THE SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA BY PROF. CHARLES 8. SARGENT % Publishers’ Announcement As it has been found impracticable to include in this twelfth volume of Professor Sargent’s great work the general Index to the entire work, a thirteenth volume, containing this Index, together with descriptions and illustrations of recently discovered species, and such — corrections of the original volumes as recent explora- tions have made i will be sent to subscribers without charge, aS soon as ready. . HovucutTon, Mirruin & Co. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA A DESCRIPTION OF THE TREES WHICH GROW NATURALLY IN NORTH AMERICA EXCLUSIVE OF MEXICO BY CHARLES SPRAGUE SARGENT DIRECTOR OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY FUustrated with figures and Analpses drawn from Mature BY CHARLES EDWARD FAXON VOLUME XII CONTIFERA (Abietinee after Pinus) BOSTON AND NEW YORK HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY Che Riversive Press, Cambridge M DCCC XCVIIT nA 4 PX oy gork a4 Vio. Bot. Garden, ved Copyright, 1898, By CHARLES SPRAGUE SARGENT. All rights reserved. The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., U.S. A. Electrotyped and Printed by H. O. Houghton and Company. TO WILLIAM MARRIOTT CANBY THIS TWELFTH VOLUME OF THE SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED BY HIS COMPANION IN MANY JOURNEYS THROUGH THE FORESTS OF THE CONTINENT TABLE OF CONTENTS. Synopsis OF ORDERS . c 5 3 ‘4 Larix AMERICANA : é ° ° LARIX OCCIDENTALIS . 0 0 0 C 0 Larix Lysatna. . ° . ; Picka Mariana ; 6 i : . 0 PIcEA RUBENS a 4 A C PickA CANADENSIS . e 5 : 6 : Picka ENGELMANNI PickA PARRYANA . : 3 : P PickA BREWERIANA 0 : : ( ; Picka SITCHENSIS . b ‘ E 5 Tsuca CANADENSIS Tsuca CAROLINIANA . . 4 TsUGA HETEROPHYLLA . é ‘ . TsucA MERTENSIANA 4 . x 5 PsEUDOTSUGA MUCRONATA PSEUDOTSUGA MACROCARPA é 6 Apigs FRASERI ABIES BALSAMEA ABIES LASIOCARPA . ABIES GRANDIS . ABIES CONCOLOR ABIES AMABILIS ABIES VENUSTA ABIES NOBILIS . 5 ‘i E . 5 ABIES MAGNIFICA . 9 ABIES MAGNIFICA, var. SHASTENSIS Plate dxciii. Plate dxciv. Plate dxev. Plate dxevi. Plate dxevii. Plate dxeviii. . Plate dxcix . Plate de. Plate dci. Plate dcii. Plate deiii Plate deiv. Plate dev. Plate devi. Plate devii. Plate deviii. Plate deix. . Plate dex. Plate dexi. Plate dexii. Plate dexiii. Plate dexiv. Plates dexv., dexvi. Plate dexvii. Plates dexviii., dexix. Plate dexx. ° - 105 - 107 113 121 . 125 129 . 133 137 . 139 SYNOPSIS OF THE ORDERS OF PLANTS CONTAINED IN VOLUME XII. OF THE SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. Crass III. GYMNOSPERMAZS. Resinous trees or shrubs. Stems increasing in diameter by the annual addition of a layer of wood inside the bark. Flowers unisexual, naked. Stamens numerous. Ovules 2 or many not inclosed in an ovary. Cotyledons 2 or more. Leaves usually straight-veined, persistent, or deciduous. : 58. Coniferze. Flowers monecious, usually solitary, terminal, or axillary. Ovules 2 or many. Fruit a woody or rarely fleshy strobile. Cotyledons 2 or many. Leaves scale-like, linear or subulate, solitary or clustered. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. LARIX. FLoweERrs solitary, naked, moneecious, the staminate axillary; stamens indefinite, anther-cells 2, surmounted by their connective ; the pistillate terminal, ovules 2 under each scale. Fruit a woody strobile, maturing in“one season. Branchlets dimorphic. Leaves scattered or fascicled, deciduous. Larix, Adanson, Fam. Pl. ii. 480 (1763). — Link, Abhand. Pinus, Linneus, Gen. 293 (in part) (1737).— Endlicher, Akad. Berl. 1827, 183.— Engelmann, Trans. St. Louis Gen. 260 (in part). — Meisner, Gen. 352 (in part). — Acad. ii. 211.— Bentham & Hooker, Gen. iii. 442. — Baillon, Hist. Pl. xii. 44 (in part). Eichler, Engler & Prantl Pflanzenfam. ii. pt. i. 75.— Abies, A. L. de Jussieu, Gen. 414 (in part) (1789). Masters, Jour. Linn. Soc. xxx. 31. Tall pyramidal trees, with thick sometimes furrowed scaly bark, hard heavy heartwood conspicu- ously marked by dark bands of summer cells impregnated with resin, thin pale sapwood, slender remote horizontal and often pendulous branches, elongated leading branchlets roughened by persistent leaf- sears, usually short thick spur-like lateral branchlets disappearing at the end of a few years or occasionally developing into vigorous branches. Buds small, subglobose, covered by numerous broadly ovate thin chestnut-brown lustrous scales, those of the lower pair lateral and opposite, the others spirally disposed ; outer scales acerescent, marking the lateral branchlets with prominent ring-like scars, the inner deciduous with the appearance of the leaves and the falling of the staminate flowers. Leaves linear-subulate, triangular and rounded above or rarely tetragonal, keeled and stomatiferous below, articulate on low persistent ultimately woody bases, containing single fibro-vascular bundles, and two resin canals in their lateral angles close to the epidermis, slightly incurved in the bud, deciduous; spirally disposed and remote on leading shoots, on short lateral branchlets in crowded fascicles, each leaf in the axil of a minute deciduous bud-scale. Flowers monecious, solitary, terminal, the staminate on leafless, the pistillate on leaf-bearing lateral branchlets of the previous or of an earlier year, surrounded at the base by the reflexed inner bud-scales. Staminate flowers globose, ovoid or oblong, sessile or pedunculate, composed of numerous spirally arranged short-stalked two-celled subglobose anthers opening: longitu- dinally, their connectives produced above them into short points or gland-like umbos; pollen-grains globose. Pistillate flowers appearing with the leaves, subglobose, subsessile, composed of few or numerous spirally arranged suborbicular stipitate scales bearing on their inner face near the base two naked collateral inverted ovules, each scale in the axis of a much longer mucronate membranaceous usually scarlet bract, the lowest bracts without scales and roughening with their persistent tumid closely imbricated bases the stalks of the cones. Fruit an ovoid oblong conical or subglobose short-stalked cone, at first nearly horizontal, finally assurgent by the incurving of the stout stalk, composed of the slightly thickened woody suborbicular or oblong-obovate closely or loosely imbricated concave scales of 2 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER. the flower, more or less erose on the margins, often longitudinally striate, longer or shorter than their bracts, gradually decreasing in size from the centre of the cone to the ends, the small scales usnally sterile, persistent on the central axis of the cone after the escape of the seeds. Seeds geminate, reversed, attached at the base in shallow depressions on the inner face of the scales, nearly triangular, rounded on the sides, in falling bearing away portions of the membranaceous lining of the scale form- ing oblong or obovate-oblong wing-like attachments longer than the seeds ; testa of two coats, the outer crustaceous, light brown, the inner membranaceous, light chestnut-brown and lustrous. Embryo axile in copious fleshy albumen ; cotyledons usually six, much shorter than the inferior radicle. Larix is now widely distributed over the boreal and mountainous regions of the northern hemi- sphere, ranging from the Arctic Circle to the mountains of Pennsylvania in the New World and to latitude 30° in the Old World. Light species are recognized; one inhabits northeastern North America, and two western North America; one’ grows on the mountains of central Japan and another® on the eastern Himalayas; on the mountains of central Europe there is one species,’ another’ forms great forests on the plains of northern Russia and eastern Siberia, and eastward is replaced by another species ° which extends to Saghalin, northern Japan, and the Kurile Islands. The type is an ancient one, and its fossil remains have been found in miocene rocks of central Europe.” Larix produces hard, durable, valuable timber, which is often of great commercial importance, turpentine, which is sometimes used in medicine,’ tar,’ bark rich in tannin,” and a peculiar manna-like substance.” Larix is preyed on by numerous destructive insects” and by serious fungal diseases.” Some species are considered valuable ornamental trees, and are often planted in northern countries for the decoration of parks. Larix, the classical name of the Larch-tree, was adopted by Tournefort,"* but was included by ~ Linneus in his genus Pinus. 1 Henry, Nov. Act. Acad. Ces. Leop. xix. 98, t. 13; xxii. 246, Larix Kempferi was introduced about forty years ago into the tty PRRs gardens of Europe and the northeastern United States, where it is 2 Larix Kempferi (not Gordon). hardy and vigorous and is chiefly distinguished by the brilliant Pinus Larix, Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 275 (not Linnzus) (1784). yellow color assumed by its leaves in autumn. Pinus Kempferi, Lambert, Pinus, ii. Preface, p. v. (1824). At the upper limits of tree growth, at elevations of between Abies Kempferi, Lindley, Penny Cycl. i. 34 (1833). eight and nine thousand feet above the sea, a low form of this Abies leptolepis, Siebold & Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. ii. 12, t. 105 Larch, dwarfed by cold, with shorter leaves and smaller cones, (1842). } grows on Mt. Fugi-san. This is Pinus leptolepis, Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 130 (1847). — Parla- Larix Kempferi, var. minor. tore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 410. Abies leptolepis, Lindley, Gard. Chron. 1861, 23 (not Siebold & Lariz Japonica, Carritre, Traité Conif. 272 (1855). Zuccarini). Larix leptolepis, Gordon, Pinetum, 128 (1858). — A. Murray, Lar: leptolepis, var. minor, A. Murray, Proc. R. Hort. Soc. ii. Proc. R. Hort. Soc. ii. 633, £. 154, 156-160 ; The Pines and Firs 633, £. 155 (1862). of Japan, 89, f. 172-177. — Miquel, Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. iii. Larix Japonica, A. Murray, The Pines and Firs of Japan, 94, 166 (Prol. Fl. Jap.). — Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 102, t. 685, f.5; £ 178-188 (not Carrigre) (1863). — Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 104, Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 158 ; Belge Hort. xxii. 100, t. 8, £. 2. — Fran- t. 685, £..7; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 159; Belge Hort. xxii. 103, t. 9, chet & Savatier, Enum. Pl. Jap. i. 466. — Masters, Jour. Linn. £. 4, Soc. xviii. 522 (Conifers of Japan).— Trautvetter, Act. Hort. Larix leptolepis, 8 Murrayana, Maximowiez, Ind. Sem. Hort. Petrop. ix. 212 (Incrementa Fl. Ross.).— Mayr, Monog. Abiet. Petrop. 1866, 3 (nomen nudum). — Franchet & Savatier, J. c. — Jap. 63, t. 5, £. 14. — Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 318, f. 83. Beissner, /. c. 319, f. 84. — Masters, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 217. The Japanese Larch, which is a tree seventy or eighty feet in Larix Japonica macrocarpa, Carritre, Traité Conif. ed. 2, 354 height, with a massive trunk from three to four feet in diameter, (1867). and pale blue-green foliage, is common on the mountains of central ° Larix Griffithii, Hooker f. Ill. Him. Pl. t. 21 (excl. staminate Hondo at elevations of from five to six thousand feet above the flowers) (1855); FU. Brit. Ind. v. 655.— Van Houtte, Fl. des Serres, sea-level, where it is scattered usually in small groves through xij, 165, t. 1267. — Gordon, Pinetum, Suppl. 39; ed. 2,171. — Regel, forests principally composed of Birches, Oaks, and Hemlocks. The Gartenflora, xx. 106, t. 685, f. 1-4; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 161; Belge hard durable wood, difficult to obtain from the inaccessible moun- Hort. xxii. 105, t. 10, £. 4-7. — Brandis, Forest Fl. Brit. Ind. 531. — tain forests, is used locally for the timber of mines and in the Beissner, J. c. 316, £. 82. manufacture of many small articles. (See Rein, Industries of Larix Griffithiana, Carritre, Traité Conif. 278 (1855). — Gor- Japan, 238.— Sargent, Forest Fl. Jap. 83.) don, Pinetum, 126 ? ? ‘4 CONIFER Z. Pinus Griffithii, Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 411 (1868). Larix Griffith, which is a tree from twenty to sixty feet in height, with long gracefully pendulous branches and elongated cones made conspicuous by long exserted deep orange-brown bracts, is scattered over the inner mountain ranges of Bhotan, Sikkim, and. eastern Nepal at elevations of between eight and twelve thousand feet above the sea-level, growing usually near the heads of valleys on moraines, which it covers with scanty forests, and occasionally on well-drained grassy slopes. (See Hooker f. Himalayan Jour- nals, new ed. i. 245; Gard. Chron. n. ser. xxv. 718, f. 157. — Gammie, Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. i. No. 2, 11.) The wood, which is considered more durable than that of the other Himalayan conifers, is exported from Sikkim and Thibet. (See Gamble, Man. Indian Timbers, 410.) Introduced into England in 1848, the Himalayan Larch has rarely flourished in cultivation, although occasionally a plant in some exceptionally favorable situation in Europe shows the beauty and interest of this tree as a garden ornament. (See Gard. Chron. n. ser. xxvi. 464, f. 95. — Bull. Soc. Tose. Ort. xvii. 312.) 4 Larix Larix, Karsten, Pharm.-med. Bot. 326, f. 157 (1882). Pinus Lariz, Linneus, Spec. 1001 (1753). — Pallas, Fl. Ross. i. 1 (in part), t. 1, f. A, B. — Brotero, Hist. Nat. Pinheiros, Larices e Abetos, 22. — Ledebour, Fl. Ross. iii. 672. — Reichenbach, Icon. Fil. German. xi. 4, t. 532 (Larix Europea on plate). — Christ, Verhand. Nat. Gesell. Basel, iti. 546 (Uebersicht der Europiischen Abietineen). — Parlatore, Fl. Ital. iv. 59; De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 411, Larix decidua, Miller, Dict. ed. 8, No. 1 (1768).— K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 258. Larix caducifolia, Gilibert, Exercit. Phyt. ii. 413 (1792). Pinus leta, Salisbury, Prodr. 399 (1796). Abies Larix, Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 511 (1804) ; Il. iii. 368, t. 785. — Nouveau Duhamel, v. 287, t. 79, £. 1.— Richard, Comm. Bot. Conif. 65, t. 13. — Lindley, Penny Cycl. i. 32, £. Larix Europea, De Candolle, Lamarck Fl. Franc. ed. 8, iii. 277 (1805). — Link, Linnea, xv. 534.— Schouw, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 3, iii. 241 (Coniferes d’Italie). — Carritre, Traité Conif. 276. — Fiseali, Deutsch. Forstcult. Pfl. 36, t. 1, £. 21-28. — Gordon, Pinetum, 124.— Bertrand, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5, xx. 90. —Col- meiro, Enum. Pl. Hispano-Lusitana, iv. 709.— Herder, Act. Hort. Petrop. xii. 102 (Pl. Radd.) ; Bot. Jahrb. xiv. 160 (Fl. Europ. Russlands). —Hempel & Wilhelm, Baume und Strducher, i. 109, £. 53-57, t. 3. ; Larix pyramidalis, Salisbury, Trans. Linn. Soc. viii. 314 (1807). Larix Europea communis, Lawson & Son, Agric. Man. 386 (1836). Larix Europea laxa, Lawson & Son, /. c. (1836). Larix Europea compacta, Lawson & Son, J. c. (1836). Larix vulgaris, Spach, Hist. Vég. xi. 432 (1842). Pinus Larix, a communis, Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 134 (1847). Pinus Larix, 5 laxa, Endlicher, 1. c. (1847). Pinus Larix, « compacta, Endlicher, 1. c. (1847). Pinus Larix, n rubra, Endlicher, 1. c. (1847). Pinus Larix, 8 rosea, Endlicher, J. c. 134 (1847). Pinus Larix, 1 alba, Endlicher, 1. c. 184 (1847). Larix decidua, a communis, Henkel & Hochstetter, Syn. Nadelh. 130 (1865). — Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 100, t. 684, f£.3; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 156 ; Belge Hort. xxii. 98, t. 7, f. 1. Larix Europea, a typica, Regel, Russ. Dendr. pt. i. 28 (1870). Larix Europea pendula, Regel, 1. c. (1870). Larix communis, var. 8 pendulina, Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 101, SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. o t. 684, £. 5, 6 (1871) ; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 157; Belge Hort. xxii. 99, t..7, 1. 5, 6: Lariz Larix, the type of the genus, grows naturally only at high elevations on the mountain ranges of central Europe from south- eastern France to Servia and Hungary. In France, either alone or mixed with mountain Pines, it often forms great forests, but in Switzerland and on the Bavarian and Italian Alps it is less abun- dant, and is usually associated with the Spruce, frequently growing to the upper zone inhabited by trees. The European Larch is from eighty to one hundred or exceptionally one hundred and fifty feet in height, with a tall trunk from three to four feet in diameter, and small spreading often pendulous branches, and produces strong heavy and very durable wood, which has been valued since the time of the Romans, and is largely used for beams, piles, water- pipes, posts, railway-ties, and shingles, in cabinet-making, and for painters’ palettes. (See Tour d’Aigues, Mém. Soc. Agric. Paris, 1787, 41.— Desfontaines, Hist. Arb. ii. 599.) During the last one hundred and fifty years the European Larch has been largely planted as a timber-tree beyond the limits of its natural home. In Scotland in particular great attention was given to the cultivation of the Larch by the Dukes of Athol on their estates of Athol and Dunkeld, and between 1738 and 1826 they covered about eight thousand acres with pure forests of this tree. (See Trans. Highland Soc. xi. 165.— Loudon, Arb. Brit. iv. 2359.) In European plantations the Larch has grown with great rapidity while young, and, on the whole, these plantations have produced satisfactory results if the trees have been cut when they were from forty to sixty years of age. Removed from its native forests, how- ever, the Larch produces wood which deteriorates before the tree reaches maturity, and in recent years Larch plantations have suf- fered seriously from disease and the attacks of insects. (For culture of the Larch in Europe, see Evelyn, Silva, ed. Hunter, i. 279. — R. Hartig, Forst. Culturpfl. Deutschl. 37, t. 3. — M’Corquodale, Trans. Scottish Arboricultural Soc. ii. 43.— Gorrie, Trans. Scottish Arboricultural Soc. viii. 61. — Mathieu, Fl. Forestitre, ed. 3, 485. — Michie, The Larch. — McGregor, Trans. Scottish Arboricultural Soc. ix. 234. — Lorentz, Culture des Bois, ed. 6, 159.— Mer, Rev. Eaux et Forets, xxiv. 111 [Culture du Méléze dans les Vosges]. — Schlich, Manual of Forestry, ii. 309.— J. B. Carruthers, Jour. R. Agric. Soc. England, ii. pt. ti. [The Canker of the Larch]. — Somerville, Trans. English Arboricultural Soc. ii. 863.) The European Larch, brought to America probably early in the present century, flourishes in the north Atlantic states, where it grows rapidly to a large size and has proved one of the few Euro- pean trees which can really be successfully grown in the New World. It has been frequently planted here as an ornamental tree, and occasionally, on a comparatively small scale, for the pro- duction of timber. These plantations are still young and have not yet shown the quality of the material which the European Larch can produce in the United States. (See Sargent, Rep. Sec. Board Agric. Mass. ser. 2, xxiii. 276. — Warder, Am. Jour. For- estry, i. 11.) A form of the European Larch, with long pendulous branches (Larix Europea pendula, Lawson & Son, Agric. Man. 387 [1836]. — Loudon, Arb. Brit. iv. 2351.— Larix decidua, « pendula, Regel, Gar- tenflora, xx. 102, t. 684, f. 11 [1871]), which is believed to have originated in the Tyrol, is often planted as an ornament of parks ; and nurserymen propagate other abnormal forms. Handb. Nadelh. 327.) 5 Larix Sibirica, Ledebour, Fl. Alt. iv. 204 (1833). — Link, J. ¢. 535. — Carriére, 1. c. 274, — Trautvetter, Middendorff Reise, i. pt. i, 170 (Pl. Jen.).— Trantvetter & Meyer, Middendorff Reise, i. (See Beissner, 4 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. pt. ii. 88 (FI. Ochot.). — Regel, Russ. Dendr. pt. i. 30.— Masters, Jour. Linn. Soc. xviii. 523 (Conifers of Japan).— Herder, Act. Hort. Petrop. xii. 101 (Pl. Radd.) ; Bot. Jahrb. xiv. 160 (£1. Europ. Russlands). Pinus Lariz, Pallas, Fl. Ross. i. 1 (in part), t. 1, £. C (mot Lin- nus) (1784). Larix Archangelica, Lawson & Son, Agric. Man. 389 (1836). — Trautvetter, Act. Hort. Petrop. ix. 211 (Incrementa Fl. Ross.). Lariz Europea, var. Sibirica, Loudon, Arb. Brit. iv. 2352 (1838). Larix intermedia, Turezaninow, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mose. xi. 101 (Cat. Pl. Baical.) (not Lawson & Son) (1838).— K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 260. Larix Ledebourti, Ruprecht, Fl. Samojed. Cisural. 56 (1845). — Gordon, Pinetum, 127. Pinus Ledebourii, Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 131 (1847).— Lede- bour, FU. Ross. iii. 672. — Tur inow, Fl. Baicalensi-Dahurica, ii. 140.— Herder, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. xli. 423. — Christ, Ver- hand. Nat. Gesell. Basel, iii. 546 (Uebersicht der Europiischen Abietineen). — Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 410. Lariz Altaica, (Nelson) Senilis, Pinacee, 84 (1866). — Traut- vyetter, /. c. Lariz communis, var. B Sibirica, Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 101, t. 684, f. 1, 2 (1871) ; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 156; Belge Hort. xxii. 99, t. 7, £. 2, 3. Larix communis, y Rossica, Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 101, t. 684, £.4 (1871) ; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 157; Belge Hort. xxii. 99, t. 7, f. 4, Larix Rossica, Trautvetter, 1. c. 212 (1884). Lariz Sibirica, which many botanists have considered a geo- graphical form of the Larch of central Europe, is a large pyramidal tree, and forms great forests on the plains of northern Russia and western Siberia, ranging northward to the seventy-first degree of latitude, and eastward to the Altai Mountains, on which it abounds at elevations of from two thousand five hundred to five thousand five hundred feet above the sea-level. The character of the wood is very similar to that of Larix Larix and is used for similar purposes. 6 Larix Dahurica, Turezaninow, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mose. xi. 101 (Cat. Pl. Baical.) (1838).— Regel & Tilling, Fl. Ajan. 119.— Carriére, Traité Conif. 271. — Gordon, Pinetum, 123 (excl. syn.).— Trautvetter & Meyer, Middendorff Reise, i. pt. ii. 88 (Fl. Ochot.). — Maximowicz, Bull. Phys. Math. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, xv. 436 (Béiume und Stréucher des Amurlands); Mém. Sav. Etr. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, ix. 262 (Prim. Fl. Amur.); Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. liv. 58.— F. Schmidt, Mém. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, sér. 7, xii. 63 (Reisen in Amurlande), 177 (Fl. Sachalinensis).—K. Koch, l. c.—Glehn, Act. Hort. Petrop. iv. 86 (Verz. Witim-Olekma- Lande). — Masters, J. c. 522. — Regel, Russ. Dendr. ed. 2, pt. i. 53, £. 13, b. h.—Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 328, £. 90.— Herder, Act. Hort. Petrop. xii. 98 (Pl. Radd.).— Korshinsky, Act. Hort. Petrop. xii. 424 (Pl. Amur.). Pinus Larix (Americane), Pallas, Fl. Ross. i. 2, t. 1, f. E. (1784). Larix Europea, var. Dahurica, Loudon, I. c. (1838). Pinus Dahurica, Trautvetter, Imag. Pl. Fl. Russ. 48, +. 32 (1844). — Ledebour, F/. Ross. iii. 673. — Endlicher, J. c. 128. — Turczaninow, J. c. — Parlatore, 1. ¢. Larix Europea, Middendorff, Bull. Phys. Math. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, iii. 255 (not De Candolle) (1845). Abies Gmelini, Ruprecht, l. c. (1845). Pinus Kamtschatika, Endlicher, 1. c. 185 (1847). CONIFER. Lariz Kamtschatika, Carriére, J. c. 279 (1855). — Gordon, Pine- tum, Suppl. 39. — Parlatore, J. ¢. 431. Lariz Dahurica, « typica, Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 105, t. 684, £. 8, 9 (1871) ; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 160 ; Belge Hort. xxii. 104, t. 9, £. 5-6. Larix Dahurica, B prostrata, Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 105, t. 684, f. 9-10 (1871) ; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 160; Belge Hort. xxii. 104. Larix Dahurica, which is described as a small tree, becoming shrubby and semiprostrate in the extreme north, is generally dis- tributed through eastern Siberia, Kamtschatka, Manchuria, north- ern China, and Saghalin, and in one form reaches the extreme northern part of Yezo, and the Kurile Islands. This form is Lariz Dahurica, var. Kurilensis. Larix Dahurica, var. y Japonica, Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 105, t. 685, f.6 (not Larix Japonica, Carriére) (1871) ; Act. Hort. Pe- trop. i. 160; Belge Hort. xxii. 105, t. 10, f. 1.— Beissner, J. c. 329, f. 91.— Miyabe, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. iv. 261 (Fl. Kurile Islands). —Sargent, Forest Fl. Jap. 84, t. 26. Larix Kurilensis, Mayr, Monog. Abiet. Jap. 66, t. 5, f. 15 (1890). 7 Saporta, Origine Paléontologique des Arbres, 72. 8 The turpentine of the Larch, usually known in commerce as Venice turpentine, because it was formerly exported from Venice, is a thick pale yellow honey-like fluid with a bitter aromatic flavor. It is collected from Larix Larix, chiefly in the Tyrol, by boring in early spring, nearly to the centre of the trunk, a hole about an inch in diameter and a foot above the ground, and firmly closing the hole with a wooden stopper, which is taken out in the autumn, when the turpeutine which has collected in the hole is removed with an iron spoon. The hole is then closed again, and the same process is repeated in the following autumn. A hole, which yields about half a pound of turpentine annually, continues to be produc- tive for many years, and, if it is kept carefully closed, does not injure the growth of the tree. Under the more wasteful methods which were long practiced on the Italian and French Alps a much larger annual yield was obtained for a short time from a number of larger holes made in the same tree ; this method, however, soon ceased to be productive, and if the holes were left open in order that the tur- pentine might flow continuously through wooden pipes into small pails, the value of the wood was soon impaired. Venice turpentine, once considered a sovereign remedy for many human diseases, is now rarely used except in veterinary practice, and the article sold under that name is usually a mixture of com- mon resin. and oil of turpentine. (See Mattioli, Opera [Apolo- gia, 146]. — Woodville, Med. Bot. iii. 576, t. 210. — Loudon, J. c. 2366. —Guibourt, Jour. de Pharm. xxv. 500; Hist. Drog. ed. 7, ii. 251.— Mohl, Bot. Zeit. xvii. 329.—Fliickiger & Hanbury, Phar- macographia, 549.— Bentley & Trimen, Med. Pl. iv. 260, t. 260.— U. S. Dispens. ed. 16, 1489.) ® A large part of the tar used in Europe is made in Scandinavia and northern Russia by burning the roots and lower parts of the trunks of Pinus sylvestris and Larix Sibirica. (See Flickiger & Hanbury, 7. c. 560.) 10 The bark of Larix contains from twelve to fifteen per cent. of tannic acid, and extracts of that of the European and eastern North American species are used in considerable quantities in tanning leather. The inner bark of the European Larch, chiefly in the form of a tincture, is used in medicine as a stimulating astringent and expectorant. (See Fliickiger & Hanbury, J. ¢. 551.— U. S. Dispens. ed. 16, 870.) 1 Briangon manna is a white saccharine substance which is found often in considerable quantities on the leaves of the European Larch CONIFERZ. near the town of Briangon in southeastern France. Formerly it was used in medicine ; but although it is still gathered by the peasants of the region, it is believed to have disappeared from trade and is no longer employed except locally. (See Fliickiger & Han- bury, Pharmacographia, 373.) Melezitose, a peculiar sugar analo- gous to that of the Cane, was detected. in this substance by Berthelot (Compt. Rend. xlvii. 224). (See, also, Bonastre, Jour. de Pharm. sér. 2, xix. 443, 626.— Fliickiger & Hanbury, J. c. 373. — Bentley & Trimen, Med. Pl. iv. 260, t. 260.) 12 In North America, Larix is seriously injured by several insects, but the number of species which attack these trees here and in the Old World is not large. Less than fifty species of insects are reported as living upon Larch-trees in North America, but it is probable that the number will be much increased by a more- careful study of these trees in the region west of the Rocky Moun- tains. The trunks of living healthy Larches do not appear to be affected by borers, although several species of Scolytide or Bark Beetles of genera like Dendroctonus, Hylesinus, and Tomicus live under the bark of dead, dying, or weak trees. The weakness and death of these trees, which make them liable to the attacks of bor- ing insects, is frequently caused by the ravages of foliage destroy- ers. The most destructive of these, which is also known in Europe, is the Larch Saw-fly, Nematus Erichsonii, Hartig, whose larve often entirely strip the trees of leaves. This pest does not appear to have been much noticed in this country before 1880, but in recent years it has attracted great attention on account of its abundance on both native and European Larches in the northeastern states and Canada ; and in southern Labrador, Larix Americana has been almost totally destroyed by the ravages of this insect, which ap- pears to be spreading northward and eastward. (See Low, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. viii. 36 L.) More abundant in some years than others, it is nevertheless a constant menace to the successful growth and development of the Larch in the region where it occurs. Other species of Saw-flies which occasionally feed upon the Larch are not known to be seriously injurious. The larve of a minute moth known as the Larch Sack-bearer, * Coleophora laricella, Hiibner, which has probably been introduced from Europe, have of recent years caused much injury to Larch- trees in the eastern states. The bodies of these larve are pro- tected by small close-fitting cases of the same color as the bark of the twigs. The larve hibernate and in early spring eat out the parenchyma of the young growing leaves, leaving on the branchlets thin dry gray or whitish epidermal skeletons. In Europe, the rav- ages of another small moth, Steganoptycha pinicolana, Zeller, often cause great damage to Larch-trees, particularly on the high Swiss Alps (Christ, Garden and Forest, viii. 238). SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 5 The Larches of western North America are sometimes injured by the larve of a butterfly, Pieris Menapia, Felder, and the larve of various moths of several families are found upon Larches, but rarely in sufficient numbers to cause permanent injury. Among Aphids, Lachnus laricifex, Fitch, and Chermes laricifolic, Fitch, are sometimes more or less abundant on the twigs and leaves ; and Larch-trees cultivated in the eastern states are occa- sionally seriously affected by red mites, Tetranychus telarius, Lin- neus. 18 The most serious disease of the Larch is a fungus, which attacks the European species and is known as Canker or Krebs, caused by Dasyscypha Willkommii, R. Hartig (Untersuch. Forst. Bot. Institut. Miinchen. i. 63). The mature condition of this fun- gus, consisting of small waxy cups, which are fringed on the outer surface and margins with minute whitish hairs, while the disk is yellowish red, is found in depressions on the surface of the stems and young branches. It does not appear to be able to make its way into the tree unless the surface of the branches has been It is said to occur also in the United States, but its range here is not well known, as Dasy- injured by hail or the attacks of insects. scypha Willkommii of earlier authors has not always been distin- guished from Dasyscypha calycina or from Dasyscypha A gassizit, Berkeley & Curtis. tacked by the rust, Ceoma Laricis, Westendorp, which forms The leaves of the European Larch are at- golden yellow cushion-like spots on their under surface. This fungus is believed by mycologists to be connected genetically with Melampsora Tremule, Tulasne, which forms insignificant spots on the leaves of Populus tremula in Europe and occurs also on species of Populus in the United States. A serious disease of the Larch in Germany, which causes the leaves to fall in large quantities, is attributed by Hartig to the attacks of Spherella laricina, R. Hartig, and the discoloration and death of Larch leaves are caused by Hypodermella Laricis, Tubeuf. In general, the diseases of Larix Americana do not appear to be important, or at least they have not attracted the attention of mycologists to any extent. Species of Polyporus and Trametes, which injure the trunks of the Tamarack, are not, however, peculiar to the Larch. (See P. M. Dudley, Bull. No.1, Div. Forestry U.S. Dept. Agric. Appx. 1, 52.) Polyporus officinalis, Fries, formerly used in medicine, forms white irregular masses on the Larch in Europe, especially in Russia. The diseases of the western American species of Larix have not been studied. 14 Inst. 586, t. 357. CONSPECTUS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES. Cones small, subglobose; their scales few, longer than the bracts. ILeawes titans 6 0 0 66 60 6 06 6 6 6 6 5 Cones elongated; their scales numerous, shorter than the bracts. Young branchlets pubescent, soon becoming glabrous; leaves triangular . . . Young branchlets tomentose; leaves tetragonal . . I. L. Ammricana. 2. L. OCCIDENTALIS. 3. LL. Lyani. Oe renege. OFC feo Or 07 7uce hve riaeiee, e CONIFER 2. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 7 LARIX AMERICANA. Tamarack. Larch. ConEs small, subglobose, the scales few, longer than their bracts. Larix Americana, Michaux, Fl. Bor.-Am. ii. 203 (1803). — Michaux f. Hist. Arb. Am. iii. 37, t. 4. — Audubon, Birds, t. 4.— Emerson, Zrees Mass. 89; ed. 2, i. 105, t. — Gihoul, Ard. Rés. 51.— (Nelson) Senilis, Pinacew, 86. — Hoopes, Hvergreens, 247. — Nordlinger, Forstbot. 427, £. — Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 105, t. 684, £.7,8; Act. Hort. Petrop.i. 160; Belge Hort. xxii. 105, t. 10, £. 2, 3. — Bertrand, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5, xx. 90. — Sargent, Forest Trees N. Am. 10th Census U. S. ix. 215. — Watson & Coulter, Gray’s Man. ed. 6,493. — Mayr, Wald. Nordam. 221. — Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 329, £. 92.— Hansen, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 413 (Pinetum Danicum). — Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 28. Pinus Larix Americana nigra, Muenchhausen, Hausv. v. 226 (1770). Pinus laricina, Du Roi, Obs. Bot. 49 (1771) ; Harbk. Baumz. ii. 83, t. 3, £. 5-7. — Burgsdorf, Andleit. pt. ii. 165. — Wangenheim, Nordam. Holz. 42, t. 16, £. 37. —Schoepf, Mat. Med. Amer. 142.—Moench, Meth. 364. — Bork- hausen, Handb. Forstbot. i. 451. Pinus Larix Canadensis, Wangenheim, Beschreib. Nordam. Holz. 43 (1781). Pinus Larix rubra, Marshall, Arbust. Am. 103 (1785). — Schoepf, Mat. Med. Amer. 142. Pinus Larix alba, Marshall, Arbust. Am. 104 (1785). Pinus Larix nigra, Marshall, Arbust. Am. 104 (1785). Pinus pendula, Aiton, Hort. Kew. iii. 369 (1789). — Will- denow, Berl. Baumz. 215 ; Spee. iv. pt. i. 502. — Lambert, Pinus, i. 56, t. 36. — Persoon, Syn. ii. 579. — Pursh, FU. Am. Sept. ii. 645. — Nuttall, Gen. ii. 223. — Sprengel, Syst. iii. 887. — Brotero, Hist. Nat. Pinhetros, Larices e Abetos, 27. — Audubon, Birds, t. 90, 180. — Hooker, F7. Bor.-Am. ii. 164.—Torrey, #7. WN. Y. ii. 232.—Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 132. — Lawson & Son, List No. 10, Abieti- new, 21.— Dietrich, Syn. v. 395. —Courtin, Fam. Conif. 66. — Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 409. Pinus Larix, @ rubra, Castiglioni, Viag. negli Stati Uniti, ii. 315 (1790). Pinus Larix, y nigra, Castiglioni, Viag. negli Stati Uniti, ii. 315 (1790). Pinus Larix, 5 alba, Castiglioni, Viag negli Stati Uniti, ii. 315 (1790). Pinus intermedia, Du Roi, Harbk. Baumz. ed. 2, ii. 114 (1800). Pinus microcarpa, Lambert, Pinus, i. 58, t. 37 (1803). — Willdenow, Spec. iv. pt. i. 502; Hnum. 989; Berl. Baumz. ed. 2, 273.— Persoon Syn. ii. 579.— Stokes, Bot. Mat. Med. iv. 435. — Aiton, Hort. Kew. ed. 2, v. 321. — Bige- low, l. Boston. 235. — Pursh, FJ. Am. Sept. ii. 645. — Nuttall, Gen. ii. 223. — Hayne, Dendr. Fl. 175. — Spreng- el, Syst. iii. 887. — Brotero, Hist. Nat. Pinheiros, Larices e Abetos, 27. — Meyer, Pl. Labrador. 30. — Hooker, FV. Bor-Am. ii. 164.— Antoine, Conif. 54, t. 21, £. 1.— Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 132. — Lawson & Son, List No. 10, Abietinee, 21. — Dietrich, Syn. v. 395.— Courtin, Fam. Conif. 66. Abies pendula, Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 514 (1804).— Nouveau Duhamel, v. 288.— Lindley, Penny Cyel. i. 33.— Lindley & Gordon, Jour. Hort. Soc. Lond. v. 218. Abies microcarpa, Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 514 (1804). — Nouveau Duhamel, v. 289, t. 79, £. 2. — Lindley, Penny Cycl. i. 33. — Lindley & Gordon, Jour. Hort. Soc. Lond. vy. 2138. Larix pendula, Du Mont de Courset, Bot. Cult. iii. 771 (1802). — Salisbury, Trans. Linn. Soe. viii. 314. — Law- son & Son, Agric. Man. 387.— Forbes, Pinetum Woburn. 137, t. 46.—Carritre, Zraité Conif. 279. — Gordon, Pinetum, 129. — Courtin, Fam. Conif. 66. — Sénéclauze, Conif. 105.—Schiibeler, Virid. Norveg. i. 441. — Will- komm, forst. Fl. ed. 2, 156.— Masters, Jour. R. Hort. Soe. xiv. 218. Larix tenuifolia, Salisbury, Zrans. Linn. Soc. viii. 314 (1807). Larix microcarpa, Desfontaines, Hist. Arb. ii. 597 (1809).— Lawson & Son, Agric. Man. 388.— Forbes, Pinetum Woburn. 189, t. 47. —Spach, Hist. Vég. xi. 436. — Link, Linnea, xv. 536. — Carritre, Traité Conif. 275. — Gor- don, Pinetum, 129. — Henkel & Hochstetter, Syn. Nadeth. 137. — Sénéclauze, Conif. 105.— Regel, Russ. Dendr. pt.i. 29. — Veitch, Man. Conif. 1380. — Lauche, Deutsche Dendr. ed. 2, 100. — Schiibeler, Virid. Norveg. i. 441. — Willkomm, Forst. Fl. ed. 2, 157. Larix intermedia, Lawson & Son, Agric. Man. 389 (1836).— Forbes, Pinetum Woburn. 141. — Link, Linnea, xy. 535. Larix Americana rubra, Loudon, Ard. Brit. iv. 2400 (1838). — Knight, Syn. Conif. 40. Larix Americana pendula, Loudon, Avbd. Brit. iv. 2400 (1838).— Carritre, Traité Conif. ed. 2,356. — Sénéclauze, Conif. 101. Larix Americana prolifera, Loudon, Ard. Brit. iv, 2401 (1838). — Carritre, Traité Conif. ed. 2, 356. Larix decidua, y Americana, Henkel & Hochstetter, Syn. Nadeth. 133 (1865). Larix laricina, K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 263 (1873). — 8 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER. Lauche, Deutsche Dendr. ed. 2, 99.—Sudworth, Rep. State Board Forestry, iii. 108 (Cone-Bearers of Califor- U. S. Dept. Agric. 1892, 330. — Britton & Brown, Jil. nia) (1890). Flor. i. 54, £. 120. Larix laricina, var. pendula, Lemmon, Rep. California Larix laricina, var. microcarpa, Lemmon, Rep. California State Board Forestry, iii. 108 (Cone-Bearers of Califor- nia) (1890). A tree, from fifty to sixty feet in height, with a trunk eighteen or twenty inches in diameter, but often much smaller toward the northern and southern limits of its range. During its early years the slender horizontal branches form a narrow regular pyramidal head, which continues to characterize this tree when it is crowded by its associates in the forest; but where it can obtain abundant light and air some of the specialized upper branches grow more vigorously than the others and than those below them and sweep out in graceful curves, or often become much contorted and frequently pendulous and form a broad open head which is sometimes extremely picturesque. The bark of the trunk is from one half to three quarters of an inch in thickness, and separates into thin closely appressed rather bright reddish brown scales. The slender leading branchlets are glabrous in their first summer and are often covered with a glaucous bloom; during the following winter they are light orange-brown and conspicuous from the small globose dark red lustrous buds; during their second season they gradually grow darker, and in the third and fourth years become dark brown and dingy and begin to lose the spur-like lateral branchlets. The leaves are triangular, rounded above, prominently keeled on the lower surface, from three quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length and about one thirty-second of an inch in width ; they are bright green and conspicuously stomatiferous when they first expand, which is from the beginning to the end of May, according as the tree grows at the south or at the north, and, gradually becoming darker during the summer, they turn dull yellow in September or October not long before they fall. The staminate flowers are subglobose and sessile, with pale yellow anthers, and are principally borne on branchlets one or two years old. The pistillate flowers are oblong and short-stalked, with light rose-colored bracts produced into elongated green tips and nearly orbicular rose-red scales, and usually appear on branchlets from one to three years old. The cones when they are fully grown and begin to open in the autumn are raised on stout incurved stems, and are oblong, rather obtuse, and from one half to three quarters of an inch in length, and are composed of about twenty scales; these are largest near the middle of the cone, diminishing toward its extremities, and are very concave, slightly erose or nearly entire on the margins, semiorbicular but usually rather longer than broad, and about twice as long as their bracts, which are emarginate and furnished at the apex with short mucros; as the cone enlarges the scales gradually lose their red color, and when fully grown are light bright chestnut-brown ; growing darker after their first winter, during which they gradually scatter their seeds, they usually fall during their second year, although occasionally a few cones remain on the branches through another season. The seeds are an eighth of an inch in length, with a pale coat, and are about one third as long as the light chestnut-brown wings, which are broadest near the middle and obliquely rounded at. the apex. From about latitude 58° north, near the coast of Labrador, Larix Americana ranges northwestward nearly to the southern shore of Ungava Bay ; the line which marks the northern limits of its range then extends westward, and, turning toward the south, reaches the shore of Hudson Bay a few miles south of the mouth of the Nastapoka River,’ and from a point a little to the northwest of Port Churchill on the western shore of Hudson Bay, in latitude 59° north, extends northwestward to the northern shores of Great Bear Lake, from which the Larch follows down the valley of the Mackenzie River nearly to latitude 67° 30’ north? West of the Rocky Mountains Larix Americana ranges westward 1} The distribution of Larix Americana east of Hudson Bay as ° Richardson, Franklin Jour. Appx. No. 7, 752 (as Pinus micro- here laid down is partly taken from Dr. Robert Bell’s paper on carpa); Arctic Searching Exped. ii. 318. the geographical distribution of forest trees in Canada, first pub- On Peel River Portage, a divide between the waters of the lished in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, xiii. 283. Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers, in latitude 67° 30/ north, Larix CONIFER. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 9 along the Dease River and along the upper Liard and Frances Rivers, and northward nearly to Finlayson Lake, reaching 65° 35’ north.1. Southward it spreads through Canada* and the northern states to northern Pennsylvania,’ northern Indiana and Illinois and central Minnesota, and to about latitude 53° north in Alberta on the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains.t Of the trees of the subarctic forest of America, Larix Americana best supports the rigors of the boreal climate, and at the extreme northern limits of the forest is still a little tree rising above its associate, the Black Spruce, which clings to the ground with nearly prostrate stems. In the interior of Labrador,’ where it is the largest tree, it is surpassed in numbers only by the Black Spruce, and grows in all the cold swamps, and in the southern part of the peninsula occurs occasionally on well-drained benches a few feet above the surface of rivers.’ It grows near the western shore of Hudson Bay with the White Spruce as far north as the mouth of Little Seal River, and northwest up to the very margin of the barren lands, the great rolling grass-covered plains which stretch beyond the subarctic forest to the shores of the Arctic Sea, extending down the Telzoa River as far north as Doobaunt Lake and down the Kazan nearly to Yath- kyed Lake, where it attains a larger size than its companion, the Black Spruce.’ West of the Rocky Mountains, where it is usually associated with the Black Spruce, it is abundant in cool swamps and on northern slopes; it is common in swamps in Saskatchewan, through which it crosses from the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains to Manitoba, where it finds the southwestern limit of its range near Carberry, southwest of Lake Manitoba,’ and probably attains its largest size north of Lake Winnipeg on low benches which it occasionally covers with open forests. In the maritime provinces of Canada and in the United States it inhabits cold deep swamps, which it often clothes with forests of closely crowded trees rarely more than forty or fifty feet in height. The wood of Larix Americana is heavy, hard, very strong, rather coarse-grained, compact, and very durable in contact with the soil; it is light brown, with thin nearly white sapwood, and contains broad very resinous dark-colored bands of summer cells, few obscure resin passages, and numerous hardly distinguishable medullary rays. The specific gravity of the absolutely dry wood is 0.6236, a cubic foot weighing 38.86 pounds. It is largely used for the upper knees of vessels, for ship timbers, fence-posts, telegraph-poles, and railway-ties. Although Larix Americana is said to have been cultivated by Philip Miller, in the Physic Garden at Chelsea, as early as 1735,° the first account of it appeared in Charlevoix’s Histoire de la Nouvelle France, published in 1744.° It was known, however, much earlier to the European settlers in New England, as Josselyn described its merits soon after the middle of the seventeenth century." Americana, which here grows to a height of six or eight feet, with a trunk an inch in diameter, extends in small open groves above the Spruces and up to elevations of twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea. (See McConnell, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. iv. 117 D.) 1G. M. Dawson, Garden and Forest, i. 58; Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. iii. pt. i, 112 B; Appx. i. 187 B. — Macoun, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. iii. pt. i. Appx. iii. 226 B. Larix Americana was not found by Dr. G. M. Dawson on the Pelley and Lewes Rivers, but he suggests that the Larch seen by Dall (Alaska and its Resources, 441, 592) on the lower Yukon is probably this species, which he thinks may be found to extend from the valley of the Mackenzie nearly to the shores of Behring Sea. 2 Provancher, Flore Canadienne, ii. 558. — Brunet, Cat. Vég. Lig. Can. 59.— Macoun, Cat. Can. Pl. 475. 3 Rothrock, Rep. Dept. Agric. Penn. 1895, pt. ii. Div. Forestry, 284. In Pennsylvania Larix Americana grows sparingly in the coldest parts of Pike, Monroe, Luzerne, and Lackawanna counties, or on the Pocano Plateau and the adjacent regions. It grows in Tama- rack Swamp in the northern part of Clinton County, and it is said, on doubtful authority, to occur in Somerset County on the high Alleghanies up to elevations of three thousand feet above the sea. * The most southern station in Alberta where Larix Americana has been seen by Mr. John Macoun is in a swamp forty miles south- west of Edmonton. 5 On the Labrador coast trees grow in protected valleys at the heads of the inner bays up to latitude 58° north, although the western foothills of the Atlantic coast range are treeless. Two degrees farther south they grow on the coast and high up on the hills ; the headlands and outer hills remain, however, treeless as far south as Hamilton Inlet. (See Low, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n, ser. viii. 31 L.) 6 Low, l. c. 36. 7 Tyrrell, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. ix, 214 F. 8 Teste John Macoun. ® Aiton, Hort. Kew. iii. 369 (Pinus pendula). — Loudon, Arb. Brit. iv. 2399. 10 Larix Canadensis, longissimo folio, ed. 12™, iv. 371, £. 92, 11 “Groundsels made of Larch-tree will never rot, and the 10 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER 2. Usually an inhabitant of lands saturated with water, Larix Americana, when transplanted to uplands, grows in good soil much more rapidly than it does in its native swamps, attaining a larger size and more picturesque habit, and of all the Larch-trees which have been tried in the northern states it best deserves attention as an ornament of parks and gardens. longer it lyes the harder it growes, that you may almost drive a nail into a bar of Iron as easily as into that.’? (Josselyn, An Account of Two Voyages to New England, 68.) “The turpentine that issueth from the cones of the Larch-tree (which comes nearest of any to the right Turpentine) is singularly good to heal wounds, and to draw out the malice (or Thorn, as EXPLANATION Puatre DXCIII. Helmont phrases it) of any Ach rubbing the place therewith, and (Ibid. p. 67.) “T cured once a desperate Bruise with a Cut upon the Knee Pan, with an Ungent made with the Leaves of the Larch Tree, and Hogs Grease, but the Gum is best.” (Josselyn, New England Rarities, 63.) strowing upon it the powder of Sage-leaves.” OF THE PLATE. Larix AMERICANA. 1. A flowering branch, natural size. . A staminate flower, enlarged. ® 99 BD A pistillate flower, enlarged. By Googe A cone-scale, lower side, with © 0 10. 11. An embryo, enlarged. An anther, front view, enlarged. An anther, side view, enlarged. A scale of a pistillate flower, upper side, with its bract and ovules, enlarged. A fruiting branch, natural size. its bract, natural size. A cone-scale, upper side, with its seeds, natural size. Vertical section of a seed, enlarged. 12. Cross section of a leaf, magnified fifteen diameters. 13. A winter branchlet, natural size. 14. A seedling plant, natural size. Tab. DXCIIL. Silva of North America. me cor a LE Faxon det. LARIX AMERICANA, Michx. Pome A. Riocreuzx adirex® CONIFER. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 11 LARIX OCCIDENTALIS. Tamarack. Cones elongated, the scales numerous, shorter than their bracts. Young branch- lets soon becoming glabrous. Larix occidentalis, Nuttall, Sylva, iii. 143, t.120 (1849). — Newberry, Pacific R. R. Rep. vi. pt. iii. 59, £. 24, 25. — Cooper, Am. Nat. iii. 412. — Lyall, Jour. Linn. Soe. vii. 143. — (Nelson) Senilis, Pinacew, 91.— Hoopes, Ever- greens, 253. — Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 103, t. 685, £. 8-10 ; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 158; Belge Hort. xxii. 101, t. 8, f. 3-5. — Gordon, Pinetum, ed. 2,176.—Veitch, Man. Conif. 130. — Sargent, Forest Trees N. Am. 10th Census U. 8. ix. 216; Gard. Chron. n. ser. xxv. 652, £.145; Garden Leaves triangular. and Forest, ix. 491, f. 71.— Mayr, Wald. Nordam. 347. — Lemmon, Rep. California State Board Forestry, iii. 108 (Cone-Bearers of California). — Beissner, Handb. Nadeth. 314, £. 80. — Masters, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 218.— Hansen, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 417 (Pinetum Danicum).— Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 25. — Leiberg, Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. v. 50. Pinus Nuttallii, Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 412 (1868). When it has grown under the most favorable conditions on low moist soil, at elevations of between two thousand and three thousand feet above the sea-level, the western Larch often rises to the height © of two hundred and fifty feet, with a trunk from six to eight feet in diameter ; on drier soil and exposed mountain slopes it has an average height of about one hundred feet, with a trunk two or three feet in diameter. On young trees the remote elongated and nearly horizontal branches form an open pyramidal head; usually they soon disappear from the lower part of the stem, and the full-grown tree is remark- able for its elongated tapering naked trunk, which is frequently free of branches for two hundred feet above the ground and is surmounted by a short narrow pyramidal head of small branches clothed with scanty foliage,’ or occasionally at low altitudes the crown is larger, with elongated drooping branches. The bark of young stems is thin, dark-colored, and scaly, but when the tree is about one hundred years old the bark changes in character, and, beginning near the base, where on old trunks it is often five or six inches thick, it breaks into irregularly shaped oblong plates frequently two feet in length and covered with thin closely appressed light cinnamon-red scales. The leading branchlets are comparatively stout, and when they first appear are covered with soft pale pubescence, which on some trees disappears during the first season and on others continues to cover the shoots until their second year ; they are bright orange-brown in their first year and sometimes retain this color during a second season, although they more often then begin to assume the dark gray-brown color of the older branches and of the lateral branchlets, which, usually short, are occasionally nearly three quarters of an inch in length. The winter-buds are globose and about an eighth of an inch in diameter, their dark chestnut-brown scales being erose and often coated on the margins with hoary tomentum. The leaves are triangular, rounded on the back, conspicuously keeled on the lower surface, rigid, sharp-pointed, from an inch to an inch and three quarters in length, about one thirty-second of an inch in width, and light pale green, turning pale yellow early in the autumn. The staminate flowers are oblong, with pale yellow anthers, ! The most remarkable fact, perhaps, about this tree is the small- _ specimen in the Jesup Collection of North American Woods in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, is eighteen inches in diameter inside the bark and two hundred and sixty- seven years old. At the age of fifty years the trunk of this tree was nine inches in diameter ; the sapwood, which is half an inch thick, contains forty layers of annual growth. ness of leaf surface in comparison with height and thickness of stem, and there is certainly no other instance among the trees of the northern hemisphere where such massive trunks support such small short branches and sparse foliage. It is not, therefore, sur- prising that Larix occidentalis grows slowly after the loss of its lower branches, usually at the end of forty or fifty years. The 12 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER. and at maturity are raised on stout stalks about an eighth of an inch long. The pistillate flowers are oblong, almost sessile, with nearly orbicular scales, and with bracts which are produced into elongated tips. The cones are oblong, short-stalked, and from an inch to an inch and a half in length, with numerous thin stiff scales which are nearly entire or slightly erose and sometimes a little reflexed on the margins; they are more or less thickly coated on the lower surface below the middle with hoary tomentum, and after the seeds are scattered stand out at right angles to the axis of the cone or often become reflexed. The seeds are nearly a quarter of an inch long, with a pale brown coat, and are from one half to two thirds the length of the thin and fragile pale wings, which are broadest near the middle and obliquely rounded at the apex. Scattered on the moist deep soil of bottom-lands through forests of Hemlocks, Firs, and Cotton- woods, and mixed with the Yellow Pine, the Lodge Pole Pine, and the Douglas Spruce on high benches and dry mountain sides, the western Larch grows at elevations of between two thousand and seven thousand feet above the sea-level, usually singly or in small groves. Its home is in the basin of the upper Columbia River, from which it crosses in southern British Columbia to the mountains over- looking the eastern shores of Shuswap Lake, one of the sources of the south fork of the Thompson, where it finds the northern limits of its range in latitude 51° north, and is not abundant;* in the United States it grows near most of the mountain streams which feed the Columbia, from the western slopes of the continental divide in northern Montana to the eastern slopes of the Cascade Mountains, extending southward to the Blue and Powder River Mountains and the eastern foothills of Mt. Jefferson in Oregon. Of comparatively small size and less generally multiplied northward and south- ward and on the Cascade Mountains, the western Larch is most abundant and attains its largest size on the bottom-lands of the streams which flow into Flat Head Lake in northern Montana, and in northern Idaho, where it is the characteristic and most interesting inhabitant of the great forests that cover this interior region. The noblest of the Larch-trees, surpassing all others in thickness and height of stem, splendid in massiveness and in the colors of the great plates into which its bark is divided, Larix occidentalis is one of the most valuable timber-trees of the continent, and no other North American coniferous tree produces such hard and heavy wood, well suited for use in furniture of the best quality. The wood is very heavy, exceedingly hard and strong, close-grained, susceptible of receiving a good polish, and very durable in contact with the soil; it is bright light red, with thin nearly white sapwood, and contains broad dark-colored resinous bands of small summer cells, few obscure resin passages, and numerous thin medullary rays ; the specific gravity of the absolutely dry wood is 0.7407, a cubic foot weighing 46.16 pounds. It is largely used for railway-ties and fence-posts, and is manufactured into lumber used in cabinet-making and the interior finish of buildings. An exudation, which flows abundantly from wounds in the trunk and forms large sheets, has a sweetish taste, and is gathered and eaten by Indians in southern British Columbia.’ The earliest notice of Larix occidentalis is in the journal of Lewis and Clark, who, in their entry of June 15, 1806, record the occurrence of a Larch-tree in the forests on the upper Clearwater River, which they ascended in crossing the Bitter Root Mountains on their homeward journey2 In 1827 it was seen near Fort Colville on the upper Columbia by David Douglas, who mistook it for the Larch of Europe,* but to Thomas Nuttall, who found it on the Blue Mountains in 1834, belongs the credit of 1G. M. Dawson, Can. Nat. n. ser. ix. 329. — Macoun, Cat. Can. Pl. 475. * This substance, which is of a brownish yellow color, somewhat porous, and possesses a moderately sweet taste with a terebin- thine flavor, is found by Trimble to be free from resin and not identical with melezitose, as might have been expected, its physical properties closely resembling dextrin. (See Am. Jour. Pharm. Ixx. 152.) 8 History of the Expedition under C d of Lewis and Clark, ed. Coues, iii. 1043, 1066. — Sargent, Garden and Forest, x. 39. * Douglas, Companion Bot. Mag. ii. 109. Of this tree Douglas, in his journal, says: “I measured some thirty feet in circumference ; and several which have been leveled to the ground by the late storms were one hundred and forty-five feet long, with wood perfectly clean and strong.” If Douglas had realized that he was in the presence of one of the great trees of CONIFER 2. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 13 first distinguishing this tree. Larix occidentalis was first cultivated in 1881 im the Arnold Arboretum, where it is hardy and produces cones.’ In the struggle for supremacy between the different inhabitants of the Columbian forests under the changed conditions which have followed the white man’s occupation of the country, Larix occi- dentalis seems destined to hold its own and probably even to extend its sway, for in this struggle, in which fire now plays a controlling part, it is aided by the great thickness of its bark, which enables half-grown trees to bear without permanent injury the heat of annual fires, and by the power of its abundant seeds to germinate and of its seedlings to grow rapidly in the shade of other trees and in favorable situations often to overtop and finally to destroy them. the world, as remarkable as the Sugar Pine or any of his other to the Arnold Arboretum in 1881, have remained small and stunted, discoveries, the western Larch would not probably have remained but branches of these trees grafted on roots of the Japanese Larch one of the least known of the important timber-trees of America. have grown vigorously into shapely trees now nearly twenty feet 1 Seedling plants of Larix occidentalis, transferred from Oregon in height and almost twice as large as the seedlings. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. Prats DXCIV. Larrx occiEenTAtis. . A flowering branch, natural size. An anther, side view, enlarged. An anther, rear view, enlarged. An anther, front view, enlarged. . A scale of a pistillate flower, upper side, with its bract and. ovules, enlarged. . A fruiting branch, natural size. . A cone-seale, lower side, with its bract, natural size. . A cone-scale, upper side, with its seeds, natural size. . Vertical section of a seed, enlarged. . An embryo, enlarged. - Cross section of a leaf, magnified fifteen diameters. . A winter branchlet, natural size. . A seedling plant, natural size. Tab. DXCIV.. Silva of North. America. Rapure SC. CE. Faxon del. LARTA -OCCIDEN TALIS Nae ae Imp. J. Taneur, Paris. CONIFERZ. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 15 LARIX LYALLIT Tamarack. Conrs elongated, their scales shorter than the bracts. Leaves tetragonal. Larix Lyallii, Parlatore, Enum. Sem. Hort. Reg. Mus. Flor. 1863 ; Jour. Bot. i..385; Gard. Chron. 1863, 916; Gartenflora, xiii. 244.— Lyall, Jour. Linn. Soc. vii. 143.— Henkel & Hochstetter, Syn. Nadeth. 417.— Car- ritre, Traité Conif. ed. 2, 361. — Hoopes, Hvergreens, 256. —Regel, Gartenflora, xx. 103, t. 685, f. 11-18; Act. Hort. Petrop. i. 158; Belge Hort. xxii. 102, t. 9, £ 1-3. — Bertrand, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5, xx. 90. — Veitch, Branchlets tomentose. Census U. S. ix. 216; Gard. Chron. n. ser. xxv. 653, £. 146; ser. 3, xxiii. 356, f. 186.— Mayr, Wald. Nordam. 355. — Lemmon, Rep. California State Board Forestry, iii. 109 (Cone-Bearers of California). — Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 316, £. 81. — Masters, Jour. R. Hort.. Soc. xiv. 218. Pinus Lyallii, Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 412 (1868). Man. Conif. 130. —Sargent, Forest Trees N. Am. 10th A tree, usually from forty to fifty and occasionally seventy-five feet in height, with a trunk generally eighteen or twenty inches but sometimes three or four feet in diameter, and remote elongated palmately divided exceedingly tough persistent branches which, developing very irregularly, are sometimes decidedly pendulous and sometimes abruptly ascending at the extremities, one or two being frequently much longer and stouter than the others, and sometimes twenty feet in length. Until the - tree is about fifteen feet high the bark of the slender stem and branches is thin, rather lustrous, smooth and pale gray tinged with yellow; it is dark brown and broken into loose thin scales on larger stems and on the large branches of old trees, and on fully grown trunks it becomes from one half to three quarters of an inch in thickness, and is slightly divided by shallow fissures into irregularly shaped plates which are covered with thin dark red-brown loosely attached scales. prominent,and conspicuous from the long white matted hairs which fringe the margins of their scales, and, protruding from between them, often almost entirely cover the bud. The leading branchlets are stout and coated with thick hoary tomentum, which does not entirely disappear until after their second winter; they then begin gradually to grow darker, and sometimes become nearly black at the end of four or five years, when their stout lateral spur-like branchlets have occasionally attained the length of three quarters of an inch. The leaves are tetragonal, rigid, short-pointed, pale blue-green and from an inch to an inch and a half in length. The staminate flowers are oblong and about an eighth of an inch long, with pale yellow anthers, and are raised on short stout stalks. The pistillate flowers are ovate- oblong, with dark red or occasionally pale yellow-green scales and dark purple bracts which are abruptly contracted into elongated slender tips. The cones are ovate, rather acute, and from an inch and a The winter-buds are half to nearly two inches in length, and are subsessile or raised on slender peduncles coated with hoary tomentum ; their bracts are dark purple, exserted and very conspicuous, with slender tips much longer than the oblong-obovate thin dark reddish purple or rarely green scales; these are erose and their margins are fringed with matted white hairs, which are also scattered over their lower surface, being thickest near the middle; at maturity the scales spread nearly at right angles from the stout axis of the cone, which is densely covered with pale tomentum, and frequently become much reflexed before the falling of the cone, which usually occurs during the first autumn. The seeds are full and rounded on the sides, an eighth of an inch in length and about half as long as their light red lustrous wings, which are broadest near the base, with nearly parallel sides. Larix Lyall, which grows only near the timber-line on mountain slopes between four thousand 16 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER, five hundred and eight thousand feet above the level of the sea, is distributed from southern Alberta and the interior of southern British Columbia’ southward along the Cascade Mountains and through northern Washington to Mt. Stewart, one of their eastern spurs at the head of a north fork of the Yakima River. In Alberta Larix Lyallii grows on steep mountain slopes and benches, usually on those which face the north, either singly or in groves of a few hundred trees, and alone or mixed with the Engelmann Spruce; on the elevated plateau which extends from northern Washington into British Columbia, about the State Creek Pass through the Cascade Mountains, it is spread at an elevation of about six thousand feet above the sea over undulating grass-covered table-lands with Pinus albicaulis, Abies lasiocarpa, and Tsuga Mertensiana, and on Mt. Stewart it forms a straggling line of scattered trees at the upper limits of tree-growth, or, occasionally clinging to steep slopes facing the north, it forms small irregular groves at elevations of from five thousand five hundred to eight thousand feet above the sea.° The wood of Larix Lyall is heavy, hard, close-grained, and bright reddish brown, with thin nearly white sapwood. It contains broad dark resinous bands of small summer cells, few obscure resin passages, and many thin medullary rays. cubic foot weighing 44.10 pounds.* The specific gravity of the absolutely dry wood is 0.7077, a Larix Lyallit was discovered on the Cascade Mountains in 1860 by David Lyall,® the surgeon and naturalist of the British Commission which marked the northern boundary of the United States west of the Rocky Mountains. 1 Macoun, Cat. Can. Pl. 476. 2 Tn 1883 Larix Lyalliti was found on Mt. Stewart by Mr. T. S: Brandegee, who reported that it sometimes formed there trunks four feet in diameter. This is much larger than any of the trees I have seen in Alberta, where, although they are often sixty feet in height, the trunks rarely exceed twenty inches in diameter. ® The range of Larix Lyallii is still very imperfectly known. It is reported by Mr. John Macoun on a mountain six miles southwest of Morley, Alberta, at the unusually low altitude of four thou- sand five hundred feet above the sea-level. This is on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, and the most easterly point where this tree has been seen. It is very abundant on the mountains near Laggan on the Canadian Pacifie Railroad, not far from the continental divide, where it grows up to elevations of almost seven thousand feet above the sea; this is the most northerly point at which it has been reported. It is, however, so abundant here and of such large size that it probably ranges much farther northward along the Rocky Mountains, which are entirely unknown botani- cally from the line of the Canadian Pacific Railroad to the Atha- basca Pass, eighty miles to the northward. It might be expected to range along both slopes of the Rocky Mountains south to northern Montana, but, although this region has been visited by botanists, there is no record that it does occur there. 4 Sargent, Garden and Forest, iii. 356. Larix Lyailii grows very slowly. The trunk in the Jesup Col- lection of North American Woods in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, cut by Mr. T. S. Brandegee on Mt. Stewart, is sixteen and one half inches in diameter inside the bark and five hundred and sixty-two years old. The sapwood is three eighths of an inch in thickness, with thirty-two layers of annual growth. 5 David Lyall (June 1, 1817—March 2, 1895) was born at Auchinblae, in Kincardineshire, and received a medical education It has not yet been cultivated. at Aberdeen, where he took his degree, having been previously admitted to the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh. After graduating he made a voyage to Greenland as surgeon to a whaling ship, and, on his return, entering the Royal Navy in 1839, he was appointed assistant surgeon of H. M. S. Terror for service under Sir James Ross, in his scientific expedition to the antarctic regions. During this voyage, from which Dr. Lyall did not return until 1842, he devoted much attention to botany, making several impor- tant collections, and discovering in Kerguelen’s Land the plant which was named for him by his brother officer, the younger Hooker, Lyallia. After returning from the antarctic expedition, Dr. Lyall served in the Mediterranean, and then as surgeon and naturalist on the Acheron, which was detailed to survey the coast of New Zealand. At this time he discovered the great white- flowered Ranunculus Lyallii, the largest of all the Buttercups. In 1852 he was appointed surgeon and naturalist to one of the vessels in the squadron sent under command of Sir E. Belcher in search of Sir John Franklin ; and his collections of plants made in the American polar islands at this time added much to the knowledge of the distribution of the arctic flora. In 1858 Dr. Lyall served as surgeon and naturalist to the Boundary Commission under Sir John Hawkins, accompanying it in its survey of the boundary line be- tween British Columbia and the United States from the Gulf of Georgia to the summit of the Rocky Mountains. An account of his botanical collection made on the boundary, with descriptions of the various zones of vegetation, was published in the seventh volume of the Journal of the Linnean Society. After his return from North America he was on home duty until 1873, when he was retired. In addition to his paper on the botany of northwest- ern America, Dr. Lyall published, in the twentieth volume of the Proceedings of the Zoilogical Society, a paper on the habits of Strigops habroptilus,a New Zealand bird. (See Hooker f. Jour. Bot. xxxiii. 209.) aS oP OD EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. Pruate DXCV. Larix Lyaun. . A flowering branch, natural size. . A staminate flower, enlarged. . A stamen, front view, enlarged. . A stamen, seen from below, enlarged. . A pistillate flower, natural size. . A scale of a pistillate flower, upper side, with its bract and ovules, enlarged. . A fruiting branch, natural size. . A cone-scale, upper side, with its seeds, natural size. . A seed, enlarged. . Vertical section of a seed, enlarged. . An embryo, enlarged. . Cross section of a leaf, magnified fifteen diameters. Tab. DXCV. Silva of North fierce’ Rapine SC. | Oe Rach ae LARIX LYALLIT Parl lip. J. Taneur, Paris. A. Riocreua direx © CONIFER. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 19 PICEA. FLowers solitary, naked, monecious, the staminate axillary or terminal ; stamens indefinite, anther-cells 2, surmounted by their crested connectives; pistillate flowers terminal or axillary ; ovules 2, under each scale. Fruit a woody strobile maturing in one season. Leaves angular or flat, spirally disposed. Picea, Link, Abhand. Akad. Berl. 1827, 179 (1830). — sieu, Gen. 414 (in part).—D. Don, Lambert Pinus, ii Engelmann, Trans. St. Louis Acad. ii. 211. — Bentham (1837). & Hooker, Gen. iii. 439. — Eichler, Engler & Prantl, Pinus, Linneus, Gen. ed. 5, 434 (in part) (1754). — End- Pflanzenfam. ii. pt. i. 77. — Masters, Jour. Linn. Soc. licher, Gen. 260 (in part). — Meissner, Gen. 352 (in xxx. 28. part). — Baillon, Hist. Pl. xii. 44 (in part). Abies, Linnzus, Gen. 294 (in part) (1737). —A. L. de Jus- Pyramidal trees, with tall tapering trunks often strongly buttressed at the base, thin scaly or rarely deeply furrowed bark, soft pale wood containing numerous resin canals, slender whorled horizontal limbs clothed with pendent often elongated twice or thrice ramified lateral’ branches, their ultimate divisions stout, glabrous or pubescent, thick roots wide spreading near the surface of the ground, and long flexible tough rootlets. Branch buds usually three, surrounded with numerous more or less developed acicular scales articulate on persistent bases and generally deciduous before the opening of the buds, the two lateral in the axils of upper leaves, and much smaller than the terminal bud, ovate, acute or obtuse, covered by numerous spirally arranged light chestnut-brown accrescent scales acute or rounded and on some species strongly reflexed at the apex, those of the first pair minute, opposite and lateral; outer scales thickening and long persistent at the base of the branchlet, the inner thin, scarious, slightly united into a cup-like cover, deciduous in one piece from the end of the young branchlet.' Leaves spirally disposed, densely packed and appressed in the bud and on the lengthening branchlets into cone-shaped clusters, ultimately extending out from the branch on all sides, or occasionally appearing two-ranked by the twisting of the petioles of those on the lower side, mostly pointing to the end of the branch, frequently somewhat incurved above the middle, acute or acuminate at the apex, with slender callous tips, or rarely obtuse, entire, longer and more slender on sterile branches than on fertile branches and leading shoots, articulate on persistent prominent rhombic ultimate woody bases, dark or light green and lustrous, or blue or bluish green, keeled above and below, tetragonal and stomatiferous with numerous rows of stomata on the four sides, or flattened and stomatiferous only on the upper surface and occasionally also on the lower, containing one or two lateral resin ducts close to the epidermis of the lower side, or destitute of resin ducts, persistent generally for from seven to ten years, deciduous in drying. Flowers appearing in early spring, moneecious,’ terminal or in the axils of upper leaves on branchlets of the previous year from buds formed during the summer, surrounded at the base by involucres of the numerous enlarged scarious scales of their buds. Staminate flowers oblong, oval or cylindrical, erect, short-stalked or often nodding at maturity on long slender pedicels, composed of numerous spirally arranged yellow or scarlet anthers opening longitudinally, their connectives produced into broad nearly circular toothed crests; pollen- grains bilobed with lateral air-sacs. Pistillate flowers erect on short stalks, oblong-cylindrical, pale yellow-green or scarlet, composed of numerous rounded or pointed scales usually broader than long, entire or denticulate on the margins, spirally imbricated in many ranks, bearing on their inner face near the base two inverted collateral ovules, each scale in the axil of an oblong generally acute or acuminate or of a nearly orbicular bract, at first much longer but before the fecundation of the ovules 20 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER Z. usually much shorter than the quickly accrescent scales. Fruits ovoid or oblong-cylindrical pendulous sessile or short-stalked cones maturing in one season, crowded on the topmost branches, or on some species scattered over the upper half of the tree, deciduous during the first winter or persistent on the branch for many years, their scales obovate, rounded above with entire or denticulate margins, or oblong and often more or less narrowed to both ends, with nearly entire, dentate, erose or laciniate margins, much longer than their bracts, gradually decreasing in size to the two ends of the cone, the upper and lower usually sterile, persistent on the axis of the cone after the escape of the seeds. Seeds geminate, reversed, attached at the base in shallow depressions on the inner face of the cone- scales, ovoid or oblong, full and rounded on the sides, usually acute at the base, in falling bearing away portions of the membranaceous lining of the scale, forming oblong wing-like attachments longer than the seeds, and inclosing them except on their upper side; testa of two coats, the outer crustaceous, light or dark brown, the inner membranaceous, pale chestnut-brown and lustrous. Embryo axile in conspicuous fleshy albumen; cotyledons from four to fifteen, and, like the primary leaves, denticulate on the margins.* Picea, which often forms great forests on boreal plains and high mountain slopes, is widely distributed through the colder and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, ranging from the Arctic Circle to the high slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains, and to New Mexico and Arizona in the New World, and in the Old World to central and southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, the Himalayas, and Japan. Sixteen species are now usually recognized, but it is not improbable that a more accurate knowledge of the Spruce-trees of northeastern continental Asia than it is now possible to obtain may increase the number. The forests of North America contain seven species ; of these one species crosses the northern part of the continent from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to those of Behring Sea; another ranges from the east to beyond the Rocky Mountains; one species is peculiar to the Appalachian Mountain system; two species belong to the silva of the Rocky Mountains ; another is confined to the northwest coast, and one, probably the least widely distributed of the whole genus, grows only on a few of the high mountains of northern California and southern Oregon. In Japan Picea bicolor* and Picea Torano® are scattered, usually singly, through the forests of Beeches and Oaks which cover the mountains of central Hondo. Picea Jezoensis® ranges from southern Yezo to the coast of Manchuria, and Picea Glehni™ also reaches Yezo from the north. On the temperate Himalayas Picea Smithiana* forms great forests, and on many of the mountains of Asia Minor and on the Caucasus is replaced by Picea orientalis ;° farther westward Picea Omorika” represents the genus on the Balkan ranges; and in western Europe Picea Abies" is a common inhabitant of mountain forests, and at the north often covers great plains, while in northern Asia its place is taken by Picea obovata.” The type is an ancient one, and Spruces very similar to those now living inhabited Europe during the miocene period.” Picea, which contains some of the most valuable timber-trees in the northern hemisphere, produces soft straight-grained pale wood and resinous exudations sometimes used in medicine. Many of the species, which can be easily raised from seeds and generally grow rapidly, are used to decorate the parks and gardens of all northern countries. Picea is often seriously injured by insects," and is subject to a number of fungal diseases.” Picea, which was probably the classical name of the Spruce, was first used by Link as the generic name of the Spruces as the genus is now limited.* Henry, Nov. Act. Ces. Leop. xix. 97, t. 13. be grouped in two sections, as suggested by Engelmann (Gard. 2 Androgynous flowers of Picea Abies have been noticed by Chron. n. ser. xi. 334 [1879]), and by Willkomm (Forst. Fl. ed. 2, Masters (Vegetable Teratology, 192), and a similar phenomenon 66 [1887]) : — has been found by J. G. Jack on two plants of Picea Canadensis. Evricea. Leaves tetragonal, stomatiferous on all sides. (See Garden and Forest, viii. 222, £. 33, 1.) Omorma. Leaves flattened, usually stomatiferous only on the 8 The species of Picea with tetragonal and with flat leaves may upper side. CONIFERZ. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 21 4 Picea bicolor, Mayr. Monog. Abiet. Jap. 49, t. 3, £. 8 (1890). Abies Alcoquiana, Lindley, Gard. Chron. 1861, 23 (in part). — K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 245 (in part). Abies bicolor, Maximowicz, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, x. 488 (Mél. Biol. vi. 24) (1866). — Franchet & Savatier, Enum. Pl. Jap. i. 467. Picea Alcockiana, Carritre, Traité Conif. ed. 2, 343 (1867.) — Masters, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xiii. 212, f. 41, 43 ; Jour. Linn. Soc. xviii. 508, f. 7-9 (Conifers of Japan). — Hennings, Gartenflora, xxxviii. 216, f. 40. Pinus Alcoquiana, Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 417 (1868). Abies Alcockiana, Gordon, Pinetum, ed. 2, 4 (not Lindley) (1875). Picea bicolor, which is probably rare and not widely distributed, is a tree seldom more than seventy or eighty feet in height, with a trunk sometimes two feet in diameter, tetragonal leaves, and stout cones five or six inches in length, with thin rounded scales which are slightly denticulate on the margins and become reflexed at maturity. It appears to exist in American gardens only in a very young state, and to be exceedingly rare in Europe. In the mountains of Japan the old trees with their feeble branches and sparse foliage possess little beauty. 5 Picea Torano, Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 22 (1893). ? Pinus Abies, Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 275 (not Linnzeus) (1784). ? Pinus Thunbergii, Lambert, Pinus, ii. Preface, p. v. (1824). Abies Torano, Siebold, Verhand. Batav. Genoot. Konst. Wet. xii. 12 (1830). — K. Koch, J. c. 238. ? Abies Thunbergit, Lindley, Penny Cycl. i. 34 (1833). Abies polita, Siebold & Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. ii. 20, t. 111 (1842). — Miquel, Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. iii. 167 (Prol. Fl. Jap.). — Franchet & Savatier, 1. c. 466. — Gordon, l. ¢. 16. Pinus polita, Antoine, Conif. 95, t. 36, £.1 (1840-47). — End- licher, Syn. Conif. 121. — Parlatore, J. c. Picea polita, Carriére, Traité Conif. 256 (1855).— Bertrand, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5, xx. 85. — Masters, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xiii. 233, f. 44 ; Jour. Linn. Soc. xviii. 507 (Conifers of Japan). — Mayr, J. c. 46, t. 3, £. 7.—Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 380, £. 102. Abies Smithiana, Gordon, Pinetum, 12 (in part) (not Loudon) (1858). : On the Nikko Mountains Picea Torano is a stunted tree thirty or forty feet in height, with a thin top and short ragged branches ; it is distinguished by its stout rigid faleate tetragonal sharp-pointed yellow-green leaves, and by its broadly ovate cones from four to six inches in length, with rounded scales thin, entire or slightly fimbriated on the margins. Ugly and unattractive in its native forests, Picea Torano is one of the hardiest of the Asiatic Spruce- trees in the gardens of the United States and England, into which it was introduced thirty or forty years ago, and in which, still retaining the dense habit and the shapely form of youth, it pro- duces cones abundantly every season. ® Picea Jezoensis, Carriére, 1. c. 255 (1855). — Beissner, 1. c. 389. Abies Jezoensis, Siebold & Zuccarini, 1. c. t. 110 (1842). — Miquel, 7. c. Pinus Jezoensis, Antoine, 1. c. 97, t. 37, £. 1 (1840-47). — End- licher, J. c. 120. Abies Ajanensis, Lindley & Gordon, Jour. Hort. Soc. Lond. v. 212 (1850). — Maximowicz, Bull. Phys. Math. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, xv. 436 (Baume und Stréucher des Amurlands). Picea Ajanensis, Trautvetter & Meyer, Middendorff Reise, i. pt. ii. 87, t. 22-24 (Fl. Ochot.) (1856). — Carriére, 1. c. 259. — Regel & Tilling, Fl. Ajan. 119.— Maximowicz, Mém. Sav. Etr. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, ix. 261 (Prim. Fl. Amur.).— Regel, Mém. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, sér. 7, iv. No. 4, 136 (Tent. Fl. Ussur.). — Masters, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xiii. 115, £. 22; xiv. 427, f. 80-84, ser. 3, iii. 52, f.10; Jour. Linn. Soc. xviii. 508, f. 8-10 (Conifers of Japan). —Trautvetter, Act. Hort. Petrop. ix. 212 Cncrementa Fl. Ross.).— Hennings, J. c. — Mayr, J. c. 53, t. 4, f£. 10. — Beissner, J. c. 385, £. 104. Picea Ajanensis, a genuina, Trautvetter & Meyer, J. c. (1856). Picea Aj is, B subintegerrima, Trautvetter & Meyer, 1. c. (1856). Abies microsperma, Lindley, Gard. Chron. 1861, 22.— Gordon, Pinetum, Suppl. 12.—A. Murray, Proc. R. Hort. Soc. ii. 429, f. 111-118; The Pines and Firs of Japan, 69, £. 129-136. Abies Alcoquiana, Lindley, J. c. 1861, 23 (in part). — A. Mur- ray, Proc..R. Hort. Soc. ii. 426, £. 98-110 ; The Pines and Firs of Japan, 66, £. 116-128. — Gordon, 1. c. 8. Picea microsperma, Carritre, Traité Conif. ed. 2, 339 (4867). Pinus Menziesit, Parlatore, 1. c. 418 (in part) (not D. Don) (1868). Pinus Japonica, Parlatore, 1. c. (1868). Abies Sitchensis, K. Koch, 1. ¢. ii. pt. ii. 247 (in part) (not Lindley & Gordon) (1873). Abies Menziesti, Franchet & Savatier, 1. c. 467 (not Lindley) (1875). Picea Ajanensis, var. microsperma, Masters, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xiii. 115 (1880); Jour. Linn. Soc. xviii. 509 ( Conifers of Japan). Abies Ajanensis, var. microsperma, Veitch, Man. Conif. 66 (1881). Tsuga Ajanensis, Regel, Russ. Dendr. ed. 2. pt. i. 39 (1882). Picea Hondoénsis, Mayr, 1. c. 51, t. 4, £. 9 (1890). Picea Jezoensis is a tree from eighty to one hundred feet in height, with slender branches, flat leaves dark green and lustrous below and silvery white above, and slender cones from two to four inches in length, with more or less pointed laciniately cut scales. It bears a strong superficial resemblance to Picea Sitchensis of the northwest coast of North America, from which it, however, differs in its flatter and generally blunter leaves and in the minute sub- orbicular bracts of the cone-scales. This is the common Spruce-tree of Yezo, where, on low rocky . hills, it is scattered through the forests of deciduous-leaved trees, either singly or in small groves, and in the western part of the island forms forests on swampy ground not much above the level of the ocean. It is also common on Saghalin and the coast of Man- churia, where it is said to grow in extensive forests. Picea Jezoensis is usually called in American and English gar- dens Picea Alcoquiana, one of the synonyms of Picea bicolor jin the eastern United States, where there are cone-bearing specimens from twenty-five to thirty feet in height, it has proved very hardy and one of the most beautiful of the exotic Spruces, especially in early spring, when it may be distinguished by the bright scarlet color of the young leaves when they first emerge from the buds. _1 Picea Gilehni, Masters, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xiii. 300, f. 54 (1880); Jour. Linn. Soc. xviii. 513, f. 13 (Conifers of Japan); Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 222. — Mayr, I. ¢. 56, t. 4, f. 11. — Beissner, J. c. 377. Abies Glenhi, Fr. Schmidt, Mém. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, sér. 7, xii. 176, t. 4, £. 8-12 (Fl. Sachalinensis) (1868). —Veitch, 7. c. 80. Little is known of this tree, which was discovered on the island of Saghalin, and which grows, also, at a few points near the south- ern coast of Yezo. It is clearly related to the Siberian Picca 22 obovata, of which it is, perhaps, only an extreme form. A large number of seedlings have been raised in the Arnold Arboretum, but they are still too young to show whether this tree is likely to flourish in the eastern United States. 3 Picea Smithiana, Boissier, Fl. Orient. v. 700 (1884). Pinus Smithiana, Wallich, Pl. Asiat. Rar. iii. 24, t. 246 (1832). — D. Don, Lambert Pinus, iii. t. — Antoine, Conif. 95, t. 36 bis. — Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 416. Abies Smithiana, Lindley, Penny Cycl. i. 31, f. (4833). — Lou- don, Arb. Brit. iv. 2317, £. 2229. — Forbes, Pinetum Woburn. 103, t. 36.— Madden, Jour. Agric. and Hort. Soc. Ind. iv. pt. iv. 230 ; vii. pt. iv. 87.— Gordon, Pinetum, 12.— Cleghorn, Jour. Agric. and Hort. Soc. Ind. xiv. pt. ii. 266, t. 5 (Pines of the North- west Himalayas). — Herder, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. xli. 423. — K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 232. Abies spinulosa, Griffith, Itin. i. 145 (1848); Icon. Pl. Asiat. t. 363. Pinus Khutrow, Royle, Ill. 353, t. 84, £. 1 (1839). — Antoine, l. c. 94, t. 36, f. 2. — Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 122. Picea Morinda, Link, Linnea, xv. 522 (1841). — Carriére, Traité Conif. ed. 2, 340.— Hooker £. Fl. Brit. Ind. v. 653. — Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 373. Abies Khutrow, Loudon, Encycl. Trees, 1032, f. 1951 (1842). — Lindley & Gordon, Jour. Hort. Soc. Lond. v. 21. Picea Khutrow, Carriére, Traité Conif. 258 (1855). —Ber- trand, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5, xx. 85. Abies Morinda, (Nelson) Senilis, Pinacew, 49 (1866). Picea Smithiana is a tree from one hundred to one hundred and twenty or occasionally one hundred and fifty feet in height, with a trunk often four or five and occasionally seven feet in diameter, pale scaly bark, wide-spreading branches, long pendulous branchlets, slender four-sided pale green leaves, and cylindrical obtuse cones from four to six inches in length, with thin broadly obovate, rounded. usually entire scales cuneate at the base. The Himalayan Spruce is generally found on northern and western slopes between elevations of six thousand and eleven thousand feet above the sea-level, grow- ing rarely in pure forests, but most commonly mixed with deciduous- leaved trees and with Cedrus Deodara, Pinus Nepalensis, and Abies Webbiana ; it is distributed from Afghanistan to Sikkim and Bho- tan, where it is found only in the valleys at elevations of from seven thousand eight hundred to ten thousand feet. The wood of Picea Smithiana, which is not durable, is used for packing-cases and the interior finish of buildings, and occasionally for shingles (Gamble, Man. Indian Timbers, 407). The bark is employed for the roofs of huts and water-troughs, and the branches for fodder and manure. In northwestern India the young cones are used in medicine. (See Brandis, Forest Fl. Brit. Ind. 525.) Picea Smithiana was introduced into Scotland in 1818, and has proved a hardy, fast-growing, and desirable ornamental tree in the countries of temperate Europe. (See Masters, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xxiv. 393, f. 85.— Webster, Trans. Scottish Arboricultural Soc. xi. 57.— Dunn, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 85.) In the middle Atlantic states, where the largest plants are still small (see Garden and Forest, vi. 458), and in California, the Hima- layan Spruce has proved hardy, but it has not succeeded in New England. ® Picea orientalis, Carridre, 1. c. 244 (1855). — Tchihatcheff, Asie Mineure, ii. 495 (excl. hab. northern Russia, Siberia, and the Ku- tile Islands). — Boissier, 7. c. — Masters, J. c. xxv. 333, f. 62; ser. 3, iii. 754, f. 101. — Beissner, J. c. 374, £. 100. Pinus orientalis, Linnzeus, Spec. ed. 2, 1421 (1763). — Lambert, Pinus, i. 45, t. 29, £. a. — Marschall von Bieberstein, Fil. Taur.- SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER. Cauc. ii. 409. — Steven, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. xi. 48; Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 2, xi. 57.— Antoine, J. c. 89, t. 35, £. 1. — Endlicher, 1. c. 116.— Ledebour, Fl. Ross. iii. 671 (in part). — K. Koch, Linnea, xxii, 296.— Turezaninow, Fi. Baicalensi-Dahurica, ii. 139. — Christ, Verhand. Nat. Gesell. Basel, iii. 546 (Uebersicht der Europiischen Abietineen). — Parlatore, 1. c. 414. Abies orientalis, Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 518 (1804). — Lind- ley, l. c. —Janbert & Spach, Pl. Orient. i. 30, t. 14. — K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 239. Pinus obovata, Turezaninow, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. xi. 101 (Cat. Pl. Baical.) (1838). A tree, frequently one hundred and fifty feet in height, with a trunk often four feet in diameter, Picea orientalis forms extensive forests up to elevations of six or seven thousand feet above the sea. It is distinguished by its narrow pyramidal crown of slender limbs, which sweep upward in graceful curves and are clothed with short rigid lateral branches, by its short dark green and lustrous tetra- gonal leaves closely pressed against the pubescent branchlets, which therefore appear unusually slender, and by its narrow cylindrical acute cones from two to three inches in length, with broad rounded scales thin and entire on the margins. Picea orientalis was introduced into the gardens of western Europe in 1825, and for at least fifty years it has inhabited those of the eastern United States, where it has proved itself perfectly hardy as far north as eastern Massachusetts and one of the most beautiful and desirable of all the exotic conifers which have been well tested here. A dwarf form and one with yellow leaves are occasionally culti- vated in European collections (Beissner, J. c. 376). 10 Picea Omorika, Bolle, Monats. Beford. Gartenb. Preuss. Statt. 1877, 124, 158 (Die Omorica-Fichte) (1877). — Purkyne, Osterr. Monats. Forstw. 1877, 446.— A. Braun, Sitz. Bot. Ver. Prov. Bran- denburg, 1877, 45. — Reichenbach f. Bot. Zeit. xxxv. 118. — Will- komm, Cent. Gesell. Forst. 1877, 365 (Ein neuer Nadelholzbaum Europas); Forst. Fl. ed. 2, 99; Wien Iil. Gart.-Zeit. 1885, 494. — Carriére, Rev. Hort. 1877, 259. — P. Ascherson & A. Kanetz, Cat. 7.— Boissier, J. c. 701.— Masters, 1. c. vii. 470, 620; xxi. 308, £. 56, 58; Jour. Linn. Soc. xxii. 203, t. 8; Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 223. — Bornmiiller, Osterr. Bot. Zeit. xxxvii. 398. — P. Ascherson, Osterr. Bot. Zeit. xxxviii. 34. — Stein, Gartenflora, xxxvi. 13, t. 4, 5. — Wettstein, Sitz. Math.-nat. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xcix. pt. i. 503, t. 1-5. — Beissner, J. c. 382, £. 109. — Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 20, f. 8, N.— Hempel & Wilhelm, Béume und Strducher, i. 82, £. 41, 42. Pinus Omorika, Pantié, Hine neue Conifere in den Ostlichen Alpen, 4 (1876). Abies Omorika, Nyman, Conspect. Fl. Europ. 673 (1881); Suppl. li. 283. Picea Omorika, which forms great forests and is probably gen- erally distributed at high elevations over all the region between the Adriatic and the Black Sea, is described as a lofty tree with short branches which form a narrow crown, red-brown bark sepa- rating freely in large thin scales, usually flat obtuse or acute leaves, dark green and lustrous below, and silvery white above from the numerous bands of stomata on each side of the prominent midrib, and oblong-oval cones at first horizontal and finally pendent, about two inches in length, violet-colored while young and ultimately red- dish brown and. lustrous, with thin rounded striate scales slightly and irregularly denticulate on the margins. Although one of the largest and most valuable timber-trees of Europe, and particularly interesting in its relationship to a species of the coast of northeastern Asia and to the two species peculiar CONIFER. to the northwest coast of North America, Picea Omorika escaped. the attention of botanists until comparatively recent years, but under the name of Omorika it has long been a familiar tree to the inhabitants of the region where it grows. In 1881 Picea Omorika was raised from seeds in the Arnold Arboretum, where it has proved hardy and has grown rapidly, promising to attain a large size; it also flourishes in Great Britain (Gard. Chron. ser. 3, xxi. 153, f. 14). 11 Picea Abies, Karsten, Pharm.-med. Bot. 324, £. 155 (1881). Pinus Abies, Linneeus, Spec. 1002 (1753). — Lambert, Pinus, i. 37, t. 25. — Wahlenberg, Fl. Lapp. 256; Fl. Ups. 326. — Antoine, Conif. 90, t. 35, £. 2. —Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 117. — Ledebour, - Fl. Ross. iii. 670. — Koch, Syn. Fl. German. ed. 3, 578. Abies Picea, Miller, Dict. ed. 8, No. 3 (1768).— Spach, Hist. Vég. xi. 405. : Pinus Abies Picea, Muenchhausen, Hausv. v. 223 (1770). Pinus Picea, Du Roi, Obs. Bot. 37 (not Linnzus) (1771) ; Harbk. Baumz. ii. 110. —Brotero, Hist. Nat. Pinheiros, Larices e Abetos, 30.— Reichenbach, Icon. Fl. German. xi. 4, t. 532 (Abies excelsa on plate). —Christ, Verhand. Nat. Gesell. Basel, iii. 545 (Uebersicht der Europiiischen A bietineen). — Parlatore, FU. Ital. iv. 62; De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 415. Pinus excelsa, Lamarck, Fl. Franc. ii. 202 (1778). — Salisbury, Trans. Linn. Soc. viii. 314. Abies pectinata, Gilibert, Exercit. Phyt. ii. 411 (1792). Pinus cinerea, Borkhausen, Forstbot. i. 398 (1800). — Roehling, Deutschl. Fl. ed. 2, 519. Abies excelsa, De Candolle, Lamarck Fl. Frang. ed. 3, iii. 275 (1805). — Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 518.— Nouveau Duhamel, vy. 289, t. 80.— Richard, Comm. Bot. Conif. 69, t. 14, f. 2, 15. — Lindley, Penny Cycl. i. 31, £.— Schouw, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 3, iii. 239 (Coniféres d’Iialie). — Hartig, Forst. Culturpfl. Deutschl. 17, t. 1. —Fiscali, Deutsch. Forstcult.-Pfl. 23, t. 1, £. 13-20.— Gordon, Pinetum, 3.— Willkomm & Lange, Prodr. Fl. Hispan. i. 17.—K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 234. —Colmeiro, Enum. Pl. Hispano-Lusitana, iv. 709. Picea vulgaris, Link, Abhand. Akad. Berl. 1827, 180 (1830). — Herder, Bot. Jahrb. xiv. 160 (Fl. Europ. Russlands). Picea excelsa, Link, Linnea, xv. 517 (1841). — Carriére, Traité Conif. 245.— Bertrand, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5, xx. 85.— Beiss- ner, Handb. Nadelh. 351.—Hempel & Wilhelm, Baume und Strducher, i. 58, £. 28-40, t. 1. Picea montana, Schur, Verh. Seibenb. Ver. Naturw. ii. 159 (1851). One of the loftiest of the trees of Europe, the type of the genus and its best known representative, Picea Abies frequently attains a height of one hundred and twenty and occasionally of one hundred and fifty feet, with a trunk from four to six feet in diameter and wide-spreading lower branches which even old trees do not lose unless crowded in the forest, and which, sweeping over the surface of the ground in graceful upward curves, occasionally develop roots in moist soil and send up secondary stems, forming small groves around the parent tree. (See M’Nab, Gard. Mag. xiii. 249, f. 87- 92. —Schiibeler, Virid. Norveg. i. 416, f. 73-77. — Christ, Garden and Forest, ix. 252.) The European Spruce is distinguished by its dark green lustrous sharp-pointed tetragonal leaves rarely more than an inch in length, yellow staminate flowers more or less tinged with red, obtuse bright scarlet pistillate flowers, and cylin- drical pointed cones which when fully grown are pale green or green shaded with red, especially on the side exposed to the light, and at maturity are from five to seven inches in length and from an inch and a half to two inches thick, with rhomboidal incurved scales irregularly toothed at the apex. a SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 23 Picea Abies is distributed from about latitude 67° north in Nor- way and 68°15’ in western Russia, southward to the Pyrenees, the ‘Maritime Alps, the Euganian Hills in Lombardy, and central Rus- sia. Most abundant in Scandinavia, where at the north it grows at the sea-level, and in northern Germany, it also often forms exten- sive forests on the mountains of central Europe, which it frequently ascends to altitudes of six or seven thousand feet, but does not grow spontaneously in Denmark, Holland, Belgium, western France, or in Great Britain, Turkey, or southern Russia. The wood of Picea Abies, known in England as white deal, is light, tough, elastic, more or less durable according to the soil on which it has grown, lustrous, and pale reddish or yellowish white, with straight even grain and few resin ducts; it is employed in large quantities in construction and the interior finish of buildings, and for fuel. Its homogeneousness of structure, with its thin medullary rays, makes it especially valuable for the transmission of sonorous vibrations, and in Europe it is almost exclusively used in the manufacture of pianos, violins, and other musical instru- ments, the best wood for this purpose being obtained from old trees which have grown slowly at high elevations. It is also largely used in the manufacture of matches and for paper pulp. (See Mathieu, Fl. Forestiere, ed. 3, 471.) From the resinous exudations of Picea Abies Burgundy Pitch is produced. This is an astringent: opaque yellow-brown hard and brittle substance with an agreeable aromatic odor, and is obtained by making in the stem numerous perpendicular incisions about an inch and a half in width and depth in which the resin collects. From time to time this is scraped off with an iron instrument and is purified by being melted with steam or in hot water and strained. Burgundy Pitch, which was well known in England three centu- ries and a half ago (see Parkinson, Theatr. 1542), and was in- cluded in the London Pharmacopeia of 1677, is used as a mild stimulant in the preparation of medical plasters, and in Germany, mixed with colophony or gallipot, is employed to line beer-casks. The wounding of the trees to obtain their resinous product has been shown, however, to be injurious to the timber, and it is no longer permitted in the German state forests; and Burgundy Pitch is now largely replaced in commerce by artificial compounds, the one most frequently sold being made by melting colophony with Palm-oil or some other fat, opaqueness being obtained by stirring with water. (See Loudon, Ard. Brit. iv. 2307.— Guibourt, Hist. Drog. ed. 7, ii. 256. — Fliickiger & Hanbury, Pharmacopeia, 556. — Bentley & Trimen, Med. Pl. iv. 261, t. 261. —Spons, Ency- clopedia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures, and Raw Commercial Products, ii. 1679. — U. S. Dispens. ed. 16, 1172. — Bastin & Trim- ble, Am. Journ. Pharm. lxviii. 418.) The bark of Picea Abies is occasionally employed in tanning leather ; in Scandinavia the young shoots are sometimes used for the winter fodder of cattle and sheep ; baskets are made from the inner bark ; and from the long slender flexible roots, which are first split and boiled, strong cords are twisted. (See Loudon, J. c. 2304.) In the extreme northern portions of the Scandinavian peninsula, in Finland and northern Russia, the Spruce, which there rarely exceeds thirty feet in height, is distinguished from the tree of more southern countries, with which it appears to be connected by intermediate forms, by its shorter, thicker, and more rigid and obtuse leaves, conspicuously marked by four white stomatiferous bands, and by its short cones with thin scales rounded and entire on the margins. This is Picea Abies medioxima. Abies orientalis, Fries, Bot. Notiser, 1857, 174; 1858, 61, 199 (not Poiret). 24 Pinus Abies, var. medioxima, Nylander, Bull. Soc. Bot. France, x. 501 (1863). Abies excelsa, var. medioxima, Hisenger, Bot. Notiser, 1867, 49, t. Abies medioxima, Lawson, Pinetum Brit. ii. 159, f. 1-10 (1870). Pinus Picea medioxima, Christ, Flore de la Suisse, 254 (1883). Picea excelsa, 8 medioxima, Willkomm, Forst. Fl. ed. 2, 75 (1887). — Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 356. — Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 23. The same form occurs in more or less isolated clumps at high elevations on the central ranges of the Swiss Alps, where it is believed to have existed since the glacial period, and, with its northern prototype, to indicate the close relationship between the Spruce of Europe and the Siberian Picea obovata. (See Dammer, Gard. Chron. ser. 3, iv. 479. — Christ, Garden and Forest, ix. 273.) The tendency of Picea Abies to depart from its normal form is Some of these are OF the former the most distinct are the small columnar trees with short tufted branches, stunted probably by the short summers and severe winters of northern Scandinavia and Finland, where individuals with this habit are not uncommon (see Schiibeler, Virid. Norveg. i. 406, f. 66, 68. — Christ, J. c.), and the numerous bushy plants dwarfed by cold which often grow near the timber line on the high mountains of central Europe. 346. — Beissner, 1. c. 357.) The most curious and remarkable seminal forms of Picea Abies are the so-called Snake Spruces, with long slender remote and usu- ally pendulous branches nearly destitute of lateral branchlets and covered with crowded closely appressed leaves, and elongated lead- ing shoots. A plant of this character was discovered by Alstroemer in 1777, near Stockholm, which he identified with Linnzus’s -y Abies procera viminalis (Fl. Suec. 288 [1745]). This is, therefore : — Picea Abies viminalis. Pinus viminalis, Alstroemer, Vet. Akad. Handl. Stockh. 1777, 310, t. 8, 9. — Borkhausen, Forsibot. i. 399. — Roehling, Deutschi. Fi. ed. 2, 529. Pinus Abies, 8 viminalis, Willdenow, Spec. iv. pt. i. 507 (1805). — Wahlenberg, FV. Svec. 630. Picea excelsa, B viminalis, Willkomm, Forst. Fl. 66 (1877).— Beissner, /. c. 360. A number of individuals of this character have been found dur- ing the last century in southern Sweden, and others have appeared from time to time in the forests of different parts of Germany. The best known form of these German trees is Picea Abies virgata. Abies excelsa, var. virgata, Jacques, Ann. Soc. Hort. Paris, xliv. 653 (1853). Picea excelsa denudata, Carriére, Rev. Hort. 1854, 101, f. 7; Traité Conif. 249. Abies excelsa denudata, Gordon, Pinetum, Suppl. 3 (1862). Picea excelsa, var. virgata, Caspary, Schrift. Phys. Ock. Gesell. Konigsberg, xiv. 125, t. 15, 16 (1873). — Willkomm, Forest Fl. ed. 2, 75. — Beissner, J. c. 359. This is hardly different from the Swedish form except in the somewhat more remote branches which distinguish some individu- als, and Schiibeler, who has given much attention to these mon- strous forms of Picea Abies, does not separate them. (See Virid. Norveg. i. 410, f. 69.) The plants grown in gardens under the name of var. monstrosa belong to the group of Snake Spruces and differ considerably among themselves in the degree of their varia- tion from the normal form of the Norway Spruce. also shown by a number of curious varieties. due to climatic influences and others to seminal variation. (See Brugg, Gartenflora, xxxvi. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER. Among other seminal forms of Picea Abies is one with branches which, ascending at narrow angles, give to the tree the form of the Lombardy Poplar. This occurs on the Swiss Alps (see Christ, 1. c. 252), and is probably similar to the plant propagated by nur- serymen as var. pyramidalis, or perhaps identical with it. Another form which also grows sparingly on the Swiss Alps (see Christ, I. c.) is peculiar in its pendent limbs clothed with elongated slender branchlets which d d vertically. Plants of this general char- acter with branches more or less pendulous are frequently eculti- vated as vars. pendula and inverta. Another specialized form of the Swiss Alps, var. sirigosa (Picea excelsa, var. strigosa, Christ, 1. c. [1896]), has numerous slender horizontal branches clothed with many branchlets which spread in all directions and give the trees the general aspect of a Larch. Numerous dwarf varieties of Picea Abies with short crowded leaves are cultivated in gardens; they are either low pyramidal bushes or cushion-like plants sometimes only one or two feet high, with branches hugging the ground and spreading out into broad mats. (For enumerations of the garden varieties of Picea Abies, see Carriére, Traité Conif. ed. 2, 328.— Veitch, Man. Conif. 70.— Beissner, /. c. 357.) For centuries Picea Abies has been a favorite ornament of the parks and gardens of northern and temperate Europe ; and no other conifer has been more generally and successfully used in the mountain plantations of France, Germany, and Russia, although this Spruce suffers seriously from the ravages of the larve of the Nun Moth, Liparis monarcha, Linneus, which year after year, strip- ping it of foliage, has often destroyed thousands of acres of planted. forests in Germany and Russia (Schlich, Manual of Forestry, iv. 289, f. 149-151). The Norway Spruce, as this tree is always called. in the United States, was introduced into this country toward the end of the eighteenth century, and during the last fifty years has been more generally planted in the eastern and northern states than any other coniferous tree. As an ornamental tree the Euro- pean Spruce has much to recommend it in these regions ; it is quickly and therefore cheaply raised in the nursery to a size suit- able for permanent planting out; it is very hardy and grows with a rapidity which is surpassed by that of only a few other trees ; it is not particular about soil and position, and young trees are shapely in habit and dark and rich in color. In America, however, at the end of twenty-five or thirty years the trees usually begin to lose vigor, their tops becoming thin and ragged, and it is only under specially favorable conditions and in the middle Atlantic states that the Norway Spruce retains its beauty here for more than fifty years. Except, therefore, as a nurse for slower growing and more valuable trees, the European Spruce has not proved suc- cessful as an ornamental tree in America, and its general introduc- tion here has interfered with the cultivation of more permanent and valuable species. 22 Picea obovata, Ledebour, Fi. Alt. iv. 201 (1833) ; Ill. Fl. Ross. v. 28, t. 499. — Link, Linnea, xv. 518.— Trautvetter, MiddendorfT Reise, i. pt. ii. 170 (Pl. Jen.).— Trautvetter & Meyer, Middendorff Reise, i. pt. ii. 87 (Fl. Ochot.). — Maximowiez, Mém. Sav. Etr. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, ix. 261 (Prim. Fl. Amur.).— Regel, Mém. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, sér. 7, iv. No. 4, 136 (Tent. Fl. Ussur.); Russ. Dendr. ed. 2, pt. i. 34. — Teplouchoff, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. xli. pt. ii. 244. — Masters, Jour. Linn. Soc. xviii. 506 (Conifers of Japan). — Herder, Bot. Jahrb. xiv. 160 (Fl. Europ. Russlands). — Miyabe, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. iv. 261 (Fl. Kurile Islands). Pinus Abies, Pallas, FU. Ross. i. 6, t. 1, £.G. (not Linnzeus) (1784). Abies obovata, Loudon, Arb. Brit. iv. 2329 (1838). — Maxi- CONIFER, mowicz, Bull. Phys. Math. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, xv. 437 (Baume und Stréucher des Amurlands). Pinus obovaia, Antoine, Conif. 96, t. 37, £. 2 (not Turezaninow) (1840-47). — Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 119.— Parlatore, De Can- dolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 415. Pinus orientalis, Ledebour, Fl. Ross. iii. 671 (in part) (not Linneus) (1847-49). Picea vulgaris, var. Altaica, Teplouchoff, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. xli. pt. ii. 250 (1869).: Abies excelsa, K. Koch, Dendr, ii. pt. ii. 288 (in part) (not Lamarck) (1873). Picea obovata is a lofty tree of the size and habit of Picea Abies, from which it differs chiefly in its short oval or oblong cylindrical cones, with rounded nearly entire scales, and is distributed from northeastern Russia through Siberia to Manchuria and northern China, ranging northward in Siberia, to latitude 69° 30’, and often forming vast forests on plains,and on the Altai Mountains, covering these from their foothills up to elevations of four thousand feet above the sea. What is perhaps a form of the Siberian Spruce, with longer - leaves and usually smaller cones, of the desert mountains of south- western Siberia, is Var. B Schrenckiana, Masters, Jour. Linn. Soc. xviii. 506 (Coni- Jers of Japan) (1881). Picea Schrenckiana, Fischer & Meyer, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, x. 253 (1842).— Carriére, Traité Conif. 254. — Beiss- ner, Handb. Nadelh. 371. Pinus Schrenckiana, Antoine, 1. c. 97 (1840-47). — Endlicher, i. c. 120. Pinus orientalis, g longifolia, Ledebour, 1. c. (1847-49). Abies Schrenckiana, Lindley & Gordon, Jour. Hort. Soc. Lond. v. 212 (1850). — Maximowiez, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. liv. pt. i. 58. Pinus obovata, B Schrenckiana, Parlatore, 1. c. (1868). — Car- riére, Traité Conif. ed. 2, 338. ? Picea Tianschanica, Ruprecht, Mém. Acad. Sci. St. Péters- bourg, sér. 7, xiv. No. 3, 72 (Sertum Tianschanicum) (1870). Little is known of the Siberian Spruces in the gardens of the eastern United States and of western Europe. In Great Britain they grow badly and are often destroyed by spring frosts, while in New England, where they are now growing in the Arnold Arbore- tum, the oldest plants are still too young to give any'idea of the value of these trees for our plantations. The curious dwarf Spruce, Picea Maximowiczii (Masters, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xiii. 363 [1880]), with very slender acicular spine- tipped leaves spreading on all sides from the glabrous brown branchlets, and minute cones, which was raised from seeds dis- tributed several years ago from the Imperial Botanic Garden of St. Petersburg and supposed to have come from Japan, and which has proved hardy in eastern Massachusetts, is perhaps an imma- ture or transitory form of Picea obovata, from which, however, it differs in the position of the resin canals of the leaves, or of some still unknown species of continental Asia. 18 Saporta, Origine Paléontologique des Arbres, 80. 14 In North America more than fifty species of insects are reported to be living on the various species of Picea, although comparatively little is yet known of those which prey on these trees in the western part of the continent. In Europe Kaltenbach records between three and four hundred species injurious to coniferous ' trees, and a large proportion of these feed on the Spruces, which, however, are principally injured by only a few kinds. Although a great majority of the insects which obtain their food from Spruce- trees are not abundant enough to inflict serious damage on them, SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 25 there are several kinds which are sometimes widely destructive. (See Packard, 5th Rep. U. S. Entomolog. Comm. 811.) The living trunks of Spruce-trees are not exempt from borers, belonging chiefly to the longicorn group, which also affect the true Pine-trees. Among such beetles are Monohammus confusor, Kirby, and Monoh , Fabricius, while Rhagium lineatum, Olivier, infests the dry timber. Larve of beetles belonging to the Buprestide also bore into the wood, both living and dead. The greatest damage to the trunk, however, appears to be caused by various species of several genera of small timber and bark beetles belonging to the family Scolytide. Among these, Pityophthorus puberulus, Leconte, Xyloterus bivittatus, Kirby, and Xyleborus ccla- tus, Hichhoff, are said to be most destructive, and are credited with causing great damage to the Spruce forests in Maine, New Hamp- shire, and New York. Polygraphus rufipennis, Kirby, and Den- droctonus frontalis, Zimmerman, have been particularly destructive to the Red Spruce in northern New York and in West Virginia. (See Peck, Trans. Albany Inst. viii. 294. — Hopkins, Bull. No. 17, West Virginia Agric. Exper. Stat. 1891; Insect Life, iii. 1893, 187.) Other species of beetles of the same group also attack both living and dead wood, Dendroctonus rufipennis, Kirby, being said to damage seriously the Red Spruce in New Hampshire and the Engelmann Spruce in Utah. Hylesinus sericeus, Mannheim, Dry- ochetes affaber, Mannheim, and Tomicus Pini, Say, are common species, which bore into the trunks of Spruce-trees in the Rocky Mountain region. dontat, Spruces are not affected by many species of foliage-destroying insects, and few of these are ever abundant enough to do much damage. Several of them, however, are liable to become very destructive. A number of species of Saw-flies occur on Spruce-trees, their larve occasionally stripping the leaves from individual branches or from whole trees. The larve of various Noctuids and other Lepi- doptera feed on Spruce-trees without attracting attention, although several species of Tortricide have proved serious enemies of their foliage. According to Packard, the Spruce-bud Worm, Tortriz fumiferana, Clemens, has at times been very destructive to Spruce- trees in Maine and in other Spruce producing regions. Gelechia obliquistrigella, Chambers, eras variana, Fernald, and Steganop- tycha Ratzburgiana, Saxesen, are-small moths, whose larve feed on the foliage of Spruce-trees. Larvae of the Spruce-cone Worm, Pinipestis reniculella, Grote, feed upon and burrow in the young cones, several of them being often partially inclosed in a silken web, more or less covered with castings from the mining cater- pillars. Plant lice, like Lachnus Abietis, Fitch, occur on Spruce-trees; and species of the so-called bud lice belonging to the genus Adelges, or Chermes, affect these trees, particularly in parks and gardens. Adelges Abietis, Linnzeus, originally found on Spruces in Europe, is now also known in this country, and Adelges abieticolens, Thomas, has been described as an American species. These insects attack the young growing buds and shoots, eventually causing them to assume on the twigs hollow cone-like forms, within which the insects live during the summer, each apparent scale of this cone-like growth corresponding to the distorted base of a leaf. These abnormal growths are sometimes very abundant, causing much injury to the trees. 15 Owing to the popular confusion in the nomenclature of the Spruces of the northeastern United States, which are vaguely termed Black, White, and Red, it is frequently difficult, if not impossible, to refer to different species of Picea, as now understood, the fungus parasites reported as infesting these trees. American 26 ' Spruce-trees appear to be much less subject to the attacks of fungi, however, than the European Picea Abies, on which more than two hundred species of fungi have been recorded. The Spruce Rust, Peridermium abietinum, Fries, of Europe, is very common, in the form called by Peck var. decolorans, on the dwarf Spruces which inhabit the subalpine summits of the of the northeast states, and its cluster-cups are so abundant toward the end of August in many places that those who walk through the dense dwarf Spruce forests are covered with their orange-colored spores. Peridermium abietinum, Fries, is considered in Europe to be con- nected with Chrysomyxa Rhododendri, De Candolle, but in northern Europe it has been supposed to be connected with Chrysomyxa Ledi, Albertini & Schweinitz. Peridermium on Spruce, judging by its range and habitat, is proba- bly ted with Chry Ledi, Albertini & Schweinitz, on Ledum latifolium, as no Chrysomyxa has been found on Rhododen- In northern New Hampshire the J dron Lapponicum in that region. Besides the species mentioned, the fungi definitely reported on the Red Spruce, which are few in number, are principally Polypori, among which may be mentioned several varieties of Polyporus volvatus, Peck, and Polyporus piceinus, Peck, which attack the trunks of Spruce-trees, as does also the Little is known of the fungal enemies of the Spruce-trees of western North America. Ascomycete, Colpoma morbidum, Saccardo. 3 The use sometimes of Picea and sometimes of Abies as the name of the Spruces still confuses the cultivators of these trees, although botanists now invariably call the Spruce-trees Picea and the Fir-trees Abies. Pliny and other classical writers possibly intended their Picea to designate the Fir-tree and their Abies the Spruce-tree, although Pliny’s description of these two trees does not make this perfectly clear. In 1586 Camerarius (De Plantis Epitome, 47, £.), and in 1616 Dodoens (Stirp. Hist. 863, f.), used Picea as the name of the Spruce-tree and Abies as that of the Fir- SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER Z. tree. Tournefort, in 1719 (inst. 585), united the Silver Firs and the Spruces, including the American Hemlock, in his genus Abies. Linneus, in the first four editions of his Genera Plantarum, followed the arrangement of Tournefort, but in the fifth edition, published in 1754, he merged his genus Abies, including Picea, into Pinus, to which he also then referred Tournefort’s genus Larix. In the first edition of the Species Plantarum, published in 1753, Linnzus called the European Spruce Pinus Abies and the European Fir Pinus Picea, following what was probably the classical application of the two names. Du Roi, in 1771 (Harbk. Baumz. ii. 110), did the opposite, and called the Spruce Picea and the Fir Abies. In 1830 Link, separating the Spruces from the Pines and Firs, made the genus Picea for these trees, thus reversing Linnzus’s use of Picea and Abies, and following that of Du Roi. (See Abhand. Akad. Berl. 1827, 179 ; Linnea, xv. 516.) Endlicher, in 1836 (Gen. 260), followed Link in the use of Picea as the name of the Spruces, although he considered the group as a section of Pinus, and Car- bsequent Continental authors have adopted the same nomenclature. In 1837, however, D. Don, in the third vol- ume of Lambert’s Genus Pinus, disregarding Link’s application of the two names, called the Spruces Abies and the Firs Picea. Don’s use of the two names was adopted by Loudon (Arb. Brit. iv. 2293), and later by Gordon, and has been in general use among English horticulturists ever since, although in the United States and in Continental Europe the Spruces are almost habitually called Picea and the Firs Abies. According to the rules of botanical nomencla- ture, this use is certainly correct without reference to the classical riére and all meaning of the two words, or to Linnzus’s use of Picea and Abies as specific names in his genus Pinus, because Picea is the oldest name under which the Spruce-trees have been generically distin- guished. (See Backhouse, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xxvi. 682, for a discussion of this subject.) CONIFERZ. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONSPECTUS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES. Evricra. Leaves tetragonal, stomatiferous on the four sides. Cone-scales rounded at the apex. Cone-scales stiff and ridged at maturity ; branchlets pubescent. : Cones ovate on strongly incurved stalks, persistent for many years, their scales erose or dentate ; leaves blue-green . . . . oh e SoS eg a i GG 6) 6 Cones ovate-oblong, short-stalked, early spuds: their scales entire or obscurely denticulate; leaves dark yellow-green . . + + «© © «© © © © © © 0 «@ « Cone-scales soft and flexible at maturity ; branchlets glabrous. Cones oblong-cylindrical, slender, their scales entire; leaves blue-green . . . . . Cone-scales usually oblong or rhomboidal ; leaves blue-green. Branchlets pubescent; leaves soft and flexible. Cones oblong-cylindrical, or oval, their scales narrowed to a truncate or acute apex, or occasionally obovate and rounded, erose-dentate or entire Branchlets glabrous; leaves rigid, spinescent. Cones oblong-cylindrical, their scales rhomboidal, flexuose, rounded or truncate at the erose apex. . - RO eat ad eee to. Oo Odo OmorixA. Leaves flattened, caually atguiatiterots oxy on the upper stiles Cone-scales rounded, entire; branchlets pubescent. Cones oblong-cylindrical, slender ; leaves obtuse, stomatiferous only on the upper surface Cone-scales oblong-oval, rounded and denticulate above the middle ; branchlets glabrous. Cones cylindrical-oval ; leaves acute or acuminate, stomatiferous on the upper and occasionally also on the lower surface. . - 1. 2 + © + © 1 «© « of 27 1. P. Mariana. 2. P. RUBENS. 3. P. CANADENSIS. 4, P. ENGELMANNI. 5. P. PARRYANA. 6. P. BREwERIANA. 7. P. SrrcHensis. 28 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER. PICKA MARIANA. Black Spruce. Cones ovate, incurved at the base, persistent, their scales rounded, erose, or dentate. Branchlets pubescent. Picea Mariana, Britton, Sterns & Poggenburg, Cat. Pl. N. Y.71 (4888). —J. G. Jack, Garden and Forest, x. 62. Abies Mariana, Miller, Dict. ed. 8, No. 5 (1768).— Muenchhausen, Hausv. v. 224. Wangenheim, Nordam. Holz. 75.— K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 240. — Lauche, Deutsche Dendr. ed. 2, 92. Pinus Mariana, Du Roi, Obs. Bot. 38 (1771); Harbk. Baume. ii. 127. — Moench, Baume Weiss. 74. — Burgs- dorf, Anleit. pt. ii. 169. — Ehrhart, Beitr. iii. 23. Pinus-Abies Canadensis, Marshall, Arbust. Am. 103 (1785). Pinus nigra, Aiton, Hort. Kew. iii. 370 (1789). — Willde- now, Berl. Baumz. 220; Spec. iv. pt. i. 506; Hnum. 990. — Borkhausen, Handb. Forstbot. i. 406. — Lambert, Pinus, i. 41, t. 27. — Persoon, Syn. ii. 579. — Bigelow, Fil. Boston. 234, — Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. ii. 640. — Nut- tall, Gen. ii. 223. — Hayne, Dendr. Fl. 177. — Sprengel, Syst. iii. 885. — Brotero, Hist. Nat. Pinheiros, Larices e Abetos, 33. — Torrey, Fl. N. Y¥. ii. 230 (in. part). — Hooker, #7. Bor.-Am. ii. 163. — Antoine, Conif. 88, t. 34, £. 3. — Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 115. — Lawson & Son, List No. 10, Abietinew, 16. — Dietrich, Syn. v. 395. — Courtin, Fam. Conif. 61. — Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 413. Pinus Canadensis, 8 nigra, Castiglioni, Viag. negli Stati Uniti, ii. 8315 (1790). Pinus Americana, Gertner, Fruct. ii. 60, t. 91 (aot Du Roi) (1791). Abies nigra, Du Roi, Harbk. Baume. ed. 2, ii. 182 (1800). — Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 520. — Desfontaines, Hist. Arb. ii. 580. — Du Mont de Courset, Bot. Cult. ed. 2, vi. 475. — Michaux £. Hist. Arb. Am. i. 123 (in part). — Nouveau Duhamel, v. 292, t.81, £.1. — Jaume Saint-Hilaire, Traité des Arbres Forestiers, t. 74, £. 1-4.— Lindley, Penny Cycl. i. 32. — Rafinesque, New FI. i. 89. — Lawson & Son, Leaves short, blue-green. Agric. Man. 367.— Spach, Hist. Vég. xi. 410 (in part). — Emerson, Zrees Mass. 81; ed. 2, i. 96. — Knight, Syn. Conif. 36. — Lindley & Gordon, Jour. Hort. Soc. Lond. y. 211. — Gordon, Pinetum, 11. — Darlington, FU. Cestr. ed. 3, 292. — Henkel & Hochstetter, Syn. Nadelh. 191. — (Nelson) Senilis, Pinacew, 50. — Hoopes, Hvergreens, 169. — Veitch, Man. Conif. 74. — Schitbeler, Virid. Norveg. i. 431. Abies denticulata, Michaux, FZ. Bor-Am. ii. 206 (1803). — Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 524. — Brotero, Hist. Nat. Pinheiros, Larices e Abetos, 36. Picea, nigra, Link, Handb. ii. 478 (1831); Linnea, xv. 520. — Carritre, Traité Conif. 241. — Brunet, Hist. Picea, 10, t.— Sénéclauze, Conif. 32. —Regel, Russ. Dendr. pt. i. 18. — Bertrand, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5, xx. 85.— Peck, Trans. Albany Inst. viii. 283 (in part). — Engel- mann, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xi. 334 (excel. var. rubra). — Sargent, Forest Trees N. Am. 10th Census U. S. ix. 202 (in part). — Willkomm, Forst. Fl. ed. 2, 96. — Watson & Coulter, Gray’s Man. ed. 6, 491. — Mayr, Wald. Nordam. 218.— Beissner, Handb. Nadeth. 332, f. 93, 94.— Masters, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 222 (in part). — Hansen, Jour. KR. Hort. Soc. xiv. 430 (Pinetum Danicum).— Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 23, £. 8, L.— Rothrock, Rep. Dept. Agric. Penn. 1895, pt. ii. Div. Forestry, 282. Picea nigra, a squamea, Provancher, Flore Canadienne, ii. 557 (1862). Picea rubra, Britton, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxi. 27 (not Dietrich) (1894).— Britton & Brown, Jil. Fl.i. 55 (in part), f. 123. Picea brevifolia, var. semiprostrata, Peck, Spruces of the Adirondacks, 12 (1897). Picea brevifolia, Peck, Spruces of the Adirondacks, 13 (1897). — Britton & Brown, Jil. F7. iii. Appx. 496, £ 122 a. A tree, usually twenty or thirty and occasionally one hundred feet in height, with a trunk from six to twelve inches and occasionally three feet in diameter, often small and stunted, frequently cone- bearing when only two or three feet high,’ and at the extreme north reduced to a low semiprostrate 1 Tn northern Minnesota, on the borders of small forest lakes or muskeags, which are being gradually covered by sedges and sphag- num, the Black Spruce is able to exist without mineral soil, and to grow slowly to a great age on beds of floating plants. Such trees often produce cones when only two or three feet high; and as their energies appear to be entirely devoted to bearing seeds, the “These are densely crowded near the top of the tree, while the trunk below is fertile branches become the only vigorous ones. CONIFER. ‘SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 29 shrub. The branches, which are slender, comparatively short, and usually pendulous with upward curves, form the open and irregular crown which is characteristic of the Black Spruce, and sometimes, when the tree has grown in a favorable position, clothe the stem to the ground, or soon fall from its lower half when the tree has been shaded by neighbors or stunted by insufficient nourishment.’ The bark of the trunk is from one quarter to one half of an inch in thickness, and is broken on the surface into thin rather closely appressed gray-brown scales. The branchlets when they first emerge from the buds in early summer are pale green, and, like the bases of the leaves, are coated with pale pubescence; they soon begin to grow darker, and during their first autumn and winter they are light cinnamon-brown and covered with short rusty pubescence, their thin dark brown bark gradually becoming glabrous, and beginning to break up into small thin scales during their second year. The winter-buds are ovate, acute, light reddish brown, puberulous, and about one eighth of an inch in length, with ovate closely appressed acute scales. The leaves stand out from all sides of the branches, and are tetragonal, ribbed above and below, abruptly contracted at the apex into short slender callous tips, longer and more acute on sterile than on fertile branches, slightly incurved above the middle, pale blue-green when they first appear, bluish green and glaucous at maturity, from one quarter to three quarters of an inch in length, hoary on the upper surface from the broad bands of conspicuous stomata, and lustrous and slightly stomatiferous on the lower surface. The staminate flowers are subglobose and about an eighth of an inch in length, with dark red anthers, and the pistillate flowers are oblong’-cylindrical, with obovate purple scales rounded above, wedge-shaped below, puberulous and tumid on the outer surface, and marked below the thin erose bright red margin by a conspicuous transverse glaucous band, and with oblong purple glaucous bracts rounded and denticulate at the apex. The cones increase rapidly in size, and are often almost fully grown in early summer _ before the young shoots have attained half their length; at maturity they are ovate, pointed, gradually narrowed at the base into short strongly incurved stalks clothed with the persistent enlarged erose inner scales of the flower-buds, which increase in size from the base to the apex of the stalk, and gradually assume the appearance of the small sterile lower cone-scales; usually about an inch long, the cones vary from one half of an inch to an inch and a half in length; their scales are rigid, rounded or rarely somewhat pointed at the apex, and puberulous, with delicate more or less erose or notched pale margins; in ripening the cones turn a dull gray-brown, and as the scales gradually open and slowly discharge their seeds they often become almost globose in form,and remain on the branches sometimes for twenty or thirty years, the oldest close to the bases of the branches near the trunk. The seeds are oblong, gradually narrowed to the acute base, about an eighth of an inch in length, often destitute of living branches, although unshaded and growing far from other trees. These dense tufts of dark branches like plumes upon poles present a strange spectacle to the traveler who for the first time crosses the larger muskeags, especially at twi- light, for he seems to be looking over a weird procession, stretching often mile after mile until lost in the distance.” On the small muskeags there is often a regular gradation in the size of the second, the common upland form with stiff branches, the two grading one into the other ; third, the dwarf tree with only fruiting branches and perhaps a few others at the base of the stem, grow- ing on very wet muskeags; fourth, the stiff-branched tree, growing mostly on drier land than number three, although still on sphagnum and usually on the borders of the same muskeags. I can see no distinct lines of separation between these forms, which seem to trees, from little seedlings close to the water in the centre of the bog to tall slender specimens often sixty feet in height, with thin drooping branches which are freely developed on the better soil of the high margins, and trunks which rarely exceed eight inches in diameter. (See Ayres, Garden and Forest, vii. 504, f. 80 [The Muskeag Spruce). Cone-bearing Black Spruces not over two feet high are very abundant also in the sphagnum-covered bogs of Prince Edward’s Island. 1 «There seems to be four forms of the Black Spruce in north- ern Minnesota. First, the upland form with pendulous branches; grade into each other, that is, intermediate forms are found in complete series, and I am inclined to believe that the variation in the development of the branches is due to the conditions under which the trees are grown. Plants of the branchless form of the muskeags are of remarkably slow growth. One of these I cut, and counted seventy-five layers of annual growth in the stem, which was about an inch and a half in diameter. Such wood is very compact and even in texture. Occasionally one of the upland trees "is eut for log timber, but they are never large, and I have not seen one above twelve inches in diameter.” (Ayres, in litt.) 30 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER.Z:. and very dark brown, with delicate pale brown lustrous wings broadest above the middle, very oblique at the apex, often nearly half an inch long and an eighth of an inch wide. Picea Mariana inhabits sphagnum-covered bogs, and swamps and their borders, and at the north also well drained bottom-lands and the slopes of barren stony hills ; it is distributed from the shores of Ungava Bay southwestward to those of Hudson Bay, and from the mouth of the Nelson River north- westward to the valley of the Mackenzie in about latitude 65° north,’ and reappearing west of the Rocky Mountains on the interior plateau of British Columbia in latitude 53°,’ it is common in the interior of Alaska as far north at least as the shores of Frances Lake and the valley of the Pelly River ;* southward it ranges through Newfoundland, the Maritime Provinces, eastern Canada, and the north- eastern United States to Pennsylvania, and along the Alleghany Mountains to northern Virginia ; * it occurs on the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta,® and extends through Assiniboia, northern Saskatchewan, and northern Manitoba to central Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. In the Labrador peninsula the Black Spruce is the most abundant tree, growing both in cold sphagnum swamps and on high hills covered with sands or with rocks or heavy glacial drift, usually in dense thickets, with long slender naked stems, but along the border of the treeless plains, where, alone with the Larch, the Black Spruce holds the northern outposts of the forest, it grows in open glades, and its stout trunks are clothed to the ground with branches.® West of Hudson Bay the Black Spruce also reaches the margin of the barren lands, forming scattered groves along the Telzoa River down to Doobaunt Lake, in latitude 63°, the most northern plants being here low shrubs with wide-spreading branches, from which occasionally a small upright stem rises to the height of four or five feet.’ On the alluvial bottom-lands of the Athabasca River, between latitudes 58° and 59°, the Black Spruce is Tt is the largest coniferous tree of Saskatchewan and of northwestern Manitoba, frequently covering large areas and growing both on well drained bottoms, where it attains its largest size, and on low stony hills, where it is small and stunted. The Black Spruce is common in Newfoundland, and in all the provinces of eastern Canada except in southern Ontario, growing in cold wet swamps and rarely attaining a greater height than thirty feet.® abundant, with trunks often three feet in diameter and occasionally eighty feet in height. Farther south it is also almost exclusively an inhabitant of swamps and their borders, although occasionally a few stunted individuals maintain a foothold on the summits 1 Richardson, Franklin Jour. Appx. No. 7, 752; Arctic Searching grow from five to ten miles from the shore. From the mouth of Exped. ii. 317. 2 Picea Mariana was collected by Dr. G. M. Dawson in 1876, east of the coast mountains of British Columbia, near the Black- water River. 8 See G. M. Dawson, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. iii. pt. i. 112 B, 116 B, 118 B. — Macoun, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. iii. pt. i. Appx. ili. 226 B. 4 Britton & Brown, Jil. Fl. i. 55 (as Picea rubra). 5 During the summer of 1897 Picea Mariana was found by Mr. John Macoun about thirty miles from Calgary, on one of the branches of the Elbow River. 6 «The Black Spruce is the most abundant tree of the Labrador peninsula, constituting at least ninety per cent. of the forest, and it is found everywhere from the shores of the St. Lawrence north- ward to Ungava Bay, and from the Atlantic coast to Hudson Bay. The northern limit of its distribution, which coincides with that of the forest region, leaves the east coast of Hudson Bay in the neighborhood of latitude 57°, passes almost due east for about one hundred miles, until the watershed of Hudson Bay is crossed, when the course changes to nearly northeast, following the lower country of the Koksoak River, and reaches nearly to the shore of Ungava Bay, about fifteen miles north of the mouth of the Koksoak River, in about latitude 58° 30’ north. The trees skirt the southern shore of Ungava Bay to George River, at its southeastern corner, and. George River, in latitude 58°, the line passes eastward for a short distance to the western flanks of the high Atlantic coast range, which here rises from three thousand to six thousand feet above the sea-level, and is quite barren. ‘The Black Spruce is found in small open glades along the western flanks of the range, in the valleys of the streams and on the shores of lakes, southward to latitude 54°, where the groves become connected and a continuous forest covers the lower ground, while the hilltops remain bare for upwards of one hundred miles farther south. On the Atlantic coast the islands and mainland are without trees to below latitude 58°, where small Spruce and Larch are first found about watercourses, at the heads of the deep narrow fiords At Davies Inlet, in lati- tude 56°, the trees are found growing everywhere along the coast, which penetrate far inland on this coast. covering the lower hills, up to an elevation of five hundred feet, but the islands are still barren. At Hamilton Inlet, in latitude 54°, the trees ascend the hills to an elevation of nearly one thousand feet; and the inner islands are well wooded, only those far out from shore remaining barren.” (Low in litt. See, also, Low, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. vili. 35 L.) 7 Tyrrell, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. ix. 214 F, 8 Brunet, Cat. Vég. Lig. Can. 58 (in part). — Macoun, Cat. Can. Pl. 468 (in part). CONIFER. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 31 of the high hills of northern New England and New York. In the United States it is most common and grows to its largest size in the territory adjacent to the Great Lakes, where, however, it is nowhere abundant, thriving only in the moistest situations, and rarely producing trunks a foot in diameter. It is far less abundant than the Red Spruce in all the Appalachian region, and everywhere east of the Alleghany Mountains the Black Spruce is a small and comparatively rare tree, although it extends farther south along the Atlantic seaboard than any other Spruce, and occupies numerous small swamps near the coasts of southern New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The wood of Picea Mariana is light, soft, and not strong; it is pale yellow-white, with thin sapwood, and contains thin resinous bands of small summer cells and narrow conspicuous medullary rays. The specific gravity of the absolutely dry wood is 0.5272, a cubic foot weighing 32.86 pounds. It is probably rarely used, except in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, for other purposes than the manu- facture of paper pulp. Spruce gum, the resinous exudations of the Black and Red Spruces, and occasionally of the White Spruce, is gathered in considerable quantities, principally in northern New England and Canada, and is used as a masticatory.’ the Black and Red Spruces.? Picea Mariana was introduced by Bishop Compton, into his garden near London, before the Spruce beer is made by boiling the branches of beginning of the eighteenth century,’ although the earliest description of it was not published until 1755.* Still frequently cultivated in western Europe,’ and occasionally in the northern United States, the Black Spruce is one of the least desirable of all Spruce-trees for the decoration of parks and gardens, soon losing in cultivation the shapely habit and the vigorous beauty of its youth, which are replaced by a naked stem and a small open head of short straggling branches. In European nurseries a few abnormal forms of dwarf habit, or with pendulous branches, or with yellow or white leaves, are occasionally propagated.° 1 The resinous exudations of the Spruce-trees of eastern North America are obtained from the cavities of decayed knots and other natural depressions extending to the heartwood in the trunks of these trees, and not from wounds made for the purpose. The gum is collected in winter by “gummers,” men on snow-shoes, carrying long poles armed with chisels, with which the resinous masses are knocked or cut off and caught in small cups attached to the poles just below the chisels. (See Menges, Contrib. Dep. Pharm. University of Wisconsin, No. 2, 30; Am. Jour. Pharm. \viii. 394. — Bastin & Trimble, Am. Jour. Pharm. Ixviii. 413.) A tincture prepared by dissolving the resinous gum of the east- ern Spruce-trees in alcohol is occasionally used in medicine, al- though it has no official recognition in the Pharmacopmias. (See Millspaugh, Am. Med. Pl. in Homeopathic Remedies, ii. 163.) 2 The preparation of a fermented beverage made by boiling Spruce branches with honey was probably familiar to the northern Indians before the settlement of the country by Europeans, who learned the art from them; and in 1672 the value of Spruce beer was recognized by Josselyn, who thus describes its virtues: — “The tops of Green Spruce Boughs boiled in Bear, and drunk, is assuredly one of the best Remedies for the Scurvy, restoring the Infected party in a short time; they also make a Lotion of some of the decoction, adding Hony and Allum.” (New England’s Rari- ties, 64.) Spruce beer, which is considered a pleasant and agreeable drink in hot weather, and a useful preventive of scurvy, is now made from the essence of spruce, which is a liquid of the color and con- sistency of molasses, with a bitter astringent acid flavor, obtained by boiling the young branches of the Black and Red Spruces in water and evaporating the decoction, the disagreeable odor of the White Spruce making it unsuitable for this purpose. To prepare this beverage the essence of spruce is boiled in water flavored with various ingredients, and is then mixed with mol or ally with sugar, allowed to ferment, and bottled. (See Duhamel, Traité des Arbres, i. 17. — Rafinesque, Med. Fi. ii. 183. — Spons, Encyclopedia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures, and Raw Com- mercial Products, i. 424. — Druggists’ Circular, New York, 1880, 120. — Mineral Water Review, 1881, 140. — U. S. Dispens. ed. 16, 1487. 3 Aiton, Hort. Kew. iii. 370.— Loudon, Arb. Brit. iv. 2312, £. 2225-2227. * Abies picee, foltis brevioribus, conis parvis biuncialibus laxis, Du- hamel, /. c. i. 3. Abies Picee foliis brevioribus, Conis biuncialibus laxis, Miller, Dict. Icon. i. 1, t. 1. 5 In Great Britain the Black Spruce appears to be more com- monly cultivated than any other conifer of eastern North America, with the exception of the White Pine, and, judging from numerous specimens which have been sent to me from England and Scotland, it does duty in Europe as the Black, Red, and White Spruces. 6 The most distinct of the garden forms of the Black Spruce, at least in its young state, is the variety Doumetit ; this is a dwarf plant, with short crowded branches, forming a narrow and very compact pyramidal head, and with crowded leaves, which was first noticed about 1835 in the garden of the Chateau de Baléne, near Moulins, in France, and was described by Carriére in the Traité Conif. 242, as Picea nigra Doumetii. (For other abnormal forms of the Black Spruce, see Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 337. See, also, Gard. Chron. ser. 3, xi. 81, t., for a description of a remark- ably compact pyramidal form of the Black Spruce cultivated in the Wilhelmshche Park and in the Karlsane Park in Cassel.) i RP SODO ANA oP WD ee pos oO EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. Pratt DXCVI. Picea Mariana. . A branch with staminate flowers, natural size. . A staminate flower, enlarged. . An anther, front view, enlarged. . A branch with pistillate flowers, natural size. . A scale of a pistillate flower, upper side, with its ovules, enlarged. . A scale of a pistillate flower, lower side, with its bract, enlarged. . A fruiting branch, natural size. . A cone-scale, lower side, with its bract, natural size. . A cone-scale, upper side, with its seeds, natural size. . A seed-wing, the seed removed, enlarged. - Cross section of a leaf magnified fifteen diameters. . Winter-buds, natural size. . A seedling plant, natural size. Silva of North America. | ‘ae | ; Ss Teb I vias* PICEA MARIANA, B.P.S. A Riocreum deen? Imp. J. Taneur Parts. CONIFER. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 33 PICEA RUBENS. Red Spruce. ConrEs ovate-oblong, early deciduous, their scales rounded, entire, or obscurely denticulate. Branchlets pubescent. Picea rubens. ? Pinus Abies acutissima, Muenchhausen, Hausv. v. 225 (1770). Pinus Mariana rubra, Du Roi, Ods. Bot. 39 (1771); Harbk. Baumz. ii. 129. Pinus Americana rubra, Wangenheim, Nordam. Holz. 75, t. 16, £. 54 (not Pinus rubra, Miller) (1787). Pinus rubra, Lambert, Pinus, i. 43, t. 28 (not Miller) (1803). — Willdenow, Spec. iv. pt. ii. 507. — Persoon, Syn. ii. 579. — Aiton, Hort. Kew. ed. 2, v. 319. — Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. ii. 640.—Nuttall, Gen. ii. 223.— Sprengel, Syst. iii. 885. — Brotero, Hist. Nat. Pinheiros, Larices e Abetos, 33. — Hooker, Fl. Bor-Am. ii. 164. — Antoine, Conif. 87, t. 34, f. 2.— Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 113. — Gihoul, Arb. Rés. 44.— Lawson & Son, List No. 10, Abietinee, 18. — Dietrich, Syn. v. 394. — Courtin, Fam. Conif. 64.— Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 413. Abies rubra, Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 520 (1804).— Desfontaines, Hist. Arb. ii. 580. — Rafinesque, New 7. i. 39.— Lawson & Son, Agric. Man. 368. — Loudon, Arb. Brit. iv. 2316, £. 2228. — Forbes, Pinetum Woburn. 101, t. 35. — Knight, Syn. Conif. 37. — Lindley & Gor- don, Jour. Hort. Soc. Lond. v. 211. — Gordon, Pinetum, 11.— Henkel & Hochstetter, Syn. Nadelh. 189. — (Nel- son) Senilis, Pinacew, 51.— Lauche, Deutsche Dendr. ed. 2, 92. — Schiibeler, Virid. Norveg. i. 435. Abies nigra, Michaux f. Hist. Arb. Am. i. 123 (in part), t. 11 (mot Du Roi) (1810). — Gray, Man. 441 (in part). — Chapman, F7. 434. — Curtis, Rep. Geolog. Surv. N. Car. 1860, iii. 27. : Pinus nigra, Elliott, Sz. ii. 640 (not Aiton) (1824).— Torrey, 77. N. Y. ii. 230 (in part). Leaves dark yellow-green. Pinus alba, Elliott, Sk. ii. 640 (not Aiton) (1824). Picea rubra, Dietrich, FU. Berl. ii. 795 (1824). — Link, Handb. ii. 478; Linnea, xv. 521. —Carritre, Traité Conif. 240. — Sénéclauze, Conif. 34.— Regel, Russ. Dendr. pt. i. 19.— Willkomm, Forst. £1. ed. 2, 96.— Beissner, Handb. Nadelh. 338, £. 95.— Hansen, Jour. RR. Hort. Soc. xiv. 437 (Pinetum Danicum). — Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 23. Abies alba, Jaume St. Hilaire, Traité des Arbres Forestiers, t. 74, £. 7-9 (not Michaux) (1824). Abies nigra, 8 rubra, Spach, Hist. Vég. xi. 411 (1842). — Hoopes, Evergreens, 170. Abies alba, Chapman, /7. 435 (not Poiret) (1860). — Cur- tis, Rep. Geolog. Surv. N. Car. 1860, iii. 27. Picea nigra, Provancher, Flore Canadienne, ii. 557 (excl. var. a squamea) (not Link) (1862). — Peck, Trans. Albany Inst. viii. 283 (in part). —Sargent, Forest Trees N. Am. 10th Census U. 8. ix. 202 (in part). — Masters, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 232 (in part).—Fox, Rep. Forest Comm. N. Y., 1894, 121, t. Picea nigra, var. grisea, Brunet, Cat. Vég. Lig. Can. 59 (1867). Abies Americana, K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 241 (not Miller nor Du Mont de Courset) (1873). Picea nigra, var. rubra, Engelmann, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xi. 334 (1879). — Watson & Coulter, Gray’s Man. ed. 6, 492.— Rothrock, Rep. Dept. Agric. Penn. 1895, pt. ii. Div. Forestry, 281. Picea Mariana, Britton, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxi. 27 (not Britton, Sterns & Poggenburg) (1894). — Britton & Brown, Jil. #1. i. 55 (in part), £. 122. Picea acutissima, J. G. Jack, Garden and Forest, x. 63 (1897). A tree, usually seventy or eighty and occasionally from one hundred to one hundred and ten feet in height, with a trunk from two to three feet in diameter,’ and slender spreading branches which, with abundant light and air, continue to clothe the stem to the ground, forming a narrow and rather formal conical head, or which soon perish on trees crowded in the forest, leaving the trunks naked for at least two thirds of their length, and at the timber-line of high mountains often reduced to a low semiprostrate shrub.? The bark of the trunk is from one quarter to nearly one half of an inch in thickness, and is 1 A Red Spruce tree near Meecham Lake, as reported by Mr. Fremont Fuller of Duane, Franklin County, New York, to the Secretary of the Forest Commission of that state, has a trunk — circumference of ten feet three inches at four feet above the ground. This is the largest trunk of this species of which I have heard. ? In 1892 Mr. George Walker of Williamstown, Massachusetts, found near the base of Mt. Hopkins and about three miles from 34. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFERZ. broken into thin closely appressed irregularly shaped red-brown scales. The branchlets, which are comparatively stout, are light green and covered with pale pubescence when they emerge from the buds, and during their first autumn and winter are bright reddish brown or orange-brown in color and clothed with rusty brown pubescence; growing gradually darker during succeeding seasons, their bark loses its pubescent covering, and when they are three or four years old it begins to separate into thin scales. The winter-buds, which vary in size from one quarter to one third of an inch in length, are ovate and acute, with light reddish brown closely appressed acute scales, and are often surrounded by the elongated acicular scale-like upper leaves, which easily separate from their prominent persistent bases. The leaves stand out from all sides of the branch, pointing forward, and are more or less incurved above the middle; they are tetragonal, acute or rounded and tipped at the apex with a short callous mucro, pale bluish green when they first appear, dark green often slightly tinged with yellow and very lustrous at maturity, marked on the upper surface with four rows of stomata on each side of the prominent midrib and on the lower surface less conspicuously with two rows on each side of the midrib, from one half to five eighths of an inch long and nearly one sixteenth of an inch wide. The staminate flowers are oval, almost sessile, half an inch long and a quarter of an inch thick, with bright red conspicuously toothed anther-crests. The pistillate flowers are oblong-cylindrical and about three quarters of an inch in length, with rounded scales thin, reflexed and slightly erose on the margins, and obovate bracts rounded and laciniate above. The cones are ovate-oblong and gradually narrowed from near the middle to the acute apex, with concave rigid striate obovate-oblong scales rounded above and entire or slightly toothed on their thin and often flexuose edges; they are usually from an inch and a quarter to two inches long, but vary from an inch to two and a half inches in length, and are borne on very short straight or incurved stalks; when fully grown they are light green or green somewhat tinged with purple, but at maturity are light reddish brown and lustrous, and, beginning to fall as soon as the scales open late in the autumn or during the early winter, generally all disappear from the branches the following summer. The seeds are very dark brown and about an eighth of an inch long, with short broad wings full and rounded above the middle. _ The Red Spruce is distributed from the valley of the St. Lawrence River * and the northern shores of Prince Edward Island southward through Quebec, the Maritime Provinces, and along the Atlantic coast to southern Maine? and Cape Ann, Massachusetts and through the hilly interior and the mountainous parts of New England and New York and along the Alleghany Mountains to the high peaks of western North Carolina. Comparatively rare and of small size north of the boundary of the United States and in the neighborhood of the coast, the Red Spruce, which is an inhabitant of high well drained gravelly slopes, is most abundant and attains its greatest dimensions in the elevated regions of northern New England and New York, where, mingled with the Hemlock, the White Pine and the Balsam Fir, the Larch, the Sugar Maple, the Yellow Birch and the Beech, it grows singly or in small dense groves, often forming a large proportion of the forest. On the uplands of Massachu- setts, especially on the Berkshire hills, and on the mountains which overlook the Hudson, it is not rare; it is common on the mountains of southern New York and northern New Jersey, and is widely scattered over the Alleghany Mountains in Pennsylvania, often forming a considerable part of the the northwest corner of the state of Massachusetts a plant of Picea most northern station from which this tree has been reported. It rubens with naked snake-like branches, similar in habit to some of the monstrous forms of the European Picea Abies. A portrait of this plant, which is the only example recorded of such a depar- ture from normal forms among the American Spruces, was published on page 45 of the eighth volume of Garden and Forest. Young plants raised by grafts from the Williamstown plant are now growing in the Arnold Arboretum. 1 Picea rubens was found in 1895 by Mr. J. G. Jack at St. Catharines on the St. John’s Railroad in Quebec. This is the appears to be common on the slopes of the Laurentian hills in the St. Lawrence valley west of the Saguenay, as far west at least as the city of Ottawa. I have no evidence beyond Lambert’s state- ment that the Red Spruce grows in Newfoundland. 2 The Red Spruce is abundant on Gerrish Island off the mouth of the Piscataqua River, Maine. ° In June, 1896, Mr. J. H. Sears found Picea rubens growing singly and in small clumps over an area of about fifty acres near the town of Rockport, Massachusetts. CONIFERZ. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 35 forests which clothe their high slopes’ It is also widely distributed over the mountains of West Virginia, forming on the head-waters of the Elk and Gauley Rivers a broad belt through which it is scattered often abundantly, sometimes occupying almost exclusively the high slopes, particularly those which face the north, and the summits of the mountains; farther south it is small and less abundant, and at the southern limits of its range it is usually only forty or fifty feet in height and confined to the high mountains, where, occasionally forming pure forests, it usually grows in small groves near their summits with the Balsam Fir and the Yellow Birch, and rarcly below elevations of five thousand feet above the sea-level. Picea rubens, which is the principal timber Spruce of the northeastern United States, and, with the exception of the White Pine, the most valuable coniferous timber-tree of the region that it inhabits, produces light soft close-grained wood which is not strong, nor durable when exposed to the weather ; it is pale slightly tinged with red, with paler sapwood about two inches thick, and a satiny surface, and contains remote conspicuous medullary rays, few resin passages, and thin resinous bands of small summer cells. The specific gravity of the absolutely dry wood is 0.4516, a cubic foot weighing 28.13 pounds. Now that the most valuable white pine has been exhausted in the forests of the northeastern states, the Red Spruce is their most important timber-tree, and immense quantities of its lumber are manufactured every year from trees cut in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and northern New York, which supply the largest part of the Red Spruce logs, although red spruce is also manufactured in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. It is used largely for the flooring of houses and for joists, scantlings, and other square timbers employed in construction ; it is considered the most valuable wood produced in the United States for the sounding-boards of musical instruments, and it is one of the principal woods used in this country in the production of paper pulp. Like those obtained from the Black Spruce, the resinous exudations of the Red Spruce are used for chewing-gum, and from its branches Spruce beer is made. The first real description of the Red Spruce, with an excellent figure, was published by Lambert ; it had been prepared from a tree cultivated in England which was supposed to have been brought from Newfoundland. It was the Red Spruce, no doubt, brought down to the coast from the forests of Maine, which attracted the attention of Josselyn by its great size and its value for shipbuilding? Confounded for many years with Picea Mariana, little attention has been paid to the Red Spruce 1 In the Mehoopany Creek basin in Wyoming County in the northeastern part of Pennsylvania the Red Spruce is abundant between elevations of one thousand five hundred and two thousand two hundred feet above the sea, growing with the Sugar Maple, the Beech, the Yellow Birch, and the Hemlock. Before its destruction to feed pulp-mills it grew in large quantities and in great perfection in Bear Meadows, Centre County, and it appears to be generally scattered at high elevations along the whole of the Alleghany range in Pennsylvania. 2 “ Spruce is a goodly Tree, of which they make Masts for Ships, and Sail Yards: It is generally conceived by those that have skill in Building of Ships, that here is absolutely the best Trees in the World, many of them being three Fathom about, and of great length.” (Josselyn, New England’s Rarities, 63.) “ At Pascataway there is now a Spruce-tree, brought down to the water-side by our Mass-men, of an incredible bigness, and so long that no Skipper durst ever yet adventure to ship it, but there it lyes and Rots.”? (Josselyn, An Account of Two Voyages to New England, 67.) 3 Lambert, who first distinguished the Red Spruce intelligently, clearly understood the characters of the Spruces of eastern North America, and the figures in his Description of the Genus Pinus admirably show the distinctive characters of the three species, and have never been surpassed. Until recent years, however, the bota- nists who have written of these trees since Lambert have copied his descriptions, or have united the Red and the Black Spruces, or have considered the former a variety of the latter. The confusion with regard to these two trees dates from the time of the Michauxs. The elder saw in the northern states only Black and White Spruces, and the son makes his description of the Black Spruce include the Red Spruce, which he considered merely a form due to soil conditions, his figure of the Black Spruce being taken from a branch of the Red Spruce. Nuttall, in his Genera of North Amer- tcan Plants, and Pursh, in his Flora Americe Septentrionalis, retained Lambert’s names, but evidently had littie information about these trees, and Gray, in the early editions of the Manual of Botany of the Northern States, ignored the Red Spruce entirely, and in the fourth edition spoke of it as a northern form of the Black Spruce. The Red Spruce does not appear ever to have been common or to have flourished very often in European plantations, and the European writers on conifers, down to the time of Beissner, who have described this tree at all, have been obliged for want of mate- rial to follow Lambert or Michaux. Mr. William Gorrie, however (Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh, x. 353), has well described the Red Spruce from trees which had been planted about 1855 near Tyne- head in Midlothian, Scotland, and which, fifteen years later, were from twelve to eighteen feet high and had produced cones. 36 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER. as an ornament of northern parks and gardens, where, although it grows more slowly than most coniferous trees,’ its great value is shown by the old specimens densely clothed with branches which are occasionally seen near farmhouses in the northern states.” The two species are well distinguished by the size and shape of the staminate flowers, and by the size and shape of the cones, which on the Black Spruce are strongly hooked at the base and are persistent for many years, while on the Red Spruce they are usually much larger, with nearly straight much shorter stems, and fall mostly during their first winter. The leaves of the Red Spruce are long, dark green, and lustrous, and those of the Black Spruce are shorter and blue. Forms intermediate in character between the Black and Red Spruces are not known to exist. The Black Spruce, except at the far north, inhabits only wet sphagnum- covered bogs, while the Red Spruce grows only on well-drained hillsides. The Black Spruce is a tree of the far north, only exist- ing precariously south of the northern border of the United States, while the Red Spruce is an Appalachian tree, attaining its greatest dimensions between northern New Hampshire and Pennsylvania. The distinctive characters of the two species have been well pointed out by George Lawson (Researches on the Distinctive Characters of the Canadian Spruces, 9. See, also, Canadian Researches of Science, vi. 172), and by J. G. Jack (Garden and Forest, x. 63). Fruiting branches of the two species are well figured by Beissner. The first specific name of the Red Spruce is that of Lambert, Pinus rubra, published in 1803. Pinus rubra, however, in 1803, was a synonym, as it had been used in 1768 by Miller for another tree. For the same reason the varietal name rubra, used by Du Roi in 1771, and by Wangenheim in 1787, is not available. The impossibility of identifying Muenchhausen’s Pinus Abies acutissima, published in 1770, under which he quotes as a synonym Plukenet’s Abies minor pectinatis foliis, which is shown by Plukenet’s figure to be the Hemlock Spruce, makes the use of Muenchhausen’s varietal name also inadmissible. No other specific or varietal name having been used by earlier authors for the Red Spruce, I propose to call it Picea rubens. 1 The Red Spruce grows very slowly and probably attains a greater average age than any other tree in the forests of the northeastern states. From a number of measurements made in the Adirondack region under the direction of Mr. William F. Fox, Superintendent of the State Forests of New York, it is shown that the Red Spruce, which in this report is called Picea nigra, may require three hundred and fifty-four years to produce a trunk only twenty-six inches in diameter on the stump. Of two hundred and thirty-seven trees examined in St. Lawrence County, twenty- four, with a maximum diameter of thirty inches, were from three hundred to three hundred and fifty-four years of age, while one hundred others were between two hundred and fifty and three hundred years old (Fox, Rep. Forest Comm. N. Y. 1894, 134). 2 As an ornamental tree Picea rubens can be compared with Picea orientalis, which it resembles in its narrow pyramidal form The White Spruce grows much more rapidly and is of a more open habit and livelier color than the Red Spruce, but it shows its high- est beauty and grows to a great age only in regions of shorter and dense habit and in the rich dark coloring of its foliage. summers and colder winters than southern New England, where the Red Spruce, finding the climatic conditions which suit it, should prove the most valuable of the American Spruces in ornamental plantations. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. Pratt DXCVII. Picka RUBENS. 1. A branch with staminate flowers, natural size. 2. A staminate flower, enlarged. 3. An anther, front view, enlarged. 4. A branch with pistillate flowers, natural size. 5. A pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. A scale of a pistillate flower, lower side, with its bract, enlarged. 7. A scale of a pistillate flower, upper side, with its ovules, enlarged. 8. A fruiting branch, natural size. 9. A cone-scale, upper side, with its seeds, natural size. 10. A cone-scale, lower side, with its bract, natural size. 11. A seed, enlarged. 12. Cross section of a leaf, magnified fifteen diameters. 13. Winter-buds, natural size. 14, Winter-buds, showing leaf-like scales at their base, natural size. 15. A seedling plant, natural size. Silva of North America. ee Tab. DXCVIL. Lok. Fi dew, | — Hiumely £04 PICEA RUBENS, Saré A. Piocreua’ Aire limp. J. Laneur, Paris. CONIFER. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 37 PICEA CANADENSIS. ‘White Spruce. Cones oblong-cylindrical, slender, their scales rounded, entire. Branchlets glabrous. Leaves blue-green, strong-smelling. Picea Canadensis, Britton, Sterns & Poggenburg, Cat. Pl. N. Y. 71 (1888). —Sudworth, Rep. Sec. Agric. U. S. 1892, 329. — Britton & Brown, Idi. Fl. i. 54, £. 121. Abies Canadensis, Miller, Dict. ed. 8, No. 4 (1768). Pinus Abies laxa, Muenchhausen, Hausv. v. 225 (1770). Pinus Canadensis, Du Roi, Obs. Bot. 38 (not Linnzus) (1771); Harbk. Baumz. ii. 124.— Burgsdorf, Andleit. pt. ii. 168. — Wangenheim, Nordam. Holz. 5, t. 1, £. 2. Pinus laxa, Ehrhart, Beitr. iii. 24 (1788). Pinus alba, Aiton, Hort. Kew. iii. 371 (1789). — Willde- now, Berl. Bauwmz. 221; Spee. iv. pt. i. 507. — Borkhau- sen, Handb. Forstbot. i. 402. — Lambert, Pinus, i. 39, t. 26. — Persoon, Syn. ii. 579. — Stokes, Bot. Mat. Med. iv. 425.— Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. ii. 641. — Nuttall, Gen. ii. 223.— Hayne, Dendr. Fl. 177. — Guimpel, Otto & Hayne, Abdild. Holz. 156, t. 131. — Sprengel, Sys¢. iii. 885. — Brotero, Hist. Nat. Pinheiros, Larices e Abetos, 34. — Meyer, Pl. Labrador. 30. — Hooker, Fl. Bor-Am. ii. 163. — Torrey, #7. N. Y. ii. 231. — Bigelow, FU. Boston. ed. 3, 386. — Antoine, Conif. 86, t. 34, f. 1.— Endlicher, Syn. Conif. 112. — Lawson & Son, List No. 10, Abietinee, 15.— Courtin, Fam. Conif. 60.— Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 414. Pinus Americana, o alba, Castiglioni, Viag. negli Stati Uniti, ii. 314 (1790). Pinus tetragona, Moench, Meth. 364 (1794). Abies Americana, Du Mont de Courset, Bot. Cult. iii. 775 (not Miller) (1802). Abies alba, Michaux, F/. Bor.-Am. ii. 207 (not Miller) (1803). — Poiret, Lamarck Dict. vi. 521. — Desfontaines, Hist. Arb. ii. 580. — Michaux, f. Hist. Arb. Am. i. 183, t. 12. — Nouveau Duhamel, v. 291, t. 81, £. 2. — Rafinesque, New Fi. i. 39. — Lindley, Penny Cycl. i. 31. — Forbes, Pinetum Woburn. 95, t. 33. — Nuttall, Sylva, iii. 129. — Spach, Hist. Vég. xi. 412. — Emerson, Trees Mass. 84; ed. 2, i. 99. —Gihoul, Arb. Rés. 43. — Knight, Syn. Conif. 36. — Lindley & Gordon, Jour. Hort. Soc. Lond. v. 211. — _ Darlington, Fl. Cestr. ed. 3, 292.— Gordon, Pinetum, 2.— Henkel & Hochstetter, Syn. Nadelh. 188. — (Nel- son) Senilis, Pinacew, 47.—Gray, Man. ed. 5, 471.— A. Murray, Jour. Bot. v. t. 69, £. 2-7. — Hoopes, Hver- greens, 157, f. 20. — Nérdlinger, Forstbot. 442, f. — Lauche, Deutsche Dendr. ed. 2, 93.— Schiibeler, Virid. Norveg. i. 427. Abies curvifolia, Salisbury, Trans. Linn. Soc. viii. 314 (1807). Abies rubra, Jaume St. Hilaire, Zraité des Arbres For- estiers, t. 73, £. 7-10 (not Poiret) (1824). Picea alba, Link, Handbd. ii. 478 (1831); Linnea, xv. 519.— Carritre, Traité Conif. 238.— Van Houtte, FV. des Serres, xxi. 157, t. 2251. — Brunet, Hist. Picea, 4, t. — Sénéclauze, Conif. 22.— Regel, Russ. Dendr. pt. i. 19. — Engelmann, Gard. Chron. n. ser. xi. 334. — Ber- trand, Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5, xx. 85.— Sargent, Forest Trees N. Am. 10th Census U. S. ix. 204. — Willkomm, Forst. Fl. ed. 2, 97. — Watson & Coulter, Gray’s Man. ed. 6, 492. — Mayr, Wald. Nordam. 219, f. 6. — Beiss- ner, Handb. Nadeth. 340, £. 96. — Masters, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 220. — Hansen, Jour. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. 421 (Pinetum Danicum).— Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 23, £. 8, J. K. Q. — Fox, Rep. Forest Comm. N. Y. 1894, 126, t. Picea nigra, var. glauca, Carritre, Traité Conif. 242 (1855). Pinus rubra, var. arctica, Lawson & Son, List No. 10, Abietinee, 19 (1851). —Courtin, Fam. Conif. 64. Pinus rubra, var. arctica longifolia, Lawson & Son, List No. 10, Abietinee, 19 (1851). Pinus rubra, var. coerulea, Lawson & Son, List No. 10, Abietinee, 19 (1851). — Courtin, Fam. Conif. 64. Abies laxa, K. Koch, Dendr. ii. pt. ii. 243 (1873). Picea laxa, Sargent, Garden and Forest, ii. 496 (1888). — J. G. Jack, Garden and Forest, x. 63. Picea rubra pusilla, Peck, Zhe Spruces of the Adiron- dacks, 10 (1897). A tree, with strong-smelling foliage,’ sometimes one hundred and fifty feet in height, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter, but east of the Rocky Mountains, and especially toward the southeastern 1 The foliage and young branchlets of the White Spruce emit a powerful polecat odor, which, although it varies in degree in differ- ent individuals, offers a sure method of distinguishing this tree at all seasons of the year from the other American Spruces, with the exception of Picea Engelmanni. The foliage of this tree has also the polecat odor, but less strongly developed than in the White Spruce. 38 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. comin limits of its range, reaching an average maximum height of sixty or seventy feet and an average trunk diameter of two feet. The long comparatively thick limbs sweep out in graceful upward curves and form a broad-based and rather open irregular pyramid which is often obtuse at the apex, and are densely clothed with stout rigid pendent lateral branches, the ultimate branchlets frequently incurving from near the middle. The bark of the trunk is from one quarter to one half of an inch in thickness, and separates irregularly into thin plate-like scales which are light gray more or less tinged with brown on the surface. The branchlets are stout, pale gray-green when they first appear, and glabrous or slightly puberulous ;* during their first autumn and winter they are orange-brown and then gradually grow darker and grayish brown. The winter-buds, which are broadly ovate and obtuse, are covered by light chestnut-brown scales rounded at the apex, with thin often reflexed ciliate margins, and vary from an eighth to nearly a quarter of an inch in length according to the vigor and stoutness of the branchlets. The leaves are crowded on the upper side of the branches by the twisting of those on the lower side, and point forward, especially those near the extremities of the branchlets; they are tetragonal, incurved, and acute or acuminate at the apex, which terminates in a rigid callous tip, and are pale blue and hoary when they first appear, becoming dark blue-green or pale blue at maturity, individual trees varying greatly in the depth and brightness of the shades of blue of their foliage ; they are marked on each of the four sides with three or four rows of stomata, and are from one third of an inch in length on fertile upper branches to three quarters of an inch in length on the lower sterile branches of young and vigorous trees. The staminate flowers are oblong-cylindrical and pale red when they first emerge from the buds, but soon appear yellow from their thick covering of pollen; they are from one half to three quarters of an inch in length at maturity, when they are suspended on slender pedicels nearly half an inch long. The pistillate flowers are oblong-cylindrical, with round nearly entire pale red or yellow-green scales broader than they are long, and nearly orbicular denticulate bracts. The cones, which are nearly sessile or are borne on very short thin straight stems, are oblong-cylindrical, slender, slightly narrowed to both ends and rather obtuse at the apex, and are usually about two inches long and from one third to two thirds of an inch in diameter, but vary from an inch to two inches and a half in length; their scales are nearly orbicular or somewhat longer than they are broad, rounded, truncate, slightly emarginate or rarely narrowed at the apex, and obscurely striate, with thin usually entire margins; when fully grown they are pale green, often somewhat tinged with red,’ and at maturity they become pale brown and lustrous, and are so thin and flexible that the dry cone is easily compressed between the fingers without injuring the scales; they generally fall in the autumn or during the following winter, soon after the escape of the seeds. These are about an eighth of an inch in length and pale brown, with narrow wings which gradually broaden from the base to above the middle and are very oblique at the apex. The White Spruce inhabits the banks of streams and lakes and the borders of swamps, in rich moist alluvial soil, ocean cliffs, and less commonly at the north the rocky slopes of low hills; it ranges from the shores of Ungava Bay in Labrador westward to those of Hudson Bay, and from the mouth of Seal River not far to the north of Cape Churchill it is scattered along the northern frontier of the forest nearly to the shores of the Arctic Sea, and, crossing the continental divide, reaches Behring Strait in 66° 44’ north latitude. Southward it extends down the Atlantic coast to southern Maine, growing often close to the shore, where it is constantly bathed in the spray of the ocean, and to northern New Hampshire, northeastern Vermont, northern New York, northern Michigan * and Minnesota and the Black Hills of Dakota, and through the interior of Alaska and along the Rocky Mountains to northern Montana. * In the interior of Alaska and in British Columbia the branch- ® On the coast of Maine Picea Canadensis grows as far south as lets of the White Spruce are sometimes slightly puberulous; in the the shores of Casco Bay. (See Garden and Forest, ix. 351, f. 47.) east the branchlets appear to be always entirely glabrous. 4 In the southern peninsula of Michigan, Picea Canadensis is 2 In a swamp near Banff, Alberta, I have seen in August White common on the Au Sable River and northward (teste W. J. Beal). Spruce trees bearing bright red cones and others pale green cones. CONIFER 2. SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. 39 In Labrador the White Spruce is widely but not generally distributed, growing in the south in well-watered valleys and ascending rocky hills to elevations of two thousand feet above the sea-level, but north of the southern watershed it is confined to river-valleys.' West of Hudson Bay it often grows to a large size on river terraces to the very borders of the barren lands, following down the Telzoa River nearly to the shores of Doobaunt Lake ;? it was found by Richardson on the Copper Mine River, within twenty miles of the Arctic Sea, growing to a height of twenty feet,’ and its stems choke the mouths of every arctic American river, strewing the adjacent shores with heaps of driftwood In the basin of the Yukon the White Spruce is the largest and most valuable tree, attaining a large size on alluvial bottom-lands, where it is very abundant, while on adjacent hills it remains small and stunted On the northwest coast the and testifying to its abundance on their shifting banks. White Spruce is able to exist farther north than other trees, and to form scattered groves near the sea from the shore of Norton Sound to the Nootak River, where, with short stout trunks and crowded branches densely clothed with thick leaves, it lives through the long arctic winter and sometimes rises to the height of fifty feet.» The White Spruce is common in Newfoundland and the Maritime Provinces, and on the streams which flow from the north into the St. Lawrence, and westward it ranges through Ontario to the borders of the treeless plains in Manitoba, where it occupies sand-hills and the dry slopes of river banks.° Less abundant and less generally distributed in the central region of British America than the Black Spruce, it forms groves sometimes of large trees on the alluvial bottoms of the Saskatchewan, Churchill, and Athabasca Rivers ;7 in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains of Alberta, British Columbia, and northern Montana, it lines the banks of streams and lakes up to elevations of five thousand feet, and attaining its largest size and its greatest beauty, sends up tall spire-like heads of dark foliage. 1«“The White Spruce is widely distributed throughout the Labrador peninsula, but, unlike the Black Spruce, it is not met with in all localities, and its distribution appears to depend almost wholly on the character of the soil, and only to a limited extent upon climate. It is found on both the eastern and western sides of the peninsula, and its northern limit almost coincides with that of the Black Spruce. Along the St. Lawrence, and inland to about latitude 51°, large trees of this species are abundant in the valleys and far up the sides of the rocky and drift-covered hills (1,000 to 2,000 feet), where they grow to commercial size along with White Birch and the Aspen. Farther northward the Black Spruce grad- ually replaces them on the rocky hillsides, and the White Spruce appears to be confined to the modified drift of the river terraces, where the trees are conspicuous for their size, being much larger and longer than the Black Spruce. On the central table-land (nearly 2,000 feet above sea-level) to the northward of latitude 52°, White Spruce is rarely found on the great area of archzan crystal- line rocks with its overlying soil of sandy glacial drift; and it is found only in small patches on the sides of the hills with small White Birches, and usually growing on the modified drift along the borders of the smaller mountain streams. “On the large areas of stratified Cambrian rocks, about the upper waters of the Hamilton River, White Spruce grows freely and to large size (3 feet diameter) on the hillsides, with a heavy ' rich soil formed by the disintegration of the ferruginous lime- stones and shales beneath, and is here found as far north as latitude 54°. On the archean area, northward of latitude 53°, White Spruce is found only in the river-valleys of the eastern, northern, and western watersheds, where it grows on the terraces that flank the rocky walls of the valleys, and is nearly always associated with White Birch and sometimes with Aspen and Balsam Poplar. Tt grows in small groves on the Cypress hills in Assiniboine ;* and “White Spruce trees are the only conifers found growing on the outer islands of James Bay; and this is probably due to the soil being very similar to the modified drift of the river terraces of the mainland, as the islands are formed from the drift of a ter- minal moraine, rearranged by marine action during a post-glacial subsidence. The islands along the east shore of Hudson Bay are often rocky, and, where wooded, the trees are mostly Black (Low in litt. See, also, Low, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. viii. 34 L.) 2 Tyrrell, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. ix. 214 F. See, also, Tyrrell, in The Canadian Magazine, vii. 524 (Through the Sub- Aretics of Canada). 8 Franklin Jour. Appx. No. 7, 752. 4 Dall, Alaska and its Resources, 439. —G. M. Dawson, Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. iii. pt. i. 112 B, 116 B, 121 B. 5 As Abies arctica A. Murray has described the White Spruce of northwestern Alaska, which he distinguished by its broader pulvini, thicker leaves, and smaller cones, with more concave scales Spruces, with some White Spruce on the marine terraces.’’ and bracts of a somewhat different shape (Jour. Bot. v. 253, t. 269 [1867]). These are slight differences, which may well have been the result of the severe climate of the region where the offi- cers of H. M.S. Herald discovered this tree, which, judging from the figure, I cannot distinguish from ordinary northern forms of Picea Canadensis. It is also the Pinus alba, g arctica, Parlatore, De Candolle Prodr. xvi. pt. ii. 414 (1868), and the Picea alba, var. arctica, F. Kurtz, Bot. Jahrb. xix. 425 (Fl. Chilcatgebietes) (1895). 6 Macoun, Cat. Can. Pl. 469. 7 Tyrrell, Rep. Geolog. Surv. Can. n. ser. viii. 12 D. 8 Macoun, J. c. 470. 40 SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. CONIFER. among the Black Hills of Dakota it is the largest and one of the most abundant coniferous trees, often reaching a height of more than one hundred feet in the neighborhood of streams. It is common in the region north of Lake Superior, but east of the Mississippi it nowhere extends very far south of the northern boundary of the United States, and is not a large or valuable tree. The wood of Picea Canadensis is light, soft, not strong, and straight-grained, with a satiny surface ; it contains numerous prominent medullary rays, few resin passages, and thin inconspicuous bands of small summer cells, and is light yellow, with thin hardly distinguishable sapwood. The specific gravity of the absolutely dry wood is 0.4051, a cubic foot weighing 25.25 pounds. In the eastern provinces of Canada, where it is probably the only Spruce which is cut in large quantities for lumber, it is used in construction and for the interior finish of buildings, and for paper pulp, and is largely exported to Europe. White Spruce lumber is also occasionally manufactured in Dakota and Montana, and from this tree the miners of the Yukon obtain their lumber and the logs for their huts. The Indians of the north used the long tough flexible roots of the White Spruce, and probably also those of the Black Spruce, to fasten together the sheets of Birch bark from which they made their canoes, and to weave water-tight baskets and vessels,’ and from the bark of young Spruce-trees they made canoes when the Birch could not be found.? The Spruce-trees which Jacques Cartier saw as he sailed up the Saguenay River in the autumn of 1535 were probably White Spruces,® and it was the White Spruce which John Mason, writing in 1620, included among the valuable timber-trees of Newfoundland.t First described by Miller in 1731,° the White Spruce is said to have been cultivated by Bishop Compton in England before the end of the sixteenth century.° Picea Canadensis excels the other Spruces of eastern North America in massiveness of trunk and in richness and beauty of foliage; and in regions sufficiently cold to insure the full development of all its charms, no other Spruce-tree grows more vigorously or better adapts itself, with persistent lower branches and shapely form, to decorate the parks and gardens of the north, although in the compara- tively mild climate of southern New England and the middle states, and of western and central Kurope, it soon perishes or loses its value as an ornamental tree. A number of forms of the White Spruce,’ some with leaves of darker or lighter shades of blue and others of dwarf habit or with erect or pendent branches, are occasionally propagated in nurseries. i « Watape is the name given to the divided roots of the spruce- fir, which the natives weave into a degree of compactness that renders it capable of containing a fluid. The different parts of the bark canoes are also sewed together with this kind of filament.” (Mackenzie, Voyages from Montreal on the River St. Lawrence and through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans in the Years 1789 and 1798, 37. See, also, Richardson, Franklin Jour. Appx. No. 7, 752.) 2 Richardson, Arctic Searching Exped. ii. 316. 3 “Depuis le 19 jour jusques au 28, dudict moys nous auons esté nauigans a mont ledict fleuve sans perdre heure ny jour, durand lequel temp auos veu & trouvé d’aussi beau pays & terres aussi vuyes que l’on scauroit desirer, plaine comme dict est des beaulx arbres du monde, scauoir chesnes, hormes, noyers, cedres, pruches, fresnes, briez, fandres, oziers, & force vignes.” (Bref Recit et Succincte Narration de la Navigation faite in MDXXXV. MDXXXVI. Par le Captain Jacques Cartier aux Iles de Canada 24.) * “