that he, as well as
other medical officers, obtained excellent results with it. Dr. J.
E. T. Aitchison states that the oil of the seeds, known as
Kandir yak in Turkistan, is used in Kashmir as a liniment
for rheumatic pains. Others notice it as having valuable
narcotic, eth and cholagogue properties. (Op. cit.,
Wol-ii., p. 1

A. Aaronson states in the British Journal of Dental Science,
that the tincture as a local anesthetic is perfectly satisfactory.
He has extracted with its aid as many as twenty-two teeth and
stumps at one sitting. His plan is to dilute the tincture some
three or five times, according to the probable duration of the
operation. The diluted tincture is then applies on a coe é

326 URTICACEA,

wool to cavities, if such exist, and also about the gums of the
affected teeth. The beaks of the extracting forceps are also,
after being warmed, dipped in the tincture. In cold weather
it is best to dilute the tincture with warm water. His patients
acknowledge the immunity from pain they enjoyed during the °
operations, and all expressed surprise and pleasure at the simpli-
city of the performance.

Tannate of cannabin has recently been recommended as a
hypnotic. Cannabis appears capable, directly or indirectly,
of causing uterine contraction, as in many cases of uterine
hemorrhage ; and it is also said to provoke this act during
labour with as much energy as ergot, but with less persistant
action,

A recent correspondence in the Lancet, anent the variation
in action and occasional toxic effects of this drug, has
brought from Dr. J. Russell Reynolds an important contri-
bution respecting its clinical value.

In explaining the occasional toxic effects of this drug,
Dr. Reynolds says two things must be remembered : first, that, by
its nature and the forms of its administration, cannabis indica
is subject to great variations in strength. Extracts and
tinctures cannot be made uniform, because the hemp grown at —
different seasons and in different places varies in the amount of
the active therapeutic principle. It should always be obtained

m the same source, and the minimum dose should be given
at t first, and gradually and cautiously increased. The secon
important fact to keep in view is, that individuals differ widely
in . their relations to various medicines and articles of diet—

to none more than to substances of vegetable origin,
us as tea, coffee, ipecacuanha, digitalis, nux vomica, and the
like. In addition to the purity of the drug, the possibility of
idiosyncrasy must be borne in mind as calling for caution in ©
giving Indian hemp. By gradually increasing the dose and
habituating the organism to its use, the use of cannabis indica
may be pushed to 3 or 4 grains of the extract at a dose with posi-
tive nena But mers De. eee! experience 1 grain would

URTICACEZ. 327

ing about toxic effects in the majority of heel adults ; and
of a grain has done the same, but never }, which is the —
_ proper amount with which to begin the use of the drug among
grown persons, zp of a grain being the proper initial dose for
children. The best preparation for administration is the
tincture—1 grain to 20 or 10 minims—dropped on sugar or
bread. The minimum dose should be given, as before stated,
repeated every four or six hours and gradually increased every
d or fourth day, until either relief is obtained or the drug
is proved useless. With such precautions, Dr, Reyn
states he has never met with toxic effects, and rarely failed to
ascertain in a short space of time the value or uselessness of the
drug.

Its most important results are to be found in the mental
sphere ; as, for instance, in Senile Insomnia, with wandering.
An elderly person (perhaps with brain softening), is fidgety at
night, goes to bed, gets up, thinks he has some appointment to
keep, that he must dress and go out. Day, with its stimuli
and real occupations, finds him quite rational again. Nothing
can compare in utility to a moderate dose of Indian hemp at
bedtime—} to 4 of a grain of the extract. In alcoholic. sub-
jects it is uncertain and rarely useful. In Melancholia it is
sometimes serviceable in converting depression into exaltation ;
but unless the case has merged into senile degeneration,

restlessness of general paretics and of sufferers from the
‘temper disease ” of Marshall Hall, whether children or adults,
it has proved eminently useful.

In painful affections, such as Neuralgia, Neuritis, and

igraine, Dr. Reynolds considers hemp by far the most useful

0 , even when the disease is of years’ duration. In

neuritis the remedy is useful only in conjunction with other

treatment, and is a most valuable adjunct to mercury, iodine, _

or other drugs, as it is in neuralgia when given with arsenic, —
quinine, or iron, if either is required, Many victims of diabo-

328 URTIOACEZ.

lical migraine have for years kept their sufferings in abeyance
by taking hemp at the threatening or onset of the attack. In
sciatica, myodynia, gastrodynia, enteralgia, tinnitus aurium,
muscz volitantes, and every kind of so-called hysterical pain,
cannabis indica is without value. On the other hand, it relieves
the lightning pains of Ataxia, and also the multiform miseries
of the’) gouty, sink as tingling, formication, numbness, and other
pareesthesize.

In clonic spasm, whether epileptoid or choreic, hemp is of
the

great service. In Eclampsia of children or adults, from
worms, teething (the first, second, or third dentition), it gives
relief by itself in many cases. Many cases of so-called Epilepsy
in adults—epileptoid convulsions, due often to gross organi¢
nerve-centre lesions—are greatly helped by cannabis indica,
when they are not affected by the bromides or other drugs.

Take, for instance, violent convulsions in an overfed man, who :
is attacked during sleep a few hours after a hearty supper, the

attacks recurring two or three times an hour for a day or two, in
spite of “clearing the prime vie,’’ or using bromine or some
other classic drug. These attacks may be stopped at once with
a full dose of hemp. In brain tumours or other maladies im
the course of which epileptoid seizures occur, followed by coma,
the coma being followed by delirium,—first quiet, then violent—
the delirium time after time passing into convulsions, and
the whole gamut being repeated, Indian hemp will at once cut
short such abnormal activities, even when all other treatment
has failed. In genuine epilepsy it isof no avail. In cases where
it has seemed to do good, the author doubts the correctness of
the diagnosis, and suspects organic lesion or eccentric irrita-
tion. In tonic spasms, such as torticollis and writers’ cramp,
_ in general chorea, in paralysis agitans, in trismus, tetanus, and
the jerky movements of spinal sclerosis, cannabis indica has
proved absolutely useless, At the same time, it is most valu-
_ able in the Nocturnal Cramps of gouty or old persons, in some
eases of ic Asthma, and in simple Spasmodice Dys-
menorrhea, Thus it will be perceived that for the relief of
—_ a from a A curative effect, hemp must ever

ioe aie 4S
Petes woes. = le SRE

ot: '

c e a aay
i bites hee aut saad eacten:
: Mess : Seaver og -
PSE nay, eee aor

URTICA 320 :

be held in high esteem, and eaiked with the poppy and with
mandragora. (Medtcal Annual, 1891.) :

Physiological action.—Like some other narcotics, Indian hemp,
when given by the stomach to carnivorous animals, produces its
characteristic effects, but graminivorous animals and fish exhibit
only vacillating movements and a dull aspect. Upon man its —
action varies with the individual’s temperament and tendencies,
Some it inspires with pugnacity, others it inclines to dreamy
contemplation, to motiveless merriment, or to maudlin sensibi-
lity ; some it makes unnaturally active and restless, and plunges
others in a drowsy stupor ; but more than any other agent, not
even excepting belladonna, it perverts the natural perception of
objects and their normal condition and relations, Time, dis-
tance, and sound are especially apt to form the subjects of the
hallucinations caused by this drug. As in dreams, the events
of days or weeks may be compressed into an actual period of a
few minutes, objects near at hand may seem to form a limitless
perspective, and whispered tones may have the reverberation of
thunder. These and an infinite variety of fantastic pictures
are evoked by smoking the drug, as it is generally employed in
_ Asia, associated with opium. During its influence the physical |
condition of the experimenter exhibits changes in acceleration
of the pulse, warmth of skin, restless muscular movements,
more or less insensibility to touch and pain, and sometimes im-
paired power of locomotion, the limbs feeling as if weighted
with lead. In one reported case a diffused vesicular eruption
was attributed to this medicine. (Hyde.) It does not increase,
ut, on the contrary, impairs, the venereal propensity and
power. The habitual use of cannabis in excessive doses causes
the face to become bloated, the eyes injected, and the limbs
weak and tremulous; the mind grows imbecile, and ultimately
death by marasmus is apt to occur, Acute poisoning by large
doses is marked by various and dissimilar symptoms in different
cases. In some there is loss of consciousness, with collapse or
stupor, insensible pupils, a pale, clammy, and insensible skin,
extreme debility, anda small, feeble pulse. In others a catalep~ S
tic condition, spasms, or convulsions occur, and in all there i i
W1.—42

o

330 URTICACEZ.

marked anesthesia. The last-named effect led to the use of
cannabis by the Chinese in certain surgical operations. (Stillé
and Maisch.)

Collection.—The flowering tops of the female plant are

collected, and, after having been allowed to wither in the open
air for about 48 hours, are arranged on a mat so asto forma
circle, and are trodden upon by a number of men, linked
together by resting their arms across each other’s shoulders,
who walk round and round; the object being to compress
the resinous flower tops into a compact mass. This process 18
repeated several times after shifting and re-arranging the
Gdénja. In Bengal a round kind of Gdnja is prepared by
rolling the flowering tops under the feet, and afterwards
between the palms of the hands. During the manufacture of
Ganja a quantity of powder separates, which is known as Ohdr
or Rora; it is collected, mixed with an extract of the plant, and
made into round balls about the size of a musket ball, which are
used for smoking like Charas. A similar preparation is made
from the dust of the leaves; it is popularly known as Charas ;
several varieties of it are foant in the bazars. True Charas is
collected in Central Asia by shaking, rubbing, or beating the
resinous exudation from the flowering plant; it separates as 4
greyish powder, which, after being packed in bags, gradually
consolidates into an oily resinous mass. The genuine article is
rarely to be met with in commerce, that sold in the bazars
being largely adulterated by the middlemen in the Punjab
with the leaves and dust of Bhang. Bhang is made by collecting
the leaves and drying them. All of these drugs are obtained
from the female plant, which the natives consider to be the
male, because it bears the seed ; all male plants are carefully
extirpated by the hemp doctor, a person whose business it is to

prune the plants so as to produce the maximum amount of
flowering heads,

Description. —Bhang consists of the dried leaves, which
are of a deep green colour and Suk, broken, so as to form 4
coaee a se iar. The deoton have long

OS Gee

URTICACER. 331

petioles and are digitate, with linear-lanceolate, sharply serrated
leaflets, tapering to a long smooth point.

_ Ganja is the name given to the flowering tops of the female
plant. The flowers form erect clustered spikes, often 6 to 8
inches long; in the drug, the spikes are compressed, flat
or round, glutinous, and of a brownish-green colour; they have
a peculiar narcotic odour.

= Pure Charas is a greenish-brown, moist, resinous mass,

mixed with the hairs and fragments of the leaf. Bazar Charas
aries much in quality, some specimens being only very
rtially soluble in spirit, friable, and of an earthy appearance.
Sixty grains of the finest Yarkand Charas which we examined
left, after exhaustion with spirit, only 13 grains of residue,
chiefly hairs of the plant.

Chemical composition.— The most interesting constituents of
hemp, from a medical point of view, are the resinand the vola-
tileoil. The former was first obtained in a state of comparative
purity by T. and H. Smith in 1846. (Pharm. Jouwrn., vol. vi.,
p- 171.) It is a brown, amorphous solid, burning with a bright
white flame, and leaving no ash. It has a very potent action
when taken internally, two-thirds of a grain acting as a power-
ful narcotic, and one grain producing complete intoxication.

- When water is repeatedly distilled from considerable quan-
tities of hemp, fresh lots of the latter being used for each opera-
tion, a volatile oil lighter than water is obtained, together
with ammonia. This oil, according to the observations of
Personne (1857) (Journ. de Pharm., vol. 39, p. 48), is amber-
coloured, and has an oppressive hemp: like smell. It sometimes
deposits an abundance of small crystals. With due precautions
it may be separated into two bodies, the one of which named
by Personne Cannabene, is liquid and colourless, with the formula
C'8H2°, the other, which is called Hydride of Cannabene,
is a solid, separating from alcohol in platy crystals, to which

has indubitably a physiological action, and even clas it as”

Personne assigns the formulaC'® H**. He assertsthat cannabene

s

332 URTICACE #,

sole active principle of hemp. Its vapour he states to produce,
when breathed, a singular sensation of shuddering, a desire of
locomotion, followed by prostration and sometimes by syncope.

hling, in 1840, observed similar effects from the oil, which
he obtained from the fresh herb just after flowering, to the
extent of 0°3 per cent.

As to the resin of Indian hemp, Bolas and Francis, im

_ treating it with nitric acid, converted it into Oxycannabm,
O°°H2°N°O’, This interesting substance may, they say, be
obtained in large prisms from a solution in methylic aleohol. ;
It melts at 176°C., and then evaporates without decomposition; =
it is neutral. (Pharmacographia.) 2
Preobraschensky (Pharm. Zeitsch. f. Russland, 1876, :

p- 705) made a chemical examination of a quantity of haschiseh,
which he brought with him from China, and was enabled,
according to his own statement, to separate from it a volatile
alkaloid, which he held to be identical with uicotine, and
which he believed to be the active principle of cannabis. This,
in view of the distinctive and very different action of cannabis,

- was somewhat remarkable. It is highly probable, as has been

suggested by Dragendorff and Marquiss (Pharm. Zeitung, 1877), =
that the haschisch used by Preobraschensky was mixed with ;
tobacco, which it often is in Eastern countries.
Louis Siebold and Bradbury reported to the British Pharma-
ceutical Conference (1881) that, after an elaborate investigation,
_ they had arrived at the conclusion of Dragendorff and
Se a. and that in the course of their investigation they

ng not more than Q grains from 10 Ibs. of
an hemp. _ They give it the name of Cannabinine. They
t cdaten as to its physiological action; and they,
leave it doubtful as to whether this. volatile alkaloid

iple of — as - wiapaiae ”

SS hee Oe oe en STATE ae Geen eee

*

URTICACEA#. 383

Dr. Hay (Pharm. Journ., xiii., p. 998) made a chemical
examination of the drug, the results, so far, of which lead him
to believe that Cannabis indica contains several alkaloids. He

says: —“In a future. communication [ hope to be able to

give an exact description of the distinctive characters and
toxic action of each, In the meantime, I shall content myself
with the description of one which I have obtained in a consi-

derable degree of purity, and one which, rather remarkably,
__ possesses an action similar to that of strychnia. It is evidently,

therefore, quite a secondary alkaloid of the cannabis, and reminds
one of the thebaine of opium. This alkaloid was obtained

from a watery infusion of powdered Cannabis indica by treating

it with a solution of subacetate of lead, and filtering. To the
filtrate was added ammonia, and the precipitate removed by

‘filtration. The filtrate, acidulated with sulphuric acid, was

now treated with a solution of phospho-wolframic acid in
order to precipitate the alkaloids present. The precipitate,
which was fairly abundant, was, after the fluid had been removed
by filtration and washing with dilute sulphuric acid and
pressing, mixed with barium hydrate and water, which formed
an insoluble wolframate and set free the alkaloids. The filtrate
was next deprived of its excess of barium by means of a stream
of carbonic acid gas and again filtered. The filtrate was ata
gentle heat evaporated almost to dryness and acidulated with
sulphuric acid, and treated with absolute alcohol. The sulphate
of the alkaloids thus formed was partially soluble in alcohol,

partly not. It was from the soluble part that the alkaloid in

question was procured. The sulphate was converted into a
chloride by treatment with barium hydrate, afterwards with

carbonic acid to remove excess of barium, and, finally, with

hydrochloric acid to neutralization. Thechloride was evaporated

and treated with absolute alcohol, in which it in part dissolved,

From the solution, by addition of excess of carbonate of soda
and frequent shaking with ether, an alkaloid was obtained in the
form of colourless needle-like crystals.

“The alkaloid was easily soluble in water, soluble also in
alcohol, and more slowly soluble in ether and chloroform. It

8334 URTICACE.

caused tetanus in frogs in exactly the same manner as strychnia,
increasing the excitability of the reflex centres of the
spinal cord. It did not give a violet colour with sulphuric acid
and bichromate of potash. It was, therefore, although similar
in action to strychnia, not chemically identical with it. A
solution of it in water was precipitated by the various alkaloidal
precipitants, platinic chloride, iodide of potassium and mercury,
phosphotungstate of soda, phosphomolybdic acid, phospho-

wolframic acid, &. Although I obtained the alkaloid from ~

1 kilo. of cannabis, yet the quantity of it was so small that
it was insufficient for an elementary analysis.

“To this alkaloid I propose to give the name of tetano-canna-
bine, as indicative of its action.”

The Tannate of Cannabin of Merck (Pharm. Jour., xiil.,
p- 1052), a glucoside contained in Indian hemp, which he has
combined with tannin, is a yellowish-brown powder, with a
taste of tannin, and a rather agreeable odour ; it is insoluble in
water and ether, and only slightly soluble in alcohol ; in
alkaline solutions it dissolves readily. This substance is said
to be free from any admixture of the volatile alkaloid of
Cannabis indica, not to produce intoxication, and to be useful
as a hypnotic; it is said not to derange the digestive and
secretory organs like opium, and to be especially valuable in
irritable states of the nervoussystem, but Dr. H.C. Wood has
found it to be inert physiologically, Warden and Waddell of
Calcutta, although operating on a large quantity of Indian
hemp of ascertained activity, were unable to find any evidence
of the existence of such a principle as Dr. Hay describes.
They further remark that :— “ As many of those addicted to

the Hashish form of intemperance obtain the intoxicating —

_ effects by smoking the plant in a pipe, it is to be expected
- that destructive distillation of the freshly prepared resin might
yield up the active principle. This process was therefore
resorted to. By the destructive distillation of freshly prepared
alcoholic extract of the plant to which an excess of caustic
_ potash solution had been added, an amber-coloured oil was
obtained, which, oe osure ue oe tor the action of alkalies,

OM ee te se yee

a

URTICACE®. 335

_ rapidly became of a dark reddish-brown colour, This oil had a
mildly empyreumatic odour, which was distinctly tobacco-like.
Its taste was warm, aromatic, and somewhat terebinthinate. —
_ he oil contained phenol, ammonia, and several other of the
usual products of destructive distillation.

“ The nicotine-like principle contained in this oil appeared
to be an alkaloid. It formed salts which evolved a strong
_ nicotine-like odour when acted on by alkalies. But physiologi-
_eally it was found to be inert, and therefore was evidently not
identical with nicotine.

“The oil as a whole was also found to be devoid of any narco-
_ tic or irritant qualities. About 3 of an ounce was introduced
2 into the stomach of a cat without producing any sensible

‘effect. These results do not coincide with those of Personne,
who asserted that the active principle of the plant resided in
the volatile oil. It is just possible that the active principle
was decomposed by the high temperature necessary for destruc-
tive distillation.’ (Ind. Med. Gaz., Dec. 1884.)

_ Kennedy (Pharm. Record, vi., p. 304) made a search for
ectine in Indian hemp without success, but obtained indi-
- eations of the presence of another alkaloid.

E. Jahns (Archiv. d. Pharm., 1887) reported that he had
separated from Indian hemp a base which he has identified as
choline, and points out that this result corresponds fairly with
the statement of previous workers, except in respect to the erys-

tallizability of Dr. Hay’s alkaloid and solubility in ether. The
quantity of choline obtained by the author from different
3 opie varied considerably, but amounted at the most to
_ only +5 per cent.

Hi. F. Smith (Amer. Journ. Pharm., Aug. 1891), by deceit

different processes, obtained an alkaloid from Indian hemp,
which separated from ethereal solutions in the form of a yellow-
ish-green, transparent varnish-like substance. It had a
strong, peculiar odour, resembling that of coniine ; was soluble
- inether, chloroform, alcohol, and acidulated water, but onl: .
slightly so in water ; was alkaline to test paper and capab

336 URTICACER.

neutralizing acids. When dissolved in very dilute H*SO*
(1 gtt. in 5 cc.), it gavea clear yellow solution and the following
reactions :—
With Mayer’s reagent, an abundant white precipitate.
KI+1+H°O, an abundant brown precipitate.
,», Phosphomolybdate of soda, an abundant white precipi-
tate

,, Solution of picric acid, an abundant yellow precipitate,
K*C*0’, a yellowish-brown precipitate.
a % NH?‘OH, a yellowish-green precipitate.

NaOH, a yellowish-green precipitate.
_ KOH, a yellowish-green precipitate.

= = KI, a yellowish precipitate.
tannic acid, a yellowish-brown precipitate.

Biondaiig this alkaloid of Indian hemp to be highly poisonous,
it is present in so small a quantity as to be of little if any
importance therapeutically.

Toxicology.—Lyon says—‘‘ In India, Cannabis appears to be
seldom, if ever, used for homicidal purposes. Fatal, accidental
or suicidal cases have, however, been reported. Cases have also
been reported where the drug has, or appears to have, been
used for the purpose of facilitating the commission of an
offence. Thus Chevers mentions a case which occurred at
Ahmednagar, in which a woman, having first drugged with
majun, a child aged seven, afterwards murdered him for the
sake of his ornaments. (Med. Jurisp., p. 225.) Harvey
reports a case in which charas appears to have been used
by a road-poisoner at Amritsar, in order to facilitate theft.
(Beng. Med. Leg. Rep., 1870-72, p. 268.) A case is also
reported by Dr. Cullen of Hoshangabad, in which majun
was given to a woman and her daughter, “not with the inten-
tion of causing death, but to effect a criminal purpose.” In
these two females, the symptoms present exactly resembled
those of dhatura-poisoning, and it would appear that dhatura
S soa fe as an ingredient of majun. (Lyon, Med.
bed yoy Pe COV.) -

Sooten Hage Ganja is epee used as a poison in

Coe, ate
V admr1
uy admin

with criminal ne In

sr

]
3

URTICACEZE, 337

a case of dacoity investigated near Madura in 1886, it was
found that ganja had been given in food served up to some
travellers. It is resorted to by the relatives of converts to
Christianity in Travancore, to prevent them changing their
religion or to punish them for doing so.

Dr. Hové, a Polish savant, who was sent out to Bombay by
the British Government in 1787- 89, speaking of Cannabis, says
_ (p. 141): “I arrived at Mithampoor and waited on the Rajah,
who ordered provisions for my people and guards. He also
_ ordered to each person a basinful of a beverage which
_ iscalled by the inhabitants Beng. This is nothing else but
a decoction of seeds, and bruised leaves and stalks of the
Cannabis, which has, however, such powerful quality, that even _
the steam where it was served overpowered me in a few
tes, so that I was under the necessity of leaving the
room.” We have no doubt that Cannabis is much more
frequently used in India for drugging people than is generally
known.

Commerce.—The sea-borne trade in preparations of hemp is ~
insignificant; a small quantity of ganja goes to Europe for —
medicinal use. The imports by trans-frontier routes do not —
exceed 2} lakhs of rupees yearly, and the exports 20 to 20 _
thousand rupees. As regards internal trade, the total annual
revenue transactions (transfers, &c.) amount to about 15 lakhs of
rupees. The wholesale cost of ganja duty-free is about 4}
annas per lb., und of dhang, Rs. 8 per ewt. The revenue
realised by the Indian Government by the duty on hemp is
about 30 lakhs of rupees yearly. For full particulars of
the Hemp trade in on see Dict. Econ. Prod, of India, ii.,
op Lys.

FICUS RELIGIOSA, Lin».
: Fig.—King, Fic. 55, t=. 67 A, 84u; Wight Ic., t. 1967 ;
Rheede, Hort. Mal. i., t. 27.
Hab.—lIndia. The root-bark.
IlT.—~43

338 URTICACE &.

FICUS BENGALENSIS, Linn.
Fig.—ing, Fic. 18, ¢, 31, 8le; Wight Ic., t.1989 ; Rheede,
Hort. Mal, 1., ¢. 28.
Hab,—India. The root-bark.

FICUS TJAKELA, Burm.
Fig.—King, Fic. 57, t. 70, 84x; Rheede, Hort. Mal. iit., t. 64.
Hab.—India. The root-bark.

FICUS GLOMERATA, fozxb.
Fig.—forb. Cor. Pi. ii., t, 123; Wight Ic., t. 667.
Hab.—India. The root-bark, fruit, juice, and galls.
Vernacular.—F. religiosa, Pipal, Pipar (Hind., HMar., Guz.),

Aswat, Asud (Beng.), Arasa (Tam.), Rai, Raiga (Ze/.), Rangi,
Basri (Can.). F. bengalensis, Bar, Bargat (Hind., Beng., Guz),
Vara, Vari (Mar.), Ala (Tam.), Mari, Peddi-mari (Te/.), Alada-
_mara (Can.). F. Tjakela, Ram-anjir, Pakhar (Hind., Beng.),
Bassari, Pakri, Lendva (Mar.), Jovi (Tam.), Jevi (Tel.), Kari,
Bassiri (Can.) F. glomerata, Gtlar, Umar (Hind.), Jagno-
dumar (Beng.), Atti (Tam.), Moydi, Atti (Zel.), Kulla-kith
(Can.), Umbara (Mar.), Umbro (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—In the Kéthaka Upanishad an
eternal and cosmogonic ASvattha or Pippal tree is described ;
this tree is said to have its roots above and branches below
(ardhyamilo’ yékSakha esho’ Svatthah sandtanah) ; it bears the
names of ‘seed,’ ‘ brahman,’ ‘ amrita’; the worlds rest upon it;
beneath it there is nothing. The wood of the Aévattha when
rubbed against that of the Sami (Acacia Suma) engenders fire,
which is symbolic of reproduction, the former representing the
male and the latter the female energy. At the marriage
ceremony of the Hindus, both of these plants are necessary.
To this mythic tree which represented the macrocosm, wonder-
ful medicinal properties are ascribed in the Atharvaveda ; the
medicine chest of — Neti 2h rae and the cup to contain

URTICACEA. 339

th Saori, are to be made of it ; its branches are the Vedas. In
the Vilakhilya, a collection of apocryphal hymns in the Rig-
veda, the marriage of the actual tree with Tulasi is enjoined; it
worshipped on eavarenys in the month of Sravan and on
Somvatis or “lunar days.’ Women perform Pradakshina,
“walking round it from left to right,’? to secure the survival of
eir husbands and good luck generally, as Savitri, the wife of
ity van, is said to have recovered her deceased husband by its
The thread ceremony and marriage of the tree with

e Budhidru, or tree of wisdom, of the Jains and Buddhists, who
late that at the birth of the Buddha an enormous ASvattha
sprung from the centre of the universe, an offshoot, no doubt, of
the Vedic and cosmogonic tree. In the kia Nirghanta it bears
the synonyms of Y4jnika “ sacrificial,” Srimana “ fortunate,”
Vipra “ wise,” Sevya “ worthy of worship,” &c. Its root-bark,
together with that of the three other species of Ficus placed at the
] of this article, and the root-bark of the Neem, form the
Panchavalkala or ‘ five barks,” and a decoction of them (pancha- —
la kashéya) is much used asa gargle in salivation, as a
h for ulcers, and as an astringent injection in leueorrhea.
The powdered root-bark of the ASvattha, rubbed with honey, is
applied to apthe and unhealthy ulcers to promote granulation.

F. bengalensis, the Vata or Nyagrodha, has been sometimes
omnfounded with the Asvattha; both trees bear the synonyms
ahupada “many-footed,” and Sikhandin “ crested,” but the
Vata is specially described as Skandaja “ born of the trunk,”

Ava-roha- Sayin “‘sending down branches,” Skanda-ruha “ grow-
ing from its own trunk,” Pada-rohana, &c. In Indian
mythology an enormous Vata tree is supposed to grow upon
mount Supérsva, to the south of the celestial mount Meru, and
to cover eleven yojanas; in the Vishun Purana we find a
similar account of the Pippala growing on mount Vipula and
_ covering eleven hundred yojanas. Devaki, when pregnant with _

Kansa, who had destroyed her first six children. The tree

Krishna, is said to have taken refuge under a Vata tree from ee

340 URTICACEZ.

special favorite of the Buddha, and Arrian speaks of the Indian
sages as sitting under it. There is one famous tree mentioned
in the Ramayana, the Uttara Rama-charitra, the Kurma-purana,
and elsewhere, which still grows on an island in the Nerbudda ;
it is said to have been planted by the sage Kabira some two
thousand years ago, and is popularly known as the Kabir Bar,
Owing to the peculiar growth of these trees, there is no reason
why they should not last for an mdefinite period.

_ The figs of the Udumbara (F. glomerata) are considered to
be astringent, stomachic and carminative, and are given in
menorrhagia and hemoptysis, in doses of one tolaof the dried
fruit with sugar and honey. The fresh juice of the ripe fruit
is used as a vehicle (Vern. atqm)-for metallic preparations.
The juice of the root is used as a tonic, is applied to glandular

_swellings,* and is given in doses of four tolas with cumin and
sugar in gonorrhea. The small blister-like galls, which are
common on the leaves, are soaked in milk and mixed with honey
asaremedy for pitting. in small-pox. This tree bears the
synonyms of Yajniya “sacrificial,” Pavitraka “ purifier,” &.,
and is much used in Hindu ceremonial. According to the
Grihya Sutra, a married woman in the fourth month of preg-
nancy should be rubbed with the fruit to fortify the germ.

eS Tjakela, in Sanskrit Parkati or Parkatin, SupdrSva and
Plaksha, is the waved-leaved fig-tree, a sacred tree, but of
minor importance. It is the Tsjakala of Rheede.
Mahometan and European writers do not add much to our
knowledge of the medicinal properties of .these trees. Ainslie,
speaking of F. glomerata, says:—‘ From the root of the tree,

_which in Tamil is called attievayr, there exudes, on its bemg
eut, a fluid, which is caught in earthen pots, and which the

Vytians consider as a Cilpim (Zam.), that is, a powerful tonic,

when drank for several days together. This Ciilp4m is termed

attie-oayr tannie.” (Mat. Inds is p. 30.

- ™* Ibis interesting to ms that the jui

epnohtts of Binecighinpe nd the Teall i aby a eed re

Sukex Savi is still used in pt for a similar d that both
‘The In pita the same e »i, 148, and a Prosper 4p inus, ps) 2).
ee n rae as a substitute for 8

Ainslie also states that the seeds of F. religiosa are supposed
to possess cooling and alterative qualities, and quotes the follow-
ing passage from Bartolomeo’s Voyage to the Kast Indies : “ Pul-
rised, and taken in water for fourteen days together, poi fruit
removes asthma, and promotes fruitfulness in women.” The
tree is the Aveddu of Rheede, and the Arbor conciliorum of Rum-
us. (Mat. Ind., ii., p. 25.)

dy for toothache, and to the soles of the feet when cracked
Esflamed. The leaves, after they have turned yellow, are
n in the Concan with roasted rice in decoction as a
diaphoretic ; dose, three leaves.

Description.—F. redigiosa, a tree.— Leaves long-petioled,
ovate, cordate, narrow acuminate, acumen one-third the length
of the leaf, entire, or repandly undulated towards the apex ;
fruit-receptacles axillary, paired, sessile, depressed, size of a
small cherry, appearing in the hot season and ripening in the
rainy season, purple when ripe.

__F-. bengalensis, a tree.—Branches spreading very much ; lower
ones rooting ; leaves alternate, ovate, bluntly acuminated, with
arallel nerves, paler underneath, entire, downy when young,
afterwards smooth; fruit-receptacles axillary, paired, sessile, as
_ large as a middle-sized cherry, appearing and ripening in the
_ hot season, red or yellow when ripe.

_F. Tjakela, a tree.—Leaves rather long-petioled, mem-
branaceous, oblong, or sublanceolate-oblong, moderately and
acutely acuminated, obtuse or rounded, or subcordate at the
base, quite entire, or very slightly repand ; fruit small, sessile,
in, globose, smooth, when ripe white.

F. glomerata, a tree.—Trunk crooked, thick, bark of a rusty-
greenish colour, rough; leaves alternate, petioled, oblong oF
broad lanceolate, tapering equally to each end, entire, very
slightly 3-nerved, smooth on both sides; racemes compound or
panicled, issuing immediately from the trunk or large

clothed with soft down, purple when ripe. For a

URTICACEE. aa

white glutinous juice of /. dengalensis is applied as a -

/

ae

branches; fruit pedicelled, nearly as large as the common pie! 2

342 URTICACEA.

botanical account of the Genus, the reader is referred to Dr, G
King’s ‘ Species of Ficus.”

Chemical composition.—The bark of F. religiosa contains 3-8 per
cent. of tannin, that of F. racemosa 14:1 per cent., and that of
Ff, bengalensis 10-9 per cent. The air-dried bark of F. racemosa
yields 12-2 per cent. of ash, that of F. bengalensis 8-05 per cent.,
and that of F. religiosa 11:7 per cent. The tannin gives a green
precipitate with ferric salts. There is nothing else of interest
in these barks, except caoutchouc and wax.

FICUS CARICA, Linn.

Fig.— Woodv., t. 244; Steph. & Ch., t. 154; Reich. Ic. Fl.
Germ. xit., t. 659, The Fig (Eng.), Figue (J’r.).

Hab.—Persia. Cultivated in India. The fruit,

Vernacular.—Anjir (Hind., Guz., Mar., Beng.), Shimai-atti,
Tén-atti (Zam.\, Shima-atti, Téne-atti ( Te/.), Shime-atti ( Can‘).

History, Uses, &c.—The Fig holds much the same
place in the mythology of the West as the Pipal and Bar do
in Indian mythology. It has been regarded from prehistoric
times as an anthropogonie tree and valued for its nutritious fruit.
It is frequently mentioned in the sacred books of the Hebrews
and by early Greek and Latin writers. Hippocrates notices
it in several places as having aperient, emollient and nutritious
properties, and as being useful as an article of diet in
phlegmatic affections. Figs were used in lustration by the
Greeks. The celebrated Ficus ruminalis of Rome, appears, like
the Indian Asvattha (I. redigiosa), to have been regarded as a
cosmogonic tree. Pliny gives the following description of it:—
*“‘ Colitur ficus arbor in foro ipso ac comitio Rome nata, sacra
fulguribus ibi conditis. Magisque ob memoriam ejus que
nutrix fuit Romuli ac Remi conditoris appellata, quoniam sub
ea inventa est lupa infantibus preebens rumen (ita enim vocabant
mammam), miraculo ex acre juxta dicato, tamquam in comitium
sponte transisset.”” In the worship of Dionysus, the fig played
an important part; the phallus was made of its wood and the

URTICACE®. 343

was a necessary offering to the god. In the early Chris-
ian mythology this phallic tree became accursed, the tree of
fudas, &c., and was supposed to be haunted by evil spirits, and
early Italian missionaries in India gave the name of albero
' diavolo to the Indian fig-tree. For a full account of the
s and superstitions connected with the fig, we must refer
geader to De Gubernatis. (Myth. des Plant., ii., 137—143.)
ig appears to have been known to the Arabs and Persians
prehistoric times. Aitchison (Botany of the Afghan Delimi-
Commission, Trans. Lin. Soc.) gives an interesting account
the wild fig-tree of Eastern Persia, and Abu Hanifeh, author
e Book of Plants, describes the fig as wild in the Sarah,
nd commonly eaten by the people in its fresh state, and also

e” (uV!), it is mentioned along with the olive. God, say
the commentators, swears by these two fruits, because of their
great uses and virtues, for the fig is wholesome and easy of
di estion, and medicinally good to carry off phlegm, and gravel
the kidneys or bladder, and to remove obstructions of the
er and spleen, and it cures piles and the gout, &c.

_ The cultivation of this tree in India was introduced by the
thometans, and is now carried on by both Mahometans and
Hindus in many parts of the country ; caprification is not
practised, and all the fruit which we have seen is much inferior
to that grown in Kurope. Two varieties, the purple and the
: green, are cultivated in the Bombay Presidency, where the
area under fig cultivation is about 300 acres ; the Hindus are

Dried figs were brought to India from Arabia and Persia,
long before the tree was cultivated in the country, by the early
Arab traders to the Western Coast, and overland from Persia ;
they are of a small kind, pressed flat and strung upon a string
made of camels’ hair ; when well washed and stewed in syrup

344 URTICACHKA

they are not unpalatable. We have frequently used them for
the preparation of confection of senna with satisfactory results.

Description.—A fig consists of a thick, fleshy, hollow
receptacle of a pear-shaped form, on the inner face of which
grow a multitude of minute fruits. This receptacle, which is
provided with an orifice at the top, is at first green, tough and
leathery, exuding when pricked a milky juice; on maturity
it becomes soft and juicy, and the milky juice is replaced by @
saccharine fluid. The orifice is surrounded, and almost closed
by a number of scales, near which, and within the fig, the male
flowers are situated, but they are often wanting, or are not fully
developed. The female flowers stand further within the
receptacle, in the body of which they are closely packed ; they
are stalked, have a five-leafed perianth and a bipartite stigma.
The ovary, whichis generally one-celled, becomes when, ripe;
minute, dry, hard nut, popularly regarded as a seed. (Pharma-

cographia.)
Chemical composition.—Exclusive of the achenes, which,
together with the cellular tissue, Bley (1831) found to consti-
tute about 15 per cent. of the weight of figs, he obtained 16
per cent. of water, 62°5 per cent. of sugar (glucose), the re-
mainder being gum, fat, and saline constituents. The mean
of five analyses of dried figs reported by Kénig affords the

the following percentage results :-—

Water P Fe 8
Albuminoids 4°01
Su gar BS 49°79
Ash 2°86
The anhydrous figs contained -92 per cent, of nitrogen and
2 26 per cent. of sugar.

A. Hansen in 1886 found that the latex of Ficus Carica
contained principles capable of effecting four fermentative
changes ; they peptonise albuminoids in the presence of either

lies or acids, act on starch like diastase, and coagulate the
casein of te The Products of. digestion are the same as with.
h the tw Hmofenpionts are not identical In 1890,

URTICACEA. 345

__ U. Mussi separated from fig sap a digestive ferment which he
named ‘‘cradina,” from krade (xp45), the name given by the
Greeks to the part of the fig with which they associated the
digestive property. It contains nitrogen, and differs from
pepsin in maintaining its digestive power in an alkaline liquor,
and from papain or papayotin in being insoluble in water,
not precipitated from solution by alcohol or lead acetate, and.
in its activity not being diminished in the presence of hydro-
chloric acid.

The following species of Ficus are also considered to have
medicinal properties :—

Ficus Rumphii, B/. King Fic. 54, ¢, 673, 84t; Waghé
_ Ie., t. 640,—Pakar (Hind.), Gai-asvat (Beng.), Pair, Ashta
_ (Mar.), a native of the hill slopes of North-Western and Central
India, isa tree having much the appearance of the Pipal ;
leaves on very long petioles {6 to 8 in.), broad-cordate, with a
3 short and sudden acumination, rather membranaceous with
__ waved margins, finely reticulated beneath, perfectly smooth ;
fruit paired, sessile, round, smooth, black, of the size and
appearance of a black cherry. The juice is used in the Concan
to kill worms, and is given internally with turmeric, pepper
and ghf, in pills, the size of a pea, for the relief of asthma; it
causes vomiting. The juice is also burned in a closed vessel
with the flowers of Mudar, and four gunjds’ weight of the
ashes mixed with honey is given for the same purpose. _

Ficus retusa, Linn. King Fie. 50, ¢. 61, 62, 84p; Wight
Ic., t, 642,—Kamrup (Hind., Beng.), Yerra-juvi (7e/.), Pilaka
(Can.), Jili (Tam.), Nandruk (Mar.), a native of the base of the
Eastern Himalaya and of the Deccan Peninsula, is used medi-
cinally in rheumatism, the leaves and bark being pounded and
applied as a poultice. In the Concan the following prescription
is in use for flatulent colic :—Take of Nandruk leaf-juice, Tulsi
leaf-juice, and ghf, equal parts; boil until all the water has
evaporated ; do this again 21 times with fresh quantities of the
juice of the two plants ; the residuum may then be applied to
the belly, and fomentation with a hot brick be pretieesy ae

Ill, —44

346 URTICACEHA,

Rheede notices a similar use of the plant. (Hort. Mal., iii,
t. 55,) The juice of the bark has a seen in liver disease;
dose, 1 tolain milk,

Ficus asperrima, Roxb. Wight Ic., t. 633,—K4l-umar
(Hind.), Kara-karbuda (Te/.), Khargas (Oan.), Kharvat, Kharoti
(Mar.), a native of Central India and the Deccan Peninsula,
remarkable for the roughness of its leaves, which are used a8 —
sand paper by the natives, and have been given the name of —
Folhas da raspa by the Portuguese, is a small tree with ovate,
alternate, very rough leaves of a pale green colour, at the apex
of the petiole and in the axils of the leaf-veins there are small
shining green glands asin F. hispida, except that the glands
are more completely in the axils, and appear closed, whereas in
the latter plant they have a distinct stoma. The leaves owe
their roughness to the presence of calcareous hairs. Both the

juice of the plant and the bark are well-known remedies for -

glandular enlargements of the abdomen, such as liver and
spleen. Rheede says that the root taken in the morning with
palm vinegar “viscerum ardorem compescit.” The bark is
brown, scabrous and brittle, and has a bitter and ater
taste.

Chemical composition—The bark contains a orystellial
principle soluble in alcohol, which is precipitated by alkaloidal
reagents, and is not coloured by the stronger acids. It also
contains an organic acid precipitated by gelatine, and darkened
in colour by ferric chloride. The ash of the air-dried bark
afforded 18-4 per cent. of white calcareous ash.

Ficus hispida, Linn. Wight Ic., tt. 638, 641, the
rE demonum of Kenig, is the Kakodumbara or Kakodumbarika,
“ erows’ fig,” of Sanskrit writers, and is stated in Madanpal’s
Nighanta to have the same properties as F. glomerata, It is the
Két-gular of Hindustan, the Kako-dumar of Bengal, the Bokhera
or Dhed-umbar of Bombay, and the Pe-attis of Madras.
Rheede says that the fruit boiled in goat’s milk is used in
hepatic obstruction ; it has been brought to notice by Mr. x
Sheriff on account of its: emetic ae. The shrub has

URTICACEZ. 347

opposite, cuneate, oblong leaves, which are scabrous above and
downy beneath. The fruit is like a small fig and very
downy ; it usually grows from the stem near or beneath the
ground ; an interesting description of it by Dr. G. King forms
one of the series of Scientific Memoirs by Medical Officers of the
Army of India, published at the Government Printing Press,
Calcutta. In Bombay and the Concan the powdered fruit
heated with a little water is made into a dep, or poultice,
__ which is applied to buboes, which it either disperses or brin
rapidly to maturity. The fruit is also given to milch-cattle to
dry up their milk.

The emetic properties of the plant are due to the presence 5:
saponin.

Chemical composition —The bark contained 2°1 per cent. of
tannin, and some wax and caoutchouc-like substance. No
alkaloid was discovered, but a glucosidal principle, having the
properties of saponin, was separated from a decoction by
barium hydrate. The air-dried bark yielded 13°6 per cent. of
mineral matter on incineration.

Ficus gibbosa, Bi. King Fic. 4, t.2; Wight Ic., t. 650,
is a native of the bases of the hill ranges throughout India.
It is a climbing shrub, and often a tree with a stem as thick
as a man’s arm ; leaves alternate, very shortly petioled, some-
what ovate, suddenly acuminated, very unequally sided, cuneate
toward the base; lateral nerves 8 to 4 on each side, prominent,
spreading, uniting in arches, pale green, rough, length 3 to 4
inches, sometimes a little toothed on the margin; fruit small.
The Flora of British India describes four varieties of this plant.
In Western India the root-bark is considered to be stomachic
and gently aperient. The Marathi name is Dantira, the Telugi
names Konda-juvi and Tella-barinka.

ay Vat ie ees Reeth eas RS ac 52 ae ee eh el pee oe AA kr ieee a
ste Bah: a Ga :

Me itr ah she Be oe aa

Chemical composition—The bark contains 4°3 per cent. of
tannin ; besides some colouring matter, a small quantity of an
alkaloidal principle was separated from the tincture, having no
very characteristic reactions with the strong acids, The ash of
the air-dried bark was 15 per cent,

oe

348 -URTICACEZ:.

ANTIARIS TOXICARIA, Lesch.

Fig.— Bot. Mag. i., t. 17; Wight Ic., t. 1958; Bedd. FV.
Sylv., t.307, The Upas tree (Hng.), Antiar vénéneux (Fr.).

Hab.—The Deccan Peninsula, Ceylon. The nuts.

Vernacular.—Chéndul, Chandakuda, Sépsind{ (Mar.),
Nettavil-maram (Tam.), Jajhugri (Can.), Araya-angeli (Jfal.).

History, Uses, &c.—‘‘Most exaggerated statements
respecting this plant were circulated by a Dutch Surgeon about
the close of the last century. The tree was described as grow-
ing in a desert tract, with no other plant near it for the distance
of 10 or 12 miles, Criminals condemned to die were offered

the chance of life if they would go to the Upas tree and collect
some of the poison. They were furnished with proper directions,
and armed with due precaution, but not more than two out of
every twenty ever returned. The Dutch Surgeon Foersch states
that he had derived his information from some of those who
had been lucky enough to escape, albeit the ground around was
strewn with the bones of their predecessors; and such was the
virulence of the poison, that “ there are no fish in the waters,
nor has any rat, mouse, or any other vermin been seen there ;
and when any birds fly so near this tree that the effluvia reaches
them, they fall a sacrifice to the effects of the poison. Out of
a population of 1,600 persons, who were compelled, on account
of civil dissensions, to reside within 12 or 14 miles of the. tree,
not more than 300 remained in less than two months, Foersch
states that he conversed with some of the survivors, and pro-
ceeds to give an account of some experiments that he witnessed —
with the gum of this tree, these experiments consisting prin-
-cipally in the execution of several women, by direction of the Em-
peror! Now, as specimens of this tree are cultivated in botanic
gardens, it cannot have such virulent properties as it was stated
to have; moreover, it is now known to grow in woods with other
trees, and birds and lizards have been observed on its —_—-
Y grows in certain low yalleys in Java, rend
a Se et — from crevices in

URTICACEZ. 349

the ground, and which is given off in such abundance as to be
fatal to animals that approach too closely. These pestiferous
valleys are connected with the numerous volcanoes in the
island. The craters of some of these emit, according to
Reinwardt, sulphureous vapours in such abundance as to cause
the death of great numbers of tigers, birds and insects; while the
rivers and lakes are in some cases so charged with sulphuric
acid, that no fish can live in them.” (Treasury of Botany.)
- In Travancore A. toricaria is known as the sacking tree, and is
not regarded by the natives as poisonous; the same is the case in
Coorg, where sacks and even garments are sometimes made from
the inner bark. In the Concan and in Canara the bitter seeds
are used as a febrifuge, and as a remedy in dysentery, one-third
_to one-half of a seed being given three times a day.

The use in the Malayan region of a vegetable poison to tip
the bamboo arrows which are discharged from a blowpipe, is too
well known to need description. To this the name Upas is
given in Java, and Ipoh by the Malays elsewhere. Both words
have the same meaning, and, according to Blume, signify
poison, ‘There is no doubt that this poison isthe produce of
A. toxicaria. In 1878, Regnault experimented with a poison
used by the savages of Tonkin to poison their arrows, and in a
communication to the Société de biologie he showed that this
substance was a powerful heart poison. Baillon identified the
leaves from which the poison was prepared as those of
A. toxicaria. In 1881, Sir Cecil Smith, then Colonial Secretary
to the Straits Settlements, forwarded to Kew a bottle of Ipoh
poison as well as foliage specimens of the tree from which it
was obtained. These were collected by Sir Hugh Low, then
British Resident in Perak, at the Plus River. The poison was
subjected to a careful examination by Dr. Sidney Ringer, who
reported that it was perfectly inert. The plant seemed identical
with that collected by Griffith, and both were identified at Kew
with the Javanese A. fovicaria. In 1888, Chauvet (Thése
Bordeaux) examined the arrow poison of Indo-China, and came
to the same conclusions concerning its poisonous properties as
were arrived at by Regnault in 1878. In 1889, the Straits

350 URTICACEM.

Government sent to Kew further specimens of Jpoh poison,
which were again examined by Dr. Ringer with entirely
negative results. Botanists were not, however, unprepared for
this result. The Dutch botanist, Blume, in his fine work
‘ Rumphia,’ has given an elaborate account of the Javanese Upas
and of the tree which yields it (pp. 46—59, tt. 22, 23), but he
points out that Rumphius, our earliest authority on Malayan
botany, distinguished two kinds of Upas trees, which he termed
Arbor toxicaria femina and mas respectively. Rumphius’s femina
was destitute of any poisonous qualities, and Blume has
described it as a distinct species under the name of A. innovia
(Rumphia, pp. 171—173, t. 54). He received specimens from
the island of Timor, where Spanoghe* found that the sap was
destitute of any poisonous effect on animals; he also gives
Celebes as a locality for the innocuous plant. Other botanists
have not, however, found themselves able to attach much weight
to the distinctive characters pointed out by Blume, and there
can be no doubt that what weighed principally in his mind was
the remarkable difference in the properties of the two forms.
Species are, however, made by botanists on structural (morpholo-
gical) differences and not on physiological. In the same
species of Cinchona it is now known that there are the widest
differences in the amount and even nature of the alkaloids
which can be extracted from the bark. An equally striking,
and even better known instance of differences in properties,
unaccompanied by any difference in external characters, 18
afforded by two well-known British umbelliferous plants,
GEnanthe crocata and Cicuta virosa, which Sir R. Christison
found to be innocuous when grown near Edinburgh.

_ Brandis in his ‘Forest Flora’ has identified with A. innowia the
A. saccidora of South-west India. According to Beddome, this is
“the largest tree of the vergreen forestsof the Western Ghauts,
and the hills betweem taem and the Coast.”” Sacks are made of the
one I «wa bark. The method is thus described

s account of the innocuous Upas of Timor is printed, yrinted, to-
that of

with Leschenauit on the virulent Bind 3 in Hooker’s Companion
f fe Peal erat Vol. cm, 308—317

bal

Se ea oe Re CRE PL)
‘ ier iz)

ete

URTICACEZ. 351

by Graham’':—‘‘A branch is cut corresponding to the length and
diameter of the sack wanted, soaked a little, and then beaten
with clubs till the fibre separates from the wood. This done, the
sack formed of the bark is turned inside out, and pulled down,
until the wood is sawed off, with the exception of a small piece
left to form the bottom of the sack, which is carefully left un-
touched.”

Brandis remarks (/. c., p. 427) :—‘‘Another species of the

same genus (Myah seik, Burm.) is found in the dense evergreen _

forests of the Thoungyeen Valley. In Tenasserim the juice is

used by the Karens to poison arrows, but the poison does not seem

equal in its effects to that of the famous Upas tree of the Indian
Archipelago.” Mason refers the Pegu Upas to A. ovalifolia,
a very large timber tree scattered in the forests from Mergui to
Toungoo. The milky juice is intensely bitter, and when
swallowed produces sore-throat. Arrows that have been smeared
with it and hung exposed to the air, lose their power to pro-
duce death, and there is said to be a difference in the virulence
of the poison at different times of the year. Nothing more
seems to be known of the tree which yields the Karen arrow
poison, but it is very probably referable to A. tovicaria, and
Gamble (Manual of Indian Timbers, p. 332) refers the Burmese
name Myah seik to that species. (Archives de Physiologie, 2,1891 ;
Kew Builetin, 50,1891.)

In 1891, MM. E. Boinet and E. Hedon examined the arrow
poison used by the Muongs of Tonkin. They found the quan-
tity of the poison on each bamboo arrow to be about halfa gram
of a brownish substance soluble in water. Three drops of a
solution of 0°50 gram of the poison in 10 grams of water placed
upon a frog’s heart arrested the pulsations in seven minutes,
and a subcutaneous injection of one centigram of the poison
proved fatal toa guinea pig. From twenty experiments, it
was found that one centigram per kilo body-weight was rapidly
fatal to the animals experimented upon.

The authors arrive at the following conclusions :—

1st,—That the poison has no appreciable effect upon the 2

nervo-muscular or central nervous —

352 URTICAOEZ.

2nd.—The breathing is accelerated for a few minutes after
the injection of the poison, but afterwards the
number of respirations gradually decreases until
death takes place.

3rd.—The final effect of the poison is to stop the heart in
systole.

In the poisoned frogs the ventricle was contracted, empty,
hard and white. In the mammal the left ventricle was smaller
and harder than usual, the right ventricle less contracted and
full of dark blood. Before final stoppage the heart symptoms
may be divided into several stages. In mammals, at a certain
period after the injection of the poison, a sudden want of
rythm was observed, the heart beating very irregularly. After-
wards the pulsations became more and more feeble, with
occasional stronger contractions, and finally periods of great
depression alternating with periods of stronger pulsation were ~
observed, In all cases a few auricular pulsations occurred after
stoppage of the ventricles. It was remarked also that pulsation
could be re-induced by mechanical or electrical stimulation of
the heart muscle,

In the frog the first effect of the poison on the heart is a
very marked doubling of the pulsations. Wheres in the
normal condition the auricular contracti iately precedes
the ventricular, and is shown on the pulse tracing by a slight
hitch in the curve of the total pulsation; in the poisoned animal
the two pulsations are separated by a marked interval, and finally
the auricular curve becomes so marked as to equal or even
exceed in size the gradually decreasing ventricular curve.

_In the second stage the ventricle only contracts once to
several auricular contractions, that is, it only contracts when
it has become sufficiently distended with blood to excite con-
tractions,

In the last stage the strength of the auricular contractions
gradually decreases, the ventricle remaining immovable,
empty, and contracted. The authors conclude that the poison
acts upon the intracardiac os and not upon the central

URTICACER, — eae 353

The poison, we are informed, is prepared by the natives of
‘Tonquin from the leaves of A. foricaria, and experiments made
by the authors with the leaves of that plant prove clearly that
hey are the only active ingredient in the arrow poison.
(Archives de Phys., 1891, p. 378.) :

A still more recent investigation of the Ipoh poison by
Mr. L. Wray, the Curator and State Geologist of Perak, has been

from the tree by scoring the bark. The sap is heated on a
ula till evaporated, leaving a dark gummy substance in which
arrows are dipped ; 34 ounces of sap will do for poisoning 100
arrow points. The sap was bitter and biting in taste and
decidedly acid to test paper ; when exposed to the air it darkens
to a brown colour, and yields when dried 29 per cent. of
Ipoh. If this substance is placed on a glass slide and examined.
under a microscope it is seen to contain numerous crystals of
antiarin. Some fruiting specimens of the Ipoh were sent to
Kew in 1883, and were pronounced to be identical with the
Javan specimens of A. towicaria. With reference to the two
kinds of Upas distinguished by Blume as Arbor towicaria femina
_ et mas, the latter word in Malay means “ gold” ; it is so called
from the golden colour of the inner bark. In the innocuous
_ variety, so say the Samangs, the inner bark is blackish coloured,
and so they distinguish the poisonous from the non-poisonous
trees. They have never mixed arsenic with the sap. One
fluid ounce of Ipoh sap was found to yield 10°85 grains of
antiarin or 2°482 per cent. The dried Ipoh poison, of which
the sap contains 29 per cent., therefore has 8°56 per cent. of
antiarin in it. 0-086 of a grain of the dried poison is ‘enough
to kill an animal weighing 20 lbs., when introduced into the
circulation. Fowls and pheasants are proof against the poison,
but a cat struck with a poisoned dart died within 19 minutes.

Bulletin for October and November 1891.
Description,—The nuts are sub-globular, the size of a
marble, of a light-brown colour, and have a slightly prominent
umbilicus; they are enclosed in a sweet greenish-yellow pulp

Ill —45 :

lished in the Perak Gazette. He says :—The Samangs get the _

Mr. Wray’s Report has since been published in the Kew

354 URTICACEA,

forming a small one-seeded fig with a mech purple bloom.
The shell is thin and fragile, the kernel, loose inside the shell,
is of the size of a large pea, brown, sub-globular, rugose,
especially upon the flatter side; substance hard and very bitter.

Chemical composition.—W hen the sap of the tree is exhausted
with boiling alcohol, a mixture of vegetable albumin, gum and
wax remains undissolved, while a solution is formed, which
throws down, on cooling, wax, antiar-resin, and albumin. On
removing the sediment and evaporating, more resin and wax
are deposited, and the solution dries up at last to an extract, from
a solution of which in boiling water Antiarin, C'“H®°O°+2H°,
amounting to 3:5 per cent. of the dried sap, crystallises. The
erystals are purified by washing and recrystallisation. Antiarin
forms splendid silvery laminz resembling malate of lime.

The flakes which separate from the alcohol after boiling it
with the sap of A. fowicaria, consist of Antiar-resin, C°°H™0*,
which may be obtained white by re-solution in boiling aleohol ;
when dry it has a glassy fracture, but becomes pasty if warmed.
It is not poisonous, whilst antiarin causes death if introduced
into the circulation in minute portions. (Mulder in Gmelin’s
Handbook, Vol. XV1., p. 217.

The wax deposited'on cooling from an extract of the juice
prepared with hot alcohol, and purified by boiling with water,
is white and brittle, softening at 30°, and melting at 35°, sp-
gr. 1016 at 20°. It is decomposed by nitric acid, blackened by
sulphuric acid, and not affected by hydrochloric acid or potash-
ley. It is soluble in alcohol and ether, especially on boiling.
Average composition 77:29 per cent, Carbon, 11-71 H, and 11 O.

_ (Ibid., Vol. XVIII, p- 158.)

- The seeds of the Indian plant, collected in Savant Vadi,
contain _® crystalline principle, very bitter and poisonous,
ing, if not identical with, antiarin. It is soluble in
water, —— and very slightly in ether. It gives a reddish-
with sulphuric acid, and a yellowish or orange
claus wilh nitric acid. On allowing the dried extract to stand,
—_S ‘crystallize out, but if the alcoholic extract

is dissolved in es ase which it is quite soluble (chewing

URTICACEM. 355

absence of resinous matter), and the solution agitated with
crude ether, crystals can be obtained from the decanted ethereal
layer. The solution also reduced Fehling’s solution. About
2 per cent. of fat, 11°33 of water, and 3-46 of ash were sepa-
_ rated from the air-dried seeds.
The juice of Artocarpus integrifolia, Linn., the well-
own Jack tree, in Sanskrit Panasa, heated over the fire, is a
pular cement for joining broken China and _ stoneware.
e deposit from the milky juice is insoluble in water, partly
uble in alcohol, and entirely so in benzol. It is a variety —
caoutchouc, and in the natural state can be used as a
rdlime, or as a cement for broken articles; after being
washed in boiling water it becomes harder, and may be used
for all the ordinary purposes of India-rubber. The yellow dye
which is obtained from the wood is of a resinous nature, and
may be extracted by boiling water or alcohol. The juice of
A. Lakoocha, Rozb., or one or two of the seeds, is a popular
purge in Bengal; the tree is the Dahu of Sanskrit writers.
~Rheede states that the dry leaves and juice of A. hirsuta,
_Lamk., together with zedoary and camphor, are applied to buboes
and swelled testicles, The dried juice breaks with a resinous
fracture, is only partly soluble in alcohol, wholly soluble in
benzol and petroleum ether. The tree yields the Anjelly wood —
_ of South India, and is called Ayani in Malabar, where it is very

t.

MYRICACEA:.

MYRICA NAGI, Thund.
Fig.—Bot. Mag., t. 5727; Wight Ic., t. 764, 768.
Hab.—Subtropical Himalaya. The bark.

Vernacular.—Kaiphal, Kétphal (Hind., Guz., Beng.), Kaya
phala. (Mar.), Marudam-pattai (Zam.), Baideryama (Zed. ore
en toli (Mal.), Kirishivani (Caz.).

356 : URTICACEZ.

History, Uses, &c.—The bark of this tree is its most
valuable product, and is largely exported to the plains. It is
ealled in Sanskrit Katphala, and bears among other synonyms
those of Kumuda, Kumbhi-péki, Sriparnika, Somavalka, and

Mahakumbhi. According to the Nighantas, it is useful in —

diseases caused by deranged phlegm, such as fever, asthma,
gonorrhea, piles, cough, and other affections of the throat. It
is an ingredient in numerous formule for these diseases, such
as the Katphaladi churna, for which Sarangadhara gives the
following prescription :—Take of the bark of M. Nagi, tubers
of Cyperus rotundus (Mustaka), root of Picrorhiza Kurrooa
(Katuki,), Curcuma Zedoaria (Sati), galls of Pistacia integerrima
(Karkata-sringi), and root of Sausswrea Lappa (Kushta), equal
parts; powder and mix. This powder is given in doses of
about a drachm with the addition of ginger juice and honey in
affections of the throat, cough and asthma, The powdered
bark is used as a snuff in catarrh, and angers with ginger as
an external stimulant application in cholera,

Under the names of Daér-shishaén, Kandal, ae Ud-el-bark,
Mahometan writers state that the bark is resolvent, astringent,
carminative, and tonic; that it cures catarrh and headaches;
with cinnamon they piecaeti it for chronic cough, fever, piles,
&c. Compounded with vinegar it strengthens the gums and
cures toothache ; an oil prepared from it is dropped into the
ears in earache. A decoction is a valuable remedy in asthma,
diarrhoea and diuresis; powdered or in the form of lotion the bark
is applied to putrid sores; pessaries made of it promote uterine
action. The usual dose for internal administration is about 6'
grains. Duhn-el-kandi/,.an oil prepared from the flowers, is
said to have much the same properties as the bark. We have
‘never met with it, nor does it appear to be known in commeree.

Description.—Bark half an inch thick, externally
_seabrous, pitted from the separation of pieces of suber, of 4
ue. mottled rusty-brown and dirty white colour, suber warty;

(aah of ; and inner surface of a deep dull red colour ;

ater it —— a a red a ese

: *)Seipe eanae

CASUARINER, — 3h

Microscopie structure.— Within the suberous layer is a
remarkable stratum of stony cells; the parenchyma throughout
is loaded with red colouring matter, and permeated by large
laticiferous vessels, from which a gummy latex exudes when
the bark is soaked in water.

Chemical composition.—The bark of M. Nagi contains 14 per.
cent. of tannin, which gives a purplish colour with ferric salts,
but the tincture and decoction give a greenish colour owing
to the presence of colouring matter in the bark. The ash of
the air-dried bark amounts to 7°17 per cent.

When the bark is exhausted by water and the water eva-
porated, a brittle shining extract is obtained of a reddish-brown
colour, which contains 60 per cent. of tannin with some
saccharine matter and salts.

Commerce.—The bazaars are supplied from Northern India;
about 50 tons of the bark are collected annually in the Kumaon
forests. It is always obtainable in native drug shops. Value
about Rs, 2 per maund of 41 pounds.

CASUARINE.

CASUARINA EQUISETIFOLIA, Forst.

Fig.—Beddome, Forester’s Man., t. 226. Tinian Pine
(Eng.), Filao de l’ Inde ( F*.).

Hab.—East side of the Bay of Bengal. Cultivated else-
where. The bark, leaves, and seeds.

Vernacular.—Sinyu (Burm.), Chouk (Tam.), Sarva (Tel. é
K4srike (Mysore), Aru (Ma/.), Vildyati-saru (Mar.),

History, Uses, &c.—This tree is distributed ie

Chittagong, Burma, the Malay and Pacific Islands, and :
In

Australia, and is much cultivated on the coasts of India. I

358 CASUARINE.

Australia it is called the swamp oak. Dr. Bennett (Gather-
ings of a Naturalist in Australia) remarks: —‘‘ Their sombre
appearance causes them to be planted in cemeteries, where their
branches give out a mournful sighing sound, as the breeze
passes over them, waving at the same time their gloomy hearse-
like plumes.” The wood from its red colour is called in the
colonies Beef-wood, and is much used for fuel, and as a
timber on account of its hardness. The bark is astringent,
and the ashes of the trée yield a quantity of alkali. The
bark is used by the Madras fishermen for dyeing their
nets. Rumphius notices the use of a decoction of the bark
for a bath in Beri-beri, and of a decoction of the leaves in
colic. The pounded seeds, he says, are used as a plaster in
headache. :

According to Corre and Lejanne (Mat. Med. et Tor. Colon.),
the bark contains one-fifth of its weight of tannin and one-
twelfth of Casuarine, resin, and colouring matter. A decoction,
extract, tincture and syrup are used by the French in Tahiti,
Cochin-China, and the Antilles as an astringent. We have
observed that the tree yields an inferior sort of gum, not likely
to be of much value on account of its deep colour and insolubi-
lity in water.

Description.—Bark never very thick, brittle, breaking
with a coarse fibrous fracture, substance very hard, fibrous,
and of a pink colour; internal surface striated; external surface
covered with a scabrous grey suber, readily separating in
flakes, and displaying a thin brown suberous layer closely
adhering to the liber; taste strongly astringent; odour not

Chemical composition.—The bark yielded 18:3 per cent. of
tannic acid, giving a blue-black precipitate with ferric salts,
and a bulky precipitate with gelatine. The alcoholic extract
contained no alkaloidal principle, but a very small quantity of a
erystalline neutral principle was shaken out of the watery
— of the extract by ether; it was not coloured by strong

CUPULIFERZ, 359
CUPULIFER&. |

BETULA UTILIS, Don.
Fig.—Regel Monogr. 58, ¢. 6, f. 13-19; ¢. 18, f. 7-14; Jacg.
Voy. Bot., ¢, 158. Himalayan Birch (£ng.), Bouleau 4 papier
(Fr.).
Hab.—Temperate Himalaya, Afghanistan,

BETULA ALNOIDES, Ham.
Fig.—Brand. For. Fl., t. 56; Regel Monogr. 61, ¢. 6,
J. 32-34 ; ¢. 13, f. 29.
- Hab.—Temperate and subtropical Himalaya. The bark.
Vernacular.—Bhujpatar (Ind, Bazaars).

History, Uses, &c.—These trees require a brief notice,
as the bark, in Sanskrit Bhurjapatra, is much used all over the
country for writing medicinal charms on, and is to be found in
every druggist’s shop. This bark is well-known as the material
upon which the ancient Sanskrit manuscripts of Northern India
are written. Dr. Biihler, in his account of a tour in Cashmere
in search of Sanskrit manuscripts, says:—‘‘ The Bhurja MSS.
are written on specially prepared thin sheets of the inner bark
of the Himalayan birch, and invariably in Sarada characters.
The lines run always parallel to the narrow side of the leaf, and
the MSS. present, therefore, the appearance of European books,
not of Indian MSS., which owe their form to an imitation of the
Talapatras. The Himalayas seems to contain an inexhaustible
supply of birch-bark, which in Cashmere and other hill coun-
tries is used both instead of paper by the shop-keepers in the
bazaars, and for lining the roofs of houses in order to make them
: water-tight. It is also exported to India, where in many places
: it is likewise used for wrapping up parcels, and plays an import-
ant part in the manufacture of the flexible pipe-stems used by
huka-smokers. To give an idea of the quantities which are
brought into Srinagar, I may mention that on one single day aS

ee. Se et mw eae, eet

eee ne xt, Rae Dek oe we GPT ees hah Pe ee Bet Seton BOIS ee meine a
Ponies 5s © i mae che tat emery vats

5) Se Sere ees
aay

360 CUPULI FER.

I counted fourteen large barges with birch-bark on the river, and
that I have never moved about without seeing some boats laden
with it. None of the boats carried, I should say, less than three
or four tons’ weight.

“ The use of birch-bark for literary purposes is attested by
the earliest classical Sanskrit writers. Kalidisa mentions it in_
his dramas and epics; Susruta, Varahamihira ( circa 500-550
A.D.) know it likewise. Akbar introduced the manufacture of
paper, and thus created an industry for which Cashmere is now
famous in India. From that time the use of birch-bark for the
purpose of writing was discontinued, and the method of prepar-
ing it has been lost. The preparation of the ink, which was
used for Bhirja MSS., is known. It was made by converting
almonds into charcoal and boiling the coal thus obtained with
gomttra (urina bovis); this ink is not affected by damp or
water.” (Journal, Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society»
Vol. XII., No. XXXIV. A.)

QUERCUS INFECTORIA, Okivier.

; ~Fig.—Benii. and Trim., t. 249; Olivier, Voy. dans ? Emp.
- Oth. ii., p. 64, Atlas, tt. 14, 15; Steph. & Ohurch, t. 152.
Dyers’ oak ( Hng.), Chéne a la galle (/’.).

- Hab.—Asia Minor, Syria, Turkey. The galls.

Vernacular.—Majuphal, M&phal (Hind., Beng.), Maiphala,
Maja (Mar.), Mashik-kéy (Tam.), Mashi-kéya (Te/.), Machi-
kéyi (Can.), Mayaphal (Guz.).

_ History, Uses, &c.—The Sanskrit name for galls is
Méyin or Mayika, and signifies ‘‘ magic,” the gall-nut being
used in India in magic rites.

Galls were well known to the Greeks and Romans, who used
them medicinally on account of their astringent properties.”
India has probably been supplied with them from an early
date, vié the Persian Gulf, the greater portion being still
shipped at Basra on board Arab vessels, hence the names Basra

* Compare with Dios., i. 127. mepi xykiBov; and Pliny, 16, 9, and 24, 5.

CUPULIFERR, | 361

and Maka galls. The medicinal uses to which galls are put in
India hans differ from those with which we are familiar.
The Hindus divide them into two kinds, black and white, and
generally prescribe both kinds together in the same presecrip-
tion. Mahometan writers direct the dark-coloured unper-
_ forated galls to be selected as the best.
The Arabs call them was (q/s), and say that the tree, which i is
not of the land of the Arabs, bears one year galls and another
Ballit (acorns). In Persia they are known as Mazi or Mé4zin ;

Bae I se yead” pope 65 Aes! orf pr oh

galls are generally used in preference to the raw material.

‘The action of tannin is chiefly local, and is due to its power
of coagulating albumen; it is therefore a useful application
when the skin has been deprived of its epidermis by diseases
such as intertrigo, impetigo and eczema, as it forms with the
exudations a protective coating, and at the same time contracts
_ the cells of the skin.

_ When applied to a mucous membrane, it causes dryness, coag-
ulation of mucus, and destroys to a great extent the sensibility
of the membrane; on this account it is employed in stomatitis,
sore-throat, and cough due to irritation at the back of the
pharynx, and also as an injection in chronic discharges from
the genito-urinary passages.

When taken into the stomach in large doses it causes irri-
tation, and possibly vomiting, but in smaller doses it is often
useful in hematemesis and intestinal hemorrhage by coagulating
_ the blood and thus acting as a styptic. In poisoning by the
alkaloids it acts as a chemical antidote by forming tannates
which are but sparingly soluble in the juices of the alimentary
canal; it is also used as an antidote in poisoning by tartar

used as an antidote its administration should be followed by a
purgative, asthe tannates of the alkaloids will be partially
_ redissolved, if allowed to remain in the intestines.
ILL—46

the author of the Burhdn says they are —_ by tanners, —

emetic, with which it forms an insoluble tannate. When —

4

In modern medicine tannic and gallic sate obtained from

_-menters.

362 OUPULIFERZ.

Dr. R. Stockman has conducted a series of careful experi-
ments with gallic and tannic acids, with the object of determin-
‘ing the influences which the vegetable astringents exert upon
the blood-vessels and animal tissues after absorption. He finds
that tannic acid on its entry into the stomach forms alkaline
tannates and tannates of albumin. A part of it, and sometimes
the whole, is converted into gallic acid in the stomach and
intestines, and it is difficult to find a trace of tannic acid in the
blood, although it can be detected in the urine. Dr. Stockman
comes to the conclusion that tannic acid enters the circulation in
combination with alkalies and albumin, and is excreted with
such rapidity that only a trace of its presence can be detected in
the blood, but that its presence in the genito-urinary tracts and
in greater quantity in the intestines can be readily shown. It
does not appear to be excreted by the mucous lining of the air
passages. It was found that the urine of dogs, rabbits, and
human beings, after the administration of tannic acid, contained
gallic acid and only a small quantity of tannic acid, but when
tannate of soda was administered the urine contained a large
proportion of tannic acid and but little gallic acid. These
results may be explained in the following manner :—When free
tannic acid is brought in contact with the contents of the
stomach, it is chiefly converted into tannate of albumin, only @
small quantity of alkaline tannate being formed. The tannate
of albumin being very insoluble is retained for a long time in
the intestines, until it is in a condition to be converted into
gallic acid, in which form it is at length absorbed; on the other
hand, the alkaline tannate is at once absorbed and passes off in
the urine. Under these circumstances, the administration of
tannate of soda naturally gives rise to the presence of a large
Proportion of tannic acid and a small proportion of gallic acid
in the urine,

Dr. Stockman did not find pyrogallic acid in the urine, but
this experience is in opposition to that of other experi-

i ee cca acid was “orate that acid only was found.

CUPULIFERA. 363

_ According to Dr. Stockman, tannic acid exerts no action upon
the urinary excretion, and gallic acid does not cause contraction
of the blood-vessels, but on the contrary dilates them even
after contraction has been induced by the action of an alkaline
iquid. The neutral gallate of soda, in which form gallic acid
culates in the blood, was found to have no action upon the

f Fikentscher has stated that tannic acid adminis-
red hypodermically to frogs stimulates the vaso-motar centres
and iucreases the blood pressure, but Dr. Stockman found that
gallate and tannate of soda administered in this way to rabbits did
not affect the pressure. Pyrogallic acid yielded similar results.
As regards the therapeutic value of gallic ame asa local appli-

that it has no special astringent ahah but that it diminishes
the alkalinity of the blood and increases its tendency. to

doubtful whether it exerts any therapeutic action, but Ribbert
considers that it lessens the exudation of albumin in albumi-
nuria. Tannic acid is sometimes injected into the rectum to
destroy thread worms, which it does by coagulating the albumin
‘in their delicate tissues.
Description.— Two kinds of gall are found upon Oak
trees, hard and soft; the former are the galls of commerce, and
- are produced by a Cynips which punctures the buds of the tree
and deposits its egg in the puncture; the latter result from
the puncture of an aphis.

Gall-nuts are globular or pyriform bodies, studded with
numerous tuberosities; those which still contain the inaged are

364 SALICINEZ.

of a blackish or bluish-green colour and heavy; those from
which the insect has eseaped are of much lighter colour, gene-
rally yellowish-white, on one side a round hole may be perceiv-
ed ; they are also lighter in weight and less astringent. When
a gall is cut in two a round cavity is seen in its centre, which
may or may not be occupied by the insect; in the latter case a
passage leads from the cavity to the exterior.

Microscopie structure. —The contents of the central cavity,
if present, are seen to consist of a starchy parenchyme destined
to supply food to the larva. The walls of the cavity are formed
of stone-cells. The bulk of the gall consists of cells arranged
in a radiating manner, many of them containing colouring
matter and tannin. Towards the exterior of the gall the cells
contain dark-coloured chlorophyl; on the very surface the
cells are small and thick-walled and form a kind of rind.

Chemical composition.—The principal constituent of galls is
tannin or tannic acid. The tannin of different plants possesses
distinctive characters ; that obtained from galls is known as
gallo-tannic acid. It isi identical with the tannin of Rhus cort-
aria, Linn. (Sumach).

Galls afford from 60 to 70 per cent. of tannin, and about
2 per cent. each of gallic and ellagic acids.

Commerce.—Galls are imported from Basra and the Persian
Gulf ports. Value: White, Rs. 10 per maund of 374 lbs.;
Blue, Rs. 17. Imports about 1,400 cwts. yearly.

SALICINE,

SALIX CAPREA, Linn.
Fig.—Eng. Bot,, 1488; Reichb. Fl. Germ,, t. 577. Great
ates Sallow, Goats’ Sallow (Hng.), Marceau, Marsault
r.
_ Hab.—Persia, Europe. Cultivated in N.-W. India. The
bark, Hates Sa and, porate.

‘SALICINES. 365

History, Uses, &c,—The willow izéa was well-known
to the ancient Greeks, and the Greek name is considered to be
cognate to the Sanskrit Vitika, the old German Wida, and the >
old English With or Withy. Herodotus (i.,194) mentions it,
and Theophrastus (H. P. ii., 13) mentions two kinds, Acv«y
and péAawa, Dioscorides 4,121) notices its astringent pro-
perties, and the various medicinal uses to which the bark,
leaves, seed and juice were put. Pliny (17, 20) describes the
cultivation of the willow, and (24, 9) its medicinal properties.
The ancients considered it to be very cooling, ‘‘ Porro impediunt
et remittunt coitum folia salicis trita et epota”; it was also
_ thought to occasion sterility in women. The concrete juice of
the plant mentioned by Greek and Latin writers is considered

by Fée to have been a kind of manna.

Ibn Sina, under the name of Khilif, follows Dioscorides closely
in his description of the medicinal uses of the willow, but he
mentions the use of the flowers of 8. Caprea separately under
the name of Behramaj, a corruption of the Persian Behrameh.
The Mahometan physicians all mention the juice or gum ( &<)
of the plant, and Haji Zein states that it exudes from the leaves.
‘It is probably the substance’ described by M. Raby (Union
Pharm., May, 1889), under the name of Bidenguébine or
‘‘willow honey,’ said to be derived from the leaves and
young branches of a willow, and to have a feebly saccharine
taste.

In Persia S. Caprea is known as Bid-i-Balkhi, and its flowers
as Bidmishk; willow bark is still a popular febrifuge in that
country. Aitchison mentions the following species of Salix as
occurring wild or cultivated in Persia:—S. pycnostachya,
Anders., S. acmophylla, Boiss., S. babylonica, Linn., S. Daviesii,
Boiss., S. alba, Linn., S. songarica, Anders., and S. Caprea,
Linn,

In China and Persia the tree is considered to be symbolic of
immortality. S. babylonica is planted in burial grounds in
the latter country, and has been introduced into India by the
Moghals for this purpose; among the Romans it was sacred to

366 SALICINE.

Juno Fluonia. For an account of the funereal use of the
willow in China, the reader is referred to Schlegel’s Uran-
ographie Chinoise, or De Gubernatis’ Myth. des Plantes, article
Saule.

The Persian settlers in India have introduced the flowers
(bidmishk) and the distilled water (ma-el-khilaf) of S. Caprea,
both of which are used by the upper classes of Mahometans
and Parsees, who consider them to be cephalic and cardiacal,
and use themas domestic remedies in almost every kag of
slight ailment.

Raughan-i-bid, an oil prepared by boiling two parts of the
distilled water with one of sesamum oil until the water has all
evaporated, is a favorite remedy for cough.

Fora long series of years the willow fell into disuse in Europe,
but was again brought into notice in 1763 by the Rev. Mr.

Stone, who published a paper on the efficacy of the bark of -

S. alba as a remedy for agues. The broad-leaved willow bark
(S. Caprea) was subsequently introduced into practice by
Mr. James, whose observations on its efficacy were afterwards

confirmed by Mr. White and Mr, G. Wilkinson (Pereira, Mat.

Med., ii., Pt. 1, p. 837). Willow bark was formerly official in the
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Pharmacopeeias, and was consi-
dered no bad substitute for cinchona in agues. S. Caprea is
one of those willows which yield salicin and tannin, and is
remarkable for its large yellow fragrant catkins.
Salicin, which was discovered in 1825, and first obtained in
a pure state in 1830, was at first much vaunted as an antiphlo-
gistic by Riess and others in those cases in which salicylic acid
is now employed; it was also used as an antiperiodic in ague,
and is said to have been found efficient in preventing the
_ development of acute coryza and influenza, and in mitigating
the symptoms of hay fever. It was usually administered in

_ 10-grain doses frequently repeated. More extended experience,

= : petit led to the conclusion that it has little or no influence
a the temperature, and the ually fell into disre
: until PN airy the a Aanmaeg y pute

+

¢ properties of une ‘ :

SALICINE:. 367

acid, when it was again experimented with by Ringer and —
_ Bury, who showed that it had no influence upon the tempera-
ture of healthy children. They observed that under full
medicinal doses a dusky flush suffuses the face on slight
excitement, while the expression becomes dull and heavy.
Less constant symptoms are deafness, noises in the ears, frontal
headache, trembling of the hands and quickened breathing,
Very large doses occasion severe headache, marked muscular ~
weakness, tremor and irritability, with a rapid and feeble pulse.

Description.—Catkins 1—2 inches long, thick, eylin-
drical, bright yellow, fragrant; bracts oblong, small; scales
obovate, blackish, hairy; nectary ovate, papillary; stamens
longer than the scales, with oblong yellow anthers ; germ ovate-
lanceolate, silky, on a hairy stalk; style hardly any; stigma
oblong, thick, undivided. Bark warpliak:. brown externally,
minutely downy when young, internally white; tough and
fibrous.

Chemical composition.— Willow bark has been shown to con-
tain salicin, wax, fat, gum, and a tannin which gives with
ferric salts a blue-black precipitate, the liquid becoming pur-
plish-red on the addition of soda. Johanson (1875) has also
shown the presence of a kind of sugar having a slightly sweet —
taste and reducing alkaline copper solution with difficulty, and
of the glucoside benzohelicin, C?°H*°O®, Salicin, a glucoside,
erystallizes in colourless plates or flat rhombic prisms, but it
- usually occurs in commerce in white glossy scales or needles,

It remains unaltered in the air, is neutral to test-paper, in-
odorous, and hasa persistently bittertaste. It is soluble in about
~ 30 parts of water at 11-5° C., and is somewhat less soluble in
alcohol. It dissolves in 0°7 part of boiling water and in
2 parts of boiling alcohol. (United States Pharm) Cold sul-
phuric acid dissolves salicin with a bright red colour; after the
absorption of water from the air (but not after the addition of
water or after being neutralized by an alkali), the solution
deposits a red powder (rutilin), which after washing i is yellowiale =
red, after drying blackish-brown, insoluble in water,

368 SALICINEA,

and glacial acetic acid, and is coloured violet-red by alkalies,
(Braconnot.) On warming salicin with somewhat diluted
sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate, salicylous acid or
salicyl-aldehyd, C’H°O’, is given off, recognizable by its
peculiar fragrance, resembling that of meadow-sweet (Spirea
ulmaria).

Salicin when digested with emulsin or saliva, or heated to
80°C. with dilute sulphuric acid, assimilates 1 molecule of water,
and is split into glucose and salicylic alcohol or saligenin,
C’H°O’, which crystallizes in pearly tables, is easily soluble in hot
water, alcohol, and ether, melts at 82°C., and sublimes at 100°C.
Saligenin is characterized by yielding in solution a deep-blue
colour with ferric chloride, and when boiled with dilute acids
by being converted into a resinous body, saliretin, C'*H'*0%,

while oxidizing agents convert it into salicylous and salicylic —

acids. Cold nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:16, oxidizes salicin, with the
production of helicin, C'%H?*O’, which crystallizes in white
needles, and is by ferments and dilute acids resolved into sugar
and salicylic aldehyd. If nitric acid of sp. gr. 1-09 is employed,
salicin yields helicoidin, C*°H**O'*, which may be regarded as
a compound of salicin and helicin. (National Dispensatory.) For
a full account of these interesting reactions, the reader is referred
to Watts’ Dict. of Chemistry, Vol. V., p. 147.

Bidangubin or ‘‘ willow honey ” has been examined by Raby
(Union Pharm , May, 1889, p- 201). It affords about 12 per
cent. of sugar, estimated as glucose, and a considerable quantity
of a sugar crystallizing in opaque hard crystals like those of

sugar of milk. It melts at 150° to a transparent liquid, and —

dissolves in 5:5 parts of water at 15°C. The formula is given -
as C"H”O", This sugar evidently possesses considerable
affinity to melezitose, from which it differs, according to
M. Raby, in not being efflorescent, and in the greater rotatory
power of the glucose derived from it by inversion over that
obtained from melezitose. The inversion by means of dilute
hydrochloric acid also takes place more rapidly. He therefore

gos

GNETACEA. 369

~GNETACE.
EPHEDRA VULGARIS, Rich.

| ae Ic. Fl. Germ., t. 539 ; Bertolon. Miscell. xxiii.,

—t.3
. Hab .—Temperate and Alpine Himalaya, oe W. and

ntral Asia, J apan.

EPHEDRA PACHYCLADA, Boiss.

Hab.— Western Himalaya, Afghanistan, E. Persia,

| Vernacular.—E. vulgaris—Amsania, Butshur, Cheva (Puny.),
_Khanda, Khama (Kunawar), Phok (Swutlej), Ma-oh (Japan).
E. pachyclada—Hum, Huma (Pers., Bomb.).

History, Uses, &c.—These two species are hardly
different; E. pachyclada is rather more robust than Z. vulgaris and
more scabrid. Of the former, Sir J. D. Hooker remarks :—
“T can find no good characters in the spikes and flowers, except
the more or less margined bracts.” A specimen of the Persian
_ plant kindly furnished to one of us by Mr. K. R. Cama of Bom-
bay, was identified at Kew as E. vulgaris. Dried branches of the
Huma are still brought from Persia to India for use in Parsi
ceremonial,and it is considered tol 1 properties. The
plant was used by the ancient Arians, and is probably the same
as the Soma of the Vedas. Aitchison (Proc. Linn. Soc., x., 77)
notices the medicinal use of E. vulgaris in Lahoul, and he and
Griffith state that the ashes of #. pachyciada are used as a snuff
and dye in Afghanistan. Dr. N. Nagai of Tokio, Japan (Berl.
Klin. Wochenschr., 1887, 706), first drew attention to the fact that
_E. vulgaris contains an alkaloid (ephedrine) which possesses the
property of dilating the pupil of the eye, and which may be used
in the place of atropine. T. V. Biektine (Bolnitch. Gaz. Bot-—
kina, 1891, No. 19, pp. 473—476) has brought to notice the use
of a decoction of the stems and roots of EF. vulgaris as a popular
remedy for rheumatism and syphilis in Russia, and of the juice
of the berries in affections of the respiratory passages, After
JI1.—47

370 GNETACEAE.

administering the decoction himself in a number of cases” of
rheumatism, acute and chronic, he comes to the conclusion that
the plant is especially valuable in acute muscular and articular
forms of the disease: the pain is relieved, the pulse becomesless
rapid and softer, and the respiration easier. Within 5 or 6
days the temperature becomes normal, the swelling of the
joints disappears, and after about 12 days’ treatment the patient
is cured. In several cases marked diuresis was observed before
or about the time that the temperature began to decrease ; the
drug was also observed to improve the digestion and promote
the action of the bowels. In chronic cases the action of Ephe-
dra was less marked, and in two cases of rheumatic sciatica and

osteo-myelitis hardly any effect was produced, but it is only —

fair to remark that antipyrine, salicylate of soda, antifebrine,
salol, &c., also failed to afford relief in these two cases. Th

decoction used by Dr. Biektine was made with 3°85 grams of
the drug to 180 grams of water. Kobert has shown that 0°20

gram of ephedrine injected into the veins of dogs and cats”

produces violent excitement, general convulsions, exopthalmia
and mydriasis. (Nouveaux Remédes, Aug. 8th, 1891.)

Description.—£. vulgaris is a low-growing, rigid, tufted
shrub, with usually a gnarled stem and erect green branches
which are striate and nearly smooth. Bracts connate to the
middle, not margined, eciliate, rarely produced into minute
linear leaves. Spikelets } to $ inch, subsessile, often whorled ;
fruiting with often fleshy, red, succulent bracts, 1 to 2 seeded.

seeds bi-convex or plano-convex,

__E. pachyelada has the same characters, but is usually more
_ seabrid. Sir J. D. Hooker remarks:—‘‘I have many specimens

from N.-W. India that I do not know whether to refer to .

vulgaris or pachyclada.” The twigs of these plants have a
terebinthinate and astringent taste, and sections when magni-
fied show the tissues to be loaded with an inspissated red juice.
Chemical composition —Dr. N. Nagai (Tokio Chem. Society,
_ through Chem. Zeit., 1890, p. 441) obtained the alkaloid

Ephedra vulgaris (Ma-oh). Its

ag

*

CONIFERA. S71

> composition is C!°H'*NO ; by oxidation the alkaloid is split tite
benzoic acid, monomethylamine and oxalicacid. Isoephedrine,
melting point 114°C., is obtained by heating ephedrine, melting
point 30°C., with hediseb lone acid in a closed tube to 180°C,
The constitution of ephedrine is C°H°CH? CH (NHCH?)
: CH°OH, and that of isoephedrine is C°H°CH°C (OH) (NH
CH*) CH*.

_ The hydrochlorate of ephedrine forms acicular crystals which
are freely soluble in water. Mr. J.G. Prebble (1889) found
the twigs of L. vulgaris to contain 3 per cent. of a tannin,
riving a whitish precipitate with gelatine and acetate of lead,

' anda greenish precipitate with acetate of iron.

CONIFER.

JUNIPERUS COMMUOUNIS, Jann.
Fig.—Richard. Conif. 33, t. 5; Reichb. Ic, Fl. Germ.,
#. 535. Juniper (Hng.), Genévrier (Fr.).

Hab.—Western Himalaya, Persia. The fruit.
Vernacular.—Hab-el-a’ra’r (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—A’ra’r (465+) is a Persian word ;
the author of the Burhdn notices a popular belief that the
Juniper is the enemy of the Date tree, and that the two will
not grow together in the same place. Abu Hanifeh states on
the authority of an Arab of the people ° "of the Sarah, who are
-possessors of the a’ra’r, that it is the same as the Abhal (the
‘latter name is applied in modern Arabic to the Juniper and
‘Savine). He adds that he knew it in his own' country, and
afterwards saw it in the province of Kazween, cut for firewood
from the mountains, in the neighbourhood of Ed-Deylem, and
that the fruit is eaten when ripe. J. communis is a native of
Greece, and must therefore have been known to the ancient
Greeks, but there is much difficulty in identifying the two
_species of aes mentioned by Dioscorides. The fruit on

372 CONIFERA.

species of Juniper was, however, used by Hippocrates in certain
disorders of the womb, and Dioscorides mentions its diuretic
properties, its use in cough and pectoral affections, and also
its digestive properties. The ashes of the bark were also
applied locally in certain skin affections.

Ibn Sina closely follows Dioscorides and gives no additional
information concerning the plant. The several kinds of Juni-
per growing on the Himalayas do not appear to be used- medi-
cinally by the Hindus, and the berries sold in the bazaars by
Mahometan druggists are all imported from the west via
Bombay.

In modern medicine Juniper is only used as a diuretic.

Description.—Juniper-berries are nearly globular, about
3 inch in diameter, dark-purplish, and covered with a bluish-
gray bloom; the short stalk at the base contains one or two
whorls of the small scales, and the apex is marked by three
radiating furrows, which are surrounded by ridges enclosing 4
triangular space. The three, or by abortion one or two, bony
seeds are ovate in shape, triangular above, have six to ten large
oil-sacs on their surface, and are imbedded in a brownish
pulp which likewise contains oil-cells. The berries have an
aromatic somewhat balsamic odour, and a sweet, terebinthinate,
bitterish, and slightly acrid taste. ;

Chemical composition.—Juniper-berries were analysed by
Trommsdorff (1822), Nicolet (1831), Steer (1856), and Donath
(1873). They contain from } to 24 per cent. of volatile oil,
about .30 per cent. of sugar, resins amounting to 10 per cent.,
_ 4 of protein compounds, fat, wax, formic and acetic acids,
malates, and juniperin, which is light-yellow, slightly soluble in
water, freely so in alcohol and ether, and with a golden-yellow
colour in ammonia. Ritthausen (1877) obtained from juniper-
berries, containing 10-77 per cent. of water, only 14°36 per cent.
of sugar, 3°77 of ash, and 31:60 of cellulose.

o Oil of juniper-berries is colourless or pale greenish-yellow,
limpid, but on exposure rapidly thickens and turns yellow, and ;
ultimately reddish-brown, at the same time acquiring an acid

CONIFERS. 373

reaction; the fresh-distilled oil from old juniper-berries is thick-
_ ish and light-yellow. Its specific gravity is about *870, but
x varies between °85 and ‘90; it begins to boil at 155° C., or, if
_ obtained from ripe berries, at 205° C. (Blanchet), has the peculiar
odour of the berries and a warm, aromatic, somewhat sweetish
and terebinthinate taste, shows a neutral reaction to test-paper,
turns polarized light slightly to the left, and is slightly soluble

in alcohol, forming with 10 or 12 parts of 80 per cent. alcohol or

tion ; but it yields clear mixtures with carbon disulphide in all
proportions. Iodine dissolves slowly in the limpid oil, but acts
more energetically upon the thickened oil, sometimes producing
fulmination ; sulphuric acid colours it brown and red. Old oil
_ of juniper contains formic acid, from which it may be freed by
sodium carbonate and rectification.

The oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons of the general formula
_ ©'° H', which differ in their boiling-point, a portion boiling at
282°C. It yields with hydrochloric acid gas a liquid
compound. (Stillé and Maisch.)

Fig.— Wall. Tent. Fl. Nep., t.57; Griff. Ie. Pl. Asiat., 376 ;
Bentil. and Trim., t. 253. Yew (Eng.), If (27.)-

Hab.—Temperate Himalaya. The leaves,

; TAXUS BACCATA, Linn.
F
|
,
Vernacular.—Télispatar (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—Under the name of Talisa-pattra
or Talipattra, Sanskrit medical writers describe a drug which
has carminative, expectorant, stomachic, tonic and astringent
properties, and is useful in phthisis, asthma, bronchitis, and
vesical catarrh ; the powdered leaves are given with the juice of
Adhatoaa Vasica (vasaka) and honey in cough, asthma, and

with Talispattra, black pepper, long pepper, ginger,

hemoptysis. A confection called Talisadya churna is ee: on

O74 CONIFER.

manna, cardamoms, cinnamon, and sugar, and is used in the
abovementioned diseases. The author of the Burhan, the
oldest Persian Dictionary, which contains a large collection of
Pahlavi words, mentions the same drug under the name of
Télisfar, and states that this name was applied by the Greeks to
the leaf of the Indian Olive, or, according to some, to its root-
bark. Ibn Sina speaks of it as an Indian bark, and describes
its properties in the same manner as the Sanskrit writers; he
states that Galen considers it to be possessed of hot and cold
properties in equal proportion, but that others say it is hot and
dry. Yahia bin Isa, the author of the Minhaj, considers Talisfar
to be the leaf of the Indian Olive; Ibn Baitar thinks that it
is Mace. Haji Zein-el-attdér identifies it with the vaxep of the
Greeks, and says it is the root-bark of the Indian Olive, a bark
thicker than China cinnamon and harder and of a darker colour,
very astringent and slightly aromatic. ‘he author of the
Makhzan-el-Adwiya mentions the drug in two places, and
identifies it incorrectly with the Zurigh of the Arabs; he also
appears to confound it with Hydrocotyle asiatica, Speaking of
Zarnab, he says, “it is also called Rijl-el-jardd (locust’s foot). In
Hindfit is brahmi, barambhiand sapni, and one kind of it is called
Manduparni and barahmi, and the plant is called Té/is, and the
leaves, which are the same as Zarnab, are called Télispatr. It
is a plant with leaves broader than those of Sdtar-i-bari, of a
yellowish colour, and scented like a citron; the flower is yellow,
and the plant is less than a cubit in height, with a quadrangular
hollow stem; it has a pungent taste, and retains its properties
four years. It grows in the hills of Fars, and is called Sarv-i-
- Turkisténi ; it is also found in Hindustan and Bengal. * * * *
It is hot and dry in the second degree, and has stimulant,
astringent, stomachic, pectoral and digestive properties similar
to cinnamon; me fresh j juice is intoxicating; mixed with oil of
iolet introduced into the ear it cures cold headache.
. ‘Substitutes, double the quantity of cinnamon, cubebs, cassia, or
cardamoms.****” Again, speaking of Télisfar,* an article

Fe gD REN Seeman eet thane esis same
oe beer name Royle obtained the leaves of Rhododendron lepidotum,
which are highly aromatic. at: vee Med., p. 91.)

CONIFERZ. «ome

il

scribed as one concerning the identity of which there is much
difference of opinion, the author of the Makhzan says, “perhaps
t is the same as Zarnab, which is called Télis in Hindi, and
ich is the narrow leaf of a tree of a dusty colour, externally and
nternally yellow.” If we turn to the older Arabian writers, we
fin that we have no reason to identify Zarnab with Télisapattra ;
say that it is a certain perfume or certain sweet- -smelling
Kamis), or a species of sweet-smelling plant (Sihah) ; it
ts of slender round twigs, between the thickness of large

dles and of writing reeds, black inclining to yellowness, not
haying much taste or odour, what odour it has, being of a
ragrant kind like citron. (Jbn Sina, Book I.) According to
the Turkish Kamis, it is the leaf of a sweet-smelling plant
Hed o|,s/Ua .» (locust’s foot). Sprengel thought it was
' Salix Afgyptiaca. (Confer. Hist. rei. herb., T. IL., p. 270.)
Zarnab is of the measure Wx? and is a genuine Arabic word.
_ A rajiz says—

wi! dale y4 Gi quell S35 a) | wil lL

O with my father thou shouldst be ransomed, and thy mouth,
that is cool and sweet, as though Zarnab were sprinkled upon
it.” (Sihah.)
In the tradition of Umm Zara, where it is said
wi} 4) gu 15 1 mo (wel! “the feel is the feel of a hare,
and nn ae: is the odour of Zarnab,”’ Ibn el Athfr, author of
the Nihayeh, says that it signifies saffron (Madd-el-kamis).
Ainslie (ii., 407) considers Talispatar to be the leaves and twigs
of Flacourtia cataphracta, Roxb. Dr. U. C. Dutt,in his Hindu
Materia Medica, states that the Télispatar of the Calcutta shops
consists of the leaves and twigs of Abies Webbiana, Lindl.*
Dr. Moid{n Sheriff gives the name of T4lishapatri to the
leaves of Oinnamomum Tamala, Nees. It would appear,
therefore, that it is uncertain at the present time what
the Télisapattra of Sanskrit writers is, and that in different

for it.

* Webb’s or purple-coned fir,

parts of the country various drugs are used as substitutes

376 CONIFER.

All the samples of the drug which we have obtained from
Bengal, Northern, Western and Southern India have consisted
of the leafy twigs of the yew chopped in lengths of from one
to two inches.

The yew was known to the Greeks and Romans as a poisonous
plant.* Modern enquiry has shown that the leaves and seeds
are poisonous, but not the red pulp surrounding the latter.
The leaves have, however, been recommended in doses of
from 1 to 5 grains in epilepsy and other spasmodic affections.
As an abortive they have been often administered, and have
generally proved fatal to the woman, without causing the expul-
sion of the foetus. Moderate doses given to animals occasion
hurried breathing and palpitation of the heart, followed by
recovery, and larger doses produce a similar effect followed by
death from syncope. Very large doses appear to produce death
by syncope without pain or spasm. According to Borcher’s
(1876) experiments, taxine reduces the pulse and respirations
and causes convulsions, with fatal asphyxia. (Husemann.)
After death the evidences of gastro-intestinal inflammation
have generally been slight, the heart was usually empty, the
kidneys strongly congested, and the blood less coagulated than
usual. The effects produced upon man by poisonous doses of
yew resemble those above mentioned as occurring in animals:
after large doses the nervous irritation, exhaustion and gastric
disturbance may be very trifling, the patient dying by
syncope.

Description.—The drug consists of the small branches
of the tree with their linear-lanceolate, narrow, rigid veinless
leaves cut up into short length (1 to 2 inches). The male
flowers are to be found upon some of the sprigs, and resemble
those of the common yew. The wood of the larger stems is
that of a yew, and not of a pine.

Chemical composition.~-Statements have been made at differ-
ent times as to the presence in the leaves and fruit of the yew
(Taeus baccata) of an alkaloidal principle. In 1876 (Pharm.

: * ragos and ow:Aag. Dios. 4, 80; Plin. 16, 20.

CONIFER. 877

rn., [3], vil., 894), Marmé described a crystalline alkaloid

at he had separated from the leaves and fruit, which he
med ‘‘tawine,’ and spoke of as being poisonous. It was
ined by treating an ethereal extract of the leaves and
ith water acidulated with sulphuric acid and precipitat-
this solution with ammonia. Messrs. Hilger and Brande
erichte, xxiii., 464) that, working on the leaves in the
vay, they have separated an alkaloid, which they failed
lize. ‘This taxine melted at 82° C., and when heated
lass tube gave off white fumes that condensed on the
parts of the tube to oil-like drops that solidified on
g, at the same time a characteristic aromatic odour was
ved. It dissolved in water in traces only, freely in 1 alcohol

ents, and white precipitates, insoluble in excess, wit

fixed alkalies and ammonia. The salts of taxine are
tly readily soluble in water, but only the hydrochloride
ined well crystallized, and this by passing a current
1ydrochloric acid gas into a solution of the alkaloid in
ydrous ether. Analysis of taxine gave results correspond-
with the formula C57H°*O'N, and its behaviour with ethyl

(Pharm. Journ., Mar. 29, 1890.)
_ Towicology.—No cases of poisoning by this plant have been
recorded in India, but considering its common use as a dru
roughout the country, we cannot help suspecting that such
cidents must have happened, especially as the native doctors
do not appear to be aware of its poisonous properties. Several
cases of poisoning by yew have occurred in England, most of
which have ended fatally. The prominent symptoms were
vomiting followed by narcotism, with, in some cases, convulsions
and dilated pupils, respiration slowed; death usually by
phyxia, due to paralysis of the respiratory muscles. i
IIL.—48

378 CONIFERS.

PINUS LONGIFOLIA, Rozt.

Fig.—Royle Ii., t. 85, f.1; Griff. Ic. Pi. Asiat., tt. 369,
370.

Hab.—Outer Himalayan Ranges, The turpentine.

Vernacular,—Saral, Chir (Hind.), The turpentine, Ganda-
biroja (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—The wood, in Sanskrit Sarala,
and the turpentine Sarala-drava, are mentioned as medicinal
in Sanskrit works; plasters, ointments, and pastiles for fumi-
gations are directed to be made from the turpentine. The latter,
under the name of Ganda-biroja, or, more correctly, Gandah-
birozah, is found in all the Indian bazars, and appears to have all
the properties of ordinary turpentine, though differing from it —
in odour. It is chiefly used as a pectoral plaster like the pitch
plaster of Europe, but it has also a reputation in veterinary
practice as a remedy for mange. The Vaids obtain from it by
distillation without water a limpid sherry-coloured oil having
the peculiar odour of the drug, which they call Khanno oil in
the Deccan; it is in much repute as a remedy .for gleet or
long-standing gonorrhea.

Collection.—The Chir Pine, which is a large treeof Afghan-
istan and the North-West Himalayas, is the chief source of
this turpentine. Atkinson, who describes its collection in
Gurhwal and Kumaon, says that it is there called Birja and
Lisha or Lassa,* and that there are two kinds collected, vi,
_ the natural exudation and Bakhar-birja,t which is obtained by
making incisions in the sap-wood. The yield of a tree thus
treated is said to be from 10 to 20 lbs. the first year, and about
one-third the quantity the second year, after which the tree
either dies oris blown down. (Atkinson, Brandis.)

& rer lasé ; Tit. Jasha ; any viscous exudation of plants.
: ‘Tas, aTet, or 4H an enclosure, house, chamber. An allusion to

CONIFERS. 3879

Description.—Gandah-birozah is a dirty-white opaque
mbstance, of soft and sticky consistence, having a strong and
culiar odour, more aromatic than that of common turpentine ; ;
leaves of some tree, which have evidently been used in
cting the turpentine, are usually found mixed with it in
nsiderable quantity.
nical composition.—56. lbs. of the crude drug distilled
water yielded 8 lbs. of a colourless. limpid oil, having the
iar odour of Gandah-birozah. The resin remaining in the
was of a dull brown colour; after straining to remove
im purities it was stirred with a small quantity of boiling water
ntil hard, and afforded a very fair substitute for Burgundy
Pitch, weighing 43 lbs.

The oil, according to Lyon, has a specific gravity of -875 at
82° F.; it commences to boil at about 310° F., and is dextro-
otatory.

Pinus Khasyana, the Khasya Pine of Assam, yields a
e quality of turpentine. A full-grown tree gives as much as
Tbs. of crude resin a year. The oil is very pure, and Dr.

strong in 1881, reported that it had the greatest amount
action on polarized light of any coniferous oil of turpentine
e had examined.

Pinus Gerardiana, Wall. Lamb. Pix. Ed. 3, t. 79;
oyle Ill. 353, t. 85, f. 2; Cleghorn Pines of N.-W. Himal., t, 4,
a native of Afghanistan and Persia, yields the pine-nuts which,
are sold in the Indian bazars under the name of Chilyhozeh, and
are described in Mohometan medical works under the Arabic
ame of Hab-el-sanaubar-el-kibar. In Persia the tree is called
(+) and in Afghanistan C/i/ and Zan-ghozeh. Aitchison

(Notes on Prod. of W. Afghanistan and N,-E. Persia, p. 152)
‘states that the seeds are one of the great trade products:
exported from the district of Kost and the Kuram Valley to
ndia; they have stimulating properties, and are considered
‘useful in chronic rheumatic affections, and as.an aphrodisiac.
‘b 7 are usually administered pounded with honey, in the orm

880 CONIFERA.

of a confection; they are of a brown colour, about one
inch in length, and have an oleaginous and terebinthinate
ayour.

- Church, “Food Grains of India,’ found the percentage :
composition of the seeds to be Water 8°7, Albuminoids 13°6,
Starch 22:5, Oil 51°3, Fibre 0-9, and Ash 3:0,

CEDRUS LIBANI, Barrel. var. Deodara.

Fig. — Hook. f. Nat. Hist. Rev. ii., t. 1-3; Forbes, Pinet.
Wob., t. 48, 49; Griff. Ie. Pl. Asiat., t. 364.

Hab,—N.-W. Himalaya. The wood.
Vernacular.—Deodar-ki-lakri (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—This tree, in Sanskrit Devadaéru,
Suradéru, Suradruma ‘‘tree of the gods,” yields the Bhadra-
ashtha “auspicious wood,” Sneha-viddha “impregnated with
oil,” which is used as acarminative, diaphoretic, and diuretic by =
the Hindu physicians in fever, flatulence, inflammation, dropsy, _
urinary diseases, &c. It is chiefly used in combination with
other medicines, as in the following diuretic mixture: —Take of
Devadéru wood, root of Moringa pterygosperma (Sigru), and
Achyrantes aspera (Apamarga), one drachm each and reduce to @
paste with cow’s urine. To be given in ascites. (Chakradatta.)
The wood is also ground toa paste with water and applied to the
temples to relieve headache. A tar (Hilan-ka-tel) made by
destructive distillation of the wood is a favourite remedy for
sases in Northern India; it is given internally in doses
1t one drachm, and also applied locally. From the
=, name Devad4ru of this wood, it must not be confounded
Wit the wood of Erythrorylon monogynum, known in Tamil as
vadarum, and which, on aceount of its bedbars! is called “ —
oa di 7

ear

CONIFERS, ase cae

rin (Afghanistan) to tan leather (he doubtless alludesto the
which is used in the Punjab to dress the inflated skins used
crossing rivers).

Description.—The wood sold in the bazars is of a light
sllowish-brown colour, very heavy, and in thin sections trans-
nt, owing to the large proportion of turpentine contained in
has an agreeable terebinthinate odour.
paration of the tar.—First, an earthen vessel (ghara), with

the ground. Next, a large ghara of about 12 seers’ capacity

taken, and three small holes are drilled in its underside ;
it is then filled with scraps of the wood, and over its mouth
another smaller jaris placed, and kept there by a luting of
clay; and then both the jars are smeared over with a coating
he clay. These two jars thus stuck together are next set on the
mouth of the receiver sunk into the ground, and the jointis |
e tight by clay. Firewood is now heaped round the
apparatus and lighted, and kept burning from four to eight

TS. e jars are then separated ead the tar removed.
One seer (2 pounds) of wood yields about 2:6 chittaks (54
ces) of tar. (Baden-Powell, Punjab Prod.)

Chemical composition.—An alcoholic extract of the wood was
taneously evaporated to dryness by exposure to air, and the
extract agitated with petroleum ether, and the insoluble residue
treated with caustic soda and agitated with ether.

_ The petroleum ether extract on spontaneous evaporation left
a transparent, pale yellow varnish-like residue, with a ve
fragrant terebinthinate odour, which became hard on exposure
in thin layers, but preserved a perfect transparency. This
extract was treated with aqueous caustic potash and agitated,
with ether. The mixture after standing separated into three
layers, The lowest stratum was of a reddish yellow colour, the
middle darker in colour, and the small amount which floated

layer on spontaneous evaporation, left a satiny mass of fragrant t
odour, which, on microscopic examination, consisted of in I

above the ether of a bright light yellow tint. The ethereal = 2

882 CONIFER.

needles and narrow plates. On ignition an alkaline ash
was left. In sulphuric acid it dissolved with a yellow colour,
no change being induced by the addition of nitric acid to the
solution or hydrochloric acid and phenol. In order to obtain
this resin acid in a free state, an ethereal sojution of the potash
salt was agitated with dilute sulphuric acid. On spontaneous
evaporation of the ether, the acid was left as a transparent
varnish.

The middle layer mentioned above appeared to consist of a
concentrated solution of the potash salt of the resin acid ; the
potash salt not being very readily soluble in ether. The
aqueous stratum was treated with sulphuric acid and agitated
with ether, the ethereal extract was yellow, and had a slight
odour not unlike that of valeric acid.

That portion of the original alcoholic extract insoluble im
petroleum ether, was now agitated with ether and aqueous
potash. The ether left on spontaneous evaporation a transparent
yellow extract, insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol with
neutral reaction, and possessing a marked bitter taste. Sulphuric
acid coloured the extract a bistre-red. The potash solution was
mixed with sulphuric acid and agitated with ether; during
agitation dark reddish flocks separated, which were insoluble in
ether even after prolonged agitation. The ethereal solution
left a yellow transparent residue. In alcohol the extract was.
soluble with bitter taste and acid reaction. In concentrated
sulphuric acid it dissolved with a dark-red colour, the addition
of concentrated hydrochloric acid afforded a colour of crushed

_ strawberries, which became of a reddish violet on the addition

= of phenol phenol. In aqueous potash the extract dissolved with a bright

yellow lisation. Ferric chloride added to an alcoholic solu-
_ tion gavea dirty brown coloration. The flocks insoluble in
u ether, were of a ' reddish- brown colour, brittle when dry, without

= lic solution, acid in reaction, and affording
- similar reactions with sulphuric and hydrochloric acids and
‘ —_ ee ferric chloride and caustic potash, to the resin

CYCADACEH, 383

CYCADACE.

CYCAS CIRCINALIS, Linn.
Fig.—Richard, Conif., t. 24—26; Bot. Mag., ¢. 2826 and
2827; Rheede, Hort. Mal. iii., 9, t. 13—21. :
ab.—Malabar Coast, Dry Hills in W. Madras. Male
and flour. |
ernacular.—Jungli-madan-mast-ka-phul ( Hind.), Madana-
kama-pu, Kamappu, Chanang kay (Zam.), Rinbadam, Todda-
pana Eentha kay (Ma/.), Malabdri-supari (Mar.).

3 History, Uses, &c.—The male bracts of this tree are
used in Southern India as a narcotic, and are considered to be
similar in medicinal action to the flowers of Stereospermum sua-
veolens. Both drugs are termed Madana-kama-pu or flowers of

Malabar the nuts are collected and dried for a month in the
n, beaten in a mortar, and the kernels form a flour which
is called Indum Podi. It is reckoned superior to the flour of
Caryota, but inferior to rice, and is only eaten by the hill-tribes,
and by the poorer classes, who, from July to September, when
rice is scarce, are in danger of perishing. It has often been
confounded with true sago. Rheede states that the fruit
bearing cone reduced to a poultice and applied to the loins
removes nephritic pains.
Description.—tThe bracts as sold in the bazar are of the
shape of a spear head, two inches long by half an inch broad,
clothed at the back with much fulvous down. A subulate
incurved point rises from the exterior upper angle of each of
the scales. When the strobile first appears, they are closely
_ pressed together like the germs in the pineapple, but as it
lengthens by age, they become detached from each other.
Filaments none; the anthers entirely covering the under : fac

884 3 ORCHIDE#.

of the scales, one-celled, two-valved, opening round the apex
on discharging the pollen. The starch of the pith resembles
that of sago under the microscope.

Chemical composition.—The bracts or scales contain, in a
dried state, much albuminous and mucilaginous matter soluble
in water, but no alkaloid or other principle that would account
for its reputed narcotic action.

ORCHIDE/L.

ORCHIS LATIFOLIA, Linn.

Fig.—Fl. Br. 924; Engl. Bot. 33., ¢. 2308; Reichb, Fl.
Germ. «iii., 50. Marsh Palmate Orchis (Eng.). :
Hab.—Persia, Afghanistan, Nepal, Cashmere, and Europe.

ORCHIS LAXIFLORA, Lam.
Fig.—? Boiss. Fl. Orient. v., p. 71.
Hab.-—Persia and Afghanistan. The tubers.

Vernacular.—Salab-misri, Salap-misri (Hind.), Shalé-mishiri
(Tam.), S4lé-misiri (7el.}, Séli-mishri (Had.), Chéle-michhri S
(Beng.), Salama-misri (Mar., Guz.). ae

_ History, Uses, &c.—Theophrastus (P. H. ix., 19), and
a Siete (iii., 132, 183, 184, 135), mention several tuberous —
eee Rug ahich were cot by the Greeks under the names of Orchis — és
= i It is not known exactly what all of
dae were, but it is certain that some of them were the tubers |
of different species of Orchis. Opxis is described by the ancients
as having ; a twofold root, formed of tuberosities which resemble
the testes in appearance. The larger of these tuberosities, or,
some say, the harder of the two, taken in water, was thought 3
ovocative of of lust; while the smaller, or, « - to
falc in goat aly was considered be

ORCHIDELR.

-autaphrodisiac. The tubers were also used as a remedy for
alcerations of the mouth and pituitous discharges —_ the
est, and were taken in wine as an astringent.
_- Mahometan physicians describe Orchis tubers under the name
of Khusyu-uth-thalab (or salab), ‘foxes’ testicles,” and state that
‘She odour of them, when fresh, resembles that of semen hominis,
hat they have an aphrodisiac effect if clasped in the hand.
ried tubers have a great reputation in the East asa nervine —
onic and restorative, and are much prescribed in. paralytic
affections. It was formerly supposed that Oriental Salep was
ebtained from certain species of Eulophia, but the tubers of
these plants have no resemblance to the commercial article, and
Aitchison has now established the fact that the two plants
~ placed at the head of this article yield the bulk of the Persian
salep. Eulophia campestris, Wall., is, however, used locally in
Northern India as a substitute for salep.
In Southern India the tabers of several species of Habenaria
and Orchis are collected by people in the hilly districts and |
sold locally as salep, but they are usually small and variable
1 appearance.
Salep is now regarded in Europe as very nutritious; it tends
to confine the bowels, and is, therefore, a useful article of ciek
for those who suffer from diarrhea. :
The mucilage is prepared by first macerating powdered salep
in cold water, and gradually adding boiling water, with stirring,
in the proportion of 5 grains of salep to the ounce. Instead
ef water, milk or some animal broth may be used. Salep
jelly may be made as follows: Rub 60 grains of powdered
salep with water in a mortar until it has swollen to four times”
its original bulk; then add gradually, and with constant
_ stirring, 16 ounces of boiling water, and boil down to 8 ounces,
Ainslie states that salep has the property of depriving salt-
water of its salt taste.

Description.—Oriental_ salep is of two kinds, palmate —
and ovoid; the former, which was once known in Euro ope
Radiv palme. Christi, is very highly esteemed oY. the P

~~, TL —49

found the

386 ORCHIDEZ.

especially if of large size. The ovoid tubers are from 1 to 19
inches in length, and, if of good quality, have a creamy white
colour, or are somewhat translucent and of a horny texture.
They have hardly any odour and an insipid mucilaginous taste. -
The tubers should be plump and not wrinkled. When magni-
fied, the bulk of the tuber is seen to consist of a parenchyme,
the cells of which contain either mucilage, or starch altered by
heat ; it is traversed by small fibro-vascular bundles.

Chemical composition.—The most important constituent of
salep is a sort of mucilage, the proportion of which, according to
Dragendorff (1865), amounts to 48 per cent. ; but it is, doubtless,
subject to great variation. Salep yields this mucilage to cold
water, forming a solution which is turned blue by iodine, and
mixes clearly with neutral acetate of lead like gum arabic. On-
addition of ammonia, an abundant precipitate is formed. Muci-
lage of salep precipitated by alcohol and then dried, is coloured.
violet or blue, if moistened with a solution of iodine in iodide
of potassium. The dry mucilage is readily soluble in ammo-
niacal solution of oxide of copper ; when boiled with nitric acid,
oxalic, but not mucic, acid is produced. In these two respects,
the mucilage of salep agrees with cellulose, rather than with
gum arabic. In the large cells in which it is contained, it does
not exhibit any stratification, so that its formation does not
appear due to a metamorphosis of the cell-wall itself. Mucilage
of salep contains some nitrogen and inorganic matter, of which it
is with difficulty deprived by repeated precipitation by alcohol.

It is to the mucilage just described that salep chiefly owes
its power of forming with even 40 parts of water a thick jelly,

_ which becomes still thicker on addition of magnesia or borax.
The starch, however, assists in the formation of this jelly; yet
its amount is very small, or even ni/ in the tuber bearing the
flowering stem, whereas the young lateral tuber abounds in it.
None starch so deposited is evidently consumed in the subsequent

period of vegetation, thus explaining the fact that tubers are
e decoction of which is not rendered blue by iodine.
Salep contains also uga and albumin, and, when fresh, a trace

ORCHIDEA. 887

isting chiefly of phosphates and chlorides of bible and
cium. (Pharmacographia.) Gans and Tollens have tested
e oxidation products, and in Annales, 249, 245 (J. Chem. Soc.,
1889), they report : “On oxidation salep yields saccharic

y crystallization from the seas © compounds of
and mannose, ime which show that the syrup gone

tities, and is much more highly valued than the latter ; in
rsia it iscalled Panjch-i-sdlab, or “ hand salab,” a name whic
is corrupted into Punjébi in India. The ordinary salep of
commerce is known as Abushaheri or lasaniya, ‘garlic-like”’; it
at Rs. 30 to 35 per maund of 41 lbs., according to quality,
the palmate variety fetches fancy prices; if very fine
d white, from 5 to 10 rupees per lb. may be asked for it.
ee of Madras is largely supplied from the Nilgiris,
it is collected by the Todas and other hill tribes. The
are boiled in water, and then dried in the sun until quite
rd, and are sent into the market in coarse bags containing
2maunds. In Ootacamund this salep sells for Rs. 5 to Rs. 6
maund of 25 Ibs., and in Madras it realizes about twice the
rice. Mahomedans all over Southern India use this salep for
making conjees and the sweetmeat hudwa.

- Imitation salep is largely manufactured in India; it is known
Banawati salad or salam, and is said to be made of pounded
toes and gum.

EULOPHIA VIRENS, Er.

_ Fig.— Bot. Reg., ¢, 573; Wight Ic., t. 913; Bot. Mag.,
t. 5579; Roxb. Cor. Pl. i., t. 88; Rheede, Hort. Mal. zii., tt. be
26.

Hab.—Bengal and Deccan Peninsula.

388 ORCHIDE.

EULOPHIA CAMPESTRIS, Wail.

Hab.—Plains of India, Punjab, Oudh, Bengal, and

Deccan.
EULOPHIA NUDA, Lindi.

Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 1690; Rheede, Hort. Mal. wit., t. 26°

Hab.—tTropical Himalaya and Deccan Peninsula. The
tubers.

Vernacular.— Mén-kand, Amber-kand, Bhui-kékali (Mar.),
Katou-kaida-maravara, Katou-theka-maravara (Ma/.), Budbar, —
(Beng.), Goruma (Hind.).

History, Uses, &c.—The tubers of these plants are
used indiscriminately by the natives. The vernacular name Man-
kand is derived from the Sanskrit Manya, which signifies “ the
neck,” and the plant is so named from a supposed resemblance
between its tubers and scrofulous glands in the neck ; Mén (ar),
the Marathi form of the word, is also applied to the scrofulous
- disease in the neck. The tubers are applied externally and
given internally to remove the disease. They are also adminis-
tered internally to those suffering from intestinal worms.
Rheede says of #. virens :—“Succus radicis si supra arborem
Kansjira inveniatur amarus est, alvum laxat, bilem promovet.
Succus bulbi et foliorum omnem adustionem ex pulv ere pyrio,
oleo ferventi, vel igne causatam, cum sanguine canino mixtus,.

llit. Pulvis venenum, sive externum sive internum expellit..
Si supra arborem Java, vermes intestinorum enecat, febri
resistit, ventriculum corroborat, flatus dissipit.. Succus cum carne
: totius plantee in formam cataplasmatis redactus apostemata
- emo it, et, sine dolore, ad maturitatem producit.” Roxburgh

describes FE. virens under the name of Limodorum virens, but

2 _ does not notice its medicinal usés: Aitchison (Notes on Pro-

duets of W. Loe ap and N. E. Persia, p. 68) says :-—“ E. cam-

— is by y ho means rare in the Punjab, Baluchistan, and

: S di . he — are collected in the Punjab, and make
nary Salep of Lahore. When the present railway

; the © is ab, at Wazirabad, 6

ORGHIDEM, | 389

some of the islands over which the bridge was built were one
season covered with this Orchis, specimens of which were sent
to me by Captain Clerk, and which are now in the Herbarium
at Kew.” <A parcel of the tubers of E. campestris was sent to
one of us from the Native State of Sirohi, with the object of
ascertaining their commercial value if collected as Salep; they
were similar in form to those of HZ. nuda, but smaller, and bore
- no resemblance to the commercial article.
Description.—tThe tubers of £. virens are eonico- linge,

form, surrounded with circular marks showing the insertions of
old leaves ; if they have been exposed to the air, as is often the
case with the upper portion of the tuber, they are of a greenish
- colour, when not so exposed of a yellowish white. In the fresh
state many fleshy fibres issue from the lower portion of the
tuber. EH. nuda has larger tubers, often much flattened, in
structure and colour they resemble those of HL. virens, the leaves
are larger, and the flowers often purple, though in some
specimens they are green like those of £. virens. The tubers
of E. campestris are of a similar character. Under the micros-
cope the gum cells are seen, and the exterior cells contain
bundles of raphides. The small tubers exhibit starch granules,
but in large tubers these are entirely absent.

Chemical composition.—The fresh tubers contain a_ lar.
quantity of clear white mucilage, which is not precipitated by
ferric chloride or neutral acetate of lead, but is precipitated by
basic acetate of lead and alcohol. The mucilage, unlike that of
salep, is not coloured violet by iodine solution. Nitric acid
forms no mucic acid when allowed to act upon the gum. _—
295 of the dried tubers amounted to 3°6 per cent.

DENDROBIUM MACRAEI, Lindi.
Fig.—Xen. Orchid. ii., ¢. 118.
Hab. —Sikkim, Khasia Mts., The Concan, and N Ugiri Hills.
The plant.

Vernacular.—Jivanti, Jiba-sag (Hind. a a .
_divanti (Mar., Gus.).

al

390 ORCHIDEA.

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is the Jivanti of San-
skrit writers. In the Nighantas it bears the synonyms of Jivani,
Jiva “ life-giving,” Jivanty4 “supporting life,” Jiva-sreshtha,
Saka-sreshtha “best of herbs,” and Yasas-vini ‘“‘ renowned.”
It is also spoken of as Jiva-bhadra and Mangalya “auspicious,”
and is described as cold, mucilaginous, light, strengthening, and
tridosha-ghna, i.e, % remedy for the disorder of the three humors
of the body, bile, blood and phlegm, known to Hindu physicians
as tridosha. The whole plant is used in decoction along with
other drugs supposed to have similar properties; it must not be
confounded with Jivaka, one of the Ashtavarga, which is a drug
unknown to the modern Hindus. D. Macraci does not appear
to have been noticed by any of the European writers upon
Indian Materia Medica.

Description.—A much-branched plant, often found on
Jambul trees; stems long and pendulous, knotty, and with many
oblong pseudo-bulbs ; leaf one, terminal, shortly oblong, on the
terminating pseudo-bulb, four to eight inches long, sessile ;
flowers white, side lobes of lip sprinkled with red, solitary at
the base of the leaf, one in front and one behind; middle lobe
of the lip much dilated, and the disk with two longitudinal
fleshy crests. This plant has from its coloration been well
named pardalinum or panther-like by Reichberg.

Chemical composition.— The alcoholic extract of the dried roots
and stems was mixed with water acidulated with sulphuric acid
_ and agitated with petroleum ether, ether, and then rendered
alkaline and reagitated with ether. The petroleum ether
extract had an aromatic odour, and was of a yellow colour and

_ soft consistence. In cold absolute alcohol the greater part

dissolved with acid reaction; the insoluble residue was white,
and had the characters of a wax. During agitation with
petroleum ether, chocolate flocks separated.

The acid ether extract formed a waxy, transparent red
_ varnish, which repelled water, and was insoluble in it. In
Slate aleohol the extract dissolved with strong acid reaction.
Tie extract was treated with caustic soda and agitated wih

65: aera eel if

Et

1*

ORCHIDE. 391

ether. The ether extract formed a yellow varnish indistinctly
crystalline in places. By the action of acidulated water traces
of an alkaloid were separated. The extract when acted upon

by cold absolute alcohol afforded a bright yellow solution with-

out bitter taste; the portion of the extract insoluble in cold
alcohol was white, by heating with alcohol it dissolved, and on
cooling white woolly flocks separated, which on microscopic
examination presented the appearance of interlaced hair-like
masses. ‘The amount of this principle was very small and its
nature could not be determined. The alkaline solution of the
original ether extract was acidulated and reagitated with ether,
which left on separation a red transparent waxy varnish,
insoluble in water, easily soluble in cold absolute alcohol with
strong acid reaction and bitter taste. This principle had the
properties of a resin acid, and we propose terming it @ Jibantic

acid. The alkaline ether extract contained traces of a white

_ alkaloid without bitterness, crystallizable from ether, and

giving a faint yellow coloration with Fréhde’s reagent in the
cold, deepening slightly on warming ; no reaction with nitric
acid. We provisionally call this alkaloid Jibantine. This
alkaloid appeared similar to the one contained in the acid

ether extract.

The i iss flakes referred to as having separated
on agitation with petroleum ether, were repeatedly agitated
with ether, which on evaporation afforded a small amount of
extractive similar to the original acid ether extract. The
insoluble flocks were then dissolved in caustic soda and reagi-
tated with ether, the ether affording a small amount of
extractive. The alkaline solution was rendered acid and
reagitated with ether, which separated a certain amount of a
bitter acid resin, similar to the one we have termed 8 Jibantic
acid, while chocolate flocks remained insoluble.

8 Jibantic acid when freshly precipitated from an alkaline
solution by acids would appear to be easily soluble in ether, but
the flocks after standing become less soluble. The chocolate

flocks just referred to were repeatedly agitated with ether, au

dissolved in caustic soda, precipitated with acid, and re

392 ORCHIDEL.

with ether, in order to separate g Jibantic acid. Finally the’
flocks insoluble in ether were dissolved in alcohol, which
afforded ared solution with only sight bitterness. We pro-
visionally call this acid « Jibantic acid.

- The chief points of difference and resemblance between these
two acids may be summarized thus—bitterness, and easy
solubility of the g acid, when freshly precipitated, in ether :
slight bitterness and insolubility of the 4 acid, when freshly
precipitated, in ether. The g acid is precipitated in lighter
eoloured flocks from an alkaline solution than the a acid. Both
acids are soluble with equal readiness in alkalies and cold absolute
alcohol.

VANDA ROXBURGHI, BP. |
Fig.—Bot. Reg., t. 506 ; Wight Ic., t. 916; Fv. des Serres,
ii., &. 11; Reichb. Fl. Erot., t. 121.
Hab.—Bengal, Behar, Guzerat, Concan to Travancore.
The roots.

SACCOLABIUM PAPILLOSUM, Lindh
Fig.—Bot. Reg., t. 1552.
Hab.—Bengal and the Lower Himalaya, Assam, the
Gangetic Delta, the Circars and Tenasserim, The roots.
Vernacular.—Résna (Ind. Bazars).

_ History, Uses, &c.—We have already stated (Vol. iis
be 260) that we consider it probable that the original Rasna of
the Arians was Inula Helenium, as the two drugs at the head
of this article are notably deficient in the properties ascribed to
__ _Rasna by Sanskrit writers; for instance, the plants under
ae consideration cannot be described as Gandha-mula “‘ having #
«Strong nS aot root.” Dutt (Mat. Med., p. 258) remarks :—
7 a Under oon of rdsna, the roots of ee Roxburghii and
¢ : both peneaitely used by native
in the appearance of their
ch Anam flowers and

ORCHIDEA. ae

fruit, One native physician whom I consulted, pronounced
both of these plants to be rasna; when, however, I showed him
the different flowers and fruit of the two species, he was
puzzled.” The description of the properties and uses of rdsna
will, we think, convince our readers that the original drug was
not what is now used, _

Riasna is said to be bitter and fragrant, and useful in rheuma-
tism; the Rdésnapanchaka is a decoction of rdsna; Tinospora
cordifolia, wood of Cedrus Deodara, Ginger, and root of Ricinus

communis, of each equal parts; it is a popular prescription oe

for rheumatism. Rdésna guggulu is a ghrita composed of eight

parts of résna and ten of bdellium beaten into a uniform mass

with clarified butter; it is given in drachm doses in sciatica.
Résna is also an ingredient of several oils used for external
application in rheumatism and neuralgia, such as Mahdmdsha
taila, Madhyama Narayana taila, &c. Vanda isa general name
in Sanskrit and the vernaculars for parasitic plants; other
Sanskrit names for these plants are Vrikshddaniand Vriksharuha
“ growing on trees.” They are further distinguished by the
addition of the names of the tree on which they grow, thus
Amara-vanda would signify the Vanda of the Amara or mango.

5 : Description.— V. Roxburghii.—Stem climbing, 1—2 feet ;
eaves 6 to 8 inches long, premorse, narrow, complicate ;
peduncle 6 to 8 inches, 6 to 10-fid ; sepals and petals yellowish-

green or bluish, except from the clathrate-brown nerves, — :

margins white, lip half as long as the sepals or more, disk
of iia lobe convex with fleshy ridges and white margins and
mesial lines, spur conical.

S. papillosum.—Stem climbing, 2 to 3 feet; leaves 3 to 4
inches long, obliquely notched, narrow, Sotaiplicate: scape ] to2
inches, closely scarred at the base, internodes close, bracts semi-
circular ; flowers 3 of an inch in diameter, mid-lobe of lip ovate,
spur conical, pubescent within, petals yellow marked with red
lines, lip white. e

In the Concan S. Wightianum, Hook. f£., Rheede, Hort. Ma

894 ORCHIDEA.

t. 4, very similar plants, are used as Rasna. The Marathi
peasants call these plants Kdndher. ?

Ordinary bazar RAésna both in Calcutta and Bombay consists
of long branching roots, having something the appearance of
sarsaparilla, but of a dark greyish-brown colour. The bark is
thin and marked by numerous longitudinal furrows, the
substance of the root light-brown and very fibrous ; a transverse
section shows the woody portion to be arranged in wedge-
shaped bundles. The root is inodorous, and has a starchy
bitterish and astringent taste.

In Bombay a second kind of Rasna is sold at a much higher
price, which bears no resemblance to the ordinary commercial
article ; it occurs as straight pieces of a root about the size of a
crowquill at the thickest part, gradually tapering to a point, and
tied up in small bundles with thread. This root is of a light
brown colour, witha thick and very hard bark; it has a faint
peculiar odour when powdered, which recalls that of ipeca-
euanha, It is called Hhadaki-rasnain Bombay. Under this
name we have also received the roots of Tylophora asthmatica.

Chemical composition.—The standard Résna of the Indian
bazars yielded the following principles when an alcoholic
extract of the whole dried plant was treated in a similar manner
to that described under Jibanti p. 390: a—resin acid of a cho-
colate colour, insoluble in petroleum ether and ether: 6—resin
acid soluble in ether: neutral yellow resin: an alkaloidal
principle: a white neutral principle: a neutral fluorescing
principle. In physical and chemical properties the first five
principles were similar to those described under Jibanti. An

examination of the more expensive Rdsna of the Bombay
_ market gave the following results :—

= tineture prepared with 80 per cent. alcohol, gelatinized on
_ eoncentration, after separation of the whole of the alcohol, the

_ extract was agitated with amylic alcohol, and water acidulated

_ with acetic acid, mad her alcohol was selected for the first

eee _because > preliminary experiments indicated that
when ied for — with an

ERT en TOGO Rae Fs teen Cente ae a ih tial

as eR ida ti ath ae

+

ORCHIDE. 395

aqueous solution of the alcoholic extract, the liquid formed an
emulsion which showed little or no tendency to separate. The
amylic alcohol tincture was evaporated on a water bath, and,
when dry, was repeatedly agitated with ether, until colouring
matter ceased to be dissolved. The extract insoluble in ether
was then redissolved in amylic alcohol and agitated repeatedly
with baryta water, until the baryta water ceased to be colored
yellow. During agitation a soft varnish-like mass separated
and adhered to the sides of the bottle. By this treatment the
originalamylic alcohol extract was separated into three fractions:
(1) The amylic alcohol solation, (2) the varnish-like residue
adhering to the sides of the bottle, and (3) the baryta water
Bolittion.

(1) The amylic alcohol solution on evaporation left a solid
residue, which, after being pounded, and agitated with ether, to
remove traces of adherent amylic alcohol, possessed the proper-
ties of a saponin-like principle; it frothed considerably with
water; treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, adirty reddish
coloration was slowly developed; in water and aqueous
ammonia it was only slightly tokible, but dissolved easily in
ordinary acetic acid. As extracted the eee was not pure,
it contained colouring matter and barium

(2) The varnish-like residue was dissolved in acetic acid and

agitated with amylic alcohol, the extract being treated with ether

to remove traces of amylic alcohol. This extract also behaved
like a saponin-like principle: after purification it formed a
yellowish powder, it frothed considerably with water ; treated
with concentrated sulphuric acid, it developed in a shorter period
than the first extract a beautiful bright carmine coloration: in
water it was easily soluble, a concentrated solution having
much the physical appearance of an aqueous egg albumen, and
it dissolved readily in aqueous ammonia. :

(3) The baryta water solution contained much colouring matter
and a small amount of a principle which frothed with water,
which was probably a mixture of the two principles already
mentioned.

396 SCITAMINE.

The original aqueous solution of the alcoholic extract, left
after agitation with amylic alcohol was acidulated with acetic
acid and agitated with ether. The ether extract contained a
neutral resin-like principle, a very bitter resin acid, the
bitter taste of the drug being probably due to this resin, and
a white crystallizable acid.

Finally, the acid aqueous solution was treated with sodic
carbonate in excess and reagitated with ether. The ether
separated traces of an alkaloidal principle, which afforded a
faint yellow coloration with Fréhde’s reagent, deeping slightly
on heating,

Vanda spathulata, Spreng., is the Ponnampou-mara-
cara of Rheede (12, 3), and is supposed on the Malabar Coast
to temper the bile and abate phrenzy, and the golden yellow
flowers, reduced to powder, are given in consumption, asthma,
and mania. (See Ainslie, Mat. Med., ii., 321.

- Rhynchostylis retusa, Blume, is also mentioned 2
Rheede (xii., 1), also Cymbidium tenuifolium (xi,
and 6) and C. ovatum (xii., 7), as emollients. C, ee
(xii., 8) is said to be emetic and purgative.

SCITAMINEZ.

CURCUMA AROMATICA, Saiisé.
iS ‘Fig. —Salish. Parad., t. 96; Rose. Scit., t.103; Wight Le.,
2 ee Bot. Mag., t. 1546. Wild Turmeric, Yellow Zedoary,
Ce Turmeric (Enz.), Zedoaire jaune (F7.).
- —Throughout India, wild and cultivated. The

jangli- haldi, Ban-haldi (Hind.), Ban-halad
> -halad sind ae halad OTE

SOITAMINEA. 97

History, Uses, &c.— This plant is the Vana-haridra or

‘‘ wild turmeric” of Sanskrit writers. The Arabian and Persian
physicians do not notice it, and probably did not distinguish it
from turmeric. Roxburgh and Ainslie wrongly supposed it to
_ __ be the Jadwar of the Arabians (see Vol. I., p. 20). It is the
turmeric-coloured zedoary of Ainslie, who states that the
Mahometans of Southern India suppose it to be a valuable
medicine in snake-bite, administered in conjunction with golden
‘orpiment, costus, and ajwain seeds. Guibourt (ii, p. 214)
calls it Zedoaire jaune, and states that the plant which produces
it has been well described and figured by Rumphius, and is his
Tommon bezaar or Tommon primum, which has been wrongly
referred by most writers to the Curcuma Zedoaria of Roscoe.
C. Aromatica is identical with the Cassumunar described by
Pereira (Mat. Med., Vol. II., Pt. I., p. 236), and the “ Cochin
Turmeric” noticed by Fliickiger and Hanbury (Phar-
macographia, p. 580). The properties of this drug are very
similar to those of turmeric, but its flavour being strongly
eamphoraceous i is not soagreeable. It is used medicinally by
the Hindus, in combitiation with other drugs, as an external
application to bruises, sprains, &c., and is applied to promote
the eruption in the exanthematous fevers; it is seldom used
alone, but is combined with astringents when applied to bruises,
and with bittersand aromatics to promote eruptions ; it is never

prepared from the tubers in Travancore. The plant under
favourable circumstances produces central tubers as large as a
small turnip. One of us has had it under cultivation for some
years; the leaves when young have a central purple stain, which
almost disappears when they attain their full size. The flowers
appear in May or June, with the first leaves, just before the
the rainy season.

Description.—Central rhizome oblong or conical, often
more than two inches in diameter, external surface dark-grey,
marked with circular rings and giving off many thick rootlets ;
at the ends of some of them are orange-yellow tubers about the
size and shape of an almond in its shell; lateral rho about

used as a condiment in India, but a kind of arrowroot is

398 SOITAMINE A.

as thick as the finger, with a few fleshy rootlets. Internally
both central and lateral rhizomes are of a deep orange colour
like turmeric ; the odour of the root is strongly camphoraceous.
Microscopic structure.—Similar to that of turmeric.
Chemical composition.—The drug yielded to analysis :—
Ether extract (essential oil, fat, and soft resins)... 12°06
1

Alcoholic extract (sugar, resins) sy ee
Water extract (gum, acids, &c). 6:50
Starch ee See
Crude fibre cae 8°42
Ash.. 4°46
Moisture : 13°33
Albuminoids, 1nodifications of arabin, &c. ..,...... 30°63
100°00 -

The root had an odour of ginger; curcumin was present.
The water extract gave a crystalline precipitate with lead
- acetate, which was found to be due to the presence of malic acid.

Commerce.—The plant is chiefly grown at Alwaye, North-
east of Cochin, and is also collected in Mysore, Wynaad, and
_ other localities in Southern India for export to Europe asa
substitute for turmeric to be used in dyeing. It is exported
from Cochin and Bombay. Value, Rs. 24 to 25 per candy of
53 ewts. for the unpeeled root, Rs, 27 to 28 when peeled.

A European firm of Druggists in Bombay, writing to London
for the ingredients to make Warburgh’s fever tincture, was
supplied with this article as Zedoary.

Exports of Turmeric from Cochin :-—

Europe, &e. India, Burma, &c. Total ewts.

1884-85 ...... 5,154 6,361 11,515

- 1885-86. ......- 7,610 2,776 10,386
ORES... 6,081 1,967 7,998
oe SOROS 3 : 4,395

Geoscience 8 ee 2,276

tle

SCITAMINE. | 399

CURCUMA ZEDOARIA, Ros.

Fig,— Rose. Scit., t. 109; Roxb. Cor. Pl., t. 101; Rheede,
Hort. Mal. wi., t. 7. Zedoary (Eng.), Zedoaire (f7r.).

Hab.—Eastern Himalaya, cultivated throughout India,
The tubers.

Vernacular.—Kachtra (Hind., Beng., Mar., Can., Guz.),
Kichilick-kizhanghu, Pulan-kizhanga (Zam.), Kichili-gaddala,
Kachoram (Ze/.), Kacholam, Kachuri-kizhanna, Pula-kiz-
hanna (Mai.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is the Sati and Kra-
~ ehura of Sanskrit writers, and the Zerumbad and Urik-el-kafir,
“camphor root,” of the Arabians. It is noticed by the later _
Greek physicians under the name {ovpop3ed, a corruption of the
Arabic name, which, in the Middle Ages, was variously written
as Zeruban, Zerumber, and Zerumbet. It is not the ¢é80ap of
ZBtius (A. D. 540—550) or the r¢erdvapiov of Myrepsus, or the
- Zedoar of Macer Floridus (A. D. 1140). Barbosa (1516) speaks
of Zedoaria and Zeruban as distinct articles of trade at Cannanore,
so that it must have been some time after this date that
Zerumbet came into use in Europe as a cheap substitute for the
_ Zedoar of the earlier physicians, which, we have no doubt, was
the same drug as the Jadwar of the Arabians. This name,
correctly written by Altius, is the y!5 o5 (Zhedwar) of the
ancient Persians, and is described in the Burhdn (A. D. 1046)
as a drug used as an antidote to poisons, the same as the
Jadwar of the Arabians, and also called Mahparvin. Ibn Sina
of Bokhara, who lived about the same time (980—1037),
_ describes Jadwé4r shortly in the following words :—

dio Gol, oaigl idee ebd sre lJ! —“it has the form of
the root of Aristolochia, but is smaller.” Haji-Zein-el-attar,
the well-known Persian physician and apothecary, and the
author of the “Ikhtiarét” (A. D. 1368), describes Jadwar asa -
root about the size and shape of the Indian Cyperus root, but

the best internally of a purplish tint. He states that

harder and heavier, and the same as the Indian drug Nirbisi, — 4

4.00 SCITAMINEA,.

are, as far as his experience goes, four drugs sold as Jadwar,
viz., a white kind, a purplish, a black and a yellow ; the people
of Cathay call the yellow kind Auwrti and the purplish Burbi,
the other two kinds come from India. As to the locality in
which the drug is collected, he states that there is a mountain
ealled Fardjal between India and Cathay, where the plant grows
along with the aconite, and that the latter, whenever it grows
near the Jadwar, loses its poisonous properties and is eaten with
impunity by the inhabitants. Where the Jadwar does not grow,
the aconite (Bish) is a deadly poison, and is called Hadléhal by
the natives (Halahala, Sanskrit). In the Dict. Econ, Prod.
of India (ii., p. 656), the following interesting account of certain
drugs collected in Nepal by Dr. Gimlette, the Residency Surgeon,
substantially confirms Haji-Zein’s description of Jadwar or
Nirbisi :—According to Dr. Gimlette, ‘the Kala bikh of the
Nepalese (the Dudingi of the Bhoteas) is a very poisonous form
ef Aconitum ferox, so poisonous, indeed, that the Katmandu
druggists will not admit they possess any. Pah/o (yellow) bikh
is a less poisonous form of the same plant, known to the
Bhoteas as Holingi, while Setho (white) bikh (the Nirbisi sen of
the Bhoteas) is A. Napellus, and Atis is Aconitum hetero-
phyllom. The aconite adulterants or plants used for similar
purposes are, Cynanthus lobatus, the true Nirbisi of N epal, the
root of which is boiled in oil, thus forming a liniment which
is employed in chronic rheumatism, Delphinium denudatum,
the Nilo (blue or purplish) bith of the Nepalese and the Nirbisi
of the Bhoteas, Dr. Gimlette says, is used by the Baids of Nepal
for the same purposes as the Setho and Pahlo bikh. Geranium
_ eollinum (var-Donianum) is the Ratho (red) bikh of the Nepalese,

and the Nirbisi-nwm of the Bhoteas, and, like the Setho bikh, is

given as a tonic in dyspepsia, fevers, and asthma. Lastly, a
plant never before recorded as used medicinally, namely,
Caragana crassicaulis, is known as the Artiras of the N epalese,

end the Kurti of the Bhoteas; it affords a root which is

: Ske as a febrifuge.”
The Jadwir or Nirbisi myth appears to have been invented
= ‘the East: to ut for the curious occurrence on the

SCITAMINES. 401

Himalayas of poisonous and non-poisonous aconites growing
de by side (see Vol. L., pp. 1, 15, 18, 20).
It would appear also that the Curcumas have no claim to the
name of zedoary, which was probably first given to them about
the middle of the 16th century, as Clusius’s figure of Gedwar is
certainly meant for the pendulous tuber of a Curcuma. The
substitution of the cheaper for the more expensive article is
ndered highly probable by the fact that Zerumbet was con-
sidered by the Arabians to be very little inferior to Jadwar as an
“antidote to poisons. Ibn Sina, Ibn Baitar, and Ibn J azla in the
Minhdj use almost the same words in speaking of these drugs ; of
adwar they say — sell gp ma | ste Lye b prod! Gly) 97, “it
: is an antidote for all poisons, even those of aconite and the viper’’;
and of Zerumbet —)! 9o=) 14 ste 1Oe p ladle SM ez Wy?
“it is most useful against the bites of venomous animals, and is
almost equal to Jadwar.”” Both drugs were considered to have
properties similar to Darunaj (see Vol. II., p. 292). . Ainslie
(Mat. Ind., i, 492) remarks that C. Zedoaria is the Lampooyang
of the Javanese, and the Lampuium of Rumphius (Herb. Amb,
V., p. 148), and that itis a native of the East Indies, Cochin-
China, and Otaheite. He quotes Geoffroy’s description of the
drug, which leaves no doubt as to its identity with the modern
hora—‘ Foris cinerea, intus candida; sapore acri-amaricante
romatico; odore tenui fragrante, ac valde aromaticum suavi-
tatem, cum tunditur aut manducatur, spirante et ad camphoram
_ aliquatenus accedente.”” Guibourt states that O. Zeg@oaria is the —
Zerumbet of Serapion, Pomet, and Lemery. The following is
his description of it :—‘“ The round zedoary is gre yish-white
externally heavy, compact, grey and often horny internally,
having a bitter and strongly camphoraceous taste, like that of
the long zedoary, which it also resembles in odour. The odour
of both drugs is analogous with that of ginger, but weaker
unless the rhizome be powdered, when it developes a powerful
aromatic odour, similar to that of cardamoms.’”’ (Hist. Nat.
gme. Ed., Vol. II., p. 213.) In our opinion there is no doubt
that C. Zedoaria is the source of the round and long zedoary —
of commerce. The plant is common in Bombay gardens, nd
>». IIL—S5l

4.02 SCITAMINEA.

was probably introduced by the Portuguese, whose descendants
and converts at the present day use the leaves in cookery,
-especially with fish. From Dr. Hové’s account of Bombay in
1787 it appears that Kachtra and Turmeric were cultivated
at that time in the cocoanut woods at Mahim. The natives
chew the root to correct a sticky taste in the mouth; itis also an
ingredient in some of the strengthening conserves which are
taken by women to remove weakness after child-birth. In
colds it is given in decoction with long-pepper, cinnamon and
honey, and the pounded root is applied as a paste to the body.
Rheede says that the starch of the zedoary is much esteemed,
and that the fresh root is considered to be cooling and diuretic,
it checks leucorrheal and gonorrheal discharges and purifies
the blood. The juice of the leaves is given in dropsy. One of
us has had the plant in cultivation for some years; it blossoms
in the hot weather just before the rains, when the first leaves
begin to appear.

Description.—Guibourt’s description already given
agrees exactly with the Kachiira of India, but it is often cut
into transverse slices instead of into halves and quarters.

Microscopie structure.—This is essentially the same as that
of turmeric, but the resin and essential oil in the cells is of a
yellowish-white colour, and the greater portion of the starch
grains are ovoid or pyriform, instead of narrow and elongated
as in turmeric,

Chemical composition.—Zedoary contains, according
Bucholz (Repert. Pharm. xe., 376), volatile oil, a bitter soft
resin, a bitter extractive matter, gum, starch, &c. The oil is_
turbid, yellowish-white and viscid, has a camphoraceous taste
and smell, and consists of two oils, one lighter, the other heavier
than water. Trommsdorff obtained from the root a substance
which he called Zedoarin, but did not further describe it. A
proximats

analysis afforded :—
ential oil, resin, cureumin, &e.. Maspes use. Oe
, stigar ......., -90

(Gum ana orga rgan acids

. 17-20

Nsiweks ay 15°22

SCITAMINEZ. 403

Crude fibre 10-92
Ash 6:06
Moist res ek
yyimeaer ‘Arabins, &e. 35°60

100-00

Commerce.—The Bombay market is supplied from Ceylon.
Value, Rs. 20 to Rs. 30 per candy of 7 ewts. The drug is
chiefly used in India as a cosmetic. Roxburgh states that
Bengal is supplied from Chittagong. a

CURCUMA CZESIA, Roz.
~Hab.—Bengal. Often cultivated. The tubers.
“Vernacular. —Nar-kachéra, Kali-haldi (Hind., Guz.), Kali-
_halad (Mar.), Kéli-halad, Nilkanth (Beng. ), Ména-pasupu
P {7el.).

History, Uses, &c.—This drug is one of the two
Zerumbids of modern Persian writers on Materia Medica.
Strange to say, it is not noticed by most European writers on
: Endinn. drugs, though it is well known and to be found in all
the shops. It is the Zommon itam of Rumphius, and the
Oarcuma long. of Guibourt, who classes it with the turmerics.
ee Hist. Nat., I1., p. 210, 6™° Ed., where a figure will be
found. Guibourt’s description is as follows :—‘‘ Ce curcuma :
est en tubercules cylindriques, c’est-d-dire qu’il conserve
sensiblement le méme diamétre dans toute sa longueur, malgré
ses différentes sinuosités. Il est plus long que le précédent,
mais beaucoup plus mince, n’étant jamais gros comme le petit
-doigt ; sa surface est grise, souvent un peu verditre, rarement
jaune, chagrinée, ou plus souvent nette et unie. II] est a
Vintérieur d’une couleur si foncée qu'il en parait rouge-brun,
ou méme noir. Il a une odeur aromatique tres dévelopée,
analogue a celle du gingembre; sa saveur est également trés
aromatique et cependanut assez douce et nullement amére. I]
est impossible de méconnaitre dans cette racine les articles
-digités du Curcuma domestica minor. Enfin, on trouve dans le
eurcuma du commerce, mais en petit quantité, des tubercules

404 SCITAMINE AS,

ronds de la grosseur d’une ayeline, souvent didymes, ou offrat
les restes de deux stipes foliacés, Ces tubercules offrent
d’ailleurs tous les caractéres des précédents, et sont les matrices
radicis du Cureuma domestica minor.’ Nar-kachira appears
to have been once imported into Liverpool under the name on
Kutchoo. (Phar. Jour. (I1.), Vol. 1., p.17.) Aitchison (Votes on
Prod. of W. Afghanistan and N. E. Persia, p. 51) remarks:—
“ Zedoary, jidwar, jizwar, kachur, kachul, is imported in quantity
from India, most of it to be passed on to Turkistan. The long
tubers are called nar-kachul, and the round ones mada-kachul,
as if they were the products of two different plants, but I have
only seen them mixed together, and not sold as two distinct
roots. The Turkomans employ these roots as a rubefacient, to
rub their bodies down’ with after taking a Turkish bath. In
this part of the country, in lieu of these, the nodes on the roots
of Eremostachys labiosa and another species are collected and
sent on to Turkistan. Curcuma roots are employed a little
- in native medicine, and as a condiment.”

The plant is a native of Bengal, and is cultivated there to
supply the Indian market. Nar-kachtira is considered to have
nearly the same medicinal properties as Kachira ; it is chiefly
used as a cosmetic. The author of the Makhzan describes it
as a kind of Zerumbaéd. (See Makhzan, article “* Zerumbéd.”)
Through the kindness of Surgeon-Major Peters we have been
supplied with living tubers of this Curcuma from Dinapore ;
he informs us that it is common in gardens in Bengal, and is
used as a domestic remedy in the fresh state much as turmeric
is in this part of India, The fresh tubers are of a pale yellow
colour, but after boiling and drying we find that they assume
the couleur foneée of the drug found in the shops.

_ Description and Microscopic structure.—-The

on : minute structure of this tuber hardly differs from that of the

oe ‘starch contained in the cells of the parenchyme
= has been altered chy Beek and appears as a finely granular mass
y filling he cell _ The resin cells are about as numerous

the contents are of a dusky orange
-scalariform and spiral

- SCITAMINE. | 405

els. As to the drug, it consists of small nearly globular
tral tubers, from which spring numerous lateral rhizomes
ut the size of ginger. It is of a dark-grey colour externally
marked with circular rings. Internally it is very hard
d horny; of a greyish black, but when cut in thin slices of a
hh-orange. ‘The odour and taste are camphoraceous.

ical composition.—A proximate analysis of this curcuma
Essential oil, resin, &e. 4:47
Resins, sugar, &c. 1°21

Gum, organic acids, &e. 10°10
Starch 18°75
BPA TOTO carrot se ssnvesdacasivaet ies Ay. slash ow 25°20
Ash EOC
Moisture ... 9:76
Albuminoids, &e. 22°94
: 100-00
ommerce.—The drug comes overland from Bengal. Value,
4 s. 5 per maund of s. Guibourt appears to have

e acquainted with it ‘Gis its admixture with the turmeric

ss ata is Rosc. Scit. t. 99, a native
is the Am-haldi or Am-ada (mango singer) of the

of 5 ginger, and of a pale yellow colour, have an agreeable

r like the rind of the mango fruit. They are much used in

al as an ingredient in chutneys, and are considered to be

minative, stomachic, and cooling. In their medicinal pro-

ies they resemble ginger. The plant is hardly known in

estern India, and is not the Amba-halad or mango turmeric
Bombay, which is Curcuma aromatica.

INDIAN ARROWROOT.

Indian or Curcuma Arrowroot is obtained from
the following plants :— ae
Curcuma angustifolia, Roxb., a native of the tropical Hima=

2 and Oudh.

India. The lateral tubers, which are of the size and © ea

406 SCITAMIN EAL,

Curcuma leucorhiza, Roxb., a native of Behar. (Rose, Scit.,
t, 102

Curcuma montana, Rosc., a native of the Concan and Circars.
(Roxb. Cor. Pi., t. 151.)

Curcuma longa, Linn. The Turmeric plant. (Bentl. & Trim.,
t. 269.)

Curcuma aromatica, Salisb., a native of the plains of India.

(Rose. Scit., t. 103.)

Curcuma rubescens, Roxb., a native of Bengal.

Hitchenia caulina, Baker, a native of the Concan. (Journ.
Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., I1., 140.)

Vernacular.—Tikhur (Hind., Beng.), Tavakhir (Mar.).

History, Uses, &c.—Tavakshiri, and Tavakshiryeka-
pattrika are Sanskrit names for certain species of Curcuma,
from which are derived the vernacular terms Tavakhir and
Tikhur, now in common use for Curcuma starch. The starch is
prepared in many parts of India by grating or pounding the
tubers, mixing the pulp thus obtained with water, straining it
through a cloth, and allowing the liquid to stand until the
starch separates. This, after several washings in water, is
dried in the sun, and after powdering is ready for use.

The following account of the experimental cultivation of
C. angustifolia and of the preparation of its starch at the Saida-
pet Experimental Farm, Madras, gives the most exact inform-
ation we possess regarding the yield and cost of Cureuma Arrow-
root :—‘ A flat measuring 0°25 acre was planted with this crop
at the end of 1879, and remained down during the year under
report. It was taken up at the end of January 1881 and
yielded 986 lbs. of tubers, or at the rate of 3,944 lbs. per acre.
The yield of flour obtained has generally been about 124 Ibs.
from 100 lbs. of tubers, so that the above yield would represent

a - an outturn of 493 lbs. of flour per acre. In another case in the
' College Experimental Garden, a plot measuring 1,160 square

_ yards, planted with this crop yielded 1,793 lbs., or at the rate
: of! 7,500 Ibs. ‘Per acre, The culture of the plant is very simple :
: Sia hecessary to plant oe eames prepared soil,

SCITAMINEZ, | 4u7

and to water them occasionally during the dry season. The
removal of the crop is tedious unless the tubers can be ploughed
out, as potatoes are in England, which is seldom possible, owing
to the dryness of the soil. The flour can be sold profitably at
four annas per pound, and at this rate Rs. 400 per acre could be
realized.”
- ~Mr. Hamilton, F.C.S., to whom samples of the starch were
_ submitted, reported that the mucilage yielded by a sample
~ marked “1st sort’? was nearly as good as that of Maranta
arrowroot, but that the sample when soaked in cold water gave
indications of the presence of slight acidity, and also contained a
small proportion of soluble starch. He suggested the avoidance
of unnecessary exposure to the sun, and the addition of } an
ounce per gallon of caustic soda to the water used in steeping the
_pulped roots. All the samples sent to him contained extraneous
matters, black particles, straw, &c., introduced during the
process of drying, which, it is hardly necessary to say, would
render the article unsaleable in Europe.

Curcuma arrowroot is inferior in colour to Maranta arrow-
root ; under the microscope it may differ greatly in appearance,
as the starch grains of different species of Curcuma are variable
n size and shape.
~Commerce.—Madras in 1869-70 exported 3,729 ewts. of
Cureuma arrowroot, valued at Rs. 14,152, In Bombay “ Mala-
bar Arrowroot ” fetches from Rs. 3 to Rs. 4 per maund of 28 Ibs.

CURCUMA LONGA, Linn.

Fig.—Bent/, and Trim., t. 269; Rheede, Hort. Mal. xi.,
#11. Turmeric (Eng.), Cureuma, Souchet des Indes, Safran
- des Indes (F*.).

Hab.— Parasnathin Behar. Cultivated elsewhere. The
tubers.

Vernacular.—Haldi, Haldar, Halja (Hind.), Halad (Beng.,
Mar., Guz.), Manjal (Tam.), Pasapu (7Zel.), Mannal, Marinalu-
ae!) Arishina (Can.).

408 SCITAMINE.

History, Uses, &c.—Turmeric, appears to have come
into use in India as a substitute for saffron and other yellow dyes,
which were used by the ancient Arians before they invaded the
country. The Arians were, as we know, great worshippers of
the solar system, hence they held in special estimation those
plants which yield a golden-yellow dye resembling sunlight,
and attributed to them protective and auspicious properties.

Turmeric, best known as Haridra in Sanskrit, has forty-six
synonyms, such as Pita ‘‘ yellow,” Gauri “ brilliant,”? Varnavat
‘having colour,’ Kamala “lustful,” Nisa, Rajani, and all
other words which signify “night.” The use of the latter
synonyms is variously explained. A distinguished professor of
Sanskrit, whom we consulted, referred us to one of the best
commentators on the Amarakosa, who states that turmeric
being a substance used for dyeing came to be called rajant,
which etymologically means the material by which a thing 18
dyed, because the word rajani had already come to be used in
the language to denote ‘‘night.’’ A well-known Bombay Vaid,
to whom we put the question, replied, ‘‘ We have tradition
that it is called ‘night,’ because in former times married women
used daily to apply turmeric in the evening.” On further
enquiry we learned that this practice is not extinct, as he sup-
posed, but still prevails in Goan villages, about Asnora, and
probably elsewhere. Married women in the evening, when the
house-work is completed, dip their hands in turmeric water
and pass them lightly over their cheeks: the mistress of the
house also performs the same office for any married friend who

may happen to drop in at this time, and on some pretence
_ detains her until the lamps are lighted. The reason they g give
_ for doing this is that the goddess Lakshmi may visit
_ the house at this time. This goddess is regarded as the wife of
‘Surya, and the practice is probably a aise! of sun-worship.
In ‘Hindu | ceremo este ial = is almost —_ necessary. »
in which it.is used we may
Wi s as prevailing i in most parts of India :—
the snese ceremonies commence, five
anoint t the bride with turmeric

SCITAMINED. 409

end oil upon the forehead, head, breast, back, and feet, and the
_ bride puts on a robe dyed with turmeric, which she wears
until the day of the marriage. Turmeric and oil is sent from
the house of the bride to the bridegroom, who is anointed in
a similar manner, and sends back a similar present to the bride.

The marriage contract is stained or spotted with turmeric.
‘During the ceremonies the sisters of the bridegroom perform
-érta before him with a dish of turmeric water, and, dipping
their fingers in it, touch his forehead.

A portion of the wall is daubed with turmeric and dashes of
kunku after the arrival of the bride in the bridegroom’s house,
and before it are placed the /w/ and all the clothes and orna-
ments constituting the marriage presents; the bridegroom, and
after him the bride, prostrate themselves before this spot.

The bridegroom ties a thread round the bride’s wrist, to
which is attached a piece of turmeric and a betelnut.
Towards the end of the ceremonies the bridal party play
with turmeric water. dashing it over one another,

A woman who performs sa¢i and married women when they
die are taken to the funeral pile clothed in a robe dyed with
turmeric.

~ At all times when pija, or worship of the gods, is made,
turmeric is necessary.

When a new séri (robe) has been purchased, two threads are
' drawn out, one of which is offered to Surya, and the other to
the goddess Tulasi, and turmeric is applied to the corner as the
cloth.

Turmeric powder and kunku (a pigment made with turmeric
and lime) is presented to women who have husbands living
and to temple dancing girls, in the month of Chaitra, or apo
the occasion of the Nauratra.

The Akshata rice used in various ceremonies is coloured with
turmeric and lime.

In the Ramayan turmeric is mentioned as one of the eight
Sea of the Arghya, a respectful oblation made to go
II.—52

410 | SOITA MINE.

and venerable men. The following are the lines as given im
the Hindi version of that poem :—
Dahi, darba, rochan, phal, mila,

Nav tulsi dal, mangal-mula.

Curdled milk, Durva grass,
Yellow gall stones of the cow, Fruit,
Roots, Lotus and Tulsi leaves,

Turmerie.

Medicinally turmeric is described in the Nighantds as hot,
bitter, pungent, astringent and drying; it corroborates the
humors, prevents skin diseases, is a useful application to swell-
ings, boils, &c., and is given in jaundice. Asa domestic remedy
it is in daily use; rubbed down with oil it is applied to any
roughness of the skin, with lime to bruises, sprains, and all
kinds of wounds; a decoction forms a cooling eyewash, boiled
with milk and sugar it is the popular remedy fora cold, the
: fumes. are inhaled by those suffering from severe coryza, cloth
dyed with turmeric is used as an eye-shade, and ghi mixed with
- powdered turmeric is given to relieve cough. Asa spice the
powder is an ingredient in curries and sweetmeats, and is used
by every native of India. The leaves are also used as a
condiment, cence, with fish, which is wrapped in them and
fried.

_ Itis doubtful whether turmeric was known to the Greeks.
ioscorides mentions an Indian root as a kind of «émepos resem-
bling ginger, but having, when chewed, a yellow colour and
taste. The Mahometans use turmeric medicinally i in the
ras the Hindus; they also prescribe it in affections
3 jaundice on account of its yellow colour. There
; ; the best known are Urik-es-sufr “gold
: i. oe dyers’ root.” The modern
“stick saffron.” The editor of
ye ot the use of a
uncti ne i says it is

SOITAMINEA. Se ek

copious mucous discharge, and relieve the congestion. (Op. cif. a

Cultivation.—Turmeric requires a loamy soil and abundance —
of manure and water; the ground must be well worked and
raised into ridges, 9 or 10 inches high and 18 to 20 broad, with
- intervening trenches 9 to 10 inches broad. The sets, which
consist of small portions of the root, are planted on the tops
of the ridges, at about 18 inches to 2 feet apart. One acre
requires about 900 such sets, and yields about 2,000 lbs. of the
fresh root (Rorb.). Other authorities state the yield at from
1,900 to 2,000 lbs. Dalzell and Gibson give very much
higher figures for the best garden soil in Guzerat, viz., 5,000 to
20,000 lbs. per acre. They state that the return to the culti-
_-vator is equal to that obtained from sugar-cane, viz., Rs. 300
‘per acre. The time for planting is usually about the end of
He but it depends greatly upon the setting in of the rainy
se “The crop may be raised in the following March or
April; m left in the ground new shoots appear upon setting in
of the following rains and the crop is lifted about 20 to 21
months after planting. In some parts of India it is not con-
sidered good practice to lift the plants the first year. When
the roots have to be scalded in boiling water or by steam-
them in their own juice, and to be dried in the sun or in an

it is impossible to obtain any reliable acreage returns.

that of most Curcumas, consists of a central ovoid portion and
several lateral elongated portions, all of a deep orange colour,
from these proceed a number of radicles, at the ends of some of
vhich colourless oval tubers are produced. The central and
lateral rhizomes form the round and long turmeric of commerce,
The former vary a good deal in size and shape; they may be
pyriform, ovoid, or almost round, and are generally cut up into
two or more pieces; the latter are cylindrical, tapering towariic
the extremities, and often more or less bent ; both are pases
transverse furrows, and bear remains of the rootlets nu

Turmeric being much cultivated along with other crops Lae

Description.—The rhizome of the turmeric plant, a oe

412 SCITAMINE A.

leaf-buds. Turmeric is of a deep brownish-yellow colour, of
firm resinous consistence, and has a peculiar aromatic odour.

‘Microscopie structure.—Sections of the fresh rhizome show
the exterior to be composed of several layers of compressed
brown cells. The parenchyme consists of delicate polygonal
cells of a yellow colour, the majority contain starch grains
which are mostly elongated, but some are pyriform or ovoid ;
a smaller number of cells contain globular masses of yellow
resinous matter, and a rich orange-yellow essential oil; those
cells which contain much resin have little or no oil, when the
resin is in small quantity there is much oil. The vascular sys-
tem consists of sealariform and spiral vessels, which are most
abundant near the boundary line which separates the cortical
from the central portion of the rhizome. This boundary line
is composed of small empty cells, having thicker walls than
those of the rest of the parenchyme.

Chemical composition.—Turmeric contains about 1 per cent.
of an essential oil. Curcumin, the yellow-colouring matter
of turmeric, has been examined by several chemists, whose
experiments have led to the conclusion that its formula is
either C'°H*°O® or O*°H"* O* that it melts at 172°, forms
red-brown salts with alkalies, is converted by borie or
sulphuric acid into rosocyanine, by reduction with zinc-dust
into an oily body, by oxidation into oxalic or terephthalic acid,
and by fusion with potash into protocatechuic acid. The
experiments of Jackson and Menke have, however, led to
results differing in many respect from those above detailed,
which were probably obtained from impure preparations.

‘The Curcumin used in their experiments was prepared by
treating ground turmeric root ( Bengal or Madras) with light
petroleum to remove turmeric oil, and then with ether, which
_ dissolves the curcumin together with a large quantity of resin;
: and it was wee purified by crystallization from alcohol. The

quantity of -eurcamin thus obtained was only 0:3 per cent. of
the root ; the total quantity chsersentn in red root is, however, ee

SCITAMIN EZ. 413

inous impurities, and some also in the oil. Curcumin thus
spared crystallizes from alcohol in stout needles, appearing on
scopic examination to be made up of well-formed prisms
‘square ends, or in spindle-shaped crystals often arranged
ate groups. It has an orange to yellow colour, according
eof the crystals, with a beautiful blue reflex; its solution
ibits a strong green fluorescence. It is inodorous
; melts at 178°, apparently with decomposition. It
atly insoluble in water, somewhat soluble in cold, more
ly n hot ethyl and methyl alcohols, more soluble in glacial
acid, less in ether, very slightly i in benzene and carbon
uide, and all but insoluble in light petroleum. Stron
ric acid dissolves it with a Gne reddish purple colour,
changing to black from charring; curcumin dissolves
alkalies and alkaline carbonates. Its ammoniacal
ives off ammonia when boiled, and deposits unaltered
Baryta water converts it into a blackish-red powder,
ee a red solution like that obtained with
Curcumin is not affected by acid sodium
curcumin gives, as the mean of several analyses,
-earbon and 5°63 hydrogen, leading to the
vhich requires 68°29 carbon, 5°69 hydrogen,
nd this formula has been confirmed by the
derivatives. For an avcount of the deriva-
nin, confer. Phar. Journ., Dec. 30th, 1882.
il or Turmerol, to which turmeric (and therefore
der) owes its aromatic taste and smell, has been ex-
m Bengal turmeric by C. L. Jackson and A. E, Menke
nt petroleum, and after being freed from the higher-
rtion of that solvent by heating to 150° in a flask,
ickish oily yellow liquid having a pleasant aro-
it was purified by fractional datiliticn under
sure, and was thereby separated into three
first boiling below 193°, the second at 193° to
and the third consisting of a viscous semi-solid residue.
e portion consisted of nearly pure turmerol ; the first
ibstance contaminated with hydrocarbons from the

414 : SCITAMINE.

petroleum. The middle fraction, after further purification by
distillation in a vacuum, gave, as a mean result of several
analyses, 83°62 per cent. carbon and 10:42 hydrogen, agreeing
nearly with. the formula C'® H’* O, which requires 83-8] C,
and 10:29 H. Turmerol is a pale yellow oil having a pleasant
aromatic smell, and a density of 0-9016 at 17°. It is optically
Geetreuyrate, [a]=83°52. Under ordinary pressure it boils at
285°

to 296°, but decomposes at the same time, yielding. a sub-.

stance of lower boiling point. (Amer. Chem. Journ,, TV., pp. 805-
374.) Schimmel and Co. (Bericht, Oct. 1890) state that during a
scientific investigation of Curcuma oil they proved it to contain
Phellandrene.

Commerce.—The bulk of the turmeric cultivated in India is
consumed in the Hast as adye and condiment, and the con-
sumption must be very large as every one uses it. Full parti-
culars cannot be learned, but a trans-frontier trade exists, and
_ the various Indian ports exchanged in 1886-87, 281,117 ewts.,

=

: 5a hla slats
Se ER ee eee ay eae ee ee

ES
JX tener:

tess

Spee me ey eke oe

valued at Rs. 24,38,260. During 5 years from 1884 to 1888

Tuticorin exported 6,802 cwts. of turmeric at the average
valuation of Rs. 7-8 per ewt. In the foreign trade turmeric is
_ treated asa dye, and the statistics include the wild or Cochin
kind. In 1885-86 the exports were 156,287 ewts., valued at
Rs. 14,00,000; in 1886-87, 140,994, ewts. were exported, valued
at Rs. 10,32,025. The trade fluctuates greatly: in 1881-82
only 70,783 cwts. were exported ; in 1876-77, 123,824 ewts.

KAMPFERIA GALANGA, Linn.
.—Rose. Scit., t. 92; Wight Ic., t. 899; Rheede, Hort.

: ra-miila ({ind.), Chandt-mila, rsicals
al., Tam. ), Chandra-méla, Utnen

1

SCITAMINE A. . ATR

ja-nirghanta. It is much cultivated in gardens by the
Hindus, whose women use the aromatic leaves and roots as a —
perfume when washing their hair; on this account the
yernacular names Utnen and Kapurtachit have been given to
it in Western India, as its odour exactly resembles that of the
root of Hedychiwm spicatum, which is sold in the bazars as a
Kapur-kachri, and is an ingredient in the Utnen or perfumed
powder for the hair, which has been described in Vol. ii. » p. 234.
_ Rheede states that the tubers reduced to powder and mixed
with honey are given in coughs and pectoral affections, boiled
in oil they are applied externally to remove obstructions in the
nasal passages. In the Dict. Hceon. Prod. of India(1V, 561), it
is stated on the authority of Mason that the roots are often seen
attached to the necklaces of Karen women, for the sake of their
_ perfume, and that they also place them in their clothes for the
“same reason. They are also said to be used as a masticatory
ng with betel leaves and areca nut.

Description.—The roots consist of branched tubers,
resembling ginger in a which give off fleshy fibres bearing
vhi

BS seincous odour, ees like that of the Kapur-kachri of
bazars. The leaves are radical, petioled, ovate-cordate,
between acute and obtuse ; margins membranaceous and waved;
‘upper surface smooth, aeds green; under surface pale and
somewhat woolly. The leaves are much crowded, but when they —
can find room they spread flat on-the surface of the earth, the
petioles are hid beneath the soil and form eylindric sheaths
enclosing the fascicles of flowers, which are of a pellucid white,
or iin marked with purple spots, and have the same fragrant
odour as the leaves and roots. All parts of the plant have a
bitterish and camphoraceous taste.

The roots are not met with in commerce, but, judging from
some which we have sliced and dried, would appear to be
capable of supplying an article equal to the Kapur-kachri of the
shops. ' (See Hedychium spicatum). The plant is culiseated
with the greatest ease, and yields a large crop of roots,

es ~~ sberous roots

416 SCITAMINEA,

Chemical composition.—The fatty matters dissolved out of
this tuber by ether consisted of a fragrant liquid oil, and a
solid white crystalline substance separated by petroleum ether.
The alcoholic extract, amounting to 2°76 per cent., contained
some white transparent prisms of an alkaline nitrate, and a

few nodules of a circular-shaped crystals of a yellowish colour.
This extract contained a small quantity or alkaloid, and some
sweet body reducing Fehling’s solution. A large quantity of
starch is present, and 4:14 per cent. of gum. The tubers dried

at 100°C lost 4:11 per cent. of moisture, and yielded 18°73

per cent. of mineral matter.

KA MPFERIA ROTUN DA, Linn.

Fig.—Rosc. Scit., t. 97; Bot. ae t. 920 and 6054 ; High
Ic., t. 2029; Rheede, Hort. Mal. xi.,

Hab.—Throughout India, often cultivated.
Vernacular.—Bhume-champa (Hind.), Bhin-champa (Beng.),

Bhin-champo (@uz.), Bhin-chapha (Mar.), Konda-kalava (Te/.), |

Malan-kua (Ma/.)
History, Uses, &c.—This plant, called in Sanskrit

Bhumi-champaka, ‘‘ ground champaka,” from the sweetness of
its flowers resembling that of the champaka (Michelia), though
not mentioned in the Raja-nirghanta, is one of the commonest
domestic remedies of the Hindus. Its small globular pendu-
lous tubers, at one time supposed to be the “ round zedoary ” of
the druggists, are used throughout India as a local application

to tumours, wounds, and swellings of all kinds. Rheede states

that in Malabar the whole plant, when reduced to powder, and
‘used in the form of an ointment, is considered to be of wonder-
ful efficacy in healing fresh wounds, and that, taken internally,

it is thought to remove any coagulated blood or purulent matter
_ that may be within the body; he adds that the root isa useful

application to anasarcous swellings. In Western India the
parts heii act local application in mumps* (Ga/-

roots were used by the ancients for the same purpose. Cf.

ei

SCITAMIN EA. 417

gand), but as they are generally combined with more active
remedies, such as Creton seeds, Aconite, and Nux Vomica, it is
probable that they do not contribute much to the cure. The

which proceed numerous, thick, fleshy rootlets, all of which,
terminate in small, oblong, or round tubers; the substance of
the rhizomes and tubers is of a pale straw colour, and has a
bitter, pungent, camphoraceous taste, much like that of true
zedoary ; the whole plant is aromatic.

HEDYCHIUM SPICATUM, Ham.
Fig.— Bot. Mag., t. 2300.
Hab.—China Himalaya. The tubers.

-~ Vernacular.—Ka4ptr-kachri, Kachir-kacha, Kachri (Hind.),
_ Kapiir-kachari (Mar., Guz.), Shimai-kichilik-kizhangu (Zam.).

History, Uses, &c.—Sati, the Sanskrit name for Cur-.
-euma Zedoaria, is sometimes erroneously applied to this plant,
ich is not mentioned in the Raja Nirghanta. In the Hima-
~ layas it is known as Sheduri, and the leaves are made into mats
_ which are used as sleeping mats by the hill people. The aromatic
-root-stocks are used as a perfume along with Henna (Lawsonia
alba) in preparing the cloth known in the North-West Provin-
ces as Malagiri (Watt). The sliced and dried root is an article
of considerable importance in Indian trade, as itis a principal -
ingredient i in the three kinds of Abi, or scented powder, used by
the Hindus in worship, and as a perfume. White Abir is made
from the following ingredients: —The root of Andropogon murica-
tus, the tubers of Hedychium spicatum, sandalwood and arrowroot
ndian), or flour of Sorghum. The kind of Abir called Ghisi
in Hind{, and Padi in Guzerdth{, contains in addition to the
_ above ingredients the seeds of Prunus Mahalib, Artemisia Siever-
siana, the wood of Cedrus Deodara, the tuber of Curcuma Zedo-
aria, cloves and cardamoms. Black Abir, or Bukka of the Dec-
can, contains in addition to all the above ingredients, Aloes-
wood, costus, the root of Nardostachys Jatamansi, and liquid
Storax. The scented powder of the Jains called Vasakhepa or
Ill.—53

418 SCITAMINEZ.

Vasakshepa, does not contain it, but consists of sandalwood,
saffron, musk, and Borneo camphor. Two kinds of Kapir-
kachri are found in the Bombay market, viz., Chinese and
Indian ; the latter was supposed by Royle to be the Sittarittee
or lesser Galangal of Ainslie (Mat. Ind. I., p. 140), but
Moidin Sheriff states that the Sittarittee of the Tamils is the
true lesser Galangal, which statement appears to be correct.
Powell informs us that the rhizome is pounded with tobacco
and smoked in the Punjab.

Description.—Indian K4ptir-kachri occurs in slices,
mostly circular, but sometimes the section is made in a sloping
direction ; the slices are $ an inch or less in diameter, and
vary much in thickness; they are white and starchy, and when
freshly pared exhibit a faint line dividing the cortical from the
- central portion; the edges of each slice are covered by a rough
reddish-brown bark marked with numerous scars and circular
rings; here and there rootlets remain attached ; the odour is
like that of orris root, but more powerful and strongly cam-
phoraceous ; the taste pungent, bitter, and aromatic. The
Chinese drug is a little larger than the Indian, whiter, and less
pungent; the bark is smoother and of a lighter colour.

Microscopie structure.—The rhizome consists of a delicate
parenchyma, most of the cells of which are loaded with large
ovoid starch grains, a few contain a yellowish resin, and essen-
tial oil ; the epidermis is composed of several rows of compress-
ed, nearly empty, reddish-brown cells. From the unaltered
condition of the starch it appears that the rhizomes are not
exposed to heat.

; Chemical composition.—The dried tubers have been examined
by J. ©. Thresh (Pharm. Journ. [3] XV, 361). The proximate
analysis gave the following results :—
geen ots os petroleum ether—
ethylparacoumarate............. 3°
Fixed Si vad odors MON ONY Autiiesnscis <2 aos

Soluble i in aleohol— ‘

“ Prt. by —— 7 :

FEO eee er ers ee.

5°9

SCITAMINEA. 419

Soluble in water—
Glucoside or saccharine matter 1:0

Mucila ge 2:8
Albuminoids, organic acid, &c..... weet e es
Starch §2°3
Moisture 13°6
4:6

Cellulose, &e. 15:2
100°0

The odorous principle was entirely taken up by petroleum
ether, upon allowing the petroleum ether to evaporate slowly,an
abundant crop of large, colourless, tabular crystals was obtained, -
together with a pale yellowish-brown oily fluid, These crystals,
after washing with cold petroleum, were submitted to a series
of recrystallizations in order to remove traces of the odorous
matter. They were finally obtained quite odourless, and found
_ to possess the following properties:—Soluble in petroleum
BE ether, ether, alcohol, chloroform and benzol. Insoluble in
diluted solutions of potash, soda or ammonia. Sulphuric acid
dissolved it in the cold without production of colour, but if
heated the solution became purple red. The alcoholic solution

was neutral in reaction, not coloured by ferric chloride or

precipitated by basic lead acetate. It did not reduce silver
salts. :

The melting point (uncorrected) was found to be 120—121°
F, (49° C.), and after melting it would remain fluid at ordinary
temperatures for days if left undisturbed.

By burning with copper —— in a current of oxygen the
following results were obtaine

‘2931 gram yielded *7490 ain n 00? and 1804 gram H? O.
*2703 gram gave °6912 gram CO* and *1690 gram H?0O.
These results agree with the empirical formula C’*H**O*°:—

Ph 8 ee LE Se nT pak ele

The uncrystallizable portion of the petroleum ether residue
was found to consist of the odorous principle, a fixed oil and a
very considerable proportion of ethylmethylparacoumarate, the
latter doubtless prevented from crystallizing by the presence -

420 SCITAMINE Z.

of the former. Upon saponification of the mixture with aleo-.

holie potash, two crystalline acids were obtained, the methy/-
paracoumaric and another, apparently a fatty acid. This latter
was totally. insoluble.in boiling water, but erystallizable from
alechol. The quantity obtained did not enable the author te
identify it with certainty. A minute quantity of the oily fluid

abovementioned dropped upon the clothes, rendered them —
highly odorous for a considerable length of time, or, if exposed
caused a large room to be pervaded with an odour be s

that of i vactatie

Commerce.—The Chinese drug which forms by far the greater .

proportion of the commercial article is shipped to Indian ports
via Singapore, and is valued at Rs. 44 per maund of 374 Ibs.
Sir E. Buck (Dyes and Tans of the N.-W. Provinces) gives the

export from Kumaon in 1875-7€ as 954 ewts., and also states

that in the same year an equal quantity was exported from
Garhwal, and 40} cwts. from the Bijnor district. In Davie
Trade Report 25 maunds (about 2,000 Ibs.) are given as th
annual export vid Peshawar to Afghanistan (Dict. Econ
Prod. Ind. TV., p. 208). The Indian kind is valued in Bomba
at about Rs. & per maund of 374 Ibs. It. is not so handsom¢
in appearance as the Chinese, but is more odorous.

ZINGIBER OFFICINALE, ‘Rose.
Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., t. 270; Rose. Monand. P., 83 ;
Woodville, t. 250; Steph. and Ch., t. 96. oe

Hab — Cultivated throughout the East. The rhizome. pd
Ra boion adi, pat din Sonth (Hind.) ; Bea

SCITAMINBA. ‘421

_ -hames, such as Mahaushadha ‘ cont remedy,” Visva “ perva-
der,’ Visva-bheshaja ‘ panacea,” Sringavera “ antlered,” Katu-.
badra “the good acrid,’ &e. When dried it is known as
_ Sunthi and Niagara in distinction from Ardraka “ fresh
ginger.’ In the Nighantais it is described as acrid and
digestive, useful for the removal of cold humors, costiveness,
nausea, asthma, cough, colic, palpitation of the heart, tym-
panitis, swellings, piles, &c. Ginger is one of the three acrids
(trikatu) of the Hindu physicians, the other two being black _
pepper and long pepper; combined with other spices and
‘sugar, as in the preparations known as Samasarkara churna and
Saubhagya sunthi, it is given in dyspepsia and loss of appetite.

In rheumatism preparations of ginger and other spices with
butter are given internally, and it is an ingredient in oils used
for external application. ‘The juice of the fresh tubers, with or
: without the juice of garlic, mixed with honey, is a favourite —
domestic remedy for cough and asthma, with lime juice it is

used in bilious dyspepsia, and a paste of dry ginger and warm

_ water is applied to the forehead to relieve headache. In Western

“India, ginger juice, with a little honey and a pinch of burnt

peacock’s feathers, is the popular remedy for vomiting. In

old Persian we find the names Shingabir or Shangabir and

_ Adrak applied to ginger, and it was probably through the
Persians that the Greeks first became acquainted with it, as
their (cyyiBepe is evidently derived from the Sanskrit Sringavera .

Zanjabil is of similar origin, the chief difference being the |
: ibstitution of the letter 5 for G, which is not in the Arabian

_ Ginger is described by Piosurides as hot, digestive, gently
laxative, stomachic and having all the properties of pepper ; it
was an ingredient in collyria and antidotes to poison. Pliny
notices it in his chapter on peppers, but very briefly, and it does
not appear to have been regarded as an article of much
importance in his time.

In the second century of our era, ginger is mentioned as liable
ito duty (vectigal) at-Alexandria along with other Indian’

through the Persian form of the word. The Arabic name

422 | SOCITAMINEA.

(Vincent Com. and Nav. of the Ancients, III, 695). Galen recom-
mends it in paralysis and all complaints arising from cold hu-
mors; Paulusin neuralgiaand gout. Ibn Sina and other Arabian
and Boisish physicians closely follow the Greeks, but enlarge
upon its aphrodisiacal properties. In modern medicine the
value of ginger as a carminative in atonic dyspepsia and flatulent
colic, and asa masticatory in relaxed conditions of the throat
is generally admitted.

The manufacture of ginger beer and ginger ale forms a large
portion of the mineral water trade in England); indeed, some
makers have acquired a special reputation for their production.
Besides the large number of fermented and aérated ginger beers
consumed at home, a good deal of ginger ale is shipped in glass
bottles from Belfast, especially to the United States. About
16,000 packages or casks are so exported annually, for it has
become a fashionable beverage in America among all classes.

According to the American official returns the imports in the :
two years ending June were as follows (the duty being 20 —

per cent.):—
1888. 1889.
Dozen bottles. Dozen bottles. ©
Ginger ale and_ beer 231,721 261, 828
Ginger cordial 262
Preserved ginger (385 per
cent. duty) value...... $14,289 $2,6
Hundredweights. Reel

Raw ginger(duty free) 34,194 27,718

The value of the ginger ale and beer imported there was in
1887, $153,376 ; in 1888, $126,987, and in 1889, $92,001.
Manufacture of ginger ale seems to have been com-
menced there also ; for last year 3,512 dozen quarts were sent
away from New York and New Orleans, besides what was
“Tocally consumed.
The teeter at ome to which h ginger is applied besides as a

pA a ee ne

SCITAMINE:. 423

ginger champagne, ginger cordial, as essence, —_
zenges and ginger wine.

On the Continent of eis ginger is less used and appre-
ciated than in Englan

- Soluble essences of ginger are required for making good
; ginger beer, and Belfast and American ginger ales, There are
aérated and fermented ginger beers; the best unbleached
Jamaica ginger, well bruised, being deed for the latter. Ginger
is also used for a kind of cordial and champagne.

Lastly, young ginger is candied and preserved to a con-
‘siderable extent in the East, and comes into commerce under
the section of “succades.” The quantity imported into England
from India and China ranges from 300,000 to 600,000 pounds,
of the value of £11,000 to £25,000. The mode of preserving it
isto steep the rhizomes in vats of water for several days,
hanging the water once. When taken out itis spread on
ables and well pricked or pierced with bodkins. The rhizomes

and nightsina vat witha mixture of water and rice flour.
After this they are washed with a solution of lime, then boiled
ith an equal weight of sugar and a little white of egg is added
to clarify.

After the ginger has been boiled a i time it is put in
glazed jars of pottery, holding 1 pound, 3 pounds or 6 pounds,
and covered with syrup. The syrup is changed two or three
times, and then they are shipped in cases holding six jars.

The quality called ‘‘ Mandarin ” is put upin barrels, (P. L.
ymonds, Amer. Jn. Pharm. 1891.) -

| Description.—Many qualities of ginger are met with in
Eastern commerce, which vary greatly in appearance ; the fresh
tubers also vary in size, flavour and colour in different soils.
One variety found in gardens in the Concan has a darker colour
than ordinary ginger and somewhat of a zedoary flavour ; it is
known as Kala-Ala, “black ginger.” Dried ginger is knbiens
in two forms, namely, the rhizome with its epidermis, in which

424 SCITAMINE A, »

ease it is called coated; or deprived of epidermis, and then
termed scraped or uncoated. The pieces, which are called by
the spice dealers races or hands, rarely exceed 4 inches in length
and have a somewhat palmate form, being made up of a series
of short, laterally compressed, lobe- tee shoots or knobs.

Uncoated Cochin ginger, which is the best kind produced in
India, has a pale buff hue, and a striated, somewhat fibrous,
surface. It breaks easily, exhibiting a short and farinaceous
fracture with numerous bristle-like fibres and closely resembles
Jamaica ginger in appearance and flavour. “ Black” Cochin
ginger is that dried in the wet weather by means of hot ashes.

Bengal and Bombay gingers have a brownish or reddish
external surface, and the fractured surface is harder and darker,
the flavour is less delicate than that of the Cochin sort. Coated
gingers are now seldom met with, but Indian commercial
samples usually contain a proportion of shrivelled and im-
perfectly scraped roots,

‘
4

~ Ohemical composition.—Ginger has been very completely

- examined by J. C. Thresh. (Pharm. Journ. (8) xii, 721). —
He found Cochin ginger to contain volatile oil 1°350 ; fat, wax
(?) and resin (in the petroleum ether solution), 1:205; neutral
resin ‘950; a. and b. resins, °865; Gingerol, *600 ; substance
precipitated by acids, 5°350; mucilage, 1450; indifferem® |
substance precipitated -by eas, organic acids, &c., 6°8 a
extractive soluble in alcohol not in ether or water, *280; alkalotd

a trace; metarabin, 8-120; starch, 15-790 ; pararabin, 14°400;
oxalic acid (as CaC*0*), +427; cellulose, 3-750; albuminoids,
5°570; vasculose, &c., 14763; moisture, 13°530; ash, 4°800.
The essential oil is pale- yellow, levogyre and not acrid.
S28 Gingerol, the active principle, is a straw-coloured, viscid, ©

| odourless fluid of extremely pungent taste.

: cording to S. J. Riegel, East India ginger yields 8 per
conk. ei oleo-resin, whereas Jamaica ginger only yields 5 per
cent. fee be be best extracted by alcohol, ether or chloroform,

- benzin will dissolve it, but it d ee exhaust the Fs oe

SOITAMINER. 425

__ Commerce.—Ginger is extensively cultivated in British India,
_ from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin.

In the Himalayas it is successfully reared at elevations of 4,000
or 5,000 feet, requiring, however, a moist soil. The Malabar

ginger, exported: from Calicut, is the produce of the district of
Shernaad, situated to the south of Calicut. In the Dacca
district the natives cleanse the roots in boiling lime water,

which probably injures much of the fragrant pungency, whereas
in Jamaica they use simply plain water.

In order to dry ginger into what is called “sonth” in India
—that is, to enable it to keep—the fresh roots are put into a
basket, which is suspended by a rope, and then two men, one
‘on each side, pull it to and fro between them by a cord
attached, and thus shake the roots in the basket ; this process
is carried on for two hours every day for three days. After
this the roots are dried in the sun for eight days, and again
shaken in the basket ; the object of the shaking being to take

ff the outer scales and skin of the roots, Two days further
‘drying completes the process, and the ginger sells at about a
rupee, or two, for 6 or 8 pounds. The value of the East Indian
ginger exported went on increasing from about £63,000 (44,457
hundredweights) in 1881 to over £199,000 (133,280 hundred-
weights) in 1887; but in the last three years it has retrograded,
having fallen to £70,398 (61,774 hundredweights) in the
financial year ending March, 1890.
Last year, of 63,500 ewts. imported into England, India
sent 53,500 ewts., Jamaica, 5,900 cwts., and West Africa, 2,600
s. (P. L. Simmonds.)

ZINGIBER CASSUMUNAR, Rozh.
Fig.—Rozb. in As. Research. 31, t. 7; Bot. Mag., t, 1426;
Box. Monand. Pi.

Hab.—lIndia. The rhizomes.
LII, —54

426 SCITAMINE,

Vernacular.—-Ban-ada (Beng.), Nisa, Malabari-halad (Mar.),
Karpushpu (Tel.), Ban-adrak, Ban-adi (Hind.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant, in Sanskrit Vadrn-
draka or “wild ginger,” though not mentioned in the Raja
Nirghanta, appears to be well known in most parts of India
as a domestic remedy among the peasantry, who rub down
the tubers with water for administration in diarrhea and
colic. Though Roxburgh has named this plant Cassumunar,
it appears to be very doubtful whether its roots have ever
been exported to Europe or have ever been an article of commerce
in India. Kattu-mannal is a Malabar name for the yellow
zedoary, and it appears to be this plant which has furnished the
Cassumunar root of the druggists (cf. Pereira, Mat. Med.,
ii., Pt. 1, p. 236). Inodour and taste both roots are very —
niiniiet. The Marathi name Nisa is Sanskrit and signifies
‘‘turmeric,”” and seems to indicate that the tubers of this
plant are used as a substitute for that article by the
peasantry.

Description.— The fresh rhizomes are 1 to 2 inches in
diameter, jointed, compressed, with numerous white fleshy
radicles, to some of which white tubers are attached. Each
joint of the rhizome is furnished with a leaf bud. The
epidermis is scaly, light-brown, the interior of a rich golden
yellow, the odour is powerful and not very pleasant, like a
mixture of ginger, camphor, and turmeric; the taste hot and
camphoraceous.

_ Microscopic structure.— The epidermis is formed of many

ers of compressed and obliterated cells. The parenchyma
consists of large polyhedral cells; those in the cortical portion
of the rhizome are nearly free from starch, but those in the
central portion are filled with large ovoid starch granules.
all parts of the rhizome large cells full of a golden-yellow
essential oil abound. nie eerie Senet resembles that —
of — ea.

SCITAMINE, , 427

Chemical composition.—The drug yielded to analysis :—
Ether extract (essential oil, fat, and soft resins) ... 6°96

Alcoholic extract (sugar, resins) ; 0:29
Water extract (gum, acids, &c.) 13°42
Starch 15°08
Crude fibre 12°61
6 6°80
RRO ERS 0
: Albunaincias modifications of arabin, &eo. ro nee 30°18
100-00 00.

pene root had a pungent odour, similar to a mixture of cam-

We were doable to separate any of the “soapy extrac-
ive” mentioned in the analysis of Cassumunar root by Luca.
Costus speciosus, Sm., Lam. Ill. i., t. 3; Rheede, Hort.
Mal. xi., t. 8
- Vernacular.—Kei (Hind. and Beng.), Penva Tar (Mar.),
-Kemuka (Sans.). Roxburgh notices a preserve made of the
fresh roots which is considered wholesome and nutritious.
speciosus is the Tyana-kua of Rheede and the Herba spirals
hirsuta of Rumphius. Ainslie, quoting Brown’s History of
Jamaica, says that the root is there used as a substitute for
ager, but is very inferior to it. (Ma#. Ind. ii.,167.) In the
ta Exhibition Catalogue, the root is Saiwhod as depura -
tive and aphrodisiac; similar properties are attributed to it in
the Concan, where it is very abundant in moist situations. The
rhizome resembles the great Galangal in growth and structure,
but has no aromatic properties, the taste being mucilaginous
and feebly astringent; it could only be used as a substitute for |
: ginger by being preserved with a quantity of that root suffi-
t to flavour it.

428 - SOITAMINEZ.

sd

ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM, maton.

Fig.—Rheede, Hort. Mal. xi., tt.4 and 5; Bentl. and Trim.,
t. 267 ; Woodville, ¢. 231; Roxb. Cor. Pl. iit., ¢. 226. Malabar
Cardamom (£ng.), Cardamome du Malabar (F’.).

Hab.—West and South India. The fruit.

Vernacular.—Chhoti-iléyachi or ildchi (Hind.), Elaich,
Gujrati-elaich (Beng.), Elchi (Guz.), Veldoda (Mar.), Ella-kai
(Tam.), Yalakki (Can.), Elettari (Ia/.), Elakaya, Vittula ( Ze/.).

History, Uses, &c.—The small cardamom, in Sanskrit
Ela, is mentioned by Susruta. In the Nighantas it bears
various synonyms, such as Truti, Kapota-varni “grey,”
Korangi, and Dravidi ‘‘ coming from the Dravidian country.”
The large or Nepal cardamom (Amomum subudatum) is called
Sthulaila “large Ela,” and is described separately. Both kinds
are considered to be digestive, pungent, light and hot, and are
recommended in phlegmatic affections, such as cough, asthma,
piles, and diseases of the bladder and kidneys. These two
eardamoms are described by Ibn Sina under the name of ~34
(kakulah); he also describes separately under the name of
ty2U4, (hilbawa) another kind of cardamom as ‘more easily
digested than the kakul/ah. This latter cardamom is the true
Cardamomum majus or Nutmeg cardamom of Africa to which
Pereira has given the name of Amomum korarima. We think
that there can be no doubt that the Greeks were acquainted
with the cardamoms of India which they appear to have first
obtained from the Persians through Syria and Armenia.
Dioscorides says : :—“ Choose that which is tough, well filled,
closed; if not in this state, it is too old and has lost its aroma.
The taste is pungent and somewhat bitter.” With respect to
the name Katidéis, the Greeks appear to have applied it to
this spice in much the same way as the Persians applied the
name kakulah, which originally meant the fruit of some other
_ plant which was used for flavouring bread. In the Burhan it
oa is stated that the name kakulah is also given by some to a fruit
ee like sapandan . Eads! ae which is the same as Ilachi.

NE De ENE es Bees ee 1 ee a a ne
to Si cua alee ees

SOITAMINE A. 429

Besides the two Indian cardamoms, there isa large kind of
cardamom which comes from Ceylon, now found in commerce.
Dr. Trimen, in his Systematic Catalogue of the Flowering Plants
and Ferns of Ceylon, speaks of the plant which produces it as
Elettaria cardamomum, Maton, var. major—the Ensal of the
Singhalese.

As a masticatory and for flavouring food, the Malabar or
small cardamom is preferred by the natives, but the other
kinds, which are cheaper and of less delicate flavour, are largely
used by the sweetmeat makers.

Cultivation.—There are two ways of propagating the plant,
viz., by sets or by seed. The chief requirements for successful
cultivation are a rich loamy soil, and a site sheltered from
strong winds and too much direct sunlight. Clearings in

forest land, with a few trees left here and there, in order to

give the requisite shade and shelter, are found to offer the best
conditions for the production of good crops. In the planting

of sets, young ones of one to two years old should be chosen.

Holes one foot deep and 18 inches wide are dug, and into these,
after they have been prepared as beds, raised a few: inches
above the surrounding ground, the sets are inserted just below
the surface of the soil.

The spaces between each plant may be from 6 to 12 feet,
according to the quality of the soil. The ground should be
well cleared of weeds, stones and rubbish, but when the plants
have grown to a certain size, no further weeding will be necessary,
as nothing will grow under their shade. Seeds should be sown
in prepared nurseries, care being taken not to sow too deep.

e seedlings, when 6 to 8 inches in height, should be
transplanted and treated in the same manner as sets. (Dict.
Econ. Prod. Ina. iii, p. 229). For the particulars of
cardamom cultivation in the Wynaad, Travancore, Mysore,
Madura, Coorg, and Canara, the same work may be
consulted. To prepare cardamoms for the market, they are
washed, bleached, and starched. For washing, 2 lbs. of pounded 3
soapnuts and } lb, of Acacia concinna pods aremixed with about =

430 SCITAMINEZ.

5 gallons of water, and a separate solution of common country
soap ismade. Three quarts of the soapnut mixture are added
to 8 quarts of water, and in this 10 lbs. of cardamoms are well
agitated by hand and then transferred to a basket to drain for a
few minutes. They are then washed a second time in 7 quarts of
water, one of the soapnut mixture, and one of the soap solution,
drained and thrown upon a mat. Then they are continually
sprinkled with fresh water by relays of women until sunrise
next morning, when they are spread out on mats to dry for four
or five hours. The stalks are then cut off with scissors, at
which work some women are so expert as to be able to nip
90 cardamoms in one minute. This done, the cardamoms are
sorted for export. The starching process, which has only lately
been introduced, consists in sprinkling the cardamoms with a
thin paste made of rice and wheat flour, country soap, and
butter milk, and rubbing them between the palms of the hands.

The washing mixtures are used for two lots of cardamoms
and are then thrown away. The women who wash are paid 3
annas per diem; the night watchers 4 annas, and the nippers
24 annas per 13 lbs,

Description.—The cardamom of commerce is a dry,
three-sided, oblong, or roundish capsule of a yellowish-brown or
dirty white colour. The pericarp is tough, and divides into
three valves, from the middle of the inner surface of each a
partition projects towards the axis, so as to divide the capsule
into three cells, each of which is filled with closely packed
angular seeds, each surrounded by a thin transparent membrane
(aril). The seeds are of a rich brown colour, about two lines
_long, roel rugose, with a depressed hilum, and deeply.
channelled raphé. The capsule is almost tasteless, The seeds
| have a pungent, camphoraceous, agreeable flavour, and leave a
— of cold upon the tongue when chewed.

08 opie structure.—The testa of the seed is formed of
ayers See a os of thick-walled striated cells; 2nd, a
ge d cells; 3rd, an internal layer of dark-

The albumen is

2 SOITAMINEZ. 431
Beslcurless and consists of polyhedral cells containing starch,
4 and generally rbomboidal masses of albuminous matter, which
4 ean be easily seen when thin slices of the albumen in almond
_ oil are examined by polarized light. .

‘ : Chemical composition.—The parenchyme of the albumen and
embryo is loaded with fatty oil and essential oil, the former
i The
essential oil, which amounts on an average to 4°6 per cent.,
‘has the odour and flavour of the seeds; it consists chiefly of a
liquid having the formula C!° H?? 0%. According to Fluckiger,
the raw oil is dextrogyre, and deposits after a time a camphor,
which he considers to be identical with common camphor, as

distilled, contains acetic acid. The ash of cardamoms, which,
according to Warnecke, amounts to 6°12 per cent. in common
with that of several other plants of the same order, is remark-
bly rich in manganese.

Commerce.—The trade in Indian cardamoms seems to have
been declining for some years past. In 1880-81 the exports
to foreign countries were valued at Rs. 8,20,257, but the
‘returns for that year were the highest on record. For
subsequent years they were as follows: —1883-84, Rs. 5,68,334 ;
1885-86, Rs. 5,60,012; and 1887-88, Rs. 2,04,858. In
: 1883- 84, the United Kingdom received of the above, cardamoms
_ tothe value of Rs. 4,05,649, but last year only Rs. 52,658.
After the United Kingdom the other receiving countries are
: a relly in the following order of importance:— Arabia,
Germany, Persia, On the other hand, the imports of foreign
¢ardamoms seem to be on the increase. In 1880-81 they
were valued at Rs. 4,134, and taking the same years as have
been given for the exports, the imports were in 1883-84,
Rs. 18,351; 1885-86, Rs. 92,205; and 1887-88, Rs. 2,60,450.
During this year the bulk of the imports (viz., Rs. 2,51,211
worth) came from Ceylon, and of the total of these foreign |
soporte; Boatey received Rs. 2 sce te pera Of the inte

432

SCITAMINEZ.

trade in cardamoms, full statistics are not available, but exclud-
ing the transfrontier trade by land, it was last year valued
at Rs. 25,11,053.

In Travancore the cardamom cultivation and trade are a

monopoly of the State.

The drug is grown on the Cardamom

Hills, and is brought down, under guard, to Alleppy to be ex-

ported. The following table gives a Statement of the sale of

Travancore cardamoms during the last sixteen years :—
Statement of the Sale of Travancore Cardamoms, 1875 to 1891.

Cardamoms | Average price per ;
Year M. E. in A cies en ee dy in. Rupees. Total amount realized.
Rs. | Rs.

1051 275 838 2,30,268
1052 47 1,600 74,692
1053 133 1,719 2,28,526
1054 140 2,353 3,28,176
1055 248 1,966 4,87,596
1056 188 1,833 3,44,320
1057 158 1,427 2,25,855
1058 62 1,825 1,138,397
1059 303 1,018 8,08,601
1060 484 769 3,72,278
1061 148 682 1,01,101
shite ROGQ 88 863 75,892
— 1063 256 492 1,26,058
1064 176 776 1,36,018
1065 — 84 590 49,787
1066 | 326 534 1,74,847

_ This table includes ludes all cardamoms sold. Some will be

Lsome sent by backwater to Cochin, so

SCITAMINE.. A33
that is sent to Cochin will also appear as exports from that

The following notes have been kindly furnished by Mr. T.
Bourdillon, Conservator of Forests, Travancore, late Superin-
ent of the Cardamom Hills :—

The cardamom plant is indigenous in the evergreen forest of
vancore, between the elevations of 400 and 4,000 feet, but
ives best at the higher of these altitudes.

The spice is divided into 3 classes : (1) Magara élam, or those

) Kanni élam, those which ripen in the month of Kanni
September) ; and (3) Weela élam, or long cardamoms.

difference in the time of ripening is due to differences of
itude and climate.

he scapes on which the capsules are borne, in the ease of the
two classes, always clio on the aac whereas the

: Magara cas are considered the best. The plants that pro- =
ce them are grown at an elevation of 3,000 ft. and upwards —
nthe eastern edge of the Travancore Territory, where the
nfall is comparatively light, reaching probably not more
60 inches, In this comparatively dry district the capsules
pepger to mature, and though the plant flowers in March

es do not ripen till January, and are considerably larger
- — more seed than the other kinds.

‘

434, SCITAMINE.

Nééla élam come last. The plants are larger, and the scapes
stand upright as already said. The capsules are long and less
aromatic than those of the other two kinds. . This variety is
found on the hills of South Travancore, where the rainfall is
heavy (150—200 inches) and where the sea breezes blow. The
elevation is between 1,000 and 3,000 ft.

Although cardamoms are wild in the forests, they have been
cultivated in gardens from time immemorial, and from old records
it is seen that the oldest gardens which were in existence
when Lieut. Ward made his survey of the country in 1817 are
still the most productive. These gardens are found on the
eastern edge of the Travancore hill-plateaux, where the
Magara élam are produced, and this variety yields about } of
the total produce of the country. Some gardens are met
with in the Kanni élam district, but these are more modern,
and the yield is about } of the total crop each year. “Long
cardamoms” are not grown in gardens; they are all collected
wild from the forests.

When a person intends to open a garden, and has obtained
permission to do so (for cardamoms are still a monopoly in
Travancore), he selects some heavy forest, where there are
already a few plants of cardamoms growing, carefully avoiding
those places where reeds grow, as indicating poor soil. The
common saying is that where the Anjili (Artocarpus hirsuta)
and white cedar (Dysogylon malabaricum) grow, there carda-
moms will thrive.

The smaller trees and undergrowth are then cut down, only
the larger trees being left to forma close canopy overhead.

he garden is then kept clear of weeds by a cutting over and

\

: ae Rikioe a year, and cardamom seeds are sprinkled about,
_ or the rhizomes are planted out when the plants have not come
-up properly, In about 3 years the garden begins to bear, and

may continue to do so for upwards of a century if the light is

not allowed to enter toomuch. Should any of the larger trees

fall down and let the light i in, the cardamom plants turn yellow
: and give a Lea

A SOR but shen die out until shade has been

SCITAMINES,. 435

__ Each year when the cardamoms ripen, they are collected and
_ dried on rocks, and when thoroughly dried they are delivered
_ to the Cardamom Superintendent, who weighs them in and
3 despatches the crop under escort to the Court, where it is sold,
_ and the grower gets two-fifths of the price realised at the
annual auction, the Government retaining the other three-fifths.
The crop yielded per acre is not large, and, indeed, a heavy
crop is a disadvantage, as it would imply that the garden was
_ about to die out. Equal crops of good full capsules are to be
_ desired, and as the trees above drop their leaves and manure
the plants below, no further manuring is necessary, though it
is generally admitted that manuring would largely increase the
crops were it feasible to carry out such operations.

It has been estimated that there are about 26,000 acres under
-cardamoms in Travancore, and 13,000 thulams (of 20 lbs. each)
a large crop. Even supposing that the area was much over-
estimated, it is probable that the annual crop does not exceed
_ 10 Ibs. to the acre, though we have heard it placed at double

that amount.

_ It will be seen by the figures quoted above that the crops of
ardamoms in Travancore vary very considerably, the fact
being that the setting of the blossom in March, April and May

is very much dependent on the weather, frequent showers dur-
ing those months bein most favourable toa good crop, while
a heavy monsoon is said to destroy the young fruit. Here too,
as in the case of most fruit crops, a good year is followed by
one or two bad ones and vice versd.

fallen to about 2 of its former level, so that the annual
amount realized by the Government hardly pays for the
establishment required te watch and guard the crop from being
Stolen. The owners of gardens, who are chiefly villagers from
the adjoining district of Madura in British India, scarcely
‘secure any return for their work, andit is now in contemplation —
to abolish the monopoly altogether. .

436 SCITAMINEZ.

- A considerable proportion of the cardamoms in Indian
commerce consists of the seeds, without the husks, These seeds
are obtained from overripe fruits which have burst in the field
or during manipulation, and are of two kinds, Indian and
Chinese. The latter are said to be the seeds of Amomum
wanthtoides. (Hanbury, Science Papers, pp. 100, 178, 250,
291.)

Amomum subulatum, Lozd., is much larger than the
true cardamom, of a dark-brown colour and coarsely striated,
three- valved, each valve being furnished with three ragged,
membrancous wings, which extend from the upper part of the
fruit and gradually disappear towards the apex. The seeds are
arranged as in the true cardamom, but are more numerous, and
are held together in each cell by a dark viscid saccharine pulp.
Their taste is aromatic and camphoraceous. They are much
used in the preparation of sweetmeats on account of their
cheapness. Value, Rs. 12 per maund of 374 lbs.

The Nutmeg Cardamom, or true Cardamomum
majus,* made its appearance in the Bombay market in
1885. Up to that time the only large cardamoms we have met
with have been the Bengal or Ceylon kinds. Under the name

of Hil-bawa it is correctly described by the Arabian physicians,
who no doubt were acquainted with the genuine article.
. Persian and Indian writers are evidently not acquainted with
it, although they copy the description given by the Arabs.

The See macographia has the following account of this rare
Cardamom:—“ The true Cardamomum majus is a conical fruit

= in size Sai shape, not unlike a small fig reversed, containing

roundish angular seeds, of an agreeable aromatic flavour, much
pees that of the Malabar cardamom, and quite devoid
ig taste of grains of Paradise. Each fruit is
bing fs been strung on a cord to dry; such strings
are. Sometimes used by the Arabs as rosaries.
isc the Galla ena Korarima,

SOITAMINES:. 437

but is also known as Guragi spice, and by its Arabic names of
Heil and Hab-el-habashi. According to Beke, it is conveyed to
_ the market of Béso (10° N. lat.), in Southern Abyssinia, from
_ Tumhe, a region lying in about 9° N. lat. and 350 E. long.;
thence it is carried to Massowah, on the Red Sea, and shipped
for India (?) and Arabia. Von Heuglin speaks of it as brought
from the Galla country. It is not improbable that it is the
same fruit which Speke saw growing in 1862 at Uganda, in
lat. 0°, and which he says is strung like a necklace by the
Wagonda people.

oak ti wae

ALPINIA OFFICINARUM, Zaunee.

_ Fig.—Bentl. and Trim.,t. 271. The lesser Galangal (Zng.),
etit Galanga, Galanga de la Chine (I’.).

~Hab.—China. The rhizome.

Vernacular.—Kulinjan, Pén-ki-jer (Hind.), Shitta-rattai
Tam.), Kulinjan (Mar.), Kulanjan (G@us.), Kunjara-kathi
Sind.), Sannaelumpardsh-trakum (Ze/.), Kalanjan (Can.).
History, Uses, &c.—The Chinese call the Galangals
aon-leang-keang and Liang-keang. From the first of these
names the Arabs have derived their name Khulanjan or ~

same name occurs in the Nighanta’s, which rink it evident
t the Hindus first became acquainted with Chinese galangal
ugh the Arabs. The earliest notice of the drug occurs in
ersian literature (cf. Bur han), where it is stated that Khusri-
ré, “Chosros remedy,” was introduced in the time of
oshirwan (6th century). It probably reached Persia by the
Central Asian trade route, as we find that it is still used by the
‘artars to flavour their tea. Paulus gineta (7th century) ”
calls it yaddyyas, and latter Greek writers xaAi¢ev, yaddSeas and
Gia, Ibu Khurd4dbah (9th century), in enumerating the
of a country called Sila, names galangal, and
three. hundred years later, mentions it as prone -

438 SCITAMINEA.

India and China to Aden. Ibu Sina and other early Arabian
physicians also notice it shortly as a stomachic and stimulant.
Curious stories as to its source were current in those days; Haji
Zein states that in Yundn a kind of hawk is said by travellers
to build its nest of the roots of the Khtilanjén upon the sea-shore,
and that the only way of obtaining the drug is to rob these
nests ; this the merchants do, and, after washing the roots, cut
them up into short pieces.

Although this drug has been so long known, its botanical
source was only discovered in 1870, when a description of the
plant was communicated to the Linnean Society of London by
Dr. H. F. Hance, made from specimens collected by M. E. C. —
Taintor near Hoihow, in the north of Hainan. (Journal of the
Linn. Soc., 1873, XIII., 6.)

Galangal is described by Serapion on the authority of Ishak
bin Amraén as hot and dry in the third degree, useful .
phlegmatic persons, and in humidity of the stomach ;
promotes digestion by its heat and the solution which i
occasions in the stomach, and thus relieves colic; gives
fragrance to the breath, and warms the kidneys: it sets the
semen in commotion, and when a piece of it is held in the
mouth it occasions erections of the membrum virile. Other
Arabian writers give a similar account of it. Indian Mahome-
tan writers, with reference to the name Pén-kt-jar, say that the
drug may be the root of very old plants of Piper Betle, but
they are evidently in doubt about its being produeed by that
plant. (Makhzan, article “ Khilanjan.”) Mir Muhammad
Husain describes Galangal as tonie, stomachie, carminative,
stimulant, and aphrodisiac. He tells us that if given to young
children it makes them talk early, and that a paste of the
powdered drug made with oil or water will remove freckles.
It is a stomachic tonic, used by native practitioners to reduce
the quantity of urine in diabetes. It is used to correct foul
breath when chewed, and the juice swallowed stops irritation
in the throat. (Hmerson.) Galangal is one of the ingredients
of tae Ce as is not used in English medicine,
but — is a. ieee ble | — where it is

SCITAMINEZ. 439

used for a variety of purposes, as for flavouring the liqueur
called Nastoika, it is also employed by brewers, and to impart —
a pungent flavour to vinegar, a use noticed by Pomet so long
. 694. As a popular medicine and spice, it is much sold
‘in Livonia, Esthonia, and in Central Russia. It is also in
‘Tequisition as a cattle medicine, and all over Europe there is
a small consumption of it in regular medicine (Hanbury).
Irvine (Med. Topog. of Ajmeer, p- 171) says that the natives
add Kulijan to bazar spirit to make it more intoxicating.

_ Description.—The dried rhizomes are about as thick as
the little finger or often less. They have evidently been cut into
hort lengths (2 to 3 inches) while fresh; many of the pieces
re branched, and all are marked by numerous circular ridges
ta light colour. The external surface of the rhizome is of a
ep Sivek brown, the interior pale red, hard and tough ;
the odour is aromatic and the taste hot and spicy.

Microscopic structure.— The bulk of the rhizome consists of
uniform parenchyma traversed by fibro-vascular bundles,
e of the parenchyme cells are full of resin and essential oil,
most of them contain large starch grains of an elongated or
b-shaped form.

: ee! composition.— Galangal contains fon 1 to 4 per
nt. of anessential oil, which is the odorous principle ; according

angal with ether a neutral, inodorous, tasteless, crystalline
ody, Kempferide. EE. Jahns (1883) has isolated the following
mp from the root: Kampherid, C'6H!?0°H°0,

izing in yellowish needles (m. Pp. 221°), which are
htly soluble in water, ether and benzine, freely soluble in
alcohol, soluble in alkalies to an intensely yellow solution, and
in concentrated sulphuric acid to a yellow solution with a strong
blue fluorescence. -Galangin, C'*H! °0°H°0, crystallizing from
its solution in aqueous alcohol in yellowish-white needles
- p. 214°). The reactions of this body are very similar to _
hose of kampherid ; its solution in concentrated sulphuric acid,
vever, is non-fluorescent. ae

44) SCITAMINE.

Alpinin, C'"H'*05, crystallizes in yellowish needles (m._ :
p- 173°). Its reactions are similar to those of galangin.
(Archiv. der Pharm., CCXX., 161; Year-Book of Pharmacy,
1882, p. 199.) The resin, which is peobebly the acrid principle,
has not been examined.

Dr. Thresh (1884) has isolated from Galangal root an active
pungent principle, which he has named Galango/, and which E
resembles the pungent principles of Ginger, Capsicum, and
grains of Paradise in certain respects. He records the follow-
ing proximate analysis of 100 parts of the rhizome:— Volatile
oil 0°6, resin 0°2, fat and Galangol 1:6, kampferid, &c., 14,
other saline matters soluble in ether but not precipitated by Pb.
A? 1-2, tannin 0°6, phlobophane 1-2, other substances soluble in
alcohol 3°2, glucose, mucilage, &c., 3°5, oxalic acid 0°3, galangal
red 2°8, starch 23-7, albuminoids 2-6, moisture 13°8, ash 3°8,
cellulose, &c., 39°5. The active principle could not be isolated :
in a state of purity. 4

Commerce.—The imports of Galangal into India average ;
3,300 cwts. yearly. In 1883-84 they amounted to
3,870 ewts., valued at Rs. 35,982, of which Calcutta took 4
686 ewts., Bombay 1,750 ewts., and Madras 1,434 cwts. Of the
total imports 1,230 ewts. came from Hongkong, 2,540 ewts. q
from the Straits Settlements, and 100 ewts. from other countries.
During the same year 1,670 ewts. were re-exported to Arabia
and Persia.

Galangal is valued in Bombay at about Rs. 3} per maund of
374 lbs.
_._ ALPINIA GALANGA, villd.
ae F —. Amb, v., t. 63. The greater Galangal,
langal (Eng.), Galanga grand, Galanga de Java (FY.).
ne Hab. <n, Sumatra, Southern India. Cultivated in
Vernaci Ja ar. -—Bara-Kain jn (Hind., as: Motha-kolanjan,
njan, olan, so sages .), Pera-rattai (Zam.),
=e ds: .

SCITAMINEM®. 4A1

History, Uses, &c.—The great Galangal is known in
China by the same names as the lesser Galangal, and does not
appear to have been distinguished from the latter drug by the
Greeks, Arabs or Persians, Hanbury (Science Papers, p. 373)
emarks that Garcia D’Orta was the first writer to point out
1563) that there are two kinds of Galangal—the one, as he
s, of smaller size and more potent virtues, brought from
a, the other, a thicker and less aromatic rhizome, produced
Tava. Loureiro describes the plant which produces it under
name of Amomum Galanga, and gives Cio Ledm Kiam as its
ein Cochin-China. Roxburgh (i., 60) fully describes the
t grown in Calcutta from roots sent to him by Dr. Charles
m1 pbell from Bencoolen, and quotes a note by Mr. Colebrooke
the effect that the roots are the Kulanjana of the Raja
: Bente. and the Sughanda-vacha and Malabari-vacha of the
kasha. From the latter name it appears that the
ce the plant as a native of Malabar or of Western
he correctness of this opinion has been confirmed by
_and Gibson, who found it growing truly wild upon the
sh Dongar or “tiger hill” in the Southern Concan. (Bomb.
p. 274.) The root of the Indian plant does not, however,

fruits of A. galanga furnish the Galanga Caedecaian Pls
sh state they are of the size of a small cherry, obovate,
and of a deep orange-red colour. Hanbury (Science
p- 252) describes the dried fruit (Kaon-leang-keang-tsze,
as about half an inch in length, of an oblong form,

iat constricted in the middle, or occasionally pear-
some obscurely 3-sided. Each fruit prominently
‘with the remains of the calyx; in a few the lower
still attached to a slender pedicel. Most of the
shrivelled on the © Lapoame' a few plump and
pale to dee “brown, glabrous,

442 SCITAMINELZL.

a whitish integument, each cell or lobe containing usually two,

placed one above the other; these are ash-coloured, flattish,

and somewhat 3-angled, finely striated, and have a pungent

taste like that of the root. (For figure, see Science Papers,
07.)

The root is readily distdiguiahed from that of A. officinarum

by its larger size, feebler odour and taste, orange-brown exterior

and yellowish-white interior. The statistics of Indian commerce
do not enable us to distinguish this drug from China galangal.

It is valued in Bombay at about Rs. 50 per candy of 7 cwts.
Galangal cardamoms are not found in Indian commerce.

In the Kew Bulletin for January 1891 (p.5) an interesting

account is given of the identification of the plant yielding the

rhizome employed to make the well-known Chinese preserved
ginger. As long ago as 1878, Dr, E. Percival Wright, of
Trinity College, Dublin, called the attention of Mr. Thiselton
Dyer to the fact that the preserved ginger has very much
larger rhizomes than Zingiber officinale, and that it was quite
improbable that it was the produce of that plant. The
difficulty in identifying the plant arose from the fact that,
like many others cultivated for the root or tuber, it rarely
flowers. The first flowering plant was sent to Kew from
Jamaica by Mr. Harris, the Superintendent of the Hope Garden
there. During the past year the plant has flowered both
at Dominica in the West Indies and in the Botanic Garden
at Hongkong. Mr. C. Ford, the Director of the Botanic
Garden at Hongkong, has identified the plant as Alpinia
_galanga, the source of the greater or Java galangal root of
commerce. Mr, Watson, of Kew, appears to have been

the first to suggest that the Chinese ginger plant is probably a
2 species of Alpinia, and possibly identical with the Siam ginger

2 Moye ae was described by Sir J. D. Hooker in the Botanical

SCITAMINEA. 445

Willd. The Siam and Chinese gingers are therefore identical, _
and both are the produce of Alpinia galanga, Willd. Pharm.
Journ., Jan 31st, 1891.

MUSA PARADISIACA, Linn.
Fig.—Rozb. Cor. Pi. iii., t. 275; Rheede, Hort. Mail. é.
tt, 12—14, Plantain (Hng.), Bananier (F7.).
Hab.— Cultivated throughout India. The fruit, leaves and

stems.

Vernacular.—Kéla (Hind., Guz.), Kala (Beng.), Kél (Har.),
- Vazhai-pazham (Zam.), Anati-pandu, Amti-pandu (Ze/.), Bali
(Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—The cultivated plantains are called
Kadali in Sanskrit, and the wild plantains, which, we believe,
to be their progenitors, Aranya-kadali and Rambha. There
are many synonyms, such as Bhanuphala or Ansumatphala
“ having luminous fruit,” Chéruphala “ having delicious fruit,”
Réjeshta “liked by kings,’ Vana-lakshmi “beauty of the
woods,” &c. We think there can be little doubt that the
plantain has been under cultivation in India from prehistoric
times. The Greeks under Alexander must have become
acquainted with it ; Theophrastus and Pliny describe a tree
called Pala, with leayes like the wing of a bird, three cubits in
length, which puts forth its fruit from the bark, a fruit
remarkable for the sweetness of its juice, a single one (bunch P)
containing sufficient to satisfy four persons; this tree is sup-
posed to have been the plantain. The word pd/a signifies
“leaves,” but we are not aware of its ever having been spoked
to the plantain. The Arabs call it Mawz and Taik, and pee;
the latter name it is mentioned i in the Koran—ys+e¥ }o l=“! ,
3 gadvo ets Spd” dmg? Aytett! le?! be (and the com-_
panions of the right hand, happy companions of the right hand
among Lotus trees free from thorns, and plantains with their
lapping clusters of fruit),

Under the name of Mauz, Mesne describes the fruit as useful ve Z

in soreness of the throat and chest with dry eee and in

4d: SCITAMINEA.

irritability of the bladder; he considers it to be aphrodisiac,
diuretic and aperient, and recommends it to be cooked with
sugar or honey. Eaten in excess it gives rise to indigestion,
Y ba Hanifeh in the 9th century described very accurately the
manner of growth of the plantain, and quotes a saying of
Ash’ab, to his son, as related by As, “ Wherefore dost thou not
become like me?” to which he answered, ‘‘Such as I is like the
Mauzah, which does not attain to a good state until its parent
dies.” (Madd-el-kamus.) The early Italian travellers called the

plant Fico d’ Adamo, and thought they saw in the transverse

section of the fruit a cross or even a crucifix. Mandeville

- ealls it the Apple of Paradise. The varieties of the plantain

are very numerous ; Rumphius describes sixteen (Herb. Amb.,
viii., 2). Some of these, like the large yellow Manyel, are only
used after they have been cooked ; others, as the Ic/dhi, are smalk
and delicate in flavour. The abortive flowers at the end of the
spike are removed and used as a vegetable by the Hindus, and
the unripe fruit, called Mochaka in Sanskrit, is used medicinally
on account of its astringent properties in diabetes ; it is made
- into a ghrita with the three myrobalans and aromatics. Young
plantain leaves are universally used as a cool dressing for
blisters and to retain the moisture of water dressings; they
serve also as a green shade for the eyes. Emerson notices the
use of the sap to allay thirst in cholera. Mir Muhammad
Husain in the Makhzan tells us that the centre of the stem,
Kanjiyél, is eaten with fish as a vegetable in Bengal, that the
kind called Md/bhok is used as a poultice to burns, and that
called Bolkad is boiled and used as an ointment to the syphilitic
: eruptions of children; he also notices the use of the ashes om
of their alkaline properties, and of the root as an

intic. MM. Corre and Lejanne state that the fruit
and macerated in water all night, yield a sudorifie
that the aearceet of the skin of the fruit is re-

SCITAMINEZ:. : 445

portion of the stem of the wild plantain is a valuable resource
in famine seasons on account of the large quantity of starch it
Starch prepared from the unripe fruit is used in
he treatment of bowel complaints in Bengal. A specimen we
examined consisted almost wholly of pure starch, with a trace of
astringent extractive. In America a syrup of bananas is said
to be singularly effective in relieving chronic bronchitis. The
eparation is simple, requiring only that the fruit shall be cut
small pieces and with an equal weight of sugar be placed in
a close jar, which is set in cold water and slowly heated to the
. Bing point, when it is to be removed from the fire and allowed
he dose mentioned is a teaspoonful every hour.

Binal composition.—Professor Johnston, in the Journal of
Agricultural Society of Scotland, says: “ We find the plantain
ut to approach most nearly in composition and nutritive
e to the potato, and the plantain meal to that of rice.
the fruit of the plantain gives 37 per cent., and the
ee 25 per cent., of dry matter. In regard to its value

y chemical writer who had previously made ao
eas upon this point (M. Boussingault), says: “I have

, but I have reason to believe that it is superior to that
tato. I have given as rations to men employed at
_ labour about 64 pounds of half-ripe bananas and two
nees of salt meat.” Of these green bananas he elsewhere
tes, that 38 per cent. consisted of husk, and that the internal
part lost 56 per cent. of water by drying in the sun.
composition of the ash of the plantain also bears a close
blance to that of the potato. Both contain much alkaline
potash and soda salts; and in both there is nearly the
percentage of phosphoric acid and magnesia. The

‘Parts of the plant contain much tannic and gallic acids,
und ripe fruit contains as much as 22 per cent. of sugar, =
t. being crystallizable. In the native “ the

=,

446 SCITAMINEZ:.

proportion of cane sugar, according to Payen, is 18 per cent.
After the plantain has become quite ripe, there is a rapid dimi-
nution in the proportion of erystallizable sugar and an increase
in the proportion of inverted sugar ; an over-ripe fruit contained
only 2:34 per cent. of crystallizable and 11°84 per cent. of
uncrystallizable sugar, being a total of 14°68 per cent. or two-
thirds of the original quantity. :

For the following analyses of E. Indian siesta: we are
indebted to Assistant Surgeon ©. L. Bose, Calcutta. The
samples represent the most commonly used varieties :—

Percentage of Pulp and Pericarp in Ripe Fruit.

Variety. Pulp. Pericarp.
Battal Vises ccc 70°85 29°15
RPI iW Alo eniccc od 74:37 25°63
Chattim : 86-02 13-98

Percentage Composition of Pulp.

Total acidity
ier re Cane of Pulp in Albumi- Hers sagen
Ash. 7.3 2 baat Nome note r. § oa
ormal Nx6°2
KHO, © Nallo by difference.

77) 7:09 c.¢. 8-90 c.. 1°35 18-657
‘97 | 8:08¢c. ¢ 7°87 c. c. 1:80 11109
‘73 | 7°840.0 4:57 c. © 1-50 6°31

WANINVLIOS

LY

448

SCITAMINEZ,

Kénig gives the following as the composition of the fruit
from Brazil and Venezuela—the first analysis being by
Corenwinder, and the other by Marcano and Miintz :—

Brazil. Venezuela. Mean.
Water 72°40 73°8 73°10
Albuminoids 2-14. 1:60 1°87
POR in : 06 30 63
Nitrogen free extractive ... 23:09 28°00 23°05
Cellulose 38 90 “29
Ash 1-03 1°10 1-06

The fruit consisted of about 40 per cent, -pericarp and
60 percent. pulp. The pericarp afforded 14*7 per cent. of solid

residue,

containing 1:6 per cent. of grape sugar. The

anhydrous fruit from Brazil contained 1:24 per cent. nitrogen
and 83°66 per cent. carbohydrates; that from Venezuela, “97 per
cent. nitrogen and 87:78 per cent. carbohydrates, Plantain meal
from’ Venezuela had the following percentage composition :—

Water .. 14:90
Albuminoids 2°90
Fat +50
Nitrogen free extractive .. ....... eeeaenes 77°90
Cellulose 1:60
Ash 2°20

The nitrogen free extractive from the ripe fresh fruit and
meal had the following composition :—

Cane BUPAR— 5505

Brazil, Venezuela. Meal.
ererver- dao 5:90 1°52
sauce -S'OO 6:40 3°30

"60 -40 66°10 -

‘The ash of the fruit from Brazil had the following percentage

a 434; sition Potassium sulphate, 3°61; Potassium chloride,

ls ao 8°77; Sitnitiins oxide, 27°12;

eet eM 0 ERR ee Sele te RS eee

ium carbonate, 1:17; Oxide e

SCITAMINE A, Aad

The ash of the husk of the ripe fruit was found to contain 47°98
carbonate of potash, 6°58 carbonate of sodium, 25°18 chloride
of potassium, 5°66 alkaline phosphates (with a little sulphate),
7:50 charcoal, 7-10 lime, silica, earthy phosphates, &c. In the
juice of the flower stem of the same plant, Comnille (J. Pharm.
(3) 43, 269) found 25:27 per cent. potash, 9°52 soda, 15°85 lime,
50 magnesia, 0°87 alumina, with a trace of ferric oxide, 6:30
chlorine, 0-96 sulphuric anhydride, 0°87 phosphoric anhydride,
0°81 silica, and 34°17 carbonic anhydride (calculated from the
bases).

Commerce.—Dried plantains are an article of commerce in

CANNA INDICA, Linn.

Hab.— Uncertain. Common throughout India in gardens
d cultivated ground. The fruit and root.
Vernacular.—Sabba-jaya, Akalbar (Hind.), Sarba-jaya
eng.), Kand&mani-cheddi (Zam.), Krishna-tamara (Te/.),
Kiati-biila (Maf.), Sugundaraju-gida (Can.), Deokeli, Kémékshi
(Mar.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant, though common every-~
where, is not truly wild in India ; how and from whence it has
‘ been introduced is not known; it occurs also in Burma and
Ceylon, and the seeds are used as prayer-beads by the Burmese.
om the West Indies, especially in St. Kitts, a nearly allied species

‘is cultivated for its starch, Which is known as “ Tous les mois”
or “ Fecule de Tolomane,” and is remarkable for the great size
of its starch grains. No starch is prepared in India from
C. indica, but its fruit and root are used medicinally by the natives.
"Phe flowers are sacred to Shiva and Durga, as is indicated by the
— ‘Hindi Bengali, and Marathi names which are derived from the
Sanskrit Sarva-jaya “all conquering” (Shiva), and Kémikshi,
eof the goddess Durga. In the Dict. Econ. Prod. of India,

-

4:50 SC) VAMINEA.

the Sanskrit name Silarambha is wrongly attributed to this

plant, it is properly the name of the wild plantain or Késhtha

Kadali. Rheede, describing the medicinal uses of C. indica,
says :—“E fructibus parvum tostis succus elicitur, qui auribus
immissus dolores illarum mitigat. Ex iisdem et saccharo massa
componitur, et umbilicali regioni applicatur contra diabetem,
ex calidis febribus ortam. Succus. radicis Mercurii sublimati
toxicum infringit.” Atkinson (Him. Dist. 730) states that the
root is used as a diaphoretie and diuretic in fevers and dropsy.
When cattle have eaten any poisonous plant, which is generally
discovered by the swelling of the abdomen, the natives
administer to them the root of this plant, which they break up
in small pieces, boil in rice-water and pepper, and give them to
drink. (Drury.) Baden-Powell (Punj. Prod. 382) states that the
seeds are considered to be cordial and vulnerary. ee

Description.—An herbaceous plant, 2-3 fect; leaves
large, ovate-lanceolate, stem-clasping; flowers bright scarlet or
yellow, inner wing of the corolla trifid, segments lanceolate,
straight; anther single, attached to the edge of the corolla;

capsule bristly, 3-celled, many-seeded; seeds round, i

hard and shining, the size of a pea or buck-shot.
Chemical composition.—The seeds reduced to powder were

exhausted with alcohol, and the alcoholic extract mixed with
water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and agitated with petro- — |
leum ether, then with ether, and after the addition of an

alkali, again with ether.
The petroleum ether extract contained yellowish fatty matter,

reaction, $18 aqueous Seca giving a bright green

ga weer precipitating gelatine, but
tassic cyanide,

IRIDBL. 451

ightly pungent with a flavour of ginger. The petroleum
er extract was yellow and consisted of resinous and fatty
ters ;-it was partly soluble in absolute alcohol, the solution
ng a dirty-green precipitate with ferric chloride. The acid
r extract was partly soluble in water, and the solution gave
sage-ercen coloration with ferric chloride, precipitated
n, but gave no reaction with potassic cyanide. e
tion insoluble in water was nearly wholly soluble in
monia, affording a deep yellowish-brown solution, from
ch acids precipitated yellowish flocks. The alkaline ether
4 contained traces of an alkaloid which failed to afford any
colour reactions.

The seeds have been stated by Dalzell and Gibson (Bombay
ra) to afford a beautiful but evanescent dye; we failed to
ect the presence of any such dye principle in either the
s or roots. The roots contain mucilaginous matter and
starch was also present in the seeds.

IRIDE.

IRIS GERMANICA, Linz.
ig.—Bot. Mag., t. 670; Bot. Reg., t. 818. Orris root

, Racine d’Iris (J%.). :
b.—Central and Southern Europe, Northern India, —
Persia. The rhizome. :
rnacular.—Bikh-i-banafshah, Keore-ka-mul (Ind. Bazars).
History, Uses, &c.—We have already stated (Vol. IT.,
16) that we consider Orris root to be the Pushkara-mula of
iskrit writers, though it is not now recognised as such by
‘modern Hindus. It appears also to be the Kusht-el-bahri
Kusht-el-hali, “ sweet costus,” of the Arabs. The Greek
Tris is probably of Persian origin, and cognate with
d probably with Arastan, an old form of Ardstan, “to
to obey.’ Among Sanskrit synonyms for Pushkara-_
find Padma-pushkara “ blue lotus,” Pushkarénghr
the lotus: root,” Pushkaréhva “ challen ir

452 IRIDEZ.

lotus,” Pushdikarasgara “sea lotus,” and Kasmira ‘“ Cashme-
rian”: at the present time J. nepalensis is called “ blue lotus”
in Kumaon. The root is described as having properties similar
to eostus, and appears to have been regarded by both Hindus
and Arabs as a kind of costus. In the Burhén the plant is said
to be called Irsa, because its flowers are blue, yellow and white
pe the rainbow ; it is also called in Persia Sus4n-i-asménguni,

“sky-coloured lily.” The Iris is mentioned by Theophrastus
(H. P. iv., 7; ix. 7), Dioscorides (i., 1), and all the Greek
medical writers which we have consulted. A _ celebrated
unguent, the tpwvov pipov, was prepared from the root for which
Macedonia, Elis and Corinth were famous. Visiani (77. Daimat.)
considers that the J. germanica is the Illyrian iris of the
ancients, which is highly probable, seeing that throughout
Dalmatia (the ancient Illyricum) that species is plentiful, and
Lf. florentina and I. pallida do not oecur. According to Hooker,
I. germanica is cultivated in Cashmere, but we have not heard
of its being under cultivation in Persia. The Persian name of
this drug, ‘Bikh- sae. is applied also to the root of Viola
odorata in Southern Indi

Tris root is considered 2 Mahometan hakims to be deobstru-
ent, aperient, diuretic, especially useful in removing bilious
obstructions. It is also used externally as an application to
small sores and pimples. From the large number of diseases
in which this drug is recommended, it would appear to be
regarded as a panacea,

Description ,——Eastern orris root differs from the Euro-
pean drug, inasmuch as the bark of the rhizome has not been
removed ; it is also smaller and of a darker colour.

in structure.—The rhizomes of different species
of har i i

ish, porous cells,

IRIDE@. 458

loaded with starch; here and there between the cells may be
seen a prism of oxalate of lime. The vascular bundles are
numerous, in each irregular rings of spiral vessels surround a
central bundle of jointed vessels.

£8) * 5 be bo ieee il! ee ae

Chemical composition.—The authors of the Pharmacogrephia
say :—* When Orris root is distilled with water, a solid
crystalline substance, called Orris Camphor, is found floating
_ on the aqueous distillate. This substance, which we obtained
from the laboratory of Messrs. Herrings & Co., of London, is
yielded, as we learn from Mr. Umney, to the extent of 0°12
per cent., that is to say, 3 ewt. 3 qrs. 23 lbs, of rhizome afford-
ed of it 84 ounces. Messrs. Schimmel & Co., of Leipzig, also
_ presented us with the same substance, of witel they obtain
usually 0-60 to 0°80 per cent. Orris camphor has the exquisite
and persistent fragrance of the drug; we have proved that this
presumed stearoptene or Camphor of Orris root consists of
myristic acid, C’*H?*O*, impregnated with the minute quantity
of essential oil occurring in the drug. The oil itself would
appear. not to pre-exist in the living root, but to be formed on
drying it.

p By exhausting Orris root with spirit of wine, a soft
brownish resin is obtained, together with a little tannic matter.
The resin has a slightly acrid taste; the tannin strikes a green
colour with persalts of iron.’

Commerce.—India is supplied with Orris root from Persia
and Cashmere. The average value is about 2 annas per lb.

en ee ee Sa Mo
ST Ee! = aera
: : eae.

CROCUS SATIVUS, Linn.
a Fig. —Benii. and Trim., t. 274; Woodv., t. 259; Royle, Il/.,
‘.90. Saffron (Eng.), Saffran (Fr.).
Hab.—Greece, Asia Minor, Persia. Cultivated elsewhere.
The stigmas with portions of the styles.
Vernacular.—Késar (Hind.), Késhar (Mar., Guz.}, Jafran
ee ), Kunguma-pu (Zam.), Kunkuma-puvva (Te/.), Kun-
2 huvu, Késari (Can.), Kunkuma-pavva (Jfa/.).

454. IRIDEM.

History, Uses, &c.—Satiron, on account of its brilliant
yellow colour, like that of the rising sun, has been especially
valued by mankind from the earliest ages ; in Sanskrit it bears
the name of Kunkuma (a name also given in India to the red
colour prepared from turmeric), and is described as Charu
“fair,” Vara “suitor,” Agnisikha “having a crest of fire,”
Saurabha “ fragrant,’ Mangalya “ propitious,” &c. In Persia
the word Zard, derived from the Zend, signifies ‘‘ yellow, and
saffron,” and the sun is called Zard-ru “yellow or golden-
faced,” and Zardah-i-kamrén “the fortunate yellow.” Saffron
is the Karkém of the Hebrews, a name borrowed from the Per-
sians, and in the Song of Solomon the beauty of the bride is
likened to it. Amongst the Greeks xpoxos signified both saffron —
and yellow ; Hos or Aurora, the goddess of the morning, is clothed
in it, and in Homer she is described as accompanying the
Sun throughout the day.

Yellow, and plants having that colour, have also an erotic _
signification, hence we find them playing an important part in
marriage ceremonies and the relations between the sexes : Juno—
in the Iliad is represented as preparing a bed of saffron and |
hyacinths when she wishes to tempt Jove, and Jayadeva in the _
Gita Govinda represents Hari as inviting Radha to repose upon
a bed made of the saffron-coloured flowers of the Asoka. The
following lines indicate the significance which is attached to
this colour in popular estimation in India :—

Sdnjh suni piyé dvan piyari, sundar nari singdr andi,

Piar kesar, piar besar, piar har liya larkai,

Piar chir diyo kamlapati, Piar chandan de lagéi,

Piar pin ki biri lagi, piyari piri bhai, piu nahin 4i.
loved one heard that her lover would come in the
made a grand toilette: yellow saffron, a yellow

eaded nec lace of yellow flowers. She has

y% dalwood, and placed
damsel — _

s
cs
4

q

q IRIDEA. 455

q relate that Abu Jahl dyed his 1 (ist) with saffron, and was
addicted to the enormity, termed -‘:! (ubnah). He was a
great enemy of the Prophet’s, and is promised in the Koran a
taste of Hell (Guy=’Ioldc deli a92 828) 5). A similar use
of saffron by the libidinous old witch Zatel-Dawahi is mentioned
in the 98rd night of the Arabian Nights :—aic Yael) 35) wl,
cee ail LY 6 UI cs j tet d= 4 salt a Sle a Cows
eS} gales (ia? rp yle US 5 Gls 3 Ww ie dG, ols len
lo3J I 0 0 FOU) bs (po Lrale pais wy! pas st! lal ae 5
Magic properties are ascribed to saffron in Persia; Haji-Zein-
-Attér (1868) states that it is called Jadé-i-dihk4n, “ peasant’s

“Magic,” and that pregnant women wear a ball of it, about the
Size of a walnut, at the pit of the stomach to ensure speedy deli-

rd called Sam Abras, which they greatly dread ; they also
of a man who is melancholy or a little odd 1,0 al
nahu lafi sufrihi), 7¢., that he is in a state in which he
ires to be rubbed with saffron.
Zarddb, or saffron water, is considered to have magical virtues
in Persia, and we hear Indian conjurors ascribe the same virtues
to turmeric water when they say Pihalad dni ho gora in the ~
sense of “Hocus Pocus,” &c. Saffron ink is used in Indiato write
antras with. That auspiciousness is attributed to these plants
account of their colour, arid not on account of any inherent
roperties, is shown by the fact that other plants furnishing
yellow dyes are considered auspicious. In Persia Delphinium
lil is much esteemed as a yellow dye, and is even brought to
‘India for that purpose, page it bears the Sanskrit names of
_ Tréyaména “preserving,” Mangalya “ auspicious,” &e. It is

fron, as the word trdéyamdna occurs in old Persian with the
meaning of “yellow.” Dr. Aitchison speaks of D. Zalil as bs ne
common in Khorasan, and remarks that when in flower it ein ey
ondrous golden hue to the pastures.

456 TRIDEA.

A yellow colour is considered most auspicious in the Kast,
Vasanta, or Spring, and Krishna are represented as clothed in
this colour, and Vasanti-coloured garments are worn at the
Basant panchami in many parts of India; at this season also
garlands of yellow flowers are offered. This custom is alluded
to in the Baramdsa, where the wife says :—

Nahin ghar kanth, Jeke basant ai ghar malan,
Main kaise ptjan, sakhi, nahin ghar sajan.

“My husband is away,.and the gardener’s wife has brought
(yellow) spring flowers. How can I make an offering, my
dear, when my beloved is absent ?”

A yellow garment, called Basanti, was. worn by the Rajputs
when about to sacrifice themselves in a desperate conflict, a
sacrifice to their supposed ancestor Surya (the sun). Yellow
is the favourite colour of the Buddhists, and the Sakya family
was a branch of the great Solar race of Gautama. Sénart
considers that the Buddha is the Sun-god, and that the details
of his life have been taken from Solar mythology.

‘The use of saffron and turmeric for colouring and flavouring
food is universal throughout India, and saffron is still used for
this purpose in Germany, Switzerland, and in Cornwall, cakes
made on festive occasions being coloured with it. There is a
curious story about saffron-coloured rice in the Persian Burhan,
where it is called Birinj-i-shamélah, “candle rice.” The
author relates that in former times there was a cook at Shiraz,
who was in the habit of sitting by the roadside every evening
and preparing a dish with yellow rice, before which he lighted
two lamps, or sometimes two torches, and cried out—‘ Come
to the rice of the candle,” and repeated the following couplet :—
‘Pe Nhe hed 9) 9855 51 Sd yey? GEM Joyo oS Yred ot!

The lights which burntin the heart of Bushdk were
kindled by the passing of the light of the rice of the candle.”

Who was Bushék, or Bashék? We cannot help thinking
that he m oo pe some sturdy fire-worshipper testifying,
Be PUL Gps ic ceo toes the:ptosence of a Mahomedan population,

: to his ancient uth, ory was an old one when the

IRIDEZ. ABT

Burhin was written, it shows at any rate that the use of saffron-

“Tndian saffron,’ and evidently regarded it asa substitute
for that article. In those days saffron was of much more
importance in Europe than it is now, and the punishment for
adulterating it was death.

Saffron was much employed by the Romans for seasoning
food, and to make an essence with wine and water which was
- used as a perfume (Pliny, 21, 6, 17; Lucretius, i., 416; Ovid A.
A. 104, &.). Thename Zéfardn occurs in the Sihdh of El
Bahari who wrote in the 10th century, and from Arabian
writers (Istakhri, Edrisi) we learn that it was cultivated at this
time in Persia at Darband and Ispahén. It is not improbable
that the plant was carried from that country to China, as,
ording to the Chinese, it was introduced by Mahometans.
Chinese writers have recorded that under the Yuen dynasty
(A. D. 1280-1368) it became the custom to mix Sa-fa-lang
(4Zéfaran) with food (Bretschneider, Chinese Botanical Works,

Foochow, 1870). Saffron appears to have been cultivated in
Spain in the 10th century. The Rdja Nirghanta, which was
ritten about 600 years ago by a native of Cashmere, speaks
of saffron as coming from Cashmere, and the plant is still
cultivated there on tthe Kareewahs* near Pampur; the plants
are arrauged in parterres, and flower about the end of October;
the inhabitants of the district are then summoned to gather the

crop; during this time they live in the gardens which are

Pas by ae to prevent theft (Ince, Handbook of Cash-
paren).

"The earliest medical writers mention saffron, and describe it
as cardiacal and aphrodisiacal, improving the complexion, in-
creasing the brilliancy of the eyes, and promoting the delivery
of women. They also considered it to be diuretic, astringent,

® Alluvial flats from 100 to 200 feet high and 2 to 5 miles long, situated
alotig the borders of the Cashmere Valley; they are separated from
ther by deep ravines, and have the appearance 0 f fat-topped.

deobstruent, and emmenagogue. Saffron, formerly as highly a

458 ‘ IRIDEZ.

esteemed in Europe as in the East, is still considered by some
European physicians to have emmenagogue properties, but is
generally regarded as a colouring and flavouring agent only.
Saffron has recently been deleted from the drug list of the
Medical Store Depéts in Bengal. For much miteresting
information concerning the early history of saffron m Europe, we
would refer our readers to the Pharmacographia of Fliickiger
and Hanbury.

Description.—Saffron consists of a small portion of the
style and three long tubular stigmas of a rich orange colour;
the upper extremity of each stigma spreads out to form a flat
lamina with a dentate border. The stigmas simply dried
and thrown together loosely, form the ordinary hay saffron of
commerce. Persian safiron is, with the aid of some sticky
material, pressed together so as to form a thin round flat cake;
it is known in Bombay as Késar-ki-roti (bread saffron).

Chemical composition. —Flickiger and Hanbury have the fol-
lowing summary :—“The splendid colouring matter of saffron
has long been known as Polychroit; but in 1851, Quadrat,
who instituted some fresh researches on the drug, gave it the
name of Crocin, which was also adopted in 1858 by Rochleder.
The experiments of Weiss in 1867 have shown—

1st—That this substance (Polychroit, Crocin of Rochleder)
is a peculiar glucoside, which, by the action of acids, splits into
sugar, volatile oil, and a new colouring matter. °

2nd—That saffron contains only a minute quantity of ready-
formed essential oil and sugar.
_ 8rd—That this free essential oil is probably identical with
that which i is produced in the decomposition of polychroit.

gr Se polychroit, as hitherto prepared, has always

A & certain omen of the new colouring matter
atural ae Weiss retains the name of

he cling matter which results from
- erocin.— Pe —_* with

ee

IRIDEA. : 459

_Polychroit was prepared by Weiss in the following manner:— _
iiiron was treated with ether, by which fat, wax, and essen-
oil were removed, and it was then exhausted with water,
the aqueous solution, gummy matters and some inorganic
8 were precipitated by strong alcohol. After the separation
hese substances, polychroit was precipitated by addition of
r. Thus obtained, it is an crange-red, viscid, deliquescent
stance, which, dried over sulphuric acid, becomes brittle and
‘fine ruby colour. It has a sweetish taste, but is devoid of
, readily soluble in spirit of wine or water, and sparingly
solute alcohol. By dilute acids, it is decomposed into
, sugar, and an aromatic volatile oil having the smell of
Weiss gives the following formula for this decom-

ee Pe 0) 16 BOC n
errr. Crocin. Essential oil.
is @ red powder, insoluble in ether, easily ‘siabie in

ly slightly soluble in water, but freely in an alkaline
from which an acid precipitates it in purple-red flocks.
sulphuric and nitric acids occasion the same colours as
polychroit, the former producing deep-blue, changing to
and brown, and the latter green, yellow, and finally
It is remarkable that hydrocarbons of the benzol class
dissolve the colouring matter of saffron.
The oil obtained by decomposing crocin is heavier than
it boils at about 209°C., and is easily altered, even by

It is probably identical with the volatile oil obtainable
the extent of one per cent. from the drug itself, and to
ts odour is due.

ron contains sugar (glucose?) besides that obtained by
scomposition of polychroit. It leaves after incineration
per cent. of ash.” ( Pharmacographia, p. 604. )
he investigation of the characteristic constituents of saffron,
had previously occupied the attention of several chemists, —

ken up by Herr Kayser (Berichte, xvii., 2228). By

on “eae in water in a current of 2a

460 . TRIDEA, ;
anhydride, shaking the distillate with ether, and evaporating
the ether in a current of carbonic anhydride, the essential oil
was obtained as a very mobile, scarcely yellowish coloured
liquid, having an extremely intense odour of saffron, readily
becoming thick and brown by absorption of oxygen from the
atmosphere, and giving upon analysis figures corresponding
with the formula C'°H'®. Crocin was obtained by treating
an aqueous extract, made without heat from saffron previously
exhausted with ether, with purified animal, charcoal, which
removed all the colouring matter; then filtering, washing and
drying the charcoal, boiling it with 90 per cent. alcohol and
filtering. Upon removal of the alcohol the crocin was left
as a brittle yellow-brown mass, yielding a pure yellow powder,
freely soluble in water and dilute alcohol, less soluble in. absolute
alcohol, and giving up only traces to ether. With con-
centrated sulphuric acid it gave a deep blue solution, passing
to violet, cherry red, and finally to brown ; with nitric acid a —
deep blue, passing almost immediately to brown ; with hydro- 4

ehlorie acid it underwent no change of colour. Aectate of lead —

produced no precipitate in a solution of crocin in the cold, but
on warming the solution, decomposition at once took place, and

the liquid then reduced Fehling’s solution. As previous — :

workers used lead acetate in the separation of crocin, Herr
Kayser supposes that their product always contained crocetin.
He attributes to pure crocin the formula C*‘H7°0*, and to
erocetin 0°4H*602, the decomposition being represented by
the following equation :—
2 OMFI70028.4. 7 H2O=C#H"609-+ 9 COH0S.

An ethereal extract of the residual saffron yielded a erystalline
iter si ang freely soluble in water and alcohol, less easily |
nC and. other, and melting at 75°. This has been

,? and is represented by the formula —
si nts: the em ee character that when oo

th lead i

IRIDE A. 461

The following is the mean -of two proximate analyses of
saffron he G. Laube and Aldendroff, quoted by Kénig:—

Wat 16°07 per cent.
Albuminoids sie ig fag “aaaaae
Fluid oil:....2..0008 ‘i 00 5
et ug
gar Pao oe
x onnitrogenn extractive bee Exsous ee 3 aa
- Cellulose ...... POE sy
~ Ash ; 4°37

The anhydrous saffron contained nitrogen 2°24 ber cent,
oil and fat 4°55 per cent.
- Commerce.—Saffron is imported into Bombay froni France,
‘and occasionally from China. In 1882-83, the imports were
6 ewts., valued at Rs. 4,25,124; in 1886-87, 268 ewts., valued
it Rs, 5, 50, 383. Most of it is adulterated ; a sample wang
- Lyon (1875) gave water 9°48, organic matter 56°93, mine-
il matter (chiefly carb, of lime) 33°59. This adulteration is
ly detected by placing a pinch of the saffron in water,
m the viscid substance used to make the lime adhere to it
olves, and the lime falls to the bottom of the glass. Similar
julteration with other heavy powders has been recorded,
vegetable substances, as florets of marigold and safflower,
yments of petals, and fibres of grass and rush, have been —
und. Pure saffron costs in India Rs. 20 to 22 perlb, Cash-
re saffron is exported to the Punjab, where it is much used
dye, to the value of Rs. 20,000 yearly.

Pardanthus chinensis, Bot. Mag. 171, Syn. Izia
nsis, Linn., is the Balameanda Schularmani of Rheede
., xi, 37), and is a common garden plant in India,
ng flowers spotted like a leopard’s skin. In Cochin-China,
4, and the Doons of the Himalayas it grows wild.
it states that the roots are used medicinally in Cochin-

462 AMARYLLIDE,

AMARYLLIDE.
CURCULIGO ORCHIOIDE, Girtn.

Fig.— Wight Ic., t.-2043;. Roxb. Cor. Pl, i, t. 13; Bot.
Mag., t. 1076; Rheede, Hort. Nal. wii., t. 59.

Hab.—Hotter regions of India and Ceylon. The root.

Vernacular.—Misali, Misali-kand (Hind., Mar., Guz.), Nella-
tédi (Tel.), Nela-pana-kelangu (Wa/i.), Nila-panai-kizhangu
(Tam.), Téla-muli (Beng.), Nela-tali-gadde (Can.), Hin-bin-tal
(Cingh.).

History, Uses, &c.—Both Hindu and Mahometan
medical writers speak of a white and black Misali, which, from
their descriptions, appear to have been different varieties of the
same plant. In the ) Raja Nir ghanta itis stated—qgei 7 fat
Sra Rat aacrdaat Bat eTyPTGa sT-aT Tara; the plant is
described as Hemapushpi, “having golden flowers,” and is
considered to be alterative, tonic, restorative, and useful in piles,
debility andimpotence, It enters into the composition of several
medicines intended to act as aphrodisiacs and restoratives. At
the present time we meet with a white and black Mésali in the
bazars, but: derived from two entirely different plants, viz., the
white from an Asparagus, and the black from a Curouligo. We
have been favoured with living specimens of the latter plant
collected by Mr. B.-B. Nené of Poona at Sitabaldi, and find
that when cut and dried it exactly agrees with the bazar article
which we have received from most parts of India.. From
Madras we have received a very small Curculigo root, from
C. brevifolia, not more than an inch in length, whereas the root
of the plant in general use is not less than 6 inches in length,
and from. t to 3 inch in diameter. Dutt states that Satévari,
the root. of Asparagus recemosus, is sometimes sold by the

pists as) shes eel: in pes the white Miisali of the

AMARYLLIDEZ. 463

and the roots having been washed and cleared of rootlets, are to
be sliced with a wooden knife, threaded upon a string, ond dried
in the shade; when dry they may be powdered. The dose is
180 grains, to be beaten up with an equal quantity of sugar in

mental and physical exercise being i, Misali is
escribed for asthma, piles, jaundice, diarrhoea, colic, and
gonorrhea ; it is considered to be demulcent, diuretic, tonic, and
aphrodisiac, and is often combined with aromatics and bitters.
Hakim Sharafeddin in his If wjarabat has the following humorous
ecdote in illustration of its restorative effects :—

de w54 GT ce yr, O93 pare yo ot! Gd rt ¢ sph ipe
OH UL ,SY o 9S 0 9 ile! Lye bm yh ile Sy 51 Lyx pled fi as) ae
GH 3 slhass wos 5! IEF 190 Wl wdy9d 5! 59) OHH We
oa 5 FOS jh yd 93 CoML GI Nose col ad ayel_ pe prion I pi
Yost 54 Bay8 Suse Il , er cdrb oytds Base) hom Y why?
\, oe red ure os ert ye ys. pile? wi ls! fon Bdge) o38
! aS ab ylow bale 9) Daas yy dy pos _y: w® wields on do)
D3 aed ap Bad g 5 Ut! S (5095 pre jay Hee be A
The story at once suggests to is reader that in such cases
w° 59) Ure is probably as good a tonic as Miisalf.

_ Description.—-Miasali occurs as short transverse sections
sf the root, half an inch or less in diameter, covered externally
a dark-brown bark; the substance of the root is opaque and
8teyish-brown ; portions of the characteristic, wrinkled, vermi-
ular rootlets may usually be found attached to some of the
‘Pieces. The taste is mucilaginous and slightly bitter.
ere structure.—The fresh root of C. orchioides when
across presents a firm milk-white, opaque surface, mark
ith numerous minute punctures. Thin sections show that it
consists of a cortical and central portion, both composed mainly
a delicate parenchymatous tissue loaded with small © starch -
ules, here and there a large cell contains a bundle of needle-
ee The large open passages which can be seen

- gavea green colour with ferric salts, and when d

464: AMARYLILIDEZ.

with the naked eye are almost entirely confined to the cortical
portion ; they are lined by the walls of the neighbouring cells, ©
In the central column are numerous bundles of spiral vessels
which are mostly situated near its junction with the cortical
portion. Many of the starch granules are muller-shaped.
Chemical composition —A proximate analysis of the powdered
roots was made with the following results :—

Ether ext. (fat, &e.) 1-25
Alcoholic ext. (resin, tannin) soc-es Se
Water ext. (mucilage) ‘ 19°92
Starch, &c., by difference seseectes Saou

Crude fibre ., 14:18
Ash 8°60,

Moisture .,,

The resin was soluble in spirit and alkaline salt nS,
gave a fine red colour with strong sulphurie acid. The

separately amounted to 4:15 per cent. of the root.
calcium was present.

CRINUM ASIATICUM, var.
TOXICARIUM, Herbert.

AMARYLLIDER. 465

industan for earache. The name Sukhdarshan, * pleasant to
sight,” is loosely applied to several species of Crinum in ~
parts of Northern India. Inthe Concan the leaves smeared
mustard oil or Mute/* are warmed and bound round inflam-

—*‘ ead seo concisa et — bini =
*11

ction that come at the ends of the toed and
; also that the juice of the leaves is employed for earache
India. Rumphius, who calls it Radix toxicaria, speaks
of its virtues in curing the disease occasioned by the
visoned arrows of the Macassers in their wars; the root chewed
is emetic, provided a little of the juice is swallowed. Crinum

ticum is the Man-sy-lan of the Cochin-Chinese, and its
es are lauded by Loureiro. (Ainslie, Mat. Ind., Vol. IL.,
4.) Sir W. O’Shaughnessy remarks (Bengal Disp., p. 656)
| this is the only indigenous and abundant emetic plant, of
h he has experience, which acts without producing griping,
ging, or other unpleasant symptoms. In the Pharmacopeia

20 minutes until emesis is produced, the latter in doses
fluid drachms as a nauseant and emetic for children.

cription.—Caulescent or stemless; leaves linear-
, very smooth ; margins entire, striated beneath, 3 to 4
and 5 to 7 inches broad; scapes axillary, shorter than
i little compressed; flowers numerous, 12 to 50 in
white, almost inodorous; berries roundish, the size ©
a pis Ss egg. (Bomb. Flora, Pt. I., p. 257.) The root is
Palbois, white, with a terminal stoloniferous fusiform portion |
issuing from the crown of the bulb; it varies greatly in size;
odour narcotic and disagreeable. a
re
* The oil obtained from fresh rasped cocoanuts. _
59

466 AMARYILIDE.

Microscopie structure.—The central portion of the bulb (stolo- . _

niferous fusiform portion) consists of a parenchyma made up
of polyhedral cells containing a little granular matter and some
needle-shaped crystals; it is traversed by numerous bundles of
jointed and spiral vessels ; surrounding the central portion is a
solid cortical layer less vascular than the central column ; from
both of these spring the subterraneous white bases of the leaves
which form the upper part of the bulb.

Crinum zeylanicum, Linn., Wight Ic., 2019—20;
Rheede, Hort. Mal. wi., t. 39; Bot. Mag., 1171, 2217, 2292, and
2466, is a very variable plant, plentiful in most parts of India.
It is the Tulipa javanica of Rumphius. Rheede states that the
crushed and toasted bulb is applied to piles and abscesses to
cause suppuration, and that if given to dogs it causes their teeth
to fallout. According to Loureiro, it has the properties of squills.

In the Concan a slice of the bulb is used for blistering cattle, and
the roasted bulb is used as a rubefacient in rheumatism. The
plant is called Sukhdarshan in Bengal and Hindustan, and
Gadanikand or Gadimbhikinda in Marathi. It has not been
identified with any of the plants mentioned by Sanskrit writers.
Its properties are similar to those of C. asiaticum.

Description.—Root a spherical, tunicated bulb; leaves
numerous, radical, lanceolate, waved, smooth, tapering slowly
from within a few inches of the base to rather a broad and
obtuse point ; margins scabrous with minute cartilaginous teeth,
length 1 to 3 feet; scapes from the axils of the decayed leaves,
somewhat compressed, 1 to 2 feet long ; ; umbels with about 10
flowers ; spathes two, of an ovate conic form, with many soft
ene among the flowers; flowers sessile, large, tube green,

rm ery pale rose, ieneat white, faintly fragrant; corol
tube stint cylindric, obscurely 3-sided, about 4 inches long;
border ca campanulate, horizontal, segments lanceolar, with rather
% ati Sok length 3 to 4 inches ; filaments six, inserted
- in nthe mouth of the tube, declinate; apices sharp and always
alcate, incumbent and tremulous, pale rater

anata with several ovula in each,

LILTACHA. 467

attached i in two vertical rows to the two lobes of the thick fleshy
eptacles ; ; style filiform, declinate, projecting beyond the
amina ; stigma small, 3-toothed ; pericarpium a soft somewhat
fleshy perishable envelope which covers one, two, or three large’
phy bulbiform seeds.

LILIACEZ.

ALOE PERRYI, Bater.
Fig.— Bot. Wag., 6596. Socotrine Aloe (Eng.).
Hab,—Socotra.

ALOE ABYSSINICA, Lam.

Fig. —Baker in Linn. Journal, xviii. 174. Jaferabad Aloe
mg.)

Eeeb, — Africa, Coasts of India.

ALOE VERA, Linn.

Fig.—Flora Greca., t. 341, cop. in Steph. §& Ch., t. 109, and
Woodville vol. v.; Nees, ¢. 50. Common or Barbadoes Be
ed ) te,

Hab.—Africa, Arabia, India, The dried juice. — ogee
Vernacular. —Ghikunv4r, Kumiri (Hind.), Ghirts teenies
fri (Beng.), Kora-k4nda, Koraphéd (Mar.), Kumara,
(Gus.), Shottu-katrézhai, Kumari (Zam.), Kalabanda
.), Kétruvazha (Mai.), Lola-sara (Can.).

‘The drug Aloes.—\lva, Yalva (Hind.), Moshabbar (Beng.),
Eilya, Kéla-bol (Mar.), Kariya-polam, Irakta-polam (Tum.),
Musham-baram (Tel.), Chenna-néyakam (Mal.), Elio (Gus.),
Musambra (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—The common Aloe (Grihakanya),
not a native of India, must have run wild in the country from
| very remote period, as the Sanskrit synonyms do not in any

Pe

468 LILTACE@®.

way indicate a foreign origin. By the names Ghrita-kumiri,
Kumari, Maté, Kanyaka, Taruni, Sdvari, the plant is compared
to a beautiful girl or to the virgin Durga. Many synonyms
“are descriptive, such as Dirgha-pattrika “long-leaved,” Sthale-
ruha “ growing in dry ground,” Mridu “soft,” Bahu-pattra
“having numerous leaves,” Kantaka-pattra “ having prickly
leaves,” Vipula-srava ‘juicy,’ Mandala “ scimitar-like,”’ Ati-
picchila “ very slimy,” &c. The juice is considered to be cathar-
tic, cold, and useful for removing disease of the spleen, swellings,
phlegm, carbuncles, and blood ‘and skin diseases. The Hindus
appear not to have been acquainted with the drug until it was
introduced into India by the Arabs; when this took place it is
very difficult to decide, but it must have been at a very remote
period if we are to believe Dioscorides, who says “the Aloe
grows plentifully in India, whence also the juice is brought to
us, also in Arabia and Asia (minor), and in certain maritime
districts and islands, as Andros,” On the other hand, Sanskrit
_ writers do not mention the drug; possibly the orthodox Hindu
physicians of those days may have regarded it as an impure com-
pound prepared by foreigners. Elwa or Athoa, the Hindi name
for aloes, appears to be cognate to the Greek ddon, Aloes appears
to have been first manufactured by Arabs or Abyssinians,
through whom the Greeks obtained a knowledge of it. Hippo-
crates and Theophrastus do not mention it, but Dioscorides and
Pliny were evidently well acquainted with the drug and its
uses, and also with the plant, which it appears had been intro-
duced into the Cyclades. Abu Hanifeh in the 9th century
describes aloes (Sabir) and the plant from which it is obtained
as having a yellow flower and very thick leaves which are crushed
and thrown into the presses, and trodden with the feet until
their juice flows, when it is left until it thickens, and is then
ae bie leathern bags and exposed to the sun until it dries.
- lod of preparation fully accounts for the inferiority
aloes. the Arabian and Persian writers agree in
ue best ‘aloes is prepared i in Socotra, and many relate
e the recommendation of Aristotle, took
on that account and settled a colony of

;

eee

Sp toe ieee ee
pee Lt

RN i Oy i Ri PS Se

eee

LILIACEA. 469

Greeks there to cultivate the plant more carefully. Schweinfurth
has observed an apparently Semitic type amongst the hill tribes
of the island, which he thinks may be traced to a Greek source ;
characterised by small head, with long nose and thick lips,
straight hair, and lean limbs. In some hieroglyphics on the
Kadhab plain he has also traced combinations of Greek charac-
ters. ‘The Socotrian women are reputed to be sorceresses of the
most dangerous kind, who by the aid of a magic cup steal away
the liver and lights of those against whom they bear malice ;
a horrid suggestion to account for the excellence of their aloes.
This story seems to support the derivation of the names Socotra
and Socotrine suggested by Mr. Mowat in ‘ Alphita,’ p, 67. He

‘connects them with thé Greek ovxarés = Lat, ficatus = It. fegato.

This word ‘originally seems to have denoted the liver of a
goose fattened on figs,’ and the word socotrinum or succotrinum
applied to aloes would therefore be the equivalent of epaticum.
(Cf. Trans. Ri. Soc. Edinburgh, xxxi., p. 444.) Burton says:
“The aloe, according to Burckhardt, is planted in grave-
yards as a lesson of patience: it is also slung, like the dried
crocodile, over house-doors to prevent evil spirits entering :
‘thus hung without earth and water,’ says Lane (Mod, Egypt,
Chapt. XI,), ‘it will live for several years and even blossom.
Hence (?) it is called Sabr, which signifies patience.’ But
Sibr as well as Sabr (a root) means ‘long-sufferance.’ I hold
the practice to be one of the many Inner African superstitions.

e wild Gallas to the present day plant aloes on graves, and
suppose that when the plant sprouts the deceased has been ad-
mitted to the gardens of Wak, the Creator.” (Arab. Nights, i.;
138.) Mahometan physicians describe aloes as aperient, de-
obstruent, depurative, anthelmintic and tonic ; as a collyrium
they consider that it strengthens the sight and removes styes
of the lids; it is often applied for the dispersion of swellings
and the promotion of granulations. They direct it to be puri-
fied in the following manner :—Take Socotrine Aloes 1 Ib.,
powder and sift, then take wormwood, Jatamési, Chiretta,
Cinnamon, Cassia, wood of the Balsam tree, Herba Schenanthi,

_ Asdrum, Mastich, of each 3 dirhems, boil in 2 lbs. of water

470 LILIACEAM.

down to one pound and strain. Put the aloes into a mortar,
rub it down with part of the above decoction and strain, repeat
the process with the remainder of the decoction and any aloes
remaining on the strainer, let the strained liquors subside, draw
off the supernatant fluid, mix the aloes with 3 dirhems of
saffron and preserve for use. In Anthony Colin’s translation
of Clusius, the following notice of aloes by Garcia d’Orta
occurs :—‘‘ Les Indiens s’en servent en leurs collyres et aux
medicamens purgatifs comme aussi és playes, lesquelles ils
veulent remplir de chair pour lequel usage ils ont le plus
souvent dedans leur boutiques un medicament composé de
myrthe ét aloes apellé par eux Mocebar (mussabar). J’ai vue
un medecin du grand Sultan Badur Roy de Cambaya lequel
usoit de l’herbe d’aloes pour medicament familier en ceste facon.
Il faisoit cuire avec du sel les fueilles de l’herbe couppées, de
telle decoction il en faisoit prendre huict onces lesquelles faiso-
_ yent vuider le ventre fort benignement et sans aucune extorsion
quatre ou cing fois. En ceste ville de Goa ils donnent en
breuvage a ceux qui ont des ulceres aux reins ou en la vescie |
de V’aloe bien pulverisé et meslé avec du laict quia si heureux
succes et profit que les malades en sont incontinent gueris. Is
s’en servent aux Indes pour faire meurir les flegmons.” In
the same work there is a prescription for the use of fresh aloe
leaves by Christophe de la Coste. Take of aloe leaves sliced
3 ozs., salt 3 drms., heat to boiling over a gentle fire, strain
and add 1 oz. of sugar. Let the liquid cool, and take it cold —
early in the morning. The patient should be directed to keep
moving about to promote the action of the medicine, and four
_ hoursafter taking it some chicken broth may be given. The
eS leaves and flower stalks of the aloe are pickled by Banians
: of Guzerat after having been soaked in salt and water, and
it is. ® general practice among Hindus to give a little of
the j ice of the plant with honey in a golden spoon to
new-born children ; it is supposed to hasten the expulsion of the
ee The les ‘must be administered by the father of

the ‘Rearest male relative in the absence of

ay eee Le ee

are

LILIACHEA, 471

Prof. Bayley Balfour, who visited Socotra on a botanical
expedition in 1880, has given the following account of the

manner in which aloes is prepared:—“‘The gum is known as

tayef by the natives. The collector scrapes a slight hollow on
the surface of the ground in the vicinity of an aloe plant, into
which he depresses the centre of a small portion of goat-skin
spread over the ground. The leaves of the aloe are cut and
laid in a circle on the skin, with the cut ends projecting over
the central hollow. Two or three layers are arranged. The
juice, which is of a pale amber colour, with a slight mawkish
odour and taste, trickles from the leaves upon the goat-skin.
After about three hours the leaves are exhausted; the skin con-
taining the juice is then removed from beneath them, and the
juice is transferred to a bag made of skin. Only the older
leaves are used. The juice thus collected is of a thin watery
character, and is known as tayef rhiho, or watery aloes. In

- this condition it is exported to Muscat and Arabia, and sells

for three dollars the skin of 30 lbs. By keeping, however, the
aloes changes in character. After a month the juice, by loss
of water, becomes denser and more viscid; itis then known
as tayef gesheeshah, and is more valuble, a skin of 30 lbs. fetching

five dollars; whilst in about fifteen days more—that is, about

six weeks after collection—it gets into a tolerably hard solid
mass, and is then fayef kasahul, and is worth seven dollars a
skin of 30 Ibs. In this last condition it is commonly exported.
(Trans. Ri. Soc. of Edinburgh, xxxi., Introductory Chapter,
Pp. XXxXvViii.).

Description.—Socotrine aloes is imported into Bombay
vid, Zanzibar and the Red Sea ports. It is packed in skins, the
packages varying much in size and shape, and often containing
a large proportion of rubbish, such as pieces of hide, stones,
&c. In Bombay the skins are opened, and the aloes repacked
in boxes for exportation to Europe. The best Socotrine aloes
is of a golden-brown colour, hard externally, soft internally 3
the odour is aromatic and peculiar; when powdered or mm
thin fragments it is orange-brown, sometimes it is

ui

472 LILIACEA.

Jaferabad Aloes is made at Jaferabad, a town on the coast of
Kathiawar, belonging to the Hubshis of Jinjira, a family of
African origin. The drug in mass is black; it has a glassy
fracture ; thin pieces are yellowish-brown and translucent ; the

_ powder is of a dull yellow; the odour powerfally aloetic, with
an aroma like Socotrine aloes; when brought in contact with
nitric acid it does not turn red. Its reaction is then the same
as Socaloin. Jaferabad Aloes is generally in the form of flat
circular cakes. From Zanzibar an aloe is imported which very
closely resembles Jaferabad; it gives the same reaction with
nitric acid.

Yamani or Moka Aloes, also called Aden Aloes, is»
imported from Arabia, and is the kind most in use among the
natives of India. It varies much in quality. It is of a black
colour in mass, and somewhat porous, but thin fragments are
translucent and yellowish-brown; the odour is powerfully
aloetic, without the aroma of Socotrine or Jaferabad <Aloes;
medicinally it appears to be sufficiently active. With nitric
acid it gives a deep red colour, like Barbadoes; the solution in
sulphuric acid is not affected by nitric acid fumes.

Mysore aloes is made in Mysore from a plant which is pro-
bably only a variety of A. vera. It is called Musambra in
Southern India, and is used in the arts in preparing a false
gilding for decorations.

Chemical composition—All kinds of aloes have an odour of
the same character and a bitter disagreeable taste. The odour,
which is often not unpleasant, especially in Socotrine Aloes, is
due to a volatile oil, which the drug contains only in minute
proportion. The oil isa mobile pale yellow liquid, of sp. gr.
a hosed with a boiling point of 266° to 271°C.

* Pure aloes dissolves easily i in spirit of wine with the excep-
of few flocculi ; ; it is insoluble in chloroform and bisul-
Thon, as well as in petroleum ether. The specific

ne ti t fragments of aloes, dried at 100°C.,
‘the last-named fluid at 16°C., has been found to
; is much more pac than most

‘LILIACEA. - 473

_ of the resins, which seldom have a higher specific gravity than
100 to 1:10. In water, aloes dissolves completely only when
heated. On cooling the aqueous solution, whether concéntrated
Z or dilute, becomes turbid by the separations of resinous drops,
3 which unite into a brown mass, the so-called resin of aloes. ‘I'he
F clear solution, after separation of this substance, has a slightly
E acid reaction ; it is coloured dark-brown by alkalies, black by
_ ferric chloride, and is precipitated yellowish-grey by neutral
lead acetate. Cold water dissolves about half its weight of
e aloes, forming an acid liquid which exhibits similar reactions.
_ The Fitton of aloes in potash or ammonia is precipitated by
. acids, but not by water. (Pharmacographia, p. 686.)

5,

_ The most interesting constituents of aloes are the substances —
. known as Alpin. The Aloin of Jafarabad Aloes has been
examined by W. A. Shenstone. About 1} 1b. of the powdered
aloes was treated with enough proof-spirit to make a thin paste,
« and after standing for a few hours was enveloped in folds of

everal times from dilute spirit, and finally by crystallizing
twice or thrice from rectified spirit. Portions of the crops of
erystals thus obtained were burnt with the following results :—
| fb £104 gram of aloin which had been once erystallized
from rectified spirit and dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid gave
2438 gram of CO? and ‘0561 gram of H*0.

_ IL. +1880 gram of aloin which had been twice crystallized
| ‘from rectified spirit and dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid gave
| °8042 gram of CO? and -0696 gram of HO. Corresponding to

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.

Revita OOSe 5°64 34°14

Bk eee). Se POGVEY 5°60 34°29
The aloin therefore was evidently in a pure state. 1:2375
stam of pure air-dried aloin dried over sulphuric acid in a
_ Vacuum lost +1987 gram of water, corresponding to 16-0 per —

474 - DETLTACEM,

When bromine water was added in excess to an aqueous
solution of the aloin, a copious yellow precipitate fell. This was
collected after having been in contact with excess of bromine
water for an hour, washed, dried, and crystallized three times
from spirit. The brominated aloin was in beautiful yellow
crystals, which were rather soluble in cold alcohol, and were
somewhat more stable than the aloin itself. It retained only a
trace of water when dried in a vacuum over sulphuric acid,
which was given off on heating to 100° C. to 110°C. 2526
gram of the perfectly dry substance gave *2539 gram of silver
bromide, corresponding to 42°75 per cent. of bromine.

In 1875, Dr. Tilden proposed, as the result of the consider-
ation of a number of analyses of aloins and their derivatives
made by himself and others, that the aloins obtained from Bar-
badoes and Zanzibar aloes might be considered isomeric bodies,
with the empirical formula C*®H'%O’, which also agrees closely
with his analysis of nataloin. This formula requires 59°62
per cent. of carbon and 5°59 per cent. of hydrogen. Its
tribromo-derivative requires 42°93 per cent. of bromine.

It will be seen that of the numbers obtained in Mr. Shen--
stone’s analysis, those for the hydrogen and bromine agree very
closely with these, and that the proportion of carbon, though a
little high, also agrees fairly well.

The water of crystallization found, 16 per cent., is rather
more than the amount which would correspond to three mole-
cules, t.e.,14°3 per cent. The difficulty of getting air-dried aloin
of constant composition, however, is so great that the result is
not of much value.

The following comparative observations with Jafarabad aloin
and Dr. Tilden’s zanaloin were made:—

There i is no distinguishable difference in the crystalline form
) aloins.

ae _ Neither of them gives pod change of colour i in the cold when

%
ae

ro") SR SEeeee

LILIACEZ. 475,

prolonged treatment with nitric acid, yields chrysammic, aloe-
tic, picric, and oxalic acids as zanaloin and barbaloin do.

Jafarabad aloin, when treated with potassium chlorate in a
hydrochloric acid solution, yields a chloro-body resembling
that given by zanaloin, and when heated with acetic anhydride
gives an acetyl compound similar to acetyl-zanaloin.

Both of them, when treated with strong sulphuric acid and
potassium bichromate, give a violet coloration closely resem-
bling that given by strychnia, but quickly fading to green.

- These results seem to leave no doubt that the aloin of
Jafarabad aloes is identical with that from Zanzibar aloes,
thaugh the colour of the former ig distinctly a lighter shade of
yellow than that of the latter.

The main points of difference among the aloins may be tabu-
lated thus :—

1, Nataloin obtained from Natal aloes, yields only picric and
oxalic acids by treatment with nitric acid. Is not reddened,

_ €yen on heating, by that re-agent.

2. Barbaloins yield chrysammic, aloetic, picric, and oxalic
acids by treatment with nitric acid. They may bedivided into—

(A) a-barbaloin; obtained from Barbadoes or Moka aloes. Is
reddened in the cold by ordinary strong nitric acid.

(B) b-barbaloin, obtained from Socotrine, Zanzibar, and
Jafarabad aloes. Is not coloured by cold nitric acid, but
gives an orange-red coloration when heated with it, and also
gives a coloration in the cold with fuming nitric acid. (Shen-
stone in Phar. Journ., Dec., 1882.)

Commerce.—Bombay is the centre of the Aloes trade in the
East and imports from Arabia (and Socotra through Aden)

yearly about 1,500 ewts. of the drug valued at about Rs. 30,000.
Of this quantity from 300 to 400 ewts. (chiefly Socotrine) are
Tre-exported to Europe, and 200 to 300 ewts. to Eastern ports,
the remainder being consumed in India.

Madras and Sind ow export small quantities of
_ Indian aloes to Eastern ports

476 LILIACE@.

- The Indian varieties of the drug are manufactured in Kattia-
war (Jafarabad) and in Mysore, and are consumed locally. It
is impossible to form a correct estimate of the quantity pro-
duced, but. we do not think it can be very great, as the Arabian
aloes is the drug met with in most parts of India.

URGINEA INDICA, Kanth.

Fig.— Wight Ic,, t. 2063, Indian Squill (Eng.).

Hab.—India. The bulb,

Vernacular,—Kanda, Jangli-piyaj (Hind., Beng.), Kol-kéndé,
Kochinda (Mar.), Nari-vengayam (Tam.), Nakka-vulli-gadda
(Ze7.), Kattulli (Mal), Adavi-irulli (Can.), Jangli-kinda
(Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is not mentioned in the
Nighantas, but the bulb is used in the preparation of Chéndi-
bhasma or “ ashes of silver” which is used medicinally by the
Hindus. Indian Mahometan writers consider the Indian squill
to be identical in medicinal properties with the squill of Europe,
which was used by the Greeks, who prescribed it combined with
vinegar and honey much as we do at the present time (Diose.
i., 162); they prescribe it in paralytic affections, also as an ex-
pectorant, digestive, diuretic, and deobstruent in many diseases,
more especially in asthma, dropsy, rheumatism, calculous
affections, leprosy, and skin diseases ; it is also considered to be
-emmenagogue. In the West Urginea Scilla has been used in
medicine from the time of Hippocrates ; in Egypt it was sacred
to the god Typhonand at Pelusium there was a temple dedicated

os it; it was ena to have the power of driving — evil

-el-unsal ‘‘sea onion,” or Basal-el-fér “rat’s

he Pern Piydz-i-dashti' “wild onion. te ae

LILIACEA. 477

used for many years at certain of the Government Medical
_ Store Depdts for making the various preparations of the drug.

In India the squill is always kept by native druggists in the
entire state, this form being preferred by the hakims to the
sliced and dried bulb. Phey 4 follow the Greeks and Romans in
their method of baking squills (cf. Diose. doc. cit. and Scrib,
Larg. Comp. 76).

Description.— Urginea indica is very abundant in sandy
_ ground near the sea; the dirty white spike of flowers appears
long before the leaves. The bulb is tunicated, consisting of
fleshy coats, which enclose each other completely, generally
about the size of a common onion ; colour white ; taste bitter

Microscopic structure.—Each scale or modified leaf is made
of polyhedral cells covered on both sides by an epidermis
vided with stomata; like a leaf, it has vascular bundles.
e cells of the parenchyma are loaded with mucilage, and
ntain an enormous quantity of needle-shaped crystals and a
lew large square or oblong prisms. The presence of the former
unts for the itching a the hands experienced by those
mployed to slice the bulb.

~ Chemical composition. —The sample dried at 100°C. was examin-
ed ay Dragendorff’s method, with the following results :—_

~

Petroleum ether extract .......... °036 per cent.
ther extract P O2E 10
Absolute alcohol extract pbs SU
Aqueous extract 77°30 -
Ash : 5°69 i

The petroleum ether extract was a greasy white residue and ©

Non-crystalline. The ether extract contained no alkaloidal

principle ; under the microscope a few imperfect four-side plates

_ were visible me

The alcoholic extract from 9 grams of the i oe

Squills injected into a cat’s stomach caused vomiting in_
nutes, and the passage of a solid stool about an hour aft

478 LILIACE.

the injection; no blood in vomit or stool; the cat was not
otherwise affected in any way. The aqueous extract consisted
chiefly. of gum,

The fresh squill in slices distilled with water afforded a
distillate possessing an aromatic odour, but in which no
appreciable amount of oil was visible. The distillate was agitated
with ether ; on spontaneous evaporation of the ether, a minute
trace of a white greasy residue was left, possessing an aromatic
odour—applied to the skin no irritation was induced. We are
indebted to Assistant Surgeon C. L. Bose for the above
analysis, which was conducted in the Chemical Examiner’s
Laboratory, Calcutta.

Substitutes for Squills—The bulbs of different species of
Ledebouria (Scilla, Linn.) are sold in the Indian bazars under
vernacular names which are equivalent to “small squi
L. hyacinthoidesis said by Ainslie to be used by farriers in sucks
ern India for the os of strangury and in fevers occurring in
horses. (Mat. Ind., i. p. 402.) From Dr. Hové we learn
that the bulbs were ety in the Colaba Hospital, Bombay, by
Mr. Guise, the Surgeon of the island in 1787, instead of squills.
For many years they were issued from the Bombay Medical
Stores in lieu of squills (Indian Journ. of Med. Phys. Se?t., Jan,
18th, 1838, p. 9), but of late years Urginea indica has been in
use; both appear to be equally satisfactory substitutes for
squills.

L. hyacinthoides has a scaly bulb, about the size and shape of

pear, composed of very smooth and fleshy scales, which

are so imbricated that they might be mistaken for entire coats

if not carefully examined; the exterior scales are dry and
whitey-brown, the interior fleshy and cream-coloured; the

o odour is nauseous ; ; the taste bitter and acrid.

B me the size of a large nut, purchased by one of us in the

The leaves were obovate, glabrous,
o the petiole, purple spotted, and

re ee pe Ee FY ee oe ee ™

LILIACEZ. 479

of small asphodel-like flowers having a delicate purplish-blue
tinge, and a bloom like that of the Auricula. This plant is
very common in the Concan, and comes into blossom in June,
immediately after the first fall of rain,

ASPHODELUS FISTULOSUS, Linn.
Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 2062; Sibth. Fl. Gr, t. 335.
Hab.—Northern India, Afghanistan. The seeds.
Vernacular.—Piazi, Bokhat, Binghar-bij (Punjab, Sind).
History, Uses, &c.—Theplant has a reputation in Sind
and the Punjab as a diuretic, and the seeds are sold in the shops;
it is very abundant in cultivated ground about Jhelam and in
Southern Afghanistan, (Murray.) Sibthorp describes it as
common near Athens. In Northern India and Afghanistan it is
eaten asa vegetable. Hesiod, who wrote about 800 B.C.)
when he enjoins temperance and simplicity of living in his
“Works and Days,” says (ver. 30) :-—
vitor. dudé tracw, 64a TrEov Rutov mavros
008? bGov ev paddxn Te kal dogodéAaucy Bverdp.

How much is the half better than the whole! How great a
blessing i is there in Mallows and Asphodel! Theophrastus,
in his History of Plants (vii., 11), tells us that Asphodel
roots were eaten by the Greeks, and an Asphodel is described
by Dioscorides* as a medicinal plant having diuretic and
deobstruent properties when given internally, and being use
as an external application to ulcers and inflamed parts, &c. The
Romans called the same plant ‘Hastula regia,’ or king’s spear,
and used it asa remedy for morbus regius or tkrepos (cf. Hipp. de
Morbis, ii., 35). Arabic and Persian writers on Materia Medica
describe an Asphodel with white flowers under the name of

unsa (csi), the same, or a very similar plant, is called

* Diose., ii., 159. The Anthericon of Theophrastus was probably the
Yellow Asphodel. In Western and Southern India Anthericum tuberosum,

Roxb., is in common use as a vegetable, boiling appears to remoye the acrid —
ere of these plants.

4.80 LILIACEA.

Ashrash, or Saresh in Persian; Ibn Sina’ says petit tLe!

iPl2I15, To this plant they attribute the same, properties as
enbiantes does to Asphodel (confer. Tuhfat-el-muminin, article
esh4). The root of Asphodelus bulbosus under the name of
Teinisse is used in the East to prepare mucilage and adulterate
salep,

Description.—Annual, stem naked, ramous; leaves erect,
linear, cylindric, fistulous, tapering to a point; scape erect,
branched; flowers small, white with a brownish line running
along the centre; filaments ciliate, contracted ; corol 0-partite ;
stigma capitate ; ovary 3-celled.

Fig.—Bot. Reg., t. 77; Wight Ic., t, 2047 ; Rheede, Hort.
Mal. vii., t. 57. Superb Lily (£ng.).

Hab.—Throughout India. The tubers.

Vernacular.—Kalihari, Languli (Hind.), Bisha-linguli
(Beng.), Naga-karia, Indai, Kalévi (Mar.), Kalaipai-kizhangu
(Tam.), Kalappa-gadda, Adavi-nabhi (TZe/.), Radigari (Can.),
Khadya-niéga, Nagli, Kalalavi (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—This very ornamental creeper is
common on hedges during the rainy season, and its flowers are
used by the Hisivei in the worship of Siva and the Lingam.
Tt is one of the seven minor poisons of Sanskrit writers, and is

described in the Raja Nirghanta under the name of Kalikéri.
ape synonyms are numerous; amongst those which are
iptive we may mention Chihna-mukhi “having a spotted
a Sukra-pushpika’ < Pare splendid flowers,” Agni-sikha
gacrest of fire,’ and Langalika ‘‘ plough-like,” in

shape of ‘the root.
such as Garbha-ghatini, Garbha-pétani,
to the use of a paste of the root as an
of the abc 0.

LILIACEA. 481

whilst powdered Nigella seeds and long pepper are given
internally with wine. According to the Nighantas, the root is
purgative, hot, light, and pungent; it imcreases the secretion
> f bile, and is useful in leprosy, piles, colic, boils, and to expel
intestinal worms. The starch obtained from the root by
hing is given internally in gonorrhea.

Moodeen Sheriff, who has experimented with the root, states
it. is not so poisonous as is generally supposed; he has
n it in small quantities, gradually increasing the dose to 15
ins. There were no bad effects, but on the contrary he
ad his appetite improved and felt more active and stronger.

has also used it in his practice for many years, and considers
be a tonic and stomachic in doses of from 5 to 12 grains
en three times a day. In the Concan it is given to cattle to
yorms, and in Madras it is believed to bea specific against
tes of poisonous snakes, and the stings of scorpions, and

ons. Surgeon-Major Thomson states that before being
for these purposes it is cut up into thin slices and soaked
itter-milk and salt for four or five days, and then dried,

He also says that the natives select those roots
dichotomous and which they suppose to be those of
plant, whilst single roots, which they suppose to be
the female plant, are rejected. (Dict. Econ, Prod.
iii., p. 507.)

ption.—Root tuberous, cylindrical or flattened,
to 8inches in length, and about one inch in diameter ;
ally grown it consists of two tubers which unite at a right
one being much shorter than the other; at the point of
nay be seen, on the upper surface, a circular scar marking
hment of the stem, and on the under surface imme-
beneath it another, to which a tuft of their rootlets is

ir points, which are tapering and nearly white; _ oe
are -_ white, and euieacanar and have a—

‘The tubers are covered with a brown epider- a

482 LILIACEZE.

faint acrid odour.- The taste is mucilaginous, feebly bitter, and
has an acid taste. The starch granules are mostly ovoid,
the vascular bundles few, consisting of spiral and jointed
vessels. The root is figured by Lyon. (Med. Juris. for India,
p. 210.)

Chemical composition.—The root has been examined by War-
den, who obtained from it two resins, a tannin, and a bitter
principle which he has provisionally named Superbine. He
considers that the bitter principle is closely allied to, if not
identical with that of squills. It was found to be very
poisonous, 0°047 gram injected into the stomach being
sufficient to kill a full-grown cat. (Ind. Med, Gaz., Oct.
1880.)

Toxicology.—Ainslie and others speak of the root as violently
poisonous, and it finds a place in the list of Indian poisons
published by Chevers. (Indian Ann. of Med. Sci, ii,
p. 147.) © .

Dr. Buttacharjee (Ind. Med. Gaz., 1872, p. 153) reports the
following case :—A female, et. 18, swallowed a quantity of the
powdered root. Symptoms of poisoning appeared in half an
hour, and were: retching, violent vomiting, spasms and con-
tortions of the body, with fearful racking pain; from time to
time there were short intervals of relief, followed by a
recurrence of the same symptoms. Death took place in four
hours. The post-mortem appearances were congestion of the
brain and its membranes, with extravasations of blood. The
lungs, liver, and kidneys were all deeply congested. The
gastric mucous membrane showed signs of inflammation. The
peritoneal covering of the fundus of the uterus (unimpregnated)
was also found inflamed.

ASPARAGUS RACEMOSUS, Wild.
Fig.— Wight, Tc., ¢. 1056.
Hab.—Throughout India.

LILIACEA. ‘ 483

ASPARAGUS SARMENTOSUS, Willd.
Fig.— Rieede, Hort. Mal. z., ¢. 10.
Hab.—-Upper India, Concan, and Deccan. The roots.

Vernacular.—Satdwar, Satdvari (Hind., Guz., Mar.), Satamuli
(Beng.), Shataévali (Mai.), Kilévari (Zam.), Shatavari (7e/.),
_ Shipari (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—These two plants appear to be
the Satévari and Maha-sativari of the Nighantés: among the
_ synonyms of the first, we find Dvipika, Dvipa-satru, Vara-
ghantika, Nirdyani, and Sata-padi; the synonyms of the second
are very similar, amongst them we note Bahu-puttrika, Dagdha,
and Bhasma-roha. Both plants are considered to be heavy
and cold, sweet, demulcent, galactogogue, tonic, and strengthen-
ing, and to remove bilious and rheumatic humors, blood diseases,
and swellings ; they are used .both internally and in the pre-
paration of several medicated oils. The tubers are candied and
eaten as a sweetmeat. The fresh juice of the root is given
with honey as a demulcent in bilious dyspepsia or diarrhosa
(Sdrangadhara). Asan aphrodisiac, Chakradatta directs four
sérs of the juice. of the roots and four sérs of ght to be
boiled in forty sérs of milk, and to be flavoured with sugar or
honey, and long pepper.

The chief use of the drug, however, is in the preparation of
Medicated oils for external application in nervous and rheumatic
affections and urinary disorders. The Nérdyana taila, a
‘Popular remedy of this kind, contains the barks of gle
Marmelos, Premna integrifolia, Oroxylum indicum, Erythrina
indica, Stereospermum suaveolens, and Pederia fetida ; the roots
of Withania somnifera and Boerhaavia repens, the fruit of
Tribulus terrestris, and the leaves of Solanum xanthocarpum,
Solanum indicum, Sida cordifolia and Sida rhombifolia, of each
twenty tolas. The whole collection is boiled in 64 sérs of
water down to one-fourth and strained. To the strained decoc-
tion is added four sérs each of the juice of Satdvari and

484 LILIACE&.

prepared sesamum oil, sixteen sés of cows’ or goats’milk, and a
paste prepared with four tolas of each of the following drugs—
Fennel seeds, wood of Cedrus Deodara, root of Nardostachys
Jatamansi, liquid storax, Acorus root, sandalwood, herb o
Limnanthemum cristatum, costus, cardamoms, leaves of Desmodium
gangeticum, of Uraria lagopoides, of Phaseolus trilobus, and of
Teramnus labialis, roots of Withania somnifera, Vanda Roxburghi,
and Boerhaavia repens, rock salt. The whole is then reboiled
and perfumed. (Chakradatta.)

Description.—Both plants are scandent woody shrubs,
the roots of which consist of numerous fusiform, smooth, per-
ennial tubers, 6 to 8 inches long and }inchin diameter. They
have a light brown, silicious external covering which is removed
before they are used. The substance of the fresh tubers is
mucilaginous, white, and somewhat translucent, and has a
mawkish, insipid flavour.

Chemical composition.—The powdered roots were separated
into—

Water extract 52-43
Crude fibre 33°65
Moisture 9°46
Ash 4°46

100°00

The amount of saccharine matter, estimated as glucose, in the
water extract was7:14 per cent. Some of this extract was
boiled and filtered and evaporated down toa soft consistence
and allowed to remain for three months under a bell jar. At
the end of that time no crystalline substances had formed,
indicating the probable absence of crystalline sugars, mannite,
and asparagin, | 508%

Asparagus ad dens, Rovb., is an herbaceous, erect,

thorny plant growing in Rohilkhand, Guzerat, and other parts —

LILIACE. 485

f Central India. Though not mentioned in the Nighantis, the
us root, decorticated and dried, is in general use in India
‘the names of Suffed-muisli, Dholi-musali, or Ujli-misali.

sommercial article consists of shrivelled Seco Piokted tubers,
to 24 inches long, the largest being about } inch in
; they are of an ivory white colour, often twisted, hard
; adhering to some of the pieces may be'seen portions
owish epidermis; when soaked in water they swell up
me spindle-shaped, the thickest part being about the
alead pencil. Under the microscope these tubers present
te cellular structure, the cells of which contain nothing

vascular column, the middle part of which is entirely
sd by jointed vessels, the outer portions consisting of

e silicious. Suffed-misli has an agreeable mucilaginous
have used it largely as an article of diet; it is far
Salep, and is generally relished by Europeans. To
t, take 200 grs. of the powder, 200 grs. of sugar, pour
em slowly a large teacupful of boiling milk, stirring
all the time. The best white picked roots are worth
per maund of 374 lbs.

1 composition.—The powdered roots were examined
the previous article, and were found to contain—
77°55
us 12°85
ci. O'UO
avai 3°60

100-00

- extract was a thick mucilaginous liquid which
white flocks of albuminous matter when boiled, and

by Fehling’s solution. The portion of the Toot
er consisted of almost pure cellulose. —

486 LILTACE A.

ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS, Linn.
Fig.— ng. Bot., 339 ; Blackw., t. 332 ; Sperage, Asparagus
(Eng.), Asperge (F7.).

Hab.—Europe, Southern Russia, Turkey, Cries

in Persia and Northern India. The plant, root, and ripe fruit.
Vernacular.—The fruit, Haliyun (Jnd. Bazars). ,
History, Uses, &c.—Asparagus was well known to the

Greeks and Romans both wild and in a cultivated state.

Hippocrates mentions it in his treatise on diet, and in his

treatise on the Diseases of Women he says that the berries taken
in wine promote conception. Dioscorides and Pliny describe
its medicinal properties, and Cato (De re Rust. c. 161) gives
full directions concerning its cultivation. The ancients
considered it to be a wholesome vegetable, dispelling flatulency
and acting as a mild aperient, diuretic and aphrodisiac. They

administered the root in wine for calculous affections and pains
in the uterus, and also considered it beneficial in elephantiasis.
Ibn Sina calls it S) yx; halién and quotes Galen’s opinion of its
medicinal value.

The Western Arabs call - Isferdj ; in Persia it is known as
Mérchubeh and Mérgiyeh “snake wort,” from its being
considered to be an antidote for snake poison. Wild asparagus,
the A. tenuifolius of Linneus, was known to the Romans as
Corruda, a name still current in the south of France, where the
plant is valued for its medicinal properties up to the present
time. Broussais considered asparagus to be a sedative in
palpitation of the heart, and it is still used in France as @
diuretic in cardiac dropsy and chronic gout. ‘The young shoots
when eaten as a vegetable are well known to communicate a
peculiar and offensive odour to the urine, a syrup for medicinal
use is prepared with their juice, 100 parts after clarification
being added to 190 parts of sugar.

Some physicians consider asparagus to be useless as a diuretic
and even injurious to the bladder, but as far as our experience
goes it has no ill-effects when taken daily for a considerable

time. Indian Mahometan writers on medicine merely retail — :

LILIACE. .

what the ancients have said about this plant; they usually
prescribe the dried berries which are to be found in the bazars
- of all large towns.

Description.—The root consists of a short horizontal
rhizome about } of an inch thick, the upper side is scaly and
marked by stem-scars, below it gives off numerous long, whitish,
nearly simple roots, which on drying become much wrinkled.
It has hardly any odour and a mawkish sweet taste. The ber-
ries are scarlet, about the size of a pea, 3-celled, one or two of
the cells often abortive, seeds 1-2 in each cell, globose, with a
horny albumen, and a transverse embryo, far out of the centre.

Chemical composition.—Examined by Dulong, the root was
found to contain yellow resin, sugar, gum, albumin, chlorides,
phosphates, malates, and acetates. Vanquelin and Robiquet
(1805) discovered asparagin in the shoots, a substance which
has since been found in many other plants. Reinsch (1870)
found in the berries much grape sugar and spar gancin, an

matic resin, erystallizable sugar, and a crystalline bitter prin-
ciple, spargin. Asparagin, C*H®N°O°H*%O, forms colourless,
inodorous, and nearly tasteless crystals, which are insoluble in
strong alcohol and ether. It unites with both acids and alkalies,
and when boiled with them is converted into aspartic acid,
C*‘H’NO‘, and ammonia. Nitrous acid converts it into malic
acid, C+H°O*, water and nitrogen. For further information
concerning Asparagin, the reader is referred to Watts’ Dict. of
Chem., 2nd Ed., 1., 325.

The mean of four analyses quoted by Kénig gives the fol-
lowing as the proximate composition :—

Water . 93°75 per cent.
cede 1D) os
Fat "25 ”
Sugar ..... Ue
Nitrogen hi free extractive w26

“Cellulose 1:04 ,,
oa

°
oe >

488 LILIACEA.

The anhydrous plant contained 4°61 per cent. nitrogen, and
42-08 per cent. carbohydrates.

ALLIUM SATIVUM, Zinn.

Fig.—Bentl. and Trim., 280; Woodville, t. 256; Reich. Ic. Fl.
Germ. z., t. 488. Garlic (Eng.), Ail (Fr).

Hab,—Central Asia. Cultivated throughout India. The
bulbs,

Vernacular.—Tasan, Lahsan (Hind.), Rasun, Lashun (Beng.),
Vallai-pindu (Zam.), Vellulli (Zvi.), Beliuli (Can.), Lasuna
(Mar., Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—Garlic is used as a condiment
and medicine by the Hindus. In the Raja Nirghanta it is
described under the name of Rasona, and bears many synonyms
indicative of its properties, such as Ugra-gandha “strong
smelling,” Mahanshadha “ panacea,” Bhuta-ghna ‘‘ destroying
demons,” Lasuna, &c. The Hindus consider it to be tonic, hot,
digestive, aperient, cholagogue, and alterative ; useful in cough
and phlegmatic affections, fever, swellings, gonorrhea, piles,
leprosy, colic, rheumatism, and worms. During its use the
diet should consist of wine, meat, and acids. A decoction of
garlic in milk is givenin small doses in hysteria, flatulence,
sciatica, and heart disease. A compound garlic powder called
Svalparasona pinda, which contains garlic, asafootida, cumin,
rock salt, sonchal salt, ginger, long pepper, and black pepper
in equal proportions, is given in doses of about twenty grains
every morning with a decoction of the root of the castor oil
plant, in facial paralysis, hemiplegia, sciatica, paraplegia, and
convulsive affections. Garlic juice is applied externally as a
counter-irritant. As a condiment, the bulbs are largely used in
the East. Garlicis the oxdpotey of the Greeks and Allium of the
Romans, who appear to have used three kinds, A. sativum, Linn.,
A. oleracewm, Linn., and A. ursinum, Linn. It would be tedious
to recapitulate all the medicinal properties ascribed to these
plants by the ancients, as they hardly differ from those accorded to

LILIACER, 489

arlic by the Hindu physicians. A summary of them may

2 found in Pliny (xx., 23). Garlic is the ¢ »> (thiim) of the
bians and _»3~ (sir) of the Persians; their medical writers fol-
the ancientsin mentioning three kinds, viz., Bustani “garden,”
i “wild,” and Kirdthi “leek-like,” and in the account.
1ey give of its medicinal properties. The leek-like garlic is
robably meant for the bulbed leek (Porrwm capitatum) of
pocrates (De Morb. Mul., ii., 89) which was considered to
e the property of opening the uterus when contracted, and
Gubernatis states that in Sicily garlic is still placed upon
beds of parturient women. He also notices the wide-spread
' in the protective power of garlic against evil influences
mong the Hindus, Scandinavians, Greeks, and Germans,
s shown by passages in Sanskrit works, in the Songs of
urdrifa and Helgi, the Volsungasaga and Hippocrates. In
ogna, at the present day, it is purchased by every one on the
st of Saint John as a guarantee against poverty during the
whence the proverb :

Chi’n compra i ai al de d’San Zvan,

Bi povret tot gl’an. (Myth. des Plant., ii., 7.)
Garlic is still used medicinally to some extent.on the Con-
t of Europe and in America, but in England it is hardly
prescribed. A syrup of garlic was formerly official in
Dublin Pharmacopwia, and was given in doses 0! two os
rachms in moist asthma. Asa condiment, it enters into the
composition of most sauces. After intense fatigue a clove of
tlic slowly chewed, and swallowed, acts as a very powerful
restorative.

Description. —Garlic is a sub-globular compound bulb,
surrounded by a few dry membranaceous scales, which cover
the remnant of the upright stem and the 5 to 8 small bulbs . or
cloves arranged in a circle around its base. These bulblets are
oblong in outline, compressed from both sides, wedge-shaped
toward the stem, and rounded upon the back. They consist of

few thick fleshy scales and a short fleshy axis. Garlic has a
peculiar pungent and disagreeable odour, and an acrid, burning
aste. It is used in the fresh state only. /
L623

490 LILIACEA.

Chemical composition.—Besides cellular tissue, garlic contains
between 50 and 60 per cent. of water, 35 per cent. of mucilage,
some albumen, sugar, starch, and about + per cent. of volatile
oil, to which its odour and taste are due. W. Dahlen gives the
following as the percentage proximate composition :—

Water 64°66
Albuminoids 6°76
Fat "06
Sugar trace.
Nitrogen free extractive 26°31
Cellulose 77
Ash is 1-44

Anhydrous garlic contained nitrogen 3:06 per cent. and
carbohydrates 74:45 per cent. (Landw. Jahrhiicher, 1874.)

In its crude state oi! of garlic is of a dark brown-yellow
colour, heavier than water, of a very repulsive taste, and
consists of oxide and sulphides of allyl, The rectified oil
consists mainly of the sulphide, (C*H*)2S, is colourless, lighter
than water, and may be obtained artificially by treating an
alcoholic solution of potassium sulphide with allyliodide. It
dissolves easily in alcohol and ether, and sparingly in water ;
with nitrate of silver, mercuric chloride, and other metallic
salts it forms crystalline compounds. Garlic, macerated in
water or vinegar, yields its virtues to these liquids. (Stidlé
and Maisch.)

Allylic sulphide can also be obtained from the herb and seeds
of Thiaspi arvense, together with sulphocyanide of allyl, and oil
of mustard. The leaves of Sisymbrium Alliaria yield oil of
garlic, and the seeds oil of mustard. A mixture of these two
oils is also yielded by Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Raphanus Rapha-
mstrum, and Nasturtium. In some cases the oils do not exist
ready formed; for example, the seeds of Thiaspi arvense emit no
odour when bruised, and they must be macerated in water some
time before distillation. ( Watts.)

__ Commerce.—Garlic is cultivated all over India, and is on sale
in every grocer’s shop. No statistics are available as to the

LILIACBA. 491

juantity produced in India, which must be very large. Value, -
bout Rs. 8 per cwt.

ALLIUM MACLEANI, Baker.
Fig.— Bot. Mag., 6707 ; Hanbury, Sci. Papers, p. 156—57.
Royal Salep (Eng.).
Hab.—Persia, abundant in the Badghis. The bulbs

rought to India by Afghans in small parcels along with the
ied fruit and other articles for which they find a sale in the
ndian Bazars. A solitary specimen of the dried bulb was
t to Hanbury by Dr. J. E. Stocks, but did not at the time
attract attention. In 1858, however, a parcel containing about
00 Ibs. having been offered for sale in the London market,
nbury recognised the drug as identical with the bulb he had
Teceived from Dr. Stocks as Badshah Saleb, and described it in
the N. Repert. f. Pharm., vii. 271. In India the drug is
regarded as a kind of salep, and is used as such, but, as Hanbury
remarks, its bitterish somewhat acrid taste quite unfits it as a
substitute for salep in Europe. The botanical source of the
drug was discovered by Dr. Aitchison in 1888.

_ Description.—Royal salep consists of dried bulbs whose
dimensions from base to apex vary from 1} to 2 inches. The
largest specimens weigh 730 grains: the average weight, taking
twenty bulbs, was found to be 337 grains. Allowing for con-
_ Siderable irregularity occasioned by drying, the form of the
dried bulbs may be described as usually nearly spherical, some-
times ovoid or nearly oblong, always pointed at the upper
extremity, and having at the lower either a depressed cicatrix,
or frequently a large, white, elevated, scar-like mark. Their

492 LILIACEM.

. surface is striated longitudinally, besides which there is mostly
one broad and deep furrow running in the same direction.
They are usually translucent, and from yellowish-brown to
deep purple in colour. In substance the bulbs are dense and
horny. After several hours’ maceration in water, they become
soft, opaque, and of a slaty or purplish hue, and increase
greatly in volume, regaining their natural size and form. If,
in this state, a bulb be cut longitudinally into two equal
portions, it will be seen to consist of a single fleshy envelope
or scale of excessive thickness whose edges overlap each
other; this scale surrounding an elongated, flattened bud.
(Hanbury.)

Chemical composition.—The powdered bulbs, unless kept in
well-stoppered bottles, readily absorb moisture from the air. A
decoction is not coloured with iodine, but is precipitated with
solutions of ferric chloride and plumbic acetate. No reaction
for glucose is produced by boiling with Fehling’s solution.

The ash contained manganese. The powdered bulbs afforded
moisture 8-1] per cent., mucilage (water extract) 80-80,
cellulose 7-14, and mineral matter 3-95 per cent.

Allium xiphopetalum, Aitcs. et. Baker, Trans. Linn.
Soc. 2nd Ser. Botany, Vol. IIL, Pt. 1, pl. xlviii., yields the
Thém-el-bari or “ wild garlic” of the Arabs. It bas a bulb
resembling Badshah Salep in shape and appearance, but much
smaller, a powerful garlic odour, and is much used for pickling
by the natives. Large quantities are imported. It appears to
have been sometimes confounded with Badshah Salep.

In Persia it is known as Sir-i-piazak or ‘onion garlic.”
Aitchison found it growing abundantly in the Badghis. In
Bombay it is best known as Muscat garlic, from its being
shipped from that port.

Allium ascalonicum, the Shallot, is called by the
natives Ek-kénda-lasun or Ekla-kali-lasan, “one-clove garlic,”
and is used by them to cure earache, a small piece being placed

also fried in butter and preserved in
honey as an aphrodisiac, f ee

LILIACEA. er

Polianthes tuberosa, Linn., Bot. Mag., t. 1817 ; Bot.
Reg., t. 63—Vern. Gulshabbo, Gulchér{ (Hind., Bomb.), Raja
nigandha (Beng. ), is the Tuberose of the English, the Fudia-
pipa of the Portuguese, and the Amica nocturna of Rumphius
(Amb., v., t. 98); it is a common garden flower, considered by
the natives to be hot and dry, diuretic,and emetic. The bulbs
_ are used as a remedy for gonorrhea. In the Concan they are
_ Trubbed with turmeric and butter and applied to remove aat
_ (Watiya), small red pimples which often trouble new-born
: children. They are also rubbed into a paste with the juice of

D

is cultivated in France; it sometimes emits phosphorescent
flashes of light in the night.

SANSEVIERA ZEYLANICA, Wiiid.

Fig.— Rozb. Cor. Pl. ii., t. 184; Bot. Reg., t, 160; Rheede,
_ Hort. Mal. wi., t. 42. Bowstring Hemp (Eng.).
Hab.—Indian Peninsula. The leaves and root.
Vernacular.—Murahri, Marél (Hind.), Murba, Gordchakra =
(Beng. ), Marfl-kélang (Zam.), Ish4ma-koda-nar (Te/.), Ghan-—
asphan, Morvel (Mar.), Katu-kapel (ai.), Heggurutiké
(Can. ), Murvel (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is the Marv of Sans-
lait writers ; it is mentioned by Manu (ii., 42, 44) as the source of
the fibre from which the bowstrings and girdle (maurvi) of the
Kshatriya or warrior caste of Hindus was made. In the

a sweet juice, ” Sniehda- i “having glossy leaves,”

Prithak-parni “ diverse-leafed,” Pilu-parni, &c., and is described
purgative, heavy, sweet, pungent, tonic, and cardiacal; a
y for bile, heat of blood, gonorrhaa, tridosha (a corruption

ADA LILIACE ZA.

of the three humors), thirst, heart disease, itch, leprosy, fever,
rheumatism, and glandular enlargements. Rheede gives the
following account of its medicinel uses in Malabar :—“ Folia
trita et in formam boli redacta, adversus opthalmiam et
oculorum suffusionem assumuntur : cum radice addito Allio ac
Auripigmento in oleo Sergelim decocta, gonorrhewam sanant, si
nempe caput cum oleo illo illinatur. Bulbus cum Sandalo citrino
et butyro bubulino tritus linimentum exhibet, in nervorum con-
tractionibus et ardoribus adhibendum. ‘Tota denique planta
oleo butyroque incocta omnium acculorum vitia emendat.”
Ainslie (Mat. Ind., ii., 192) remarks :—‘“‘ This fleshy creeping
root is, ina slight degree, warm to the taste, and of a not
unpleasant odour ; and is prescribed, by the native practitioners,
in the form of an electuary, in consumptive complaints and
coughs of long standing, to the quantity of a small teaspoonful
twice daily. The juice of the tender shoots of the plants they
administer to children to clear their throats of viscid phlegm.
e plant is cultivated in great abundance at Cumbum, and
on the Vursenand Mountains in the Dindigul District.”
Description.—Root perennial, stoloniferous. Stolones as
thick as the little finger, running under the ground, inserted in
sheathing scales. Stem none. Leaves radical, from four to eight,
the exterior ones shortest, spreading most, and considerably
broader, the interior ones nearly erect, from 1—4 feet long, semi-
cylindric, grooved on the upper side, each ending in a round,
tapering, sharp point; they are all coloured with deeper and
lighter green, and somewhat striated, but otherwise are smooth.
Scapes issuing from the centre of the leaves, from 1—2 feet
long, including the raceme, or flower-bearing part, erect,
round, smooth, about as thick asa small ratan, between the
raceme and the base these are at regular distances, four or five
pointed, alternate sheaths. Racemes erect, about as long as, oF
longer than, the scape below the flowers, striated, smooth.
Flowers middle-sized, greenish-white, erect, collected in fasci-
cles of from 4 to 6, on little, regularly distant tuberosities of the
rachis. Bracts small, membranaceous. Pedicels clubbed, short,
ascending, one-flowered. Calyx none. Coralla one-petalled,

LILIACEZ. 495

not in the least wrinkled, funnel-shaped, half six-cleft;
_ divisions nearly linear. Filaments length of the divisions
of the coralla, and inserted into the base. Anthers linear-
oblong, incumbent, half two-cleft, Germ 8-lobed, 3-celled,
each containing a single ovule, attached to the axis. Style
length of the stamens. Stigma 3-sided, clubbed, entire.
Berries 1—8, slightly united; when single, globular, fleshy,
-orange-coloured, smooth, the size of a pea, one-seeded. Seed
_globubar. Embryo simple, lodged near the base of the peri-
sperm on the outside. (Rorburgh.)

Chemical composition.—An alcoholic extract from the fresh
bots was mixed with water acidulated with sulphuric acid,
d agitated with petroleum ether, ether, then rendered alkaline
d reagitated with ether.

‘The petroleum ether left on spontaneous evaporation a viscid,
htly greenish-yellow residue, with a ginger-like odour,
milar to that of the fresh roots. The extract was partly
uble in absolute alcohol, the solution possessing a pungent
inger-like taste and acid reaction. The portion insoluble in
hol was white and had the properties of a wax.

The acid ether extract had a fragrant vanilla-like odour and
yellowish-green. It contained salicylic acid, a yellow

hol: the nature of this principle was not ascertained. The
kaline ether extract contained a crystallizable white alkaloid,
tording a slight yellowish-red colour with Fréhde’s reagent
d the cold, changing to blue on warming; and, with nitric
ee faint yellow coloration. We provisionally name this
oid Sansevierine.

HERMODACTYLUS.
Vernacular, —Surinjin (Ind. Bazars).
pe story, Uses, &c.—The Hermodactyl, or ‘“ Finger of

lermes,”’ was pees to the early Greeks; it appears to
2 been first used medicinally by the Arabs or later Greek

=

496 LILIACE&.

physicians ; it is first mentioned by Alexander of Tralles, who
flourished A.D. 560. (Lib. XT.) It is deserving of special
notiee that under the name of Surugen or Hermodactyl, Serapion
comprehends the «eAx:xey and «dnpepov of Dioscorides and the
eppodacrudos of Paulus Algineta.* (Pereira, Vol. IL, Pt. L,
p- 166.) Masih and other early Arabian writers describe three
kinds of Hermodactyl, the white, yellow, and black; in this
they are followed by most of the more recent Mahometan
writers. According to Ibn Sina, the flower of the Surinjan is
the first flower which appears in spring in the moist valleys
beneath the mountains; the leaves, he says, lie flat upon the
ground, the flowers are yellow and white. Mir Muhammad
Husain states in the Makhzan that the white is the best, and that
it is not bitter ; next the yellow ; both may be used internally ;
the black, he says, is poisonous and only to be used externally.
He describes the Hermodactyl plant as having leaves like a leek

and a yellow flower; it is called in Persia Shambailid ; the black _

variety, he says, has red flowers.

_ Aitchison states that the corms of Merendera persica (Boiss. ),
a plant with pale pink or white flowers, are sold at Meshed as
Shambalid, and are one of the kinds of Hermodactyl; they may
occasionally be mixed with those of Colchicum speciosum (Stev-),
also a common plant in the Badghis and Kliorasan. The
Kashmir Hermodactyls ( Surinjan-i-talk ) are, he says, uD-
doubtedly the corms of Colchicum luteum (Baker). Mahonictan
physicians consider the drug to be deobstruent, alterative, and
aperient, especially useful in gout, rheumatism, liver, and
spleen. In gout they combine it with aloes: with ginger and
pepper it is lauded as an aphrodisiac; a paste made of the
bitter kind with saffron and eggs is applied to rheumatic and
other swellings ;, the powdered root is sprinkled on wounds to
promote cicatrization. Two kinds of Surinjén are met with in
Indian shops, bitter and sweet, European physicians in India
who have tried the drug consider the sweet Hermodactyl to be

inert or nearly so, and the bitter to have properties similar to — 4

Colchicum. (Phar. of India, p. 246.)
* Conf. Dios. iv, 82, 83. Paulus ZX. iii., 78.

LILIACE A. 497

Description.—Sirinjén-i-shirin, or tasteless Hermo-
dactyl. Speaking of this drug as furnished to him from India
by Dr. Royle, Pereira says :—‘‘In their general form these corms
resemble those of Colchicum autumnale, They are flattened,
cordate, hollowed out or grooved on one side, convex on the
other. At their lower part (forming the base of the heart) is a
_ mark or-disc for the insertion of the root fibres. Their size
varies; the specimens I have examined were from 3 to 14 inch
in length or height, 1 to 14 inch in breadth, and about } an
inch in depth. They have been deprived of their coats, are
externally dirty yellow or brownish, internally white, easily
_ broken, farinaceous, opaque, odourless, tasteless, or nearly so,
_ and worm-eaten. They agree precisely with Hermodactyls
furnished by Professor Guibourt.”’

bok

be

a re

EE TL eT, 2s

the root fibres.” (Mat. Med., Vol. I1., Pt. L., p. 167.) Pereira’s
description agrees exactly with the Hermodactyls which we
have examined.

Microscopie structure.—The starch grains of the tasteless
4 Hermodacty] are large and muller-shaped, with a distinet
hilum. The starch of the bitter kind is angular by compres-
‘Sion of the cells, and appears to be broken as if by heat.
Chemical composition.—Lecanu has analysed the tasteless

ety, and obtained the following result :—Starch (forming the
ee : IIh—63

*

498 LILIACEA.

bulk of the drug), fatty matter, yellow colouring matter, gum,
supermalates of lime and potash, and chloride of potassium.

We have made comparative analyses of the Bitter Surinjan
from Lahore and the Sweet Surinjan (Merendera persica).

Bitter. Sweet.
Ether extract 131 °69
Alcoholic extract 54, 6°23
Water extract 12°56 12°52
Starch 65°00 65°90
Cellulose ot Oe 3°56
Ash 2°20 2°15
Moisture... : 9°75 8:95

The ether extract of the bitter Surinjan contained a resin
giving a rose-red colour with sulphuric acid. The ether
extract of the sweet kind consisted of fat. Both drugs
contained an alkaloid giving precipitates with tannin and the x
usual reagents, and both contained an organic acid related to q
malic acid. A much larger quantity of Fehling reducing ’
principle was present in the sweet than in the bitter drug, and

this is shown in comparing the amounts of extract dissolved out
by alcohol.

Commerce.—Bitter Hermodactyls are imported into India _
from Kashmir. The sweet kind comes from Persia. Value,
Re. 1-4-0 per lb.

Substitute for the Bitter Hermodactyl.—The sliced bulb of
Narcissus Tazetta (the true N. arcissus), a plant which, when in
loom, covers like a white carpet great portions of the plains
of Behbehém and valley of Sha’b-bawan in Persia, is imported
into India as bitter Hermodactyl.

It may be at once detected by its larger size and tunicated
structure. The taste is bitter and acrid, the substance amy-
laceous and very similar to that of the Hermodactyl. The
starch grains are rounded and not compressed. It is used as —
an external application, and, according to the author of the
Makhzan, has properties very similiar to those of Sirin- —
jan-i-talkh, The several species of Narcissus (Gr. vapxioos)

LILIACED. 499

have asimilar action. Pliny describes their emetic, purgative,
maturative, and drying powers, and, referring to their soporific
virtue, says, “et a narce narcissum dictum non a fabuloso
puero.” The Arabs give a similar account of them. Orfila’s
experiments upon dogs show that they act as local irritants,
_ and also exert a depressant and paralysing effect upon the
brain and whole nervous system. In man small doses are
- emetic ; recently from 15 to 30 grains of the flowers of the
common daffodil have been recommended as an emetic for
children. °

The following is an analyses of the corms of Narcissus
—— Lazetta :—

iB fete ae

Ether extract .. "39
Alcoholic extract 1:02
Water extract. ve 10°24
Starch ee 6 go
Cellulose 3°84
Ash pene
Moisture 7 see ARTO

The ether extract was fragrant and greasy. The alcoholic
extract contained an alkaloid, bitter and acrid in taste, and a
-Tesin, Malic acid was present.

HIRANYA-TUTTHA.

This substance bears a Sanskrit name fetva gy “ golden
collyrium,” which, in the vernaculars, is converted into Haran-
tuttha or Haran-tutiya. It is a medicine of great repute in
Afghanistan and Northern India, and is @ dark-brown dry
extract, sold in small pieces, which is prepared from the corms
Of Colchicum luteum (Baker), and possibly from other species of
Colchicum. In Sanskrit Tuttham or Tutthénjana is a term
applied to collyria made of sulphate of copper or of the root of
4 plant with a yellow flower, which has by some been supposed

500 LILIACEA.,

to be a Curcuma, but which is undoubtedly Colchicum luteum,
a plant found in the Punjab, Afghanistan, and Kashmir.
C. Masson, in his narrative of an Excursion into the Hazareh
Country in 1832 (Zrans.Bombay Geograph. Soc. ii., p. 60), notices
a small bulbous root, which the Afghans dug up at B4d Assiar
on the banks of the Helmund, and which appeared to be a kind
of Colchicum, for the purpose of preparing Haran-tuttha, a
medicine of great repute among the Afghans. He also re-
marks :—“ It is sold in small pieces of adark-brown colour, and
resembles a dry extract.” Masson travelled through a great
part of Afghanistan on foot, mixing with all classes of the
people, and his experience of their manners and customs is
very interesting. :

SMILAX CHINA, Linz.

Fig.—Kempfer Amen., t. 782. China root (Eng.), Squine
(Fr.).

Hab.—China.

SMILAX GLABRA, ozs.
Fig.—Seeman, Bot. of the Herald, tt. 99.—100.
Hab.—Sylhet, Garrow Hills, §. China. The tuberous

roots.

Vernacular.—Chob-chini (Ind. Bazars), Too-fuh (Chin.), San-
kira (Japan), Oay-khue-khae (Coch.-Chin.), Paringai-puttai
(Zam.), China-pagu (Mal.).

History, Uses, &c.—This drug was introduced into
Goa from China about A.D. 1535 (Garcia). Previous to this
date it isnot noticed by any of the Mahometan physicians.
The Portuguese, however, appear to have lost no time in carry-
ing it to their factories in Persia, as it was mentioned, a few
years after its introduction into Goa, by Mir Imad-ed-din Mah-
mud of Shiraz, Mirza Kézi of Yezd, and Mir Muhammad
Hashim of Teheran. In 1669 it was described as a well-known
drug in the Tuhfat-el-muminin under the ‘name of Chib-c i i

LILLACE AM, |

(Chinese wood), in Arabic Khashab-es-sini. The author of the
Makhzan-el-Adwiya has a long article upon its medicinal virtues,
_ He also notices particularly the variable appearance of different
samples of the drug, and directs that what is heavy, of a rosy
colour, and free from knots is to be selected. He tells us that
the fresh root is sometimes brought to India; some of this he
planted at Moorshedabad (A. H. 1178) ; it produced a climbing
_ stem with small elongated leaves, not unlike a bamboo; after a
_ year’s time he dug it up, but found that the roots had degene-
vated and did not retain the qualities of the China article.
_ Chub-chini is considered by these writers to be anti-rheumatic,
_ anti-syphilitic, aphrodisiacal, and demulcent. Loureiro says of
it, ‘valet in quibuscunque doloribus vagis, venereis, aut
: rheumaticis,”
Ainslie (Mat, Ind., i., 70) notices its use in Southern India as
an anti-syphilitic and as a remedy of much repute in a disease
alled maygum vaivoo, in which the limbs are stiff and contracted.
He also states on the authority of the Abbé Rochon* that “the
Chinese often eat the root instead of rice, and that it contributes

s called Husina-shook-China, has large tuberous roots, not to be
distinguished by the eye from China-root, and that the natives
of the country use a decoction of the fresh root for the eure of
Sores and venereal complaints (Flora Indica). This plant also
_gTows in China and affords some of the China-root of commerce.
(Trimen’s Journ. of Bot., i, 102.)

__ The reported good effects of China-root on the Emperor
Charles V., who was suffering from gout, acquired for the drug
@ great celebrity in Europe, and several works were written in
praise of its virtues. But though its powers were soon found to
have been greatly over-rated, it still retained some reputation
as a sudorific and alterative, and was much used at the end of
the 17th century in the same way as sarsaparilla. It still
Tetains a place in some. modern pharmacopeias. (Pharma-
cographia.)
Re Vorcete Madagascar and the East 1 Indies, London, 1792.

502 - LILIACE.

In the East, Chub-chfni is still as highly esteemed as it ever
was, and the China Trade Returns show a steady yearly
increase in the quantity shipped from Southern China.

Description.—The tubers, which are formed upon the
fibrous roots of the plant, are of the shape and size of an
elongated kidney potato, somewhat flattened, knotty, covered
with a rusty-coloured bark, sometimes smooth and shining,
sometimes rough; internally their substance is of a pink-
ish-white colour, hard and farinaceous, insipid, mucilaginous
and inodorous,

The drug is usually peeled and trimmed, and consequently
is of irregular form, resembling a piece of heavy pinkish-white
wood,

Microscopic structure—The bark consists of thick-walled
dark-brown brick-shaped cells, which contain bundles of crys-
talline needles and resinous matter. The bulk of the tuber is
made up of a parenchyma, the cells of which are large, thin-
walled, and loaded with starch, some pink colouring matter is
also present. The starch grains are large and have a radiate
hilum. The vascular system is scalariform, and is associated
with porous wood cells,

Chemical composition.—The authors of the Pharmacographia
endeavoured to obtain from the drug Parillin, the crystalline
principle of sarsaparilla, but without success.

A proximate analysis of the air-dried drug afforded :—

Ether extract (fat) 0°33
Alcoholic extract (sugar, glucoside)......... 1°72
Aqueous extract (sugar, gum, &c.) ..... oc ae
Crude fibre 13°79
ee 1-47
Moisture ..,.. seaas 6°10
Starch (by difference) 69°80
100-00

LILIACEZE, 503

This root contained no alkaloid, but the alcoholic extract
contained a glucoside, and a colouring matter which gave an
olive-green tint with ferric chloride, but no precipitate with
gelatine. With soda it afforded a deep red colour, and was pre-
cipitated from solution by neutral plumbie acetate. The sugar
present abundantly reduced Fehling’s test without previous
inversion. The amount of ash, consisting of alkaline salts is
very small.

Professor Kobert has recently separated from true sarsa-
parilla three glucosides, smilacin, sarsasaponin, and parillin,—
these compounds differ in physiological activity,but are members
_ ofa homologous series to which has been assigned the general
formula C" H?"=—80*°,

Commerce.—From 16,000 to 17,000 peculs of 133 Ibs. each are
annually produced in Southern China. The greater part is
consumed in China, but a very considerable portion must reach
India, as the drug is to be found in every bazar throughout the .

_ country.

Smilax ovalifolia, Rozb., Rheede, Hort. Mai. vii., t.31,
Jangli-ushbah (Hind.), Malai-timara (Zam.), Konda-témara
(Zel.), Gatwel, Git (Bomb.), Kal-témara (Ma/.), is a climbing
shrub very common inthe Concans. The roots are very
humerous, and have a general resemblance to sarsapari
section shows a dry, suberous, brown bark ; secondly, one row
of 5-sided yellow cells, which are more or less wedge-shaped,
_ their nuclei being situated towards the apices ; thirdly, a range
of numerous rows of ovoid cells, variable in size, with central
nuclei; these extend as far as, and partially surround, the
vascular zone, which consists of large vessels with generally
two smaller ones in contact with them. Within the vascular
zone the central portion of the root is made up of large thin-
walled cells, filled with starch or red colouring matter; the
latter is most abundant in young roots. The drug is not used
by the natives, but in Goa it is kept in all the shops, and is the
country sarsaparilla of the Portuguese.

504 LILIACE.

DRACZENA CINNABARI, Balf. f.

Fig.—Balf. f. in Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxxi., Tab.
xevi—xevii. Dragon’s blood (£ng.), Sang-dragon (£7.).

Hab.—Socotra. The resin.

Vernacular.—The tree—Kharya (Socotra). The resin—Dam-
khoheil, Edah (Socotra), Dam-el-akhwain (Arab., Ind. Bazars),
Hira-dukhi (Hind.), Hira-dakhan (Bomd.), Kandamurgarittam
(Zam.), Katgamurgam-nittiru ( Ze/.).

History, Uses, &c.—On the Deir-el-Bahari monument
at Thebes, erected by Hatasu, a queen of the 18th dynasty, who
lived about 1700 B.C., there are representations showing the
commissioner of the queen going over the sea to the country of
Punt and of ‘ To Nuter,’ and bringing therefrom, amongst other
things, plants bearing ‘ Ana,’ which is shown as a gum or resin
in the form of red tears on the stems of small trees with
ovate-lanceolateleaves. The To Nuter of the inscription has been
identified with the Sacred Islands of Pliny, and the modern
archipelago, including Socotra. The gum or resin is probably
dragon’s blood, as that is the most remarkable substance of the
kind produced on the island. The author of the Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea, A.D. 54-68, mentions cwvd8ap: as a produc-
tion of the island of Dioscorida, the ancient Greek name of
Socotra. Dioscorides (v. 63) notices its medicinal uses under
the same name, and states that it is produced in Libya (Africa).
Both he and Pliny (33, 38) distinguish it from the mineral
cinnabar; the latter writer states that the price of genuine
cinnabaris is fifty sesterces per pound. A myth was current
among the Greeks and Romans that this substance was the
blood of the dragon or python crushed beneath the weight
of the dying elephant, round which it had wound itself
to suck the animal’s blood. Rufus Ephesius and Galen
notice the use of the drug for stopping hemorrhage from _
wounds, on +58

LILIACE@. 505

Among the Arabs it bears many names, such as Dam-el-
akha-wain, Shayydn, Aidé vulg. Edi, Dam-el-tinnin, and Dam-
el-thuabin “dragon’s blood,” Eléndam, Katir-ed-dam, and later
El-katir-el-makki vulg. Katr-makkeh. Johanna-bin-Masa-
wiyeh, physician to the Caliph Haroun-el-Rashid, specially
recommends it for strengthening the stomach and liver, and as
_ an astringent ingredient in collyriums. On account of its. use
as a collyrium, the Arabs sometimes call it Dam-kuhl or simply
_ Kuhl “collyrium.”

Among the Persians it is known as Khin-i-siy4wash, and
they have a myth that when Afrdsidb killed Siydwash, this
_ plant sprung up upon the place where his blood was shed. The
author of the Burhén, who relates this story, also remarks that
the gum is said to come from Africa. Haji Zein (1368) notices
three qualities of dragon’s blood, viz., Chakideh ‘ drop,’ Turdbi
“earthy,” and Khashabi ‘ mixed with wood.’ He says it is not
the gum of the bakam (Cesulpinia Sappan) as supposed by
Some, but of a tree growing in Africa. The author of the
fat-el-muminin states that the plant which produces it is
not known; he notices its use for painting glass. The author
aM Makhzan (1770) merely repeats what older writers have
Said, eee ae

Ainslie (Mat. Ind., i, 113) remarks that it is often con
founded with Kino by the native doctors of Lower India.
The Tamool doctors recommend a solution of it in arrack as
_ 2 external application to the head and temples in cases of

Syncope.

Although the early European travellers in the Fast
Mention Socotra dragon’s blood, Guibourt and Pereira do
Rot notice it, and nothing exact regarding its source was
known until Wellstead (Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc., v. (1835), 198)
“rite the tree, but wrongly supposed it to be Pterocarpus
“TACO,

Professor Bayley Balfour, who visited Socotra a few years
examine the fauna and flora of the island, was the first

506 LILIACE®,.

to give us any exact information concerning the species of
Dracena yielding dragon’s blood in Socotra, and the way in
which it is collected. He says, the resin exudes most abun-
dantly immediately after the rainy season ; the natives collect
it by chipping it off with a knife into a small bit of skin placed
against the tree; there are different qualities collected: 1s¢,
the large tears, which are the best and most expensive, and are
called Hdah amsal (J Got go! best Edah) ; 2nd, small portions
which become detached, forming powdery dragon’s blood or
Edah dukkah (So o%! Edah dust); 3rd, an inferior kind,
obtained by melting the refuse into cakes, called Hdah mikdhah
(ra o&e ¢ O21 Edah of the ladle).

Description.—The best quality may at once be distin-
guished by its occurring in tears, the surface of which is covered
by a dull red powder. When broken, the surface is glassy,
translucent, and of a beautiful garnet colour. Imitation tears
are manufactured in India from the powdery dragon’s blood;
they may easily be detected by their wanting the glassy
fracture of the genuine article. Cake dragon’s blood is also met
with; it is of a dull red colour, and contains fragments of bark-
wood, and other refuse.

Chemical composition.—See Calamus Draco.

Commerce.—The drug is imported into India through
Bombay.

Zanzibar Dragon’s blood is similar in appearance to
that which comes from Socotra, and is not distinguished
from it in Indian trade. Hildebrandt has ascertained that
it is obtained from the stems of Dracena Schizantha
(Baker).

The natives remove pieces of the bark about two inches
square, and the cavity in two to three weeks’ time becomes
filled with the resin. In Zanzibar it is used in opine
and is said to be called ‘ Macziwa ya watu wawili,” meaning

the milk of two men, or “ Matcho ya watu wanilicce the he o.4
of two men, a

BROMELIACEM. 507

BROMELIACEZ.

ANANAS SATIVA, Linn.
__-Fig.—Bot. Mag., t. 1554; Rheede, Hort. Mal. vi., t. 1.
: . Pine-apple (Zng.), Ananas (F’r.). .

_ Hab.—America. Cultivated throughout the East. The
_ fruit and leaves.

Vernacular.--Anannés (Hind.), Andnas, Andras (Beng.),
Annis, Aunds (Mar.), Andras (Guz.), Anfsha-pazham (Zam.),
Andsa-pandu (Te/.), Kaita-chakka, Parangi-chakka (Aal.),
Anfnasu-hannu (Can.).

_ History, Uses, &c.—The Pine-apple was unknown i

India prior to the discovery of America; it was first made
known to Europe by Hernandez in 1513, and was introduced
India by the Portuguese from Brazil in 1594.
ts introduction is mentioned by Abu Fazl in the Aycen-i-
kbari, and also by the author of the Déra Shakoh. The
Vernacular names are mostly derived from the American names
Anasi and Nanas, but the Malabar name Parungi-chakka

fruit is cold and moist, suitable to those of a bilious tempera-
ment, but not to the phlegmatic ; to lessen its coldness it should
be cut in thin slices and washed in salt and water and after-
Wards in pure water ; it may then be sprinkled with sugar and
Tose-water and eaten. A little ginger is also said to render the

t more wholesome. Pine-apple chutney, preserve, and
et are also mentioned, but nothing is said about the

508 BROMELIACEZ.

medicinal use of the leaves and unripe fruit. From the special
opinions of medical officers in India recorded in the Dict. Econ.
Prod. of India (i., 238), it appears that a belief in the aborti-
facient properties of the leaves and unripe fruit is common
throughout India among the natives.

Chevers (Med. Juris., p.715), onthe authority of Babu Kanny
Lall Dey, has the following description of its use in Bengal :—
‘\A green, unripe one, only half-grown is used. It is decor-
ticated, and the pulpy mass of a whole one is administered to
the woman with a small quantity of salt. It is efficacious only
during the earlier months of pregnancy; and, after the third
month, its action is very doubtful. But, if administered to
suitable cases, the uterus begins to contract within twelve
hours, when slight hemorrhage occurs also. Its action then in-
creases, and within the course of twenty-four hours the ovum is
expelled. Occasionally the woman’s life is jeopardized by
flooding, but, asa rule, there is not much danger to be ap- —
prehended.’’ Again, at page 718, Chevers says: “ A note which I
have from Babu Koylas Chunder Chatterjee renders this matter
plain. He says that acid fruits are regarded as abortives. He
knew a case in which a woman aborted at an advanced stage of
pregnancy by eating ( with that intention) about two pounds of
ripe pine-apple. This fruit is rendered unwholesome by the
presence of a very strong fibre which acts as a mechanical irri-
tant on the bowels. I had under my own care an English lady
who died of dysentery, after having aborted, at about the fifth
month of pregnancy. The cause of her illness appeared to be
the ravenous eating of raw pine-apple.”’

Description.—The plant is biennial, not unlike an aloe,
but the leaves are much thinner, and of a hard fibrous texture;
with numerous short sharp spines on the edges. The fruit 1s
produced on a short stem which rises from the centre of the plant,
and bears a sealy conical spike, surmounted by a number of small a
spiny leaves called the crown. This conical spike bears a neimber
of small bluish flowers having three petals and a 3-parted
calyx ; after flowering, it gradually enlarges and even
becomes a succulent fr

ieee tie) A

=

fruit of a rich orange-yellow ©

COMMELINACEZ. 509

Chemical composition.—The essence of pine-apple is prepared -
rtificially by mixing butyrate of ethyl with 8 or 10 parts of
‘spirit of wine. aii -apple juice contains a proteid-digesting
rment. Three fluid ounces digest 10 to 15 grains of
coagulated albumen ; it acts equally well in acid and alkaline
‘solutions, and best in a neutral fluid. The juice also contains

milk-curdling ferment.

The ash has the following composition :—

Potash 49°42 per cent,
aceaia 880 jy
Tim 41m. 12°15 ”
Phosphorie acid B08: %,
Sulphuric acid trace.
BMUICA cas bivslinsi ois 4°02 ”
Phosphate of iron 2°93 55
Chloride of sodium 17-01 »
Chloride of potassium “88

(Quoted by Kensington in Chemical Composition of Foods,

COMMELINACEZE.

COMMELINA BENGALENSIS, Linn.
Fig.—Clarke, Comm. et Cyrt. 14, pl. iv.; Wight Ic.,
2065.
Hab.—Bengal, Peninsula, Sind, Concan. The herb.
Vernacular.—Kénchara (Hind.), Kéchrédém, Kanchara
g-), Chura, Kanna (Punj., Sind), Kena (Mar.), Kanang-
-Karai (Tam.), Venna-devi-kura, Niru-kassuvu (Z¢/.), Hittagant
Can.),
History, Uses, &c.—This and several other species of
ommelina are included under the Sanskrit name of Kanchata,
Y are small herbaceous plants which appear everywhere
s the end of the rainy season and are remarkable for

brilliant blue flowers. The stems, roots, and seeds which =

510 XYRIDEZ.

contain much mucilage and starch are used on account of
their demulcent properties, and are eaten in times of scarcity.
CO. communis is said by Loureiro to be refrigerant and laxative,
and to be useful in strangury and costiveness.

Tradescantia axillaris, Witld., Rheede, Hort. Mal. «.,
#. 13. A very similar plant, and often called by the same
vernacular names, has similar properties, and its seeds have
_ frequently proved to be a valuable resource in times of famine.
Ainslie notices it under the Tamil name of Nirpulli (Mat. Ind.,
ii., 250),

Lyon found the seeds to have the following percentage com-
position :—Water 10°26, fat 0°62, albuminoids 15-99, carbo-
hydrates 54°79, cellulose 9°36, ash 8:89. The nitrogen was
estimated at 11-28 grains per oz., and the nutritive carbon at
145°80 per oz. He calculates the nutritive value of the seeds
as Compared with the average cereal at 100-00 to be 85°76.

XYRIDEZ.

XYRIS INDICA, Linn.

Fig,—Theede, Hort. Mal. ix., t. 71.

Hab.—Salt marshes in Bengal, S. Concan, and Coromandel.
The herb. :

Vernacular.—Dédméri (Hind.), China-ghauza, Dabi-diba
(Beng.), Kochilftti-pullu (Tam.), Kochilachi-pulla (Mal.).

History, Uses, &c.— Xyris ( évpis) is a name given
by Dioscorides (iv., 24) toa species of Iris, which has been
identified with fetidissima, Linn. Pliny (21, 83) speaks of the
same plant as the wild Iris called by some Xyris; it appears to
have been applied locally to disperse scrofulous swellings and to
promote the healing of sores, and given internally asa diuretic
and alterative. Linneus transferred the name to a genus of
flag-like plants growing in the East and West Indies.
X. indica does not appear to be mentioned in any of the standard
native medical works, but Rheede notices its use in Malabar 17

PALM. 511

the following terms:— “ Foliorum succus cum aceto mixtus
impetigini resistit ; folia cum radice oleo incocta contra lepram
sumantur ; cum mungo (Phaseolus Mungo, Linn.) decocta et
epota somnum consiliant.” Agardh, the Swedish botanist,

notices its use as a remedy for itch and leprosy. Ainslie gives
the plant a place in his Materia Indica (ii., 125), but merely
repeats what Rheede has already said. Roxburgh gives a full
_ description of it, and remarks on the authority of the Hon’ble
J. Hyde that “the natives of Bengal esteem it a plant of great
value, because they think it an easy, speedy, and certain cure
for the troublesome eruption called ringworms.’

s Description.—Root fibrous, annual; leaves radical,

bifarious, straight, sword-shaped, on one edge slit into a sheath

for the scape, pointed, smooth, 6—12 inches long; scape
naked, round, striated, erect, length of the leaves, each sup-
porting a round, flower-bearing head ; flowers, bright yellow >
bracts 1-flowered, orbicular, concave, hard, smooth ; calyx
3-leaved, hid within the scale, membraneous; petals three,
each supported on an unguis just long enough to raise their
expanding, oval, crenate borders above the scales ; filaments
hree ; anthers twin; germ superior, 3-sided; style 3-cleft ;
‘Stigma torn; capsule 3-valved, 1-celled; seeds numerous.
(Roxburgh,)

Chemical composition.—The plant contains a red colouring
‘Matter soluble in alcohol and intensified by alkalies and having
Some reactions peculiar to chrysophanic acid.

PALM.

COCOS NUCIFERA, Lin.
Fig.—Rorbd. Cor. Pl. i., t. 73; Rheede, Hort. Mal. 4.,
#.°1 to4. Cocoanut (Eng.), Cocotier (F¥.).
_ Hab.—Indian Archipelago and coasts of India, The
flowers, fruit, shell, oil, fuice, tomentum, root, and ash.
Vernacular. —Nirryal (Hind., Beng.), Nariyal (Gus.), Naral,
i méd (Mar.), Tenha, Tenna-maram (Tam.), Néri-kadam,

piety,

+519 PALMA.

Tenkaya-chettu (Te/.), Tengina-gida, Tengino-kiyi (Can.),
Tenga, Ten-maram (Mai.).

History, Uses, &c.—The cocoanut, formerly written
coconut, derives its European names from the Portuguese coco,
“a mask.” Garcia ab Horta says: ‘“‘ We have given it the name
of cogus on account of its having three holes which cause it to
resemble the face of a cat or similar animal.” The resemblance,
however, of this nut to a head and face had not escaped the
notice of the Hindus ; long before the Portuguese had set foot
in India, néral was uaa as a cant term in the sense of head,
pate, sconce, &c., and was sometimes used to represent the
head of a dummy figure by the relatives of a deceased person
whose body could not be found, and who nevertheless were
desirous of rendering to it the usual funeral rites. Various
superstitious uses to which the cocoanut is put in India
attracted the notice of the early missionaries. Vincenzo Maria
da Santa Caterina (Viaggio alle Indie Orient., iii., 29) states that
when an Indian falls sick, they spin a eiddamnut; ; if it stops
with its face towards the West, the sick person will die, but if
it faces the East, he will recover ; he also notices the offering of
a cocoanut at the commencement of any building. To this we
may add that on the Western Coast cocoanuts are offered to
the Sea on the day of the full moon of Shravan, when the
monsoon is supposed to terminate. It is related that in former
days the European Governor of Bombay used to go in state
and throw a golden cocoanut into tho sea on this day. In
Hindustan there is also a practice among the Indian Maho-
metans of breaking a cocoanut to ascertain whether a pregnant
woman will be delivered of a male or female child; if it is ©
empty she dag be delivered of a son, if not, of a daughter :
this is call “nariyal torna.” Breaking a cocoanut against
the wall of a person’s house is in Western India an ne
of enmity to the inmates of the house, and is connected with
the practice of smelling the heads of children before allowing
them to leave the house. The utarna or casting away of ©
disease or misfortune may be performed by carrying a cocoanut
to a distance from the house and breaking it. “oe

PAIM ZZ. 513

Among the Hindus the most important function of this nut is
t marriages, when it is the custom to place the ¢a/i of the bride,

mvulgo dictus Coco, ex cujus fractione prosperitatis vel
nfortunii auspicia gentiles temere ducunt, vel omnino a Chris-
norum nuptiis regiciatur, vel saltem, si illum comedere velint
-publice sed secreto et extra solemnitatem apariatur ab iis
3 evangelica luce edocti, ab hujusmodi auspiciorum delira-
to sunt alieni.” In the coast districts, cocoanuts and sugar-
e8 (ndral, batasa) are lavishly distributed to the guests on
yortant festive occasions, ‘such as marriage, the phool cere-
ny on the event of the first menstruation and first pregnancy,
| the thread ceremony ; in other parts of India their place
upplied by betel-nuts. In Europe nuts appear to have been Z
ays regarded as auspicious and symbolical of fertility ; the ee

ans peicred nuts at weddings; Virgil says, “ Spar,
ite, nuces,” and De Gubernatis states that this custom |
in several parts of Southern Europe ; in Piedmont the
proverb : Pan e nus vita da spus. :

refer the reader to the Dictionary of the Economie Products
India (ii., 415), At the Colonial and Indian Exhibition,
. C. Pereira, Head Assistant to the Government Medical
rekeeper, Bombay, exhibited a collection of eighty-three
es prepared from the tree, and we are informed that he
Since added considerably to his collection.

Skrit medical writers describe the tree under the name
la or Narikera, and give it many synonyms, such as
Q ae ele “king of grasses,” Skandha-taru

514 PALM ZL.

“stem tree,” Dur-droha “ difficult of ascent,” Ktircha-sekh-
ara “crowned with a bunch of fruit,” Dridha-phala « having
hard fruit,” Rasa-phala “having juicy fruit,” Dridha-nira
“having strong juice,” &c. The tree also bears the name of
Langala “ membrum virile.”’

Dutt (Mat. Med. of the Hindus, p. 247) gives the following
summary of the medicinal uses of the cocoa palm mentioned in
Sanskrit medical works:—“The water of the unripe fruit is
described as a fine-flavoured, cooling, refrigerant drink, useful
in thirst, fever, and urinary disorders. The tender pulp of the
fruit is said to be nourishing, cooling, and diuretic. The pulp
of the ripe fruit is hard and indigestible, but is used medicinally
in the preparation called Nérikela-khanda. The terminal bud
of the tree is esteemed as a nourishing, strengthening, and
agreeable vegetable. The root of the tree is used as a diuretic,
and also in uterine diseases. The oil is said to promote the

of the spirituous liquors
described by the ancient writers. The cleared shell of the
nut is burnt in the fire, and when thoroughly ignited covered
up in a stone cup, the fluid thus obtained is rubefacient,
and is an effectual domestic remedy for ringworm. The
narikela-khanda already mentioned is made in the following
manner :—Take of the pounded pulp of cocoanut half a sér, fry
it in eight tolas of clarified butter, and afterwards boil in four
. 8érsof cocoanut water till reduced toa syrupy consistence. Now
add coriander, long-pepper, bamboo manna, cumin and nigella
, cardamoms, cinnamon bark and leaves, cyperus root and
the flowers of Mesua Fferrea, one tola each in fine powder, and
Prepare @ confection. The dose is two to four tolas, in dyspep-
sla and consumption.
The cocoa palm is supposed by some to have been the
_ Keupopioey ( Sévtoor ) of Theophrastus (H. P. iv., 2, 7), and the

PALM, 515

uci of Pliny (13,19), but their description appears to agree
better with the Hyphene coriacea or Doom palm of Egypt.
The Arabs call the cocoanut Nérjil, and the Persians Nargil,
adinj, and Rénaj ; their physicians describe it as hot and dry,
utritive and aphrodisiacal, beneficial to those suffering from
‘piles; the kernel;when fit has been kept for some time is con-
sidered to be anthelmintic. They remark that it is not easily
digested, especially when old.

European physicians, who have practised in India, reeommend

tained by pulping the unripe kernel and expressing it has
n recommended as a nutritive diet in debility and cachexia;
‘large doses it is aperient, and Mr. Wood has suggested its
se as a substitute for castor oil. (Pharmacopeia of India.)
anthelmintic properties of the cocoanut noticed by Maho-
fan writers have been confirmed by European observers ; the

in plaster-making and in the preparation of soap

ed and distilled, yields a clean spirit suitable for
ceutical purposes.

516 PALM Zi.

.Description.—The cocoa palm, which has now been
introduced into all tropical countries, grows toa height of 70
or 80 feet, and has at the apex a tuft of leaves which are
twelve feet or more in length and have numerous narrow rigid
leaflets. The spathe, from which toddy is obtained, when un-
_ disturbed produces numerous yellowish-white flowers succeeded
by the fruit, only a small proportion of which come to maturity
in about twelve months from the time of flowering. The imma-
ture fruit contains a clear sweet fluid, which gradually dries up
as the nut ripens. The kernel which lines the interior of the shell,
after the nuts have been kept for some time, dries up and sepa-
rates from it, and is then called khopra; from it is obtained by hot
pressure or by boiling in water the cocoanut oil of commerce,
which has a mild, bland taste, a pale yellow colour, and peculiar
odour. In hot climates it remains fluid, but when exposed to
cold, it becomes of a butyraceous consistence and white colour. 4
Its melting point varies between 22° and 30°C; the cold
pressed oil melts at 20°C. or less; the fused, thin, transparent
yellowish oil congeals between 18° and 12°C. After having
been heated it remains liquid for several days. The oil is
readily saponified at a low temperature, the soap being white,
hard, and capable of uniting with much water.

Chemical composition.—Fresh cocoanut kernel contains water
46°64, nitrogenous substances 5°49, fat 35-93, non-nitrogenous
extract 8°06, lignin 2°91, ash 0-97 per cent., and when dried
yields nitrogen 1:65 and nitrogen free extract 67°33 per cent.
(Konig in Hammerbacher Landw. Versuchssk. Bd. 13, s. 243.)
- Palm sugar examined by P. Horsin Deon (1879) yielded water
1:86, cane sugar 87:97, inverted sugar 9°65, other substances
0°50 per cent., and when dried 89-64 per cent. of cane sugar.
The other organic substances consisted of 1-71 per cent. reduci
ble sugar, 4-88 gum, and 3-06 mannite and fat. (Honig,
Nahrungs-mittel?.) 3
The milk of ripe and unripe cocoanuts has been analysed by .
L. L. — Slyke. The weight of milk from unripe nuts varied .
from 230°5 to 383-7 grams, and in a ripe nut only 109°6 grams.

PAIMZ 517

e composition of the unripe milk is an average of six

Milk of unripe nuts. — Milk of ripe nuts.
ay ater Bb GU". . sveecs. 95:00 91:23
Ash 617 1:06
Glucose 3973 trace.

Cane sugar ....... éaset trace. 4°42
BEVIS oo. .scesveses 133 291

a 119 “145

= (Journ. Chem. Soc., June, 1891.)
According to Hammerbacher, the fresh milk has the follow-

91-50 per cent.

A AB: 5
Fat ee)
Nitrogen free extractive ..scesesseee 6:78; -4;
Ash icc 8 Oey |

e milk had a sp. gr. of 1°0442. No fatty acids were present,
perhaps, propionic. rae

r the composition of cocoanut pearls, the reader is referred
for 1888. ;

ut oil has a peculiar and highly complex chemical
on. Itis largely composed of the glyceride of laurie
H**0?, and contains even lower homologues (¢.g. capric,
caproic) capable of distillation in a current of open
and to some extent soluble in water; but the glycerides
stic, palmitic, and stearic acids are also present in
» proportion. On the other hand, the low iodine absorp-
rs that comparatively little olein or its homologues can

ro

~In 1880-81 the foreign exports of cocoanut oil
1,888,122 gallons, valued at Rs. 20,90,797, Madras —

518 PALMA,

alone having shipped to foreign countries 1,690,520 gallons,
and sent in addition to other Indian ports 1,493,756 gallons.
In 1886-87 the exports were 1,099,864 gallons, valued at
Rs, 13,24,589, and the imports 556,562 gallons, valued at
Rs. 7,54,515, The bulk of the exports (viz.,689,087 gallons) went
to the United Kingdom. The imports were mainly from Ceylon
(438,144 gallons), Bengal taking by far the largest proportion
(viz., 350,437 gallons). Ifto these facts an abstract of the
coasting traffic be added, some idea of the present position of
the cocoanut oil trade may be had. The imports coastwise
were in 1888, 167,486 gallons, valued at Rs. 2,05,60,067 ; the
exports were 1,942,829 gallons, valued at Rs. 20,74,455. Of
the imports, Bombay received 794,577, Burma 338,056, Bengal
131,463 gallons, and these quantities were almost entirely
obtained from Madras. Cochin sent to Bombay 15,789 gal-
lons, and to Madras 13,188 gallons. The other items to make
up the total coastwise imports were unimportant. Local pro-
duction added to these imports would constitute the supply from
which the exports could be made, and in the case of Madras it is
noteworthy that that Presidency imported practically no
cocoanut oil, so that her exports to foreign countries and to
other Indian ports were drawn exclusively from local supplies.
With the exception of the small amounts obtained from
Cochin, Bombay, &c., and some 6,000 gallons from Ceylon and
other foreign countries, Madras imported no cocoanut oil. But
she exported 1,754,701 gallons, of which 1,008,621 went to
Bombay, 273,347 to Burma, 191,413 to Travancore, and
155,202 gallons to Bengal. But Bengal exported coastwise
8,648 and Bombay 3,454 gallons. The Bengal exports went to
Burma, and the Bombay to Sind, Madras, Goa, Kattywar, &c.
Adding the foreign exports to the coastwise exports and deduct-
ing total of the imports, we learn that Madras exported in
1888, 3,425,221 gallons—an amount which may be viewed as
the surplus over local consumption, Turning to Bengal and
Bombay, a very different state of affairs is found to prevail—the
Jnpor's exceed the exports, in Bengal by-313,009 gallons, and

in Bombay by 1,125,572 gallons. An enormous trade in ,

q PALMA. 519
4 cocoanut oil is done in Cochin, as will be seen from the exports
_ for six years :—
a Europe. India, Burma, &c. Total Tons.
me «1884-86 ........ pas oes 6,613 6,066 (12,679
2885-86 .ccdecccyee, see 3,494 7,237 10,731
OE... cys cativevs . 4,967 5,382 10,349
MIB OOG (155565005 seb 5a 6,300 6,048 12,348
BIO“ O8 oo. esas cutevees 6,193 7,778 13,968
BeP-U0 ©. ssc ccosssvee 4,048 8,264 12,312

id sent from one province of India to another. In 1886-87
imports were 125,222 cwts., valued at Rs. 11,76,799,
the exports 9,337 cwts., valued at Rs. 79,836. The
is come chiefly from Ceylon and the Straits Settle-
ts, and are almost exclusively delivered in Bengal and
y- The exports go mainly from Madras, the greater
to Portugal, Persia, Russia, and Arabia, each receiving
300 to 500 cwts. Of the imports by far the larger por-

S

, 10, is the Palmyra palm of the English, and the Roudier
ventails of the French. In Sanskrit it is called Téla, and
the vernaculars T4l, Téd, Tér, and Panai-maram. The

ies of the various parts of this noble palm are described
detail in Sanskrit medical works. The root is considered to
cooling and restorative ; the saccharine juice obtained from
Spathe cooling and diuretic when fresh, but intoxicating
fermented ; the pulp of the ripe fruit heavy and indiges-
the gelatinous contents of the unripe seeds refreshing
cooling ; the embryo of the germinating seed, and the
bud of the tree, are used as vegetables, and are con-
to be cooling, nutritive, and diuretic; the ash of the
8 given as a remedy for enlarged spleen.

520 PALMAE.

The spirit distilled from the juice of this palm is similar to
that obtained from the cocoa palm.

The fine, brown, silky substance on the young petioles of the
leaves of this and other palms is used as a styptic.

B. flabelliformis yields an insoluble gum, like wniehnk:
but of a darker colour.

For an account of the economic uses of this palm, the reader
is referred to the Dict. Econ. Prod. India, i., p. 495.

Pheenix sylvestris, Rorb., Rheede, Hort. Mal. rit, tt. 22
to 25, Kharjura (Sans.), Kajiér (Hind., Beng.), Sendi (Mar.),
Ishan-chedi (Zam.), also yields a juice, from which spirit is
obtained. The fruit called Khcérik pounded and mixed with
almonds, Quince seeds, Pistachio nuts, spices and sugar forms
a Paushtik, or restorative remedy much in vogue. A paste
formed of the seeds and the root of Achyranthes aspera is eaten
with betel leaves as a remedy for ague.

The juice of this palm is obtained by tapping the trunk.

LODOICEA SEYCHELLARUM, Labill.

Fig.—Bot. Mag., 2734-5-6-7-8. Sea Cocoanut (Zng-);
Coco-de-mer (Fr.).

Hab.—Seychelles,

Vernacular.—Darya-ka-nériyal (Hind.), Kadat-rengay
(Tam.), Samudrapu-tenkaya (Tel.), Katal-tenna (Mal.), Darya-
nu-nadriyal (Guz.), Jahari-néral (Mar.),

History, Uses, &c.—Prior to the discovery of the
Seychelles Islands in 1743, the large and peculiar-shaped nut
of this palm, found floating i in the Indian Ocean, was an object
of curiosity which gave rise to many fabulous tales ; it was
called Sea Cocoanut and Coco-de-mer by Europeans, Narjil-
bahri by the Arabs, Narjil-i-daryai by the Persians, and
important medicinal virtues were attributed to it. It is mow
no longer valued by Europeans, but is still in great repute :
among the Arabs and Indians as a tonic, aeigcly an 4
alexipharmic. Z

4 PALM, 521
___ Rumphius gives a long account of this palm under the name
of Cocos Maidivicus. The kernel is used in India in con-

junction with Jignum colubrinum as a tonic, and a paste made
of it in conjunction with the powdered horns of the Sambhar
deer and the seeds of Strychnos Nux-vomica is applied to
enlarged glands.

3 Description.—Thomas Moore, in the T'reasury of Botany,
says: “This magnificent palm, which is found only in two
small islands, Praslin and Curieuse, belonging to the Seychelles
group, requires a great length of time to arrive at maturity.

_ The shortest period before it puts forth its flower-buds is thirty

years, and a hundred years elapse before it attains its full

growth. From the age of 15 to 25 years it is in its greatest

beauty, the leaves at this period being much longer than they

are subsequently. The stem grows quite upright, straight as

an iron pillar, and in the male trees frequently attains a
hundred feet in height, the females being shorter. At the
age of thirty, it first puts forth its blossoms, the males forming
enormous catkins about three feet in length and three inches
diameter, while the females are set upon a strong zigzag
stalk, from which hang four or five, or sometimes as many a
eleven nuts, averaging about 40 lbs. weight each. Fromthe

_ of nearly ten years elapses, the full size, however, being attained
in about four years, at which time it is soft and full of a
Semi-transparent jelly-like substance. The apparently pecu-
liar formation of the root portion of this tree attracted much
_ attention a few years since, but upon comparison with other
_ palms it seems to be explained as an extraordinary development
_ of a common system. The base of the stem is rounded and
fits into a natural bowl or socket, which is pierced with
hundreds of small oval holes about the size ofa thimble, with
oll - > on the outside, through which

time of flowering to the maturation of the fruit, a period ck

599 PALM.

bowl is of the same substance as the shell of the nut, only much
thicker; it rots very slowly, for it has been found quite perfect
and entire in every respect sixty years after the tree has been
cut down.” The fruits are covered externally with a thick
fibrous husk, and contain usually one, but sometimes two or
even three immense nuts with hard thick black shells, each
being divided half-way down into two lobes. The kernel is
from three-quarters to one inch thick, and very hard and white,
having much the consistence of vegetable ivory: it has no odour
or taste; when soaked in water it softens a little, and can be
split into thin fibrous bundles.

Microscopie structure.—The kernel is composed of spindle-
shaped cells having a central cavity, from which club-shaped
canals extend to the cell-wall, where they are opposed to simi-
lar canals belonging to a neighbouring cell.

Commerce.—The nuts are an article of export from the
Seychelles; hundreds of them may be seen at Port Victoria,
Mahé, whither they are brought from the island of Praslin.
Value in Bombay, Re. 1} per lb. for the dry kernel,

Entire nuts fetch from Re. 1 to Rs, 2 each, according to
their size. :

ARECA CATECHU, Linn.

Fig.—Roxb. Cor. Pi. i., t. 75; Bentl. and. Trim., t. 276.
Areca palm (Eng.), Arec cultivé (fr.).

‘Hab.—Cochin-China, Malay Peninsula and Islands. Cul-
tivated throughout tropical India. The seed.

Vernacular.—Supéri ( Hind., Beng., Guz., Mar.), Kamugu,
Pékku (Tam -), Péka-vakka, Vakka (Tel.), Adike (Can.), Adaka
(Mal.).

History, Uses, &c.—The betel -nut,in Sanskrit Guvika,
Puga, and Kramuka, is a masticatory of great antiquity in the ‘
East. In the Panchadandachattraprabandha, Devaflamani, “ she
who compels the gods,” goes to the court of king iis

to play with him, dressed in a sky-blue robe, having 10 |

hs

PALM®, 593

hand and in her mouth a betel-nut wrapped in a leaf of the
kalpa, one of the trees of Indra’s paradise, a fabulous tree,
granting all desires. The betel-nut is symbolical of festivity,
_ and isa phallic emblem. Vincenzo Maria da Santa Caterina

in his Viaggio alle Indie Orientale says:—The Hindus adorn
their idols with the nuts; if a woman wears them in her hair or
on her neck it is a sign that she is public.” The nuts are dis-
tributed along with sugar cakes at marriages (see cocoa-nut) ;
_ when wrapped in the leaves of the Piper Betle or pan, along
With lime and spices, they form the bira or vira, which is so
much used by the natives of all parts of India, and is commonly
_ presented by one to another in token of civility or affection.
- They are also given in confirmation of a pledge, promise, or

ea ral
Pee
es

into the midst of an assembly, in token of an invitation to un-
dertake some difficult affair; for instance, in the first story of
the “Vetalapanchavinshati,” the king, when he sends the
courtesan to seduce the penitent who was suspended from a tree
nourishing himself with smoke, gives her a bira. Bira dena, ;
Signifies “to dismiss” either in a courteous sense or otherwise.
: A bira is sometimes the cover of a bribe, and a bira of seven
leaves (sat pén ka bira) is sent by the father of the bride to the

bridegroom places a viri or cigarette-shaped wira between the
teeth, for the other party to partake of by biting off the dhe
_ jecting half; one of the tricks played on such occasions 1s to
_ Conceal a small piece of stick in this viri, so that the biting it
_ In two is not an easy matter, The nut is also a constant offer-
ing to the gods at Hindoo temples, and on grand occasions the
ra is covered with gold or silver leaf.
The betel-nut is mentioned in Chinese works written before
Christian era under the name of Pin-lang, by some sup-
to be a corruption of the Malay name Pinang; but

524 PALM.

Bretschneider states (Chinese Recorder, 1871), on the authority
of the Nang Fang Tsao mu chang, a work written in the 4th
century, that the word is derived from Pin “a guest,” in
allusion to the custom of presenting the nuts to guests which had
been introduced into China from India,

Karly Arabian writers mention the Fiéfal as the fruit of a
certain palm, not of Arabia, hard as though it were wood.
Their physicians describe it as good for hot and gross humors
prepared as a liniment; and for inflammation of the eyes as a
collyrium; and of great efficacy for drying up the seminal
fluid, and as a digestive. Fiifal is a corruption of the Persian
Papal, a word probably cognate with the Sanskrit Kuvara
“astringent,” but said by some to be derived from the Hindi
Kubar (gaz ) “ humpbacked.”

Though the betel-nut must have been known to the Greeks
who visited India, it does not appear to have been noticed by
any of their historians or medical writers ; Desfontaines, how-
ever, suggests that it may have been the Hestiatoris or
Protomedia of Pliny (24, 102), so called from its promotion of
gaiety and good fellowship at carousals,

Hindu medical writers describe the unripe nuts as laxative
and carminative, the fresh nuts as intoxicating and productive
of giddiness ; when dried, they are said to sweeten the breath,
strengthen the gums, remove bad tastes from the mouth, and
produce a stimulant or exhilarant effect on the system. Their
use 1s recommended in urinary disorders and as an aphrodisiac ;
for the latter purpose a confection is made by boiling the nuts
m milk and adding a number of aromatic and stimulant
substances ; Sometimes Datura seeds and the leaves of Cannabis
indica are added to this confection, when it is called Kamesvara
modaka. Wnripe betel-nuts which have been boiled are known
as red betel, or chikn} supari, and an extract which is obtained

PALMA, 595

giddiness is well known in the East, and it has also been
observed that the nuts of certain trees in most betel planta-
tions retain their poisonous properties when dried. These trees
cannot be distinguished from the others, so that not depen
accidents happen from their nuts becoming mixed with t

‘produce of the plantation before their presence has ite
d The poisonous properties are destroyed by heat, and
consequently many people only use the cooked or red betel-
nuts of commerce to avoid the possibility of accident. The
only account of these poisonous nuts in European works
appears to be that of Rumphius, which agrees in every respect
with the particulars related by betel farmers whom we have
- questioned upon this subject; it is as follows:—“Plurime
etiam recentes sunt nuces, que qualitatem hanc habent,
quod manducantes inebrient, ac vertiginosos reddunt uti Taba-
cum illos afficit, qui ipsi not sunt adsueti; idem quoque, pris-
tant vetustiores Pinange nuces, que novitianos adeo
pectore oppressos, et auxios reddunt, ut strangulari videantur.
Que proprie Pinanga-mabols seu Pinanga imebrians vocatur,

(que a quibusdam pro diversa habentur specie) agra he
dignoscuntur, si recentes transcissee in media cavitate ru

sint. Observavi vero neutiquam diversam hanc esse speciem,
sed varietatem atque degenerationem duarum memoratarum
Specierum, que hinc inde in arboribus reperiuntur, quam vis
arbores occurant, quarum cuncte nuces hance habent
malignitatem, ac presertim tertie speciei.? Rumphius adds
_ that when these nuts have been eaten by mistake, salt or
limejuice, or acid pickles are the best remedies. The above
facts seem to indicate the return of a few plants to an original
wild form now extinct, especially as the fresh nuts of the best
trees produce similar effects in a less degree.

_ In Europe betel-nuts have been used as an anthelmintic for
‘worm and as an astringent, and in practice
reputation as a vermifuge is well established

P to 1889 it was not known to which of its constituents
4 nut owed its extensive use in the East as a mastica

526 PALMA.

Bombelon (Pharm Journ. [3], xvi., 838) was the first to
announce that it contained a liquid volatile alkaloid, the
properties and composition of which, however, he did not
describe. As it seemed probable that the physiologically
active constituent was to be looked for in this alkaloid, Herr
Jahns was induced to investigate the subject more closely
(Berichte, xxi., 3404). From his investigation it is clear that
an alkaloid arecoline is the most active constituent of the nut.
Its physiological action has been studied by Dr. Maumé of
Gottingen (Pharm. Zeit., Feb. 9, 1889, p. 97), who used for
this purpose the hydrobromide and the hydrochloride, of
which subcutaneous or intravenous injections were made, or
sometimes the solution was applied to the conjunctiva. It
was found that full-grown rabbits died within a few minutes
after the subcutaneous injection of 25 to 50 milligrams, but
recovered after 10 milligrams. Cats succumbed after the
administration similarly of 10 to 20 milligrams, only the course
of the poisoning was somewhat more prolonged. Dogs, even
small animals of 5 to 6 kilograms body-weight, although
strongly poisoned by the subcutaneous injection of 50 to 55
milligrams, were not always killed.

The symptoms of poisoning which were observed corre-
sponded in many respects with those seen by Schmiedeberg in
his investigation of muscarine, and further, when lethal doses
were not used, they could be neutralized by means of atropine
sulphate ; eventually, however, they presented characteristic
differences. The most dangerous action of arecoline consists
in the slowing of the heart’s action by small doses, or even its
stoppage, just as takes place with muscarine; but the latter
works in smaller doses, and it is only after somewhat larger
doses of arecoline that the ventricle of the frog stops in diastole,
or is so influenced that it is not emptied, and only after long
intervals makes a weak undulatory muscular contraction.
Subsequent injection of atropine removes this action upon the

heart. Simultaneously with the heart’s action the respiration.

is also affected. Small doses cause a considerable increase
the number of inspirations ; larger doses cause a slower action

ign

PALMAi, gee

_ with intensified expiration ; and very large doses rapidly stop
the breathing, especially in cats. After introvenous injection
of a lethal dose the respiration usually ceases before the action
of the heart.

The subcutaneous injection of 50 to 70 milligrams of
arecoline salts into dogs of 4 to 5 kilograms body-weight,
besides strong irritation of the heart, gives rise to tetanic
‘cramps, which quickly give place to a partial paralysis.

As a rule, however, the animals overcome the effects of such
doses, the heart resuming its action completely as the effects
pass off, but it becomes again affected through vomiting and
liquid evacuations in which sometimes also worms are brought
away. An increased peristaltic action of the bowels is, how-
ever, provoked in rabbits, dogs, and cats by much smaller

Intense poisoning of dogs, rabbits, and cats with arecoline
y also be accompanied with so strong a contraction of the
ils of both eyes, that in dogs and rabbits they do not show
ger than the head of a good-sized pin, whilst in cats they
re reduced to a mere streak. Instillation of arecoline solution
a an eye gives rise also to a strong one-sided narrowing of the
Pupil, but the quantity required is so large that the product
f myosis in one eye may induce a flow of saliva im rabbits,
and affect the heart and respiration in eats. For this reason -
action of arecoline upon the human iris has not yet been

It is in accord with observations made during the experi-
ments on animals that the organism may become on
n

528 PALM.

is a natural constituent of the brain-substance, and arecaine
comes near to the trigonelline of fenugreek. (Pharm. Journ.,

Feb. 23, 1889.)

Description—The betel-nut has the shape of a very
short, rounded cone, scarcely an inch in height; it is depressed
at the centre of the base. The testa, which seems to be par-
tially adherent to the endocarp, is obscurely defined, and
inseparable from the nucleus. Its surface is marked with a
network of veins, running chiefly from the hilum; these veins
extend into the white albumen, giving the seed a strong resem-
blance to a nutmeg. The small conical embryo is situated at
the base. The ripe nut is feebly astringent. Caustic lye turns
the brown portion red.

Chemical composition.—The nut contains about 15 per cent.
_of tannin substance, and 14 per cent. of fat, colouring matter,
&c. (Pharmacographia.) .In the preparation of the bases
Herr Jahns adopted two methods, which gave equally good
results. According to one, the powdered seeds were exhausted
three times with cold water, to which strong sulphuric acid had
been added in the proportion of two grams to each kilogram of
the seeds; the pressed and filtered extracts were evaporated to
about the weight of the raw material used, and after cooling and
again filtering precipitated with potassium-bismuth iodide and
sulphuric acid. An excess of the precipitant had to be avoided,
since it exercises a solvent action on the separated double salt.
The red crystalline precipitate was after some days filtered out,
washed and decomposed by boiling with barium carbonate and
Water’; the alkaloids went completely into solution, whilst
bismuth oxyiodide, colouring matter, &c., remained undis-
solved. After filtration the alkaloidal solution was evaporated
to a small volume, treated with sufficient caustic baryta, and
shaken Tepeatedly with ether, which removed a base that has
been. named “arecoline,” on account of its oil-like character.
The residual liquid, which, beside alkaloidal hydriodides, con-
tained some barium iodide, was neutralized with sulphuric acid,
_ and the alkaloids were set free by treatment successively with

4 PALME. 599

silver sulphate, caustic baryta and carbonic acid. The solution
_ of the pure alkaloids was evaporated to dryness and the residue
exhausted with cold absolute alcohol (or chloroform), ‘Are=
caine” remained undissolved, whilst a third alkaloid, together
with colouring matter, &c., went into solution, and upon
evaporation of the alcohol remained as an amorphous mass,
According to the second method, the powdered areca nuts
were exhausted cold with milk of lime, the filtered extracts

The yield of arecoline amounted to 0:07, or at most 0°1 per
cent., that of arecaine to 0°1 per cent., and that of arecaidine to
Url per cent.

_ Arecoline, C8H*™NO?, was withdrawn from the ether solu-

he neutralized liquid evaporated to a small volume, and after
ding sufficient potash solution again shaken out with ether.
The base left upon evaporation of this solution was neutralized

_ Arecoline forms a colourless oily liquid of strongly alkaline
Teaction, which is soluble in all proportions in water, alcohol,
ether, and chloroform. It is volatile and can be distilled, the
boiling point being 209°C. The salts are easily soluble,
Some of them deliquescent, but mostly erystallizable. It gives
with | potassium-bismuth iodide a pomegranate-red precipitate,
¢ of microscopic crystals (a delicate reaction), and with

molybdic acid a white precipitate. Potassium-mereury

530 PALM.

of iodine throws down brown drops, and picric acid a resinous
precipitate that afterwards crystallizes in needles. Gold chloride
also throws down oily drops, which, however, do not solidify.
Platinie chloride, mercuric chloride, and tannic acid give no
precipitates.

Arecaine (C’H"NO?-H°O), purified by repeated crystal-
lizations from 60 per cent. alcohol, forms colourless crystals,
permanent in the air, freely soluble in water and in dilute
alcohol, less soluble in stronger and nearly insoluble in absolute
aleohol, by which it is dehydrated. It is also insoluble in ether,
chloroform, and benzol. The aqueous solution is neutral in
reaction, and has a slightly perceptible weak saline taste. At
100°C. arecaine loses its water of crystallization, melts with
frothing at 213°C., and carbonizes when more strongly heated.
In a solution acidulated with sulphuric acid potassium-bismuth
iodide produces an amorphous red precipitate that very quickly

mes crystalline. Potassium-mercury iodide is far less
delicate; it does not precipitate the (neutral) solution of the
free alkaloid, but if this be acidified the double salt separates
in yellow needles, or at first as an oily precipitate that quickly
crystallizes. Potassium iodide also fails to affect a neutral
solution, but upon acid being added dark-coloured needles
separate. Phosphomolybdic acid, as well as tannic acid, give a
slight turbidity; picric acid gives no precipitate, and gold
chloride and platinie chloride precipitate crystalline double
salts from solutions that are not too dilute.

Arecaine combines with acids to form crystalline salts, having
an acid reaction, freely soluble in water and less soluble in
alco

.

Arecaidine, C’H"NO?H"0, isomeric with arecaine, forms
colourless, permanent, tabular crystals, and is easily soluble in
water and dilute alcohol, but almost insoluble in absolute
alcohol, ether, chloroform, and benzol; it loses its water of ery-
stallization at 100°C., and melts, attended with frothing, at
222-223°C.; it forms erystallizable salts and is precipitated by
platinic and auric chlorides. Arecaine and arecaidine are

PALM. | 531

easily separated by treatment with methyl-alcohol and hydro-
4 chloric acid, whereby arecaidine is converted into its —
_ ester, arecoline, and arecaine into the hydrochloride.

Herr Jahns (Berichte, xxiv., 2615) describes a fourth crys-
talline alkaloid in areca nuts, to which he gives the name
Guvacine, from gurdka, a Sanskrit name for the areca palm.
Guvacine is less soluble in water or dilute alcohol than the
er alkaloids, crystallizes in small shining crystals that
at 265°C. and melt at 271-272° with decomposition.
e crystals contain no water of crystallization, and upon
. yield results corresponding to the formula C°H°NO*.
the salts, the hydrochloride, sulphate, nitrate, platino-
oride (CSH9NO?-HCl)*-PtCl*+4H*0, and auro-chloride,
_ @H°NO*-HCl-AuCl’, have been prepared and crystallize
It therefore appears that a series of bases occur in the
nut, which, with the exception of choline, stand in near
ation te each other— ;
line C7H*NO?* Arecaine C7 H"“NO’+H’O
Guvacine C°H9NO? Arecaidine C’7H**NO’?+ 8’O
Arecoline C°H**NO? f
ably other members of the series may be found by exa-
uation of a larger quantity of material. (Pharm. Zigey 1891,
16; Pharm. Jowrn., Oct. 3, 1891.)
Towicology. —Cases of poisoning from eating fresh Ga tats
€ poisonous nuts by mistake, not unfrequently occur, but
have not heard of any fatal termination after such acci-
The remedies used are acid pickles and copious draughts
d water. The sufferers complain of great oppression in
chest, with a sense of faintness and suffocation, sometimes
by vomiting. According to Maumé, arecoline separates
ed with Sey secretions and excretions, from which it —
recovered, In the absence ofa characteristic colour
arecoline separated from urine can only be identified
) by its behaviour with potassium-bismuth iodide,
ologically by its action upon the heart of a curarized

532 PALMAE.

Commerce.—Some idea of the consumption of betel-nut in
India may be formed from the fact, that in addition to her
own produce India imports about 30,500,000 pounds of the
nut, value about 34 lakhs of rupees, from Ceylon, the Straits
Settlements, and Sumatra. The exports are under 500,000 Ibs.
which go to Eastern countries frequented by Indians, such as
Zanzibar, Mauritius, Aden, China, &c. Bombay is the chief
centre of the export trade.

The coasting trade statistics show a total of about 44,000,000
Ibs., vaiue about 554 lakhs of rupees, passing from port to
port. Bengal, Madras, and Goa are the chief producing
provinces. The exports by land beyond the frontier are very
trifling, about 1,000,000 lbs. going to Nepal and Bhutan.

The varieties of the nut met with in trade are numerous;
they may be classed as natural and artificial: the first class
includes the different varieties of ripe betel-nut produced by
cultivation which have not undergone any preparation ; the
second class, all nuts, ripe or unripe, which have been treated
by boiling or other processes before being offered for sale.

CALAMUS DRACO, Willd.

Fig.—Blume in Rumphia, it., tt, 131-182.

Hab.—Indian Archipelago. The resin (Dragon’s blood).

Vernacular.—It is known by the same names as the gum of
Dracena Oinnabari (p. 504).

History, Uses, &c.—The original Dragon’s blood of
commerce was not derived from this plant. The older writers
upon Eastern commerce speak of Dragon’s blood as an export to
the East from Arabia and Socotra. Ibn Batuta, who visited
Java and Sumatra between 1325 and 1349, makes no mention
of this substance among the products of those islands. Barbosa,
writing in 1514, speaks of Dragon’s blood as a product of

but makes no mention of it amongst drugs found in —
_ Malacca, Java, Sumatra, or Borneo. (Pharmacographia.) Rum-
___ Phius is the first who describes the mode of preparation followed

“PALMA. 533

at Palembang to procure this drug. It appears that the resin
exudes in abundance from the fruit, and, being very brittle, is
easily detached by shaking and friction ; finally it is exposed to
a heat sufficient to make it form a uniform mass. An inferior
quality is said to be extracted from the crushed fruit by boiling.
This drug is not mentioned by Indian writers on Materia
_ Medica, but it is now frequently supplied by native druggists,
q and their customers probably do not distinguish it from th
genuine article.

Description.—Lump Dragon’s blood only is imported
into Bombay from the East: it occurs in large blocks of
_ irregular form; it differs from Socotra Dragon’s blood in
_ Containing remains of the fruit and numerous scales. Its
fracture is somewhat porous, but in good samples the colour is
nearly as brilliant as that of the drops from Socotra.

_ Chemical composition —A very complete investigation of the
_ properties of the various kinds of Dragon’s blood has been

made by Messrs. Dobbie and Henderson. (Pharm. Journ.,
Noy. 10th, 1883.) They say: ‘Our results may be summed
up as follows:—There are at least four distinct kinds

in colour, melts at about 80°C., gives off red-coloured —

highly irritating fumes when decomposed by heat, dissolves

_ teadily with an orange-red colour in alcohol, ether, chloro-
form, carbon bisulphide and benzene, is insoluble or only
ightly soluble in cold caustic soda, ammonia, lime water and

these reagents. Its alcoholic solution has an acid reaction and
gives a brown-red coloured precipitate when mixed with a
Solution of lead acetate. Its composition may be represented
by the formula C'®H'20. This is undoubtedly the resin of
| Calamus Draco, some of the specimens which were examined
having their origin well authenticated. :
“A second variety is of a beautiful carmine-red colour, melts:

bo 100° C., gives off non-irritating fumes when decomposed.

of red resin presently sold as Dragon’s blood, or labelled — ; ‘
in collections under that name. One variety is brick-red

534 PALM.

by heat, dissolves freely with a pink colour in alcohol, ether
and chloroform, but is insoluble in carbon bisulphide and
benzene, dissolves readily in cold caustic soda, ammonia and
sodium carbonate, and much more readily than the foregoing
in lime water. Its alcoholic solution has an acid reaction and
gives a lilac-coloured precipitate with lead acetate, Its com-
position may be represented by the formula C'7H'90’, The
source of this resin is quite uncertain. We have no means of
determining whether it is identical with any hitherto described
variety of red resin. The specimens examined are marked as
having come from the Dutch East Indies, but beyond this we
know nothing of their origin.

‘(A third variety is of a vermilion colour, melts about 80°C.,
gives off aromatic irritating fumes when decomposed by heat,
dissolves with a blood-red colour in alcohol and ether, but is
insoluble in chloroform, carbon bisulphide and benzene, dis-
solves readily in cold caustic soda, ammonia, lime water and
sudium carbonate. Its alcoholic solution has an acid reaction
and gives with lead acetate a mauve-coloured precipitate. Its
composition may be represented by the formula C'®H**0*.
This is the resin from a species of Dracaena. One of the speci-
mens examined is from Dracena Cinnabari, Socotra, and as
it was gathered by Professor Balfour there can be no doubt
as to its origin. Another specimen is from Dracaena Draco,
and its origin is also well authenticated. The other specimens
examined are marked some of them Calamus, but there can be
little doubt that this is a mistake, and that all the resins
having the properties just enumerated are derived from species
of Dracena, It seems certain then that the resin derived from
Dracena is totally different in property from that derived from
Calamus.

“The fourth variety is a mixture, in varying proportions,
of s reddish-brown coloured resin, freely soluble in carbon
bisulphide, and a light brick-red coloured resin, nearly insoluble
in carbon bisulphide, The two portions also differ consi-
derably as regards their solubility in ether, benzene, and other

reagents, the dark portion being in all cases the less soluble of

PANDANACEA. 26 535

of the two portions. The portion freely soluble in carbon
Gisulpbide is probably identical with the resins of our first class,
while the other portion seems to be a distinct resin.

x é Mach discussion has taken place with regard to the
nce of a volatile acid in Dragon’ s blood. It seems certain
none of the varieties of this resin contain benzoic acid; at
l events we failed to obtain an extract from any of them with
etroleum: ether, in which benzoic acid is freely soluble. We
8 ted for cinnamic acid by sublimation, and found it present
aa resins of the first and third classes, but not in those of
e second and fourth classes. To ascertain the delicacy of

ll quantities of such a mixture. Probably the error as to
presence of benzoic acid arose through confounding it with
namic acid, or possibly from working with a resin im
benzoic acid had been formed by partial oxidation.”

“ PANDANACE.
ANDANUS ODORATISSIMUS, Linn. f.

>.— Rorb. Cor. Pl. i., tt. 94—96. Screw Pine, Kaldera

(Eng.), Pandan odoriferante (Fr.).

ent Persia, Arabia. The stems, male inflorescence

‘ernacular —Keora (Hind.), Keya (Beng.), Kevada (Mar.),
Guz.), Tazhan-chedi (Tam.), Mogali-chettu,. Gajangi
ha, Kaita (Ma/.), Téle-mara, Kyadage-gida (Can.)..

, Uses, &c.—The Ketaka or Dhéli-pushpike
»” whose golden spikes of flowers are said to atone

536 PANDANACEZL.

for all its defects, is a great favourite with Vishnu and Krishna,
and its flower-leaves are much worn by women in their hair.
The poets also celebrate its perfume. In the play of Malati
and Madhava, the latter says :—

The slowly rising breezes spread around

The grateful fragrance of the Ketaka.

A strophe quoted by Bohtlingk (Indische Spruche, 1., 2083)
says :—The drunken bee mistakes the golden flowers of the
Ketaka for a lotus, and blinded by ray rushes into the flower
and leaves his wings behind him. In the Gita Govinda, the
bracts are likened to a lance fit to pierce the hearts of lovers,
and the opening buds of the Jasmine are supposed to be im-
pregnated by its pollen,

The defects of this plant are described as its crookedness,
abundance of thorns (suchi-pushpa), and the desert places which
it selects for a habitation. ‘Lhe Ketaka is obnoxious to Siva,
and the following story is told to account for his hatred of the

_ tree: Gambling with Parvati he is said to have lost every-

thing he possessed, even to down the clothes upon his back. In
a fit of repentance he wandered away and was lost, to his
friends, who afterwards discovered that he had retired into a
forest of Ketaka trees and had become an ascetic. Parvati,
having assumed the form of a Bhil damsel with Ketaka in her
hair, followed him into the forest, and having succeeded in
making him break his vow afterwards upbraided him for incon-
stancy ; whereupon he cursed the Ketaka and any one who
should offer its flowers at his shrine. This episode is the sub-
ject of a well-known Marathi Jaoni :~—
Siva sathi jhali bhilina
Jaga mohini Girja jhali udasa.
Unhappy Girje, erst the world’s ador’d
A gipsy maid now, seeks for Shiv her lord.
According to the Nighantés, the plant has bitter, sweet,
light, and pungent properties, and removes phlegmatic humors.

In Persia it is called Kédi, Gulkiri, and Gul-i-kabadi; the —

Arabs call it Kadi and Kadar. Rézi recommends it in leprosy

PANDANACER. 537

d'small-pox ; it is corisidered by Mahometan physicians to be
diacal, cephalic, and aphredisiacal. ‘They prepare a sharab
boiling the pounded stems in water, also a distilled water
the flowering tops and a perfumed oil. Mir Muhammad
usain states that the Hindus believe that if these prepara-
ms are used when smail-pox is prevalent, the disease will be
erted, or be of so mild a form as to be free from danger.
e ashes of the wood are said to promote the healing of
mds, and the seeds to strengthen the heart and liver.

India the perfumed oil is prepared by placing the floral
s in sesamum oil and exposing it to the sun for forty days;
3 bracts are supplied and the old ones removed several
during this period. This oil is much valued as a perfume,
is used as a remedy for earache and suppuration of the
s. The distilled water may be simple or compound;
» latter case the bracts are distilled with rose-water or
lalwood chips; it is used as a perfume and to flavour
ts

leaves of several species of Pandanus are used for

famine times. ‘The edible species (P. edulis, Thonars),
in Madagascar and the islands of the South Pacitie,
not occur in India. The aerial roots of the different
are much used to make coarse brushes in the East,
n of the desired length being cut and the end beaten —
fibres separate.
Description.—The male inflorescence is a large, ter-
pendulous, compound, leafy panicle, the leaves of which
llowish-white, linear-oblong, pointed and concave, the
s being armed with very fine sharp spines ; in the axil
ch there is a single thyrse, composed of simple, small
long, pointed, depending anthers, which are not
raised from the rachis of these partial racemes by
ts, The fruitiscompound, oval, from six to eight
ter, and from six to ten long, weighing from
pounds, rough, of a rich orange colour, composed

538 TY PHACEZ.

of numerous, wedge-shaped, angular drupes; when ripe their
large or exterior ends are detached from one another, and
covered with a firm, orange-coloured skin; apices flat, consist-
ing of as many angular, somewhat convex tubercles as there
are cells in the drupe, each crowned with the withered stigma,
internally the exterior half of these drupes next the apex con-
sists of dry spongy cavities, their lower part, next the core or
common receptacle, is yellow, consisting of a rich-looking, yel-
low pulp, intermixed with strong fibres; here the nut is lodged.
Nut of each drupe compound, turbinate, exceedingly hard,
angular, containing as many cells as there are divisions in the
apex of the drupe; each cell is perforated above and below.
Seeds single, oblong, smooth, adhering lengthwise to a small
fasicle of strong white fibres, which bese through the perfora-
tions of the cell. (Rvaburgh.)

TYPHACEA.

Typha angustifolia, Linn., Eng. Bot. 1456. Vern.—
Ramabina. The soft woolly inflorescence of the male
spadix is applied like cotton to wounds and ulcers. The
plant is abundant on the banks of the Indus, where it is
called ‘Pun.’ From the pollen is made the Bir or Birata,
much eaten by the natives of Sind. The Sanskrit name is

aka,

Description.—Perennial, culms straight, 6 to 10 feet
high, round, smooth, jointed at the insertion of the leaves;
leaves long, ensiform, obtuse, flat on the inside, as long of
nearly as long as the stem, about 3 to 4 inches broad; sheath
smooth, embracing the culms; male catkin 2 to 3 inches above

the female, cylindric, 8 to 10 ae long, densely covered with

stamens, and numerous 3 to 4 cleft fine filaments, each with

2 to 3 anthers; anthers linear; female catkin 8 to 10 inches 3
filaments.

long; glume with fine

Bir Sa ee ae

AROIDEM. 539

AROIDEZ.
ACORUS CALAMUS, Linn.

Fig.—Bentl. and T'rim., t. 279; Rheede, Hort. Mal. vzi.,
t. 48. Sweet-Flag (Zng.), Acore vrai (Fr.).

Hab.—Central Asia. Cultivated throughout India. The
hizome.

’ Vernacular.—Bach, Gora-bach (Hind., Beng.), Vekhand,
Gora-bach (Guz.), Vekhand, Bal-vekhand (Mar.), Vashambu
(Tam,), Vasa (Tel.), Vashanpa (Mal.), Vajé (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant bears the Sanskrit
ames of Vaché “ talking,’ Shadgrantha “ six-knotted,” Ugra-
_gandha “strong smelling,” Jatila “having entangled hair,” &c.,
and is described in the Nighantis as hot,pungent, bitter, stomachic
and emetic; useful for clearing the voice by removing phlegm,
and in colic. As an emetic it is administered in doses of about
80 grains with half a sér of tepid salt water; in dyspepsia it is
given in combination with asafcetida, long pepper, black pepper,
ginger, chebulic myrobalans, soncha/ salt, and the tubers
of Aconitum heterophyllum, of all equal parts, in doses of half a
drachm. As a stimulant or nervine it is used in combination
With other remedies in low fevers, epilepsy, andinsanity. The
authors of the Pharmacographia remark—‘The descriptions of
Acoron, a plant of Colchis, Galatia, Pontus, and Crete, given by
_ Dioscorides and Pliny, certainly refer to this drug.” The
Arabian physicians also agree in identifying it with the
_ Acoron of the Greeks, a name probably derived from the
Persian Agar. Ibu Sina describes the drug under the name
_ of Waj, and quotes Galen with regard to its properties, and all
the Arabian and Persian physicians reproduce what Dioscorides
has written concerning axépov, That this plant isnot the Calamus
Gromaticus of the ancients appears to be evident, as Pliny
describes both Acoron and Calamus aromaticus, The Arabians
also do not identify the plant with Calamus aromaticus, but
describe the latter under the name of Kasab-ed-darira and

540 AROIDER.

identify it with Swertia Chirata. H4j4 Zein states that in his
time (1368) Kasab-ed-darira came from Calicut, where it was
called by the natives Béringa; if this statement is correct, the
drug used by him must have been either Premna herbacea or
Clerodendron serratum, the Bharinga of the Hindus. Royle
supposes Calamus aromaticus to have been an Andropogon.
Mahometan writers describe it as deobstruent and depurative,
useful for the expulsion of the phlegmatic humours, which they
suppose to be the cause of paralysis, dropsy, and many other
diseases; they recommend it to be given to children to bite
when teething, and prescribe it internally in calculous affec-
tions. It has also a reputation as a diuretic, emmenagogue,
and aphrodisiac, and is applied in the form of poultice to
paralysed limbs and rheumatic swellings. A pessary composed
of Acorus, saffron, and mare’s milk is used to promote
delivery; a hip bath of the decoction is also said to be
efficient for this purpose. Dr. Ondaatji, Colonial Surgeon of
Ceylon, has brought to notice the use of sweet-flag as an
anthelmintic in that island. He says: ‘“ An infusion of the
thizome given to young children acts effectually, as I have

seen many such cases treated among the natives.” Dr. Evers

at the Seoni Main Dispensary has found the drug very effectual
in dysentery. He uses the following decoction :—Bruised rhi-
zome 2 ozs., Coriander } dr., Black pepper 3 dr., Water one
pint. Boil down to 12 ounces, and let cool. Dose for an adult

1 ounce three times a day ; for a child 1 to 3 drachms, sweetened _ |

with sugar, two or three times aday. He also remarks :—“ The
decoction is not only useful in dysentery and diarrhea, but also
in the bronchitic affections of children.” I have often taken
it myself when suffering from a bad cold in the chest. (Ind.
Med. Gazette, Feb. 1875.)

| ‘The evidence collected by Dr. Watt for Dict. Econ. Prod. of
India testifies % the value of Acorus as an aromatic bitter and
stimulant, especially useful in allaying distressing cough. - oe

Description.— The root-stock oecurs in somewhat tor-— .
tuous, sub-eylindrieal or flattened pieces, of variable length; 10

AROIDEA. BAI

he upper surface of these is attached the lower portion of
the leaves which have been cut off; on the under surface may be
seen a zigzag line of little elevated dot-like rings, the scars of
roots. The root-stock is usually rough and shrunken, varying
ncolour from dark-brown to orange-brown, breaking easily
with a short corky fracture, and exhibiting a whitish spongy
interior. The odour is aromatic and agreeable; the taste
itterish and pungent. The Persian variety of Acorus is
arker in colour when fractured and has a more powerful
odour, the leaves have been entirely removed, instead of being
ut off short.

Microscopie structure——A section of the rhizome is like an

of small empty cells. The vascular bundles are numerous,
pecially just within the line of small cells just noticed ; each
dle consists of a ring of spiral vessels surrounding a number

Chemical composition.—The authors of Pharmacographia
ty:—“ The dried rhizome yielded us-1°3 per cent. of a yel-
Wish neutral essential oil of agreeable odour, which in a
umn of 50 mm. long deviates the ray of polarized light
3'8° to the right. By working ona large scale, Messrs. Schim-
&Co., of Leipzig, obtained 2°4 to 2°6 per cent. According
» Kurbatow (1873), this oil contains a hydrocarbon, C™H",
oiling at 159° C., and forming a crystalline compound with
Hcl, and another hydrocarbon boiling at 955—258° C.,
Hording no crystallizable hydrochloric compound. By sub-
utting the oil to fractional distillation, we noticed, above 250°,
blue portion, which may be decolourized by sodium. The
te oil acquires a dark-brownish colour on addition of per-
oride of iron, but is not at all soluble in concentrated potash
n :

‘Ae bitter principle, Nimes was isolated by Faust in 1867 ‘
ui-fluid, brownish glucoside, containing nitrogen, soluble

542 AROIDEA.

both in ether and in alcohol, but neither in benzol nor in
water. In order to obtain this substance, we precipitated
the decoction of 10 lbs. of the drug by means of tannic acid,
and followed the method commonly practised in the preparation
of bitter principles. By finally exhausting the residue with
chloroform, we succeeded in obtaining a very bitter, perfectly
crystalline body, but in so minute a quantity that we were
unable to investigate its nature.’ (Op. cit., 2nd Ed,
p- 678.) ;

Herr Thoms (Archiv. der Pharm. [8] xxiv., p. 465) announced
the absence of nitrogen in acorin, which is contrary to the
results obtained by Faust; at the same time this author states
that under the influence of acids and alkalies, or of emulsin,
acorin splits up into sugar and carburet of hydrogen, and that
it readily oxidizes and is converted into a resinous substance
acoretin, which, when reduced from alkaline solution by
nascent hydrogen, gives an essential oil and sugar as final
products,

The fact of a glucoside behaving in this way being inadmis-
sible has led M. Geuther to make a fresh examination of
acorin, which he obtained by exhausting the root with cold
water and separating the acorin by means of animal charcoal ;
the impure acorin was then removed from the charcoal by
means of alcohol, and, after purification, was found to contain
32 p.c, of nitrogen, 70°0 of carbon, and 9-1 of hydrogen-
Treated with a boiling dilute solution of soda it yielded no
sugar, but was converted into an acid substance which strongly
reddened litmus ; treatment with dilute acids also yielded no
sugar. Exhausted by soda, the bitter matter has the formula
C*H"NO™, and the acid which has been yielded to the alkali
has the formula C**H**O°: treated with hydrochloric acid it
sets free an acid of the formula C?*H*°0* or C?*H*°0*, which
appears to be a product of the oxidation of the free acid

already noticed. M.Geuther considers that the acoretin of a
is nothing butimpure acorin. (AnnalenderChem., —

Herr Thoms |

ecxl., p. 92.)

AROIDER. BAS

SCINDAPSUS OFFICINALIS, Schott.
Fig.— Wight, Icon., t. 781.
Hab.—Bengal. The fruit.
Vernacular. —Gaj-pipli, Bari-pipli ( Hind.) , Gaja-pipal ( Beng.),
Atti-tippili (Zam., Mai.), Enuga-pippallu (Ze/.), Dodda-hipalli
(Can.), Thora-pimpali (Mar.), Motho-pimpali (Guz.).

History, Uses, &c.—The ripe fruit of this plant is the
e Gaja-pippali of the Nighantds; it also bears the Sanskrit
names of Kari-pippali, Kapi-valli, Kota-valli, Shreyasi, and
‘Vashira. It is described as aromatic, carminative, stimulant,
d useful in diarrhea, asthma, and other affections supposed
be caused by deranged phlegm. In practice it is generally
used as an adjunct to other medicines. S. officinalis is cultivated
Bengal, chiefly in the Midnapore district, and the fruits, cut
to transverse pieces and dried, form the Gaja-pipal of the
Tuggists of Eastern and Southern India.
In Northern and Western India an entirely different drug is
Sold under the same name; it consists of the entire plant of
4 Balanophora often remaining attached to a small piece of the
‘dead stick upon which it grew. The largest of these plants
4re about five inches in length, and consist of a kind of cellular
up, from which springs a scaly spadix surmounted by a glan-
dular-shaped club of imperfect flowers, beneath which the stem
48marked by little pits showing the places where the female
flowers were attached. This drug is mucilaginous and astringent,
is no doubt improperly substituted for the genuine article.
Description —The fruit of 8. officinalis occurs in slices
8n inch or less in diameter and about } inch in thickness, of a
‘$teyish colour and almost inodorous. The slices consist of a
Central core surrounded by the seeds partly enclosed in the dried
Pulp of the arils; when soaked in water they swell up and
“ven, and the core may be seen to contain numerous large liber
ls very sharply pointed at both ends which act like stinging
urs. The pulp surrounding the seeds is full of needle-like
of oxalate of lime, similar to those found in the acrid

544 AROIDE A.

corms of other aroids. The seeds are rather larger than hemp
seeds, kidney-shaped, grey and polished ; they contain a white
oily kernel.

Chemical composition.—With the exception of a minute trace
of an alkaloid, nothing of special interest was detected. The
mucilage afforded jelly-like precipitates with plumbic acetate
and ferric chloride. No tannin was present. Ash, 14*6 per cent.

Scindapsus pertusus, Schott., Rheede, Hort. Mal. wxii.,
é#. 20, 21, is a large perennial plant, running over trees and
rooting on them like Ivy; leaves alternate, resembling those of
the Pipal ( Ficus religiosa) but larger, often perforated and cutin
the margins; spadices shortly-peduncled ; spathe gibbous, acute,
a little longer than the spadix; spadix cylindric-obtuse. The
juice of the plant with black pepper is given to people who have
been bitten by the Kusriya Ghanas,* a snake so called because
the part bitten by it mortifies. The juice, with that of the
roots of Croton oblongifolium and of the fruit of Momordica
Charantia, is also applied to the bitten part.

ALOCASIA INDICA, Stiott.
Fig.— Wight Ic., t. 794.

Hab.—India, cultivated in Bengal and elsewhere. The —

root-stock,

Vernacular,— Ménkand, Kachu (Hind.), Mén-kachu (Beng.)? :

Kas-alu (Mar.).

History, Uses, &c.—This large Arum is the Ménaka —
of Sanskrit writers ; its root-stock is a valuable and important —
article of diet in Bengal, and often grows to an immense size, —
being from six to eight feet in length, and as thick as a man’s ©
leg. When dried it can be kept for a considerable time and j
affords a large supply of starchy food. In Western India it is —

iv as an ornamental plant in gardens, but is —

much cultivated ;
little known as an article of diet; the acrid juice of t
petioles is, however, much used as a common domestic remedy

-. * Daboia Russellii, wxipels icigxn

a ee :

AROIDEE. BAB

account of its styptic and astringent properties, The
etiole is slightly roasted and the juice expressed, We
ve seen purulent discharge from the ears in children
‘opped by a single applicaltag The tubers chopped fine,
tied in a cloth and heated, are used as a fomentation in
eumatism.
Medicinally ménaka is said to be useful in anasarca, in
hich disease it is used in the following manner. Take of the
1 of the root-stock eight tolds, rice-meal sixteen tolds,
ater and milk forty-eight tolas each; boil them together till
water has evaporated. ‘This preparation is called Médna-
anda, and is given as an article of diet to the patient, nothing
Ise being fees during its administration except milk.
akradatta.)
S$ a vegetable, the root-stock is peeled, cut in small pieces
nd well boiled to remove its acridity; it is then mixed with
er vegetables and cooked with the usual condiments.
tr. D. Basu (Diet. Leon. Prod. Ind.,i., 178) remarks—‘“T1 have
ever used it solely as a medicine ; but as food taken frequently,
Seems to act as a mild laxative and diuretic. In piles pad
itual constipation it is useful.” Surgeon-Major R. 8.
tt (idem) states that it is a very agreeable vegetable _ du n
valescence of natives from bowel SR AB Se it is ligh
ad nutritious and somewhat mucilaginous. The ash of the
t-stocks mixed with honey is a papi remedy for

uternally it is white, opaque, and starchy, and when fresh has
1 acrid odour which is lost on drying. Pulped and washed
ee a large ore of pum a pe

546 AROIDE.

AMORPHOPHALLUS CAMPANULATUS,
Blume.

Fig.—Roxb. Cor. Pl. iti., t. 272; Bot. Mag., t. 2812 ; Wight
Te., 785.

Hab.—lIndia. Much cultivated. The tubers.

Vernacular.— Jimi-kand (Hind.), Ol (Beng.), Surana (Mar.,
Gus.), Suranu (Can.), Karunai-kizhangu (Tam.), Kanda-godda
(Zel.), Karuna-kizhanna (Wal.).

History, Uses, &c.—This arum occurs as a wild plant
on the banks of streams and also in several cultivated forms.
It is the Surana and Olla of Sanskrit writers, and among other
synonyms bears that of Arsoghna or “destroyer of piles.” For
medicinal use, Sarangadhara directs the tuber to be covered with
a layer of earth, roasted in hot ashes, and administered with the
addition of oil and salt. Several confections are also used, such

asthe Laghwourana modaka, Vrihat surana modaka, &e.; these

are made of the tubers of the plant with the addition of treacle,
aromatics (ginger and pepper) and Plumbago root, and are
given in doses of about 200 grains once a day in piles and dys-
pepsia. The dried tubers of the wild plant, peeled and cut into
segments, are sold in the shops under the name of Madan-mast.
The segments are usually threaded upon a string, and are about
as large as those of an orange, of a reddish-brown colour,
shrunken and wrinkled, brittle and hard in dry weather; the
surface ismammillated. When soaked in water they swell upand
become very soft and friable, developing a sickly smell. A
microscopic examination shows that the root is almost entirely
composed of starch. Madan-mast has a mucilaginous taste, and
is faintly bitter and acrid; it is supposed to have restorative
powers, and is in much request ; it isfried in gh{ with spices and
sugar. It is interesting to note that the tubers of the greater
Dracontia (Diosc., ii., 155) were preserved by the Greeks in

the same manner for medicinal use. The cultivated plant is

largely used as a vegetable ; under cultivation it loses mae ps de
om acridity and grows to an enormous size.

AROIDED. 547

_ Synantherias sylvatica, Schott., is regarded by the Hindus
asa kind of wild Surana, and, with the wild form of Amorpho-
.. phallus campanulatus, bears the Sanskrit name of Vajra-kanda
E “thunder-bolt.” The country-people use the crushed seed to
eure toothache; a small quantity is placed in the hollow tooth
_ and covered with cotton; it rapidly benumbs the nerve; they
4 also use it as an external application to bruises on account of
_ its benumbing effect, Inthe Concan the seeds rubbed into @
_ paste with water are applied repeatedly to remove glandular
enlargements. he fruit is yellow, about the shape and size of
a grain of maize, closely set round the upper part of the spike,
which is several feet in height, and as large as that of the plan-
tain. The skin of the fruitis tough, the pulp scanty and yel-
low; it encloses two seeds having the shape of a coffee bean,
and placed with their flat surfaces in apposition. The testa of
e seed is soft, greenish-brown externally, green internally ;

when fresh, but rapidly becoming hard and dry when cut. The
taste is intensely acrid, after a few seconds it causes a most
painful burning of the tongue and lips, which lasts for a long
time, causing much salivation and subsequent numbness. A
Section of the fruit and seed show the following structure from
Without inwards :—lst¢, several rows of thick-walled cells, having
Yellowish-brown granular contents (skin); 2nd, a parenchyma
composed of thin-walled cells, having no solid contents except
Needle-shaped crystals (pulp); 3rd, several rows of small cells
containing chlorophyll (testa of seed); 4th, a delicate paren-
chyma, the cells of which are loaded with very small starch
Sranules, mostly round, some truncated.

The tubers of Sanromatum pedatum, Schott., are very acrid,
and are used externally under the names of Bhasamkand and
Létas a stimulating poultice. The plant is extremely common,
and its pedate leaves appear with the first rain in June. The
flower, which is produced just before the rains, seldom attracts
» being more or less buried in thesoil. The tubers are
out as large as small potatoes, and of the same shape as those

gies

__Lagenandra toxicaria, Dalz., Ricede, Hort.
ne 523, is a Ache g , a Riad Tok $$ : as ee

548 AROIDEZ.

CRYPTOCORYNE SPIRALIS, Fisch.

Fig.— Wight Icon., t. 778.

Hab,.—Marshy banks and standing water. Southern
India. The rhizome.

Vernacular.—Nattu-ati-vadayam (Zam.), Natti-ati-vasa

el.).

History, Uses, &c.—The Ati-vadayam of the Tamils
is the Atis of Northern India, and is the tuber of Aconitum
heterophyllum. The country Atis of the Madras Fresidency
has for along time been undetermined, until in 1888 Mr. M. A.

‘Lawson was able to refer it to Oryptocoryne spiralis and a

species of Lagenandra. Moodeen Sheriff says the root bears a
strong resemblance externally to Ipecacuanha, and he has used
it as a tonic and anti-periodic with children. It attracted
attention a few years. ago through several packages of it

I

_ appearing in the London market as ‘‘ False Ipecacuanha.”? It

is a well-known drug in Ceylon, where it is employed by the

_ native doctors in decoctions in combination with other drugs

as a remedy for infantile vomiting and cough, and in the ease
of adults for abdominal complaints and fever. The Singhalese
obtain the drug from India and value it at 4 annas per poun
retail. a
Description.—Leaves petioled, linear-lanceolate; spathe
sessile, much shorter than leaves, twisted ; ovary 5-celled. The
rhizome is about the thickness of a small quill, The drag ~
appears in broken pieces from 4 to 13 inch long, annulated, a
grey or dark grey colour externally and white internally,
inodorous and acrid in taste. E
Th the Cryptocoryne the annulations are not so frequent, and
the drug is more slender than in the Lagenandra. :
_ Chemical composition.—The drug contains starch and numer-
Se raphides, but no alkaloidal active principle has

feet high, with a thick,

AROIDEZ. — 549
fleshy rhizome, juicy and white, sending’ off numerous thick
fleshy roots of a white colour. The leaves are on long petioles,
oblong, obtuse, entire coriaceous, large; sheaths stipulary,
opposite the leaf; scapes axillary, solitary, compressed; spathe
onger than the scape, tubular at the base, attenuated into a
long, slender apex; fruit compound, about 1 inch in diameter;

seeds cylindric-oblong, minute, several in each cell, erect from
the base. The plant is a native of Southern India, and is
_ considered to be very poisonous. Rheede says of it:—
_ “Balneum ex hac planta preparatum omnem corporis estum

‘a

__ Rheede (xii., 9) states that the root of Remusatia vivipara,
Méravara Tsjembu (Mal.), Rukh-alu (Mar.), is made into an
ointment with turmeric and used as a remedy for itch,
and _that the juice with cow’s urine is considered to be

TACCA ASPERA, £ozb.

- Hab.—tTropical India. The tubers.

Vernacular.—V érshi-kand (Hind., Beng.), Dukar-kand 1d (Mary
z.), Handi-gadde (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant is the Vérdhi- anda
Sikara-kanda of the Nighantas, so called from. its being a
urite food of the wild boar. It is. described as sweet,
ugestive, nourishing and tonic; useful in cachectic affections,
*h as leprosy, &c. T. aspera, T. levis, and T. pinnatifida all
ve tuberous roots, from which a starch resembling arrowroot
be obtained, and all three plants are probably utilized by
>» herbalists, see usually supply the coarsely prepared starch
their custom

eee ee —The root is an Se eioig curved tuber, of a
ng size, with wiry fibres from its sides; externally of a
rown or blackish colour, and internally of a pale yellow-
tt has a pies nauseous taste. A full oe age of

550 AROIDEA.

the plant, as well as of the two other species mentioned, will be
be found in Roxburgh’s Flora Indica.

PISTIA STRATIOTES, Linn.

Fig.— Roxb. Cor. Pl. iii., t. 268; Rheede, Hort. Mal. 27.,
#. 82. Water soldier (Eng.). .

Hab.—Tanks and ponds of India. The whole plant.

Vernacular.—Jal-Kunbhi (Hind.), Gond4la, Shérval (Mar.),
Agasatamaray (Zum.).

History, Uses, &c.—Amongst the Sanskrit names of
this plant we may notice Jalodbhuta, Jalasaya, Guccha-bodhra,
and Paniya-prishthaja “born on the surface of water.” This
aquatic plant is a native of Asia, America, and Africa; it is
considered by the Hindus to be cooling and demulcent, and
is prescribed in cases of dysuria in the quantity of about
ten pagodas’ weight twice daily; the leaves are made into a
poultice for the piles. (Ains/ie.) The ashes are applied to
ringworm of the scalp, and in some parts of India are known
as ‘ Pana salt.’

A notice of the plant will be found in Arabic and Persian
medical works under its Greek name orpariorns,

Description.—Often found floating on stagnant pools,
leaves sub-rotund, obcordate, rosulate, waved on the margins,
the nerves spreading like a fan, uniting into a truncate are
at the base; spadices axillary, solitary, seated on a short
scape.

Chemical composition.—The plant and salt have been examined —
by Warden of Calcutta, who reports that the weed dried at
130°C. and carbonized yielded 31 per cent. of total ash, of
which 6 percent. was soluble. The sample of “salt” was
slightly deliquescent, alkaline in reaction, and had the appear-
ance of dirty common salt. Dried at 130° it yielded 78 per
cent. of potassic chloride, 22-6 per cent. of potassic sulphate, —

DIOSCORINEA, 551

and minute quantities of potassic carbonate, sodic chloride,
calcic sulphate, magnesic sulphate, and ferric, aluminic and
icic oxides. Ae News, March 23, 1883, p. 133.)

DIOSCORINE.

This genus is of much importance as a source of food in
ndia, and some of the species are used medicinally on account
their acrid or bitter properties. In Sanskrit they bear the
eral name of alu, and the different species are distinguished
prefixes, ¢.g., Madhvalu “sweet yam” (Dioscorea aculeata),
délu “globose yam” (D. globosa), Raktalu ‘‘red yam”
purpurea), &c. But the Sanskrit name alu is also applied
other plants having tuberous roots, and it is therefore
it to say what the original meaning of the word may have
n. Dioscorea builbifera in its wild state is extremely bitter ;
‘small potato-like tubers on the vine dried and powdered are
das a medicinal application to sores, and are given inter-

tion the plant loses its bitterness, and is much grown for
bers which are roasted and eaten.
triphyliai is very acrid, and its tubers are sometimes used
laster to disperse swellings. We have received the tuber
is yam from Burma, where it is used as a poison; when
internally it causes great irritation in the mouth and
omiting of blood, a sense of suffocation, drowsiness, and
ion: and it is said that a piece of the tuber, the size of
is sufficient to cause death in six hours. Nevertheless
use it as an article of food after it has been cut in
r p tedly washed, and steamed in an earthen pot.
ame is — In Sanskrit the tuber bears

| andy have a reputation as a remedy for piles: under : :

— writers ; it is consi

502 CYPERACEA. -

the name of Pashpoli “strangle cake.”” For an account of the
economic uses of the different species of Dioscorea cultivated in
India, we must. refer the reader to the Dict. Econ. Prod. of India,
ii., p. 115. 3

The tubers yield a milky juice containing a small quantity of _
fat, a resin, and caoutchouc. Analysis of tubers—Water 60°722,
Ash free from 0, CO,? and Si 02 0-895, Protein compounds 4°485,

The following analyses of 1). alata and edulis are by Payen
(Compt. rendus, xxv., 1847, and Moser, Landw.- Versuchsst.
Bd., 20, 1877).

Dioscorea alata. D. edulis.

Water .. iseeas Wesvetiarses 10 O4 60°72
Ni Se matter”... i... 1:93 4°48
Pat. ..2: _ 0°35
Nitrogen free extractive ... 17:33 32°47
Cellulose .... Boi aa 1:09
Ash... eA SPIO 0:89
4 ' In dry substances.
Nitrogen ..... Sc Eee 1:82
URPOORY OT at08 -s-.cs0c.s 0 .c5c 82°66

The nitrogen-free extractive of D. ae contained 4°79 per

cent. canessngar, ‘18 per cent, cellulose, and 25°19 per cent.
starch,

CYPERACE A,

CYPERUS ROTUNDUS, Linn.
Fig.— Rotti. 28, #. 14, 7.2.
‘Hab.—Throughout India. The tubers.

Vernacular.—Motha (Hind., Guz.), Korai (Tam.), Bhadra-

muste, Tunga-muste (Zel.), Binibat Bérik-motha (Mar. » Mutha
(Beng.). ~

istory, Uses, f— thin the Mustaka is 3 - rit
red to be diusetic, diaphoretio, asta

OYPERACEA. 5538

and stomachic, and is prescribed in febrile affections and
derangements of the bowels. In Indian domestic medicine the
fresh tubers are applied to the breast in the form of a paste as
a galactagogue.

C. rotundus is doubtless the o* (Suad) of Abu Hanifeh, who
describes it as a certain kind of sweet-smelling root or rhizome
(-<»,!), round, black, hard like a knot, which is an ingre-
dient in perfumes and medicines. In the Kémiis it is said to
possess a wonderful efficacy for healing uleers and sores. Ibn
Sina says that the best kind of Suad is that which comes from
Kufa in Chaldea, and that the Indian drug (C. scariosus) is said
tomake the hair grow thin. He, along with other Arabian and
Persian writers, describes the drug as attenuant, diuretic, em-
menagogue, ‘lithontriptic, and diaphoretic; they prescribe it in
febrile and dyspeptic affections, and in one ounce doses as an
anthelmintic ; externally it is applied to ulcers, and used as an

ingredient in warm plasters.

Dioscorides calls it xtrepos and notices its use as a diuretic

_ and emmenagogue and as an application to scorpion stings

and ulcers; he also states that it is an ingredient in warm

q plasters.

Herodotus (4, 71) notices it as an aromatic plant used by
the Scythians for embalming. «*epov is mentioned in the

_ Iliad (21, 351) and Odyssey (4, 603) and by Theophrastus in

his fourth book ; it appears to have been a favourite food of

horses. Pliny (21,18) calls it Juncus triangularis or angulosus ;

it is also probably the Juncus of Celsus (3, 21), mentioned as
an ingredient in a diuretic medicine for dropsy, although he

calls it Juncus quadratus.

Description.—Culms erect, 1—2 feet, triangular, with
rounded angles; leaves radical; sheathing shorter than the
culms; root tuberous, tubers often crowded together, size of

filberts, brown or black externally, white internally, odour like
_ that of Acorns; umbels terminal, compound ; involucre 3-leaved,

wnequal ; spikes linear, sub-sessile. Often a troublesome weed
in cultivated ground.

554 CYPERACE.

CYPERUS SCARIOSUS, £&. Br.
Fig —C. B. Clarke, Linn. Soc. Journ. xxi., 159.
Hab.—Damp places in Bengal. The tubers.
Vernacular.—Nagar-motha (Hind. Guz.), Na gar-mutha
(Beng.), ,Lavila, Négar-motha (Mar.), Muttah-kéch (Zam),
Kola-tunga-muste (Ze/.), Konnari (Can.).

History, Uses, &c.—This plant produces the ‘aromatic
tubers which have long been in use in Hindu medicine and
perfumery under the Sanskrit name of Nagar-mustaka; they
are considered ‘to have the same medicinal properties as those
of C. rotundus. Arabian and Persian writers mention this
Indian Cyperus, but consider it to be inferior to O. rotundus.
In the Concan, Nagarmoth, Solanum indicum, Tinospora
cordifolia, Ginger and Emblic myrobalans, of each 2 tolds, are
powdered and divided into 5 parts, and one part taken daily
in decoction with a little honey and long pepper as a febrifuge.
Several other prescriptions of a similar nature are used in fever,
and will be found in the Wanaushédi Prakasha. In dysentery,
Nagarmoth, Mocharas, Lodhra, Daitiphul ( Woodfordia floribunda
flowers), unripe Bael fruit, and the seeds of Holarrhena
antidysenterica are ground with whey and molasses and given
in 6 massa doses. In famine seasons Nigarmoth has proved
a valuable resource to the peor.

Description.—The ovoid tubers of this plant are developed
upon a thin underground stem, and are simple or branched,
generally about 2 inches long and 4 an inch in diameter; the
external surface is marked by a number of annular ridges, and is ,
almost concealed by the remains of leaves; when these are
removed, the colour of the tuber is a deep brown; @ few wiry
rootlets arise from its under surface, and at. the lower end is a
portion of the underground-stem. The substance of the tuber
is hard and of a reddish colour; it is divided into a central and
cortical portion, the latter being of a darker colour. The odour
is strongly aromatic like Acorus, but somewhat terebinthinate.

The plant is aquatic and grows in the Concan in pone s and

CYPERACE. 555

ditches along with Scirpus subulatus, Vahl.; both. plants are
called Lav4la in Marathi, a name which appears to be equiva-
lent to the English Rush. ;
Microscopic structure—The outermost layer of the cortical
portion is composed of large bundles of reddish-brown stony
_ cells, separated from one another by interspaces; within it are
_ from 6 to 8 rows of very thick-walled, empty cells; next a tissue
of thick-walled cells, most of them full of large starch granules,
but some containing essential oil and probably resinous matter.
_ The central portion of the tuber is separated from the cortical
_ bya single row of small yellow stone cells; it is composed of
thick-walled cells full of starch like those in the cortical por-
4 tion, but differs from it, inasmuch as many of the cells contain
: red colouring matter. Large vascular bundles abound in the
root, some of them are surrounded by a layer of stony cells.

Commerce.—-Two kinds of N&garmoth are met with in this
market— Surat and. Kattiawar; the first is heavier and more
aromatic than the second. WValue—Surat, Rs. 2 per maund of
_ 37% \lbs.; Kattiawar, Rs. 1}.. The Surat Négarmoth i is probably
obtained from R4jputana, where the plant is common in tanks,

Scirpus Kysoor, orb. Vern.—Kasiri (Hind.),
Kachara (Bomb.). The tuberous root found in tanks, about the
‘size of a nutmeg, and of a black colour externally, has astringent
Properties, and is given in diarrhea and vomiting.

We have met with two other species of Cyperus, yielding
edible tubers. The one, called “Thegi” in Guzrathi, is
probably C. bulbosus. It grows in the sand on the coast of
Kattiawar, and is used as a bread-stuff at all times, and was of
much value in the last famine. The tubers are ovoid and
Pointed, about 4 of an inch in length, horny and translucent,
brittle when dry and farinaceous when powdered. The other
is called “ Pudhya”’ in Marathi; it grows in salt rice-fields, and
aati in the Southern Concan. The tubers are half an inch
2 ;more in length, surface brown, with the remains of

sheaths arising from four transverse rings,
she a and — within.

556 CYPERACE.

The analyses of these tubers gave the following results :-—

Thegi. Pudhya.
Fat ‘73 “65
Sugar, &e. (spirit extract) ... 82 1-64
Gum and carbohydrates ...... 9°00 5°63
Albuminous matter ............ 6°68 8°68
Starch . 62:99 66°24
Fibre ...... 6°78 4°51
Ash. ;. 38:60 2°06
Moisture 10°40 10°53

The amount of nitrogen in the first was 1-07 per cent. and in
the second 1-39 per cent. There were traces of an alkaloid in
both tubers.

KYLLINGIA MONOCEPHALA, Linn.
Pig.—Rheede, Hort. Mal. wii., t, 53; Rumph. Amb. v., 8,
J. 2; Rottl. Gr, 18, t. 4, 7. 4?

KYLLINGIA TRICEPS, Lin».
Fig.—Bheede, Hort, Mal. zii., t. 52.
Hab.—Throughout the Peninsula of India. The roots-
Vernacular.—Nirbisi (Hind.), Sveta-gothibi, Nirbishi
( Beng.), Mottenga, Pee-mottenga (Mal.), Musta (Mar.).
History, Uses, &c.—These plants are the Nirvisha of
Sanskrit medical writers, who describe them as antidotal to
certain poisons. Rheede describes K. triceps and K. mono-
cephala as having similar properties, and states that the former
plant is called Coquinka by the Portuguese. In Malabar 2
decoction of the roots is used to relieve thirst in feversand .
diabetes, and oil boiled on the roots to reliéve pruritus of the —
skin. He also states that they distil an-oil fromthe roots, —
which is of dark yellowish-green colour, pleasant odour and

Pree)

GRAMINEZ. 5B7

pungent taste, and which is used for the same purposes as the
decoction and to promote the action of the liver.

Irving states that K. monocephala is used at Ajmere as ap
antidote like zedoary, and Roxburgh notices its use as an anti-
dote in Benga

These plants have the odour, and apparently all the qualities,
of Cyperus rotundus.

Be Lele ee aes Ne TR ee ae Oe el Lea SS oe

OP a NS re se
te : Bee i Peto =
. ¥ BE co 5 Fai «

Description.—The roots are creeping, those of K. triceps
bear tubers. The culms are erect and triangular, leafy at the
base. The leaves membranaceous, flat towards the apex, ciliated
with minute bristles on the margin and keel. The flower-heads
of K. monocephaia are solitary, globose, dense and white; whilst
those of K. triceps consist of from 3 to 6 spikes, one of which is
much larger than the rest. The involucres are 3 to 4 leaved,
unequal, the longest leaf as long as the culm.

4 GRAMINEA.

ANDROPOGON SCHC@E:NANTHUS, Linn

_ -Fig.-—Royle, Iil., t.97; Trin. Sp. Gr. iii, t. 327. Rusa

_ Sass, Ginger grass (Hng.), Schenanthe des Indes (Fr.).

_ Hab.—Indian Peninsula, Western Ghauts, extending spar-

_ ingly to the coast. The essential oil.

__ Vernacular.—Sugandha rosé, Rus4, Gandhis, Gandhbel, Mir-
chiya gandh (Hind., Gus.), Agiy4-ghés, Gandha-bena (Beng.),

Sugandhirohisha, Rohishe-gavat (Mar.), Parimalada-ganjani
(Can.), Sakanérd-pilla (Tam.).

— Uses, &c.—This grass is the Bhustrina or

Bhutrina « earth grass” of the Raja Nirghanta, and is also

known as Rohisha in Sanskrit. Among the synonyms which
bears, we may mention Gandha-khéda and Gandha-trina

“ odorous grass,” Su-rasa “well flavoured,” and Su-gandha

“haying an agreeable odour.” It is described as aromatic

4nd stimulant and useful in bilious and phlegmatic affections.

553 GRAMINER.

Mahometan writers upon Indian Materia Medica confound
A. Schenanthus with Iskhir (A. daniger), and Mir Muhammad
Husain gives Rus as an Indian name for Izkhir; he also men-
tions several other Indian names, such as Gandhis, Gandhbel,
&ec., showing that he was well acquainted with Riisa grass.
The author of the Tuhfat-el-muminin mentions a distilled water
prepared from Izkhir, and also an oil made by macerating the
grass in sweet oil exposed to the sun ; it is therefore probable
that in his time (1669) the essential oil was not made from
A. Schenanthus. The industry probably commenced in the
18th century whilst Khandesh was in a flourishing condition
under its Mahometan rulers.

A. Schenanthus was first brought to the notice of Europeans
by General Martin, who collected the seeds in the Balaghat,
during the war with Tippu Sultan, and cultivated the plant at
Lucknow, whence he sent seeds to Roxburgh, in Calcutta, The
first mention of the oil is by Maxwell in 1825 (Calcutta Med.
Phys. Trans., i., p. 367) ; it was afterwards described by Forsyth,
1827 (Ibid., iii., p. 213). The A. Nardus of Ainslie, which he
calls ginger or spice grass, is doubtless the same plant ; he notices
its use in infusion as a stomachic, and states that an essential oil
is prepared from it which is useful in rheumatism.

Preparation of the oil.—The oil distillers in Khandesh call the
grass Motiya, when the inflorescence is young and of a bluish-
white colour ; after it has ripened and become red, it is called
Sonfiya.* The oil obtained from it in the first condition has a
more delicate odour than that obtained from the ripened. grass.
The Motiya oil is usually mixed with the second kind, which
by itself would not fetch a good price in the European market.
The grass grows freely, though not.very widely, on open hill-
sides in West Khandesh, especially in Akréni. ‘The original
seat of the Manufacture was Pimpalner, but as the oil is in
_ great demand, the manufacture has of late spread to Nandurbér,

Shahada, and Taloda. The makers are Musalmans, who, at the

*'We are indebted to Mr. A. Lucas, Assistant Collector, Khandesb, for

=
4i
‘ie *

= BAAS Ra SAULT
RULAU UME

ae

GRAMINEM. (559

close of the rains, about September, when the grass is ripening,
buy it from the Bhils, stack it, and set furnaces at the sides of
brooks where wood and water are plentiful. A large pit, four
feet long by two wide and two anda half deep, is dug, and a
furnace (chula) prepared. On this furnace is placed a copper
or iron caldron, large enough to hold from 30 to 50 pots of
water. After pouring in some water, the caldron is filled to
the brim with chopped grass, and a little more water is added.
The mouth of the caldron is carefully closed with an iron or
copper plate, made fast with wheat dough. From a hole in this
lid, a bamboo tube, wrapped in a piece of cloth, plastered with
the flour of Udid (Phaseolus Mungo, Linn., black var.), and
bound with ropes, passes into a second closed caldron, sunk to
the neck in running water. The steam from the grass is con-
densed in the second caldron, which, when full, begins to shake.
The tube is then skilfully removed, and the contents of the
caldron poured into a third similar vessel and stirred. Then the
oil begins to appear on the surface, and is slowly skimmed off.
The distillate is returned with fresh grass to the still. In
1879-80 the number of stills was 197, producing about 71 cwts.
of oil. More than 100 stills are worked in Nandurbér alone, and
the increase of the manufacture is prevented only by the —
scarcity of the grass, he oil is packed in skins, and sent on
bullock back over the Kundaibéri Pass to Surat, and by Dhulia
and Manmad to Bombay.

We are assured by the Bombay dealers that all the oil of
Commerce is more or less adulterated ; and a comparison of the
Commercial article with some oil distilled by one of us supports
this statement ; the adulteration is said to be practised by the
distillers, who, we are informed, are regularly supplied with oil
of turpentine from Bombay. 373 lbs. of grass received from

- Khandesh and submitted to distillation under our own superin-

tendence in Bombay yielded 1 lb. 5} ozs. of oil. Portions of

is oil were mixed with oils of turpentine, groundnut, rape,
and linseed ; with all three it formed a milky or turbid mixture,
ee the two first, after standing for some days, became perfectly
bright. We are informed that formerly it was the custom to

560 GRAMINE2.

adulterate with groundnut oil, but that turpentine is now used,
as it cannot be detected by the evaporation test.

The use to which Rasa oil is put in Turkey, to which country

it is principally exported, rid Egypt and the Red Sea ports, from
Bombay, was first explained by Hanbury (NV. Repert. f. Pharm.,
vili., 365), and in Pharmacographia we find the following
interesting statement :—“ No drug is more subject than attar of
rose to adulteration, which is principally effected by the addition
of the volatile oil of an Indian grass, Andropogon Schwnanthus, L.
This oil, which is called in Turkish Zdris yaghi,* and also
Entershah, and is more or less known to Europeans as Gera-
nium oil, is imported into Turkey for this express purpose, and
even submitted to a sort of purification before being used.¢ It
was formerly added to the attar only in Constantinople, but
now the mixing takes place at the seat of the manufacture. It
is said that in many places the roses are absolutely sprinkled
with it before being placed in the still.”
-Description.—Root perennial, with long wiry fibres ; culms
erect, from 3 to 6 feet high, often ramous, smooth, filled with a
spongy pith ; leaves very long, tapering to a very fine point,
smooth in every part, and of a soft delicate texture ; sheaths,
shorter than the joints on full-grown plants, with a membrana-
ceous stipulary process at the mouth ; panicles linear, subsecund ;
spikelets paired, but with only three joints ; flowers also paired,
one-awned, hermaphrodite and sessile, the other, awnless,
male and pedicelled, the terminal florets are three, one
hermaphrodite, sessile and awned, the other two male, pedicelled,
and awnless,

Hermaphrodite calyx one-flowered, two-valved, base girt with
Wool, as is also the rachis and proper pedicels ; corol one-valved,

“unrss, izris, pronounced idris by the Arabs, is a Persian word, and is
explained in the Burhan as a kind of wild mallow which the Greeks call Juba

weil itn glee! ea (shahmn-el-maraj). If a decoction of it er
vinegar and oil is rubbed on the limbs i inst venomous bites. +*
‘4s perhaps Pavonia Missions cat peers aig tint belonging to the

GRAMINEZE. 561

4 along black awn occupies the place of the other, which has
_ two small filaments at its base; nectary two minute leaflets:

embracing the germ laterally; stamens, pistil, and seed as in
the genus.

Male calyx as in the hermaphrodite; corol one-valved; nectary
and stamens as in the hermaphrodite, no pistil. (Rorburgh.)
The oil of A. Schenanthus distilled by one of us was dex-
gyre, the ray being rotated 39° to the right by a column of
100 mm., and 78° by one of 200 mm. Some samples of the
commercial oil rotated the ray about 13° to the right, and
others had little or no effect upon it. The colour of the genuine
oil was that of pale sherry; the commercial samples were more
hly coloured. The odour at first resembles that of the rose,
but there is a persistent and terebinthinate after-flavour which
not agreeable.
The taste is pungent and agreeable, approaching that of
ginger.
_ Chemical composition.—The oil of this grass, which has been
named Geraniol (C!°H'8O), is an alcohol belonging to the
Series C"H—*0. The two samples examined by F. W.
Semmler (Ber. d. D. Chem. Ges., 23, 1098), which yielded 90°
Per cent. of geraniol, must have been adulterated, as they turned
@ ray of polarised light 20° to the left, whereas the genuine
oil distilled by one of us was strongly dextrogyre. Geraniol,
Which occurs also in Pelargonium Radula, Aiton, has a fragrant
or of roses, and is miscible with alcohol and ether; the
boiling point at 17 mm. pressure is 120°5—122%5, and the
refraction 48°71. With calcium chloride at 50° it forms a
crystalline compound (C!°H'80) Ca Cl’, decomposed by water
and slowly oxidised by air. Potash-fusion forms isovaleric
) acid. Neutral aqueous K*M.0* forms acetic and isovaleric
a acids, Even boiling baryta-water slowly forms isovaleric acid.
Chromic acid mixture forms citral (Semmier). HNO® forms
benzene, HOy, oxalic acid, and a resin, but no camphoric
a. (Beilstein Chemie, iii., 265 : Watts’ Dict. Chem., 2nd Kid.,
P. 609 ; Ber, v. Schimmel & Co., April 1891, p. 37.)
1—71

562 GRAMINEZ,

Commerce.—The official statistics only show the combined
export of grass oils, and do not enable us to distinguish the
different kinds. In 1888-89, 15,270 gallons of these oils,
valued at Rs. 267,800, were exported.

As we have already stated, the production of Rusa oil in
Khandesh, the chief source of the supply, does not much
exceed 70 cwts. yearly. The value of oil of good quality in
Bombay is about Rs. 3 per Ib. It is exported in pots
containing about 40 Ibs. each.

ANDROPOGON LANIGER, Desf.

Fig.—Trin. Ic. Gr., t.326, Squinanch (Eng.), Schenanthe
officinal (F.).

Hab.—-Northern India to Tibet, Arabia, North Africa.
The plant. o
Vernacular.—Limjak, Khavi, Usirbhéd (Hind.), Karankusa

(Beng.), Pivala-véla (Mar.), Pilo-vlo (Guz.).
_ History, Uses, &c.—This grass is described in the
Nighantas under the Sanskrit name of Lémajjaka, with the
synonyms Dirgha-mulaka “long-rooted,” Jalasdya “aquatic,”
Sévya, Amrindla, Ishta-képatha, &e., as cooling, usefal in feyer,
and tridosha or derangement of the three humors. It is parti-
cularly mentioned by Arrian in his account of Alexander’s jout-
ney through the Punjab and Sind, and was gathered in Lus by
the Phenician followers of the army, who called it spikenard.
Dioscorides (i.,16) describes it under the name of sxoies, and says
that the best kind grows in Arabia, has an odour like roses
when rubbed between the hands, and a pungent taste. It has
carminative and stimulant properties, and is useful as aD
emmenagogue. This latter use of the plant is noticed by Hip-
pocrates in his treatise on the diseases of women (Lib. ii., See- 5).
The same plant was known to the Romans as Schcenus oF
Juncus odoratus, and was used to flavour wine (Cato, R. R. 105,
25113, 1. Col. 12, 20, 53), and from Plantus (Pen. 1, 2; 59)
learn that it was used to prepare a perfume in fayour with

Ss

GRAMINEZ. 563

Roman meretrices whom he speaks of as Schenicule or Scheeno
delibute. Scribonius Largus (Comp., 167) mentions Scheenus,
te, Junci odorati flores, as an ingredient in a theriace used as an
: tidote to snake-bites, and Pliny also mentions it (12, 48) in

his chapter on the sweet-scented Calamus. We are of opinion

“flower,” and which he calls the pith, is really the cottony
ealyx of the plant which the Arabs call 459! ¢% (fukkah el
idkhir) or the “ flower of the Idkhir,” and use as an hemostatic.
ther Arabic names for A. laniger are Kilal-el-Mémén “ Ma-
un’s toothpick,” * Tibn-el-makah “ Mecca grass,” and Tib-el-
b “the Arab’s perfume.” In Persia it isknown as Gar-

m because the onager or wild ass (Gir) is particularly fond
it; he describes it as a grass, which, when chewed, has a
2 of cloves and mastich, and which is called by the Arabs

bé-Hanffeh Ed-D{nawarf, author of the Book of Plants,
the following description of the plant :—‘“It has a root

ght stalks of the w¥° (Kaulén or papyrus plant), save
at itis wider, and smaller in the q»*5 (ku’oub, internodal
ces), and it has a fruit resembling the blooms of reeds, but
slender, and smaller; it is ground, and is an ingredient
Perfumes ; it grows in rugged and in smooth grounds ; but
om does more than one grow in the same spot ; when it
becomes white.” tod

The Arabian and Persian physicians describe Idkhir as hot
ddry, lithontriptic, diuretic, emmenagogue, and carminative ;
Tecommend it to be boiled in wine as 4 diuretic; ground
Paste it is said to be a good application to abdominal
Ss; added to purgatives it is administered in rheu-
the flowers (calyxes) are used as an hemostatic. They
it with the Schenus of the Greeks.

El Maman, son of Hardn-el-Rasbid, the celebrated Caliph.

en in the ground, slender, pungent in odour, and is like the = .

564 GRAMINEA,

In medieval Europe it was officinal under the names of
Scheenanthus, Squinanthus, and Juncus odoratus, and was also
known as Foenum vel stramen camelorum “camel’s hay or
straw,’ from its being the principle food of camels in the
deserts between Syria and Egypt. In Arabia, under the name
of ghusil, the powdered grass is still used as a perfume for
the bath.

Description.—This grass is distinguished by its simple
rhizome, short thick tuft of radical leaves, and lanigerous calyx.
The odour is like that of oil of Rhodium ; the taste aromatic,

bitter, and somewhat acrid.

Chemical composition—From 56 lbs. of the dry grass
purchased in the bazar we obtained the large yield of 8% ozs.
of essential oil ; it had a specific gravity of -905 at 85° F., and
rotated a ray of polarized light 8-0 degrees to the left in
column 200 mm. long. The colour was that of pale sherry.
According to Schimmel & Co., the essential oil reminds one of
the odour of Elemi oil. Its sp, gr. is *915, the optical rotation
+34° 88’. It boils between 170° and 250°, and contains
phellandrene (Bericht von Schimmel § Co., April, 1892).

ANDROPOGON CITRATUS, De. |
Fig.— Wail. Pi. As, far, iii,, t. 280; Rheede, Hort. Mal.
wit., t. 72, Lemon grass (Eng.), Chiendent-citron (Fr.). 4
Hab.—Eastern Archipelago? Cultivated throughout
India. The herb and oil.

Vernacular.—Agya-ghis, Agin-ghés (Hind.), Gandha-bena ?
(Beng.), Hirva-chaha, Olen-chaha (Mar.), Lili-chahe, Nuili-
chahe (Guz.), Vashana-pulla (Tam.), Nimma-gaddi, Chippa-
gaddi {Te/.), Vasana-pulla, Sambhara-pulla (Ma/.), Purvali-
hullu V4sane-hullu (Can.), Pengrima (Cing.).

History, Uses, &c.—rhis® grass is not mentioned to

euly in the 17th century as an established and well-known
cultivated plant, and it is not improbable that Hindu colonists

GRAMINEA. 565

returning from Java may have introduced it. The Hindus
colonized that island in the 5th century, and in the 7th century
there was much intercourse between the mother-country and
the colony, In Java the grass is called Sireh; it was known
to Rumphius and other early writers on the natural history of
the East, and in 1717 an oil distilled from it in Amboyna was
known as a curiosity. (Hphem. Nat. Curios., cent. v—vi.;
Appendix 157, quoted in Pharmacographia.) Temon-grass oil
is mentioned by Roxburgh in 1820 as being distilled in the
Moluccas, and it was first aatiot ell into London about the year
1832, An infusion of the fresh herb is a favorite native
remedy in India as a diaphoretic and stimulant in catarrh and
febrile conditions, and also in the congestive and neuralgic
forms of dysmenorrhea, The oil is used as a carminative and
as an application in chronic rheumatism. The oil has been
made official in the Pharmacopwia of India. Dr. Waring, in
the appendix to this work, records a high testimony in its
favour both as an external application in rheumatism and in
other painful affections, and as a stimulant and diaphoretie
internally. He states that amongst the half-castes of South
India it is one of their most highly esteemed remedies in
cholera, In infusion the leaves are often combined with tea,
mint, or black pepper. The oil is distilled in rude stills at the
et. base of the hills in Travancore, from Anjengo
northwards. The grass is burnt at the end of the dry
Weather. In Europe the oil is now a well-known article of
commerce under the names of Lemon-grass oil, Oil of Verbena,
and Indian Melissa oil, It is employed as an ingredient in
perfumes, such as Eau de Cologne, and for scenting soaps,
and also for adulterating the “true Verbena oil” obtained
from Lippia citriodora in Spain.

Description.—Root perennial, young propagating-
Shoots issue from the axils of the leaves that surround a short,
subligneous leaf-bearing culm. Culms from 5 to 7 feet high,
erect, simple, smooth, about as thick as a goose- -quill. Leaves
Many, near the root bifarious, few on the upper part of the
culm, of a soft texture, pale-green colour, slightly scabrous on

566 GRAMINE,

the margins, otherwise smooth ; from 3 to 4 feet long, including
their sheaths, and about 2 of an inch broad. Floral leaves
small. Panicle linear, a little bent to one side, composed of
many fascicles of spikes that are both terminal and form the
exterior axils. Spikes generally paired on a common peduncle,
with a common boat-like spathe, or involucre at the division;
each has also its proper pedicel, and both spathe-shaped.
Rachis articulated, much waved, hairy. Flowers in pairs,
one hermaphrodite and sessile, the other male and pedicelled;
the last hermaphrodite flower of each spike has two males;
below there is only one male, as the rachis occupies the space
of the other. Hermaphrodite flowers sessile. Glume girt at
the base with wool. Corol 2-valved, awnless. N. ectary, two,
broad, short, wedge-formed, obliquely lobed, crenulated bodies
embrace the insertion of the filaments and the forepart of the
germ. Male flowers pedicelled, calyx, glumes as in the
hermaphrodite ones. Corol 1-valved, awnless. N ectary as in
_ the hermaphrodite, stamens three. This grass flowers in the
rains, but’ rarely.

Chemical composition.—The most interesting constituent of
this oil is Citral, which has been examined by J. W. Semmler
(Ber. d. Deutsch, Chem. Ges., 23, 3556, and 24, 203). This
author found that the aldehyde C!°H'®O, obtained by the
oxidation of geraniol with chromic acid mixture, is identical with
the citral of oil of lemons. By further oxidation with argentic
oxide he prepared Geranie acid, C!°H!®02, a limpid oil, and by
treating citral with acid sulphate of potassium, Cymol was
ormed, a molecule of water splitting off.

Up to the present time citral has been found by Messrs.
Schimmel & Co. in the following essential oils :—

Lemon oil from Citrus Limonwn.

Limetta oil » Oitrus Limetta.

Mandarine oil , » Citrus Madurensis.

reer grass oil 3, Andropogon citratus.

Buealyptus oil » Eucalyptus Staigeriana. |
ackhousia oil » Backhousia citriodora.

pat fruit oil “* Tetranthera citrata. Ae

GRAMINED. ey,

Commerce.—The oil is largely exported from Singapore and
Ceylon, where the grass is cultivated. The shipments from the
Malabar Coast during the last four years were as follows :—
1887, 943 cases; 1888, 1,678 cases; 1889, 979 cases; 1890,
1,610 cases. The exports from Cochin have risen from 228 cases
in 1884 to 2,387 cases in 1889 and 1,917 cases in 1890. A case
contains 12 bottles of oil, and is priced at Rs, 183. A. bottle is
guaranteed to hold 23 ounces of oil.

ANDROPOGON NARDUS, Linn.
- Pig.—Benti. and Trim., t. 297. Citronelle grass (Eng.).
~Hab.—Ceylon, Travancore, cultivated at Singapore.
e essential oil.
Vernacular.—Maana (Cing.).
: History, Uses, &c.—This grass is considered by some
otanists to be the wild form of A. citratus. Other grasses
closely allied to it are A. Khasianus, Munro, growing in Silhet,
nd A. distans, Nees, growing in the North-West Provinces
and in parts of the Bombay Presidency, but no oil has ever
been distilled from these species, nor do they appear to be used
medicinally by the natives. ;
_ A. Nardus is not mentioned in any Sanskrit medical work,
nor do the Arabian and Persian medical writers notice it. It
Owes the name JWVardus to its having been confounded with
laniger, which was named Ȏp8os by the Greeks who invaded
India. At the present time it is only known in Southern India
and Ceylon, and the Hindi names which have been ascribed to
it in the Dict. Econ. Prod. of India properly belong to
Schenanthus or A, citratus.
‘a Description.—A large perennial herb, with a long
slightly branched, partly aérial rhizome, reaching 4 inch in
diameter, and strongly ringed with the closely-placed scars of
leaf-sheaths, the remains of which persist on the upper
m, and giving off numerous tough root fibres. Stem
ing 6 feet or more high, erect, stout, cylindrical, solid,
and shining, partially concealed by the leaf-sheaths,

568 GRAMINEZ.

scarcely thickened at the nodes, which are approximated below,
but widely separated above, flat or channelled on one side in
the upper portion. Leaves very large and long, numerous,
erect, lower ones sometimes reduced to their sheaths; sheaths
thick and strong, about 6 inches long, closely but not entirely
enveloping the stem, quite smooth, striate ; ligule short, brown,
' Jaciniate, scarious; blade about 2 feet long, linear, very much
attenuated at the apex, tapering below, minutely denticulate
with forward points on the edges, smooth on both surfaces,
pale somewhat glaucous green, lighter beneath. Spikelets
yery small, arranged in couples, one-stalked, containing
one male flower, the other sessile, with one hermaphrodite
and often one barren flower; the couples, to the number
of 3 or 4, articulated on alternate sides of a short, flattened,
jointed rachis clothed along the edges with long white
silky hairs tufted beneath the spikelets, forming a short
acute spike about $—#% inch long; the spikes arranged in
pairs on a common slender stalk, at the bent basal node of
which is a large, erect, acute, leafy, striate, orange-red, shining
bract, scarious at the edges, which encloses the pairs of spikes
before expansion ; the pairs of spikes very numerous, placed on
the somewhat zic-zac, elongated, smooth, slender, erect, flattened
branches of elongated panicles, which come off in clusters
from the axils of the upper leaves, the whole forming a very
large tufted, elongated somewhat drooping inflorescence, often
2 feet or more in length; glumes nearly equal, acuminate, mem-
branous, smooth, purplish, boat-shaped, the lower one of the
sessile spikelet flattened on the back against the rachis and with-
out a mid-rib, those of the stalked spikelets with several parallel
strong veins ; pales of the lower spikelet 2, or with a third
representing a barren flower, very unequal, the lower very
small, deeply bifid with twolong cusps, from between which comes
off a long, slender, slightly kneed purple awn, about twice the
length of the glumes, and projecting considerably beyond the _
spikelet, the upper much larger, acute but without an awn,

= very delicate and membranous, without veins; in the flower of

_ the upper spikelet there is but a ides membranous gai: a |

GRAMINER. 569

from the flower, plumose, bright red-purple. Fruit not united
with the pales. (Bentley and Trimen.) The oil is of a pale yellow
lour when pure. Mr. J.C. Umney (Pharm. Journ., Ap. 11,
1891, p. 922) has shown that the green colour of the commer-
cial oil is due to the presence of copper. According to Messrs,

immel, the sp. gr. should not fall below +895 at 15°C. The
is often adulterated with petroleum.

Chemical composition. —E. Kremers (Proc. Am. Pharm, Assoc.,
7, p. 562) found the oil to consist of an aldehyde (C’H"O),
rpene (C*°H**), an isomer of borneol, named Citronellol,
acetic and valeric acids. These two acids are said to be

Dodge (Am. Chem. Journ., 1889, p. 456) cbtained some-
different.results. The aldehyde, isolated from the oil by
s of a concentrated solution of sodium bisulphite, accord-
to Kremers i is C’H‘*0, while Dodge obtained results corre-
mding to ©'°H'20, and names the compound citronellic
e, By the action of P*0°, an oily product, probably a

7° C, was probably a terpene. The portion boiling
ey ee citronellyl alcohol, C!°H2°O, the same as
ned by the reduction. of citronellic Aldehyde, the acetyl
tvatives of both havi like odour.
ANDROPOGON ODORATUS, Lisboa.
ig.—Journ. Bombay Nat. ae Soe. iw. » P- 188.

570 GRAMINEA,

History, Uses, &c.—This grass is not, to our know-
_ ledge, mentioned by Sanskrit writers, but is well known to the
peasantry by the names given above, which signify “ physi-
cian’s grass”’ and ‘‘ pungent grass.’’ A. odoratus was first
observed by one of us in 1875 as a grass growing sparingly at
Tanna, near Bombay, and used by the natives as acarminative
in the bowel complaiats of children (Mat. Med. of Western
India, 1st Ed., p. 693), In 1889 this grass was found growing
abundantly at Lanowli on the Western Ghauts by Mrs, J. C.
Lisboa, and was described and figured in the Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society. We have since distilled the
grass and obtained from it an essential oil having at first an-
odour recalling that of cassia and rosemary, but afterwards a
_ strong persistent odour of oil of cassia. Messrs. Schimmel & Co.
notice the odour of Pine needle oil in this sample, and find —
the sp. gr. to be 945, ‘
_ Description.—Root as in A. Schenanthus. Culm erect,
3—5 ft. high, sometimes branching from the lower part,
glabrous; nodes long-bearded. Leaves lanceolate, cordate at
the base, acute or acuminate, with a few long hairs ; the lower
eauline and radicle leaves long, the upper small, but their
sheaths very long. Ligula small. Spikes numerous, erect,
branched, pedicellate (the pedicel of the lower spikes longer),
and congested at the end of a long peduncle without @
sheathing bract and forming an erect, dense, ovoid panicle.
The rachis, pedicel, and the spikes covered with long silky
hairs. Spikelets nearly two lines long, of a purple colour, the
‘Sessile and the pedicellate nearly similar; outer glume of the
sessile spikelet rather thin, many-nerved, somewhat obtuse
and covered with long silky hairs, with a pit in some spikelets
of the same plant and absent in others ; second glume as long
as the first or a little longer, but broader, thin, and keeled; —
third glume thinner and hyaline; fourth glume, smaller or an
ys = inch long, with a hermaphrodite flower at the end
of the pedici oe of the pedicellate spikelet covered

a or more “herves, not

re

GRAMT. NEG. 571

obtuse; second glume thinner, with three nerves, somewhat
broader, but as long as the first ; third glume hyaline, smaller;
fourth glume very small, hyaline or none ; no awn; at the top
a of the pedicel three stamens not well formed and not as large
as in the hermaphrodite flower. (J. C. Lisboa.)

_ The yield of oil from the grass was equal to that obtained
from A. Schenanthus; it had a deep sherry colour, “a specific
gravity of ‘931 compared to an equal volume of water at 84° F.,
and a rotatory power of —22:75 in a column of 100 mm. or
(a)D= —24°43.

tah el

ANDROPOGON MURICATUS, Retz.
Fig.— Beauv. Agr., t. 22. Cuscus (Eng.), Vettivér ( Tam.),
Chiendent des Indes (F*.).

Hab.—Coromandel, Mysore, Bengal, Northern India.
The roots.

Vernacular.—Khas, Bala, Panni (Hind.), Khaskhas, Bend
(Beng.), Vala, Varélu (Mar.), Vélo, Khaskhas (Gusz.), Vettivér
(Zam.), Vattivéru (Tel.), Béladvéru (Can.). ra

History, Uses, &c.—The root of this grass, which ‘is
the only part of the plant having aromatic properties,

described in the Nighantés under the name of Usira, and bears
among other synonyms those of Virana, Véni-mulaka * having
braided roots,” Sugandhi-mulaka ‘ having preet-ainstiang.
roots,” Sita-mulaka “ having cool roots,” &c. It is considered
to be cooling, refrigerant and stomachic, removing bile and
phlegm, and useful to allay thirst in fever and inflammatory
affections. An infusion is used, and it enters into the com-
position of several cooling mixtures. Sir W. Jones suggests
that it is the Mrindia mentioned in Kalidasa’s Sakuntala, but
Sit neme: is‘ more commonly applied to the leaf-stalk of the
_ Lotus than to the roots of this grass. All parts of the Lotus are
‘Tenowned for their cooling properties, and the use of the
ater Lily for Sakuntala’s complaint appears to us to be more
ical. In Vedic times the ancient Hindus were instructed

579 GRAMINER.

to build their houses in a place where the Virana and Kusa
were abundant, and on some copper-plate inscriptions dis-
covered near Etawah, dated A.D. 1103 and 1174, this plant is
mentioned as one of the articles upon which the kings of Kanauj
- levied imports (Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, 1873, p. 161). Externally
it is used in a variety of ways: a paste of the root is rubbed on
the skin to relieve oppressive heat or burning of the body ; an
aromatic cooling bath is prepared by adding to a tub of water
the root in fine powder, together with the root of Pavonia
odorata, red sandalwood and the wood of Prunus Puddum. The
same ingredients are applied in the form of a thin paste to the
skin. (Chakradatta.)

All over India the roots are made into aromatic scented
mats, hung in door-ways, and kept wet to cool and perfume
the atmosphere during the hot season; they are also much
used for ing fans, ornamental baskets, and other small
articles. When distilled with water, the roots yield a fragrant

cc which is used as a perfume and for flavouring sherbet.
_ Mir Muhammad Husain, in the Vakhzan-el- Adwiya, describes

khas as a kind of Izkhir used in. India, known as Izkhir-i-Jémi
and called by the Persians Bikh-i-wé4la. European physicians
in India have used the root as a diaphoretic, and Pereira
(Mat. Med., ii., Pt. 1., p. 132) states that in 1831 it was used in
Paris and Hamburg as a preservative against cholera, being
hung up in rooms and burnt as a fumigatory. In 1837 it was
recommended by Foy in rheumatism and gout. At the present
time the root is distilled in Europe to obtain the oil, which
commands a high price, being used in the composition of many
favourite perfumes, as ‘ Mousseline des Indes,”’ ‘‘ Maréchal,”
Bouquet du Roi,” &e.

-Description.—4. muricatus has an erect compressed
culm, 5 to 6 feet high, with smooth nodes and linear-narrow
: sub-bifarious rigid elongated leaves ; the panicle is verticelled 5
_ the branches are very numerous, simple and spreading; the
_ joints of the rachis are smooth; the glumes are minutely

GRAMINEA. 573.

‘very numerous and spring from a rhizome, on the upper
surface of which are leaf-buds. The entire root is of a yel-
lowish-brown colour, and has a strong and persistent odour,
somewhat like myrrh ; the taste is bitter and aromatic.
Chemical composition.—Khaskas has been analysed by Viags
quelin, who has obtained from it a resinous substance of a
__ deep red-brown colour, having an acrid taste and an odour like
myrrh ; a colouring matter soluble in water; a free acid; a
Salt of lime; a considerable quantity of oxide of iron ; a large
‘quantity of woody matter. (Annales de Chimie, Ixxii., p. 302.)
The oil is difficult to extract; this difficulty may be overcome
by placing the roots in a steam-jacketted still with just suff-
cient water to drench them, allowing to stand for a short time,
4 and then admitting steam at about 15 lbs. pressure into the
a jacket, when a light oil will come over. A current of steam
afterwards admitted into the still and raised to 25 lbs. pressure
= will bring over the heavier portion of the oil. Piesse states
the yield to be 10 ozs. per ewt. :

a COIX LACRYMA, Linz.

Fig.— Bot. Mag., t. 79; Rheede, Hort. Mal. wii., t. 70.
_Job’s tears (Eng.), Larmes de Job (Fr.). de
Hab.—Plains of India and warm hill-slopes Broa: the
: Punjab to Burma. Cultivated on the hills. The seeds.

Vernacular.—Sankhru, Sankhlu, Gargari-dhan (Hind.),
Gargar, Kunch (Beng.), R4n-jondhala, Ran-makai (Mar.),

Gus.).

History, Uses, &c.—The different species of Coix
bear the Sanskrit names of Gavidhuka, Gav edhu, and
Gavedhuka. They are mentioned in Vedic literature, and
appear to have been one of the cereals which were cultivated
by the Arians on the hill-slopes of the Himalayas. They are
= splat by the hill-tribes in the Khasia and Naga Hills
in Assam. and. Burma, where they are known by the
ular names ae wate Kalinsi, Kyeit, &e., and are —

B74 - - GRAMINEZ:,

used as a food-stuff. The wild form, common in the plains, is
only used for medicinal purposes, and is considered to be
strengthening and diuretic. The Arab travellers in the East
became acquainted with the seeds and named them Damu
Daud “David's tears,” and afterwards Damu Aytb “ Job’s
tears.” Hs-Saghani, who died about the year 1260, mentions
them in the Odd) as a well-known strengthening and diuretic
medicine. The Arabs introduced the plant into the West,
and it has become naturalized in Spain and Portugal, where it
is still known as Lagrima de Job. European botanists have
rather inappropriately given the name of Coix ( Greek xo¢) to
this genus, Coix being the name of a kind of palm growing in
Africa and mentioned by Theophrastus and Pliny.
The following notice of C. lacryma occurs in the Descriptive
Catalogue of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873 :—“< The seeds known
as Job’s tears are used as food in China and Malacca, under
the name of Eejin or Ee-yin. ‘It is,’ we are told, ‘the most
remarkable among food-grains for its chemical composition.’
_ Dr. Smith writes that ‘it is larger and coarser than pearl-
barleygbut it is equally good for making gruel. As it is sold
for five pence per Chinese pound, it makes an excellent diet-
drink for hospital patients in China.’ Dr. Hooker observes
that ‘a great deal of Coix is cultivated in the Khasia Hills;
the shell of the cultivated sort is soft and the kernel is sweet,
__ Whereas the wild Coix is so hard that it cannot be broken by
the teeth ; each plant branches two or three times from the
base, and from seven to nine plants grow in each square yard
of soil; the produce is small, not above 30 or 40 fold’ In
Mason’s ‘ Burmah’ it is stated that a species of Coix, with
large esculent seeds, which are parched like Indian corn, are
often for sale in the bazars, and are cultivated very extensively
by the Red Karens.”

C. lacryma has also been introduced into Brazil, where it is
cultivated to some extent. For much interesting information
_ concerning the different species or varieties of the plant, and a
the economic uses to which the seeds are put, we must re:

GRAMINEH. — 575

Description.—The silicious involucre of this grass con-
taining the seed is sold in the drug shops. It is about the size
and has much the appearance of a small cowrie shell, shining
white, and very hard. At the base is a scar marking the
attachment of the peduncle; at the apex an opening, from
which, even in the dry state, a portion of the female flower
may be seen protruding. In the fresh state a spike of male
flowers, from one to two inches long, rises from it.

Chemical composition. —Church (Food Grains of India) found

the edible grain, separated from the husk, to contain water
} 13-2, albuminoids 18-7, starch 58°3, oil 5-2, fibre 15, ash 2:1
in 100 parts. Peckholt, who examined the seeds grown in
Brazil, ascertained that 1000 parts afforded (among less im-
portant constituents) fatty oil 6-6, resin 3, sugar 7, starch 84,
husks and shell 696 parts. (Cat. of the Exhibition of 1866 at
Rio de Janeiro.)

ERAGROSTIS CYNOSUROIDES, fom. et Sch.
Fig.— Delile, Descr. de ? Egypte, t. 10; Rheede, Hort. Mal.
wu., t. 57.
Hab.——Throughout the plains of India. The herb.
Vernacular.—Kusa, Darbha (Hind.), Kusha (Beng. },
Kusha (Har.).
History, Uses, &c.—In Hindu ritual the Kusa occupies
much the same position as the Durva and Tulasi. Among the
‘Synonyms for this grass are Darbha, Barhis “that which is
plucked up,” Suchy-agra “ needle-pointed,” Yajna-bhushana
“ornament of sacrifice,’ Dirghapattra “ haying long leaves,”
Vajna “ lightning,” Suchi-mukha ‘‘needle-mouthed,”’ Punya-
trina “holy grass,” &c. Its pointed leaves are used for the
purification of sacred ber erages, and spread beneath the
Sacrificer and the sacrifice, like the Vervein was amongst the
Romans, - In the Vedas this plant is often invoked as a god:
“Thee, O Darbha, the learned proclaim a divinity not subject
to age or death; thee they call the armour of Indra, the pre-
Server of regions, the destroyer of enemies ; a gem that gives

28 el eS ae eee

576 GRAMINER.

increase to the field; at the time when the ocean resounded,
when the clouds murmured, and lightning flashed, then was
Darbha produced, pure as a drop of fine gold” (Atharva Veda).
The Vedic rituals furnished instructions for its use. According
to Asyalayéna, two pieces without knots were used for purify-
ing butter—one was to be held in each hand between the thumb
and the fourth finger, the second and third fingers being
raised. Turning towards the East, Savitri, Vasu, and the Sun’s
Tays were invoked. At the new and full moon they fasted
and tied together Kusa and firewood, hence the name Kusdkara
for fire, the sacred fire being made upon a tuft of the grass.
At the time of the first cutting of a child’s hair, the father took
a position to the south of the mother, and, holding in his hand
twenty-one blades of the grass (to represent the twenty-one

_ Maruts or winds), invoked Vayu, the god of wind. The father,

or, in his absence, a Brahmin, then took three blades of the
grass aud thrust them, points foremost, into the child’s hair,
saying, “O herb protect him.” The Vedic homestead was
directed to be built in a place where the Kusa and Virana
grew, its foundations were to be strewed with the grass, and
all prickly herbs, as the Apamarga, the Saka, the Tilwaka, and
the Parivyddha, were to be extirpated. When they learned
the sacred books, students used to sit upon a spot of ground
strewed with the Kusa, and on leaving they carried away,
amongst other things, some blades of the grass as a remem-
brance and good omen. In the Brahmanic period the Kusa
was used in invoking Vishnu; anchorites covered their
nakedness with the grass, or with the skins of animals and
bark of certain trees. In modern times it is in constant
requisition in Hindu ceremonial, and at funerals the chief
mourner wears a ring of the grass upon his finger, and it is
placed beneath the pindas. Brahmins place it in the hands of
pilgrims when they bathe in the sacred Ganges. M. Sénart
draws a comparison between the Vedic Kusa and the Beresman
_ of the ancient Persians, and explains its significance in Buddhie
: ritual : it serves as a sacred prayer-carpet which is p pside ae
over by the divine Intelligence. As a medicine it enters into

ps

GRAMINEZ. 577

- compound prescriptions for dysentery and menorrhagia, and is
Specially used as a diuretic. It is often confounded with
—Cynodon dactylon by the herbalists, or perhaps they consider
both grasses to be equally efficient.

Description,—Root creeping, perennial. Culms straight,
rigid, round, smooth, from 1 to 3 feet high. Leaves numerous, ©
very long, chiefly about the base of the culms, rigid margins
hispid. Panicle erect, linear-oblong, often tending to a
: eonictd form, composed of many somewhat threefold, verti-
celled, horizontal, short, rigid, secund ramifications. Spikelets
‘many-flowered, depending, in two rows, from the under-side of 4
‘the ramifications. Valves of corolla pointed, the inner ‘one
rather the largest.

CYNODON DACTYLON, Pers.
_ Fig.—Zing. Bot. wii., t. 850; Fl. Grec.,t., t, 60. Creeping
g’s-tooth-grass (£ng.).
Hab.—Plains of India, westward to the south of England,
e herb.
Vernacular.— Durva, Déb, Hariydli (Hind.), Durba ( Beng.),
harvé, Harala, Haryéli (Mar.). gs
History, Uses, &c.—This grass must have first
ttracted the attention of the ancient Hindus by its value as @
food for their cattle. A modern Indian proverb says—
amindiri dab ki jar hai (an estate like the roots of the Dib,
ie, is always bearing). The ~plant has many synonyms ™
anskrit, such as Granthi “ knotted,” Sveta ‘‘ white,”
gavi “belonging to Sukra” (the regent of the _—

8), Ruha “‘ growing,” Dur-mara “ not easily dying,” &c.
Shah thus apostrophizes himself :—
Nanak! nannhé ho raho jaisi nannhi dab!

Aur ghas jal jengi, dtib khiab ki khub.
-Be modest Nanak ! as the fresh soft Dub doth lowly he, :
Whilst other grasses scorched up are, the Dib’s bloom ne’er doth
he Rig-Veda (x., 134) misfortunes are prayed to depart
Diirva whose seeds fall far from the plant; an allusion
-spreading habit of this grass, which has also given

na 4

578 GRAMINES.

rise to the proverbial expression ‘‘ Dib ki nal” (the sheath of
the Dib) as applied to family connections, so called from their
tendency to spread far and wide like the Dib. Like other
useful plants this grass was deified by the Hindus; in the
Atharva-Veda it is thus addressed— ‘“‘ May Dirva which rose
from the water of life, which has a hundred roots and a
hundred stems, efface a hundred of my sins, and prolong my
existence on earth a hundred years.’ The Hindus believe that
a benevolent Apsaras or nymph dwells in the plant, and when
they build a house they place the grass on the four corners of
the foundations. This practice dates from Vedic times.

Dirva is also spoken of as Dirveshtaka, from its being used
in erecting an altar; it is sacred to Vishnu and Ganesha, and a
festival called the Dirvashtami is held in its honour on the
eighth day of the light half of the month Bhadra; at this
festival the male worshippers wear the grass tied to the right
arm, and the females tied to the left. At marriages the right
arm of the bridegroom is tied to the left arm of the bride with
Dirva;it isa phallic emblem, like the /étu or straw was in
Europe. In the third act of the Vikramorvasi of Kélidasa,
Urvasi shows herself to Purdravas with her hair decked with
Dirva, asymbol that she accepts his love. De Gubernatis
says :—‘ A Pésaro, le jeune paysan, lorsqu’il désire demander
en mariage la jeune fille qu’il aime, éte du pailler un fétu de
paille et, en le lui montrant, lui demande si elle veut entrer
danssa maison.” According to Asval4yana and Nérdyana, the
husband, in the third month of his young wife’s pregnancy,
should squeeze the juice of the Dirva into her right nostril to
secure a male child; this practice is still customary in Western
India and probably elsewhere. Dirva is one of the eight
ingredients of the Arghya, a respectful oblation made to gods
and venerable men. The popular version of the Ramayan
mentions the eight ingredients in the following couplet :—
~ Dahi, Darba, rochan, phal mula .

Nav tulsi dal, mangal milé, a
ive, curdled milk, darba, rochan, flowers and roots, you leaves 7
OE cox Tulsi and Lotus, turme turmeric. |

GRAMINE. 579

According to the Panchatantra, Dérva was born from the
___ hairs of a cow ; ina strophe quoted by Béhtlingk (Ind. Spr.,
s ii, 2921), the leaf is described as the ornament of the Dirva,
___ like the flower of the tree, independence the ornament of man,
and the husband the ornament of the wife; happy are the
_ gazelles who eat the Dirva, for they see not the face of rich
fools. Darva is mentioned in the Nighantés; medicinally the
fresh juice is considered astringent, and is used as a snuff in
epistaxis. The bruised grass is a popular application to
_ bleeding wounds. The Indo-Portuguese call it gramina, and
use it as a substitute for Triticum repens, L., which is generally
msidered to have been the @ypeors of the Greeks, and Gramen
the Romans, though some authorities are of opinion that
both T. repens and Cynodon Beate were used indiseriminately
by the ancients,

Description.—tThe roots are tough and creeping, almost
_ Woody, with smooth fibres. Stems also creeping toa great
; extent, matted, round, jointed, leafy, very smooth. Leaves
ering, sharp-pointed, ribbed, hairy, a little glaucous; with
g§ striated smooth sheaths, and a hairy stipula, Flowering oe
branches a span high, leaky; simple, terminating in 4 bs ve

arly equal, crowded, erect, many-flowered linear spikes; the
“ea stalk of each triangular, roughish ; flat and slightly
ordered on one side, along which the nearly sessile, shining,
lish flowers are ranged in two close alternate rows. The
ais longer than the calyx, very much ae opposite
am to the latter.

ZEA MAYS, Ln.

Fig.—Lam., Ii, t. 749; Bentl. and Trim., t. 296. Maize,
Corn (Eng.), Mais, Blé ture (F*.)-

b.—S. America and West Indian Islands. The

War.— Makkii, Bhuta (Hind., Guz.), Janar (Beng.),
Bonda (Mar.), Makka-sholom (Zam.).

580 GRAMINER.

History, Uses, &c.—A wild form of this cereal is said
to be still found in some of the West Indian Islands. The
vernacular names point to its introduction into India from
Mecea, but the Durah-i-Makka or Gandum-i-Makka of
Mahometan writers on Materia Medica, which they also call
Khanderis (xév8pos), is the Sorghum vulgare or Great millet,
the Juar of Northern India, and the Sholam of Madras. . The
Arabs call Zea Mays Durah kizén or Durah shém{. We learn
from Chinese literature that it was cultivated in China in
the 16th century, and was then traditionally asserted to
have been an introduction from the west. On the Continent
of Europe, it is best known as Turkish corn. It is now
cultivated in all warm countries, and is considered by
Mahometan physicians to have properties similar to those of
Sorghum vulgare, viz., resolvent, astringent, and very nourishing ;
they consider it to be a suitable diet in consumption and a
relaxed condition of the bowels. In Europe it is much used
asa valuable article of diet for invalids and children under the
names of Polenta (Maize meal) and Maizena (Maize flour).
In Greece the silky stigmata are used in decoction in diseases
of the bladder, and have lately attracted attention in America
under the name of Corn silk, of which a liguid extract is sold
in the shops as a remedy in irritable conditions of the bladder
with turbid and irritating urine; it hasa marked diuretic
action. The meal has been long in use in America as a poultice,
and gruel is also made of it. In the Concan an alkaline
solution is prepared from the burnt cobs and is given in
lithiasis.

_ In the United States for starch manufacture from maize it ©
has been found desirable to get rid of the oily embryo—this is
done by machinery. The embryo is too rich for feeding stock
unless the oil is removed—this is done in the hydraulie press,
and the cake when ground into meal is very valuable as a food.
for stock. ‘The oil promises to be useful for medicinal pur
. instead of olive oil. In the unrefined state it has

Specific gravity of 916 at 15°C, the elaidin test shows the —

= Presence of a large quantity of olein. Maize: oil seats

GRAMINEZ, 581

yellowish-brown colour, with an odour and taste like that of
freshly ground corn meal ; it belongs to the non-drying group
of the vegatable oils, does not easily become rancid, and has no
purgative action. With alkalies it forms a white soap; it
contains fatty acids (free) 0°88, total fatty acids 96°75 per cent.,
mucilaginous bodies 1°34. The loss sustained by purification
is under 5 per cent. (J. U. Lloyd, Amer. Journ. Pharm.,
July 1888.)

Chemical composition—The average results of the analysis
of three varieties of maize in an undried state by Polson,
yielded in 100 parts, 54:37 starch, 8:83 nitrogenous substance,
4°50 fat, 2°70 gum and sugar, 15:77 cellulose, 12°16 water, and
1-67 ash. oasis found on an average in 160 parts of the
dried grain, 64:5 starch, 6°7 fat, and 9-9 nitrogenous substance.
_ Church found it to contain water 12°5, albuminoids 9°5, starch
70-2, oil 3-6, fibre 2-0, ash 1:7. American grain contained
a 1 per cent. more fat than Indian.

a The following figures, quoted by Konig, represent the mean
_ composition of 145 samples examined by various analysts :—

Penne cee

so

vigia aii anlar peat > «Jaa gieell
EE ME ep Te re a Ss i eta a
= = i ret Sie TB ay Si eee ve a el

7-40 | 22-40} 18:12
554 | 1390] 9-85
a 1-61 8°89 4-62
74°92 | 68°41

Nitrogen-free extractive ...ce:..-| 00°49
Calle... 41-676) 852} 940%
61} 393] 152

Seane

Minimum. |Maximum.| Mean.
L whet ecw

582 GRAMINE.

The stigmata have been examined by C. J. Rademaker and
J. L. Fischer (Amer. Journ. Pharm., 1886), with the following
results :—

Fixed oil (petroleum spirit extract) .......... sc ORS
Resin, erystalline principle, and chlorophyll
(ether extract) 2°25
Resin, crystalline principle, and chlorophyll
(alcoholic extract) 3°25
Sugar, gum, and extractive (water extract) ... 19°50

Albuminoids, phlobaphene, &c. (from alkaline

solution) 3°50
Salts and extractive (from acid solution) ...... 5°50

Cellulose 37:00
CS ae 20°00
96°25

LOLIUM TEMULENTUM, Linn.

Fig.— Engl. Bot. xvi, t. 1124; Schreb. Gram. ti., t. 36;
Bentl. and Trim. 295. Bearded Darnel (Eng.), Ivraie (Fr-)-

Hab.—A weed of cultivation. Asia, Europe, North
Africa. The seeds.

Vernacular.—Miichhni (Hind. ).

History, Uses, &c.—A noxious weed growing with
wheat called dipa is mentioned by Theophrastus (i., 5), and
by Dioscorides (ii., 91) ; the latter writer notices its medicinal
use as an external application along with salt and radishes to
ulcers, and with sulphur and vinegar to certain skin eruptions,
also with pigeon’s dung and linseed. to disperse or mature
glandular and gouty swellings. It was also used with
bitumen, myrrh, saffron or frankincense as a fumigatory to
promote conception. This plant was known to the Romans 45
Lolium, and is mentioned by Virgil (Georg. I) as ‘ infeliv
lolium.” Ovid (Fast, i.) speaks of. it as injurious to the :
eyesight, “et careant loliis oculos vitiantibus agri.” Pliny —

"GRAMINEZ. 583

sila pS ie le

mentions it in his chapter upon the diseases of grain (18, 44),
and again (22, 58, 77) reproduces the account given by Dios-
corides of its medicinal uses. The Arabian lexicographers
describe the same plant under the name of Ziwaén or Ziwaén
(w!s3) as a noxious weed growing among wheat, which often
gives a bad quality to it when accidentally mixed with it,
causing giddiness ; they consider it to be the same as the plant
called Shailam (#!4%). Abu Hanifeh says, that Shailam is a
small, oblong, red, erect grain, resembling in form the (» 5
(or grub) of wheat ; and it does not intoxicate, but renders the
wheat very bitter; and in one place he says the plant spreads
on the ground, and its leaves are like those of the willow.

Ibn Sina describes Ziwdn and Shailam separately, but in
his account of their properties there is hardly any difference,
it being essentially the same as Dioscorides’ description. of
Aira. He states, however, that both are narcotic.

Forskal considers Ziwan and Shailam to be different. Of the
former he says:—“Zizania Allepensibus notissima: inter
- triticum viget: si semina restant farine (sic) mixta, hominem
reddunt ex panis esu temulentum: messores plantam non
separant ; sed post triturationem vanni aut cribri ope semina
Tejiciunt. a of the latter he says: eect etiam agri Mecrme

ers a

ee ia Rete ES Me ae) oe ae

:

ini Me te ree

awe

; rnptbesi
subire debet; Avicenna sic referente.” (£7. Aigypt Arab,
p. 199.)

Indian Mahometan writers merely copy the Arabians, and
we have met with no mention of Darnel by Hindu physicians,
In Persia the plant is known as Samuk and Gandum-i-diwaheh
“fools? wheat’ In Northern India it is called Michhni
“‘bearded”’ : it does not appear to be known in the Peninsula
or Bengal.

Description. —Annual. Roots a few downy fibres.
Stems annual, erect, 8 feet or more in height, stiff, smooth,
often branched from the lower nodes. Leaves large, distant ;
18 smooth, striate, ligule short, truncate, blade 5 to 10

584 GRAMINEA,

inches long, spreading and drooping, ¢ to 4 inch wide, linear,
gradually tapering to the acute apex, dark green. Spikelets
large, 4 to 1 inch long, 5 to 11 flowered, sessile, laterally com-
- pressed, blunt, arranged singly edgewise alternately on opposite
sides of the elongated rachis, forming a narrow distichous
spike, 6 to 12 inches long ; rachis somewhat flexuose, hollowed
on alternate sides to receive the spikelets, faintly rough ;
glumes 2 in the terminal spikelet, nearly equal, only one in
the remainder, placed on the outer side of the spikelet, closely
appressed, and equalling or exceeding it in length, rather leaf-
like, 5-ribbed, convex, smooth, green, subacute, not awned ;
pales 2, nearly equal in length, the lower rounded on the back,
the edges somewhat involute, 5-ribbed, the two outside ribs
very strong, obtuse, and membranous at the apex, a little
below which arises usually a straight white awn of variable
length, the upper pale flat, appressed to the dorsal one, with
its margins folded over on the inside, scarious, with two green
veins, faintly ciliate on the edges. Lodicules 2, connected at
the base, entire. Stamens 3, ovary rounded. Stigmas 2, as-
pergilliform. Fruit enclosed in the pales (the lower one
turgid and thickened), oblong-oveid, nearly } inch long, blunt,
concave on inner surface, pale brown.

Chemical composition.—Filhol and Baillet found the seeds to
contain 50 per cent. of starch, albuminoids, and the other
constituents found in cereal grains; also a thick, almost con-
crete green oil, one portion of which was saponifiable, and the
other not. It was insoluble in water, but freely soluble in
alcohol and ether. The seeds besides contained an extractive
substance soluble in water and alcohol. The non-saponifiable
portion of the oil they describe as producing tremulousness
when swallowed, but without any narcotism ; and the extractive
as narcotic. Both substances proved fatal to animals.

Ludwig and Stahl, besides starch, gluten, &c., found two
acrid oils soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water; and an
ecrid bitter glucoside, soluble in water ; they attribute the
activity of the seeds to the combined influence of these different

GRAMINEA. 85

P The still more recent experiments of Wittstein have con-

| vinced him ‘that the poisonous characters of the seeds are not
due to an acid body, nor to a base, but to an indifferent body
which is incapable of forming compounds with lead or zine,
and may be completely extracted from the seeds by water or
alcohol, and only incompletely by ether.”

Dr. P. Antze, who has recently examined the constituents of
the plant, both chemically and physiologically, reports (Arch.
f. exp. Path. und Pharm., Nov. 1890, p. 126) the isolation of a
volatile alkaloid, Joliine,and temulentic acid, which by the action
of lime yields a base, ¢emulentine, as a decomposition product.
Loliine is said to yield good crystalline salts with sulphuric,
hydrochloric, oxalic, and acetic acids, but too small a quantity
was obtained for analysis. Injected subcutaneously into
rabbits it produced a rise in temperature as well as an increase
of the pulse, 0-08 gram being a lethal dose, whilst the narcotic
and intoxicating action of the lolium plant seems to be due to
temulentic acid and the base obtained from it. The acid,
which exists to the extent of about 1 per cent. in the seeds, is

| obtained in crystals melting at 934°C. and possessing the
approximate composition C*H*NO™, and as well as temulentine
Yields good crystalline salts. From experiments upon frogs,

Se les ht ee
Ed i re ¢.
es ak =

toxic as loliine and rapidly diminishes the heart’s action, but if
the depression, which is accompanied by a marked decrease in
temperature, is overcome, the patient assumes a condition of
high fever. Dr. Antze recommends, in cases of poisoning with
darnel grass, the administration of emetics and purges, followed
by stimulants to «raise the depressed action of the heart.
(Pharm. Journ., Jan. 31st, 1891.)
, Tovicology.—The symptoms which darnel seeds produce on
Man are described by Pereira as twofold: ‘those indicating
Sastro-intestinal irritation, such as yomiting and colic; and
‘those which arise from disorder of the cerebro-spinal system,
_ Such as headache, giddiness, languor, ringing in the ears,
_ onfusion of sight, dilated pupil, delirium, heaviness, somno-
leney » trembling, convulsions, and paralysis. These seeds,
UL. — 74 . “4

rabbits, and the investigator himself, it appears to be twice a8

586 - GRAMINE A.

therefore, appear to be acro-narcotic poisons. According to
Seeger, one of the most certain signs of poisoning by them is
trembling of the whole body.” Death has sometimes resulted
from their use, but when suitable remedies have been used,
such as evacuants and stimulants, the seeds have not proved
fatal to man. Recent experiments made by A. S. Wilson of
Aberdeen conclusively proved that healthy darnel seeds have
no injurious effects. In selecting healthy seeds, Mr. Wilson
observed the grains to be frequently affected by ergot and
other fungi, and to be also liable to a disease of a more
obscure type.

From Dr. P. Antze’s experiments it appears that there are
two poisonous principles in the diseased seeds, one an acrid

poison giving rise to a febrile condition, and the other a
narcotic powerfully depressing the heart’s action,

In the Report of the Chemical Examiner, N.-W. Provinces
and Oudh, for 1879, the occurrence of darnel-poisoning among
the men of the Ghoorkha Regiment at Almora, and also among
some of his own servants at Nynee Tal, is recorded, He states
that the grass is recognised as injurious by the peasantry in
the Moozaffarnagar District, where it is called DMochni. The
symptoms observed were vomiting, headache, and great
giddiness ; no fatal cases occurred.

BAMBUSA ARUNDINACEA, Re:.

Fig.— Roxb, Cor, Pi. 4., t. 79- Ltheede, Hort, Mal, i., t. 16.
Bamboo (£ng.), Bambou (Ar.).

Hab.—Throughout India. The young shoots, seeds, and
silicious concretion.

Vernacular.—Bains (Hind., Beng.), Vénsa (Guz.), Vansa,
Kalaka, Tokara (Mar.), Mangal (Zam.), Bonga, Veduru (TZe/.),
Bidungulu (Can.).

Bamboo Manna.—Bfns-lochan (Hind.), Béns-képtr (Beng.),
V4nsa-lochana (Mar.), Vansa-képira (Guz.), Munga-luppe

(Zam.), Veduruppu (Zel.), Bidaruppu (Can.), Moleuppa :

GRAMINBA. 587

History, Uses, &c.—The Bamboo, in Sanskrit Vans4 and
_ Vénu, is considered by the Hindus to have the hardest of woods,
_ The word also signifies ‘spine’ and ‘ lineage,’ thus Vénsa-visuddha
means “made of a good bamboo,” ée., of a pure or good family,
and Vanga-dhara: “carrying a bamboo,” i.¢., maintaming a
family, Vansa-pratishthana-kara “establishing a family on a
sure foundation.” The Abbé Dubois, in his Description of India,
_ states that the young Indian bride and bridegroom are made
3 to stand in two bamboo baskets placed side by side, and the
Kul or Arbor generationis of the caste, at Hindu marriages, is
placed in a winnowing fan made of bamboo. The wild tribes
_ of the Garrow hills, who have no temples or altars, set up
opposite their huts a bamboo post which they deck with flowers
4 and tufts of cotton, and before it they make offerings to their
4 god. Indian anchorites carry a bamboo stick having seven
knots. A bamboo flowering is an event of rare occurrence,
and which is supposed to bring in its train all sorts of evil,
accompanied by dire distress and famine. The seeds of the
bamboo, in Sanskrit VanSa-tandula, Vansa-ja, Vénu-yava,
Vénu-vija, have often proved of great value in famine seasons,
Saving thousands of lives ; this was the case in Orissa in 1812
and in Canara in 1864. The young shoots which appear
towards the end of the rainy season are used as a vegetable ;
they are minced very finely and soaked in water to remove the
Ditter taste, and then cooked with da/, and seasoned according
to taste : they are also made into pickle.
A decoction of the joints of the bamboo is supposed to have
an action on the uterus, and is used by females after delivery
to cause a free flow of the lochial discharge. The same part of
the plant pounded with water is applied to inflamed joints. The
juice of the leaves with aromatics is given in hematemesis.
The leaves are very commonly given to horses by syces as a
‘Temedy for coughs and colds.
Bamboo manna is the VanSa-lochana of the Indian physi-
cians; in the Nirghantés it bears many synonyms, such as
anga-rochana, Twvak-kshirdé “ bark-milk,” Vansa-karpura
‘bamboo camphor,” Vanéa-Sarkara “ bamboo sugar,” Vansihva

588 GRAMINE AI.

“bamboo sacrifice,” Stbhra, and Sita “white,” &e. It is
considered to be strengthening, tonic, cold, and sweet; to
alleviate thirst, and to avert phthisis, fever, asthma, cough,
biliousness, skin diseases, and Véyu (morbid affections of the
windy humor). As an example of the way in which it is
prescribed, the following formula for making the Sitopalddi-
churna will be found in Sarangadhara:— Bamboo manna 8 parts,
long pepper 4, cardamoms 2, cinnamon 1, sugar 16. Powder
and mix. Dose about 60 grains, to be given with honey and
ghi in phthisis and cachexia.

The belief in the strengthening properties of bamboo manna
appears to have originated among the aboriginal tribes of

India, as on the West Coast it is the first solid food which the

Thana Kolis give their children. The same belief seems to
have prevailed in Borneo, as Marco Polo relates that pieces of
this substance were let in under the skin by the natives to
make the body wound-proof.

We hold with Salmasins that bamboo manna was the
substance known to the Greeks as odxyap vdkxapov, and described.
by them as a white, concreted or crystalline substance like
common salt, because there was no kind of sugar prepared from
the sugar-cane, answering to this description, known in India

in the time of Dioscorides. The name Sarkara, which signifies —

“grit, pebbles, sand,” was applied by Hindu writers at that
time to several substances, viz., Guda or molasses in a dry
granular state, the only kind of cane-sugar then in use in
India; Yardsa-Sarkara, the concrete manna of Alhagi; and Vansa
sarkara, the concretion found in the bamboo, The Sanskrit
name Khanda was also applied to Guda, which is the substance
known in the vernaculars as Gir or Gil, and is still the kind
of sugar most used by the Hindus, Pale crystalline sugar, the
Chini of the bazars, does not appear to have been known until
some 400 years after the date of Dioscorides.

Under the name of Tab4shir, a corruption of the Sanskrit :

. _Tvak-kshira, bamboo manna was known to the early Arab
_ travellers in the Rast; the port of Thana, on the West Coast of

GRAMINE. 589

India, was famous for its TabAshir in the time of Idrisit (1135)
and supplied it to all marts. Ibn Sina describes Tabdshir as
astringent and stomachic, useful in erysipelas and to allay
thirst in bilious dyspepsia, cardiacal, and strengthening. As a
local application it is used to relieve the heat and irritation
_ caused by aphthous eruptions along with pounded rose leaves.
Later Mahomedan writers upon the Materia Medica of the East
have added nothing of importance to Ibn Sina’s account of the
drug. Fliickiger (Zur Geschichte des Tabaschir, Zeit. des alig.
osterr. Apoth. Ver. Nr. 14 u. 15,1887) mentions a list of Indian
goods on which transit duty was levied at Aden in 1270; in it
Tab4shir is mentioned together with tamarinds and camphor.
He also draws attention to a remarkable connection between
Tabashir and ivory ashes, generally known by the name of
Spodium. Tdrisi, in the middle of the 12th century, points out
that the latter was used to adulterate the former, while others
of a different opinion assign a greater value to Spodium.
Garcia d’Orta( Colloguios51)mentions both Tabéshir and Spodium,
which he considers to be Pompholyx or Turtia (white of zine ?
ealamine ?), and states that in Persia and Arabia Tabéshir was
generally paid for by its weight in silver (‘0 prego ordinario

igus Gat es

oe
=

2
<4

PS

Wa.
“a
3

burning the bamboo cane. Fliickiger remarks that it is ‘most
likely that the name “ Spodium da canna” was given to this
_ black Tabdshir or perhaps to the ashes of the cane, and that it
might be owing to this circumstance that in later times the
_ tame Spodium came to be applied to animal charcoal (bone-
black). The idea of black seems not to have been connected
_ With the original Greek name o7des (ashes). Flickiger also
_ draws attention to the Latin translation of a Persian Karabddin
_ or Pharmacopeia by the Carmelite Friar P. Angelus, published
in Paris in 1681, in which Tabishir is spoken of as pseudo-

spodium, anti-spodium, and spodium-arabicum. Rheede as well
Rumphius notice Tabdshir, but it does not appear to have
attracted much attention in Europe until Dr. Patrick Russell
‘the attention of the Royal Society to it, and induced.

na Persia e Arabia é a peso de prata ”’) ; he also describes black oe :
or grey Tabdshir, which was of less value and was obtained by

590 GRAMINEZ:.

James Louis Macie to make an analysis, which showed that it
consisted principally of silica.

Further information on Tabéshir may be obtained from Prof.
Fliickiger’ s papers above mentioned, = a paper by Dr. Brandis
in the Indian Forester, March, Vol. XIII.

Description.—Tabashir consists of irregularly-shaped
fragments of an opaque white or bluish opalescent colour, the
larger pieces are about an inch in diameter, concavo-convex, and
have evidently derived their form from the joint of the bamboo
in which the deposit has collected. The raw article is blackened
and dirty, having apparently been obtained by burning the bam-
- boos, or on account of the presence of insects ; to make it fit for

use it is calcined, when it becomes perfectly clean.
Chemical composition—Cavendish (Hbenda, 370) determined
the specific gravity of Tabashir to be 2-169 at 11:4°C.

Humboldt remembered the analysis of Macie when he and

Bonpland discovered a similar substance at the voleano of
Pichincha, not far from Quito. He wrote from Mexico on the
22nd of April 1803 to Antonio Joseph Cavanilles, Director of
the Botanic Garden at Madrid (Annales du Muséum, iv. (An. xil.,
1804), 478)—“‘ Vous vous souvenez sans doute de cette
substance siliceuse, ressemblante a Popale que M. Macie
analysa en Angleterre. Nous l’avons découverte 4 l’ouest du
volean Pichincha, dans les bambous ou gros roseaux
appelés Guaduas dans le royaume de Santa Fé. J’ai fait des
expériences chimiques sur le sue de cette graminée colossale,
avant que la substance siliceuse se fit déposée, et jy a
remarqué des phénoménes trés-curieux ; il est susceptible d’une
putréfaction animale, et parait annoncer une certaine combin-
aison d’une terre simple avec l’azote.’? The Guaduas are the
representatives of the Indian bamboos in South America and
closely related to them. The specimen of American Tabéshir
which Humboldt sent to Paris was examined by Foureroy
and Vanquelin (dn. du Mus., vi. (1806), 382—385); they
found, besides 70 per cent. of silicic acid, 30 per cent. of |
abt. Tt would be nteteting to sno if it was prs

GRAMINEZ. 591

silicate, which seems possible, as they mention traces of
crystallization. The remarkable optical properties of this
amorphous silicic acid attracted the attention of Brewster
(Trans. Roy. Soc. London (1819), i., 2883—299), who found it to
possess very little power of refracting light, and to show when
heated in the dark a brilliant phosphorescence. The informa-
tion concerning its physical properties given by Brewster was,
however, partly contradicted, and, as it seems, with reason, by
Guibourt in 1885. Edward Turner (Ebenda, pp. 335—338)
found that the substance examined by Brewster could easily
be dissolved in a solution of caustic potash, even after having
been heated ; the silicic acid separated from the solution, after
being heated to redness, weighed nearly as much as the
quantity of Tabdshir examined. The transparency which
Tabishir acquires when immersed in water was noticed by
Brewster and Guibourt; this property is still more striking when
it is immersed in a volatile oil or liquid paraffiri, for then with
very pure specimens the outlines are scarcely to be distinguished.
Guibourt determined its sp. gr. in water to be 27149 at 4°C.,
and found Indian Tabdshir to be composed of 97°39 per cent. of
silicic acid, 2-9 per cent. water, with traces of potash and lime. —
In 1859 Fliickiger (Schweizerische Zeitsch. f. Pharm., 1859,
244) examined a very fine specimen of Tabéshir from Java,
_ where it is known by the name of Batugining, and found it to
be almost pure silicic acid. It would appear, however, to be
sometimes mixed or adulterated with the ashes of the cane, as
Rost van Tonningen (Jahresb. der Chem., 1860, 531) founda _
Specimen to contain silicic acid 86°38, water 7°63, oxide of
iron, potash, and lime 5:99 per cent.
The careful examination of Tabdshir made by Poleck (Zeitsch.
des osterr, Apoth. Ver., 1887, p. 139) shows beyond doubt that
it may be considered to be silicic acid, although the question
Temains open, whether it is the normal acid Si(OH*),
(Pliickiger, Zur Geschichte des Tabaschir, Zeitsch. des allg.
— Osterr, Apoth. Ver, Nr. 14 u. 15, 1887.) As regards the
Variations observed in the amount of water contained in this
Substance, the reader is referred to our remarks under Commerce.

a
ce
‘

i

592 GRAMINEA,

The ash of bamboo stems has been analysed by Hammer-
bacher with the following results: SiO’, 28°264; CaO,
4481; MgO, 6:569 ; KO, 34:217 ; Na?O, 12°765 ; Cl, 2-062 ;
S$O0°*, 10°705 ; Ferric phosphate, 0°037=99°100. The fash is
rich in silica and alkalis, poor in alkaline earths. The propor-
tion of alkalis is about the same asin the ashes of ordinary
roots. (Liebig’s Annalen, clxxvi., 87.)

Commerce.— Bombay appears to have inherited the ancient
trade in Tabdshir which formerly centered in Thana. The raw
article is, however, now obtained from Singapore, and is
probably the produce of Java and other islands of the Eastern
Archipelago. The Indian bamboos being under the protection
of the Forest Department prevents their being destroyed to
obtain Tabashir, besides they are of much more value for other
purposes. The Bombay trade in this article is now the
monopoly of a Mahometan, who is the sole importer of the raw
material, which he calcines and afterwards sells in bulk at
Rs. 2-10 per lb. He also sells a selected quality at Rs. 4
per lb., and an inferior quality at Re. 1-4. The method of
calcination is a trade secret. After it has been calcined,
Tabashir is placed in water, which it absorbs and increases
greatly in weight, becoming cold to the touch; this fact is
pointed out to the purchaser as a proof of its cooling qualities.
The water is retained by the drug for a long time.

SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM, Linn.

Fig.— Woodville, t. 266; Tussac, Fl. Antilles, i., tt. 23—20 ;
Bentl. and Trim., t. 298. Sugar-cane (E£ng.), Canne 4 sucre
(Fr,).

Hab.—India. Cultivated in all warm climates. Tho —
juice and root.

Vernacular.—Ukh, Ganna (Hind.), Ak (Beng.), Us (Mar-.),
Shéradi (Guj.), Karumbu (Zam.), Cheruku (Tel.), ac ll :
ae ), Khabbu (Care). aa

GHRAMINEA. 593

History, Uses, &c.—If the wild form of the sugar-cane
is to be anywhere now met with, it is in India, of which country
it is undoubtedly a native, and where it has been cultivated
from the earliest antiquity. Whether the species grown in China,
S. sinense (Roxb. ), is specifically the same is scarcely determined
_ with certainty, but itis probably native in that country. (Bendl.
_ and Trim.) The Sanskrit name of the plant is Ikshu, and itvtis
also called Guda-trina, “the grass from which guda is made,”
_ and Guda-diru, &c.; from the juice (Ikshurasa) the ancient
Hindus prepared an extract by boiling, which, when soft and
sticky, was called Ikshurasa-kvatha, Phanita, and Guda, but

varieties of sugar-cane are mentioned by Sanskrit writers, but
in this number are probably included other grasses belonging
to the genera Saccharum, Sor ghum, &c. The root of the sugar-
ane is also used in Hindu medicine, and is considered to have
demulcent and diuretic properties. It is an ingredient along
with the roots of Saccharum sara, S. spontaneum, Eragrostis
Saag ovdes, and Oynodon dactylon in the compounds known as

affections of the urinary passages. A kind of rum. was also

rom guda and water fermented, which was ceasarins as Sidhu —
d Ganda.
The unrefined, dark-brown Guda or Phénita of the Hindus
known to the ancient Persians as 4#4 (Péniz) and _%*
Shakar); from it they manufactured the dry erystalline sugar
* they call o3f (Kand) or w ld (Nabat), now piterally
ritten oi5 by both Arabs and Persians. We have already
Stated (see Article on Bambusa) our reasons for believing that
Gdxxapov of Dioscorides was not cane-sugar, viz., that no such
article ae sugar in a dry crystalline state was known in India
that time, the only kind of sugar used by the Hindus being
ark-brown mass known as guda, and which is still the
of sugar most popular in India. This substance, as well
3

~

obtained by the ancient Hindus from the juice of the cane or — ie

594 GRAMINEA.

as the guda prepared from the palm (¢oivé), was called by the
Greeks wed: (honey), and is mentioned by Herodotus, Theophras-
tus, Seneca, Strabo, and other early writers as “‘ Honey of Canes ”
and “ Honey made by human hands.” ‘The vernacular names
Misri, “Egyptian,” for refined sugar, and Chini, “ Chinese,”
for sugar-candy, point to these crystalline forms of sugar as

_ comparatively recent introductions into India, and at the
present time the sugar-candy of Indian commerce is chiefly
imported from China. When we consider that the sugar-cane
was known to the ancients from the time of Nearchus, it is
hardly reasonable to suppose that Pliny could be so ill-informed
as to speak of Saccharum, if by that name he meant cane-sugar,
as only employed in medicine. Lucan, writing about the
same time, was aware that the Hindus drank the juice of the
cane :

“Quique bibunt tenera dulces ab arundine succos.”
At the present day, the cane-presser, with his primitive
press, is a familiar personage at Indian fairs, where he
dispenses the luscious juice to his customers at about twopence
a pint.

Sugar, under the name of Shi-mi “stone honey,” is
frequently mentioned in the ancient Chinese annals among the
productions of India and Persia; and it is recorded that the
Emperor Tai-tsung (A.D. 626—650) sent an envoy to the
kingdom of Magadha in India, to learn the method of manu-
‘facturing it. (Bretschneider, Chinese Botanical Works, 1870, 46.)
The Chinese acknowledge that the Indians between A.D. 766

pie.

3 GRAMINEM. 595

industry in the shape of millstones, &c., still exist near
was.

Persian and Arabian physicians of the 10th and 11th
centuries, such as Razi, Ali Abbas, and Ibn Sina, introduced
sugar (_» Sukkar ) into medicine. The Arabs cultivated the
_ ¢ane in many of their Mediterranean settlements, as Cyprus,
Sicily, Italy, Northern Africa, and Spain. The Calendar of

Cordova shows that as early as A.D. 961 the cultivation was

well understood in Spain, which is now the only country in
. Europe where sugar-mills still exist.

_. The importance of the sugar manufacture in the East was
witnessed by Marco Polo, Barbosa, and other European
travellers ; and the trading nations of Europe rapidly spread
a cultivation of the cane over all the countries of which the

te was suitable. The ancient cultivation in Egypt,
Bretcbiy never quite extinct, was revised on an extensive scale
by the Khedive Ismail Pasha. (Pharmacographia.)

ar is of comparatively little value for its independent
3 effects, but few substances are more useful as an associate of
_ other medicines, whether to preserve them from oxidation
and decomposition, to conceal or improve their taste, or
to give them special pharmaceutical forms,
In solution sugar is almost exclusively lenitive, but in
‘Powder it is stimulant. It is universally employed to diminish

Initigate cough and hoarseness. Sugar dissolved in water issaid ©
to have a diuretic effect. When injected into the veins of ani-
mals it is said to be powerfully diuretic (Richet and M. Martin,
Med. Record, xxi., 394). It certainly, when moderately
used, promotes diventor and allays nervous excitement. For
these purposes sweetened water (eau suerée) is universally
employ ed in France and Southern Europe. Formerly a strong
‘Solution of sugar was much used as an antidote to corrosive
‘Poisons. It enters into all the drinks, mucilaginous, farina-
eous, and gelatinous, employed in febrile diseases. Finely-
wdered sugar will sometimes relieve the hiccough, which, in

596 GRAMINEA,

nursing infants, is apt to arise from over-feeding. Loaf-sugar,
eaten freely, is said to arrest the development of alcoholic
intoxication, perhaps by retarding gastric absorption. A
strong solution of sugar injected into the rectum has been used
successfully to destroy ascarides of that part. In powder it is
very efficient as a remedy for aphthe of the mouth, in repress-
ing the exuberant and stimulating the indolent granulations of
ulcers, in removing opacities of the cornea, and in curing
granular eyelids. Sugar has been claimed by Fischer to be an
efficient antiseptic dressing for wounds. He associated it,
however, with other antiseptics ; ; but Windelschmidt states
that for small wounds sugar is equal to iodoform as a dressing
(Med. Neus, xliii., 462). In chronic laryngitis, when inhaled
by a sudden aspiration from a tube extending to the root of
the tongue, it may be used with advantage alone or mixed
with other powders. In the same manner it may be employed
as a snuff in chronic ozena. The fumes from burnt sugar
destroy offensive effluvia, and are conveniently disengaged by
sprinkling sugar upon burning coals or on a hot shovel.
(Stillé and Maisch.) We have already referred to the use of
sweetmeats by opium-eaters to counteract the effects of the drag
(p. 96, Vol. I.).

Oultivation.—The sugar-cane season comprises nearly a
twelvemonth. The land chosen is usually a good loam or
_ light clay manured. The leafy ends of the preceding season’s
canes are cut off, or the whole cane is chopped into pieces so a8
in any case to include two nodes or joints, and these, to the
number of about 20,000 per acre, are planted in furrows in
January and February. The land is irrigated occasionally
from this time to the commencement of the rains. The
harvest begins in the beginning of December, and the cutting
and crushing of the canes and boiling of the juice is carried on
till January and February. Excepting the few mills under
European management, the crushing and boiling is performed

by primitive, and, therefore, rude processes. The average
_ _outturn per cent. of cane in the North-West Provinces is st a
#, Mees. Duthie and Fuller to be as follows: a aE S

GRAMINEA. 597

_ of juice=18 of guda (unrefined sugar) or 17°5 of shakar *
(dry, unrefined sugar), or 19°5 of rdb (syrupy sugar). The
natives generally manufacture the juice into the two kinds of
guda, called in the vernaculars géra or gula.

Description.—The transverse section of a sugar-cane
exhibits numerous fibro-vascular bundles, scattered through
the tissue, as in other monocotyledonous stems ; these bundles
are most abundant towards the exterior, where they form a
dense ring covered with a thin epidermis, which is very hard
from the quantity of silica deposited in it. In the centre of
the stem the vascular bundles are few in number, and traverse
an abundant parenchyma which contains in its thin-walled
_ ¢ells an almost clear solution of sugar, with a few small starch
_ granules and a little soluble albuminous matter. The latter is
found in larger quantity in the cambial portion of the vascular
; 3 bundles. The walls of the medullary cells contain pectic
_ matter, but not in sufficient quantity to cause them to swell
— much in water. (Wiesner.) The unrefined sugar of India
3 (géra or gula), often incorrectly termed molasses, occurs in two
4 forms in the bazars—one is a blackish sticky mass without
3 evident crystalline structure, the other is a SS party
_ ¢rystalline mass which crumbles on pressure, erally
_ Spoken of by the dealers as floury gér or oli ae ‘first
_ contains the whole of the unerystallizable portion of the syrup,
e in the other most of this has been drained off. Indi
_ Molasses or treacle is of a very dark colour, of a peculiar sharp
flavour, and has a bitterish after-taste caused by the presence in
it of caramel or burnt sugar, produced during the careless
evaporation of the cane juice. It is hardly suited for
pharmaceutical purposes, an and as sold in the bazars is generally
freely watered and ina state of fermentation. The refined
‘Sugars of Indian commerce are manufactured on the European
System, chiefly i in Bengal, or are imported from Mauritius, and,

et leg gh a lege

. (6. er
~—* Called by Europeans Jaggery, a corruption of the Sanskrit Sarkara,
in Ceylon is the vernacular name for unrefined sugar in the ¢

hakkare.

598 GRAMINE ZL.

in the case of loaf-sugar, from France. They differ in no
respect from the sugars of European commerce.

Chemical composition.—The sugar-cane is, when mature,
composed of cellulose 8 to 12 per cent.; sugar 18 to 21;
water, including albuminous matter and salts, 67 to 73. Of
the entire quantity of juice in the cane, from 70 to 84 per cent.
can be extracted by crushing and pressing, and yields in a
crystalline state about three-fifths of the sugar which the cane
originally contained. The juice has on an average the
following composition :—

Albuminous matters 0-03
Granular matter (starch ?) ..........s0ccesc0e 0°10
Mucilage containing nitrogen ............0+- 0°22
Salts, mostly of organic acids ............-.. 0-29
Sugar ‘ 18-36
Water .. 81:00

100-00

There is also present in the juice a very small amount of @
slightly aromatic substance (essential oil?) to which the crude
cane-sugar owes a peculiar odour which is not observed in
sugar from other sources. (Pharmacographia.) Sugar,
CHO", may be obtained in large transparent rhombic
prisms, known as swgar-candy, which does not differ from
lump-sugar, except that the latter is in crystalline masses from
disturbed crystallization. Sugar has the specific gravity 1-58
(Kopp), is permanent in the air, neutral, without odour, has *
very sweet taste, and dissolves at ordinary temperatures 1?
one-half its weight of water, yielding a dense, sweet, =
colourless liquid known as syrup; saturated at 15° C. such &
solution contains 66 per cent. of sugar, and this has ses
density 1°345082 (Michel and Kraft). At the boiling- pa

_ Sugar dissolves in water almost in all proportions. It requires

GRAMINEM. 599

for solution about 80 parts of boiling absolute alcohol, 28 parts
of boiling officinal alcohol, and about 4 parts of boiling alcohol,
spec. grav. *830, these solutions depositing most of the sugar on
cooling. The solubility is greater in weak alcohol, both cold
and hot. At 15°C. 1 part of sugar dissolves in 2 parts of
60 per cent. alcohol, in 7-7 parts of 75 per cent. alcohol, in
14°7 parts of 80 per cent. alcohol, in 31:6 parts of 85 per cent.
_ alcohol, in 175 parts of 92 per cent. alcohol, and in 228 parts of
_ metbylic alcohol of the same strength (Casamajor). Sugar
dissolves also in glycerin, the solubility being increased on
_ dilution with water, but it is insoluble in ether, chloroform,
_ earbon disulphide, and in hydrocarbons. It combines with
chloride of sodium, yielding deliquescent crystals which contain
_ 149 per cent. of that salt. Definite compounds have likewise
been obtained with several other salts and with alkalies and
_ alkalineearths, When trituratedin the dark it becomes luminous.
_ Its solution deviates polarized light to the right—a behaviour
_ which is of great practical importance for the estimation of
_ Sugar in aqueous liquids and for distinguishing different kinds’
4q of sugar which have a different rotary power.
When sugar is heated to 160° C. it melts without losing in
_ Weight, and congeals on cooling to a transparent amorphous
_ Yellowish mass known as barley-sugar, saccharum hordeatum,
_ Which becomes gradually opaque on the surface from the
_ formation of minute crystals. If sugar is kept in the melted
State between 160° and 170° C. for a short time, it is converted
Into a deliquescent mixture of glucose and levulosan ; 0’*H**O™
_ Yields C*H'?0°+C*°H"°0°; the latter is not fermentable until
_ after it has been ‘boiled with water or dilute acids. When
heated to between 180° and 200° C. sugar turns brown, evolves
@ peculiar odour, and is converted into caramel, C*H™O®,
Parting at the same time with 2H’0; the pure product of this
Composition, caramelan, was obtained colourless by Gélis (1862),
Caramel may be prepared in the same manner from inferior
qualities of sugar, from molasses, and from glucose, and the
Conversion is hastened in the presence of small quantities of
‘ ies; the addition of a little carbonate of ammonium, which

s

600 GRAMINEA.

is again volatilized by the heat, is of service, for the reason
stated. Subjected to dry distillation, sugar yields aldehyd,

acetone, acetic acid, tarry products, and carbonic acid, carbonic

oxide, and marsh gas, According to Lassaigne, iodine heated
with solution of sugar is converted into hydriodic acid. Under
the influence of ferments, as well as of dilute acids, cane-sugar
is converted into invert-sugar, which is a mixture of dextrose or

ape-sugar and Jevulose or fruit-sugar, and is directly
fermentable. This inversion of sugar takes place slowly on
boiling with water, but cold aqueous solutions keep unaltered
for a long time, provided the access of ferments suspended in
the air be prevented. Under the same condition, according to
the investigations of Kreusler, Lemoine, and others, light does
not exert the inverting effect reported by Raoul (1871).
Nitrie acid inverts cane-sugar, readily, and when heated

with it produces saccharic, racemic, tartaric, and oxalic
acids,

Tests.—The purity of cane-sugar is ascertained by the
physical properties described above and by its complete
solubility in water and alcohol. The absence of glucose or
of a similar sugar is ascertained by some of the reactions given
below. “‘ Aqueous and alcoholic solutions of sugar should
have no effect on litmus-paper. The solution in 20 parts of
distilled water should be scarcely rendered turbid by silver
nitrate or barium nitrate (chloride and sulphate).” Neither
an aqueous nor an alcoholic solution of sugar kept in large,
well-closed, and completely-filled bottles should deposit 4
sediment on prolonged standing (absence of insoluble salts,
foreign matters, ultramarine, Prussian blue, &e. }i of a portion |
of about 1 Gm. of sugar be dissolved in 10 em. of boiling
water, then mixed with 4 or 5 drops of test solution of nitrate
of silver and about 2 cm. of water of ammonia, and quickly
heated until the liquid begins to boil, not more than a slight
coloration, but no black precipitate should appear in the Ligeai
after standing at rest for 5 minutes (absence of grape-Ssuga?
and of more than a cl amount of inverted ee (sui
and —— po

GRAMINER, 601

Commerce.—The following statistics of the trade in Sugar
are taken from the Reports on the inland trade of the different
provinces and on the trade by sea:

Value in lakhs ae
of Rupees Quantity in thousands of cwts.
ARTICLES, % % 5 8 B 6 os g =
ao|{m|o |]. oO nt Ce) 19 ve
S\2/2/8 8 |e (ee 2

ugar, refined.. 10 41 4) 3] .144) 38) 33) 25) ewts.
mDo. unrefined . 45) 42) 46) 50} 869) 1,009) 953)1,143

Total ...| 55) 46) 50) 53) 1,013, 1,047] 986]1,168) ewts.

r, refined...| ...| 18} 20} 21] ... 150| 158) 163) ewts,

ORYZA SATIVA, Linn.

ig.—Benti. and Trim., t. 291; Rheede, Hort. Mal. v.,
201. Rice (Eng.), Riz (Fr.).

Hab. —Throughout India, wild and cultivated. The

» Spirit, and vinegar. oe
ernacular.—Dhéin (Hind., Beng.), Bhat (Mar.), Chokha ae
-), Arishi (Zam.), Biyyam (Tel.), Akki (Can.).

dusked Rice.--Chival (Hind., Beng.), Téndula (Mar.).

istory, Uses, &c.—Wild rice was probably used by
boriginal tribes of India in prehistoric times ; it is still

fully collected by the peasantry, who consider it to have

al virtues, and call it “ god’s rice,” “ hermit’s rice,” &e.

(aif vrihe ) is not mentioned in the Rig-Veda, but in the

pa- Veda it is noticed along with barley, masha (Phaseolus
rghit), and sesamum. Rice cultivation in India appears

“ been subsequent to that of China and Burma. Girard
tualle, in his Mythologie comparée, states that the Karens of
believe that every plant has its Ja or kelah (spirit),

as its spirit, and when the crop is bad, they pray to it

602 GRAMINEZE.

in the following terms: ‘‘ Come, O spirit of the rice, come
back ! come to the rice-field, come to the rice! come from the
East, come from the West, come from the beak of the bird,
from the mouth of the monkey, from the throat of the elephant,
come from the grain stores! O kelah of the rice, return to
the rice!” In Siam they offer rice and cakes to trees before
cutting them down. In Bengal sacrifices of rice are made to
the Bael tree, probably a survival of an ancient fetish worship
which the Brahmins have sanctioned by deifying the tree.

Rice plays an important part in the marriage ceremonies of
the Hindus. According to the Grihya-sutra of Asvalayana,
the bride must walk three times round the altar, and at the
completion of each turn make an offering of rice. This
ceremony resembles an ancient form of marrying among the
Romans, in which an offering of a cake made of fér (spelt)*
was made in the presence of the Pontifex Maximus or Flamen
Dialis and ten witnesses.

_ Parched rice, Ldjd, also called Syélé (Sya “a winnowing
fan,” and /é for Jéjd), is scattered by the bride’s brother at
marriages. Rice is poured over the head of the bride and
bridegroom as an emblem of life, regeneration and plenty.
On the fourth day of the marriage ceremonies the young
couple eat rice together for the first and only time in their
lives, and on the last day they both celebrate together the
Soma ‘sacrifice, when they throw Idjé into the fire. At the
birth of a child the father places the red ,Akshata rice on
its forehead to avert evil, and when the child is named it
is placed ona cloth covered with rice. Rice is also used in
some parts of India to detect witches: a small bag of rice,
bearing the name of each of the suspected parties, is placed in
a white-ants’ nest, and the one they first eat is considered to
belong to the guilty party. When several persons are suspected
of a crime, rice is sometimes used to detect the guilty one—
_ For this purpose the persons are required to chew rice, the
= criminal being discovered by his inability to properly masticate -
tbe * Triticum Speita, Linn., or German wheat. a a

GRAMINBA. 603

it, owing probably to fear checking the free flow of saliva.
Vincenzo Maria da Santa Caterina mentions in his travels that
rice and turmeric are offered in India to the gods to obtain
children and the cure of female diseases, and that young ©
girls make a vow to offer rice, should they obtain a good
husband. In the consecration of the Brahmachari, the
father of the youth carries in his hands a ecupful of rice,
and the assistants after the bath cover the candidate with
rice. Asvalayana says that the disciple asks alms to learn
the Ved4s; he obtains the rice as alms and must cook it before
sunset. His commentator, Narayana, adds that when the
rice has been cooked, the disciple should say to his raster,
“the food of the pot is ready.” In sacrifices to Rudra,
according to Asvalayana, the husk of rice was thrown into the
_ fire along with the smallest grains, and the tail, skin, head,
and feet of the animal, and that the latter before being killed
was sprinkled with rice and barley-water.

In times of fasting and penitence, grains of rice and barley
are watered and blessed and offered to the gods. In funeral
4 ceremonies rice and other food is offered to crows. According
to Manu, the twice-born are directed to offer five great sacrifices,

aie

_ with herbs, roots, and fruits. oan ih ae

The practice of worshipping the new rice at the time of the
harvest is common throughout India. In Bengal, on a Thursday,
inthe month of Pansha (December-January), after the crop
has been reaped, a rattan-made grain measure called reh, filled
With the grain upon which are placed gold, silver and copper
coins and some cowrie shells, is worshipped as the representative
(ofthe goddess of fortune. This worship is repeated in the
months of Chaitra, Sravana, and Kartika. In Western India
‘le new rice is worshipped at the Dasara and Devali festivals, and
in Madras the same event is celebrated by the Pongo/ ceremony,
when the new rice is boiled for the first time and eaten with
‘Steat rejoicings. Among the Native Catholics the same cere-
ny is perpetuated in the “blessing of the new rice,” which
done by the priest in the field before the crop is cut.

vis., with wild rice (Nivéra), with various pure substances, Or =

604 GRAMINEA.

That the cultivation of rice had widely spread in the time of
Alexander (400 B.C.) we learn from Strabo, who says, ice
ing to Aristobulus, rice grows in Bactriana, Babylonia, Susida,

" and he adds, ‘we may also say in Lower Syria.” F urther on
he notes that the Indians use it for food, and extract a spirit
from it. The Greek names for rice are derived from the Sans-
krit Vrihi ; the earliest form occurs in a fragment of Sophocles,
where rice-bread is called épivdns dpros ; in later writers we meet
with the form épvg{a, The Arabic names have the same deri-
vation, the oldest form being Runz, occurring in the local
dialect of the Abd-el-Kais, near Bahrain, and the more modern —
forms Aruzz and Ruzz. In Persian the form of Birinj is eur-
rent, as well as the Sanskrit name Shali, for unhusked _
Dioscorides briefly mentions rice as being of little nutriti ve
value and apt to cause costiveness. Celsus ., 20) classes it
along with wheat and spelt as “‘ res boni succi.’”’ According to
Sanskrit writers, the best class of grains includes wheat, rice,
and barley only, other kinds being relegated to the class Kshdidre
dhénya or inferior grains. The preparationsof rice used in
the diet of sick people, and described in Sanskrit medical
works, are :—

7aq (yavagu) or powdered rice boiled with water. It is made
of three strengths, namely, with nine, eleven, and nineteen parts
of water, called, respectively, Vilepi, Peyd, and Manda. Instead
of water, a light decoction of some aromatic and carminative
drug, such as ginger or pepper, may be used in preparing
abdys.

erm (14j4) or unhusked rice parched in hot sand. It is used
as light and digestible diet for the sick.

wes (brishta tandula) or husked rice parched in hot sand.
It is used for the same purposes as /a7d.

qyat (prithuké) or unhusked rice moistened, parched, and
afterwards flattened and the husk removed. It is soaked in
water or boiled and given with curdled mide: as an war a
y diet i in diarrhoea or dysentery.

GRAMINEA. 605

qq (paiyasa) or rice-milk. A well-known preparation.

qgarq (tandulambu) or water in which unboiled rice has
been steeped. This is often used as a vehicle for powders, &e.,
and as a diet drink.

Rice is the staple-food of the inhabitants in Bengal, many
parts of Madras, Burma, and the Western Coast of India, but
not of the central and northern parts of the country, where
wheat and millet are the staples and rice only a luxury.

We secre ie Se os ae Ie, ee ee ON
ee on Fens me ;

Fermented and distilled rice liquors are largely used in
many parts of India. For an account of the economic uses of
the grain, its cultivation, and the numerous varieties of the
plant met with in different parts of the country, we must refer
the reader to a diffuse but interesting article by Dr. G. Watt
in the Dictionary of the Econ. Prod. of India.

=e

_ Chemical composition.—Rice has been examined by Letheby,
Payen, and others. Payen gives the percentage composition
of dried rice, as, nitrogenous matter 7°55, carbohydrates 90°75,

closely resembles the potato; one hundred parts of dried
potato, according to Letheby’s analysis, contain, nitrogenous
Matter 8-4, carbohydrates 88, fat 0°8, and saline matters 2°8
parts per cent. bee

Church (Food Grains of India) gives the following percentage
composition of cleaned rice :—Water 12°8, albuminoids 7:3,

_ Temarks, 100 parts of rice contain no more than ‘065 of potash
and -284 of phosphoric acid. Kénig quotes 20 analyses of Tice
by various chemists, the mean percentage composition being,
Water 13-11, albuminoids 7°85, fat °88, nitrogen-free extract and
Starch 76-52, cellulose *63, ash 1°01. Where rice constitutes
almost the entire food of the population, the throwing away the
water in which it has been boiled involves the loss of some of the
‘Mineral matter, and is to be deprecated ; no more water should
be used in cooking this grain than can be absorbed by it. ‘Two
nds of cleaned rice weigh 5 pounds after boiling.

606

GRAMINEZ.

Commerce.—The following table shows the exports of Rice
(husked) from India during the last ten years in thousands

of ewts :-—
Value in
Year, Burma. | Bengal. | Madras. stent Sind. | Total, | lakhs of
y- Rup
1880-81....../16,730| 6,717| 2,363 927] 32 |26,769| 89,717
1881-82...... 16,690) 7,617/| 1,549 614} 49 | 28,519) 82,496
1882-83......| 21,249] 7,838] 1,319 552] 71 |31,029| 84,401
1883-84...... 16,994) 7,394| 1,843 521] 80 | 26,882) 83,289
1884-85...... 13,507) 6,035) 1,403) 677} 80 | 21,702) 71,228
1885-86......| 19,084) 6,879| 1,181| 521] 149 | 27,814) 91,672
1886-87...... 18,216) 5,902} 1,564| 639] 139 | 26,460) 87,648
1887-88..,... 17,879| 7,996| 1,488) 764) 72 | 28,149) 92,251
1888-89...... 14,205) 6,417| 1,538) 589] 19 | 22,768) 78,453
1889-990...... 18,259) 5,992| 1,654| 799) 70 | 26,774; 100,473
Average for|
10 years...| 17,491] 6,878| 1,585| 660| 76 |26,681| 86,162

_ The estimated total production of

given as :—
Bengal ......
Madras

N.-W. Provinces and O
Punjab

rice in 1888-89 has been

. 14,269,223 tons.

2,693,916

Central Provinces
Burma ......

Assam

udh,

399,757
» 2,420,768
271,293

1,622,385
3,039,397

608,846

25,325,585 tons.

—————

In the same year India imported from beyond its frontier
1,151,450 ewts., the greater portion coming from Nepaul. Of
the exports, about 50 per cent, goes to Europe, 30 per cent, to —
Eastern ports, and the remainder for the use of the emigrants

im Mauritius, Réunion, the West Indies, South America, and

GRAMINEZ. 607

Australia. The fine rice of the West Indies is considered.
insipid by the Indian labourers,

7 TRITICUM SATIVUM, Lam.
Fig.— Bentl. and Trim., t. 294. Wheat (Eng.), Blé (Fr.).

: Hab.—The Euphrates region. Cultivated in N.-W. India,
__ the Central Provinces, and Bombay.
_- Vernacular. —Géhun (Hind.), Gahun (Mar.), Godumai (Tam.),
— Godumulu (Te/.), Kotanpam (Mal.), Godhi (Can.), Gam
(Beng.), Ghavum (Guz.). :
_ History, Uses, &c.— Wheat, as the most important of
_ the cereals, has given rise to numerous myths, for an account
_ of which we cannot do better than refer the reader to the late
a Dr. W. Mannhardt’s learned monograph Die Komendimonen
_ (Berlin, 1868). In the myth of Persephone-kora, daughter of -
us, the god of the heavens, which by their warmth and rain
produce fertility, and of Dimeter or Ceres, the maternal
goddess of the fertile earth, we perceive that she was conceived
a8 a divine personification of this grain, in summer appearing
beside her mother in the light of the upper world, but in the
autumn disappearing, and in winter passing her time, like the _
seed under the earth, with the god of the lower world. Asa
pendant to the Greek myth, we have the Indian myth of Sita
or “ the Furrow,”’ husbandry personified, and apparently once.
Worshipped as a kind of goddess. In the Rig-Veda Sita is
invoked as a deity presiding over Agriculture, and appears to
be associated with Indra. In the Vdjasaneya, Sita “ the
urow” is personified and addressed, four furrows being
Tequired to be drawn at the ceremony when certain stanzas are
ited. Sita is so named because she was fabled to have
Sprung from a furrow made by her father Janaka while
hing the ground to prepare it for a sacrifice instituted by
4m to obtain progeny, whence her epithet Ayonija “ not
$mb-born.”* Wheat was used in sacrifice by the Greeks and

ees ee

Course, these myths are more Or less applicable to all food-grains.

608 GRAMINEAS.

Romans, and by the Hindus in Vedic times, as an emblem of
fertility ; it was poured upon the bride at the marriage ceremony,
and in Northern India, wheat, millet and rice are still used on
such occasions. Wheat, as the most important food-grain, is
frequently mentioned by Hippocrates, who calls it tvpés, and
mentions three kinds; Pliny also describes several kinds of
Triticum, Sanskrit medical writers also mention three kinds
of wheat, namely, Mah4godhuma or large-grained, Madhuli or
small-grained, and Nihsuki or beardless ; they consider it to be
the most nutritive of the food-grains, but not so easily digested
as rice.

Many varieties of wheat are cultivated in India, and through
careless cultivation there is much mixture in the samples
brought to market. A number of samples purchased by one of
us in the Bombay market and sent to Australia for trial, were,
on careful cultivation, found to be all mixed, some of them
producing five or six distinct varieties. Indian wheats may be
divided roughly into two classes, soft and hard, the former
being mostly used for bread-making, and the latter for making
a kind of vermicelli and certain other preparations used by the
natives. Amongst the Hindus, owing to caste distinctions, the
whole process of grinding the corn, separating the flour and
making it into cakes, is usually performed by the women of the
house, consequently the demand for ready-made flour is limited
to the supply of the non-Hindu population, and some of the
less particular Hindu castes. In the Indian process of making
flour, the wheat, after cleaning, is placed upon a table and
thoroughly wetted and the water allowed to drain from it
during the night. The next morning, the still moist grain
is ground in handmills by women. It is then sifted, and as
much fine flour and ravwa or swji (the heart of the grain) as can
be obtained are laid aside. The remainder termed “naka” is
again ground in a more powerful mill and an inferior kind of
rawa obtained from it. The residue after a third grinding
yields a coarse flour and bran. The bazar-made bread is of
: two kinds, that used by the Mahometans and known as Wén,

ich is in thin cakes, and loaf-bread introduced by the

GRAMINEZ, ae

Portuguese. The former is similar to the bread used in all
Mahometan countries, the latter is made with 60 parts fine
rawa, 20 second sort or naka raiwa, and 20 of first sort flour.
A second or inferior kind of bread is also sold. The barm
or yeast in use is, where obtainable, the fermenting juice of the
palm, elsewhere an artificial barm is prepared.

In some of the large towns a loaf-bread ismow made by _
Brahmins for the use of the Hindu population, but its useis
very limited. In Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, flour andbread _
made as in Europe is obtainable, and is gradually taking the
place of the Portuguese article. Fine flour is also imported
from Europe and America, as the excessive proportion of
gluten in Indian flour renders it unsuitable for use in making
pastry.

- Wheaten flour is often used as a dusting-powder to allay
the heat and pain of local inflammations, such as burns, scalds,

but itis inferior for such purposes to powdered starch.
America an uncooked paste made of the flour has been used
h butcess in diarrhea. In India flour is much used by the
tives for making poultices.

er than longitudinally. In the vicinity of the furrow alone
tissue of the albumen is narrower. Its predominating
ge cells show a polygonal or oval outline, whilst the outer
layer is built up of two, three or four rows of thick-walled,
) erent, nearly cubic gluten-cells. This layer, about 70 mkm.
thick, is coated with an extremely thin brown tegument, to
Ww: hich succeeds a layer about 30 mkm. thick, of densely packed, |
tabular, greyish or yellowish cells of very small size; this proper
of the fruit in the furrow is.of rather spongy appearance.
» gluten-cells, varying considerably in the different cereal
afford characters enough to distinguish them with
ity, In wheat, for instance, the gluten-cells are In a
—7

610 QRAMINEZE.

single row, in rice they forma double or single row, but its
cells are transversely lengthened.

The layer alluded to as being composed of gluten-cells is
loaded with extremely small granules of albuminous matters
(gluten), which on addition of iodine are coloured intensely
yellow. These granules, which, considering barley as an article
of food, are of prominent value, are not confined to the gluten-
cells, but the neighbouring starch-cells also contain a small
amount of them: and in the narrow zone of denser tissue
projecting from the furrow into the albumen, protein principles
are equally deposited, as shown by the yellow coloration which
iodine produces.

The gluten-cells, the membrane embroynnaire of Mége-Mouriés,
contain also, according to the researches on bread made by
this chemist (1856), Cerealin, an albuminous principle soluble in
water, which causes the transformation of starch into dextrin,
sugar, and lactic acid. In the husks (épiderme, épicarpe, and
endocarpe) of wheat, Mége-Mouriés found some volatile oil and
a yellow extractive matter, to which, together with the cerealin,

is due the acidity of bread made with the flour containing
the bran.

Chemical composition.—Kénig quotes 200 analyses of wheat
from different sources and by various chemists, and the
following figures represent the minimum, maximum, and mean
composition :—

Water. Albuminoids. Fat. Nitrogen-free Cellulose. Ash.

Minimum..5:33 7-61 «1-00 59-90 1:24 52
Maximum.1910 21.37 3-57. 73-77. @ 34.268
Mean ......1365 1235 1-75 6791 953 181

According to Church (Food Grains of India), average
Indian wheat has the following percentage composition :—
Water 12°5, albuminoids 13-5, starch 68:4, oil 1-2, fibre 277;
ash 17. The albuminoids in some samples examined were
as high as 167. In English and American wheat they
_ Tange from 8 to 9 per cent, only. The amount of j

- ——— between 60 and 70 per cent., and the weight tie .

~

QRAMINES. 611

nitrogen between 1-6 and 2-7 per cent. A small quantity of
saccharine matter is also present, and the ash contains nearly
50 per cent. of phosphoric acid. The inorganic constituents
are mostly found in the bran, to the extent of over 7 per cent.,
while the nitrogenated principles enter chiefly the flour. If
the latter be kneaded with cold water as long as the liquid
becomes milky, a yellowish gray elastic and glutinous mass
remains, which is the gie‘en of Beccaria, retains about 70 per
cent. of water, and consists, according to Von Bibra, in the
dry state, of about 70 per cent. vegetable fibrin, 38 to 9-3
vegetable casein, 7:5 to 19°5 glutin, and 4°6 to 8°2 per cent. of
fat. When fresh it dissolves in dilute phosphoric acid and in
solution of potassa. On drying it assumes a hornlike appearance
and partly loses its solubility. According to Boussingault, it
contains 14 per cent. of nitrogen.

To purify it, Ritthausen (1862-67) dissolves it in cold very
dilute potassa solution (1 to 1,000 parts of water), decants from
_ the undissolved starch, and precipitates with acetic acid. The
__, Precipitate is repeatedly treated with fresh portions of alcohol,
_ €ommencing with spec. gr. ‘914, and increasing the strength
finally to absolute aleohol. After another washing with ether,
the insoluble portion constitutes gluten-casem, which is slightly ae
soluble in acetic acid, freely soluble in potassa, and becomes’
insoluble by heat. On evaporating the united alcoholic liquids
to one-half and cooling, gluten-fibrin is separated, which 1s
freed from adhering casein by dissolving it repeatedly in 60
and 70 per cent. alcohol. It is freely soluble in dilute acetic
acid, and when boiled with water, in which it is insoluble, it is
Converted into a jelly. After the separation of gluten-fibrin,
evaporated; the pre-

with a little alcohol,

and precipitated by absolute alcohol. The precipitate is
_ mitcedin; the solution contains glutin or gliadin. The former
a Yields with cold or boiling water a milk-like liquid; the latter
48 soluble in water, alcohol, acetic acid, potassa, &e., the
ueous solution being precipitated by the salts of the heavier

612 GRAMINE ZZ.

metals; glutin contains sulphur and 18 per cent. of nitrogen.
- These principles are the most important ones of the veg getable
protein compounds. (Stillé and Maisch.)

Starch forms a white, inodorous, and tasteless powder, with
a peculiar slippery feel between the fingers. Exposed to the
atmosphere, it contains from 10 to 13 per cent. of moisture,
which is giyen off at 100° C. (212° F.), and is reabsorbed on
exposure. The spec. gray. of starch is about 1:5, but after
complete drying is increased to 1°56, It is insoluble in ether,
alcohol, and cold water; the last-mentioned liquid, however,
when triturated with starch, so that some of the granules are
ruptured, evidently dissolves a little, since it acquires, after -
filtration, a blue color on the addition of iodine. Soluble starch
is obtained, according to ae by the prolonged heating of
starch to 100° C. (212° F.). When heated to between 160°
and 200° C. (820° and 392° F.), it is gradually converted into
dextrin (see below). Starch becomes soluble in cold water in
— the presence of the chlorides of zine and of caleium and of

- other deliquescent or freely soluble salts. Its solution in hot
water gelatinizes on cooling, the jelly of wheat starch being
milk-white—that of potato starch, particularly when made
with much water, being more translucent. On heating starch
with glycerin a solution is obtained, which, according to
Zulkowski (1875, 1880), contains soluble starch, obtainable
by diluting with water and precipitating the clear filtrate with
alcohol. Potatostarch is easily converted into the soluble form,
but wheat starch requires a prolonged heating, and rice starch
is thus changed with still greater difhculty.

Preparation.—Wheat or other grain is soaked in warm
water, to which sometimes an alkali is added, until the outer
coating has become soft ; ; itis then ground under water, and
washed upon suitable sieves with pure water, with which the
starch passes through and is collected by subsidence in suitable

tanks, the alkaline water retaining the gluten ; or the latter is

removed by allowing it to undergo decomposition, when acetios 3
utyric, or lactic other acids are produced, The gluten —
not be destrc 0} ny bt maybe obsined ay a hyped |

GRAMINEAE.

615

for this purpose wheat flour is made with water into a stiff
dough ; this is set aside for 2 hours, and then placed upon a
fine wire sieve, where it is kneaded under a thin stream of water
until the latter no longer becomes milky ; nearly the whole of
the gluten will remain upon the sieve. After sufficient washing
with pure water, the starch is drained in boxes, cut into cubical
blocks, and dried in properly-constructed drying chambers.
Mucilage of starch, when heated to about 160° C. (320° F.),
or when boiled with very dilute sulphuric acid, or when digested
with diastase at about 70° CG. (158° F.), is converted,
according to Musculus (1860), first into maltose, OVO,
which is probably a compound of dextrin, CHO", and dextrose,
C°H"0°, the former passing finally likewise into glucose.
Todine imparts to starch in the presence of water, and to starch-
mucilage, a blue color which disappears on the application of
heat, but reappears on cooling. Bromine colors the starch
brown-yellow. Fuming nitric acid transforms starch into
tyloidin, C°H% NO?)O°, which is a white, tasteless powder,
insoluble in alcohol, but softening in boiling water. A filtered
solution of starch in water yields with tannin a flocculent
precipitate which is soluble in boiling water. When incinerated, —
starch should leave not over 1 per cent. of ash. i eae
The exports of Wheat from India to Europe last year exceedet
1,397,000 tons, an, increase on the shipments f the previous —
twelve months of 725,000 tons, or 110 per eent., and they were
Jarger than the previous largest shipments in any year, that of
1886, by 265,000 tons, or 23°4 per cent. In the past seven
talendar years the exports from the three great shipping ports
have been as under :—
oo

; Fro Total —
at | oes ccmeliee Calcutta. | _ Tons. _
| 665,543] 512,632| 219,221 | 1,397,466
... | 272,644 | 334,042 65,439 | 672,126
“| 305/044) 341,187| 77,637 | 723,818
: ws | 483,035 149,277 | 148,776 781,088
...| 462,428] 32,977 99,012 | 724,417
1 | 6777834] 186,352+ 328,558 | 1,182,744
.a. | 542,562) 807,844 412,277 | 1,062,683

614 GRAMINUA.

The shipments from Bombay show an increase on the preced:
ing year of 144°5 per cent., those from Kurrachee of 53:6, and
from Calcutta of 236-9 per cent. ‘The share of these three
ports in the trade in the past two years and in 1886 has been
as under :—

1891 1890 1886
Per cent Per cent Per cent
Bombay ... er 47°6 40°6 54:5
Kurrachee oa 36°7 49°7 157
Calcutta. 15-7 9-7 29:8

Three years ago Kurrachee took the lead, and in the follow-
ing year she increased it, thanks to the large crops in the
Punjab, from whence she draws the bulk of her supplies. Last
year the crop in the Punjab, the largest wheat-producing pro-
vince in India, was a bumper one, and as the demand from
Hurope was more than usual, the exports from the chief port
of Sind were far in excess of any previous year, and exceeded
half a million tons. But she was, nevertheless, unable to main-

tain her supremacy. With full crops in the Central Provinces
and in the North-West Provinces and Oudh, but under the
average in this Presidency, Bombay once again took the lead
with ‘a total of close on 666,000 tons, or about 30 per cent.
more than from Kurrachee and a 11 per cent. larger share in
the total exports from the country. To the larger crop in the

.-W. Provinces and QOudh the increased shipments from
Calcutta are due, for in Bengal the crop was slightly under the
mean; but her future position, as an exporter of Wheat, is
bound to weaken, rather than improve, on that held by the
ports on the Western side. In the past seven years on an
average 51 per cent. of the shipments have been despatched
to Great Britain and 49 to the Continent, but last year only
41 per cent. went to U. K. Ports and 59 to the rest of Europe-
Of the shipments from Bombay in 1891, the Continent received
63 per cent. from Kurrachee nearly as much—viz., 61 per

: cent.,— but from Calcutta only 41 per cent. went. The crop
_ how growing promises well in the Punjab and North-West
_ Provinces, in both of which the area was recently estimated

GRAMINEA. 615

as larger than last year: in the former at about one, and
in the latter at four per cent. more, or about 10? and 11
per cent., respectively, in excess of the normal area. In the
Central Provinces and in this Presidency, the estimates, when
completed, are expected to fall short of both last year and the
average, owing to the season being unfavourable for the later
sowings, but in Berar the area is returned at over two per
cent, more than last year’s. More rain is wanted, especially in
the Central Provinces, Berar, and in parts of our own Presi-
dency, and unless it soon falls the outturn will be still further
reduced. A large business in Punjab Wheat was done a few
months ago for April-May delivery in Bombay, but owing to
the dealers in the Central Provinces holding out for new terms
of sale in the local market, very little of the grain of those pro-
vinces has so far been contracted for. ‘I‘hey have only recently
given way, and agreed to sell on the old terms, too late, however,
for the market has slipped back and prices have dropped con-
siderably from their former high level.

HORDEUM HEXASTICHUM, Lin.

Fig.— Duthie, Fodder Grasses of N. India, Pi. F, I 32.
Barley (Zng.), Orge (F.).

Hab.— Western temperate Asia. Cultivated in the N -W.
Provinces of India.

Vernacular.—Jay (Hind.), Jab (Beng.), Java (Mar. Tel.).

History Uses, &c.—Indra in the Rig- Veda is called
durah yavasya, “the giver of the barley.” At many Hindu
Ceremonies, such as the birth of a child, marriages, funerals,
and in various sacrifices, barley is used. In the Atharva-Veda
the rice and barley offered to the dead are prayed to to be
Propitious to them, and in the same Veda rice and barley are
Mvoked for the cure of disease and deliverance from other
evils: Bray yakshmain vi bédhete; etau mun’ch’ato anhasas.”
Barley is symbolic of wealth and plenty; it is also a phallic
emblem ; Asvalayana, in the first book of the Grihyasutra, says

616 GRAMINEZ:.

that in Vedic times, the wife when three months gone with
child fasted; after her fast, her husband came to her with a
pot of sour milk into which he threw two beans and a grain
of barley, and whilst she was drinking it, he asked, “ What
drinkest thou?” She, having drunk three times, replied,
7 drink to the birth of a son.” Ndrdyana, in his Commentary
on Asyalfyana, states that the two beans and the grain of
barley represent the organs of generation. (De Gubernatis.)

At the Yava-chaturthi, on the fourth day of the light half
of the month Vaisiékh, a sort of game is played in which
people throw barley-meal over each other. Yava-sura, al
intoxicating drink, is made from barley in Northern India.
According to Bretschneider, barley is included among the five
cereals, which, it is related in Chinese history, were sowed by the
Emperor Sheh-nung, who reigned about 2700 B.C. ; but it is

not one of the five sorts of grain which are used at the ceremony
of ploughing and sowing as now annually performed by the _
emperors of China.

Theophrastus was acquainted with several sorts of barley
(Kp:@n), and, among them, with the six-rowed kind or hexasti-
chon, which is the species that is represented on the coins
struck at Metapontum in Lucania between the 6th and 2nd
centuries B.C.

Barley is mentioned in the Bible as a plant of cultivation in
Egypt and Syria, and must have been, among the ancient
Hebrews, an important article of food, judging from the
quantity allowed by Solomon to the servant of Hiram, king of
Tyre (B.C. 1015). The tribute of barley paid to King Jotham
by the Ammonites (B.C. 741) is also exactly recorded. The
ancients were frequently in the practice of removing the hard
integuments of barley by roasting it, and using the torrified
grain as food. (Pharmacographia.)

The Hindus employ barley in the dietary of the sick. It is

: Gruel prepared from saktu is said to be easily diges

_ chiefly used in the form of saktu or powder of the parched 4

to be useful in painful dyspepsia. In Europe, for use i

SE oe a ee RE fey en ae ae eee ee np Eee ee gener a 8 ars

cE Se eo ae ee i ae eee et aera

GRAMINE A. 617

medicine and as food for the sick, pearl-barley is always

employed; this is the grain deprived of its husk by passing it

between horizontal mill-stones, placed so far apart as to rub off

the integuments without crushing it. Pearl-barley imported

from Europe is obtainable in most Indian bazars. For an

account of the economic uses of barley, we would refer the
_ reader to an article by Dr. J. Murray in the Diet. Econ. Prod.
of India (iv., p. 273).

Description.—The structure of the barley-grain after
the palew have been removed is similar to that of wheat (see
Triticum), The palee consist chiefly of long fibrous, thick-
walled cells, two or four rows deep, constituting a very hard
_ layer. On transverse section, this layer forms a coherent
enyelope, about 35 mkm. thick; its cells, when examined in
longitudinal section, show but a small lumen of peculiar
- undulated outline from secondary deposits. (Pharmacographia.)
— Chemical composition.—The following figures representing
the average minimum, maximum, and mean composition of
a samples of barley from different sources are quoted by

Water. Albuminoids. Fat. 60 extract. Cellulose. 3
ie jn Vee 6°20 1:08 49°14 1-96.

Maximum...20°88 17:46 487 7220 1416 002
ao?!” 4iae 2:16 64:93 Or “S00 © ©
According to Church, the average percentage composition ot 7
usked Indian barley is, water 12°5, albuminoids 11°5, starch
70-0, oil 1-3, fibre 2:6, ash 2°1.
~ Lermer (Vierteljahresschr. fur prakt. Pharm, XIT. (1863),
4-23) found European barley to have the following percentage
composition :—Water 13 to 15, oil 3-0, starch 63-0, cellulose 7-0,
dextrin 6°6, nitrogen 2°5, ash 2°4, lactic acid a trace. The
protein or albuminous matter consists of different principles,
shiefly insoluble in cold water. The soluble portion is partly
lated on boiling, partly retained in solution. 2°5 percent.
Togen, as above, would answer to about 16 per cent of

78

Lit 7 Ash.
5

618 GRAMINEZ.

_ albuminous matters. Their soluble part seems to be deposited
in the starch-cells, next to the gluten cells, which latter contain
the insoluble portion.

The ash, according to Lermer, contains 29 per cent. of silicic
acid, 32°6 of phosphoric acid, 22°7 of potash, and only 3°7 of
lime, In the opinion of Salm-Horstmar, fluorine and lithia are
indispensable constituents of barley.

The fixed oil of barley, as proved in 1863 by Hanamann, is
-acompound of glycerine, with either a mixture of palmitic and
lauric acids, or less probably with a peculiar fatty acid. Beck-
mann’s Hordeinie Acid obtained in 1855 by distilling barley
with sulphuric acid is probably lauric acid, Lintner (1868)
has shown barley to contain also a little Cholesterin.

Lastly, Kithnemann (1875) extracted from barley a crystal-
lized dextrogyrate sugar, and (1876) an amorphous levogyrate
mucilaginous substance, Sinistrin ; according to that chemist,
dextrin is altogether wanting in barley. :
Barley when malted loses 7 per cent. ; it then contains 10 to
12 per cent. of sugar, produced at the expense of the starch;
before malting no sugar is to be found. (Pharmacographia.)

~ Commerce.—The total yield of barley in British India does not
exceed 50,000,000 ewts. In 1887-88 the total exports were
29,575 ewts., valued at Rs. 89,776, of which Bombay shipped
18,688 cwts., Bengal 6,873 cwts., and Sind 4,014 ewts., valued
at Rs, 58,682, Rs. 20,556, and Rs. 10,588, respectively. The
country which imported most largely was Persia, with 10,358
ewts. ; following on which were, Arabia with 7,675 ewts., Ceylon
with 7,539 ewts., and Aden, the United Kingdom, Zanzibar,
and “other countries” with insignificant quantities. (Dict.
Econ. Prod. India, iv., p- 281.)

+8 minor food grains (Kudhénya or Kehudar dhanya)
| mentioned by Sanskrit medical writers are :—
Sorghum vulgare, Pors.—YaAvanéla (Sanskrit), Joér
(Hind. Beng.), Tavéri (Guz.), Jondhalé (Mar.), Cholum (Tam.)>

aes

‘ i
ey a

patie! ae

GRAMINE. 619

This is one of the most important food-crops of India; from __
it are made bread, porridge, and other food preparations. ©
Church’s analysis shows it to have the following percentage
composition :— Water 12-5, albuminoids 9-3, starch 72°3, oil 2°0,
fibre 2:2, ash 1-7, phosphoric acid 0°85, potash 0-21.

Setaria italica, Beawy.—Kangu (Sanskrit), Kora (Hind.),
Kéngni (Beng.), Kéli-kéngani (Mar.), Bajri (G@us.), Tennai
(Lam.), Koréld (Tel.).

The grain is much esteemed as an article of human food
-™ some parts of India. It is eaten in the form of cakes and
- Porridge in the North-West Provinces and Bombay ; in Madras
_ itis valued as a material for making pastry, in the Punjab the
leaves are used as a pot-herb. Boiled with milk it forms a
_ light and pleasant meal for invalids. Church’s analysis shows
_ it to have the following percentage composition:— Water 10°2,
albuminoids 10:8, shale 73°4, oil 2°9, fibre 1°5, ash 1°2
(husked),

Panicum miliaceum, Zinn.—China (Sanskrit), China :
ind.), China-ghés (Beng.), Varagu (Zam.), Vorglo (Tel),
Varivava (Mar.). sop
This grain is usually made use of in the form of porridge i
hurch’s analysis shows it to have the following pe entage
Composition:—Water 12-0, albuminoids 12-6, —
3°6, fibre 1-0, ash 1:4 (husked). die gage e
Panicum frumentaceum, forb.—Syémika (Sanskrit), 4
Sawan (Hind. ), Shyémédhén (Beng.), Shamélu (Zel.), Kathli, |
Shamila (Mar.), Savan, Sama (@uz.).

_ This grain is wholesome and nourshing, and is much used

for home consumption amongst the poorer classes. Church’s
“analysis shows it to have the following percentage
€omposition :—Water 12:0, albuminoids 8°4, starch 72-5, oil 3°0,

fibre 2:2, ash 12:9 (unhusked).

Paspalum scrobicuiutum, Linn.—Kodrava (Senshi,

Oda (Hind.), Kodoédh4n (Beng.), Arugu (Tei.), Gora-harik,
kodru (Mar., Guz.).

620 GRAMIN EA.

Cases of poisoning are occasionally met with in India,
arising from the consumption of this grain as an article of
food. The symptoms are similar to those seen in poisoning by
darnel (see Lolium temulentum). Kodru-poisoning occasionally
ends fatally : thus, in a case reported to the Bombay Chemical
Analyser, from Godhra, in 1879-80, four persons, viz, a man
and three children, were poisoned by eating bread made from
the flour, and one of the children died. This grain appears to
be only occasionally poisonous; according to popular belief,
_ there are two varieties of the grain, Gora or “ sweet,” and
Majara or “ poisonous,”

Church’s analysis shows the following percentage composition
of the husked grain:—Water 11:7, albuminoids & 0, starch
77:2, oil 2°1, fibre 0°7, ash 1°3.

_Hygrorhiza aristata, Nees.—Nivéra (Sanskrit),
Uridhin (Hind., Beng.), Deobhat (Mar.).

See article on Rice. Church’s analysis shows that wild rice,
after it has been husked, has the following percentage
composition :— Water 12-8, albuminoids 7:3, starch 78°3,
oil 0°6, fibre 0-4, ash 0°6.

Eleusine corocana, Gértn. —Rigi (Sanskrit), Mandua,
Mandal (Hind.), Marua (Beng.), Kayur (Zam.), Ponassa (Te/.),
Ragi (Can.), Nachni, Négli (Mar.).

This grain is much used by the poorer classes in Western
India, usually in the form of porridge. It is considered to be
particularly wholesome and digestible, and a thin gruel made
from it is much used mixed with cow’s milk for weaning
children and as a diet for invalids. In Goa thin biscuits are
prepared with the flour, from which a gruel can at once be
made.

Church’s analysis shows the grain to lacie the following
percentage composition :—Water 13° 2, albuminoids. 73, starch
73:2, oil 15, fibre 2:5, ash 2°3, phosphoric acid 0-4, |

FILICES. 621

(Sanskrit.), Deodhén (Hind., Beng.), Shalu (MMar.), Iniphi
(Guz).

A food grain of much value. Church’s analysis shows it to
have the following percentage composition:—Water 12°8,
albuminoids 11°8, starch 68:3, oil 3°0, fibre 3:0, ash 1°],
sugar 6 to 18.

; : Sorghumsac charatum, Mench. —Devadhinya

Saccharum sara, Roxb.—Charuka (Sanskrit), Sarpa,
Sara (Hind), Sarabij (Beng.), Gundra, Sura (Zam., Tel.),
Sara (Dar.). .

The seed of this grass appears to be only used in famine
times, or by some of the wild tribes who use the stem for
making arrows.

The seeds of Coix and Bambusa, which are also classed
amongst the Kshudra-dhdnya, have been already noticed.

: Festuca indica (Rheede, xii., 45) is used to resolve phlegmons.

FILICES.

POLYPODIUM VULGARE, Linn, : baer © .

Fig.—Eng. Bot., 1149; Woodv. Suppl. t. 271, Common
Polypody (Eng.), Polypode de chéne (/%-).

Hab.—Persia, Europe. The rhizomes.

Vernacular.—Basfaij (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—This fern is the modrurdbior of Theo-
phrastus and Dioscorides, both of whom mention its purgative
properties. Dioscorides states that it is used to expel bile and
phlegm. Pliny (26, 37) says:—“ The root of polypadion, known
to usas filicula, is used medicinally, being fibrous and of a grass-

green colour within, about the thickness of the little finger, and
Covered with cavernous suckers like those on the arms of the
polypus. It is of a sweetish taste, and is found growing among

622 FILICES.

rocks and under trees. ‘The root is steeped in water, and the
juice extracted ; sometimes, too, it is cut in small pieces
and sprinkled upon cabbage, beet, mallows, or salt meat ;
or else it is boiled in pap asa gentle aperient for the bowels.
It carries off bile and the pituitous humors, but acts injuriously
upon the stomach. Dried and powdered and applied to the
nostrils, it cauterizes polypus of the nose. It has neither seed
nor flower. In Germany there was a myth in ancient times
that the plant sprang from the milk of the goddess Freya, and
in more recent times the Virgin Mary was credited with its
origin. Owing to the sweetness of the rhizome, it is, in some
parts of France, called “reglisse”’ or “liquorice.”

The Persians call the plant Tashtiwin and Baspdfk; the
latter name in the Arabic form of. Basfaij is now current
throughout the East as the name of the drug, and is used by
Ibn Sina and the Arabian physicians. The Arabian names for
the plant are, Azras-el-kalb ‘dog's tooth,” in allusion to the
_ toothed appearance of the leaves, ee een! ‘“‘many-footed,”’
and Thékib- -el-hajar ‘‘ penetrating stones.” The Mahometan
physicians use it as an aperient, deobstruent, and alterative
combined with myrobalans and fumitory ; they consider that
it acts as an expeller of all kinds of peccant humors; for
instance, we have seen it prescribed in cataract and amaurosis
by Indian hakims. It is not an article of the Hindu Materia
Medica,

Description.—The dried rhizome occurs in pieces of
various lengths, and of the thickness of a quill. It is flattened,
of a yellowish-brown colour externally, green internally, but
when old yellowish ; the upper surface is studded with tubercles,
tosome of which a portion of the base of the frond still adheres.
The under surface is more or less spinous from the remains of
< broken radicles. The taste is sweetish, astringent, nauseous,
and somewhat aerid ; odour ferny. Under the microscope, the
thizome is seen to consist of a delicate cellular structure
containing much starch and green granular matter; it is
Se = large bundles of sealariform vessels. _ eS

FILICRS. 623
POLYPODIUM QUERCIFOLIUM, Spr.

Fig.— Rheede, Hort. Mal. zii., t, 11. Oak-leayed Polypody
(Eng.). ;

_ Hab.—India. Widely distributed throughout the East.
_ The rhizome.
Vernacular.—Béasing, Vandar-basing, Ashva-katri (Mar.).
History, Uses, &c,— Basing (arfar1), the Marathi
name of this remarkable fern, signifies the crown-like frontlet
which the Marathi people tie upon the forehead of the bride
and bridegroom at the marriage ceremony. There can be
little doubt that the form of the ornament was suggested by .
the appearance of the plant ; its use is of very ancient date, and :

4 probably derived from the aboriginal inhabitants of the hilly

=" districts of Western India, where P. quercifolium is very
_ abundant. The thick silky rhizome of this fern is found
_ Closely adhering to the dead branches of trees, which it
- envelopes with its large oak-like leaves. Rheede says that the
_ plant is supposed by the natives of Malabar to partake of the
properties of whatever tree it grows upon. This notion —
Prevails all over India with regard to this and other parasites —
(see Loranthacee), and, as has already been shown, is quit
erroneous, eee ae.
For medicinal purposes those plants which grow upon the = =—
_ Strychnos Nuzx-vomica are preferred. The author of the — |
_ Wanaushadi Prakésha gives the following prescription contain-
ing Bésing as the best cure for phthisis :—Take 2 tolds of
K4jrabising, 1 tola Ooksi flowers (Calycopteris floribunda),
2 tolas Chiretta, 2 tolais Ghas-pitpapra ( Rostellularia procumbens),
2 tolés Ringan-mil (root of Solanum indicum), 2 tolés Bal-bel-
Phal (small immature fruit of gle Marmelos), 2 tolds
Padminimal (root of Nelumbium speciosum), 4 tol4s Sonar-wel-
mtil (root of Vicoa indica), two tolés Gokhru-mil (root of
Tribulus terrestris). These nine drugs are to be powdered and
divided into seven parts. For administration each part is to
be boiled in ‘40 tolaés of water, sweetened with 2 toldés of

’

624 | FILICHS

sugar-candy, and the decoction (kara) boiled down to one- eighth ;
this is to be taken in the morning, and the marc is to be again
treated in the same manner to furnish the nikéra (aecond
decoction) or evening dose. The same prescription is recom-
mended in hectic fever from whatever cause, and in dyspepsia
and cough ; during its use potatoes and indigestible vegetables
are to be avoided.

Rheede (xii., 12, 13) has the following remarks upon the
medicinal use of Prigvodiate taccifolium in Malabar :—‘“‘Succus
radicis vermes enecat, bilem sistit et temperat. Folia in
pulverem redacta cum melle assumpta secundinas, menses, imo
fotum ipsum fortiter ejiciunt ; mulieres ergo cavete vobis.”’

ADIANTUM VENUSTUM, Don.

Fig.— Hook. Sp. Fil. ii., 40; Bedd. Ferns. Brit. Ind. xx.
Hab.—Himalaya, Afghanistan, Persia. The plant.
Vernacular.—Hansréj, Mobarkha (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—Under the name of @diartoy a
fern is described by Dioscorides as having leaves serrated at
the top like coriander ( PvAAdpia 2yer kopidyBpo Spora ere xtopeva eT
dxopov ), This plant was doubtless Adiantum Capiilus Veneris,
twin, the same description would apply equally well to A, venus-
but which has been adopted by the Mahometan physicians of
the Hast as representing the @.avrov of the Greeks. The Western
Arabs, however, appear to use A, Oapillus Veneris, as they call
the plant Kuzburat-el-bir or “ coriander of the well,” indicating
a habitat where 4. venustum is not found, Other Arabic
names for the genus Adiantum are oe inn “ fairies’ hair,”
Shaar-el-jibal “hair of, the mountains,’ Shaar-el-fual ‘“ hair
of omens,” Sék-el-aswad “ black stem,” Nasif-el-aswad “ black
veil,” &¢.° Ibn Sina and other medical writes describe the
drug under the name of Barsiawashén, which is the Arabian
_ form of the Persian name Parsiawashén. It is considered to
= be deobstruent and resolvent, useful for clearing the prime
i. of bile, adust bile, and phlegmatic humors ; also pectoral,

FILICES. 625

expectorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, and alexipharmic. Used
asa plaster it is considered to be discutient, and is applied to
chronic tumours of various kinds. The author of the Burhdn
states that the ashes of the plant mixed with olive oil and
vinegar are used to make the hair grow upon the bald patches
produced by ringworm of the scalp. Theophrastus (H. P., vii.,
13) mentions two kinds of Adiantum, “white” and “black,”
used in making hair oil. Greck synonyms for the plant were
politrichon, calitrichon, trichomanes, and ebinotrichon.

In France a syrup of Maiden-hair is much used as a pectoral ;
the officinal plant is 4. pedatum, Linn., or Capillaire du Canada,
but 4. trapeziforme, Linn., Capillaire du Mexique, is allowed as
a substitute.

Description.—Fronds 3 to 4 times pinnate. Rachis
slender, polished, naked ; segments rigid, prominently veined
and toothed, upper edge rounded, lower cuneate into the
petiole ; sori one to three, large, roundish, placed in a distinct

_ hollow on the upper edge.
Commerce.—The Maiden-hair of commerce consists solely of
A. venuslum, imported from Persia in large bales which contain
4number of small bundles, five or six of which weigh one —

Pound. Value, 3 annas per Ib. Other species of Adiantum —
are used locally to a small extent.

ASPLENIUM PARASITICUM, Wild.

Pig. —Rhecde, Hort. Mal. ii., t. 17.
Vernacular.—K iri-béli-p4nna-maravara (Mai.),

War.), Kali-pindan (Goa).

Maha-pana

ASPLENIUM FALCATUM, Wild.
Fig.— Rhcede, Hort. Mal. zii.; t. 18+
Hab.—India. The rhizomes.

_ Pernacular.—Nela-pinna-maravara (Ma/.), Pana (Mar.),

626 FILICES.

History, Uses, &c.—The medicinal use of these ferns
is due’ to the Portuguese, who, on their settling in India, adopted
them as substitutes for Asplenium of Europe.

A fern called demdnvov or domdnvos réa was supposed by the
ancients to have the property of reducing the size of the spleen 5
it was also known as ckodoréviniov “ centipede plant,” from a
fancied resemblance of its fronds to that reptile, and jpévor
“mule plant,” because mules were reputed to be fond of feed-
ing upon it. Dioscorides mentions the use of a decoction of the
plant in vinegar for enlargement of the spleen, and also the local
application of a plaster made of the leaves steeped in wine. It
was also considered to be of use in incontinence of urine, cal-
culus, and jaundice. Women were not allowed to use it, as it
was supposed to cause sterility. This plant is generally iden-
tified with the Asplenium Ceterach of Linneus, «Spleen-wort ”
or “Milt waste ”’; others have supposed it to be A. hemionitis,
Linn., “ Mules’ fern,’ or A. Scolopendrium, Linn., “ Hart’s
tongue.” ees

Mahometan physicians, under the name of Iskélikandriin,
give a translation of what Dioscorides says concerning this
drug, with a few unimportant additions ; practically they appear
to know nothing about it, and we have never known any drug
to be offered under this name in the bazars. Haji Zein states
that it is called Hashishat-el-tihé] « Spleen-wort’’ in Arabic,
and in Egypt Kaf-el-nasar “ Eagle’s clan.”

The Indian substitute is used in Goa as an alterative in cases
of prolonged malarial fever, usually in combination with Olden-
landia or Andrographis, and the use of the drug has spread
to Malabar through the Goan Brahmins who have settled there.

Description.—The part used medicinally is the rhizome,
to which are attached the bases of the fronds and numerous
radicles, all of a black colour. The rhizome is about as thick
as the finger; when broken across it is seen to consist of a
parenchyma in which are several bundles of vessels of a lighter

colour. These can be separated from the canals in which they ;
situated without much trouble when the rhizome is fresh.

a

LICHENES. : 627

Under the microscope, the cell-walls of the parenchyma appear
of a dark-brown colour, and the vascular bundles are seen to
consist of large scalariform vessels. It has an astringent and
slightly bitter taste.

Actinopteris dichotoma, Bedd. Vern.—Mor-pankhi,
Mayuraka. A fern which grows in the Nilgiri and Himalaya
Mountains, and upon rocks and old walls in the Deccan, but is
rare in the plains of India; it is used asa styptic. “ Actinopteris
is a genus of polypodiaceous fern of the section Aspleniew, and
consists of curious little plants like miniature fan palms. The
technical peculiarities of the genus among the Aspleniez consist
in the simple distinct indusia, free veins, and linear-elongate
sori, which are marginal on the contracted rachiform segments
of the small flabelliform fronds.” (Z. Moore in “ Treasury
of Botany.) Atkinson states that this fern is used as an
anthelmintic.

LICHEN ES.

PARMELIA KAMTSCHADALIS, Eesch.
Hab. ;

Himalaya, Persia.

PARMELIA PERLATA, sch. -
Fig—Eng. Bot., 341.
Hab.—lIndia, Europe, Africa. The plant.
Vernacular.—Charéla, Charcharéla, Pathar-ke-phal, Silé-bék
4 (Hind), Motha-dagada-phil, Barik-dagada-phiil (Mar.), Ghabilo,
Chadila (@uz.), Kalpasi, Kalapu (Zam.), Ratipanché (7/.).
| History, Uses, &c.—Two lichens are found in all
Indian bazars, which are known as the greater and lesser
“ stone-flowers” in the vernaculars, and in Sanskrit as Sil4-valka
or “rock-bark.” Similar plants were known to the Greeks as
8ptov and ogdyves, and to the Romans as Muscus. Dioscorides
“(i., 22) notices their medicinal properties, also Pliny (xi., 61),
The Arabs call. them Ushnah, a name derived from the

628 FUNGI,

Persian, and Hazaz-el-sakhar ‘‘ rock-scab.” Leith says:—“ It
is a thing that spreads itself upon the trees called Bait and
Sanibar (oak and pine) as though it were pared off from a root
(Gr5 w? 9880 +I); and it is sweet in odour, and white.”
(Kamis.) In Persia these lichens are known as Ushnah and
Dowdlah. The author of the Makhzan-el-Adwiya states that
Ushnah grows upon the oak, cypress, and other trees; that
which is whitest should be preferred; it should have an agree-
able odour. He describes it as astringent, resolvent, and

aperient, and says that the decoction is used as a tonic and

alterative; when burnt, the smoke relieves headache, the
powder is a good cephalic snuff. Externally the drug has
emollient and astringent properties, and may be used in a bath
or asa poultice, &e. The dry powder is applied to wounds
and sores to promote granulation. Honigberger mentions the
use of the drug at Lahore in disorders of the stomach,
dyspepsia, vomiting, pain in the liver or womb, induration of
the uterus, amenorrhea, calculi, and nocturnal spermatic
discharges. ?

Ainslie (ii., 170) says : “ Kull-pashie is the Tamool name given
to a dried pale-coloured rock moss, which the Vytians suppose
to possess a peculiar cooling quality, and prepare with it a
liniment for the head.”

The use of these lichens in the form of a poultice, placed
over the renal and lumbar regions to produce diuresis, is
noticed in the Pharmacopeia of India,

FUNGI.

MYLITTA LAPIDESCENS, Zoran.
Pig.— Trans. Linn. Soc., vol, wxiti,, t. 9; p. 97.
Hab.—India and China.
Vernacular.—Carom-pallagum (Tam.), Lay-wan (China).

a a History, Uses, &c.—This curious underground fungus —
_ 1s supposed to be allied to the truffles, and is used in Southera —

ig
i
#
a

Cee eee ae

i Mie oe a Ss a i inte ria a be 2

PO IE Ree ar yee

FUNGI. 629

Indiaas medicine and food. In 1860 Dr. E. J. Waring forwarded
to Mr. Hanbury some specimens of these tuberiform productions,
and they were examined by Mr, M. J. Berkeley and Mr. Currey.
These specimens had been dug out from the chalk-beds in the
mountains between Travancore and Tinnevelly, and the hill-
people were in the habit of bringing them into Trevandrum
for sale. They are much esteemed by native doctors for
various complaints, and they are regarded as diuretic, The
Tamil name signifies Black Pallagum, Pallagum meaning a
medicinal substance. The fungus frequently appears on the
Nilgiris, and the Badagas, Karumbars, and other hill-tribes call
it “God’s bread ”’ or ‘ Little man’s bread,” and use it for food.
In 1889 the Peziza was very plentiful in the Government
Cinchona Plantations at Naduvatam, and the specimens were
found over a wide area about one foot beneath the surface of the
ground. Planters on other parts of the hills have noticed their
periodical occurrence in their estates, and the coolies always
collect and cook them for their meals.

Description.—These fungoid bodies are like small tubers
having a black, finely-wrinkled surface, and the inside is white
and marked with veins, and a microscopic section shows the
division of the tissue into areole similar to that exhibited by
hypogzeous fungi. In a fresh state they have a waxy
consistence, but when dry they are hard and horny. Some
fresh slices immersed in glycerine for several weeks showed no
crystalline or crystalloid formations, and starch was entirely
absent,

Chemical composition.—The dried Peziza yielded 1 per cent.
of carbonated ash. Boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid a
solution was formed, reducing Fehling’s test and inactive towards
polarised light. Boiled with soda alarge quantity of pectinous
matter was dissolved.

BOLETUS CROCATUS, Batsch.

oi Hab.-—-India, on the Jack-tree (Artocarpus integrifolia,

| Vernacular.—Phansimba (Bazars), Phanas-alombé (Jar).

630 FUNGI,

History, Uses, &c.—The only notice of this fungus,

which we have met with, occurs in Rumphius (Hort. Amb., ir,
25), where he says:—‘“In Malabara ac Zeylana ex eodem
quoque succo circa radices colligitur et concrescit in terra
massa, seu tuber Portugallis Jsca de Jaca (tinder of the
Jack-tree) dictum, quod molle est et intus flavescit, quod natio
ista pro experto habet medicamento contra diarrhceam, ad paucas
vero tantum colligitur arbores, atque inde venale in alias
quoque transfertur regiones.’’ It appears to be probable that
the medicinal use of this fungus was introduced into the East
by the Portuguese, who adopted it as a substitute for the
Boletus fomentarius of Linneus, the Agaricus Chirurgorum or
“surgeon’s agaric” of the old European Pharmacopeias, which
the Portuguese call Isca de ferir “wound tinder,” and the
French Agaric de chéne or Polypore ongulé. It is the Spunk
or Touchwood of the English.
In Western India the fungus is ground to a paste with
water and applied to the gums in cases of excessive salivation.
It is also applied to the mouths of children suffering from
_ aphthe, and is given internally in diarrhoea and dysentery.

Description.—In form this fungus closely resembles
the European Boletus above referred to, and resembles the hoof
of a horse. Internally it is of a rich orange-brown colour
when fresh, and has a sweetish, styptic taste, but when long
kept it turns to a dull brown colour. The fungus consists of a
number of lamine upon the under surface of which the
hymenium is situated,

Chemical composition.—A proximate ae yielded :—

Ether extract : i 78
Alcoholic extract .., : reo
Aqueous extract ié ‘asl 470
kaline extract .. i 34
Crude fibre... “i a 53°98
sh fae wan eee 285 es 4: 3U
Moisture os Ne se LO U8
a 100-00

pe yh ia 2 p>

PE CS ee EET TE NS Re Ce Mee i eee

FUNGI. 631

The ether and alcoholic extracts consisted of red-coloured
resins, but no fatty matter. The aqueous extract contained
2°42 per cent. of an organic acid not related to tannin in its
reaction with ferric chloride and gelatine. Solution of soda
removed an acid resin having some of the properties of
polyporic acid.

’ POLYPORUS OFFICINALIS, Fries.
Fig.—Guibourt, Hist. Nat. ii., 45; Pereira, Mat. Med. ii.,

Pt. 1, p. 54. Larch Agaric (Hng.), Polypore du Méléze,
Agaric blanc (F*.).

Hab.—Southern Europe, Asia Minor. On the Larch.
The fungus.

Vernacular.—Ghérikén (Indian Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—The use of this fungus in medicine
is of very ancient date. Dioscorides (iii., 1) describes dyapixsv

_. as male and female, the female being the best and having

internally a comb-like structure, whilst the male is convolute,
round and compact (cwves); both have the same taste, at
first sweet, afterwards bitter. He states that it grows in

Sarmatia, Galatia in Asia, and Cilicia, and that some suppose

it to be a root and others a fungus. It is astringent, hot, and Z
purgative, and is also given in fever, jaundice, nephritis,
uterine obstructions, phthisis, dyspepsia, hemorrhage, and
pains in the joints; it is alexipharmic. Pliny (25, 57) says :
“ Agaric is found growing in the form of a fungus of a white
colour, upon the trees in the vicinity of the Bosporus. It is
administered in doses of four oboli, beaten up in two cyathi of
oxymel. The kind that grows in Galatia is generally looked
upon as not so efficacious. The male* agaric is firmer than

_* This distinction into male and female is no longer recognized, though
)

_ it continued to be so till within the last century. ( Bostock.)

632 FUNGI.

Pereira states that the drug appears in the modern Greek
Pharmacopewia under the name of dyapixdy 76 Aevxov with the
Turkish synonym of ‘atpay partape,
Ibn Sina insists upon the great efficacy of agaric (ws )')
as an alexipharmic. He and other Mahometan physicians
closely follow the Greeks in their description of its medicinal
properties; they consider that it removes all kinds of visceral
obstructions and expels diseased humors; the female kind
should be used after it has been rubbed through a hair-sieve
and all black particles removed. The use of agaric in phthisis
is of ancient date; it was revived by De Haen, Barbut, and
others in the present century, and subsequently decried by
Andral (Phil. Trans., Vols. 48 and 49). The active principle,
agaricin, has recently been recommended in doses of ;’g to & of
a grain as an astringent to check night-sweating and diarrhea,
to.diminish bronchial secretion, and to dry up the milk after
weaning.
_. Description.—Pileus corky-fleshy, ungulate, zoned,

_ smooth, Pores yellowish. Berkeley describes the hymenium
as concrete with the substance of the pileus, consisting of sub-
rotund spores with their simple dissepiments. The drug is
decorticated, dried, and bleached, and oceurs in white, friable
- pieces, from the size of the fist to that of a child’s head, which
are more or less ungulate or of the shape of half a cone, with a
feeble fungous odour and bitter acrid taste. The fungus,
when met with in its natural state, has an external yellowish
or reddish-grey coat,

Chemical composition— White Agaric has been analysed by
Bouillon-La-Grange, by Bucholz, by Braconnot, and by Bley-
The constituents, according to Bley, are: resin, 33°1; extrac-
tive, 2; gum and bitter extractive, 8-3; vegetable albumen, O75
wax, 0°2; fungic acids, 0-13; boletic acid, 0-06; tartaric and
phosphoric acids, 1°354; potash, 0:329; lime, 0°16; ammonia
and sulphur, traces. _ = aaa 3
_ The active principle of Agaric has usually been said to reside —

| in the resin, but a white amorphous bitter powder (lariein) has 2

FUNGI. 638

been separated from it, the formula of which, according to Will,
is C*'H’*O*. Martius considers this to be the active prin-
ciple. Fleury (J. Pharm. Ohim, (4) XXI., 279 to 284) gives the
following result of an examination of the drug:—Five hundred
and eighty grams of the powdered fungus, not previously
dried, were exhausted successively with ether, alcohol, cold
water, boiling water, water acidulated with hydrochloric acid,
and water rendered alkaline with potash, and the resulting
solutions were examine

1. The ether extracts a resin, and a body to which the name
of Agaric acid is given. The examination of several salts of
) this acid yielded results so discordant that no definite formula
could be obtained, but the nearest approaches to accuracy lead
to the supposition that its formula may be C**H**O’. Efforts
made to determine the basicity of the acid were unsuccessful.
It is shown that the addition of the elements of water to the
resin represents the composition of the agaric acid. After heat-
ing with very dilute sulphuric acid, a substance is yielded which
reduces the cupro-potassic liquor, The agaric acid amounts to
about one-fifth of the weight of the fungus.

2. The alcoholic solution has a very red colour, due appa-

body soluble in alkaline liquids; its reaction is acid, it is not co
erystallizable, and it contains 1°5 per cent. of nitrogen. It
combines with metallic oxides. ‘The remainder behaves like a
Tesin; it is reddish, nitrogenized, fusible below 100°, forms
Viscous solutions with alkalies, and gelatinous precipitates with
other bases.

3. Cold water yields a red solution, which on concentration
deposits calcic and possibly also magnesic¢ oxalate in microscopic
crystals, while the solution contains a brown resinous nitro-
genous body, considered to be identical with Boudier’s viscosin.
~ 4. Boiling water extracts a sinall quantity of a nitrogenous
Substance,
ilI.—so

rently to the air, and on evaporation yields a residue of the — eae
consistence of hard wax, from which ether dissolves a resinous eee

634 ; «FUNG

- 8. Water acidulated with hydrochloric acid (2 per cent.)
yields a yellowish solution containing lime, iron, magnesia,
and oxalic, phosphoric and malic acids.

6. Water contaiing 2 per cent. of potash yielded a solution,
which, on treatment with hydrochloric acid, deposited a floccu-
ent substance unacted upon by acetic or phosphoric acids, and
containing 3°12 per cent. of nitrogen.

_ The remainder, after this treatment, is a whitish flocculent
substance ; on drying at 100° it blackens and coheres, yet its
microscope appearance does not differ from the original aspect
of the fungus, It contains 1-21 per cent. of nitrogen, and
affords on calcination 2 per cent, of ash containing lime, iron,
magnesia (chiefly), potash, and sulphuric and phosphoric acids.
‘The body possesses all the properties of fungin.

The following is the tabulated result of the — si
‘Water eK 9°200

1 Resin inl diteeerto asd Ss Lé ve. 60°S84
2. Another resin with magnesia ddliphate: Pa ie >
he ee 3. Resinous body with lime and magnesia ws B14

4. Nitrogenous substance with salts Lg ve 2°900

5. Oxalate, malate, and brerelig of Sees

iron, &e. oe 1-058

6. Nitrogenous Santa soluble’ in n pola Peg fis
ungin .., ee ie ro 9° 686
100-000

cheaieder has found that this fungus contains from 4 to 6
per cent. of a fat which is not a glyceride. He obtained from it
a crystalline substance having a composition represented by the
formula OHO, which he terms “agaricol.” The liquid
portion of the fat yields no glycerine on saponification, but
cetyl-alcohol and another alcohol together with two hydro-
_ carbons, while the fat acid with which the alcohols are naturally

combined appears to resemble ricinic acid ( Rep. of seg .
mgd and Aerzte” | Meeting at ae 1886), |

ALGH, 635

ALG.
GELIDIUM CARTILAGINEDM, Guidi.
GELIDIUM CORNEUM, Law.

Vernacular.—Chini-ghés (Ind. Bazars).

History, Uses, &c.—This substance, ealled Yang-tsai
by the Chinese, and known in Europe as Mousse de Chine,
Agar-agar, Thao, or Japanese Isinglass, is prepared from the
two species of Gelidium placed at the head of this article, and
also probably from Spherococeus compressus, Ag., and
Gloiopeitis tenax,1. Ag. Banbury (Pharm. Journ. (11), WoLag
p. 808) gives the fellowing account of it :—“ Under the incorrect
name of Japanese isinglass, there has been lately imported into
London from Japan, a quantity of a substance having the form
of compressed, irregularly four-sided sticks, apparently

_ €omposed of sbrivelled, semi-transparent, yellowish-white
_ membrane; they are eleven inches long by from 1 to 13 inches
broad, full of cavities, very light (each weighing about
_ 3 drachms), rather flexible but easily broken, and devoid
3 and smell. Treated with cold water, a stiek increases greatl)
in volume, becoming a quadrangular, spongy bar, with some~
_ what coneave sides 14 inches wide. Though not soluble in
_ ¢old water te any important extent, the substance dissolves for
the most part when boiled for some time, and the solution,
ven though dilute, gelatinizes upon cooling. The substance

Under notice is used. by Europeans in China as @ substitute for
true isinglass, for which many of its properties render it highly
efficient. That which is perhaps most distinctive is its power
of combining with a very large proportion of water to form
@ jelly. This property is due to the principle named by
XM. Payen Gélose, of which the Japanese sea-weed product mainly
Consists, The jelly formed by boiling this sea-weed product or
“tude Gélose in water, and allowing the solution to cool,
wires a high temperature for fusion, differing in this respect

4.4 | Se 28 a ee ae eee
rs Seay

+
a set

636 ALGH.

from a jelly made of isinglass, which readily fuses and dis-
solves in warm water.

This substance has attracted considerable attention in
France. It was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1878
under the name of Thao. The following particulars from
the Catalogue may prove interesting. Various trials have
been made with it in France since 1874, especially by
MM. D. Gantillon & Co. at Lyons, and the Industrial Society
at Rouen. The thao is prepared for use in the following
way :—After having been soaked in cold water for about
twelve hours, it is boiled for a quarter of an hour, during
which it absorbs about 100 times its weight of water. If
allowed to cool it becomes a jelly, but if passed through
a sieve and stirred until cold, it remains fluid, and in this
State is more easily employed than when hot. The yellowish
matter which some specimens contain can be removed
by boiling for some time, when it forms an insoluble scum,
which appears to consist of very thin fibres, and which remain
attached to the sides of the vessel.

A singular property, and one which perhaps might be turned
to valuable account, is, that thao jelly does not decompose
solution of permanganate of potash even when left in contact
with it for twenty-four hours.

According to M. Heilmann, of Rouen, thao produces, in the
proportion of 1 part-to 100 of water, a dressing, which is supple
and strong, and which gives substance rather than stiffness
to calico, while dextrine, like starch, makes the tissue drier
and harder, and gives less facing to the thread. The addition
of glycerine gives a dressing still more flexible and soft, and,
while rendering the tissues less stiff, it communicates more
body to them.

The addition of tale gives still greater smoothness. — Once
dissolved, according to M. Gantillon, thao will mix while hot
ith any gum, starch, dextrine or gelatine. The principal advan 2

tage of thao in dressing silk fabrics is that while preserving
their suppleness it” gives them greater glossiness and makes

ALGH. 637

them soft to the touch. The mixture of thao with gum traga-
eanth is said to be the best method of using it, Thao should,
however, be used alone for materials which it is not necessary
* should be stiffened. As thao is only soluble ata high tempera-
_ ture, a moist atmosphere, fog, or even rain dees not affect the
material dressed with it.

It combines well with sulphate of copper and the chlorides
of aniline and potassium, and can be used in double dyeing.

It also answers well for sizing paper, &c. The only obstacle
to its extensive use is its high price. There is, however, no
reason why a similar substance should not be made from our
common native sea-weeds, of which Gelideum corneum and
Gracilaria confervoides approach omst nearly in character the
alge from which thao is made. Gélose, of which thao consists,
differs from the Carrageenin obtained from Chondrus crispus
in its power of combining with a very large quantity of water
to form a jelly; it yields ten times as much jelly as an equal
_ weight of isinglass. For purposes of food, thao jelly is not
quite so pleasant as animal jelly, as itdoes not melt in the
- mouth; it also contains no nitrogen. A great advantage
which it possesses is, that it is but little prone to undergo
change, so much so that the jelly is sometimes imported
from Singapore, under the name of sea-weed jelly, sweetened,
flavoured, and ready for use, and may in this state be kept
for years without deterioration. Of late it has been much
used for the purpose of Bacteria culture, especially in warm
ciimates,

Chemical composition.—According to Payen, Gélose in a pure
state constitutes an immediate peculiar principle, insoluble in
alkaline solutions of soda, potash, and ammonia, as well as in
Water, alcohol, ether, and dilute acids. One of its distinctive
characters, which is quite peculiar, is that of dissolvin g slowly
ina very small quantity of concentrated sulphuric or hydro-
_ ehloric acid, which it colours brown, forming with one or other
them a brown compound, which gradually solidifies, and
Which resists washing in cold or hot water, and even in caustic

638 ALGH.

alkaline solutions. This new immediate principle cannot be
confounded with any other. The ultimate analysis of Gélose
presents the following results :—Carbon 42:77, Hydrogen 5°775,
Oxygen 51:445, As it has not yet been possible to form with .
it any definite combination, from which its equivalent weight or
rational formula could be deduced, it must fer the present be
ranked among the immediate principles having oxygen exceed-
ing the proportion necessary to form water with the hydrogen
they contain. Gélose differs from animal gelatine in not
precipitating tannic acid; from starch jelly, in not being
rendered blue by iodine; from gum, by its insolubility in
cold water, and its great gelatinising power. From the
mucilage of Chondrus crispus, named. by Pereira Carrageenin,
it appears to differ chiefly in its power of combining with a
great amount of water to form a jelly, which is not the case
with Carrageenin.

. GRACILARIA LICHENOIDES, Give.
: Fig. —Benti. and Trim., t. 306. Ceylon Moss {Fng.).
Hab.—Backwaters of Ceylon. The plant.
Vernacular,—Chini-ghas (Ind, Bazars), Agar-agar (Ceylon),

History, Uses, &c.—Ceylon Moss or Agar-agar has
long been used in Southern India and Ceylon as a nutritive,
emolient, demulcent and alterative, especially valuable in pec-
toral affections, It has been deseribed by Rumphius, Gmelin,
Turner, Neos, Agardh, and O’Shaughnessy. (Conf. Pereira’s
wan eed, Vol IE, Pt. p. 19:\ It growa abundantly.im
the large lake or backwater which extends between Putlam and
Calpentyr, and. is collected by the natives principally during
the south-west monsoon, when it becomes separated by the
agitation of the water. The moss is spread on mats and dried
: in the sun for two or three days, it is then washed several times
in fresh water, and again exposed to the sun, which bleaches

*

_ it, The following directions for using the moss are given in

4L GH, 639

the Bengal Pharmacopeia, p. 276:—For a decoction, take
2drachms ground to fine powder, water 1 quart, boil for
20 minutes and strain through muslin. By inereasing the
proportion of the ground moss to half an ounce, the filtered
solution on cooling becomes a firm jelly, which, when
flavoured by cinnamon or Jemon peel, sugar and a little wine,
is an excellent article of light food for sick children and
convalescents.

7 rs aie,
ne

Description.— Ceylon Moss is in whitish or yellowish-
white ramifying filaments of several inches in length (when
unbleached it is purple), At the base the largest fibres do
not exceed in thickness a crowquill; the smallest fibres are
about as thick as fine sewing thread. To the naked eye the
filaments appear almost cylindrical and filiform ; but when
examined by a microscope, they appear shrivelled and
wrinkled. The branchings are sometimes dichotomous, at other
times irregular. The coccidia are inconspicuous when dry,

ut when moist are readily seen. They are hemispherical,
about the size of a poppy seed, and contain a mass 0
minute oblong, dark-red spores. The consistence of Ceylon
moss is cartilaginous. Its flavour that of sea-weed, with a

the surface forming moniliform, densely packed filaments.
Fructification of two kinds—Ist, hemispherical coccidia,
_ containing a glomerule of oblong spores on a central placenta,
_ within a pericarp of moniliform densely crowded filaments ;
2nd, oblong tetraspores imbedded in cells of the surface.
_ (Endlicher.)

- Chemical composition. —This algal has been examined chem-
ically, in 1834, by O’Shaughnessy ; in 1842, by Guibourt ;
and in 1843, by Wonneberg and Kreystig, by Bley and by
Riegel. O'Shaughnessy found it to consist in 100 parts of
vegetable jelly 54-5, starch 15-0,ligneous fibre (cellulose ?)18°0,
_Mnucilage 4-0, inorganic salts 770. :

feebly saline taste. (Pereira’s Mat. Med., Vol. II., Pt. L., p- 14.) Boo
3 Microscopic structure-—Frond eomposed of large oblong” Ps
cylindrical cells, containing granular endochrome, those of 3

640 ALGAE.

Kénig gives the following as representing the percentage
composition :—

Wat 5 we ie 19°56
Aibatiing ids se - we 2 BOS
Nitrogen -free extract... edi 0 (oe
Ash : 43]

The authors of a Pharmacogr pha state that, ‘* Cold water
removes the mucilage, which after due concentration may be
precipitated by neutral acetate of lead. This mucilage, when
boiled for some time with nitric acid, produces oxalic acid and
microscopic crystals of mucic acid, beautifully seen by polarised
light, soluble in boiling water and precipitating on cooling.
With one part of the drug and 1V0 parts of boiling water,
a thick liquid is obtained, which affords transparent precipitates
with neutral acetate of lead or alcohol, in the same way as
Carrageen. With 50 parts of water, a transparent tasteless jelly,
deyoid of viscosity, is produced ; in common with the mucilage
it furnishes mucic acid if treated with nitric acid. Micro-
chemical tests do not manifest albuminous matter in this plant.
Some chemists have regarded the jelly extracted by boiling
water as identical with pectin, but the fact requires proof.
Payen called it Gélose.” (See last Article.) Mr. H. G. Greenish
has examined the carbohydrates of Ceylon Moss, and found that
the gelatinizing constituent—the Gélose of Payen—is a carbo-
hydrate convertible by boiling with dilute acid into Arabinose, and
probably indentical with a similar constituent in the Agar-agar. In
addition to this body (36°7 per cent,), the drug contains mucilage,
starch, metarabin, wood gum, and cellulose. A carbohydrate
termed Paramylan, occurring to the extent of 65 per cent., is
also present. This substance is dissolved out by dilute acid, and
differs from Pararabin in being directly convertible into sugar.
and then yielding not Arabinose, but a fermentable sugar,
probably grape-sugar. (Archiv. der Pharmacie, xvii., 241. )
The inorganic salts of Ceylon Moss consist, according t?
O’Shaughnessy, of sulphates, phosphates and chlorides =
sodium and calcium, with neither iodide nor bromide. oe
’ found i iron, silica and iodic salt in the ash. ee)

DIATOMACEZ. 641

Commerce.—See last Article. This substance is preferred to
Japanese Isinglass by the Hindus, as they suspeet the latter
substance to be of animal origin. Value, Rs. 12 per cwt,

LAMINARIA SACCHARINA, Lam.
Fig.—Turn. Fuc., t. 163. Sweet Tangle (Eng.).
Hab.—All deep Seas. The plant.
= Vernacular.—Galhér-ka-patta (Hind.).

2 History, Uses, &c.—This sea-weed is a regular article
. of commerce coming through Cashmere to India, and is to
E be found in most of the bazars of the Punjab and Sind.
Cayley (1867) noted its import into Leh from Yarkand, and
Honigberger states that in his time the plant was officinal at
Lahore and in Cashmere, and that it was stated to be obtained
_ from a salt lake somewhere in Tibet. Murray says that it is
_ supposed to come from the Caspian, and that it is used in
Sind in the form of a syrup combined with a decoction of
quince seeds for the cure of goitre, scrofula, and syphilitic
affections. When dried in the sun it exudes a whitish
saccharine substance.

For an interesting note on Algin, first isolated by Mr. Stanford
from sea-weed, we would refer the reader to the Jr. Soc. 3
Chem. Industry for 1885 and 1886.

DIATOMACEZE.

Husn-i-yusuf is composed of small, hard, white bodies, which,
© being magnified, are seen to be the shells of different
: diatoms, The drug is described in native medical works as
Y acrid and only to be used externally as a rubefacient. It
said to be found floating in lakes in Cashmere, and would
’ppear to be the same as the Shuka of Sanskrit medical

» ;

bene anagieanga: a WR: pagiek TETNTATT
aya ged | alafersraa |

END OF THE THIRD VOLUM

[ARMACOGRAPHIA INDIC

EN DI?

TO THE 7 :
PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA,

BY

WILLIAM DYMQCK, —

‘BRIGADE-SURGEON, RETIRED, __

cIPAL MEDICAL STOREKEEPER, BOMBAY,

". REGISTERED UNDER ACT XXV. OF 1867.

Ms

#)

PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA.

INDEX

AND

APPENDIX

10 THE
PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA,
BY
WILLIAM DYMOCK,

BRIGADE-SURGEON, RETIRED,

LATE PRINCIPAL MEDICAL STOREKEEPER, BOMBAY,

G. J. H. WARDEN, DAVID HOOPER,
SURGEON-MAJOR, BENGAL ARMY, QUINOLOGIST TO THE GOVERN-
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN AND
THE CALCUTTA MEDICAL
COLLEGE,

MENT OF MADRAS,
OQOPACAMUND.

—

ZLonvon :—KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Lp.
Bombay :—EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS, BYCULLA.
€alcutta;—THACKER, SPINK & Co.

1893.

In issuing the Index and Appendix the
Authors wish to state that supplementary
volumes of the PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA
will be published as material becomes

DAVID HOOPER.
July, 1893.

Achhu, ii. 226.
Achillea millefolium, ii. 271.

a. oe.
seal ii. 33. | ium, ii Siem
bhal, iii aut »» ~ Mmoschata, ii, 272. |

et ae santolina, p Ray 7 24 oars pee siees

s We siting, fii, 375. A ee) 5 eee

4 e .

So b> be te te be Bs
Ln ee
=)
t=

Sabie, 4 550, 556.
Cacho ou, is

Bees

ee INDEX.
ete nope iii. $61. Actinopteris dichotoma, iii. 627.
gardenic, ii. 210. * Ada, iii. 420.
ne lycyrrhizic, i, 494. Adaca-manjen, ii. 257
: » gurjunic, i, 194. Adaka, iii. 422
y mnemic, ii. . Adambedi, i. 4
: rdic, i, 145. Adambu-balli, ii. 536.
y» henno-tannic, ii, 43. Adan-el-dubb, iii
+» herminic, i. ansonia digitata, i. 218.
»» hesperetic, i. 273. Adapu-kodi, ii. 53
»» hypogeic, i. 495. Adatodai, iii. 50,
| isoacetic, iii. 276. Adavi-goranti, i. 242,
3) jibantic, iii. 391. Adavi- » iii, 476.
is 0; a Adavi-jilakara, i Ty
»» lactucic, ii. 315. Adavi-mullangi a 4 *
,» lauric, iii. 216. Ada ga,
5, lignocerinic, i, 496. Adayv: “nabbi, iii, ‘480.
» linoleic, i. Ada 6.
y» meconic, i. 88 Adav masakn, i 322,
Sy methylerotonic, i iii. 284, Adavi-puchcha, ii. 65.
s myristic, i. 195. Adavi-vuddulu, i, 491.
» Ophelic, ii. 513 y: iii. 50.
99 papa. ic, ii. i Ac eli, 33 1 .
A ” xy benzoic, lil. 299, Aden aloes, iii. 472.
» Piperic, iii. Adhaki, i. 489.
o, plumieric, . 422. £ Vasi ii, 50.
a: »» polygonic, iii. 150. Adhatodic acid, iii, “53.
gy: Punico-tannic, ii. 48. Adhva-shalya, iii, 136.
hvaga-bhogya, i. 395.
Adi, iii. 420. :
Adiantum pedatum,
tra;

oo iti. 624.

+ thikboinio f eee Aaike, iii, '
Si oer sag iii. 113. ‘Ading conaifal 171. E
tannic, iii. 361. Adityabhakta, i i 131. z

>
, iii, 284, Adrak, iii. 420, 421
erianic, li. a

iii. 217, 539.

agar, iii. 635, 638.
k, i, 477.

ili. 631.

ni. 632.

i-sikcha, iii. 454,
-renl-pai, ii. ‘31.
ui. 75.

cus a chiragoram, iii. 630.
31.

‘Py, Fe, Pe Se Be fe fe fee fee fe Se 8: ee fe
-

INDEX.

Ajmod, ii, 121, 122,
jowan, ii. I]
mach ramepitys, il. shed

iis 27
ranadi, 1. 53 /
kanda, ii. 428.
karakarabha, ii. 277
karkara, ii. 277, 283.
karkarha, ii. 27
karkaro, ii.:277
kasa-valli, ili an
kas-gadda, ii
ashgarada-gedda, ro 90,
kash-~ caer

is Be a beaks: aks Pcs hemes Wek cs rsa, fis eas ew es So he ck bee ee Ee
bal wy al .
Ee
ce
qi
ny

, us
crot, ili, 2 278.
kshate-che-khor, ii. 368.

hy bp

ye SP nee

ee / ‘ é
Pan ey :
4 oe
; .

inks procera, i. 552. ;
“s stipulata, i. 562, ¢ 563.

Alei, i. i.
Alen, it
Aleurit rhe Moilugasn,3 lii. 278.
Aleurites oped iii.-280.

me mo na, i. 564, iii. 278.
Aleurone, i : "307.
Alexandrian laurel, i. 173.
Algee, iii. 635.
Alfazema, iii, 93
Algoul, i. 418

agi camel , 3. 428.

> Manna, i. 418

>» . Maurorum, i. 417
moron i, 418.

boufier de Benjoin, i ii, 369.
Albhivia, i. 239.

ieee ii, 417.

” sativum, iii. 4
: akagetartn, & Hii. 492.
- Almirao, ii , a8.

ee:
4

£

> the b> be

fee ee ee bes. fa ba be ee ee ee ee
Fy) Be, Be

INDEX, ery

Alysinrpus paper SAT as

Am, i. 38

SB SS8888 8 8
BES Bae E
B

be

z

2 She i a

Am-ki-chhitja, i. 383.

kad, i ii 39L.

fe

PeOPPEEPEEE
Ba
ete *
1
‘i . aie a ee ¢ :
Bon
) eae
&
BoS
2
fe)
r= fake al
i=%
48
ae
B:
eo
N

iberina, iii. 442.
Amoora Rohituka, i. 340.
mora-amari

Amorphophatin campanulatns, iii, 546.

Ammi d@’In

D>b>b>b>b>pb>pr>bpbpbbbbppb b>
er
2
ey
co
vo)
on

nacardi veh ‘Cocidental, i. 385, 548.
lus Pyrethrum, ii. 277-

arvensis, ii. 345.

Anaighalis, ii, 345. eae 2

te b> b> b> bp

ae wee

inarya-tiki, ii. 511,
sa-puvvu, i. 39, —.

baa mitts - oad.

\nasphal,

\nastatica ‘fierochanting, i; uz.

\nati-pandu, iil. 4

nchancha 81

Pbrb>pPr>p>b>>bpb>b>b>>>bb> >> b> bp
: B Be Ef B A

Jadishaw
Andrographis emai iii, “aT.
sine ge ‘

pa
Andropogon rime iii.
ns, iii. og

Se enna, iii. "587.
Anemone obtusiloba, i
i, 38.

E.
ay
52

Pee

6

Anjudan, ii ii. 143,

he fh «
B
a
cr
ag

e-galu-gida, iii. 34,
\nogeissus Tatifolia, 1. 553, ii, 12.
inonace, i. ton

\nona squam. sa, 1. 44.

pleura esi. i, 381.

intala, i, 368.

b he be eS vag tee 2
fo ge
*
7)
a

: ick wes
7

‘INDEX;

Appo, i. 73. ;
Achiliga Agallocha a, iii. 217.

ccensis, iii. 217.
Ara- bevn

See
Arabian Gost li. 296,
rrh, ‘i, 306.
527

162.

», Guilfoylia, ii. 162.

9 eee -ginseng, ii . 162.
ii. 162.

ee

a)
me

Lrjun, ii if;
\rjuna, if, 11, iii, 287.
li. 429,

: 544.
Arani(s (Sane for Breynia rhamnoides);

aoa. i
femtak--, s-i-pardah, ii. 560.
ee pa

‘rusiman, i
ii. 604.

te a 249.

irvore im notte, ii, . 376.

\rwah-i- -kunjad, ii i, 29.

nee

atiyat, . 90 le
ba~€ po iii.
la, ii, 141,
37.
:*

fa
Ef

‘chambar, j. S11,
“rah i. 464, li, 16.

Ascle de Curacao, ii. 427.

epiade |
Asclepiadin, ii, 428,

Asclepias curassavica, ii. 427,
ny echinata, ii, 443,
< geminata, ii. 451,
Asclepin, ii, 428.
| Asclepione, ii, 428.
Asfar-i-bari, ii, 306.
Astrak, i. 23.
Asgandh, ii. 566.
Ashkhis, iii. 2 :
Ashogam, i. 507 :
Ashok, i. 507,
Ashta, iii. 345
Ashtavarga, ii. 390,
Ashti-sandh i362.
Asmarighna, .
Asok or Asoka, i. 507.
Aspalathus indicus, i, 411.
Asparagin, iii.
Asparagus adscendens, i iii. 484,
‘ inalis, iii, 486.
7 sears iii. 482.
= sarmentoous 5 ii, 483,
Asperag, i.
Asphodelus faeces: iii. 479,
rach, iii. 626,

Asplenium Cete
falca

ree iii. 6
parasiticum, i iii, 625.
Assalia, i. 120.

a
¢
ES
BeO
Be
ee
a
3

Atarusha, iii. 50. — lee

vakha-ni i-kali, i i. 18.
6.

ag a a
| oe 2 a | le al
oO
.

Ati maduram, i. 491.
Ati-parich cham, i i. 343.
At h-picchila, iii. 467.

+

\ti-vadayam, i. 15.

a mamidi, i iii. 130.
5

yo Lt 148.

Atti-tippil e, Yi. 543.

Attie-vayr, iii. 340

tannie, iii. 340.
5.

as ene angam, i. 019.
veral-yennai, | L 519.
rohasiyin, iii . 339.

INDEX,

paren ie i. 322. |
ii, 6.

Az ingens ram,

Azima tetra rant, ian j

Azmalus,

Axsaoscl ens iii. 622.

Azulene, ii. 276.

bachi, i, 412

306.
Bac Siioe chet, i. 451,.
Badha mon Gee for seer a Lakoo-

ee ed, ii, hae
4.

INDEX.

accra ye

Balilaj,

Seon a ant i. 304,

Baliospermum axillare, ii. 504, iii.
311

Bal-kurai, ii ‘

Balli-muttaga, i. 458.

“Ballota nigra

Baleng 82
alara, ii 5.

Balsamier le la Mecque, i. 315. 3

Balsamedendron Berryi, i. 314.
Mukul, i

vi dort 312, 314.
i. 313,

5 ex a bangiil TOLL.
otranum. i, 306.

Balsam of econ i. $15, 317.

alusit
Bal Sai (Sin. for Persian var. Acerus
las

amus), iii. 539.
Pag

al-vekhand, iii. 539,
ama, iii.
amanhati, iii, 68.
mba, iii,
am boo, iii. 586. !
usa dinacea, iii. 586.

an<
an-jol, iii. 76
an-kahu,

Seed feed ed bed

an-tam pais. Ls
an-tepariya, ii. 561.

ana, ii. 320

anad, ili. 4

anafshah, i, 140

anana, iii. 445.

anawanti salab, iil. 387.
ndakpushp, iii. 230.

andari, i. 371.

andaru, ii. 193-

sandhuka, i. 23:

andh i, i 336.

ane i-murududu, i, 16. a

andri, i. 3

fandrike, i. 371.

10 INDEX.

oon tg a i. 368.

Bapaia- pena ii. 52.
7 peas . 237, ii. 126.
ii, 338,

Bare: -sehun: d, iii

rgat, iii. 3
Sateuad, ii, 518.
Barhal Csitad: Syn. for A. Lakoocha),
iii. 355.

Barhang, iii
Becks ai hess iii. 313.
57

Barik- moth, lil. 652.

Barphali
Barrin

nade aiutivigiil in,
racemosa, ii. 18.
Barsawashan, dit. 364.

i. 354
“ 43 long, ti 355.

assorin, i.

Bastard tpecacuanha, ii, 427.
Sandal, i 242.

INDEX,

Benzoin, ii, 369.

Siam, ii. 371.

Suaathk, ii. 372.

Benz oylaconine, i. 5.

Berbamine, i. 68.

Beberidew, i. 64.

Berberine, i. 67. :
Berberis aris

bed

Betle leaf, iii. 183.
jis DEB »> Dut, iil. 522.
»» pepper, iii. 183
»» phenol, iii. 191
@ -bevina, i. 330.
“9 agg 1, i. 310, 312. Bettada-haralu, iii. 274.
alnoides, iii. 359.
- attra, iii. 359.
Z 59.

idanj J He iF
| or Bod -icsadah (Persian | Bevi ara, i, 323.
eed Salix Cap rea), iii. 364. Bhadra-kashtha, iii. 380.

: a-muste, ili, 552

te
7

- 3 .
nga-cha-bi , iii. 319.
mea iii. $19.

aku, iii i. 319.

q kand,
‘d hat, iti, 79, 601.

12

Bhatkatya, i ee a
il.

Bhaulan

Bhava, i Lm

Bhavan-bakra, i.

abr ge Pa i. 432.
Bhela

‘Bhends or Bhendi, i, 210; 233.
Bhengra, ii. 266

INDEX.
Bhuta, iii, 57 g. :
Bhuta-kesi, ii, 233.
Bhuta-pala, 1, 345.
Bhat n-kusam, iii. 287.
Biba. i
Bibla, i pre

i. 534.
idari-n: ma m, iii. 250.
Bidenguebine, ‘e ea 367.
lkhi. iii. 3

Bihi-danah, i. 579 §
Bija, i. 464.

om beige i. 269.

—

464. 5
Bijhand, ith 148, 158,
Bi

Pikth-bunafshah, agg 45}.
é _ Bikh-i-wala, iii
| Bikhma, i. 18.

ee nese of, 4. 19.

Birdlime
Bists-cve Gh, i. 562.

- 878.
mi or Brahmi, ili. 374.
Birmoya, i i.
Bish, i. 1.
Bishakpri riya, i. res Is
aes 480.
Bishi, es 2;

Bishk ay ii. Fo
152

Bihar, Be
Bishma, i

cumin, is “98.

de colpane, i. 320.
coule

504.
lonpe, 64 i 361. ‘

INDEX.

Bois de sureau, i. 364,
fe:

629.
,, fomentarius, iii. 630.
444.

Bombax re Maiaber, reed
ma “aida Lf 215.
Rowiey bes 198,
mastich, i. —

Boneset,
B

ga
Bombs alli, i ‘ii. ?

298.
Bha au-Dajiana, i. 298.
reana, i. 298

Boucerosia ii, 458.
Bouillon “ey ili,

14

Brassica juncea, i, 123.
i

” ni " 1220"
Brazil cherry, ii. 562
” 1.501.
Brazilin, i. 501

rnold ii. et

7.
ruguiera caryophylloides, 1. 599.

Bryonia epige
42, ot ii. ne

opin culycnam, i. 590.
ryoretin

hanania sintifolia. i. 394.
lantain, ii, 134

88.

ig

(= -a--5-A-n-e-)
x 4 4
B

feed bowed feed feed fered beeed beced Ieee! b

INDEX.

Byakura, li. 555.
Byalada, i. 281.
Bysabol, i. 310,

Cabuli-mas taki, i. 3

trifoliat:
Cadi- cartes ar fi. 316
ener te ag
Ceruli acid, i
oes Bondi, : 496.
$3 me at * 505.

Cafeie er, ii

C et ii. 90
ris, ili, 114.

Calamus aromaticus, iii. 539.
532.

Calebaasien, i. *218, iit i. 24.
Calen seen ree iis, ii. 322.
Californin

Calli i, 60.
Caltiarpe faux Tacamahac, i. 173.

Calophyllum inoph: lum, i. 173.
ei tomen “s tee am, i. seh 559.

Oo Sa ee ee

Camomille, ii. 274
a

Cans 5.

” erfo liata, ii. matt

’Cardios
Cardol

mse, i. 39¢
ospermum Faaebeat . 366.

. 388.
Gastics nutans; ii, 322:

Caryoph: i. 23.
Garyophylus aromaticus, ii. 20.
sculenta, ii. 50.
ntosa, ii. 50.
Cashew-nu iD;
Casse Canéficier, i. 511,
batons, i. 515.

16

Castor Leer iii, ae

feaiics ofuisatifla, iii. 357.
steppe ii
techin, i. 55
EARS E 537, ii £2;
‘atec nni nic acid, i, 558, iii, 363.
athartic acid, i.

athartin ae
airenbag thon i, 528.
arene 137.
ayenne pepper, ii. 563
ay-boi-boi, ii, 525.
ay-khuc-khae, iii. 500
aythuong i. 5
Cece, i.
Cedratier, i. 2
Cedrela Toons, i 339,
rus Liban tke, iii. 380.

Celastrinez, i.
Celastrus p spacer i, 343.

Céléri, i il. 122.

Celery

Cclecy: rived Sten i, 38.

“aeariay 39.

627.
Chatl-flower, iii. rg
Chai, i. 177, iii
Chaina or Hanphal geen = D. sativa
and D. globosa rene

, lil.
Chakota, i. 370. :

INDEX,

ae8

hamezlea, 1. 224,

=
hanoti, i i. 450,
hansar, i, 120
hanu-pala- vita i. 523,
hanvr

PL Se ay ae a ee ee ee ee eee ee ee

{

havel, ii. 545.
havicol, iii. 189.
ha -mungri, i. 142,
haya,
haynta rashiakoo, li. 103.
bay root, ii. 1

uali¢ :

hedu-bira, ii. 8

ii, 3
heiranthus Cheiri, i. 130.
heluppa-maram, i. 345
hemanti, ii. 277.
henai-~bol, i. 307,

in i en i a a a a ak
s

tite i. 561.
i, 85.
ried Pap e:

2. BE. RE
Hae

okrassi a aac is 339.

‘e : Bes : E
e © eS. 2

waged é

or

S

E

at

—

‘4, ghauza, iii. 510.
»» nova, ii. 37
» pagu, 0.

- Chirauli, i. 394.

Chirboti or Chitbatl§ ii 561.
Chirchestite,

oy
[ee]

hira, ui. 135.

~~ N em e n o

+ Ee Ee
ch ct
5
ce i

Be "§
Pet
aie
Ste
ho
>
a
.

ES

kshu 123.
te pairi, | iii. 123.
hitra-tandula, 1. 367, ii, 349.
hitrak, ii. 329.

hitraka, ii. 329.

tri, ii. 329

a,

‘oleleleolel@ls ie.
i ee fe

hivaka-vera, i ii, 527.
Seals Goalie

sioner on Ja gt iii. 316.
hrysanthemum Coro.

ee ee eee ee ee ee ee eee
'
'

brysarobin, i re

hrysomela, i
Chrysophanic aia i. 505, iii, 156.

i ag i381
Ch a, iii. 287.

222.
Swictenia, i. 338, 548.
. 500.

narium, ii. 276.

INDEX,

Chuvanna- mae ii, 414,
Chy. oo Laney
Chynle
Gicendia hyesopitalin, li. 515.
Cicer arietinum
Cichorinm Tntybus, ii, 311.

y

Cigue, ii, 110.
Oimicifuga: iota, i. 36,
mosa, i, 36,
Cinchocerotin, ii. 189.
Cinchol, i
Cin cheke Catisaya li. 174.
vi Isa, i. 19
$5 acetate. ii, 174,
34 officinalis, ii. 174.
res succirubra, ii. 174.
3 aloids, ii. 180, 187.
ee 5 Lees
Cinch, i 1ST.
Cinchonin 180, 187.

Cinchotannie acid, pe 188
Cineol, ii.
cinaueus ldchy dee 3 iii. 207.

Cinnamomum Camphora, iii. 199.
Cassia, iii, 203.
*5 iners, iii, 20
1 nitidum, ii
a ‘amala, iii. 208.

T
Figen i, 44.

Cinn iii. 2
cori i. 54,

Cissam: s Pareira, i “ 53.
Citric ar i, 273, 2
Citronella gra:
Ci er, i. 26

INDEX. - 49

Clitoria de Ternate, i. 458. Convolvulus arvensis, 542.
ove, ii. 20. : : por > Hi. 528,

8; liv 22. Coor rie ’seeds,
Cheorum tricoccon, iii. 224. Goorundostis-var, iii, 313.

0 yi. 50. ‘opal gum, i.

colle di Levante, i. 50. Cotine, i. 33.
‘us indicus, i. 50. Coptis dannancidiia: 1. Od~
» 1. 64. jy Deeta, i. BI,
villosus, i. 57. eet ‘
knead iii. 396. ee e de were? ii. 50
Coquelicot, i
1,151, | Goqueret or ‘Cogerll, ii. 560.

3
riloculatis i, 236.

Corn Se - 08.
silk, ili

Covisents, i

“Cornos das Diab iii. Pay
Cornutia corymbosa, ili. 67.
Co-roi-ngua, iii. 60.

its
speciosus 427.
Cotoneaster eet i. 583,

da Wavesin, < i 119.

20

Cressonée, iii.

Crinum asiaticum, ill. 464
zeylanicum, li. 466

Crocus scott iii.
rossandra andulaefoliay i iii. 45.
Crotalaria are 1. 401,

rc a, i. 400.
is Detiague, i. 401.
% retusa, i. 401.
” sericea, i. 401

Croton catharti ique, iii. 281.
oblon weifolias, 4 iii. 286.
39° OL 258;

Tig m, iit. 281.
Crotonic wid a 284.
Crotono
Crotonoleic aod, iii. 284.
Cruci =e

tocoryne Spits i. 18, ili. 548.

Cryptopine, i.
Cryptostegia grandior, i . 425.

aes

minor, in. 403.
iii. 406.

INDEX,

3

Cuscuta hyalina, ii. 548. 4

Be 1 aniflora, i li. 548. ‘a
reflexa, ii. 648.

ne Es

Cylista scariosa, i.

Larrea aoifotium, ees
vatum, i iii. 3
tenuifolum Hi 836.

Cymene Onan ii. 115, ili. 566.

ii. 443.

ii. 554
rotundus, iii. 552.

Dabeli, i - 207.

Dabi-duba,' iii. 510.

Dabra, i. 427.

Dabria (Bomba. 7 aaa for Avogeeiond
aioli

: Daathy or Kash for —
: rice Eynosaroides), 4 "BIB.
Daé sin ie 4,

2913.
ne: hiphala, i. 982,

: INDEX. 2}

Dalbergia olubils i. 461. Dasamuli, i
Dalchini, operat a

Dalik, i. 574. a Datir ( Vern. fee Has gibbosa) iti 347.
Dalika, ii. 81. Datisca — ii.
Dalim, ji. 44. Datiscee,
Dalimba, ii. 44, rasernragd it eae
Dalimbe, ii. 44. Datturi,
Daman- papers, ii. 197. Datura faatuosa ii, 585.
Damask rose, i. 574. Met sre 585.
wain, iii, 504. Stramonium, ii. 584.
Dam-el-thuaban, iii, 505. Daturie ania, e ii. 588,
m innin, iii, 505 Datwan, iii "O64.
Datyuni, ii.
Daucus Carota, ii. 134
an-hoi, i.
Davala, i. 426
si 12

, li. 508, iii. 282. Dey nighishnde, Li. 572.
Debrelara
Deek, i. 386
Deishar, i. 208.
elphinine, i. 39.
inium altissi rae ot
, poe RP i, 37.
” i. 37;
ty deonudatums, i i, —s = 400.
Ue: ’ i 23, ii
Dendrobium macraei, iii
rf ies ii. 811. Deodali, ii. 81.
dangri, ii. $1.
a Deodar, iii, 380.
» Hi. 356, -ki-lakri, iii. 380.
iswak, ii, 381. eokapas, i. 225,
; 1. 880. Deokeli, iii. 449.
li. 431. * | Deonal or Dahavala, ii. 322.
ariya, i. 562. Deotadi, ii. 81.
Derris uliginosa, : 470.
Desert date, i. 28

Desmodium gangcionm, i i. 428.
triflorum

Deva-kadu, ii. 502.

De

22

Dhan, i iii. 601.

Dhana, ii. 129

d benvnan- gest, ini. 10.
: oer, 129.

INDEX.
Dinduga, i i. 17,

ling
resins _ soe soliag li. 340.
Dioscorea aculeata, iii. 551.

Dioscorinex, i ili.
Diospyros Ebenum, ii
i Em mbryopteri, ii. i. 366.

’ aki, ii. 369
ay montana, ii 368.
Tupru, ii. 368
pushpa, i, 42.
Diplospora a i.
Ceara ii. 125.
ipterocarpez, i. 191
Ni Mere < alatus, i. 191.

incanu:

i, x
Dodda-mar me et 63.
Do ri, 4.201.

Dodonea a i. 371.
371

Doduchallu, i ii. as
Dogbite shrub,
Reema Fare m i, Bhi

Dorema aureum, ii. 160.
" labrum, ii. 156,
or; nj, li. 568.
Dor. ih ins “
Doroni ic,
Doronicum patalinnches li. 292.
© amer
Dou meat ii ge
Dowalah, iii. 628
Downy Grislea, ii. 40
Dracena, Gi ape iti. 604
antha, iii. 50 16.
Dragon’s Neate wa 504, 532.
nzibsr, iii. 506.
Drakh, i. 357,
Drakhya, i i, 357.
rakhsha, i. 357.

5 arishta, i. 357.

» pandu, i. 357.
rakshi-hannu, i. 357.
ramahui, i.
ravidi, ili.
regea vali, ii, 444.

Dregein, ii,
k, i. 3

Dridha one iii, 514.
roga amara, iii. 47.

=o alanops ae i, 197.
Dub, iii. 577.

3
2
feat)
dies
. pt
Me,
@ fas
*
=

Metal or Dagaa, i ii, 457.
ugdha, ii.

n el-f faghiya, ii, 42.
hn-el-car

a)
ee
43
Fee
f

. B
ee & .

.
is
nr
~I
ha

chant hemp, i, 213.
ku, ii, 126,

’

INDEX. ; 23

Dulaghondi, iii. 313.
Dulagondi, i. 447.
Duleamaretin, ii. 554.
Dulcamarin, 4
Duleamarine, ii. 554
Julingi, iii. 400
Dummaala, i. 7
Dupada, i. 196,
Durah-i-kizan,

: ee

’ entities iii. 5177.

Jusparsha, i. 246,
Dush-pradarshani, ii. 557.
Dushta-puchattu, i, 374
D cadens ii. 442.
Dviparni, i. 351.

Dwale, i. 512.
East Indian Elemi, i
Ser et 4 1231,

Eau d’ange, ii. 34.
Eau sucrée, iii. 595.
Ebenac ee, ii. 366.
Ebony, ii. 368.
Ee sa (ate Elaterium, ii. 95.
Ecbolium Linneanum, iii. 49.
Echites scholaris, ii. 387
Ee ry eaonte ny, i 389.
Echicerin, ii. 389.
Echinops echinatus, ii. 320.
Echiretin, ii. 389.
Echitamine, ii. 390.

hitein, ii. 389.

bitin
Ecli

Ecorce de codagapala, ii . ool,

>> 9) Jantour, ii. 374,

Eda, iii. 505.
Edah, iii. 506.
Ei ees
Eejin or Eeyin, iii. 574.
Penthakai, iii.
Egle Marmelos, 1, 277.

tian y 4 10

myro! ;

Fhretia buxifolia, ii. 52

24

kharo, iii,
K- “Kanda-istn lil, 492.
a 28.

Ui eae By ar

ea
a
©, OR
ae a
to
(e7)
=
Bt
on
2
=

(=)
5
oy
‘3
:
. nt
i)
fo: Ses
2
ro
oa
_
On

Flom! ( (ast naan) .: 321,
Elephant

oe
— sinner ii. 243.
Eletta: omum, iii. 428.

Eliya, ini. 467.

Ellago-tannic acid, *iii. 263.
Ellu, iii. 26.

Elm-leaved Sumach, i. 372.
Elumich-cham- eres i, co
pase sen tolashi, iii

Elwa

Embelia Rites: li, 349.
ee robusta, ii. 350.

Emilia son chitin u ot
Emodin, i. Dong

Ensal, iii. 4
Eistade pursetha, j i. 539.
_ _ scandens, i, 53%.
‘iii. 560,

INDEX,

Eraka, iii. 538.

Eranda, iii. 301.

Erandi, i iil. d0l.

Erando, iii, 301

Erem a labios, i lii. 404.

ang 4

Ericu, Sue

Veen asteoides, in. 251.
nadensis, i Be 249.

Erima- ‘pana ~ 16.

Eriodendron anfractuosum, i . rapa

J (i, Jom ndha ae che =

ine, i, 454,
7] rythreea Roxburgh, m1: 517;
Brvt ina rss

Vv % monog yams, i, 242.

; iii. 1
q ae Ola, ie . 210.

esh, i
ake ally i 126.
Esopgol, iii. 1

_ Espinho es ladrao, i. 260.

oa se . Fang ii, 27 2.

. 190
Eulophia ¢ cmpostris, iii. . 385, 388.
‘3 nuda, ii 8.
ree i i. 389.
Euonymin, i, 347.
moe nipoe oe Pe i. 347.
ndulus

pe
Euphorbe antivenérien, ae

Euphorbia ro
re antiqu oa a 253, 261.
S clarkeana, iii. 250

*

Euphorbia gg ye iii. 256,
Euphorbiacer, 247.
Euphorbic acid, i iii. 259.
orbium, iii, 257.

Feil Oteand pampin on vitis, i. 358.
Ezhilaip-palai, ii. 386.

Faba marina, i. 540.
‘Pex vini, i. ys
eee

INDEX. Fe

Ferula ovina, ii. 139

bed a
Féve des ¢ champs, i j
reves ma hg Cy he $80.
t. Ignace, iis 500.

Fil
Filfil South, i i. 563.
i li 4 ‘

Frutex x glo obuloram, i, 497.
Fudanaj, i iii. 103. ‘

/

96°

ee a — iii. 104,
ae

iaticum) , iti
- 23,

INDEX.

No ronda ili. 440,

um, ii. 154.
Gale men ea, i, 415,
Galkakckas pata, ili, 641,

41 Gali, i

anajali, iii. ;
Ganajali-kullu, iii. 163
anasura, iii, 287.
ao aa i, 262.
Ganda-puro, ii. 325.
Gandah-hine cna i. 302, ii. 158, i iii. 378.
i ( r Gan eas . 163...

Ganiha/bhadaliya, i 299.
Gandha-bhaduli,
Gandha-che-khor, iii. 232
Gandha-ga

for Rasna),

Ga cian umbar (Syn. for Ficus his-
pida), iii.
ndhada- shekke, lii, 232.

Ga

( :

i na, ii.
Gandhani, iii. 163.
G 3.

( n-chekka i ii. 232.
( 557.

(

ranja-pal, iii. 319.
anja 1 (Syn. for Cannabis eek
iii, 318.

Ganja-rasam, ii. 319. o

INDEX, pee

Ganje-rsham Sem. for Cannabis Gazmazu, i i, 160.

sativa ee oar iii. Gebokanak, i. 588.
- Ganja-vir 319. Gech- i
Pearce vty iii, 319.

Génepi blanc, ii. 272.
Gengeli, iii. 29,
‘ Gentian, ii. 508
Gentiana Chiesa, ii, 612,
Dahuz ii. 508.

Gharbi ( Syn. for Datura tura fruit said
imported from Persia), ii. 5865.

G -naru, ii. 92.
giarga iii, 631.

28

naan iii, 149.
hati-gum, i, 554.

hati- mirchi, i. 654;
hati-pitpapra, ili, 49.
vum, iii. 607.
hebu-nelli, ili. 66
helegherinta, i 40 0.
heru’ utti- amma, ii. 243.
hi uli, it 30.

De ee Oe RRO RR RCE E EES .
= ia ' aH
~.

5.
Gingelly oil, iii. 29.
' Ginger, iii. 420.
, iii, 567,

. 20.
Gi roflier aromatique, ii. 20.
Girenniera reticula ta, iil. 316.
Gisekia a ioe. ii. 105,
oie 1

Gith, i rE 2.
Gloiopeltis tenax, iii. 626.
Gloriosa superba, ii
Glossocardia —

INDEX,

Gobhi, ii
God’s sooty iii, 629.

9.
Gojia- “lata, ii, 244.
Gojibha, ii, 244.

”» en }) ie 26

ae lahan), i. 248.

- Sars i. 243.
Gokhuri, i
Gokhsura
Golden Clainp, 1. 42.

oe ollyrium, iii. 499.

ii. 247

Gopi- -chandan, i i, 108.

Gora-bach, iii. 539.

Gora-limba, i a

Gora-nimb, i. 262, 330.

Gora-tel (8; yn. for sweet oil of bazars),

Girecwuels or Bach, iii. 539,
Gorae 8.

i

ae alas

OE Re Sas

Sets, est i. 365.
. 388

Grac
Grain d’ ambrett

tilizefo.

?
aria hemody, iii. 688.

se
sabrophyil a 203, 238.
” 237,
163

INDEX.

Guizotia abyssynica, ii. 269.
tujar, 1. 476.
u oe i, 576.

ulabi-huvou i, 574.

abi TLUVOU,

Mt

=:
© 6
—
i

=]
©
=
a

--h-8--- 0) - 2-2-2
‘3 5
5 ag
ry
= # =
e - B
= a
S on
~~
On

~

-i-ghafis, ii. 508.

-i-pisteh, i. 380.
tura 06,

L

an i ee gk eg ya

4-5-4 -A-5 4-8-4
ahs : :
EES
2
oo

=~

=
p
st
>
=a
Li)
a
=
>
wo
=

~)
oe
ro
<)
oO

», Bassora, i. 565.
ed poe are te ii. 369.
ee yy Indian, i . 644.

Crunnanseieey iii. 70.

80 INDEX,

sy Cai (a grass like Suna), iii, | Hab-el-sanaubar-el-kibar, iii. 379.
d u dis t20;
( aie: Hab-us-salatin, ii. 504, iii. 282.
Gunta- F Sivers: li. 266. ab-us-sauda, or souda, i
Gunta-kalagara, ii. 266. ab-us-saudan or sudan, i. 524..
Gur, iii. 597. Hab-el-zalim, A ‘
Gurach, i. 54. . Habenaria sp., 7
Guragi, iii. 437. Habhab is Habhabu, i219, a
Gurige, iii. 268. Hadak
Gurugu, iii. 139. i fades 133.
Guraku, ii. 636. adha-naeptanam, i ii. 158,
Gurbiani, i. 33. | Heemarago, ii. 49.
G ss aes Ye Haer, i
Gurgal, i. 117 Haft-barg, iii, 225,
Gurgiyah, iii. 563. afuz,
ruri-ginja, 1. 430. agala, ii
( urjo, i 54. acenia abyssynica, i ; 570.. :
Gurjunic acid, i. 194 Haie Nae i. 505. 5
Gurka re: ii Haj,
Gurmala, ajar eal ukab, i, 498,
( arati-ehetin, li. 442. akano Abura, iii. 104,
Guti, iii Hakkarike, ii. 244.
{ atta ‘Giese S . 173. alad, iii. 407
Guttier des peintres, i. 168. aladarava, i. 338
Guttifers, i. 163. aladio-vachnag, i. 31..
Guvaka, iii. 422. alahala, iii. 400.
Guzhad, i. 476 aldar, iii.
Gwal-kakri, ii. 73. aldi, iii. 407.
Gwan, i. 377. aldu, ii. 17
Gwid, iii. 227. alicacabus, ii. 560
G sylvestre, ii. 450. Uy dit, ,
Gymnemic acid, ii. 45 eh-i-asfar, ii. 2.
{ is pentaphylla, i. 132. alileh-i-Chini, ii. 2
Gynocardia odorata, alileh-i- Hindi, ii. 2
Gynocardic acid, i. : alileh-i-Jawi, ii. 2
Gypsophila Vaccaria, i. 155. Halileh-i-Kabuli, ii. 2 j
3 Struthium, i. 156. alileh-i-Zangi, ii. 2. .
Halile Zirah, i i. BZ. q
Halim, i.
Haliyun, iii 486
Ha iii. 10 Halkasa, iii. 123
Habak-hadi, i. 310. Halmadhu 2.
Habak-i-Kirmani, iii. 83. al-mekki, ii. 65.
Hab-el-aas, ii. 32 al ;
Hab-el-arar, iii. 371. Hama
Hab-el-arus, iii. 180. amamelidee, i. 593.
Hab-el-asfar, ii. 308. Ham
Hab-el-balasan, i. 316. Hana, ii. 1.
Hab-el-fakad, i. 475, iii. 76. . Hande, iii. 549.
Hab-el-ghar, iii. 214. Hansraj, iii. 624
Hab abashi, iii ] yal
Ha ykanaj, ii. 570. ahmar, ii.
b-el-kalb, i. 390. Haplanthas tentaculatus, iii 47.
Hab-el-khatai, ii. 504, iii, 282. : verkiaitintas i iii. 47,
b-el-kulai, i. 448, Har, i ii. 1, 376.
“ lahv, i . Ta, ll. 1.
Hab-un-nil, il. 530. ii. 263.
Hab- i. 209. Harade, ii. i.

larala, iii. 577.

ae iit.

°
er
Bony

we

oo i. 225.
% Haya-puchchha, Asva-maraka.

zar-banai fi i491.
I

Hedge mustard, i. 121.

INDEX. . 31

Hedu, ii.
Hodychium spcatom, ili, 416, 417.

Heggurutike, iii.2493.
7.

Heil, iii. 43

Hejakiyus, ii. 430.

Hejurchei, iii. 125. ins
leean:

He

Hela (Bauibayg ‘Syn. for T. belerica),
Helenin, i ii, os

Helicteves. pel

H

aie se m. becifliamy aw —
waldi, ii. 526-

wv
wv

5.
open - ag
undulatum
Helxine 542

Hem: apushpi, . 462.

Hemidesmus ee ii. 446,
ee

ote

Henno- tannic acid, ii. 43.
Herb Grace, i. 251.

i. 249.
Herba admirations iii. 124,

»» doce, ii. 132,

$5 insane alba, iii. 266.

” ” rubra, 2

», Scheenanthi, iii. 55

», solaris, ii. 526.

ay ark hirsuta, iii. 427.

mphoniaca, ii. 626.

et * bone, di . 244,

cousin, i. 238.

iii, 5
iit iii. 124.
Herminic ac acid, i. 255.

32

Hermodactylus, iii, 495.
Herpestis Monniera, iii. 8.
Hesperetic acid, i.

Hesperetin, i. 273.

Hesperidin, i. 273.

Hete Sadi (a Roxburghii, iii, 24,
Heuber,

itis ‘Abslinoschins, 1. 209.

i esculentus, i, 210
populneus, i
$9 Rosa- -sinensis, 1 204,
5 Subdariffa, i. 212.
tiliaceus, i. 228.
Hijja, i M17.
Hijjal, ii. 17
ijjala, ii.
ijli-badam,

me (Mahometan on for Cardamom),
Hil- bawa, i iii, i 436.

for

nna,
Hinne’s-koreish (Arabic Syn.
Charela); iii. 627,

mon (Syn. for WiGaskios littorale),

Se eat i. co i 8195
3 Hiranpad, ii. 642.

INDEX,

Hirva- Capa ot it. 564.
caulina, iii. 406,

ada
Hol lnmen aniidysonterea i 3agt.
Holingi,
Holly- eaved ce nthus, iit.
ele Aart ie gece Ag ee 318.
457.

oya quiabilie— -see Dregea volu-
bilis

Hrasva- -pancha-mula, i. 244.

Hridayarnavarasa, ii. 549.
Hrivera, i. 224.
Huang-hang, iii. 153,
Hucha-sasavi, i. 131.
Hudai, iii. 20.
Hugonia Mystax, i. 243.
Huile amére, i. 214.
», de badiane, i. 40,
Hulhul, i. 131, 132
ulwa, iii. 38
Hum, Huma, iii, 369,
Humula, iii. 41
Honase, i. 53
Hura, iii. 314
Haurf, i. eo
Hurhur, i.

iii. 501,

131, 132.
Hurhusie, i. eit 132.
Hurina -shook -china, i

Husrum, i. 358.
Hutchati, ii. 269.
me Huziz-
2 Hyduocarp

7
aed...
ie)
5B

oO

cay

Bachem iii. 159.
preg ii, 423.

u, iii.
Hetiead, i, 243, ili. 36.

INDEX;
aera aie (sweet), j ii. 397.
Indhana

Indian a ier t n
ai serowvot pa

2. bdellium

» bi acy

», butter-tree, ii, 355
17. COEN, ik. 37

vy costus, ii. 297

‘s emp, ili. 318,

‘ 0, 1. 464,

4).- slag, at S22.

a et 65

2 persimmon, ii. 366.
3, sarsaparilla, ii. 446
», Shot, iii, 449.
»» Spinach, iii. 14
», squill, ili. 476.
», turnsole, ii. 525

ild uine, i, 362.

pe aihoides, is oe

la
ig ai ae ai
Enola 406.
trifoliata et 412,
Tndigotier = i. 406,

In

7s see

idi pers i. 139.
Ipeca du pays, ii. 439.

33

34

Ipeca pays, iii. aie
>», Sauvage, ll. 439.
— anha bane, ii. 427

Ipoh, ‘tii
Tpomzea aquatica ii. 540.
biloba, ii. 536.

country), i. 333.

»» uniflor
vitifolia i i: gees
Ippa- chetiu, ii 355.
Ippa-gida, ii. 35
a

germanica, iii. 451.
irk-es- -sus, ce 492.
Trojappu, i. na
Tron-wood t

: ban Pg

, 1. 170, ii. 34.

INDEX,

sohesperidin, i. 275.
sopelletierine, ii. 49.
6.

6 back teed been b
Do

vay

eu

~
SRE GEE:
a ee gee

or

e

i

iv)

.

ot

A
ai
ae ie!

Ixora coccinea, ii. 2 2.
», parviflora, ii. 214.
lii. 558,
-i-jami, iii, 572.

Jack- ha ge Hi. 355.
4,

Tefarabad oe i iii. 467

2
2
sy

4 Cy Cy Cu

Serres eee epwaer ree eee
“ je Se i:
ce ee
+
_
Sr:
is
7 aE
oF
fad

Cy Gy Cu Gy Gy Cy GO 6 et, eC e186

ani, ii, 82.
ariyamed, il

373.
asaya, iii, 550, 562.
pase

SPREE
1
ne
fee

ee oe Se eee ee ae

INDEX. __ 35

erany net 274.
andulifera, iii. 272,
rnultifida, ii 274.

J ambhira, iii. 109,
69

[=~]
=
a
B
Qa
eo
~
=]
Cd
. TI Ay
oe
¢
i
°
E
_—
=)
ie)

A hau, i. 160.
tree, ii. 421 wide i, 160.
379. . oe
9. dh Py i
irene a Thing li. 523.
diflorum, ii. 378. Jhinti, iii. 43.
iii. 7. ; mee de pee
ih ibanti, ll.
— Jibantic acid, iii. 391.

ingan
Jingili, iii. 29.
Jingini, i. 393,

@®,@,@,¢,¢,4¢,6,¢ meet eet Sk StS Os Ss Cs Oy Cy Cy Ss Ss Ss Ss Ss Se Gs es Ges Gs Gs Gs td

is)
jor)

ntiyan, ii. 509.
re, its 179;

vanputra : lil, 272.

ivanti

n, eee
ob’ tears, ili, O73;
oi-pani, wots

uncus od W 18, iii. 553, 562, 564.
plea gC nga tig hegs li. 5653.
Jung-gala, ii.

ooh ita, . “148.

eranium, Ha

icosa, li. 49,
Justicia Reboliom. 3 iii. 49.
Genda: a. iii. 4

. ¥ ii, $22,
» iii, 180.
ii.180,°

INDEX,

pee . 135,

Med too

ada-ud

at-rengay, itl. 520.
ala-mara, ii. 169,
avanchi, ii. 79.
inge, li. 50.

vea-Caravaili

ge-garaga, iii. 266,

Kadoo-para, ii, 319.
KAadu—se .
Kadu-cai-pu,
Kadu-dorka, ii. 80.

Vo-jiri
al pene mee iii. 414,
: rotunda, iil, 416.

ede Syn.
563. sy

Hy 272;

aitha, i. 586, iii. 635.
ae iii, 507.

i-ilai, ii. 266.

appudai-tailam, Hi 23.

for Idkhir), ili.

INDEX. 37

Kakara-shingi, i. 374.
Kakhan, ii.
Ka eros (Syn. for oil of S. oleoides),

2

eas kodi, i. 459.
‘kata-shingi, i, 374.

50.
- 560, 561, ye
6

paryrute pr erg cert

‘a

BESS Soe SSS see SSS pr Ss i a oe be be be be be be be be be pe ee be
» os
: * BE BEA oo. > E Fe

: die J)

6.
kulak Soteex Po for L._ temu-
entum aes

ti, tis.
a, ii. "538, iii. 443.
-adulsa, i

a-ala, iii : 42

gg
Fe

> eS &
i eS:
ee
ee
Saf
ba
ow
me
©
.

u-khajur.
or kirayat, iii. 47.
-kura or r kuda, 397.
iii, 480.

2 oe bw
2»
- ' ‘
ps >
E.
r
s
we
to
i

24,
i pai-kizhangu, ee 480.

gt
a
ae
om
SS
Fig

a
ree

38

INDEX.

Kalambak, iti. 219. Kamala, i. 71, iii. 296.
Kalambaka, i ‘H Vil. Kamal ni-mala, i 55
Kalambi, ii. Kamalata, 40.
Kalanchoe eat i. 590. anchi-chettu, ii. 549.

* spathulata, i, 590. amappu, iii. 383,
Kalangura, ii. 370. d spam ~ 454
Kalapu, iii. 627. Kamazariyus, ii. 251, i "125.
Kalara, ii. 255. aren ae iii,
Kalarva, ii. 380. amboja, iii.

» Kalavi, iii. 480 { bu-malini, ii. 516.
Kalavi-kaya, i ambu-pushpi, ii. 516.
Kaldera Bush, iii. 535. amela-mavu, ili ‘
Kale-jire, i. 28. Kamila, iii. 296.
Kalfah, iii, 204, 208 amini, i. 265.

Kalgori, iii. 20, : aminpulai, iii. 138.
Kalgorn, iii. 20 amkam, ii. 370.
Kali-beli-pann ravara, lii. 625. am-kasturi, ili. 83.
Kali-haldi, iii. 403 amla-nebu, i. 270.
Kali-hari, iii. 480 mohi, iii. 264.
‘Kali-jiri, ii. 241 amohi-jo-chodo, ii. 264.
-Kali-kari, iii. 480. ° amohi-jo-pun, iii. 264.
Kali-kanghi, i. 208. ampilla, iii. 296.
Kali-kasondi, i. 521. Kamraj, i. 365.
ali-kutki, iii, 11. Ka: , lii. B45.
Kali-mirach, iii. 166. Kamugt, iii. 522.
Kali-miri, iii. 166. Kamun, ii. 114.
.Kali-musli, iii. 462. amun-i-Farsi, ii. 114
Kali-pandan, iii, 625. rien “I ni, ii. 114.
Kalinga, ii. 392 Ka i-muluki, vege Ey Ss
ngada, ii. 63. : naeviencd Vat ii. 114,
Kaliun, iii. 126. i, ii, 549.
Kalivasu, iii. amus, lil. 375.
‘Kaliyana-murugeu, i. 451. Kana, iii. 176.
Kalkas tee ious for Alocasia | Kana-mula, iii. 178.
Indica), iii. Kanab, iii. 323
Kal-kasonda, . on Kanakbira, iii. 323.
" allasabatra-sige, ii. 197. Kanakaia, i. 366.
Kalli, iii. 252. anakaphala, iii. 281.
Kolli-Kombnu, iij. 252. anbher, iii. 394,
Kallurivi, ii. 37. ako, iii. 281.
lur-vanchi, ii, 37. ? cs anie mpa, i . 233.
Kalmeg, iii. 46. Kanana-eranda, iii. 274.
Kalmi-sak, ii. 540. Kanang-karai, iii. 509.
Kalnarn, i. 590. Kanapa, ii. 17.
Kalo-miri, iii. 166. Kanapa-tige, i. 365.
Kalonji, i. 23, Kanaphata, i. 3
Kalpasi, iii. 627. Kanari, i. 320.
Ka ead 12. Kanari, i. 32
alru, i. 228. Kanbil, iii. 297.
nda, iii. 43, anch, i. 260.
al-umar, iii. 346, ancha, iii. 319.
anchana, i. 536.
anchanara, ii. 536.
Kanchara, iii. 509.
anchari, ii. 322.
anchata, iii. 509.
anchava-ela, iii, 319.
anchava-pala, iii. 319.
anchaya-vitta, iii. a

INDEX. 39

: Kanchi, i ii. 549, iii. 294 Kante-kan Syn. £ i
‘ . for Dioscorea
- Kanchi hi-chettu, i ii. 549. sclealay ait 351.
: i 6

Kanval, i

pikachchu,

our
Kapur-bhen ai (Syn “for i
ata), i.
sta ig iii 414, at

3

4.0

Karanfal, ii. 21.
Karanfal-i- basta, iii. 90.
Karanj, i. , 468.

Karawiya
Ka srawivac i- dash Cai sian lps. for
C. macula pried 2

~

INDEX,

Karmat-el-baida—see Hal-el-kilkil.

a ketal: or

iii. rita
Karpura- val, ii..92.
Ka oe - 200.
arpushpu, iii. 426.
Karrapu angen 319,
i egeee = 545.

arumbu,
aruna, . 260, lii. , 545,
arunkanam, i. 523.
arun-s acti, i 28.
Karva-badam, i. 563.
i sige ome ii. 67.
gota ii, 392.
arvan, i
Ivi or Karei, i. 50.
sda iti. 346.

iii.
Site hegre: Karawiya.
ete - 60.

Sein “90.
arwi-tamnbi, 3 ii. 67.
arwi-turai, ii. ge
arwi- wagetiy i - 26

asab- iii. 539

Dia bene iene fect Mica teeead Daceed

iain @

Kasai, i iii. are

Kasai-bij (Bombay Syn. for |
ryma), iii, 573.

i. 520.
Kash (Syn. for hare ae Sree
Kashamaram, ii. 35

-Kapur-kachri,

asaghini "hee, ‘ae rh Barhanta)y

Fae 6 ee ee ae

INDEX, * Al |

‘ash =yadam-kottai i, 563. — i, 964.
: Kashfa i, 296 tkaranj, i. 496.
Kashi a

wh ‘bahafshah, i, 141, Kat-morungi, i, 430.
Kashshing, i » 287. d actin 1, 262,

htha Kadai, ili. 450, | Katori, i ae

aton-k maravara, iii. 388.
Katon- shabe-massrake, lii. 388,

i Eameda-che:t, 3 i. eg Kattali-papas, ii. 99.
'-bhenda-vittulu, i. 209 atta-manakku, iii. 274;
209.

Keel tied heal

a’ tu or mts), B07 491,
iii. 4

42 ”
Kau. ae ii. 264.
undal

Trad 430 o~j}]

Kaur (Punjab Syn. for Katki), iii. 10.
36

Ka, 3.
Kaya aputi th kash i 23.
yoo-oorb, . 252 -

Kayputi-nu- tel, ii. oe

Kazhzr-shikkay, i
2 "Gein Syn. for
Khari), ii

i eh iil, 635.

Persian

INDEX

strings lil. 58 6.

Keya, iii. 535.
Khadaki-rasna, iii. 394.
Khadir a _
Khadiri, i. 538.
Khaya naga, iii. 480. '
Khair , 1. 559.
hai barn (Syn for Lesser cards

mom), iii pi

hair-champa, ii. 421
Khair-sar, i. 558.
Khairva, i. 511
Khaja, iii.

hajgoli-che-vel, i. 365.
Kha pe 313

hakar, 1. 454,

kar-no- 2 or eag i, 454,
h i, d

7
o
=
[|

ee

ie i. 73, iii. B71.

ilaf, iii, 365.
Khilaf-cl- Balkhi io Syn. for
cipal it

-i-Khalil

Shorasan thorn, i.
tora jamo, 626.
Eeorasnicajowan, i 110, 626.
a san am, ii, 626,

<i (Fre Syn, pa Alpinia
ili, 437.
ub, iii. 385.

INDEX. y

| Kichchili-pazham, i

hd cae ad he ko

Kichchili-pandu, i. 268.
. 268,
See i, 557.

Kilaipaik- -kizhan ngu, iii. 480.
Kilal-el- Pg or lii, 533.
Kilam
Kilan- x tel, iii, 380.

a ands 483.
Kil-d ce Bas
Kila ise ( ie yn for varies drugs).

jalka,
aki ‘i. “307, 5
C, sativa),

cd

8 8
TES

o

lewd feed

Iara, il

ratadi-taila, i il,
rata-tikta,

rathi, iii 489.
rayat, ii. 611, ili, 46.

at, 11
shar-kund, i, 296.

aren pease 75 iii, 227,
shmis ali

ishnij, ii, 130,

48 --

Af

Kisht- warm i; 232.

nrnkkan
urukkan, i, 458.

ii, 444,

y feed leenl.

2.82
=
2S.
MS
~
bo
ior)

iii. 311.

, sewer! ats

INDEX. . he
Konda-juvi, iii. 347..

: Konda- te ede iii. 416.

- Konda-k et i, 260.
Konda-tamara, iii. 50%
Konda-vepa, i ;

| Kongles, i. 218.

| Konnan, i. 511.

' Konnari, iii. 554.
Konraik-kai, i. 511.
Konya, iii. 28

—see Ku

Kooroonthoo, iii, 250.

Korai, iii. 55

Korakanda, iii. 467.

Korakapuli, i. 168.
ora-maddi, iii. 268.

Korangi, iii.

Koran- tutti, i, 208.

Koraphad, iii. 467.

Korarim carded. 3 iii. 436.

“7

°
iaea

i
i

; oratti, i i 70.

ota-v; 43.

ote, lil.

otha, i. 281.

otha-gandhal, ii. 214.

othmir, ii, 129.

ottai-mundiri, i
Kottak-karandai, ii. 25%.
Kottruk, ii. 104.

ottumbari, ti. 129.

rade, iii. 345.
ramuka, iii, 22.
-chura, i. . po
-ji PY oe 8, ii, -
Kris Bisa ji, tii.
rishna-keli, iii. 132.
ishna-phala, ii ge

5)
FE
=
E
E

57.
: agniman: antha,
d ua(Zamil for. apvatittaliny iii. 405.
ubar, i
ubja-prasarani-taila, ii. 229.
ubo, ii

89,
eka i i. 231.
udumiris-wel, i, 260.
’ uhili, i 447,

minta es
kronda, ii. 252.
kseem, li er

<sshima,
csungh, ii, oe.
cubha, ii, il.

ceurhie 1
ahala, ii il 2 i

Sp esceresereas 5 Ee Eo e Ss iE

Kumbhi, ii. 19

umra.
amerpindy rs 138.

: ere

Kunar,

] apres

: anchapbal ii, 459,

un Tige BES:

4d beet peel bed

i ke

BEE
cEEEE
E
3

He

4
3
an
]

er
>
“
£
]
ae
=
os
o>
&
*

5
-
F
5
we
iS

rE erg ey

Sar aes
a
al
=
ao
or
=

eed Seed eee) feed bed bere!

uru-khajur, i. 332.
vicar iii. 10.

uru-mulaka, i ili. 166, Lactucin, ii. 314.
ale, iii. 272. Lactucone, ii. 314
uruvaka, iii. 43. Ladies’ smock, i. 30.
eylam, i. 556. Lagena ndra tonleata, A oh tii. 548.
ia Ee 527. Lagenaria vulga
anda adawan, i ii, 59. Laggera eanee 48 ii. 955.
a ae . 123. saghu-khatai, ii. .
mia, . 419. sagondium, iii. 74,
Kurupu- ee 26.5.2 wahana-gokhru, i, 248,
Kurtun, ii Lahan-khari-narvel, iii, 76.
Kuru uruya—see Karawya Lahan-nayeti, iii. 250
Kusa, 575. Lahsan, iii, 488,
Kusar, i. 319. ual; di :
Kus avehela, ii, 593, Laiteron, ii. 319.
d ushmanda, ii. 68. aitue, li. 313,
Kushta, ii. 296. Laja, iii. =
Kushta pets oe 20. Lajak, i. 538,
: ushumba Lajalu, i. 247, 538.
Kushuth or Kushooth, é aS ii. 547. Lajri, i. 247, 538.
ust-el-bahri, ii. 297, ii Lakki, iii. '
Kust-el-halu, ii. 298, iii, ce ; Lakri paghanbed or ease” i, 585.
Kust-i-shami, ii, 259. Lakri-rewa 153.
ust-i-shirin, ii. 298. L mana, ii, ‘581.
ust-i-talkh, ii. 298. Lakshatarn, i. 455
us bari, ii. 129, Lakshmi-devatya, ii. 562.
usum, ii. 30 Lal-ambari, i, 212
umiba, ii. 308. Lal-b ‘:
Kusumbe, ii. 308. Lal-bherenda, iii. 272
» li. 308. Lal-bhui-amla, iii, 266.
Kut, ii. 296, 300. Lal-bhui-avala, iii. 266.
mitha, ii. 300. La lavanga, ii. 49.
Kutaila, i. 110. Lal-chandan, i. 462.
Kutaja, ii. 392. Lal-chita, ii. 329,
Kutajarishta, ii. 392. ual-chitra, ii. 329
Kutakan, ii. 107. Lal-chitrak, ii, 329
taki, ili. 4, 10. Lal-goachi-phal, ii. 30,
Kutaruna, re Lal-ja i, 30.
Kutchoo, Lal-indrayan,
Kutherai-kolapadi, ii. 536. Lal-mirach or mirch, ii. 563,
Kuthekar ual-morich,
Kutki, iii. Lal-safri-am
Kuttra, ii Lallemantia ernalag iii. 90.
Kuttun, i. 125. Lalo, i. 220.
Kuvali, ii. 6 Lamajjaka, iii
vara, iii. 424, 467, Lumin ccharina, iii. 641,
uzbura, ii. 130, uamnjak, iii a
K-wei, iii. 204. : Lamka:
yadage, ili. 535. ‘ jampooyang, if iii. 401.
Kydia calycina, i. 228. Lompourde, ii, 262.
Kyllingia mo monovephalay “ als iii. 556. Lares iin microcephalum,
triceps,
mpuium, iii. 401.
Lang, i. 489.
Langala, iii. 514.
Lanka-morich, ii 563.
popes i iii. 252. ‘
Langue femme, + 90,

uanifera oan - Am
uantho opin

q i. 49 90.
‘ath yrus sativa, i. 489, 490.
: Laudanin i, 88,
‘ SR asiocine, i. 88.

Launza nudioulis ii, 319
imide, ii. 318,

Laurus nobil is, ili
Lavala, iii. 554
Lavandula Stoechas, ii. 93.

Lavang, ii. 20.
a-pattai, iii, 203,
nga-patte, iii. 203.

Db
Toot nit, ii ie
: febidiropis oi orbicularis, iii

iii. 478.

macrophylla, i, 364,
2» sambucina, i. 363.
Staphylea, i i. 363.
Le , i. 400.

etanine, iii. 211, 213, 214, 217.
214,

i. 269
snake iii, 478 .

INDEX. 47

Lemon juice, i. 274.
Lendi-pippali, iii. 175.

ndva
Leonotis nepeteefolia, i a 125.
Leopard’s bane,

Lepidin, ied
Lepidium graminifolim, 119.
I 8.

opium ii. 314,
Lenias aspera, ‘iii. 122.
cephalotes, iii. 123.

me lia, iti. 123.
rs ylanica, iii, 123.
Leucindigo, 10
Leucoje, i. 130
Leukoion, i. 130.
Lewa, i
Liane vermifug:

Libadiyun or tifadiya ii, 330.
Lichenes, iii. 62
Lignum Aloes, i iii, 217.
Peete? £03.

Ligustrum R oxburghii, ii. 380.
Liliaces, ii. 567.
Lili-chahe, iii. 564.
ame i, "393

ophila graoloides, pits 7.

”?

gratissima
Limonia acidissima, i Zi 267.

Lin usuel, i, 2
Lindenber, co rticesfolia, iii, 6.

champs, ii, 542.

48

Lisha, iii, $78.
Litseea sohifers, iii, 211.

St cksii iii. 213.
7 ‘ittle man’s bres iii, 629.
Lobelia are itansetolin: ii. 322.
] sobeline,
Lobus echinodes, i i. 497.

Hi. 873.

; sodhar, ii. 373.
Lodhra, ii
d odoicea “seychellarum, i iii, 526.

i , ili. 296.
Lokhandi, i. 294, 355, ii. 35,
Lola-sara, iii iii.

Lolium um temulentum, iii, 585.

London & Hooket, ic-izi,

Loran Mi S3T.
Loranthus falcatus, iii. 231.
ongifl

i, ii. 370.
Mayet, i. 298, 301.
Lubanat, i

INDEX.

Luywan, iii. 628.
Luzanine, i. 485.
uzini a

Lythracez, 3 37.

Ma, i.
Ma7ei-Khiiaf, iii, 366.

eee i eb
Mabli,
| Macar aus | Roxburgh iii. 315.
Macassar oil,i
Mace, i
fe (Bembay), iii, 197,
ace: i 6.

iwa-ya-watu-wawili, iii, 506.

a-chettn, i iii.

eae.
i 5 &
E
1

Soros &
o
3
a
“]
B
~
hey
:
mo
& Ei no -
OS
we
rat
$
oo
@
od

:
z
E

~

=|

4

<i

ph
Se
=
Ls)

~
Ka

2
S &
“i

Pak tied Tad

Beeees see 2 &
PRE SEe Ba &
>,

:

3
—

4

eT Le ger g ee

urika, 3
Madhye os va, cB

INDEX, 49

Madhyanha- oops iii. 132. Maklai-gond, i. 541.
Sa anaes : : _ | Makoi, i

ormwood, ii. 248. ees fee -chilanni, i ee
aeda-lakari, iii. 211. ulaka, iii. 311.
iii. 5 tak sai, 488.
gath-i-Hindi, iii. 211. ie Cardamom, iii, 428.
“pe i a ii. 211. ” Kino,
Maghas-shuddhi, i. 345. : 5 Nightside, 4 iii, 148.
“parichelad, i 4
‘ Malabari-pan-ki-jar, iii. 437
Agodhuma, iii. 608 Malabari-supari, iii. 383
70. J bari-vacha, iii, 441.
bhi, iii. 356 Ma. caries ili. 184.
68. Mala i. 204.
Ma gchea capitata, i. 228.
a Malague, i. 567.
Soa Mala -karunnay, i. 260.
‘ Mala-kuli, i. 590.
Mabon, 2 ait, 331. Malai-tamara, iii. 503.
Ma gi, i. 206.
Malai-vembu, i. 330.
i. 56 Malai-veppam, i. 330.
Mahauaracha-rasa, iii. 231 Malan-kua, iii. 416
e 540. Malbhok, iii. 444
Malilotus, i. 405.
Malkanguni, i. 343
Mallea, ti. 211.
] wea age ii hess

Spe pS
FE; S
fo
s
:

amao, ll. 03.
la-k onnai, j. 511.

AaB Vale -

5.
ana-pasupu, iii. 403.
teat i. 4

Seok face Goal Gad Mead Bec Mead Bcd Gc bc bed bac Sead

. 451.
ara, i. 452, ji. 429.
aramu, ii. 428

eacora calllescens, ji. 58] da
- preset ii. oe
a —-. ii. ame:

50

Mandragore, ii. 581.

Manduka-parni, ii. 107
Manduparni, iii
Manelli, i. All.
Mangal, iii

- 586
Man, ngalya, i. 23, lii. 390.
Mangalyarha, i » 23.
Man

INDEX,

Mari, iii. 338

ie
rmakhuz
Marmelos de Bangui, 1. 278.
Marori, i

5 bed b

bead bead bed Be
‘ sy
FEE
-
ne
.
S

mid watu-wa: iii. 666.
ath, 1 . te “

ed

d ae” tii. 514.
latijer, iii, 125.

atti-pal, 293.
acpi, ii, 534.
il, 355

oy

ii. 36 z
bunthakdoroontho, +197;
auve Sauvage, i.

Ss:

scan acid, i. 88.
€conidine, i 88.

> 1,

bd ead bed es |

Onin, i. 88,
econopeis nen i 112.

INDEX. Ot

34.
tinctorium, ii, 35, iii. 297,
Mémecylon comestibie, i. 34.

Menph 4
Mente, i. 401.
Mentha ee as iil. e4.
iii. 103
” ” : _Piperascens,
iii.
incana, iil. 108, ae
» piperita, i _ 103
oy sativa, ill. 103.
>, Sylvestris, iii. 101
enthe sauvage, iii. 101
Menthol, iii. 1
Menthya, i. 401. <
Mentula, i. 40
i, 155.

Meradu,
Merabsing ii. 450.

> pce persica, iii, 496.
Mesha-sringi, ii. 45

Methyl-o pete:
Me on baie ren ‘cid it 284.
ve wed ig

Mill
Millett, iii. 580.
Mimosa pudica, i. 538.

52 ; INDEX,

Mimumuli, Mollugo hirta, ii. 104.
— Hine ii. 362. ” spergula, ii. 103
ndra, ii, 364. stricta, ii. 103.
Min dal o or Mindhta ii, 204, Mombin de Malabar, i i, B95:
. Migut, iii. 253, Momordica weg amet ii. 78.
Mint, i hi. 101, ie chinchinensis, ii, 77.
Mirabilis J alapa, ii, 132. e Oyaibalacin: 11-79.
Mirach, iii. 166 4 dioica, ii. 74.
Mirapa-kaya, ii. 563. umbella ata, ii. 89.
Mirch, ii, 563. Monkey- = — aya Ee
irchai, ii. 530. Monkey-nut, i. 494
rchi, ii. 563. Monks’ penner: iii. 76
ivi, iii, 166, 212 Monora-mal, i. 506
iringa, iii. 15. Mo
irigalu, iii. 166 Mooda-cottan, i. 36
ingha, li. 563 Moonoodoo-moordoo, i. 430
hk-bhendi, i. 209 Moorenkappen, ii. 5
k ah, i. 209 | Mora-ageru, ii, 59,
8 taramashia, iii Morala, i. 394.
zamin (dr a tor Cyperus), area ve 42.
Moreda, i. 394,
Morelle’ Fivieue, 2 Abe
agit
Matinds ¢ citrifolia, ii. 7566.
»» _ tinctoria, ii. 226.
Morindin, ii. 228
Morindon, ii.

+ a
Moringa peri a
ery go

oO
d otha, i iii. 652.

ae
7 ae
E:
g

Moydi, - i338,

Beds, ii

3 Sa = fest . 562.
: ee in 145 232.
Mrinal =

INDEX.

~buraga- chettu, i. 215.

Mundulea ade i, 417.
Mung, i. 488

“i. 556.

54

Myricacese, iil, 355.
Myristi ce acid, iii. 195. 192
Myristica cade his Be ;
2g rica, iii. 197.
errs

Myrrh, i. 304.
», (Arabian), i. 306,
# hinese), i. 307.
is (Persian), i, 307.

Myrsineze, ii. 349

LS barrage 17

Myrte,

ae. ii. 32.

communis, ii. 32.

Naanaa, iii. 103.
iii. 593.

2
a
* rEeea ee
Be
»
0
Mp,

<b ala, i.

'
x
“
:
ae)
ers

Pr phe ww S&S Dp
Senko os
f o ¢
B2S585
Qu aR
Five.
© i)
= e

aw

—

oY

ooalnon

a-golugu, i.

Pe PS eS
nee
fant Gu

Pag),
Nagadali-sappu, i. 249.

INDEX,

Pg as"

J}

thd ky

om rae

ra sae

PH eo PO POOH De Pope Ppe es Ones
Play fe po i Bag 3 2 98 OQ ;

7

¥

¥

>

ig

>

~

i

w

bt

a jilakara, i, Po

B Need Mead bak Bed

J ha >

wat.
aval

+ ca Sead’ beak bial

: arak- 9 ih. 265.
] a-ood, ili 316. t
aral, iii. 511.

ed bead

aral-cha-jhada, iii, 611

iiss OS = on ee
aay Seed

arali-mad, iii, 511.
mamidi, iii. 211.
i, 268.

~
Be

J eja, iii. 253.
Narayana es iil. 483.
arceine,

arcissus Tazetta, iii, 498.
are i. 83, 88.

] ardostachys J atamansi, ii. 233.
ardus

J 1-kx per; iii. 51]
arkachura, iii, 403
ar. g, 2,

2b
& &
6B

officin ale, i, 130.

aum ~papal

SREP
|
8

27.
» " soap, i, 323,

Macele: ~gida, i . 24%

*

INDEX. 55;

i. 155.
ero coffee, i. 520.
hoemeka, ii. 92.
udamu, iii. 272.
a-bevina-gida, iii, 46.

a-vemu, ii. 511, iti. 46.

00000000
&
1
BE st
rE
of
=.
“
~
Voted
ha

Nélum certs ming i. 70,
; ciosum, i, 70.

aline,
— Aconiie, i, 1.
berry, i, 64

a pr i. 201, ii, 252,

56

Nhola, ii. 92.
Nhynu, ii

Ni ree, 96.

Nicotian aTabacam, li. 632.

Nicotianiny i PRs

Nicotine,

Nictan nthe A Abr triste, ii. 376.
idigdhika . 557.

Niguri, iil. 73.
Nikos, li. 164.

ee ‘clon, ii. 530.

Nila, i. 406.
~ ‘Nilacum al, iii. ie
N ila-kadalai
Nila- penaihizhang, lil, 462.
Nila-phala,
Nila -pulai, i ili. 1%,

Nila- -pushpa, ii.
Nila Bo “choi ii. 530.

INDEX,

7] Steee e 460.
Nirbi shi, i iii, 400, 556.
rbrami,
rgundi, 7
rkirambu, ii. 49
rjara, i.5
rmali, li. 505.
irmulli, iii. 36
nochi, iii. 7
J ongelion, iii. 24

E,
oF
aa.

=}

Qo

i

oO

3
ru-kassuvu, iii. 509
el-neruppu, ii. 37
ru-vavill, iii. 73.
rvala, i. 135.
rvalam,
te pea,

iti 556.
a, Nisan, iii.
] vst tar = Wihotte, ii 527.
Nisinda, iii. 73.
1 = ii 507.

vali, ii. 505
] vara, iii. 603.
] oc chi, iii.
Noir de cee i, 358.

Notonia grandiflora, i li. 320.
] 2 fase eee

d aie
] bora

Oak, iii. 360.
‘Occhi, i. 418.

longifolius i ye
aioe eT 83.

INDEX.

Belorcm Ceareemerige a 85. | Oleum melissse indicee, iii. 117,
% 2G 8 menthee, iii. 104,
eee, 3 | mesuz, i, 172.
Bef mann, i 393, », Moringe, i. 399.
i myristice, iii. 196.
Odin Wodier, i ‘s pat 548. ic myzrhe, i. 308,
diya -maram er ns poets

Oduvan, i iii. 369,
le

i
we 5 o
eH SPER SEY eG Sg
B: . me a B: o> a . ° 3.8
. o i : 2 Be 5 EP
eh
8
5
~
no
bo

Ophelie acill, 53 2

_ orrhiz Manga ii, 199,
eye ii. 417.

Operon eae ii, 414.

ere ae, "ee 18.
» abkari
7 (aaleration ot) is BL
oids, i. 82, 87, 92. -

; nee
; aa 75, 89.

58 INDEX.

Opium (classification of), i. 103. Padma, i. 74, <2
»» eating, i. 92, Padma-charini, i. 137.
», (Khandesh), i. 89. Padma-kasta, i. 567.
» (Malwa), i. 83, 89. Padma-pushkara, iii, 451
» (medicinal), i. 88. Padmini, i. 71.
»» (Patna), i. 89. Padri, iii. 20, 22.
77 (Persian), i. 89 Padri-gida, iii. 20, 22.
eee | ; 9. Padshah-salab, iii. 491.
<3 Ne ogy of), i. 98, Peedebiri, ii. 228.
Ophthalmic Barberry, i. 65. Peederia kee ii, 228.
Opuntia Dillenii, ii. 99. Peederine, ii
= ‘una, ii. 100. Peeonia albiflora, i ii. 308.
Orange, i. 2 3, corallina, i. 30.
me urgative, iii. 278, $5 em0ds, i..8
Oranger, i. 268. 3, Officinalis, i. 29,
Orcanette, ii. 524, Pahada-muala, i. 5:
Orchidacee, iii. 384. Pahari, i. 53. .
Orchis be. iii, 384. Pahari-kanda (Syn. for L. hyacin-
a, iii. 384, ‘ thoides), iii, 478.
Origan aquatique , ie 247. Pahar-mul, i. 53.
Origan’ hg iii. 108. Paidi-tangedu, i. 520,
Sill Venaray, i Pain de porceau, ii. 347.
ocarpum se pace: i, 430, Pain de singe, i. 220.
Oroxylin, iii. 18. Paina-schulli, iii, 42.
Oroxylum hits 16. Painpai, ii,
Orris camphor, iii. 453. Paiwand-i-miryam, i. 567.
5; Poot, ; Pair, iii. 345,
sativa, iii.601, Pakar, iii. 345.
Osari, ii. 245. Pakhanbed, i. 585.
Oseille de Guinée, i. 212. Pakhar, iii, 338.
Osht, i. 167. Pakkn, iii, 422
Ossifraga lactea, iii. 252. Pakri, iii. 338.
Otto of Roses, i 5 Pala, iii. 443.
Onfa, i. 218. ala-garuda, ii. 386
plate—sce Upalet. Pala-indigo, ii. 398.
Ova, ii. 116. Palak, iii, 14
Ovali, ii, 362. Palak-juhi, iii. 55.
Oxalide corniculée, i. 246, Palang, ii, 146.
Oxalis meg ay i, 246. Palangmishk, iii. 90.
Palan-kizhangu, iii. 399.
Peevsemphor, iii, 202. Palas or Palash, i. 454.
Oxy-cannabin, 32 Palas-gonda, i. 454.
Oxymyrsine, ii. 33. Palas-ki-binj, i. 454,
Oxystelma esculentum, ii. 457. alas-ki-gond, i. 454.
Palas-paparo, i. 454.
Pa +i. 454,
Palas-vel, i. 458.
Paban, i. 71. Pa » 1, 454. .
Pa i, ii Palasha-che-bi, i. 454.
Palashamu, i. 454
Pa *
Paletuvier blanc, iii. 82.
Palita-mandar, i. 451.
Palla, ii. 364.
leru-mullu, i é
Palme, iii. 511.
matoria d’inferno, ii. 99.
Pal-modekka, ii. 534,
: 5

INDEX,

Palo, i, 55. Panni, iii. 571
iS de Oulebra, ii. 447. Panwar, i, 518
is é

‘apaya, li.
imseng’, ii. 162. Papayic acid, ii. 57,
: Papita, ii. 501
. 198. apiya, ii. 52
pittha, i. 282. appadi, ii, 21
23 appali-maram, ii. 52,
appara-mulli, ii, 555.
» lil, 339, appara-puli, i. 218
apra, i. 69.
apri, i. 69, iii. 318.
535. putta-vayroo, ii. 211
(Syn. for variegated ‘ara cress, ii. 28
iii. 50. aragalastine, i. 484.
» li. 135, arajatak, ii. 376
7 (Syn. for Acacia leu- , ii, 20.
ea), 1. 551. Paramenispermine, i. 52. !
kuda, ii. 391. Paramignya monophylla, i. 268,
“peru, ii. 30. Paranga, i. 451. ?
ur or sauri, i. 216. arangi, ii. 52.
» i, 298 rangi-chakka, .
-luban, i. 298, a i-shambirani, i.
lii. araoxybenzoic acid, iii. 299.
‘ a pipal, i. 213.
arasa-piplo, i. 213.
arasika, li. 626.
‘ara -mara, i. 451

pes |b

: Paripat, ii. 197.

Pain 8it,
Parkati, Parkatin, iii, 340.
Parkura, ii. 376.

59

60 INDEX,

Parmelia ~ouiagprergee ili, 627. atte de poule, i. 269,
ger on i, 627. Patti-cheteu i. 225.
arna-bij, i. Patwa, i :
a-vija, i. eal Paushtie, iil ao ;
arnaksh, li. 157 Pava-kai, i :
Parpadagam, ii. 197. Pavan pehodiy ii. 78.
Parpata, li. 198. Pavana, é 4
Parpataka, ii, 103. Pavatierl: - =
: t seed, ii. 3 Pavetta indica, ii, 211
Parsiawashan, iii, 624. Pavitraka, iii. 3
artaka, ii. 37 Pavonia odorata, i, 224
-art-bikhta, i. 15, Pavot ste ux, i. 109.
> Ti ére, i. 73
arusha, i. 238 Parruttay-vayr, ii. 211.
aruthi, i. 225 Payasa, iii.
arvati, i. 6, ii, 40. Paytine, ii. 188
Parwar, ii. 73 Pe-attis, iii. 34
Pas d’Ane, ii. 294. ea-nut, i. 494,
Pasapu, iii. 407, Pechak, i. 232. F
Pasewha, i. 7. Pedalinez, iii. 26.
Pashanbhed, i. 585, Pedalium murex, iii. 33
Pashan a-bheda, i. 580. edalu, ii. 207.
spies: £: 33. edanganeree, iii. 70
ashpoli, iii. 552 ed omrn, iii. 70. ;
uu be, 132.171. Pedd ga, li. 2 :
asselie-keeray, i. 158. Pedda-mann, i, 291, 292 |
éride, i, 118 Pedda-ni -pandu, i. 268 4
ifloreze, ii, 52. dda -palle . 34. g
naca erra atica, - ii, 135, eddagi, i. 4 :
is: 286. soit ioe iii. 338. :
ata, i. 53, 20 s pectinata, iii. 14. :
‘ata-sij, ili. 253 eget “ 3
atagon, Peela-bhangra, ii. 267. :
Patagonelle y. aleriane, i iii 131. Peelcolli, iii, 55. : :
Patala or Patali, iii. 20, 22. Pee-mottenga, iii, 556. 4
ji stata palari, i; 57. Pegant armala, i. 252. 4
Patala-gandhi, ii. 414, Pelani, i 4
atala-garuda, ii. 90, Pelambaci, i 207. a
ata Somber i (>) rgonium Radula, Tike 561, “4
atala sagecd{ Caporale Whers)yai -456. | Pelosine, i. 54. 4
] ‘aaa, 3 i. 690, 2 sletiering i . 48, |
nga-chekke, i. 500, Pellitory 277.
ranga Katia, 1 500. tee eet), ii, 281. ;
atchak, ii Peltate Sundew; i. 591. a
ate Penari, i. 228. a
xa Penar-valli, ii. 94. 4
La Pendhar or Pendhari, ii, 207
a Pendhru, ii. 207.
a Penerru-gadda, ii. 566.
Pat ima, iii. 564.
Pa

en,
Pentapetes phoenicea i. 235,
Pentatropis sloop in, fi ii, 458.

sp
Pentgul, i i. 461, ii. 212.
Penva, iii. 427.

Peony, i. 29.
Poplta, He 801!"

fa
ee ee . 64,
. 458.

as ‘see

grav ‘asuns 126.
“Kosh (Syn. for ‘Cadsunna),

.

free: ear nde li, 59.
era 122,

. 355.

INDEX, | 61

Phatar-suva, ii. 271,

Ph attar-phoda, iii. 268.
Phenila, i.

Phoenix x sylvestris, iii, 520,

ari, ii. 527.
Anders = Emblica, ii iii. 261.
draspatensis, iii. 265.
” 5.

”

Phyeala,
Physalis Alkekeo ey li. 560.

Niruri,
retiuls, ie Pci

minima,
Af sep ii, 62.
Physic Nut, i iii. 274.
Pia-amo u-leck, Me 34.

a

e, li. 641.

Picrasma nepaleiaas! . 291.

quass: mane Ph i. 287.
Picroth iza a ae ii. 10.
Picrorhizetin, 12.
Picrorhizin, iii
Picrotin, i. 52.
Picrotoxin, i i. 50, | oe
Pignons d’Inde, iii. 276.
erg pd ha he P; reticulatus),

Pila’ (Tam. for A. integrifolia), iii.

Pinang, iii. 423, 425.
a 07 iii, 507,

*

6g: .

Pinde, ii. 204, 211.
de-valli, ii, 95,

INDEX.

ae Foret volte
inthus, i. 377.
5 oe , 1-378,

0.
Pistia —— iii. 550.
Pisum Sati i. 489,
Pita, iii, 408.
te ecg de : Pokies iii. 232.

pullum
Pithooobobinws ‘aio i, 553.
Saman, i. 553.
Pithvan, i i. 426.
Pitkari, ii. 437.

Pittosporum pibiadeli’ i. 153.
undulatum, i. 154.

Shrpenone i, Pv
Pivala

Piyaa‘icdahi iii. 476.
maou 6a
Plantaginess, i iii,

Plantago emplexicalis, iii, 127.

a tan packet oar

5
ie
ce
Bs
3
;
;
‘Y

i.

Po’de Bahia, i, Ee

Podophyllin, i.

py tom cna, i. 69,
Podu talai

0-yo, ili
Doct, Sy iii, 95.
purpuricaulis, iii. 95.
Pogostemonine, lii, 101,
Poi, iii. 148.
Poinciana elata, i i. 507.
»» pulcherrima, i, 506.
i. 549,

» regia, i

Pois d de marveille, i. 366.
Poison nut, ii. 458.
Poivre Tong, So 2

Poi min: de Baie, eA 183.
Pokala, i
Po Seatlrairt ‘i. 175.
Poka-vakka, iii, 422.
Polenta, iii. 580.
Poley-Germander, iii. 94.
Polianthes tuberosa, iii. 493.
Polycarpeea corymbosa, i, 153.
Polychroit, iii. 458.
olygala is, i

P oineee, i. ‘ee
ioide: 155,
” tlephicdes, i. ‘8s.
» tenui
ct val — i. Bg
Polygalesa, i, 154.
Polygonacee:, iii. 148.
Polygonic acid, iii. 150.
Polygonum alatum, iii. 150
aviculare, iii. 148, 158
a5 barbatum, iii. 15)
o> Bisto oy iil. 150.
» glabrum, ili. 150, 152
” Hydropiper, iii. 150
ne ee ie
vivin " 150

50.
Ppion querciflinm, iii, 623,
_— jum, iii. 624.
bara , lil. 621.
a, oficinalis iii, 631.
Pomegranate

INDEX. -

et tet 2 i. 368.
Pondacarapan (Tam. for Celtis),

Popli-chukai, i. 355.
pee hea er 87.
6.

Post
Posti-pisteh, fe 380.
Postaka- tol, i : 3.

63

64 INDEX.

p., i. 567. Punica protopunica, ii. 45.
Pseudo-aconine, i, 6. Punico-tannic acid, ii. 48.
Pseudo-aconitine, i. 5. Punjabi, iii. 387.
Pseudo-chiratin, iii. 267. Pun g. i i
Pseudo-curarine, ii. 401. Punnaga, i. 17

indican, ii. 409, Punyatrina, iii. 575

seudo-mo: ne, i. 88, Pupal,
Psidium Guyava, ii. 30. Puppanti, iii. 291.
Psoralia cuxynte olia, i, 412. Purasha-maram, i. 21
Ptérocarpe'4 bourse, i, 464. Purashara-tanam, i. 139
Pearioarsitie, | Purashu, i. 454.
Pterocarpus Draco, iii Purging cassia, i. 511.
; ium, i, 464 Purna, iii. 130.
santalinus, i. 462. Purple Gueveee'L i. 120.
Pencarian acerifolinm, i. 233. oat’s- . 415.
erifolium, i, 233. i >urslane, ils 3.
Ptye hotis ts Awan, it. 117. Purvali, iii. 5
Pode ii i, 488. Pushkara- mula, ii. 296, iii. 451.
-udhira 365. -ushpa-kadal, iil. 55.
Pudins, “tii. “101. Putai-tanni-maram, ii. 19.
Pudina -ke phu ul, i, 424, Puten-budinga,
Pueraria tuberosa, i, 424, Puttay-charagam, i. 556
i 2. -utikaranja, i. 4
Putiki, i. 238
-utol, iii. 287.
-da, ii 1
utra-jiva, iil. gee
: -jiva, iii. 271.
-utranjiva Haideabhis iii. 271.
erent, i. 370.

Pyrethrine, ii. 280.

Pyrethrum umbelliferum, ii. suns
Pyridine, ii. 641.

Pyroxylin, i. 226.

d communis, ¥. 581.

3, Cydonia, i. 579.

Qu matron gt 120.

Quinovin, ii. 188, 375.
Quisqualis i indica, ii. 13,

Sarno i. 492,
Racine de 8 Christophe a 36.

xy Mungo, ii. 200.
%”y Mustela, = 4]
» pa Christi, iil. 385.
»» puloronica, iii. 1
toxicaria, ili. 4

vesicatoria (Plambago rosea),
se = 9.
42.
Ragat-chandan, i, 462.
os, i, 338) $52.
wag

: Madre de D th
‘Rai sagt eos, ili, 7

, tiie 72.

~ oH.
jana, ti. 21, ier iti. 408.
jouibesn it 493,

Rajanihasa

u, ili, 551.
; : rh i. oe » St oe)

Raswanti, i. 65. --- + of

INDEX.

eee iii, 85.

Ren-parval rs 93.
wa (Ackodadoad hirsuta),

Rakenoateces 8, 1s: 1<
————. bs eee (Se 2
zi eratus, i. 37.
ae Bapbaniatees: i. 490.
«129,

tata 4 Pa THe
an, ii. 209. *

Rasin, 1. 4
Rasna, ce 200, 260, iii. 392.
chaka, iii + 393.

Weanwylly i 65. > Se ee

atamba, i. 164,

J nd, ii 153.
: aw wand-l- <dawabb, iii. 154,
Rayets, i. is se.

rechanaka —s0e Rocha
ted.

Réglisse ws
feaeprike, | i.
Renouée des ha iii, 248,
Renuka, iii.

va

Rhamnus us Wight, ‘pk
Rhazya stricta, ii.
tannic

Rheo- : i, 156.
Rhetsa-ma: i. 256.
Rhetsa-maum, i. 256.
- Rheum emodi, iii. 15
ro

Razianah or Razianaj, ii. 125, 132.
J nika.

INDEX,

Rhubarb, iii. 152.
Rhu barbe, Hii:-152;

we
Rhyne 2; a oF.
Ithynchostyi hint iii. 396,
Ribas, iii. 354.
Ribas- -i-Muammiti, i lil. 154.
Rice, iii, 602,

Ricin, ii lees cet

Ric’ 3

a nelaidic pp has iii: 307.
cine sidin, iii. 307.

Ric cinine, iii. 308.

Ric facets acid, iti, 308.

Ricinoleic neo iil. 304, 307.

Ricinus communis, iii, 201.

Wiles, iii, 3.

Rijl-el -ghurab, ii. 133.
LH oni iii. 374.
Rijl-el-ta

ce pode is 50L.
: Bishah-i-khitms . 201,

i. 341.
isha, i iii, 557.

he

4 Rose c b heseogtge 1, 12%:
= 576.
f one

i, 557.
: ote, iii, 559.
ages: ii, 33, i.
eict, 5. 6 6

irovoolens, i, 249,

Ruta
Rutacee, i. 2
ut iil. 3

INDEX.

£
3.9
Re

SPRSSSDSSKEK S &
2 ®
>
>
3
ae

e
Bas
mo:
fr}
~
>

d-sem ca 6 or
affiower, ii. 308.
ii. 453.

5) batard, ii. 308.
Safsaf (Arabic for | Salix capren),

3 doen ii tot 245.
sie $82.

iti. 390.
jyamam, i. 47. ©

68 :
Bakar-cl-ushar, j

Sakhis (A. lanier iii, 563,
_-coorgdeea

Sakoh,

Species, lii. 365.
Aa

E

BE

alive, i. 216.

a
“ile de YInde, ii. 446,
ie ie AAT,
hoes ok

ee PeerERES. 5

. 54
ee vistas, iii. 421.

_ Sambara-valili, 3. 363.
Sambhalu, no 73, 76,
Samt iii. 564

INDEX, ;

samrat-el- asl, 12

‘ 62,
: emrat el- oe i. 160.
Samudar-phal, ii. 17.

ar-
’ ii

maudra pacheha, i ii, 541.

03058 Beer ala,

. O41,
amudra-pu tenkay a, iii. 520.

amudra shokh, i i. 54].
araudra sic ii, 541,
amudra-yogam, ii. 541.
sok, ii, 89.
; eucane =pallatn, i lt

ne Bree il, 68.
400.

andal, iii
pete Ange iii. i. 232.
> ican, iii, . 247.

ae i. 542, Saeed
antal, i 3

= cefoliets, i. 367, '
Sa apista

374,
di apd ii. 365.
Sepowenin 157, 369.
fe)

untry), As 446, iii. 500.
aeons ny)
57, 4

gand
Satar, iii. ti
Bajar apes eat ‘for T. serpyllum),

INDEX.

d
phal, ii. 17.
atudo, ii, 102,
ureia greeca, lil. 116.
aturi see Satyri
ataryus,

saat ( (ene for “Anise), i iG 13k
aur, 1. 215,
, Sa i iii, —

J
o
3
gs
sae
o
* 3

weinturthia sp.

ch rocarpa, iii, 7
10 as iii, 476.

fiicinalis, iii,

ebesten plum, ii. 518,
sage emetica, ii. 458.
ee Bi.

elu, ii

em or semis-gond, i. 587.
einés
emencine. i tan.

69

70

Séné, i. 526

. 528,
Renaliive sense, 1.0366
plan oo
Seoti —see She
= sickaeapag A ii, 316, Vi. 73,

Sesame, iii.
Sésame de VInde, i ue ae
oe indicum

Sesb nia Mgyption, i. “tA.
», grandifi i, 472.

Sevaka, i, 7

Sevya, ili. 339, 562.

Sewar, ii. 3

Shadanga-paniya i; 224,
Shaddaranayoga, ii, 3 329

airatepl-eharachi
i= D

i. 582
ha rat-el-kapur, ii. 275.

INDEX,

Lope CELTS ~ riggers
Shankhini, ii.

h
saa i, 462,
ar

nradi, 592.
ran- “kota, i, 389,
123,

pibbit, ii. 128.
nibjal, i. 366.

INDEX, 71

Shud, ii. 128.

m, i. 5
ebetiité- ral peas ii. 274, Shulkzi, i. 238.
: Ehime -dalima-vittulu, i. 579, Shulundu-kora, ii. 215

Shima-jeventi-pushpam, ii, 274 Shumach (Sumach), i. 372
9. humshur,
ti-vittulu, i, 252. ~ Shuniz, i.
uprak, i. 33,
Shurali, i. ne
hurava, i.
i. 252, Shushma, Shashmir (Cardamoms), i tis.
1. 274. 428,
: Shuthi (Zedoary), iii. 399.
cts! i. 579. Shwet-basanta, iii.
ii ‘ Shyavantige-huvu, i ii, 277,
ahi Roca e Siyah.
Shim. mba, 579, Sia lini 404)
Shime-jicige ii. Siam Benzoin, ii. 371.
( shyamantigo, ii. 274. Sida carpinifolia, i. 206.
», cordifolia, i. 206,
” _ mere

» i. 208.
9 rhombifoli i. 206,
idha

Siddhi (Syn. for Cannabis sativa), ili.

ieges' esbecki an Onlentele ii. 264.
Sigepruppuss, i i. 37,

Shima.
Sima- pwr 1 aa Bik ii. 274,
Sima-jilakara, ii
cimarelban, a. ho,

72

Sind Opium, i. 89.
Sin dhuvara, iii. 73.
k

ira-punnai, i. 175.
Sira-she neal, li. 243.
reg tae , 561
Sire 565. Ds
Sits or Sivas. i i. 561.

2

a
“s
oo

Sirra-kanchort-vayr, iii. 313.

Sirru-se ali j ii, EL

Sis, 3. 401.

Sisaliyus, iii. 124,

Sisiban, i.

Riera beac Alliaria, iii, 490.
9 Hopi. 127,
a officinale, i, 122.

. 540

INDEX,

Sohanpe- isp di it
rarer
ae ridin 658.

Solaaine j
Solanum Duleamea li, 549.

li, 560.

3 in vies
e Jacquinii, ii. 557,
es nigrum, ii
‘a torvum, ii. 5
me rilobatum,
er lis ii, 560,

anor ii, 507.

Somua-va sik , iii.
Solidago odora, ii. eek
ire: lassen hia 2475

S manti, i 4
Somballi (ina, for Chrozophora
plicata), iii. 316

Hy
onchus sleracen, ii, 315.

ondhali,

one-patta, iii.
es lii. sae.
ongarvi, i. 450.
onsali, li, 251.
ae Sonti, i iii. 420.

oo—
opu,
sg —) = 14.

jorghum vulgare
- Sothagni, iii. 1¢

youci des jar “ li. 322
ou-line, i. §

owa, ii

ow-bread, ii. ‘
Soymida febrifuga, i. 336
P asmine, ii. 378.

; ellitory, ii. 277.

- 207.
eeroc compressus, iii. 635. -
Spitatithes Ac Acmella, ii. ee
C .

ondhi (ind, for A. laniger), iti. 563.

pogel seeds, iii. 126.
‘Spondias seats z 395, 549.

nS,

rmum chelonoides; iil. 22,
veolens, ili. 20.

um, gt 3.

resin, i. 598,
Se ogra iii. 40.

r=]
=
Ce
te
Wey

ukhada, 2
ukhe
aan iii. i 64, 466.
ukkapat, li
ukkar, iii "395
=P pika, ii

sultan-champa, i.

ultan-el-ashjar, i. 562.

umak, i. 372.

umatra “Benzoin, ii. bd
di, ii.

umpura, i
ng, ii. 384

Aare x i. 215, ii. 424.
cee pil,
ine, ii

jurdan, ie 122.
suringi, i. 172.

73

74 INDEX,

urinjan, iii. 495, Tabernemontana “rman ii. 413,
urinjan-i-shirin, ii. 497, 3 Heyneana, ii, 413.
arinjan-i-talk, iii. 496, “ utilis, ii. 413,
uriya (Hind. for, ae neers iii. 563, | Tabsnu, i. 228.
urjavart 132 f acamahaca, i i, 174,
urpa, ii 35. Tacca aspera, iii. 54
urpan, ii. 285, Taconnet, ii- 2
urson, i, 123 Tadki-erandi, iii, 272.
urugen, = 496, Taftaf, i, 367.
urughundu-pu atta, i Ta-fung-tsze, i. 146
uryay reign for 6, “plicata), iit 316, | Tag, i. 400.
jus, i. 492, iii, 379, : agar, ii. 238,
usan. iii. 469. Tagar-ga etic ii, 238.
ke ieenan josh iii, 452. agara, ii, 2
man, iii. 29, agara-chettu, i, 520,
ushava, ii. 119, agaral, i, 515.
ushavi, ii. 79, Tagarisha-chettu, i. 515.
at : agetes erecta, ll. 32
tranabhi, ii. 414, aggar wood,
uva, li, 128, Taggi, iii. 6
uvali-amli, i. 539 aghak, i, 3
uvaranaka, i. 511, a-hai-tsza, i. 230, i
valpa-jiarankusa, ii. 585. a-huang, iii
ee ete i, 402. Taindn, ii. 362, 366
vayambhu, i. 4 aivela, i
vet-barela, i. a aj, lii. 204, 208
gothubi, iii. 556. Tajpat, iii. 209
veta-maricha, i. 396. ak; i.
veta-murga, iii. 139.. akala,
a-punarnava, ii. 102, akdokhyen, i. 530.
veta-purna, iii. 131. akhak, i. 3
veta-salmali, i, 216, akkarike, i. 515
waheli-pippali, iii. 179. akkile, iii. 66
sweet Basil, iti. 83. akmaki, ii. 65
Chiretta, ii. 514, akub, iii. 258
” g; i. 538. ~ aa oat
9» Pellitory, ii. 281.
», . Tangle, iii. 641. nln (an for Musa paradisiaca),
Swertia angustifolia, ii,
” hirata, ii. 511, iii. 540. Ta saakincionre 3 iii. 159,
» corymbosa, ii. 515, Talavaranaballi, ii. 44,2.
‘. decussata, ii. 515. Tale, iii. 535,
» pulchella, ii. 515. Tali a, iii
Swietenia mahogoni, i. 648. eietgeerme os _ =
9 Soymi , 3 alisfar, ii. 393,
Switch Sorrel, i, 371 cert renee iii. 208 "S16.
os, iii. 602, Taliskatar,
yama, ii, 424 Talk, iii 443,
Syamalata, ag er os almakhana, iii. 36
, oer osa, almakhara, iii. 36,
Sronaka, i i iii, 547 Talpalang, iii. 15,
Tamaku, ii. 632,
n es /Lam ) °% 168, e
ssl Tea as ii. 27, | Tamala, i. 169. :
Tabac, ii, 632, sree Begiege
iii. 588. Bene
: Tamalpatra, iii, 209,
ip Be 148,

INDEX, | 5

wap? erage i, 532. E arwar, i. 519,
‘ashmizaj, i, 524.
i. 532. Bi
amarinier de 1’ Inde, i. 532. atrak, i. 372, 374
Tamarisc de France, i. 159. , ii, 586.
2, i ‘avadarum, i. 242.
Tavakhir, iii. 406.
i; avakshiri, i
Tamarix articulata, i. 161. 'averniera nummularia, i. 447
ca, i ‘axine, iii, 377.
632 ‘axus baccata, iii. 373
Tamra. ‘aye, iii. 471.
bara-chandan, i. 462. azha, ili. 535,
li. 63 ‘ea, i. 176.
ru, li, 30. eak, iii. 61.
i, i, 286. ectona grandis, iii. 61.
hi, iii, 563. ee—sce Ti.
egada, ii. 527
, 1, 256, iii. 185. egada-veru, ii. 527,
ii. 1 egarasi, i. 515,
amra—see ay ecu, ili. 61.
i ejbul, iii. 315.
-valli, ii. 231, Oi. 266. ejpat, iii. 209. a
i, i: 345. . ejphal, i. 256
1 57. ejraj, li, 203.
umbelliferum, li, 281. ekari, ii. 561
| Tekata-sij, iii. 253.
odhar-thohar, iii. 254. kku-maram, 61.
ii. 6. Teku-mant, iii. 61.
elakucha, iii. 86.

, iii. 511,
cinale, ii, 315, Tentul, i. 532
Tarbuj, ii. 63 : . 527.
Tephrosia ss ii a
5. ? * * il
a ” _ guberosa, i. 417. E
& villosa, i. 416.
virginiana, i. 416.

Teramnus labialis, 2" aie
Terminalia Arjuna, ii

76 : INDEX.

— belerica, i. 554, ii. 5,

Catappa, ii. 16.
7s Chebula, ii. I
$5 citrina, ii
e glabra, ii. 16
‘5 aniculata, ii. 16.
sale a ii. 16,
Terns ‘troemiac i. 176

Tetran-kotta, ii. 55
ran-parala,
Tetranthora laarifolia, iii. P11.
Tetu, iii,
Teucrium Chamedrys, ii. i. 257, ili. 225.

9 lium, iii.
- Scordiun, iii ab,
» , Serratum, iii
Tepak, iii Els
Thada, i. 237.
Thalikrum cm Lod.

areas 2, i. 148.
vel, ii . 230.

eophylline,
Thespesia a fuillee ti nes i, 213.
populnea, i. 213

he

| Thymus perc ay iii. 109,

vulgaris, iii. I11.
Tiaidiom—se 3 Heliotropium.
Tibiliti,

: di,
Tigadike-puti- pak ii, 527.

Tige-m peta a, i.
Tigdu-mara, iii ts
Tiglinic acid. iii, 284.
| Tikhur, iii 406
Tikri, i. 53.
Tikta-badami, i. 563
Tikta-lau, ii.

i e, 357.
Tinospora cordifolia, i, 54.
crispa, i. 64.
Tinpani, i i. 333.
Tinti, ii. 527.

| Tintidi, i. ge
Ti

ppa-tige,
Tippali or tipo oo —

Tippali-mulam

Tippali-ver, iii. er i

INDEX. : 77

Tribulus alatus, i i. 245,

Tischdeuice Africanum, j ii. 523.
iy oo ii. 622,

eylani um, ii. 523,
Tricholepis Sate errima, ii. 308.
Trich SOE cucumerina, ii. 72,
dioi 7

ca, ii. 2.
5 laciniosa, ii. 74.
‘9 peccate, | li. 97,
ata, ii, 70

Trichosanthin, ii babs
Tridhari- nevalmagay ili. 253.
ae
Trifolio, i

Trigonele corona, i, 405.
Fonum-grecum, i. 401,
404,

s

ikatu, ili.

im mine
Tri iepancha-tila, i iii. 693,

uta, ii, 527

puli, i. 489.

ticum sativum, iii. 607.
Triumfetta, i, 238

vacate, i, 238,

Trivrit, li. 627,
Tropwolum majus, i, 121.
Tropine, 577.
Truti, iii. 428.
Tsiet tti-mandara, i i. 506.
Tsjakala, iii.
Tsjerou-kanelli, ii

Tsjerou-katou agen 267,
Naa . 414,
- uberose, a

Lehmanni, ii. 136. Tubocuty, i

Prackylobinntfornemannianum, 1.510. te flah--ard *t 275.
Tuk-kung, i eS 2
Ta njudan, ii. 126.
Tukm bala g, iii. 9
Tu balasan, i. 316

-i-gul, i. 575

ie vines Eafzhah, ii 308,
Tu kahu, ii. 314.
Tul kajrah, ii. 308
Tra kasus, ii 54
Pakw-ickasirsb. ti, $08:

C.D

78 INDEX,

‘ukm -i-khitmi, i, 201 Udalai, iii. 272.
ukm-i-nil, ii. 530. Uda asaligun, i ii. 122.
ukm-i-rihan, iii. 8 Ud, iii
u i-sarwali, ili, 139. aspen iii. 356.
‘ula, ii, 566 Ud-el-jibbali, ii. 278
ulasi or Tulashi, iii. 86 Ud-el-juj, iii. 219.
ulati-pati, ii. 561. Ud-el-k ge ii sates
ulipa Japonica, iii, 466 Ud-el-sali

1, iii. 86. Ud-el- -waj arab, ‘for A. calamus), iii.
umatti, ii, 59,
umba, ii. 67, iii. 123, Ud-i-balasan, i . 316.
umba-phul, iii. 123 Ud-i-gharki, iii, 220.
‘umbi, ii. 67. Ud-i-kham, 220
umbilik-kai, ii, 366 Udifarunas, iii. 323

i, iii. 123, Ud-salap, i. 30
umiki, ii. 366, Uduga-chettu, ii. 164,
umra, i. 256 U , iii.
‘umri, iii. 294 Ughai-pattai, ii 330.
un, i, 339. Ugragandha, iii. 488, 539.

dika, ii. 86. Ujli-musali, iii. 485.

eri, ii. 86. Ukh, iii. =

unga, iii. 513. Ukshi, ii

4 ie B00. ee kant, i, 233.
unja-muste, i, 552
‘unna, i. 339. Ullax-billar,
‘upkaria, i. 206, Ulmus—see ” Holoptoles
nei. Umbar (Syn. for F.

ee eee ee ee eee ee ee ee

glomerata),

a; ii. 1j, 112.

Uniehte seatentae | i, 34.

Uncaria Gambier, ii, 172.
orgs he iii 272.
Undi

Undirche. tel, 2.173;
Undirkani, ii. 539,
Unga, iii 135

Unhali

Uraria picta, i, 437.
Urena ek i, 228.
ay

ak, il, 156.
Ushana-chatu- ener; iii, 169.
arama 178.

Ussarah- Bihre i. 168,
Ustarkhar, i
Ustukhudu

Uvas ~ AE i, 362.
zmet (Syn. for
“sylvatica, iii, 547,

, iii. 426,
sting he Sis.

Synantherias

INDEX,

rene eee sie

Yake-ponbe, iii. 14,
Vaka-vri 12,

BEES

aa A A

aA A

a

Seeitrits
PPeife
9 2
Aare
we
|
23

ag
ans i, "687.

9

80° | INDEX,

Vana-sunthi, ‘iil. 420. Va i
yavarna
"eerie ka, i. 54, -. aykkavalai, i. 416.
Vanardraka, iii. 426 ler eee =
ange ve u- gam, li. 349
Vanda, iii 393. see een le a
‘ a iii. 392, Vedakodi, iii. 48. wees
spathulata, ili. 396. \
Vandellia erecta, ili f i i. A en “hala, ii, 300.
pedu neulata is 14. 1 ae
hd anga- adeuthay, ii iii. ie” ak hen i. 18
ia spinosa, ii. 211 A ae hae
Vaahiruchi: i. é = a = 412.
Van 1. 48 ekhali, i. 153
Vansa, iii i + 60 Ve ee ay oe
Vansa- lochana, iii, 586, = aia - ae
Vapala, ii. 81. Ve hater tas iy
Vapala-bij, ii 82. Veto 3
ata, iii. 33 Asti
Vara, iii. 339, 454 ve ae t 42
Vv z :
Serine deh anes bg a e See li. 442
Vardh me slag
Var oi 3 a-ellay, 1. 202.
Maer a-kadamba, ii. 169
Varnavat, iii, 408, ink gnceaiae mh
Varsangi, ii, 211. eB Beh be ome Pi tate
—— ti. 555. oe ae Baws 1
‘situa e da-marani, #211;
Varese Liss. Venlo ae
Varunadya pe ce
” - pos ae Bhs See i sei
Varvara, iii. : : =
= Yass, if, 659, Valle, fon
erage 4 i “ Ve rsdn na
Vasaka, Vembadun =e
adam, i. 355.
agen sksheps, i. egtos 418, Vembu, i. 3 3
Vv meres re sae tne hag
Vasan-pullu, iii. 564, creme ee
Vasana-valli, i, 57 Armee dames en
Vasanvel, i. 87. Vent ii. i-maram, i. 464,
Vasare, iii. 2
e ahes a, Hi. ‘$56 se malaka, i iil; 6716
Veshansvi, i. 1. ot ,i. + BOs
Vashira, iii, 543, eee aie, ie 50
Vasicine, iii. 53. a sitiiiaics, | is 355.
Vasira, iii oye ae eo tl
Mats hon, eppa-chettu, i, 323
Vataton (8 oe for. -bengalensis), i iii. 338, Ms ; - 3
ates ai. eratroylaconine, i. 5
Va 7 i 01 : Verbascum Blattaria, iii. 2.
atsanabha, i. it. " ig, Ail, 2
Vatta- killa a kill Verbena officinalis, ili, 58.
ry Rte i. 400. : cone, iii. 57,
Vattekoka, i. 500. eee dor, ii. 247.
Vattu A & tte de Canada, ii. 249,
Vv, -vemu, il. 197.
: eritel-nep, ii. 262,
; Verjuice, i, 358,

Verkati, ise

Verk- kadali,

Vernonia an ilminticg i. 241.
1, 243.

INDEX,
Violette odorante, 1. 140.
ss i. 130.

iolin, i. 141.

Vigra, ii iii, 339.
Mh sede -srava, iii, 468.
iii. 422.

Vival-elll, i
Voandzeia aa i, 495.

Vola, i.
Weluarella divaricata,. ii. 306.
esta

ameter ii. 458.
Votam

81

ba (Syn. for A, Lakoocha), iii,

Jrihat-pancha mula, i. 244.
i. 400.

nushni
YL

dddicdicic
= “%
BRP ES Fe
aes
op
Se o9
Rs

7amma, 338.
r one aon iii. 146.

Wagata, i
hat shanti oe "Waaheti, j i. 136.
a. (si ys for Acorus Calamus), iii.

fais r—sce —
khm:

A at aA al ih Ah

surasi, i. :
alu-chi the i, ii. 105
andar-bashing, iii. 623.

andar-roti, ii. 320.

ar (S or F, bengalensis), iii. 338.

asm:

oe oe ee ae ee ee oe ee ee
2

ay?

~

toe

.

oo

a)

chameli, i; 12,
19;

65.
Withania a coogulins, i. 569.
fera, ii. 566.

ak, ii. 157.

Xanthium Strumarium, ii. 262.
Xanthopicrit, i, 67.
Xanthos ostrumarin, ii. 263.
i. 31
?

Xyri 8 indica, iii, 510,

Yajniya, iii. 339.
Yakke-gida, ii

sf
BE
“a
EE
i
#

INDEX, 83

‘Yavana- -parpata, ii. 198.
Yavani or Ya anika, ii, 116.
cy: . 418.

- 509.
erba = Pwo iti, 266.
-Yercum, ii. 428,

23.
: eather, iii, Ss

Zan thoxylin, i, 259.
“idee my Nl i. 255.
—

atum
” arty i. Bos

” Hamiltonianum, i. 256.
> oxyphyllum, i . t. 256. %
” ritum, i. 256.

” etsa, i. 255.

anzibar as eg iii. 506.
apan iflor.

, li. 375.
aru or Zarv, i i. 595, ii. 370.
arumbad, iii. 399.
shalt ii. 70

atar,
ataria uliorg lii, 114.
579.

ea Mays
Dioaive june, lil. 397.
edoar, i. ee
edoarin, i'd
edo: iii

. 399
chneria sumbellata, li, 89.

sa
t fa (Ghacadl), As eee
hire, ii. 114.

116.
y Saasber Cassa, iii. 425.

Nia
Zir- "21-alcillehs ii.

Zizipho-tannic acid, i
se i pain eg a 381.
Fug ose,

Zylose, ii 29

APPENDIX.
RANUNCULACEZ,

On the Crystalline Alkaloid of Aconitum WNapelilus.*
ssrs. Wyndham R, Dunstan and W.H, Ince, Ph.D., have
Siventigatea the properties of a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the
root of Aconitum Napellus by extraction with amyl alcohol, as ong
gested by the late Mr. John Williams (Pharm. Journ. [3], x
238). For a supply of the material they are indebted to the ara
of Messrs. Howards & Sons, of Stratford.

The yellowish indistinct crystals melted at 183°4° (corr.), and by
erystallization from alcoholic solution were proved to be associated
- with a small quantity of a gummy amorphous base. On combus-
tion the original substance gave numbers. agreeing fairly well with
the formula C**H**NO", which is that proposed for aconitine by
Wright and Luff (Journ, Chem. Soc., 1879). The alkaloid was puri-
fied by repeated crystallization Sect a mixture of aleohol and ether,
or more readily by conversion into its hydrobromide and regenera-
tion of the alkaloid from this salt or by regeneration from its crys-
talline aurochloride, It crystallizes in tabular prisms belongiag to
the rhombic system; the crystallography of the gente has
formed the subject of a separate inquiry by Mr. The
crystals are very slightly soluble in water and light Oaeie more
soluble in ether and alcohol, most soluble in hansen and chloro-
form. They melt at 188°5° (corr.). Contrary to the statements of
previous observers, who found aconitine to be levo-rotatory, the
authors found an alcoholic solution to be dewtro-rotatory [alp+
10°78°; the aqueous solution of the hydrobromide is, however,
levo-rotatory [alp—30°47°. On analysis, the pure alkaloid
afforded results which agreed best with the formula C**H**NO™,

Two crystalline aurochlorides were obtained. One (C°**H*°NO™
HAuCI*), melts at 135°5° (corr.) ; the other, a basic aurochloride
(C**H**NO'*AuCl), melts at 129° (corr.). These compounds are
obtained without difficulty, and afford trustworthy means of

* The substance of a communication made to the Chemical Society, March
19, 1891.

86 APPENDIX,

identitying aconitine. The alkaloid may be readily recovered from
them in a pure state.

Aconitine is not appreciably affected by heating at a temperature
below its melting point, but at this temperature it is gradually con—
verted into the uncrystallizable base aconine. Prolonged boiling in
aqueous solution induces a similar change, but not to the same
extent, unless an alkali is present. Boiling with water acidulated
with hydrochloric acid also produces decomposition of the alkaloid.

Dehydraconitine or apoaconitine is a base differing from aconitine
by the absence of a molecular proportion of water, which was first
obtained by Wright and Luff by acting on aconitine with acids. Its
existence has, however, been questioned by later workers, The
authors find that such a substance may be readily procured by
heating aconitine with saturated aqueous tartaric acid in closed.
tubes, as recommended by Wright and Luff, The erystals of this
substance melt at 186°5° (corr.). It forms crystalline salts, and in
other respects closely resembles the parent alkaloid. The results
of analyses agree well with the formula C**H**NO™. Three auro-
chlorides were obtained. One (C*H"“N OM HAuCl*) melts at 141°
(corr.), This salt, when crystallized from aqueous alcohol, becomes
a hydrate—

(C*H**NO™“H AuClH?0),
melting at 129° (corr.), isomeric with aconitine aurochloride, into
which, indeed, it very readily changes. The third aurochloride is
a direct compound of the alkaloid with auric chloride (On no
AuCl?) ; it melts at 147-5° (corr.).

An amorphous base was obtained from aconitine, together with
benzoic acid, by prolonged heating with water in a closed tube. It
_ appears to be identical with the aconine of Wright and Luff. The
same substance is formed together with a resinous substance when
aconitine is heated with an alkali, Neither aconine nor its salts
could be crystallized. The amorphous base, after purification, and
its amorphous aurochloride, afforded analytical data agreeing
respectively with the formule ©?*H**NO™ and C?**H#“NOUMHAnCI.

The Alkaloids of True Aconitum Napellus.
_ Professor Dunstan and Mr, John C. Umney have examined
the alkaloids of true Aconitum Napellus plants grown by Mr, E. M.
_ Holmes, at the instance of the British Pharmaceutical Qonference,

APPENDIX. 87

_ The alkaloids were extracted from the root by the following process,
__ which precludes the possibility of the occurrence of hydrolysis, &c, :—
_ The solution obtained by percolating with cold rectified fusel oil
_ (b. p. 100 —182°) was agitated with water acidified with 1 per cent. of
_ sulphuric acid, and the resin having been remoyed by extracting the
acid solution so obtained with chloroform, the liquid was made just
4 a alkaline with dilute ammonia and extracted with ether, which dis-
solved out a considerable quantity of alkaloid, but Jeft in solution a
_ further and smaller quantity, which was subsequently extracted
ty agitation with chloroform. The alkaloid soluble in ether was
ained as a gum-like mass incapable of crystallization. By con-
Version into bromhydride it was separated into a erystallizable and
an uncrystallizable salt.

‘The crystalline product was identified as the salt of aconitine, the

separated from the pure bromhydride melted at 188-5° (corr.), and
forded en combustion numbers agreeing with the formula O**H**
“. The specific rotation of the bromhydride in aqueous solution
ascertained to be [a])—29°65, a value which agrees with that
pre reviously recorded. As some doubt exists as to the solubility of
aconitine in water, a determination was carefully made with this pure
‘Specimen, The mean of two determinations gave 1 gram in 4,431
‘grams of water as the solubility at 22°; Jiirgens had ee
Tecorded the far greater solubility of 1 in 745 at the same temperatur

‘The non-crystalline bromhydride furnished a gummy alkaloid
oluble in ether and alcohol, but only sparingly soluble in water,
the aqueous solution being alkaline to litmus, and very bitter, but
‘Rot giving rise to the tingling sensation so characteristic of aconitine,
Not only the alkaloid, but also the chlorhydride, sulphate, nitrate and
aurichloride prepared from it could not be crystallized. This alkaloid
not identical either with aconine or with the picraconitine of Wright
and Luff, A full account of it will be given in a later paper, con-
siderable progress having already been made in the most difficult
task of isolating it in’a pure state. The authors propose to assign to
it the name napelline, which was first given to the alkaloid now known
pseud:

88 APPENDIX.

is probably associated with another amorphous alkaloid about which
they have at present little information to give beyond the fact that
neither it nor its salts appear to crystallize.

The alkaloid soluble in chloroform was proved to be aconine, the
compound which is obtained together with benzoic acid on hydro-
lysing aconitine.

The roots of true Aconitum Napellus, therefore, must be held to
contain three alkaloids, one of which is crystalline, viz., aconitine,
two being amorphous, viz., napelline and aconine. Indications have
been obtained of the presence of a fourth alkaloid, which is amor-
phous and closely resembles napelline.

The authors find that the juice expressed from the roots contains
a large proportion of amorphous bases but very little aconitine, the
greater part of this latter remaining in the root, from which it may
be extracted, together with the remainder of the amorphous alkaloids,
by exhausting with amyl alcohol. The total quantity of amorphous
alkaloid obtained amounted to more than twice that of aconitine.

The physiological action of the alkaloids referred to is being
investigated. The results so far obtained point to the conclusion
that crystalline aconitine is by far the most toxic of the alkaloids
contained in Aconitum Napellus.

The formation and properties of Aconine and its conversion
into Aconitine.

Owing to the uncertainty which exists with reference to the pro-
duct of the hydrolysis of aconitine, Professor W. R. Dunstan and
Dr. F, W, Passmore have re-investigated the subject, using a pure
alkaloid. Wright and Luff have stated that when aconitine is hydro-
lysed, the sole products are aconine and benzoic acid. More recently,
however, Dragendorff and J urgens have asserted that the hydro-
lysis occurs in two stages, their contention being that benzoic acid
and an alkaloid identical with the picraconitine isolated by Wright
and Luff from the roots of Supposed Aconitum Napellus are
formed in the first stage, while in the second stage the picraconitine
is hydrolysed into benzoic acid, methyl alcohol, and aconine, which
last is the final product of hydrolysis,

The authors have carefully hydrolysed pure aconitine by heating it
with water in closed tubes at 150°, but have been unable to obtain at
ge either picraconitine or methyl alcohol, The alkaloid

APPENDIX. 89

tracted from the solution by ether was proved to be a mixture of
onine with unaltered aconitine, Using pure aconitine, action
ecurs precisely in accordance with the equation O° H**NO™ + Us
*H* NO" +07H'O?, leaving little doubt that aconitine is benzoyl- —
onine,

tide, bromhydride, sulphate, and nitrate. All these salts are
soluble in water, the chlorhydride being least soluble and the
est to crystallise: it is best prepared by crystallisation from a
ture of alcohol and ether; when dried at 100° it melts at

Jo=—7'71°. It combines

th auric chloride, forming an aurichloride considerably more soluble

Soluble in water ; the aqueous solution is alkaline. When dry it is
insoluble in ether and almost insoluble in chloroform. It isa power-
ful reducing agent, precipitating the metals from solutions of
Id and silver salts; it also reduces Fehling’s so tion. 7

iological action of pure aconine is being investigated, ite
us solution is slightly bitter and gives rise to 8 burning
ion in the mouth, but does not produce the tingling which is
ee :

90 APPENDIX.

characteristic of aconitine. In respect of its action on polarised light,
aconine exhibits the same peculiarity as aconitine. Its salts are
levo-rotatory, whilst a solution of the alkaloid is dextro-rotatory,
[a]y>+29°. When heated with alkalis, aconine slowly resinifies.

The action of various re-agents on aconine has so far not led to
any important results. Nitrous acid fails to attack it. The principal
product of its oxidation by alkaline permanganate is oxalic acid,
Attempts to isolate an additive compound with methyl iodide have
been unsuccessful.

By the action of methyl iodide on aconitine a crystalline aconitine
methiodide (C**H**NO-CH®I) was obtained, which melts at 219°
(corr.). The aconitine methhydroxide octane from the compound
(ChEENO™. CH°OH) isamorphous, and the salts which it yields do
not appear to crystallise. A further study will be made of this com-
pound, and its physiological action will be investigated.

Professor Dunstan, in conjunction with Messrs. Harrison and Carr,
has continued his investigation of the aconite alkaloids, and the
results were communicated to the Chemical Society, February 2,
1893. It was discovered that aconite root contains an amorphous
alkaloid, napelline, which is isomeric with aconitine, but has a
distinctly different physiological effect, and is not nearly so poisonous,
Inan examination of some commercial specimens of aconitine, the
authors found large proportions of amorphous alkaloids present, and
specimens of aconitine salts were found, in nearly every case, to be
chiefly napelline salts containing small quantities of aconitine
compoun

The Aconites and Aconitines.
E. Richards and F, A. Rogers arrive at the following conclu-
sions :—
The best material for the preparation of aconitine is the fresh
root of Aconitum Napellus,

The alkaloid resides chiefly i in the cambium layer, the fibro-vas-
3 cular bundles, and the sieve ducts,

" Pure aconitine crystallizes in thin, flat, hexagonal prisms with
acute ends.

that two isomeric Saves of aconitine exist ; for
aitin > and 8-aconitine are are suggested.

APPENDIX. 91

The composition of aconitine corresponds to the formula
H**N?0%2, which contains twice as much nitrogen as the
mula hitherto accepted.

The proportion of alkaloid in the root is as follows :—
_ Aconitum Napellus, fresh ae ee di
dried

Bipanese booiite me ee ie O07

fhe method for the preparation of aconitine, recommended by the
hors, is as follows :—

oe aered tubers are macerated from three to four days with
“0 “ with zanail eat of dilute sulphuric acid. The fusel

ed ether driven off by heat. The alkaloid is Precipitated from
id solution by solution of sodium carbonate, collected on a
pressed between limestones, and then spread on bibulous
and allowed to dry at ordinary temperature. The dried
then boiled with pure dry ether, and the filtrate set aside
lize; the crystals are redissolved in a small quantity of
emove a gum-like body.

toxicity of e-aconitine is stated to be only one-sixth of that of
tine. (Chemist ands Druggist, Feb. 7, 1891, 205, and Feb.
1, 242, 243.)

eaE +N 0), or Dunstan and Ince (C*H**NO"™). They state
heating with water to 150° C., or by treatment with alcoholic
oe aconitine does notat once yield benzoic acid and aconine ; but _
1 addition to benzoic acid, methylic alcohol and another acid
oduced. The authors state that by boiling aconitine with water

¢ at first produced a salt of anew base, which crystallizes
liquid cools, and this product is described by them as
: -picraconitine, This is represented as being formed by

ysis—

HNO" 41120 =0""H*NO" +0°H"0".

92, APPENDIX.

By continuing the boiling a further alteration is effected according to
the equation—

C**H®NO” + H?O=C**H*’NO?° + CH°OH.
Picraconitine. Napelline. Methyl alcohol.
The formation of aconine is represented as constituting a third stage
of alteration as follows :—

C**H* NO” +H*0O—C*##H*NO? + C20*H?,
Napelline. Aconine. Acetic acid.

The authors suggest that it is still doubtful whether the acid pro-
duct of this final change is acetic acid or acrylic acid, and that, in
the latter case, the formula of aconine would be C?*H* + NO?

From the production of mehtyl alcohol in the decomposition of
aconitine when heated with water, it is inferred that aconitine is
analogous to cocaine, and is to be classed with the acid esters, either
as an acetyl or an acryl ester of benzoyl aconine, while aconine
itself would he a derivative of a ena as lata quinone. (Journ.
J. prakt. Chem., xlv., 604.)

Note on Mishmee Teoeta and Bee (or Poison).

' These roots are procured on the: range of hills inhabited by the
Mishmee tribe, and annually in the cold season a large supply is
brought down to the plains, and the Malajans here, who are princi-
pally Marwar-people, give in exchange for them beads, salt, coloured
woollen and cotton cloths, &c., &c, The Mahajans state that these
articles are readily purchased in Central and Lower Assam.

The Natives here use the Teeta as a medicine in colic, ophthalmia,
headache, and fever,

The Bee or poison, which is brought down by the hill-tribes, is
parboiled with a view to prevent its cultivation in the plains, It is
generally employed by hunters for killing wild animals.

Mishmee Teeta as a remedy for Colic.—Take 20 grains of Mishmee
Teeta, 10 to 12 whole grains of black pepper, about 10 grains of
The whole is to be masticated and washed down with a small

APPENDIX: 93

x Mishmee Teeta asa remedy for Ophthalmia and Heailache—Take
_ 2dvrachms of Mishmee Teeta and grind it with sufficient water to
3 form a paste, which is to be applied round the eye twice a day.
- For headache it is applied to the forehead and temples,

q _ Mishmee Teeta as a remedy in Fever,—Take 1 drachm Mishmee
_ ‘Teeta finely powdered, and mix with half a pint of cold water. To
___ be taken daily in two doses, Purgatives are never used by the hill-
tribes,

Mishmee Bee (or poison) employed by hunters.—Take 2 or 3
_ drachms of Mishmee Bee finely ground, and mix with any acid
_ glutinous vegetable pulp, so as to form a thick paste, which is to be
_ applied to the head of the arrow and allowed to dry in the shade,

The glutinous substance generally used is the pulp of a sour fruit
called Owe Tangah by the Assamese and Chultah in Bengali (Dillenia
Speciosa). I imagine it is preferred in consequence of its acidity
_ preventing a flow of blood from the wound, which would wash away
the poison, (By the Medical Officer, Chyckwah, Upper Assam, June
_ Als, 1842.)
Delphinium Zalil.

Aitchison (Notes on Products of W. Afghanistan and N.-E. Persia,
Pp. 55) says :—** Yellow Larkspur, asbarg, aswarg, isbarg, isbarag,
tsparak, sparak, sparig, jalil, zalil; the flowers, gul-i-zalil, gul-t-jalil,
A perennial herb, with a thick short woody rootstock, from which
several annual shoots spring ; these are from one to two feet in height,
each usually bearing a terminal spike of exquisite yellow flowers.
When the flowers are at their best, the annual shoots bearing the
spike of inflorescence is broken off close to the root; these are
collected together, and then laid in heaps, usually on the roofs of
the houses, to dry. In two or three days they are sufficiently dry,
when the twigs are shaken over a sheet ; on this all the flowers
tumble off, and are collected, either for local use or exportation.
The petals are of commercial importance, yielding a valuable
yellow dye for silk, and are exported for this purpose in large quan-
tities to, Persia, Turkistan, Afghanistan, and India. The dye is
easily obtained by simply boiling the flowers in water; in

decoction the silk is dipped. ‘The dried stems also yield a dye upon
being boiled, but this is poor in comparison with that yielded by
the flowers.” : a

YN FST a a AE Sy Peo a eee ee ae ee er ae

94 APPENDIX.

In the Dret, Econ. Prod, of India, iii., 70, it is stated that in Multan
the flowers are used along with Akalbér (Datisca cannabina) and alum
to dye silk, giving a sulphur-yellow colour known as gandhak?, and
that they are also used in calico-printing. Their price in the Punjab
is said to be Rs.27°5 percwt. This dye is alluded to by Mr. Leotard,
Dr, McCann, and Mr. Wardle, but under the name of D. Ajacis.

The Hellebores of the Ancients.*

Drugs prepared from hellebore were so famous amongst the an-
cients as a remedy for madness, and, indeed, for many other ailments,
that the plant has acquired for itself a literary as well as a botanical
interest. Pliny gives a list of them quite worth the notice of adver-
tisers of patent medicines. We know that different species have
been used in different countries for their medicinal properties, which
are, perhaps, essentially the same in all of them, though varying in
strength. The hellebore of the modern English Pharmacopceia is the
root of Helleborus niger, the common Christmas Rose, In Germany,
H, viridis, the green hellebore, is said to be preferred, and from its
frequent occurrence in England in the neighbourhood of old ruins,
we may infer that it was formerly used here. At Constantinople a
popular drug, called Zoptane, is made from H. orientalis, which is
common on the mountains of Eastern Turkey. In Gerard’s time, our
native H, fetidus, the rankest of all the genus, was employed medi-
cinally, though known to require great caution in using, and it is
still retained in veterinary practice for outward application.

The physicians of ancient Greece, who for some centuries before
and after the Christian era were famous throughout the civilized
world for their skill, were very fanciful about the locality from which
the herbs used by them were collected. The kind of herb might be
the same, but when gathered on a particular mountain or in a parti-
cular forest it was thought to have additional virtue. Drugs of the
same name were classified as first, second, third or fourth quality,
according to the source from which they came, and were priced and
trusted accordingly. Hellebore was of two kinds, distinguished as
black and white. The best black came from Mount Helicon, and the
best white from Mount Gita. The town most famous for its prepara-
tion Hon was called Anticyra, but this name was ambiguous.

From the Gardeners’ Chronicle, January 2. £ et

APPENDIX. __ 95

There is a well-known passage in ‘The Art of Poetry,” written by
the Roman poet Horace, in which he says, that to gain a reputation

im, and must never have his hair cut. Multiplying by three
vas a common superlative figure of speech in Latin, as in any
her languages, and perhaps Horace meant no more than this ;
but, on the other hand, he may have known that there were in
Teece three towns named Anticyra, and possibly they were
places where the drug hellebore was prepared. One Anticyra
a3 on a narrow strip of the land of the Locrians, between
4tolia and the sea. Strabo, an ancient writer on geography, and

ivy, a Roman historian, both mention it. It was taken by the
ans in the second Punic war, and given over to their allies, the

ality, was used to adulterate the better Parnassian kind. There
as another Anticyra in the south-eastern corner of Thessaly,
iree or four miles from the sea, near the base of Mount (Cita and
famous pass of Thermopyle, but we do not hear of this town as
ducing hellebore, except on the slight authority of the
lexi Ographer, Stephanus of Byzantium, who lived in the sixth
century of our era. The third Anticyra, the only one which
ve know to have been famous in classical times for th
Manufacture of this drug, was situated on the southern coast of
Phocis, not far from the base of Mount Parnassus, and within a few
miles of Mount Helicon, The position of it is well known, and it is
“ew named Aspra Spitia; it was not an island, as Pliny and others
have wrongly said, and never can have been so in historic times ;
t it stood ona peninsula and had a good harbour. In Horace’s
y it was a place of resort for insane or epileptic patients, who went
to take a course of hellebore under resident physicians. Hence,
0 say, “ You should go to Anticyra,” was a polite way of telling a
man he was a fool. Amongst others who had gone through this
medical course there, Pliny mentions the philosopher Carneades, who
vent there for intellectual training, before publicly declaiming against
dogmas of the Stoics, apparently supposing that a medicine which
‘make madmen sane would make sane men still wiser. Also
usus, a famous popular leader of the Romans, was cured there of
sy. The same writer adds that this drug, which retained its

96 APPENDIX.

virtue for thirty years, and once was thought so formidable, had now
become so “ promiscuous”’ in its use that students often took a dose
of it to sharpen their intellect when they were puzzled by difficult
passages in their reading—a valuable hint, by the way, for can-
didates before a competitive examination! I recollect a virtuous
freshman at Cambridge, who, with a similar object, laid in a large
stock of “ Reading biscuits,” which he saw advertised in a window!

The next question is, what were the kinds of hellebore called black
and white, and found respectively on Mount Helicon and Mount
(ita? We ought to be able to answer this, because Edmond Boissier
has told us, in the preface to Flora Orientalis, that, thanks to the
labours of the botanists, Orphanides and Heldreich, the flora of Greece
is now better known than that of any other country within the scope
of his work. The hellebore which is found to prevail on Mount
Helicon, Mount Parnassus, and the neighbouring country is one
to which E. Boissier gives the name of H. cyclophyllus, It is inter-
mediate between H, viridis and H. orientalis, having been confused
with the latter both by Sibthorp and by Heldreich. Perhaps it is
not in cultivation in England, but it is described as being taller and
having larger flowers and broader segments to the leaves than the
green hellebore, which in other characters it resembles.

As for the white hellebore, it is evident from the vague descriptions
of Theophrastus and Pliny, that neither of them knew a living
hellebore by sight, but Pliny says that he had been told that the leaf
of the black hellebore was of the shape of a plane leaf, but divided
into several segments, and that the white hellebore had leaves
resembling’ those of the beet, and deeply channelled at the back.
He attributes to it a bulbous root like that of an onion, with fibrous
tunics. -Ancient and modern botanists have generally identified this
’ with Veratrum album, which is figured in Gerard’s *‘ Herbal” as the
white hellebore ; but perhaps the best evidence is that of Heldreich,
who explored Mount (ita in 1879, and found /’. album growing there
in abundance, confirming his previous opinion that this was the white
hellebore of Seecpbrastas. The different effects of the two kinds of
_ hellebore taken medicinally, as recorded by ancient authorities, cor-
respond with modern experience ; the black is a powerful cathartic,
and the white a strong emetic. This is a summary of all that is

‘likely ever to be. known of the famous hellebores of the —
t, Pharm. Jae Jan. fee: ‘1892 oe

APPENDIX. 97

We have never met with any kind of hellebore root in the Indian
ars, nor are any of the genus known to grow in India; still, all
Indian Mahometan works on Materia Medica contain an account of
hellebores of the Greeks, which hasbeen copied from the writings
he Arabian physicians, and which is mostly a reproduction of what
ic scorides says mepi AAcBdpou Aevxov and zepi EMAcBdpov peAanos the.
erarum album et nigrum of the Romans. The Arabs call these

ar
unt ss Kutaki, see Vol. II, p. 10.

MAGNOLIACEA.
mstituents of Star-anise.
Be cctations of volatile oil, fixed oil, and ash gave i
: owing percentage figures :—
las Volatile Oil. Fixed Oil, Ash.
fe Osrpels > oer pe 2-81
Si 3°00 22°9 :

— et 15-40 91:7 2:46

: volatile oil consists chiefly of anethol C°H*(OCH*)C*H®;
small quantities of terpenes, safrol C°H*(O®CH*)C°H*, the
thyl ether of hydroquinone C*H*(OH)OC?H’, anisic acid
L (OCH*)COOH, and a complex aromatic substance yielding upon
ation veratric acid and piperonal. The fixed oil contains the
eonetitnents along with cholesterin and derivatives of phos-
acid. Inthe aqueous extract is found protocatechuic acid
shikiminic acid C’H'°O', which by nascent hydrogen iodide is
ed into benzoic acid. Sugar was not found in any appre-

quantity, the sweet taste of the fruit, therefore, depending

the volatile oil. Nitrogenous bases could not be detected,
Ostwald, Arch. der Pharm. 1891, pies
Michelia Champa
enol. Si csihes a kind of camphor, ae champacol, obtained
champaca wood by distillation with water. After purification it
at 86—88°C., has the form of long white felted needles, has
¢ when pure, but when kept in an impure state becomes:
er the agreeable odour of the wood. (Berichte,

98 APPENDIX.

MENISPERMACEZ.
Constituents of Calumba Root.
M. Bocchiola (Chemist and Druggist, Jan, 10, 1891) gives the
following percentage composition of the cortical and woody portions
of the root :—

Outer part. | Inner part.

Water ~ ..: vas we ape seers AS Ses 13°00 14:00
Ash aa ve ve eae! ag eee 5:00 6:00
Ether extract ae te ee fee ce as 0:70 0°80
Alcohol.extract . a ot de es a 3°89 3°86
Proof Spit extract has wis ~~ te aa 17:96 17:80
Calumbine — ae oy fas tes 1°42 1-90

Do. by titration ... a ee oe ae 0:98 1-38
Berberine ... es 2S a5 dee ae veg 1:43 0°72

o. by titration .., “et ete on vee 2°95

The percentage composition of the ash was :—

Silicie acid 14°13 and 7°42, phosphoric acid, as an iron salt, 6:11
and 161, phosphoric acid, combined with alkali and earthy bases,
5-04 and 12°63, in the outer and inner parts of the root.

The author found old roots to contain as much as 2°07 and 2°63
per cent. of calumbine, and 2°05 and 1-02 per cent. of berberine,
showing their superiority over the younger roots.

BERBERIDEZE.
Berberis vulgaris, Linn.

Snttohieon (Notes on Prod. of W. Afghanistan and N.-E, Persia,
p. 25) has the following notice of this plant:—“ The Barberry, 777,
jirkhdr, zer-khdr, zir, zir-bar, xir-balak; the fruit, zirishk, sirishk.
. Avery common shrub, growing at an altitude of 2,000 feet and
upwards, from which is largely collected the fruit ; this is consumed
locally, as well as being exported in some quantity to India, where it
is highly appreciated by the natives as a condiment, Usually the

contains no seeds; it is then much more oval, longer, and of a
= much lighter colour than that which has seeds. On reaching the
e ea the fruit or preserve is called zirishk-tursh, to distinguish
pis. ede from small, dried, black grapes; the latter are our

currants, or « ees. From tke roo of th

=
pd lata ah ies at a as

APPENDIX, 99

_ Berzerts is obtained an extract called Ibrén; this is a yellow dye,
which is also employed in medicine as a local application to
inflamed eyes.”

Podophyllum emodi.
We have met with the root in the plains in the possession of a
pilgrim from Kedernath. He called it Mémirdn, and greatly valued
it as a remedy for ophthalmia, his small stock of four or five roots
was carefully wrapped in several covers of silk.

Analysis of the Resin of Podophyllum emodi.

_ Ash <i es bs in “we -o» None.
Moisture ao a te
Oily and waxy ‘mabe ‘aoluble: in henadn ide a 49
Podophyllotoxic acid ... wei one we LSS
Podophylotoxin, active seinoinle es Seu zee 06°55

Inert matter insoluble in chloroform and soluble in |
ay a dé i DIO.

106-0

“The percentage of active principle, podophyllotoxin, in _this

of podophyllin, and accepting 10 per cent. as a practical average
from the Indian, we should have a drug worth 2; times in value.
By F. A, Thompson, Ph. G., Am, Journ. Pharm., May, 1890.)

Podophyllotoxin.

This substance, which was first shown to be the active principle of —
Podophyllin by Podwissotzki, has now been obtained in a pure state
0) Neuberger (Areh, f, exp. Path. u. Pharm., xxviii., H. 1, 1890); it
rms colourless prismatic crystals, little soluble in water, but
ely soluble i in alcohol, forming an intensely bitter solution. eroge

t easily affected by it, and it required a dose of 0°01
ed in mucilage to ee a a muscular rigidity which was
d by death in three days; a Sane state of the intestinal
observed in some cases. appeared to have little or no

160 APPENDIX.

action upon rabbits. Cats were very susceptible to the -poison,
death following three days after the subcutaneous injection of 0-001
gram. In these animals, 2 to 3 hours after the injection violent and
repeated vomitings occurred, at first of food, and afterwards of mucus
tinged with bile, and containing some intestinal worms ; there was
also obstinate diarrhea. Finally the animals became dull, the
temperature fell, the limbs were paralysed, and death occurred
from exhaustion. Dogs, pigeons, and fowls were similarly
affected.

The post-mortem appearances observed were intense irritation, and
sometimes abscess at the seat of the injection, the stomach normal or
slightly injected, the upper portion of the mucous membrane of the
duodenum highly injected, especially round the opening of biliary
duct, the lower portion covered by a mass of brown epithelium
mixed with detritus and mucus ; the lower part of the small intestine,
and the whole of the large intestine, was covered by hemorrhagic
patches, and here and there by a membranous exudation, with intense
inflammation of the adenoid tissue, the sub-mucous and muscular

nephritis and commencing tubular nephritis, The distended gall-
bladder and injection of the duct appearing to indicate elimination
of the drug through the liver, the author tied the latter in three of
the dogs experimented upon, and afterwards injected podophylotoxin
beneath the skin ; the results were exactly the same as in the case of
the dogs not previously so treated,

Injections of podophyllotoxin into the veins gave exactly the same
results as whenit was administered internally or injected sub-
cutaneously, The circulation, respiration, and nervous system were
only affected a little before the fatal termination in all the animals —
. &Xperimented upon.

* From these experiments the author concludes that the drug acts
48 a simple irritant, and that its purgative action when given in-
ternally is due to irritation of the intestinal canal. When injected
under the skin or into a vein, it is eliminated by the blood through
- é and intestine, and in its passage through these organs it~
iritative action already described. sad -

APPENDIX. 101

Mr. J. C. Umney contributed a paper on Podophyllum emodi at the
harmaceutical Conference held in Edinburgh in August 1892, from
hich we extract the following :—
The results of Podwissotzki’s work on the resin of P, pellatum
1ay be briefly summarized thus—

The physiologically active portion of podophyllum resin consists
f podophyllotoxin, which is poral: of picropodophyllin held in
solution by picropodophyllic acid

_Picropodophyllin is a neutral pode principle, which, Siotiga
the sole active ingredient of the resin, is inactive in its free state,
‘Owing to its insolubility, but in combination with, or more probably
Solution in, picropodophyllic acid is extremely active. The resin also
contains an inactive acid—podophyllic acid, a yellow colouring
atter,—podophylloquercetin and fatty matter.

The results of the examination of P. emodi resin are classified in
the following table, and are compared with the analysis, under the
‘same conditions, of a sample of resin of P. peltatum :—

: emodi, P. peltatum.
Resin by official process for podophyllin resin 11-4 59
Constituents of the resin—

Podophyllotoxin (crude) . 7 et 33°8
Pure crystalline divpndachilin = ee.) 4°5
f not not

Picropodophyllic acid... -++ { determined. @etermined
Podophyllic acid... isin gil saw 808 69
Podophylloquercetin ii wert a AS CS
Fatty matter 2°3 57

The picropodophyllin shelted: a 208 "910°C.

The podophyllic acid melted at 125°.

The podophylloguercetin melted at 248°, ‘

_ Mr. Umney concludes his paper by saying that the rhizome of

_ Podophyllum emodi yields nearly double the amount of resin yielded

Eby P. peltatum, but the resin contained only about half the quantity

f crystalline picropodophyllin, to which the value as a cathartic

Is due,

We have not heard of any medical opinions concerning the value
_ of ‘the resin, and without such opinion founded on physiological
experiments we cannot decide the question of making this drug an
source of podophyllin resin.

102 APPENDIX.

PAPAVERACE.
The Opium Assay Question.

Perhaps no chapter of Pharmaceutical Chemistry has received
more attention and been more discussed than that of opium and its
analysis, Scarcely a journal appears nowadays that does not con-
tain an article or two upon how opium can “best” be assayed and
just how the method of Prof. X or Mr, Y. is inaccurate and
unreliable. There is a certain sameness about articles written about
opium assaying—a sameness that becomes monotonous in course of
time, and causes the reader to become perplexed, if not disgusted,
as the result of a perusal of them. Invariably the author picks all
other methods to pieces and then proposes an “ original new”
method which gives better agreeing results, and is much more easily
manipulated than any yet proposed. As a matter of fact, we
possess not asingle accurate and exact method of analysis of any plant
or of any of its organic constituents. Plant analysis, as Dragen-
dorff aptly remarks, has not yet reached the stage which enables us
to say, without an interrogation point at the end of our sentence,
that this plant contains just so much of that constituent and no
more, Plant analysis is as yet synonymous with approximate
analysis, and until our knowledge of the chemistry and physiology
of plant life and growth has advanced considerably beyond its
present status, it is doomed to continue to be approximate analysis.
Hence, no method is accurate, as, for instance, is the determination
of sulphuric acid as barium sulphate, or of hydrochloric acid as
chloride of silver, and if one of them does give better agreeing
results, and such as are nearer the mean of those obtained by all other
methods, this is due most probably to the fact that in this particular
method the sources of error are more nearly counterbalanced than
in the others. It was, hence, from a purely impartial and critical
standpoint that I undertook to compare several of the most promi-
nent methods for assaying opium.

Those decided upon were the methods of Fliickiger, Squibb, and
of the U. 8, Pharmacopeia—being virtually the ammonia versus
the lime method. The drugs examined were Smyrna opiums from
the house of Merck and of Gehe & Co., the former having been
ordered and received by myself while still at the laboratory of Gehe.
Rath ‘Fresenius at Wiesbaden during the past summer, and the

APPENDIX, ~~ 103

atter kindly given me by my instructor, Professor Flickiger, here

ong ere the others were, while Squibb’s method, due to its more
frequent washing and slower filtering, took up the most time. Just at
this point I should like to protest against the impracticability and
uselessness of weighing liquids, which so often is found in methods
f plant analysis and nowhere else. As I see the matter, there is
- Rotone point in its favor, unless, perhaps, that it is an inherited

glassware, which every druggist does, or, at any rate, should possess.
U. S. P. method, besides being the shorter, required less

Upon them were beyond any question of a doubt the purest and
_ Whitest. Here follow the figures :—

Merck Opium. Gehe Opium.

FPliickiger se ve as 9°52 p. 13°95 p, c.
Squibb “ae ca dine be BE, pots 16°52 p. c.
.U. 8..-P: sgt a ddeps @. 15:00 p. ec.

3 these figures shew, Fliickiger’s method gave the lowest and
_ Squibb’s the highest results, which facts are, however, very easily
_ explained, and as follows: In Fliickiger’s method the result depends
_Yery much, if not entirely, upon the amount of shaking that is done;

104 - APPENDIX.

as Dieterich has conclusively shewn, and as I only shook for about
half an hour steadily, with continued shaking at intervals of ten
minutes for two hours more, it is very probable that all of the mor-
phine did not separate out. The high figures obtained by Squibb’s
method are undoubtedly to be explained by the impurity of the
resulting products, which fact could readily be detected by the
naked eye, as they were invariably very dark-coloured, Despite all
the washing that they were subjected to, they never once were even
approximately near being colourless, and besides invariably dissolved
in lime water only in part and gave as a result a very dark-coloured
solution, It was found that continued washing would not remove
the impurities, for long before the erystals and filter paper shewed
any signs of becoming decolourized, the wash water ran through
absolutely pure and colourless. In both cases the morphine obtained
by the U. S. P. method dissolved completely in lime water and gave
a pure, limpid, clear solution, while that obtained by Fliickiger’s
method, although it gave a colourless solution in lime water, yet left
a small residue amounting to several milligrams and consisting of
narcotine, as did the residue obtained in Squibb’s method. This
would indicate that in the presence of alcohol and water, the ether
does not completely dissolve all of the narcotine.

Morphine Picrate.

Inasmuch as this salt of morphine had not yet been described,
and the similar salt of strychnine is practically insoluble in water,
and hence enable us to determine the alkaloid as strychnine picrate,
it was made by treating a solution of morphine hydrochlorate with
a slight excess of picric acid, in the hope that it, too, might prove
to be insoluble, and thus facilitate somewhat the method of deter-
mining morphine. Recrystallized from alcohol it crystallizes in
groups of fine yellow needles arranged most peculiarly in the shape
of warts, which grow one along-side of the other, and hang from the
surface of the liquid looking much like plaits of hair. The salt
melts, or, better, decomposes, without detonation at 157°C. It
differs from the corresponding salt of strychnine, however, in not
being insoluble in either water or alcohol, as determinations of its
solubility gave the following results :—

In distilled water at 13° C.—15-6975 grams of a saturated solution
yielded 0°031 grams of morphine picrate (dried at 100°) which —
gives a solu ity of 1 part in 500 parts of water. i

“APPENDIX. 105

In absolute alcohol at 13° C.—7-2422 grams of a saturated solution
elded 0'009 grams of morphine picrate (dried at 100°) which
es a solubility of 1 part in 800 parts of alcohol,

‘This being the case, it is, of course, impossible to make use of the
fas a means of determining morphine. (Alfred Dohme, Ph.D.,
aboratory of Prof. Fliickiger, University of Strassburg, Febeaaey
7, 1891; dm, Jour, Pharm,, April, 1891.)
The Chemistry of Opium.

t the instigation of my esteemed instructor, Prof. Fliickiger,
ertook to study the phenomena which present themselves when
_ dialyzed. When the ta eres was first begun, the

i
=]

to how these are Sombined in nature in the same,
far this has proven een the borat! will shew;

uring matters, gums, resins, and the many other amorphous sub-

ices of which we have but little definite knowledge, save that they ©
‘ist to worry the chemist, very much hindered the work in many
spects. Dialysis was chosen, inasmuch as by means of it it was

it is certainly very vicbable that if it were a question of which acid
first and most readily be neutralized by the bases, that sul-

acid would be the one, although mass action might cause
f the meconic acid to be in combination at the expense of

106 APPENDIX. —

sulphuric acid, With this aim in view, 50 grams of finely powdered
opium were rubbed together with distilled water and the paste
washed completely into a dialyser consisting of an oval gutta-percha
ring covered with heavy parchment paper and immersed ina dish
containing about five litres of distilled water, This was allowed to
stand covered thus for nearly three months, the water being changed
about twice a week. ven at the expiration of this time, sulphuric
acid and alkaloids could be detected in the dialysate, and as my time
here was limited, and the semester was rapidly drawing to a close,
it was decided to finish the operation more expeditiously by
exhausting the opium remaining in the dialyser with cold water. This
last extract was treated separately, although exactly in the same
way as the greater portion, While this operation was quietly pro-
gressing, a complete analysis of the ash of opium (the same as was
used for dialysis) was made in order thus to get a definite idea of
the mineral constituents of the drug. Accordingly, 20 grams of
finely powdered opium were carefully and gradually ignited in por-
tions in a platinum dish, It was found very diffieult to completely
incinerate the drug, so that even after heating the dish toa bright
red heat the resulting ash was quite dark, in fact nearly black, It
was found very advantageous at this point to treat the mass with a
little cold water an@ evaporate this off on a water-bath, and finally,
again carefully heat and glow it over a free flame, By repeating
this cperation several times, an ash was obtained, which was very
nearly pure white in colour. When weighed, it yielded 3-89
per cent, of the original substance,

A complete analysis, the details of which it would be useless to
enumerate here, gave the following results, these being expressed
in per cent. of the ash weighed :—

Per cent,
$i02 ‘ . a “ ; . ane 11:14
Pp205 : 8-07
sos ‘ a ses 28°39
Fe?203_ .,, ae ite ei sey oe a ; ee
0 ows see is ves ae si ee we 9°04

CO?, HCl and undetermined constituents ee din es a 2-88

APPENDIX, 107

The dialysate was next evaporated down in portions to about two
_Hitres upon a water-bath, and the resulting deposit, consisting of
colouring and other =? matter, as well as some caleium meco-
Bate, removed by filtrat The filtrate reacted acid to litmus, and

dmeconic acids, It was next acidified with hydrochloric acid,

nd after heating on the water-bath was treated with a boiling
solution of barium chloride in excess. After standing over night the

Similarly treated EES Y:, the following al —

Sabian fe B2sSO fee pe grams,
Po: orti ”? vee aoe ore tae tee eee 0°392 ”
tal... = S818
3945 Hs 4
Equivalent to 1 ae x: noe ange eZ = ‘

The filtrate from this precipitate was neutr alized and precipitated
n the cold with ammonia which was added in slight excess. After
ding for several days, the precipitated alkaloids were filtered off
and the filtrate again made ammoniacal and left to stand, when more
peeeloia was precipitated, This was continued until ae resulting

and dried at 80° ©, They were then weighed and regarded as narco-

tine, The results obtained are given below—

a saya tn sass ttots!) is fr heae ps Bakes er.
Hence, total Enea” found 1+. vee ae

_- Narcotine (weighed on tared filter) .. ve i

_ giving as the final result—

no : 8927 grams tee to 11: 79 = eat.

4363

The other sista: chan in opium, ay as ees ‘navceind,

papaverine, &c., were not considered separately, as they, in all

probabili » play the same réle with respect to the acids —* as

= 10°2558 gr.
ve = 43631

108 APPENDIX,

In a separate experiment with the same opium, which was dialysed
in the same manner as that just described, the dialysate was shaken
with amyl alcohol, the latter then separated and shaken
in a separating funnel with a solution of sodium hydroxide
for half an hour, and the alkaline layer separated as before. This
was then acidified, and a few drops of it, when brought in contact
with a drop of a solution of ferric chloride, gave a beautiful wine-red
colour, thus shewing the presence of meconic acid. Inasmuch as
experiments with morphine and narcotine meconates had shewn
that neither of these are taken up by amyl alcohol, it follows that
the free acid in the dialysate was meconic acid.

CONCLUSIONS,

(i) That the free acid in aqueous opium extracts is meconic acid ;

(ii) That the silica in opium is present in the form of sand, and
that the lime is most likely combined with phosphoric acid, while
the magnesia and potash are probably combined with organic acids
and some sulphuric acid ;

(iii) That there is more than enough sulphuric acid present in
opium to combine with all of the alkaloids present save narcotine;
for the 5°8927 grams of morphine, narceine, codeine, &c., found,
require only 1'0133 grams of sulphuric acid to form the salts
(C*7H°NOQ*)? H?’SO*, &ec., whereas ees were found in all 1:3945 —
grams of sulphuric acid; and

{iv) That hence, morphine, narceine, codeine, &e., are contained
in opium combined with sulphuric acid as sulphates, while narcotine,
at best only a feeble base, is combined in part, at least, with meconic

acid, of which there is also some present uncombined in the drug.

In conelusion, I should like to take this occasion to thank Prof.
Fliickiger for the kind assistance and advice I obtained from him
while working in his laboratory, and also Mr. J, E. Gerock, his excel-
lent and kind assistant. (4. Dohme, Am. Jour, Pharm., April, 1891.)

Protopine.
The name of protopine was given to a particular alkaloid first
isolated from opium in 1870 by Hesse. It is only present toa
small amount in the dried milky juice of the Papaver somniferum.
Since its discovery by Hesse, it has been met with again by
© in the Macleya cordata, and by Selle in the juice of the

APPENDIX, 109

fapaveracee. In connection with this subject we read in a recent
number of the Ther wee Gazette that Dr. Engel has lately made

an} Roads (guinea-pigs,. wks and rabbits), with the view of determin-
ing the physiological properties of this new base protopine. The

those produced ee other opium alkaloids, (2) In large doses it
15

when larger doses are given. (4) Protopine produces toxic effects
i mammals, and these effects are comparable to those produced by
nphor, death resulting from the paralysis of the respiratory centre.
s last conclusion is very interesting, Itis singular that camphor,
hich has not the chemical constitution of the alkaloids, and belongs
0 an entirely different group of bodies, should haye been found to

"e useful applications of it, and to its employment in a number of
8 for which it is not yet used, Protopine has not yet been
troduced into therapeutics, and from the above experiments it is
lent we must know more about it before it can find its place in

Tritopine—a new Opium Base.
M. Kander (Archiy., cexxviii., p. 419) reports the isolation of a
opium alkaloid, 7ritopine, which occurs in smaller quantity than

protopine, and to which he assigns the formula C**H**N ml

di-acid "pase. (Pharm, Journ. (3],

110 APPENDIX.

Indian Opium.

In regard to opium, it has recently been suggested that India
might be made the source of supply in place of Turkey. In a paper
read at the Conference Meeting at Cardiff, Mr. E, M. Holmes
expressed the opinion that there is no reason why India, instead of
Turkey, should not supply the whole world with medicinal ‘opium.
This assumption appears to be rather premature and scarcely to be
warranted by such knowledge as we possess of Indian opium. There
seem to be several questions to be solved before the substitution of
Indian for Turkey opium ean be looked upon as feasible. 7

In the first place, it is necessary to ascertain whether opium can
be produced in India of a quality equal to that. of Turkey opium.
Dr. Warden’s statement that native opium is used for medicinal pur-
poses in India does not sufficiently settle that point, but as he has
sent over a sample of the Patna opium issued by the Medical Store
Department of Bengal for medicinal use, we have examined it with
a view to ascertaining the amount of morphine it contains and its
applicability for pharmaceutical purposes.

The sample sent by Dr. Warden was in the state of powder, and
as received it contained 3-2 per cent. of moisture, In the dried
opium the amount of morphine was found to be 8°55 per cent.

_ A tincture was made with the dried opium, according to the
directions of the British Pharmacopeia, and on examination it was
found to yield on evaporation to dryness a residue of extract
amounting to 21:3 grains per fluid ounce. The amount of morphine

contained in the tincture was 2°74 grains per fluid ounce.

For the sake of comparison, another tincture was prepared with a
good sample of Turkey opium that was found to contain, in the dry
‘state, 10°84 per cent. of morphine, The extract yielded by this tinc-
ture on evaporation amounted to19-8 grains per fluid ounce. The

“amount of morphine in it was 3-4 grains per fluid ounce.

It may be pointed out that in both the abovementioned instances
the extraction of morphine from the opium in making the tinctures
by the method of the British Pharmacopeia was practically com-
plete, as will be seen from the following comparison of the quantities
of morphine actually found by experiment :—

; & pend. 2 Benes :
‘ ? i ; TS. Tr ia. . G . ~ OL
Indian opium tincture ,,, re PO: 74 Cee 2-80 .
ea Gee eer +e 3:40 8:55.

APPENDIX, 1]l°

was Scarcely any cca difference in their appearance. (Dr.
~H. Paul and A. J. Cownley in Pharm Journ., December 24th,
92, p. 505.) For further information on the employment of
Indian opium for medicinal purposes, the reader is referred to some
correspondence in the Pharm, Journ, for 1892 by Messrs. Holmes
and Warden,

FUMARIACEA,

Fumarine.

_ According to Herr Reichwald (Pharm, Zeit, f. Russl., March and
April, 1889), fumarine has a composition represented by the formula
tN O*, and can be obtained in colourless crystals, freely soluble

chloroform, less soluble in benzol, still less soluble in alcohol and
r, and sparingly soluble in water. Wheu placed upon the
gue, fumarine is tasteless, but a solution in acidulated water has
It is inactive towards polarized light. On the other

The yield of fumarine was only equal to 0-04 per cent. of the
dried herb used, (Pharm. Journ., Fone Bth, 1889.)
Fumaria parviflora, Lamk.
Under the name of Shahterch, we have received this plant from
ae
: CRUCIFERZ,
Aitchison (Notes on Prod, of W. Afghanistan and N,-E. Persta,
p. 194) records the collection of the seeds of Sisymbrium Sophia,
Linn., for medicinal use under the name of Khakshi or Khakshir,
Lepidium sativum.
| Mohideen Sheriff has used these seeds with success in dysentery
_ and dysenteric diarrhea. The seeds are small, red or reddish-brown ;
elliptical, oval or oblong; about one line in length and half of that

“118 : APPENDIX,

in thickness ; taste mucilaginous and slightly pungent when chewed
and Gerallowed, and their smell is slight, peculiar, and not unpleasant,
When immersed in water, the seeds become coated with mucilage.

CAPPARIDE.
Meerua arenaria, H. f. and 7.

Fig.—Rorb. Flor. Ind. ii., 570.

Hab.—Central and Southern India. The root.

Vernacular.—Poomichacarei (Zam.), Puta-tiga (Tel.).

History, Uses, &c.—The earth-sugar root of the Tamils has
been used in Hindu medicine in Southern India for many years. In
the Pedatasinthirmine, the author says of it: “It cures skin eruptions,
all venereal affections, fever, piles, and strengthens the human sys-
tem.” Dr, Ainslie, in his Materia Indica, ii., page 330, says: “ This
root in external appearance is not unlike liquorice root; it also some-
what resembles it in taste, but is not nearly so sweet ; it is prescribed,
in decoction, as an alterative and diet drink.” The drug is used by
Mahomedans and Hindus as a sexual stimulant and tonic, anti-
syphilitic, and alterative, It can be used either in a fresh or dried
state. The outer brown covering is supposed to be harmful, and —
is removed previous to use. Dr, P.S. Mootoosawmy, of Tanjore, has
used the root in his medical practice, and on his forwarding a
flowering and fruiting specimen of the plant to Mr. Lawson, of the
Madras Botanical Department, it was identified as Merua arenaria.
Roxburgh describes the plant under the name of Capparis hetero-
clita, R., and remarks that the unripe fruits are boiled and eaten by
the natives.

Description.—MVerua arenariais alarge, unarmed, climbing
shrub; leaves elliptic ; corymbs terminal; calyx four-cleft; corolla
regular, four-petalled; stamina on the receptacle, which is as long as
the tube of the calyx, The most remarkable part of the plant is the
fruit ; this is a beaked berry, two to five inches long, deeply constricted
between the seeds, fleshy, elongate, moniliform, one or more seeded,
pie is only one seed in oaoh: single berry or lobe of the compound

The roots are siais when fresh, from 1 to 14 inches in diameter,
long, cylindrical, contorted, with alight brown surface. When dried
sie become darker in colour and wrinkled longitudinally, and several —

APPENDIX. 113

egularly-disposed transverse markings of a lighter colour are

transversely in a fresh state and allowed to dry in the sun. Sections
of

_ Chemical composition.—The finely powdered root lost 11°26 per
cent. of moisture, and left 6:6 per cent, of mineral matter when
ignited. The ether extract amounted to 4°22 per cent., and consisted
of fatty acids of a brownish colour and fluid consistence, After
Standing a few days, white crystals formed, which were collected and
_ pressed between folds of blotting paper, and recrystallised from boil-
ing alcohol, This insoluble portion had the melting point (62° C,
_ and properties of palmitic acid. Oleic acid was present in the finid
portion of the extract.
~The alcoholic extract contained a large quantity of crystalline
saccharine matter, which reduced Fehling’s solution to a very slight
_ extent. A small quantity of an organic acid was removed from solu
_ tion by plumbic acetate, but no substance similar to glycyrrhizin
ould be detected. The absence of an alkaloidal principle was proved
after the application of the usual reagents.
' The aqueous extract contained an additional quantity of sugar,
and when heated to the boiling point threw out an abundance of white

Same Sy 17 OBE ar So 2S dee oe eee Pe ee alte

Mo disposition to crystallise, and when examined
_ Polariscope, it had no action on ised light.
0

114 APPENDIX,

CARYOPHYLLEZ,
False Bikh or Bikhma.

Towards the end of 1891 certain medico-legal exhibits were
received in the Chemical Examiner’s Department, Calcutta, from the
Mongyr District, including a parcel of roots labelled Btkhma.
Bickhma or Bishma, we may mention, is the vernacular name for
Aconitum palmatum, Specimens were sent for identification to the
Calcutta Bazaars, and recognized as Bikhma; we also forwarded some
to Nepal, where it was recognized, and stated to be sold as Bikhma
in the Bazaars. Up to this period we had had no opportunity of ex-
amining authentic specimens of Bikhma, and being doubtful whether
the drug we had received from Mongyr was true Bikhma or not, we
forwarded a sample to Dr. Dymock, Bombay, who reported as
follows :—‘“ They appear to be the rhizomes of an aroid, and are not
unlike those of the genera Lagenandra, Arum, and Cryptocoryne.
They have been cured by some smoking process, have a strong tarry
odour, and are somewhat translucent, tough, and flexible. They
have no resemblance in structure to any kind of aconite, I have
never seen them before.” Dr. D. Prain, of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Seebpore, to whom we also submitted a specimen, wrote: “I
cannot identify it for certain, but it is, I think, a leguminons rhizome.
It might be a glycyrrhiza.” Subsequently Dr, Dymock kindly sent
us a specimen of true A. palmatum: ‘* some of the same batch I sent
to Fliickiger, and which was examined by Shimoyama. I kept it as
being a remarkably fine sample; as the drug is expensive, it may be
adulterated with aconite. Rs. 6 per lb, is the price, and aconite is
only 9 annas.” His sample, when compared with ours, was wholly
dissimilar, Under the circumstances we thought it might be of
interest to examine the spurious Bikhma, and our results are
embodied in this note. In the condition in which the roots were
received they were so horny that it was impossible to powder them,
and they were cut into fragments, exposed to a temperature of about
80° Cc. for some time, allowed to cool, and then at once pulverised.
During the process the dust caused watering of the eyes and sneezing.
When dried at 100° C. the powder lost 6-23 per cent. of moisture.
In extracting the powder 3155 grammes were exhausted with boiling
rectified spirit, and the tincture evaporated on a water-bath until it
ceased to smell of alcohol. The resulting” extract was of a dark

APPENDIX. 115

3 _ brown colour and of the consistence of treacle. The mare left after
_ extraction with boiling spirit was repercolated with 250 c.c. cold
_ spirit containing 1 per cent. of tartaric acid, and the spirit evaporated
_ off at alow temperature. The two extracts were now mixed wit!
a _ Water containing 2°5 grammes of tartaric acid, and the mixture
a agitated with light petroleum ether. During agitation a few yellow-
ish flocks separated. The petroleum ether extract amounted to 1-173
3 _ per cent., calculated on the root containing 6°23 per cent. of moisture.
> The etrolenin ether extract was yellowish-brown in colour, semi solid
7 in consistence, and waxy in odour. The taste was nauseous, recalling
3 _ eroton oil. In absolute alcohol it was wholly soluble with strongly
acid reaction. On spontaneous evaporation of the alcoholic solution,
_ a yellow transparent mass was left at the bottom of the beaker,
. _ while on the sides the deposit was yellowash- ae. = apna oe
a microscopic examination, it appeare

spirit solution, on spontaneous evaporation, deposited soft orange
resinous matter, while some white deposit separated on the sides of
the capsule. This was found to consist of oil globules, and a few
minute needle-shaped crystals. In addition to oil and resinous
matter possessing an acid reaction, the presence was also detected of
an alkaloidal principle soluble in ether, which afforded marked indi-
cations with the usual reagents. With Fréhde’s reagent no change
Was observed in the cold, but a dirty blue developed on gently
_ Warming, The portion of the petroleum ether extract insoluble in
__proof spirit was boiled with alcoholic potash, the solution evaporated
to dryness and treated with water. The aqueous solution was turbid
_ from the separation of brown flocks, The turbid solution was agitated
With petroleum ether. The ethereal extract had a camphoraceous
“es terebinthinate odour, was of an orange colour, and had a
melting point of 62°C. Jt was not furtherexamined. The aqueous
Soap solution was decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid and agitated
with ether. The ether extract was converted into a Iead soap and
Yeagitated with ether. The soluble lead soap, after separation of

prepared solution of nitrate of mercury, it solidified to a yellowish

116 APPENDIX.

mass. The insoluble lead soap, after separation of lead, afforded a.
residue which was solid at ordinary temperatures, and had a melting
point of 48°. Neither of these fatty extracts was pure, and no
attempt was made to ascertain whether they consisted of single acids
or mixtures. The presence’ of glycerine was~determined in the
original aqueous sulphuric acid solution. The aqueous acid solution
of the alcoholic extract of the roots, after treatment with petroleum
ether, was agitated with ether, The ethereal solution was allowed.
to evaporate spontaneously, and the final desiccation conducted over
sulphuric acid, The non-crystalline residue was dark brown and
tacky with tar-like odour; it amounted to +123 per cent., caleu-
lated on the roots containing 6°23 per cent. of moisture. Warme
with distilled water, a part of the extract dissolved, the solution
— the following reaction :—
Reaction, niger acid,
e®Cl” gav a dirty greenish coloration, passing sehity't to

dirty brownish.
AgNO", alight turbidity ; on warming Ag. reduced.
Aqueous NH®, orange yellow coloration.
_ Acetate of lead, dirty yellowish, white ppt.
Gelatine, no precipitate,
KCN., no reaction.

That portion of the ether extract insoluble in warm water was treated
with aqueous NaHO, and the dark brown solution which resulted
agitated with ether. The ether solution exhibited slight fluorescence,
and on spontaneous evaporation afforded a yellow crystalline deposit,
which appeared as needles and rosettes on microscopic examination.
By treating this residue with proof spirit a certain amount of
neutral resinous matter of a yellow colour was separated, This was
precipitated on dilution with water. The insoluble crystalline residue
afforded no crystalline sublimate when heated between watch glasses.
The aqueous soda solution of the ether extract was mixed wit
dilute sulphuric acid and reagitated with ether, The ethereal extract -
was of a yellowish-brown colour, strongly acid in reaction, and had
the properties of an acid resin,

The tartaric acid solution of the alcoholic extract of the drug was
now mixed with a very slight excess of sodium bicarbonate and again
agitated with ether, After agitation and on subsequent standing,
small quantity of @ white crystalline substance separated, which

ie eT Se eee

"was finally agitated with amylic alcohol.

APPENDIX. ] 1 7

floated on the water stratum below the ether. The ether was sepa»
rated and allowed to evaporate spontaneously, the extract amounte
to 048 per cent. ; it formed a yellow transparent varnish on the sides
of the capsule, while at the bottom it was white, chalky, and indis-
tinctly crystalline; odour, aromatic. The chalky deposit consisted of
some irregularly-shaped plates and amorphous particles. The yellow
varnish-like residue was easily soluble in proof spirit, but neither
this portion nor the chalky deposit afforded any reaction with alka-
Joidal reagents. The chalky deposit treated with concentrated
H’°SO* afforded a yellow solution in the cold, changing to pinkish on
standing for some time, but on heating the pink colour was developed
rapidly. Nitric acid, no reaction, Fréhde’s reagent, greenish in
the cold, passing to blue on warming. Ferric chloride, no reaction
Heated with dilute aqueous H?SO* and the solution neutralised
it reduced an alkaline copper solution on boiling. en agitated
with water, considerable frothing was noted. A small amount in-
jected, mixed with water, into a cat’s stomach induced no symptoms
When applied to a cat’s eye, there was no change in the size of the
pupil observed. The yellow varnish-like deposit separated from the
chalky deposit, by the action of proof spirit, when injected into a
cat’s stomach caused the animal to vomit once a small quantity of
frothing liquid ; one formed stool was also passed, but no other symp-
toms were noted, The varnish-like residue, when applied to the tip
of the tongue, produced a slight sensation of tingling or numbness,
which lasted for a short period, and could not be mistaken for the
symptoms induced by aconitine.

The alkaline aqueous solution of the alcoholic extract was next
agitated with chloroform. The extractive was yellowish -brown, with
an odour like that of gum benzoin, and amounted to 064 per cent.
In cold proof spirit it was partly soluble, the solution on spontaneous
evaporation affording a residue which contained a few microscopic
plates. The residue insoluble in cold proof spirit was pale yellow
and soluble in boiling proof spirit. On spontaneous evaporation a
white crystalline deposit was obtained, consisting of bundles of rods
and a few plates, The residue frothed when agitated with water,
and when treated with concentrated a ee Ton a -

i i solution © coholic extrac’
coloration. The alkaline aqueous Ths’ axel meen
1-582 per cent,, and formed a transparent, soft, viscid residue of

118 APPENDIX.

a reddish-yellow colour, non-crystalline, and frothing considerably
with water. In warm water it dissolved, forming a clear solution,
which became turbid on cooling. Anattempt was made to decolourise
the aqueous solution by agitation with purified animal charcoal,
but very little colouring matter was thus removed. As neutral salts,
as NaCl, MgSO*, gave a white curdy precipitate from the aqueous
solution of the extract, an attempt was made to separate the
saponin-like principle by saturating the watery solution with
MgSO?’ ; it was found, however, that the flocks agglutinated together,
forming a sticky mass, and filtration was impossible, Baryta water
was next used for separating the principle. With this object the
amylic alcohol extract was dissolved in water and excess of aqueous
barium hydrate added. The turbid mixture was then filtered (filtrate
A), the precipitate was washed with baryta water and transferred to
a beaker, water added, and CO? passed for a considerable time. The
turbid mixture was then evaporated to dryness on a water-bath,
and exhausted with rectified spirit, the filtered alcoholic solution
was evaporated to dryness, and left a scaly, friable, shining residue,
which afforded the following reactions:—With concentrated H?SO*
a yellow coloration, changing to red. Concentrated HNO’, yellow.
In concentrated HCl it dissolved freely, forming a faint pinkish
coloured solution, the colour deepening on the application of heat, and —
a few flocks separating. In strong acetic acid it was also readily
soluble, forming a colourless solution, no change being induced by the
subsequent addition of potassic dichromate. When heated with
aqueous phosphoric acid it did not yield a clear solution, no colour
developed, and no odour, With aqueous ammonia it was sparingly
soluble; no precipitate with acetic acid; the ammoniacal- solution
frothed on agitation. Boiled with dilute HCl, it afforded a solution
which reduced alkaline copper. The amount of principle presipitated
by baryta was small, and though this principle afforded some of the
reactions of saponin, it seemed probable that the greater part was
still present in the filtrate.

A fresh portion of the original amyli¢ alcohol extract was
dissolved in water, and treated with lead acetate, which afforded a
white curdy precipitate, after separation of lead by H?S, yielded
extracts which frothed strongly on agitation with water, and gave
‘Some of the reactions of saponin. The amount of extractive yielded.
was, however, small, and it appeared to us that probably both the

APPENDIX. 119

lead precipitates were either unstable compounds of a saponin with
that metal, from which the greater part of the principle could be
separated by washing, or that they consisted chiefly of easily soluble
lead salts of a saponin, or of a lead salt of a saponin mechanically
mixed with a saponin precipitated by the action of lead acetate, in
_ the same manner as we have found certain neutral salts to act.
_ But, on the other hand, it was possible, assuming the existence of
more than one saponin-like principle in the plant, that one saponin
formed a stable and insoluble lead compound, the other an unstable
or soluble salt, And similar remarks might also apply to the
barium hydrate precipitate.

_ As bearing on these points the following experiments were
made:—The amylic alcohol extract was dissolved in water, excess of
lead acetate added, and the turbid mixture repeatedly agitated with
amylic alcohol, During agitation the greater part of the precipitate
agglutinated, forming a yellow viscid coating on the bottom and
sides of the bottle. This deposit appeared to be very slightly soluble
in amylic alcohol. It was soluble in acetic acid, and the aci

if it contained any saponin-like principle or not. It was first filtered,
and then evaporated to dryness on the water-bath. The residue was
yellowish and brittle, and contained a small quantity of lead.

amount of extract was far larger than that obtained from the viscid
deposit after decomposition with acetic acid, Lead was removed by
dissolving the extract in water and passing H’S, The filtered
solution was then evaporated to dryness, the residue reduced to fine

powder was white and free from odour. It afforded the following
reactions :—With cold water it formed a slightly opalescent solution,

which frothed considerably on agitation. Concentrated H*SO*
: with violet at the
edges on standing, and green on the addition of potassic dichromate,
Concentrated HINO? colourless, yellow on the addition of dichromate,

120 APPENDIX.

and changing to blue on standing for some time, In concentrated
acetic acid, readily soluble, forming a colourless solution, Soluble in
dilute ammonia, forming a solution which frothed, and from which
acetic acid gave a white precipitate on neutralisation, Caustic
soda, similar reactions to ammonia, Tannic acid, a white precipitate.
Ferric chloride, a turbidity in the cold, which disappeared on heating,
the solution being of a brown colour. On boiling with dilute HCl,
dark brown, oily globules separated, and the solution reduced
alkaline copper. This decomposition product did not appear to
possess the properties of the principle described as sapogenzn, obtained
by the action of dilute acids on ordinary saponin. The ash amounted
to ‘47 per cent. ; it was free from lead.

To determine the ultimate composition of this saponin, it was
dried over sulphuric acid in a vacuum, and the combustion made in
an open tube in acurrent of oxygen, and the results afforded the
following percentages :—

Exp. 1. Exp. 2. ean.

Carbon .,. wee 60°92 61-18 61°05
Hydrogen wie Peo 8°74 8°84
Oxygen ~ OUIO 30°08 30°11
100°00 100-00 100-00

From these percentages a formula C**H**O"? was deduced—

Calculated for
0327754012, Found.
Carbon... eee 60°95 61°05
Hydrogen ... coe 8°57 8°84
Oxygen ... as 30°48 30°11
100°00 100°00

In another experiment a somewhat different mode of extracting
the saponin was adopted. An alcoholic extract was obtained from
another sample of Bikhma, no acid being used in the extraction.
‘The alcoholic extract was mixed with water and directly extracted
with amylic alcohol, without previous treatment with pet:
‘ether, ether, and chloroform. The amylic alcohol containing the
-erude saponin was separated, filtered, and then repeatedly agitated
‘with aqueous basic lead acetate. During agitation the yellow viscid

APPENDIX. : 121

matter, ‘hlready mentioned, separated on the sides of the bottle, The
agitation with basic lead was continued for a considerable time, until
colouring matter ceased to be dissolved. The amylie alcohol was
then allowed to stand for some days, filtered, and evaporated on a
water-bath. The extract was next taken up with water, and lead
removed by H*S. After filtration the solution was again evaporated

and digested with ether. The saponin extracted in this manner had
: B faintly yellowish colour, and contained 6 per cent. of ash free from
lead. After drying over sulphuric acid in vacuo, the following results
Were obtained on ultimate analysis:—

Exp. 1 Exp. 2 Mean
Carbon Peg te Y: 60°21 60°165
Hydrogen 8°35 8:54 8:445
Oxygen .. 31°53 31:25 31:390

Some of the saponin used for the last analysis was subjected to
a farther process of purification. It was dissolved in amylic alcohol,
and the solution repeatedly agitated with aqueous barium hydrate.
_ On evaporating the amylic alcohol solution to dryness, and heating
f the powdered extract with ether to separate traces of amylie alcohol,

_ the saponin was left asa white powder which contained °308 per
eent.of ash. On ultimate analysis, the following percentages were
_ obtained, the saponin being dried %n vacuo over sulphuric acid:—

Exp. 1. Exp. 2. Mean.
Carbon ... 6 BE 59°82 59°86
- Hydrogen... .. 8°64 wae foe
: p28 ee 665 ae
= Oxygen
3 10060 -:200-00 100-00

It seems likely to us that the last sample of saponin isolated was the
purest of the three examined, though we are not prepared to definitely
assert it was a pure saponin. We have adduced some evidence
which tends to indicate that at least two saponins exist in false
-Bikhma, and it is possible that the method we used for separation

=

122 APPENDIX,

afforded a mixture. It was our intention to have determined the
ultimate composition of the saponin in combination with lead, to
which we have referred as a ‘‘viscid yellow compound,” and to
have examined the product yielded by the hydrolysis of the saponin,
but we were unable to complete our research.

The results of the proximate analysis of the false Bikhma may be
stated thus :—

Moisture ... Se Os
Petroleum ether esieent a ae LA7s-
Acid ether extract ee ves “123

Alkaline ether extract .,. ae ee
Chloroform extract
Amylic alcohol extract ... ae Los

We also append the results of an analysis of the specimen of

A. palmatum referred to above. Our 100 parts afforded the follow-
ing results when examined by Dragendorff’ s method :—

Petroleum ether extract,,. eas “040
Ether extract oe *048
Absolute alcohol seleand: im ade
Water extract .,. eet dice AU
An alcoholic extract affords the following percentages :—
Petroleum ether extract ... ae as ... 946
Acid ether extract oe ag ee eee
Alkaline ether extract. ‘sie ae ie Fe |

Amylic alcohol extract .., sos sve ‘an OED
The compositions of these extracts we were also unable to examine.

We may summarise our results by stating that the most important
constituents of false Bikhma are saponin, and as bearing on the
identification of the plant which yields the’ drug, we would refer to

itchison’s “Notes on Products of Afghanistan and Persia,” in
which it is stated that the name Bekh is technically applied to the
root-stocks of Acanthophyllum macrodon and Gypsophila paniculata.
These are both used as soaps, and ese false Bikhma may be
Borived pon one of these plants. (Cc. J. Warden and Assistant

2 Chuni Lal Bose in“ Pharm. Journ’ October 15th, Usa

APPENDIX. _ 123

= PORTULACEZ.

5 Chemical Composition of Portulaca oleracea.

Water a few Bis a 92°61
Nitrozenons pereneen ee kes ee fei 2°24
eat... ‘xe oe sat a : 0°40
Non-nitrogenous extractive ses a Sek 2°16
Cellulose .., et ae . a i 1-03
Ash ihc ee one Pie ies 1°56

Ln dry eae

Nitrog tee” ; eee ees ete 4°85
Be oasis vid - i sae --. «—a9'2S
(Konig, Nahrungs Mittel, p. 147.)

TAMARISCINEA.,
Remarks on the substance called Gez or Manna
found in Persia and Armenia.

At entertainments in Persia a sweetmeat called Gezangabeen is
usually met with, the pleasant taste and other singular properties of
Which, as well as the mystery that involved its origin, excited my
curiosity to know if it were an animal or a vegetable production.

The principal ingredient in its composition is a white gummy

€ appearance and feel of common dough, though a little more hard,
Jt is at the same time both adhesive and brittle, for any attempt to

2 mode, however, generally practised of breaking it for use is by
Placing one cake on the palm of the hand somewhat hollowed and
triking it with the other, when the blow occasions it to fly into
Several pieces, whose edges, rather eusien Sain appear smooth and
polished like broken glass.

- Collection. —Before daylight we marched from Khonsar, and, on
ing the boundaries of the town, deviated from the main road as
ve had been directed, and began rambling amongst the bushes on the
ace of the mountain on our right, diligently looking for the gez. The
we had received were to examine the bushes closely, as the

124 APPENDIX.

object of our search was not easily visible at any distance ; too much
confidence, however, in the knowledge of our servants and guide who,
with true Persian effrontery, asserted they were familiar with the
appearance of the gez. in its natural state, nearly occasioned us a
complete disappointment. We had relinquished the pursuit in very
ill-humour, to resume our journey, when we met, as chance would
have it, two peasants proceeding to the spot we had just quitted : as
usual, we accosted them, andwere not alittle pleased at hearing they
were the people whose occupation it was to gather the gez. These
men were furnished with a stick three-fourths of an inch in diameter
and curved at the further extremity, which was covered with leather,
and a kind of oval leathern bowl, near three feet long and two broad,
with a handle to it, resembling an egg-shell cut in two longitudinally.
Besides these, they had a sieve suspended from the right side, to free
the gez from the insects and small pieces of leaf that generally fall
with it when first beat from the bush: the bottom of the sieve was
of coarse woollen cloth,

The countrymen were easily persuaded by a trifling present to fall
immediately to work and show us a specimen of their employment.
They turned off the road a few yards amongst the bushes we had
just quitted, and placing the leathern receptacle underneath, they
beat the bushes on the top with the crooked stick; in a few minutes
they had obtained a handful of a white kind of sticky substance not
unlike hoar frost, of a very rich sweet taste: this, after being
purified by boiling, is mixed up into the sweetmeat before mentioned
under the name of gezangadeen,

' Though the gez, when fresh gatheredfrom the gavan bush, admits
of being sifted, stillin this original state it is brittle and adhesive
at the same time, qualities for which it is so remarkable after its
preparation as a sweetmeat. If pressed, it sticks to the fingers ; but
on being smartly struck with a bit of wood separates easily into
small grains like lump-sugar. It is in this state in cool weather, or
when the thermometer does not exceed 68° F.; but liquefies on being
exposed to a higher temperature, resembling "white honey both in
colour and taste,
The shrub on which the gez was found is called the gavan; it
mere: from a small root to the height of about two feet and a half,
into.a:cizpular fotm.et the top fram three to four fect and’

APPENDIX. 1 9 5

‘Spread all over the tender branches like white uneven threads, with
innumerable little insects creeping slowly about.

These little creatures appeared to derive their subsistence from
the leaves and young bark of the bush they inhabit; and this is the
opinion of the country people. They are either three distinct species
of insects, or one in three different stages of existence: one kind is
perfectly red, and so diminutive as to be scarcely perceptible ; the
Second, dark and very like a common louse, though not so large ;

their ‘occupation every third day for twenty-eight days during
September, A journey, which I subsequently made to Baghdad, con-
und in the range of mountains running through Koordistan,
dividing Persia from Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, where it is ealled
ha by the Armenians, and said to be exported in quantities
through Erzeroom to Constantinople. (By Captain B. Frederick,
from the « Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay,” Sep-
tember 28th, 1813.)

_ Note.—The gavan is Tamarix gallica, var. mannifera, Ehrenb., and the aphis,
ch feeds upon it and produces the gez, is the Coecus manniparus of Ehrenberg

_ *he name Gezangabeen is loosely applied by the Persians to thé true manns
Obtained from Cotoneaster nummularia in Korasan, the correct name of which is
Shirkhisht,

TERNSTREMIACEZ.
Camellia theifera, @rif.

_ Tea seeds contain 35 per cent. of a somewhat thinly fluid, taste-
Jess, inodorous oil, of a straw to amber colour, which resembles olive —

126 APPENDIX.

oil, At 15°C. it has a sp. gr. of -9270; at 38°C. it forms an

emulsion and solidifies only below—~5°C. Itis scarcely soluble in

spirit of wine, and very sparingly in ether. Chemically, it consists of
25 parts stearin and 75 parts of olein. In China it is used as a table

and lamp oil and for the manufacture of soap, for which it is
specially well adapted, yielding a beautiful hard soap.

Tea oil has been used in China for a very long time, but has been
only recently introduced into commerce. C. oleifera and C. drupifera
yield oil for household purposes similar to the above. (Brannt.)

Caffeine and Theine: their identity, and the reactions of
Caffeine with Auric Chloride. ©
In consequence of the conclusions of Mays (Journ. Physiol,, 7, 458;
» Therapeutic Gazette, 1866, 587), and morerecently of Lauder-Brunton
and Cash (Proc, Roy, Soc,, 42, 283; Journ. Physiol,, 9, 112), that the
physiological action of theine obtained from tea differs in certain
respects from that of caffeine obtained from coffee, the authors have
searched for evidence of isomerism in these bases, the existence of
which is not put beyond doubt by the chemical comparison of them
which has hitherto been made,

Having extracted theine from tea and caffeine from coffee, it is
shown that the two substances exactly resemble each other, and melt
at precisely the same temperature, viz., 234°5 (corr.). From each
base the crystalline aurochloride (C°H?°N*0?, HCl, Au Cl'2 H*-0)
was prepared, and these two salts both melted at 242-5 (corr.).
When dried at 100°, they both lost the equivalent of two molecular
proportions of water, and the anhydrous salts melted at the same
temperature, viz., 248°-5 (corr,), The analytical data corresponded
with the formule given above. The complete correspondence in the
properties and composition of the aurochloride is satisfactory
evidence of the absence of a structural difference in the bases. In
order to further confirm the identity of the two substances, a specimen
of each was converted into the mercuric chloride compound (O°?
N*0?, Hg’), a stable crystalline salt. Both preparations were
foundto melt at the same temperature, viz., 246° (corr.), and to
exactly correspond with each other in other respects.

The complete identity of caffeine and theine having thus been

_ demonstrated, the observed differences in their physiological action
must be ascribed either to impurities in the specimens used, or to

APPENDIX. t27

_ Variations in the animals employed in the experiments. The cireum-

tains other bases than caffeine, the presence of traces of which
Might be sufficient to account for the observed difference

During the preparation of the pure aurochlorides for a comparison
of their properties the pees obtained two new and interesting
-auric derivatives of caffein

_ When an aqueous solution of caffeine aurochloride is heated, a
Yellow, flocculent. precipitate is gradually formed, which is insoluble
aleohol, chloroform, and ether, but dissolves in hydrochloric i
producing the aurochloride. The substance dried at 100° form

pale yellow amorphous powder, which melts at 207° (corr.). ‘Aisne
roved it to be aurochlor caffeine C°H%AuCl*)N*O?, a substance
which one atom of hydrogen in caffeine is replaced by the group
uCl?). It is pointed out that the ready formation of this remarkable
compound from caffeine aurochloride by the loss of two molecular pro-
rtions of hydrochloric acid—C*H'N*O*, HCl, AuCl’=2 HCI+
HA’ (AuCl*) N*O2—is better shown ee Medicus’s formula for
caffeine, than by that proposed by Emil Fischer, since in Medicus’s
mula the CH group which loses hydrogen is represented as_con-
‘iguous to the deubly-linked nitrogen atom, to which the auric-
chloride is attached,

_ By the reaction of an alcoholic solution of potassium chloraurate
(KCl, AuCl*) with a solution of caffeine in chloroform, a salt,
Crystallizing in the dark red needles, was obtained. This is shown to
be caffeine potassium aurochloride (C°H**N*O?, KCl, AuOl*) which
differs from caffeine aurochloride in containing potassium in the
place of the hydrogen of hydrochloric acid. ‘This salt melts at 208°
(corr.). It readily dissolves in alcohol and water, forming yellow
Solutions which appear not to contain the salt itself, but its
constituents, caffeine an potassium chloraurate. The salt is
nearly insoluble in ether and chloroform, but prolonged contact with
these liquids leads to its decomposition into caffeine and potassium
choloraurate (W. R. Dunstan and W, F. J. Shepheard, from the
Research Laboratory of the Pharmaceutical Society—The substance
communication made, to the Chemical Society, December 15th,

128 APPENDIX.

MALVACEZS,
Altheea lavaterseflora, D0.

Aitchison (Notes on Prod. of W. Afghanistan and N.-£. Persia,
p- 9) notices it as a cultivated plant usually grown on the ridges
between fields, It is grown not only for the showiness of its flowers,
but for the petals, which are collected as they fall off the plant, and
employed in local medicine or exported under the names of gu/-t-
khatmi or gul-khairu, The seeds are also collected and sold as
tukm-i-khairu, and the roots as reshai-khatmz. We have received the
flowers from Afghanistan, where they are used as a substitute for
those of A. officinalis; they are very mucilaginous.

STERCULIACEZ,
Heritiera littoralis, Dryand., Rheede, Hort. Mal, ri., t. 21.

The seeds of this plant, common on the coast, have been substi-
tuted for white Kola nuts, to which, when the chestnut coloured,
papery, episperm has been removed, they bear some resemblance,
but are a little larger and nearly orbicular, with a somewhat sinuous
instead of an angular outline, Heritiera seeds are from 0:010 m. to
0015 m. thick, and have a diameter of about 0°04 m.; they are
- eonecave on one side and convex on the other, and are composed
of two cotyledons, one of whichis double the size of the other.
Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen (Nouv, Remédes, 1887, p. 155) sia
the following as the composition of the almond :—

Out. .s oes ee is wae Gee ... 4366

Tannin and colouring matter ; we 4983
Sugar ... Se as ee —_ ae oles
Sodium chloride oe ae Be gids cc ane
Cellulose and starch .. ous ees ug ee or
Albuminoids . a cei nea es is
Lignin a Pees ae 5 wae: AOE

Fixed salts... res ska eae oe . BOeo
Loss ... Ae Ge sis 3 oo me 0-089

The ash contained traces of iron and manganese, oe consisted
chiefly of phosphates and sulphates of lime, potash, and soda. No
fo

a as. und. The seeds are eaten in India, and it is evident
ly si ‘that they have considerable alimentary value. —

APPENDIX, 129

Sterculia alata, Roxb. Bedd. Fi, Sylv., t. 230,

The kernels contain 45:27 per cent. of a bland oil possessing’ some
ative properties, Eighteen kernels were eaten by one of us
hout any symptoms being induced, hence Roxburgh’s statement

he seeds under the name of Zoola are said to be eaten by
ves in Silhet as a cheap substitute for opium is probably based
lincorrect information, The-tree is one of the largest found in
ngal, and seeds very freely; in our opinion the kernels form a
t excellent substitute for ordinary almonds, which they resemble
shape and size. Theobromine and caffeine were specially looked
t with negative results,

Sterculia scaphigera, Wall.

These remarkable fruits are brought to India by Mahomedan

lerchants from Java and Singapore by way of Karaikal and

‘agore, ae towns on the Coromandel Coast. They are called
s-Mungoo in the Malay language, and are used as a demulcent

Sterculia Gum.

. J, H, Maiden, in an article on Sterculia gum (Pharm, Journ,
RK. 381), shows in the ambenai table how suitable it is as a
tute for Tragacanth :—

Stereulia. Tragacanth.

“! a, Colourless .. | @. Opalescent

é. Granular jelly... b. Smooth viscid mass.
c. Adhesiveness ab-| c. Adhesive.

. sent or wae . : :
i ng in dilute al-| Insoluble ss gee entirely dis-

SolvV

and| No change of colour. Canary- yellow colour,
hich fades on cool-

ing : : :
dng in dilute acid. Soluble, pines ara-| Soluble, forming pectin
J. EE.

rr au
a to) Whitish sae Formation of floating
form in (see fuller state-| glairy mass.
ment).

oa Sterculia gum to yield to cold water only 3°14 per
en chiefly of Arabin; 75'1 per cent. of the gum was

130 APPENDIX

found to be Pararabin, The gum contained 16-6 per cent. water,
and yielded 5°83 per cent. ash,

Mr. Maiden draws attention to the fact that Pararabin is the
chief constituent of the vegetable jellies known as Agar-agar, a
Ceylon moss, both of which are used by the natives of India as an
article of diet like Stereulia gum, and are supposed to be very
strengthening.

A sample of gum said to be from Cochlospermum gossypium was
found by him to be similar to that of Sterculia, but as it had pieces
of lace bark attached to it, it was probabl y Sterculia gum, .

LINEA.
Linamarin.

A, Jorissen and E. Hairs (Acad. roy. de Belgique (8) 21 (1891),
529) have isolated a glucoside, linamarin, from the germs of Linum
usitatissimum, The germs, coarsely powdered, were treated repeated-
ly with boiling 94 per cent, alcohol, the latter recovered and the
residue taken up with warm water, The resin and fat are —
separated, and the aqueous solution treated with a slight excess of
lead acetate. After filtration and precipitating the lead with H®S the |
liquid is evaporated to a syrupy consistency, This residue is extract-
ed with boiling alcohol, the solvent recovered for the greatest part, and
the remaining liquid mixed with ten times its volume of ether under
constant agitation, The residue remaining on distilling off the ether
istaken up with water and this solution concentrated. Standing over —
sulphuric acid for some time, the concentrated solution is converted
into a crystalline mass of linamarin. For purification it is again —
treated with ether and alcohol as above, Lastly, the principle is —
dissolved in two parts of warm absolute alcohol, and the solution —
cooled under agitation. The germs yield about 1°5 per cent. of —
the glucoside, which forms colourless needles possessing a refreshing
but very bitter taste, is soluble in water and alcohol, but almost in- |
solubleinether. Concentrated sulphuric acid does not colour it; dilute —
mineral acids decompose the glucdside into hydrocyanic acid, a fer- —
mentable sugar reducing Fehling’s test, and a volatile compound 4
possessing some characters of ketones, and giving with iodine and |
potassium hydrate the iodoform reaction, Boiling barium hydrate :

iberates ammonia. Linamarin contains C 47°88 per cent., H 6°68 —
Ber AS 5°55 per cent., O 39-89 per cent. (Am, Journ. Pharm., —

APPENDIX. : ae 31

Growth of the Indian Linseed Trade.
Dr. G. Watt (Dict. Econ. Prod, India, Vol. V., p. 76) shows thatthe
ade has expanded from about 3 cwts. in 1832 to 8,461,374 ewts.
1 1888-89.
: Erythroxylon Coca grown in India.*
Several samples of Erythroxylon Coca leaves, grown in various -
listricts in India, have been examined by Warden; the mode of
ture, altitude, and meteorological characters of the district, the
ind of soil and manuring, and the methods of curing being taken ~
into consideration. The alkaloid was estimated by Squibb’s modified
hod: the dry pulverized leaves were moistened with alcohol
fied with sulphuric acid, percolated with alcohol, the percolate
d with acidified water, and extracted with ether, then rendered
ine with sodium carbonate, and again extracted with ether. This
act was washed twice with water, dried and weighed; the
ounts of “crude alkaloid” so determined are given in the follow-

Per cent. dry leaves.

District ga grown. Moisture. a Fate
: aklaloid.
, young leaves ,. jo 6:18 6°71 1-139
mature leaves .. és 8°22 8°99 0883
ae 6-08 7-39 1:369
* ‘ 6°72 © 6°36 1671
: 4087 7-58 1-115
See
| 9°80 12:18 1-022
571 7-62 0-610

10°05 12°64 0-571

aoe oo:

wii. +» 249-251, 260-262, 273-276 ; Journ., Chem. Soc., March, 1889.

182 APPENDIX.

The crude alkaloid was very faintly yellow, and in no case showed
any tendency to crystallization, although attempts were made to
induce crystallization by extracting at various temperatures, and

without applying heat, and by employing different acids and solvents. *

The allakoid obtained is, nevertheless, quite similar to cocaine from
_ other sources in its physiological action, except that it seems to be

more active. It dissolves readily in hydrochloric acid, and yields a
soluble and insoluble platinochloride, the former containing 18°75,
the latter. 18°88 per cent. of platinum; discrepancies from the
theoretical are assumed to be due toa variable quantity of cocamine
(Hesse, Am. Journ, Pharm., 1887, p. 455) in the alkaloid from Indian
leaves. Both platinum salts yielded bases producing marked anes-
thetic effects on the tongue ; Howard has observed that the insoluble
platinochloride obtained from other leaves was devoid of this pro-
perty (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., July 23, 1887). In oneinstance,
stellate erystals of the base from the soluble platinum salt were
obtained. Applying Williams’ method, the crude alkaloid showed
2°89 per cent. of impurity, but the precipitates were not crystalline.
It is noted that after the addition of ether to the acidified alcoholic
solution, larger deposits of the sulphur-yellow cocatannic acid were

tained from those samples containing the highest percentages of
alkaloids; it is hence suggested that possibly cocaine exists in the
leaves as cocatannate,

Methods of cultivating the plants are described: the leaves are first
gathered 13 years after transplanting, sub quent]
sufficiently mature; and, although the method of curing does not
appear to affect the quality or quantity of the alkaloid obtained,
nevertheless it is best, taking into consideration Paul’s experience, to
dry them, soon after gathering, at as low a temperature as possible,
and when dry and cold to pack them closely in air-tight chests, as
they are very hygroscopic. The quantity of alkaloid produced
increases with the age of the plants (which attain a height of from
2 to § feet) up to 10 years, and after 20 years a slight falling off is
observed, although they are in their prime even when 35 or 40 years
old.

1 4}
JY WHCTOC VOL LUCY ale

From the above results, obtained from plants and leaves of various
ages, it would seem that, in India, neither altitude nor rainfall have
‘much influence on the proportion of alkaloid in the leaves. The ash,

in vall. cases except one, was white, the exception being an ash of a

APPENDIX, 183

reddish hue are side peat — nian A partial examination of
some of th follow} i ae

v or ton)

K cal. as
Samples from constituents. KHO,

ee we| 44°42 29-26

“ Pee ee 19°13
gk es Ve ee 29°84
ge ee eee 31:36

that both nitrogenous and potash manures will probably be
equired in the future to keep up the yield from the same plantation.

Fruit of Erythroxylon Coca,

‘The fresh ripe fruit weighed, on an average, ‘158 gram each ; they
re bright scarletin colour, and possessed a distinctly sweetish taste,
though masticated at various times, no physiolgical action on the
us membrane of the mouth was observed, Dried in vacuo over
Iphuric acid, the original tint, was only slightly deepened, and this
ethod of desiccation was employed in preparing the fruit for

is.

h granules and scarlet colouring matter. Next comes the pulp,
_ of parenchymatous cells, containing starch and granular
Then the shell, composed of an outer layer of stony cells,
bone cells, which are of considerable length ; within this layer is
aad of scalariform vessels, and then several rows of pitted vessels.

n the almond, the cells of which are full of starch.

The petroleum ether extract was a deep reddish semi-solid residue,
, on microscopic examination, was found to contain lamelle and
of aclaret colour. It contained no alkaloid, and melted at
°C. A portion was saponified with alcoholic potash, and when
itated with ether. At 189—191° this extract a to aclear
quid, which cooled to a brittle transparent m Heated
watch-glassesfor several days, a white OCIA was sobtaled,

€ amount was far too small to admit of a malting point

8

134 APPENDIX.

determination, or the application of other tests, in order to establish
the identity of this compound with phytosterin or —— choles-
terin-like principles. The fatty acids melted at 53—

The powdered fruits were then exhausted with sia which
dissolved out an alkaloid, having a slight numbing sensation on the
tongue, and appearing to be cocaine,

Absolute alcohol then removed cocatannie acid and an alkaloid ; and
finally water extracted colouring and albuminous matters, and some-
thing which reduced alkaline copper solution on boiling.

The percentage composition of the fruit as deduced from the
examination may be arranged as follows :—

Moisture lost at 100° C. after partial desiccation over
sulphuric acid... eas ses wee we w+ OECD
Ash .. oe one SZ
actun aka caine acne 3° 021 per uk of
glycerides of fatty acids, and 1-519 per cent, of im-
pure phytosterin (?) with colouring matter... ww. 4540
Ether extract, soluble in petroleum ether *232 per cent.,
soluble in water and containing cocaine °11 per cent,,
soluble in absolute alcohol -069 per cent., soluble
in ether but insoluble in petroleum ether, alcohol or
water °029 per cent. 440
Absolute alcohol extract contaiiing eaataxtiis naa and
a trace of alkaloid, we oe es wee SBZO
Aqueous extract . « 23°440
(CG, 7 Ps & Warden, Phare m. ou, Fey: oth, 189).)

RUTACEA,

Oil of Lemon.

V. Olivieri (Gazz, Chim., xvi., 318) found in oil of lemon, besides
the limonene (Wallach), also another terpene C!°H"*, boiling at
-170—170°5° C. (338—339° F.),the tetrabromide of which fuses at
31° C. (88°F.), but the dihydro-chloride showing the characteristics
‘oflimonene. From the higher boiling portions the author has fur-
thermore isolated a sesquiterpene C'°H**, boiling at 240—242°
©, (464—468° F.), which increases in quantity with the age of —
the oil. For detecting adulteration with turpentine, the author
recommends use of the polarimeter, Lemon oil is levogyre

APPENDIX. 1 85

(2)p = —55°, while oils of turpentine are more or less dextrogyre,
French oil of turpentine is levogyre.) (Am. Journ, Pharm.,
Dec. 1891,

Neroli oil.

Pith order to be able to submit neroli oil to a closer examination,
essrs, Schimmel obtained in the spring of last year, from the

viera, a large quantity of the flowers of the bitter orange, The
lossoms were consigned preserved in diluted sea-water, and were
ived in good condition with the full odour of fresh flowers,
‘om the equivalent of 560 kilos of fresh flowers, there was obtained
a process of cohobation (0-460 gram of pure neroli oil, which in
Many respects differed from the best French distillates met with in
; It had a specific gravity of 0-887, and was optically
Already at a Seusperatare: of + 11° C., it showed an

he oil solidified to amass of the consistence of butter. The stearop-
ene of neroli oil, like the stearoptene of rose oil, appears to be a
raffin-like body ; it can be separated from the liquid portion of the
by the addition of 90 per cent. alechol, in which it is difficultly
ble, The specific gravity of eleven samples of commercial neroli
1 obtained from the best sources varied between 0°875 and 0-88

5° Of nine oils, one was optically active, whilst the
rs were all dextr pears the rotation varying between + 0°52’

+ 9°40’. Only one solidified at 0° C., the others remained
id and did not om any separation of seontoptels upon the addi-
of 90 per cent. alcohol. Thecause of these differences between
essrs. Schimmel’s distillate and commercial samples is not expli-
tble without further investigation.

Jigle Marmelos.

The extract from the flower, called in English Marmel water, and
own in Sinhalese as “ Pinidiya,” is used by the natives as scent one
ve occasions. It is also sometimes added in the preparation of,
etmeats for flavouring them. During the flowering season, boys
id men in the villages surrounding Colombo may be seen plucking
> flowers and bringing them in baskets to the town for sale, wher
ey are readily bought for distillation. An infusion of the ni stade is
used as a cooling drink. (H. D. Lewis in “‘ Trop. dgric.,” Sept.
> Pe 218.)

136 APPENDIX,

SIMARUBE.
Quassine.

Oliveri and Denaro give the following mode of preparation of
quassine (Giaz, Chim. Ital., No, XIV.): Infuse for six hours 10 kilo-
grams of powdered quassia with 45 liters of boiling water, taking
care to retain the heat. Decant the liquid and make a second
infusion, Unite the liquors and evaporate to 10 liters, filter and
precipitate with q,s. of tannin. Place this impure tannate of quas-
sine upon a filter, wash carefully, dilute with water, treat with
carbonate of lead, and dry in a water-bath. Treat the tannate of
lead and quassine two or three times with boiling alcohol, and distil
the united liquors. The residue deposits crystals of quassine mixed
with resinous matter. Purify by repeated crystallizations in alcohol
and water. Thirty kilograms of quassia give 10 grams of pure
erystallized quassine. LEvaporations should be made slowly and
alkaline reactions should be avoided.

BURSERACEZ.
Chemistry of Myrrh.

Dr. Oscar KGhler publishes the results of a chemical examination
of Myrrh from Sumali (Archiv., June 2, 1891, p. 291): Ash 2°79
per cent., portion soluble in water 57 to 59 per cent., consisting of a
gum, C°H*°O*. The portion soluble in alcohol was a mixture of
resins. The greater portion was an indifferent soft resin (C) soluble
in ether, C?°H**0°, Two bibasic acid resins, one (A) C**H'*0*,
and the other (B) C?°H*%20°. The essential oil 7 to 8 per cent. ;
‘the principal constituent corresponds to the formula C*°H**O.

the formula for A resin be doubled, all three formule will contain 26 -

atoms of carbon, and the resins differ in the amount. of oxygen they
contain—
Indifferent resin C = O0?*H*'0? (OH)?*.
i oi Band > ey 9 ga
Resin acid A pe CPE ee,

2)
©
mM
-
=}
pS
is)
me
Pu
se)
|

MELIACEZ,

Naregamiaalata.
7 semiaeeis: has been physiologically investigated by Dr, Stefan
Schongut of Vienna, He used it in 24 cases, namely,one of dysentery

Ty LD We Se een

APPENDIX: 137

- oné of pleurisy, two of pneumonia, four of emphysema, five of bron-

chitis, five of heart failure, and seven of tuberculosis of the lungs in
4 different stages, One to thee gratimes of the tincture were given
daily in doses of 3/10 to 6/10 of a gramme. Dr. Sth@ngut found
_ the tincture to act as an emetic in doses of 1 to 2 grammes, No
styptic or other action on the digestive organs was observed, and no
benefit was derived trom it in the case of dysentery, He says:

application of the r remedy was confined to diseases of the air pas=
ges, In such cases Naregamia has proved to be an excellent
expectorant, and especially i in cases where, with a limited amount of
Secretion in the bronchi, a disposition existed to extrenie coughing,
mt where there was the presence of a tough and tenacious sputum
; Which embarrassed the elimination of this undesir able factor. In one

) od eens Pieciacape fonideus great service. In a nenepe

of catarrh disappeared, thé rasping diminished materially, and
though the quantity of the sputum at first increased, it finally

Dr. Schoingut also states that the tincttre of Naregamia his” a
oot beneficial aétion in cases of pulmonary emphysema, and

7 tit seertied to aid the expectoration in pneumonia during the

eriod of re:sdlutién where the riles were ptominent and frequent.

| the case of patients affected with dyspnea, he found that the

reathing became less difficult under its influence, but the effects

seemed to be duié to ani iticreased freedoni of expectoration and the

In ion which agrees with the results of experiments on animals b.
of. von oat showing that it has no direct action on the respira-

tory cen

No ca influence on the circulation has been observed under

the influence of Naregamia, only a short and irregular increase of
sure being noted after large doses reaching up to 5 grammes,

Naregamia. does not exert any perceptible effect upon the digesé

aa and no toxie properties } reside in the remedy. .

138 APPENDIX,

SAPINDACEZ,
Sapindus Honey.

(Letter to the Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Soctety.)

I am sending you a box of dead bees I picked up under a tree now
in flower in the gardens, Sapindus emarginatus. The tree begins to
flower about the middle of October, and bears a profusion of small,

whitish, inodorous blossoms which attract the bees. It seems very
strange that insects possessing such a wonderful instinct should
drink the nectar from the flower and get killed in this way, for
I found them dead in thousands under the tree. The effect produced
appears to be that of a powerful purgative, and there are now num-
bers of bees buzzing about on the ground unable to fly, (Thos. H.
Storey, Oodeypore, December, 1890.)

The bees sent were Apis indica. It appears from this letter that
the nectar in the flowers of the Soap-nut tree contains saponin, the
active principle of the plant. The fact here recorded has not escaped
the attention of the Hindus, as Sanskrit writers mention a plant
or flower growing in Malwa which they call Bhramara-mari,
Bhringamari, or Bhramarari, 7,¢., ‘‘ bee-killing,”

Schleichera trijuga, Willd,

The seed-oil of this tree, which is known in the Sunda Islands
under the name ‘‘ Macassar oil,” and enjoys a great reputation as a
hair dressing and means of removing scurf and eczema, has been
submitted to examination by Messrs. Thiimmel and Kwasnic
(Pharm. Zeit., May 20, p. 314). It was found that the seeds, which
- contained no starch grains, yielded to petroleum ether 68 per cent.
of fixed oil, but from the seeds freed from epidermis only 45:8 per
cent. was obtained by pressure. The oil was in both cases of the
consistence of butter, yellow, mild in taste, and with an odour of
bitter almonds. It melted at 21° to 22° C., but after long standing
the more solid glycerides separated, coating first at 28° and appear-
ing under the microscope as fine needles. The fatty acids, with the
exception of 3-14 per cent. of free oleic acid, were present as glyce~
rides. Of those in combination 70 per cent. consisted of oleic acid,
and of the solid fatty acids 5 per cent. was palmitic acid and 25 per
cent, arachic acid, the characteristic acid of the — Lauric
: acid was not present, and of the volatile fat acids only acetic acid

APPENDIX. . 139

- and no butyric acid could be detected, Hydrocyanic. acid was
_ found in the oil and in the seeds, being determined as 0:03: per cent,
_ in the former and 6-62 per cent. in the latter, No amygdalin could
4 be detected in the seeds, but hydrocyanic acid, benzaldehyde and
a grape sugar, possibly the decomposition products of it, were found.
_ A small quantity of cane-sugar was also separated in the crystallized
form (Pharm, Journ,, May 30th, 1891).

Saponin.
_ The varying statements made by different authors in respect to.

substances described in recent years under that name are identical ;
nd, if so, by what empirical formula saponin would be best repre-.
sented (Annalen, cclxi., 371), The first question he answers in th
ffirmative, having arrived at the conclusion that pure. saponin from
uillaia bark is identical with that obtained from various. caryophyl-.

2 CO? H0" +6 H*0=2 C#H"0? +6 0°H0*,

Saponin,. Sapogenol.
. 2 C?H"02745H?O= C*H*O? +5 C°H!20%
Sapogenin.

2C?H"01' +5 H*O= 0*°H*O' +4 C°H"0°%,
Saponetin.

2 C10!" + 4 H20=2 C?°H20" +4 0°H0°%.
Saporetin..

(Pharm, Journ., May 2nd, 189%.)
__R. Kobert considers that there are a series of saponins of the
general formula C"™H*"*O"°, several of which are known, Saponins.

‘ent pl and show great Bittineatiing

thei aaa action, The ae of the Agrostemma Githargo
nh cockle), one of these substances, is absorbed both by

140 APPENDIX.

subcutaneous tissues and by the testinal canal, and thus acts as 4
dangerous poison, It is recommended that, before using this seed
as food, the shell and embryo should be separ ated. (Chem. Centr.
1891, ii., 176.)
ANACARDIACEA,
Mango Kernels.

‘Hindu doctors consider the kernels of the unripe Mango fruit to
be very astringent, much more so than the kernels of the ripe fruits.
Mohideen Sheriff and P, S. Mootoosawmy speak highly of the pow-
dered kernels as a remedy for diarrhea in place of chalk powder,
In times of searcity the boiled seeds have been used by the natives as
a food. An analysis is here given of the kernels of unripe and ripe
Mango fruits :-— '

Unripe. Ripe
Fat... ise ete wag a | ee 14°75
Tanjin 24. as ove atts 8°97 8°45
Sugar and Gum ... i ens 4°90 6:00
Ash tee as = iv 1:98 2°32

Moisture .. es es we AO 11°28
Residue ne sve cha ie ee Ue 57°20

300-00 100-00.

The residue consisted mostly of starch. The fat, after washing
with alcohol, melted at 34° and became solid again at 3u°. (D.L.)

Anacardie Acid as Hair Dye.

The pigmentary properties of the viscous liquid secreted under.
the pericarp of the cashew-nut (Anacardium occidentale) has long
been known, and the liquid has been stated to yield a goyd indelible.
stamping ink. According to Herr Gawalowski (Zeit. st Apot.-Ver.,
Sept. 10, p. 485), the ammonium salt of anacardic acid (C??H**0* a be
one of the constituents of the liquid, can be advantageously used as a
means of darkening the hair, For this purpose the hair is first
moistened with an aqueous solution of the salt and afterwards combed —
with a comb that has been dipped in a solution of ferrous sulphate, —
or the ammonium anacardate may be applied in a pomade or oil, and —
d of the solution of ferrous bag. 1 an oleate of iron may be —

the hair

eemyee |
WEVA sic “Sicheonealn bd 2s: haa

APPENDIX, 141

so treated assumes a more or less dark colour, which is tolerably
persistent, but nothing is said as to the exact tint. Itis obvious that
anacardic acid used for this purpose must be quite free from the
eerid cardol that accompanies it in the nut. Herr Gawalowski directs

ree piss Petne Ss en i

with alcohol and decomposing the lead sk so obtained with ‘freshly
prepared sulphide of ammonium and filtering. Upon strongly cooling
ate, which contains the ammonium salt of anacardic acid and
ammonium sulphide, and treating it with sulphuric acid,
the Said separates at once as a soft mass, which after being pressed
between filter paper is dissolved in ammonia and then remains soluble
in water. According to Dymock (Veg. Mat, Med. W. Ind., p. 199),
@ tar obtained in roasting thernuts, and largely used in bedi for
_tarring wood, contains ahet 90 per cent. of anacardic acid and
af per cent, of cardol, (Pharm. Journ., Oct. 8rd, 1891.)

LEGUMINOSAS,
A description of the preparation of Catechu or Cutch,

The merchants of Nasik, Gangapur, and other towns engage the
rvices of the Aétoris* for the purpose of manufacturing Catechu,
bis usual with these merchants to descend into the Concan at the
termination of the rains. They enter into an arrangement with

i the return of the Katori to his old residence. The trader being
joined by the Kétoris, the latter select a spot where the Khair trees
leacia Catechu) are numerous, The merchant then begins to erect
us xtensive shed, but as he has only one or two servants and three
matchlock men with him, he employs the Katoris to build it,

SF or HAH! the name of a jungle tribe in Western India, whose
occupation is the collection of H[7 or Catechu.

142 APPENDIX.

These sheds often cover one or two begahs of ground. In the-centre
a temporary dwelling is built, in which the merchant resides and
’ lodges his supply of stores for the consumption of the Katoris and his
own establishment, The following are generally the articles in store:
Rice, ndchni, urid, onions, garlic, pepper, salt, turmeric, cocoanuts,
cumin, asafcetida, salt-fish, ghi, oil, tobacco, steel, arrack, and various
sorts of coarse cloths, These things are disposed of to the Katoris at
from 50 to 75 per cent. above their value in the neighbouring
markets,

The Katoris erect their bhoongas or huts around the merchant’s shed,-
and in front of their hut they prepare the ¢déroo or fire-place. They
form the fire-place by digging a trench four or five cubits in length
and one in breadth, which they cover at the top and leave the ends
open to admit the air to pass freely through. In the top there are
twelve small round holes to receive an equal number of pots,

Before they commence the operation of cutting any billets of wood,
they perform certain propitiatory rites, by worshipping one of the
Khair trees. Having procured a cocoanut, some xed pigment, and
a little frankincense, they select a tree for their purpose, rub the red
pigment on the trunk near the root, burn the frankincense in front
of it, and then break the nut; after which they join their hands
in a supplicatory position, and address themselves to the tree, asking
it to bless their undertaking, and to allow them to prepare abund-
ance of good catechu. Having constituted the tree by this cere-
mony, a subordinate deity, which they term Rén Sheo Wéria, they
divide the consecrated cocoanut among those present. Each family
possessing a fire-place performs a similar ceremony. They make
one or two incisions in the trunk of the tree during these rites, but
will not cut it down at the time, although these trees are sometimes
cut down at a subsequent period,

The following day the Katoris proceed into the jungle and
examine the Khair trees, They, in the first instance, strike two or
three blows with an axe deep into the trunk of a tree to obtain a
chip from near the centre, and if, upon examination, it appears to
have attained maturity, that is, if it is of a red colour (termed by
them mérhi), and there appearsa white crust formed by the inspis-
sated juice, they are satisfied the tree is a valuable one and they cut
itdown, These people have a superstitious dread of bad luck attend~
ing their operations, and they object to a person speaking while a tree,

APPENDIX. 143

which they are cutting, is in the act of falling. The branches,
bark, and the white portion of the wood are cut away when the tree
has been felled, and it is then taken home. The length varies
from four to six feet, and as the wood is extremely hard, the ciit-
_ ting of one billet is considered sufficient labour for the day, The
next day, early in the morning, they cut these billets ito chips ; how=
_ ever, they are careful not to eut more at one time than may be
required for the boiling operations of the day, as they think
the chips would be too dry on the second day. ‘To enable them more
conveniently to cut these hard billets into chips, they drive three
pieces of timber, each having forked branches, of different lengths,
firmly into the ground about half a pace distant from each other, and
the lowest being on a level with the earth. The billet is placed in a
_ 8loping position in the forks, and lies quite secure to be cut. The
_ chips are heaped near the fire-place, after which the men take their
breakfast, and then proceed to the jungle. The labour attending the
boiling process always devolves on the females: the Katori’s wife ot
_ wives (for they sometimes have two of three), when she has finished
her own breakfast, kindles the fire in the féroo, and then puts two
handfuls of chips, neither more nor less, into ten of the pots, leaving
the one at each end empty ; water is poured in until it rises four
fingers’ breadth above the chips; this is ascertained by means of
@ small stick marked like a scale, the lines being distant from each
other a finger’s breadth,

It has been mentioned that there are twelve holes in each fite-place
to hold that number of pots, but should the persons composing the
family be sickly or old, they will most likely only use six pots ; each
_ of these pots will contain about three quarts of liquid, The pots
at each end are only used during the sevond and third stages of the
_ process. When the liquid has been well boiled and evaporated to a
-finger’s breadth under the surface of the chips, they take the pots
_ Successively off the fire, and pour the liquid into one of the empty
ones ; after it has been well boiled in this, they apply the scale, and, if
it is ready, they transfer it to the other empty pot. It is boiled
down in this pot till it has attained what they consider the requisite
degree of consistency, and then emptied into a trough made of the
_ Pangara tree (Erythrina indica), as the timber is soft and readily
sorbs water, The women now fill the pots with fresh chips, and
the boiling process is thus continued until evening.

144 APPENDIX,

Should the liquid in any of the pots, during the boiling process,
take a longer time than usual to thicken, some of itis taken out and
put into one of those pots in which the chips remain and which had
just been strained, Whenever they find the liquid overflow the pot
from excessive shales, they sprinkle a little bran on it to make it
subside.

When the men return home in the evening, each with his billet of
wood, they examine the liquid deposited in the dul or trough, and,
for the purpose of drying the substance and rendering it more adhesive;
they use a piece of old kamli (country blanket), with which they keep
stirring the liquid for two or three hours. They use the Kamli, as
the kit (catechu) does not adhére to it, and it is left exposed during
the night that it may cool and become firm. If after the usual time
they find the &d¢ continties rather moist, and that it does not
_ appear to possess 4 sufficiently adhesive quality, they bury it in the
éarth for three or four days, after which it becomes dark and hard,
but the people ahem eat kat of this description ; it is used by masons
who mix it with lim

By dawn in 7 morning the females aie at Work again;
they take the kdt out of the troughs in masses, and place it in
baskets, to permit any Femaining liquid to run off more freely, and
at the expiration of three or four hours, they take the baskets to the
merchant. Here théy divide it into small lumps abouit the size of a
fig. They give ten of these lumps for a dhabbu (half aniia), They
‘vill sometimes mantfacturé a sufficient ‘oktity to allow of their
disposing of the value of eight or ten dhabbus in one day.

When the Kitoris deliver the fresh kat to the merchant, it is
placed on the ground in the shade to dry, with a quantity of small
chips previously scattered over the place, to prevent the earth adher-
ing to the kit. It takes three or four days to harden; during this
time, each of the little lumps is turned over once a day, and gently
pressed with the hand to accelerate the drying process. The kat
must always be dried in the shade, for if ede to the heat of the
sun it would dissolve and turn black.

The Kitoris are paid for the greater part in such iecessaries as

they may be in want of, and whatever balance remains is credited by
_ the merchant to liquidate the sum due to the village grain-dealers
‘giv 4 the Kitoris permission to quit their villages, —

APPENDIX. 145

The Kitoris thus employed are not permitted to sell kat to other
_ persons, and the merchant, to guard against any roguery on their
_ part, has their huts searched daily,

_ The heat in the monthsof April and May puts a stop tothe manu-
facture, as the kt will not thicken and dry when the atmosphere is _
_ very warm

4 When the whole supply of kat has been dried by the merchant’s
_ people, it is piled into long heaps or ridges, and previous to its being
_ removed from the jungle to his own house, he deems it necessary to
_ propitiate the goddess Bhavani. Accordingly, a coarse green sdrhi, a
_ choli, some glass bangles, a small-toothed comb, and a string of beads
_ are placed on one of the heaps of kat; then some turmeric, red pig-
ment, a casket or small box and comb (ist weit), red lead, a
_ cocoanut, and frankincense are placed near the sérhi, after which a
_ sheep and fowl are sacrificed at the shrine.
It is said that the merchant reckons that he receives about ten
seers* of the kat for the rupee. (Mayor A, Mackintosh, Trans.
Bom. Geograph. Soc,, i., p. 331,

Cessalpinia Sappan.

Schreder, in the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,
1872, 512, and 1879, 596, has shown that Sappanin, the crys-
talline colouring matter of Sappan-wood, is not identical with

Alhagi camelorum.

~ Aitchison (Notes on Prod. of W, Afghanistan and N.-E, Persia,
8) says :—“ After all other shrubs and plants have dried up owing
the autumnal hot winds, this still remains of a vivid green, and
is eagerly sought for as fodder by camels, donkeys, and goats,
During certain seasons, and in special districts, when its fruit is
beginning to ripen, the whole shrub becomes covered with tears of
glass-like beads, the largest the size of a pea; thisis the Manna
eee on this shrub, called in these parts ¢ar-anjabin, which is
very extensively collected, both for local consumption and
exportation. eC

* The full seer — rupees’ weight, 2 Ibs.

146 APPENDIX,

The ground-nut oil trade in Pondicherry.

The ground-nut oil trade of Pondicherry has increased enormously
during the last few years: twenty years ago the total quantity
exported amounted to only 1,403 casks, the whole of which was
taken by Mauritius and Réunion; during the twelve months ending
3ist December 1890, the total shipment rose to 18,485 casks, 7,503
being consigned to Rangoon and Moulmein; large quantities were
also taken by Calcutta, Coconada, Singapore, and Penang. The oil
trade with Burmah, which scarcely .existed eight years ago, has
now risen to a steady demand for about 700 candies a month.
The oil is put up in English beer hogsheads holding 440 Ibs. each,
and in Cochin oil casks containing 550 Ibs. each. The tabulated
tables given below show the total shipments, and the highest,
lowest, and average prices for certain given periods. The ground-
nut kernels are crushed exclusively by the ancient wooden presses.
of exactly the same pattern which have been used for several
centuries ; about 1,200 of these mills are employed in crushing the

kernels—800 at Vilvanur, a village in the Villapuram taluq, —

eighteen miles west of Pondicherry, and 400 in Pondicherry and the
neighbouring communes: the trade is entirely in the hands of native
operators, who buy and crush the nuts, and ship and sell the oil
without the intervention of any Recpenk agency. A company
was started at Pondicherry a few years back for erecting and work-
ing a hwilerte tobe worked by steam power, andin due time the
mill commenced crushing, but the results were unfavourable, the
cost of working and of the raw material being largely in excess of
the value of the oil produced; after persevering for upwards of two
years, company No, 1 decided to close up the concern by liquidation ;
but for some time no purchaser could be found, and it was therefore
resolved to sell off the property by public auction, but ‘ bidders,”
were not forthcoming, and as a last expedient the factory en dloc
was transferred to a small party composed of original shareholders,
fora mere song. This company No. 2 soon came to grief, and
finding the losses on working to be more than they cared to bear,
mill was again closed and advertised for sale. After a con-
siderable delay a Caleutta firm bought the property, and having
made various improvements in the machinery, set vigorously to

| t crushing, but with no better result than that obtained by
es Nos, 1 and 2; and the factory was again closed for the

APPENDIX. - : 147

ird time in about as many years, and company No. 3 retired. And
now the end of Pondicherry kuilerte has come, and the machinery is
being taken down and conveyed to Bangalore, where it is to be
-erected and worked for crushing ground-nut kernels: Bangalore _
s already one steam oil mill, and it has to be seen whether two
be made to pay. The complete failure of the several attempts
ade to work the Pondicherry factory is attributed to various
causes, of which the following-are the chief :—Firs?, the inefficiency
of the machinery generally, and of the engine and boiler in parti-
cular, which caused an extravagant consumption of fuel to obtain
inimum results ; second, the absence of a practical engineer
thoroughly acquainted with oil crushing machinery; third, the want
f a sufficient working capital so as to purchase the raw material,
fuel, &c., in advance, when prices were et and fourth, the want of
asimity among the owners. The ae however, were 80 far

e developed only about 1875, when 9, :
eluding 1,581 to Bordeaux, 1,036 to Marseilles, 572 to London,
207 7 to Havre, and 200 to Martinique; but the trade with Europe
pped when Marseilles began crushing ona large scale, and
ng the last twelve years there have been no transactions,
use of the oil for cuisine purposes is extending every year,
ecially among all classes of Indians, and particularly with:
an emigrants working in foreign countries. The 12,000 casks
shi oped yearly to Burmah and Mauritius are consumed chiefly by
dians, and it is likely that Natal and other places where Indian
ur is employed will presently become large consumers. Ground-
ut oil is not much used by Europeans, as the taste of the kernel is
er strong, unless properly manipulated ; many native cooks, how-
clarify it so thoroughly that it is rendered tasteless, and equal,
b superior, to ordinary olive and salad oils, ‘The process is a
simple one, but great care and aes are necessary to insure

148 APPENDIX.

success : if the clarifying secret were better known, the oil would, no
doubt, to a large extent, take the place of ghee; it is much better for
cooking purposes, far cheaper, and more readily transported, while
it cannot be easily adulterated. The consumption of the hutle
@’arachides seems to follow on the track of Indian emigrants: in 1880
there were but very few Indians settled in Singapore, Penang, Xc.,
and in that year the export of ground-nut oil amounted to only 10
casks; in 1890 the shipments to these two ports amounted approxi-
matively to 1,80) candies, The future of the export oil trade seems to
wear a decidedly bright appearance, and there is no apparent reason
why the development of the last few years should not continue at
the same ratio for at least some years to come. The value of the
traffic to Pondicherry is very great: besides the labour required to
work the native mills, employment is given to a large number of
coopers and others in preparing and shipping the casks. The
following statement shows the total number of casks exported for
the periods named below :—

Number of casks 1835. 18386. 1887, 1838, 1889 1890.

exported ..,... 10,403 10,255 17,727 16,098 19,365 18,485
It will be seen by the above that the shipments during the last four
years have not materially changed; the period of 1889 was excep-
tional, the ground-nut crop being metas large, and the prices
generally low.

The statement given below exhibits the highest, lowest, and
average rates, per French candy of 529 lbs, English, during the
several years mentioned :—

1875. 1880. 1885. 1890,

ie 6 Ne... Re, a Rew a.
Highest quotations per candy... 49 0 70 0 67 0 86 0
Lowest per candy we ies ae ee 2 ge © ae eee
Average do. ao “90 5-289 8 bo 14 62-4
The exceptional ee prices for 1875 are accounted for by the un-
_expected heavy crop of kernels, which was greatly in excess of the
foreign demand, which caused the rates to rule low, and to offer
unusually good advantages to local crushers. (Times.of India,

March 3lst, 1891.)

Ponprcnmrry, ath April 1893.—The number of casks exported
ae Mics year the, pperchanes. for

APPENDIX, sis 1 49

Upper Burma first commenced, The high price of kernels through-
out the season was no doubt the main cause of the falling off, but it
is noticeable that there was a considerable decrease in 1891, when
both nuts and oil were comparatively cheap, The average number
of casks shipped yearly from 1887 to 1890, both inclusive, was 18,068,
as compared with 15,390 for 1891 and 1892. The average quota-
tions of the oil, for the same periods, were Rs. 59 and Rs. 70,
respectively, per Fr ench candy of 529 lbs. The trade with Caleutta,
the Straits and Coast ports shows no signs of improvement, while
Mauritius and Bourbon figures remain pretty much the same as in
former years. The ground-nut oil trade—at least so far as its con-
sumption is concernaed—is an enigma. In Bourbon and Penang,
_ where Indians monopolise the labour markets, very little of this
generally indispensable culinary article is used, while in both Upper .
and Lower Burma the consumption is enormous, although the Indian
population is, comparatively, very much less than it is in the’ former
colonies, We must assume that the native Burmese is the better
customer of the two. The price of the oil has risen in greater pro-
portion than that of ground-nuts. In 1875 the highest quotation
was Rs. 49 per candy and the lowest Rs. 32-12-0, when in 189
the rates were Rs. 86-8-(0 and Rs. 69, respectively. As in the case
of the kernels—which are grown almost exclusively on British soil—
the great bulk of the ground-nut oil shipped at Pondicherry is
manufactured in English territory, the village of Valavanur, a
station on the Pondicher ry-Villapuram Railway, supplying th
greater part. The trade is — in the hands of native operators.
The approximate value of last year’s shipments may be taken at 114
lakhs of rupees. For the current year the prospects are, so far,
encouraging. In spite of the high prices of the kernels, the ship-
ments from the 1st January to the 31st March amounted to 3,928
casks, as compared with an average of 3,888 casks for the same period
uring the preceding four years. The ayerage price was Rs, 73,140
per candy, the highest Rs. 79-8-0, and the lowest Rs. 65-8-0, against
Rs. 67-5-0, Rs. 83-8-0, and Rs. 58-12-0, respectively. (Madras
Maii,)

Se a SS

seb

Crotalaria paniculata.
Dr. Mootoosawmy, in March 1890, sent a specimen of this plant
for identification, It is used as a fish poison in Tanjore and other
‘places in Southern India, and is known by the Tamil name

150° APPENDIX,

Valithe-pundu. An alcoholic extract of the plant had a ‘strong
odour of henbane, and contained a soft resin, a tannin, and an
alkaloid, the latter being the active principle. (D.H.

Crotalaria retusa, Linn. Bot. Mag., t. 2561; Rheede, Hort. Mall. ix., t. 25.

Greshoft (Med, wit, S’lands Plant, vii., p..31) has shown that the
leaves of this common plant, the Bil-jhanjhan of Bengal, the Ghdgri
of Bombay, and Potu-galli-gista of Southern India, contain a con-
siderable quantity of zxdican ; and that the seeds contain an alkaloid
which is a strong poison, and is probably closely related to the poison-
ous alkaloids of Cytisus, Ulex, Spartium, and Lupinus.

The same base was found in larger quantity in the seeds of
C. striata, DC. Bot, Mag., t. 3200; Reich. Icon, Exot., t. 232.

‘Millettia atropurpurea, Bent, Wall. Pl. As. Rar., t. 78.

Greshoff (Med. uit. S’lands Plant., vii., p. 33) has shown that the
seeds contain a glucoside similar to, if not identical with, saponin,
The plant is employed as a fish poison in the Dutch East Indies;
it is also a native of Martaban, Tenasserim, Malacca, and Pénang.

Pithecolobium bigeminum, Wart,

According to Greshoff, the bark contains 0°8 per cent. of a non-
volatile, amorphous alkaloid, which forms crystalline salts, and
separates as a heavy, yellow oil on the addition of alkalies to solu-
tions of the latter, With 1C0 parts of water, it forms a turbid
liquid, which on warming assumes the appearance of milk, but
becomes clear on the addition of an acid. The solutions have a
burning taste, and give the usual alkaloid reactions, It has a strong
corrosive action on the skin, and is fatal to fish in a dilution of
1: 400,000, The same compound appears also to occur in P. Saman,
Benth. (Meded. uit S'lands Plant., vii., p, 38.)

Derris elliptica, Benth. Wight, Ic. t. 420.

The roots of this handsome climbing shrub, according to the
Kew Report of 1877, afford a useful insecticide for agricultural
are also used to kill fish. The Malays are said to use

he ba ie a8 one of the ingredients of their arrow poison, :

APPENDIX. 151

According to Greshoff (Meded, uit. S’lands Plant., vii., p. 12) it has
a powerfully poisonous action on fish, a decoction of the roots being
fatal even when diluted with 300,000 parts of water. The only active
constituent isolated is a resinous substance termed derrid, which
does not contain nitrogen, and is not a glucoside; it readily dissolves
in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and amyl alcohol, but is very spar-
ingly soluble in water and potash solution. On fusion with potash,
it yields salicylic and protocatechuic acids. It occurs almost entirely
_ inthe cortex of the root, but has not yet been obtained pure. Its
alcoholic solution has a slightly acid reaction, and a sharp aromatic
: , causing a partial insensibility of the tongue, which remains
foe hours. A solution of 1 part in 5 millions is almost instantly
. [to fish. A very similar compound is found in the seeds of
Peharhenss angulatus, Rich., a decoction of which is quickly fatal in

a dilution of 1:125,000. Itis probably identical with derrid, but
until this has been experimentally proved it may be distin nguished
as Pachyrhisid, It is very readily prepared from Pachyrhizus, which
occurs.in all tropical countries, as the tannin compounds, usually so
difficult to separate, are not found in this plant. The seeds also
_ eontain a non-poisonous, crystalline compound, which is 7
soluble in alcohol, and has at 39° the consistence of butter.

Sophora tomentosa, Linn,

The plant formerly renowned as a medicine (“ Antichéloniais Rum-
phi ”) contains a poisonous alkaloid, soluble in ether, which is
contained in largest quantity in the seeds. A small quantity of this
‘substance, received by Professor Plugge as a thick red-brown fluid,
when tested physiologically, gave results indicating the pega
that it is identical with cytisine, the alkaloid of laburnum seeds, and

P antity 0:

‘material available (Archiv. d. Pharm., ecxxix., 561). Alkaloids have

previously been found in S, speciosa and S. angustifolia, but have

not been closely investigated.

Abrin.

_ P. Ehrlich (Deutsche Med. Wohkenschrifi, 1891, No. 14) com-

pares the toxic properties of Abrin with those of Ricin. Injected

‘hypodermically, he finds abrin (Merck’s) to be et half as poisonous
ricin ; taken internally, it is still less active.

bee APPENDIX,

Subcutaneous injections in mice seldom produce the necrosis so com-
monly observed when ricin is injected, butinvariably cause epilation
at the seat of the injection. On the other hand, the action of abrin
upon the conjunctiva is much more powerful than that of ricin. Ehrlich
has succeeded in producing an immunity to the action of abrin
similar to that obtained with ricin (ef Vol. III., p. 305), Animals
thus rendered refractory present a general and local immunity to
the action of the poison ; they bear without injury doses four times
as large as those which would prove fatal to an unprotected animal,
whether administered internally or injected beneath the skin. Abso-
lute immunity of the conjunctiva to the action of abrin may be
obtained by its internal administration for several weeks. From
these facts the author concludes that a substance, whieh he calls
anti-abrin, is developed in the blood which completely counteracts
the action of the poison.

Immunity to the action of abrin affords no protection against the
action of ricin, nor does the administration of ricin lessen the ac-
tivity of abrin; a rabbit whose conjunctiva had been rendered insus-
ceptible to the application of solid ricin suffered from an intense
pine Scapa when a solution of 1:10000 of abrin was applied to
the part.

ROSACEA.
Otto of Roses.

The results of the investigations on Rose Oil, which have been
carried on for a long time in the Pharmaceutical Institute of Breslau
University, have been published by U. Eckart ( Archiv. der
Pharmacie, 229 [1891], 355). A body C°f?*O, which is called
“ Rhodinol,” forms the chief constituent of both German and Turkish
otto; it boils at 216°—217°, and shows all the reactions of an alcohol.
With acetic or benzoic anhydride it forms esters, which, however,
during distillation, dissociate again into their constituents. By treat-
- ment with halogen hydro-acids, Rhodinol chloride C'°H"’Cl, Rho-
dinol iodide CuH"I, and so on, are obtained. Oxidation with potas-
sium bichromate and sulphuric acid converts Rhodinol into an alde-
hyde, which the author calls “ Rhodinal” and which is believed to be
identical with Citral. By phosphoric anhydride Rhodinal is trans-
formed in Dipentene in abstracting a pcs of water. i von
ete eb: 1891.) _ eet paw

4

APPENDIX. 153

COMBRETACEA.
Myrobalans. :

— G. Zoelfell (Arch. der Pharm., 1891, 123—160) states that
the tannin of myrobalans is a mixture of two tannins, one of which
is the glucoside of gallic acid, yielding upon hydrolysis gallic acid
and sugar (dextrose); the other tannin present is a tannic acid
proper of the formula C!°H"°0, which at 100° ©. loses two molecules
of water. The anhydrous acid 0'*H°O% is called ellagic acid (the
formula of which is generally given as C*H80°) ; the hydrated
acid C’°H"**0"° is called ellaggenic acid; the latter forms a penta-
acetyl derivative, indicating five and four hydroxyl groups, respec-

_ tively, in the acids. The tannins were separated by fractional

. precipitation with lead acetate, subsequently purified by precipitation
_ with sodium chloride and solution in acetic ether.

Terminalia chebula.
_ -My. A. Campbell Stark submitted a paper on the “Preliminary
_ Proximate Analysis of a sample of commercial Myrobalans” to the
_ Pharmaceutical Conference, August, 1892.
__ A finely powdered and well-mixed sample yielded 7-05 per cent.
__ of moisture and 2:3 per cent. of ash—
Free fatty acid oes 2 1482
Petroleum Ether Extract ... { aerate) es 2 ies
(Gallic acid .,. ioe t me
oes yj Tannin vor ae: TBO
“\ Green resin ... ge Oe

Ethereal Extract ...

(Brown resin ... foe ee
Tannin wil ... 18°80

Alcoholic Extract ... es ; Bitter prineiple a ke
i Glucose lad cae ED
Saccharose ine ae
Phlobaphane... Pa as =

a =
Pale green substance... ‘71
Aqueous Extract Sua cae or ves shen OAD
The soft green resin found in the ethereal extract is presumably the
‘Myrobalamine” of Dr. Apery. The tannin was estimated in the
aqueous solution of the alcoholic extract by means of copper acetate,
2

154 APPENDIX.

including that also found in the ether extract: it amounted to 20°6
per cent., a lower percentage than that quoted by other investigators,
who give the average of tannin in myrobalan from 20 to 40 per eent.

Terminalia belerica, Rox.

We have made the following experiments with the seeds of the
large-fruited variety of this tree (see Vol, II., p. 5, e¢ seg.) :—9°5
grams of the kernels, equal to 22 in number, pulped with raw meat
were eaten by a fasting cat at 11-40 a.m. At 2°30 p.m, the animal
vomited several times, ejecting a number of worms and some fluid,
but no.meat, 4 P.M. vomited bile-stained, frothy fluid, looks some-
what distressed. No other symptoms were noticed, and on the
following morning the cat was in its normal state,

Our experiments thus appear to indicate the absence of any
narcotic principle, but a substance which possesses emetic properties
is probably present.

MYRTACEZ,
Clove Culture in Zanzibar.*

Zanzibar is noted for being the principal source of the world’s
supply of cloves, anda report on the cultivation of this article of
domestic economy may prove of interest,

en speaking of Zanzibar, we include the islands of Zanzibar
and Pemba, three-fourths of the entire crop of cloves being produced
in Pemba. Those grown on the island of Zanzibar are reekoned of
superior quality and command the “better price, but this is probably
due to the fact that the owners reside here, and can thus give their
affairs the benefit of direct supervision.

Certainly the conditions for their successful cultivation are most
favourable at Pemba, where the rainfall exceeds that of Zanzibar, but
the management. being left to careless overseers, the result is the
eloves are imperfectly cured and (but little care being observed in
handling) are frequently marketed in an inferior condition.

The clove tree was first introduced into this country by the then
Sultan, Seyed Said bin Sultan, about the year 1830, since which
time its cultivation has gradually extended, until it is now the chief
industry of the islands,

of (YP : 7 ee” me
t of Consul Pratt. Reprinted from the Gil, Paint, and Drug

APPENDIX. 155

The industry received a check in 1872, the date of the great
hurricane. At least nine-tenths of the trees were destroyed at that
. time, so the larger part of those now standing are of new growth. :
_ A peculiarity of the clove tree is that every part is aromatic, but
_ the greatest strength is found in the bud, which is the “clove” of
commerce. The finest quality of cloves are dark brown in colour,
_ with full, perfect heads, free from moisture.

ye

- about 3 feet in height. They are then transplanted, being set about
80 feet apart, and are kept watered till they become well rooted.
_ From this time on the young trees require only ordinary care, though
the best results are obtained when the, ground about the trees is well
_ worked over and kept free from weeds.

The growth of the tree is very slow, and five or six years are
required for it to come into bearing, at which time it is about the
size of an ordinary pear-tree, and is usually very shapely. It is a
pretty sight to see a young plantation just coming into bearing.
The leaves, of various shades of green tinged with red, serve to set
off the clusters of dull-red clove buds.
Assoon as the buds are fully formed and assume this reddish colour,
the harvesting commences, and is prosecuted for fully six months at
intervals, since the buds do not form simultaneously, but at odd
times throughout the whole period. The limbs of the tree being
very brittle, a peculiar four-sided ladder is brought into requisition,
and the harvesting proceeds apace.
As fast as collected, the buds are spread out in the sun, until they
when they are put in the storehouse and

‘assume a brownish colour,
are ready for market.

_ A ten-year-old plantation should produce an average of 20 pounds
of cloves to a tree. Trees of twenty years frequently produce
‘upwards of 100 pounds each.

_ The present season, commencing with July,
able, and the crop will exceed that of any previous season, It will,
‘in all probability, amount to 13,000,000 pounds, averaging a local

alue of 10 cents per pound, :

1889, is very favour-

156 APPENDIX.

The Sultan derives no inconsiderable portion of his revenue from
this source, since the duty is levied at 30 per cent. ad valorem, thus
placing tothe Sultan’s. credit for the — year nearly, if not
quite, $400,000.

Besides the clove buds, the stems are also gathered, and form an
article of commerce, commanding about one-fifth of the price of
cloves and having about the same percentage of strength. To this
circumstance is due the fact that ground clove can frequently be
purchased in the market at a lower price than whole cloves.

For the past fifteen years the cultivation of cloves has been the
chief occupation of the Arab planters, and has always netted good
returns. It seems probable that it will continue to be a profitable
crop, since the consumption of the article appears to keep pace with
the inevitable increase of production.

Up to the present time the plantations have been worked with
slave labour at comparatively small expense; but with stoppage of
slave supplies from the mainland, great difficulty will be experienced
by the planters during harvest time. One result will be an increase
in expenses; but what the planters have most to fear is that the
curtailment of the labour-supply will entail a direct loss by rendering
it impossible to harvest the crop until after it has blossomed, when
it would be unfit for the uses of commerce.

Oil of Cloves.

The value of this oil depending upon the quantity of eugenol
present, H. Thoms proposes the following method of assay, depend-
ing upon the formation of benzoyl-eugenol (see Am. Jour. Pharm.,
1891, 406): 5 gms. of the oil, 20 gms. solution of sodium hydrate
(15 per cent.), and 6 gms. benzoyl chloride are placed in a tared
beaker of 150 cc. capacity and thoroughly mixed, this causing the
mixture to become quite hot; after cooling 50 ec, water are added
and heat applied until the crystalline mass melts, and again allowed
to become cold; the clear liquid is run through a weighed filter (dried
at 101°C.), and the same operation of washing the crystals repeated
twice with 50 ec. water. ‘To remove the sesqui-terpene, which may
contaminate the benzoyl-eugenol, the crystals have to be washed
with alcohol ; this is effected by adding to the still moist crystalline
mass in the. oaks 25 ce, alcohol of 90 per cent., warming until

netic ie eg the solution until the crystals ae to

APPENDIX. 147

separate again, then allowing the contents of the beaker to cool to
7 C.; transferring to the weighed filter and washing with a little
90 per cent. alcohol until the filtrate measures 25 cc. ; the filter with
contents is then at once transferred to the beaker, dried at 101° C, and
weighed. To the weight of the benzoyl-eugenol must be added 0°550
gm., the amount soluble in 25 cc. 90 per cent, alcohol; this weight
multiplied by 164 (th lecul ight of eug d divided by 268
(the molecular weight of benzoyl-eugenol) gives the amount of
eugenol in 5 gms, oil; for the percentage multiply again by twenty.

An examination of sixteen samples showed the eugenol to vary
from 76°87 per cent, to 90°64 per cent,; the oil distilled from the
steins was found (contrary to expectations) to contain a high percent-
age of eugenol, 83—85 per cent.; the specific gravity of the oil was
not found to agree with the percentage of eugenol as the following —
_ show: 1:059=83°2 per cent.; 1065=80°89 per cent.; 1-065=82°77

e (Pharm, Centralhalle, 1891, 589, Am. Journ, Pharm.,
Jan,, 1892.)

=]
8

—

2

PASSIFLOREZ,
Carpaine, the alkaloid in the leaves of Carica Papaya.

A new alkaloid has recently been detected in papaw leaves. by
_ M. Greshoff, of the Chemico-Pharmacological Laboratory at Buiten-
zorg in Java. It was obtained by digesting the powdered leaves in

with ether, and carbonate of soda was added until an alkaline reaction
was evident. The precipitate thus obtained was readily soluble in
ether, and on evaporation of the ether the “ carpaine” was obtaine

in colourless rosettes of crystals to the extent of about 0-25 per cent.
of the leaves employed. Although the freshly pecipitated alkaloid
is readily soluble in ether, when once crystallized it redissolves but
slowly, so that the crystals can be purified and rendered perfectly
white by washing with a little ether, but the percentage obtained is
ms reduced to 0-15 per cent, On a large scale the lime and

158 __ APPEND:X.

petroleum method gives very good results, about 0°19 per cent., and
would probably be preferred on the score of expense. Comparative
experiments made on the young and old leaves freed from the ‘stalks —
show that the old leaves afford when dried 0-072 per cent. of the
alkaloid, the young leaves 0°25 per cent., and that on an average a
papaw plant can be calculated to afford 30 grams of the alkaloid per
year from the leaves. The hydrochlorate of carpaine, which contains
about 82 per cent, of the pure alkaloid, is freely soluble in water. As
yet comparatively little is known of the physiological action of the
alkaloid, It appears, however, to act more especially upon the heart,
Slowing its action, The lethal dose for a fowl of 500 grams weight
was found to be about 200 milligrams. In a fowl of 350 grams
weight no poisonous symptoms were produced with 50 milligrams of
the alkaloid ; with 100 milligrams symptoms of poisoning occurred in
ten minutes after injection into the breast muscles, but after twenty-
five minutes the animal recovered its normal condition. The bird
lay on its side and breathed deeply in a jerky manner, and showed
slight convulsive movement of the whole body, but no irritability
was noticed. Further observations are necessary to determine the
usefulness or otherwise of the alkaloid in medicine ; should it prove

unlimited quantity and in a definite crystalline condition. The
alkaloid is easily precipitated from its solutions by the alkaloid
reagents, The most delicate reaction is with Mayer’s reagent,
iodoiodide of potassium, which in a solution of 1 in 300,000 gives
a turbidity, and in 80,000 parts an evident precipitate ; phosphomolyb-
date of ammonium has its limit of reaction at 1 in 75,000 parts,
pieric acid at 1 in 30,000, and chloride of gold at 1 in 25,000.
The alkaloid has a bitter taste, which is perceptible even in a solu-
tion of 1 part in 100,000.

CUCURBITACE.

Constituents of Melon Seeds.

C. Forti (Chem. Cenir., 1890, ii., 581) found these seeds to contain
cholesterin and a dextro-rotatory carbo-hydrate apparently belong-
ing to the galactan group.

The oil yielded by the seeds to ether amounts to 49 per cent,, and is
almost free from fatty acids, It contains lecithin. The phosphorus
"asi 0:02 gers cent, (Year- Book of Phar m, 16h p- 194.)

: APPENDIX. ~ 159

UMBELLIFERZ.
Anethum.
(Peucedanum graveolens, Benth.)
“distillate from Indian dill seed is reported to have shown
a difference in the aroma, a considerable variation in chemi-
mposition from oil distilled from German seed.. From the
om Indian seed there was a remarkable separation of a

t heavier than water, the nature of which has not yet been
The specific gravity reached 0-970, and the optical,
-41° 30’, German dill oil consists of limonene and carvol
am average specific gravity of 0-910, (Ber, von Schimmel

891.)

Dorema Ammoniacum.

1 e of 4.2 (bury) we have received from Afghanistan
lant.

Anisun.

ARALIACEA, —
Fe Panax Ginseng.

. arm. Leitschr. f. Russil., 1899, a 9%, 113, 130) cons
m * s . es

dryness.
filtered, and the alcohol recovered. Panaquilon remains
: light or mass, easily soluble in alcohol and

d does not contain nitrogen. Concen-
capiven a blood-red colour, gradually turning to
anaquilon is neither an alkaloid nor a glucoside.
aia acid a crystalline powder, panacon,
e in water and ether, but soluble in alcohol,
aii dissolves and colours it purplish red.

160 APPENDIX, e

Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid. Garrigues gives
the following formule: Panaquilon C?* H?°O**, Panacon C??H**0°
(O=8). (dm. Journ. Pharm., July, 1890.)

RUBIACEA, ‘
Randia dumetorum.

Sir J. Sawyer (Lancet, Mar, 21, 1891) has employed a tincture of
the fruit made with spiritus etheris, B. P., as a nervine calmative
and antispasmodic ; the dose is“from 16 to 30 minims in water, but
the strength is not stated. We have already shown that the drug
contains saponin*and valeric acid.

Ixora parviflora.

P. 8S. Mootoosawmy has sent us a sample of the bark of this tree,
with the remark that it is used in native medicine, mixed with a
decoction of ginger, for anemic diseases; he suspected the presence
of iron init. The bark contained a little fatty matter, tannin, red
colouring matter and 11°5 per cent, of ash consisting of the usual
constituents, with only a trace of ferric oxide. The decoction of the
bark was of a deep red colour, which probably suggested its medicinal
employment.

Note on Catechu.

In the Library of the Botanic Garden at Oxford I recently came
across a book which apparently escaped the observation of the
indefatigable authors of Pharmacographia, entitled ‘‘ Ehrenfridi
Hagendornii Medicine D. et Pract. Gorl. Tractatus Physico-
Medicus de Catechu sive Terra Japonica in vulgus, sic dicta ad
normam Academiz Nature-Curiosorum. Jenx, 1679.” This gives
very interesting particulars respecting the history, nomenclature, and
physical characters of Catechu.

“De patria Catechu.” The author writes:—‘ Si Catechu agno-
men respicias, quod Japonica etiam indigitetur, facilis esset decisio,
quem agnoseat locum natalem. In ambiguo tamen usque est, an in
Japonica vel preparetur vel aliunde ad J aponenses transporteter, Ex
aliis finitimis locis in Malaccam et Sinam exportari.” The italics
are mine,

_ “De differentiis Catechu,” ‘ Duplicis generis quod sciam, in-
- — Sepa Restores. Una magisque communis Catechu species

APPENDIX. 161

4 apparuit rubicundior, ad nigredinem veluti quandam inclinans, cum
_ striis albicantibus, instar linearum per totum Catechu subjectum
_ excurrentibus, itemque ponderosior compacturque. Altera a me visa
_ fuit compacta, nec ita colorata, colore potius ad albedinem inclinante,
porosior item, levioris ponderis, digitis quoque frangi _— terrique
_ Ssustinens, nec Rae rubicundioris, ceu altera, adeo ferax
___ Other differences are noted. Whether the pale meres alluded to
be the cutch of North India I am unable to say. May it not be the
Gambier cutch? If so, this will be a very early notice of that drug,
In another chapter of ‘‘ De Electione Catechu” the writer says :—
“ Dsus obtinuit, ut si de notis bonitatis indijudicandis medicinalibus

rubedine, que compactior, que ponderosior, quaque minus participat
de lapillis, seminibus, lignis aliisque inibi interdum repiriri solitis.
Qui fini etiam apud aromatarios jam receptum est, ut integros
techu globos prius malleo contundant, visuri, quenam sit species,
ne pallidiore et viliore ob metum adulterationis, qua Japonenses ut
plurimum malé audiunt, emptores defraudent.

“Sec. 2. Notaritamen expedit, suggerente id qualicunque experi-

precipitandi et absorbendi, humores vitosos intentio est, modo prius

probe 4 lapillis et depuretur.’

= 3 is devoted to the ‘Pharmaceutica’ ; section 4 to ‘ Thera-
tic

One prescription may be quoted, for it gives an example of the
early use of the word chocolat—

B/ Conserv. rosar-antiq. 54 ae ye es
Flor borrag é . 38s
Chocolat si ov eet
Catechu “ sh ” 3)

Vin. Malvat. q.s. cum ,°, cinnam, rosar. 4, g. j. M. sic viro
eawem primario in eructatione ventriculi, qua premodum con-
(By G. Claridge Druce, Pharm. Journ., Jan. 1892.)

162 APPENDIX,

VALERIANEA.

Valeriana Wallichii.

Aitchison (Notes on Prod. of W. Afghanistan and N.-E. Persia,
p. 96) states that gur-bdlchorak is a trade name for the roots of this
plant in Afghanistan, He remarks :—‘“ A Kabul trader at Leh told
me that it was the same as gur-alchorak in the Peshawur trade,
and owing to a load of which he was once nearly driven mad in
conveying it from Kabul to Peshawur, by all the cats in the country
surrounding him at night, wherever he halted.” Aitchison supposes
the name to be a st of Gurba-bélchorak, which would
signify “the cat valerian.

COMPOSIT A.
Solidago Virga-aurea.

Dr. Mascarel is said (Za France Médicale, Oct, 8, 1889) to have
used the plant very successfully in cases of dropsy. It has long been
used by country practitioners to produce diaphoresis. It grows
plentifally in the Northern parts of the United States, and resembles
Sol-odora, the “* sweet-scented golden rod,” or “ blue-mountain tea.”
In administering it for cardiac dropsy, Dr. Mascarel reduces the
dried plant—stems, leaves and flowers—to a coarse powder, and
gives it in doses of one tablespoonful, beaten with an entire egg
(yolk and white). He gives but one dose on the first day; but on
each of the following days he adds a tablespoonful, until seven or
eight doses are being taken during the twenty-four hours. The
diuresis is said to continue until edema permanently disappears.

Helenin in Tuberculosis.

Helenin has now for some time been before the medical public as 4
remedy in phthisis, but without any apparent progress in its use.
Dr, T. J. Bokenham has published an account of numerous experi-
ments made by him as to the real value of the substance, and so far
as can be gathered from the account given in the British Medical
Journal (Oct. 17, p. 838) it would appear that the crystalline bodies
oceurring in Inula Helenium are difficult to separate on a large or
commercial scale, and that consequently alantic anhydride was the
only substance procurable commercially for his experiments. The
other crystallized bodies were, however, obtained in sufficient

APPENDIX, 163

quantity for laboratory experiments. These experiments showed

that any of the crystalline bodies would prevent the growth of the

tubercle bacillus if present in the proportion of 1 in 10,000, and in

any ordinary cultivating medium for this bacillus. The effect of

the administration of the alantic anhydride appeared to be to pro-

long life fora time in the animals experimented on, but not to
prevent a fatal result, Helenin has also been lately given with good
results in leucorrhea in the dose of 2-4 centigrammes (tép. de
_ Pharm,, Oct., p, 481). (Pharm, Journ,, Oct, 31, 1891

Pluchea lanceolata.

Description.—8hrubby, hoary pubescent, with sessile, very coria-

length, having strong very oblique nerves on both surfaces. When

dry, the leaves are of a pale yellowish-green. Heads of flowers in
compound corymbs about the size of Groundsel, purple, involucre
: bracts contracted atthe mouth, outer bracts obtuse, hoary, The
g has no marked taste.
Chemical composition.—The taste of these leaves is saltish and
aromatic, They yield, in an air-dried state, 16°93 per cent. of
mineral matter, consisting largely of alkaline ‘chlorides, the cubical

alkaloi
Pluchea hie, and conclude that, weight for weight, they are much
weaker than senna leaves in their cathartic action.

The Existence of a Mydriatic Alkaloid in Lettuce.

The attention of the author was drawn a few months ago to the
mydriatic action of an extract prepared at Hitchin from common
lettuce, Lactuca sativa, when in flower. On examination, the myd-
Yiatie action was found to be due to an alkaloid. The extract
_ closely resembled belladonna extract in appearance, smell, and taste ;

but a dose of 5 grains had been taken without injurious effects,
| other commercial extracts of lettuce were, examined—namely,
an extract of wild lettuce, Zactuca virosa, prepared according to the
directions of the British Pharmacop wia, the history of which was
unknown, and extracts of both the wild and the cultivated lettuce

164 APPENDIX.

prepared at Market Deeping, in Lincolnshire, An extract of that
variety of the cultivated plant known as Cos Iecttuce was also

examined. They all contained an alkaloid which had a very marked
power of dilating the pupil of the eye. Finally, a dried specimen of
wild lettuce, collected when in flower, was examined. It contained
a mydriatic alkaloid.

The impure alkaloid obtained from the extract was a light brown
syrup, which possessed powerful mydriatic properties. In order to
purify it, it was converted into the oxalate. The alkaloid recovered
from the pure oxalate, when crystallized from chloroform, closely
resembled hyoscyamine, both in appearance and in melting point.
The aurochloride was then produced by the usual methods, and this,
after recrystallization, was obtained in the shining flat needles
characteristic of the aurochloride of hyoscyamine. The estimation of
the gold and the base in this compound showed that the alkaloid was
one of three isomeric mydriatic alkaloids, having the formula
C'H?*NO®%, while its melting point was 159-75° (corr.), and closely
corresponded with that ascribed by Ladenburg to the aurochloride of
hyoscyamine. The plant does not appear to contain a second
mydriatic alkaloid, although it must be remembered that only small
quantities of material were operated upon.

_ The author has just shown that both wild and cultivated varieties
of lettuce, especially when the flowering stage is reached, contain
hyoscyamine, the mydriatic alkaloid oceurring in Hyoscyamus niger,
Atropa Belladonna, and other plants belonging to the natural order
Solanaceae, and it is probable that to the presence of this alkaloid the
sedative and anodyne properties of extract of lettuce are due.

That this important constituent has been until now overlooked is
probably due to the fact that in chemical investigations upon lettuce
the dried milk sap, lactucarium, has alone been examined, although
its value as a sedative and anodyne is by no means established. The
author found that lactucarium of both English and German manu-
facture-was devoid of mydriatic properties and contained no alkaloi
whatever.

The fact that lettuce contains a poiso nous alkaloid is not of great
importance in connection with its use as a vegetable, since it is only
used for this purpose in the early stages of its growth, before the
bitter milk has been produced, when the hyoscya mine is only present,
if at all, in ein quantities. The amount of mydriatic alkaloid in

eS Ee OTe eee Se ee ee

APPENDIX. 165

the extract prepared from garden lettuce when in flower is not more

0°02 per cent. Nevertheless, cases have been recorded in which
the immoderate consumption of lettuce has led to unpleasant and
even fatal results. Lettuce belongs to the natural order Composite,
This is the first occasion on which hyoscyamine has been found in
plants not belonging to the natural order Solanaceae. (By T. 8S.
Dymond, from the Research Laboratory of the Pharmaceutical
Society of Great Britain.)

Tagetes orecta.

The flowers contain a crystallizable substance quercetagetin, having
the composition C?"H**O** + 4H’0; it is the yellow colouring matter;
its reactions in alcoholic solution are the same as those of quercetin,
but it differs from the latter in crystalline form and solubility in
aleohol. (Bull, Soc, Chim, [27] xxviii., 337.)

Saussurea Lappa.

Schimmel & Co, in their Report (April, 1892) state that Kusht
root yields one per cent. of alight yellow essential oil, which
possesses a sp. gr. of 0°982, and a rotatory power of + 15°20’ in a
tube of 100 mm. It begins to boil at 275°, and about one-half goes
over below 315°; then complete decomposition takes place, producing
avery disagreeably-smelling vapour, When treated with soda, a part
of the oil combines with it, and can be separated by acids. The root
has a violet odour, but it does not seem to yield an odorous oil of that
perfume. Messrs. Schimmel state that the odour of the oil resembles
at first that of elecampane. After the volatilization of this odour,
in about 24 hours, the violet odour develops, but not sufficiently
strong to indicate that the oil could be of practical use,

Mr, McDonell, Conservator of Forests in Kashmir, reports that
the plant grows as high as 9,000 to 10,000 feet. The dried root

. sells at Rs.25 per maund. It is collected by villagers and paid

for at Tehsils. The chief purchaser is a Bombay Chinaman

CAMPANULACEA,
Lobeline.
The only active principle of Lobelia inflata has recently been investi-

gated by Dr, H. Dresser.
Warm-blooded animals poisoned by means of lobeline succumb to

respiratory paralysis, so it is to be included among the respiratory

166 APPENDIX.

poisons. In dogs the physiological action of lobeline is first manifest-
ed by a paralysis of the voluntary movements and by a concomitant
exaggeration of the reflexes. Later these effects are complicated by
aparalysis of the motor nerves, analogous to that produced by curare,
Through its paralyzing action on the cardiac branch of the pneumo-
gastric, lobeline resembles in its action the nicotine group. In warm-
blooded animals the influence of lobeline is found in a great exalta-
tion of the respiratory activity, It produces an acceleration of the
respiratory movement, which is more persistent when the pneumo-
gastric nerves are intact than when they have been divided. Further,
the amplitude of the respiratory movements is increased, and the
power of the respiratory muscles appears to be also augmented,
Under the influence of comparatively small doses of lobeline, the in-
hibitory influence of the pneumogastric on the heart, as well as its
action on the ‘bronchial muscles, is suppressed. The respiratory
muscles appear to receive especial stimulation from the respiratory
centre when the latter is under the influence of lobeline ; as a result,
the work accomplished by the heart and respiratory muscles is great-
ly augmented. In comparison with the other agents which stimulate
the respiratory functions, lobeline possesses the advantage over hydro-
eyanic acid in its freedom from depressing action, while it surpasses

ee in id i therefore — epeauees that the
‘employment o anti-asthmatic d by experi-
mental facts, ite the author has not tiie any clinical experi-
ments and offers no suggestions as to the proper form of employment
of this alkaloid, (Archiv, fir Pes Pathologie und Pharma-

cologie, 26 Band, Heft 3 und 4

H. Paschkis and A. Smita (Akademie d, Wissen., Wien, April 17)
1890, through Chem, Zeit., 1890, 594) use the following method for
preparing lobeline: The herb of Lobelia inflata is extracted with
water, acidified with acetic acid, the extract partly evaporated, made
alkaline and extracted with ether. An extract was taken up with
water and being acid was made alkaline and shaken with ether.
The ether was evaporated and the alkaloid obtained as athick oil
of a yellow colour. For purifying, the alkaloid was dissolved in
ether, shaken with water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, then
made alkaline and taken up with ether. This was repeated three
times, the genes solution then dried with potassium hydrate, and
the ether d in an atmosphere of hydrogen, The free alkaloid

APPENDIX. 167

o be benzoic acid. (Am. Journ, Pharm., July, 1890.)

PRIMULACEZ.
Anagallis arvensis.

A. Pehtoagas (Journ. Pharm, von Els. Lothr., 1891, 171) has
from this plant two glucosides identical with those obtain-

quillaia and senega, The plant is said to be used in Mexico
bstitute for soapwort.

SAPOTACEZ,
Indian Gutta-percha.

atural sources of supply of gutta-percha, and the possibility of
exhaustion, were referred to in the Kew Reports, 1876 (p. 23);
(pp. 30, 31); and 1881 (pp. 38-45), A few trees, natives of the
n peninsula, yield sabstances more or less similar to gutta-percha,
of these is Dichopsis elliptica, Dalz. (= Bassia elliptica, Isonandra

"he following note on this plant appeared in the Report of the Royal
Kew, 1881, p. 44 :—

This tree appears to be common on the Malabar Coast, the forests

, the Wynaad, Travancore, &c. It grows toa height of 80 or

A substance similar to the gutta-percha of commerce is

d by tapping, but the tree requires an interval of rest of some

, or even of days, after frequent incision. In five or six ea

lon the increase of heat. It is not found applicable to all
for which gutta-percha is used, but 20 or 30 per cent, of
ee with gutta-percha without destroying its qualities.”

168 APPENDIX,

The same tree is referred to in Watt’s Dictionary of the Economic
Products of India, Vol. III, p. 102. In this, an extract taken from
Drury’s Useful Plants of India, suggests that the gum might be
usefully utilised as a sub-aqueous cement or glue; or that, on account
of its perfume when heated, it might possibly be rendered of some
value to the pastille and incense makers. More recently this gum has
been analysed by Mr. David Hooper, F.C.S., F.1.C., Quinologist to
the Government of Madras, and the results are given in the Annual
Report of the Cinchona Plantations of Madras for 1891, p. 18 :—

“Indian Gutta-percha,—An abundance of gutta-percha milk has
been yielded during the dry weather in the Wynad by the Panchotee
tree (Dichopsis elliptica), and some planters have been asking for
information on the subject, and inquiring whether it could be made
into a commercial article, The milk has been known for some years
to afford what was called Indian gutta-percha or Pala-gum, and has
been used as an adulterant of Singapore gutta. General Cullen
brought it to notice 35 years ago, and Dr. Cleghorn published a
memorandum on the subject at the time. It was reported upon by
experts in London, who found that it was unfit for water-proofing
purposes, as its solution in coal-tar and turpentine dry up to such
a brittle consistence that the fabric is useless, It could be used as a
birdlime or cement, and keeps well under water as a cable insulator,
especially if mixed with some genuine gutta. By boiling the milk
of the Panchotee tree, a white mass separates, which can be kneaded
by the fingers, but which becomes hard and brittle when cold, The
brittle character of this substauce, I find, is due to a large proportion
of a crystalline substance found also in true gutta, and called crys-
talban or alban. Crystalban, according to Payen, occurs to the
extent of 14 to 19 per cent.in the best kinds of gutta-percha, but
- Ihave extracted as much as 69:2 per cent. of crystalban from the
dried secretion obtained from Wynd4d. The presence of a large
quantity of crystals in this gum, of course, would interfere with its
utility, but crystalban is easily removed by boiling alcohol, and the
residue consists of a very good and pure gutta-percha. I cannot see
why this process could not be used to purify the Indian gum and so
obtain an article similar to the Malayan article.”

A note on a gum from:a closely allied plant (Dichopsis obovata,
C. B. Clarke) received at Kew from Burma appeared in the Kew
Bulletin, 1892, p. 215. (Kew Bulletin, Dec. 1892.)

APPENDIX, 169
STYRACE.

The Varieties of Benzoin.

e source of the different varieties of gum benzoin known to com-
e, and many points regarding the mode of preparation of the
e still, to a large extent, matters of conjecture. Some

.) Bayes in their mode of preparation. Mr.

Hanbury offers no definite opinion on the
iJ ie San Fliickiger, in his last edition, just published, of the

C gnosie. Contributions to the elucidation of a subject upon
much divergence of view exists among authorities are
come, and they become doubly valuable when they are
of careful local examination. In London the druggists

four varieties of benzoin, viz.— Siam, the costliest variety ;
which comes next in value ; Penang, which is a comparative-
ition to our Materia Medica, and Palembang, the kind
by benzoic-acid manufacturers. Leaving Siam gum,
ai from the mainland of Asia, out of account alto-
is evident that the nomenclature of the remaining three
snot only altogether fanciful, but actually calculated to
mang itself no benzoin is produced, and the gum
orted by way of that great emporium of the trade of the

Indies i is almost entirely, if not wholly, collected in the
Palembang gum also is the produce of the same
2 being simply the chief settlement of the residency

in the south-eastern part of the island of Sumatra,
: of the benzoin of commerce is brought to market,

ins some of the least-known spots on earth,
of the cultivation and collection of benzoin

170 APPENDIX,

in one of the remoter districts of the island, which we owe to Mr. L.
M, Vonck, a member of the Dutch-Indian Civil Service, stationed
at Sekajoe, in Sumatra, and which is published in the last issue of
the Journal of the Netherlands Society for the Advancement of
Industry, is, therefore, an acceptable addition to our knowledge of
the collection of this important drug and the manner in which it
passes into commerce. Mr. Vonck does not refer to the gum, of
which he speaks either as Palembang, Penang, or Sumatra benzoin,
and it may, therefore, be taken for granted that those classifications
are unfamiliar tohim, The gum of which he writes, and which
appears the only kind brought into’ commerce from south-eastern
Sumatra, is evidently all obtained from one tree, and seems to corre-
spond with the kinds known to our druggists as Penang and Palem-
bang, So far as his evidence goes, therefore, it certainly favours
Dr, Treub’s opinion that there is no difference between the commercial
source of Penang and Palembang benzoin. The benzoin-tree (Styra#
Benzoin, or, in Malay, pohon Kemenjan, or Menjan) occurs, accord-
ing to Mr. Vonck, in various portions of the high and low lands of
the residency of Palembang. It grows up to an altitude of about
600 feet above sea-level, cither in small clusters or sporadically
between other trees. Formerly little attention appears to have been
paid to benzoin-culture. At any rate, the standard writers on the
products of the Dutch Indies only mention benzoin as being collected
from wild-growing trees in the virgin forests of the Upper Blitie,
on the Lalang and Toengkal rivers, and in the wilds of Batang Lakoh
in the country of the Koeboes. But the easy nature of the culture,
and the high prices which good benzoin realised in former years
(from £6 to £8 10s. per picul), acted as strong incentives to the
extension of the plantation. There are only a few parts of the
residency of Palembang in which the benzoin-tree is either scarce oF
non-existent. In some other districts the tree is found wild, but its
gum is never collected, nor is the tree cultivated systematically, The
principal districts in which the benzoin-tree is systematically culti-
vated in gardens are the divisions of Tliran, Banjoeasin, and Moesi
Dir, In the Koeboe country, already referred to above, in the
virgin forests of which the benzoin-tree was formerly of very com~
mon occurrence, it has now almost been extirpated, The tree
flourishes in various kinds of soil, but experience shows a high, dry
_ Sandy soil, free from danger of inundation, to. be most fitted for its

APPENDIX, . bey &

Ri cebattin. On low-lying, rich, and clayey soil the tree grows up
re rapidly, but its gum is then of such a poor quality that the
ultivation yields little or no profit, On such a soil there is also
anger of floods, which are fatal to the tree, Marshy or stony soil
} altogether unsuited to the culture. The tree is propagated from
he seed, which is of a reddish colour, almost round in shape, and of
size ofa marble. It is enclosed in a green shell. When the
d-be planter has gathered a sufficient quantity of the seeds, which
favourite food of wild beasts of the forest, he plants them out

Sometimes the young benzoin-shoots which have grown up
d the parent stem are dug out and transplanted among the
dy, The object of the plantation on the paddy-field is to secure
necessary shade for the seedlings, which would be easily killed
the fierce sunlight. Two seeds are usually planted in one hole ;
both come up, the weaker plant is generally destroyed. If thé
kes place by means of young shoots from the parent tree,
ts, before planting, are stripped of their leaves, and placed
Water i in be clics of about twenty-five, being kept afloat between
bamboo sticks, When fresh leaves have grown upon the shoots,
are planted out in an oblique hole, which is left open for a time.
ew benzoin-tree grows from the roots of the young shoot, after

ted his seeds or shoots for the purpose of gathering his first

p of juice. By that time the shoot has grown into a fine tree,
ching and bearing leaves at the top only, and from 25 to 40 feet
ight. When once the tapping of the tree has commenced, its
| is almost arrested, and the colour of its bark gradually
ges from pale grey to brown. If the tree is left to grow wild,
fsight trebles or quadruples, some of the specimens in the virgin
being over 250 feet high. The incisions made in the tree are
6 triangular in form, and are made at regular intervals and on
systematic and invariable plan. <A yellowish juice begins to exude
the incisions a week after they are made, but not until six

or two months after its appearance has it hardened sufticiently
| being collected. The tree becomes exhausted between its

172 APPENDIX,

seventeenth and its nineteenth year, the drying-up. process com-
mencing at the lower part. The natives collect three different
qualities of gum, classed according to the lightness of their colour
and their freedom from bark and other impurities. A full-grown
benzoin-tree yields from 1 to 3 catties (=14 to 4 lbs.) every season,
and its cultivation is a source of considerable affluence to its pro-
prietor. Inthe Moesi Ilir District several proprietors own from 500 to
7,000 benzoin-trees each. During the recent years of low prices,
however, the cultivation has been carried on with great want of care,
and in some parts a garden of 2,000 trees now yields hardly as much
gum as a garden of 500 trees did when, some years ago, the collec-
tion of gum was carefully attended to. Still, the benzoin-producing
villages of Sumatra are among the most prosperous in the whole
island. If, through carelessness, as sometimes happens, the collection
of the gum from some trees is forgotten during the season, the gum,
after some months, is found to have exuded in great lumps, which
have become quite hard, and are covered with a dirty layer of

lack. These pieces are eut from the trees with an axe, and roughly
rinsed in the nearest creek, Afterwards hot water is poured over
this gum, which softens it and renders it fit for packing. Palembang
is the trade centre for the district, and the Chinese merchants there
are the principal, if not the only, buyers. They systematically adul-
terate the benzoin by the addition of inferior gum-resins, wood, or
earth, and it is said that for many years not a single parcel of pure
benzoin has been exported from Palembang. The average benzoin
exports from Palembang are about 700 tons per annum, Mr, Vonck
mentions that the gum exported from Padang on the west coast of

umatra is more valuable than that brought into commerce from
Palembang. This has sometimes been ascribed to its greater rich-
ness in cinnamic acid, but Mr, Vonck believes it to be due rather to
the greater care which is bestowed upon its ‘collection. As the
Penang and Palembang gums are the least valuable on the London
market, and their prices correspond most nearly to the figures given
by Mr. Vonck as the local value of the gum, equalling from about
5s. to 40s. per cwt.; this may be taken as additional evidence in
favour of the view ‘that the Palembang and Penang varieties are
identical, and that the gum known in London as “Sumatra” is the pro-
duct of the western districts of Sumatra, and may possibly be obtained
: t tree. tree. (Chemist « and Druggist, Sent. 26,1891.)

APPENDIX, 173

An interesting paper on the origin of Benzoin by Fritz Ludy
appeared in Archiv de Pharmacte, 231-43, an abstract of which is
contained in the Pharm, Journ,, April 29, 1893

APOCYNACEA.
Rauwolfia serpentina, Benth.
Note on certain reactions of an alkaloid contained in the iaphieh

In the Pharmacogrophia Indica, Vol. II., p. 416, one of us described
the proximate composition of the root of the Rauwolfia serpentina,
Benth., and noted the presence of one or more alkaloidal principles.
communication deals chiefly with the colour reactions of an
aloid which we have separated from the roots, and provisionally

The cose of the alkaloid ina pure condition was attended with
our first experiments, the pounded root was exhausted

old water acidulated with sulphuric acid, by which a large
amount of dark resinous matter was separated. The aqueous acid
solution was then precipitated with Mayer’s reagent, but the preci-
te on decomposition did not yield the alkaloid in a pure condition,
$ tes a certain amount of resinous matter being rel spose

Ebise of the alkaloid was freely soluble in this alcohol, In ether
alkaloid was only very slightly soluble, Ultimately, the pounded
‘was percolated with chloroform, the chloroform evaporated off,
the extract treated with water acidulated with sulphuric acid.
‘ anid aqueous eigers of the ee es 0 = with

‘ whi ph

| The chloroform was then separated “and the aed solution made

‘with sodic carbonate and reagitated with chloroform ; this

of - oa being repeated several times, The final chloro-
as dried and agitated with ether, which removed traces

stance The extract now formed a cinnamon-coloured

mely bitter, soluble in dilute acids, and dissolving

174 APPENDIX,

in amylic alcohol or chloroform with a very marked greenish fluor-
escence. An alcoholic solution of: the alkaloid did not erystallize,
and we failed in obtaining distinctly crystalline salts. A solution
of the alkaloid in dilute sulphuric acid afforded with alkaline
carbonates and hydrates a bulky white precipitate; but even after
repeated precipitation and re-solution, the physical characters of
the alkaloid were not materially altered, and its solution in amylic
alcohol or chloroform still showed a marked fluorescence. A solution
of the alkaloid in dilute sulphuric acid, when agitated with animal
charcoal, completely lost its bitterness, the solution being at the same
time completely decolourized. The alkaloid could be again separated
from the charcoal by treatment with warm alcohol, the physical
characters being unaltered.

‘The following colour reactions were noted, pure brucine being
tested at the same time as a control :—

i ted to
Reagent. _ Brucine. ee
pe. y Eagh ao. oe ag) Sen eer sth ...{ Xellow-
ing a of
jens aci
Cone. eeaak: acid ...)Colonrless ... .., »+»| Yellow.
Acetic acid .., --.| Colourless .., is ...| Yellow.
Cone. nitric acid _...| Scarlet, soon passing into| Scarlet, does not ge
yellow. so soon e
brucine, but se after
standing for some time.
Sulph. acid and bi-| Yellow, with tinge of red ...| Slight purple, not unlike
A ators i potash. = sstryohnia reaction, but
Sulph. acid and MnO?.| Orange si as Violet, pe erm a to dark
Chlorine _,, -.-| Red ; colour soon discharged, Rel: relate not s
decolonrized by ammonia, ae jaoacieid
y ammonia.
Mercurous __ nitrate,| Pink on warming, colour Yeli@c nork — but
bo ie. light excess} deepens on standing. no pink co
Mayer's reagent te aren yellowish ppt., floc-| Pale yellowish ppt., floc-
¢ ent. culent.
Nitric acid and SnCl?. fois: Sober by excess} No purple colour,
$ : ; of both reagen
ulphuric acid and) Red, amon pee into| Red, with greenish-purple
potassium nitrate. yellow. tint at the be red
sae. ar deepens on stand-
Sulphocyanide of “n
rao po-| White ppt. sol, in excess of} Wh sol. in ¢
tassium, ey acetic acid, repptd. by| of rea eee OF
2p ao. : Sap Nees

APPENDIX. 175

. Alkaloid suspected to —
Reagent. Brucine. Dab Diesuciais

chromate of potas-|Copious yellow ppt., with ee ie: well ppt., with
ee a acetic acid Seas culty soluble in large, poise. Ca soluble i _ hearts
o cid. of acetic avi

acetic acid, but with ex- acid, but almost insolu-
ception of a few flocks} ble in NaHO.
80. in

Dirty hite floc. ppt, soon) Beautiful punrpiiai -red ppt.,
changing to flesh colour,| soon changing to dirty
soluble in excess of acetic brown, with a green tinge,
acid, “try insol. in NaHO.) sol. in exeess of acetic

a
oa Light <? tecgg ppt. “s a Light yellow ppt., sol. in
4 H? a The dil. H

prow 2g of ace acid} of acetic acid in slight
ihe a excess se nts} eXcess to not prevent
ae) prrcipitetion. precipita
solution of| Alcoholic solution of alka-/ Alcoholic tt of alka-
loid, rosette crystals. gine no crystalline forms
croscopic examina-

> experiments were made to determine whether the sialon
any peel properties similar to brucine. In the

of the ae and application of the paws to the mouth as
ve some irritant matter; the animal restless and much

M.—Fiéthy mucus and saliva still flowed from the
in smaller amount ; vomiting ~— but now and then
1 not so restless,

ae of saliva ceased; animal quiet, no further

next experiment °022 gramme of the alkaloid was dissolved
solution evaporated to dryness, the residue dis-
s of distilled water, and the solution hypoder-

injocted into the left hind leg of a small frog at 11-40 a.m,

a APPENDIX.

The frog was placed under a large glass funnel and jumped about,
a tap on the glass being sufficient to make it change its place.

11-44 4.m.—Frog showed no inclination to move; when its back
was touched with a glass rod it made feeble attempts to move its
limbs ; some loss of power was evident, but there were no’ twitchings
of the limbs or convulsive movements.

11-46 a.mM.—The frog did not move its limbs even when tapped
on the back; the left leg appeared quite paralysed.

11-50 a.m,—The limbs were quite lax, and might be placed in any
position without the animal making any effort to move them. hen
placed on its back, it now and then made feeble attempts to move
the right leg; then the movements stimulated slight twitchings.
After this, and until its death at 12 noon, it lay motionless, the only
sign of vitality being an occasional gasp ; limbs flaccid, no convulsions.
As a control experiment, another frog, a little larger, was injected
with the same amount of brucine. Two minutes after the injection it
was perfectly motionless ; there was evidently loss of voluntary power
over the limbs, When placed on its back and touched, it made no
effort to move, but slight twitchings of the limbs were noticed, which
became more marked in about a couple of minutes. Touching the
back, pinching the limbs, or even gentle tapping on the table, was
now sufficient to produce rather feeble convulsive movements, but
there was no spasm, except when thus regularly induced, The frog
died about ten minutes after the injection. After death the limbs
were not stiff but rather flaccid.

Many of the reactions we have described as being afforded by”
the alkaloid we have provisionally termed pseudobrucine were iden-
tical with those yielded by brucine ; while, on the other hand, certain
reactions were quite different. The history of the drug shows that
itis employed as a domesti¢ remedy in the treatment of a large
number of affections, but there is no evidence to indicate that it is
supposed to possess any toxic properties. When we are satisfied
that we have obtained the alkaloid in a pure state, its ultimate
composition, &c., will be determined. (C.J. H. Warden and Assistant
Surgeon Chuni Lal Bose, Pharm. Journ., Aug., 1892.)

Oleander as a diuretic and heart-tonic.
F. v, Ocfele (Pharm. Pr., Oct. 24, 1891, pp. 2-5) draws stteakitn
to the action of this plant as a diuretic and heart-tonic in place of

APPENDIX, 3 177

sitalis. He considers an itifasion ef the fruit to te preferable to
wt other preparations : the infusion may be preserved from deteriora-
the addition of a little glycerine or spirit. Dr. von Ocfele
sitors that a maximum dose of 3 of a gram of the raw drug or its
valent in solution should not be exceeded in the 24 hours.
Nouveaux Remédes, Jan. 24, 1892.)

Pet
sa

_ Hunteria corymbosa, Roxb., Wight Ic., tt. 428, 1294; Bedd,

= For. Fl. ii., t. 265.
he bark of this tree, a native of the Deccan Peninsula, Coro-
del Coast, Tavoy, Penang, and Geylon, has been shown by
f (Meded. wit Slands Plant., vii., p. 55) to contain 0-3 per

a beautiful violet coloration with Erdmann’s and Fréhde’s
Iti is a strong poison, and hasa sharp, burning taste, even
» he 10,000.

Vinea pusilla.
called Mulakapundu i in Tamil,and the ryots of sia

ASCLEPIADE ZA.

Gymnema sylvestre.

oses of 0-3 to 0°4 gram, gymnemic acid acts as an emetic. In
ler doses it is stated to be very eet for distinguishing
itter drugs. For this purpose 3 per cent, aqueous
ing a small addition of et is parce for rinsing the
tely before taking the medicine,

| obtained by moistening the powdered plant with a
tic soda, allowing the moist mass to stand in a per-
a as. and then extracting with benzin, After

erystalline powder, which is soluble in 100
, se piped in aleohol and insoluble in ether and

178 : APPENDIX,

LOGANIACEZE,
Strychnine in snake-bite.

An interesting illustration of the antagonistic action of poisons is
given in a letter we have received from Mr. W. Rushton, addressed
to his brother in Tasmania by Dr. Mueller, of Yackandandah,
Victoria, in which he states that in cases of snake-bite he is using a
solution of nitrate of strychnine in 240 parts of water mixed with a
little glycerine. Twenty minims of this solution are injected in
the usual manner of a hypodermic injection, and the frequency of
repetition depends upon the symptoms being more or less threaten-
ing, say from 10 to 20 minutes. When all symptoms have
disappeared, the first independent action of the strychnine is shown
by slight muscular spasms, and then the injections must be discon-
tinued unless after a time the snake-poison again reasserts itself.
The quantity of strychnine required in some cases has amounted to
a grain or more within a few hours. Both poisons are thoroughly
antagonistic, and no hesitation need be felt in pushing the use of
the drug to quantities that would be fatal in the absence of snake-
poison, Out of about ene hundred cases treated by this method,
some of them at the point of death, there has been but one failure,
and that arose from the injections being discontinued after one and
a quarter grain of strychnine had been injected. Any part of the
body will do for the injections, but Dr, Mueller is in the habit of
making them in the neighbourhood of the bitten part or directly
upon it, (Pharm. Journ., June 13, 1891.) These results are opposed
to the experiments instituted by the Commission appointed in India
to investigate the influence of artificial respiration, intravenous
injection of ammonia, &c., in Indian and Australian snake-poisoning
(1874). More recently, A. A. Kanthack (Jr. Physiology, Vol. XIIL.,
Nos, 3 and 4, 1892) has shown that stryehnine is neither a chemical
nor physiological antidote of cobra-albumose ; and he is of opinion
that ‘‘no false hopes should be raised or fostered as to a cure by
strychnia,”’

BORAGINEZE,

The active principle of the Boragines.
Schlagdenhanffen and Reeb have examined the roots, stalks, leaves
sme seeds of Cynoglossum officinale and Heliotropium europeum.
Petr 1 ether extracted from the roots a coloured substance

APPENDIX, 179

_ analogous to alkanet red. By subsequent treatment with alcohol an
alkaloid was obtained which the authors term cynoglossine.
: ; : ; seus

na pigeon and death without convulsions. Ina rabbit weighing
a dose of about one gram produced narcotism and convulsive
(Pharm. Post, xxv., 1,)

s received from Afghanistan, under the names of Gaozaban
1-i-gaozaban, the leaves and flowers of Trichodesma molle,
DC.; and Aitchison (Notes on Prod. of W. Afghanistan and N.-E
Persia p. 12) records the collection of the corollas of Anchusa
Retz., to be employed as Gul-i-gaozaban.

SOLANACEAE,
Lycopersicum esculentum, Miller.

tomato fruit has been chemically examined by G. Briosi and
Qn an average the fresh fruit contains: Seeds 10:9 per
54 per cent,, and skin 3-7 per cent. The pulp can. be
ted into a yellow juice and a red residue, which is tasteless
washing ; ; the juice on an average has the specific gravity
217, and contains levulose, citric acid (0°4 to 0°65 per cent. of
ce), albuminoids, and ash which is composed of 60 per cent.
salts. Minute traces of alkaloid are indicated; tartaric
could not be detected, The red residue will impart its colouring
‘to ether, alcohol, chloroform, and aqueous alkalies. The
solution is not changed by ferrie chloride, dilute acids or
addition of strong nitric acid a transient blue colour is
1e residue on evaporating the alcoholic solution becomes
adding sulphuric acid ; the colouring matter resembles that
. (Chemiker Zig., 1891, 205.
Mr. Frederick Davis has found that English-grown tomatoes sub-
d to distillation with water afford a volatile substance analogous
oil of onions or garlic. The crade oil obtained by distilling
ight pounds consisted of oxide and sulphide of allyl. The

180 APPENDIX,

ernde oil was acted upon by metallic potassitim to separate the
oxygenated product, and the pure oil removed; this upon analysis
proved to be represented by the formula (C*H°)*S, (Vear-book of
Pharmacy, 1892, p. 515.)

Solanaceous Alkaloids.

The surprising statement made rather more than three years since,
by Messrs. Schering, that belladonna roots contain practically only
hyoseyamine, and that atropine obtained from them is probably a
product of change oceurring during the manufacture, suggested to
Dr. Schiitte to undertake a thoroagh investigation of the subject,
and he has just peblished his results in a long and interesting paper
(Archiv, Oct. 30, p. 492). In the first place the influence of methods
ef preparation upon the conversion of hyoscyamine into atropine was
tested, Dr. Will had already stated that contaet with an alkali is
sufficient to effect this change, and Dr. Schiitte found that the same
result is produced by repeated recrystallizations from acidulated
water, as well as by long keeping of hyoscyamine in solution or in
the form of a gold salt. It was further ascertained that in fractional
precipitation the gold salt of atropine, if any should be present, is
thrown down before that of hyoseyamine, and the inference has
been drawn that if any atropine gold salt be thrown down at the
commencement of the precipitation in a properly-conducted experi-
ment, it represents atropine existing as such in the plant-part, and
that any obtained from a mother-liqnor after the removal of the
hyoscyamine represents a produet of alteration. The influence of |
age and period of vegetation upon the alkaloids in the roots was
next investigated. Itwas found that young fresh roots (1 to 2
years), collected from a basaltic district, ‘whether gathered in the
Spring, summer or autumn, contained only hyoscyamine, but that
older roots (8 years and upwards) always contained, besides much
hyoscyamine, a little already-formed atropine. Similar results
were obtained with roots from old cultivated plants and roots that
had been kept several years. The amount of alkaloid was consider-
ably greater in the roots collected in summer than in the spring
roots, and fell off again in the autumn, but more rapidly in the old
than in the young roots, The avérages obtained at the three
periods were for young roots 0-127, 0°452, and 0:458 per cent., and

for old roots 0-174, 0°358, and 0-280 per cent. Spring and autumn

APPENDIK. 181

leaves of the belladonna plant both contained principally hyoscya.
mine, with small quantities of ready-formed atropine, As to the
fruit, the unripe berries of the wild plant contained chiefly hyoscya-
mine and a little atropine, but the ripe fruit contained only atropine.
The ripe berries of cultivated plants, however, yielded both hyoseya-
mine and atropine, while the ripe berries from var. lutea gave

old stramonium seeds yielded chiefly hyoscyamine, together with
q i istics of already-formed atropine, and scopo ola amine. The

ent in Solanum nigrum and Lycitum barbarum.
Nicotiena tabacum also yielded traces of a mydriatic alkaloid, and

were detected. Pyridine was the chief base in the smoke

182 APPENDIX.

from pipes, while collidine was the prominent base in cigar-smoke,
Vohl and Eulenberg conelude that the nicotine of tobacco is com>
pletely decomposed during the process of smoking, and that the intense
action of tobacco-smoke on the nervous system is due to the presence’
of bases of the pyridine series. There is no doubt that some
observers have mistaken these bases for nicotine; but Melsen’s
experiments (Dingl. Polyt. Jour., xlvii., 212) appear to be conclusive
as to the presence of nicotine, which that chemist isolated in @
condition fit for analysis, and to the amount of about 33 grammes for
4! kilogrammes of tobacco smoked, gr about one-seventh of the
quantity originally present. (Allen’s Com, Organ. Anal., iii., pt. 2.)
A. Gautier has since observed that the volatile liquid products
formed when tobacco is smoked in a pipe consist chiefly of basic
compounds. They contain a large proportion of nicotine, a higher
homologue of nicotine Ct!H'°N*, which pre-exists in tobacco leaves,
and a base C°H’°NO, which seems to be a hydrate of picoline, Other
less volatile bases, including hydropyridines, are also formed. These
alkaloids result from the decomposition, at a comparatively low
temperature, of the earbopyridic and carbohydropyridic or analogous
acids present in tobacco, (J, Chem. Soc., April, 1893.) -

The alkaloidal contents of the Seeds and
Tincture of Datura Stramonium.

The principal constituents of stramonium seeds, according to Fliic-
kiger and Hanbury’s Pharmacogr aphia (p. 461), are an alkaloid,
existing in combination with malic acid, and a fixed oil, of which the
seeds are said to contain 25 per cent. The alkaloidal ot aay
was first isolated by Geiger and Hesse in 1833, and i
submitted to examination by Von Planta, who came to the anole
that it was identical with atropine. This statement was subsequent-
ly confirmed by E. Schmidt (Ber. der Deutsch. Chem, Ges., xiii.,
370), who, however, afterwards modified his views, and concluded
that daturine was really a mixture, in varying proportions, of atropine
and hyoscyamine (Archiv. der Pharmacie, xxii,, 32

Ladenburg also showed (Berichte Chem. Ges., xiii., 909) that
stramonium contains two alkaloids, which he designated heavy and
= daturine, the former consisting of mewine and pie aah

and the latter of hyoscyamine only, :

APPENDIX, 183

© As to the distribution of the alkaloid in the plant, and the com-
parative strength of the sceds and the leaves, very little reliable
information is obtainable.
_ _Hurtz and Hopp (Annal der Therap., 1862, p. 22) inferred, from
experiments made by them, that an extract from the seeds possessed
five times the physiological activity of an extract from the leaves,
Evidence of this kind is, however, of very little value unless the pro-
rtionate amount of extract obtained from the seeds and the leaves
of the seeds is given in Pharmacographia as 1 per cent. and
_ that of the leaves as “02 to -03 per cent,
¢ Hurts (Druggists? Circular, Aug., 1884) reports having obtained
eld of daturine from the seeds of «167 per cent.
E. Schmidt (Year-book of Pharmacy, 1885, p. 242) obtained
from 5 kilos of each of four specimens of seeds, 12°5, 18-4, 2°6, and
10-2 grams alkaloid, equivalent to a percentage yield of °25, °37
*05, and +20 respectively.

A. B. Lyons (Manual of Practical Assaying), estimating the
oid by titration with Mayer’s solution , found the average yield
kaloid by five specimens of the seeds to be from °45 to °55 per
and that from eight specimens of the leaves to be °40 to 25

fav

w

results could be trusted, they would appear to indicate
percentage of alkaloid in the seeds and leaves is practically
e, but the process of estimation by titration with Mayer's

ves, with a view of ascertaining their relative alkaloidal strength,
3 still needed.

obtained, and a series of tinctures made from each, by the

focess, with menstrua of 80, 70, 60, 50, and 40 per cent,
h (by volume), Itwas remarked that all the tinctures became
; when kept, and all threw down a more or less abundant

J per cent. tinctures apparently consisting of fatty matter in a

ge -transparent crystalline condition, while the deposit from the

finctures of lower alcoholic strength was darker in colour and
ype O partake more of a resinous character.

184 APPENDIX.

In addition to the seed. tinctures, we also prepared, for the purpose
of comparison, three series of tinctures from the leaves, menstrua of —
the same alcoholic strength, and the same proportion of drug to —
menstruum being used, as in the case of the seed tinctures.

Before proceeding to the quantitative estimation of the alkaloid, a
few preliminary experiments were tried, in order to ascertain whether
the process employed for the estimation of the alkaloid in tinctures
of henbane and belladonna was equally well adapted for the
estimation of the stramonium tinctures,

For this purpose 300 c.c. of a standard tincture was prepared
with a 60 per cent, menstruum, and the alkaloid estimated by the
following processes, the usual precautions being taken to prevent
loss of alkaloid in washing with chloroform, &c.:—

Experiment I—Fifty c.c. of the tincture was evaporated to low

bulk with addition of water, until all spirit had been removed. The
residual liquor was allowed to cool and was then acidified with
dilute sulphuric acid, and freed from fat and colouring matter by
means of chloroform. It was then made alkaline, and the alkaloids
removed by shaking with three successive portions of chloroform.
From the mixed chloroformie solutions the alkaloids were extracted
by three agitations with acidulated water, and were afterwards
regenerated from the mixed acid solutions, after addition of excess
of ammonia, by shaking out with chloroform. The latter solution
was then shaken with ammoniated water, and after separation was
drawn off and evaporated, and the residue dried at 100° and
weighed.
Experiment II,—The tincture was evaporated to low bulk, the
residual liquor allowed to cool, and an excess of dilute sulphuric
acid added. It was then freed from fat and colouring matter by
means of chloroform, a slight excess of ammonia added, the alkaloids
shaken out with three doses of chloroform, the latter solutions
mixed, and after treatment with ammoniated water evaporated, and
the residue dried and weighed.

_ Experiment III.—The tincture was evaporated till all spirit was
-removed, and the residual liquor acidified with dilute sulphuric acid
and shaken with chloroform and ether in turn, till the latter came
: ee iontiaen. The alkaloidal solution was then made alkaline

; the alkaloids shaken out with three successive 15 ¢.c, _

— 185

ether (sp. gr. +717), the mixed ethereal. - solutions evaporated, and
the residue dried and weighed. |

Experiment IP. —The tincture was ‘Se apaneeed to remove the
spirit, the residual liquor acidified, and colouring matter removed by

his solution treated with a slight excess of ammonia ; the alkaline
liquid shaken with three successive portions of ether (sp. gr. PTH,
» mixed ethereal solutions evaporated, and Lg? residue dried

at V. —This was conducted exactly as No. II., the ai
moved by i means of Sips eer ether before the preliminary
\ = chloroform

: ae I. 50 c.c. tincture = 014 gram alkaloids,
_ \ Experiment Il, 50ec. ° ,, = °015 vf

oil ‘in ‘the’ say and also showed that my Pr fctcereri
‘treatment with petroleum ether, in order to remove the oily” matter,
s unnecessary. Confirmatory experiments with a 70 per ‘cent.
ture, by processes IT. and V., gave the following results:
No. II. 50 c.c, tincture = -015 gram alkaloids, :
ee Y. 50 cle’ 5" Se
e exact details of the process adopted are as follows :—
¢.c. of the tincture to be estimated is introduced into of por-

186 APPENDIX,

well shaken. After separation the chloroform is drawn off, and the
process repeated with 10 c.c. chloroform. The washings are mixed
and freed from traces of alkaloid by shaking with three successive
small portions of acidulated water, and these are separated and
added to the original solution, The latter is then made alkaline with
ammonia, and the alkaloids extracted with three successive 15 c¢.c,
chloroform, To obtain the alkaloids in a pure condition, they are
withdrawn from solution in chloroform by agitation with three
successive small portions of acidulated water, the mixed acid solutions
made alkaline with ammonia, and the alkaloids taken out by agita-
tion first with 10 c.c, and then with two successive 5 c.c, chloroform,
In cases where the final acidified aqueous solution was not colourless,
the process of shaking out was repeated. The mixed chloroformic
alkaloidal solutions were afterwards shaken with ammoniated water,
and after separation were drawn off and evaporated over a water-
bath, and the alkaloidal residue heated at 100° until the weight
was constant.

The above process was found to be applicable to the majority of
the tinctures without any modification; but with others greater
difficulty was experienced than had been the case in any of the
estimations previously made.

This arises from the fact that in many specimens of stramonium
seeds there seems to exist some substance soluble both in alcohol and
water, and not removable by chloroform either from an acid or
alkaline liquor, and which possesses the property of emulsifying
chloroform when that liquid is shaken up with a solution contain-
ing it.

No difficulty was experienced in removing the oil and colouring
matter, but when the extract was made alkaline and shaken with
chloroform, emulsification took place, and the chloroform refused to
separate out clear, even after standing for some hours. Separation
‘into two layers did, however, take place, the upper layer consisting
‘of a brown alkaline mother-liquor, and the lower layer of emulsified
chloroform containing the alkaloid in solution, and holding in

‘suspension some of the mother-liquor. It was ascertained bare all

_ the alkaloid was taken out by the chloroform, and two eS

oe “were devised, yen it could be extracted from the aoeebietlt
| _ and o in a pure condition. By the plan first

the original alkaline liquor was “shaken — st

APPENDIX, 187

. —— 15 ¢e.c. chloroform, and after separation these were drawn

water, by which means all the alkaloid was taken out, together
with the mother-liquor included in the chloroform magma, and

olu shaken with ammoniated water, and after separation drawn
off and evaporated and the residue dried at 100° and weighed, The
of alkaloid by this process is very slight, and there is no waste
roform, the same portion being employed all the way through
‘shaking out the alkaloids, a fresh quantity being used only for
final extraction of the pure alkaloid. The process, however, was
ong and tedious one, each estimation occupying four or five

off et Geijostion and the residue dried at 100° and weighed.
two modifications of the process of estimation were tried side

188 APPENDIX,

by side on four of the most troublesome samples of tincture, and the
results in each case were exactly concordant,

~The alkaloid as obtained by either of these processes is in the form
of a perfectly colourless, transparent fused mass, It is soluble in
water and dilute acids, and the reactions generally correspond with
those of the alkaloidal residue obtained from the belladonna tinctures.

A glance at the table will show that the most perfect exhaustion of
stramonium seeds is effected by the use of a 69 or 70 per cent, men-
struum, the average yield of alkaloid by the tinctures prepared with
menstrva of these strengths being equal. It is open to question,
however, whether a better preparation could not be obtained from
the leaves. The chief objections to the tincture prepared from the
seeds are that it almost invariably becomes turbid and deposits when
kept, and also becomes opaque on dilution, which Pigeons do not
apply to a 50 per cent, tincture of the leaves.

The results of the examination of the leaf-tinctures are appended to
the table, The leaves from which No. 1 series was prepared were
gathered from plants grown by one of us (Farr), and the deficiency _
of alkaloid is doubtless accounted for by the persistent rain and lack
of sunshine which characterized the past season. The tinctures made
from the other two specimens, however, gave the same average of
alkaloid as the seed-tinctures, Lyons’ results, referred to above,
go to show that the alkaloidal strength of the seeds and leaves is the
same, and should this fact be established as the result of further
work upon the subject, we should recommend that this tineture, like
those of henbane and belladonna, be prepared from the leaves, on the
ground that a 50 per cent. tincture of the leaves is a more elegant
pharmaceutical product than a 60 per cent, tincture of the seeds.

The results tabulated go to prove that the alkaloidal content of
stramonium seeds does not vary to anything like the same extent as
does that of most other drugs, the yield of the tinctures varying
between the limits of -020 and ‘034, with an average of -026 per cent.

This tincture, like those of henbane and belladonna, readily admits
of standardization, and the standard should be fixed not lower than ©
025 per cent.

= The average amount of alkaloid contained i in the 0 Reais calculated :
menage oe Pasty “2 per cent,

APPENDIX, ‘189

‘The percentage amount of the extractive in tinctures was ascer-
tained by evaporating 10 c.c. of the sample over a water-bath, heat-
ing the residue at 100° till the weight was constant, and hace hg
the result by ten,

: It Bit be-remarked that the last five series aftinctures shoves Ge mah
yield of extract than the first six, and it will also be noticed
at the difference is more marked in the case of the tinctures pre-
red with the stronger menstrua. This discrepancy is accounted
r by the a, that series 1—6 were made, as the armacopeia
e bruised seeds, while the drugs employed i in the
bration a series 71] were reduced to somewhat fine powder

adbea ng ¢ oT into lke We have previously iat

and as a consequence
the prepared with the sexouiges menstrua with a
ty hs sc and i in all jeter inert matter. This is sev:

: Table showing Quantitative Results of Estimation of Samples of Tincture of Stramonium Seeds.

ad
ei
: Amount of alkaloid in grams from 100¢.¢, tincture. | Amount of extractive in grams from 100 c.c. tincture.
No. of Sample.
80 . | 60 p.c p.c. | 40 p.c. | 80 p.c. | 79 p.c. | 60 p.c. | 50 p. | 40 Pp. c.
tincture. | tincture. | tincture, | tincture. | tincture. | tincture. | tincture. | tincture. ps 9 | tincture.
: |
re et 084 0382 “030 030 52 54 54 60 al
ee ; e 2 026 024 022 52 “50 56 6 55
ris ne - 021 024 023 024 017 52 “2 69
ere is 030 028 027 "030 029 *48 58 54 52 50 >
ae ve s 029 028 028 i 026 59 61 64, 78 70 _
eae cs é 020 024 025 ‘O24 018 72 78 80 Bo
Das see wel 7 O20 027 0295 *023 2 5 1°62 118 74 74 a
ee 021 025 "0245 “019 0205 | 1-76 1M6 1:24 90 ‘70 2
ae 019 020 015 1 2 92 62 52 ra
10 bee tee tee "020 023 024 021 015 1°00 78 "68 6U
PALS sis tee wat “ORT 2 023 020 ‘018 1°34 1:14 88 74 58
Average ... ...| ‘0285 0258 | -0256 | *"Oz84 | -o209 | 102 “90 | 77 ‘67 ‘64
Results of Estimation af Leaf-tinctures.
2 ee ie ; o12 015 14 ‘014 013 1°60 2°08 2:20 2°46 2°94
eee = : 024 ‘028 ‘028 ‘028 028 2°04 2:48 2°68 2°80 2°82
ae oe 022 022 ‘023 02 022 1:90 2°04 28 294 3:08

* Series No, 3 was made from seeds gathered in 1889,

(Ly E. H. Farr and R, Wright, “ Pharm, Journ,” Jan. 16th, 1892.)

APPENDIX, 191

ACANTHACEAE.

Note on the presence of a epireee leg in the roots of
Hygrophila spin
In the Pharmacographia Indica, one of us described the physical
properties of a principle isolated from the roots of the Hygrophila
spinosa, which was not unlike a cholesterol. Subsequently, through
the kindness of Dr. Dymock, we obtained a large supply of the roots,
and were able to separate a sufficient amount of the material to
admit of its thorough purification and ultimate composition being
determined.
_ For ultimate analysis the principle was crystallized from light
petroleum ether, and the combustion made in an open tube in a
-_ eurrent of oxygen. The tube had been in use some time and was
ie in very good working order. The results obtained led to the follow-

i: aa our

a axe ies Be ee 83-86 83-80
see a eee 44 11-82 12°02

ne z : Oey 16 4°32 418
eth 100°00 ‘00 100-00

At 175° C. ania the cholesterol Sa aceanaueae ae to soften, and
melted at 184° (uncor.). The fusing point would appear to be higher
than that of any cholesterol hitherto isolated. We were unfor-
tunately unable to determine the specific rotatory power.
In purifying the cholesterol an alcoholic extract of the root was
dried and exhausted with ether. The dry ether extract was treated
: with dilute sulphuric acid, and the insoluble residue taken up by
eth The ether extract was next boiled with aqueous caustic

4
4

tash, the solution evaporated to dryness, and extracted with
petroleum ether. The petroleum ether extract was boiled for some _
hours with alcoholic potash, the solution evaporated to dryness, and
= with petroleum ether. he ee extract was of a a

this, however, failed to remove the whole of the colour, and the
following experiment was adopted. The alcohol was evaporated off,

192 APPENDIX.

the residue dissolved in petroleum ether, and the solution agitated with
proof spirit ; by this means most of the colouring matter was removed.
The cholesterol was finally several times crystallized from petroleum
ether, and was obtained perfectly white. A benzoyl derivative was
also prepared, Evaporated with a drop of nitric acid and the dry
residue moistened with ammonia, an orange colour developed, but
no change was induced by the addition of caustic potash, The violet
reaction with ferric chloride and HCl applied as described by Forti
was very marked. The sulphuric acid and chloroform reaction was
conducted in a stoppered bottle ; the chloroform layer at first became
yellowish-brown, then blood-red, finally darkening to reddish-purple ;
the sulphuric acid and stratum was of a pink colour, and in some
experiments fluoresced, (By C.J. H. Warden, and Assistant Surgeon
C. L, Bose, Assistant Chemical Examiner to Government of Bengal.)

LABIATZ.
Salvia macrosiphon, Boiss.

The Kanocha seeds referred by us (Vol. IIL, p. 265) to Phyllan-
thus madraspatensis have been shown by Dr. O. ‘Stapt to belong to
a species of Salvia. Dr. Stapt bought the drug in the bazaars o
Ispahan, where it was known by the Persian name Marv. A drug
called “ Merw” was mentioned by Abu Mansur in 1055, and Selig-
mann refers it to Origanum Mary, L., a native of Syria. Aitchison,
in his Notes on the Products of Weatthn Afghanistan, mentions
‘Salvia (?)” as the origin of the nutlets known as Kanoucha or
Kanouncha. (Pharm, Journ., March. 11, 1893.)

Influence of Menthol on the gastric functions.*

Following Professor I. T. Tchiidnovsky’s suggestion, Dr. Vladi-
mirsky has carried out a set of experiments on seven healthy subjects
(six men, including himself, and one woman), aged from 24 to 32,
the drag being administered with food, in’ the dose of 0°3, 1-0 and 20
_ grammes. The author has arrived at the following conclusions :-—

(1) The drug (in any of the doses stated) very markedly dimi-
‘inion the proportion of free hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice,
the decrease attaining its maaimusn in about 1 or 1} hours after

APPENDIX. 193

(2) In persons presenting a more or less weakened motor power
f the stomach, the decrease lasts longer than in those with a normal

(3) The digestive power of the gastric juice is diminished.

) The transformation of proteids into peptones is retarded (hence
preased proportion of propeptones, t.e., intermediary products of .

ation).

The proportion of Lanite acid in the gastric juice is aug-

the rise proceeding parallelly with diminution in the propor-
ydrochloric acid.

r power of the stomach grows weaker (in about one

gestion); in initial stages of the digestion, however,

y undergo some increase,

‘ptive power of the organ improves, which seems to

pon a favourable (stimulating) influence of menthol

Largrgloy and Rha ynology, May, 1890, p, 202), L. Breddois
S. Rosenberg, Hugo Koster, and many other observers,
ot appear to possess any special “ appeitecn al nes ?.

doses, the remedy aa Boke
DEY ei by sensations of languor and
. Viadimirsky.)

_ Ustukhadus and Gul-i-sirwaj.

esc from Afghanistan, under the name of

we received, under the name of Gul-i-sirway,
red calices of Hymenocrater elegans, Bunge,
; the calices have au agreeable aromatic

194 | APPENDIX,

ARISTOLOCHIACEZ.
Aristolochine and Aristin.

These two substances have been obtained from the roots of
Aristolochia argentina by Dr. QO. Hesse, who gives the following
account of them (Pharm, Journ., Jan. 9th, 1892):—

The powdered root gives a dark brown yellow colour to ether, and
when gaseous ammonia is added to the ethereal solution a red
flocculent precipitate is separated. The ether solution separated
from this precipitate gives on evaporation a yellowish-brown residue,
in which clear, colourless crystals are formed after some time. The
dark-coloured mass separated from these crystals and again dissolved
in ether gives, on shaking with dilute sulphuric acid, a sm
quantity of a base. The greater part of it, however, remains in the
root that has been treated with ether, and can be extracted with
alcohol, On evaporating the alcoholic extract a brownish-yellow
resinous residue is obtained that is partly dissolved by caustic soda
solution and gives up the base to ether. .

I propose to apply the name Aristin to the substance contained in
the above-mentioned red ammoniacal compound. When that” ‘com-
pound is dissolved in hot glacial acetic acid, the aristin crystallizes
out on cooling, and it can easily be obtained in a pure state by recrys-
tallizing from hot glacial acetic acid. Aristin forms shining gold-
coloured laminz and flat needles sparingly soluble in hot glacial
acetic acid and searcely at all soluble in the cold. It is sparingly
soluble in hot alcohol, more so in ether, chloroform, or benzene.

‘At about 260° C. it blackens, but does not melt until the
temperature reaches 270° C., and then undergoes decomposition.
It dissolves in concentrated nitric acid on boiling for a short
time, and separates again unaltered on cooling ; but when the
boiling is long continued decomposition takes place with evolu-
tion of red vapour.’ Aristin dissolves in acetic anhydride with
a yellow colour, and when concentrated sulphuric acid is dropped
into the solution it becomes at first intensely blue and then
pern#mently greenish-blue. The alcoholic solution of aristin :
has a perfectly neutral reaction, but the substance combines with —
ammonia soda. These compounds have a fine red cdl
ee aleoher ‘in

\

APPENDIX. _ | 195 ee

alcohol with deep orange-red coloration; On addition of acids to
these solutions a flocculent yellow precipitate is thrown down which
scon becomes crystalline.

The second of the above-mentioned compounds is a fat acid ester
that can be easily purified by recrystallization from alcohol, It
takes the form of small white lamin which melt at 84° C. +, and are
very soluble in hot alcohol, but sparingly in cold alcohol , very soluble
in ether, pertroleum spirit or chloroform, and insoluble in water.

The substance dissolves in hot glacial acetic acid, and on coolin
erystallizes out again unaltered. In the alcoholic solution this
substance can be easily saponified, the products being phytosterin
and palmitie acid,

he third substance mentioned above is a base, to which I propose
giving the name Aristolochine. That name has already been applied
by Chevallier to a bitter substance obtained from Aristolochia
serpentaria, but it was obviously a mixture the bitter taste of which
was probably due to the presence of the base now described. There-
fore, the name seems to me to have been inappropriate in that instance,
and I have transferred it to the pure substance.

Aristolochine is precipitated from its colourless solutions in
sulphuric or acetic acid on the addition of ammonia or caustic soda
in the form of white amorphous flocks. It is freely soluble in
alcohol, ether, chloroform, or benzene. On evaporating the ether
solution it remains as a colourless resinous mass. When the ether
solution is mixed with an equal volume of petroleum spirit and the
mixture very slowly evaporated, warty masses are deposited that are
distinctly crystalline. The base has a bitter taste and neutralizes
acid perfectly. The hydiodide and sulphocyanide are amorphous
oily precipitates which present no tendency to crystallize. The
platinochloride is a dark yellow and the aurochloride a pale yellow
amorphous precipitate ; both are almost insoluble in water,

The behaviour of the base with concentrated sulphuric acid is
remarkable. It forms a fine green solution, which becomes bright
bluish-green on the addition of a trace of ferric chloride. Similar
reactions are given by aricine, cusconine, and some of the bases
of the bark of Remijia purdieana.

a appears to have been already observed by Dymock
and Warden in their examination of dristolochia indica, and I am of
opinion ce the differences of their statements in regard to the base

196 | APPENDIX.

are solely due to their having failed to separate it completely from

colouring material. I am also of opinion that aristin partakes of

the nature of the yellow substance* obtained by previous observers,
and that, according to some remarks of Dymock and Warden, it is
probably present in the root of Aristolochia indica;

Aristolochin is the name given by Dr. J. Pohl to the active
principle of the seeds of Aristolochia Clematitis and the roots of
A. rotunda and A, longa. The powdered drugs were exhausted with
petroleum-ether, which removed chlorophyll, oil, and a gelatinous,
nitrogenous, inactive substance (occasionally this can be obtained
crystalline); warm 96 per cent. alcohol removed the colouring and
bitter principles; after evaporating to syrupy consistence it was
taken up with water and acidulated with sulphurie acid, the preci-
pitate collected, expressed, dried at 40° C., and extracted in a Soxhlet
apparatus for some weeks with petroleum-ether until the last traces
of the above-mentioned nitrogenous substance were removed and
the residue exhausted with aleohol or ether; from this alcoholic or
ethereal solution there separated after a time yellow erystalline

masses, which, recrystallized several times from ethereal solution, —

were found to constitute the active principle. It is soluble in chloro-
form, ether, acetone, phenol, acctic anhydride, aniline, and aleohol ;
almost insoluble in cold water, slightly soluble in warm water ;
insoluble in pertroleum-ether, benzol, and carbon disulphide ; alkalies
and alkaline-earth hydrates dissolve it; from neutral or alkaline
solutions it is precipitated by neutral and basic lead acetate, dialyzed
iron, zine sulphate, silver nitrate, and a saturated solution of salt,
but not by alum, copper sulphate, and platinic chloride ; it does not
reduce Fehling’s solution and does not react with Millon’s reagent.
Its ultimate analysis, C 59°98, H 3-54, N 4:32, O 32-16, leads to the
formula O™H**N*Q" Physiologically it was found that cold-
blooded animals were entirely indifferent to it; while in warm-
blooded animals uremic intoxication was produced ; in this respect
aristolochin is a much more powerful agent than any other sub-
stance ; it resembles aloin in its action upon thefkidneys, but is about
ten times more poisonous—it is probable that given to man it may

1891,642.)

-* See Pharm. Journ, li, 245

act as a cathartic (Arch. f. exper, Pathol. u. Pharm.). (Apoth, Zig. :

APPENDIX. : ee

LAURINEA, 2
Gum-barks.

Gum-bark, or Pishin-puttai of the Tamils, does not refer to the bark
of a tree which exudes a gum by bruising or incision, but denotes a
bark which has such mucilaginous properties that it could be used for
special purposes in medicine and the arts, where the white of egg
would be used elsewhere. Barks of this description occur in the
natural orders Malvacee and Laurinex, and students of materia
medica know that drugs of these orders, marsh-mallow root, and the
barks of arboreous cinnamons, for instance, contain a peculiar muci-
lage, which is not precipitated by alcohol. A typical gum-bark of
the East is that of Aydia calycina, a malvaceous tree, growing ex-
tensively on the slopes of the Nilgiris, and largely employed in sugar

rel finery under the Tamil name of Kadularangy ~puttar. On s caling

. portion
dante becomes coated with a slimy mucilage, e inner layers of
_ the liber may then be removed like pieces of lace, and the gum is seen
to be occupying the spaces between the longitudinally disposed fibres,
apparently formed from the cellulose of the broken cell-walls, The
bark of Kydia is sold in the bazaars, and the decoction is taken as an
astringent and tonic, and the Vythians or native doctors consider it
to be a specific for diabetes.

Dr. Mohideen Sheriff, in the “‘ Supplement to the Pharmacopeeia of
India,” gives Tetranthera Roxburghii as the botanical origin of
Pishin-puttai, but offers no deseription of the drug under that heading.
Mr. Hollingsworth, of the Madras Medical College, some time ago
supplied me with an authentic specimen of the bark of Tetranthera
laurifolia, or, as it is now called in the “Flora of British India,”’
Litsea sebifera, The bark was of a reddish-brown colour and slightly
- palsamic odour, very different to that of cassia or cinnamon. The

thickness was a quarter of an inch, and when soaked in water
it became very mucilaginous. It afforded, on analysis, distinct
- reactions for an alkaloid, which had the characters of laurotetanine,
a poisonous base lately discoyered by Dr. ae in the barks of
_ several species of Javanese lauraceous plan

About two years ago a collection of pan for identification was
sent to me by Dr, P. 8S. Mootooswamy, of Tanjore, and among
them was a specimen of Pishin-puttat, which, he said, was collected
trees growing in the jungles near Point Calimere. This bark

198 APPENDIX.

had a most agreeable odour, resembling, but not identical with, Indian
cassia, and the taste was decidedly sweet. It made a slimy mucilage
when mixed with water and contained some tannic acid, but no
alkaloid resembling laurotetanine could be separated from it, The
bark is sold in the bazaars, and itis known as Mydalakady among
Muhammadans, It is used in medicine for its mucilaginous,
demulcent, and refrigerant properties. By powdering the bark with
some benzoin, mixing it into a paste with a little water, and smearing
this on reeds, and drying them in the sun, flavouring sticks called
Samboorany-vathe are made, and are burnt as an incense or perfume,
I have not been able to obtain the botanical source of this particular
variety of gum-bark, but I am inclined to believe from its odour that
it is an arboreous cinnamon.

From Travancore Ihave received on different occasions thre
specimens of gum-bark, all varying the one from the other, The
first was a thick, red-coloured bark, a commercial article on the
Western Coast, supplied to sugar refiners. The botanical origin could
not be ascertained; it differed in physical characters from the barks
previously mentioned, and yielded an alkaloid having the reactions Of 9
laurotetanine. Probably it was a Litsxa. The second description of
gum-bark was that of Kydia calycina. The third specimen was sent by
the Conservator of Forests for Travancore ; it was named in Malyalum
Ava-tholi, and derived, it was supposed, from a species of Cordia.

I have recently examined some samples of gum-barks from the
Madura District of Southern India, and stated to be used by the hill
villagers in increasing the alcoholic strength of sago toddy. The
plants yielding these barks were up to this time only known by their
vernacular names, but as leaves, flowers, and fruits were also sent,
these enabled them to be identified. The request was also made that
they should be analysed to ascertain the nature and effect of their
use in native spirit manufacture.

The seven specimens of bark were as follows :-—

1. Kadaly-marum* ... ... Olea glandulifera.

2. Koppa-marum __... ... Litsea Zeylanica.

3. Karukathan-gundu* . Hiptage Madablota.
was -. Jasminum flexile.
Pungala-marum ... ... Ligustrum Roxburghii,

ss .. Litsea Wightiana.
la-marum ... we. Gmelina arborea.

| * Marum=tree, gundu=climber (Tamil).

: APPENDIX. 199

~The Olea ait ig is a stout, tall tree, with white flowers and
small black fru e bark is of a greyish colour, with whitish
specks, about 3 a an hah in thickness, breaking with a close granu-
lated tieture, inner surface brown.

The Litsea cages is a moderate-sized tree, with yellowinh-whie
flowers and ruit ; the leaves are ribbed and whitish on the
__- under surface. “The bark is gray and covered with lichens, smooth,
2 of an inch thick, fracture close, showing white, glistening fibres
running through the red substance of the middle and inner layers,
brown and smooth internally, The bark gives off a fragrant odour

when burning.

_ The Hiptage ORL is a woody climber, reaching to the top

of trees over 100 feet high. The stems are from half to three-

quarters of an inch in een and covered with a thin, smooth,

lish-brown bark enclosing a yellowish wood.

e Jasminum flexile is also a climber. The stems are about one

ch in diameter, very woody and knotted, covered with a light
lowish- brown papery bark, exfoliating on the surface.

The Ligustrum Roxburghit is a stout tree about 50 feet in height,
The bark is coloured russet-brown, and is a quarter of an inch or
more in thickness; fracture close, showing thick white fibres running

the brown middle and inner layers.

‘The tages Wightiana is similar to L. Zeylunica in many respects,
The bark has a greyish-green epidermis, beneath which is a chocolate-
coloured surface ; the fracture is short and light coloured, becoming
red or brown by exposure to the air,

The Gmelina arborea is a common tree in the plains. The bark is
about half an inch thick, with a rugged, black and yellowish-brown
Burtace, middle layer hard and brown, fracture granular, ochreous

hb documents accompanying these specimens stated that the
barks of these trees were used ‘to increase the intoxicating effects
of sago toddy.” The bark is simply placed in the toddy and left
there for two or three days. The bark No, 3, it is said, is not so
frequently used, as the resulting liquor causes honiaske when drunk.

ith reference to No. 7, it was said that a tenth part of it would
x the purpose in the absence of other barks.
will only be necessary to give the results of the chemical
ation of these barks, in so far as they are likely to explain

200 APPENDIX.

their action in the fermentation of sugar, Three of the plants
_ curiously enough belong to the natural order Oleacex ; these are Olea
glandulifera, jasminum and ligustrum, and like other plants of this
order contain a peculiar bitter principle, soluble in water and alcohol,
and a yellow colouring matter called quercetin. Two other barks of
the series belong to the same natural family of the laurels, and have a
similar composition ; these are the Litseas. The Hiptage bark con-
tains tannin, and is simply an astringent; and the Gmelina belongs
to a class of plants distinguished for their bitterness.

The amount of extract dissolved out of the bark by water and
aleohol respectively were determined in order to ascertain their
relative proportion, as it would seem that in the absence of much
resin, the excess of water extract over the spirit extract would
indicate mucilaginous matter, and on the barks being placed in the
toddy, which in a fresh state is a watery solution of sugar, with some
albuminous matter, the extract would dissolve, but as fermentation
proceeded, alcohol would be formed and the mucilage would become
insoluble and precipitate, carrying down with it the viscid albumen,
and thus allow the s sugar to Berean more Rr aera From the ;
that other gum-barks besid > L as Ky:
and Guazuma tomentosa, are Pleas cused ie eo ‘sugar, it is
evident that some such object as this is intended in their employment,
The astringent qualities of most of the above-mentioned barks are no
doubt used for the purpose of forming insoluble compounds with
albuminous matter in saccharine solutions; just as hops are used to
remove this substance from malt liquor in the ordinary process of
brewing beer, The hops are found to prevent in a great measure
the tendency of the beer to become sour, in consequence of the
conversion of alcohol into acetic acid, and in warm climates where ~
such liquors are apt to run into the acetous fermentation very
rapidly, it is necessary to employ astringent drugs to regulate the
formation of alcohol and prevent the development of acetic acid.
The natives consider these barks a necessary ingredient in making
‘spirit, for the following reasons: Firstly, they diminish the great

sweetness of the toddy sugar. Secondly, they render the spirit more
ntoxicating. The first of these phenomena is accounted for by the
fact that-sugar breaks up during fermentation into two

alcohol and carbonic acid ; ste ed ae the
to ob 02 hol from

APPENDIX, 201 ‘i

his toddy than he could get from leaving it to brew without such ad-

juncts. The analyses of the barks, with the exception of the Litszas,
_ which contain laurotetanine, has revealed no principle of poisonous or

intoxicating properties, therefore the idea of their directly communi-

eating a potency to the spirit is not sufficiently established, and,
besides, as the spirituous liquor is submitted to distillation afterwards, 8,
any alkaloid, such as strychnine, would be left behind in the retort,
Some of the barks are aromatic, and these most likely are used to
flavour the resulting spirit, which would be the case if the aroma
resided in a volatile oil. It is probably a spirit of this kind that
Dr, Ainslie refers to under the title of Puttaicharagum, or bark-spirit,
an alcoholic liquor in which barks of various aeacias are used in the
manufacture, (D. Z.

Formosa Camphor.*

_ Formosa camphor is obtained from the Lawrus camphora, immense
forests: of shits extend over most of the lower ranges of hills in the
island, extending up the lower slopes of the mountains inhabited by
the savage tribes. Many of these forests have not been touched, and
the statement that the camphor supplies in South Formosa are
becoming exhausted, applies only to those districts which are purely
Chinese. The supply from other parts is practically inexhaustible.
Even in purely Chinese districts it is only at certain places that the
supply is falling off in consequence of the reckless manner in which
the trees have been destroyed, partly for the sake of the timber and
eamphor, and partly, no doubt, simply to clear the ground for
cultivation.

It has been often stated that the method of obtaining crude
camphor in Formosa is by steeping the chopped branches in water,
and boiling until the camphor begins to adhere to the stick used for
stirring, when the liquor is strained, and by standing the camphor
concretes, By this method it does not necessarily follow that the
tree is destroyed; in fact, with a little care there is no need that it
should be. But although this method may have been in use in
former days, it certainly is not now. On the contrary, I am assured
__ by several natives, engaged in the trade, whom I have questioned on
‘ the subject, that the yield of camphor from the branches is too
y the labour of extraction.

m a report by Mr. Scot A hcseonc, tae sescarek lah Formosa.

202 APPENDIX.

Tke method in general use now is as follows:—The camphor expert
selects a tree and scrapes into the trunk in different places, using an
instrument somewhat resembling a rake, with the view of ascertain-
ing whether it contains sufficient camphor to repay the labour of
extraction. A tree is said not to be worth anything for camphor
purposes until it is fifty years’ old, and the yield is very unequal ;
sometimes one side only of the tree contains enough camphor to
satisfy the expert, and in this case that side alone is attacked.
The trunk is scraped to as great a height as the workmen can
conveniently reach, and the scrapings are pounded up and boiled
with water in an iron vessel over which an earthenware jar, specially
made for the purpose, is inverted. The camphor sublimes and
condenses on the jar, which is removed from time to time, scraped,
and replaced. The root of the tree and the trunk, for some eight
feet up, contain, as a rule, the greatest quantity of camphor, If the
scrapings obtained from the trunk yield well, the chipping ,is con-
tinued until in the end the tree falls. The roots are then grubbed
up, as it is certain they will give a proportionately good return, If,

however, the scrapings do not turn out well, the tree is abandoned, —
and work is commenced on another, No attempt is made to extract La

camphor from the fallen trunk or from the branches. In some ‘eases,
the trunk is sawn up into timber, but this depends on the locality ;
from many districts, owing to absence of roads, timber would not
pay for its transport.

It is impossible to imagine a more wasteful method of procedure,
and it is fortunate that the camphor forests of Formosa are practi-
cally inexhaustible.

_ The quantity of camphor produced depends, of course, simply on
the amount of labour employed in the business. Ten of the iron pots
mentioned above and their accompanying jars make up what is
called a ‘‘ set,” and are worked by four men, One set will produce
about 65 lbs, in ten days, or, say, 18 cwt.a month, but this only
under the most favourable circumstances; a fair average is about
1} ewt.

_ Recently a change has been made in the camphor monopoly. It is

_ now proposed by the Chinese authorities that the camphor stills

‘should be licensed before they are permitted to work. The cost of

the license will be equivalent to a tax of about 22s. 6d. per cwt.,
ry tax, seeing that the

the actual value of the camphor at the

APPENDIX. 203

place of ———* is very little over this amount. = Journ,
June 13th, 1891.)

El TACK.
Phyllanthus Niruri.

The bitter principle of this plant, which we fi seetnige.! named
pseudo-chiratan, has been examined by M. Ottow (Nederil. Tijds,
voor Pharm., 1891, 8, se — ealls it ee and gives its
ehemical Sennipoiditiock as 70°, It crystallizes-in colourless
needles or flakes, possesses an cases pies taste, and is almost in-

soluble in water, but easily soluble in alcohol, petroleum ether,
ether, chloroform, benzene, and glacial acetic acid. At 200° C. it is
volatilized and condenses in the-upper part of the vessel as an amor-
phous mass, but in a few days this sey a deposit changes to,
the crystalline state.

Manioc or Cassava.

From the brief allusions to this substance by writers on Materia
Medica, one would get but a slight idea of its importance as an arti-
cai Cle a diet in Sirnicial countries, being the staple-food for unnumbered
~~ millions of human beings—the staff of life in the West Indies, Brazil,

nae on the Continent of Africa,

The plant from which this food is derived is known to botanists as
Janipha Manihot, and is a shrub six to twelve feet high and one or two
inches in diameter. Except for the young leaves, which are used as
greens, its whole value consists in its tuberous roots, which sometimes
reach the enormous weight of thirty pounds, but usually range from
one to three inches in diameter and from six to eighteen inches in
length, The shrub is said to bea native of Brazil, where it is known
as Mandioca or Tapioca, Cassada (or Cassava) is its name in the West
Indies, Itis not grown from the seeds, but from cuttings, having
surprising vitality; for a cane of it, like Aaron’s rod, will bud and
grow leaves in your hand. Hence, it is only necessary to cut the
_ stick into pieces of six to twelve inches in length, and thrust them
into the ground, and it matters little whether the ground has been
first broken for itor not. In eight to eighteen months the tubers
are in their best state to produce the nutritious food—seventy per cent,
gluten and thirty of starch ; but, at a later period, the gluten becomes

204 APPENDIX.

less and the starch increases. There is no food-produet which com-
pares with it in resisting drought. Even in the dryest seasons, it is
like other trees “planted by the rivers of water,” and whole fields are
green with its foliage, while all else is brown with the scorching sun,

There are two varieties of the manioc, known as the sweet and the
bitter; the first of which may be eaten with impunity, while the
latter has a bitterish, milky juice, which is poisonous from containing
prussic acid. But these roots are grated or otherwise reduced to a
pomace, and then suspended in grass bags, when the poisonous juice
drips out, or, being volatile, is dissipated by the heat in baking bread
from it. The bitter variety is the principal kind used in British
Guiana, while the sweet is the one mostly cultivated in Africa, The
tapioca which comes into our houses is almost pure starch, and is
made from the expressed juice of the root, which, on standing, deposits
in the form of powder, and which, if dried without heat, will remain
so. If heat be applied, it takes the form of the irregular masses we
are accustomed to see,

The root has the taste of chestnuts, and may be eaten raw
delicious, wholesome food when roasted in hot embers or |
$f soaked fill the oki a ne Pee, ee

Ibis

+ # ihe tricans call it

oH pinta ?
bomba.

An extremely white and fine flour, called fuda, is made from the
soaked and dried roots, and it is the chief food in Angola.

The flour makes a thick porridge or mush—funje. The water is
boiled and salted and set off the fire; after which fuda is stirred in
until it can be cut into blocks, which may be taken in the hands and
eaten with molasses or dipped irito chicken broth.

The staff of life on the Congo is guanga, or bread made from the

_ manioc by soaking, peeling, and pounding the soaked root into a

_ pomace, and kneading and making into dough-loaves of four by six

or ten inches. These loaves aré wrapped in thin, tough leaves and

bound, and then boiled in large earthen pots, Then the bread is ready

for use; or it may be sliced and browned or broiled, as one prefers.”
from the manioc is prepared by grating the green root, dry. _

the sun, with all the starch and tapioca in it, browning it _

&

APPENDIX. 905

Grate, strain, and dry slowly in the sun, and you have a starch for
puddings or any other purpose for which starch has demand in the

market. Gluten being a nerve-food, indispensable to health and

vigour of both body and mind, the great abundance of it in the
Cassada—nearly three times as much as in wheat flour—the Cassada
is pre-eminently ‘“ the staff of life,” since there is no way by which
its abundance of gluten can be wasted in preparation, as in wheat.
There is a Providence here which shapes ends, since this chief food
for tropical regions has so much nerve-supplying elements and so
little of the heating elements, as compared with food in colder
climates.

But this abundant gluten, as compared with other foods for the
sick, pre-eminently fits it for the sick-room, oe especially so when
we wish to increase strength instead of heat, and where any
irritating and indigestible food-substances are at, It requires

longer boiling than starchy foods in general, and may be use in

the form of thin mucilage or demulcent, or in a more solid form with
sugar, lemon juice, nutmeg or other aromatics. I suspect that, as
physicians, we should make immense gain in restoring from prostrat-
ing sicknesses by using more of this eligible substance in place of so
much meat slops, and especially so in cases complicated with more or
less gastric irritation, Meat foods must be excluded from the
stomach in gastric ulcer. Why not, then, fall back upon this highly
nitrogenous food for supporting the strength? Having so large
a proportion of gluten over the starch, it offers immense advantages
over wheaten and other bread in cases of diabetes where any starch
at all is allowable. (By E. Chenery, M.D., of Boston, ‘*The Times
and Register,” April 5th, p. 318.)

- In the Cox’s Bazar district, Bengal, the tuberous roots are used
by the Maghs in the preparation of a spirit.

A false Kamala.

Mr. Henry G. Greenish has examined a sample of Kamala from
Bombay, and found it to have been carelessly collected, and mixed
with badly preserved safflower and other extraneous matter, and
reduced to coarse powder. (Pharm. Journ., March 11th, 1893.)